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The Rural Manuals
Epitrep spy L. H. BAILEY

MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

The Rural Manuals
EpitEep sy L. H. BAILEY

*
MANUAL OF GARDENING — Bailey
Manuat oF Farm ANIMALS — Harper
FarM AND GARDEN Ru e-Book — Bailey
Manvat oF Fruit Insects — Slingerland and Crosby
ManuaL oF WrEDs — Georgia
THE Pruninec-ManuaL — Bailey
Manuva or Fruir Disrases — Hesler and Whetzel
Manuva oF Mitk Propucts — Stocking
MaANnvuAL OF VEGETABLE-GARDEN INnsEcCTs — Crosby
and Leonard
ManuaL oF TREE Diseases — Rankin
Manuva or Home-Maxine —Van Rensselaer, Rose,
and Canon
MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING — Hedrick

MANUAL OF
AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

BY
U. P. HEDRICK

HORTICULTURIST OF THE NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION

New Bork
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1919

All rights reserved

Coryriext, 1919,

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1919.

JUL -7 1919

Norwood ress
J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

©OlaAs529112

PREFACE

SEVENTY-NINE books on grapes enrich the pomology of
North America, not counting numerous state and national
publications. Pomological writers in America have been
partial to the grape, for other fruits do not fare nearly so well.
Twenty-two books are devoted to the strawberry, fourteen to
the apple, to the peach nine, cranberry eight, plum five, pear
nine, quince two, loganberry one, while the cherry, raspberry,
and blackberry are not once separated from other fruits in
special books. Thus, though a comparative newcomer among
the fruits of the country, the grape has been singled out for a
treatise more times than all other fruits of temperate climates
combined — seventy-nine books on the grape, seventy on
all other fruits.

This statement of partiality does not lead to an apology for
a new book on the grape. There is urgent need for a new book.
But three of the seventy-nine treatises on this fruit are con-
temporary, and all but one, a handbook on training, are records
from vanished minds. Methods change so rapidly and varieties
multiply so fast, that to keep pace there must be new books on
fruits every few years. Besides, the types of grapes are so
diverse, and different soils, climates, and treatments produce
such widely dissimilar results, that many books are required to
do justice to this fruit — the vineyard should be seen through
many eyes.

Commercial grape-growing is now a great industry in America,
and deserves a treatise of its own. But there are also many
demands for information on grape-growing by those who grow
fruits for pleasure, especially by those who are escaping from

Vv

wf

vi PREFACE

cities to suburban homes, for the grape is a favorite fruit of
the amateur. And so, though Pleasure and Profit are a hard
team to drive together, this manual is written for both com-
mercial and amateur grape-growers.

In particular, the needs of the amateur are recognized in the
chapter on varieties, where many sorts are described which
have little or no commercial value. No other fruit offers the
enchantment of novelty to be found in the grape. Alluring
flavors, sizes, and colors abound, of which the amateur wants
samples. The commercial grower who plants but one variety
often finds himself dissatisfied with the humdrum of the
business. He should emulate the amateur and plant more
kinds, if only for pleasure; remembering the adage, “No
profit grows where is no pleasure ta’en.” Greater pleasure in
grape-growing, then, is offered as the justification of the long
chapter on varieties.

At the risk of too broad spreading, the author discusses, in
a book mainly devoted to native grapes, the culture of European
grapes in the far West. The chief aim is, of course, to set forth
information that will be helpful to growers of these grapes in
the western states, there being no treatises to which western
growers can refer, other than bulletins from state and national
agricultural institutions. There is, however, another reason
for attempting to cover the whole field of grape-growing in
America. It is certain that eastern grape-growers will some-
time grow European grapes. Western vineyards might well
be enlarged with plantings of native grapes. On the sup-
position, then, that the culture of both European and native
grapes is to become less and less restricted in America, the
author has ventured to discuss the culture of all grapes for all
parts of North America.

In the preparation of this manual, the author’s “The Grapes
of New York,” a book long out of print and never widely
distributed, has been laid under heavy contribution, especially

PREFACE vil

in the description of varieties. Acknowledgments are due to
F. Z. Hartzell for reading the chapter on Grape Pests and
their Control and for furnishing most of the photographs used
in making illustrations of insects and fungi; to F. E. Gladwin
for similar help in preparing the two chapters on pruning
and training the grape in eastern America; to Frederic T.
Bioletti for permission to republish from a bulletin written by
him from the Agricultural Experiment Station of California
almost the whole chapter on Grape Pruning on the Pacific
Slope; and to O. M. Taylor and to R. D. Anthony for very
material assistance in reading the manuscript and proofs.

U. P. Heprick.
GENEVA, N. Y.,
Jan. 1, 1919.

VI
Vil
Vil
IX

X

XI
XII
XII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

THe DoMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE
GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS
PROPAGATION

Stocks AND REsISTANT VINES .

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT
FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES .

PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA
TRAINING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA
GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PaciFic Coast
EvurRoPpEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA
GRAPES UNDER GLASS

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL
MARKETING GRAPES

GRAPE PRopUCTS

GRAPE BREEDING

MISCELLANIES

GRAPE Botany .

VARIETIES OF GRAPES

ix

108
123
150
184
192
204
230
250
273
284
300
330

4

4
~
;
a
%
:

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES

PLATE PAGE
I. Two views of vineyards in California; a vineyard in the
orchard region of central California, and a vineyard in

southern California. : R d ‘ : =, SLA
Il. Fitting the land for planting . 3 ‘ : ; . d4e
III. Cover-crop; cow-horn turnips, andrye . : ¥ - 486
IV. A well-tilled vineyard of Concords . : i 60
V. Vinifera grapes grown out of doors in New York; “Mal-
vasia and Chasselas Golden . , ‘ : , ee
VI. Black Hamburg : : ‘ P : : ; 2.1829
VII. Barry. Delaware . ! : : : ‘ : 1 G6)
VIII. Brighton . : . : , : : : : « 106%
IX. Campbell Early : : : : : é H Mage 1 ead
X. Clinton . ; : : : , ‘ s ; » 122"
XI. Concord . : ; : ; : : : : ; ‘lass

XII. Diana ‘ é 3 : i . : é : . 148+
XIII. Dutchess . ; : : ; : ‘ : : . 164
XIV. Eaton ‘ : - ; ? . s t : ~ ViBZ

XV. Eclipse. : ‘ : ‘ , : A : . 190°

XVI. Elvira. : ? : : : 3 5 ‘ 1 $202"
XVII. Empire State . : : : : : : : . BS
XVIII. Herbert . : é : : F E E ; » 228%
XIX. Iona ; : : 3 Y ; : : : . Base
XX. Isabella . 2 ; : : , . e : . ieee
XXI. Jefferson . : : : : : : : : » 2B2y
XXII. Lindley. Lucile. : : : : ; : . 298
XXIII. Lutie. Pocklington P : ; : ; z . 328%

XXIV. Moore Early . ; : ; : : . : . 340 ¥

xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE PAGE

XXV. Muscat Hamburg . A : s " : 5 . 350%
XXVI. Niagara . : : : a : : : : . 360°
XXVII. Salem : : : ‘ , ; . : : .. 340
XXVIII. Triumph . ‘ : ‘ ; ‘ : ; : . 380°
XXIX. Vergennes 5 : ; : : : ; : Ree | ues
XXX. Winchell . ; : ‘ ‘ P : 4 : . 400°
XXXI. Worden . : ‘ ; ; : : F : . 416v
XXXII. Wyoming , ‘ , ; : ; ‘ ‘ - 432%

FIGURES IN THE TEXT

FIGURE
1. A shoot of Vitis wnifera . , : : : : : f 3
2. A shoot of Vitis Labrusca . : : 2 , : A : 6
3. A shoot of Vitis rotundifolia : : , : E 2 = ae
4. A shoot of Vitis estivalis . ‘ : : ; ; ; , ale
5. A shoot of Vitis vulpina ; : : : ‘ : Mee
6. Planting cuttings : ; : 2 ; : : . ap
7. A cutting beginning nak, : : ; : : : . 40
8. Cutting off the trunk ; : : ‘ ; : : . 46
9. Cutting the cleft d ; ; : : : : c 4G
10. Inserting the cion : 3 ; : j . : : = Jan
11. The completed graft : : 47
12. Bench-grafted cuttings of grape, iowate tse cleft-graft ae
the whip-graft. (Adapted from Husmann) . : : F. SOlk
13. Vine ready for pruning ; ‘ ; : : : ‘ o 13
14. A “‘go-devil”’ for collecting prunings : é f « 29
15. A trellis and a common method of bracing end adats ; - 120
16. Chautauqua training; vine ready to prune ; ; : e157
17. Keuka method of training ‘ : ; : ; : . 130
18. Single-stem four-cane Kniffin training . : ' F gt dee
19. Umbrella method of training. ; : : f ; . 134
20. Two-trunk Kniffin training : 3 : potlioa
21. Rotundifolia vines trained by the ov ery method ‘ . 144
22. A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm renewal method . 145
23. Forms of head pruning : : : ; : = ; v~ 154

bo
RSS

. Forms of head pruning 2 : ‘ ; ‘ ; ; . 155

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

1URE PAGE
. Head pruning: fan-shaped head; fruit canes tied to horizontal
trellis. : ; ; : ; : . SLB6
. Single vertical cordon saith aisteeotice : ‘ F : * Se
. Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit-spurs —. : ‘ » i158
. Three-year-old vine ready for pruning : : . . 169
. Vine of Fig. 28 after pruning for vase-formed aad : : . 169

. Three-year-old vines: A, pruned for a vase-formed, and B, for

a fan-shaped head 170
. Four-year-old vine pruned for eae niol feud 171
. Four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed head 172
. Fan-shaped vines: A, before pruning; B, after pruning 173
. Vertical cordon, young vine pruned 176
. Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long pruning 77
)}. Leaf-galls of the phylloxera 05
F

. The grape root-worm

[2N bw Ww Fe
5

;. Root-worm beetle j 07
). Injuries caused by beetles of ite 28 endo 207
). Eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle : 209
|. First four stages of the grape leaf-hopper . : a 12
». The fifth and the mature stages of the grape ipabhappet : £2
;. A bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry moth : . 214
1. Work of black-rot of the grape . : : : 3 : =. 219
». Grapes attacked by downy-mildew_ . ; ; 3 , . 221
}. Packing grapes on a packing-table_. : ; ‘ ; . 234
7. Climax baskets in two sizes ; 5 - : é ; . 236
3. William Robert Prince 3 - : : ; ‘ : i= Bt4
). E.S. Rogers é : ; ; ; : ‘ : P : 200
). T. V. Munson . : ; , : «AE
|. Staminate and perfect — aiiiataed onone vine. 285
2. Ringing grape-vines; a pes tools for ringing and oe
vines . : F > : - . 292
3. A grape flower; aceiig the opening cap and stamens. . 306

1. Grape flowers; showing upright and depressed stamens. . 3806

MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-
GROWING

CHAPTER I
THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE

Tue domestication of an animal or a plant is a milestone in
the advance of agriculture and so becomes of interest to every
human being. But, more particularly, the materials, the events
and the men who direct the work of domestication are of interest
to those who breed and care for animals and plants; the grape-
grower should find much profit in the story of the domestication
of thegrape. Whatwas the raw material of a fruit known since
the beginning of agriculture and wherever temperate fruits are
grown? How has this material been fashioned into use? Who
were the originative and who the directive agents? These are
fundamental questions in the improvement of the grape, answers
to which will also throw much light on the culture of it.

Botanists number from forty to sixty species of grapes in the
world. ‘These are widely distributed in the northern hemi-
sphere, all but a few being found in temperate countries. Thus,
more than half of the named species come from the United
States and Canada, while nearly all of the others are from
China and Japan, with but one species certainly growing wild
in southwestern Asia and bordering parts of Europe. All true
grapes have more or less edible fruits, and of the twenty or
more species grown in the New World more than half have been
or are being domesticated. Of the Old World grapes, only one

B :

2 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

species is cultivated for fruit, but this, of all grapes, is of
greatest economic importance and, therefore, deserves first
consideration.

THE EuROPEAN GRAPE

The European grape, Vitis vinifera (Fig. 1), is the grape of
ancient and modern agriculture. It is the vine which Noah
planted after the Deluge ; the vine of Israel and of the Promised
Land ; the vine of the parables in the New Testament. It is the
grape and the vine of the myths, fables, poetry and prose of all
peoples. It is the grape from which the wines of the world are
made. From it come the raisins of the world. It is the chief
agricultural crop of southern Europe and northern Africa and
of vast regions in other parts of the world, having followed
civilized man from place to place in all temperate climates.
The European grape has so impressed itself on the human mind
that when one thinks or speaks of the grape, or of the vine, it is
this Old World species, the vine of antiquity, that presents itself.

The written records of the cultivation of the European grape
go back five or six thousand years. The ancient Egyptians,
Pheenicians, Greeks and Romans grew the vine and made wine
from its fruit. Grape seeds have been found in the remains of
European peoples of prehistoric times, showing that primitive
men enlivened their scanty fare with wild grapes. Cultivation
of the grape in the Old World probably began in the region about
the Caspian Sea where the vine has always run wild. We have
proof of the great antiquity of the grape in Egypt, for its seeds
are found entombed with the oldest mummies. Probably the
Pheenicians, the earliest navigators on the Mediterranean,
carried the grape from Egypt and Syria to Greece, Rome and
other countries bordering on this sea. The domestication of
the grape was far advanced in Christ’s time, for Pliny, writing
then, describes ninety-one kinds of grapes and fifty kinds of
wine.

THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 3

It can never be known exactly when the European grape came
under cultivation. There is no word as to what were the
methods and processes of domestication, and whose the minds
and hands that remodeled the wild grape of Europe into the

Fic. 1. A shoot of Vitis vinifera.

4 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

grape of the vineyards. The Old World grape was domesti-
cated long before the faint traditions which have been trans-
mitted to our day could possibly have arisen. For knowledge
of how wild species of this fruit have been and may be brought
under cultivation, we must turn to New World records.

AMERICAN GRAPES

Few other plants in the New World grow wild under such
varied conditions and over such extended areas as the grape.
Wild grapes are found in the warmer parts of New Brunswick ;
on the shores of the Great Lakes; everywhere in the wood-
lands of the North and Middle Atlantic states; on the limestone
soils of Kentucky, Tennessee and the Virginias; and they
thrive in the sandy woods, sea plains and reef-keys of the
South Atlantic and Gulf states. While not so common west
of the Mississippi, yet some kind of wild grape is found from
North Dakota to Texas; grapes grow on the mountains and
in the cafions of all the Rocky Mountain states; and several
species thrive on the Mexican borders and in the far Southwest.

While it is possible that all American grapes have descended
from an original species, the types are now as diverse as the
regions they inhabit. The wild grapes of the forests have
long slender trunks and branches, whereby their leaves are
better exposed to the sunlight. Two shrubby species do not
attain a greater height than four or five feet; these grow in
sandy soils, or among rocks exposed to sun and air. Another
runs on the ground and bears foliage almost evergreen. The
stem of one species attains a diameter of a foot, bearing its
foliage in a great canopy. From this giant form the species
vary to slender, graceful, climbing vines. Wild grapes are as
varied in climatic adaptations as in structure of vine and grow
luxuriantly in every condition of heat or cold, wetness or dry-
ness, capable of supporting fruit-culture in America. So

THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 5

many of the kinds have horticultural possibilities that it seems
certain that some grape can be domesticated in all of the agri-
cultural regions of the country, their natural plasticity indi-
cating, even if it were not known from experience, that all can
be domesticated.

Leif the Lucky, the first European to visit America, if the
Icelandic records are true, christened the new land Wineland.
It has been supposed that this designation was given for the
grapes, but recent investigations show that the fruits were
probably mountain cranberries. Captain John Hawkins, who
visited the Spanish settlements in Florida in 1565, mentions
wild grapes among the resources of the New World. Amadas
and Barlowe, sent out by Raleigh in 1584, describe the coasts
of the Carolinas as, “so full of grapes that in all the world like
abundance cannot be found.” Captain John Smith, writing
in 1606, describes the grapes of Virginia and recommends the
culture of the vine as an industry for the newly founded colony.
Few, indeed, are the explorers of the Atlantic seaboard who do
not mention grapes among the plants of the country. Yet
none saw intrinsic value in these wild vines. To the Europeans,
the grapes of the Old World alone were worth ‘cultivating,
and the vines growing everywhere in America only suggested
that the grape they had known across the sea might be grown
in the new home.

That American viticulture must depend on the native species
for its varieties began to be recognized at the beginning of the
nineteenth century, when several large companies engaged in
growing foreign grapes failed, and a meritorious native grape
made its appearance. The vine of promise was a variety
known as the Alexander. Thomas Jefferson, ever alert for
the agricultural welfare of the nation, writing in 1809 to John
Adlum, one of the first experimenters with an American species,
voiced the sentiment of grape experimenters in speaking of
the Alexander: “I think it will be well to push the culture

6 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

of this grape without losing time and efforts in the search of
foreign vines, which it will take centuries to adapt to our soil
and climate.”

Fic. 2. A shoot of Vitis Labrusca.

Alexander is an offshoot of the common fox-grape, V2tis
Labrusca (Fig. 2), found in the woods on the Atlantic coast from
Maine to Georgia and occasionally in the Mississippi Valley. The
history of the variety dates back to before the Revolutionary

THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 7

War, when, according to William Bartram, the Quaker botanist,
it was found growing in the vicinity of Philadelphia, by John
Alexander, gardener to Governor Penn of Pennsylvania.
Curiously enough, it came into general cultivation through
the deception of a nurseryman. Peter Legaux, a French-
American grape-grower, in 1801 sold the Kentucky Vineyard
Society fifteen hundred grape cuttings which he said had been
taken from an European grape introduced from the Cape of
Good Hope, therefore called the “Cape” grape. Legaux’s
grape turned out to be the Alexander. In the new home the
spurious Cape grew wonderfully well and as the knowledge of
its fruitfulness in Kentucky, Ohio and Indiana spread, demand
for it increased, and with remarkable rapidity, considering
the time, it came into general cultivation in the parts of the
United States then settled.

The Labrusca or fox-grapes.

Of the several species of American grapes now under culti-
vation, the Labrusca, first represented by the Alexander, has
furnished more cultivated varieties than all the other American
species together, no less than five hundred of its varieties havy-
ing been grown in the vineyards of the country. There are
several reasons why it is the most generally cultivated species.
It is native to the parts of the United States in which agriculture
soonest advanced to a state where fruits were desired. In the
wild, the Labruscas are the most attractive, being largest and
handsomest in color; among all grapes it alone shows black-,
white- and red-fruited forms on wild vines. There is a northern
and a southern form of the species, and its varieties are, there-
fore, widely adapted to climates and to soils. The flavor of
the fruits of this species, all things considered, is rather better
than that of any other of our wild grapes, though the skins
in most of its varieties have a peculiar aroma, somewhat pro-
nounced in the well-known Concord, Niagara and Worden,

8 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

which is disagreeable to tastes accustomed to the pure flavors
of the European grapes. All Labruscas submit well to vineyard
operations and are vigorous, hardy and productive, though
they are more subject to the dreaded phylloxera than are most
of the other cultivated native species. Of the many grapes
of this type, at least two deserve brief historical mention.

Catawba, probably a pure-bred Labrusca, the first American
grape of commercial importance, is the most interesting variety
of its species. The origin of the variety is not certainly known,
but all evidence points to its having been found about the year
1800 on the banks of the Catawba River, North- Carolina.
It was introduced into general cultivation by Major John -
Adlum, soldier of the Revolution, judge, surveyor and author
of the first American book on grapes. Adlum maintained
an experimental vineyard in the District of Columbia, whence
in 1823 he began the distribution of the Catawba. At that
time the center of American grape culture was about Cincin-
nati, and an early shipment of Adlum’s Catawbas went to
Nicholas Longworth of that city and was by him distributed
throughout the grape-growing centers of the country. As
one of the first to test new varieties of American grapes, to
grow them largely and to make wine commercially from them,
Nicholas Longworth is known as the “father of American
grape culture.”

Catawba is still one of the four leading varieties in the vine-
yards of eastern America. The characters whereby its high
place is maintained among grapes are: Great elasticity of
constitution, by reason of which the vine is adapted to many
environments; rich flavor, long-keeping quality, and hand-
some appearance of fruit, qualities which make it a very good
dessert grape; high sugar-content and a rich flavor of juice,
so that from its fruit is made a very good wine and a very good
grape-juice; and vigor, hardiness and productiveness of vine.
The characters of Catawba are readily transmissible, and it

THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 9

has many pure-bred or hybrid offspring which more or less
resemble it.

The second commercial grape of importance in American
viticulture is Concord, which came from the seed of a wild
grape planted in the fall of 1843 by Ephraim W. Bull, Concord,
Massachusetts. The new variety was disseminated in the
spring of 1854, and from the time of its introduction the spread
of its culture was phenomenal. By 1860 it was the leading
grape in America and it so remains. Concord furnishes, with
the varieties that have sprung from it, seventy-five per cent of
the grapes grown in eastern America. The characters which
distinguish the vine are: Adaptability to various soils, fruit-
fulness, hardiness and resistance to diseases and insects. The
fruits are distinguished by certainty of maturity, attractive
appearance, good but not high flavor, and by the fact that
they may be produced so cheaply that no other grape can com-
pete with this variety in the markets. Concord is, as Horace
Greeley well denominated it in awarding the Greeley prize
for the best American grape, “the grape for the millions.”

The histories of these two grapes are typical of those of five
hundred or more other Labruscas. Out of a prodigious num-
ber of native seedlings, an occasional one is found greatly to
excel its fellows and is brought under cultivation.

The Rotundifolia or Muscadine grapes.

Long before the northern Labruscas had attained prominence
in the vineyards of the North, a grape had been domesticated
partially in the South. It is Vitis rotundifolia (Fig. 3), a species
which runs riot from the Potomac to the Gulf, thriving in many
diverse soils, but growing only in the southern climate and
preferring the seacoast. Rotundifolia grapes have been culti-
vated somewhat for fruit or ornament from the earliest colonial
times. It is certain that wine was made from this species by
the English settlers at Jamestown. Vines of it are now to be

10 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

found on arbors, in gardens or half wild on fences in nearly
every farm in the South Atlantic states. That the Rotundifolias
have not been more generally brought under cultivation is due

)
aan |
I
K{')

x
Ai \

il
i"

Fic. 3. <A shoot of Vitis rotundifolia.

to the bountifulness of the wild vines, which has obviated the
necessity of domesticating them. The fruit of its varieties,
to a palate unaccustomed to them, is not very acceptable,

THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 11

having a musky flavor and odor and a sweet, juicy pulp, which is
lacking in sprightliness. Many, however, acquire a taste for
these grapes and find them pleasant eating. The great defect
of this grape is that the berries part from the pedicels as they
ripen and perfect bunches cannot be secured. In fact, the
crop is often harvested by shaking the vines so that the berries
drop on sheets beneath. Despite these defects, a score or
more varieties of this species are now under general cultivation
in the cotton-belt, and interest in their domestication is now
greater than in any other species, with great promise for the
future.

The Astivalis or summer-grapes.

The South has another grape of remarkable horticultural pos-
sibilities. This is Vttzs estivalis (Fig. 4), the summer-grape or,
to distinguish it from the Rotundifolias, the bunch-grape of
southern forests. There are now a score or more well-known
varieties of this species, the best known being Norton, which
probably originated with Dr. D. N. Norton, Richmond, Vir-
ginia, in the early part of the nineteenth century. The berries
of the true stivalis grapes are too small, too destitute of pulp
and too tart to make good dessert fruits, but from them are
made our best native red wines. Domestication of this species
has been greatly retarded by a peculiarity of the species which
hinders its propagation. Grapes are best propagated from
cuttings, but this species is not easily reproduced by this means
and the difficulty of securing good young vines has been a
serious handicap in its culture.

There are two subspecies of Vitis @stivalis which promise
much for American viticulture. Vitis estivalis Bouwrquiniana,
known only under cultivation and of very doubtful botanical
standing, furnishes American viticulture several valuable
varieties. Chief of these is the Delaware, the introduction
of which sixty years ago from the town of Delaware, Ohio,

12 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

raised the standard in quality of New World grapes to that of
Old World. No European grape has a richer or more delicate
flavor, or a more pleasing aroma, than Delaware. While a
northern grape, it can be grown in the South, and thrives under

Ure

so many different climatic and soil conditions and under all is
so fruitful, that, next to the Concord, it is the most popular
American grape for garden and vineyard. Without question,
however, Delaware contains a trace of European blood.
Another offshoot of this subspecies is Herbemont, which,
in the South, holds the same rank that Concord holds in the

THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 13

North. The variety is grown only south of the Ohio, and in
this great region it is esteemed by all for a dessert grape and
for its light red wine. It is one of the few American varieties
which finds favor in France, being cultivated in southwest
France as a wine-grape. Its history goes back to a colony of
French Huguenots in Georgia before the Revolutionary War.
Very similar to Herbemont is Lenoir, also with a history trac-
ing back to the French in the Carolinas or Georgia in the
eighteenth century.

The other subspecies of Vitis estivalis is Vitis estivalis
Lincecumii, the post-oak grape of Texas and of the southern
part of the Mississippi Valley. Recently this wild grape has
been brought under domestication, and from it has been bred
a number of most promising varieties for hot and dry regions.

The Vulpina or river-bank grapes.

The North, too, has a wine-grape from which wines nearly
equaling those of the southern Astivalis are made. This is
Vitis vulpina (V. riparia), the river-bank grape, a shoot of
which is shown in Fig. 5, the most widely distributed
of any of the native species. It grows as far north as
Quebec, south to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlan-
tie to the Rocky Mountains. Fully a century ago, a
wine-grape of this species was cultivated under the name
Worthington, but the attention of vineyardists was not turned
to the Vulpinas until after the middle of the last century,
when the qualities of its vines attracted the attention of French
viticulturists. Phylloxera had been introduced from America
into France and threatened the existence of French vineyards.
After trying all possible remedies for the scourge, it was dis-
covered that the insect could be overcome by grafting Euro-
pean grapes on American vines resistant to phylloxera. A trial
of the promising species of New World grapes showed that
vines of this species were best suited for the reconstruction of

14 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

French vineyards, the vines being not only resistant to the
phylloxera but also vigorous and hardy. At present, a large
proportion of the vines of Europe, California and other grape-
growing regions are grafted on the roots of this or of other

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THE DOMESTICATIONe OF THE GRAPE 15

American species, and the viticulture of the world is thus largely
dependent on these grapes.

The French found that a number of the Vulpina (Riparia)
grapes introduced for their roots were valuable as direct pro-
ducers for wines. The fruits of this species are too small and
too sour for dessert, but they are free from the disagreeable
tastes and aromas of some of our native grapes and, therefore,
make very good wines. The best known of the varieties of
this species is the Clinton, which is generally thought to have
originated in the yard of Dr. Noyes, of Hamilton College,
Clinton, New York, about 1820. It is, however, probably the
Worthington, of which the origin is unknown, renamed. There
are possibly a hundred or more grapes now under cultivation
wholly or in part from Vulpina, most of them hybrids with
the American Labrusea and the European Vinifera, with both
of which it hybridizes freely.

Domesticated species of minor importance.

In the preceding paragraphs we have seen that four species
of grapes constitute the foundation of American viticulture.
Nine other species furnish pure-bred varieties and many hybrids
with the four chief species or among themselves. These are
V. rupestris, V. Longit, V. Champinii, V. Munsoniana, V.
cordifolia, V. candicans, V. bicolor, V. monticola and V. Ber-
landiert. Several of these nine species are of value in the vine-
yard or for stocks upon which to graft other grapes. The
domestication of all of these is just begun, and each year sees
them more and more in use in the vineyards of the country.

CHAPTER II
GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS

HappIty, the grape in its great diversity of forms accommo-
dates itself to many conditions, so that some variety of the sev-
eral cultivated species will produce fruit for home use, if not as a
market commodity, in every part of America adapted to gen-
eral agriculture. But commercial grape-growing on this con-
tinent is confined to a few regions, in each of which it is profit-
able only in ideal situations. In fact, few other agricultural
industries are more definitely determined by environment than
the grape-industry. Where are the grape regions of America?
What determines the suitability of a region for grape-growing ?
Answers to these questions furnish clews to the culture of this
fruit and help in estimating the potentialities of a new region or
of a location for grape-growing.

THE GRAPE REGIONS OF AMERICA

There are four chief grape-growing regions in North America,
with possibly twice as many more subsidiary ones. These
several regions, each of which has its distinct varieties and to
less extent distinct species, and in each of which grapes are
grown for somewhat widely different purposes, give a great
variety of industrial conditions to the grape-growing of the
continent. Nevertheless, the regions have much in common
in their environment. It is from their differences and simi-
larities that most can be learned in the brief discussions of
the regions that follow.

16

GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 17

The Pacific slope.

The Pacific slope takes precedence among the grape regions
of the continent, exceeding all others combined in the produc-
tion of grapes and grape products. California is the viticul-
tural center of this great region, grapes being grown within her
bounds from the foot of Mount Shasta on the north to Mexico
on the south and from the foothills of the Sierras on the east
to the forest that borders the coast on the west. So outlined,
California might appear to be one vast vineyard, but it is only
in favored valleys, plains and low hills in the territory bounded
that the vine is sufficiently well suited to be productive. Out-
liers of this main region of the Pacific slope run north into
Oregon, Washington, Idaho and even into British Columbia,
forced more and more eastward the farther north to escape
humidity from the ocean which northward passes farther and
farther inland. Other outliers of the main region are found
eastward in Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and even Utah and
' Colorado, though for the most part in these states grape-grow-
ing is still insignificant. Plate I. shows typical vineyards in
California.

The grapes grown on the Pacific slope are almost exclusively
Vinifera varieties, though a few American grapes are planted
in the Pacific Northwest. This is not because American
varieties cannot be grown, although they succeed rather less
well here than on the eastern seaboard, but because the Vini‘-
eras are liked better, and climate and soil seem exactly to suit
them. Viticulture on the Pacific slope is divided into three
interdependent industries which are almost never quite inde-
pendent of each other — the wine industry, raisin industry and
table-grape industry. Each of these industries depends on
grapes more or less specially adapted to the product, the special
characteristics being secured chiefly through somewhat distinct
types of grapes but depending partly on soil and climatic con-

c

18 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ditions. The manufacture of unfermented grape-juice is not
yet a success in this region for the reasons that Vinifera grapes
do not make a good unfermented juice, and American grapes
are not grown in sufficient quantities to warrant the establish-
ment of grape-juice plants.

Bioletti gives the extent of the grape-growing industry in
California as follows: 1

“The vineyards of California covered in 1912 about 385,000
acres. Of this total, about 180,000 acres were producing wine-
grapes. Roughly, 50 per cent of the wine was produced in the
great interior valleys, including most of the sweet wines; 35
per cent was produced by the valleys and hillsides of the Coast
ranges, including most of the dry wines; the remaining 15 per
cent was produced in Southern California and included both
sweet and dry.

“The raisin-grape vineyards covered about 130,000 acres,
of which about 90 per cent were in the San Joaquin Valley,
7 per cent in the Sacramento, and 3 per cent in Southern
California.

“The shipping-grape vineyards are reckoned at 75,000 acres,
distributed about as follows: 50 per cent in the Sacramento
Valley, 40 per cent in San Joaquin, 6 per cent in Southern
California, and 4 per cent in the Coast ranges.”

The Chautauqua grape-belt.

The Chautauqua grape-belt, lying along the northeastern
shore of Lake Erie in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, is
the second most important grape region in America. The
“belt” is a narrow strip of lowland averaging about three miles
in width, lying between Lake Erie and a high escarpment which
bounds the belt on the south throughout its entire length of
a hundred or more miles. Here climate and soil seem to be

1 Bioletti, Frederic T. Repert of International Congress of Vitt-
culture, 88. 1915.

GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 19

exceptionally favorable for grape-growing. Climate is the
chief determinant of the boundaries of this belt, since there
are several types of soil upon which grapes do equally well in
the region, and when the climate changes at the two extremities
of the belt where the escarpment becomes low, or when the
distance between the lake and the escarpment is great, grape-
growing ceases to be profitable.

The growers of this region are organized into selling associa-
tions so that estimates of acreage and yields are obtainable.
At present writing, 1918, there are in this belt in New York
about 35,000 acres of grapes; in Pennsylvania and Ohio, about
15,000 acres, much the greater part of which isin Pennsylvania.
The average yield of grapes to the acre for the region is about
two tons. The average total production for the past five years
has been about 100,000 tons, of which 65,000 tons are shipped
as table-grapes, and 35,000 tons are used in the manufacture of
wine and grape-juice. Among varieties, Concord reigns su-
preme in the Chautauqua belt. The writer, in 1906, made a
canvass of the region, vineyard by vineyard, and found that
90 per cent of the acreage of the belt was set to Concord, 3 per
cent to Niagara, 2 per cent to Worden and the remaining 5
per cent to a dozen or more varieties of which Moore Early and
Delaware led.

The manufacture of grape-juice on a commercial scale began
in the Chautauqua belt and most of this product is still pro-
duced in the region. Here, only Concord grapes of the best
quality are used for grape-juice. The growth of this industry
is most significant for the future of grape-growing in the region.
Twenty years ago grape-juice was a negligible factor in the
grape industry of this region; at present, the annual output
is in the neighborhood of 4,000,000 gallons. Grape-juice-
makers now determine the price of grapes for the region, and
while the quantity used is less than that for table-grapes, the
time is not distant when it will be greater.

20 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

The Niagara region.

Fifty miles due north of the Chautauqua belt, across the end
of Lake Erie and the narrow isthmus of Niagara, is a smaller
belt on the southern shore of Lake Ontario so similar in soil,
climate and topography that in these respects the two regions
might be considered as identical. This is the Niagara region,
Canada’s chief grape-producing area. It is bounded on the
north by Lake Ontario; on the south, at a distance of one to
three miles by the high Niagara escarpment; to the east it
crosses the Niagara River into New York; and in the west
tapers to a point at Hamilton on the westward extremity of
Lake Ontario. Here, again, is the influence of climate dis-
tinctly manifested. As this belt passesinto New York, it widens
and the influence of Lake Ontario is less and less felt to the
eastward, and in consequence grape-growing becomes less and
less profitable.

There were, according to the Ontario Bureau of Industries,
in 1914, about 10,850 acres of grapes in the Niagara region in
Canada, and possibly 4,000 acres more near the Niagara River
and along the shore of Lake Ontario in New York. The
Niagara grape originated on the American side of the Niagara
region and is here planted more extensively than elsewhere.
Grape-growing in this region is similar in all respects to that of
the Chautauqua belt, the same varieties and nearly identical
methods of pruning, cultivation, spraying and harvesting being
employed. The crop is chiefly used as table-grapes but the
grape-juice industry is growing.

The Central Lakes region of New York.

In the central part of western New York are several remark-
able bodies of water known as the Central Lakes. Three of
these are large and deep enough to give ideal climatic condi-
tions for grapes, and about these lakes are grouped several im-

GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 21

portant areas of vineyards, making this the third most im-
portant grape region in America. The region assumes further
importance because most of the champagne made in America
is produced here, and it is the chief center of still wines in east-
ern America as well. It is further distinguished by its dis-
tinctive types of grapes, Catawba and Delaware taking the
place of Concord and Niagara, the sorts that usually pre-
dominate in eastern grape regions.

The main body of this region lies on the steep slopes of the
high lands surrounding Keuka Lake. On the shores of this
lake there are, approximately, 15,000 acres of grapes. Ad-
jacent to this main body are several smaller bodies about the
neighboring lakes. Thus, at the head of Canandaigua Lake
and on its shores are about 2500 acres; near Seneca and_ be-
tween Seneca and Cayuga Lakes there are probably 1500 acres
more. Ina few specially favored places on other of these Cen-
tral Lakes, there are possibly 1000 acres, making all told for
this region, about 20,000 acres. Again it is climate that sets
the seal of approval on the region for viticulture. In addition
to the benefits of deep bodies of water, high and_ sloping
lands cause the frosts to cease early in the spring and hold
them in abeyance in the autumn, giving an exceptionally long
season.

Champagne-making began here about 1860; at present there
are a score or more manufacturers of champagne, wine and
brandy, the output being annually about 3,000,000 gallons of
wine and 2,000,000 bottles of champagne. Recently the
manufacture of grape-juice has begun and the industry is now
flourishing.

Minor grape regions.

Viticulture is commercially important in several other regions
than those outlined. Thus, in the valley of the Hudson River,
grapes have been grown commercially for nearly a hundred

22 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

years, the industry reaching its height between 1880 and 1890,
when there were 13,000 acres under cultivation. For some
years, however, grape-growing along the Hudson has been on
the decline. Another region in which viticulture reaches con-
siderable magnitude is in several islands in Lake Erie near
Sandusky, Ohio, the product going largely for the manufacture
of wine. At one time grapes were grown commercially on the
banks of the Ohio River about Cincinnati and westward into
Indiana. The industry here, however, is a thing of the past.
Another region in which grape-growing was once of prime
importance but now lags has its center at Hermann, Missouri.
The newest grape-producing area worthy of note is in south-
western Michigan about the towns of Lawton and Paw Paw.
A small but very prosperous grape-growing region has its
center at Egg Harbor, New Jersey. Ives is the mainstay
among varieties in this region. In the southern states,
Muscadine grapes are grown in a small way in every part
of the cotton-belt and varieties of other native species are
to be found in home vineyards in the upland regions, but
nowhere in the South can it be said that grape-growing is
a commercial industry.

THE DETERMINANTS OF GRAPE REGIONS

Climate, soil, site, the surface features of the land, insects,
fungi and commercial geography are the chief factors that de-
termine regions for money-making in grape-growing. This
has been made plain in the foregoing discussion of grape regions,
but the several factors must be taken up in greater detail. To
bound the regions is of less importance than to understand why
they exist — less needful to remember, more needful to under-
stand. From what has been said, the reader has no doubt al-
ready concluded that successful grape-growing is in largest
measure due to kindliness in climate.

GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 23

Climate

Under the assumption, then, that climate, of all factors, is
chief in playing providence to the grape, let us examine some-
what critically the relations of climate to grape-growing.
When analyzed, the essentials of climate, as it governs grape-
growing, are found to be six: first, length of season; second,
seasonal sum of heat; third, amount of humidity in summer
weather; fourth, dates of spring and autumn frosts; fifth,
winter temperature; sixth, air currents.

Length of season.

To reach true perfection, each grape variety has a length of
season of its own. With each, if it is grown in too low a lati-
tude, the vine is uninterrupted in growth; its leaves tend to
become evergreen; and not infrequently it produces at the
same time blossoms, green fruits and ripe fruits. This is, of
course, the extreme to which grapes pass in the far South.
Again, many northern varieties fail where southern grapes
succeed because the fruits pass too rapidly from maturity to
decay. On the other hand, very often southern grapes are
hardy in vine in the North, but the season is not sufficiently
long for the fruit to mature and to acquire sufficient sugar to
give them good keeping quality, properly to pass through
vinous fermentation, or even to make a good unfermented
grape-juice. In the uneven topography of this continent, it is
not possible to state the range in latitude in which grapes can
be cultivated to advantage, for latitude is often set aside by
altitude. Thus, isothermal lines, or lines of equal temperature,
are much curved in America and do not at all coincide with the
parallels of latitude.

Other factors, of course, than length of season enter into the
ripening of grapes. The daily range in temperature, not al-
ways dependent on latitude, affects ripening. Cool nights may

24 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

offset warm days and delay ripening. Certainly rains, fogs
and humid air delay maturity. The bottom heat of loose,
warm, dry gravelly or stony soils hastens maturity. Sunshine
secured by a sunny aspect or shelter hastens maturity.

The seasonal sum of heat.

Successful cultivation of the grape depends on a sufficient
amount of heat during the summer season. The theory is
that buds of the grape commence to start when the mean daily
temperature reaches a certain height, and that the sum of the
mean daily temperature must reach a certain amount before
grapes ripen. Manifestly, this sum must vary much with dif-
ferent varieties, low for the earliest sorts, high for the latest.
There have been many observations as to the temperatures
at which buds of the grape start growth, so that it is now
known that the temperature varies in accordance with lo-
cality and degree of maturity. Roughly speaking, grape
buds start at temperatures from 50° to 60° F. The seasonal
sum of heat for ripening is probably 1600 to 2400 units. A
variety ought not to be planted, therefore, in a region in
which the average seasonal sum of heat is not sufficiently
high. The seasonal sum of heat can be determined for a
locality from data published by the United States Weather
Bureau; and by comparing with the sum of heat units in
localities where a variety is known to thrive, the grape-
grower can determine whether there is sufficient heat for
any particular variety.

The grape seldom suffers from hot weather in a grape region.
The fruit is sometimes scalded in the full blaze of a hot sun,
but the ample foliage of the vine usually furnishes protection
against a burning sun. At maturing time, the heat of an un-
clouded sun, if the air circulates freely, insures a finely finished
product. Deep planting helps to offset the harmful influences
of warm climates.

GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS — 25

Humidity of summer weather.

The grape is very sensitive to moisture conditions, and
grows best in regions where the summer rainfall is compara-
tively light. A damp and cloudy summer brings disaster
to the vineyard in several ways; as small growth of vine,
small set of fruit, a crop of poor quality, and the development
of the several fungous diseases. Although the grape stands
drought, a superfluity of moisture in the soil may do little
harm, as is shown in irrigated vineyards, but a humid air
is fatal to success especially if the air is both warm and wet.
Moist weather during the time of maturity is particularly
disastrous to the grape, as are frequent fogs. Cold wet
weather in blooming time is the grape-grower’s vernal bane,
since it most effectually prevents the setting of fruit. It
may be laid down as a rule that the grape lives by sunlight,
warmth and air — it often thrives on the desert’s edge. These
considerations make it manifest that the monthly and sea-
sonal means of precipitation must be considered in selecting
a locality to grow grapes.

Spring and autumn frosts.

The average date at which the last killing frost occurs in the
spring often determines the limit in latitude at which the grape
can be grown. Even in the most favored grape region of the
continent, killing frosts occasionally destroy the grape crop, and
there are few seasons in which frost does not take some toll.
Thus on May 7, 1916, frost all but ruined the crop of wine- and
table-grapes in the great grape region of northern California
where frosts are seldom expected in May. Little or nothing
can be done to protect grapes from frost. Windbreaks as
often favor the frost as the vine, and smudging or heating
the vineyards is too expensive to be practical. In growing
grapes, therefore, the commonly recognized precaution of

26 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

selecting a site near water, on slopes or in a warm thermal belt
must be exercised.

The limits of grape culture are also determined by early
autumn frosts. The grape stands two or three degrees of
frost, but anything lower usually destroys the crop. Here,
again, the only precaution is to take pains in selecting the site.

The use of weather data and dates of life events of the grape.

These considerations of length of season, humidity and
spring and fall frosts make it plain that the grape-grower must
synchronize these phases of climate with the life events of the
grape. In particular, he must study weather data in relation
to the blooming and ripening of grapes. Usually, the neces-
sary weather data may be secured from the nearest local weather
bureau, while the date of blooming and ripening may be ob-
tained from the state experiment stations in the states where
the grape is an important crop.

Winter temperature.

Varieties of native grapes are seldom injured in America by
winter-killing, since they are usually planted in climates in
which wild grapes withstand winter conditions. Native vari-
eties follow the rule that plant and climate are truly congenial
in regions in which the plant thrives without the aid of man.
A few varieties of native grapes fare badly in the winter’s cold
of northern grape regions, and the tender Vinifera vine is at
the mercy of the winter wherever the mercury goes below zero.
In cold climates, therefore, care must be exercised in selecting
hardy varieties and in following careful cultural methods with
the tender sorts. If other climatic conditions are favorable,
however, winter-killing is not an unsurmountable difficulty,
since the grape is easily protected from cold, so easily that the
tender Viniferas may be grown in the cold North with winter
protection.

GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 27

Air currents.

Currents of air are of but local importance in growing tree-
fruits, but are of general and vital importance in growing the
grape. The direction, force and frequency of prevailing winds
are often controlling factors in the suppression of fungous dis-
eases of the grape, and the presence of fungi often means suc-
cess or failure in regions in which the grape is planted.
Winds are beneficial, too, when they bring warm air or dry
air, and when they keep frosty air in motion. The air must
move in all grape regions, whether from canon, mountain,
lake or sea. Sunlight, warmth, and air in motion are life to
the grape. Sometimes winds may be detrimental; as when
too cold, too blustering, or when they bring hail, the latter
being about the most disastrous of all natural calamities.
Windbreaks are of small value and are often worse than use-
less. Having planted his vineyard, the grape-grower must
take the winds as they blow.

Soils for grapes

A prime requisite for a vineyard being earth in which vines
will grow, successful grape-growing is eminently dependent on
the selection of soil. Many mistakes are made in the great
grape regions in planting on unsuitable soils, the planter going
on the assumption that any soil in a grape region should be good
enough for the grape. But the crust of the earth in grape
regions is not all grape soil. In New York, for example, much
of the land in the three grape regions is better fitted for pro-
ducing crops for the mason or road-mender than for the grape-
grower. Other soils in these regions are fit for vineyards only
when tiled, and tiling does not make all wet land fit for tilling.
Heayy, clammy clays, light sands, soils parched with thirst, thin
or hungry soils —on all of these the grower may plant but
will seldom harvest.

28 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

The ideal soil.

Grapes may be well grown in a wide range of soils if the land
is well drained, open to air and if it holds heat. But without
these essentials, whatever the soil, all subsequent treatment
fails to produce a good vineyard. Generally speaking, the
grape grows best in a light, free-working, gravelly loam, but
there are many good vineyards in gravelly or stony clays,
gravel or stone to furnish drainage, let in the air and to hold
heat. Contrary to general belief, the grape seldom thrives in
very sandy soils unless there is a fair admixture of clay, con-
siderable decomposing vegetable matter and a clay subsoil.
The latter, however, must not come too close to the surface.
Some of the best vineyard lands in the country are very stony,
the stones hindering only in making the land difficult to till.
Nearly all grapes require a friable soil, compactness being a
serious defect. Virgil, writing in Christ’s time, gave good ad-
vice as to soil for the vine:

‘A free loose earth is what the vines demand,
Where wind and frost have help’d the lab’rer’s hand,
And sturdy peasants deep have stirr’d the land.”’
Cold, churlish, sticky or clammy clays are never to the liking
of the grape.

Great fertility is not necessary in grape lands. Indeed, the
grape is conspicuous among cultivated plants for ability to
nourish itself where the food supply is scant. Soils naturally
too rich produce an overgrowth of vine, the season’s wood does
not mature, the crop does not set, and the grapes lack sugar,
size, color and flavor. Good physical condition and warmth
in a well-watered, well-aired soil enable the grape to search
far and wide for its food.

Drainage.

No cultivated grape endures a wet soil; all demand drainage.
A few sorts may thrive for a time in moist, heavy land, but more

GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 29

often they do not live though they may linger. The water-
table should be at least two feet from the surface. If by chance
this comes naturally, so much the better, but otherwise the
land must be tile-drained. Sloping land is by no means always
well drained, many hillsides having a subsoil so impervious or
so retentive of moisture that under-drainage is a necessity.
The texture of the land is usually improved so greatly by good
drainage that the grower has little need to rely on the clemency
of the season in carrying on vineyard cultivation in well-drained

land.

Soil adaptations.

In the refinement of viticulture, grape-growers find that
particular varieties grow best in a particular soil, the likes and
dislikes being determined only by trial, for the peculiarities
which adapt a soil to a variety are not analyzable. Some
varieties, on the other hand, the Concord being a good example,
grow fruitfully in a great variety of soils. Each of the several
species with their varieties has quite distinct adaptations to
soils. This is taken advantage of in planting varieties on un-
congenial soils after they have been grafted on a vine which
finds itself at home in the particular soil. Much has been ac-
complished in growing varieties on uncongenial soils by con-
sorting them with other stocks, an operation which has brought
forth volumes of discussion as to the adaptabilities of cions to
stocks and stocks to soils, subjects to receive attention on a
later page.

Insects and fungi

The profitable grape regions of the country have all been es-
tablished in regions comparatively free from grape insects and
fungi. If pests came later in considerable numbers, the indus-
try, in the old days, perished. Here and there in the agricul-
tural regions of the country may be found a sorry company of

30 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

halt and maimed vines, remnants of once flourishing vineyards,
brought to their miserable condition by some scourge of insects
or fungi. The advent of spraying and of better knowledge of
the habits of the pests has greatly lessened the importance of
parasites as a factor in determining the value of a region for
grape-growing; but even in the light of the new knowledge, it
is not wise to go against Nature in regions where pests are
strongly intrenched.

Commercial factors

The dominant factors that lead to the planting of large areas
to any one fruit are often economic ones; as transportation,
markets, labor, facilities for making by-products, and oppor-
tunity to join in buying and selling organizations. All of
these factors play an important part in determining the bounds
of grape regions, but a lesser part than in the establishment
of large areas of other fruits, for the reason that the grape is
so largely grown for raisins, wine, champagne and grape-juice,
products condensed in form, made with little labor, easily trans-
ported, which keep long and find ready market at any time.
Again, where natural conditions are favorable for grape-growing,
the crop comes almost as a gift from Nature; whereas, if the
grower must breast the blows of unfavorable natural circum-
stances, no matter how favorable the economic factors may be,
the vineyard is seldom profitable. Natural factors, therefore,
outweigh economic ones in grape-growing, but the latter must
be considered in seeking a site for a vineyard, a task discussed
under several heads to follow.

Accessibility to markets.

Markets ought to be accessible in commercial grape-growing.
A location in which there is a good local market, and at the
same time ample facilities for shipping to distant markets, is

GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS dl

desirable. If there are also opportunities to dispose of any
surplus to makers of raisins, wine or grape-juice, the grower
has well-nigh attained the ideal. Further to be desired are
good roads, short hauls, quick transportation, reasonable freight
rates, refrigerator service and coéperative agencies. The more
of these advantages a grower has at his disposal, the less likely
he is to fail in commercial competition.

General versus local markets.

The grower must be reminded rather than informed that he
must decide in locating his vineyard whether he will grow for
distant markets, for manufacturing into grape products, or for
local markets. Determination to grow grapes once made,
subsequent procedure at every step depends on the disposition
to be made of the product. Summarized, the differences in
growing grapes for the two markets are: For the general mar-
ket: the acreage should be large; the market may be distant ;
the varieties few; the cost of production low; sales large and
prices low; the dealings are with middlemen; and extensive
culture is practiced. For the local market: the acreage may be
small; the market must be near and prices must be high; the
sales are direct to the consumer; there must be succession in
ripening; and intensive culture is practiced. For the general
market, the vineyard is the unit; for the local market, the
variety should be the unit. In this discussion, however, “large
acreage’? and “extensive culture” set against ‘‘small acreage”
and “intensive culture’? may mislead. This is a case in which
a large endeavor may be a small endeavor, and a small en-
deavor a large one; or, in which it may be well to take the ad-
vice of Virgil, who advised Roman vineyardists, “ Praise great
estates; farm a small one.”

The grape-growing of the times tends more and more to
growing for general markets. The grower plants to skim a
comparatively small return from a large area. This division

32 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

of grape-growing is now well developed in America. Intensive
grape-growing for local markets is not well developed. There
are, however, many opportunities in America for easy triumphs
in fruit-growing in the planting of vineyards for local markets.
No other fruit responds to fine art in culture so well as the
grape. Given choicely good varieties and a finely finished
product, and the grower may have almost what he desires for
the produce of his skill. With the grape, too, palm of merit
goes with skill in culture; among all who grow plants, only
the florist can rival the viticulturist in guiding the develop-
ment of a plant to a special end. In cultivating, fertilizing,
training, grafting, pruning, spraying, in every cultural oper-
ation, the grape-grower has opportunities to sell his skill not
given in so high degree to the grower of other fruits.

Labor.

A great advantage in the congregation of vineyardists in
grape regions is found when labor must be obtained. Skilled
labor is required to cultivate the vine, and such labor can be
freely secured only in centers of viticulture. Grape-growing
is a specialists’ business, and it takes more than a day or a
season to make a vine-dresser out of a farmer, gardener or an
orchardist. Expert labor is most easily obtained and is of best
quality where grapesabound. Common labormust be somewhat
abundant, also, in good vineyard locations, for such rush tasks
as tying and picking. In these two operations, women, chil-
dren or other unskilled labor may be employed to advantage.
The grape harvest must often be hurried, and to keep it in full
swing a near-by city from which to draw pickers is a great
asset.

Vineyard sites.

Within a grape region, the site is important in determining
where to plant. The site is the local position of the vineyard.

GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 39

Sites cannot be standardized, and therefore no two are alike.
The cardinal natural factors to be secured in a site are warmth,
sun, air and freedom from frost. These factors have been dis-
cussed in a general way under the climate of grape regions, but
one needs to particularize a little more closely to ascertain how
they affect individual vineyards. Warmth, sun, air and frost-
lessness are best secured by proximity to water, high land and
proper exposure.

Proximity to water.

The favorable influences of water are well illustrated in the
grape regions of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Canada.
All of the grape districts in these regions are bounded on one
or more sides by water. The equalizing effects of large bodies
of water on temperature, warmer winter and cooler summer,
are so well known as scarcely to need comment. Hardly less
important than the effects of water on temperature are the
off-shore breezes of night and the in-shore breezes of day which
blow on large bodies of water. These keep the air of the vine-
yard in constant motion and so prevent frosts in spring and
autumn, and also dry foliage and fruit so that spores of fungi
have difficulty in finding foothold. But if water brings fogs,
dews and humidity, as does the Pacific, grapes must be planted
inland; otherwise leaf, bloom and fruit are born in the blight
of fungi. The benign influences of water are felt in the eastern
grape regions at distances of one to four miles, seldom farther.
These narrow belts about the eastern waters are bounded on
the landward side by high bluffs over which many showers fail
to pass and which protect the belts below from heavy dews.
Where the background of bluffs in these regions sinks to level
land, vineyards cease.

Vineyards are usually some distance above the water, the
range in altitude running from fifty to five hundred feet. Where
the altitude is much higher, immunity to frosts and winter

D

34 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

freezing ceases, for the reason that the atmosphere is rarer and
drier so that heat radiates rapidly from the land. As the
height increases, also, the revels of the wind play havoe with
the vines. Yet, one is often surprised to find good vineyards
at the level of the lakes or, on the other hand, crowning high
hills. Altitude in grape-growing must, therefore, be deter-
mined by experiment. We know very little of the formation
of the thermal belts on high land so favorable to the grape.

The lay of the land.

We associate the grape with rugged land; as the vines on
the banks of the Rhine, the rolling lands of Burgundy, the
slopes of Vesuvius and Olympus, the high hills of Madeira, the
cloud-capped mountains of Teneriffe, mountain slopes in
California and the escarpments of grape regions in eastern
America. These examples prove how well adapted rolling
lands, inclined plains and even steep and rocky hillsides are to
the culture of the vine. Virgil long ago wrote, “Bacchus is
partial to broad, sunny hills.” Yet rolling lands are not es-
sential to the culture of the grape, for in Europe and America
very good grapes are grown on unsheltered plains, provided
the land has an elevation on one or more boundaries above the
surrounding country. If the conditions of soil and climate
which the grape requires can be found on level land or moder-
ate slopes, such situations are much better than steep decliv-
ities, since on these the cost of all vineyard operations is greater
and heavy rains erode the soil. The soil on hills, too, is often
scant and niggardly. Level land, however, must not be shut
in on all sides by higher land as untimely frost will often
lay waste vines in such a situation. -

Exposures.

The exposure, or the slope of the land toward a point of the
compass, is important in choosing a site for the vineyard, al-

‘Suuvyd oF purl oy} sun py — J] ALVIg

_

PPP DEP PPP D&D DED Pe DePPeD OP

_ F4

ae
.

GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 35

though the value of particular exposures is often exaggerated.
Let it be remembered that good grapes may be grown in vine-
yards exposed to any point of the compass, but that slight ad-
vantages may sometimes come, depending on the particular
environment of the plantation, and then solve the problem ac-
cording to conditions. The following are theories as to exposure :
A southern exposure is warmer and hence earlier than a north-
ern, and is, therefore, the best slope for early grapes as well as
for very late ones liable to be caught by frost. Northward
and westward slopes retard the leafing and blooming period,
thus often enabling the grape to escape untimely spring frosts ;
though to plant on such slopes may be robbing Peter to pay
Paul, as what is gained in retardation in spring may be lost in
the fall with the result that the vines may be caught by frost
and may fail to ripen their crop. Frost damage is usually
greatest on a bold eastern slope, and vines suffer most in win-
ter freezes on this exposure, since the direct rays of the rising
sun strike the frozen plants so that they are more injured than
otherwise by rapid thawing. In locations near bodies of water,
the best slope is toward the water, regardless of direction.
The exposure may sometimes be selected to advantage with
reference to the prevailing winds.

CHAPTER III
PROPAGATION

THE grape commends itself to commercial and amateur
growers alike by its ease of propagation. The vines of all
species may be propagated from seed, and all but one of the
several cultivated species may be grown readily from cuttings
or layers. All yield to grafting of one kind or another. Seeds
are planted only to produce new varieties. At one time stocks
were grown from seed, but this practice has fallen into dis-
repute because of the great variations in the seedlings. Varie-
ties on their own roots and stocks are for most part propagated
from cuttings. In the production of stocks, the viticulturist
sets the orchardist a good example, for there can be no question
that all tree-fruits suffer from being grown on seedling stocks.
The grape is a vigorous, self-assertive plant and once it is started,
whether from seeds, cuttings or layers, seldom fails to grow.

SEEDLINGS

Growing seedling grapes is the simplest of operations. The
seeds are taken from the grapes at harvest time, after which
they must pass through a resting period of a few months. At
once or in a month or two, the seeds should be stratified in moist
sand and stored in a cold place until spring, when they may be
sown in flats or in the open ground; or seed may be sown in a
well-prepared piece of garden land in the autumn. When
planted in the open, autumn or spring, the seeds are put in at
the depth of an inch, an inch or two apart and in rows conven-
ient for cultivation. Subsequent care consists of cultivation

36

li

PROPAGATION ot

if the seed are sown in garden rows, and in pricking out when
true leaves appear if planted in flats. In ground that crusts,
an expedient is to mix grape seed with apple seed; the apple
seedlings, being more vigorous, break the crust and act as
nurse plants to the more tender grapes. Sometimes it is help-
ful to the young plants to mulch the ground lightly with lawn
clippings or moss. Grape seedlings grow rapidly, often making
from two to three feet of wood in a season.

The young plants are thinned or set to stand four or five
inches apart in the nursery row. At the end of the first season,
all plants are cut back severely and almost entirely covered
with earth by plowing up to the row on both sides. This
earth, of course, is leveled the following spring. If the seasons
are propitious and all goes well, the seedlings are ready for the
vineyard at the end of the second season, but if for any reason
they have fared badly during their first two years, it is much
better to give them a third season in the nursery. Seedling
vines are seldom as vigorous as those from cuttings, and un-
usual care must be taken in setting in the vineyard, though
the operation is essentially the same as that to be described for
vines from cuttings. The third season the vines are kept to
a single shoot and are pinched back when the canes reach a
length of five or six feet. In the autumn, they are pruned
back to two or three feet. In the spring of the fourth season,
the trellis is put up and a few fruits may be allowed to ripen.

The vines of promise may now be selected. The plants,
however, must fruit twice or oftener before it can be told
whether hopes are consummated or must be deferred. Grow-
ing seedlings for new varieties is a game full of chances in which,
while there may be little immediate or individual gain, there
is much pleasure. It is hardly too much to say that the grape
industry of eastern America, with its 300,000 acres and 1500
varieties, betokens the good that has come from growing seed-
ling grapes.

38 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

DoRMANT CUTTINGS

Vines for vineyards, with the exception of varieties of Rotun-
difolia, are propagated from cuttings of hard wood taken from
the season’s canes when the vines are pruned. The inactive
buds in these cuttings may be brought into active growth,
and roots induced to grow from the cut surfaces by various
means. By this miracle of Nature, an infinite number of
plants, in an endless procession, may be propagated from the
product of a single seed, each plant complete in its heredity and
differing from its fellows only in accordance with environment.

Time to make cuttings.

A good cutting should have a protective callus over the cut
and this requires time, so that the sooner cuttings are made
after the wood becomes thoroughly dormant the better. Be-
sides, the cutting should use its stored food material for the
formation of adventitious roots rather than have it pass into
buds, as it quickly does late in the dormant season when buds
are about to open. If cuttings must be made late in the season,
transplanting must be delayed as long as possible, and the
cuttings be set in a northerly aspect to prevent the premature
development of the buds. However, the grape responds sur-
prisingly well to the call of Nature in forming roots, and great
importance need not be attached to the time at which the cut-
tings are made.

Selecting cutting wood.

Cuttings are made from one-year-old wood; that is, canes
produced during the summer are taken for cuttings in the fall.
Immature canes and those with soft, spongy wood ought not
to be used. Strong vigorous canes should be given preference
over weak growth, but most nurserymen maintain that very
large canes do not make as good cuttings as do those of medium

PROPAGATION 39

size, the objection to large size being that the cuttings do not
root as well. Short-jointed wood is better than long-jointed.
Cuttings from vines weakened by insects and fungi are liable
to be weak, soft, immature and poorly stored with food. ‘The
wood should be smooth and straight.

Making the cutting.

Grape cuttings vary in length from four inches to two feet,
the length depending on the climate and the soil of the nursery
and the species and variety. The hotter and drier the climate
and the lighter the soil, the longer the cutting needs to be.
Six to nine inches, however, is the usual length in the climate
of eastern America, while on the Pacific slope the length varies
from eight to fifteen inches. For convenience in handling,
all cuttings should be approximately of the same length, to
insure which some kind of simple gauge is needed. Various
gauges are used, as marks cut in the working table, a stick of
the required length, or a cutting-box.

In making the cuttings, a slanting cut is made close below
the lowest bud, while about an inch of wood is left above the
upper bud. When possible, a heel of old wood is left at the
lower end; or, still better, a whorl of buds, as roots usually
start from each bud. The finished cuttings are tied in bundles,
all butts one way, and are then ready to be heeled-in. This is
done by burying in trenches, butts up, and covering with a few
inches of soil. It is important to invert the cuttings in trench-
ing, since otherwise the tops often start to grow before the butts
are properly calloused, and it is very essential that the tops
remain dormant until roots appear to support the new growth.

Planting the cuttings.

Cuttings are planted in the nursery in rows wide enough
apart for cultivation and two or three inches apart in the row.
Trenches are made with a plow; perpendicular if the cuttings

40 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

are shorter, and a little slanting if longer than six inches. The
cuttings are set at a depth which permits the upper buds to

: \ aes
Fia. 6. Planting cuttings.

project above the ground,
as shown in Fig.6. When
the cuttings in a row are
placed, two inches of soil
are put in and _ pressed
firmly about the base of
the cuttings. Then the
trench is evenly filled
with earth and the cul-
tivator follows. Doing
duty by the young plants
consists in cultivating
often during the sum-

mer to keep the soil moist and mellow.

The cuttings are planted as soon as the
ground is warm and dry enough to work.
To delay planting too long invites mjury
from drought, which almost annually parches
the land in eastern America. Irrigation
gives more leeway to planting time in the
West. When warm sunny weather, accom-
panied by an occasional shower, predomi-
nates, the cuttings start growth almost at
once, as shown in Fig. 7, and by fall, all
things being propitious, make a growth
from four to six feet. With the cuttings
three inches and the rows three feet
apart, 58,080 vines may be grown to the

Single-eye cuttings.

i

=

Fic. 7. A cutting
beginning growth.

acre.

New and rare varieties are propagated from single-eye cut-
tings, thereby doubling the number of plants from the propa-

PROPAGATION 41

gating wood. This method gives an opportunity, also, to
start the work of propagating early in the season, since single-
eye cuttings are nearly always rooted by artificial heat. But
the greatest value of the method is that some varieties which
cannot be propagated in any other way readily grow under
artificial heat from single-eyes. Well-grown vines so propa-
gated are as good as those grown by any other method, but
the great disadvantage is that unless much care and skill are
used, vines from these cuttings are poor and quite worthless.
It is also a more expensive method than growing from long
cuttings out of doors.

There are several ways of making single-eye cuttings. The
most common form of the cutting is the single bud with an inch
of wood above and below, the ends being cut with a slant.
Some modify this form by cutting away the wood on the side
opposite the bud, exposing the pith the whole length of the
cutting. In another form, a square cut is made directly under
the bud, leaving an inch and a half of wood above. Or this last
form is modified by making a long sloping cut from the bud to
the upper end, thereby exposing the maximum amount of
cambium. Advantages are claimed for each form, but these are
mostly imaginary, and the cutting may be made to suit the
fancy of the propagator if a few essentials are observed.

Single-eye cuttings are made in the fall and are stored in sand
until late winter, about February in New York. At this time
the cuttings are planted horizontally an inch deep in a sand
propagating bench in a cool greenhouse. If the cuttings are
not well calloused, they remain one or two weeks in a tempera-
ture of 40° to 50° without bottom heat, but well-made cuttings
are calloused and ready to strike root so that brisk bottom
heat can be applied at once. After six weeks or two months,
the young plants are ready to pot off or to transplant in a cold-
frame or cool greenhouse. If but a few plants are to be grown,
they may be started in two- or three-inch pots, shifting into

42 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

larger pots once or twice as growth progresses. In early
summer, the young plants are set in nursery rows out of doors
and by fall the young vines should be strong and vigorous.

Single-eyes are also started in hot-beds, cold-frames and
even in the open air without the aid of artificial heat. In
hot-beds and cold-frames, the method is only a modification
of that described for greenhouses. Out of doors the cuttings
are given the same conditions under which long cuttings are
rooted, except that the whole of the short cutting is buried
an inch deep in the nursery row.

HERBACEOUS CUTTINGS

Grapes are easily propagated from herbaceous cuttings,
although since the vines are weak and the method expensive,
they are seldom used. Green cuttings are usually taken from
plants forced in greenhouses, but may be taken in summer
from vineyard vines. A green cutting is usually cut with two
buds with the leaf at the upper one left on. The cuttings
are set in propagating beds of sand, or pots of sand, in close
frames under which there is brisk bottom heat. To prevent
excessive evaporation, the frames are kept closed and the
atmosphere warm and moist. As growth progresses, or if
mildew appears, the frames are more and more ventilated. In
two to four weeks, the cuttings should have rooted sufficiently
well to be transplanted to pots. Herbaceous cuttings made
in the summer must be kept under glass until the following
spring.

LAYERING

The grape is readily propagated from layers of either green

or mature wood, the method being certain, convenient and

producing extra vigorous plants. The drawback is that fewer
plants can be obtained by layering than from cuttings with a

PROPAGATION 43

given amount of wood. Varieties of some species, however,
cannot be propagated. by cuttings, and with these layering
becomes of supreme importance to the propagator. Nearly
all varieties of Rotundifolia and some of Aéstivalis are best
grown from layers. So far as is known, all varieties of culti-
vated species may be grown by layering, and since the method
is simple and certain and the vines vigorous and easily handled,
this method is commended to small growers of grapes.

Dormant wood layering.

The work of layering mature wood usually begins in the
spring, but the vines from which the layers are to be taken
should have received preliminary treatment the preceding sea-
son. The vines to be layered are severely cut back a year
or more before the layering is to be done to induce a vigorous
growth of canes. Strong vigorous canes are laid in a shallow
trench, two to five inches deep, in which they are fastened with
wood or wire pegs or staples. The trench is then partly filled
with fine, moist, mellow earth which is firmly packed about
the cane. Roots strike and shoots spring from each joint.
When the young plants are well above ground, the trench is
completely filled, and then, or a little later, the young plants
are staked to keep them out of the way of the cultivator. The
following fall the young vines are ready to transplant.

The essentials of layering have been given, but a number of
non-essentials may be helpful under some conditions. Thus,
dormant wood may be layered in the fall, in which case the
cane is usually notched or ringed at the joint to induce the
formation of roots. The less the number of joints covered,
the stronger the young vines, so that while the number is usu-
ally five, six or more extra vigorous plants may be obtained
by covering only one or two joints. In propagating Rotun-
difolia grapes, it is expected that lateral branches will make
the tops of the new plants. These, at the time of layering, are

44 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

cut back to eight or ten inches, all on the same side of the vine,
and are not left closer together than twelve inches. In nursery
practice, Rotundifolia vines are trained along the ground for
layering. Vines on arbors, in greenhouses, or on sides of
buildings are easily layered in boxes or pots of soil. Plants
grown from layers are not as conveniently handled as those
from cuttings.

Green wood layering.

Layered plants from green wood are sometimes grown to
multiply quickly new or rare varieties. The work is accom-
plished in midsummer by bending down and covering shoots
of the present season’s growth. Strong plants are seldom
obtained from summer-layering and it is never safe to attempt
to grow more than one or two plants from a shoot. The most
forceful culture possible must be given summer-layered plants
after the separation from the parent vine. It is very generally
agreed that plants from summer-layers not only do not give
good plants, but that the parent vine is injured in taking an
offspring from it in this way.

Layering to fill vacancies in the vineyard.

There is sure to be an occasional gap even in the best vine-
yard. Young plants set in vacancies must compete with
neighboring full-grown vines, and often in a bit of land so un-
favorable that it may have been the cause of the demise of
the original occupant. Under these circumstances, the new-
comer stands a poor chance for life. A plant introduced by
layering a strong cane from a nearby vine has little difficulty
in establishing itself on its own roots, after which it can be
separated from the parent. Such layering is best done by
taking in early spring a strong, unpruned cane from an ad-
joining plant in the same row and covering an end joint six
inches deep in the vacant place, but leaving sufficient wood on

PROPAGATION 45

the end of the cane to turn up perpendicularly out of the soil.
This free end becomes the new plant and by the following fall
or spring may be separated from its parent. Not infrequently
the young plant bears fruit the second season on its own roots.
This method is of especial value in small plantations, whereby
the trouble of ordering one or two plants is avoided and the
advantage of early fruiting is obtained.

GRAFTING

Since grafting grapes is intimately connected with stocks,
the growing of which is a modern practice, grafting is thought
of as a new process in growing this fruit. Quite to the contrary,
it isan old practice. Cato, the sturdy old Roman grape-grower
who lived nearly two hundred years before Christ, speaks of
grafting grapes, although Theophrastus, the Greek philosopher,
wrote a hundred years before “the vine cannot be grafted upon
itself.’’ However, until it became necessary to grow Vinifera
grapes on resistant stocks to avoid the ravages of phylloxera,
grafting the grape was not at all common among vineyardists
and is not now except where vines susceptible to phylloxera
raust be grown in consort with roots resistant to this insect, or
to modify the vigor of the top by a stock more vigorous or less
vigorous. For these two purposes, grafting is now in some
grape regions one of the most important vineyard operations.

In grafting the grape, there is a time and a way, not so par-
ticular as many believe, but rather more particular than in
grafting most other fruits. If the essentials of grafting are
kept in mind, one has considerable choice of details. Graft-
ing consists in detaching and inserting one or several buds of a
mother plant on another plant of the same or a similar kind;
the bud stock is the cion, the rooted plant is the stock. The
essentials may be set forth in three statements: First, the
prime essential is that the cambium layers, the healing tissue

46 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

lying between the bark and wood, meet in the cion and stock;
second, that method of grafting is best in which the cut tissues
heal most rapidly and most completely; third, the greater
the amount of cambium contact, as compared with the whole
cut surface, the more rapidly and completely the wounds will
heal. Out of a great many, the following are a few of the
simplest methods in use in grafting the grape, any one of which
may be modified more or less as occasion calls.

Vineyard grafting in eastern America.

In eastern America, the growing vine is usually grafted.
At the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the opera-
tion is very successfully performed on old vines as follows:
Preparatory to grafting, the earth is removed from around the
stock to a depth of two or
three inches. The vines are
then decapitated at the sur-
face of the ground and at
right angles with the axis
of the stock. If the grain
\ is straight, the cleft can be

Fic. 8. Cutting off the trunk. made by splitting with a
chisel, but more often it will

have to be done with a thin-bladed saw through the center of
the stock for at least two inches. The cion is cut with two
buds, the wedge being started at the lower bud. The cleft
in the stock is then opened, and the cion inserted so that the
cambium of stock and cion are in intimate contact. If the
stock is large, two cions are used. The several operations in
grafting are shown in Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11. Grafting wax is
unnecessary, in fact is often worse than useless, and if the
stock is large the graft is not even tied. Raffia is used to tie
the graft in young vines. It suffices to mound the graft to
the top of the cion with earth, for the purposes of protec-

PROPAGATION 47

tion and to keep the graft moist. Two or three times
during the summer, sprouts coming from the stock or roots
from the cion should be removed.

A method used with fair success
at the New York Agricultural Ex-
periment Station with young vines
is to plant one-year-old stocks in
the nursery row as soon as the
ground can be worked in the spring.
Just as the vines start in growth,
these are cut off at the surface of
the ground and whip- or cleft-grafted with a two-eye cion. The
graft is tied with raffia, after which it is all but covered with
a mound of soil. This is a case in
which the work must be done at the
accepted time, as it is fatal to delay.

R. D. Anthony describes another
method as follows:' “A method
which a Pennsylvania grower of
Viniferas has found very satisfactory
is to root the Vinifera cuttings, and
grow them one year on their own
roots; then the. vine
which is to be used
as a stock is planted in the vineyard and the
rooted cutting planted beside it so that the
shoots from the two may be brought in con-
tact with each other. In June when the plants
are in full growth, two vigorous shoots (one ~-as A Syer
from each vine) are brought together and a Fic. 11. The
cut two or three inches long made in each “™Pleted graft.
parallel to the length of the cane removing from one-third
to one-half of the thickness of the shoot. These flat surfaces

1 Anthony, R.D. WN. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 632: 88. 1917.

Fig. 9. Cutting the cleft.

Fie. 10. Inserting the cion.

48 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

exposed by the cuts are then brought into contact with the
cambium tissues touching and are tied in place. The tops are
checked somewhat by breaking off some of the growth. The
following spring the Vinifera roots are cut off below the graft
and the top of the stock above the graft is removed.”

In the subsequent care of these young vines, the grower
must take time by the forelock and tie the grafts to suitable
stakes; otherwise they are liable to be broken off at the union
by wind or careless workmen. Grafted vineyards must have
extra good care in all cultural operations, and even with the
best of care from 5 to 50 per cent of the grafts will fail or grow
so poorly as to make regrafting necessary, this being the most
unfavorable circumstance of field grafting. Regrafting is
done one joint lower than the first operation to avoid dead
wood; this brings the union below the surface of the ground,
and the vineyardist must expect many cion roots to try his
patience.

Vineyard grafting on the Pacific slope.

Vineyard grafting, according to Bioletti,! was formerly the
commonest method of starting resistant vineyards in Cali-
fornia. After stating that it is best whenever possible to plant
good cuttings rather than roots, and that the grafting should
usually be done the year after planting, Bioletti gives the
following directions for grafting : *

“Wherever possible the vines should be grafted at or above
the surface of the ground. In many cases, however, it will
be necessary to go below the surface to find a smooth, suitable
part of the stock where grafting is possible.

“The kind of graft to use will depend on the size of the stock.
For stocks up to 3 inch in diameter the methods of tongue and
wire grafting already described are the best. For larger vines

1 Bioletti, Frederic T. Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180: 135. 1906.
2 [bid., 136-188.

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PROPAGATION 49

up to ¢ inch a modification of the ordinary tongue graft is the
best. If the tongue graft were made in the usual way with
stocks of this size, it would be necessary to use excessively
large scions, which is undesirable, or to have the barks unite
only on one side. By cutting the bevel of the stock only part
way through the vines, it is possible to make a smaller scion
unite on both sides. For still larger vines, those over ~ inch
in diameter, the best graft is the ordinary cleft.

“No wax or clay should be used on the graft. Anything
which completely excludes the air prevents the knitting of
the tissues. A little clay, cloth, or a leaf may be placed over
the split in the stock when the cleft graft is used, simply to
keep out the soil. Otherwise there is nothing more suitable
or more favorable to the formation of a good union that can
be put around the graft than loose, moist soil. If the soil is
clayey, stiff or lumpy, it is necessary to surround the union
with loose soil or sand brought from outside the vineyard.

“It will usually be necessary to tie the grafts. A well-
made cleft graft often holds the scion with sufficient force to
prevent its displacement and no tying is necessary. Wher-
ever there is any danger of the graft moving, however, it should
be tied. There is nothing better for this purpose than or-
dinary raffia. The raffia should not be bluestoned, as it will
last long enough without and will be sure to rot in a few weeks,

,and the trouble of cutting it will be avoided. Cotton string

or anything which will keep the graft in place for a few weeks
may also be used.

“As soon as the graft is made and tied, a stake should be
driven and the union covered with a little earth. The hilling
up of the graft may be left for a few hours, except in very hot,
dry weather. Finally, the whole graft should be covered with
a broad hill of loose soil 2 inches above the top of the scion.

“Field grafting should not be commenced as a rule, except

in the hottest and driest localities, before the middle of March.
E

50 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Before that there is too much danger that heavy rains may
keep the soil soaked for several weeks—a condition very
unfavorable to the formation of good unions. In any case
the grafting should not be done while the soil is wet. Graft:
ing may continue as long as the cuttings can be kept dormant.
It is difficult to graft successfully, however, when the bark of
the stock becomes loose, as it does soon after the middle of
April in most localities.”’

As in the East, it is necessary in California to remove suckers
from the roots and roots from the cions once or twice during
the summer. Suckers should not be allowed to overshade the
graft, though it is best not to remove them until danger of
disturbing the graft is past. The grafts should be staked and
the vines looked after as recommended for eastern conditions.

Bench grafting.

The resistant vineyards of France and California are now
started almost entirely with bench-grafted vines. It has been
learned in these regions that a grafted vine, to be a permanent
success, must have the consorting parts perfectly united, and
that the sooner the grafting is done in the life of stock and cion
the better the union. Cions of the variety wanted are, there-
fore, grafted on resistant roots or resistant cuttings in the
workshop and then planted in the nursery. Bench grafting

has the advantage over field grafting in time gained and in.

securing a fuller stand of vines.

Bench grafting really begins with the selection of cuttings,
since success largely depends on good cuttings of both stock
and cion. Cuttings are taken from strong healthy vines and
are of medium size, with short to medium joints. The best
size is one-third of an inch in diameter, that of stock and cion
being the same since the two must match exactly. The cutting-
wood may be taken from the mother vines at any time during
the dormant season up to two weeks before buds swell in the

PROPAGATION 51

spring, and the cuttings can then be made as convenience
dictates, though meanwhile the wood must be kept cool and
moist, which is best done by covering them with moist but not
wet soil or sand in a cellar or cool shed. In California, the
best results are obtained when the grafting is done in Feb-
ruary or March, though it may be begun earlier and continued
a month later.

Preparation of cuttings.

The stocks are cut into lengths of about ten inches, a gauge
being used to secure uniform length. The cut at the bottom is
made through a bud in such a way as to leave the diaphragm.
The top cut is made as near ten
inches from the bottom as possi-
ble, leaving about one and one-
half inches above the top bud for
convenience in grafting. The
stock is then disbudded, taking
both visible and adventitious
buds, the latter indicated by
woody enlargements, to keep
down the number of suckers.

The cion should be made with
but one bud, thereby gaining the
advantage of having every cion
the same length so that all unions
are at the same distance below
the surface of the ground in the Fis. 12. Bench-grafted cuttings

: ° : of grape, showing both the cleft-
nursery. The cion is made with ,raft and the whip-graft.
about two and one-half inches
of internode below the bud and one-half inch above, a sharp
knife being the best tool for making the cuts.

Stock and cion cuttings are now graded to exactly the same di-
ameters, this being necessary to secure perfection in the unions.

52 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Three methods of uniting stock and cion are illustrated in
Fig. 12. It suffices to grade by the eye into three lots — large,
small and medium — but some nurserymen prefer to secure
even greater accuracy by the use of any one of several mechan-
ical gauges. The methods of uniting stock and cion may be
described best by quoting Bioletti, from whom most of the
details already given have been summarized : 1

Tongue grafting.

“When the stocks and scions are prepared and graded the
grafter takes a box of stocks and a box of the corresponding
size of scions and unites them. Each is cut at the same angle

in such a way that when placed together the cut surface of °

one exactly fits and covers the whole of the cut surface of the
other. The length of cut surface should be from three to four
times the diameter of the cutting, the shorter cut for the larger
sizes and the longer for the thinner. This will correspond
to an angle of from 14.5 to 19.5 degrees. The cut should be
made with a sliding movement of the knife. This will make
the cut more easily and more smoothly.

“The cut should be made with a single quick motion of the
knife. If the first cut is not satisfactory, a completely new
one should be made. ‘There should be no paring of the cut, as
this will make an irregular or wavy surface and prevent the
cuttings coming together closely in all parts.

“The tongues are made with a slow, sliding motion of the
knife. They are commenced slightly above one-third of the
distance from the sharp end of the bevel and cut down until
the tongue is just a trifle more than one-third the length of
the cut surface. The tongue should be cut, not split. The
knife should not follow the grain of the wood, but should be
slanted in such a way that the tongue will be about one-half
as thick as it would be if made by splitting. Before withdraw-

1 Bioletti, Frederic T. Calif. Exp, Sta., Bul. 180: 108-112.

ee eee

ee

PROPAGATION 53

ing the knife it is bent over in order to open out the tongue.
This very much facilitates the placing together of stock and
scion.

“The stock and scion are now placed together and, if every-
thing has been done properly, there will be no cut surface
visible and the extremity of neither stock nor scion will pro-
ject over the cut surface of the other. It is much better that
the points should not quite reach the bottom of the cut surface
than that they should overlap, as the union will be more com-
plete and the scions will be less liable to throw out roots. If
the points do overlap, the overlapping portion should be cut
off, as in the Champin grafts.

“A skillful grafter, by following the above-described method,
will make grafts most of which will hold together very firmly.
Many of them would be displaced, however, in subsequent
operations, so that it is necessary to tie them. This is done
with raffia or waxed string. The only object of the tying is
to keep the stock and scion together until they unite by the
growth of their own tissues, so that the less material used the
better, provided this object is attained. For the formation
of healing tissue air is necessary, so that clay, wax, tinfoil
or anything that would exclude the air should not be used.
The tying material is passed twice around the point of the
scion to hold it down firmly, and then with one or two wide
spirals it is carried to the point of the stock, which is fastened
firmly with two more turns and the end of the string passed
under the last turn. The less string is used the more easily
it is removed later in the nursery.

“Untreated raffia should be used for late grafts which are
to be planted directly out in the nursery, but if the grafts
are to be placed first in a callusing bed it is best to bluestone
the raffia in order to prevent rotting before the grafts are
planted. This is done by steeping the bundles of raffia in a
three per cent solution of bluestone for a few hours and then

04 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

hanging them up to dry. Before using, the raffia should be
washed quickly in a stream of water in order to remove the
bluestone which has crystallized on the outside and which might
corrode the graft.

“Some grafters prefer waxed string for grafting. The
string should be strong enough to hold the graft, but thin
enough to be broken by hand. No. 18 knitting cotton is a
good size. It is waxed by soaking the balls in melted grafting
wax for several hours. The string will absorb the wax, and
may then be placed on one side until needed. A good wax
for this purpose is made by melting together one part of tal-
low, two parts of beeswax, and three parts of rosin.”

Wire grafting.

“The merits claimed for this method are that it is more
rapid, requires less skill, and does away with the troublesome
tying and still more troublesome removal of the tying material.
Practiced grafters can obtain as large a percentage of No. 1
unions by this method as by any other, and unpracticed graft-
ers can do almost as well as practiced. Another advantage
of the method is that the scions have less tendency to make
roots than with the tongue graft.

“It consists essentially of the use of a short piece of gal-
vanized iron wire inserted in the pith of stock and scion for
the purpose of holding them together, thus replacing both
tongues and raffia. It has been objected that the iron would
have a deleterious effect on the tissues of the graft, corroding
them, or causing them to decay. There seems, however, no
reason to expect any such result, and vines grafted in this way
have been bearing for years without showing any such effect.

“The preparation and grading of stocks and scions are exactly
the same for this method as for the tongue graft.

“Stock and scion are cut at an angle of 45 degrees. A piece
of galvanized iron wire two inches long is then pushed one inch

PROPAGATION 55

into the firmest pith. This will usually be the pith of the stock,
but it will depend on the varieties being grafted. The scion
is then pushed on to the wire and pressed down until it is in
contact with the stock. If the cuttings have large pith it is
better to use two pieces of wire, one placed in the stock first
and the other in the scion.

“The length of wire to use will vary with the size and firm-
ness of the cuttings, but 2 inches will usually be found most
satisfactory. Wire of No. 17 gauge is the most useful size.”

Making bundles.

“Tf the grafts are to be planted out directly in the nursery,
they may be simply laid in boxes or trays, covered with damp
sacks, and carried out to be planted as soon as made. It is
usually better, however, to place them for several weeks in a
callusing bed before planting. In this case it is necessary for
convenience of handling to tie them up into bundles. No
more than twenty grafts should be placed in a bundle, and
ten is better. If the bundles are too large there is danger of
the grafts in the middle becoming moldy or dry.

“A stand is very convenient. It consists of a piece of board
12 inches, on one end of which is nailed a cleat 6 inches by 4
inches and under the other end a support of the same size.
Two 4-inch wire nails are driven through the board from below,
4 inches apart and 5 inches from the cleat. Two other 4-inch
nails are driven similarly at 14 inches from the other end. The
grafts are laid on this stand with the scions resting against
the cleat, and are then tied with the two pieces of bluestoned
raffa that have previously been placed above each pair of
nails. This arrangement insures all the scions, and therefore
the unions, being at the same level, and puts both ties below
the union where they will not strain the graft. The tying is
more expeditious and less liable to disturb the unions than if
the bundles are made without a guide.

56 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

“A skillful grafter will make about one hundred tongue grafts
on cuttings per hour, or from sixty-five to seventy-five per hour
if he does the tying as well. Wire grafts can be made at the
rate of two hundred and fifty or more per hour, and by proper
division of labor where several grafters are employed this
number can be easily exceeded. These estimates do not in-
clude the preparation and grading of the cuttings.”

Grafting rooted cuttings.

The cion may be grafted on a stock rooted in the nursery
the previous season, much the same methods being used as
with cuttings. This method is employed to utilize cuttings
too small to graft, the added sizes attained in the nursery mak-
ing them large enough, and in grafting on stocks which root
with difficulty, thus saving the making of grafts which never
grow. The stocks, in this method, are cut so that the cions
may be inserted as the original cutting and not as the new
growth. The roots, for convenience in handling, are cut back
to an inch or thereabouts in length.

The callusing bed.

If bench grafts are planted at once in the nursery, most of
them fail. They are, therefore, stratified in a callusing bed
where moisture and temperature can be controlled. Bio-
letti describes a callusing bed and its use as follows: !

“This callusing bed is usually a pile of clean sand placed
on the south side of a wall or building and surrounded by a
board partition where there is no possibility of its becoming
too wet by the flow of water from a higher level or from an
overhanging roof. It should be protected, if necessary, by
a surrounding ditch. It should be furnished with a removable
cover of canvas or boards to protect it from rain and to enable
the temperature to be controlled by the admission or exclusion

1 Bioletti, Frederic T. Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180: 113-118.

PROPAGATION 57

of the sun’s rays. A water-proof wagon-cover, black on one
side and white on the other, is excellent for this purpose.

“The bottom of the callusing bed is first covered with 2 or
3 inches of sand. The bundles of grafts are then placed in
a row along one end of the bed, and sand well filled in around
them. The bundles should be placed in a slightly inclined
position with the scions uppermost, and the sand should be
dry enough so that it sifts in between the grafts in the bundle.
The bundles of grafts are then covered up completely with
sand, leaving it at least 2 inches deep above the top of the scion.
Another row is then placed in the same manner until the bed
is full. Finally a layer of 2 or 3 inches of moss or straw is
placed over all.

“In the callusing bed we should endeavor to hasten and
perfect the union of stock and scion as much as possible while
delaying the starting of the buds and the emission of the roots.
The latter processes require more moisture than the formation
of healing tissue, therefore the sand should be kept compara-
tively dry. Between 5 and 10 per cent of water in the sand
is sufficient. The purer the sand the less water is necessary.
There should be a little more moisture present than in the sand
used for keeping the cuttings over winter. Too much moisture
will stimulate the emission of roots and starting of buds with-
out aiding the callus formation.

“All the vital processes progress more rapidly when the
cuttings are kept warm. To delay them, therefore, we keep
the sand cool, and to hasten them we make it warm. In the
beginning of the season and up to the middle of March we keep
the sand cool. This is done by keeping the bed covered during
the day when the sun is shining, and uncovering occasionally
at night when there is no fear of rain. If the black-and-white
wagon-cover is used, the white side should be placed outward
to reflect the heat. The temperature should be kept about
60° F. or lower.

58 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

“About the middle of March the temperature of the bed
should be raised. This is done by removing the cover during
warm days and carefully covering at night. If necessary the
layer of moss or straw should be removed on sunny days and
then replaced. The temperature of the sand at the level of
the unions should be about 75° F. during this period. If the.
temperature rises higher than this, there will be a more abun-
dant production of callus, but it will be soft, easily injured,
and liable to decay.

“At the end of four weeks after warming the bed, the union
should be well cemented. The callus should not only have
formed copiously around the whole circumference of the wound,
but it should have acquired a certain amount of toughness due
to the formation of fibrous tissue. It should require a pull
of several pounds to break the callus and separate stock and
scion. When the callus has acquired this quality the grafts
are in condition to be planted in the nursery, and may be
handled without danger. If taken from the bed while the
callus is still soft, many unions will be injured and the grafts
will fail, or unite only on one side.

“Tf left as long as this in the callusing bed most of the scion
buds will have started and formed white shoots. These
shoots, however, should not be more than ¥ to 1 inch long.
If they are longer the bed has been kept too wet or too warm.
Roots will also have started from the stock, but these also
should not be over % inch long. The grafts should be handled
as carefully as is practicable, but there is no objection to break-
ing off any scion shoots or stock roots which have grown too
long. It is almost impossible to save them, and new ones
will start after the grafts are planted, and make a perfectly
satisfactory growth.”

Care in the nursery.

The grafts are planted in the nursery, and are given much
the same care recommended for cuttings. They may be set

PROPAGATION 59

in trenches made with plow or spade; or they may be planted
in very shallow trenches with a dibble. After planting, the
grafts are covered with an inch or two of soil, thus forming a
wide ridge in the nursery row with the union of the grafts at
the original level of the soil. Cultivation should begin at
once and be frequent enough to prevent the formation of a
crust, in order that the young shoots may not have difficulty
in forcing their way through the soil. Roots start on the
cions sooner than on the stock, the soil being warmer at the
surface, and help sustain the cions until the stocks are well
rooted, at which time all roots started on the cion are removed,
and at the same time the tying material is cut if it has not rotted.
Suckers are removed as soon as they show above ground. The
grafts are dug as soon as the leaves fall and the young vines
become dormant, after which they are sorted in three lots,
according to size of top and root, and heeled-in in a cool moist
place until they are to be planted.

Nursery versus home-grown vines.
y g

The verdict of all vineyardists is that it is better to buy
nursery-grown vines than to attempt to grow them. The
high quality of the vines which can be purchased and the
reasonable purchase price make it hardly worth while to try
home-grown vines, especially since considerable investment,
experience and skill are required to grow good vines.

“ PEDIGREED”’ GRAPE VINES

Many viticulturists, in common with orchardists, believe
that their plants should be propagated only from parents
which have good characters, that is, are vigorous, healthy,
productive, and bear fruit of large size, perfect form,
good color and good quality. They believe, in short, that
varieties can be improved by bud selection. There is, however,

60 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

but little in either theory or fact to substantiate the belief
of those who say that varieties once established can be im-
proved; or, on the other hand, that they degenerate. Present
knowledge and experience indicate that heredity is all but
complete in varieties propagated from parts of plants. The
multitude of grapes in any variety, all from one seed, are mor-
phologically one individual. A few kinds of grapes go back to
Christ’s time, and these seem to agree almost perfectly with
the descriptions of them made by Roman writers 2000 years
ago. How, then, can the differences between vines of a variety
in every vineyard in the land be explained ?

Ample explanation is found in “nurture” to account for the
variation in vines without involving a change in “ Nature.”
Soil, sunlight, moisture, insects, disease, plant-food, and the
stock in the case of grafted vines, give every vine a distinct
environment and hence a distinct individuality of its own.
Peculiarities in a vine appear and disappear with the individual.
A variety can be changed temporarily by its environment, but
remove the incidental forces and it snaps back into its same old
self.

Heredity is not quite complete in the grape, however; for,
now and then, sports or mutations appear which are permanent
and, if sufficiently different, become a strain of the parent
variety or possibly a new variety. There are several such
sports of the Concord under cultivation. The grape-grower
can tell these sports from the modifications brought about by
environment only by propagation. Ifa variation is transmitted
unchanged through successive generations of the grape, as
occasionally happens, it may be looked on as a new form.
“Pedigreed”’ vines, then, should be subject to a test of several
generations in an experimental vineyard before the grape-
grower pays the price demanded for the supposed improvement.

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CHAPTER IV
STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES

PHYLLOXERA, a tiny root-louse, made its appearance in
France in 1861 and began multiplying with a fury unparalleled
in the insect world. By 1874, the pest had become so wide-
spread in Europe that it threatened the very existence of the
great vineyard industry of that continent. All attempts to
bring the pest under control failed, although the French gov-
ernment offered a reward of 300,000 francs for a satisfactory
remedy. Numerous methods of treating the soil to check
the ravages of the insect were tried, also, but none was effica-
cious. Finally, it dawned on European vineyardists that
phylloxera is not a scourge in America, its habitat, and that
European vineyards might be saved by grafting Vinifera vines
on the roots of immune American grapes. At once the recon-
struction of vineyards in Europe was begun by grafting the
grapes on phylloxera-resistant roots. Meanwhile, consterna-
tion spread to California when it was discovered that phylloxera
was running riot in some of the vineyards of the Pacific slope ;
however, with the knowledge derived from viticulturists in
Europe, they too began reconstructing vineyards on immune
roots, without the same success as the Europeans, it is true,
but with such measure of success that it soon became the
approved method of growing grapes in this great region.

Through the use of resistant stocks, phylloxera is now defied
in Vinifera regions. Millions of American stocks are annually
struck at home, in Europe and wherever Vinifera grapes are
grown, to be top-worked with varieties susceptible to phylloxera.
Seldom has mastery over a pest been so complete; but, to

61

62 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

triumph over the tiny insect, the industry has had to be revo-
lutionized. Resistant stocks, in their turn, brought innumer-
able new problems, many of which are still unsolved. Investi-
gations and experiences in rehabilitating vineyards have been
carried on for forty years, the results set forth in books and
bulletins and yet there are many problems to be solved. The
grape-grower in regions infested with phylloxera is always
under the necessity of taking advantage of the latest demonstra-
tion of practices in the use of resistant stocks. These practices
are best studied in the experiments of state experiment stations
and the United States Department of Agriculture, and in the
vineyards of leading grape-growers, since even those most
needing elucidation can be but briefly discussed in the following
paragraphs.

The wild vines of a species are always seedlings and are
hence exceedingly variable. The first vineyards of resistant
stocks were vines grafted on stocks of wild vines, and the
results were very unsatisfactory; for, naturally, there was
divergence in many characters and especially in the vigor of the
vines. Also, there was difficulty in grafting, since some wild
vines are stout and others slender; some bear grafts well, while
others do not. It soon became apparent that to succeed,
varieties must be selected from the different species for vine-
yard work. The great task of the experimenter and grape-
grower, therefore, has been to select varieties of the several
species sufficiently resistant, vigorous and otherwise possessed
of characters fitting them to become good stocks. Out of
vast numbers tested, a few are now generally recognized as
best for the several groups of Vinifera grapes and the several
distinct regions in which these grapes are grown.

Resistant species and varieties.

The reconstruction of phylloxera-ridden vineyards by the
use of resistant stocks is possible only because some species

STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES 63

and varieties are, as has been said, more resistant to the root-
louse than others. All degrees of resistance exist, as would
be suspected, from immunity to great susceptibility. It is
obvious that the foundation of the art of growing resistant
vineyards is exact knowledge of the immunities and suscepti-
bilities of the many varieties and species of grapes. From the
first use of resistant vines, experimenters everywhere have set
themselves at work to determine not only what the most resist-
ant vines are, but what the causes and conditions of immunity.
In spite of a wealth of empirical discoveries as to what grapes
can best resist the root-louse, causes and most of the conditions
of immunity are still little understood. Definite, useful knowl-
edge, so far, goes little further than the establishment of lists
of species and varieties, the latter subject to change, that are
most useful in setting resistant vineyards.

Phylloxera does little damage to species of Vitis native to
the same general region in which the pest has its habitat, but
nevertheless there are some differences in resistance in American
grapes. Munson, one of the best American authorities on
the resistance of species to phylloxera, says:! “ Rotundifolia
is entirely immune, then Rupestris, Vulpina, Cinerea, Ber-
landieri, Champini, Candicans, Doaniana, stivalis and Lince-
cumii are so high in resistance as to be practically uninjured,
though they may be attacked, while Labrusca is low in resist-
ance and is much weakened in clay soils, if infested, and Vinif-
era is entirely non-resistant.”” Some of these species are hard
to propagate and difficult to suit in soil and climate so that but
two of them are much used for resistant stocks. The two most
used are Rupestris and Vulpina (Riparia), of both of which there
are varieties which give satisfaction. Bioletti, a leading author-
ity on resistant stocks in California, says :?

1 Munson, T. V. Foundations of American Grape Culture, 217.
1909.
2 Bioletti, Frederic T. Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180: 96-97. 1906.

64 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

“Varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability
be used in California are Rupestris St. George (du Lot), Riparia
< Rupestris 3306, Riparia x Rupestris 3309, Riparia Solonis
1616, Mourvédre X Rupestris 1202, Aramon X Rupestris 2, Ri-
paria gloire, and Riparia grande glabre. These are all varieties
which have given excellent varieties for years in Europe, and
have all been tested successfully in California. Among them
are varieties suitable for nearly all the vineyard soils of Cali-
fornia, with perhaps the exception of some of the heavier clays.

“The only one of these varieties which has been planted
extensively in California is the Rupestris St. George. There
can be little doubt, however, that it will fail to give satisfaction
in many soils, and though we may not find something better
for all our soils it is probable that we will repeat the experience
of Southern France and find that in most soils there is some
other variety that gives better results. Without attempting
to describe these varieties, but to give some idea of their merits
and defects and of the soils most suited to each, the following
indications are given, based principally on the opinions of L.
Ravaz and Prosper Gervais, and on a still limited experience
in California :

“The Rupestris St. George is remarkably vigorous and grows
very large, supporting the graft well even without stakes.
It roots easily and makes excellent unions with most vinifera
varieties. It is well suited to deep soils where its roots can
penetrate. Its defects are that it is very subject to root-rot,
especially in moist soils; it suckers badly and it suffers from
drought in shallow soils. Its great vigor produces coulure with
some varieties and often necessitates long pruning.

“Tn moist or wet soils 1616 or 3306 had given better results
in France and gives indications of doing equally well here. In
drier soils 3309 will probably be found preferable.

“Aramon Rupestris No. 2 is suited to the same soils as
Rupestris St. George, and does particularly well in extremely

STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES 65

gravelly soils. It has some of the defects of the St. George
and is moreover more difficult to graft, and its only advantage
in California is that it is rather less susceptible to root-rot.

“There are no better resistant stocks than Riparia gloire and
Riparia grande glabre, wherever they are put in soils that suit
them. They do well, however, only in deep, rich, alluvial
soils which are neither too wet nor too dry. Their grafts are
the most productive of all, and ripen their grapes from one to
two weeks earlier than the grafts on St. George. Their prin-
cipal defect is that they are very particular as to the soil, and
they never grow quite as large as the cion. The gloire is the
most vigorous, and the difference of diameter is less with this
variety than with any other Riparia.

“The Mourvédre X Rupestris 1202 is extremely vigorous,
roots and grafts easily, and is well adapted to rich, sandy and
moist soils. In drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps
not sufficient.

“The most promising varieties for general use at present
seem to be the two hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris, 3306
and 3309. They have great resistance to the phylloxera,
root and graft almost as easily as St. George, and are quite
sufficiently vigorous to support any variety of vinifera. The
former is more suited to the moister soils and wherever there
is danger of root-rot, and the latter to the drier soils. In gen-
eral, they are suited to a larger variety of soils and condition
than perhaps any other varieties.

“Riparia gloire should be planted only on rich, deep alluvial
soil containing an abundance of plant food and humus, what
would be called good garden land, such as river bank soil not
liable to overflow.

“Tn most other soils Riparia X Rupestris 3306 is to be recom-
mended, except those that are rather dry, where 3309 is to be
preferred, or those which are very wet, where Solonis X Riparia
1616 is surer to give good results.”

F

66 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

The value of a species or variety for a resistant stock may be
judged somewhat by the visible effect of the phylloxera on the
roots of the vines. On susceptible species, the punctures of
the insects rapidly produce swellings which vary in size and
number in accordance with resistance of the species. ‘Techni-
cally, the first swelling on the young tender rootlets of the vine
is called a nodosity. The presence of a few nodosities on the
root system does not indicate that a vine is not a valuable
resistant stock. When the nodosity begins to decay and
becomes of a cancerous nature, it is called a tuberosity. These
tuberosities decay more or less rapidly and deeply, and when
they rot deeply cause enfeeblement or death to the vine. Thus,
on Vinifera varieties the tuberosities are several times larger
and decay sets in much more quickly than on American species
which show these tuberosities. Ratings as to resistance of
species are usually made from the size and number of the
tuberosities, though when these are found producing a scab-like
wound which scales off, there may be high resisting power.

In order to convey with some degree of definiteness the power
of resistance to phylloxera, an arbitrary scale has been agreed
on by viticulturists. In this scale, maximum resistance is
indicated by 20 and minimum by 0. Thus, the resisting power
of a good Vulpina is put as 19.5 and that of a poor Vinifera
variety as 0.

ADAPTATIONS OF RESISTANT STOCKS TO SOILS AND CLIMATES

Resistance, of course, counts for naught in a stock which
comes from a species unsuited to the soil and climate or other
circumstances of the locality in which the vineyard is to be
planted. The several species used for stocks differ widely
in the requirements affecting growth so that the grower must
make certain that the resistant stock he selects will find con-
genial surroundings. Stocks in congenial circumstances are

STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES 67

frequently more resistant than others inherently more resistant,
but which are not otherwise adapted to the particular condi-
tions. of the vineyard. Species of grapes vary greatly in their
root systems, some having thick, others slender roots; the
roots of some are soft, of others hard; some have roots going
down deeply, others are almost at the surface of the ground.
Manifestly these various root-forms are but adaptations to
loose and heavy, dry and moist, deep and shallow soils, or to
some circumstance of climate. A vine bruised by adversity
is in no condition to withstand phylloxera. Therefore, since
the adaptability of a variety to a soil or climate may be changed
by the stock, the adaptations of stocks to soils and climates
must have attention.

Affinity of stock and cion.

Different varieties of grapes do not behave alike on the same
stocks, and different stocks may affect varieties differently.
Even when the kinship is close, some grapes resist all the
appliances of art to make a successful union; while, on the
other hand, quite distinct species often seem foreordained to
be joined. For example, Rotundifolia, which has the highest
resistance to phylloxera of any species, is useless as a stock
because it is impossible to graft any other grape on it, while
Vulpina and Rupestris unite readily with varieties of Vinifera,
the slight decrease in the vigor of the grafted vines serving
oftentimes to increase fruitfulness. - Something more is neces-
sary, then, than botanical kinship. Just what is necessary,
no one knows, beyond: that there must be conformity in habit
between stock and cion; that the two must start in growth at
approximately the same time; and that the tissues must be
sufficiently alike that there be proper contact in the union.
Yet these facts do not sufficiently explain all of the affinities
and antipathies which species and varieties of grapes show to
each other. Unfortunately, the grape-grower has had but

68 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

little to guide him in selecting stocks and has had to learn by
making repeated trials.

PrRorPeR PLANTING OF GRAFTED VINES

Europeans and Californians long ago learned that failures
with grafted vines often came from setting the vines too deep
in the soil, the result being that the cions struck root and
became independent, whereupon the stock dies or becomes so
moribund that the beneficial effects are lost. There are grape-
growers who argue that it is beneficial to the vine to have roots
from both stock and cion, but experience and experiments very
generally teach the contrary, it being found that in most grafts
the cion roots grow more vigorously than stock roots and
eventually starve out the latter. The disastrous effects of
cion-rooting are often to be found, also, when grafting has been
done on old vines in the vineyard; and, again, when the graft
is too close to the root system.

Another cause of failure is that different stocks require that
the vineyard soil be treated differently, especially at planting
time. Vulpina stocks require that the soil be much more
deeply plowed than for Viniferas on their own roots, since
Vulpinas are deep-rooted and are exacting in the depth of
root-run required. Those who have had most experience with
resistant stocks maintain that all American grapes require
rather deeper plowing than European grapes on their own roots.

INFLUENCE OF THE STOCKS ON THE CION

Up to the present, the growing of grafted grapes has been
carried on with little thought of the mutual influence of stock
and cion; grapes have been grafted only to secure vines resistant
to phylloxera. Yet there can be no doubt that stock and cion
react on one another, and that any variety of grapes is influenced

a a ae

STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES 69

for better or worse in characters of vine and fruit by the stock
upon which it is grafted. A plant is a delicate mechanism,
easily thrown out of gear, and all plants, the grape not the
least, are more or less changed in the adjustments of stock and
cion. One could fill a large volume on the supposed reciprocal
influence of stock and cion in fruits. Space suffices, here,
however, to mention only those proved and those having to do
with the influence of the stock on the cion when the grape is
grafted.

Influence of stocks on European grapes summarized.

Common experience in Europe and California indicates that
varieties of Vinifera grapes grafted on resistant stocks which
are perfectly adapted to soil and climate produce not only
larger crops but sweeter or sourer grapes; that the crop ripens
earlier or later; that the vine is often more vigorous; and that
there are some minor differences depending on the stock used.
Winemakers assert that the character of their product may be
affected for better or worse by the stock. Often vines are so
improved by grafting that the extra expense of the operation
and of the stock is paid for; although, to be sure, about as
often the effects are deleterious. The successes and failures of
vineyards on resistant stocks make plain that the vine-grower
must study the many problems which stocks present and exer-
cise utmost intelligence in the selection of the proper stock.

Influence of stocks on American grapes.

No doubt American species of grapes may be as profoundly
modified by stocks as the European species, but there is but
little evidence on this phase of grape-growing to be drawn from
the experience of vineyardists. One rather conclusive experi-
ment, however, shows that American grapes may be improved
by growing them on stocks which give them better adaptations
to their environment. The experiment was tried in the Chau-

70 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

tauqua grape-belt in western New York by the New York
Agricultural Experiment Station. The test was carried on
for eleven years, during which time many interesting possibilities
in grafting grapes in this region came to light. It was proved
that the stock materially affects the vigor and productiveness
of the vine and the quality of the grapes. The following brief
account is taken from Bulletin No. 355 of the New York
Station :

In this experiment a number of varieties were grafted on St.
George, Riparia Gloire and Clevener stocks, and a fourth
group on their own roots. The varieties grafted were: Agawam,
Barry, Brighton, Brilliant, Campbell Early, Catawba, Con-
cord, Delaware, Goff, Herbert, Iona, Jefferson, Lindley, Mills,
Niagara, Regal, Vergennes, Winchell and Worden. The
planting plan and all of the vineyard operations were those
common in commercial vineyards. ; 7

Yearly accounts of the vineyard show that the vines passed
through many vicissitudes. The experiment was started in
1902 when St. George and Riparia Gloire stocks from Cali-
fornia were set and grafted in the field. Many of these died
the first year. The winter of 1903-04 was unusually severe, and
many more vines were either killed or so severely injured that
they died during the next two years. The vines on St. George,
a very deep-rooting grape, withstood the cold best. Fidia,
the grape root-worm, was found in the vineyards early in the
life of the vines and did much damage in some years. In the
years of 1907 and 1909 the crops were ruined by hail.

But despite these serious setbacks it was evident throughout
the experiment that the grafted grapes made better vines and
were more productive than those on their own roots. As an
example of the differences in yield, a summary of the data for
1911 may be given. In this year, an average of all the varieties
on own roots yielded at the rate of 4.39 tons to the acre; on
St. George, 5.36 tons; on Gloire, 5.32 tons; on Clevener, 5.62

STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES 71

tons. The crops on the grafted vines were increased through
the setting of more bunches and the development of larger
bunches and berries.

The grapes on the vines grafted on Gloire and Clevener
ripened a few days earlier than those on their own roots, while
with St. George a few varieties were retarded in ripening.
Changing the time of maturity may be very important in grape
regions where there is danger of early frost to late-ripening
sorts, and where it is often desirable to retard the harvest time
of early grapes.

In the behavior of the vines, the results correspond closely
with those given for yields. In the growth ratings of varieties
on different stocks, the varieties on their own roots were rated
in vigor at 40; on St. George, at 63.2; on Gloire, at 65.2; on
Clevener, at 67.9. There is no way of deciding how much
the thrift of the vines depends on adaptability to soil, and how
much on other factors. Since all of the varieties were more
productive and vigorous on grafted vines than on their own roots
it may be said that a high degree of congeniality exists between
the stocks and varieties under test.

The experiment suggests that it would be profitable to grow
fancy grapes of American species on grafted vines, and that
it is well within the bounds of possibility that main-crop grapes
can be grafted profitably. In the general tuning-up of agri-
culture now in progress, it may be expected that soon Ameri-
can as well as European varieties of grapes will be grown under
some conditions and for some purposes on roots other than
their own.

Direct PRODUCERS

Attempts innumerable have been and are still being made to
secure, by hybridizing |’. vinifera and American species of
grapes, varieties that will resist phylloxera, the mildew and
black-rot. The grapes of this continent are relatively immune

(074 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

to all of these troubles, and if hybrids could be obtained to
produce directly, without grafting, grapes with the good qualities
of the Viniferas—in short, European grapes on American
vines — the cultivated grape flora of the whole world might
be changed. So far, a “direct producer” that is wholly satis-
factory in either Europe or California has not been found for
the wine or raisin industries, although a number of varieties
are rated as very good table grapes, and a few are used in wine-
making. The best of the direct producers are Lenoir, Taylor,
Noah, Norton’s Virginia, Autuchon, Othello, Catawba, and
Delaware.

Puate V.— Vinifera grapes grown out of doors in New York.
Top, Malvasia; bottom, Chasselas Golden.

CHAPTER V
THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT

A VINEYARD is more artificial than other plantations of fruits,
since the vine requires greater discipline under cultivation
than tree or bush. Yet greater art is required only when the
attempt is made to grow the grape to perfection, for the vine
bears fruit if left to indulge in riotous growth wheresoever it
can strike root. Vineyard management, therefore, may repre-
sent the consummate art of three thousand or more years of
cultural subserviency; or it may be so primeval in simplicity
as to approach neglect. The grape is so wonderfully responsive
to good care, however, that no true lover of fruit will profane
it with neglect, but will seek, rather, to give it a favorable
situation, its choice of soils and such generous care as will insure
strong, vigorous, productive vineyards of choicely good fruit.

Grape-growing is a specialists’ business, for the culture of the
grape is unlike that of any other fruit. The essentials of vine-
yard management, however, are easily learned. Indeed, care
of the vine comes almost instinctively; for the grape has been
cultivated since prehistoric times and the races of the world
are so familiar with it through sacred literatures, myths, fables,
stories and poetry, that its care is prompted by natural impulse.
The grape has followed civilized man so closely from place to
place through the temperate climates of the world, that rules
and methods of culture have been developed for almost every
condition under which it will grow, so that every grape-grower
may profit by the successes and failures of the generations

73

74 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

that preceded him. Grape-growing is not, however, an art
wholly governed by rules of the past to be carried on by com-
mon laborers who use hands only, but is one in which its fol-
lowers may make use of science and may put thought, skill
and taste into their work.

LAYING OuT THE VINEYARD

Vineyards are laid out for the most part after accepted pat-
terns for each of the great grape regions of America. The vines
are always planted in rectangles, usually at a less distance
apart in the rows than the rows are from each other, but some-
times in squares. Pride in appearance and convenience in
vineyard operations make perfect alignment imperative. Many
varieties of grapes, especially of American species, are partially
self-sterile, so that some varieties must have others interplanted
with them for cross-pollination. This is usually done by set-
ting alternate rows of the variety to be pollinated and the cross-
pollinator. All self-fertile varieties are set in solid blocks be-
cause of convenience in harvesting.

Direction of rows.

Some grape-growers attach considerable importance to the
direction in which rows run, holding either that the full blaze
of the sun at mid-day is desirable for vine, soil and fruit, or
that it is detrimental. Those who desire to provide fullest
exposure to the sun plant rows east and west when the distance
between vines is less than the distance between rows; north
and south when vines are farther apart in the row than the rows
are from each other. When shade seems more desirable, these
directions are reversed. Most often, however, the rows are
laid out in accordance with the shape of the vineyard; or, if
the land is hilly, the rows follow the contour of the declivities
to prevent soil erosion by heavy rains.

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 75

Alleys.

For convenience in vineyard operations, especially spraying
and harvesting, there should always be alleys through a vine-
yard. On hilly lands, the alleys are located to secure ease in
hauling; on level lands they are usually arranged to cut the
vineyards into blocks twice as long as wide. An alley is usually
made by leaving out a row of vines. Many vineyards are laid
out with rows far enough apart so that alleys are not needed.

Distances between rows and plants.

There are great variations in the distances between rows and
plants in different regions, and distances vary somewhat in
any one region. Distances are influenced by the following
considerations: Rich soils and large vigorous varieties require
greater distances than poor soils and less vigorous varieties;
sometimes, however, it is necessary to crowd a variety in the
vineyard so that by reducing its vigor fruitfulness may be pro-
moted. Usually the warmer the climate, or the exposure, the
greater should be the distance between vines. Very often the
topography of the land dictates planting distances. But while
taking in account the preceding considerations, which rightly
suggest the distances between plants in the row, convenience
in vineyard operations is the factor that most often fixes the
distance between rows. The rows must be far enough apart
in commercial vineyards to permit the use of two horses in
plowing, spraying and harvesting.

Planted in squares, the distance varies from seven feet in
garden culture to nine feet in commercial vineyards for eastern
America. More often, however, the rows are eight or nine
feet apart, with the vines six, seven or eight and in the South
ten or twelve feet apart in the rows. Planting distances are
less, as a rule, on the Pacific slope than in eastern regions; that
is, the distances between the rows are the same, to permit work

76 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

with teams, but the distance between plants in the rows is
less, sometimes being no greater than three and a half or four
feet. The rank-growing Rotundifolias of the southern states
need much room, nine by sixteen feet being none too much.
Sunshine must govern the distance apart somewhat. Grapes
picked in the pleached alleys of closely set vineyards of the
North and East are few, small and poor; farther south, shade
from the vines may be a requisite for a good crop.

The number of vines to the acre must be determined before
growing or buying plants. This is done by multiplying the
distance in feet between the rows by the distance the plants
are apart in the row, and dividing 43,560, the number of square
feet in an acre, by the product.

PREPARATION FOR PLANTING

It is impossible to put too much emphasis on the necessity
of thorough preparation of the land before planting the grape.
Extra expenditure to secure good tilth is amply repaid by
increased growth in the grape, and all subsequent care may
fail to start the vines in vigorous growth if the land is not in
good tilth preparatory to planting. The vineyard is to stand
a generation or more, and its soil is virtually immortal, two
facts to suggest perfect preparation. The land should be thor-
oughly well plowed, harrowed, mixed and smoothed. The
better this work is done, the greater the potentialities of the
vineyard. Here, indeed, is a time to be mindful of the adage
which comes from Cato, a sturdy old Roman grape-grower of
2000 years ago: “The face of the master is good for the land.”

Preparation is a series of operations in which it is wise to take
advantage of time and begin a year before the vines are to be
set. The land must be put in training to fit it for the long
service it is to render. The two great essentials of preparation
are provision for drainage and thorough cultivation. Both,

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 77

to be performed as the well-being of the grape require, take
time, and a year is none too short a period in which to do the
work. Moreover, newly drained and deeply plowed land
requires time for frost, air, sunshine and rain to sweeten and
enliven the soil after the mixture by these operations of live
topsoil with inert subsoil.

Drainage.

The ideal soil, as we are often told, resembles a sponge, and
is capable of retaining the greatest possible amount of plant-
food dissolved in water, and at the same time is permeable for
air. This ideal, sponge-like condition is particularly desirable
for the grape, especially native species, because the vines of
all are exceedingly deep-rooted. Moreover, grapes thrive
best in a warm soil. While, therefore, the roots may make
good use of nutritious solutions, if not too diluted, in an un-
drained soil, they suffocate and do not receive sufficient bottom
heat. It must be made emphatic that the grape will not
thrive in water-logged land.

Unless the land is naturally well drained, under-drainage
must be provided as the first step in the preparation of land for
the vineyard. ‘Tile-draining is usually best done by those who
make land-draining their business, but information as to every
requirement of land and detail of work may be secured from
many texts, so that grape-growers may perform the work for
themselves. In concluding the topic, the reader must be
reminded that high and hill lands are not necessarily well
drained, and low lands are not necessarily wet even if the sur-
face is level. Often hilltops and hillsides need artificial drain-
ing; much less often valley lands and level lands may not
need it. To assume, too, that gravelly and shaley soils are
always well drained often leads directly contrary to the truth.
Sandy and gravelly soils need drainage nearly as often as
loamy and clayey ones.

18 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Following tiling, if the land has had to be under-drained,
the vineyard should be graded to fill depressions and to make
the surface uniform. Usually this can be done with cutaway,
tooth or some other. harrow, but sometimes the grader or
road-scraper must be put in use.

Fitting the land.

Preparatory cultivation should begin the spring preceding
planting by deep plowing. If the land has been used long for
general farming so that a hard plow-sole has been formed by
years of shallow plowing, a subsoil-plow should follow in the
furrow of the surface plow, although it is seldom advisable to
go deeply into the true hardpan. Fitting the land must not
stop here but should continue through the summer with harrow
and cultivator to pulverize the soil almost to its ultimate
particles. Such cultivation can be sufficiently thorough, and
be made at the same time profitable, by growing some hoed
crop which requires intensive culture. If the soil lacks humus,
a cover-crop of clover or other legume might well be sown in
early summer to be plowed under in late fall. Or, if stable
manure is available, this generally should be applied the fall
before planting. Stable manure applied at this time to a soil
inclined to be niggardly puts an atmosphere in the forth-
coming vineyard wholly denied the grower who must rely on
commercial fertilizers.

The land should be plowed again, deeply and as early in
the fall as possible, harrowed thoroughly, or possibly cross-
plowed and then harrowed. The land must go into the winter
ready for early spring planting and the fall work must be done
promptly and with a sturdy team and sharp, bright tools. The
grower must keep in mind that no opportunity will offer during
the life of the vineyard to even up for slackness in the start and
that a vineyard of dingy, unhappy vines may be the result of
neglect at this critical time. Good tilth should proceed until

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 79

the earth is fairly animated with growth when the vines are
planted. Plate I] shows a piece of land well fitted for planting.

Marking for planting.

Given level land, a well-made marker, a gentle team and a
careful driver with a surveyor’s eye, and a vineyard may be
marked for planting with a sled-marker, a modified corn-marker
or even a plow. Some such marker method is commonest in
use in laying out vineyard rows, but it is patent to the eye of
every passer-by in grape regions that the commonest method
is not the best to secure perfect alignment of row and vine. The
combination named for good work with any of the marker
methods is found too seldom. If the marker method is used,
it is put in practice as follows: The rows being marked at the
distance decided on, a deep furrow is plowed along the row by
going both ways with the plow; this done, small stakes are set
in the furrow at the proper distances for the vines, taking care
to line them both ways. Planting holes are thus dug in the
furrow with the stakes as a center.

Marking by means of a measuring wire or chain is the best
method of locating vines accurately in a vineyard. The meas-
uring wire varies according to the wishes of the user from two
to three hundred feet or may be even longer. The best wires
are made of annealed steel wire about an eighth of an inch in
diameter. At each end of the wire is a strong iron ring to be
slipped over stakes. The wire is marked throughout its length
by patches of solder at the distances desired between rows of
vines; to make these places more easily seen, pieces of red cloth
are fastened to them. Sometimes this measuring wire is made
of several strands of small wire, giving more flexibility and
making marking easier, since by separating the strands at the
desired points, pieces of cloth may be tied to mark distances.

In using the wire, the side of the vineyard which is to serve
as the base of the square is selected and the wire is stretched,

80 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

leaving at least one rod from road or fence for a headland.
With the wire thus stretched, a stake is placed at each of the
distance tags to represent the first row of vines. Beginning
at the starting point, sixty feet are measured off in the base
line and a temporary stake is set; eighty feet at a right angle |
with the first line are then measured off at the corner stake,
judging the angle with the eye; then run diagonally from
the eighty-foot stake to the sixty-foot stake. If the distance
between the two stakes is one hundred feet, the corner is a
right angle. With the base lines thus started at right angles to
each other, one can measure off with the measuring wire as
large an area as he desires by taking care to have the line each
time drawn parallel with the last, and the stakes accurately
placed at the marking points on the wire.

Still another method which may be put to good use in laying
out a vineyard, especially if the vineyard is small, is to combine
measure and sight. The distances about the vineyard are
measured and stakes set to mark the ends of the rows around
the area. Good stakes can be made from laths pointed at
one end and whitewashed at the other. A line of stakes is
then set across the field each way through the center, in places,
of course, which the two central rows of vines will fill. When
these are in place, if the area is not too large or too hilly, all
measurements can be dispensed with and the vines can be set
by sighting. A man at the end of the row has three laths to
sight by in each row and a second man should drive stakes as
directed by the sighter. Accurate work can be done by this
method, but it requires time, a good eye and much patience
in the man who is sighting.

SELECTING AND PREPARING THE VINES

Young grape vines covet life, for they are usually vigorous
and not easily injured. Hence, the plants may be brought

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 81

from a distance without fear of loss. The local nurseryman
is, however, a good adviser as to varieties if he is honest and
intelligent, and, other things equal, he should be patronized.
But if the grower’s needs cannot be met at home, he should
not hesitate to seek a nurseryman at a distance. This is more
necessary with the grape than other fruits because young
grapes are well and cheaply grown in certain localities only.
With the grape, as with all fruit plants, it is much better to
buy from the grower than from tree peddlers.

Selecting vines.

Unless the buyer knows what he wants, selecting vines is
gambling pure and simple. Fortunately, there are several
marks of good vines very helpful to those who know them.
One should first make sure that the roots and tops are alive to
the remotest parts. The vines should have a good clean,
healthy look with trunk diameter large enough to indicate
vigorous growth, and an ample spread of roots. Large size
is not as desirable as firm, well-matured wood and an abun-
dance of roots. Vines with internodes of medium length for
the variety are better than those with great length or very short
internodes. Such precautions as are possible should be taken
to insure varieties true to name, although here the reputation
of the nurseryman must be depended on except for the few
varieties which may be known at sight in the nursery.

First-grade one-year-old vines are usually better than two-
year-olds. Stunted vines are not worth planting and two-year-
old vines are often stunted one-year-olds. A few weak-grow-
ing varieties gain in vigor if allowed to remain in the nursery
two years — three years, never.

Handling and preparing the vines.

The better vines are packed, transported and cared for in

the field, the quicker will the roots take hold and the vines
G

82 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

make the vigorous start on which so much depends. The
nurseryman should be requested not to prune much before
packing and to pack the vines well for shipping. The vines
should be heeled-in as soon as they reach their destination. If
the vines are dry on arrival, they should be drenched well
before heeling-in. It sometimes happens that the vines are
shriveled and shrunken from excessive drying, in which case
the plants often may be brought back to plumpness by burying
them root and branch in damp earth, to remain a week or
possibly two. To heel-in, a trench should be double furrowed
in light, moist soil, the vines spread out in the trench two or
three deep, and then earth shoveled over the roots and half
the tops, sifting it in the roots, after which the soil is firmed.
The vines may thus be kept in good condition for several weeks
if need arises.

The vines are prepared for planting by cutting away all
dead or injured roots and shortening-in the healthy roots.
Grape roots can be cut severely if healthy stubs remain, the
removal of small roots and fibers doing no harm, since fibers
are of value only as indicating that the vine is strong and
vigorous. Fresh fibers come quickly from stout, healthy
roots. Most of the fibers of a transplanted vine die, and
laying them out in the hole to preserve them, as is so often
recommended, is but a useless burial rite. On good healthy
vines, the stubs of the roots, when cut back, will be four to
eight inches in length. The root system having been con-
siderably pruned, the reciprocity between roots and tops
must be taken into account and the top pruned accordingly.
To reduce the work of the leaves to harmonize with the actiy-
ities of the roots, the top should be pruned to a single cane
and two, never more than three, buds. The vine is now ready
for planting and, the soil being in readiness, planting should
proceed apace.

Piate VI. — Black Hamburg (x3).

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 83

PLANTING

The dangers and difficulties of planting hardwooded plants
are greatly exaggerated. The tyro, in particular, is impressed
with his responsibilities at this time, and often sends a hurry-up
call to experiment station or nurseryman to “send him a man
to plant.” If the land is properly prepared and the plants
in good condition, the operation of planting is easily, quickly
and safely accomplished. There is no need, in planting the
vine, of such puttering overniceties as laying out the roots to
preserve the fibers, watering each vine as it is set, inserting
the vine in a gingerly fashion to make sure that it stands in
its new abode as it stood in the old, or puddling the roots in
pail or tub of water. On the other hand, the slap-dash method
of a Stringfellow who cuts off all small roots and uses a crow-
bar in place of a spade is not doing duty by the plant, and bury-
ing the roots deep in the earth or covering them close to the
surface is courting failure.

Digging the holes.

This is a simple task in land in good tilth. The holes need
only be large and deep enough to hold the roots without undue
cramping. Herein is again manifested the wisdom of thoroughly
preparing the land; for, in well-prepared land, the hole is
really as large as the vineyard. Even in the condition of poor
tilth, deep holes are often a menace to the life of the plant,
especially if drainage is not provided, for the deep hole becomes
a tub into which water pours and stands to soak the roots of
dying vines. An extra spurt in digging holes cannot take the
place of perfect fitting of the land.

There is nothing to commend the practice of digging holes
in a leisure time that all may be ready when the time to plant
arrives. The vines will strike root best in the freshly turned,
moist soil of newly dug earth, which can be firmly set about

84 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

the roots when the vine is planted. Neither is time saved
in digging beforehand, for the sun-baked and rain-washed sides
of holes long dug would surely have to be pared afresh. It is,
however, quite worth while to throw the surface soil to one
side and that lower to the other, that a spadeful of moist,
virile, surface soil may be put next to the roots.

There are, no doubt, some soils in which the holes might be
blasted out with dynamite, as, for instance, in a shallow soil
with the hardpan near the surface and good subsoil beneath.
It is very questionable, however, whether these defective soils
-should be used for commercial plantings as long as there still
remain unplanted many acres in all grape regions of good deep
land for the grape. To such as are attracted by “dynamite
farming,’ minute descriptions of methods of use of dynamite
and even demonstrations may be secured from manufacturers
of the explosive.

Time to plant.

The best time to plant the vine in cold climates is early spring,
when sun and showers arouse the spirit of growth in plants,
and nutritive solutions proceed quickly and unerringly to their
preappointed places. At this time, the much mutilated vine
can undertake best the double task of making fresh roots and
opening the dormant leaves. Fall planting puts forward the
work, thus diminishing the rush of early spring when vineyard
operations crowd, and, no doubt, when all is favorable, enables
the vines to start a little more quickly. However, there are
frequently serious losses from planting in the fall. In cold
winters the grip of frost is sufficient to wrench the young vine
from its place and sometimes all but heaves it out of the soil.
There is, also, great liability of winter-killing in vines trans-
planted in the autumn, not because of greater tenderness of
the plant, but because of greater porosity of the loosened soil
which enables the cold to strike to a greater depth. These

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 85

two objections to fall planting can be overcome largely by
mounding up the earth so as practically to cover the vines,
leveling the mound in early spring; but this extra work more
than offsets the labor saving in fall planting.

In climates in which the soil does not freeze in the winter,
the vines may be set in the autumn if all is favorable. Often,
however, conditions are not favorable to fall planting in warm
climates, since autumn rains frequently soak the soil so that
it cannot be placed properly about the roots; and, moreover,
in a cold, water-logged soil the inactive roots begin to decay ;
or the soil may be too dry for fall planting. Under such condi-
tions, it is often better to delay planting in warm climates until
spring when better soil conditions can be secured. Fall or
spring, the soil should be reasonably dry, warm and mellow
when the work is done. The best time to plant must necessarily
vary from year to year, and the vineyardist must decide exactly
when to undertake planting in accordance with the conditions
of soil and weather, mindful that the Psalmist’s injunction
that there is “a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that
which is planted” is subject to several conditions requiring
judgment. The grape puts out its leaves late in the spring,
making the temptation great to delay planting; late-set plants,
however, need special care lest they suffer from the summer
droughts which annually parch the lands of this continent.

The operation of planting.

All being in readiness, planting proceeds rapidly. A gang
of four men work to advantage. Two dig holes, a third holds
the vines and tramps the earth as the remaining man shovels
in earth. Except in large vineyards, four men are seldom
available, and gangs of two or three must divide the work
among its members as best suits conditions. A _ tree-setting
board is not needed in planting grapes, although some growers
use it. The man who holds the vines in the hole and tramps

86 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

as the shoveler fills, must align the plant after the stake is
removed and see that it stands perpendicularly in the hole.
The stake, a lath, is set in its old place in the hole to serve as a
support for the growing vine and to mark it so that the culti-
vator does not pull up the young plant. The soil must be set
firm about the roots of the plant, but zeal in tramping should
diminish as the hole is filled, leaving the topsoil untramped,
smooth, loose and pulverized, a dust mulch — the best of all
mulches — to prevent evaporation.

The depth to which vines should be set is a matter of con-
troversy. This should be governed by the soil more than by
any other factor, although some varieties need a deeper root-
run than others. The rule to plant to the depth the vine stood
in the nursery row is safe under most conditions, although in
light, hungry or thirsty soils the roots should go deeper; and,
on the other hand, in heavy soils, not so deep. Deep plant-
ing is a more common mistake than shallow planting, for roots
under most conditions stand exposure better than internment,
going down being more natural than coming up for a root seek-
ing a place to its liking.

Watering at planting is necessary only when the land is
parched with drought or in regions in which irrigation is prac-
ticed. When necessary, water should be used liberally, at
least a gallon or two toa vine. After the earth has been firmed
about the roots and the hole is nearly filled, the water should
be poured in and the hole filled without more firming. Under
dry weather conditions, some prefer to puddle the roots; that
is, to dip them in thin mud and plant with the mud adhering.
In making the puddle, loose loam and not sticky clay is used,
as clay may bake so hard as to injure the roots. With puddling,
as with watering, the surface soil should be left loose and soft
without traces of the puddling below.

Manure or fertilizer about the roots or even in the hole are
not necessary or even desirable. If the soil is to be enriched

EE es

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 87

at all at planting time, the fertilizer should be spread on the
surface to be cultivated in or to have its food elements leak
down as rains fall. In land in which the providential design
for grapes is plainly manifested, the vine at no time responds
heartily to fertilizers, the good of stable manure probably
coming for the most part from its effects on the texture and
water-holding capacity of the soil. The newly set plant is
not in need of outside nourishment; to put rank manure or
strong commercial fertilizers about the roots of a young newly
set vine is plant infanticide.

CARE OF YOUNG VINES

Virgil calls the period in the life of the vine between the
setting and the first vintage, the “tender nonage,’’ and tells
us that at this time the vines need careful rearing; so they do,
now as then, American grapes as well as the grapes of ancient
Rome. Fortunately, any departure from normal well-being
is easily told in the grape, for the color of the leaf is as accurate
an index to the health and vigor of the vine as the color of the
tongue or the beat of the pulse in man. A change of color
from the luxuriant green of thrifty grape foliage, especially the
yellow hue indicating that the leaf-green is not functioning
properly, suggests that the vines are sick or need nursing in
some detail of care. When all goes well, however, the amazing
energy of Nature is nowhere better seen among plants than
in the growth of the grape, so that much of the care is in the
use of the knife; in fact, as we shall see, the grape almost lives
by the knife the first two years out.

The first year.

The vines having been pruned and staked at planting, these
operations need no attention in the first summer. Many
varieties send up several shoots as growth starts, and, except

88 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

in the case of grafted plants and in the event of the suckers
coming from the stock, these should be left to feed the vine and
help to establish a good root system. Vines making a strong
growth should be tied to the stake, at least the strongest shoot,
to keep the wind from whipping it about and to keep the plants
out of the way of the cultivator. The only knack in tying is
to keep the vine on the windward side of the stake, thus saving
the breaking of tying material.

The first year’s pruning, though severe, is easily done. All
but the strongest cane are cut out and this is pruned back to
two buds, nearly to the ground, so that the vines are much as
when set in the vineyard. This pruning, and that of the next
two years, has as the object the establishment of a good root
system and the production of a sturdy trunk at the height
at which the vine is to be headed. It is important that the
cane from which the trunk is to come be healthy and the wood
well ripened. Pruning may be done at any time after the
leaves fall, though most growers give preference to late winter.
In cold climates it is a good practice to plow up to the young
vines for winter protection, in which case the pruning should
be done before plowing.

Every detail of vineyard management should be performed
with care and at the accepted time in this critical first year.
Cultivation must be intensive, insects and fungi must be warded
off, mechanical injuries avoided, -vines that have refused to
grow must be marked for discard, and the vineyard be put
down to a cover-crop in early August if it was not earlier planted
to some hoed catch-crop.

The second year.

Work begins in the spring of the second year with the setting
of trellis posts on which one wire is put up. The vine is not
yet ready to train but the slender lath of the first season is
not sufficient support, and the one wire on the future trellis

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 89

saves the expense of staking. Tying requires some care and
is usually done with string or bast. As the summer proceeds,
suckers from the roots are removed and some growers thin the
shoots on the young vine; some think it necessary also to top
the growth if it becomes too luxuriant and so keep the cane
within bounds. Suckers must be cut or broken off at the points
where they originate, otherwise several new ones may start
from the base of the old. If the vines are topped, it must be
kept in mind that summer pruning is weakening, and the tips
of shoots should, therefore, be taken when small, the object
being to direct the growth into those parts of the vine which
are to become permanent.

Pruning, the second winter the vine is out, depends on the
vigor of the plant. If a strong, healthy, well-matured cane
over-tops the lower wire of the trellis, it should be cut back so
that the cane may be tied to the wire; otherwise the vine should
again be cut almost to the ground, leaving but three or four
buds. Ifthe cane be left, in addition to sturdiness and maturity,
it should be straight, for it is to become the trunk of the mature
vine. The training of the young vine is now at an end, for
the next season the vine must be started toward its permanent
form, instructions for which are given in the chapter on pruning.

The summer care of the vineyard does not differ materially
in the second year from that of the first. Intensive cultivation
continues, the vines are treated for pests and the annual cover-
crop follows cultivation. Many varieties, if vigorous, will
set some fruit in this second summer, but the crop should not
be allowed to mature, the sooner removed the better, as fruit-
ing at this stage of growth seriously weakens the young vines.

CATCH-CROPS AND COVER-CROPS

A catch-crop is one grown between the rows of another crop
for profit from the produce. A cover-crop is a temporary

90 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

crop grown, as the term was first used, to protect the soil, but
the word is now used to include green-manuring crops as well.
Catch-crops seldom have a place in most vineyards, but cover-
crops are often grown.

Catch-crops.

Catch-crops are not, as a rule, profitable in commercial
vineyards; they may bring temporary profit but in the long
run they are usually detrimental to the vines. It may pay and
the grape may not be injured in some localities, if such truck
crops as potatoes, beans, tomatoes and cabbage are grown
between the rows or even in the rows for the first year and
possibly the second. Land, to do duty by the two crops,
however, must be excellent and the care of both crops must
be of the best. Growing gooseberries, currants, any of the
brambles, or even strawberries, is a poor procedure unless the
vineyard is small, the land very valuable or other conditions
prevail which make intensive culture possible or necessary.
The objections to catch-crops in the vineyard are two: they
rob the vines of food and moisture and endanger them to injury
from tools in caring for the catch-crop.

Sometimes the grape itself is planted as a catch-crop in the
vineyard. That is, twice the number of vines required in a
row for the permanent vineyard are set with the expectation
of cutting out alternate vines when two or three crops have
been harvested and the vines begin to crowd. This practice is
preferable to interplanting with bush-fruits, yet there is not
much to commend it if the experience of those who have tried
it is taken as a guide. Too often the filler vines are left a year
too long with the result that the permanent vines are checked
in growth for several years following. The profits from the
fillers are never large, scarcely pay for the extra work, and if
the permanent vines are stunted, the filler must be put down
as a liability rather than as an asset.

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 91

Cover-crops.

In an experiment being conducted by the New York Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, grapes do not give a very appre-
ciable response to cover-crops in yield of fruit or growth of
vine! There seem to be no other experiments to confirm the
results at the New York Station, and grape-growers nowhere
have used cover-crops very generally for the betterment of their
vineyards. There is doubt, therefore, as to whether grapes
will respond profitably to the annual use of cover-crops in yield
of fruit, which, of course, is the ultimate test of the value of
cover-crops, but a test hard to apply unless the experiment
runs a great number of years.

Leaving out the doubtful value of cover-crops in increasing
the supply of plant-food and thereby producing an increase
in yield, there are at least three ways in which cover-crops
are valuable in the vineyard. Thus, it is patent to all who have
tried cover-crops in the vineyard that the land is in much better
tilth and more easily worked when some green crop is turned
under in fall or spring; it is not unreasonable to assume, though
it is impossible to secure reliable experimental data to confirm
the belief, that cover-crops protect the roots of grapes from
winter-killing; certainly it may be expected that a cover-
crop sowed in midsummer will cause grapes to mature their wood
earlier and more thoroughly so that the vines go into the winter in
better condition. The only objection to be raised against
cover-crops in the vineyard is that pickers, mostly women,
object to the cover-crop when wet with rain or dew and usually
choose to pick in vineyards having no such crop. This seem-
ingly insignificant factor often gives the grape-grower who
sows cover-crops much trouble in harvest time.

Several cover-crops may be planted in vineyards as clover,

1 For an account of this experiment, see Bul. 381 of the N. Y. Agr.
Exp. Sta., Geneva.

92 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

vetch, oats, barley, cow-horn turnip, rape, rye and buckwheat.
Combinations of these usually make the seed too costly or
the trouble of sowing too great. Yet some combinations of
a leguminous and non-leguminous crop would seem to make
the best green crop for the grape. Thus, a bushel of oats or
barley plus ten pounds of clover or twenty pounds of winter
vetch, a combination often used in orchards, should prove
satisfactory in the vineyard. Or, doubling the amount of
seed for each, these crops could be alternated, with a change
in the rotation every four or six years, with cow-horn turnip
or rape. Turnip and rape require at least three pounds of
seed to the acre.

The cover-crop is sown in midsummer, about the first of
August in northern latitudes, and should be plowed under in
the fall or early spring. Under no circumstances should the
green crop be permitted to stand in the vineyard late in the
spring to rob the vines of food and moisture. The weather
map must be watched at sowing time to make sure of a moist
seed-bed. Plate III illustrates two vineyards with well-grown
cover-crops.

TILLAGE

Grape-growers are not in the fog that befuddles growers
of tree-fruits in regard to tillage. He is a sloven, indeed, who
permits his vines to stand a season in unbroken ground, and
there are no growers who recommend sod or any of the modified
sod-mulches for the grape. Tillage is difficult in hilly regions
and the operation is often neglected in hillside vineyards, as
in the Central Lakes region of New York, but even here some
sort of tillage is universal. The skip of a single season in till-
ing stunts the vines, and two or three skips in successive seasons
ruin a vineyard. No one complains that grapes suffer from
over-tilling as one frequently hears of tree-fruits. There is no
tonic for the grape that compares with cultivation when the

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 93

leaves lack color and hang limp and the vine has an indefinable
air of depression; and there is nothing better than cultivation
to rouse latent vigor in a scorching summer, or when drought
lays heavy on the land.

Tillage tools.

The tools to be used in tilling grapes vary with the topography
of the vineyard, the kind of soil and the preferences of the
vineyardist. The best tool is the one with which the ground
can be well fitted at least expense. Good work in the vineyard
requires at least two plows, a single-horse and a two-horse
plow. The latter, except on very hilly land, should be a gang-
plow. For commercial vineyards of any considerable size,
several cultivators are necessary for different seasons and
conditions of the soil. Thus, every vineyard should have a
_spring-tooth and a dise harrow, one of the several types of
weeders, a one-horse and a sulky cultivator. If weeds abound,
it is necessary to have some cutting tool, or an attachment to
one of the cultivators, to slide over the ground and cut off large
weeds. Another indispensable tool in a large vineyard is a
one-horse grape-hoe, to supplement the work of which there
must be heavy hand-hoes. Very often the surface soil must
be pulverized, and a clod-crusher, roller or a float becomes
a necessity. A full complement of bright, sharp tools at the
command of the grape-grower goes far toward success in his
business.

Tillage methods.

There are several reliable guides indicating when the vine-
yard needs to be tilled. The vineyardist who is but a casual
observer of the relation of vineyard operations to the life events
and the welfare of his vines will take the crop of weeds as his
guide. It is, of course, necessary to keep down the weeds, but
the man who waits until weeds force him to till will make a

94 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

poor showing in his vineyard. The amount of moisture in
the soil is a better guide. The chief function of tillage is to
save moisture by checking evaporation and to put the soil
in such condition that its water-holding capacity is creased.
The physical condition of the land is another guide. ‘Tilling
when the soil needs pulverizing furnishes a greater feeding
surface for the roots. ‘

Tillage begins with plowing in early spring. Whether pro-
vided with a cover-crop to be turned under or hard and bare,
the land must be broken each spring with the plow. Plowing
is best done by running a single furrow with a one-horse plow
up to or away from the vines as occasion calls and then follow-
ing with a two-horse or a gang-plow. Some growers use a dise
harrow instead of the plow to break the land in the spring,
but this is a doubtful procedure in most vineyards and is im-
possible when a heavy green-crop covers the land. Tillage
with harrow, cultivator, weeder or roller then proceeds at such
intervals as conditions demand, seldom less than once a fort-
night, until time to sow the cover-crop in midsummer. About
the time grapes blossom, the grape-hoe should be used to level
down the furrow turned up to the vines in the spring plowing.
Tillage should always follow a heavy rain to prevent the forma-
tion of a soil crust, this being a time when he who tills quickly
{ills twice. The number of times a vineyard should be tilled
depends on the soil and the season. Ten times over with the
cultivator in one vineyard or season may not be as effective as
five times in another vineyard or another season. In some
regions, as in New York, the grower is so often at the mercy
of wet weather in early spring that the plowing is best done in
the fall, and spring operations must then open with harrowing
with some tool that will break the land thoroughly.

The depth to till is governed by the nature of the soil and
the season. Heavy soils need deep tilling; light soils, shallow
tilling; in wet weather, till deeply; in dry weather, lightly.

THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 95

Grape roots are well down in the soil and there is little danger
of injuring them in deep tillage. The depth of plowing and
cultivating should be varied somewhat from season to season
to avoid the formation of a plow-sole. In some regions plow-
ing and cultivating may be made a means of combating insects
and fungi, and this regulates the depth of tillage. Thus, in
the Chautauqua grape-belt of western New York, the pupa of
the root-worm, a scourge of the grape in this region, is thrown
out and destroyed by the grape-hoe just as it is about ready
to emerge as an adult to lay its eggs on the vines. In all regions,
leaves and mummied grapes bearing countless myriads of spores
of the mildews, black-rot and other fungi are interned by the
plow and cannot scatter disease.

The time in the season to stop tillage depends on the locality,
the season and the variety. It is a good rule to cease cultiva-
tion a few weeks before the grapes attain full size and begin
to color, for by this time they will have weighted down the
vines so that fruit and foliage will be in the way of the cultivator.
In the North, cultivation ceases in the ordinary season about
the first of August, earlier the farther south. Rank-growing
sorts, as Concord or Clinton, do not need to be cultivated as
late as those of smaller growth and scantier foliage, as Delaware
or Diamond. The cover-crop seed is covered the last time over
with the cultivator. Plate IV shows a well-tilled vineyard of
Concords.

IRRIGATION

The grape, as a rule, withstands drought very well, several
species growing wild on the desert’s edge. Even in the semi-
arid regions of the far West, where other fruits must always
be irrigated, the grape often grows well without artificial water-
ing. Irrigation is practiced in vineyards in the United States
only on the Pacific slope and here the practice is not as general
as with other fruit crops. Whether the grape shall be grown

96 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

under irrigation or not is a local and often an individual ques-
tion answered with regard to several conditions; as the local
rainfall, the depth and character of the soil, the cost of water
and ease of irrigation. These conditions are all correlated and
make about the most complex and difficult problem the growers
of grapes in semi-arid regions have to solve. As long, however, . *
as the grape-grower can grow fairly vigorous vines and harvest
a fairly bountiful crop by natural rainfall, he should not irri-
gate; for, even though the crop offsets the cost, there are several
objections to growing grapes under irrigation. The vines are
subject to more diseases and physiological troubles; the fruit
is said to lack aroma and flavor; grapes grown on irrigated
land do not stand shipment well, the unduly inflated grapes
often bursting; wine-makers do not like irrigated grapes as
well as those from non-irrigated lands; and watery grapes
from irrigated lands make inferior raisins. It is maintained,
however, with a show of reason, that grapes suffer in irrigated
vineyards in the ways set forth only when the vines are over-
or improperly irrigated.

(ZX) oeavyad (2x) ALIeG — ‘IIA DLVIg

CHAPTER VI
FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES

As regards fertilizers, the grape-grower has much to learn
and in learning he must approach the problem with humility
of mind. For in his experimenting, which is the best way to
learn, he will no sooner arrive at what seems to be a certain
conclusion, than another season’s results or the yields in an
adjoining vineyard will upset the findings of past seasons and
those obtained in other*places. Unfortunately, there is little
real knowledge to be obtained on the subject, for grape-growers
have not yet broken away from time-worn dictums in regard
to fertilizers and still follow recommendations drawn from work
with truck and field crops. This is excused by the fact that
there have been almost no comprehensive experiments in the
country with fertilizers for grapes.

No fallacies die harder than the pronouncements of chemists
a generation ago that fertilizing consists in putting in the soil
approximately that which the plants take out; and that the
chemical composition of the crop affords the necessary guide
to fertilizing. These two theories are the basis of nearly every
recommendation that can be found for the use of fertilizers in
growing crops. The facts applied to the grape, however, are
that the average tillable soil contains a hundred or a thousand
times more of the chemical constituents of plants than the
grape can possibly take from the soil; and many experiments
in supplying food to plants show that the chemical composi-
tion of the plant is not a safe guide to their fertilizer require-

H 97

98 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ments. Later teachings in regard to the use of fertilizers are:
That the quantity of mineral food in a soil may be of far less
importance than the quantity of water, and that the cultivator
should make certain that there is sufficient moisture in his
land so that the mineral salts may be readily dissolved and
so become available as plant-food; that far too much im-
portance has been attached to putting chemicals in the soil
and too little to the physical condition of the soil, whereby
the work of bacteria and the solvent action of organic acids
may make available plant-food that without these agencies is
unavailable.

These brief and simple statements introduce to grape-growers
some of the problems with which they must deal in fertilizing
grapes, and show what a complex problem of chemistry, physics
and biology fertilizing the soil is; how difficult experimental
work in this field is; and how cautious workers must be in inter-
preting results of either experiment or experience. An account
of an experiment in fertilizing a vineyard may make even more
plain the difficulties in carrying on experiments in fertilizing
fruits and the caution that must be observed in drawing con-
clusions.

An EXPERIMENT IN FERTILIZING GRAPES

The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is experi-
menting with fertilizers for grapes at Fredonia, Chautauqua
County, the chief grape region in eastern America. The ex-
periment should be of interest to every grape-grower from
several points of view. It not only shows that there are many
and difficult problems in fertilizing grapes, but also the results
of the use of manure, commercial fertilizers and cover-crops in
a particular vineyard; it suggests the fertilizers to be used and
the methods of use; and it furnishes a plan for an experiment
by grape-growers who want to try such an experiment and

FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES 99

draw their own conclusions. An account of the experiment
and the results for the first five years follows: !

Tests at Fredonia.

“In the vineyard at Fredonia eleven plats were laid out in a
section of the vineyard where inequalities of soil and other con-
ditions were slight or were. neutralized. Each plat included
three rows (about one-sixth of an acre) and was separated
from the adjoining plats by a ‘buffer’ row not under test.
One plat in the center of the section served as a check, and five
different fertilizer combinations were used on duplicate plats
at either side of the check. Plats 1 and 7 received lime and a
complete fertilizer with quick-acting and slow-acting nitrogen ;
Plats 2 and 8 received the complete fertilizer but no lime; on
Plats 3 and 9 potash was omitted from the complete fertilizer
combination; Plats 4 and 10 received no phosphorus; Plats
5 and 11, no nitrogen; and Plat 6 was the check. The materials
were applied at such rates that they provided for the first year
72 pounds of nitrogen per acre, 25 pounds of phosphorus and
59 pounds of potassium; and for each of the last four years
two-thirds as much nitrogen and phosphorus and eight-ninths
as much potassium. The lime was applied the first and fourth
years in quantity to make a ton to the acre annually. Cover-
crops were sown on all plats alike and were plowed under in
late April or early May of each year. These differed in suc-
cessive years, but included no legumes. The crops used were
rye, wheat, barley and cowhorn turnips separately and the
last two in combination.

“The cultivation differed only in thoroughness from that
generally used in the Belt, the aim being to maintain a good
dust mulch during the whole growing season. Pruning by
the Chautauqua System was done throughout by one man,
who pruned solely according to the vigor of the individual

1 Quoted from Bul. No. 381, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.

100 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

vines and left four, two or three, or no fruiting canes as
appeared best. The vineyard was thoroughly sprayed, all
plats alike.

“Low winter temperatures, affecting immature wood and
buds caused by unfavorable weather of the previous season,
reduced yields materially during two of the five years, and
practically neutralized ‘any anticipated benefit from fertilizers.
Following the first of these low-crop years, came a season,
1911, in which favorable conditions, acting upon vines left
undiminished in vigor by the light crop of the previous
year resulted in heavy and quite uniform yields on all
the plats.

“The yields for the five years are shown in Table 1; and a
summary showing the average gains from each treatment is
given in Table II, with the average financial balance after de-
ducting the cost of fertilizer application from the increased
returns from the plats receiving them.

TaBLE ].— YIELD or Grapes (Tons PER ACRE) IN FERTILIZER

EXPERIMENTS

rt 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 |,>Year,
Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons

1 | Complete fertilizer ; lime | 4.48 | 2.10 | 5.37 | 3.46 | 2.14 | 3.51
2 | Complete fertilizer . .| 4.76 | 2.21 | 5.71 | 4.30 | 2.83 | 3.96
3 | Nitrogen and phosphorus] 5.17 | 2.14 | 5.61 | 4.00 | 2.25 | 3.83
4 | Nitrogen and potash .| 4.25 | 2.55 | 5.64 | 4.10 | 2.85 | 3.87
5 | Phosphorus and potash | 3.41 | 2.00 | 5.44 | 4.35 | 1.78 | 3.39
6.) ‘Cheek 2° 2g 2 2 l8tSSh 2 MON E5232; |) 3:60) | MEZA Bele
7 | Complete fertilizer ; lime | 4.69 | 2.38 | 5.62 | 4.80 | 3.04 | 4.10
8 | Complete fertilizer . .| 4.66 | 2.07 | 5.71 | 4.98 | 2.72 | 4.02
9 | Nitrogen and phosphorus} 4.99 | 2.04 | 5.35 | 4.89 | 2.61 | 3.97
10 | Nitrogen and potash . | 4.79 | 2.26 | 5.91 | 4.89 | 3.07 | 4.18
11 | Phosphorus and potash | 4.99 | 1.87 | 5.03 | 4.21 | 1.97 | 3.61

FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES 101

TaBLE II. — AVERAGE INCREASE IN GRAPE YIELDS AND AVERAGE
FINANCIAL GAIN FROM FrRTILIZER APPLICATIONS

N = nitrogen, P = phosphorus, K = potassium, Ca = lime.
Gains in tons per acre.

Brae Ln, By ey NP. N, K. P, K.

. Tons } Tons ; Tons Tons Tons
First plat of pair , a.01 3.96 3.83 Doc 3.39
Second plat of pair . 4.10 4.02 3.97 4.18 3.61
AGOLAOG” ot. 3.80 3.97 3.90 4.02 3.50
Cheek plat SEW 3.12 yall ole 3.12 3.12
Average gain es 68 85 78 90 .o8
Average financial gain) $5.82 | $13.84 | $14.05 | $18.54 $6.99

From this last table the benefit from nitrogen appears quite
evident since every combination in which it appears gives a
substantial gain over the one from which it is absent. Phos.
phorus and potassium without the nitrogen, lead to only a
slight increase over the check; and lime appears to be of no
benefit. Financially, the complete fertilizer and lime com-
bination, the nitrogen and phosphorus combination and the
phosphorus and potassium combination failed to pay their cost
in five of the ten comparisons; the complete fertilizer was used
at a loss four times out of ten; and the nitrogen and potas-
sium combination three times out of ten. Lime had no
appreciable effect on either vines or fruit.

“No effect of the fertilizers on the fruit itself, aside from
yield, was shown for the first three years; but in 1912, and even
more markedly in 1913, the fruit from the plats on which
nitrogen had been used was superior in compactness of cluster,
size of cluster and size of berry. In 1912 also, when early ripen-
ing was a decided advantage, the fruit on the nitrogen plats
matured earlier than that on the check plats. In 1913 the

102 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

favorable ripening season and the smaller crop tended to
equalize the time of ripening on all plats. The grapes on the
phosphorus-potassium plats were better in quality than those
in the check plats but not as good as those on the plats where
nitrogen was used.

“Other indexes also show plainly the benefit from nitrogen
in this vineyard; for size and weight of leaf, weight of wood
produced and number of fruiting canes left on the vines were
all greater where fertilizers, and particularly nitrogen, had been
used. The three-year averages (1911-1913) of the measure-
ments for these characteristics are shown in Table III:

Tasie III]. — Comparative Propuction or LEAVES, Woop AND
Fruitinc CANES ON GRAPE VINES DIFFERENTLY FERTILIZED

(Averages for three years.)

FERTILIZER APPLICATION Lear WeicutT!|Woop Prunep? oe
Grams. Lbs.
Complete fertilizer; lime . . 1,033 1,295 2,468
Complete fertilizer . .. . 1,010 1,367 2,609
Nitrogen and phosphorus . . 1,047 1,272 2,585
Nitrogen and potassium Sas 1,069 1,401 2,646
Phosphorus and potassium : 964 1,086 2,326
Chéeeke sit ee eee 930 915 2,110

Codperative experiments.

“Tn order to secure informationas to the behavior of fertilizers
on the different soils of the Grape Belt, co6perative tests were
carried on in six vineyards owned, respectively, by S. S. Gran-
din, Westfield; Hon. C. M. Hamilton, State Line; James Lee,
Brocton; H.S. Miner, Dunkirk; Miss Frances Jennings, Sil-

1 Hach weight is of 300 green leaves, 5 from each of 60 vines. The
first leaf beyond the last cluster was selected.

2 Amount to the acre of wood pruned in fall.
3’ Number to the acre.

FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES 103

ver Creek; and J. T. Barnes, Prospect Station. The soil in
these vineyards included gravelly loam, shale loam and clay
loam, all in the Dunkirk series, and the experiments covered
from two to two and a half acres in three cases and about five
acres in each of the other vineyards. ‘The work continued four
years in all but one of the experiments, which it was necessary
to end after the second year.

“The general plan of the tests was much like that at Fre-
donia in most of the vineyards, with the additions of plats for
stable manure and for leguminous and non-leguminous cover
crops with and without lime. From two to six check plats
were left for comparison in each vineyard. As already stated
the results were often inconsistent in duplicate plats in the
same vineyard, and if one test appeared to point definitely in a
certain direction, the indication would be negatived by results
in other vineyards. In these experiments the yield of fruit
was the only index to the effect of treatments as it was not possi-
ble to weigh leaves or pruned wood, or to count the canes left.

“Nitrogen and potassium in combination, which gave the
largest gains and greatest profit in the Station vineyard at
Fredonia, showed a 13 per ct. increase in yield on one plat in
the Jennings vineyard and a 9 per ct. decrease on the other;
in the Miner vineyard this combination apparently resulted in
a 25 per ct. increase; in the Lee vineyard in a 2% per ct. loss;
in the Hamilton vineyard a 17 per ct. gain; and in the Grandin
vineyard neither gain nor loss. In only two of the five vine-
yards in which this combination was tested was the gain great
enough to pay the cost of the fertilizer applied. Similar dis-
crepancies, or absence of profitable gain, mark the use of the
other fertilizer combinations.

“Even stable manure, the standby of the farmer and fruit-
grower, when applied at the rate of five tons per acre each
spring, and plowed in, did not, on the average, pay for itself.
Indeed, there were few instances among the 60 comparisons

104 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

possible, in which more than a very moderate profit could be
credited to manure. The average increase in yield following
the application of manure alone was less than a quarter of a
ton of grapes to the acre; while the use of lime with the manure
increased the gain to one-third of a ton per acre. The ton of
lime to the acre annually would not be paid for by the gain of
175 pounds of grapes. Cover-crops were used in five of the
s1x coOperative experiments and proved even less adapted to
increasing crop yields than did the manure. There was no ap-
preciable gain, on the average, from the use of mammoth clover ;
indeed, a slight loss must be recorded for the clover except upon
the plats which were also limed, and even with the lime the
average yields on check plats and mammoth clover plats
differed by only one one-hundredth of a ton. Wheat or barley
with cowhorn turnips made a slightly better showing, as the
plats on which these crops were turned under, without lime,
averaged about one-twentieth of a ton to the acre better than
the checks. With these non-legumes, lime was apparently a
detriment, as the plants with the lime yielded a tenth of a ton
less, on the average, than those without it.”

Practical lessons from the Fredonia experiment.

From this experiment it becomes clear that the use of fer-
tilizers in a vineyard is a local problem. General advice is of
little value. It is evident also that the fertilization of vine-
yards is so involved with other factors that only carefully
planned and long continued work will give reliable information
as to the needs of vines. Indeed, field experiments even in
carefully selected vineyards, as the codperative experiments
show, may be so contradictory and misleading as to be worse
than useless, if deductions are made from the results of a few
seasons. ‘The experiment, however, has brought forth informa-
tion about fertilizing vineyards that ought to be most helpful
to grape-growers. ‘Thus, the results suggest :

FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES 105

Only vineyards in good condition respond to fertilizers.

It is usually waste to make applications of fertilizers in
poorly drained vineyards, in such as suffer from winter cold
or spring frosts, where insect pests are epidemic and uncon-
trolled or where good care is lacking. The experiments fur-
nish several examples of inertness, ineffectiveness or failure to
produce profit when the fertilizers were applied under any of
the conditions named. They emphasize the importance of pay-
ing attention to all of the factors on which plant growth is de-
pendent. Moisture, soil temperature, aération, the texture of
the soil, freedom from pests, cold and frosts, as well as the
supply of food may limit the yield of grapes.

A vineyard soil may have a one-sided wear.

It is certain in some of the experiments and strongly indi-
cated in others that the soil is having a one-sided wear — that
only one or a yery few of the elements of fertility are lacking.
The element most frequently lacking is nitrogen. Exception
will probably be found in very light sands or gravels which
are often deficient in potash and the phosphates; or on soils
so shallow or of such mechanical texture that the root range of
the vine is limited; or in soils so wet or so dry as to limit the
root range or prevent biological activities. These exceptions
mean, as a rule, that the soils possessing the unfavorable qual-
ities are unfitted for grape-growing. The grape-grower should
try to discover which of the fertilizing elements his soil lacks
and not waste by using elements not needed.

Grape soils are often uneven.

The marked unevenness of the soil in the seven vineyards
in which these experiments were carried on, as indicated by the
crops and the effects of the fertilizers, furnishes food for thought
to grape-growers. Maximum profits cannot be approached

106 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

in vineyards in which the soil is as uneven as in these, which
were in every case selected because there was an appearance
of uniformity. A problem before grape-growers is to make
uniform all conditions in their vineyards, and the vines must
be kept free from pests if fertilizers are to be profitably used.

How a grape-grower may know when his vines need fertilizers.

A grape-grower may assume that his vines do not need fer-
tilizers if they are vigorous and making a fair annual growth.
When the vineyard is found to be failing in vigor, the first step
to be taken is to make sure that the drainage is good ; the second
step, to control insect and fungous pests; the third, to give
tillage and good care; and the fourth step is to apply fertilizers
if they be found necessary. Few vineyards will be found to
require a complete fertilizer. What the special requirements
of a vineyard are can be ascertained only by experiment and
are probably not ascertainable by analyses of the soil. This
experiment furnishes suggestions as to how the grape-grower
may test the value of fertilizers in his own vineyard.

Applying fertilizers.

When it is certain that vines need fertilization, and what is
wanted is known, the fertilizers should be put on in the spring
and be worked in by the spring cultivation. Stable manure
should be plowed under. Grape roots forage throughout the
whole top layer of soil so that the land should be covered with
the fertilizer, whether chemical or barnyard manure. Applica-
tions of commercial fertilizers are generally spread broadcast,
though it is better to drill them in if the foliage is out on the
vines and thus avoid possible injury to tender foliage. Com-
mercial fertilizers should be mixed thoroughly and in a finely
divided state. In leachy soils, nitrate of soda ought not to be
applied too early in the season, as it will quickly wash down
out of reach of the grape roots.

i a

Puate VIII. — Brighton (xX #).

FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES 107

Over-rich soils.

Some soils are too rich for the grape. On these the growth is
over-luxuriant, the wood does not mature in the autumn, fruit-
buds do not form and the fruit is poor in quality. Certain
varieties can stand a richer soil than others. Over-richness is
a trouble that may cure itself as the vines come in full bearing
and make greater demands on the soil for food. It is well,
however, on a soil that is suspected of being too rich or so
proved by the behavior of the vines, to provide an extra wire
on the trellis, to prune little and thus take care of the rampant
growth. Some soils, however, and this is often the case, are
so rich that the grape cannot be made to thrive in them; the
vines waste their substance in riotous living, producing luxuri-
ant foliage and lusty wood but little or no fruit.

CHAPTER VII
PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA

THE inexperienced look on pruning as a difficult operation
in grape-growing. But once a few fundamentals are grasped,
grape-pruning is not difficult. There is much less perplexity
in pruning the grape than in pruning tree-fruits. Pruning fol-
lows accepted patterns in every grape region, and when the
pattern is learned the difficulties are easily overcome. The
inexperienced are confused by the array of “principles,”
“types,” “methods,” “systems” and the many technical
terms that enter into discussions of grape-pruning. Some of
the technicalities come from European practices, and others
originated in the infancy of grape-growing in this country when
there was great diversity in pruning. Divested of much that
is but jargon, an inexperienced man can easily learn in a few
lessons, from word of mouth or printed page, how to prune
grapes.

The simplicity of pruning has led to slighting the work in
commercial vineyards, by too often trusting it to unskilled
hands. Then, too, in this age of power-propelled tools, pride
in hand labor has been left behind. and few grape-growers
now take time and trouble to become expert in pruning.
Simple as the work may seem to those long accustomed
to it, he who wants to put into his pruning painstaking intel-
ligence and to taste the joy of a task well done finds in this

108

PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 109

vineyard operation an ample field for pleasure and for the de-
velopment of greater profits. The price to be paid by those
who would thus attempt perfection in pruning the vine is
forward vision, the mechanic’s eye, the gardener’s touch,
patience, and pride in handicraft.

Simple as pruning is, the pruner soon learns that it is an art
in which perfection is better known in mind than followed in
deed. The theory is easy but there are some stumbling blocks
to make its consummation difficult. It is an art in which
rules do not suffice, for no two vineyards can be pruned alike
in amount or method, and every grape-grower finds his vine-
yard a proper field for the gratification of his taste in pruning.
Happily, however, enlightened theory and sound practice are
in perfect accord in grape-pruning, so that specific advice is
well founded on governing principles.

One cannot, of course, learn to prune unless he understands
the habit of the grape-vine and is familiar with the terms ap-
plied to the different parts of the vine. As a preliminary to
this chapter, therefore, knowledge of Chapter XVII, in which
the structure of the grape-vine is discussed, is necessary. The
next step is to distinguish between pruning and training.

PRUNING AND TRAINING DISTINGUISHED =

The grape is pruned to increase in various ways the economic
value of the plant by increasing the quantity and value of the
crop. This is pruning proper. Or grapes are pruned to make
well-proportioned plants with the parts so disposed that the
vines are to the highest degree manageable in the vineyard.
This is training. To repeat, the grape-plant is pruned to regu-
late the crop; it is trained to regulate the vine. Grape-grow-
ers usually speak of both operations as “pruning,” but it is
better to keep in mind the two conceptions. The distinctions
between pruning and training must be made more apparent by

110 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

setting forth in greater detail the results attained by the two
operations.

Results attained in pruning to regulate the crop.

Proper pruning of vines in their first year in the vineyard,
which, as we have seen, consists of cutting the young plants
back severely, brings the vines in productive bearing a year or
two years earlier than they would have borne had the pruning
been neglected. This early pruning, since it is done with an eye
to the vigor of each vine, insures greater uniformity in the growth
and productiveness of the vineyard. Uniformity thus brought
about is important not only for the time being, but for the fu-
ture development of the vines, since weak vines, if unpruned,
are stunted and may require years to overtake more vigorous
vines in the vineyard.

The quality of the crop may be regulated by pruning. When
vines bear too heavily, the grapes are small, and wine-makers
have found that they seldom develop sugar and flavor as do
grapes on vines not overbearing. Grapes on vines too heavily
laden seldom ripen or color well. Not only are the grapes on
poorly pruned and unpruned vines poor in quality but the
grapes on such vines are usually not well distributed and there-
fore ripen and color unevenly. The results just mentioned
follow because the bunches in a poorly distributed crop receive
varying amounts of light and heat depending on the distance
from the ground, the distance from the trunk and on the amount
of shade.

Pruning may be used to regulate the quantity of grapes
borne in a vineyard and so be made somewhat helpful in pre-
venting alternate bearing. Abnormally large crops are usually
followed by partial crop failure and biennial bearing some-
times sets in, but the large crop may be reduced by pruning
and the evil consequences wholly or partly avoided. It fol-
lows that pruning must depend much on the vigor of the vine;

PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 11

for a weak vine may be so pruned as to cause it to overbear ;
and, on the other hand, a vigorous vine pruned in the same way
might not bear at all.

Results attained in pruning to regulate the vine.

It is necessary to regulate the shape of the vine by training
so that tilling, spraying, pruning and harvesting can be easily
performed and the crop be kept off the ground. The cost of
production is always less in a well-pruned vineyard because all
vineyard operations are more easily carried out.

The life of a vineyard is lengthened when the vines are well
trained, because when the parts of a vine are properly disposed
on trellis or stake the plants are less often injured in vineyard
operations. Moreover, not infrequently vines die from over-
production and consequent breaking of canes or trunks which
might have been prevented by pruning to shape the vine.
Suckers and water-sprouts are less common on well-trained
vines. It is necessary, too, by training to keep the bunches
away from trunk, canes and other bunches and so prevent
injury to the grapes.

Lastly, fashion, taste or a more or less abnormal use of the
grapes, may prescribe the form in which a vine is trained.
Fashion and taste run from very simple or natural styles to
exceedingly complex, formal ones, depending, often, on the
variety, the environment or other condition, but just as often
on the whim of the grape-grower. The grape is a favorite orna-
mental for fences, arbors and to cover buildings; for all of
these purposes the vines must be trained as occasion calls.

SoME PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING
Leaving the shaping of the plant out of consideration and
having in mind pruning proper, all efforts in pruning are di-
rected toward two objects: (1) The production of leafy shoots

112 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

to increase the vigor of the plant. (2) The promotion of the
formation of fruit-buds. The first, in common parlance, is
pruning for wood; the second, pruning for fruit.

Pruning for wood.

Some grapes, In common with varieties of all fruits, produce
excessive crops of fruit so that the plants exhaust themselves,
to their permanent injury and to the detriment of the crop.
Something must be done to restore and increase vegetative
vigor. The most natural procedure is to lessen the struggle for
existence among the parts of the plant. The richer and the
more abundant the supply of the food solution, the greater
the vegetative activity, the larger the leaves and the larger and
stouter the internodes. Obviously, the supply of food solu-
tion for each bud may be increased by decreasing the number of
buds. The weaker the plants, therefore, the more the vine
should be cut. The severe pruning in the first two years of the
vine’s existence is an example of pruning for wood. The vine
is pruned for wood in the resting period between the fall of leaf
and the swelling of buds the following spring.

Pruning for fruit.

Growers of all fruits soon learn that excessive vegetative
' vigor is not usually accompanied by fruitfulness. Too great
vigor is indicated by long, leafy, unbranching shoots. Some
fruit-growers go so far as to say that fruitfulness is inversely
proportionate to vegetative vigor. There are several methods
of diminishing the vigor of the vine; as, withholding water
and fertilizers, stopping tillage, the method of training and by
pruning. Pruning is used to decrease the vigor of the vine,
in theory at least, for the practice is not always so successful,
by pruning the roots or by summer-pruning the shoots.
Root-pruning the grape at intervals of several years is a
regular practice with some varieties in warm countries, Eu-

PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 113

rope more especially, but is seldom or never practiced in Amer-
ica except when planting and when roots arise from the cion
above the union of stock and cion.

Summer-pruning to induce fruitfulness consists In removing
new shoots with newly developed leaves. These young shoots
have been developed from reserve material stored up the pre-
ceding season, and until they are so far developed that they can
perform the functions of leaves they are to be counted as para-
sites. When, therefore, these shoots are pruned or pinched
away, the plant is robbed of the material used by the lusty shoot
which up to this time has given nothing in return. The vigor
of the plant is thus checked and fruitfulness increased. Sum-
mer-pruning may become harmful if delayed too long. The
time to prune Is past with the grape when the leaves have passed
from the light green color of new growth to the dark green of
mature leaves.

Fruit-bearing may be augmented by bending, twisting or
ringing the canes, since all of these operations diminish vegeta-
tive vigor. Ringing is the only one of these methods in general
use, and this only for some special variety or special purpose,
and usually with the result that the vigor of the vine is dimin-
ished too much for the good of the plant. Ringing is discussed
more fully in Chapter XVI.

The manner of fruit-bearing in the grape.

Before attempting to prune, the pruner must understand
precisely how the grape bears its crop. The fruit is borne near
the base of the shoots of the current season, and the shoots are
borne on the wood of the previous year’s growth coming from
a dormant bud. Here is manifested one of Nature’s energy-
saving devices, shoot, leaves, flowers and fruit spring in a short
season from a single bud. In the light of this fact, pruning
should be looked on as a simple problem to be solved mathe-
matically and not as a puzzle to be untangled, as so many re-

I

114 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

gard it. For an example, a problem in pruning is here stated
and solved.

A thrifty grape-vine should yield, let us say, fifteen pounds
of grapes, a fair average for the mainstay varieties. Each bunch
will weigh from a quarter to a half pound. To produce fifteen
pounds on a vine, therefore, will require from thirty to sixty
bunches. As each shoot will bear two or three bunches, from
fifteen to thirty buds must be left on the canes of the precedirg
year. These buds are selected in pruning on one or more canes
distributed on one or two main stems in such manner as the
pruner may choose, but usually in accordance with one or
another of several well-developed methods of training. Pru i-
ing, then, consists in calculating the number of bunches ad
buds necessary and removing the remainder. In essere
pruning is thinning.

Horizontal versus perpendicular canes.

An old dictum of viticulture is that the nearer the growing
parts of the vine approach the perpendicular, the more vigorous
the parts. The terminal buds, as every grape-grower knows,
grow very rapidly and probably absorb, unless checked, more
than their share of the energy of the vine. This tendency can
be checked somewhat by removing the terminal buds, which
also helps to keep the plants within manageable limits, but is
better controlled by training the canes to horizontal positions.
Grape canes are tied horizontally to wires to make the vines
more manageable and to reduce their vigorand so induce fruitful-
ness; they are trained vertically to increase the vigor of the vine.

Winter-pruning.

Winter-pruning of the vineyard may be done at any time from
the dropping of the leaves in the autumn to the swelling of the
buds in the spring. The sap begins to circulate actively in the
grape early in the spring, even to the extremities of the vine,

Puiate IX. — Campbell Early (x).

PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 115

and most grape-growers believe this sap to be a “vital stream”
and that, if the vine is pruned during its flow, the plant will
bleed to death. The vine, however, is at this season of so drop-
sical a constitution that the loss of sap is better denominated
“weeping” than “bleeding.” It is doubtful whether serious
injury results from pruning after the sap begins to flow, but it
is a safe practice to prune earlier and the work is certainly
pleasanter. The vine should not be pruned when the wood is
frozen, since at this time the canes are brittle and easily broken
in handling. On the other hand, it is well to delay pruning in
northern climates until after a heavy freeze in the autumn, to
winterkill and wither immature wood so that it can be re-
moved in pruning.

Summer-pruning.

There are three kinds of summer-pruning, the removal of
superfluous shoots, heading-in canes to keep the vines in man-
ageable limits and the pruning to induce fruitfulness discussed
on a foregoing page, which need not have further consideration.
It is very essential that the grower keep these three purposes
in mind, especially as there is much dispute as to the necessity
of two of these operations.

All agree that the vine usually bears superfluous shoots that
should be removed. These are such as spring from small,
weak buds or from buds on the arms and trunk of the vine.
These shoots are useless, devitalize the vine, and hinder vine-
yard operations. A good practice is to rub off the buds from
which these shoots grow as they are detected, but in most vine-
yards the vines must be gone over from time to time as the
shoots appear. Still another kind of superfluous shoots, which
ought to be removed as they appear, are those which grow from
the base of the season’s shoots, the so-called secondary or axil-
lary shoots. These are usually “broken out’’ at the time the
shoots from weak buds are removed.

116 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

While there is doubt as to the value of heading-back the
vine in the summer for the sole purpose of inducing fruitful-
ness, there can be no doubt that it is desirable for the purpose
of keeping some varieties within bounds. Heading-back is
not now the major operation it once was, the need of severe
cutting being obviated by putting the vines farther apart, by
training high on three or even four wires and by adopting one
of the drooping systems of training. The objections to head-
ing-back in the summer are that it often unduly weakens the
vines, that it may induce a growth of laterals which thicken
the vines too much, and that it delays the maturing of the
wood. These bad effects, however, can be overcome by prun-
ing lightly and doing the work so late in the season that lateral
growths will not start. Most vineyardists who keep their
plantations up find it necessary to head back more or less, de-
pending on the season and the variety. The work is usually
done when the over-luxuriant shoots begin to touch the ground.
The shoots are then topped off with a sickle, corn-cutter or
similar tool.

RENEWING FrRuITING Woop

There are two ways of renewing the fruiting wood on a
grape-vine, by canes and from spurs. The manner of renew-
ing refers to pruning and not to training, for either can be used
in any method of training.

Cane renewals.

Renewal by canes is made each year by taking one or more
canes, cut to the desired number of buds, to supply bearing
shoots. By this method the most of the bearing wood is re-
moved each year, new canes taking the place of the old. These
renewal canes may be taken either from the head of the vine or
from the ground, though the latter is little used except where

PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 117

vines must be laid down for winter protection. Canes may be
renewed indefinitely, if care is exercised in keeping the stubs
short, without enlarging the head from which the canes are
taken out of proportion to the size of the trunk. Renewing
by canes is a more common method than renewal by spurs,
as will be found in the discussion of methods of training.

Spur renewal.

In renewing by spurs, a permanent arm is established to
right and left on the canes. Shoots on this arm are not permit-
ted to remain as canes but are cut back to spurs in the dor-
mant pruning. ‘Two buds are left at this pruning, both of which
will produce bearing shoots; the lower one, however, is not
suffered to do so but is kept to furnish the spur for the next
season. The shoot from the upper bud is cut away entirely.
When this process is
carried on from year to
year, the spurs become
longer and longer until
they become unwieldy.
Occasionally, however,
happy chance permits
the selection of a shoot
on the old wood for a
new spur. Failing in
this, a new arm must Fic. 13. Vine ready for pruning; 7, the

be laid down and the stem; g, arms; d, canes; s, shoots; |, spurs.

: The faint lines near the bases of the canes in-

spurring goes on as be- dicate the points where they should be pruned

fore. The objections off in the winter, leaving spurs for the produc-
tion of shoots the following season.

to renewing by spurs

are: it is often difficult to replace spurs with new wood, and
the bearing portion of the vine gets farther and farther from
the trunk. For these reasons, spur-renewing is generally in
disfavor with commercial grape-growers, though it is still used

118 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

in one or two prominent methods of training, as will be dis-
covered in this discussion. Figure 13 shows a vine ready for
pruning.

Tue Work oF PRUNING

The pruner may take his choice between several styles of
hand pruning-shears with which to do his work. The knife
is seldom used except in summer-pruning, and here, more
often, the shoots are broken out or pinched out. In winter-
pruning, the cane is cut an inch or thereabout beyond the
last bud it is desired to leave; otherwise the bud may die from
the drying out of the cane. The canes are usually allowed to
remain tied to the wires until the pruning is done, though
growers who use the Kniffin method of training may cut them
loose before they prune. Two men working together do the
work of pruning best. The more skilled of the two severs
the wood from the bearing vine, leaving just the number of
buds desired for the next season’s crop. The less skilled man
cuts tendrils and severs the cut canes from each other so that
the prunings may be moved from the vineyard without trouble
by the “stripper.”

Not the least of the tasks of pruning is “stripping” the
brush and getting it out of the vineyard. The prunings cling
to the trellis with considerable tenacity and must be pulled
loose with a peculiar jerk, learned by practice, and placed on
the ground between the rows. Stripping is done, usually by
cheap labor, at any time after the pruning until spring, but
must not be delayed until growth starts or the young buds may
suffer as the cut wood is torn from the trellis. The brush is
hauled to the end of the row by hand or by horse-power applied
to any one of a dozen devices used in the several grape regions.
One of the best is the device in common use in the Chautauqua
vineyards of western New York. A pole, twelve feet long, four
inches in diameter at the butt and two at the top, is bored with

PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 119

an inch hole four feet from the butt. A horse is hitched to
this pole by a rope drawn through the hole, and the pole, butt
to the ground, is then
pulled between rows,
the small end being
held in the right hand.
The pole, when skill-
fully used, collects
the brush, which is
dumped at the end
of the row by letting the small end fly over towards the horse.
The “ go-devil,” shown in Fig. 14, is another common device
for collecting prunings.

Fic. 14. A ‘‘go-devil’’ for collecting prunings.

THe TRELLIS

The trellis is a considerable item in the grape-grower’s bud-
get, since it must be renewed every fifteen years or thereabouts.
Wires are strung in the North at the end of the second season
after planting, but in the South the growth is often so great
that the wires must be put up at the end of the first season.
Trellises are of the same general style for commercial vineyards ;
namely, two or three wires tautly stretched on firmly set posts.
Occasionally slat trellises are put up in gardens but these are
not to be recommended for any but ornamental purposes.

Posts.

Strong, durable posts of chestnut, locust, cedar, oak or reén-
forced cement are placed at such distance apart that two or
three vines can be set between each two posts. The distance
apart depends on the distance between vines, although the
tendency now is to have three vines between two posts. The
posts are from six to eight feet in length, the heaviest being
used as end posts. In hard stony soils it may be necessary to

120 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

set the end posts with a spade, but usually sharpened posts can
be driven into holes made with a crow-bar. In driving, the
operator stands on a wagon hauled by a horse and uses a ten- or
twelve-pound maul. The posts are driven to a depth of eight-
een or twenty-four inches for the end posts. However set,
the posts must stand firm to hold the load of vines and fruit.
The end posts must be braced. As good a brace as any is made

yall
oe
beara
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a TS

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a hA\, h (7 Aa Ao Tn
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Fic, 15. A trellis and a common method of bracing end posts.

from a four-by-four timber, notched to fit the post halfway up
from the ground, and extending obliquely to the ground, where
it is held by a four-by-four stake. A two-wire trellis and a
common method of bracing end posts are shown in Fig. 15.
The posts on hillsides must lean slightly up-hill, otherwise
they will almost certainly sooner or later tilt down the
slope. The posts are usually permitted to stand a little higher
at first than necessary so that they may be driven down
should occasion call; driving is usually done in the early

spring.

PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 121

Wire for the trellis.

Four sizes of wire are in common use for vineyard trellises ;
nos. 9, 10, 11 and 12. Number 9, the heaviest, is often used
for the top wire with lighter wires lower. The following figures
show the length of wire in a ton:

No. 9, 34,483 ft. Wo. 11, 52,352) ft.
No. 10, 41,408 ft. No. 12, 68,493 ft.

From these figures the number of pounds required to the acre
is easily calculated. Common annealed wire makes a durable
trellis, but many growers prefer the more durable galvanized
wire, the cost of which is slightly greater. The wires are
fastened to the end posts by winding once around the post,
and then each wire is firmly looped about itself; they are se-
cured to the intervening posts by ordinary fence staples so
driven that the wire cannot pull through of its own weight but
with space enough to permit tightening from season to season.
The size and length of the staples depend on whether the posts
are hard or soft wood. The longest and largest staples are
used with soft woods, as cedar or chestnut. An acre requires
from nine to twelve pounds of staples. The wires should be
placed on the windward sides of posts and on the up-hill side in
hillside vineyards. The distance between wires depends on
the method of pruning.

The wires must be stretched taut on the posts, for which
purpose any one of a half-dozen good wire stretchers may be
purchased at hardware stores. Some growers loosen the wires
after harvest to allow for the contraction in cold weather and
others use some one of several devices to relieve the strain.
Most growers, however, find it necessary to go over the vine-
yard each spring to drive down loosened posts and stretch
sagging wires, and so take no precautions to release wires in
the fall. All agree that the wires must be kept tight during

122 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

the growing season to protect buds, foliage and fruit from
being injured from whipping.

Tying.

The canes are tied to the trellis in early spring, and under
most systems of pruning the growing shoots are tied in the
summer. This work is done by cheap men, women, boys and
girls. A great variety of material is used to make the tie, as
raffia, wooltwine, willow, inner bark of the linden or bass-
wood, green rye straw, corn husks, carpet-rags and wire. The
same materials are not usually employed for both canes and
shoots, since the canes are tied firmly to hold them steady and
the work is done early before there is danger of breaking swell-
ing buds, while the summer shoots are tied to hold for a shorter
time and more loosely to permit growth in diameter. Tying
usually follows accepted patterns in one region but varies
greatly in different regions. There is a knack to be learned in
the use of each one of the materials named, but with none is it
difficult, and an ingenious person can easily contrive a tie of
his own to suit fancy or conditions.

Ys

Piate X.— Clinton (xX).

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CHAPTER VIII

METHODS OF TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN
AMERICA

THE grape-grower takes great liberties with Nature in train-
ing his plants. No other fruit is so completely transformed
by the grower’s art from its natural habit of growth. Happily,
the grape endures cutting well, and the pruner may rest as-

sured that he may work his will in pruning his vines, following

‘to his heart’s desire a favorite method with little fear of seri-
ously injuring his vines., Because of its accommodation to the
desires of man in the disposition of the vine, there are many
methods of training the grape; there being in the commercial
vineyards of eastern America a dozen or more. However,
the differences and similarities are so marked that the several
methods fall into a simple classification which makes con-
spicuous their chief features. Thus, all of the methods fall
under two chief heads: (1) The disposition of shoots; (2) the
disposition of canes.

The disposition of shoots.

Bearing shoots are disposed of in three ways in training
grapes; shoots upright, shoots drooping, and shoots hori-
zontal. The terms explain themselves, but the three methods
need amplification since their adoption is not optional with
growers but depends on several circumstances.

Shoots are trained upright in several methods in which two
or more arms or canes are laid to right and left, sometimes

123

124 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

horizontally, sometimes obliquely along or across horizontal
wires. As the shoots grow upward, they are tied to wires
above. The upright methods are supposed to distribute the
bearing wood more evenly on the vines and to insure greater
uniformity in the fruit. In the upright methods, also, the canes
and arms are let nearer the ground, which is thought to be
an advantage in small, weak or slow-growing varieties. Dela-
ware, Catawba, Iona and Diana are examples of varieties
thought to grow best when trained to one of the upright
methods.

In the several methods in which the shoots droop, however
the canes may be disposed, the shoots are not tied but are
allowed to droop at will. These methods are comparatively
new but are being rapidly adopted because of several marked
advantages. Usually one less wire can be used in a drooping
method than in an upright one; since the shoots are not tied,
much labor is saved in summer tying; the ground can be
tilled with less danger to the vines; and there is less sun-
scalding of the fruit, since the pendant foliage protects the
clusters. Grape-growers generally agree that strong-growing
varieties like Concord, Niagara, Brighton, Diamond and most
of the hybrids between European grapes and native species
grow best when the shoots droop.

Shoots are trained horizontally in but one recognized method,
the Hudson Horizontal, to be described in detail later. Since
this method is all but obsolete,.there is still less reason for dis-
cussing it here, the expressive name sufficing for present pur-
poses.

Disposition of canes.

There are many recognized methods of disposing of the canes
in training the grape. The chief of these are discussed in the
pages that follow, their names being set down for the present
in the classification that follows.

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 125

CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF TRAINING THE
GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA

I. Shoots upright :

1. Chautauqua Arm.

2. Keuka High Renewal.

3. Fan.

Il. Shoots drooping:

1. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin.
Two-stem, Four-cane Kniffin.
Umbrella Kniffin.

Y-stem Kniffin.
Munson.
III. Shoots horizontal :

1. Hudson Horizontal.

ib hs

I. Shoots wpright

Systematic training of the grape in America began toward
the middle of the nineteenth century with a method in which
the shoots were trained upright from two permanent hori-
zontal arms. ‘These arms are laid to right and left on a low
wire and bear more or less permanent spurs, from each of which
two shoots are produced each season to bear the crop. The
number of spurs left on each arm depends on the vigor of the
vine and the space between vines. As the shoots grow up-
ward, they are tied to upper wires, there being three wires on
the trellis for this method. This method is now known as the
Horizontal Arm Spur. It has a serious fault in its trouble-
some spurs and has almost entirely given way to a modifica-
tion called the Chautauqua Arm method, much used in the
great Chautauqua grape-belt. As one of the chief methods
of training the grape in eastern America, this must be de-
scribed in detail.

The Chautauqua Arm method.

The trellis for this method has two wires, although occasion-
ally three are used. The lower wire is eighteen or twenty

126 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

inches above the ground and the second thirty-four inches
above the lower. If three are used, the wires are twenty
inches apart. F. E. Gladwin, in charge of the vineyard lab-
oratory of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station
at Fredonia, in the heart of the Chautauqua belt, describes
this method of training as follows:

“The vines are cut back to two buds at each pruning the
first two years. If the vines are vigorous two canes are tied
up at the beginning of the third year; if scant, but one is left
and this, if the growth is extremely unfavorable, is cut back
to two buds. The canes are carried up obliquely to the upper
wire when the growth permits and are there firmly tied either
with twine or fine wire, the latter being more commonly used.
The canes are also loosely tied to the lower wire. The pruning
for the fourth year consists in cutting away all but two or three
canes and a number of spurs from the arms formed by tying
up the two canes the previous year. The vine now consists of
two arms, arising from near the ground, with two or three
canes of the previous year, and several two-bud spurs at in-
tervals along the arms. As far as possible such canes as have
arisen but a short distance above the lower wire are selected.
All the old wood projecting beyond the last cane retained on
each of the arms is cut away. The arms of the third year are
bent down from their oblique position and are tied firmly to
the lower wire, to the right and left of the center of the vine.
These are now permanent arms. The vine at this time consists
of two arms, arising from near the ground, tied to the lower
wire to the right and left of the center, and on these are two
or three canes, pruned long enough to reach to the middle
wire at least, and if possible to the upper. They are tied so
that they stand in a vertical or oblique position. Along the
arms at intervals of a few inches are spurs, consisting of two
buds. If the vinevardist maintains the arms permanently,
these spurs furnish the fruiting wood for the succeeding year.

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 127

“ At the pruning for the fifth year one of the arms is cut away
entirely, close to the point of its origin. The remaining arm,
reaching from the ground to a point a few inches below the
level of the lower wire, now becomes the permanent stem.
The vineyardist must now provide for the arm cut away.
This is done by the selection of a cane, arising from the re-
maining arm at a point below the lower wire, either directly,

Fie. 16. Chautauqua training; vine ready to prune.

or from a spur left for the purpose. This is pruned to reach
the top wire and is tied obliquely to it. This cane at the next
pruning is tied down to the lower wire and becomes the second
arm. Then the same selection of canes and spurs is made from
it as was made at the previous pruning, and the canes are tied
up as before. However, if the grower desires to retain both
arms of the preceding year for a few years, canes that have
grown from the spurs may be tied up and provision made for
the following year through further spurring. If but a single

128 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

arm is retained, it is pruned in the same way. Spurs may be
obtained from canes that have arisen from dormant buds on
the arm, or by spurring in the basal canes of the fruiting wood
of the year previous. A combination of both methods of re-
newal will in the long run work out the better, as the repeated
spurring in of the basal canes will result in greatly lengthened
spurs that will require frequent cutting out. While the canes
that arise directly from dormant buds on wood two years and
over are not necessarily the best fruiting ones, they can, how-
ever, be utilized for renewal purposes.

“The ideal vine pruned to this system now consists of a stem
reaching from sixteen or eighteen inches above the ground
level or a few inches below the level of the lower wire.
Such a vine is shown in Figure 16. From the head two
arms arise, one extending to the right, the other to the left
and tied along the lower wire, each arm not extending for
more than two feet and a half to either side of the head.
From the arms two canes on each are tied vertically or
obliquely to the top wire. In addition there are left two or
three spurs, growing from the upper side of each arm, located
at well-spaced intervals starting close to the head; these may
be used for the renewal of the arms. The shoots are not tied.

“One of the chief faults of the Chautauqua Arm methed is
the tendency of the best matured, and most desirable canes
to develop at or near the upper wire, while those lower down
are often too short, or so poorly matured as to be unfitted for
fruiting purposes. When the wood, bearing the well-developed
upper canes, is brought down for arms, a considerable interval
of the arm from the head to the point where the canes arise is
without fruiting wood. Under such conditions the growth will
be again thrown to the extremities. If spurring on the arms
has been practiced, this undesirable condition is eliminated.
With either type of renewal, spurring should be practiced.
The fruit from vines trained by this method reaches its highest

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 129

development at or near the level of the upper wire, that on the
lower shoots is, as a rule, quite inferior. This comes from
the fact that the sap flow is more vigorous at these upper points,
resulting in more and healthier leaves, which, in turn, influence
the fruit for the better.”’

Keuka High Renewal.

Several methods of training pass under the general term
“High Renewal,” the significance of which becomes apparent
in the discussion of the Keuka High Renewal method which
is probably now the most common of the several types. In
most of these methods the trellis is put up with three wires,
but oceasionally only two wires are used and still less often
four. The lowest wire on the three-wire trellis is eighteen or
twenty inches from the ground with twenty-inch intervals
between wires. Gladwin, who has direct charge of vineyard
experimental work about Keuka Lake for the New York
Agricultural Experiment Station, describes current practices
in pruning according to this method as follows:

“At each pruning for the first two years the vines are cut
back to two buds. However, with strong-growing varieties
like Concord, Niagara and Isabella, and under good soil con-
ditions, the stem may be formed the second year. With moder-
ate-growing varieties and under average conditions, the forma-
tion of the stem is left until the third year. The straightest
and best-matured cane is left for the purpose. This is carried
to the lower wire and there firmly tied with willow. As soon
-as the shoots have made sufficient growth they are loosely tied
to the wires that they may be kept away from the tillage tools.
The fourth year the head of the vine is formed. This should
stand a few inches below the lower wire. Two canes grow-
ing from the stem near this position are selected, one being
tied to the right and the other to the left along the lower wire.
In the Keuka Lake District, the canes are tied with willows.

K

130 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

In addition, at least two spurs of two buds each are retained
near the head. With Concord, the canes may carry about
ten buds each, but with Catawba, as grown on the hillsides of
the Central Lakes Region of New York, the canes should not
carry above six buds each. As the shoots develop from the
horizontal canes, they are tied with rye straw to the middle
and upper wires. This summer tying is almost continuous
after the shoots are long enough to reach the middle wire.

“The following year all the wood is cut away except two or
three canes that have developed from the basal buds of the canes
put up the previous year, or that have grown from the spurs.
In the event of a third cane being retained, it is tied along the
middle wire. Spurs are again maintained close to the head
for renewal purposes. The other two canes are tied along the
lower wire as before. If the same spurs are used for a few
years they become so long that the canes arising from them
reach above the wire and cannot be well managed in the ‘ willow-
ing.’ It is desirable to provide new spurs annually, selecting
those canes for
the purpose that
arise from the head
of the vine or near
it. It is possible
by careful pruning
to so cut away the
old wood that
practically all that
remains after each
pruning is the stem. Thus the vine is renewed almost to
the ground. When the stem approaches the end of its use-
fulness, a shoot is allowed to grow from the ground, and the
old one is cut away. Figure 17 shows a vine pruned by the
Keuka method.

“This method of training is especially well adapted to slow

Fie. 17. Keuka method of training.

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 1381

growing varieties, or those situated on poor soils, where but
little wood growth is made. It is ideally adapted for the
growing of Catawba on the hillsides of Keuka Lake. It is
well adapted to late-maturing varieties planted out of their
zone. Concord, growing under average conditions, is too
vigorous to be trained by this method. It makes a tremendous
growth of wood out of all proportion to the quantity of fruit,
which is inclined to be very inferior. The chief objection to
this method is the amount of summer tying involved which
comes at a time when attention to tillage should be given.
It might prove profitable in the growing of dessert varieties
that have been discarded because of lack of vigor. On thin
hillside soils, Catawba requires training modelled after this
method but on the heavier upland ones, with shorter pruning,
it can be grown on the Chautauqua Arm plan. Delaware,
Iona, Dutchess, Campbell, Eumelan, Jessica, Vergennes and
Regal are, as a rule, grown to better advantage when trained
by the High Renewal method.”

Fan-training.

The only other method now in use in which the shoots may
be trained upright is that in which the canes are disposed of
in fan-shape. This method was much used a generation ago
but is rapidly becoming obsolete. In fan-training the renewals
are made yearly from spurs near the ground, and the fruiting
canes are carried up obliquely and so form a fan. The great
advantage in fan-training is that a trunk is almost dispensed
with, which greatly facilitates laying down the vine in winter
where winter-protection is needed. There are several objec-
tions to this method in commercial plantations. The chief
one is that the spurs become long, crooked and almost un-
manageable so that renewals from the root must be made
frequently. Another is that the fruit is borne close to the ground
and becomes soiled with mud in dashing rains. The vines,

132 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

also, are inconvenient in shape for tying. There are two or
three modifications of fan-training which may be described
as mongrel methods between this and the High Renewal and
Horizontal Arm methods, none of which, however, is now in
general favor.

II. Shoots drooping

Quite by accident, William Kniffin, a stone mason living
at Clintondale, New York, in the Hudson River grape region,
discovered that grapes of large size and handsome appearance
could be grown on vines in which the canes were trained hori-
zontally with the shoots drooping. He put his discovery in
practice and from it have come the several methods of training
grapes which bear his name. Kniffin’s discovery was made
about 1850 and the merits of his methods spread so rapidly
over eastern America that by the end of the century the various
Kniffn methods were more generally used than any others.
Grape-growers now agree that strong-growing vines like Con-
cord, Niagara and Clinton are best trained to one or another
of the Kniffin methods. There are several modifications of
Kniffin’s method, three of which are now in common use, the
most popular being the Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin.

The trellis for the three methods carries two wires, the lower
placed at the height of three to three and a half feet and the
upper from two to two and a half feet above it. To permit
this height of wires, the posts must be from eight to eight and
a half feet in length, and must be firmly set with the end posts
well braced.

Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin.

As practiced at the New York Agricultural Experiment
Station, the vines are trained as follows:

One trunk is carried to the top wire the third year after
planting, or if the growth is not long enough at this time, it

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 1338

is carried to the lower wire and there tied. In this case, the
following year a cane is extended to the top wire. This trunk
is permanent. If the stem reaches the upper wire the third
year, growers break out many of the developing shoots and
allow only the strongest to grow, choosing those that arise
close to the wires. The stem should be tied tightly to the
top wire and somewhat loosely to the lower. If girdling re-
sults at the top, it is not objectionable as the head of the vine
should be below rather than above the wire. When the shoots
are sufficiently hardened,
those growing close- to
the wires should be
loosely tied to prevent
injury during cultiva-
tion. At the beginning
of the fourth year, as
shown in Fig. 18, the
vine should consist of a
stem extending from the
ground to a point below

thetop wire. From this, a

all but two canes and Fia. 18. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin
training.

two spurs of two buds
each have been cut away below each wire level. As growth
is most vigorous at the top of the stem, four to six more
buds are left on the upper than on the lower canes. <A vine
of which the stem reaches the upper wire the third year should
support the next season canes, aggregating twenty-two buds
with eight additional buds on the spurs. If the growth is
weak, only half this number should be left.

The tying at this time consists of fastening the stem loosely;
with ordinary grape twine, to the lower wire, and with the
same material the canes are tied along the two wires to right
and left of the stem. The canes should be tied tightly toward

134 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

the trunk so that they cannot slip out of the twine. Ordi-
narily tying at this time is sufficient for the year, but if con-
ditions for growth are unfavorable, the twine may rot before
the tendrils take hold of the wires, and a partial second tying
may be necessary.

After the fourth season, the pruner has greater choice of fruit-
ing-wood for the following year. It may be chosen from the
basal canes of the preceding year’s wood or the canes that
develop from the spurs may be used. The choice should
depend on the accessibility and maturity of the wood. At
each pruning, the possibilities for obtaining fruiting wood for
the following year must receive consideration. It is possible
to use the same spurs for two or three years, but after this they
should be cut away and new ones retained. After the first
spurring, spurs should be selected from wood older than two
years. The shoots from such wood bear but little fruit and
hence make good fruiting canes for the next year.

Umbrella Kniffin.

Since most of the fruit on vines trained by the Four-cane
Kniffin method is borne on the two upper canes, some growers
in the Hudson River
Valley dispense with
the lower canes and
cut the upper ones
long enough to bear
the crop. - In this
method the trunk is
brought to the top
wire and the head
formed as in the Four-
eane Kniffin. When
the vines are pruned at the close of the third year, two long
canes are left at the head of the vine with two renewal spurs.

Fia. 19. Umbrella method of training.

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 135

These long canes are drooped over the upper wire obliquely
down to the lower wire to which they are tied just above the
last bud, forming an unbrella-shaped top as shown in Fig. 19.
The renewals are made as in the Four-cane Kniffin. This
method reduces the amount of leaf surface to the minimum,
so that care must be taken to insure healthy leaf growth.
The amount of fruiting-wood put up is also reduced to the
minimum, so that the yield is low unless good cultiva-
tion is provided, in which case, with some varieties and
on some soils, the yield is up to the average and the
crop is first-class as regards size of bunch and berry, compact-
ness of bunch and maturity.

The Two-trunk Kniffin.

The Two-trunk Kniffin, illustrated in Fig. 20, is another
modification with the aim of securing greater fruitfulness.
This method also provides an equal number of buds on both
wires. Two trunks are
brought from the root,
one to the upper, the
other to the lower wire.
The fruiting canes are
taken off and are dis-
posed of as in the
Four-cane Kniffin. The
trunks are usually tied
together to hold them Fie. 20. Two-trunk Kniffin training.
in place. This method
is in restricted use in the Hudson River Valley where it is
known under the name given here and as “Double Kniffin”
and “Improved Kniffin.”’ In experiments in training grapes
at Fredonia, New York, under the direction of the New York
Experiment Station, this method proves to be one of the
poorest in growing Concords. ‘The grapes fall short in size of

136 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

bunch and berry and do not mature as well as under the other
drooping methods of training.

The Y-trunk Kniffin.

Still another modification of the Kniffin method is one in
which a crotch or Y is made in the trunk midway between the
ground and the lower wire. The theory on which this method
is founded is that sap for the lower canes is better supplied
than in a straight or continuous trunk and that the lower canes
thus become as productive as those on the upper wire. The
theory is probably wrong but is accepted by many notwithstand-
ing. The methods of pruning, renewing fruiting-wood and tying
are the same as in the Single-stem Kniffin, except, of course,
that each stem supports two canes and two spurs. This method
was in somewhat common use some years ago in parts of
western New York but is now disappearing.

The Munson method.

An ingenious modification of the Kniffin principle was
devised by Elbert Wakeman, Oyster Bay, Long Island, and
afterwards improved and brought into prominence by the late
T. V. Munson of Denison, Texas; it is now much used in
southern vineyards. The method is described as follows by
Munson :!

“The posts should be of some durable strong wood, such as
Bois d’Are (Osage), Cedar, heartwood of Catalpa, Black
Locust or White Oak. The end posts of every row should
be large and strong and be set three and one-half or four feet
in the ground and well tamped. The intermediate posts,
which may be much lighter than the end posts, should be six
and one-half or seven feet long and set two to two and one-
half feet in the ground, with twenty-four feet spaces between

1 Munson, T. V. Foundations of American Grape Culture: 224-227.
1909.

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 187

posts, which will take three vines, eight feet apart, or two
vines twelve feet apart. After the posts are set, a three-
eighths-inch hole should be bored through each post, four
feet from the surface of the ground, in the direction in which
the row runs, leaving six inches or more of post above the hole.
These holes are for the admittance of the middle, lower wire
of the trellis.

“For each end post prepare for cross-arm, a piece of two by
four hard pine or oak, two feet long, and at one inch from either
end, and one inch from the upper side, bore a three-eighths
of an inch bit-hole, or saw into upper side half an inch, which
will take less time and do as well, to pass the lateral wires
through, and in the middle of the lower side, saw a notch one-
half inch deep. For each intermediate post, prepare a board
of similar wood, two feet long, one inch thick by four broad,
and likewise bore or notch.

“Through the holes in the posts run a No. 11 galvanized
wire, fasten at one end, tighten at the other end by a wire
stretcher and fasten. This will be the middle and lower wire
of the trellis, and all that will be needed the first year, when
the young vines are trained up a string, tied from the vine
(when set) to the wire, and along it. The arms, and the two
lateral wires which they bear, need not be put on the trellis
until after the vines are pruned and tied the next winter. To
put on the cross-arms, use no bolts or nails, only No. 11 gal-
vanized wire.

“Each end cross-arm is placed inside the post, and against
it on top of the wire, already through the posts, notch-side
downward, straddling the wire, to keep it from sliding. Then
take a piece of same size wire, about seven feet long, pass one
end through the bit-hole or saw-notch, in one end of arm and
fasten it by looping and twisting about six inches of the end
back upon itself, then while one person holds the cross-arm
in place, the operator carries the wire down around the post

138 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

once near the ground, staples it on each side and brings the
other end up to the opposite end of arm, puts it through the
bit-hole, or saw-notch, draws it tightly, keeping the arm level,
and fastens the -end of the wire as was done the other. Wire
nippers and pliers will be needed for this work. Then take
another piece of wire about two feet long, and put it twice
around the cross-arm and the post where they come together,
above the middle wire, and firmly tie them together, crossing
the wire as it goes around. This will hold the arm in place
and not weaken or split the arm as do nails and bolts, and will
be longer-lasting, quicker and cheaper, and more elastic, so
that when struck by the hames or collar in cultivation, it
gives a little, receiving no damage.

“Likewise place the cross-arms on the intermediate posts,
leaving the ends of the wire projecting about six inches after
fastening, for a purpose soon to be mentioned. Then draw
the two lateral wires through the bit-holes in the ends of the
arms, or drop into the saw-notches, if such are made, through-
out the row, tighten with the wire stretcher and fasten. Then
return along each lateral wire, wrapping ends of wire at the
ends of the arms very closely and tightly around the through-
going lateral wires, as telegraph and telephone wires are
wrapped in splicing. This is quickly done with the proper
pliers, and prevents the arms from slipping out of proper
position. Now the trellis is complete, and will need little or
no repairs, and looks very neat, especially if painted.

“Pruning and training on the Munson trellis is very simple
and easy with a little instruction for a few minutes with a
vine or two pruned for example. The vine the first season is
allowed to grow up on to the middle wire by a string around
which it is coiled by hand, by going over the vineyard once or
twice until the selected shoot of each vine is upon the wire,
after which it is allowed to ramble at freedom over the wires.
By getting on to the trellis the first year, one strong shoot,

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TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 139

and allowing no other to grow, a partial crop can be had the
second year, without damage, on all but weak growers, like
Delaware, that should not be allowed to bear until the third
year. At the first regular pruning (all prunings should be
done in November or December, after leaf fall, and never so
late as to cause the vines to bleed), the vine should be cut back
to two or three buds that have reached the middle wire, if
weak growers, if strong, with heavy growth, six or eight buds
each, to two arms, one going each way along the lower wire
from where the ascending vine first touches the wire. After
the vines are thus pruned, the outer end of each arm is firmly
tied to the lower wire, along which it is gently coiled. These
two ties hold the vine firmly in place. The buds on the arms
push and ascend, passing over the lateral wires, clinging thereto
with their tendrils, and hang over like a beautiful green drapery
shading the fruit and body of the vine according to its natural
habit.

“On the canopy trellis, all the summer pruning required is,
to go through the vineyard at or a few days before blooming
time, and with a light sharp butcher knife, clip off the tips of
all advanced shoots to be left for bearing, leaving two or three
leaves beyond the outer flower cluster. From the shoots near
the crotch, selected for bearing arms the next year, pick the
flower clusters, and strip off or rub off all shoots and buds that
start on trunk of vine below crotch. This latter is very im-
portant, as such shoots, if left, eat up the nourishment of the
land with no return but added work at pruning time.

“Tt will be found that the shoots at the ends of the arms usu-
ally start first and strongest, and if not clipped back, will
not allow the buds back toward the crotch to start well, but
if clipped, all other desirable buds then push.

“In about six to ten days after the first clipping, a second
one is usually necessary, especially if the weather is moist and
warm, and the land rich. The first clipped shoots, as well as

140 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

those not clipped the first time, will need clipping back this
time, the end buds on the first clipped having pushed vigorously.

“At a second year’s pruning and others following, the old
arms with all the bearing shoots on them are cut off down to
the new arms and the new arms cut back to lengths they can
fill with fruit and well mature. In this, critical judgment and
knowledge of capabilities of different varieties are more re-
quired in the pruner than in any other of the training work.
Some varieties, such as the Delaware, cannot carry more than
three to four arms, two feet long, while Herbemont can more
easily carry four arms each eight feet long, hence such as
Delaware should be planted eight feet or less apart, while
Herbemont and most of the Post-Oak grape hybrids, should
be twelve to sixteen feet apart. In other words, each variety
should be set that distance apart that it will fill the trellis
with fruit from end to end, and mature it well, so as to better
economize space.

“By the third year, the vine should come to full bearing, and
be pruned with four bearing arms, two to go each way: along
the lower wire of trellis, gently coiling around the wire, one arm
in one direction, the other in opposite direction, and should
be in about equal lengths, so that one firm tie with jute yarn,
near the ends, will be all the tying the vines will need — that
is, two ties to each vine — the least required by any trellis
system, and the pruning is also simplest and the results every
way the best.

“Some of the advantages of this trellis are its cheapness,
its simplicity, bringing the work up breast-high so that prun-
ing, tying, harvesting, spraying, can be done in an erect posi-
tion, saving back strain; perfect distribution of light, heat
and air to foliage and fruit; shielding from sunscald and, birds ;
giving free ventilation and easy passage of wind through the
vineyard without blowing down the trellis or tender shoots
from the vines, and allowing ready passage from row to row,

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 141

without going around, thus getting larger and better crops
at less expense and increasing length of life of vineyard and the
pleasure of taking care of it.”’

This method does not seem to be adapted to the needs of
grapes in northern vineyards, and in the South such weak-
growing sorts as Delaware do not thrive when so trained.
Several ‘ modified Munson methods” are in use in the southern
states, but those most commonly employed do not depart
greatly from the method here described.

III. Shoots horizontal
Hudson horizontal.

There is now in use but one method of training shoots hori-
zontally. In this method the trellis is made by setting posts
eight or ten feet apart and connecting them by two slats,
one at the top of the posts, the other about eighteen inches
from the ground. Strands of wire are stretched perpen-
dicularly between the slats at ten- or twelve-inch intervals.
One cane is trained from a trunk from one to two feet high on
the trellis; it rises perpendicularly from the ground and is
tied to the top slat. The shoots push out right and left and
are tied horizontally to each wire as they reach it. The cane
is usually allowed to bear about six shoots on each side. The
grapes set at the base of the shoots so that the bunches hang
one over the other, making a pretty sight. This method is
too expensive for a commercial vineyard but is often used in
gardens and for ornamental plantings. Only weak-growing
sorts, as Delaware, Iona or Diana are adapted for this method.
Delaware does remarkably well under horizontal training.
The use of slats and wires in horizontal training are often
reversed. The alternative from the method just described
is to set posts sixteen or eighteen feet apart upon which are
strung two wires as for the ordinary trellis. Perpendicular

142 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

slats are then fastened to these wires to which the shoots are
tied. Two slats, fifteen inches apart, are provided on each
side of a fruiting cane, which, with the slat for the support of
the cane, give five to a vine. Or the vine may be supported
by a stake driven in the ground.

In both of these methods, a shoot must be taken out from
the head of the vine each season for the next season’s fruiting-
wood. This shoot is tied to the central wire or slat and is
now allowed to fruit. Thus the vine starts each spring with
a single cane. Grapes are grown under these horizontal
methods chiefly, if not only, in the Hudson River Valley
and even here they are going out of use.

TRAINING ON ARBORS, PERGOLAS AND AS ORNAMENTALS

The grape is much used to cover arbors, pergolas, lattices
and to screen the sides of buildings, few climbing plants being
more ornamental. Leaf, fruit and vine have been favorite
subjects for reproduction by ornamentalists of all ages. As
yet, however, it is seldom seen in cultivated landscapes except
to secure shade and seclusion.

Grown for esthetic purposes, the grape is seldom fruitful,
_for the vines can rarely be cultivated or deprived of their
luxuriant growth as in the vineyard. Nevertheless, grapes
grown as ornamentals can be trained so as to serve the double
purpose of ornamental and fruit-bearing plant. Grown on
the sides of a building, the grape often can be made to bear
large crops of choicely fine fruit. The ancients had learned
this, for the Psalmist says: “Thy wife shall be like the fruitful
vine by the sides of thine house.”

In all ornamental plantings on arbors or pergolas, if fruit is
to be considered, the permanent trunk is carried to the top of
the structure. Along this trunk, at intervals of eighteen inches,
spurs are left from which to renew the wood from year to year.

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 143

The vines should stand six or eight feet apart, depending on
the variety, and one cane is left, three or four feet long, on
each spur when the pruning is done. Shoots springing from
these cover intermediate spaces soon after growth begins.
Provision, of course, must be made for a new cane each season,
and this is done by saving a shoot springing from spur or trunk
at pruning time.

The same method of training, with modifications to suit the
case, may be employed on sides of buildings, walls, fences and
lattices. If the object to be covered is low, however, and
especially if fruit as well as a covering is wanted, perhaps a
better plan is annually to renew from a low trunk or even back
to the root. In this low renewal, a new cane, or two or three
if desired, should be brought out each season, thus securing
greater vigor for the vine, but greatly delaying, especially
in the case of high walls, the production of a screen of foliage.

PRUNING AND TRAINING MuUSCADINE GRAPES

The Muscadine grapes of the South are so distinct in charac-
ters of growth and fruit-bearing that their requirements as
to pruning and training are quite different from the methods
so far given. Until recent years when these grapes have be-
come of commercial importance, it was thought by southern
vineyardists that the Muscadines needed little or no pruning
and some held that pruning injured the vines. Now it is
found that Muscadines respond quite as readily as other types
of grapes to pruning and training. Husmann and Dearing!
give following directions for pruning Muscadines :

“Two systems of training are employed with Muscadine
grapes: (1) The horizontal or overhead system, by which the
growth is spread as an overhead canopy about 7 feet above the

' Husmann, George C., and Dearing, Charles. Muscadine Grapes.
Bul. 709, U. S. Dept. Agr.: 16-19. 1916.

144 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ground and supported by posts; and (2) the upright or vertical
system, in which the growth is spread over a trellis.

“Tn the overhead system a single trunk is caused to grow
erect from the ground alongside a permanent post. When
the vine has reached the top of the post it is pinched in or cut
back, so as to make it throw out shoots to grow and spread out
from the head of the vine as the spokes of a wheel radiate from

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s
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the hub. (The overhead training of Muscadines is shown in
Fig. 21; upright training, in Fig. 22.)

“Tn the upright systems the fruiting arms are either radiated
from a low vine head, like the ribs of a fan, or they are taken
off as horizontal arms from a central vertical trunk.

“Where the vineyard is not given close personal attention
and pruning and other vineyard practices are neglected the
best results will be obtained with the overhead trellis. More-
over, such a trellis permits cross-plowing and cultivation and

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 145

is better adapted for grazing hogs, sheep, or cattle on cover
crops grown in the vineyard. On the other hand, the careful
vineyardist can expect the best and earliest results from vines
on the upright or vertical supports. The upright trellis facili-
tates pruning, harvesting, spraying, and intercropping through-
out the life of the vineyard; it is also easier to repair and

Fig. 22. <A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm renewal method.

can be erected from $10 to $20 an acre cheaper than the over-
head trellis. The use of both the upright system and the over-
head trellis has netted the growers profitable returns. Each
has its advantages and disadvantages. The prospective
grower, knowing his own conditions, must determine which
training system is best suited to his conditions.
“During the first year after planting, a strong stake reach-
ing 4 feet above the ground at each vine is sufficient support.
L

146 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

A trellis should be erected the second season, though the upper
wires of an upright trellis and the secondary wires of an over-
head trellis may be added later, as the vines need them. In
erecting an upright trellis the posts should be set midway
between the vines, the distances apart varying with the dis-
tances between the plants. The end posts of the rows should
be firmly braced. Three wires are generally used, placed
24, 42, and from 56 to 60 inches from the ground.

“Tn erecting an overhead trellis, the usual method is to place
a substantial, durable post reaching 7 feet above the ground
at each of the permanent vines. Rows of extra heavy, well-
braced posts, running parallel with and also at the ends of
the rows of vines, are set at the boundaries of the vineyard.
There are a number of different ways of arranging the wires.
Usually No. 10 galvanized wires are securely fastened to the
tops of the boundary posts on the four sides of a vineyard and
then are run along and securely fastened on the tops of the
inside post down each row in both directions as governor
wires. As needed, No. 14 wires 2 feet apart are run parallel
with the governor wires until in this manner the entire area
has been covered.

“A cheaper but less durable overhead trellis is made by
running No. 9 governor wires in only one direction and the
secondary wires only at right angles to the governor wires,
the secondary wires being fastened to the governor wires
wherever they cross.

“Some growers construct arbors entirely of wood, using slats
or poles instead of wires.

“The pruning of Muscadine grapes during the first three
years is mainly for the purpose of establishing the permanent
parts and adjusting the other parts of the vine to the desired
training system for future usefulness. After that the pruning
is primarily a matter of renewing the bearing surface and
keeping the vines healthy, vigorous, and productive.

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 147

“During the first season the trunk of the vine should be
established. From this the main fruiting branches are started
the second season. These, under favorable circumstances,
will bear a small crop of fruit the third season. After that the
purpose of pruning should be to renew growth, to increase or
decrease the bearing surface, and to maintain the shape of the
vine.

“Severe pruning usually removes most of the fruit-bearing
wood and throws the vine into vigorous wood growth. No
pruning, on the other hand, causes a growth which is too much
distributed, weak, and incapable of bearing good crops. There-
fore, the grape grower should study the vines sufficiently to
enable him to judge each year the proper severity of pruning
for the best results. This will depend on the variety, the
age of the vines, the fertility of the soil, etc. Muscadine
grapes bear their fruit in small clusters. It is therefore neces-
sary to maintain a large fruiting surface in order to secure a
proper tonnage of fruit. This is accomplished by developing
a series of fruiting arms, spurring along these, and lengthening
them as the vines become stronger. Such fruiting arms can
be maintained for a number of years, but after a time it is
desirable to renew them. This is done by cutting out the arm
and starting a new one from a cane that has been previously
grown for such purposes. It is preferable to renew systemat-
ically only one or, at most, two arms on a vine each year.
This gradual renewal does not disturb the vigor of the vine,
but keeps it productive, healthy, and strong, The pruning
can be quickly and easily done if systematically practiced from
the time the vines are started.”

REJUVENATING OLD VINES

When pruning and training are neglected, a vineyard soon
becomes a sorry company of halt and maimed vines. These

148 MANUAL OF AMERICAN -GRAPE-GROWING

neglected vines can rarely be reshaped and restored to their
pristine vigor. If the old vines seem capable of throwing out
a strong new growth, it is almost always better to grow a new
top by taking out canes from the roots and so rejuvenate.
The energy and activity of Nature are seldom seen to better
advantage than in these new tops, if the old tops are cut back
severely and the vineyard given good care. The new canes
grow with the gusto of the biblical bay tree, making it diffi-
cult oftentimes to keep them within bounds.

Usually this new top can be treated essentially as if it were
a new vine. Not infrequently the cane will make sufficient
growth and mature well enough so that it may be left as a
permanent trunk at the end of the first season. If, however,
the wood is short, weak and soft, it should be cut back in the
autumn to two or three buds from one of which a permanent
trunk can be trained the next season from which a good top
can be formed in another season. The old top is discarded as
soon as the new trunk is tied to the trellis. Old vineyards are
often rejuvenated in this way to advantage and return profits
to their owners for years; but if the soil is poor and the vines
weak, attempts to renew the tops seldom pay.

Occasionally rejuvenating old vines by pruning is worth
while. When such an attempt is made, it is best to cut back
severely at the winter-pruning, leaving two, three or four
canes, depending on the method of training, of six, eight or
ten buds. The amount of wood left must depend on the vigor
of the plant and the variety. The success of such rejuvenation
depends much on selecting suitable places on the old vine from
which to renew the bearing wood. It requires good judgment,
considerable skill and much experience to rejuvenate success-
fully an old vineyard by remodeling the existing top, and if
the vines are far gone with neglect it is seldom worth while.

Sometimes old vines or even a whole vineyard can be re-
juvenated most easily by grafting. This is particularly true

Puate XII. — Diana (x 32).

TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 149

when the vines are not of the kind wanted, and when the
vineyard contains an occasional stray vine from the variety
to which it is planted. Directions for grafting are given on
pages 45 to 50. ‘The grafted vine is readily brought into shape,
under any of the several methods of training, by treating it
as a young vine.

CHAPTER IX
GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE

THE methods of pruning and training native grapes, dis-
cussed in the last two chapters, do not apply to the Vinifera
grapes grown in the favored valleys of the Rocky Mountains
and on the Pacific slope. As we have already seen, the
Vinifera or Old World grape differs markedly in habits of
growth from the American species so that it would not
be expected that pruning which applies to the one would
apply to the other types. The fundamentals, to be sure,
are much the same and the different species of grapes are
about equally subservient to the shears of the pruner, but
while pruning to regulate fruit-bearing finds many similari-
ties in Old and New World grapes, the training of the vines
is radically different.

European practices in pruning and training Vinifera grapes
are so many and so diverse that the first growers of this
fruit in America were at a loss to know how to prune their
vines. But, out of a half century of experience, American
growers of Old World grapes have adapted from European
practices and have devised to meet new conditions, methods
which serve very well in the new home for this old grape.
Since the culture of the Old World grape is centered in
California, almost confined to that state, California practice
may be taken as a pattern in pruning and training the vines

of this species.
150

GRAPE-PRUNING ON’ THE PACIFIC SLOPE 151

VINE PRUNING IN CALIFORNIA !

The systems of pruning in use in California may be divided
into two classes according to the arrangement of the arms on
the trunk of the vine. In the commonest systems, there is a
definite head to the trunk, from which all the arms arise sym-
metrically at nearly the same level. The vines of these systems
may be called “headed vines.’”’ In the other systems, the
trunk is elongated four to eight feet and the arms are distributed
regularly along the whole or the greater portion of its length.
The vines of these systems, owing to the rope-like form of the
trunks, are called “cordons.”’

The headed vines are divided according to the length of the
vertical trunk into high, 2-3 feet, medium, 1-14 feet, and
low, 0-6 inches. The cordons may be vertical or horizontal,
according to the direction of the trunk, which is from four to
eight feet long. The horizontal cordons may be single (uni-
lateral) or composed of two branches extending in opposite
directions (bilateral). Double and even multiple vertical
cordons occur, but they are very inadvisable and have no
advantages.

The arrangement of the arms of a headed vine may be sym-
metrical in all directions at an angle of about 45 degrees. Such
a vine is said to be “vase-formed,” though the hollow center
which this term implies is not essential. This is the form used
in the great majority of our vineyards whether of wine, raisin,
or shipping grapes. It is suitable for the “square” system of
planting and cross cultivation. Where vines are planted in the
avenue system, particularly when trellised and where cross
cultivation is impossible, the arms are given a “fan-shaped”’

' The remainder of this chapter is republished by permission from
Bul. 246, Calif. Exp.Sta., Vine Pruning in California, published in
1916 by F. T. Bioletti. Not all of the bulletin is reproduced, but the

parts republished are transcribed verbatim. All of the illustrations in
this chapter have been redrawn from Professor Bioletti’s bulletin.

152 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

arrangement in a vertical plane. This arrangement is con-
sidered to be essential for the economical and easy working of
trellised vines.

On the vertical or upright cordon, the arms are arranged at
as regular intervals as possible on all sides of the trunk from the
top to within twelve or fifteen inches of the bottom. On the
horizontal cordon the arms are arranged similarly, but as nearly
as possible on the upper side of the trunk only.

Each of these systems may again be divided into two sub-
systems, according to the management of the annual growth
or canes. In one, spurs of one, two, or three eyes are left for
fruit production. This system is called short or spur pruning.
In the other, long canes are left for fruit production. This is
called long or cane pruning. In rare cases an intermediate
form is adopted in which long spurs or short canes of five or
six eyes are left. In cane pruning, each fruit cane is accom-
panied by one or two short renewal spurs. These must also
accompany half-long pruning. Systems of pruning, when only
long canes are left without renewal-spurs, are not in use in
California. In all systems, replacing-spurs are left wherever
and whenever needed.

Other modifications are introduced by the manner of dis-
posal of the fruit canes. These may be tied up vertically to a
stake driven at the foot of each vine or bowed in a circle and
tied to this same stake, or they may be tied laterally to wires
stretching along the rows in a horizontal, ascending or descend-
ing direction.

The different systems differ therefore in: (1) the shape,
length, and direction of the trunk; (2) the arrangement of the
arms; (3) the use of fruit spurs or fruit canes with renewal
spurs; (4) the disposal of the fruit canes.

The principal possibilities of the pruning are shown in the
following table:

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 153

A. Heap PRUNING: VASE-FORM

(a) Fruit spurs or

Seer) trunk: (b) Half-long canes and _ re-
: : ; ; wal spurs or

2. Medium trunk: with s sido

Bat ek - (c) Fruit canes and renewal

spurs; canes. vertical
or bowed.

B. Heap PRUNING: FAN-SHAPED ; TRELLISED

1. High trunk: Fruit canes and renewal spurs; canes de-
scending.

2. Medium trunk: Fruit canes and renewal spurs; canes
horizontal or ascending.

C. Cordon PRUNING

1. Vertical: Spur; half-long; cane.

2. Horizontal-unilateral: Spur; half-long; cane.

3. Horizontal-bilateral: Spur; half-long; cane.

All possible combinations indicated by this table represent
24 variations. Some of these combinations, however, are not
used and some are rare. The most common are shown in
Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26 and 27.

Figure 23 B represents a headed, vase-formed vine, with a
medium trunk and short fruit spurs. This is the most common
system used in all parts of California and is suited for all small
growing vines which bear on the lower buds, for most wine
grapes and for Muscats. The unit of pruning in this case is a
fruit spur of 1, 2, or 3 internodes, according to the vigor of the
variety and of the individual cane.

Figure 23 A differs from 23 B only in the higher trunk and
longer arms. It is commonly used for Tokay and other large

154 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

growing varieties, especially when growing in rich soil and when
planted far apart.

Figure 23 C has the same form of body as A and B, except
that the arms are somewhat less numerous. The unit of prun-
ing is a short fruit cane of four to five internodes, accompanied
by a renewal spur of one internode. It is suited for vigorous
table grapes, which do not bear well on short spurs. It is used
especially for the Cornichon and Malaga in rich soil. This is
a difficult system to keep in good shape owing to the tendency

Fic. 23. Forms of head pruning: A, spur pruning with high trunk; B,
spur pruning with medium trunk; C, half-long with medium trunk.

for all the vigor to go to the growth on the ends of the fruit
canes. It is difficult to obtain vigorous canes on the renewal
spurs. Occasional short pruning Is usually necessary to keep
the vines in proper shape.

Figure 24 A is similar to 23 C in form, but the number of arms
is still further reduced to 2, 3, or at most 4. The unit of prun-
ing is a fruit cane of 23 to 35 feet with its renewal spur. Ow-
ing to the length of the fruit canes they require support and
are tied to a high stake.

This method is used in a large number of vineyards with
Sultanina, Sultana and certain wine grapes, especially Semillon
and Cabernet. It is not to be recommended in any case, as it
has several very serious defects.

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 155

The difficulty of obtaining new wood from the renewal spurs
is even greater than in the system shown in Fig. 23 C. The
length and vertical position of the fruit canes cause the main
growth and vigor of the vine to be expended on the highest
shoots. The renewal spurs are thus so shaded that, even though
their buds start, the
shoots make but a weak
growth. The result is
that at the following
pruning all the good
new wood is at the top
of the fruit canes of the
previous year, where it
cannot be utilized. The
pruner has to choose
then between reverting
to spur pruning and
getting no crop or using
the weak growth from
the renewal spurs for
fruit canes, in_ which
case he may get blos-
soms but little or no
fruit of any value.

Other defects of this

method are that the Fia. 24. Forms of head pruning: A, ver-

fruiting shoots are ex-_ tical fruit canes and renewal spurs; B, bowed
: fruit canes and renewal spurs.

cessively vigorous and
therefore often tend to drop their blossoms without setting and
the fruit when produced is massed together so that it ripens
unevenly and is difficult to gather. It also requires a tall
and expensive stake.

Figure 24 B represents an improvement on the last system.
It differs only in the method of treating the fruit canes. These

156 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

are bent over in the form of a circle and tied by their middle
part to a stake which may be smaller and lower than that needed
for the vertical canes.

This bowing of the canes has several useful effects. The
change of direction moderates the tendency of the vigor of the
vine to expend itself only on the terminal shoots. More shoots
therefore are formed on the fruit canes and as their vigor is
somewhat decreased they tend to be more fruitful. The slight

| eee

Za

Fig. 25. Head pruning: fan-shaped head; fruit canes tied to horizontal
trellis.

mechanical injury caused by the bending operates in the same
direction.

The excess of vigor thus being diverted from the fruit canes
causes the renewal spurs to form vigorous shoots, which soon
grow above the fruit shoots and obtain the light and air they
need for their proper development. This method is used suc-
cessfully for certain wine grapes such as Riesling, Cabernet,
and Semillon. It is unsuited to large vigorous varieties or for
vines on rich soil planted wide apart. In these cases two fruit
canes are usually insufficient and, if more are used, the grapes
and leaves are so massed together that they are subject to mil-

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 157

dew and do not ripen evenly or well. The bowing and tying
of the canes requires considerable skill and care on the part of
the workmen.

The body, arms, and annual pruning of the system shown in
Fig. 25 are similar to those of Fig. 24, with the exception that
the arms are given a fan-shaped arrangement in one plane. It
differs in the disposal of the fruit canes,
which are supported by a trellis stretching
along the row from vine to vine.

This method is largely used for the Sul-
tanina (Thompson’s Seedless), and is the best
system for vigorous vines which require long
pruning, wherever it is possible to dispense
with cross cultivation. It is also suitable
for any long-pruned varieties when growing
in very fertile soil.

Figure 26 is a photograph of a four-year-
old Emperor vine, illustrating the vertical
cordon system. It consists of an upright
trunk 43 feet high with short arms and fruit
spurs scattered evenly and symmetrically
from the top to within fifteen inches of the es
bottom. This system is used in many Em- fy, 26. Single
peror vineyards in the San Joaquin Valley. vertical cordon with

5 fruit spurs.

Its advantages are that it allows the large
development of the vine and the large number of spurs which
the vigor of the Emperor demands, without, on the one hand,
crowding the fruit by the proximity of the spurs or, on the
other hand, spreading the vine so much that cultivation is
interfered with. It also permits cross cultivation.

One of its defects is that the fruit is subjected to various
degrees of temperature and shading in different parts of the
vine and the ripening and coloring are often uneven. A more
vital defect is that it cannot be maintained permanently. The

158 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

arms and spurs at the top of the trunk tend to absorb the
energies of the vine and the lower arms and spurs become
weaker each year until finally no growth at all is obtained be-
low. After several years, most of the vines therefore lose their
character of cordons and become simply headed-vines with
abnormally long trunks.

The cordon can be reéstablished in this case by allowing a
vigorous sucker to develop one year from which to form a new
trunk the next. The following year the old trunk is removed
entirely. An objection to this method is that it makes very
large wounds in the most vital part of the vine — the base of
the trunk.

Figure 27 is a photograph of a four-year-old Colombar vine,
illustrating the unilateral, horizontal cordon system. It con-

Fie. 27. Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit spurs.

sists of a trunk about seven feet long, supported horizontally
by a wire two feet from the ground. Arms and spurs are ar-
ranged along the whole horizontal part of the trunk.

This system accomplishes the same objects as the vertical
cordon. It allows a large development of the vine and nu-
merous fruit spurs without crowding. It is superior to the ver-
tical cordon in the distribution of the fruit, which is all exposed
to approximately the same conditions owing to the uniform
distance from the ground of the fruit spurs. All parts of the
trunk producing an annual growth of wood and fruit are equally
exposed to light and the tendency of the growth to occur prin-

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 159

cipally at the part of the trunk farthest removed from the
root is counteracted by the horizontal position. There is not
the same difficulty therefore in maintaining this form of vine
permanently that there is with the vertical cordon.

This system should not be used for small weak vines, whether
the weakness is a characteristic of the variety or due to the
nature of the soil. It is suited only to very vigorous varieties
such as Emperor, Almeria, and the Persian grapes when grow-
ing far apart in rich, moist soil.

Periods of development.

The first year in the life of a vine is devoted to developing
a vigorous root system; the next two or three years to building
up a shapely trunk and head, and a like period to forming the
full complement of arms. At the end of from five to nine
years the framework of the vine is complete and should undergo
no particular change of shape except a gradual thickening of
trunk and arms.

There are, therefore, several periods in the life of the vine
with varying objects, and the methods of pruning must vary
accordingly. These periods do not correspond exactly to periods
of time, so it may be misleading to speak of pruning a two-year-
old or a three-year-old vine. One vine under certain conditions
will reach the same stage of development in two years that
another will reach only in three or four years under other con-
ditions. The range of time of these periods is about as follows :

First period — Formation of a strong root system . 1 to 2 years
Second period — Formation of stem or trunk . . 1 year
Third period — Formation of head . . . . . . 2to3 years
Fourth period — Complete development of the arms 2 to 3 years
Total time of formation of framework . . . . 6to9 years

Under exceptionally favorable conditions the first and second
periods may be included in the first year and a completely
formed vine may be obtained in five years.

160 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Before planting.

For planting, cuttings, one-year-old rooted vines, or bench
grafts are used. In all cases, they need some attention from
the pruner.

The usual way to prune a good rooted vine of average size
having a single cane at the top and several good roots at
the bottom is to shorten the cane to one or two buds and
the roots to two or four inches, according to their size.
Shortening the cane makes the vine less liable to dry out
before rooting and forces the growth from the lower buds which
produce more vigorous shoots. The roots are shortened so
that there will be no danger of the ends being turned upwards
when planted. If they are to be planted ina large hole, they
may be left as long as five or six inches; if to be planted with
a crowbar or dibble, they must be cut back to half an inch. -

If the rooted vine has several canes, all but one should be re-
moved entirely, and this one shortened to one or two eyes.
The one left should be that which is strongest, has the best
buds, and is the best placed. Where a horizontal cane is left,
it should be cut back to the base bud. Otherwise the main
growth may occur at a higher bud and the vine will have a
crook which will result in a badly formed trunk.

If canes are growing from different joints, it is usually best
to leave the lower cane if they are equally vigorous. This
brings the buds from which growth will come nearer to the
roots, and leaves less of the original cutting, which are ad-
vantages. The upper joint between the canes is, moreover,
often more or less decayed or imperfect.

First growing season.

The treatment during the first spring and summer will de-
pend on what growth the vines are expected to make and on
whether the vines are staked the first year.

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 161

With cuttings and with both rooted vines and grafts where
the growth will be moderate, staking the first year is unneces-
sary, though it has some slight advantages. In these cases, no
pruning of any kind is necessary until the winter following the
planting, except in the case of bench grafts. The pruning in
the last case is confined to the removal of the suckers from the
stock and roots from the cion. If the stocks have been well
disbudded by the nurseryman, few suckers will develop. In
moist soil, the cion roots may develop vigorously and must be
removed before they grow too large, or they may prevent the
proper development of the resistant roots.

The removal of roots should usually be done some time in
July. For this purpose the hill of soil is scraped away from the
union and after the cion roots and suckers are removed it is
replaced. In this second hilling up, the union should be just
barely covered so that the soil round the union will be dry and
unfavorable to a second growth of roots. Later in the season,
about September, the soil should be removed entirely from
around the union and any new roots that may have formed
removed. The union is then left exposed to harden and mature,
so that it will pass the winter without injury.

First winter pruning.

At the end of the first growing season, an average good
vine will have produced from three to five canes, the longest of
which will be from two to three feet long.

Soon after the leaves have fallen in December or early in
January the vines should be pruned. The method is precisely
similar to that used for rooted vines before planting except
that the main roots are not touched. All the canes are re-
moved entirely except one. This one should be well matured,
at least at the base, and should have well-formed eyes. It is
shortened to two eyes. It is well also to cut off all shallow
roots within three or four inches of the surface. This is neces-

M

162 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

sary in the case of grafted vines if any have escaped the sum-
mer root-cutting.

Some of the vines may have made an exceptionally large
growth. Such vines may sometimes possess a cane large enough
from which to start the trunk in the way described later for
the second winter pruning.

Staking.

If the vines have not been staked before, the stakes should
be driven soon after pruning and before the starting of the buds.

In order to preserve the alignment of the vineyard, the stakes
should be driven on the same side of every vine at a uniform
distance. The best distance is about two inches. If driven
closer they may injure large roots or even the main underground
stem if the vines have not been carefully planted vertically or
slanting towards the side on which the stake is to be placed.

The side on which the stake should be placed depends on the
direction of the prevailing winds during the growing season.
This side is the leeward. That is, the stake should be so placed
that the wind will press the vine towards the stake instead of
away from it. This will much facilitate the work of keeping the
vine upright and attached to the stake. If the vine is on the
other side the pressure of the wind will stretch the string tight
and the swaying of the vine will gradually wear the string until
it breaks, necessitating retying. By carefully observing this
rule, very few vines will require retying even if weak material
like binding twine Is used.

Second summer pruning.

Before the starting of the buds, in the spring following the
planting, most of the vines appear about the same as when
they were planted. There is, however, a very notable differ-
ence, in that they have well-developed root systems in the soil
where they were formed. The result is that they make a much

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 163

more prompt and early start and will produce a much larger
growth than they did the first season. For this reason they
require very careful attention from the pruner during the spring
and summer of the second season. Vines neglected at this
time, in this respect, may make as large a growth, but a large
part of it will be wasted, the vines will be misformed and it will
require from one to two years longer to develop a suitable frame-
work and to bring them into bearing, even though they are
properly handled during subsequent years. The more vigorous
the vines, the more necessary it is to handle them properly dur-
ing this period.

The main object during this second growing season is to de-
velop a single, strong, vigorous and well-ripened cane from
which to form the permanent trunk of the vine.

This is done by concentrating all the energies of the vine into
the growth of a single shoot. As soon as the buds start, or
when the most precocious has developed a shoot of a few inches
in length, the vines should be disbudded. This consists in
rubbing off with the hand all buds and shoots except the two
largest and best placed. The lowest, upright shoots are usually
the best. Leave only those which will make a straight vine.
It is better to leave less developed buds than a shoot which,
when it grows, will make an awkward crook with the under-
ground stem.

After this disbudding, the two shoots left will grow rapidly,
as they receive all the energies of the root system. When the
longest have grown from ten to fifteen inches, they should be
tied to the stake. Unless this is done, they are liable to be
broken off by any heavy wind, owing to their soft, succulent
texture. Only the best placed and most vigorous of the two
shoots should be tied up. If this shoot is growing upright
and near the stake, this can be done without any danger of
injuring it. In this case the second shoot should be removed.
If the shoot has to be bent over in tying it to the stake it may

164 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

be injured. In such a case the second shoot should be allowed
to grow until it is known whether the first has been injured.
In case of injury the second shoot can be tied up the next time
the vines are visited and the injured shoot removed.

At the tying up of the reserved shoots, all new shoots which
have developed since the first disbudding should be removed.
The shoots should be tied up loosely, as they are soft and easily
injured, and they should be brought around carefully to the
windward side of the stake.

The shoots will require tying once more when they have
grown another foot or eighteen inches. There will then be two
ties, one at two or three inches from the top of the stake and
the other at about the middle. If the vines have a tall stake
and are to be headed very high, another tying higher up may
be needed later.

With vines making only a moderate growth, no other prun-
ing will be needed until the winter. Exceptionally vigorous
vines, however, may make a cane eight, ten or more feet
long. Such a cane is heavy and is very likely to break the
ropes by which it is attached to the stake. In this case it
may break off at the bottom, or at least will form an awkward
crook near the ground when it matures. In either case it is
dificult to form a good trunk the following year. Even when
the ties do not break, the cane will not be well suited for
the commencement of a trunk, as the joints will be so long
that it will be impossible to leave enough well-placed buds at
the winter pruning.

Both these difficulties are avoided by timely topping. When
such vigorously growing canes have grown twelve or eighteen
inches above the top of the stake they are cut back about level
with the stake. This is most conveniently done with a long-
bladed knife or piece of split bamboo. After topping, the
cane ceases to grow in length and laterals start at most of the
joints. It is less exposed to the action of the wind, and the

Piate XIII. — Dutchess (x #).

‘
.

— es. |

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 165

laterals supply the buds needed for forming the vine at the
winter pruning.

The result of the second season’s growth, then, has been to
produce a single vigorous cane with or without laterals. This
is the cane which is to develop into the final and permanent
trunk of the vine. It must not only be large and vigorous, but
must be properly matured. If the vine is allowed to grow too
late in the season, an early frost may destroy the unmatured
cane, and much of the results of the year’s growth will be wasted.
Such a frost may indeed kill the entire vine. Grafted vines are
particularly liable to injury from this cause, as if they are killed
down to the union they are completely ruined. Ungrafted
vines when killed to the ground may be renewed from a sucker
next year. This sucker, however, is likely to grow with such
vigor that it is even more liable to injury from an autumn frost
than the original shoot.

This late growth is much more likely to occur with young
vines than with old. The old vines stop growing earlier be-
cause their energies are directed into the crop, and as they
produce a larger amount of foliage they draw more upon the
moisture of the soil, which therefore dries out earlier.

Late growth of the young vines must be prevented and the
wood matured before frost if possible. This is accomplished by
means which promote the drying of the soil in autumn. Late
irrigations should be avoided. Cultivation should usually
stop by mid-summer. In very moist, rich soils, it is often an
advantage to grow corn, sunflowers or similar crops between
the rows of vines to take off the surplus moisture. In some
cases it is good practice to let the summer weeds grow for the
same purpose.

Second winter pruning.

With vines which have been treated as described and_ to
which no accident has happened, the second winter pruning is

166 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

very simple. It consists simply in cutting back the single cane
which has been allowed to grow to the height at which it is
desired to head the vine.

The vine so pruned consists of a single cane which with the
older wood at the base reaches nearly to the top of the stake,
or fifteen inches. This if properly treated will develop into a
vine with a trunk of about twelve inches, though this length
can be modified slightly, as will be explained later.

This cane consists of about seven or eight joints or internodes,
with an equal number of well-formed eyes and an indefinite
number of dormant buds, principally near the base of the cane
or junction of the one- and two-year-old wood. Only the buds
on the upper half of this cane will be allowed to grow. ‘These
buds — about four — should give six to eight bunches of
grapes and four, six, or eight shoots from which to form the
spurs at the following winter pruning.

With a vine which has been cut back to form a high head,
the cane is about twenty-four inches long and can be used to
form a trunk eighteen inches high, though this height can be
modified as in the last case. As with the shorter cane, only
the buds on the upper half will be allowed to produce shoots.
These — about six — should give ten to twelve bunches and
the shoots necessary for the formation of spurs.

In all cases a full internode has been left above the top bud.
This is done by cutting through the first bud above the high-
est which it is desired to have grow. This cut is made in such
a way as to destroy the bud but to leave the diaphragm intact
and part of the swelling of the node. This upper internode is
left partly to protect the upper bud, but principally to facilitate
tying. By making a half-hitch around this internode, the vine
is held very firmly. If the swelling at the node of the destroyed
bud is not left, many vines will be pulled out of the hitch when
they become heavy with leaves and supple with the flow of
sap in the spring.

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 167

In tying the vines, no turns or hitches must be made around
any part except this upper internode. A hitch below the top
bud will result in a crook-necked vine, as the top will bend over
in the summer under the weight of the foliage. A hitch lower
down is even more harmful, as it will girdleand strangle the vine.

A second tie about half way from the upper to the ground is
always necessary to straighten the cane. Even if the cane is
straight when pruned, a second tie is needed to keep it from
curving under the pressure of leaves and wind in the spring.
For high-headed vines three ties are usually necessary.

For the top tie, wire is particularly suitable. It holds bet-
ter than twine and does not wear. Even though it is not re-
moved, it does no harm, as the part around which it is wound
does not grow. The lower ties should be of softer material, as
wire has a tendency to cut into the wood. They should be
placed so that the cane is able to expand as it grows. With
thin and especially with round stakes this means that the tie
must be loose. With large, square stakes there is usually suf-
ficient room for expansion, even when the twine is tied tight.

Third summer pruning.

During the third season, average well-grown vines will pro-
duce their first considerable crop and develop the canes from
which will be formed the first arms.

Such a vine, soon after the starting of the buds in spring,
will have one vigorous shoot about three inches long grown
from the old wood and five fruit buds started above on the
cane. All the buds and shoots below the middle of the cane
should be removed.

This will leave the four or five fruit buds and will give the
vine the opportunity to produce eight or ten bunches of grapes.
These buds will produce also at least four or five shoots. If
the vine is very vigorous and the season favorable, they may
produce’ eight, ten or more.

168 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

When the five shoots grow, the height of the head will be
determined at the next winter pruning by which of the corre-
sponding canes are left as spurs. If the highest two canes
are cut back to spurs and all others removed, the vine will
be headed as high as possible, as these two spurs form
the two first arms which determine the length of the trunk.
If the lowest two canes are chosen and all of the vine above
them removed, the trunk will be made as low as possible.
Intermediate heights can be obtained by using some other
two adjacent canes and removing the rest. It is often advis-
able to leave some extra spurs lower than it is desired to head
the vine and to remove these lower spurs the following winter
after they have borne a crop. For example, the three or four
upper canes might be left, if the vine is vigorous enough, and
the lowest one or two of these removed at the next pruning.
This, however, is not often necessary with properly handled
vines and is objectionable because it makes large wounds in
the trunk.

Third winter pruning.

At the end of the third season’s growth the vine should have
a straight, well-developed trunk with a number of vigorous
canes near the top from which to form the arms.

Figure 28 represents a well-grown vine at this period. No
shoots have been allowed to grow on the lower part of the
trunk and the five buds allowed to grow above have produced
nine vigorous canes. The pruner should leave enough spurs
to supply all the fruit buds that the vine can utilize. The
number, size and thickness of the canes show that the vine is
very vigorous and can support a large crop. It will depend
somewhat on the variety how many buds should be left. For
a variety whose bunches average one pound, and which pro-
duces two bunches to the shoot, twelve fruit buds should give
about twenty-four pounds, or about seven tons per acre, if the

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 169

vines are planted 12 by 6 feet, as these were. The number of
spurs will depend on their length. Six spurs of two buds each

Fic. 28. Three-year-old vine ready for pruning.

will give the required number, but as some of these canes are
exceptionally vigorous they should be left a little longer, in
which case a smaller number of spurs will suffice.

When the number and length of the spurs are decided on, the
canes should be chosen which will leave these spurs in the most
suitable position for forming arms. This
position will depend on whether we want
a vase-form or fan-shaped vine. In the
first case, we choose those which will dis-
tribute the spurs most evenly and sym-
metrically on all sides, avoiding any which
cross or point downwards.

In the second case, we choose only
those canes which run in the direction of
the trellis, avoiding canes which stick out _ Fic. 29. Vine of
between the rows. Downward pointing ee ee eae
canes may be used in this case.

Figure 29 shows the vine after pruning for a vase-formed
head. The pruner has used two of the strongest canes to form

170 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

two three-bud spurs and three of medium vigor to form three
two-bud spurs. The head is of good shape, though some of the
spurs are a little too low. One, two, or three of these can be
removed at the following winter pruning, and the permanent
arms and head of the vine formed from canes which develop
on the two highest spurs. If
the vine were too high, the head
could be developed the next
year from the three lowest spurs
and the upper part removed.
Figure 30 shows vines of the
same age of practically perfect
shape. Less spurs have been
left because the vines were less
vigorous. It is easier to prop-
erly shape vines which make
a a only a moderate growth during
Fie. 30. Three-year-old vines: the first three seasons. On the
A, pruned for a vase-formed, and other hand, very vigorous vines
B rlouiaietas Ato daaeed: can finally be brought into
practically perfect shape and the somewhat larger and more
numerous wounds necessary are more easily healed by a vig-
orous vine.

Pruning after the third winter.

For the pruner who understands the pruning of young vines
and has brought them to approximately the form represented
in Figs. 29 and 30, the subsequent winter pruning is very simple.
It involves, however, one new idea — the distinction between
fruit and sterile wood.

Up to the third winter pruning, this distinction is not neces-
sary ; first, because practically all the wood is fruit wood, and
second, because the necessity of forming the vine controls the
choice of wood. From this time on, however, this distinction

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE rel

must be carefully made. At each winter pruning a number of
spurs of fruit wood must be left to produce the crop to be ex-
pected from the size and vigor of the vine. Besides these
fruit spurs, it may be necessary to leave spurs of sterile wood
to permit of increasing the number of fruit spurs the following
year.

This will be made clear by comparing Figs. 30 A and 31.
Figure 30 A shows a vine at the third winter pruning with two
fruit spurs of two buds each and one fruit spur of one bud —
five fruit buds in all.

If these five fruit buds all produce vigorous shoots during the
following summer, they will supply five canes of fruit wood
which can be used to form five fruit spurs at the following win-
ter pruning, which will be about the
normal increase necessary. Some of
these fruit buds, however, may produce
weak shoots or shoots so badly placed
that they would spoil the shape of the
head if used for spurs. Other shoots,
however, will be produced from base,
secondary and adventitious buds which,
while less fruitful, can be used to form
spurs for the starting of new arms.

Figure 31 shows a vine after the
fourth winter pruning which had devel-
oped from a vine similar to that shown SNES
in Fig. 30 A. From the three fruit | Fie. 31. Four-year-old
spurs left the previous year four canes ees cae fora
have been chosen for the fruit spurs of
this year. The old spur on the left has furnished two new
spurs and the two old spurs at the right each one new spur.
The pruner, judging that the vine is sufficiently vigorous to
stand more wood, has formed two spurs from water sprouts
which, while not likely to produce much fruit the first season,

172 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

will supply fruit wood for the following year. ‘The result is a
very well-shaped vine with six almost perfectly balanced spurs.
These spurs will develop into permanent arms, some of them
furnishing finally two or three.

Figure 32 shows a high-headed vine of the same age. It has
five spurs, of which four are fruit spurs and one a spur of sterile
wood left to shape the vine. The two more
or less horizontal spurs on the right will bear
fruit the following autumn and will be re-
moved entirely at the following winter prun-
ing, as they are badly placed. The arms of
the vine will then be developed from the
three upright spurs, which are excellently
placed.

Each year thereafter the same process must

be followed. First, enough fruit spurs, as
mas“ well placed as possible, must be left to pro-

Fie. 32. Four- _ :
year-old vine pruned duce the crop. Second, on most vines sup-
for high vase-formed plementary spurs of sterile wood must be left
et to supply more arms where they are needed,
and finally, when the full complement of arms has developed,
to supply new arms to replace those which have become too
long or are otherwise defective.

Fan-shaped vines.

With headed vines, the treatment up to the third winter is
the same except for the variations in the height of the head.
At the third winter pruning, however, the formation of the head
commences, and the pruner determines whether it shall be
vase-formed or fan-shaped. The production of a vase-formed
head has already been described.

At the third winter pruning, the vine should be pruned to
two spurs, as shown in Fig. 30 B. More vigorous vines should
not be given more spurs, as in Figs. 29 and 30 A, but the spurs

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 173
a

should be made longer, with four, five, or even six eyes in some
eases. ‘This is in order to obtain some fruit, which might not
be obtained from long pruning varieties by leaving many
spurs. With extremely vigorous vines one fruit cane may be
left at this pruning. The wires of the trellis should be put up
this year, if this has not already been done.

Fig. 33 Aand 33 B illustrates the second step in the production
of a fan-shaped head. This form of head is used only for trel-
lised vines and long-pruned
varieties. The formation
of the head and the manage-
ment of the fruit canes are
therefore conveniently dis-
cussed together.

By comparing the pruned
vine, Fig. 33 B, with the
unpruned, Fig. 33 A, the
method of pruning will be
made clear. The unpruned
vine shows two arms, the
spurs of the previous year,
from one of which have
grown three vigorous canes
and from the other two
somewhat less vigorous.
The pruned vine shows a complete unit, that is, a fruit cane
with its accompanying renewal spur on the vigorous side and
a spur for the production of fruit wood for the following year
on the other side. If the vine had been more vigorous two
complete units would have been left and one or two extra
spurs.

As the form of the vine is determined by the renewal spurs,
special attention should be paid to their position. In this case,
the middle cane on one arm and the lower cane on the other

Fie. 33. A, before pruning; B, after
pruning.

174 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING
&

have been used for renewal spurs. This brings them both to
the same height above the ground and determines the place of
the permanent arms. The next year each of these spurs will
furnish a fruit cane and one or two renewal spurs. The arms
will thus in two or three years be increased to four, or, with —
very large vines, to six. These spurs should be chosen as nearly
as possible in the plane of the trellis, that is, they should not
project out sideways. Figure 25 shows vines of this kind of
full size and in fuil bearing.

The fruit canes also should be as nearly as possible in the
direction of the trellis, though this is not so important, as they
can be bent over to the wire when tied up, and in any case they
are removed the next year.

Double-headed vines.

Some growers attempt to arrange the arms of their vines in
two stages, one above the other, forming double-headed or two-
crowned vines. ‘The method is applied to both vase-formed and
trellised vines. It is open to the same criticisms as the vertical
cordon, the chief of which is that it cannot be maintained
permanently. The lower head or ring of arms finally becomes
weak and fails to produce wood.

It is easier to maintain in trellised vineyards and has some
advantages, the chief of which is that it makes it easier to keep
the vine in the single plane and to prevent arms getting into
the inter-rows. The double trunk is not necessary and is, in
fact, a disadvantage, as one trunk has a tendency to grow at
the expense of the other.

Vertical and bowed canes.

Figure 24 A shows a long-pruned vine in which the fruit canes
have been tied vertically to a tall stake. This is a method used
commonly in many vineyards. The unit of pruning is the same
as in the method just described, consisting of a fruit cane and

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 175

a renewal spur. The framework of the vine consists of a trunk
of medium height, with a vase-formed head consisting of three
or four arms. The defects of this system have been pointed
out on page 155.

It is used with fair success with seedless Sultanas and with
some wine grapes such as Colombar, Semillon, Cabernet, and
Riesling, in the hands of skillful pruners. The results with
Sultanina are very unsatisfactory.

By this method, on most of the vines, the fruit canes start
from high up near the middle of the stake, and are therefore
too short for the best results. The canes which start from low
down are in most cases suckers, and therefore of little value for
fruit bearing.

Figure 24 B shows a vine with bowed canes. The method of
pruning is exactly the same as in the method just described.
The bowing of the canes, however, overcomes some of the
defects of that method. It is used regularly in many wine
grape vineyards of the cooler regions. It is unsuited for very
vigorous vines in rich soil.

Vertical cordons.

In head pruning, the treatment of young vines up to the
second or third winter pruning is identical for all systems. In
cordon pruning the treatment for the first and second is also
the same. That is, the vine is cut back to two buds near the
level of the ground until a cane sufficiently long to serve for
the formation of the trunk is obtained.

In the vertical cordon the trunk is three to four feet long in-
stead of one to two, as in head pruning. This makes it neces-
sary to have a longer and more vigorous cane to start with. It
may require a year longer to obtain this. That is to say, at
the end of the second season’s growth many vines will not have
a single cane sufficiently developed to give the necessary three
and one-half feet of well-ripened wood and properly developed

176 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

buds. At the second winter pruning, therefore, it will often be
necessary to cut the vine back to two buds, as at the first winter
pruning.

Finally, a cane of the required length will be obtained. The
vine is then formed as already described for the second winter
pruning of headed vines, except that the cane
is left longer. When such a vine is pruned,
spurs are left at intervals along the trunk, as
shown in Fig. 34. Each of these spurs is a
fruit spur and is also the commencement of
an arm. The future treatment of these arms
is the same as that of the arms in head
pruning.

Horizontal cordons.

During the first two or three years, vines
which are to be given the form of horizontal

Fic. 34. Verti- cordons are treated exactly as for vertical
= ea young cordons, that is, they are pruned back to two
a aaa buds each winter and the growth forced by
disbudding into a single cane during the summer.

As soon as a well- ripened cane of the required length is ou
tained, it is tied to a wire stretched horizontally along the row
at from fifteen to twenty-four inches from the ground.

For this system of pruning, the rows should be twelve to
fourteen feet apart and the vines six, seven, or eight feet apart
in the rows. As the cordon or trunk of each vine should reach
the next vine, it will have to be six to eight feet long. The best
shape is obtained when the trunk is all formed one year from a
single cane. It is necessary, however, sometimes to take two
years for the formation of the trunk. In any case, the cane first
tied down should reach at least half way to the next vine. The
following year a new cane from the end of this should be used
to complete the full length of the trunk.

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 177

In attaching the cane to the wire, it must be bent over in a
gentle curve and care taken not to break or injure it. The
proper form of the bend is shown in Figs. 27 and 35. Sharp
bends should be avoided.

The cane should be placed on top of the wire, but should
not be twisted around it. The end should be tied firmly and

errs aahtlnee tigen yet ore Peta REST

=
Fic. 35. Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long pruning.

the rest of the cane supported by strings tied loosely in order
to avoid girdling when the cane grows.

In the following spring, most of the buds on a good cane will
start. If the cane is short jointed, some of the shoots should be
removed and only those shoots allowed to develop which are
conveniently situated for permanent arms. If the vines are
to be short pruned, the arms should be developed every eight to

N

178 MANUAL OF AMERICAN ‘GRAPE-GROWING

twelve inches from a few inches beyond the bend to the extreme
end. For long pruning, the arms should be farther apart,
twelve to twenty inches. Shoots starting from the top of the
cane and growing vertically upwards are to be preferred.

As the shoots develop, the strongest should be pinched re-
peatedly, if necessary. This will tend to force the growth of
the weaker shoots and to equalize the vigor of all. At the end
of the season, there should be from five to ten canes growing on
each cordon of full length. These canes are then pruned back
to two or three buds, or a little longer for long-pruned varieties.

During the following spring and summer, the vines should
be carefully suckered and unnecessary water sprouts removed.
Any shoots coming from the lower side of the cordon should be
removed early to strengthen the growth in the shoots on the
upper side. Such vines are apt to become dry or decayed on
the upper side. At the end of this year, which should be the
fourth or fifth from planting at the latest, the cordon will be
fully formed and the final style of pruning can be applied.
A short-pruned cordon vine is shown in Fig. 27. The arms
and spurs are a little too numerous and too close together.
If this vine required the number of buds shown it would have
been better to have left the fruit spurs longer and to have left
fewer and shorter wood spurs.

The upper vine of Fig. 35 shows a cordon pruned half long.
This is an excellent system for Malaga, Emperor, and Corni-
chon when growing in very fertile soil. It gives the half-long
fruit canes, which these varieties need to produce good crops.
The fruit canes may be attached to a wire twelve or fifteen
inches above the cordon or bent down and tied to the cordon
itself, as in the lower vine of the figure. The first method is
the more convenient, but the second is necessary where there
is difficulty in obtaining satisfactory growth from the renewal
spurs. When the fruit canes are tied down, as indicated in
the lower vine, renewal spurs may not be needed, as vigorous

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 179

shoots will usually be obtained from the lower buds of the
fruit canes.

Choice of a system.

In choosing a system, we must consider carefully the char-
acteristics of the particular variety we are growing. A variety
which bears only on the upper buds must be pruned “long,”’
that is, must be given fruit canes. It should be noted that many
varieties, such as Petite Sirah, which will bear with short prun-
ing when grafted on resistant roots require fruit canes when
growing on their own roots. In general, grafted vines require
shorter pruning than ungrafted. If pruned the same, the
grafted vines may overbear and quickly exhaust themselves.
This seems to be the principal reason for the frequent failure of
Museat vines grafted on resistant stock. The cultural condi-
tions also affect the vine in this respect. Vines made vigorous
by rich soil, abundant moisture, and thorough cultivation re-
quire longer pruning than weaker vines of the same variety.

The normal size of the bunch is also of importance. This
size will vary from one-quarter of a pound to 2 or3 pounds. It
is difficult to obtain a full crop from a variety whose bunches
are very small without the use of fruit canes. Spurs will not fur-
nish enough fruit buds without crowding them inconveniently.
On the other hand, some shipping grapes may bear larger crops
when pruned long, but the bunches and berries may be too small
for the best quality.

The possibilities of development vary much with different
varieties. A Mission or Flame Tokay may be made to cover
a quarter of an acre and develop a trunk four or five feet in cir-
cumference. A Zinfandel vine under the same conditions would
not reach a tenth of this size in the same time. Vines ina rich
valley soil will grow much larger than on a poor hillside. The
size and shape of the trunk must be modified accordingly and
adapted to the available room or number of vines to the acre.

180 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

The shape of the vine must be such as to protect it as much
as possible from various unfavorable conditions. A variety
susceptible to oidium, like the Carignane, must be pruned so
that the fruit and foliage are not unduly massed together. Free
exposure to light and air are a great protection in this respect.
The same is true for varieties like the Muscat, which have a
tendency to “coulure”’ if the blossoms are too moist or shaded.
In frosty locations, a high trunk will be a protection, as the air
is always colder close to the ground.

The qualities required in the crop also influence our choice of
a pruning system. With wine grapes, even, perfect ripening and
full flavor are desirable. These are obtained best by having
the grapes at a uniform height from the ground and as near to
it as possible. The same qualities are desirable in raisin grapes,
with the addition of large size of the berries. With shipping
grapes, the size and perfection of the berries and bunches are
the most essential characteristics. The vine, therefore, should
be so formed that each bunch hangs clear, free from injurious
contact with canes or soil and equally exposed to light and air.

The maximum returns in crop depend on the early bearing of
young vines, the regularity of bearing of mature vines and the
longevity of the vineyard. hese are insured by careful at-
tention to all the details of pruning, but are possible only when
the vines are given a suitable form.

The running expenses of a vineyard depend in a great meas-
ure on the style of pruning adopted. Vines of suitable form are
cultivated, pruned and the crop gathered easily and cheaply.
This depends also both on the form of vine adopted and on
care in details.

It is impossible, therefore, to state for any particular variety
or any particular location the best style of pruning to be adopted.
All that can be done is to give the general characteristics of
the variety and to indicate how these may be modified by
grafting, soil or climatic or other conditions.

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 181

The most important characteristic of the variety in making
a choice of a pruning system is whether it normally or usually
requires short, half-long, or long pruning. With this idea, the
principal grapes grown in California, together with all those
grown at the Experiment Station on which data exist, have
been divided into five groups in the following list :

1. Varieties which require long pruning under all conditions.
—Clairette blanche, Corinth white and black, Seedless Sul-
tana, Sultanina white (Thompson’s Seedless) and rose.

2. Varieties which usually require long pruning. — Bastardo,
Boal de Madeira, Chardonay, Chauché gris and noir, Colom-
bar, Crabbe’s Black Burgundy, Durif, Gamais, Kleinberger,
Luglienga, Marsanne, Marzemino, Merlot, Meunier, Mus-
eadelle de Bordelais, Nebbiolo, Pagadebito, Peverella, Pinots,
Rieslings, Robin noir, Rulander, Sauvignon blanc, Semillon,
Serine, Petite Sirah, Slancamenca, Steinschiller, Tinta Cao,
Tinta Madeira, Trousseau, Verdelho, Petit Verdot, Walcheris-
ling.

3. Varieties which usually require short pruning. — Aleatico,
Aligoté, Aspiran, Bakator, Bouschets, Blaue Elbe, Beba, Bon-
arda, Barbarossa, Catarattu, Charbono, Chasselas, Freisa,
Frontignan, Furmint, Grand noir, Grosseblaue, Green Hun-
garian, Malmsey, Mantuo, Monica, Mission, Moscatello fino,
Mourisco branco, Mourisco preto, Negro amaro, Palomino,
Pedro Zumbon, Perruno, Pizzutello di Roma, Black Prince,
West’s White Prolific, Quagliano, Rodites, Rozaki, Tinta
Amarella, Vernaccia bianca, Vernaccia Sarda.

4. Varieties which require short pruning under all conditions. —
Aramon, Burger, Chardonay, Chauché gris and noir, Colom-
bar, Crabbe’s Black Burgundy, Durif, Black Morocco, Mou-
rastel, Muscat of Alexander, Napoleon, Picpoule blane and
noir, Flame Tokay, Ugni blane, Verdal, Zinfandel.

5. Varieties of table grapes which usually require half-long or
cordon pruning. — Almeria (Ohanez), Bellino, Bermestia bianca

182 MANUAL:OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

and violacea, Cipro nero, Dattier de Beirut, Cornichon, Emperor,
Black Ferrara, Malaga, Olivette de Cadenet, Pis-de-Chevre
blane, Schiradzouli, Zabalkanski.

These lists must not be taken as indicating absolutely for
all cases how these varieties are to be pruned. They. simply
indicate their natural tendencies. Certain methods and con-
ditions tend to make vines more fruitful. Where these occur,
shorter pruning than is indicated may be advisable. On the
other hand, other methods and conditions tend to make the
vines vigorous at the expense of fruitfulness. Where these
occur, longer pruning may be advisable.

The more usual factors which tend towards fruitfulness are:

Grafting on resistant vines, especially on certain varieties
such as those of Riparia and Berlandieri;

Old age of the vines;

Mechanical or other injuries to any part of the vine;

Large development of the trunk, as in the cordon systems.

The more usual factors which tend towards wgor at the ex-
pense of fruitfulness are :

Rich soil, especially large amounts of humus and nitrogen;

Youth of the vines;

Excessive irrigation or rainfall (within limits).

Indeciding what system of pruning to adopt, all these factors,
together with the nature of the vine and the uses to which the
fruit is to be put, must be considered. It is best when the
vineyard is started to err on the side of short pruning. While
this may diminish slightly the first one or two crops, the vines
will gain in vigor and the loss will be made up in subsequent
crops. If the style of pruning adopted results in excessive
vigor of the vines, it should be gradually changed in the direc-
tion of longer pruning with the object of utilizing this vigor in
the production of crop.

This change should be gradual, or the risk is run of injuring
the vitality of the vines by one or two excessively heavy crops.

PuateE XIV. — Eaton (x #).

GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 183

Finally, each year the condition of the individual vine should
determine the kind of pruning to be adopted. If the vine ap-
pears weak, from whatever cause, it should be pruned shorter
or given less spurs or fruit canes than the year before. On
the contrary, if it appears unnecessarily vigorous, more or longer
spurs or fruit canes should be left. Every vine should be judged
by itself. It is not possible to give more than general directions
for the pruning of the whole vineyard. It cannot be well pruned
unless the men who do the actual pruning are capable of using
sufficient judgment to properly modify their methods for each
individual vine.

CHAPTER X
EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA

As we have seen, there were many efforts to grow European
grapes in America during the first two centuries in the settle-
ment of the country. The various attempts, some involving
individuals, others corporations and in early days even colonies,
form about the most instructive and dramatic episodes in the
history of American agriculture. All endeavors, it will be
remembered, were failures, so dismally and pathetically com-
plete that we are wont to think of the two hundred years from
the first settlements in America to the introduction of the
Isabella, a native grape, as time wasted in futile culture of a
foreign fruit. The early efforts were far from wasted, how-
ever, for out of the tribulations of two centuries of grape-grow-
ing came the domestication of our native grapes, one of the
most remarkable achievements of agriculture.

The advent of Isabella and Catawba wholly turned the
thoughts of vineyardists from Old World to New World grapes.
So completely, indeed, were viticulturists won by the thousand
and more native grapes, that for the century which followed
no one has planted Old World grapes east of the Rockies, while
vineyards of native species may be found North and South
from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Meanwhile, much new knowledge has come to agriculture,
old fallacies have received many hard knocks and chains of
tradition in which the culture of plants was bound, have been
broken. In no field of agriculture have workers received
greater aid from science than in viticulture. ° Particularly

184

EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 185

is this true of the diseases of the vine. The reports of the old
experimenters were much the same, “a sickness takes hold of
the vines and they die.” What the sickness was and whether
there were preventatives or remedies, no one knew a hundred
years ago. But in the last half century we have learned much
about the ills of grapes and now know preventatives or remedies
for most of them. We know also that the early vine-growers
failed, in part at least, because they followed empirical Euro-
pean practices. Is it not possible that with the new knowledge
we can now grow European grapes in eastern America? The
New York Agricultural Experiment Station has put this ques-
tion to test, with results indicating that European grapes may
now be grown successfully in eastern America. The following
is an account of the work with this fruit at the New York
Station.

EuROPEAN GRAPES AT THE NEw YorkK EXPERIMENT STATION !

In the spring of 1911, the Station obtained cuttings of 101
varieties of European grapes from the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture and the University of California. The
cuttings obtained were grafted on the roots of a heterogeneous
collection of seedlings, five years set, representing a half dozen
species of Vitis. These stocks had little to recommend them
except that all were vigorous, well established and all were more
immune to phylloxera than the Old World varieties. From
four to six grafts of each of the hundred varieties were made
and a stand of 380 vines resulted, the percentage of loss being
exceedingly small. The success in grafting was probably due
to the method used, the value of which had been proved in
previous work on the Station grounds. The method of graft-
ing and details of care follow:

' The following account is founded on work carried on by the author
at the N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., accounts of which have been given before
several horticultural societies in 1916, 1917 and 1918.

186 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Details of care.

In grafting, the earth was removed from the plants to a:
depth of two or three inches. The vines were sawed squarely
off below the surface of the ground. The stock was then
split for a cleft graft. Two cions, made as described on
page 46, were inserted in each cleft and tied in place
with waxed string. Wax was not used as it does not stick
in grafting grapes, because of the bleeding of the stock.
After setting the cion, the earth was replaced and enough
more of it used to cover stock and cion to prevent evaporation.
This method of grafting is available to those who have old
vineyards. It is so simple that the veriest tyro can thus
graft grapes. Were young plants or cuttings used as stocks,
some method of bench grafting would, of course, be resorted to.

The cultivation and spraying were precisely that given na-
tive grapes. There has been no coddling of vines. The fungous
diseases which helped to destroy the vineyards and vexed the
souls of the old experimenters were kept in check by two
sprayings with bordeaux mixture; the first application was
made just after the fruit set, the second when the grapes were
two-thirds grown. Some years a third spraying with a tobacco
concoction was used to keep thrips in check. Phylloxera was
present in the vineyard but none of the varieties seemed to
suffer from this pest. The stocks used were not those best
suited either to the vines grafted on them or to resist phylloxera.
Unquestionably some of the standard sorts used in France and
California from Vitis rupestris or Vitis vulpina, or hybrids of
these species, would give better results. From theoretical
consideration, it would seem that the Vitis vulpina stocks
should be best suited to the needs of eastern America.

It was thought by the old experimenters that European grapes
failed in New York because of unfavorable climatic condi-
tions. It was said that the winters were too cold and the sum-

EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 187

mers too hot and dry for this grape. During the years the
Station vineyard of Viniferas has been in existence, there have
been stresses of all kinds of weather to which the variable
climate of New York is subject. Two winters have been ex-
ceedingly cold, killing peach and pear trees; one summer
gave the hottest weather and hottest day in twenty-five years ;
the vines have withstood two severe summer droughts and three
cold, wet summers. ‘These test seasons have proved that Euro-
pean grapes will stand the climate of New York as well as the
native varieties except in the matter of cold; they must have
winter protection.

To growers of American grapes, the extra work of winter
protection seems to be an insuperable obstacle. The experience
of several seasons in New York shows that winter protection
is a cheap and simple matter. Two methods have been used ;
vines have been covered with earth and others have been
wrapped with straw. The earth covering is cheaper and more
efficient. The vines are pruned and placed full length on the
ground and covered with a few inches of earth. The cost of
winter protection will run from two to three cents a vine.
Since European vines are much more productive than those
of American grapes, the added cost of winter protection is
more than offset by the greater yield of grapes. Trellising,
also, is simpler and less expensive for the European grapes,
helping further to offset the cost of winter protection.

Pruning.

It is apparent at once that European grapes must have
special treatment in pruning if they are to be laid on the ground
annually. Several modifications of European and California
practices can be employed in the East to bring the plants in
condition for winter laying-down. All methods of pruning
must have this in common; new wood must be brought up
from the base of the plant every year to permit bending the

188 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

plant. This can be done by leaving a replacing spur at the
base of the trunk. If two-eye cions are used when the plants
are grafted and both buds grow, the shoot from the upper
can be used to form the main trunk, while that from the lower
bud will supply the replacing spur. Each year all but one of
the canes coming from this spur are removed and the remaining
one is cut back to one or two buds until the main trunk begins
to be too stiff to bend down readily, then one cane from the spur
is left for a new trunk and another is pruned for a new renewal
spur.

The main trunk is carried up only to the lower wire of the
trellis. At the winter pruning, two one-year canes are selected
to be tied along this wire, one on each side, and the two renewal
spurs chosen for tying up and new renewal spurs left. For
the best production, different varieties require different lengths
of fruit canes, but the work at Geneva has not progressed far
enough so that recommendations can be made for particular
varieties. It has been found best, however, to prune weak
vines heavily and vigorous ones lightly. Under normal condi-
tions, from four to eight buds are left on each cane, depending
on the vigor of the vine. With some of the older seedlings used
for stocks in 1911 which were so large that two cions were used,
and in many of those where the roots seemed to have sufficient
vigor to support the larger top, two trunks were formed, one
from each graft. By spreading these into a V and making the
inner arms shorter, very: satisfactory results were secured.

The type of growth in Vinifera is different from that of
native grapes. The young shoots which spring from the one-
year canes, instead of trailing to the ground or running out
along the trellis wires, grow erect. Advantage must be taken
of this in the pruning system adopted in the East. The canes
and the renewal spurs as described above are tied along the
lower wire; then the young shoots which come from these
grow upward to the second wire. When the shoots are four to

EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 189

six inches above this wire, they are pinched off just above the
wire and any which have not already fastened themselves are
tied to prevent the wind breaking them off. At the same time,
if any of the axial buds on the shoots have begun to form second-
ary shoots, they are rubbed off, beginning with the node next
above the upper cluster and going down to the old cane. This
gives the cluster more room and better light. Soon after the
first heading-back, the upper buds of the young shoot start
lateral growth. The secondary branches usually grow upright
and when they are several inches high they are topped with a
sickle. This heading-back results in stockier and more mature
canes for the following year, and if properly done adds to the
fruitfulness of the vine and the fruit matures better.

General considerations.

The grower of European grapes grafted on American vines
may be prepared to be surprised at the growth the vines make.
At the end of the first season, the grafts attain the magnitude
of full-sized vines; the second season they begin to fruit more
or less abundantly, and the third year they produce approxi-
mately the same number of bunches as a Concord or Niagara
vine; and, as tlfe bunches of most varieties are larger than
those of the American grapes, the yield, therefore, is greater.
The European varieties, also, may be set more closely than
the American sorts, since they are seldom such rampant
growers.

It is too early to reason from this short experiment that we
are to grow varieties of European grapes commonly in the East,
but the behavior of the vines under discussion seems to indicate
that we may do so. At the New York Station, the European
varieties are as vigorous and thrifty as American vines and
quite as easily managed. Why may we not grow these grapes
if we protect them from phylloxera, fungiand cold? In Europe,
there are varieties of grapes for nearly every soil and condition

190 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

in the southern half of the continent. In eastern Europe and
western Asia, the vines must be protected just as they must be
protected here. It seems almost certain that from the many
sorts selected to meet the various conditions of Europe, we shall
be able to find kinds to meet the diverse soils and climates
of this continent. And here we have one of the chief reasons
for wishing to grow these grapes that American grape-growing
may not be so localized as at present. Probably we shall find
that European grapes can be grown under a greater diversity
of conditions than native varieties.

The culture of European grapes in the East gives this region
essentially a new fruit. If any considerable degree of success
attends their culture, wine-making in eastern America will be
revolutionized, for the European grapes are far superior to
the native sorts for this purpose. Varieties of these grapes
have a higher sugar- and solid-content than do those of the
American species and for this reason, as a rule, keep longer.
We may thus expect that through these grapes the season for
this fruit will be extended. The European varieties are better
flavored, possessing a more delicate and a richer vinous flavor,
a more agreeable aroma, and are lacking in the acidity and the
obnoxious foxy taste of many American grapes. Many con-
sumers of fruit will like them better and the demand for grapes
thus will be increased.

The advent of the European grape in the vineyards of eastern
America ought to greatly increase the production of hybrids
between this species and the American species of grapes. As
we have seen, there are many such hybrids, but curiously
enough scarcely more than a half dozen varieties of European
grapes have been used in crossing. Most of these have been
greenhouse grapes and not those that could be expected to
give best results for vineyard culture. As we come to know
the varieties best adapted to American conditions, we ought
to be able to select European parents to better advantage

PuaTE XV. — Eclipse (x 32).

EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 191

than we have done in the past and by using them produce
better hybrid sorts.

Varieties.

From the eighty-five varieties of European grapes. now
fruiting on the grounds of the New York Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, the following are named as worth trying in the
East for table grapes: Actoni, Bakator, Chasselas Golden,
Chasselas Rose, Feher Szagos, Gray Pinot, Lignan Blanc,
Malvasia, Muscat Hamburg, Palomino and Rosaki. These

and other European grapes are described in Chapter XVIII;
Chasselas Golden and Malvasia are illustrated in Plate V.

CHAPTER XI

GRAPES UNDER GLASS

GRAPE-GROWING under glass is on the decline in America.
Forty or fifty years ago the industry was a considerable one,
grapes being rather commonly grown near all large cities for
the market, and nearly every large estate possessing a range of
glass had a grapery. But grapes are better and more cheaply
grown in Europe than in America, and the advent of quick
transportation permits English, French. and Belgian grape-
growers to send their wares to American markets more cheaply
than they can be grown at home. For the present, the world
war has stopped the importation of luxuries from Europe,
and American gardeners ought to find the culture of grapes
under glass profitable; they may expect also to be able to
hold the markets for many years to come because of the destruc-
tion of Belgian houses and the shortage of labor in Europe
resulting from the war.

Amateur gardeners ought never to let the culture of grapes
under glass wane, since the hot-house grape is the consumma-
tion of the gardener’s skill. Certainly the forcing of no other
fruit yields such generous rewards. Grapes grown under
glass are handsomer in appearance and better in quality than
those grown out-of-doors. The clusters often attain enormous
size, a weight of twenty to thirty pounds being not uncommon.
The impression prevails that to grow grapes under glass, one
must have expensive houses; this is not necessary, and “hot-
house grapes” is a misnomer, the fruit really being grown in

192

GRAPES UNDER GLASS 193

cold or relatively cool houses which need not be expensive.
Grapes are grown under glass with greater ease and certainty
than is imagined by those who form the opinion from buying
the fruit at high prices in delicatessen stores. A grapery need
not be an expensive luxury, and the culture of grapes under
glass can be recommended to persons of moderate means who
are looking for a horticultural hobby.

THe GRAPERY

Almost any of the various modifications of greenhouses
can be adapted to growing grapes. Firms constructing green-
houses usually have had experience in building graperies, and,
as a rule, it will pay to have these professional builders put up
the house. If the actual work is not done by a builder, it is
possible to purchase plans and estimates, from which, if suff-
ciently detailed, local builders can work. On small places
there is no doubt that the lean-to houses are most suitable,
being inexpensive and furnishing protection from prevailing
winds. These lean-tos should face the south and may be
built against the stable, garage or other building; or better,
a brick or stone wall to the north may be erected. It is possible
to build a small grapery as a lean-to out of hot-house sash.

In commercial establishments and for large estates, where
the grapery must be more or less ornamental, a span-roof house
is rather better adapted to the grapery than a lean-to, especially
if the house is not to be used for the production of grapes early
in the season. On account of the exposure of the span-roof
house on all sides, however, rather more skill must be exercised
in growing grapes in them than in the better protected lean-to
grapery. Whatever the house, it must be so constructed as
to furnish an abundance of light, a requisite in which much is
gained by having large-size glasses for the glazing. The glass
must be of the best quality, otherwise the foliage and fruit

0

194. MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

may be blistered by the sun’s rays being focused through
defective spots.

Light, heat, moisture and good ventilation are all required
in the grapery. Brick or stone are preferable to woodwork,
as heat and moisture in the grapery are quickly destructive
to wood foundations. If wood is used, only the most durable
kinds should enter into the construction of the house. The
under structure of masonry or of wood should be low, not higher
than 18 inches or 2 feet before the superstructure of glass
begins. The grapery must be well ventilated. There must
be large ventilators at the peak of the house and small ones
just above the foundation walls or in the foundation walls
themselves. The ventilation should be such that the house
can be kept free from draughts or sudden changes of tempera-
ture, as the grape under glass is a sensitive plant, and subject
to mildew. Plenty of air, therefore, is an absolute necessity
to the grapes, especially during the ripening of the fruit. The
lower ventilators in graperies are seldom much used until the
grapes begin to color, at which time the new growth, foliage
and fruit are hardened, but from this time on upper and lower
ventilators must be so manipulated that the houses are always
generously aired.

Grapes can be forced in cold houses without the aid of arti-
ficial heat and formerly these cold graperies were very popular ;
but in the modern houses for growing this fruit, artificial heat
is now considered a necessity, even though the heating appara-
tus may seldom be in use. For a finely finished product, a
little heat to warm the room and dry the atmosphere may be
absolutely necessary at a critical time, this often saving a
house of grapes. Of heating apparatus, little need be said.
Standard boilers for heating greenhouses with either steam
or hot water are now to be purchased of many designs for almost
every style and condition of house. Since the grapery seldom
requires high heat, hot water is rather to be preferred to steam,

GRAPES UNDER GLASS 195

although there is no objection to steam, especially if the grapery
is a part of a large range of glass.

The border.

The border in which the vines are to be planted is the most
important part of the grapery. All subsequent efforts fail if
the border lacks in two imperatives, good drainage and a soil
that is rich but not too rich. The grapery must be built on
well-drained land or elevated above the ground to permit the
construction of a properly drained border. “Border,” in
the sense of its being a strip or a narrow bed just inside the
house, is now a misnomer, though the name undoubtedly
comes from the fact that narrow beds inside the house were
at one time used in which to plant vines. The border in a
modern grapery now occupies all of the ground surface inside
the house and may extend several feet outside the house.

Much skill is required in building the border. A good formula
is: Six parts loamy turf from an old pasture; one part of well-
rotted cow manure; one part of old plaster and one part of
ground bone. These ingredients are composted and if the
work is well done will meet very well the soil and food require-
ments of the grape. This formula can be varied according to
soil conditions and somewhat in accordance with the variety
planted. Unless natural drainage is well-nigh perfect, the
border must be under-drained with tile and in any case a layer
of old brick or stone is needful to make certain that the drainage
is perfect. At least two feet, better three feet, of the border
compost should be placed above the drainage material. In a
border made as described, the grape finds ample root-run, but
not too much, as in a surprisingly short time roots are found
throughout all parts of this extensive border.

The care of the border is a matter of considerable moment
and varies, of course, with those in charge. The usual procedure
is to spade the outside border, if the border extends outside,

196 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

before winter, after which it is covered with a coating of well-
rotted manure, without any particular attempt having been
made to keep out the frost, as a certain amount of freezing
outside of the house is held to be beneficial. The inside border
must be spaded just before the vines are started in the spring,
having been covered previously with well-rotted manure.
The time at which the vines are to be started in growth is
determined by whether an early or a late crop of grapes
is wanted. For an early crop, the vines must be started
early in February; for a late crop, a month or even two
months later suffices. So started, the first crop of grapes
comes on in June or July, the later ones following in August
or September.

It is related that Napoleon I, to secure saltpetre for making
gunpowder, composted “ filth, dead animals, urine and offal
with alternate layers of turf and lime mortar,” and asserted
that “a nitre-bed is the very pattern of a vine-border”’ and
that “when the materials have been turned over and over
again for a year or two they are in exactly the proper state
to yield either gunpowder or grapes.” Napoleon’s niter-bed
is not now considered a good model for a grape-border, as the
fruit produced in so rich a soil, though abundant, is coarse and
poorly flavored, and the vines complete their own destruction
by over-bearing. Gardeners hold that a grape-border may be
too rich in plant-food, especially too rich in nitrogen. —

VARIETIES

Out of the 2000 or more Vinifera grapes, probably not more
than a score are grown under glass, and of these but a half
dozen are commonly grown. Black varieties have the prefer-
ence for indoors, especially if grown for the market, where
they bring the highest prices. They are also as a rule more
easily handled indoors than the white sorts. However, as we

GRAPES UNDER GLASS 197

shall see, one or two white kinds are indispensable in a house
of any considerable size.

Of black grapes, Black Hamburg carries the palm of merit
because it is most easily grown, best stands neglect, is a heavy
producer, sets its fruit well, the grapes mature early; and,
in particular, it meets the requirements of the unskilled gardener
better than any other grape. The clusters are not as large
and the flavor not as good as that of some other sorts.

Muscat of Alexandria is the best of the white varieties. It
is, however, a hard grape to handle since it requires a high tem-
perature to bring it to perfection, is a little shy in setting fruit
and the grapes are not very certain in coming to maturity ;
it also requires a long season. A good quality is that it may
be kept long after cutting, much longer than Black Hamburg.

For an earlier white*grape, Buckland Sweetwater has much
to recommend it; it ripens from two to three weeks earlier
than Muscat of Alexandria and is much more easily grown.
It is good in quality but not of high quality. Buckland Sweet-
water may be well grown in the house with Black Hamburg,
whereas it is almost impossible to grow Muscat of Alexandria
in the same house with Black Hamburg.

Muscat Hamburg is a cross between Black Hamburg and
Muscat of Alexandria, and is an intermediate in most fruit
characters between these two standard sorts. It is not, how-
ever, very generally grown, although it well deserves to be
because of its large, beautiful, tapering clusters of black grapes
of finest quality.

Grizzly Frontignan adds novelty to luxury in the list of
indoor grapes. The fruits are mottled pink in color, deepening
sometimes to a dark shade of pink, and are borne in long, slender
clusters. The grapes ripen early and are unsurpassed in quality
but are, all in all, rather difficult to grow.

Barbarossa and Gros Colman are the two best late black
grapes, especially for those who are ambitious to grow clusters

198 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

of large size with large berries. Both are very good in quality.
Neither of the two is particularly easy to grow, since they
require a long time to ripen; but, to offset this, both keep
longer than any other sorts after ripening. Because of the
large size of the berries, thinning must begin early and must
be rather more severe than with other grapes. This variety
is now largely grown in England for exportation to this country
in early spring.

White Nice and Syrian are two white sorts which attain
largest size in clusters, specimens weighing thirty pounds be-
ing not infrequent, but are coarse and poor in quality and
are, therefore, hardly worth growing.

Alicante is a black sort often grown for the sake of variety,
since it departs from the Vinifera type rather markedly in
flavor. The grapes have very thick Skins and may be kept
longer than those of any other variety.

Lady Downs is another late-keeping black grape of highest
quality, but difficult to grow. The bunches and berries are
small in comparison with other standard sorts, characters
that do not commend the variety to most gardeners.

Perhaps a dozen more sorts might be named worthy of trial
in American graperies, but the list given covers the needs of
commercial establishments and will meet the wants of most
amateur growers.

PLANTING AND TRAINING

Two-year-old vines are most commonly planted. The vines
are set inside the house at least a foot from the walls and four
feet apart. The grapery must be built on piers with spaces
of at least two feet between, and the vines are placed opposite
these openings in the foundation. When planted, the vines
are cut back to two or three buds, and when these start the
strongest are selected for training, the others being rubbed off.

GRAPES UNDER GLASS 199

The grapery must be strung with wires running lengthwise
of the house at about fifteen inches from the glass. Green-
house supply merchants furnish at a low price cast iron brackets
to be fastened to the rafters to hold these wires. As the growing
vines reach one wire after another, they are tied with raffia to
hold them in place. Usually, young vines will reach the peak
of the house by midsummer, and as soon as this goal is attained
must be pinched so that the cane may thicken up and store
food in the lateral buds for the coming season. When the
wood is well matured, the vine is cut back to half or one-third
its length, depending on the variety, laid on the ground and
covered for the winter. An item of no small importance in
winter care is to keep out mice, this pest being inordinately
fond of grape buds, and once the buds are destroyed the vines
are ruined for the coming season.

The second year’s work is largely a repetition of that of the
first. The vines are permitted to reach the peak of the house
and are again stopped by pinching. A considerable number
of laterals spring up on each side of the main vine, and these
must be thinned as they develop to stand at the distance apart
of the wires to which they are fastened. This is pre-supposing
that the gardener has chosen the spur method of pruning, the
method generally used in America and the one, all things
considered, which gives best results. The selection of the
laterals the second year, therefore, is a matter of much impor-
tance since spurs are to be developed from them. Care should
be taken to have these spurs regularly distributed over the
length of the vine. This second year, grapes must not be per-
mitted to develop on the terminal shoots, but a few clusters
may be taken from the laterals in which case the laterals are
pinched two buds beyond the cluster, the pinching continuing
throughout the season if the laterals persist in breaking, as they
will do in most cases. At the end of the season, the terminal
is shortened at least one-half, and the laterals are pinched back

200 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

to a bud as close as possible to the main stem. The vines are
then put down for the winter as at the close of the first season.

The work of the third season is a repetition of that of the
second, with the exception that the vine is permitted to fruit
throughout its whole length, although not more than one
pound of fruit to a foot of main vine is permitted. The plants
are now established and the only pruning in this and succeeding
years is to cut the laterals at the close of each season close to
the main stem, leaving strong healthy buds of which at least
one, usually more, will be found close to the stem. If more
than one bud starts, only the strongest is chosen, although
often an extra one is needed to fill a vacancy on the opposite
side. After the third or fourth season, depending somewhat
on the variety, two pounds of fruit or more to the foot of the
main stem can be permitted. The novice, however, is likely
to permit his vines to overbear with the result that the crop
is cast, or the berries rattle, or the fruit turns sour before ripen-
ing. From the beginning to the finish of the season, in this
method of pruning, much pinching of laterals is required. No
hard and fast rule can be laid down for this pinching, but,
roughly speaking, all new growth beyond the second joint
from the cluster should be pinched out as fast as it shows.
With most varieties, this means that the lateral is kept about
eighteen inches from the main stem. After a few years, well-
developed spurs form at the base of the original laterals, and
from these spurs the new wood comes year after year.

An alternative method of pruning is to permit the new canes
to grow up from a bud near the ground each season. When
the vine is well established, this new cane is fruited through-
out its entire length, the laterals being pinched as described
under the spur method. This method of pruning is known as
“the long cane method.” Gardeners hold that they can grow
better fruit with this than with the spur method, but the diffi-
culties are greater and the crop is not as large.

GRAPES UNDER GLASS 201

CARE OF THE VINES

With the cultivation of all varieties indoors, more clusters
set than the vines can carry. This means that a part of the
clusters must be removed, an operation that depends on the
variety and one that requires experience and judgment on the
part of the gardener. Roughly speaking, half the clusters
are taken, leaving the other half as evenly distributed on each
side of the vine as possible. The time to take these clusters
is also a delicate matter, since some sorts are shy in setting and
the clusters must not be taken until the berries are formed
and it can be seen how large the crop will be. As a rule, how-
ever, this thinning of clusters may be begun as soon as the form
of the cluster can be seen.

It is very necessary also, especially with all sorts bearing
large berries, that grapes be thinned in the cluster. The time
to thin the cluster varies with the variety. Sorts which set
fruit freely can be thinned sooner than those which are shy in
setting. On the one hand, the thinning must not be done too
soon as it cannot be told until the berries are of fair size which
have set seed and which have not; however, if thinning is
neglected too long, the berries become over-crowded and the
task becomes difficult. The thinning is performed with slender
scissors, and the bunches must not be touched with the hand,
as touching impairs the bloom and disfigures the fruit. The
clusters are turned and steadied by a small piece of pencil-
shaped wood. Thinning is practiced not only to permit the
berries to attain their full size but also to permit the bunches
to attain as great size as possible. If too severely thinned,
the clusters flatten out after maturity. This is especially
the case when too many berries are taken from the center
of the bunch. A large cluster of grapes is made up of several
small clusters, making it necessary to tie up the upper clusters
or shoulders of the bunch to permit the berries to swell without

202 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

being thinned too severely. Grapes intended for long keeping
require more thinning than those to be used at once after pick-
ing, since, in keeping, the berries mold or damp-off in the
center of the bunch if it is too compact.

The vines in the grapery must be watered with considerable
care. The amount of water to be used depends on the composi-
tion of the borders and the season of growth. If the border
is loose and well-drained, the supply of water must be large;
if close and retentive, but a small amount of moisture is re-
quired. Watering must not be done during the period of
blossoming, since dry air is necessary for proper pollination.
When the grapes begin to show color, the vines are heavily
watered, after which little if any water is applied. Some gar-
deners mulch the vines with hay to retain the moisture in the
house and keep the atmosphere dry.

Ventilating the grapery is another important detail of the
season’s work. Proper ventilation is difficult to secure in the
early spring months when the dryness of the sun on the one
hand, and cold air on the other, make it difficult to avoid
draughts and regulate the temperature. Another troublesome
time is when the grapes begin to color, as it is then necessary
for the grapery to have air at night; but when too much air
enters, there is danger from mildew. Towards the end of the
season, all parts of the plant become harder in texture and the
grapery may then be more generously aired. After the fruit
is cut, the houses are ventilated in full so that the wood may
ripen properly.

PESTS

Several pests vex the gardener in growing grapes indoors.
Of these, mealy-bug, red-spider, thrips and mildew are most
troublesome. In a well-conducted grapery, there is never an
intermission in the warfare against these pests.

Mealy-bug is usually a sign of sloth on the part of the gar-

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GRAPES UNDER GLASS 203

dener. In a grapery devoted exclusively to grape-growing, it
should never be seen, but, since gardeners must often grow
other plants in the grapery, mealy-bug sooner or later appears
and is often hard to dislodge. It is best repelled by removing
the loose bark on the trunks which harbor the pest and then
washing with kerosene emulsion. When this becomes neces-
sary, not only the vines but the rafters and all parts of the house
should be sprayed with the emulsion.

Red-spider is another pest usually found in the grapery, but
it thrives only in a dry atmosphere and is easily gotten rid of
by syringing. As soon as red-spider appears in a house its
appearance is usually known by the reddish tinge on the foliage ;
syringing should be kept up until the pest is disposed of, keep-
ing the house damp in all except dull weather. Syringing is
done only when plenty of air can be given and when it can be
followed by sunlight.so that the water remains on the vines
as short a time as possible.

Thrips, another small insect, is sometimes troublesome but
not often and is now easily controlled by applications of nicotine.
Much care must be taken in the application of nicotine late
in the season, otherwise the fruit will be injured.

The only fungous disease of the grape troublesome in the
greenhouse is mildew. Mildew is usually brought on by a
sudden change of temperature or by draughts in the grapery.
Gardeners are of the opinion that east winds, in particular,
give unfavorable conditions for mildew and prefer to open the
ventilators to the west. If taken in time, mildew is easily
kept in check by preventing the conditions which favor it,
and by dusting the vines in dry sunshine with sulfur.

CHAPTER XII

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL

In common with other cultivated fruits, grapes are at the
mercy of numerous insect and fungous pests unless man inter-
venes with remedial or preventive treatment. Happily for
viticulture, knowledge of the pests of the vine has made such
advancement in recent years that practically all are now con-
trolled by remedial or preventive measures. Possibly no field
of agriculture has had greater need, or received greater aid from
science in the study and control of insects and diseases than
grape-growing. A separate treatise would be required to treat
the pathological troubles of the grape fully; only such details
of the life histories of the several pests to be discussed as are
essential to a proper understanding of the control of the para-
sites can be given here.

InsEct PEstTs

Insects troubling the grapes are numerous, at least 200 hav-
ing been described in America, most of which have their habitat
on the wild prototypes of the cultivated vines of this continent.
For this reason, with a few exceptions, the insect pests of the
grape in America are widely distributed, abundant, and, there-
fore, often very destructive to vineyards unless vigorously
combated. The many pestiferous species vary greatly in
importance, depending on locality, weather and the variety.
Phylloxera, however, the country over, is most common and
deserves first attention.

204

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 205

Phylloxera.

This minute sucking insect (Phylloxera vastatrix), injures
the grape by feeding on its roots. Decay usually follows its
work on the roots and is often more injurious than the harm
done directly by the parasite. This decay is always much
more serious on European vines than on those of our native
species. The phylloxera is a native of the United States east
of the Rocky Mountains, from whence it was introduced into
France and from France into California, where it causes much
greater damage than elsewhere in the United States. Wherever
the pest is found, it is more injurious in heavy than in sandy
soils. In fact, in very sandy soils the vines are often sufficiently
resistant to be prac-
tically immune.

The life history of
the phylloxera is very
complex where the dif-
ferent forms of the in-
sect appear and need
not be entered into in
detail here. East of the
Rockies, the most evi-
dent indication of the
presence of the pest is
great numbers of leaf-
galls on the under side
of the leaves of the
grape as shown in Fig.
36. These galls, how-
ever, are seldom to be seen in California and are not present
on Concords and some other varieties in the East. The winter
egg may be taken as the beginning of the life cycle of the
phylloxera. From a single winter egg a colony may arise, the

Fic. 36. Leaf-galls of the phylloxera.

206 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

first insect after hatching making its way to the leaves where
it becomes a gall-maker and gives rise to a new generation of
egg-laying root-feeders. On varieties and in regions where -
the gall form is not found, the insect probably goes directly
from the winter egg to the roots. Once the pest is established
on the roots, generation follows generation throughout the
growing period of the vines, as many as seven or eight occurring
in one season.

From midsummer until the close of the growing season, some
of the eggs deposited by the root-feeders develop into nymphs
which acquire wings and emerge from the soil to form new
colonies from eggs deposited on the under side of the leaf.
An individual insect deposits from three to six eggs of two sizes,
from the larger of which come the females and these, after
fertilization, move to the rough bark of the vine and deposit
the winter egg for the renewal of the cycle.

Several methods of control have been employed in Europe
and California, as treatment by carbon bisulfide injected in
the soil; flooding in vineyards that can be irrigated ; confining
the vines to sandy soils; and, most important, planting vines
grafted on resistant stocks, there being great variation in im-
munity of species of American grapes to phylloxera. The
subject of stocks resistant to this pest has been discussed in
Chapter IV.and need not be taken up again. East of the
Rockies, treatment is not necessary with American grapes.

The grape root-worm.

The grape root-worm is the most harmful of the insect
pests of grapes in the grape-belt along the shores of Lake
Erie in Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. This root-worm
(Fig. 37) is the larva of a grayish-brown beetle (Fidia
viticida), shown in Fig. 38. The worms feed at first on
the rootlets and later on the bark of the larger roots
of the vines so that the injured plants show roots de-

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 207

void of rootlets and bark channeled by the pest. So plain
is the work of the root-worm that the grower never need be
at a loss as to the cause of vines injured by
this pest. The worms feed during the latter
part of the growing season, reaching full growth
at this time. The next June
they transform into pupe and in
late June or early July emerge
as adult beetles. Fic. 37. The grape
The presence of the adult bee- 9 "°°" "°"™
tles is more easily detected on the foliage than is
that of the larve on the roots, for the feeding
beetles ravenously devour the upper sides of the
leaves, leaving chain-like markings, shown in
Fig. 39, their destructiveness decreasing some-
what after a few days
from their first appear-
ance. A fortnight after.
the beetles begin their
attack on the foliage the
female begins laying
her eggs, to the number
of 200, placing them
under the rough bark
of trunk and cane.
These hatch in late
July or August and
the young grubs at
once seek the roots.
Two methods of con-
trol have been devised :
destruction of the bee-
tles before they lay

worm beetle.

Fig. 39. Injuries caused by beetles of the
their eggs; and de- grape root-worm.

208 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

struction of the pupe while in the ground. When the beetles
are present in large numbers, many of them may be destroyed
by spraying with a mixture of cheap molasses and arsenate of
lead, using molasses at the rate of two gallons to a hundred gal-
lons of water and the arsenate of lead at the rate of six pounds.
This should be followed by a second spraying a week later,
using bordeaux mixture (4—4—50) and three pounds of arsenate
of lead. This second spray serves to repel migrating beetles
from the vines. The molasses spray is ineffective unless sev-
eral days of fair weather follow the spraying, as rain washes
the material from the foliage. Bordeaux mixture is not easily
affected by rain. In moderately infested vineyards, bordeaux
mixture and arsenate are used instead of molasses and arsenate
of lead, followed in about ten days with a second application
of the same material.

An effective method of reducing the number of beetles is
the destruction of the pupz. This is best done by leaving a
low ridge of earth under the vines at the last seasonal culti-
vation to remain until most of the larvee have pupated, and
then be leveled with a horse-hoe and later with a harrow.
The horse-hoe and harrow crush many of the pupe and break
the cells of others to the great destruction of the pest. This
latter method of control is not adequate in itself and in bad
infestations both should be used. When the infestation is
only moderate, this latter method is not advised, owing to the
lateness of the time of horse-hoeing. It is good horticultural
practice to horse-hoe the latter part of May or early June.
To wait for the pupal stage of the root-worm delays the work
until numerous small roots start which would be destroyed by
the horse-hoe. Spraying will control a moderate infestation.

The grape-vine flea-beetle.

In the warm days of May and June when the buds of grapes
are swelling, a shining steel-blue beetle may often be found in

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 209

the vineyards of eastern America feeding on the tender buds
of the grape. From its color the insect is often called the
steely-beetle, and from its activity and habit of jumping
it is known as the flea-beetle (Haltica chalybea). The
vine is seldom seriously injured by this pest but many buds
are destroyed, causing the loss of the fruit that should have
developed from the buds. It is true that new buds often
develop after the injury, but these, as a rule, Ug
produce only foliage. \ AB

The life history of the flea-beetle is such
that the pest is not hard to control, the chief
steps in its development being as follows:
The beetles deposit small orange-colored eggs,
cylindrical in form, illustrated in Fig. 40,
about the buds and in crevices of the bark
of the canes in May or June. Most of these
eggs are hatched by the middle of June.
The larve feed upon the foliage until about we
July first and then crawl to the ground in Rea
which they form cells and pupate. The latter aie Li
part of July the adults emerge and seek wild Fie. 40. Eggs
vines upon which they feed, entering hiber- Se ane ace flea-
nation rather early in the fall. The beetles
hibernate under leaves, in rubbish and in the shelter of the
bark of trees and vines, but emerge in the warm days the
following spring to seek vineyards.

Two methods of control have been developed to keep this
. pest under. The vines should be sprayed with three pounds
of arsenate of lead in fifty gallons of water when the larvee
are feeding on the foliage; or the beetles when feeding may
be knocked into a pan containing a shallow layer of kerosene.
The former is the cheaper and more effective method provided
the grape-grower has the foresight to discover the larvee, since
the larvee of this summer produce the beetles that will destroy

P

ay:

210 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

the buds next spring. When the adults migrate from wild
vines, or the larvee were not destroyed in the vineyard, collect-
ing the adults is the only practical method. The destruction
of wild vines near a vineyard helps to give immunity from this
pest.

The rose-chafer.

The rose-chafer (Macrodactylus subspinosus), a long-legged
beetle of a yellowish-brown color, about a third of an inch in
length, often appears in vineyards in vast swarms toward the
middle of June in northern states and about two weeks earlier
in southern states east of the Rocky Mountains. Often they
overrun gardens, orchards, vineyards and nurseries, and usually,
after having done a vast amount of damage in the month of
their devastating presence, the beetles disappear as suddenly
as they came. Vineyards on or near sandy soils are most
often infested, the larve of the beetle seeming to live in consid-
erable numbers only in these light soils. The chief damage
to the grape is done to the blossom; in fact the insects, after
feeding on the blossoms during the blossoming period, usually
migrate to blossoms of any one of several shrubs. The larvee
feed on the roots of grasses, having particular liking for the
roots of foxtail, timothy and blue-grass.

Some knowledge of the life history of these beetles is essen-
tial to effective control. The beetles emerge as adults in June
and after feeding a short time begin to mate, although egg-
laying does not take place until the insects have been out for
a fortnight or more. The females burrow into the soil and
deposit their eggs, seldom more than twenty-five in number,
which begin to hatch in about ten days. The young larve
feed during the remainder of the summer on roots of grasses.
They are seldom found deeper than six inches while feeding,
but as cold weather approaches they burrow deeper to avoid
sudden changes of temperature. The following spring they

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL ye Mil

again come near the surface to feed. The grubs form cells
from which the pupe emerge, as we have seen, about the middle
of June, timing their appearance very closely to the blossoming
of Concord grapes.

The methods of control are three, namely: destruction of
the larve; cultivation to kill the pupe; and spraying to kill
the beetles. Since the larve feed on the roots of grasses in
sandy soils, it is easy to locate the feeding ground of the pest
and plant it to cultivated crops which destroy the grasses and
therefore the larve. The second method of destruction is
similar, consisting of cultivation to kill the pup. This is
accomplished by thorough cultivation during the pupating
stage to break the cells and crush the pup, thus preventing
the emergence of the beetles. The third method, however,
is the most effective and consists of spraying the vineyard
with a sweetened arsenical spray. The spraying should be
done as soon as the beetles appear, using arsenate of lead six
pounds, molasses one gallon and water one hundred gallons.
It is often necessary to make a second application a week later.
If rain occurs within thirty-six hours after spraying, the appli-
cation should be repeated as soon as the weather clears.

The grape leaf-hopper.

From Canada to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, wherever the grape is grown, the small leaf-hopper
(Typhlocyba comes) infests the grape in greater or less numbers,
feeding on the lower surface of the leaf. Grape-growers com-
monly call these insects “thrips,’’ a name, however, which
really belongs to a very different class of insects. The injury
done by this pest varies greatly with the season and the locality,
in some regions it being comparatively harmless and in others
exceedingly destructive in seasons when it occurs in abundance.
There is great variation also in indjvidual vineyards, those
near favorable hibernating places and early spring food plants

212 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

often being injured seriously season after season in succession.
These leaf-hoppers obtain their food by piercing the epidermis

Fic. 41. First four stages of the grape

leaf-hopper. (Enlarged.)

on the under side of the leaf
surface and sucking the
sap, and add further injury
by inserting their eggs un-
derneath the skin of the
leaf. The punctures greatly
decrease the starch-produc-
ing area of the leaf with
the result that the vigor of
the plant is lowered, and
the quality of the fruit de-
creased.

The life history of the
leaf-hopper is very well
known. ‘The eggs are de-
posited in June or early

July, and hatch from June 15 to July 10 in New York, the
season being earlier or later as one goes south or north. The

young leaf-hoppers are wing-
less, the nymph stage, but
reach the adult stage in late
July and August, at which
time many of them mate, and
eggs are laid from which a
second brood may develop,
although usually only one
full brood is produced in a
season in the northern states.
Figures 41 and 42 show the
several life stages of the
leaf-hopper. Insects which
become adults in the latter

Fic. 42. The fifth and the mature stages
of the grape leaf-hopper. (Enlarged.)

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 213

part of July feed on the foliage until autumn and then seek win-
ter quarters, passing the winter in the adult stage under fallen
leaves, in dead grass or other similar protection. The hibernat-
ing place must be dry and for this reason sandy knolls are most
favored by the insects. The adults emerge in the warm days of
spring and then seek food first on the strawberry, then migrate
to red and black raspberries or blackberries, if raspberries are not
present. They remain upon these hosts until the grape leaves
expand and then migrate to these to feed, lay their eggs and die.

Three methods of control are in use to prevent the ravages
of the leaf-hopper: avoiding the planting of raspberries near
grapes; spraying with contact insecticides; and the destruc-
tion of hibernating places. Since the leaf-hoppers feed espe-
cially on the raspberry before the leaves of the grape lave
expanded in the spring, avoiding planting these two plants
near each other is a very effective method of control. The
contact spray must touch the body of the insect and must,
therefore, be applied before the nymphs develop wings. The
best spray is a half pint of Black Leaf 40 to a hundred gallons
of water or bordeaux mixture. It is applied to the under side
of the foliage by a trailing hose or by an automatic grape leaf-
hopper spray devised by F. Z. Hartzell and described in bulletin
344 of the New York Experiment Station. The destruction
of hibernating places is almost as effective a method of control
as spraying. All weeds and strong-stalked grasses which die
in the fall and all rubbish in the vineyard should be destroyed.
It is quite worth while, also, to burn leaves and rubbish in
fence rows and waste places near infested vineyards in the
autumn or early winter. Cover-crops which remain green
during the winter do not harbor the leaf-hoppers.

The grape-berry moth.

This pest is widely distributed, attacking the grape wherever
grown in North America. The insect feeds on all varieties

214 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

but is especially destructive to grapes with tender skins and
such as grow in compact bunches. Its work is detected usually
in compact grape clusters where a number of berries are injured
by a “worm.” The “worm” is a dark-colored caterpillar, the
larva of the grape-berry moth (Polychrosis viteana.) There
Nie are two broods of this cater-
: pillar, the first of which feeds on
the stems and external portions
of-the young berries, while the
second attacks the berries. The
loss to the fruit-grower is of two
kinds, the loss of the fruit and the
marring of clusters which entails
the cost of picking out worthless
berries. Figure 43 shows the work
of the grape-berry moth. The
damage is usually greatest near
woodlands since the trees cause
more snow to lodge in the adjoin-
ing vineyards, this protection per-
mitting a greater percentage of
pupz to survive.
The moth passes the winter in
the pupal state on leaves under-
<= neath the vine, emerging about
eee fe ee aN the time grapes are blossoming.
The sexes then mate and the eggs
are laid on the stems, blossom clusters and newly set fruit.
After reaching full growth, the caterpillars cut out a portion
of the leaf from which they make a pupal case by means of
silken threads, and here pupate for the second brood which
emerges in late July and August. Eggs are laid at once and
from these come the caterpillars which live entirely in the
berry. The larve leave the berries about the time the fruit is

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 215

ripe, form cocoons on the leaves and hibernate. The moths
are small, brown in color, mottled with gray and so much the
color of the grape cane that they can hardly be detected when
resting on the wood.

The grape-berry moth is difficult to control but much can be
done to curtail its ravages. Spraying after the fruit sets is the
most effective preventive. Bordeaux mixture should be used
(4-4—50) to which has been added one and one-half pounds
of resin-fish-oil soap and three pounds arsenate of lead. A
second application of the same spray is advisable in early
August. In a small vineyard or with a slight infestation, it
often pays to pick and-destroy the berries infested by the
spring brood. Plowing infested vineyards in late fall or early
spring to Lury all leaves prevents the emergence of many of
the moths. To be effective, this practice must cover the
leaves deeply directly under the vines and this earth must
remain until after the time for the adults to emerge. Plow-
ing under leaves is not as effective on sandy as on heavy soils,
since sandy soils do not become sufficiently compact to prevent
the escape of moths.

Insect pests of minor importance.

Of the 200 species of insects that feed more or less on the
grape, entomologists mention several others than those described
that in occasional years or localities become abundant and
cause serious injury. Thus, there are several species of cut-
worms which sometimes feed on the expanding buds of the
young leaves of grapes. The damage of these cut-worms
to the grape is greater in California than in other parts of the
United States, but nevertheless they occasionally feed on the
vines in eastern regions to the detriment of the crop. The
most satisfactory control measure for cut-worms is the appli-
cation of poisoned bait placed on the ground at the base of the
vines.

216 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

In California there is a grape root-worm (Adoxus obscurus)
quite distinct from the grape root-worm of eastern America.
which injures both the roots and the parts of the vine above
ground. As in the eastern species, the best evidence of infesta-
tion of this pest is the narrow chain-like strips eaten out of the
leaves, though the insect also gouges out part of the petioles,
pedicels, berries and shoots and works under ground, eating
the rootlets and bark of the larger roots. Infested vines
show a stunted condition, the canes fail to attain a normal
growth and often the vines are killed outright. As in the
case of the eastern species, this root-worm is the larva of a
beetle, the life history of the insect not being greatly different
from that of the eastern beetle. Two methods of control are
fairly effective: the adult beetles may be jarred from the
vine and captured on a screen when the infestation is restricted
to small areas; or the beetles may be poisoned with the arseni-
cal spray recommended forthe eastern species. Both jarring and
spraying often have to be repeated as new infestations appear.

The grape leaf-folder (Desmia funeralis) is another insect
pest of vineyards in California, and occasionally in the East,
which works, however, only in restricted localities and in occa-
sional years. In California, the insects are detected in a vine-
yard by the characteristic rolling of the leaves in which a tube
rather less than the diameter of a lead pencil is formed for
the home of the larve. The larve feed on the free edge of the
leaf in the interior of the roll and are thus protected by the
outer layers. In the East the caterpillar merely folds the
edges of the leaves together. This leaf-folder hibernates as
a chrysalis, coming forth in early spring to lay eggs on the
vine shortly after the foliage has appeared. There are two
broods in California and the northern states and three broods
in the southern states. The leaf-folder is easily disposed of
by spraying with an arsenical spray just after the eggs hatch
and before the larva is protected by its roll of leaves.

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 217

Still another pest found throughout the United States and
especially destructive in California is the hawk-moth (Pholus
achemon), the larvee of which occasionally do serious damage
to small areas of vines. These larve are very similar to the
large worms, familiar to all, which attack the tomato and
tobacco. The insect hibernates in the pupal state in the
ground where it may be distinguished as a large cylindrical
object of dark brown color. The moths emerge about the
middle of May and deposit their eggs on the leaves of the grape,
upon which the larvee when hatched immediately begin to
feed. There are several species of these hawk-moths, all of
which have essentially the same life history. It is not a diffi-
cult pest to control since the larvee are easily killed with arseni-
cal sprays; or if there are but occasional specimens they may
be picked by hand. There are several species of the hawk-
moth which attack the grape but this is the common one.

In eastern grape-growing regions, there are two other destruc-
tive grape insects widely distributed, but each noteworthy as
pests only in the Appalachian region of West Virginia and
neighboring states. One is the grape-cureulio (Craponius
inequalis), not essentially different from the familiar curculio
of the plum and cherry. This snout-beetle feeds freely on the
upper surface of the leaves and the bark of fruit stems, and the
female in laying eggs devours the tissues of the grapes in ex-
cavating her egg chamber. The grape-curculio is effectively
destroyed by spraying with an arsenical spray in the spring
as the beetles appear on the vines and before egg-laying begins.

Another insect pest of this region is the grape-vine root-borer
(Memythrus polistiformis) closely allied to the peach-borer,
known by all fruit-growers and the squash-vine borer known
to the growers of vegetables. This borer is the larva of a
moth and is a whitish grub with a brown head which, when
fully grown, is about one and three-quarters inches in length.
The body is slender, distinctly segmented and has a sparse

218 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

covering of short, stiff hairs. These larve burrow into the
grape-root, at first confining themselves to the softer portions
of the bark, often encircling the root several times, but later
bore with the grain of the wood and by the end of the season so
destroy the roots as to leave only the thin membrane of the
outer bark intact. This pest is difficult to deal with. The
borers cannot be removed by “worming” as in the peach,
and neither can the roots be protected by sprays or washes.
No one variety of the grape seems more immune than another.
Thorough cultivation in the months of June and July to destroy
the insects while in their cocoons at the surface of the ground
seems to be the only method of stopping their ravages, and this
is not always effective.

Funcous DISEASES OF THE GRAPE

The grape is ravaged by four or five fungous diseases in
America, unless the utmost vigilance is exercised to keep the
parasites in check. Happily for commercial viticulture, there
are regions, as we have seen in the description of grape regions
in Chapter I, so fortunate in their freedom from fungous diseases
that there is little uncertainty in grape-growing and but small
expense in controlling diseases. Also modern science has
discovered the life history of all the important diseases and
devised fairly effective means of combating them.

All of the fungous parasites of the grape in America are in-
digenous, having long subsisted on wild vines. They are, there-
fore, all widely distributed, and as cultivation has presented
to them great numbers of grape plants in continuous areas,
the diseases have increased rapidly in intensity, at times have
swept like wildfire through grape regions devastating and
utterly ruining great areas of vines. Means, however, are now
at hand in remedial and preventive treatment, which, while
because of cost may not permit the grapes to be grown profit-

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GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 219

ably in all parts of America, do permit their culture for home
use In practically all agricultural districts in the country.

Black-rot.

This is the most widely distributed and the most destructive
fungous disease of the grape in the region east of the Rocky

Rye’
Fic. 44. Work of black-rot of the grape.

Mountains. Fortunately, it is unknown on the Pacific coast.
The disease is caused by a parasitic fungus (Guignardia Bid-
wellii) which gains entrance to the grape plant by means of
minute spores distributed chiefly by wind and rain. Black-
rot passes the winter in mummied grapes, on dead tendrils
or on small, dead areas on the canes. In the spring, the fungus
spreads from these spots to the leaves and forms brown leaf
spots about a fourth of an inch in diameter, or oblong, black
spots on the shoots, leaves, petioles and tendrils. Later the
disease spreads to the fruits, not usually attracting attention

220 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

until the berries are at least half grown. Soon after the ravages
of the fungus become apparent on the berries, the fruits turn
black, shrivel and become covered with minute black pustules
which contain the summer-spores. Figure 44 shows the
work of black-rot. In the winter and spring, another form
called the winter- or resting-spore is produced upon these old,
shriveled, mummied berries, and these carry the disease over
from one season to another.

Since the disease is carried through the winter in mummied
fruits and diseased wood, the desirability of destroying these
mummied grapes and the leaves and prunings of infected vines
as soon as possible is apparent. This treatment, however,
is not sufficient, and the disease can be effectually controlled
only by thorough spraying with bordeaux mixture (44-50).
The first application should be made just before the grape
blossoms; the second, shortly after blossoming. The amount
of material applied matters less than evenness in distribution
and fineness of the spray as applied. In rainy seasons, perhaps
a third or a fourth application should be made in regions where
the disease is serious; the third is made when the berries are
the size of a pea; the fourth, as the berries become large enough
to touch each other.

Downy-mildew.

Downy-mildew (Plasmopara viticola) rivals black-rot for
first place among fungous diseases of the grape. It is found
in all grape regions east of the Rocky Mountains but does most
harm in northern localities. Like black-rot, downy-mildew
attacks all the tender growing parts of the vine, but is chiefly
found on the foliage and is usually less destructive than black-
rot. As first seen on the foliage, the work of the fungus appears
as greenish-yellow, irregular spots upon the upper surface which
later become reddish-brown. At the same time on the under
surface of the leaf, a thin, white downy growth puts forth.

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 221

The spores of the fungus are produced on this downy growth,
and under favorable conditions are distributed by wind and
water to all tender parts of the vine, where they germinate
and begin their work of destruction. The fruit is attacked
when partly grown, as shown in Fig. 45, becoming covered

Fic. 45. Grapes attacked by downy-mildew. ;

with the gray down of the fungus, the ‘“‘gray-rot” of the
grape-grower. If the berries escape the disease until half
grown, the fungus causes a brownish-purple spot that soon
covers the whole grape, giving the disease at this stage the
name of “brown-rot.’’ Besides the summer-spores, another
form of reproductive bodies is produced in the winter to
carry the fungus through the resting period.

Downy-mildew, like black-rot, spreads most rapidly and

222 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

does most injury in hot, wet weather. As with practically all
diseases of the grape, much can be accomplished in the way of
control of the disease by destroying infested leaves, shoots
and berries which contain the winter spores, but these sanitary
measures are not sufficiently effective and vineyards must be
sprayed as recommended for black-rot, except that the first
application should be made before the blossom-buds appear.

Powdery-mildew.

Less troublesome than downy-mildew in the East, powdery-
mildew (Uncinula necator), unless checked, is capable of destroy-
ing the entire crop of European grapes on the Pacific slope.
In the East it sometimes causes great loss on the several varieties
known as “Rogers hybrids” and, curiously enough, is often
a rather serious disease of the Concord. ‘The disease is caused
by a superficial fungus which passes the winter on fallen leaves
and also on the canes. The spores begin to germinate a few
weeks after the grape blossoms, but the disease is not often
found until the grapes are nearly half grown. The fine white
filaments of the fungus, which constitute the vegetative por-
tion of the parasite, then attack the leaves, shoots and fruit,
sending up short irregular branches on which great numbers
of spores are borne. These give the upper surface of the leaf
a gray, powdery appearance, hence the name. Eventually
the diseased leaves become light brown and if the disease is
severe, soon fall. Infected berries take on a gray, scurfy
appearance, speckled with brown, are checked in growth and
often burst on one side, exposing the seeds. The berries, how-
ever, do not become soft and shrunken as when attacked by
the downy-mildew. The disease passes the winter in resting-
spores produced late in the growing season. Powdery-mildew
differs from other fungous diseases of the grape in being more
prevalent in hot, dry seasons than in cold, wet ones.

In eastern America powdery-mildew is controlled by the

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 223

treatment recommended for black-rot. When black-rot is
not prevalent, two sprays with bordeaux mixture are recom-
mended ; the first in early July and the second about two weeks
later. On the Pacific coast, however, powdery-mildew or
“oidium” as it is often called there, the name coming from
Europe, is more cheaply and more successfully combated by
dusting with flowers of sulfur. Dusting is often done by hand
or with perforated cans but this is wasteful and uncertain, and
any one of several sulfur-sprayers may be used which does the
work better.

Anthracnose.

Another widespread disease is anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampe-
linum), called “birds-eye-rot”’ because of the peculiar spots
produced on the affected fruits, which attacks leaves, shoots
and fruits of the vine. It first appears on the leaves in small,
irregular, dark brown sunken spots with a dark margin. Later
it appears on the fruits, having much the same appearance
though the spots are usually larger and more sunken, the disease
being most characteristic on the fruit, however. Frequently
two or more-spots unite and so cover the greater part of the
berry. The fruits become hard, more or less wrinkled, and the
diseased area often ruptures, exposing the seed, much as with
powdery-mildew. The spores of the fungus are produced
in great numbers on diseased areas during the growing season
and are borne on thread-like filaments which live through-
out the winter in the tissues of the vine and are ready for
new growth in the spring. Winter-spores have not yet been
discovered.

Anthracnose is widely distributed in eastern America but
seldom causes great or general loss, most of the commercial
grapes being relatively immune to the disease. A few sorts
rather commonly grown in home vineyards, as Diamond,
Brighton and Agawam, suffer most from anthracnose. Spray-

224 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ing with bordeaux mixture, as recommended for black-rot,
is usually sufficient to keep the disease in check.

Dead-arm disease.

A troublesome disease of recent appearance is now doing
considerable damage in the Chautauqua grape-belt along the
shores of Lake Erie, being most common on the Concord. From
the fact that it is usually found on one arm of the vine it is
called “dead-arm disease’? (Cryptosporella viticola.) The dis-
ease is caused by a fungus which passes the winter in small,
black fruiting bodies in the dead parts of the vine. Early
in the spring the fungus spreads by means of spores to the young
shoots and later in the season attacks mature berries, producing
small, black, oblong spots of black-rot. Sooner or later, if
the diseased shoot is not cut off, the fungus spreads to the arms
or trunk of the vine, producing a slow, dry rot which eventually
kills the affected part. Fortunately, the presence of the disease
is quickly detected by small yellowish leaves, much crimped
about the margin.

The fungus is easily controlled by marking the diseased arms
when the first symptoms appear and cutting these off at prun-
ing time. If the vine is much mutilated by such pruning,
usually suckers can be brought up from beneath the surface
of the ground to renew the vine. The applications of bordeaux
mixture recommended for black-rot are valuable in preventing
the dead-arm disease. The disease is largely prevented by
renewing the old wood of the vine as soon as the trunk begins
to show a gnarled appearance.

Shelling.

In eastern America, especially in the Chautauqua grape-
belt, grape-growers not infrequently lose a large part of the
crop by the premature falling of the grapes from the stems.
The trouble is an ancient one and is designated as “shelling”’

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL D2

or “rattling.” This premature dropping usually begins at
the end of a cluster, and clusters farthest from the trunk are
earliest affected. When vineyards suffer badly from this
shelling, the vines often take on a sickly appearance, the foliage
falling off in color and the outer margins of the leaves drying
up more or less. The fallen fruit has an insipid taste and is,
of course, worthless even if it could be‘harvested.

The cause of the trouble is not known. Grapes may “rattle”
on high land or low land, on poor soil or rich soil, on heavy or
light soil. A vineyard may be affected one year and not the
next. Grape-growers usually attribute the trouble to faulty
nutrition, but applications of fertilizers have not proved a
preventive. Old and well-established vineyards seem freer
from the trouble than new and poorly established plantings.
The most reasonable theory as to the cause of shelling is that
it comes from faulty nutrition of the vine, but the conditions
so affecting the nutrition are not yet satisfactorily determined.

Diseases of minor importance.

Ripe-rot or bitter-rot (Glomerella rufomaculans) is a disease
due to the same fungus causing the bitter-rot of the apple.
As the name indicates, the disease usually appears on the fruit
at ripening time and under favorable conditions continues
after the grapes are picked. It may also attack the leaves and
stems. The first indication of the fungus is the appearance of
reddish-brown spots which spread and eventually cover the
whole fruit. The berries do not shrivel, but the rotted surface
becomes dotted with pustules in which the spores are borne.
It is hard to tell how much damage this disease does, but it
is not usually great and the late applications of bordeaux mix-
ture for black-rot or powdery-mildew are very effective in
controlling it.

Crown-gall, now known to be a bacterial disease which causes
knots or galls on the roots of various wild and cultivated plants,

Q

226 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

sometimes attacks grape roots or even the vines above ground.
Occasionally, the disease is rather serious, but it is not often
to be reckoned with in the vineyard regions of America. Fungi-
cides are useless in combating the disease and all that can
be done is to exercise great care in planting infected stock.
It is doubtful whether crown-gall ever seriously injures vines in
northern regions, although it may occasionally do so in the South.

In California there is a somewhat mysterious disease known

s “Anaheim disease,’’ because of its having first made its
appearance in the vicinity of Anaheim. As near as can be
learned, the disease first appeared in 1884 and then spread
rapidly from forty to fifty miles from the point where it began
its ravages, causing direct and indirect loss of many millions
of dollars, and leading to the abandonment of grape-growing
in some parts of southern California. Fortunately, in recent
years the Anaheim disease is less aggressive but still does more
or less damage. The nature and the treatment of this disease
are not as yet fully determined, although several experimenters
are studying the trouble. Californians whose vineyards suffer
from this disease should apply to the experiment station at
Berkeley for the latest information in regard to it.

Coulure is another trouble of the vine in California of which
little is yet known, either as to cause or treatment. The term
signifies the failure of the fruit to set or to remain on the clusters.
The trouble occurs in varying degrees from the loss of a few
berries to the complete shelling of the fruit from the stem. It
is worse in some localities than others and in some varieties
than others. Various causes have been assigned to the disease,
chief of which, and most probable, are unfavorable climatic
conditions.

CoNnTROL OF INSECTS AND DISEASES

From the number of insects and diseases found on the grape,
it would seem that, literally, “pestilence walketh in darkness

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 227

and destruction wasteth at noonday”’ in the vineyards of the
country. But not many of the ills that grape-flesh is heir
to are ever found in one region, and the vineyard is seldom
attacked by many diseases or insects in a single season. There
was a time, as we have said before, when grape-growers were
so beset by pests which they could not control, that viticulture
was one of the most uncertain fields in agriculture. But one
brilliant discovery after another has brought the pests of the
grape under the hand of man until now there are but few that
need cause much expense in treatment or worry as to the out-
come.

Plants cannot be attacked by diseases unless infection is
permitted. It follows that by proper sanitation most of the
insect pests of the vine can be kept out of the vineyard.

Vineyard sanitation.

By changing or modifying environment, immunity can be
secured from many of the pests of the grape and damage may
be reduced with most if not all. Cultivation, as has been noted
under several insect pests and one or two of the diseases of
the grape, is an effective method of eliminating grape pests.
In the case of insects, it destroys the insects themselves and
the hibernating places as well. The vineyard should never
be kept in sod, but always under thorough and frequent culti-
vation. Vineyard sanitation is greatly improved, also, if
cover-crops which remain green during the winter are planted
after the last cultivation. Cultivation should usually be pre-
ceded by deep plowing in the fall or spring to turn under fallen
leaves and weeds or grass in which hibernating insects may
pass the winter.

The surroundings of the vineyard should be looked after.
Fence-rows and waste lands which cannot be cultivated may
often be burned over to destroy the hibernating places of grape
insects. As a rule, it is unwise to plant the bramble berries

228 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

or even strawberries in vineyards, or adjoining vineyards, since
these plants afford hibernating places and food plants for
some of the grape insects, especially the destructive leaf-
hopper. Lastly, precaution should be taken by destroying all
wild grape-vines near vineyards, as these frequently harbor in-
sects and diseases, the flea-beetle finding the wild grape-vine
almost a necessity to its existence.

Spraying.

Definite rules cannot be laid down for spraying vineyards
the country over. The literature on this subject is plentiful
in any state in which grapes are largely grown, within the reach
of the grape-grower, and is not difficult to understand once
it is in hand. Every grape-grower should secure and study
‘the publications of the state experiment stations having to
do with the control of insects and diseases.

The number of applications and the sprays to be used vary
greatly in different parts of America. On the Pacific slope the
only application yearly required in most vmeyard regions is
dusting with flowers of sulfur for powdery-mildew. Several
other pests may, however, from year to year, or in one locality
or another, require special treatment. In the grape regions
of New York, many grape-growers do not spray at all, but
these are usually slovens or procrastinators whose profits
are small and uncertain. In the grape regions of the north-
eastern states, orderly vineyardists spray at least once with
bordeaux mixture (44-50) in which is put three pounds of ar-
senate of lead, no matter how few insects and fungi are present.
This treatment is given soon after the blossoms fall. In more
southern regions it may be necessary to make a similar treat-
ment soon after the first leaves appear, again after the blos-
soms fall and every two weeks thereafter until the grapes
begin to turn in color, making as many as four, five or even
six applications in all. To these regular applications of bor-

Pirate XVIII. — Herbert (x 2).

GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 229

deaux mixture and arsenate of lead, contact insecticides, as
some of the nicotine preparations, may have to be added; or,
for special purposes as specified in discussing the several pests,
cheap molasses is added. It is doubtful, however, whether
the grape can be grown with commercial success where insects
and fungi prevail and are so pestiferous as to require annually
more than two or three applications of spraying mixtures.

CHAPTER XIII

MARKETING THE CROPS AND VINEYARD RETURNS

VITICULTURE, as all divisions of agriculture, is made up of
two quite distinct phases of activity: growing the crop and
marketing the crop. The subjects to be treated in this and
the next chapter belong rather more to marketing than to
cultural activities. Treated in detail, these operations con-
stitute matter sufficient for a separate treatise, and only an
outline of present practices is in place in a text such as this
devoted to the culture of the fruit. The several operations
to be discussed are picking, packing, storing, shipping and
marketing.

HARVESTING IN THE East anp NortH

As the consummation of the care of the vine, the in-gathering
of the crop is celebrated in all European countries with re-
joicings in song, dance and mirth. In America the vintage is
less of an event than in Europe, but it is more picturesque and
diverting than the harvest of most other crops. It is work in
which youth and old age, as well as those in the prime of life
in both sexes, can take part and is reputed as a most healthful
occupation. For these reasons, the grape harvest in America,
as in Europe, has somewhat the air of a holiday, so that workers
are usually readily found for the several operations of harvest-
ing. Laborers come as grapes begin to ripen from near-by
cities and towns and neighboring country-sides in such numbers
that the care of the crop is speedily accomplished.

230

MARKETING THE CROPS Zoli

Pickers.

As a rule, pickers are hired by the piece rather than by the
day, experience having demonstrated that so paid they do more
and better work. There is usually much diversity in race,
age and condition of life of pickers so that harmonious and
efficient work is scarcely possible without a competent foreman
in charge who must often be assisted by a sub-foreman.
Efficient supervision doubles the picking capacity of a gang of
workers, and, moreover, is necessary to see that the fruit is
picked and packed with proper care. In hiring pickers, it is
usually stipulated that a part of the pay is to be reserved until
the close of the season; otherwise those disposed to have a
holiday leave when the weather becomes unpleasant or seek
greener pastures when the grapes become scarce.

Time to prek.

Unlike some fruits, grapes must not be picked until they are
fully ripe, as unripe grapes do not mature after picking. Grapes
not matured lack the necessary percentage of sugar and solids
to keep well and have not developed their full flavor. Many
growers make the mistake of sending grapes to the market
before fully ripe, a mistake easily made with some varieties
because they acquire full color before full maturity. Color,
therefore, is not a good guide as to the time to pick. In the
northern and eastern states, late varieties of grapes may be
allowed to hang on the vines for some little time after maturity,
the late autumn suns giving them a higher degree of sweetness
and perfection. Some growers run the risks of light frosts to
further maturity and to secure the added advantage of the
removal of many leaves from the vines. Ripeness is indicated
by a combination of signs difficult to describe but easily learned
by experience. These signs are: first, a characteristic color ;
second, full development of flavor and aroma; third, a softer

232 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

texture of the pulp and a slight thickening of the juice so that
it is more or less sticky; fourth, the ends of the stems turn
from green to brown; fifth, the berries pull more readily from
their stems; sixth, the seeds are free or more nearly free from
the pulp and usually turn from green to brown.

Picking appliances.

But few appliances are needed in picking grapes. Shears
are a necessity. These are of special make and can be bought
from dealers in horticultural supplies, costing from 75 cents to
$1. Some growers, after picking, pack the fruit in the field
in the receptacles in which it is to go to market. The greater
number, however, pick in trays which are taken to the packing-
house and allowed to stand until the fruit is wilted before
packing for shipment. Trays may be of several sizes and
shapes, but are usually shallow flats holding from twenty-five
to thirty-five pounds. The picked fruit is taken from the vine-
yard to the packing-shed in a wagon with flexible springs to
prevent jarring and jolting. Large growers usually have
specially built one-horse platform wagons, the front wheels of
which pass under the platform.

Picking accounts.

It is no small matter to keep a picking account with pickers.
Business-like growers use one of several kinds of tickets or tags
in keeping accounts. Probably the most common method is to
give a ticket to the picker when the receptacle of grapes is
delivered, the grower either keeping half of the original or a
duplicate of it. Objections to ticket systems are that the
pickers often lose the tickets, are irregular in returning them,
or exchange them with other pickers. To obviate the dis-
advantages of tickets, some growers use tags which bear the
picker’s name and are attached to his person. These tags
have marginal numbers or divisions which are canceled by a

MARKETING THE CROPS 233

punch as pickers deliver the grapes. Still another method 1s
to keep book accounts with each picker in which case payment
is made by the pound, each receptacle being put on the scales
as brought in from the field, credit being given for the number
of pounds. It is the duty of those in charge to see that each
picker finishes the row or the part of the row to which he is
assigned, and that he does not wander over the vineyard in
search of the best picking.

Packing-houses and their appliances.

The commercial grape-grower must have a house for packing
and storing. Houses differ in design and fitting for almost
every vineyard. Sometimes the house is a combination one
for packing and storing. Often the packing-house is a_half-
way place between the vineyard and the shipping station, in
which case it is an open shed or a lightly constructed building.
In these field packing-houses there are usually no provisions for
storing. The better types of combined houses are provided
with a cellar for the storage of grapes, the first floor is used for
packing, and the attic provides a place for the storage of baskets
and crates. In all such houses provision must be made for
thorough ventilation, especially for the storage cellar if the
grapes are to be kept for any length of time. Properly ven-
tilated, the temperature of the grape cellar can be kept as low as
50° F. during September and October. The cellar floor in these
houses is usually of dirt better to regulate the moisture-content
of the room. Often the first floor is divided into two rooms,
one to be used for packing and the other as a shipping room.
A good combination packing-and-storage-house of this type
can be built for $1000 to $2000. Now that cold storage facilities
can be secured in most grape-growing regions, and the rates of
storage are becoming more reasonable, there is less need of
storage-houses.

Packing-houses are so simple in construction and may be so

234 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

different in design that it is neither possible nor necessary to
describe them in detail. A building that protects the workers
from the elements and affords conveniences in packing serves
the purpose. Such a packing-house, which is often located in
the vineyard, should be well lighted, should be connected with
the storage-room for baskets and should have advantages for
delivering the packages from the storage-room to the packing-
room and from the packing-room to the shipping-room. Its
size will depend on the quantities of grapes to be packed. The
house must be built so that it can be kept clean and sweet.
Every packing-house, whatever the design, must be furnished
with tables for holding the trays while the fruit is being packed.
Usually these tables are so made that the picking trays are set
before the packers
on an inclined table.
il The packer transfers
the grapes from the
trays into the bas-
kets in which the
fruit is to be sold.
The trays of grapes
as they come from
s the field are set be-
z an Zz fore the packers
: ti Agee ZZ - either in front or a
ae WA Coe \ ‘ ; little to the right of
Fic. 46. Packing grapes on a packing-table. the worker, who then
packs the fruit into
the basket from the left. As the baskets are filled, they are
placed on a flat ledge or shelf in front of the packer and are
then taken off by an attendant. Empty baskets are usually
held in store on a higher shelf convenient to the packer and
from time to time are replenished by the attendant. Figure 46
shows a packing-table of the kind just described. Sometimes

MARKETING THE CROPS Zao

the packing-table is circular and revolves, the packers sitting
about the table. The baskets are held on the lap and the
packer takes the grapes off the table which is turned as fresh
fruit is brought in. This circular table is not in general use;
its only advantage is that it permits the packer to select from a
larger quantity of fruit.

Grading grapes.

Grapes are more easily graded than most other fruits; for
usually there are but two grades, firsts and culls. It is difficult
to specify exactly what firsts are, since a number of factors
must be considered which bring in play the judgment of the
grader. At least, firsts must have the following qualities:
The bunches must be approximately uniform in size; there
must be few or no berries missing from the stems; the grapes
must be fully ripe, of a uniform degree of ripeness and uniformly
colored; and the fruit must be free from insect and fungous
injuries. It is easier to give specifications for culls, since all
grapes not firsts are culls.

In large vineyards, only good fruit or the best fruit is worth
grading. It is more advisable to sell poor fruit by the ton with
little or no grading. It follows, also, that the higher the price,
the more special the market, and the more carefully the crop is
picked, the more profitable it is to grade. The work of grading
is done in the packing-shed when the fruit is transferred from
the trays into the selling receptacles. A pair of slender scissors
made for the purpose, to be purchased from dealers in horti-
cultural supplies, is used to trim out diseased and crushed
berries. The fruit must be permitted to wilt for a few hours,
a half day or overnight, before it can be graded to advantage.
In this work of grading, the greatest care should be taken to
keep the fruit clean and fresh, to sort out broken bunches and
to preserve the bloom. The less handling, the more finely
finished is the product.

236 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Grape packages in eastern grape regions.

Packages for grapes are less varied than those for any other
fruit, selling receptacles in the states east of the Rocky Moun-
tains being much the same for all regions. Dessert grapes are
universally packed in gift packages — that is, packages which
are given away when the fruit is sold —and this insures a
clean dainty package. It seems imperative that a uniform
style of package should be used the country over for the general
market, but up until this time, although there have been both
national and state laws passed, uniformity has not been secured.
A national law is needed establishing standard commercial
packages so that the grower may safely ship from one state to
another without being a law-breaker. Such a package should
be based on cubic-measure and not on weight as is often ad-
vocated; for grapes cannot be shipped without some loss from
sampling in transit ; and there
are also losses in weight by
evaporation so that the
grower, although trying to
comply with the law, may
become technically a law-
breaker if the standard is
based on weight.

The most popular package
for the grape in eastern
grape regions is the Climax
basket made in various styles
and sizes. These are cheap,
easily packed and handled, nest well in shipment and are
durable. Three sizes are commonest in use, the five-pound, the
ten-pound and the twenty-pound basket. The five-pound
basket usually holds only a little over four pounds; the ten-
pound about eight pounds; and the twenty-pound rather less

Fia. 47. Climax baskets in two sizes.

MARKETING THE CROPS Zor

than twenty pounds. Two sizes of Climax baskets are shown
in Fig. 47. It is commonly understood, however, that the
packages are short in weight, and as grapes are retailed by the
basket and not by the pound, short weight does not really
deceive.

These baskets are made of thin wood veneer with a
light wood binding at the top and bottom. The cover is of
wood and is usually fastened on with staples. The handle is
either of wood or of wire. When well made, the baskets are
firm and symmetrical, without splinters and are clean and
white. Packages carried over from year to year become dingy
in color, but the wood may be whitened by fumigating in the
storage-room with sulfur. The baskets also become yellow
and discolored if left in the sun and must, therefore, be stored
in clean, dark, dry rooms.

When grapes are sold by weight to manufacturers of wine or
grape-juice, they are usually delivered in the picking trays
which, if the market is near at hand, are always returned.
If they are to be shipped far, they go to market in twenty-pound
baskets or bushel baskets, although the latter are not regarded
with favor by consumers.

Packing.

Grapes packed indoors, as has been said, are allowed to
stand from a few to twenty-four hours after being picked to
permit them to wilt. When thus wilted they are much more
easily packed and do not shrink in transportation, so that the
basket usually reaches the market well filled with fruit. Each
bunch of grapes is placed separately in the basket after all un-
marketable berries have been removed. The bunches are
arranged in concentric tiers, the top layer being placed with
special care. When the basket is filled, the grapes rise a little
above the level of the basket, care being taken not to have the
fruit project too much so that the grapes will be crushed when

238 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

putting on the cover. In all this work, the berries are handled
as little as possible, so as not to destroy the bloom. Care is
taken, also, that the fruit is free from Spraying material and is
otherwise clean and fresh. Much less pains need be taken when
the grapes are packed in trays to be sold by weight, but even in
this there must be method in filling the trays, otherwise there
will be many open spaces and corners between bunches.

Practically all commercial grape-growers now use labels on
their packages. These not only add to the attractiveness of
the packages, but are a guarantee of the contents, both as to
name of the variety and the quality of the fruit. These labels
are, also, a sign by which a grower’s fruit may be distinguished
and are, therefore, a valuable advertising medium. Some
growers have registered their labels in the United States
Patent Office in order to prevent others from using them.
Obviously, it is not desirable or worth while to label a poor
grade of grapes.

Storing grapes.

The commercial grape-grower now stores his grapes in cold
storage warehouses if he keeps them any length of time after
harvesting. There is no question but that keeping a part of
the crop in artificially cooled houses is a great benefit to the
grape-grower, since it prolongs the season for selling by some
three or four months. Formerly, native grapes could be secured
in general markets only until Thanksgiving time or thereabouts,
but now American grapes are very generally offered for sale in
January and February, while the European grapes from Cali-
fornia are in the market nearly the year around. The grape-
grower need make little or no preparation of his product in
putting it in cold storage except to make sure that the product
is first class in every respect. It would be a waste of money
and effort to attempt to store any but clean, sound, well-
matured, well-packed grapes. The grape-grower, however,

MARKETING THE CROPS 239

seldom need concern himself with storing, since the crop is
usually stored by the buyers.

Few small growers seem to have learned the art of keeping
grapes in common storage. There are but few difficulties in
keeping European grapes for several months after picking if
they are stored under favorable conditions. Not all, but several
of the native grapes may also be kept practically throughout the
winter if proper precautions are taken. Among these varieties
Catawba is the standard winter sort, but Diana, Iona, Isabella,
Rogers’ hybrids and Vergennes, all rather commonly grown,
may be kept by the small grower.

To insure keeping, these native grapes must be handled most
carefully. The fruit is picked a few days before it is dead ripe
and the bunches placed in trays holding forty or fifty pounds.
It is important that the temperature be reduced gradually so
that there are no sudden changes. If the nights are cool, a
valuable aid is to leave the grapes out-of-doors in crates the
night after they are picked, placing them in a cool building or
dry cellar early the next morning. The cellar or store-room
should be well ventilated and should be such that the tem-
perature is not variable, care being taken that the air in every
part of the storage room is changed. Draughts, however, should
be avoided or stems and berries will shrivel. If a temperature
from 40° to 50° can be maintained, the varieties named may be
kept until March or April. An expensive store-room is not
necessary and ice to cool the room is not only unnecessary but
undesirable.

If the storage-room is too dry, the grapes wilt and lose flavor ;
if, on the other hand, the atmosphere is too damp, the grapes
mold. It is essential, therefore, to strike a medium between an
atmosphere too dry and one too wet. It is possible that a light
fumigation with sulfur or formaldehyde might help to keep down
molds in these common storage grape-rooms, but as to the value
of fumigation there seems to be no experimental evidence.

240 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Grapes grown on clay lands are said to be firmer and to keep
better than those grown on gravel or lighter soils. Some years
ago there was an association in Ohio known as The Clay-
Growers Association which handled only grapes grown on clay
lands. The members of this association believed that their
grapes were much more desirable for storage than grapes from
regions where the soil was lighter.

HARVESTING AND HANDLING MuscADINE GRAPES

The Muscadine grapes of the South Atlantic and Gulf
states are unique in vine and fruit, are used for different pur-
poses and go to different markets from the grapes of the North,
so that they may be considered almost a distinct fruit. Not
only are cultural requirements peculiar to this fruit, as we have
seen, but the methods of harvesting and marketing are quite
distinct. These are well set forth by Husmann and Dearing! as
follows : ;

“ Rotundifolia vines have been almost entirely grown on over-
head arbors in the past, the fruit being made into wine, and
under such conditions the general practice of jarring the grapes
from the vines is perhaps the most practical method of harvest-
ing. If the vines are trained to upright trellises or if the fruit
is intended for shipping or table use the grapes should be picked
by hand in order to be sound and clean. On account of the
presence of leaves, twigs, etc., mixed with the grapes jarred
from the vines, wine and grape-juice manufacturers will pay 5
to 15 cents a bushel more for hand-picked grapes. The
growers who make a practice of hand picking claim that the
work can be done at practically no greater expense than is
necessary to shake off and clean a crop, and the increased
price obtained for the fruit will more than pay the difference.

1 Husmann, Geo. C., and Dearing, Charles. The Muscadine Grapes,
U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 273: 33-36. 1913.

MARKETING THE CROPS 241

“ A description of the harvesting of the Rotundifolia grapes by
the jarring method will be interesting to those not familiar with
it. Poles are attached to sheets of canvas measuring 6 by 12
feet and having leather handles. A man is placed at each end
of the sheets and four men with two sheets work together. The
wide sides of the two sheets are brought close together under
each vine, with the trunk of the vine in the middle. The vines
are then jarred, the berries falling into the sheets. Those not
caught by the sheets or that have fallen to the ground by the
shaking of the trellis when the fruit of the adjoming vines was
harvested, ete., and which are usually of the best quality, are
picked by hand. The writers are informed that it costs
approximately 15 cents a bushel to harvest the fruit on the
ground and 12 cents to harvest that which falls on the sheets.

“The fruit is put in boxes or barrels, and if the quantity is
not large the leaves, sticks, etc., which become mixed with the
fruit are removed by hand. If there is a considerable quantity
of fruit some mechanical means, such as ordinary grain fan
mills, are used to clean it. After cleaning, the fruit is hauled or
shipped to the winery. In wineries with modern equipment
there are blowers which thoroughly clean the fruit. These are
located near the end of the elevators that carry the fruit to the
crusher.

“A common and very objectionable practice followed in
harvesting Rotundifolia grapes, especially by the jarring
method, is that of gathering the fruit all at once, whereas there
should be at least three periods of harvesting. When harvested
at one time the best quality of fruit ripens, falls to the ground,
and is lost before the harvest is commenced and the last part
of the crop is thrashed from the vines in a half-ripe condition
along with the ripe fruit. In this manner not only is the first
and best fruit entirely lost, but the harvested fruit is inferior
in quality, which necessarily results in a poor product from the
entire yield.”

R

242 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Returns from Muscadine grapes.

“Great variations occur in the yields from Rotundifolia vines.
At times there are record-breaking yields and, again, small yields
are reported, the small yields resulting from black-rot, coulure,
wet weather, self-sterility, lack of cultivation, fertilization,
lack of pruning, age of vines, and various other causes. In
spite of this, Rotundifolia vines are said to be among the
safest and most prolific of fruit-bearing plants. While in one
of the largest Rotundifolia vineyards there has been only a
partial crop during the last three years, owing to various
causes, another grower reports a yield of 177 bushels of grapes
from 4-year-old James vines, in addition to a bale of cotton
to the acre. A Florida grower estimated his crop of white
Rotundifolia and Thomas grapes for the season of 1911 at
280 bushels to the acre. An average yield of 27 bushels an
acre from 4-year-old vines, 100 bushels from 5-year-old vines,
and 150 bushels to the acre when the vines are in full bearing
should be obtained.

“The prices paid for Rotundifolia grapes depend on the
season, the quality of fruit, and the market. In years when the
crop is short better prices are usually paid than when there is a
heavy crop. Aside from the grapes sold and shipped to wineries,
grapes as a rule sell for more in the cities and larger towns than
in smaller places, the local demand being somewhat in pro-
portion to the population. In such localities fruit of good
quality will bring a much better price than inferior fruit.
Hand-picked fruit in half-bushel peach baskets or in berry
boxes usually brings from $1 to $2 per bushel. Grapes har-
vested by jarring are usually sent to the wineries and bring
an average of 75 cents per bushel of 60 pounds. The highest
price paid for this quality of fruit was reached in 1910, when
$2.25 per bushel (f.0.b. shipping point) was paid for white
Rotundifolia.

MARKETING THE CROPS 243

“In many localities certain growers have built up quite a
reputation for themselves in choice, hand-picked fruit, which
they ship to special customers in distant markets. For this
purpose the James variety is usually grown because the berries
adhere well and are of good size and flavor. Several growers
ship as far north as New York and Boston, getting from $2.00
to $2.50 gross per bushel crate. In shipping, three styles of
carriers are used — the 24-box strawberry crate, the 6-basket
peach crate, and the 8-pound basket. More attention should
be given to this phase of the industry. The varieties best
suited for shipping are the James, Memory, Flowers, and Mish.

“Tn the fall of 1910 shipments of the James, Thomas, and
Eden varieties were sent from the Rotundifolia experiment
vineyard at Willard, N. C., to Washington D. C., part of the
consignment being in strawberry boxes and the remainder in
bushel baskets. No important difference could be noted in
the two lots on their arrival in Washington. The James variety
arrived in perfect condition in both packages; of the Eden
30 per cent and of the Thomas 35 per cent had shelled. More
extensive experiments along this line are contemplated.”’

HANDLING THE GRAPE IN CALIFORNIA

Grapes are grown in California for three purposes, wine,
raisins and the table. The handling of the crop for raisins and
wine is best taken up in a discussion of these products in the
chapter on by-products of the grape, leaving only table grapes
to be discussed at this place.

The table-grape industry of the Pacific slope is dependent on
the wide distribution of the product in eastern markets for a
profitable sale of the crop, since production is so great that but
a small part of the crop is consumed in the markets of the Pacific
slope. The growers in this region, therefore, have special
problems, chief of which are those of successful shipment over

244 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

long distances. California annually ships in the neighborhood
of 10,000 carloads of table grapes, all of which must be handled
within a period of about two months. As. competition in-
creases, it becomes more and more necessary to extend the
area over which the fruit is to be sold ; to lengthen the marketing
season through cold storage; and for both of these purposes to
devise new or to improve present methods of handling the fruit.
The two requisites for the successful shipment of this great bulk
of grapes are: The fruit must reach the markets in sound
condition; and it must have sufficient market-holding quality
to remain sound for a considerable length of time after it arrives
in the markets. Experience has thoroughly demonstrated to
grape-growers in California that decay in grapes is largely
dependent on the presence of injuries to the grape berries, to
the pedicels or to the stems of the bunches. Methods of
handling grapes, therefore, and the type of package used,
must be such that the product is injured as little as possible.

Careful handling.

In the shipment of European grapes from California, it has
been found that it pays to go to much extra trouble in handling
the crop. The bunches are picked with care to avoid bruising
or crushing berries, and as far as possible they are lifted only by
the main stems. They are then laid with care in the picking
trays which are filled only one layer deep. In moving the
trays to the packing-house, they are handled carefully, the
trays being moved only on wagons with springs. In sorting,
special care is taken to remove all injured and unsound berries
and not to injure others in the bunch, here again handling the
clusters by the stems. In packing, the bunches -are placed
firmly in the baskets with care not to crush or bruise the stems
or to injure the pedicels of the berries. A slight injury of
either berry or pedicel permits the spores of the fungus causing
decay to gain entrance into the fruit.

MARKETING THE CROPS 245

Shipping packages.

The most common package for table-grapes in California is a
square basket holding about five pounds. These baskets are
placed for shipment in fours in crates. The bunches of some
varieties may be too large for these small baskets, and these
extra large-clustered grapes are packed in oblong baskets hold-
ing in the neighborhood of eight pounds, two baskets filling a
erate. No good filler seems yet to have been devised for
packing grapes in California. The cork dust in which grapes
from the Mediterranean are received is not available and a
good substitute has not yet been found. Sawdust is sometimes
used but has not proved satisfactory in holding the decay and
the fruit absorbs disagreeable flavors from the wood. Occa-
sionally, however, grapes from California are sent to eastern
markets packed in dry redwood sawdust and these seem to
come through in good condition and not to have absorbed a
disagreeable flavor. Reports seem to indicate that this specially
selected redwood sawdust is proving much better than the
ordinary sawdust experimented with some years ago.

Shipping.

Considerable work has been done by the United States
Department of Agriculture to determine how table-grapes could
best be shipped from the far West and reach the eastern mar-
kets in good condition. The crop is, of course, shipped in re-
frigerator cars and much depends on the cooling of these cars
and especially on the temperature at which the grapes are kept
while in transit. To carry well over the 3000 miles of mountain
and desert, heat and cold, the best type of refrigerator car
must be used.~ It does not appear that the pre-cooling so ad-
vantageous to citrous and other tree-fruits is worth the trouble
and expense with table-grapes, as it does not seem to prevent
decay. Cooling cannot be substituted for careful handling,

246 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

which seems as yet the most necessary precaution to be taken in
the preparation of these grapes for eastern shipment.

MARKETING

Table-grapes from both eastern and western grape regions
are now almost entirely shipped in carload lots. Since few
grape-growers are prepared to load a car quickly with grapes,
some kind of coéperation is required, or the crop must be
handled by large buyers. Coédperative methods are becoming
more and more popular, although a large part of the grape crop,
both East and West, is now handled by buyers.

There are several important advantages in selling through a
coéperative organization. Thus, in selling coéperatively, the
grapes are graded and packed in accordance with one standard ;
more favorable transportation rates can be secured by a co-
operative association; and, most important of all, the output
can be distributed to the grape markets of the country without
the disastrous competition that attends individual marketing.
In some of these organizations, also, supplies needed by the
grape-grower in producing a crop are purchased more economi-
eally than by individuals; in particular, grape packages can
be purchased better by an organization than by an individual.

As the grape industry and competition grow in the different
regions of the country, the necessity of forming marketing
organizations becomes greater. Such organizations must be
founded on the principles which many experiments have shown
best govern fruit-marketing associations. It is not possible to
discuss these principles at length, but the following fundamentals
will suffice :

An ideal coéperative association is one in which there are no
profits nor dividends. Every member of the whole organized
association is a producer. All of the product grown by a
member is. sold through the association, The association is

MARKETING THE CROPS DAW

democratic, all members having an equal voice in its manage-
ment and all sharing alike in its successes and failures. When
profits arise of necessity, they are distributed to the members
of the association in proportion to the amount of business each
has done. The work of the organization is conducted at as
near cost as possible and profits are declared only after expenses,
depreciation, interest on capital for future operations are
deducted. Thus it is seen that the plan of the organization is
to give each member as nearly as possible the exact price his
fruit has brought in the markets.

VINEYARD RETURNS

Grape-growing as a business isa comparatively new industry
in America. It is true that the first attempts at growing this
fruit were made to found an industry, but these were complete
and dismal failures, and the start in growing grapes in America
eventually came as a pleasing hobby. In evolving from a
hobby into vineyard culture on a large scale, the business side
of the industry long lagged. At present, with increasing com-
petition, manifold uncertainties in vineyard conditions, and
much unbusinesslike administration, interest in cultural opera-
tions, with which pioneers in the industry were chiefly concerned,
is eclipsed by the conception that grape-growing is a highly
developed commercial enterprise requiring for success careful
business management.

Unfortunately there is nowhere a substantial body of figures
from which growers can obtain a fair conception of what the
outgo and income of average vineyards in grape regions are.
The value of such data to investors or to those making an effort
to keep track of the finances of their business is obvious, and
an attempt is made here to put the reader in possession of
figures that ought to be helpful. The data given, although
scant and fragmentary, show fairly accurately the cost of

248 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

producing grapes, selling prices and profits in the culture of
this fruit in one of the great grape regions.

The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is carrying
on experiments to determine the outgo and income from vine-
yards in the Chautauqua grape-belt. The work is not yet
finished, nor could the findings be published in detail before
being sent out by the Station, but F. E. Gladwin, in charge of
the work, has consented to set down summaries of costs and
returns taken from vineyards at Fredonia, which will serve
as a guide to planters of grapes in this region at least:

First Year

Interest on value of land @ $200 per acre . . .. . . . $12.00
Preparation of land’. (47 220. 5" ee 8.00
Cost of vines per acre: 59. 6. (« 2s, ) (EE ee
Planting. ss, Sea 2) cet ig eee ee 4.00
Cultivating . . fae Briere Star pe nS 6.00

Total sapandtiuné rie a year? ..2%0° 2 (oe 2 RE eee

Second Year

Interest on value of vineyard @ $225 per acre .. . . . $13.50
Cultivating; hand hoeeing; ‘ete... 2). 2 = ee en ee 9.25
Erininoy ese ogee te See a ee 1.00

Total expenditure ve secbaa year 2 6 9-2/0) eee

Third Year

Interest on value of vineyard @ $250 per acre. . . . . . $15.00
Prunine GAY PS CEES Sty te OND. Se tan eran 2.50
Posts (cost of) @ “10 240 cu = wile at acta net eta ke so Rg ae
Setting and driving . a 18 Mee be Ge eeteee Soc 6.50
Wire and wiring, staples, ce eS An, ik POINTES hc 11.65
Tying and twine. . . ENC Se Reh RE TS Soi 1.45
Cultivating, plowing, farcowme! = 9 a MN ss | ge ee 9.25
Sprayineeewe AO ae MS) 4.00
No. baskets sold @ 16 per iagine 500 er or pOOLOU

Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand . ... . 10.00

Picking @) 01 per baskets «(27 \c1>- 9 ci eee 5.00

Puare XIX. — Iona (X32).

a

i)

:

MARKETING THE CROPS 249

Pama Ol per basket. — <6 2 # « wos. $5.00
Hammes003 . . . at oh s elt eee hee 1.50
iemee tor third year s-)2 02,56 18° 2a. 8 $95.85

Ni CCRCMPIERS yates), sles do ey he en oe EERO. OO

Fourth Year
Interest on value of viney ard @) $800 per acre. =. 2 . © ‘$18:00

TRIE ie Rel ar i oe Stine su er eee eS cae 2.50
TRyines %). SLA, (er CRMC Macs ee AL ie cee sae 2.90
Spraying and aroneells oe? 4.00
Cultivating, plowing, harrowing, hand- hocing and plowing back
one furrow. . Smee eae 9.25
Trellis upkeep, driving pORts, tightening ° wires, We. ey ys 2.50
Pulling and poling out brush. . pehe ice EP ak 1.69
No. baskets sold @ .16 per basket 1000 view $160.00
Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand . ... . 20.60
mickinmeaiaellper basket’, -.-, <2. 0. -. *. . 10.00
Pacman Ol per baskets. 2) 04 <i. & « 10.00
Hamlime20089>5 . .. . See ee one tre eh cs 3.00
Dutotor fourth year“. 2. . 2. 4 « « $83.84
Mrconicmneree? Sows se Se ee. se ee oe pLOOIOO
Ontzonortour years). 6) = 2 « ). ar. = -t $245.44

JNCcOMeOmiouUrnyeans <=. 3. ./<!.. ...+ . « 240100

Estimates for Succeeding Years

EMOSsbINCOM On see <a Veg els le cic ay) sewed nee bot L250 —-200
OittOMEN Ee ae. Met a ek eV c oS bes on 2 ORCS

CHAPTER XIV

GRAPE PRODUCTS

OVER-PRODUCTION, with the attendant losses caused by
glutted markets, is a factor which, like frosts and freezes, 1s
ever in the mind of the grape-grower. No season passes but
that some of the grape regions of the country suffer from over-
production. Not uncommonly the grape industry in a region
is better off in a season when the crop is small and prices high;
than when the crop is large and prices low. In every part of
the country where grapes are grown, over-production has been
a great deterrent to viticulture; this, in spite of the fact that
grape-growers have availed themselves of the opportunity to
manufacture products from this fruit. Thus, wine and raisins
are made from the grape in California, and a large part of the
harvest in the East goes into wine, champagne and grape-juice.
But the growth of prohibition now threatens the wine and
champagne industries of the country, in fact may be said to
have driven them to the wall, making the need of new outlets
in manufactured products a greater necessity.

Under these conditions, grape-growers must seek in every
way to enlarge the sale of the crop to manufacturers with the
hope that thus, together with more perfect distribution of his
commodities, the inroads made by prohibition on the industry
may be offset and the over-production of table-grapes be
better prevented. With this brief emphasis on the importance
of manufactured products of the grape, we approach the dis-

250

GRAPE PRODUCTS 251

cussion of the several possible outlets to over-production in
this fruit.

WINE

The manufacture and use of wine in America, as has been
intimated, is likely to cease through prohibition. Therefore,
whatever may be said of this product of the grape is of less and
less interest to grape-growers. However, a few years of grace
probably remain for the making of wines in America, and since
wine-making yet offers the greatest outlet for the grape crop,
next to table-grapes, wine must be considered as a factor in the
grape industry.

Since the demand and price for grapes depend very largely on
the kind of wine to be made, it is necessary to characterize the
wines made in America. Wine, it should be said, is the product
of alcoholic fermentation of the grape. Alcoholic fermentations
made from other fruits are not, strictly speaking, wines.
Natural wines are divided into three broad groups; dry, sweet
and sparkling wines. Dry wines are those in which sugar has
been eliminated by fermentation; sweet wines those in which
sufficient sugar remains to give a sweet taste; and sparkling
wines are those which contain sufficient carbonic acid gas to
give a pressure of several atmospheres in the bottle. The
carbonic acid gas is produced in sparkling wines by fermenta-
tion in the bottle of a dry wine.

The color in these three classes of wine may be red or white,
depending on whether or not the color is extracted from the
skins in the process of fermentation. To make red wine, of
course, the grapes to be fermented must have red coloring
matter in skin or juice or both. Each of these groups of wine
includes a very large number of kinds distinguished by the name
of the region, the locality or the name of the vineyard in which
a wine is made. Wines are still further distinguished according
to the year of the vintage.

252 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Wine-making.

There are four distinct stages in the making of wine after
the grapes are grown. The first is the harvesting of the grapes
when they have reached the proper stage of maturity, which is
known as “wine-making ripeness.” This stage of ripeness is
determined by means of a must-scale or saccharometer. The
wine-maker squeezes the juice from a number of bunches of
grapes into a receptacle into which he drops the must-scale,
whereupon the sugar-content of the juice is indicated on the
scale, determining whether the proper stage of ripeness has
been reached. Suitable varieties of grapes having been grown,
it is necessary that they be permitted to hang on the vine until
the proper degree of ripeness is developed, after which they
are delivered at the winery as free as possible from injury or
decay.

The second stage is the preparation of the grapes for fermen-
tation. The grapes are weighed on arriving at the winery and
are then conveyed either by hand or more often by a mechanical
conveyor to the hopper or crusher. The ancient method of
crushing, which still prevails in some parts of Europe, was to
tramp the grapes with bare feet or wooden shoes. Tramping
has been superseded by mechanical crushers which break the
skin but do not crush the seeds. The best mechanical crushers
consist of two-grooved revolving cylinders. As the grapes pass
through the crusher, they fall into the stemmer, a machine
which tears off the stems, discharging them at one end, while
the seeds, skins, pulp and juice pass through the bottom to
the presses usually on the floor below. There are several types
of wine-presses, all of which, however, are modifications of
screw, hydraulic or knuckle-joint power. In large wineries, the
hydraulic press has almost driven out the other two forms of
power and when great quantities of grapes must be handled
a number of hydraulic presses are usually in operation. The

-

GRAPE PRODUCTS 25s

grape pomace is built up into a “cheese”’ by the use of cloths
and racks variously arranged. The “cheese”’ is then put under
heavy pressure from which the juice or “must” is quickly ex-
tracted.

The third stage is fermentation. The “must” is carried
from the press into open tanks or vats which hold from 500 to
5000 gallons or even more. The yeast cells which cause
fermentation may be introduced naturally on the skins of the
grapes; or in many modern wineries the “must”? is sterilized
to rid it of undesirable micro-organisms and a “starter” of
“wine-yeast” is added to start the fermentation. Yeast
organisms attack the sugar and must, breaking it up into alco-
hol and carbonic acid gas, the latter passing off as it is formed.
When active fermentation ceases, the new wine is drawn from
the pomace and is put into closed casks or tanks where it
undergoes a secondary fermentation, much sediment settling
at the bottom of the cask. To rid the new wine of this sediment,
it must be drawn off into clean casks, an operation called
“racking.” The first racking usually takes place within a
month or six weeks. A second racking is necessary at the end
of the winter and a third is desirable in the summer or fall.

The fourth stage is the aging of the wine. Before aging
begins, however, the wine usually must be rendered perfectly
clear and bright by “fining.” The materials used in fining are
isinglass, white of egg or gelatine. These, introduced into the
wine, cause undissolved matters to precipitate. The wine is
now ready for bottling or consumption. Most wines acquire a
more desirable flavor through “aging,” a slow oxidation in the
bottles.

Champagne.

When champagne wines have gone through their first fermen-
tation, they are racked off into casks to age until their quality
can be ascertained, after which a blend of several different

254 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

wines is made. This blend is called the “cuvée.”’ The cuvée
is bottled and a second fermentation starts. The bottles are
now put in cool cellars, corded in horizontal layers with thin
strips of wood between each layer of bottles. The champagne
in this stage is said to be in “tirage.”” The carbonic acid gas
generated at this second fermentation is confined in the bottles
and absorbed by the wine. When the bottle is unéorked, the
gas, seeking to escape, produces the sparkling effect desirable in
sparkling wines. After the wine has been in tirage for one
or two years, the bottles are placed in A-shaped racks, the neck
of the bottle pointing downward so that the sediment formed
during fermentation drops to the cork. To further the settling
of the sediment, workmen turn or shake each bottle daily for a
period of one to three months. The bottles are then taken to
the finishing room, cork down and the wine is “ disgorged.”
Disgorging is accomplished by freezing a small quantity of
wine in the neck of the bottle containing the sediment, after
which the cork is removed and with it the frozen sediment. ‘The
bottle is refilled, recorked, wired, capped, and the champagne
is ready for shipment.

The vintage.

The wine-making season the world over is known as the
“vintage.” The time at which the vintage begins depends, of
course, on the region, the variety of grapes, the growing season
and the location of the vineyard. Its duration, also, depends
on these same factors. The season is usually lengthened by the
fact that wine-makers require for their purposes a number of
varieties of grapes which ripen at different times. Before or
during the vintage, representatives of wine cellars usually make
contracts for the number of tons of grapes required at a certain
price a ton.

The notion prevails that grapes for wine and grape-juice
need not be first-class. This is far from the truth. To make

GRAPE PRODUCTS 255

good wine the grapes must be carefully harvested, transported
with as little injury as possible and must be protected from dirt,
mold and fermentation before reaching the winery. European
vintagers maintain that grapes picked at sunrise produce the
lightest and most limped wines and yield more juice. They
say, also, that the grapes should not be gathered in the heat of
the day because fermentation sets in at once. These niceties
are not observed in America.

Prices paid for wine grapes.

Supply and demand regulate the price paid for wine grapes.
There is always demand for good wine grapes, although a poor
product often goes begging for market. In the East, the highest
prices are paid for the grapes used in making champagne. The
champagne region of the East is confined to a few localities
along Lake Erie and to western New York about Keuka Lake,
where the industry is most largely developed. The varieties
used in champagne-making in the East are Delaware, Catawba,
Elvira, Dutchess, Iona, Diamond and a few other sorts. Prices
differ with the many conditions affecting the grape and cham-
pagne industries, perhaps the average price for Catawba, the
grape chiefly used in making champagne in this region, being
from $40 to $50 a ton. Choicer grapes, as Delaware, Iona
and Dutchess, often sell from $75 to $100 a ton. Concords are
sometimes utilized in making dry wines in the eastern states,
$30 or $40 a ton being the average price. Ives and Norton
are much used for red wines and sell for top prices.

Wine-makers in the East are at a disadvantage in producing
wines other than champagne, since the price paid on the Pacific
slope for wine grapes is much lower. Grapes for sweet wine in
California often sell as low as $6 or $7 a ton, the average price
being $10 or $12. Grapes for dry wines, such as Zinfandel and
Burger, bring on the Pacific coast from $10 to $12 a ton. Choice
varieties of grapes in this region, such as Cabernet, Sauvignon,

256 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Petite Sirah and Riesling, bring from $22 to $24. The eastern
wine-makers, however, have the advantage of being close to the
largest and best markets in the country. Wines made in the
East are very different from those made in California and
supply a different market.

A few years ago most of the Muscadine grapes grown in the
South were used for wine-making. From these grapes wine
has been made since colonial times, and for a century there
have been some large vineyards of Muscadine grapes in the
South from which wine was made in a commercial way. Since
Muscadine grapes do not sell well in the markets in com-
petition with the grapes of the North or the Pacific slope,
the Muscadine grape industry has been dependent on the wine
industry of the section in which the fruit is produced. The
growth of prohibition in the South, however, has driven the
wine industry to the North and West and there is now little
wine manufactured from Muscadine grapes in the South, al-
though some grapes are shipped North for wine-making. The
wine made from these grapes is very distinct in flavor and on
that account a special trade has been developed for it. It is
possible that this special trade will keep up the demand for
Muscadine wine so that some part of the crop may be shipped
to wine-making states to supply this demand.

GRAPE-JUICE

When properly made, grape-juice is the undiluted, un-
sweetened, unfermented juice of the grape and contains no
preservatives, fermentation being prevented by sterilization
with heat. The product is as ancient as wine, and, therefore,
as the cultivation of the vine, for all wine-making peoples have
used new wine or grape-juice as a beverage. For centuries
physicians in wine-making countries have prescribed grape-
juice as it comes from the wine-press for certain maladies, the

GRAPE PRODUCTS 257

treatment constituting an essential part of the grape-cures of
European countries. The process of making an unfermented
grape-juice that will keep from season to season as an article of
commerce is, however, a modern invention, and is the outcome
of the discoveries of the last half century regarding the control
of the agents of fermentation.

The manufacture of commercial grape-juice in America, to
which country the industry is confined, began as a home prac-
tice following the fundamental processes of canning fruit.
Toward the close of the last century, several inventive minds
discovered methods of making a commercial product and began
developing markets for their wares. The beginning of the
present century found the new industry in full swing, since
which time its growth has been truly marvelous. In 1900
the amount of grape-juice made in the United States was so
small as to be negligible in the census report of that year. By
1910, the annual output had reached for the whole country over
1,500,000 gallons and at present writing, 1918, it is well above
3,500,000 gallons per annum. The manufacture of grape-juice
‘s no longer a home industry but a great commercial enterprise.
It is an industry closely associated with grape-growing, however,
and as such needs further consideration here.

Grape-juice regions.

The manufacture of grape-juice is centered in the Chautauqua
grape-belt in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. So far,
the demand seems to be almost wholly for juices made from
native grapes, the juice of European grapes grown on the Pacific
slope being so sweet as to be insipid. Possibly 80 per cent of
the grape-juice now manufactured in America comes from a
single variety, the Concord. There can be no question, how-
ever, but that sooner or later grape-juices of distinct qualities
will be made from many varieties of grapes, thus giving wider
sale and greater variation for the product. A very good spark-

8 ‘

258 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ling grape-juice is now on the market and its reception seems
to promise a great increase in the production of an article
that closely simulates champagne in color and sparkling vivacity,
but not, of course, in taste, since it contains no alcohol. The
grape-juice industry has been started and is in a flourishing
condition in several other grape regions than the Chautauqua
belt which is now its center. There are factories at Sandusky,
Ohio, using grapes grown in the Kelly Island district ; in south-
western Michigan there are several factories; and the industry
still survives at Vineland, New Jersey, which probably should
be called the original home of the manufacture of grape-juice.
In the South, some grape-juice is made from Muscadine grapes,
but this product seems not as yet to have been well received in
the markets.

Commercial methods of making grape-juice.

There is at present a great diversity of methods and of
apparatus employed in the grape-juice manufacturing plants
throughout the country. Since the industry is in its infaney,
and the attempt has been made to hold some of the methods as
trade secrets, the diversity of methods and appliances is not
to be wondered at. No doubt there will be greater uniformity
of method and machinery and, therefore, greater efficiency, as
the industry develops.

Husmann! gives the following account of the manufacture of
grape-juice in the eastern states and in California :

“Sound, ripe, but not overripe, grapes are used. ‘These are
first crushed or, in case the stems are to be removed, are run
through a combined stemmer and crusher. If the machinery is
stationed high enough, the crushed fruit can be run through
chutes directly into the presses or kettles ; otherwise, it must be
pumped into them by means of a pomace or must pump or
carried in pomace carts or tubs.

1 Husmann, George C. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. No. 644.

GRAPE PRODUCTS 259

“Tf a white or light colored juice is desired, the crushed grapes
are first pressed, the juice which comes from the press being
heated to about 165° F., skimmed, run through a pasteurizer at
a temperature of between 175° and 200° F. into well-sterilized
containers, and then placed in storage.

“Tf a colored juice is desired, the crushed grapes are heated
immediately, usually in aluminum kettles having double
bottoms, which prevent the steam from coming in contact with
the contents. These kettles usually contain revolving cylinders,
the arms of which keep the crushed grapes thoroughly stirred
while they are being heated to about 140° F. The simultaneous
heating and stirring help to extract the coloring matter from
the skins, tear the cells of the berries, increase the quantity of
juice obtained per ton of fruit, and give to the must many
ingredients of red wine, with the substitution of grape sugar for
alcohol of the wine.

“The aluminum kettles are filled and emptied in rotation,
thereby making continuous manipulation possible. The presses
should be situated below the kettles, so that the hot juice can
be drained directly into them. The expressed juice is then
reheated to about 165° F., skimmed, and run through the
pasteurizer in the same manner in which the white juice is
handled. ‘The juice passes from the pasteurizer while still hot
(about 160° F.) into the container, which should be sealed
immediately. The lower the temperature (above the freezing
point) at which these containers are then stored, the less is the
danger of fermentation and the more rapidly the juice will clear
and deposit its sediment.

“The ordinary receptacles in which the juice is stored are
5-gallon demijohns, 20-gallon carboys, or clean, new barrels or
puncheons, well washed and drained. All containers should be
thoroughly sterilized before they are filled, and the covers, corks,
bungs, cloths, etc., used in sealing them should be scrupulously
clean and carefully sterilized. If barrels or puncheons are used

260 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

as containers, they are placed on skids and firmly wedged to pre-
vent movement. As the juice cools, air laden with fermentation
germs is apt to be drawn into the barrels by the decrease in the
volume of the liquid. In order to prevent this, tight air-filtering
plugs of sterilized cotton are sometimes used instead of the
ordinary bungs of solid wood.

“The type of pasteurizer differs in almost every establishment. _
As the industry is of comparatively recent development com-
mercially, there are few models on the market and each manu-
facturer has constructed the model best suited to his particular
ideas or requirements. There are two general types, however,
(1) open, double-bottomed kettles in which the juice is heated
to the required temperature and then drawn off, and (2) con-
tinuous pasteurizers in which the juice is heated to the required
temperature as it passes through the water bath.

“The presses also show great variation in different establish-
ments, either hydraulic, screw or lever power being used, and
there is a marked difference between the types of pomace
containers. Sometimes the crushed grapes are heaped on
burlap cloths the sides of which are folded in, and these burlaps
are placed one on top of the other in the press ; sometimes press
baskets take the place of these burlaps.

“The manufacturers in California and those in the grape-grow-
ing regions of the Rocky Mountains seem to have adopted
entirely different methods of handling the juice after it is first
pasteurized and stored. Most of the eastern juices are red
and are obtained from the Labrusca varieties, generally the Con-
cord. When the juice comes from the presses, some manu-
facturers strain it to remove the coarse particles and then pour
it directly into well-sterilized bottles; others siphon it off the
sediment in the containers in which it is stored after the first
pasteurization and pour it into pasteurized bottles. In either
case, the bottles are securely corked and then repasteurized.
The California juices, however, both red and white, are made

GRAPE PRODUCTS 261

exclusively from Vinifera varieties. They are allowed to settle
in the original containers and are siphoned out of these and
carefully filtered to make them clear and bright.

“The clearing of the juice is sometimes facilitated by fining or
adding a small quantity of a substance which coagulates and
when settling carries down with it the solid matters causing
cloudiness in the liquid. Such finings may be applied at the
time of the first pasteurization or just before the final filtration
and bottlmg. In the latter case the juice is drawn off the
settlings in containers, the finings are added, and the juice
again pasteurized into other receptacles. When it clears, it
is either bottled directly or first passed through a filter, drawn
into carefully sterilized bottles, securely corked, and then re-
pasteurized. Care must be taken that the final sterilization is
not at a higher temperature than the previous one; otherwise,
solid matter may be precipitated and the must clouded again.

“A simple and efficient form of sterilizer consists of a wooden
trough provided with a wooden grating which is raised 2 inches
from the bottom and on which rest the filled bottles in wire
baskets. The trough contains enough water to submerge the
bottles and is kept at a temperature of 185° F. by means of a
steam coil beneath the grating. It requires about 15 minutes
for the must at the bottom of the bottles to reach that tempera-
ture; for packages of other sizes it is necessary to make a test
with a thermometer in order to determine how long it takes for
the entire contents to reach 185°.

“To prevent the corks from being expelled during sterilization,
they are either tied down with a strong twine or with some
contrivance such as the cork holder. In order that mold germs
may not enter the must through the corks, especially if a poor
quality of cork is used, the necks of the corked bottles are
dipped in heated paraffin before putting on the caps, or the
corks are sealed down with sealing wax. It is also well to keep
the bottles on their rider to prevent the corks drying out.”

262 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Home methods of making grape-juice.

The principles involved in making grape-juice in the home
are the same as those used in canning. The grapes may be
crushed by hand or in mills similar or identical with the small
cider-mills owned by many farmers. In making a light-colored
juice, the crushed grapes are put in a cloth sack and hung up to
drain, or the filled sack may be twisted by two persons until the
greater part of the juice is expressed. The juice is then sterilized
in a double-boiler by heating it at a temperature of 180° to
200° F., care being taken that the thermometer never goes above
200°. The sterilized juice is now poured into a glass or
enameled vessel to stand for twenty-four hours, after which
it is drained from the sediment and strained through several
thicknesses of clean flannel. The juice is now put in clean
bottles preparatory to a second sterilization, care being taken
that at least an inch of space is left at the top for the liquid
to expand when heated. The second sterilization may be
conducted in a wash-boiler or similar receptacle. The filled
bottles must not rest on the bottom of the boiler but should
be separated from it with a thin board. The boiler is filled
with water up to within an inch of the tops of the bottles
and heated until the water begins to boil. The bottles should
then be taken out and corked immediately, using only new
corks. After corking, the bottles are further sealed by dip-
ping the corks in melted paraffin. A cheap corking machine
is a great convenience in this work, and in any case the corks
should be soaked for at least a half hour in warm but not
boiling water.

The process varies somewhat in the making of red grape-juice.
The crushed grapes are heated to a temperature of 200° F.,
and are then strained through a drip bag without pressure, after
which the liquid is set away in glass or enamel vessels to settle
for twenty-four hours. Except for this difference in the pre-

GRAPE PRODUCTS 263

liminary treatment of the juice, the methods are the same in
making the red or the light-colored product. For proper keeping
it is not necessary to let the juice settle after it is strained, but a
clearer and brighter product is obtained if the juice is permitted
to settle. In either case the grape-juice should keep indefinitely
if the work has been well done. As soon as bottles are opened,
fermentation begins with the formation of alcohol.

RAISINS

The grape is best conserved as a raisin. Canning is seldom
practiced with this fruit. A raisin is a dried grape. Tree-
fruits are evaporated as by-products, but the raisin is a primary
product. This is a difference worth noting; for with tree-
fruits the cream of the crop goes to the fresh fruit market, while
with the grape the entire crop of raisin varieties may go into
the cured product. The raisin industry is dependent on a
sunny and rainless climate and hence in America is confined
to the grape regions of certain parts of California. In this
state, raisin-making is a rich resource of the grape-grower, the
annual output now averaging well above 200,000 pounds, grown
on 120,000 acres of land, and having a market value of $10,000-
000. Fresno County, California, produces nearly 60 per cent
of the output of the state and the city of Fresno is the center
of the industry. The raisin industry does not, stand alone in
California, as some raisin grapes, notably Muscat of Alexandria,
are good dessert sorts and are also much used for wine and
brandy. Only the first crop of the variety named is used for
raisins, while practically all of the second crop each season is
made into wine and brandy.

Raisins proper are mostly made from the Muscat of Alex-
andria, although other large, white, sweet grapes are sometimes
used. Sultana -raisins, naturally seedless, are made from
Sultanina and the Sultana. The dried currants of commerce

264 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

are made from grapes, and of these California produces small
quantities from White Corinth.

The following account of raisin-making is given by Husmann :4

“In the raisin districts grapes are ripe by the middle of
August, the season often lasting into November. The average
time necessary for drying and curing a tray of raisins is about
three weeks, depending on the weather, the earliest picked grapes
drying in ten days and the later ones often taking four weeks or
more.

“The method of drying is very simple. The bunches are
cut from the vines and placed in shallow trays 2 feet wide, 3
feet long, and 1 inch high on which the grapes are allowed to
sun-dry, being turned from time to time by simply placing an
empty tray upside down on the full one and then turning
both over and taking off the top tray. After the raisins are
dried they are stored away until they are packed and pre-
pared for shipment. Some of the larger growers, in order
not to run so much risk in drying on account of rain, and
also to enable them to handle the crop fast enough, have
curing houses, where the curing is finished after having been
partially done outside.”

Dipping and scalding raisins.

“The operation of dipping and scalding is designed to accom-
plish several purposes, namely, to cleanse the fruit, to hasten
its drying, and to give the dried fruit a lighter color. In dipping
and drying, the fruit, immediately after being cut from the
vines, is either dipped in clear water to first rinse it of particles of
dust and other foreign matter, or it is taken direct to the scalder
and immersed, in a boiling alkaline mixture called ‘legia’ (lye)
until the grapes show an almost imperceptible cracking of the
skin, the operation consuming perhaps from one-fourth to one-
half of a minute. This dipping calls for skill on the part of the

1 Husmann, George C. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. No. 349. 1916.

GRAPE PRODUCTS 265

operator, the duration of the emersion depending on the strength
and temperature of the mixture and the condition of the fruit.
Desiccation follows the scalding process, which is accomplished
on trays in the sun, the same as undipped raisins cured entirely
by solar heat. On account of the scald they cure rapidly, and
the fruit is also often of lighter color when cured.

“The following formula has been used for Sultana and Sul-
tanina grapes at Fresno:

“Fifteen pounds of ‘Greenbank’s 98-per cent lye’ are boiled in 100
gallons of water. This mixture is for grapes containing 25 per cent of
sugar. Should their sugar content be less, enough lye is added to re-
move the bloom and open the pores of the skin of the grapes. After
dipping, the grapes are spread on trays and sulphured for 1 to 14 hours.
Observation will show whether it may be necessary to vary this formula
a trifle to suit conditions of ripeness and influence of temperature.
The length of time required for dipping is ascertained by experience,
and differs with the strength of the lye, the heat of the solution, and the
thickness of the skins of the grapes.”’

Packing raisins.

“The raisins as received at the packing house are weighed
and the loose raisins and those that are to be shipped as dried
grapes are immediately run through a stemmer and _ grader
which stems, cleans, and assorts the raisins into three or four
different grades, after which they are packed and shipped to
various parts of the country, some also being exported. Those
producing cluster or layer raisins (if they have not already
been equalized) are first stored in the equalizing rooms. In
these rooms the sweat boxes, filled with layers of new raisins,
are stacked and left usually from 10 to 30 days, or long enough
for the overdried berries to absorb moisture from the under-
dried ones. ‘This sweating also properly softens and toughens
the stems, which prevents their breaking and enables them to
hold the berries better. In California, where the climate is so
dry, no first class pack could be made without thus first equaliz-
ing the raisins. After having been equalized the raisins are

266 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

taken out, assorted into the different grades, and placed in
trays holding 5 pounds each. The trays of the same grades
are then pressed and stacked away in piles ready for packing.

“Pressing the raisins so that they look well and so none are
burst open is work requiring experience and good judgment.
It takes four pressed trays to fill a 20-pound box. The loose
raisins that have dropped from the cluster through handling
before they were equalized are also graded, the largest, of
course, making the choicest pack.”

Classes of raisins.

“Previous to the consolidated organization of the packers
the three best grades of raisins on the stems were known as
‘Imperial,’ ‘ Dehesia,’ and ‘ Fancy Clusters,’ respectively. The
California Raisin Growers Association established classi-
fication and grades similar to those of the Spanish raisin
packers, on which the French trade names are also based. The
original Spanish, as well as English terms with which they
correspond, and the different grades in descending order of
quality are shown in the following table :

SpanisH TERMS FRENCH TERMS ENGuIsH TERMS CALIFORNIA TERMS
Imperial Imperiaux Extra} Extra Imperial Six-Crown
Imperial Bajo | Imperiaux Cluster Cluster
Royan Bajo Royaux Imperial Cluster | Five-Crown
Cuarta (4a) Surehoix Extra Royal Cluster Cluster
Quinta (5a) Choix Extra Choicest Four-Crown

Choice Cluster Cluster
Three-Crown
Cluster
Two-Crown
Cluster

“The grading is optical, as a result of experience, there being
no linear or cubic measurement standard. Thus, a nice cluster
5)

GRAPE PRODUCTS 267

with all berries of large size, would be a ‘Six-Crown Cluster,’
such being the very finest raisins on the stem. ‘Five-Crown
Clusters’ were formerly the ‘Dehesia’ cluster, and ‘Four-
Crown Clusters’ were formerly ‘Fancy Clusters.’ Gra ‘es less
than ‘Four-Crown’ on the stems (the ‘Three-Crown’ and
“Two-Crown’) are known as ‘Layers,’ or ‘London Layers.’
These are placed in boxes containing 20 pounds net; in half
boxes of 10 pounds; and quarter boxes of 5 pounds; and in
fancy boxes containing 23 pounds. Loose raisins, or raisins
off the stem, are graded into Two-Crown, Three-Crown, and
Four-Crown raisins by being run through screens the meshes of
which are thirteen thirty-seconds, seventeen thirty-seconds,
and twenty-two thirty-seconds of an inch in size, respectively.
The Sultanina (erroneously called Thompson Seedless), and
the Sultana are packed in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to the case.”

Seeded raisins.

“The invention of a raisin-seeding machine by George E.
Pettit in the early seventies, and its use, has had a wonderful
effect on the industry.

“Seeded raisins were first put on the market by the late Col.
William Forsythe, of Fresno, Cal., who at first found it very
difficult to dispose of 20 tons. The output in the last 15 years
has increased from 700 tons to 50,000 tons per annum, and their
popularity is constantly increasing. In 1900 about 14,000
tons were placed on the market, in 1905 about 21,000 tons,
in 1910 about 31,000 tons, and in 1913 about 49,000 tons. The
seeding machines in present use can turn out 300 tons per day.
Seeded raisins are now the most important branch of the raisin
industry.

“A brief outline of how seeded raisins are prepared will
prove interesting. The raisins are first exposed to a dry
temperature of 140° F. for three to five hours, after which they
are put through a chilling process so that the pedicels can be

268 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

easily removed, and are then thoroughly cleansed by being
passed through cleaning machines. They are then taken by
automatic carriers to another room, spread out on trays,
and exposed to a moist temperature of 130° F.-to bring them
back to their normal condition. The raisins pass to the
seeding machine, where they are carried between rubber-
faced rollers and the impaling device of the seeding machine
which catches the seeds and removes them from the fruits as
they are flattened between the surfaces of the rollers. The
impaled seeds are removed from the roller by a whisking
device in such a way as to be caught in a separate receptacle.
The seeded raisins pass through chutes to the packing tables
on the floor below.

“The seeded or loose raisins are packed in 50-pound boxes ;
in 1-pound cartons, 36 to the case; in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to
the case; and some in bulk in 25-pound boxes.

“Information has recently been sent out to the effect that the
California Associated Raisin Co. is arranging to do away with
the grades in seeded raisins, so there will only be one grade.
This contemplates using all of the Three-Crown, the smallest
of the Four-Crown, and the best of the Two-Crown in one
blended grade.

“From the seeds, formerly used as a fuel, a number of by-
products are now made.

“The seeds and pedicels removed from the raisins in seeding
vary from 10 to 12 per cent of the original weight of the raisins
according to their conditions and quality.

“The grading, seeding, facing, and packing have become
separate branches of the industry, and the work is nearly all
done by especially trained women, who have become experts
at it. The establishments in which this work is done furnish
employment for over 5000 persons. The aggregate pay roll
each month. during the season is between $200,000 and
$350,000.”

Es

_

GRAPE PRODUCTS 269

GRAPE-VINEGAR

A very good vinegar can be made from grapes, although
as yet this outlet for over-production is not largely utilized
in America. Grapes which are unsuitable for raisins, dessert,
wine-making or grape-juice can be used for vinegar-making.
Under the most favorable conditions, grape-vinegar cannot
compete in cheapness with vinegar made from numerous other
products and must, therefore, always sell at a high price.
Indeed, it is doubtful whether a high-grade grape-vinegar
can be manufactured at a less price than good wine. The
production of grape-vinegar requires as much care, but possibly
not as much expert knowledge, as the making of wine. Unlike
the latter, however, the vinegar can be produced on a small
scale for domestic purposes by any one possessing a knowledge
of wine-making or vinegar-making.

Grape-vinegar may be manufactured from either white or
red grapes, although that from white grapes is generally pre-
ferred. It may be made either directly from grapes or from
wine, the acetifying process being the same for both. There
are, therefore, two distinct stages in the manufacture of this
product. First, there must be alcoholic fermentation by which °
the sugar in the grape is changed into alcohol with the escape
of carbonic acid gas. Second, acetic fermentation must follow
the alcoholic fermentation by which the alcohol is changed into
acetic acid.

By-propucTSs OF GRAPE INDUSTRIES

There are several valuable by-products in the wine-making
and grape-juice industries, and even raisin-making yields a
by-product in the seeds taken from the raisins. The utilization
of these wastes has been rendered profitable in Europe, and
there is no reason why by-products should not yield consider-
able profit in America, as a few already do. Good authorities

270 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

state that if all the wastes of the grape crop could be utilized
the value of the crop would be increased over 10 per cent.

Pomace.

The pomace or marc, the residue left after grape pressing,
is the most valuable of the by-products of the wine and grape-
juice manufacturers. If the pomace is permitted to ferment,
and afterwards is distilled, a product called pomace-brandy is
made. Unscrupulous wine-makers often add water and sugar
to pomace, after which it is refermented and the resulting
product is sold as wine. Notwithstanding the fact that the
word “wine” as applied to this product is a misnomer, the
total amount of such wine made and consumed in America is
large. Piquette is another product in which the pomace is
put into fermenting vats, sprinkled with water and the liquid
after a time is drawn off, carrying with it the wine contained
in the pomace. This liquid is re-used in other pomace, until
it is high enough in alcoholic strength, when it is distilled into
“piquette” or “wash.” |

In Europe, the pomace from stemmed grapes is said to make a
sheep and cattle food of more or less value when salted slightly
and stored in silos. The pomace is also oftentimes used as a
manure, for which it has considerable to recommend it, being
rich in potash and nitrogen. Acetic acid is made from pomace
by drying it in vapor-tight rooms, during which process 50 to
60 per cent of the weight of the pomace becomes vapor, and this,
condensed, yields considerable quantities of acetic acid.

Cream-of-tartar.

The lees of wine, the sediment which settles in the casks in
which new wine or grape-juice is stored, form a grayish or
reddish crust on the inside of the receptacle. This is the argol
or wine-stone of the wine-maker, and from it is made cream-of-
tartar, an article considerably used in medicine, the arts and

GRAPE PRODUCTS Det

for culinary purposes. From 20 to 70 per cent of the lees con-
sist of either cream-of-tartar, or of calcium tartrate, the latter
also having commercial value. Red wines are much richer in
argol than white wines. A ton of grapes yields from one to two
pounds of argol. This product becomes a source of considerable
profit in large wineries and in grape-juice manufacturing plants.

Seeds.

In Europe, the seeds are separated from the pomace and used
in various ways. They are also utilized to a smaller extent in
America, especially when separated from raisins. The seeds
are used as food for horses, cattle and poultry, for which they
are said to have considerable value. If crushed and ground, the
seeds yield a clear yellow oil which burns without smoke or
smell and which may also be employed as a substitute for olive
oil. A ton of grapes yields from forty to one hundred pounds
of seeds from which may be made from three to sixteen pounds
of oil. This oil is also used as a substitute for linseed oil and
in soap-making. Besides oil, the seeds yield tannin. After
the oil and tannin have been taken from the seeds, there remains
a meal which may still be utilized as a stock food or as a fertilizer.

Domestic UsEs For GRAPES

At present, when food conservation is being emphasized
everywhere, mention of the domestic use for grapes is partic-
ularly appropriate. The country over, no fruit is more
generally grown than the grape; yet grape products are not as
common for home use as those of several other fruits, although
many attractive and appetizing preserves can be made from
grapes without the use of large quantities of sugar, spices or
other ingredients. Few housekeepers realize the high quality
and the cheapness of the products that can be made from the
grape. Thus, grape-juice, jelly, jam, marmalade, grape-butter,

202 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

catsup, spiced grapes, canned grapes, conserves in which grapes
are used, preserves and mince-meat are among the desirable
culinary products easily and cheaply prepared from home-grown
grapes or those bought in the market. Only simple domestic
utensils are needed in the preparation of any of these products.

Grape-sirup is less easily produced, yet can be made in any
home without the addition of sugar. It is not only a good table
sirup, but is a most useful sugai substitute for the preparation
of other culinary products. The Muscadine grapes in the
South, to be purchased by almost every householder in south-
eastern United States, in particular, are useful for these domestic
products. Recipes for all of these products can be found in cook
books, and one or two bulletins and circulars from the United
States Department of Agriculture give recipes for preparing
grapes for domestic purposes. Farmers’ Bulletin 859 entitled
Home Uses for Muscadine Grapes is a particularly valuable
publication on this subject.

It is interesting to note that several large manufacturers of
grape-juice are putting on the market grape jams, jellies and
marmalades. It would seem that these delicious and wholesome
products would find a ready sale in the markets of the country,
and that their manufacture would prove profitable to the maker
and to the grape-grower. The greater the use of grapes for
their products, the better the grower can breast the blows of
unfavorable markets and over-production.

PuatE XX. — Isabella (x2).

i

CHAPTER XV
GRAPE-BREEDING

CHANCE, pure and simple, has been the greatest factor in
the production of varieties of American grapes. From the
millions of wild plants, an occasional grape of pre-eminent merit
has caught the eye of the cultivator and has been brought into
the vineyard to be the progenitor of a new variety. Or in the
vineyards, more often in near-by waste lands, from the prodigious
number of seedlings that spring up, pure or cross-bred, a plant
of merit becomes the foundation of a new variety. An inter-
esting fact in the domestication of the four chief species of
American grapes is that none came under cultivation until
forms of them, striking in value, had been found. Catawba,
representing the Labrusca grapés; the Scuppernong, the
Rotundifolias; Norton, from Jttis estivalis; Delaware and
Herbemont from the Bourquiniana grapes; and Clinton from
Vitis vulpina, are, after a century, scarcely excelled, although
in each species there are now many new varieties.

That our best grapes have come from chance is not because
of a lack of human effort to produce superior varieties. Of all
fruits, the grape has received most attention in America from
the generation of plant-breeders just passing. Grape-breeders
have produced 2000 or more varieties, a medley of the hetero-
geneous characters of a dozen species. That so many of this
vast number are worthless is due more to a lack of knowledge
of plant-breeding than to a lack of effort, for the order and
system in plant-breeding that now prevail, disclosed by recent
brilliant discoveries, were unknown to grape-breeders of the
last century.

T 273

274 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

GRAPE Hyprips

As early as 1822, Nuttall, a noted botanist, then at Harvard,
recommended “hybrids betwixt the European vine and those
of the United States which would better answer the variable
climates of North America.”’ In 1830, William Robert Prince,
Fig. 48, fourth proprietor
of the then famous Linnean
Botanic Nursery at Flush-
ing, Long Island, grew
10,000 seedling grapes
“from admixture under
every variety of circum-
stance.” This was prob-
ably the first attempt on a
large scale to improve the
native grapes by hybridiz-
ing, although little seems to
have come of it. Later, a
Dr. Valk, also of Flushing,
grew hybrids from which
he obtained Ada, the first
named hybrid, the intro-
duction of which started
hybridizers to work in all
parts of the country where grapes were grown.

Soon after Valk’s hybrid was sent out, E. 5. Rogers, Fig. 49,
Salem, Massachusetts, and J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New
York, began to give viticulturists hybrids of the European
Vinifera and the American species which were so promising that
enthusiasm and speculation in grape-growing ran riot. Never
before nor since has grape-growing received the attention in
America as given during the introduction of Rogers’ hybrids.
It was the expectation of all that we were to grow in America,

Fic. 48. William Robert Prince.

—— ee

GRAPE-BREEDING 275

in these hybrids, grapes but little inferior, if at all, to those
of Europe.

A statement of the difference between European and American
grapes shows why American viticulturists have been so eager
to grow either pure-breds from
the foreign grape or hybrids
with it.

European grapes have a
higher sugar-and-solid content
than the American _ species;
they, therefore, make better
wines and keep much _ longer
after harvesting and can be
made into raisins. Also, they
have a greater variety of flavors,
which are more delicate, yet
richer, with a pleasanter aroma,
seldom so acid, and are always
lacking the disagreeable, rancid invig. 240 pe SER opens:
odor and taste, the “foxiness,”’
of many American varieties. There is, however, an un-
pleasant astringency in some of the foreign grapes, and many
varieties are without character of flavor. American table-
grapes, on the other hand, are more refreshing, the unfer-
mented juice makes a pleasanter drink, and lacking sweetness
and richness, they do not cloy the appetite so quickly. The
bunches and berries of the European grapes are larger, more
attractive and are borne in greater quantities. The pulp,
seeds and skins are somewhat objectionable in all of the native
species and scarcely so at all in the Old World sorts. The
berries of the native grapes shell from the stem so quickly that
the bunches do not ship well. The vines of the Old World
grapes are more compact in habit and require less pruning and
training than do those of the native grapes; and, as a species,

276 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

probably through long cultivation, they are adapted to more
kinds of soil, to greater differences in environment and are
more easily propagated than the American species.

Because of these points of superiority in the Old World grape,
since Valk, Allen and Rogers showed the way, American grape-
breeders have sought to unite by hybridization the good char-
acters of the Old World grape with those of the American.
Nearly half of the 2000 grapes cultivated in eastern America
have more or less European blood in them. Yet, despite the
efforts of the breeders, few of these hybrids have commercial
value. Whether because they are naturally better fixed, or
long cultivation has more firmly established them, the vine
characters of Vitis vinifera more often appear in varieties aris-
ing as primary hybrids between that and the native species,
and the weaknesses of the foreign grape, which prevent their
cultivation in America, crop out. Hybrids in which the vinif-
era blood is more attenuated, as secondary or tertiary crosses,
give better results.

Several secondary hybrids now rank among the best of the
cultivated grapes. Examples are Brighton and Diamond.
The first is a cross between Diana-Hamburg, a hybrid of a
Vinifera and a Labrusca, crossed in its turn with Concord, a
Labrusca; the second is a cross between Iona, also a hybrid
between a Vinifera and a Labrusca, crossed with Concord.
Both were grown from seed planted by Jacob Moore, Brighton.
New York, in 1870. Brighton was the first secondary hybrid
to attract the attention of grape-breeders, and its advent marked
an important step in breeding grapes.

The signal success achieved by hybridizers of the European
grape with native species quickly led to similar amalgamations
among American species. Jacob Rommel, of Morrison, Mis-
souri, beginning work about 1860, hybridized Labrusca and
Vulpina grapes so successfully that a dozen or more of his vari-
eties are still cultivated. All are characterized by great vigor

a

GRAPE-BREEDING Bid

and productiveness; and, although they lack the qualities
which make good table-grapes, they are among the best for
wine-making. Rommel has had many followers in hybridiz-
ing native species, chief of whom
was the late T. V. Munson, Fig.
50, Denison, Texas, who literally
made every combination of
grapes possible, grew thousands
of seedlings and produced many
valuable varieties.

Improvement by selection.

Selection, continued through
successive generations, so im-
portant in the improvement of
field and garden plants, has
played but small part in the
domestication of the grape. The
period between planting and
fruiting is so long that progress would be slow indeed were this
method relied on. Moreover, selection, as a method in breed-
ing, is possible only when plants are bred pure, and it is the
experience of grape-breeders that in pure breeding this fruit
loses in vigor and productiveness and that the variations are
exceedingly slight and unstable. Many pure-bred grapes have
been raised on the grounds of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station under the eyes of the writer, of which
very few have surpassed the parent or have shown promise
for the practice of selection.

Fie. 50. T. V. Munson.

New varieties from sports.

Bud-sports or mutations now and then arise in grapes. But
not more than two or three of the 2000 varieties now under
cultivation are suspected of having arisen in this way. It is

278 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

true that mutations seem to occur rather often in grapes, but
they are easily confused with variations due to environment
and are usually too vague to lay hands on. Until the causes of
these mutations are known and until they can be produced and
controlled, but little can be hoped for in the amelioration of
grapes through mutations.

HYBRIDIZING THE GRAPE

Hybridization has been the chief means of improving the
grape. At present, from what is being accomplished by many
workers, it looks as if it will long continue to be the best means
of improving this fruit. Since the grape-grower must depend
on new varieties for progress, as old varieties cannot be changed,
it should be the ambition of growers to produce varieties better
than those we now have. Many amateur and _ professional
grape-growers in the past have found breeding grapes a pleasing
and profitable hobby, so that much knowledge has accumu-
lated in regard to manipulating the plants in hybridization,
and the results that follow in the offspring of hybridization.

How to hybridize.

It is assumed that the reader is familiar-with the botany of
flowers and the essential principles in crossing plants. If he
is not, he must carefully study the structure of flowers, especially
those of the grape, so as to be able to distinguish the different
organs and to discover when the pollen and stigma are ready for
the work of pollination. He should, also, read any one of several
current books on plant-breeding.

The first task in crossing grapes is to remove the anthers
before the flower opens, a process known as emasculation.
This is necessary to prevent self-pollination. This first opera-
tion having been performed, the cluster of grape-flowers must
be tied securely in a bag to protect it from foreign pollen which
otherwise would surely be carried to the stigma by insects.

GRAPE-BREEDING 279

As soon as the stigma is ready to receive the pollen, the bag
is removed and pollen from the male parent is applied, after
which the bag is again put on the flower to remain until the
grapes are well set. By examining the stigmas in the flowers
of uncovered grapes, the operator can tell approximately
whether the covered stigma is ready to receive pollen. The
time required after covering depends, of course, on the age of
the bud when emasculation takes place. It is, by the way,
best to delay emasculation until just before the flowers open,
but one must be certain that the anthers have not discharged
their pollen before the flower has been emasculated.
Emasculation is a simple operation. The essential organs
of the grape-flower are covered by a small cap; this in some
grapes must be removed before the anthers can be reached.
In many native grapes, however, the cap and the anthers may
be removed at one stroke by the operator. The best tool for
this is a small pair of forceps. Each of the blades of the for-
ceps in working with native grapes should have a sharp cutting
surface, but with Vinifera sorts, where the cap must be re-
moved before the anthers can be reached, forcep blades with
a flat surface are best. There is, of course, some danger when
the buds are well developed that the pollen may be squeezed
out and so reach the stigma or adhere to the instrument and
thus contaminate future crosses. The first danger must be
avoided carefully by the skill of the operator, while the second is
easily overcome by sterilizing the forceps in aleohol. An effort
should be made to fertilize as many of the flowers in the cluster
as possible, but success is not always certain; when there is
doubt, the uncertain flower should be removed from the cluster.
The flower from which the pollen is to be taken must be pro-
tected from wind and insects; otherwise pollen from another
flower may be left on it. Protection should be given by tying
the flowers in a bag while still in bud. There are various
ways of obtaining pollen from ripe anthers and applying it to

280 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

the stigma of the flowers to be crossed. The simpest is to crush
the anthers, thus squeezing out the pollen, after which, with a
brush, scalpel or other instrument, it may be placed upon the
stigma. A brush is very wasteful of pollen and often becomes a
source of contamination to future crosses, so that the scalpel
is the better implement of the two. When pollen is plentiful,
as will usually be the case when a man is working with vines in
his own vineyard, by far the best method is to take the cluster
from the male vine and apply the pollen directly to the stigma
of the flower to be crossed, thereby making certain of fresh
pollen and an abundance of it. The stigma, if pollen suffice,
should be covered with pollen.

Grape pollen does not keep well and an effort should be made
to have it as fresh as possible. The work of, pollination is best
performed in bright, sunny weather when the pollen is very
dry. As may be seen from the foregoing statements, tools
and methods are of less importance than care in doing the work.
The only tool absolutely necessary is a pair of forceps, although
a hand-lens is often helpful. Bags for covering the flowers
should be just large enough and no larger. A bag to cover the
pollen-producing flower may well be an ordinary manilla bag
sufficiently large to amply cover the flower-cluster. It is
helpful, however, to have a light transparent oiled bag through
which one can see the condition of the anthers. It is desirable
that the bag for the female flower be permitted to remain until
the fruits ripen as a protection against birds and fungi. It
must, therefore, be of larger size. While the bags are still
flat, a hole is made near the opening through which a string is
passed which can be tied when the upper end of the bag is
squeezed about the cluster.

Choosing the parents.

Very much depends on the immediate parentage in hybrid-
izing grapes. Some varieties when crossed produce much

GRAPE—BREEDING 281

higher averages of worthy offspring than others. There is so
much difference in varieties in this respect that to discover
parents so endowed should be the first task of the grape-breeder.
Fortunately, considerable work has been done by several ex-
periment stations in breeding grapes, and their accumulated
knowledge, together with that from such workers as Rogers,
Ricketts, Campbell and Munson, furnishes beginners with
good starting points. There is no way possible of discovering
what the best progenitors are except by records of performance.
Very often varieties of high cultural value are worthless in
breeding because their characters seem not to be transmitted
to their progeny and, to the contrary, a good-for-nothing
variety in the vineyard is often valuable in breeding.

From present knowledge it does not appear that new char-
acters are introduced in plants by hybridizing. A new variety
originating from hybridization is but a recombination of the
characters of the parents; the combination is new but the
characters are not. Thus, one parent of a hybridized grape
may contribute color, size, flavor and practically all the char-
acters of the fruit, while the other parent may contribute
vigor, hardiness, resistance to disease and the characters of the
- vine. Or these and other characters in the make-up of a new
grape may be intermingled in any mathematical way possible.
The grape-breeder must make certain that one or the other of
the parents possesses the particular characters he desires in
his new grape.

It is now known that the characters of the grape, in com-
mon with those of other plants, are inherited in accordance
with certain laws discovered by Mendel. The early workers
in grape-breeding did not know of these laws and could
not take aim in the work they were doing. Consequently,
hybridization was a maze in which these breeders often
lost themselves. Mendel’s discoveries, however, assure a
regularity of averages and give a definiteness and constancy

282 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

of action which enable the grape-breeder to attain with
fair certainty what he wants if he keeps patiently at his
task. The grape-breeder should inform himself as to what
Mendel’s laws are, and on the work that has been done on
the inheritance of characters of the grape. A technical bul-
letin published by the State Experiment Station at Geneva,
New York, and another from the North Carolina Station at
Raleigh give much information on the inheritance of char-
acters in certain grapes, and further information can be secured
by applying to the United States Department of Agriculture at
Washington for literature on the subject.

The grape-breeder can hope to progress only by making many
combinations between different varieties and growing large
numbers of seedlings. He should extend his work to all varieties
which show promise in the breeding of grapes for the particular
purpose he has in mind. The seed may be saved and planted
as directed in the chapter on propagation. Unless he desires
to make scientific interpretations of his results, weak seedlings
should be discarded the first year, and a second discard may be
made before the young plants go in the vineyard. The breeder
will soon discover that he can tell fairly well from the character
of the seedlings whether they are of sufficient promise to keep.
Thus, if the number of leaves is small or if the leaves themselves
are small, the vine is of doubtful value; if the internodes are
exceedingly long, the prospect is poor; slenderness of cane, if
accentuated, does not promise well; on the other hand, great
stoutness and very short internodes are not desirable indications.
Through these and other signs, the breeder will come quickly
to know which vines should eventually go to the vineyard.

RESULTS OF GRAPE-BREEDING

There are now 2000 or more varieties of grapes of American
origin, all produced within approximately a century. It is

Puate XXI. — Jefferson (x ?).

GRAPE-BREEDING 283

doubtful whether any other cultivated plant at any time in
the history of the world has attained such importance in so
short a time from the wild state as American grapes. It would
seem that almost every possible combination between species
worth considering has been made. Through hybridization,
species and varieties have become so mixed that the grape-
breeder cannot now work intelligently with these gross forms
and must work with characters rather than with species and
varieties which are but combinations of characters. Great
progress, it is true, has been made in the past in breeding grapes
in America, but the work has been wholly empirical and ex-
tremely wasteful. Many varieties have been called, but few
have been chosen. With the new knowledge of breeding and
with the experience of past workers, progress should be made
with greater certainty. «rom what has been done and from
work now under way, it is not too much to say that we shall
soon be growing grapes everywhere in America, and kinds so
diverse that they will meet not only all purposes to which
grapes are now put, but also the demand for better grapes made
by more critical consumers.

CHAPTER XVI
MISCELLANIES

THERE yet remain several phases of grape-culture essential
to success, none of which quite deserves a chapter and none of
which properly falls into any of the foregoing chapters. The
subjects are not closely related, are by no means of equal im-
portance, yet all are too important to be relegated to the limbo
of an appendix and are, therefore, thrown into a chapter of
miscellanies.

CROSS-POLLINATION

The blooming of the vine had little significance to the grape-
grower, the blooming period being so late that grapes are sel-
dom caught by frost, until the discovery was made that many
varieties of grapes are unable to fertilize themselves, and that
failure of crops of these varieties was often due to the self-
sterility of the variety. Until this discovery, the uncertainty
attending the setting of the grape in these varieties was one of
the discouragements of grape-growing. Following investiga-
tions of the self-sterility of the tree-fruits, an investigation of
the grape showed that the vines of this fruit are often self-
sterile. This knowledge has in some degree modified the plant-
ing of all home collections and has more or less affected the
plantings of commercial sorts.

Varieties of American grapes show most remarkable differ-
ences in the degree of self-fertility. Many sorts fruit per-
fectly without cross-pollination. Others set no fruit whatso-
ever if cross-pollination is not provided for. Most varieties,
however, are found in groups between the two extremes, neither

284

eS = se Ue LU

MISCELLANIES 285

self-fertile nor self-sterile. Figure 51 shows staminate and per-
fect clusters on one vine. Some varieties show no variation
in the degree of self-sterility or self-fertility; others behave
differently in regard to these characters under different envi-
ronment. Now and then the widest variations are to be found
in a variety in respect to self-fertility.

Following the lead of Beach at the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station, several workers have made careful studies

Fic, 51. Staminate and perfect clusters on one vine; right, staminate;
left, perfect.

of theself-fertility of the grape, and now the cultivated varieties
of native grapes are divided into four groups in accordance
with the degree of self-fertility. Class I includes self-fertile
varieties having perfect or nearly perfect clusters; Class II
includes self-fertile varieties having clusters loose but market-
able; Class III includes varieties which are so imperfectly self-
fertile that the clusters are generally too loose to be marketable ;
Class IV includes self-sterile varieties. The following is a list

of commonly cultivated grapes classified according to the
divisions just given:

286 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPES ACCORDING TO
SELF-FERTILITY

Crass I. Clusters perfect or varying from perfect to somewhat loose.

Berekmans Etta Pocklington
Bertha Janesville Prentiss
Cottage Lady Washington Rochester
Croton Lutie Senasqua
Delaware Moore Early Winchell
Diamond Niagara Worden
Diana Poughkeepsie

Cuass II. Clusters marketable; moderately compact or loose.

Agawam Dutchess Jefferson
Brilliant Early Victor Jessica

Brown Elvira Lady

Catawba Empire State Mills

Champion Fern Munson Missouri Riesling
Chautauqua Hartford Perkins

Clinton Tona Rommel
Colerain Isabella Triumph
Concord Isabella Seedling Ulster

Cuass III. Clusters unmarketable.

Brighton Hayes

Canada Lindley

Dracut Amber Noah

Kumelan Northern Muscadine
Geneva Vergennes

Cuass IV. Self-sterile. No fruit develops on covered clusters.

America Faith (?) Maxatawney (?)
Aminia Geertner Merrimae

Barry Grein Golden Montefiore
Black Eagle Hercules Requa

Clevener Jewel Salem

Creveling Massasoit Wyoming
Eldorado

In the main, the cause of infertility, as with other fruits, is
the impotency of pollen on the pistils of the same variety.

MISCELLANIES 287

There are a few cases in which pollen does not seem to be formed
abundantly, but these are very few. There are a few cases,
also, in which the pistil does not become receptive until after
the pollen has lost its vitality; these, however, are very few.
In a greater number of cases the pollen is found defective.
However, dismissing all of these as the exception, the rule is
that self-sterility is due, as has been said, to the lack of affinity
between pollen and pistils produced on the vines of some
varieties.

Nature is helpful to the grape-grower in giving a guide to self-
fertility. The length of stamens is a fairly safe indication of
self-fertility. All grapes which are self-fertile bear flowers
with long stamens, although the latter are not a sure sign of
self-fertility, as a few varieties with long stamens are self-
sterile. On the other hand, short or recurved stamens are
always associated with complete or nearly complete self-
sterility.

The remedy for self-sterility is inter-planting. Only the
varieties named in Classes I and II in the foregoing classifi-
cation should be planted alone. The sorts named in Classes
III and IV must be planted near other sorts which bloom
at the same time in order that their flowers may be cross-
pollinated.

It is evident that the grape-grower must have some knowledge
of the relative time that grapes bloom, if he is to plant intelli-
gently to secure cross-pollination. The following table, taken
from Bulletin 407 of the New York Agricultural Experiment
Station, shows the blooming time of grapes at that Station.
Variations due to location and season must be expected, but
within the bounds of the regions in which these grapes are
grown variations will be slight. When this table is used for
other regions than New York, it must be borne in mind that
the farther south, the longer the blooming season; the farther
north, the shorter the season.

288 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Blooming dates of grapes.

From three years’ records, the average length of blooming
season for grapes was twenty days, nineteen days in 1912 and
1914 and twenty-two days in 1913. The first date in the
average year of 1912 was June 14, while for 1914, it was June 7:

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Brighton. 7-e Fees oe te elle yas) Emp Ite States are diene cae Fl aera eae
Brrllisniteto ere seneal ens [Ra ees-cill 2 sce) Ertabieae ferences ested cee | # |e eare
FS LQwitte een ee * Mumedelia< eee ous | ee ee bagel dais |\io
Campbell Marly 22 3.20) Sole see (bumelance ae cee eee ered las Flee
Ganadameiocs scion seoteel earl Bos 2 (4a jaar tece Soe al ee Edler We mn
Canandaigua..... salseah * Is cele. liters Vim SOniycn 5) ||)henel eee eee *
Gamma’ cece = oro Pees Va esl (cetera +) |Gaertners o- 2c oel ee es alee
Gatawhbattan meee creed Se EAE alee F Gienevate < SE Se 3 eee cll (eae ci
Champion. 2-5 a... Ae a fae | Stee 13 Goethe aan s senses toet eke Si en a es"
Chautauqua...... eles alae elec Golds@oners o5 see (ies lee fo (eRe Vs
@levener.)52202 3% FM | Ray eee 2. | Grem Golden as.2 |e | Slane ees
@hingiont.. fees cei tapered er ee le SeeallaGurini(os tole eye a olla alloc 6 Eee ee
Colerain. ee creas ox all EA enonal ete beste glatis-os aceenerckel te sealing ee alee
Columbian Helen Keller? =. 5 =\||. 2 s|)22 ies eee ee
Imperial fa. nciiee * Herbert: ac lel eee a Pel (artis
Concord a2 anole ae Pree fel Pome meal llc (oye leit mt eee irae lgnca| iis ole 2 | eat eee
Cottages a. alee Eee lh i tee ELC KS 4 te seen eel ance Cee bade ba tes 6
@revyeling<..2.. rales scavell, CROWS y lee, ee) eel eel gO bare se aere- a lentes |e bi Penal liber).
Croton er ee on ete = Re PE os EE OSL ONG! o- eerarieie crcl eee Fl sc ieee
Delavoets etn! te Sats Salo Comper sgt ob att era eee a ee *
Delaware........ eo * isabelle. aur: a |(* olen ee
Diamonds. ces ae elie heer * ....|Janesvalles = scinse £0] eae ee om

MISCELLANIES

289

TasLe IV.—SnHowrne Bioominc TIME OF GRAPES — Continued

|
|

Very EARLY

EARLY

MIpDSEASON

Very LATE

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Northern
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RINGING GRAPE VINES

The ringing of woody plants is a well-known horticultural

practice.

Three objects may be attained by ringing: unpro-

ductive plants may be brought into bearing by ringing; the
size of the fruits may be increased and thereby the plants be
made more productive; and the maturity of the fruit may be

hastened.

In European countries, ringing has long been prac-

ticed with all tree-fruits and the grape, but in America the
operation is recommended only for the apple and the grape

U

290 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

and with neither fruit is ringing widely practiced. Experiments
carried on at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station
by Paddock, as reported in Bulletin 151 from this Station, show
that ringing may well be practiced by grape-growers under
some conditions. Since Paddock’s experiments, and possibly
to some extent before, the grape has been ringed to produce
exhibition fruits or a fancy product for the market.

Ringing consists in taking from the vine a layer of bark
around the vine through the cortex and bast of the plant. The
width of the wound varies from that of a simple cut made with
a knife to a band of bark an inch in diameter. The operation
is performed during that period of growth in which the bark
peels most readily from the vine, the period of greatest cam-
bial activity. The term “ringing” is preferred to “girdling,”
a word sometimes used, since the latter properly designates a
wound which extends into and usually kills the plant.

The theory of ringing is simple. Unassimilated sap passes
from the roots of the plant to the leaves through the outer
layer of the woody cylinder. In the leaves this raw material
is acted on by various agents, after which it is distributed to
the several organs of the plant through vessels in the inner bark.
When plants are ringed, the upward flow of sap is continued as
before the operation, but the newly made food compounds can-
not pass beyond the injury, and therefore the top of the plant is
supplied with an extra amount of food at the expense of the
parts below the ring. The extra food produces the results
noted.

It turns out in practice that ringing is usually harmful to the
plant, as one might expect from so unnatural an operation.
Injury to the plant arises from the fact that parts of the vine
are starved at the expense of other parts; and because, when
the bark is removed, the outer layers of the woody cylinder
dry out very quickly and thus check to some extent the up-
ward flow of sap through evaporation from the exposed wood.

MISCELLANIES 291

Thus, not infrequently, the plant’s vitality is seriously drained.
Nevertheless, vineyards may be found in which ringing has
been extensively practiced many seasons in succession and
which continue to yield profitable crops, the growers having
learned to perform the work of ringing so as to injure the vines
but little.

Ringing without harm to the plant depends much on the way
in which the vines have been pruned. For instance, if the
vines are pruned to the two-arm Kniffin method, the ringing
of bark should be done from both arms just beyond the fifth
bud. Thus, the ten buds left on the vine produce enough
leaf surface to supply the food necessary to keep the vine in
vigorous condition. When the four-arm Kniffin method is
used, the two top arms only are ringed, and even so three or
four buds must be left on each for renewals. Whatever the
method of training, it will be seen frdm these examples that
some unringed wood must be left to the vine with which to
supply leafy shoots to support the vine. Some growers ring
their vines only every other year, thus giving them an oppor-
tunity to recover from whatever loss of vigor they may have
sustained in the season of ringing.

Several other considerations are important in ringing: First,
the vines must not be permitted to carry too large a crop.
Again, the amount of fruit on the ringed portion of the vine
must depend on the amount of leaf surface not only of the
plant but of the ringed arms, each ringed arm acting somewhat
independently so far as its crop is concerned. If too many
clusters are left on the ringed arms, it always follows that the
fruit is inferior and often worthless. Lastly, all fruit be-
tween the rings and the trunk must be removed, for it does
not mature properly and so adds only to the drain on the
plant’s vitality.

As to the results, it is certain from the experiments that have
been conducted and from the experience of grape-growers, that

292 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

the maturity of the fruit is hastened, and berries and bunches
are larger when the ringing has been done intelligently. Many
growers hold that fruit produced on ringed vines is never quite
up to the mark in quality and in firmness of fruit. There
seems to be a difference in opinion about this falling off in
quality, however, although unquestionably, choice sorts, as
Delaware, Iona and Dutchess, suffer more or less in quality.
It is commonly agreed, also,
that varieties, the fruits of
which crack badly, as the
Worden, suffer more from
¥ cracking on ringed than on
unringed vines.

Experiment and experience
prove that the best results of
ringing are obtained if the
work is done when the grapes
are about one-third grown.
Of course the exact time de-
pends on the season and on

Fie. 52. Tools used in ringing - :
grape-vines are shown in 1 and 2; while the variety. The operation

3 and 4 show ringed vines at the be- jg variously performed and is

ginning and the close of the season.

easily done with a sharp knife,
but when large vineyards are to be ringed the grower ought to
provide himself with some simple tool. Paddock, in the bulle-
tin previously mentioned, pictures two of these tools and these
are reproduced in Fig. 52.

In conclusion it must be said that it is doubtful whether the
gains attained by ringing offset the losses. The practice is
chiefly of value only when exhibition clusters of grapes
are wanted or when it is necessary to hasten the maturity
of the crop. Always, however, the work must be_per-
formed with intelligence and judgment or the losses will offset
the gains.

MISCELLANIES 293

BAGGING GRAPES

In some localities bagging is considered an essential to profit-
able grape-growing. The bags serve to protect the grapes
against birds. In some grape regions vineyards suffer more
from the depredations of robins and other birds than from all
other troubles. Grapes bearing small berries and having
tender pulp and those which shell most readily from the stem
suffer most. Of standard sorts, Delaware is probably more
enticing to robins than any other variety. There is only one
way of preventing damage to grapes from birds and that is by
bagging the clusters.

Bagging is also an effective means of protecting the grape
from several fungi and insects. In home plantations or small
commercial vineyards, bagging the bunches often eliminates
the necessity of spraying for fungi and for most of the insects
that trouble the grape. Because of the warmth afforded by the
bags, bagged grapes ripen a little earlier and are of somewhat
higher quality than those not bagged. Grapes bagged are pro-
tected from early frost, thus prolonging the season. Grapes
that have been protected from the elements during the summer
are more attractive than those exposed to the weather, since the
fruits are free from weather marks and present a fresh, bright
appearance, which puts them in a grade above unbagged
grapes. Bagging often enables the grower to sell his crop as a
faney product.

Grapes are bagged as soon as the fruits are well set, the
sooner the better if protection against fungi is one of the pur-
poses. Under no circumstances, however, should the clusters
be bagged while in blossom. A patent bag made for the pur-
pose may be purchased or, serving equally well, the common
one and one-half and two-pound manila bags used by grocers
prove satisfactory. One of the patent bags which is known as
the Ideal Clasp Bag has a metal clasp attached to the top for

294 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

securing the bag in place over the cluster. In using the
grocer’s bag, before it is put in place the corners of both the
top and bottom are cut off by placing several bags on a firm
level surface and using a broad-shaped chisel. Cutting off the
corners of the top enables the operator to close the bag neatly
over the cluster, while cutting off the corners of the bottom fur-
nishes a means of escape for any water that gets in the bag.
In putting the bag in place, the top is pinned above the lateral
from which the bunch hangs, and must not be fastened about
the small stem of the cluster, as the wind blowing the bag al-
most invariably breaks the cluster from the vine. The largest
pins to be purchased in dry-goods stores are used in pinning the
bags. The bags remain until the grapes are picked. Wet
weather does not injure bags and seemingly they grow stronger
with exposure to sun and wind.

The cost of the bags and the work of putting them on is no
small item. To secure the best results, the work must be done
at the period between the dropping of the blossoms and the
formation of the seeds, when the grapes are about the size of
a small pea. This is a busy time for the grape-grower, which
adds to the cost. When the work is conducted on a large
scale, the cost is about two dollars a thousand bags, this figure
covering both the cost of bags and labor. Women do the work
more expeditiously than men and soon become very skillful in
putting on the bags. Despite the trouble and cost of bagging,
growers seeking to produce a fancy product find that the ex-
penditure proves profitable.

WINTER-PROTECTION OF GRAPES

With a little care as to winter-protection, grapes may be
grown profitably in northern regions where, without protection,
the vines are killed or injured by low temperatures. Indeed, it is
little short of amazing how well grapes can be grown in north-

MISCELLANIES 295

ern regions where nature wears a most austere countenance in
winter, if hardy early sorts are planted in warm soils and situ-
ations, and the vines are covered in the winter. Occasionally
one finds grapes grown profitably in commercial vineyards in
the northern states in regions where protection must be given
to prevent winter-killing, the extra work of giving protection
being more than offset by the high price received in local markets
for the fruit.

In all locations in which winter-protection must be given,
several other precautions are helpful or even necessary. ‘Thus,
cultivation must cease early in the season, and a cover-crop be
sown to help harden and mature the vines. The grapes, also,
must not be planted in soils rich in nitrogen, and nitrogenous
fertilizers must be applied with care. The pruning should be
such as does not induce great growth. These simple precau-
tions to hasten maturity often suffice in climates where the
danger of winter-killing is but slight, but where danger is
imminent the vines must be covered either by wrapping or by
laying down. Wrapping with straw may suffice for a few
vines, but when many vines are to be protected, laying them
down is cheaper and much more effectual.

By laying down is meant that the vines must be placed on
the ground and there be protected by earth and snow or other
covering. It is obvious that to protect thus, the vines must
receive special training; otherwise the trunks may be too stiff
for bending. Some method of training must be chosen in
which renewals may be made rather frequently from the ground
so that if the trunks become large, clumsy and unpliable, a more
manageable trunk can be trained. If the provisions for re-
newal are kept in mind, any one of the several methods of
training grapes explained in Chapter VIII on training may be
used.

Laying down must be preceded by pruning, after which the
arms and trunk are loosened from the wires and bent to the

296 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ground. Bending is facilitated by removing a spade full of
earth from the side of the vine in the direction in which the
vine is to be bent. The trunk is then laid on the earth and
sufficient soil placed on it to keep it in place on the ground. If
the danger of winter-killing is great because of the tenderness
of the variety or the austerity of the climate, it often becomes
necessary to cover the whole plant lightly with earth. Small
growers often make use of coarse manure, straw, corn-stalks or
similar covering, in which case the vines are held on the ground
by fence-rails or other timbers; but protecting with material
that must be brought into the vineyard is expensive and not
more satisfactory than earth.

The vines can be put down at any time after the leaves drop
and before the earth begins to freeze. It is more important that
the vines be taken up at the proper time in the spring. If un-
covered too early and cold weather follows, injury may result
and more harm be done than if the vines had not been covered.
On the other hand, if the earth is permitted to remain too long,
foliage and vine are tender both to sunshine and frost. A grape-
grower in New York who has had much experience in laying
down vines in a vineyard of some thirty or forty acres says
that the work may be done at a cost of $6 an acre at the
average wage paid for farm-labor. It must be expected in a
large plantation, no matter how well the work of covering is
done, that occasionally a trunk will be broken, making it neces-
sary to graft the vine if a shoot does not spring up from below
the break.

Ripening DaTES AND LENGTH OF SEASON FOR GRAPES

Every grape-grower should know when his varieties may
be expected to ripen and the length of season that they will
keep. The commercial fruit-grower by all means should have
this information. It is not sufficient that he know only roughly

MISCELLANIES 297

at what season his varieties ripen; for, to take the turn of the
market, he must know exactly when a variety will ripen and
how long it will keep. He needs this information, also, that he
may distribute his labor better throughout the picking season.

Unfortunately, the data as to ripening time given by origi-
nators and introducers of varieties are not always reliable. This
untrustworthiness of data is readily accounted for in several
ways: First, growers do not generally agree as to when grapes
are ripe nor as to how long they are fit to eat. Again, much
confusion as to when varieties ripen and how long they will
keep arises from the fact that grapes ripen at different times in
different places, and it is difficult for the grape-grower in
Maine to make allowance in season for varieties, the time of
ripening of which is given for Maryland. There are also
other causes than the seasonal differences in grape regions for
variability in ripening time; thus, some soils are warmer and
quicker than others, and on these grapes ripen earlier. Appli-
cation of nitrogenous fertilizers may delay the period of ripen-
ing somewhat. Grapes ripen perceptibly earlier on old plants
than on young ones. Lastly, every vineyard in a particular
region has its own particular climate caused by the lay of land,
nearness to water, air currents and altitude which cause small
differences in ripening.

The following table taken from Bulletin No. 408 of the New
York Agricultural Experiment Station gives the ripening dates
of grapes at Geneva, New York. It is necessary that the reader
know something about the conditions affecting the ripening time
at Geneva. The latitude is 42° 50’ 46’... The altitude is 525
feet above sea level. The vineyard lies a mile west of a rela-
tively large body of water. The soil is a cold heavy clay which
must delay ripening time somewhat. The land is level. The
data are given as an average for three seasons, 1913-1915.

The figures given for “weeks in common storage” cover a
variable number of years, but for all varieties three or more

298

years.

MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

The grapes, after being picked, were at once placed in

common storage in a room on the second floor of a building.
There conditions were not ideal, and no doubt the season of
storage would have been prolonged somewhat had the fruit
been kept in a better storage-room.

TABLE V.—SHOWING THE RIPENING TIME OF GRAPES

» »

dey a itian| on Peele a | ele ae

BIR el elal ele aoe) elel al &

eS ae ees ven bneh Ibet || | =

Boon el pay et Nierelt | Bon|>l|ala]4
IN EINE + oll, sae ee -| * MPOSEHN sy 17 a.
PMSA bolls Go. a0 cean Poe .|Downing...|. *
Barhy:. eee 28 * .|Dracut
Beacon. iG Se alls Amber... 9 Eli Wawra leet. &. 3
Belle sent ee 8 a tae Dutchess 4)" e220 enleee *
Berckmans.| 21 * 72 |(Barlya@ bios eS Cree |e
Black Eagle| 18 * .| Early
Brighton...| 20 * ; Vietore .|) ek Edie Eee (eee nes | as
Brilliant...) 11 * SHILDERKOeS a rae tome ee cr
Blown eee 6 * .|Eclipse.... Ze Gate Baa. ua
Campbell Eldorado ..| 17 soy hese | A

Harlye.o| 2 Maa UE el fy or fae Elvira..... 18 *
Garisig sien |b hcl eal eee ee * .|Empire
Canandai- States. <a) 24a see ieee *

SUAs ee 20) |Rae| Re leae * ILS LAU OA euch oe 15) sree l eee ee
Carman....|- 17 * ...|Eumelan...| 17 = [li
Catawba. hile aie se nel oe eS REIN as son 11 *
Champion . 6 Ee | te ate acer (ek ae Fern
Chautau- Miaimson) Shee l) Sl eae ee ewe eee

Qua al) ALOR well erates Fe .|Gaertner 17 sate lee
@levenerses 413i eae elie * ||...|Geneva:...| 22 FN eel
Ghintone ets" Posy | es ee | eee *: |Goether .e:al) 18) \liee llheraclleeewel Cee
Colerain... 8 | eres ae Gold Coimes|) oO eee eee *
Columbian Grein

Imperial . i A he ell Goldens |) sala) alec neta ae *
Concord... 8 oe ell ..|Hartford.. . Sealer *
Cottage. ... 5 * _,-|Headlight. . 8 *

Creveling. . Way ee ah Fe .|Helen

Crotone De * do. Keller: = 2" 2Gielleenei eel Ore *
Delago..... 25 ee Eis 2} OXsta reves ole oParh al Wiel oc *
Delaware..| 15 ct ‘Hercules .alle doesn lee *
Diamond .. 10 * IBN SoG OS aliens |e *

(EX

)

ayion

a
re:
Xx
) Aoqp
u
WaT
Au
xX
X GL
71
d

MISCELLANIES

299

TaBLE V.—SHOWING THE RIPENING TIME OF GRAPES — Continued

3 z Q ei Zz
Z i ° a Z Sl e}
aseia),{2| [A eel (ous
2g oe Pate ase x | 3
Bao AlEl ELE ees | ele | Ale
Fon fei esie se F0m|>l|als|4
Hudaleo....| 12 FSi aio ol NUCL ilin o eens 10 *
Hosford.... 6 * .|Northern
onaho. 2s : is} * Musca-
Isabella....} 11 * Gines..:«; 9 *
Janesville. .| 13 * ...|Norton. 7 ae:
Jefferson...}| 18 Ber * |Oporto 12 Bolt a
Jessies. . =... - 12 * 5 OvArIAe. 5 oo 11 *
Jewel...... 12 * ae a||Reabodyaree lines 2 Bea |e
Kensington | 19 ae * .|Perfection . 8 rail tg
LEGTavE OES |e ee * letras. 44, <I] see oe *
Lady Wash- Perce neene 12 ae: *
ington 16 _-@| * |-.-|Pocklington).-." .- a
Lindley 27 * .|Pough-
Lucile Olen Aer * keepsie..| 15 zs a f
MGGIE se 4 eS Ea eer oallaees Prentiss....| 16 a ee
McPike if Edel esa} cents Rebecca 18 Files
Manito.... Cit Al aes Mites ees * Regal...4.. 16 miche pees
Martha....| 10 vey Re. [eee Requa..... 30 *
Massasoit..} 16 eee gylha ee Rochester iG *
Maxa- Rommel 10 reali
tawney.. 12 EU broil ee Salemi... .. 27 *
Merrimac 31 ca NE lhisteee Secretary ..| 25 =e
IME re Eee o| tise leon a a Senasquayer |) eloielie seiltsete|ac - *
Missouri Supmaesuene all UO Wes alle salle ae
Riesling . Bi cle eel seks * 4|(erniotmapolal 2 ai} GS 5 Selle sel|lberoliols =
Montefiore. 9 PS 5 Atal ee User al|immee Lee anwelll aves iam: *
Moore Wergennes™ |||) (28 eras. cilion *
Early 6 GF Alba Sl (sey 6 hee Wilder..... LET ee levee | aes *
Moyer 9 EAI FR eteallioe eee eric Winchell... 6 Se os
Nectar......- 10 al reeall = eee os Worden.... 6 Fl (ee Be eae
Niagara....| 10 ES [eae heel aa Wyoming. . 9 3 | ode haa

Very LATE

CHAPTER XVII

GRAPE BOTANY

THE grape-grower must know the gross structure and the
habits of growth of the plants properly to propagate, trans-
plant, prune and otherwise care for the grape. Certainly he
must have knowledge of the several species from which varieties
come if he is to know the kinds of grapes, understand their
adaptations to soils and climates, their relation to insects and
fungi, and their value for table, wine, grape-juice and other
purposes. Fortunately, the botany of the grape is compara-
tively simple. The organs of vine and fruit are distinctive
and easily discerned and there are no nearly related plants cul-
tivated for fruit with which the grape can possibly be con-
fused. Botanists, it is true, have dug pitfalls for those who
seek exact knowledge as to the names and characters of the
many species, but, fortunately, each of the cultivated species
constitutes a natural group so distinct that the grape-grower
ean hardly mistake one for another in either fruit or vine.

PLANT CHARACTERS AND GrRowTH HABITS OF THE
GRAPE

A grape plant is a complex organism with its many separate
parts especially developed to do one or a few kinds of work.
The part of a plant devoted to one or a group of functions is
called an organ. The chief organs of the plant are the root,
stem, bud, flower, leaf, fruit and seed. Flowers and leaves, it
is true, develop from buds and the seeds are parts of the fruits,

300

GRAPE BOTANY 301

but for descriptive purposes the vine may well be divided into
the parts named. These chief organs are further divided as
follows :

The root.

Root-crown: The region of the plant in which root and stem unite.

Tap-root: The prolongation of the stem plunging vertically down-
ward.

Rootlets: The ultimate divisions of the root; usually of one season’s
growth.

Root-tips: The extreme ends of the rootlets.

The roots of some species of the grape are soft and succulent
as those of V. vinifera, while the same organs in other species,
as in most American grapes, are hard and fibrous. They may
also be few or numerous, deep or shallow, spreading or restricted,
fibrous or non-fibrous. The structure of the root thus becomes
important in distinguishing species.

The stem.

Stem or trunk: The unbranched main axis of the plant above
ground.

Branches or arms: Main divisions of the trunk.

Head ; The region from which branches arise.

Old wood: Parts of the vine older than one year.

Canes: Wood of the current season.

Spurs: Short pieces of the bases of canes; usually one or two nodes
with a bud each.

Renewal spurs: Spurs left to bear canes the following year.

Shoots: Newly developed succulent stems with their leaves.

Fruit-shoots: Flower and fruit-bearing shoots.

Wood-shoots: Shoots which bear leaves only.

Laterals: Secondary shoots arising from main shoots.

Water sprouts: Shoots arising from adventitious buds.

Suckers: Shoots arising from below ground.

Nodes: Joints in the stem from which leaves are or may be borne.

Internodes: The part between two nodes.

Diaphragm: The woody tissue which interrupts the pith at the node.

Bloom: The powdery coating on the cane.

Tendril: The coiled, thread-like organ by which the vine grasps an
object and clings to it.

302 ‘MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Species of grapes have very characteristic vines. A glance
at a vine enables one to tell the European grape from any of
the American grapes; so, also, one is able to distinguish most of
the American species by the aspect of the vine. Many varieties
of any species of grape are readily told by the size and habits
of the plant. Size of vine is rather more variable than other
gross characters because of the influence of environment, such
as food, moisture, light, isolation and pests; yet, size in a
plant or the parts of a plant is a very reliable character when
proper allowances are made for environment.

The degree of hardiness is a very important diagnostic char-
acter in determining both species'and varieties of grapes and
very largely indicates their value for the vineyard. ‘Thus, the
varieties of the European grape are less hardy than the peach,
while our American Labruscas and Vulpinas are as hardy as
the apple. The range of varieties as to hardiness falls within
that of the species, and cultivated varieties hardier than the
wild grape are not found. Grapes are designated in descrip-
tions of varieties and species as hardy, half-hardy and tender.

Habit of growth varies but little with changing conditions
and is thus an important means of distinguishing species and
varieties and not infrequently stamps the variety as fit or unfit
for the vineyard. Habit of growth gives aspect to the vine.
Thus, a vine may be upright, drooping, horizontal, stocky,
straggling, spreading, dense or open. The vine may grow
rapidly or,slowly and may be long-lived or short-lived; the
trunk may be short and stocky or long and slender. These
several characters largely determine whether a vine is man-
ageable in the vineyard. Productiveness, age of bearing and
regularity of bearing are distinctive characters with cultivated
grapes. The care given the vine influences these characters;
yet all are helpful in identifying species and varieties and all
must be considered by the grape-grower.

Immunity and susceptibility to diseases and insects are

GRAPE BOTANY 303

most valuable diagnostic characters of species and varieties of
grapes. ‘Thus, species differ widely in resistance to phylloxera,
the grape-louse, to the grape leaf-hopper, the flea-beetle,
berry-moth, root-worm, powdery-mildew, downy-mildew, an-
thracnose and other insect and fungous troubles of this fruit.

The structure of the bark is an important distinguishing
character for some species, but is of little importance in
identifying the variety and has no economic value to the
fruit-grower. In most species of grapes, the bark has distinct
lenticels and on the old wood separates in long thin strips
and fibers; but in two species from southeastern North
America, the bark bears prominent lenticels and never shreds.
Smoothness, color and thickness are other attributes of the
bark to be noted.

Canes of different species vary greatly in total length and
in length of internodes. They vary also in size, in number
and in color, while the shape in some species is quite distinctive,
being in some round, in others angular and in still others flat-
tened. The direction of growth in canes, whether sinuous,
straight or zigzag, is an important character. Nodes and
internodes are indicative characters in some species, being
more or less prominent, angular or flattened, while the inter-
nodes are long or short.

The diaphragm distinguishes several species of grapes. The
cane contains a large pith and this in most species is in-
terrupted by woody tissue, forming a diaphragm at the nodes.
In the Rotundifolia grapes the diaphragm is absent, while in
several other American species it is very thin and in still
others quite thick. The character of the diaphragm is best
observed in year-old canes. In studying the diaphragm,
notice should be taken also of the pith, which is very variable
in size.

Young shoots of the grape offer a ready means of distinguish-
ing species and varieties through their color and the amount

304 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

and character of the pubescence. Shoots may be glabrous,
pubescent or hairy and even spiny.

The tendril is one of the organs most used in determining
species and varieties of grapes. .In some species, as V. Labrusca,
there is a tendril or an inflorescence opposite nearly every leaf,
continuous tendrils. All other species have two leaves with a
tendril opposite each and a third leaf without a tendril, inter-
mittent tendrils. To study this organ it is necessary to have
vigorous, healthy, typical canes. Tendrils may be long or
short, stout or slender; simple, bifurcated or trifurcated ; or
smooth, pubescent or warty.

The number of inflorescences borne by species is an impor-
tant character in some cases. All species, excepting V. Labrusca,
average two inflorescences to a cane, but IV’. Labrusca may
bear from three to six inflorescences, each in the place of a
tendril opposite the leaf.

The bud.

Bud: An undeveloped shoot.

Fruit-bud: A bud in which a shoot bearing flowers originates.

Wood-bud: A bud in which a shoot bearing only leaves originates.

Latent bud: A bud which remains dormant for one or more seasons.

Adventitious bud: A bud arising elsewhere than the normal position
at a node.

Eye: A compound bud.

Main bud: The central bud of an eye.

Secondary bud: The lateral bud of an eye.

Buds of different species of grapes vary greatly in time of
opening as they do somewhat in varieties, so that the time the
buds begin to swell is a fine mark of distinction. The angle at
which the bud stands out from the branch is of some value in
determining species. Differences in color, size, shape, position
and amount of pubescence of buds must all be noted in describ-
ing grapes. The scales of the buds vary more or less in size
and in thickness.

GRAPE BOTANY 305

The flower.

Staminate: Having stamens and not pistils; a male flower.

Pistillate: Having pistils and not stamens; a female flower.

Diecious: Said when the stamens are on one plant and the pistils on
another.

Polygamous: Said when flowers on a plant are in part perfect
(having both stamens and pistils) while others are staminate or pistillate.
Hermaphrodite: Said of a flower having both stamens and pistils.

Fertile: Said of a flower capable of bearing seed without pollen from
another flower.

Sterile: Said of a flower without or with abortive pistils.

Perfect: Said of a flower having both stamens and pistils.

Imperfect: Said of a flower wanting either stamens or pistils.

Peduncle: The stalk of a flower-cluster.

Pedicel: The stalk of each particular flower.

The time of bloom is an easy mark of distinction between
several species of grapes and helps to distinguish varieties in a
species as well. Most species of grapes bear fertile flowers on
one vine and sterile flowers on another
and are, therefore, polygamous-dicecious.
Sterile vines bear male flowers with abortive
pistils so that, while they never produce
fruits themselves, they usually assist in
fertilizing others. Fertile flowers are capa-
ble of ripening fruits without cross-pollina-
tion. Vines with female flowers only are
seldom found. In most species of the
grape, plants with sterile flowers and those — pyg. 53, ‘The grape
with complete flowers are found mixed in flower. I. Opening bud
the wild state, but usually only the fertile ae a ears
plants have been selected for cultivation. loosened at the base.
Plants raised from seeds of any of the spe- mae ee ene
cies, however, furnish many sterile vines.

The degree of fertility of blossoms is also a fine mark of dis-
tinction in species and varieties of the grape. Fertile vines are

of two kinds in most species. The flowers on one kind are per-
x

306 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

fect hermaphrodites, while in the other kind the stamens are
smaller and shorter than the pistil and eventually bent down
and curved under. The two kinds of stamens are shown in
Figs. 53 and 54. These may be called imperfect hermaphro-
dites since they are seldom as fruitful as the perfect hermaph-
rodites unless fertilized from another plant. Examined with

Fie. 54. Grape flowers. Left, upright stamens of Delaware; right, de-
pressed stamens of Brighton.

a microscope, it is found that self-sterile plants usually bear
abortive pollen and that the percentage of abortive pollen
grains varies greatly in different varieties. The upright or
depressed stamen does not always indicate the condition of the
pollen, since there are many instances in which upright stamens
bear impotent pollen and occasionally the depressed stamens
bear perfect pollen.

The leaf.

Blade: The expanded portion of the leaf.
Lobe: The more or less rounded division of the leaf.
Sinus; The recess or bay between two lobes.

GRAPE BOTANY 307

Petiole: The leaf-stalk.

Petiolar sinus: The sinus about the petiole.

Basal sinuses: The two sinuses toward the base of the blade.
Lateral sinuses: The two sinuses toward the apex of the blade.

The size, shape and color of the leaves are quite distinctive
of species and more or less so of varieties, if allowances are
made for variation due to environment. The lobing of leaves
is a very uniform character in most species, some having lobes
and others having entire leaves. The upper surface of the leaf
in some species is smooth, glossy and shiny and in others is
rough and dull. The lower surface shows similar variations
and has, besides, varying amounts of pubescence, down and
bloom. In some species the down resembles cobwebs. The
number, size and shape of the lobes are important in distinguish-
ing both varieties and species, as are also the petiolar, basal and
lateral sinuses. As in most plants, the margins of the leaves,
whether serrate, dentate or crenate, are often distinguishing char-
acters. The petiole in different species varies from short to
long and from stout to slender. Lastly, the time at which the
leaves fall is often a good distinguishing mark.

The fruit.

Peduncle and pedicel: Defined as in flower.

Brush: The end of the pedicel projecting into the fruit

Base: The point of attachment of bunch or berry.

Apex: The point opposite the base.

Bloom: The powdery coating on the fruit.

Pigment: The coloring matter in the skin.

Quality: The combination of characters that makes grapes pleasant
to the palate, sight, smell and touch.

Foxiness: The rancid taste and smell of some grapes which are
similar to the effluvium of a fox.

Of all organs the fruit is most responsive to changed condi-
tions and hence most variable. Yet the fruits furnish most
valuable characters for determining both species and varieties.
Size, shape, compactness and the number of clusters on a shoot

308 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

must be noted. Coming to the berry, size, shape, color, bloom,
adherence of stigma to the apex and adhesion of fruit to the
pedicel are all of value. Difference in adherence of the skin to
the pulp separates European from all American grapes. The
thickness, toughness, flavor and pigment of the skin have more
or less value. The color, firmness, juiciness, aroma and flavor
of the flesh, as well as its adherence to seed and skin, are val-
uable marks in describing grapes. All species and varieties are
well distinguished by the time of ripening and by keeping
quality. The color of the juice is a plain and certain dividing
line between some species and many varieties.

The seed.

Beak: The narrow prolonged base of the seed.

Hilum: The sear left where the seed was attached to the seed-stalk.
Chalaza: The place where the seed-coats and kernel are connected.
Raphe: The line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the chalaza.

Seeds are accounted of much value in determining species.
The size and weight of seed differ greatly in different species,
as they do also in varieties of any one species. Thus, of native
grapes, Labrusca has the largest and heaviest seeds and Vul-
pina has the smallest seed, while those of Aéstivalis are of
medium size and weight. The shape and color of seed offer
distinguishing marks, while the size, shape and position of the
raphe and chalaza furnish very certain marks of distinction in
some species.

THe GENusS VITIS

The genus Vitis belongs to the vine family (Vitacez) in which
most botanists also put the wood-vines (Ampelopsis), of which
Virginia creeper is the best-known plant. The genus Cissus,
to which belong many southern climbers, is combined with
Vitis by some botanists. Vitis is separated from Ampelopsis
and Cissus by marked differences in several organs, of which,

GRAPE BOTANY 309

horticulturally at least, those in the fruit best serve to dis-
tinguish the group. Species of Vitis, with possibly one or two
exceptions, bear pulpy edible fruits; species of Ampelopsis and
Cissus bear fruits with pulp so scant that the berries are in-
edible. Vitis is further distinguished as follows: The plants
are climbing or trailing, rarely shrubby, with woody stems and
mostly with coiling, naked-tipped tendrils. The leaves are
simple, palmately lobed, round-dentate or heart-shaped-den-
tate. The stipules are small, falling early. The flowers are
polygamo-dicecious (some plants with perfect flowers, others
staminate with at most a rudimentary ovary), five-parted.
The petals are separated only at the base and fall off without
expanding. The disk is hypogynous with five nectariferous
glands which are alternate with the stamens. The berry is
globose or ovoid, few-seeded and pulpy. The seeds are pyri-
form and beak-like at the base.

SPECIES OF AMERICAN GRAPES

The number of species of grapes in the world depends on the
arbitrary limits set fora species of thisfruit, and knowledge of the
genus Is yet too meager to set these limits with certainty. In-
deed, the men who have made grape species have seldom been
able to outline the habitats of their groups with much cer-
tainty. In habitat, it should be said, grapes are confined
almost wholly to temperate and subtropical regions. How-
ever, the grape-grower 1s not much concerned with species
of grapes other than those that have horticultural value. Of
these, in America, there are now ten more or less cultivated
either for fruit or for stocks. The following descriptions of
these ten species are adapted from the author’s The Grapes
of New York, published in 1908 by the state of New York
(Chapter IV, pages 107-156).

310 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

CONSPECTUS OF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF VITIS

A. Skin of mature berry separating freely from the pulp.
B. Nodes without diaphragms; tendrils simple.
1. V. rotundifolia.

2. V. Munsoniana.
BB. Nodes with diaphragms; tendrils forked.

C. Leaves and shoots glabrous at maturity and without
bloom; tendrils intermittent.

D. Leaves thin, light, bright green, generally glabrous
below at maturity except perhaps in the axils
of the veins with a long or at least a prominent
point and usually*long and sharp teeth or the
edge even-jagged.

E. Leaves broader than long; petiolar sinus
usually wide and shallow.
3. V. rupestris.
EE. Leaves ovate in outline; petiolar sinus
usually medium to narrow.
4. V. vulpina.
DD. Leaves thick, dull colored or grayish-green, often
holding some close, dull pubescence below at °
maturity, shoots and leaves nearly always
more or less pubescent when young; the
teeth mostly short........5. V. cordifolia.
6. V. Berlandieri.
CC. Leaves rusty or white tomentose or glaucous blue
below, thick or at least firm.
D. Leaves flocculent or cobwebby or glaucous
below when fully grown......7. V. estivalis.
8. V. bicolor.
DD. Leaves densely tomentose or felt-like beneath
throughout the season; covering white or
rusty white.
E. Tendrils intermittent.....9. V. candicans.
EE. Tendrils mostly continuous.
10. V. Labrusca.
AA. Skin and pulp of mature berry cohering. (Old World.)

11. V. vinifera.

1. Vitis rotundifolia, Michx. Muscadine Grape. Bull Grape.

Bullet Grape. Bushy Grape. Bullace Grape. Scuppernong.
Southern Fox Grape.

Vine very vigorous, sometimes, when without support, shrubby
and only three or four feet high; when growing in the shade often send-

GRAPE BOTANY Sie

ing down aérial roots. Wood hard, bark smooth, not scaling, with
prominent warty lenticels; shoots short-jointed, angled, with fine
seurfy pubescence; diaphragms absent; tendrils intermittent, simple.
Leaves small, broadly cordate or roundish; petiolar sinus wide,
shallow; margin with obtuse, wide teeth; not lobed; dense in texture,
light green color, glabrous above, sometimes pubescent along veins
below. Cluster small (6-24 berries), loose; peduncle short; pedicels
short, thick. Berries large, globular or somewhat oblate, black or
greenish-yellow; skin thick, tough and with a musky odor; pulp
tough; ripening unevenly and dropping as soon as ripe. Seeds
flattened, shallowly and broadly notched; beak very short; chalaza
narrow, slightly depressed with radiating ridges and furrows; raphe a
narrow groove. Leafing, flowering and ripening fruit very late.

The habitat of this species is southern Delaware, west through
Tennessee, southern Illinois, southeastern Missouri, Arkansas
(except the northwestern portions), to Grayson County, Texas,
as a northern and western boundary, to the Atlantic Ocean and
the Gulf on the east and south. It becomes rare as one ap-
proaches the western limit but is common in many sections of
the great region outlined above, being most abundant on sandy,
well-drained bottom lands and along river banks and in swampy,
thick woodlands and thickets. The climate most suitable for
Rotundifolia is that in which cotton grows, and it thrives best
in the lower portions of the cotton-belt of the United States.

The fruit of Rotundifolia is very characteristic. The skin
is thick, has a leathery appearance, adheres strongly to the
underlying flesh and is marked with lenticel-like russet dots.
The flesh is more or less tough but the toughness is not localized
around the seed as in the case of Labrusca. The fruit and
most of the varieties of the species are characterized by a strong,
musky aroma and are lacking in sugar and acid. Some varieties
yield over four gallons of must to the bushel. Wine-makers
are divided in opinion as to its value for wine-making, but at
present the most promising outlook for Rotundifolia varieties
is as wine, grape-juice and culinary grapes. Rotundifolia does
not produce fruit suitable for shipping as dessert grapes chiefly
because the berries ripen unevenly and when ripe drop from the

312 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

cluster. The common method of gathering the fruit of this
species is to shake the vines at intervals so that the ripe berries
drop on sheets spread below the vines. The juice which ex-
udes from the point where the stem is broken off causes the
berries to become smeared and gives them an unattractive
appearance. Owing, however, to the tough skin, the berries
do not crack as badly as other grapes would under the same con-
ditions, but nevertheless they are not adapted to long-dis-
tance shipments. Under reasonably favorable conditions, the
vines attain great age and size and when grown on arbors, as
they often are, and without pruning, they cover a large area.

Rotundifolia is remarkably resistant to the attacks of all
insects and to fungal diseases. The phylloxera do not attack
its roots and it is considered as resistant as any other, if not
the most resistant of all American species. The vines are
grown from cuttings only with difficulty and this prevents the
use of this species as a resistant stock. However, under
favorable circumstances, and with skillful handling, this is a
successful method of propagation. Under unfavorable cir-
cumstances, or when only a few vines are desired, it is better
to depend on layers. As a stock upon which to graft other
vines, this species has not been a success. There is great dif-
ficulty in crossing Rotundifolia with other species, but several
Rotundifolia hybrids are now on record.

2. Vitis Munsoniana, Simpson. Florida Grape. Ever-
bearing grape. Bird Grape. Mustang Grape of Florida.

Vine slender, usually running on the ground or over low bushes.
Canes angular; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, simple.
Leaves smaller and thinner than Rotundifolia and rather more circular
in outline; not lobed; teeth open and spreading; petiolar sinus
V-shaped; both surfaces smooth, rather light green. Cluster with
more berries but about the same size as in Rotundifolia. Berry one-
third to one-half the diameter, with thinner and more tender skin;
black, shining; pulp less solid, more acid and without muskiness.

GRAPE BOTANY alice

Seeds about one-half the size of those of Rotundifolia, similar in other
respects. Leafing, flowering and ripening fruit very late.

The habitat of V. Mansoniana is central and southern Florida
and the Florida Keys. It extends south of the habitat of Ro-
tundifolia and blends into this species at their point of meet-
ing. Munsoniana appears to be a variation of Rotundifolia,
fitted to subtropical conditions. It is tender, not enduring a
lower temperature than zero. In the matter of multiplication,
it differs from V’. rotundzfolva in that it can be propagated readily
from cuttings. Like Rotundifolia it is resistant to phylloxera.

3. Vitis rupestris, Scheele. Mountain Grape. Rock Grape.
Bush Grape. Sand Grape. Sugar Grape. Beach Grape.

A small, much branched shrub or, under favorable circumstances,
elimbing. Diaphragm thin; tendrils few, or if present, weak, usually
deciduous. Leaves small; young leaves frequently folded on midrib ;
broadly cordate or reniform, wider than long, secareely ever lobed,
smooth, glabrous on both surfaces at maturity; petiolar sinus wide,
shallow; margin coarsely toothed, frequently a sharp, abrupt point
at terminal. Cluster small. Berries small, black or purple-black.
Seeds small, not notched; beak short, blunt; raphe distinet to indis-
tinct, usually showing as a narrow groove; chalaza pear-shaped,
sometimes distinct, but usually a depression only. Leafing, blossom-
ing and ripening early.

This species is an inhabitant of southwestern Texas, extend-
ing eastward and northward into New Mexico, southern Mis-
souri, Indiana and Tennessee to southern Pennsylvania and the
District of Columbia. Its favorite places are gravelly banks
and bars of mountain streams or the rocky beds of dry water-
courses. This species is rather variable both in type and
growth. It was introduced into France at about the same time
as Vulpina, and the French vineyardists selected the most
vigorous and healthy forms for grafting stock. These pass
under the various names of Rupestris Mission, Rupestris du
Lot, Rupestris Ganzin, Rupestris Martin, Rupestris St. George

314 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

and others. In France, these varieties have given particularly
good results on bare, rocky soils with hot, dry exposures. In
California, Rupestris does not flourish in dry locations, and as
it suckers profusely and does not take the graft as readily as
Vulpina and Aistivalis, it is not largely propagated.

The clusters of fruit are small, with berries about the size
of a currant and varying from sweet to sour. The berry is
characterized by much pigment under the skin. The fruit
has a sprightly taste wholly free from any disagreeable foxiness.
Rupestris under cultivation is said to be very resistant to rot
and mildew of the foliage. The vine is considered hardy in
the Southwest. The attention of hybridizers was attracted
to this species over thirty years ago, and various hybrids have
been produced of great promise for grape-breeding. The root
system of Rupestris is peculiar in that the roots penetrate at
once deeply into the ground instead of extending laterally as
in other species. Like those of Vulpina, the roots are slender,
hard and resistant to phylloxera. The species is easily propa-
gated by cuttings. The vines bench-graft readily but are
difficult to handle in field grafting.

4. Vitis wulpina, Linn. (V. riparia, Michx.). Winter
Grape. River Grape. Riverside Grape. Riverbank Grape.
Sweet-scented Grape.

Vine very vigorous, climbing. Shoots eylindrical or angled, usually
smooth, slender; diaphragms thin; tendrils intermittent, slender,
usually bifid. Leaves with large stipules; leaf-blade large, thin,
entire, three- or lower ones often five-lobed; sinuses shallow, angular ;
petiolar sinus broad, usually shallow; margin with incised, sharply
serrate teeth of variable size; light green, glabrous above, glabrous
but sometimes pubescent on ribs and veins below. Cluster small,
compact, shouldered; peduncle short. Berries small, black with a
heavy blue bloom. Seeds two to four, small, notehed, short, plump,
with very short beak; chalaza narrowly oval, depressed, indistinct ;
raphe usually a groove, sometimes distinet. Very variable in flavor
and time of ripening.

GRAPE BOTANY 315

Vulpina is the most widely distributed of any American species
of grape. It has been discovered in parts of Canada north of
Quebec and from thence southward to the Gulf of Mexico. It
is found from the Atlantic coast westward, most botanists say,
to the Rocky Mountains. Usually it grows on river banks, on
islands or in upland ravines. Vulpina has always been con-
sidered of great promise in the evolution of American grapes.
It can hardly be said that it has fulfilled expectations, there
probably being no pure variety of this species of more than local
importance, and the results of hybridizing it with other species
have not been wholly successful. Attention was early turned
to Vulpina because of the qualities presented by the vine
rather than those of the fruit, particularly its hardiness and
vigor. However, both of these qualities are rather variable,
although it is only reasonable to suppose that in such a widely
distributed species, plants found in a certain region would have
adapted themselves to the conditions there present; thus, it
should be expected that the northern plants would be more
hardy than those from the South, and that the western prairie
forms would be more capable of resisting drouth than those
from humid regions. It is, consequently, impossible to say what
conditions best suit this species. It may be said, however, that
Vulpina is adapted to a great variety of soils and locations;
vines have withstood a temperature of 40 to 60 degrees below
zero and they show equal ability in withstanding the injurious
effects of high temperatures in the summer. On account of its
habit of early blooming, the blossoms sometimes suffer from
late frosts in the spring.

While Vulpina is not a swamp grape and is not found grow-
ing under swampy conditions, it is fond of water. In the semi-
arid regions always, and in humid regions usually, it is found
growing along the banks of streams, in ravines, on the islands
of rivers and in wet places. It is not nearly so capable of with-
standing drouth as Rupestris. Vulpina likes a rather rich soil,

316 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

but in France has been found to do poorly on limestone land
and calcareous marls. The French tell us, however, that this
is a characteristic of all our American grapes, and that Vulpina
is more resistant to the injurious effects of an excess of lime than
either Rupestris or “stivalis.

The fruit of Vulpina is usually small, there being occasional
varieties of medium size or above. The clusters are of medium
size and, if judged from the standpoint of number of berries,
might frequently be called large. The flavor is usually sharply
acid but free from foxiness or any disagreeable wild taste. If
eaten in quantity, the acidity is likely to affect the lips and
end of the tongue. When the acidity is somewhat ameliorated,
as in the ease of thoroughly ripe or even over-ripe and shriveled
fruit, the flavor is much liked. The flesh is neither pulpy nor
solid and dissolves in the mouth and separates readily from the
seed. The must of Vulpina is characterized by an average
amount of sugar, varying considerably in the fruit from differ-
ent vines, and by an excess of acid.

Vulpina is very resistant to phylloxera, the roots are small,
hard, numerous and branch freely., The roots feed close to
the surface and do not seem to be well adapted to forcing their
way through heavy clays. Vulpina grows readily from cuttings
and makes a good stock for grafting, its union with other species
being usually permanent. When Vulpinas were first sent to
France to be used as a stock in reconstituting the French vine-
yards, it was found that many of the vines secured from the -
woods were too weak in growth to support the stronger-growing
Viniferas. On this account the French growers selected the
more vigorous forms of the Vulpinas, to which they gave varietal
names, as Vulpina Gloire, Vulpina Grand Glabre, Vulpina Schrib-
ner, Vulpina Martin and others. With these selected Vulpinas,
the graft does not outgrow the stock. Vulpina is less resistant
to black-rot than Astivalis but somewhat more resistant than
Labrusca. The foliage is rarely attacked by mildew. One of

GRAPE BOTANY 317

the chief failings of this species is the susceptibility of the
leaves to the attack of the leaf-hopper. The Vulpinas are
generally late in ripening; the fruit is better in quality in long
seasons and should be left on the vines as late as possible.

5. Vitis cordifolia, Michx. Winter Grape. Frost Grape.
Fox Grape. Chicken Grape. Heart-leaved Vitis. Possum
Grape. Sour Winter Grape.

Vine very vigorous, climbing. Shoots slender; internodes long,
angular; usually glabrous, sometimes pubescent; diaphragms thick;
tendrils intermittent, long, usually bifid. Leaves with short, broad
stipules; leaf-blade medium to large, cordate, entire or indistinctly
three-lobed; petiolar sinus deep, usually narrow, acute; margin with
coarse angular teeth; point of leaf acuminate; upper surface light
green, glossy, glabrous; glabrous or sparingly pubescent below.
Clusters medium to large, loose, with long peduncle. Berries numerous
and small, black, shining, little or no bloom. Seeds medium in size,
broad, beak short; chalaza oval or roundish, elevated, very distinct ;
raphe a distinct, cord-like ridge. Fruit sour and astringent and
frequently consisting of little besides skins and seeds. Leafing,
fiowering and ripening fruit very late.

Owing to the fact that Cordifolia and Vulpina have been
badly confused, the limits of the habitat of this species are
difficult to determine. ‘The best authorities give the northern
limit as New York or the Great Lakes. The eastern limit is
the Atlantic Ocean and the southern limit, the Gulf of Mexico.
It extends westward, according to Engelmann, to the western
limits of the wooded portion of the Mississippi Valley in the
North, and, according to Munson, to the Brazos River, Texas,
in the South. It is found along creeks and river banks some-
times mixed with Vulpina, having about the same soil adapta-
tions as that species. It is a very common species in the
middle states and frequently grows on limestone soils, but
is not indigenous to such soils.

Cordifolia makes a good stock for grafting, being vigorous
and forming a good union with most of our cultivated grapes.

318 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

It is seldom used for this purpose, however, on account of the
difficulty of propagating it by means of cuttings. For the

same reason vines of it are seldom found in cultivation.

6. Vitis Berlandierit, Planch. Mountain Grape. Spanish
Grape. Fall Grape. Winter Grape. Little Mountain Grape.

Vine vigorous, climbing; shoots more or less angled and pubescent ;
pubescence remaining only in patches on mature wood; canes mostly
with short internodes; diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, long,
strong, bifid or trifid. Leaves with small stipules; leaf-blade large,
broadly cordate, notched or shortly three-lobed; petiolar sinus rather
open, V- or U-shaped, margin with broad but rather shallow teeth,
rather dark glossy green above, grayish pubescence below when
young; becoming glabrous and even glossy except on ribs and veins,
when mature. Clusters large, compact, compound, with long peduncle.
Berries small, black, with thin bloom, juicy, rather tart but pleasant
tasting when thoroughly ripe. Seeds few, small, short, plump, oval
or roundish, with short beak; chalaza oval or roundish, distinct;
raphe narrow, slightly distinct to indistinct. Leafing, flowering and
ripening fruit very late.

Berlandieri is a native of the limestone hills of southwest
Texas and adjacent Mexico. It grows in the same region with
V. monticola, but is less restricted locally, growing from the
tops of the hills down and along the creek bottoms of these
regions. Its great virtue is that it withstands a soil largely
composed of lime, being superior to all other American species
in this respect. This and its moderate degree of vigor have
recommended it to the French growers as a stock for their cal-
careous soils. The roots are strong, thick, and very resistant
to phylloxera. It is propagated by cuttings with comparative
ease, but its varieties are variable, some not rooting at all
easily. While the fruit of this species shows a large cluster,
the berries are small and sour, and Berlandieri is not regarded
as having promise for culture in America.

7. Vitis estivalis, Michx. Blue Grape. Bunch Grape.
Summer Grape. Little Grape. Duck-shot Grape. Swamp
Grape. Chicken Grape. Pigeon Grape.

GRAPE BOTANY 319

Vine very vigorous, shoots pubescent or smooth when young;
diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, usually bifid. Leaves with
short, broad stipules; leaf-blade large, thin when young but becoming
thick; petiolar sinus deep, usually narrow, frequently overlapping ;
margin rarely entire, usually three- to five-lobed; teeth dentate,
shallow, wide; upper surface dark green; lower surface with more or
less reddish or rusty pubescence which, in mature leaves, usually shows
in patches on the ribs and veins; petioles frequently pubescent.
Clusters long, not much branched, with long peduncle. Berries small,
with moderate amount of bloom, usually astringent. Seeds two to
three, of medium size, plump, smooth, not notched; chalaza oval,
distinct; raphe a distinct cord-like ridge. Leafing and ripening fruit
late to very late.

The division of the original species has reduced the habitat
materially, confining it to the southeastern part of the United
States from southern New York to Florida and westward to
the Mississippi River. Aéstivalis grows in thickets and open-
ings In the woods and shows no such fondness for streams as
Vulpina, or for thick timber as Labrusca, but is generally con-
fined to uplands. Under favorable circumstances, the vines
grow to be very large. stivalis is preéminently a wine grape.
The fruit usually has a tart, acrid taste, due to the presence of
a high percentage of acid, but there is also a large amount of
sugar, the scale showing that juice from this species has a much
higher percentage of sugar than the sweeter-tasting Labruscas.
The wine made from varieties of Aistivalis is very rich in color-
ing matter and is used by some European vintners to mix with
the must of European sorts in order to give the combined
product a higher color. The berries are destitute of pulp,
have a comparatively thin, tough skin and a peculiar spicy
flavor. The berries hang to the bunch after becoming ripe
much better than do those of Labrusca.

This species thrives in a lighter and shallower soil than
Labrusca and appears to endure drought better, although not
equaling in this respect either Vulpina or Rupestris. The
French’growers report that Mstivalis is very liable to chlorosis

320 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

on soils which contain much lime. The leaves are never in-
jured by the sun and they resist the attacks of insects, such as
leaf-hoppers. better than any other American species under
cultivation. Aéstivalis is rarely injured by black-rot or mildew,
according to American experience, but French growers speak
of its being susceptible to both. The hard roots of Aistivalis
enable it to resist phylloxera, and varieties with any great
amount of the blood of this species are seldom seriously injured
by this insect. An objection to Astivalis, from a horticultural
standpoint, is that it does not root well from cuttings. Many
authorities speak of it as not rooting at all from cuttings, but
this is an over-statement of the facts, as many of the wild and
cultivated varieties are occasionally propagated in this manner,
and some southern nurseries, located in particularly favorable
situations, make a practice of propagating it by this method.
Varieties of this species bear grafting well, especially in the
vineyard.

Vitis estivalis Lincecumti, Munson. Post-oak Grape.
Pine-wood Grape. Turkey Grape.

Vine vigorous, sometimes climbing high upon trees, sometimes
forming a bushy clump from two to six feet high; canes cylindrical,
much rusty wool on shoots; tendrils intermittent. Leaves very large,
almost as wide as long; entire or three-, five-, or rarely seven-lobed ;
lobes frequently divided; sinuses, including petiolar sinus, deep;
smooth above, and with more or less rusty pubescence below. (The
north-Texas, southwestern Missouri and northern Arkansas form
shows little or no pubescence but has fine prickly spines at base of
shoots and shows much blue bloom on shoots, canes and the under side
of the leaves.) Fruit small to large, usually larger than typical Ais-
tivalis, usually black, with heavy bloom. Seeds larger than Aistivalis,
pear-shaped; chalaza roundish.

Lincecumii inhabits the eastern half of Texas, western Loui-
siana, Oklahoma, Arkansas and southern Missouri on -high
sandy land, frequently climbing post-oak trees, hence the
name, post-oak grape, by which it is locally known.

GRAPE BOTANY 321

Lincecumii has attracted considerable attention through
the work of H. Jaeger and T. V. Munson in domesticating it,
both of whom considered it one of the most, if not the most,
promising form from which to secure cultivated varieties for
the Southwest. The qualities which recommend it are: First,
vigor; second, capacity to withstand rot and mildew; third,
hardiness and capacity to endure hot and dry summers without
injury; fourth, the large cluster and berry which were found
on certain of the wild vines. The fruit is characteristic because
of its dense bloom, firm, yet tender texture and peculiar flavor.
The cultivated varieties have given satisfaction in many sec-
tions of the Central Western and Southern states. Like
Astivalis, it is difficult to propagate from cuttings.

The north-Texas glaucous form of this variety mentioned in
the technical description above is the V’. estivalis glauca of
Bailey. This is the type of Lincecumii that Munson has used
in breeding work.

Vitis estivalis Bourquiniana, Bailey. Southern Astivalis.

Bourquiniana differs chiefly from the type in having thinner
leaves; the shoots and under side of the leaves are only
slightly reddish-brown in color; the pubescence usually dis-
appears at maturity; the leaves are more deeply lobed than
is common in /Mstivalis; and the fruit is larger, sweeter and
more juicy. Bourquiniana is known only in cultivation.
The name was given by Munson, who ranks the group as a
species. He includes therein many southern varieties? the
most important of which are: Herbemont, Bertrand, Cun-
ningham and Lenoir, grouped in the Herbemont section; and
Devereaux, Louisiana and Warren, in the Devereaux section.
Munson has traced the history of this interesting group and
states that it was brought from southern France to America
over one hundred fifty years ago by the Bourquin family
of Savannah, Georgia. Many botanists are of the opinion

Y

322 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

that Bourquiniana is a hybrid. The hybrid supposition is
corroborated to a degree by the characters being more or less
intermediate between the supposed parent species, and also
by the fact that up to date no wild form of Bourquiniana has
been found. The only northern variety of any importance
supposed to have Bourquiniana blood is the Delaware, and in
this variety only a fraction of Bourquiniana blood is presum-
ably present. Bourquiniana can be propagated from cuttings
more easily than the typical Astivalis but not so readily as
Labrusca, Vulpina or Vinifera. Many of the varieties of Bour-
quiniana show a marked susceptibility to mildew and black-
rot; in fact, the whole Herbemont group is much inferior in
this respect to the Norton group of Astivalis. The roots are
somewhat hard, branch rather freely and are quite resistant
to phylloxera.

8. Vitis bicolor, Le Conte. Blue Grape. Northern Summer
Grape. Northern Atstivalis.

Vine vigorous, climbing; shoots cylindrical or angled, with long
internodes, generally glabrous, usually showing much blue bloom,
sometimes spiny at base; diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent,
long, usually bifid. Leaves with short, broad stipules; leaf-blade
large; roundish-cordate, usually three-, sometimes on older growth
shallowly five-lobed, rarely entire; petiolar sinus variable in depth,
usually narrow; margin irregularly dentate; teeth acuminate; gla-
brous above, usually glabrous below and showing much blue bloom which
sometimes disappears late in the season; young leaves sometimes
pubescent; petioles very long. Cluster of medium size, compact,
simple; peduncle long. Berries small, black with much bloom, acid
but pleasant tasting when ripe. Seeds small, plump, broadly oval,
very short beak; chalaza oval, raised, distinct ; raphe distinct, showing
as a cord-like ridge.

Bicolor is readily distinguished from A#stivalis by the ab-
sence of the reddish pubescence and by blooming slightly later.
The habitat of Bicolor is to the north of that of AXstivalis, oc-
cupying the northeastern, whereas Aistivalis occupies the

GRAPE BOTANY aoe

southeastern quarter of the United States. Like A‘stivalis,
this species is not confined to streams and river banks but
frequently grows on higher land also. It is found in north
Missouri, Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, Indiana, southern
Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, New York, south-
western Ontario, New Jersey and Maryland and by some
botanists is reported as far south as western North Carolina
and west Tennessee.

The horticultural characters of Bicolor are much the same
as those of Astivalis. About the only points of difference are
that it is much hardier (some of the Wisconsin vines stand a
temperature as low as 20 degrees below zero) ; it is said to be
slightly less resistant to mildew and more resistant to phyl-
loxera. Like A%stivalis, Bicolor does not thrive on limy soils
and it is difficult to propagate from cuttings. The horticultural
possibilities of Bicolor are probably much the same as those of
Astivalis, although many think it to be more promising for the
North. It is as yet cultivated but little. Its chief defect for
domestication is the small size of the fruit.

9. Vitis candicans, Englem. Mustang Grape.

Vine very vigorous, climbing; shoots and petioles densely wooly,
whitish or rusty; diaphragm thick; tendrils intermittent. Leaves
with large stipules; blade small, broadly cordate to reniform-ovate,
entire or in young shoots and on young vines and sprouts usually
deeply three- to five-, or even seven-lobed; teeth shallow, sinuate ;
petiolar sinus shallow, wide, sometimes lacking; dull, slightly rugose
above, dense whitish pubescence below. Clusters small. Berries
medium to large, black, purple, green, or even whitish, thin blue bloom
or bloomless. Seeds usually three or four, large, short, plump, blunt,
notched; chalaza oval, depressed, indistinct ; raphe a broad groove.

The habitat of this grape extends from southern Oklahoma,
as a northern limit, southwesterly into Mexico. The western
boundary is the Pecos River. It is found on dry, alluvial,
sandy or limestone bottoms or on limestone bluff lands and is

324 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

said to be especially abundant along upland ravines. Caadi-
cans grows well on limestone lands, enduring as much as 60 per
cent of carbonate of lime in the soil. The species blooms shortly
before Labrusca and a week later than Vulpina. It requires
the long hot summers of its native country and will stand ex-
treme drouth but is not hardy to cold, 10 or 15 degrees below
zero killing the vine outright unless protected; and a lesser
degree of cold injuring it severely. The berries, which are
large for wild vines, have thin skins under which there is a pig-
ment which gives them, when first ripe, a fiery, pungent taste
but which partly disappears with maturity. The berries are
very persistent, clinging to the pedicel long after ripe. Candi-
cans is difficult to propagate from cuttings. Its roots resist
phylloxera fairly well. It makes a good stock for Vinifera vines
in its native country, but owing to the difficulty of propagation
is seldom used for that purpose. In the early days of Texas,
it was much used for the making of wine but as it is deficient
in sugar, and as the must retains the acrid, pungent flavor, it
does not seem to be well adapted for this purpose. It is not
regarded as having great promise for southern horticulture
and certainly has none for the North.

10. Vitis Labrusca, Linn. Fox-Grape.

Vine vigorous, stocky, climbing; shoots cylindrical, densely pubes-
cent; diaphragms medium to thick; tendrils continuous, strong,
bifid or trifid. Leaves with long, cordate stipules; leaf-blade large,
thick, broadly cordate or round; entire or three-lobed, frequently
notched ; sinuses rounded; petiolar sinus variable in depth and width,
V-shaped; margin with shallow, acute-pointed, scalloped teeth; upper
surface rugose, dark green, on young leaves pubescent, becoming
glabrous when mature; lower surface covered with dense pubescence,
more or less whitish on young leaves, becoming dun-colored when
mature. Clusters more or less compound, usually shouldered, com-
pact; pedicels thick; peduncle short. Berries round; skin thick,
covered with bloom, with strong musky or foxy aroma. Seeds two
to four, large, distinctly notched, beak short; chalaza oval in shape
indistinct, showing as a depression; raphe, a groove.

GRAPE BOTANY SPAS)

Labrusca is indigenous to the eastern part of North America,
including the region between the Atlantic Ocean and the
Alleghany Mountains. It is sometimes found in the valleys
and along the western slopes of the Alleghanies. Many botan-
ists say it never occurs in the Mississippi Valley. In the first-
named area it ranges from Maine to Georgia. It has the most
restricted habitat of any American species of horticultural im-
portance, being much exceeded in extent of territory by V.
rotundifolia, V. estivalis and V. vulpina.

Labrusca has furnished more cultivated varieties, either pure-
breeds or hybrids, than all other American species together.
The reason for this is partly, no doubt, that it is native to the
portion of the United States first settled and is the most com-
mon grape in the region where agriculture first advanced to
the condition at which fruits were desired. This does not
_ wholly account for its prominence, however, which must be
sought elsewhere. In its wild state, Labrusca is probably the
most attractive to the eye of any of our American grapes on
account of the size of its fruit, and this undoubtedly turned the
attention of those who were early interested in the possibilities
of American grape-growing to this species rather than to any
other.

The southern Labrusca is quite different from the northern
form and demands different conditions for its successful growth ;
in the North, at least two types of the species may be dis-
tinguished. Vines are found in the woods of New England
which resemble Concord very closely in both vine and fruit,
excepting that the grapes are much smaller in size and more
seedy. There is also the large-fruited, foxy Labrusca, usually
with reddish berries, represented by such cultivated varieties
as Northern Muscadine, Dracut Amber, Lutie and others.
Labrusca is peculiar amongst American grapes in show-
ing black-, white- and red-fruited forms of wild vines
growing in the woods. Because of this variability, it is im-

326 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

possible to give the exact climatic and soil conditions best
adapted to the species. It is reasonable to suppose, however,
that the ideal conditions for this species under cultivation are
not widely different from those prevailing where the species is
indigenous. In the case of Labrusca, this means that it is
best adapted to humid climates, and that the temperature de-
sired varies according to whether the variety comes from the
southern or northern form of the species.

The root system of Labrusca does not penetrate the soil
deeply, but the vine is said to succeed better in deep and clayey
soils than Aéstivalis. It endures an excess of water in the soil,
and, on the other hand, requires less water for successful grow-
ing than Astivalis or Vulpina. In spite of its ability to with-
stand clayey soils, it seems to prefer loose, warm, well-drained
sandy lands to all others. The French growers report that all
varieties of this species show a marked antipathy to a lime-
stone soil, the vines soon becoming affected with chlorosis when
planted in soils of this nature. In corroboration of this, it may
be said that Labrusca is not often found wild in limestone soils.
The Labruseas succeed very well in the North and fairly well
in the Middle West as far south as Arkansas, where they are
raised on account of their fruit qualities, for here the vines
are not nearly so vigorous and healthy as are those of other
species. In Alabama, they are reported to be generally unsatis-
factory, and in Texas the vines are short-lived, unhealthy,
and generally unsatisfactory, particularly in the dry regions.
There are some exceptions to this, as for instance, in the Pied-
mont region of the Carolinas, where, owing to elevation or other
. causes, the climate of a southern region is semi-northern in its
character.

The grapes of Labrusca are large and usually handsomely
colored. The skin is thick, covering a layer of adhering flesh,
which gives the impression of its being thicker than it actually
is; the berry is variable in tenderness, sometimes tough, but

GRAPE BOTANY BAG

in many cultivated varieties is so tender that it cracks in trans-
portation. The skin of this species usually has a peculiar aroma,
generally spoken of as foxy, and a slightly acid, astringent taste.
Beneath the skin there is a layer of juicy pulp, quite sweet and
never showing much acidity in ripe fruit. The center of the
berry is occupied by rather dense pulp, more or less stringy,
with considerable acid close to the seeds. Many object to the
foxy aroma of this species, but, nevertheless, the most popular
American varieties are more or less foxy. Analyses show
that the fruit is usually characterized by a low percentage of
sugar and acid, the very sweet-tasting fox-grapes not showing
as high a sugar-content as some of the disagreeably tart Aisti-
valis and Vulpina sorts. This, in addition to the foxiness which
furnishes an excess of aroma in the wine, has prevented Labrusca
varieties from becoming favorites with the wine-makers, but
most of the grape-juice now manufactured is made from them.

In addition to the characters enumerated, it may be said that
Labrusca submits well to vineyard culture, is fairly vigorous
and generally quite productive. It grows readily from cuttings
and in hardiness is intermediate between Vulpina, the hardiest
of our American species, and Astivalis. The roots are soft
and fleshy (for an American grape) and in some localities subject
to attacks of phylloxera. None of the varieties of Labrusca
has ever been popular in France on this account. = In
the wild vines, the fruit is inclined to drop when ripe.
This defect is known as “shattering” or “shelling” among
grape-growers and is a serious weakness in some varieties.
Labrusca is said to be more sensitive in its wild state to mildew
and black-rot than any other American species, but the evidence
on this point does not seem to be wholly conclusive. In the
South, and in some parts of the Middle West, the leaves of all
varieties of Labrusca sunburn and shrivel in the latter part of
the summer. The vines do not endure drouth as well as Ats-
tivalis or Vulpina and not nearly so well as Rupestris.

328 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

11. Vitis vinifera, Linn.

Vine variable in vigor, not so high climbing as most American
species; tendrils intermittent. Leaves round-cordate, thin, smooth,
and when young, shining, frequently more or less deeply three-, five-,
or even seven-lobed ; usually glabrous but in some varieties the leaves
and young shoots are hairy and even downy when young; lobes
rounded or pointed; teeth variable; petiolar sinus deep, narrow,
usually overlapping. Berries very variable in size and color, usually
oval though globular. Seeds variable in size and shape, usually
notched at upper end and characterized always by a bottle-necked,
elongated beak; chalaza broad, usually rough, distinct; raphe in-
distinct. Roots large, soft and spongy.

The original habitat of the species is not positively known.
De Candolle, as noted in the first part of this work, considered
the region about the Caspian Sea as the probable habitat of
the Old World grape. There is but little doubt that the origi-
nal home of V’. vinifera is some place in western Asia.

Neither American nor European writers agree as to the
climate desired by Vinifera, for the reason, probably that all
of the varieties in this variable species do not require the same
climatic conditions. There are certain phases of climate, how-
ever, that are well agreed on: the species requires a warm, dry
climate and is more sensitive to change of temperature than
American species. Varieties of this species can be grown suc-
cessfully in a wide variety of soils, being much less particular
as to soils than American sorts.

Certain characters of the fruit of this species are not found
in any American forms: First, the skin, which is attached very
closely to the flesh and which is never astringent or acid, can
be eaten with the fruit; second, the flesh is firm, yet tender,
and uniform throughout, differing in this respect from all
American grapes which have a sweet, watery and tender pulp
close to the skin with a tough and more or less acid core at
the center; third, the flavor has a peculiarly sprightly quality
known as vinous; fourth, the berry adheres firmly to the

Pocklington (X43).

Puate XXIII. — Lutie (x3).

GRAPE BOTANY 329

pedicel, the fruit seldom “shattering” or “shelling” from
the cluster.

In the various hybrids that have been made between American
and Vinifera varieties, it is usually found that the desirable
qualities of Vinifera are inherited in about the same proportion
as the undesirable ones. The fruit is improved in the hybrid
but the vine is weakened; quality is usually purchased at the
expense of hardiness and disease-resisting power. Vinifera may
be grown very readily from cuttings.

CHAPTER XVIII

VARIETIES OF GRAPES

NatTuRE has expended her bounties in fullest measure for
the vineyard. More than 2000 varieties of grapes are de-
scribed in American viticultural literature, and twice as many
more find mention in European treatises on the vine. Few
other fruits offer the novelties given the grape in flavors,
aromas, sizes, colors and uses. The vineyard, then, to fulfill
commercial potentialities, should supply grapes throughout the
whole season, and of the several colors and flavors and for all
uses. A prime requisite for a vineyard being well-selected
varieties, an assortment of all kinds and for all places in
America is here described.

ACTONI

(Vinifera)

Actoni is a table-grape of the Malaga type which ripens at
Geneva, New York, late in October, too late for the average
season in the East but worth trying in favorable locations.
It is grown in California but is not a favorite sort. The fol-
lowing brief description is made from fruit grown at Geneva:

Clusters large, shouldered, tapering, loose; berries medium to very
large, long-oval to oval, clear green yellow; flesh crisp, firm; flavor
sweet; quality good.

330

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 301

AGAWAM

(Labrusea, Vinifera)
Randall, Rogers No. 15

The qualities commending Agawam are large size and attrac-
tive appearance of bunch and berry; rich, sweet aromatic
flavor; vigor of vine; and capacity for self-fertilization.
For a grape having its proportion of European parentage, the
vine is vigorous, hardy and productive. The chief defects
in fruit are a thick and rough skin, coarse, solid texture of
pulp and foxy flavor. The vine is susceptible to the mildews
and in many localities does not yield well. Although Agawam
ripens soon after Concord, it can be kept much longer and even
improves in flavor after picking. The vines prefer heavy soils,
doing better on clay than on sand or gravel. This is one of
the grapes grown by E. 8S. Rogers, Salem, Massachusetts.
It was introduced as No. 15 but in 1861 was given the name it
now bears.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes thick, dark brown;
nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
bifid to trifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth;
lower surface pale green, pubescent, flocculent; lobes lacking; termi-
nus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; lateral sinus very shallow;
teeth shallow, wide. Flowers on plan of six, nearly self-fertile, open
late ; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps until mid-winter. Clusters medium to large,
short, broad, tapering, loose; pedicel short; brush very short, pale
green. Berries large, oval, dark purplish-red with thin bloom, very
persistent; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green,
translucent, tough, stringy, solid, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, two
to five, large, long, brown.

ALMERIA
(Vinifera)

This is one of the varieties commonly found in eastern mar-
kets from Almeria and Malaga, Spain, although occasionally

oan MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

it may come from California where the variety, or similar varie-
ties confused with it, is now grown. This sort is remarkable
for its wonderful keeping qualities; it is adapted only to hot
interior regions. The Almeria cultivated by the California
Experiment Station is described as follows:

‘Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round and slightly or not
at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and alternately
large and small; bunches large, loose or compact, irregular conical ;
berries from small to large, cylindrical, flattened on the ends, very
hard and tasteless.”

AMERICA
(Lineecumii, Rupestris)

The notable qualities of America are vigor of growth and
health of foliage in vine, and persistence of berries, which have
strongly colored red juice, high sugar-content and excellent
flavor. The grapes wholly lack the foxy taste and aroma of
Labrusca and the variety, therefore, offers possibilities for
breeding sorts lacking the foxy flavor of Concord and Niagara.
America has great resistance to heat and cold. Also, it is
said to be a suitable stock upon which to graft Vinifera varieties
to resist phylloxera. The vigor of the vine and the luxuriance
of the foliage make it an excellent sort for arbors. America
was grown by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of
Jaeger No. 43 pollinated by a male Rupestris. It was intro-
duced about 1892.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, dark
reddish-brown with heavy bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils
intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves small, thin; upper surface glossy,
smooth; lower surface light green, hairy; lobes lacking or faint,
terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep and wide; teeth of average
depth and width. Flowers self-sterile, usually on plan of six, open
late ; stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season or later, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad,
tapering, irregular, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender
with small warts; brush short, thick with red tinge. Berries small,

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 333

variable in size, round, purplish-black, glossy with purplish-red pig-
ment, astringent; flesh dull white with faint red tinge, translucent,
tender, melting, spicy, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds free, two to five,
long, pointed, yellowish-brown.

AMINIA
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Aminia is one of the best early grapes, its season being with
or a little after Moore Early. The grapes are of high quality
and attractive appearance, but the bunches are small, variable
in size, not well formed and the berries ripen unevenly. The
vine is vigorous but is neither as hardy nor as productive as a
commercial variety should be. In 1867 Isadora Bush, a Mis-
sourian, planted vines of Rogers No. 39 from several different
sources. When these came into bearing, he distinguished
three varieties. Bush selected the best of the three and, with
the consent of Rogers, named it Aminia. In spite of Bush’s
care, there are two distinct grapes cultivated under this name.

Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, lacking in productiveness.
Canes rough, long, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged; internodes
long; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid or bifid, persistent. Leaves
large ; upper surface dull, smooth ; lower surface light green, pubescent ;
lobes three; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often
closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus
shallow, narrow; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers open in mid-season,
self-sterile ; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, irregular, coni-
eal, sometimes with a long shoulder, loose; pedicel long with few
warts; brush short, thick, brownish-red. Berries variable, round,
dull black with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tender, ad-
herent with purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh greenish, trans-

lucent, tender, solid, coarse, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, one to six,
very large.

Aucust GIANT
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

August Giant is a hybrid between Labrusca and Vinifera in
which the fruit characters are those of the latter species. In

334 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

appearance and taste of berry, the variety resembles Black
Hamburg. The vine is usually vigorous and, considering its
parentage, is very hardy. The foliage is thick and luxuriant
but subject to mildew. Vigor of vine, beauty of foliage and
the quality of the fruit make the variety desirable for the
amateur. It needs a long-maturing season. August Giant
was grown by N. B. White, Norwood, Massachusetts, in 1861,
from seed of an early, large-berried, red Labrusca pollinated

by Black Hamburg.

Vine very vigorous, hardy, subject to mildew. Canes long, nu-
merous, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick;
upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green
or bronzed, pubescent; lobes three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus
deep, narrow, frequently closed and overlapping; lateral sinus shallow
or a notch; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers open in mid-season,
self-sterile; stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters of average size, short, broad,
irregularly tapering, single-shouldered, loose; pedicel long, thick
with large warts; brush short, thick, green or with brown tinge.
Berries large, oval, purplish-red or black, dull with thick bloom, firm;
skin tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, tough,
stringy; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, large, blunt, light
brown. :

BaccHus
(Vulpina, Labrusea)

Bacchus is an offspring of Clinton which it resembles in vine
and leaf characters, but surpasses in quality of fruit and in
productiveness of vine. The special points of merit of the
variety are: resistance to cold, resistance to phylloxera, free-
dom from fungi and insects, productiveness, ease of multipli-
cation and capacity to bear grafts. Its limitations are: poor
quality for table use, inability to withstand dry soils or droughts,
and nonadaptability to soils containing much lime. The
variety originated with J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York,
and was first exhibited by him in 1879.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 335

Vine very vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous,
dark brown with bloom at the nodes which are enlarged and flattened ;
tendrils bifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, glossy,
smooth; lower surface dull green, smooth; lobes three, terminal one
acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, sometimes overlapping ;
basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow, wide. Flowers open early,
self-sterile ; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps well, hangs long. Clusters small, slender, uniform,
cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender with a
few small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries small, round,
black, glossy, covered with thin bloom, hang well to pedicels, firm ;
skin thin, adherent, contains much wine-colored pigment, slightly
astringent; flesh dark green, translucent, fine-grained, tough, vinous,
spicy; fair quality. Seeds clinging, one to four, many abortive, large,
short and wide, plump, sharply pointed, brown.

BAKATOR
(Vinifera)

This is a Hungarian wine grape but its high quality and early
season make it a desirable table-grape in the East. It seems to
be grown but little on the Pacific slope. The following descrip-
tion is made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York:

Vine medium in vigor, productive. Young leaves tinged red at
edges, upper surface glossy ; mature leaves large, round, upper surface
dull, lower surface downy ; lobes five, terminal lobe acuminate; basal
sinus deep, medium to narrow, closed to overlapping; lower lateral
sinus deep, variable in width; upper lateral sinus deep, usually nar-
rows; margins dentate, teeth shallow to medium deep. Flowers
appear late; stamens reflexed.

Fruit ripens at Geneva the first or second week in October and
keeps well in storage; clusters above medium in size, medium in
length, broad, frequently double-shouldered, tapering, medium to loose ;
berries medium to small, oval, light red becoming dark when fully
ripe, with thick bloom; skin thin, tender, adherent to the pulp; flesh
greenish, juicy, tender, melting, vinous, sweet; quality very good.

BARRY

(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Barry (Plate VIT) is one of the best American black grapes,
resembling in berry and in flavor and keeping quality of fruit its

336 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

European parent, Black Hamburg. The appearance of berry
and bunch is attractive. The vine is vigorous, hardy and pro-
ductive but susceptible to mildew. The ripening season is just
after that of Concord. For the table, for winter keeping and
for the amateur, this variety may be highly recommended.
Barry was dedicated in 1869, by E. S. Rogers, who originated it,
to Patrick Barry, distinguished nurseryman and pomologist.
The variety is grown in gardens throughout the grape regions
of eastern America.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, susceptible to mildew. Canes
long, numerous, thick, dark brown with heavy bloom; nodes flattened ;
shoots glabrous; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large;
upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green,
pubescent; lobes one to three, terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep,
narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking ;
lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers open in mid-
season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters short, very broad, tapering,
often subdividing into several parts, compact; pedicel with small
warts. Berries large, oval, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with
heavy bloom, adherent; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh pale green,
translucent, tender, stringy, vinous, pleasant-flavored; good. Seeds
adherent, one to five, large, deeply notched, with enlarged neck,
brown.

BEACON
(Lineecumii, Labrusea)

Another of T. V. Munson’s hybrids is Beacon. It is not
well adapted to northern regions but does very well in the
South. The vine is vigorous and bears a handsome, compact _
mass of foliage which retains its color and freshness through
drouths and heat. Munson grew Beacon in 1887 from seed
of Big Berry (a variety of Lincecumii) pollinated by Concord,
the vine bearing first in 1889.

Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, productive. Canes short,
slender, light brown. Leaves healthy, thick, dark green, sometimes
rugose; veins showing indistinctly through the slight pubescence of

VARIETIES OF GRAPES aot

the lower surface. Flowers open in mid-season, on plan of five or six,
self-fertile.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, eylin-
drical, usually high-shouldered, compact. Berries variable in size,
round, purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, firm; skin tough,
adherent with a large amount of purplish-red pigment, astringent ;
flesh tender, aromatic, spicy, vinous, mildly subacid; good. Seeds
free, large, broad, blunt, notched.

BERCKMANS
(Vulpina, Labrusea, Bourquiniana)

In Berckmans we have the fruit of Delaware on the vine of
Clinton. The berry and bunch resemble Delaware in shape;
the fruit is of the same color; bunch and berry are larger; the
grapes keep longer; the flesh is firmer but the quality is not so
good, the flesh lacking tenderness and richness in comparison
with Delaware. The vine of Berckmans is not only more
vigorous, but is less subject to mildew than that of Delaware.
The vine characters are not, however, as good as those of
Clinton. The variety is poorly adapted to some soils, and on
these the grapes do not color well. In spite of many good
qualities, Berckmans is but an amateur’s grape. The name
commemorates the viticultural labors of P. J. Berckmans,
a contemporary and friend of A. P. Wylie, of Chester, South
Carolina, who originated the variety. Berckmans came from
Delaware seed fertilized by Clinton, the seed having been sown
in 1868.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender,
dark brown; nodes prominent, flattened; internodes short; shoots
glabrous; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves small, thin;
upper surface light green, smooth; lower surface pale green, glabrous ;
lobes one to three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide;
basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow. Flowers open
early, self-fertile ; stamens upright.

Fruit ripens with Delaware. Clusters shouldered, compact,
slender ; pedicel long, slender with few warts; brush short, light green.
Berries small, oval, Delaware-red, darker when well ripened, covered

Z

338 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent ;
flesh pale yellowish-green, translucent, fine-grained, tender, melting,
vinous, sweet, sprightly; very good. Seeds free, one to four, small,
broad, blunt, brown.

Buack EAGLE
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

The fruit of Black Eagle is of the best, but the vine Jacks in
vigor, hardiness and productiveness and is self-sterile. Bunch
and berry are large and attractive. The season is about with
Concord. Black Eagle has wholly failed as a commercial
variety, and its several weaknesses prevent amateurs from
growing it widely. The variety originated with Stephen W.
Underhill, Croton-on-Hudson, New York, from seed of Con-
cord pollinated by Black Prince. It fruited first in 1866.

Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, unproductive. Canes rough,
thick, reddish-brown with light bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened
internodes long; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves
thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth to rugose; lobes five;
terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep; lateral sinus wide, narrowing
towards top, deep. Flowers open in mid-season, self-sterile; stamens
reflexed.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, tapering, single-
or double-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, slender with few warts;
brush short, pale green. Berries variable in size, oval, black, glossy
with thick bloom; skin tender, thin, adherent with wine-colored pig-
ment; flesh pale green, translucent, tender, vinous; good. Seeds free,
one to four, large.

Biack HAMBURG
(Vinifera)

Black Hamburg (Plate VI) is an old European sort, long the
mainstay in forcing-houses in Belgium, England and America
and now popular out of doors in California. It is an excellent
table-grape but, while it keeps well, its tender skin does not
permit its being shipped far, especially when grown out of doors.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 309

The vine is subject to disease. The following description of
the fruit is made from grapes grown in the greenhouse :

Bunches very large, often a foot in length and weighing several
pounds; very broad at the shoulder and gradually tapering to a point ;
compact, oftentimes too compact; berries very large, round or slightly
round-oval; skin rather thick; dark purple becoming black at full
maturity; flesh firm, juicy, sweet and rich; quality very good or best.
Season early in the forcing-house but rather late out of doors.

Biack MALVOISE
(Vinifera)

This variety is rather widely grown in California as an early
table-grape and might be worth trying in eastern grape regions.
While the fruit is not of the best quality, it is good. The fol-
lowing description is compiled :

Vine vigorous, healthy and productive; wood long-jointed, rather
slender, light brown. Leaves of medium size, oval, evenly and deeply
five-lobed ; basal sinus open, with nearly parallel sides; upper surface
smooth, almost glabrous; lower surface slightly tomentose on the veins
and veinlets. Bunches large, loose, branching; berries large, oblong,
reddish black with faint bloom; flesh firm, juicy, crisp; flavor lacking
in richness and character; quality not high. Season early, keeping
and shipping but poorly.

Biack Morocco
(Vinifera)

Black Morocco very generally meets the approval of grape-
growers on the Pacific slope without being a prime favorite
for either home use or commerce. The grapes are not high
enough in quality for a home vineyard, and, while they ship
well, are hard to handle because of the large size and rigidity
of the bunches. Another fault is that the vines are subject
to root-knot. The chief asset of the variety is handsome
appearance of fruit. This variety is remarkable for the num-

@

340 MANUAL OF AMERICAN. GRAPE-GROWING

ber of second-crop bunches which it produces on the laterals.
The following description is compiled :

Vine very vigorous, productive; canes spreading, few. Leaves me-
dium to small, very deeply five-lobed ; the younger leaves truncate at
base, giving them a semi-circular outline, with long, sharp teeth alter-
nating with very small ones; glabrous, or nearly so, on both sides.
Bunches very large, short, shouldered, compact and rigid ; berries very
large, round, often misshapen from compression; dull purple, lacking
color in the center of the buneh; flesh firm, crisp, neutral in flavor,
lacking in richness; quality rather low. Season late, keeping and
shipping well.

BRIGHTON
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Brighton (Plate VIII) is one of the few Labrusca-Vinifera
hybrids which have attained prominence in commercial vine-
yards. It ranks as one of the leading amateur grapes in east-
ern America and is among the ten or twelve chief commercial
sorts of this region. Its good points are: for the fruit, high
quality ; for the vine, vigorous growth, productiveness, adapta-
bility to various soils and ability to withstand fungi. Brighton
has two serious defects which keep it from taking higher rank
as a commercial variety : it deteriorates in quality very quickly
after maturity, so that it cannot be kept for more than a few
days at its best, hence cannot well be shipped to distant
markets; and it is self-sterile to a more marked degree than
any other commonly-grown grape. Brighton is a seedling of
Diana Hamburg pollinated by Concord, raised by Jacob
Moore, Brighton, New York. The original vine fruited first
in 1870.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, subject to mildew. Canes long,
numerous, light brown; nodes enlarged, usually flattened; internodes
long; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper
surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent ;
lobes three when present, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus inter-

Puate XXIV. — Moore Early (#2).

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 341

mediate in depth and width, lateral sinus shallow; teeth narrow.
Flowers open late, self-sterile; stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, heavily
shouldered, loose; pedicel thick; brush pale green with brown tinge,
thick, short. Berries irregular, large, oval, light red, glossy with heavy
bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tender, adherent, astringent;
flesh green, transparent, tender, stringy, melting, aromatic, vinous,
sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to five, broad, light brown.

BRILLIANT
(Labrusea, Vinifera, Bourquiniana)

Brilliant is a cross between Lindley and Delaware. In
cluster and size of berry it resembles Lindley; in color and
quality of fruit it is about the same as Delaware, differing chiefly
in having more astringency in the skin. Its season is about
with Delaware. The grapes do not crack or shell, therefore
ship well, and have very good keeping qualities, especially
on the vine where they often hang for weeks. The vine is
vigorous and hardy. The defects which have kept Brilliant
from becoming one of the standard commercial sorts are:
marked susceptibility to fungi, variability in size of cluster,
unevenness in ripening and unproductiveness. In favorable
situations this variety pleases the amateur, and the commercial
grower often finds it profitable. The seed which produced
Brilliant was planted by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, in
1883 and the variety was introduced in 1887.

Vine vigorous, hardy, rather unproductive. Canes long, numerous,
thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; ten-
drils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface
dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface gray-green, downy; obscurely
three-lobed with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow;
basal and lateral sinuses obscure and shallow when present; teeth
intermediate in depth and width. Flowers open late, self-fertile ;
stamens upright.

Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters medium, blunt,
eylindrical, usually shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick with a
few small warts; brush short, thick, pale green with reddish tinge.

342 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Berries round, dark red, glossy with thin bloom, strongly adherent,
firm; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy,
stringy, fine-grained, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds clinging, one to
four, large, broad, elongated, plump, light brown.

BrRowN
(Labrusea)

In spite of many encomiums in the past quarter century,
Brown has not received favorable recognition from fruit-grow-
ers. The quality is not high, the berries shatter badly, and the
vine is lacking in vigor. Brown is a seedling of Isabella which
came up in a yard at Newburgh, New York, about 1884.

Vine hardy, productive. Canes short, slender, dark brown; tendrils
continuous. Leaves healthy, light green, glossy; veins well defined,
distinctly showing through the thick bronze of the lower surface.
Flowers open early, self-fertile stamens upright.

Fruit large, keeps well. Clusters small to medium, slender, cylin-
driecal or tapering, usually single-shouldered. Berries intermediate
in size, oval, black with thick bloom, drop soon after ripening; skin
adherent; flesh juicy, tough, fine-grained, a little foxy, mild next the
skin but tart at center; good. Seeds short, blunt, light brown.

CAMPBELL EARLY
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

The meritorious qualities of Campbell Early (Plate IX) are:
The grapes are high in quality when mature ; free from foxiness
and from acidity about the seeds; have small seeds which
easily part from the flesh; are early, ripening nearly a fort-
night before Concord ; bunchand berry are large and handsome ;
and the vines are exceptionally hardy. Campbell Early falls
short in not being adapted to many soils; the variety lacks
productiveness; the grapes attain full color before they are
ripe and are, therefore, often marketed in an unripe condition ;
the bunch is variable in size; and the color of the berry is not
attractive. George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, grew this

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 343

variety from a seedling of Moore Early pollinated by a Labrusca-
Vinifera hybrid. It bore first in 1892.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes thick, dark reddish-
brown, surface roughened with small warts; nodes flattened; inter-
nodes short; shoots pubescent; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or
trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface green, glossy; lower
surface bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three, usually entire, ter-
minal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus pubescent ;
lateral sinus wide or a notch; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-
fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters usually large, long,
broad, tapering, single-shouldered ; pedicel short, slender with small
warts; brush long, light wine color. Berries usually large, round,
oval, dark purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ;
skin tough, thin, adherent with dark red pigment, astringent; flesh
green, translucent, juicy, coarse, vinous, sweet from skin to center ;
good. Seeds free, one to four, light brown, often with yellow tips.

CANADA
(Vulpina, Labrusea, Vinifera)

Canada is considered the most desirable hybrid between
Vulpina and Vinifera. The variety shows Vinifera more than
Vulpina parentage; thus, in susceptibility to fungal diseases,
in shape, color and texture of foliage, in the flavor of the fruit
and in the seeds, there are marked indications of Vinifera;
while the vine, especially in the slenderness of its shoots and
in the bunch and berry, shows Vulpina. Canada has little
value as a dessert fruit but makes a very good red wine or
grape-juice. Canada is a seedling of Clinton, a Labrusca-
Vulpina hybrid, fertilized by Black St. Peters, a variety of
Vinifera. Charles Arnold, Paris, Ontario, planted the seed
which produced Canada in 1860.

Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
slender, ash-gray, reddish-brown at nodes with heavy bloom; nodes
enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, short, trifid or
bifid. Leaves thin; upper surface light green, smooth; lower surface
pale green, hairy; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow;

344 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

basal sinus variable in depth and width ; lateral sinus deep and narrow ;
teeth deep and wide. Flowers self-sterile, early ; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters long, slender, uniform,
cylindrical, compact; pedicel long, slender, smooth; brush short, light
brown. Berries small, round, purplish-black, glossy with heavy
bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh dark green,
very juicy, fine-grained, tender, spicy, pleasant vinous flavor, agreeably
tart; good. Seeds free, one to three, blunt, light brown.

CANANDAIGUA
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Canandaigua is worth attention because of the exceptionally
good keeping qualities of the grapes. The flavor is very good
at picking time but seems, if anything, to improve in storage.
The vine characters are those of Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids,
and in these the variety is the equal of the average cultivated
hybrid of these two species. The characters of the fruit, also,
show plainly an admixture of Vinifera and Labrusca so com-
bined as to make the grapes very similar to the best of such
hybrids. Canandaigua is a chance seedling found by E. L.
Van Wormer, Canandaigua, New York, growing among wild
grapes. It was distributed about 1897.

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes long, few,
reddish-brown, faint bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils semi-
continuous, bifid, dehisce early. Leaves large, thin; upper surface
light green; lower surface gray-green. Flowers sterile or sometimes
partly self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit late mid-season, ‘keeps unusually well. Clusters variable
in size, usually heavily single-shouldered, loose to medium. Berries
large, oval, black, covered with thick bloom, persistent; skin adher-

ent, thin, tough; flesh firm, sweet and rich; good, improves as season
advances. Seeds long with enlarged neck.

CARMAN
(Lineecumii, Vinifera, Labrusea) -

Carman is a grape having the characters of three species
and hence is of interest to grape improvers. It has not become

ee

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 345

popular with growers, chiefly because the grapes ripen very
late and are not of high quality. The most valuable character
of the variety is that of long keeping, whether hanging on the
vine or after harvesting. T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas,
raised Carman from seed of a wild post-oak grape taken from
the woods, pollinated with mixed pollen of Triumph and Herbe-
mont. It was introduced in 1892.

Vine very vigorous, hardy, rather productive. Canes long, nu-
merous, thick, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
long; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper
surface light green, glossy, older leaves rugose; lower surface pale
green, pubescent; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep; basal
sinus absent or shallow; lateral sinus shallow when present. Flowers
self-fertile or nearly so, open very late; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, tapering, single-
shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush short,
slender, wine-colored. Berries small, round, slightly oblate, purplish-
black, glossy, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin,
tough, free; flesh yellowish-green, tender, post-oak flavor, vinous,
spicy; good to very good. Seeds free, one to four, small, blunt,
brown.

CATAWBA
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Arkansas, Catawba Tokay, Cherokee, Fancher, Keller’s White,
Lebanon, Lincoln, Mammoth Catawba, Mead’s Seedling,
Merceron, Michigan, Muncy, Omega, Rose of Tennessee,
Saratoga, Singleton, Tekomah, Tokay, Virginia Amber.

Catawba has long been the standard red grape in the markets
of eastern America, chiefly because the fruit keeps well and is
of high quality. The vine is vigorous, hardy and productive,
but the foliage and fruit are susceptible to fungi. These two
faults account for the decline of Catawba in grape regions in
the United States and for its growing unpopularity. In botani-
eal characters and in adaptationsand susceptibilities, the variety
suggests Vinifera crossed with Labrusca. The characters of

346 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Catawba seem readily transmissible to its offspring and, besides
having a number of pure-bred descendants which more or less
resemble it, it is a parent .of a still greater number of cross-
breeds. As with Catawba, most of its progeny show Vinifera
characters, as intermittent tendrils, Vinifera color of foliage,
a vinous flavor wholly or nearly free from foxiness, and the
susceptibilities of Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids to certain diseases
and insects. Catawba was introduced by John Adlum, Dis-
trict of Columbia, about 1823. Adlum secured cuttings from
a Mrs. Scholl, Clarksburgh, Montgomery County, Maryland,
in the spring of 1819. Its further history is not known.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, thick, dark
brown; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves
large; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface grayish-
white, heavily pubescent; lobes sometimes three, terminal one acute ;
petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus often lacking; lateral sinus
narrow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open late,
stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, single-
or sometimes double-shouldered, loose; pedicel with a few incon-
spicuous warts; brush short, pale green. Berries of medium size,
oval, dull purplish-red with thick bloom, firm; skin thick, adherent,
astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, vinous,
sprightly, sweet and rich; very good. Seeds free, frequently abortive,
two, broad-necked, distinctly notched, blunt, brown.

CHAMPION
(Labrusea)

Beaconsfield, Early Champion, Talman’s Seedling

Champion is a favorite early grape with some growers, al-
though the poor quality of the fruit should have driven it from
cultivation long ago. The characters which have kept it in
the market are earliness, good shipping qualities, attractive
appearance of fruit, and a vigorous, productive, hardy vine.
The hardiness of the vine and the short season of fruit develop-

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 347

ment make it a good variety for northern climates. This
grape is best in appearance of fruit, in quality and in the quan-
tity produced, on light sandy soils. The origin of Champion
is unknown. It was first grown about 1870 in New York.

Vine very vigorous, hardy and productive. Canes of average size,
dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; shoots
pubescent; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large; upper sur-
face dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface dull gray, downy; lobes
usually three, often obscurely five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus
deep; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, early ; stamens upright.

Fruit early, three weeks before Concord, season short. Clusters
medium in size, blunt, cylindrical, usually not shouldered, compact ;
pedicel short with inconspicuous warts; brush white tinged with
bronze. Berries medium in size, round, dull black covered with heavy
bloom, soft; skin thick, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh light green,
translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, foxy; poor in quality. Seeds
adherent, one to five, broad, long, blunt, light brown.

CHASSELAS GOLDEN
(Vinifera)

Chasselas Dore, Fontainebleau, Sweetwater

Several qualities have made Chasselas Golden a favorite
grape wherever it can be grown. The variety is adapted to
widely differing environments; the season of ripening is early ;
while not choicely high, the quality of the grapes is good and
they are beautiful, clear green tinged with beautiful golden
bronze where exposed to the sun. Chasselas Golden is a
popular variety on the Pacific slope and should be one of the
first Viniferas to be tried in the East. The following descrip-
tion was made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York:

Vine medium in vigor, very productive; buds open in mid-season.
Young leaves tinged with red on both upper and lower surfaces, thinly
pubescent to glabrous; mature leaves medium to above in size,
slightly cordate; upper surface glabrous, lower surface slightly pubes-
cent along the veins; lobes five in number, terminal lobe acuminate ;

348 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

basal sinus broad and rather deep; lower lateral sinus variable, usually
broad and somet mes deep; upper lateral sinus broad and frequently
deep: teeth large, obtuse to rounded. Flowers late; stamens upright.
Fruit ripens early and keeps well in storage; clusters large, long,
broad, tapering, sometimes with a single shoulder, compactness me-
dium; berries medium to above, slightly oval, pale green to clear
yellow, with thin bloom; skin thin, tough, adherent, slightly astrin-
gent; flesh greenish, translucent, firm, Juicy, tender, sweet; good.

CHASSELAS ROSE
(Vinifera)

Chasselas Rose is very similar to Chasselas Golden, differing
chiefly in smaller bunch and berry and slightly different flavor
which is possibly better. It is a standard sort in California
and should be planted in the East where the culture of Viniferas

is attempted. The description is made from fruit grown at
Geneva, New York:

Vine of medium vigor, productive. Opening leaves tinged with
red on both surfaces, mature leaves small, round; upper surface
medium green, somewhat dull, smooth; lower surface glabrous;
lobes three; basal sinus medium in depth and of variable width;
lateral sinus deep, narrow; teeth shallow, wide, dentate. Flowers
appear late; stamens upright.

Fruit ripens the second week in October and is a good keeper though
it loses its flavor in storage; clusters above and below medium, long,
tapering to cylindrical, compact; berries medium in size, roundish-oval,
light red changed to violet-red by the bloom; skin thin, astringent,
juicy, tender, sweet, mild; quality good.

CHAUTAUQUA
(Labrusea)

In appearance of fruit, Chautauqua is very similar to Concord,
its parent, but the grapes ripen a few days earlier and are of
better quality, although they do not differ in these respects
sufficiently to make the variety much more than an easily
recognized strain of Concord. Chautauqua is a volunteer

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 349
seedling of Concord, found near Brocton, New York, by H. T.
Bashtite about 1890.

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, unproductive. Canes long, thick,
cylindrical; internodes long; tendrils continuous, trifid. Leaves
large, irregularly round, dark green; upper surface dark green; lower
surface tinged with bronze; leaf entire or faintly three-lobed. Flowers
semi-fertile, open in mid-season or earlier; stamens upright.

Fruit early in mid-season. Clusters medium to large, broad,
sometimes single-shouldered, compact. Berries large, round or slightly
oval, purplish-black with abundant bloom, shatter badly; skin thin,
very astringent; flesh tough, vinous, sweet at skin, acid at center;
good to very good. Seeds few, free, broad, plump.

CLEVENER
(Vulpina, Labrusea)

This variety has long been grown in New Jersey and New
York, and in both states is highly esteemed as a wine-grape.
The fruit is remarkable in coloring very early and in ripening
late. The vine is hardy, very vigorous, succeeds in various
soils, and since it bears grafts well is an excellent sort upon which
to graft varieties not thriving on their own roots. Clevener is
self-sterile and must be planted with some other variety to set
fruit well. In spite of its good qualities, Clevener is hardly
holding its own in commercial vineyards, and it is not a desir-
able fruit for the amateur who wants a table-grape. Clevener
has been raised in the vicinity of Egg Harbor, New Jersey,
since about 1870, but its place and time of origin are unknown.

Vine a rampant grower, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
thick, dark reddish-brown with heavy bloom; nodes enlarged; tendrils
continuous, bifid. Leaves unusually large, dark green with well-
defined ribs showing through the thin pubescence of the under surface ;
lobes wanting or faint; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-sterile, open
very early; stamens reflexed.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters do not always fill well, small,
short, slender, irregularly tapering, often with a single shoulder.
Berries small, round or slightly flattened, black, glossy, covered with

350 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, thin, inclined to erack,
adherent with much purplish-red pigment; flesh reddish-green, juicy,
tender, soft, fine-grained, aromatic, spicy; good. Seeds free, notched,
sharp-pointed, dark brown.

CLINTON

(Vulpina, Labrusea)
Worthington

Clinton (Plate X) came into prominence because of vigor,
hardiness, fruitfulness and immunity to phylloxera. A serious
defect is that the vines bloom so early that the blossoms are often
caught by late frosts in northern climates. Other defects are:
the fruit is small and sour, and the seeds and skins prominent.
The fruit colors early in the season but does not ripen until
late, a slight touch of frost improving the flavor. Clinton
bears grafts well, making a quick and firm union with Labrusca
and Vinifera, and the vines are easily propagated from cuttings.
This variety has been used widely in grape-breeding, and its
blood can be traced in many valuable varieties. The offspring
of Clinton are usually very hardy, and this, taken with its other
desirable characters, makes it an exceptionally good starting-
point for breeding grapes for northern latitudes. Clinton is an
old sort, the Worthington, known as early as 1815, renamed ;
it began to attract attention about 1840.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; shoots smooth;
tendrils intermittent, sometimes continuous, bifid. Leaves hang until
late in the season, small, thin; upper surface dark green, smooth;
lower surface pale green, glabrous; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, urn-
shaped; basal and lateral sinuses shallow; teeth wide. Flowers self-
fertile, open early ; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season. Clusters small, slender, cylindrical, uniform,
single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, very slender, smooth;
brush tinged with red. Berries small, round, oval, purplish-black,
glossy, covered with thick bloom, adherent, firm; skin very thin,

Puate XXV.— Muscat Hamburg (x #).

VARIETIES OF GRAPES SOL

tough, free from pulp with much wine-colored pigment, astringent ;
flesh dark green, juicy, fine-grained, tough, solid, spicy, sour, vinous.
Seeds adherent, two, short, blunt, brownish.

COLERAIN
(Labrusea)

This is one of the numerous white seedlinzs of Concord and
one of the few with sufficient merit to be kept in cultivation.
The vine has the characteristic foliage and habit of growth of its
parent, but the fruit is earlier by a week, is of much higher
quality and lacks the foxiness of most Labruscas. The grapes
are sprightly and vinous, and neither seeds nor skin are as
objectionable as in the parent. The fruit hangs to the vine
and keeps well, but owing to tender pulp does not ship well.
The variety is unproductive in some localities. Colerain is
worthy a place in home vineyards. David Bundy, Colerain,
Ohio, grew this variety from seed of Concord planted in 1880.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes slender,
dark reddish-brown ; nodes flattened ; internodes short, bifid. Leaves
thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface bronze,
downy ; leaf not lobed, terminus acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal and
lateral sinus very shallow when present; teeth shallow. Flowers self-
fertile, opening in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit early. Clusters medium in size and length, slender, blunt,
tapering, irregular, strongly shouldered, compact; pedicel slender,
smooth; brush green. Berries round, light green, glossy with thin
bloom, persistent; skin unusually thin, tender, adherent, unpig-
mented, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained,

tender, soft, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds free, one to three, small,
broad, notched, short, plump, brown.

COLUMBIAN IMPERIAL

(Labrusea, Vulpina)
Columbian, Jumbo

Columbian Imperial is a Labrusca-Vulpina hybrid chiefly
remarkable for the great size of its reddish-black berries, al-

302 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

though the vine is so exceptionally healthy and vigorous as to
give it prominence for these characters as well. The variety
has remarkably thick leathery leaves which seem almost proof
against either insects or fungi. The quality of the fruit, how-
ever, 1s inferior, and the small clusters vary in number of
berries and these shell easily. The only value of the variety
is for exhibition purposes and for breeding to secure the desirable
characters named. The parentage of Columbian Imperial is
unknown. It originated with J. S$. McKinley, Orient, Ohio,
in 1885.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes long, nu-
merous, thick, dark reddish-brown, heavily pubescent, spiny; nodes
prominent; internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves
green, very thick; lower surface pale -green shading into bronze on
older leaves with little pubescence; lobes three, indistinet; teeth
sharp, shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright.

Fruit late. Clusters medium in size, sometimes shouldered;
pedunele slender; pedicel long; brush long, slender, green. Berries
very large, round, slightly oval, dull reddish-black with faint bloom,
firm; skin thick, tough, unpigmented; flesh juicy, tough, sweet at
the skin but acid at center; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, large,
plump, broad, blunt.

CONCORD
(Labrusea)

Concord (Plate XI) is the most widely known of the grapes of
this continent, and with its offspring, pure-bred and cross-bred,
furnishes 75 per cent of the grapes of eastern America. The
preéminently meritorious character of Concord is that it
adapts itself to varying conditions; thus, Concord is grown
with profit in every grape-growing state in the Union and to an
extent not possible with any other variety. A second character
which commends Concord is fruitfulness—the vine bears
large crops year in and year out. Added to these points of
superiority, are: hardiness; ability to withstand the ravages
of diseases and insects; comparative earliness; certainty of

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 353

maturity in northern regions; and fair size and handsome
appearance of bunch and berry. Concord also blossoms late
in the spring and does not suffer often from spring frosts, nor 1s
the fruit often injured by late frosts. The crop hangs well on
the vine.

The variety is not, however, without faults: the quality is
not high, the grapes lacking richness, delicacy of flavor and
aroma, and having a foxy taste disagreeable to many ; the seeds
and skin are objectionable, the seeds being large and abundant
and difficult to separate from the flesh, and the skin being
tough and unpleasantly astringent ; the grapes do not keep nor
ship well and rapidly lose flavor after ripening; the skin cracks
and the berries shell from the stems after picking; and the
vine is but slightly resistant to phylloxera. While Concord is
grown in the South, it is essentially a northern grape, becoming
susceptible to fungi in southern climates and suffering from
phylloxera in dry, warm soils.

The botanical characters of Concord indicate that it is a pure-
bred Labrusca. Seeds of a wild grape were planted in the fall of
1843 by E. W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts, plants from which
fruited in 1849. One of these seedlings was named Concord.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, thick,
dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long;
shoots pubescent; tendrils continuous, long, bifid, sometimes trifid.
Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower
surface light bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three when present,
terminal one acute; petiolar sinus variable; basal sinus usually lack-
ing; lateral sinus obscure and frequently notched; teeth shallow,
narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps from one to two months. Clusters uniform,
large, wide, broadly tapering, usually single-shouldered, sometimes
double-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick, smooth; brush pale
green. Berries large, round, glossy, black with heavy bloom, firm ;
skin tough, adherent with a small amount of wine-colored pigment,
astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough,
solid, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, large, broad, distinctly
notched, plump, blunt, brownish.

2a

354 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

COTTAGE
(Labrusea)

In vine and fruit, Cottage resembles its parent, Concord,
having, however, remarkably large, thick, leathery leaves. It
is noted also for its strong, branching root system and canes so
rough as to be almost spiny. The fruit is better in quality than
that of its parent, having less foxiness and a richer, more delicate
flavor. The crop ripens from one to two weeks earlier than Con-
cord. The good qualities of the variety are offset by compara-
tive unproductiveness and unevenness in ripening. Cottage
is recommended as an early grape of the Concord type for the
garden. This variety was grown from seed of Concord by E.
W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts. It was introduced in 1869.

Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy. Canes rough, hairy, long, numerous,
dark brown; nodes enlarged; shoots very pubescent; tendrils con-
tinuous, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy,
smooth or rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze, pubescent; leaf
entire with terminal acute; petiolar sinus deep and wide; teeth
shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early ; stamens upright.

Fruit does not keep well. Clusters of medium size, broad, eylin-
drical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick
with a few small warts; brush dark red. Berries of medium size,
round, dull black with heavy bloom, drop badly from pedicel, firm ;
skin thick, tender, adherent with dark purplish-red pigment, astrin-
gent; flesh juicy, tough, solid, foxy; good. Seeds free, one to four,
large, broad, blunt, light brown.

CREVELING
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Bloom, Bloomburg, Catawissa, Columbia Bloom

Creveling was long a favorite black grape for the garden,
where, if planted in good soil, it produces fine clusters of large,
handsome, very good grapes. Under any but the best of care,
however, the vine is unproductive and sets loose, straggling

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 355

bunches. The variety is markedly self-sterile. The origin of
Creveling is uncertain. It was introduced about 1857 by F.
F. Merceron, Catawissa, Pennsylvania.

Vine vigorous, not hardy, often unproductive. Canes long, nu-
merous, thick, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
long; shoots glabrous; tendrils continuous, long, trifid or bifid.
Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower sur-
face pale green, pubescent ; lobes three, or obscurely five, terminal
one acute ; petiolar sinus deep, closed, overlapping; basal sinus very
shallow; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers on
plan of six, self-sterile, open in mid-season : stamens reflexed.

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters long, broad, irregularly
tapering, single-shouldered, the shoulder often connected to the cluster
by a long stem, loose; brush thick, dark wine-color. Berries large,
oval, dull black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin
thick, tough, adherent with wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh
pale green, translucent, juicy, stringy, tender, coarse, foxy; good.
Seeds free, one to five, broad, notched, blunt, light brown.

CROTON
(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)

The fruit of Croton is a feast both to the eye and to the
palate. Unfortunately the vine is difficult to grow, being
adapted to but few soils and proving unfruitful, weak in growth,
precariously tender and subject to mildew and rot in unfavorable
situations. The grapes have a delicate, sweet Vinifera flavor
with melting flesh which readily separates from the few seeds.
The crop hangs on the vines until frost and keeps well into the
winter. In spite of high quality of fruit, Croton has never
become widely distributed, wholly failing as a commercial
variety. It originated with S. W. Underhill, Croton Point,
New York, from a seed of Delaware pollinated by a European
grape. Fruits were first exhibited in 1868.

Vine vigorous, tender, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick,
dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; shoots

glabrous; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves of medium size,
hang late; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale

356 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

green, pubescent ; lobes five, terminal one blunt; basal sinus narrow ;
lateral sinus deep and narrow; petiolar sinus narrow, often closed and
overlapping; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open late;
stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters uniform, very large, long,
slender, irregularly tapering with heavy shoulder, very loose; pedicel
long, thick with inconspicuous warts; brush green. Berries irregular
in size, round-elongated, yellowish-green with thin bloom, persistent,
soft; skin thin, tough, adherent, unpigmented; flesh green, trans-
parent, very juicy, melting, vinous, pleasant, agreeably sweet; very
good. Seeds free, one to three, elongated, notched, sharply pointed.

CUNNINGHAM
(Bourquiniana)

Long, Prince Edward

Cunningham is cultivated very little in America, but in
France, at one time, was one of the best-known grapes, both as
a direct producer and as a stock for European varieties. It was
much sought for by the French as a stock for large Vinifera
cions, the size of the vine giving an opportunity for making a
good graft. In the South, where the variety originated, Cun-
ningham is not largely grown, as there are several other varieties
of its type superior in fruit and vine. The vine is a capricious
grower and is particular as to soil and climate. The grapes
make a deep yellow wine of a very good quality but have little
value as table-grapes. Cunningham originated with Jacob
Cunningham, Prince Edward County, Virginia, about 1812.

Vine vigorous, spreading, productive. Canes large, long with stiff
reddish hairs at base; shoots showing considerable bloom; tendrils
intermittent, usually trifid. Leaves large, thick, round, entire or
lobed ; smooth and dark green above, yellowish green below, pubescent ;
petiolar sinus narrow, frequently overlapping.

Clusters of medium size, long, sometimes shouldered, very compact ;
pedicel long, slender with small warts; brush short, light brown.
Berries small, purplish-black with thin bloom; skin thin, tough with
much underlying pigment; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly ; quality poor
or but fair. Seeds two to five, oval.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 307

CYNTHIANA

(Aistivalis, Labrusca)
Arkansas, Red River

There is controversy as to whether this variety differs from
Norton. The two ripen at separate times, and the fruits differ
a little so that they must be considered as distinct. Cynthi-
ana is particular as to soil and location, preferring sandy
loams and does not thrive on clays or limestones. While
very resistant to phylloxera, this variety is not much used as a
resistant stock because it is not easily propagated. The vines
are resistant to mildew, black-rot, and anthracnose and are
strong, vigorous growers. The cycle of vegetation for Cyn-
thiana is long, the buds bursting forth early and the fruit
maturing very late. The variety has no value as a table-grape
but in the South is one of the best grapes for red wine. No
doubt it will prove one of the best southern sorts for grape-
juice. Cynthiana was received about 1850 by Prince, of
Flushing, Long Island, from Arkansas, where it was found
growing in the woods.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes medium in
length, numerous, reddish-brown with thick bloom; nodes enlarged ;
internodes short; shoots glabrous; tendrils intermittent or con-
tinuous, bifid. Leaves thick, firm; upper surface dark green, dull,
rugose; lower surface tinged. with blue, faintly pubescent, cobwebby ;
lobes variable in number, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep,
narrow, closed, sometimes overlapping; basal sinus shallow; lateral
sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow; stamens upright.

Fruit very late, keeps well. Clusters medium to small, long,
tapering, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender,
with numerous warts; brush short, thick, wine-colored. Berries
small, round, black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin
thin, tough, adherent with purple pigment, astringent; flesh dark
green, translucent, juicy, tough, firm, spicy, tart; poor in quality.
Seeds adherent, one to six, small, short, blunt, dark brown.

358 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

DELAWARE

(Labrusea, Bourquiniana, Vinifera)
French Grape, Gray Delaware, Ladies’ Choice, Powell, Ruff

Delaware (Plate VII) is used wherever American grapes are
grown as the standard to gauge the quality of other grapes.
Added to high quality in fruit, the variety withstands climatic
conditions to which all but the most hardy varieties succumb,
is adapted to many soils and conditions, and bears under most
situations an abundant crop. ‘These qualities make it, next to
Concord, the most popular grape for garden and vineyard now
grown in the United States. Besides the qualities named, the
grapes mature sufficiently early to make the crop certain, are
attractive in appearance, keep and ship well and are more im-
mune than other commercial varieties to black-rot. Faults of
the variety are: small vine, slow growth, susceptibility to mil-
dew, capriciousness in certain soils and small berries. The first
two faults make it necessary to plant the vines more closely
than those of other commercial varieties. Delaware succeeds
best in deep, rich, well-drained, warm soils, but even on these
it must have good cultivation, close pruning and the crop must
be thinned.

Delaware is grown North and South, westward to the Rocky
Mountains. It is now proving profitable in many southern
locations as an early grape to ship to northern markets. It is
an especially desirable grape to cultivate in small garders
because of its delicious, handsome fruit, its compact habit of
growth and its ample and lustrous green, delicately formed
leaves which make it one of the most ornamental of the grapes.
Delaware can be traced to the garden of Paul H. Provost,
Frenchtown, New Jersey, where it was growing early in the
nineteenth century, and from whence it was taken to Delaware,
Ohio, in 1849 and from there distributed to fruit-growers.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 359

Vine weak, hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous, slender,
dark brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
short, bifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth;
lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five in number,
terminal one acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus narrow and
shallow when present; lateral sinus deep, narrow; teeth shallow.
Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, slender, blunt, cylindrical,
regular, shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush
light brown. Berries uniform in size and shape, small, round, light
red, covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough,
adherent, unpigmented, astringent; flesh light green, translucent,
juicy, tender, aromatic, vinous, refreshing, sweet; best in quality.
Seeds free, one to four, broad, notched, short, blunt, light brown.

DIAMOND
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Few other grapes surpass Diamond in quality and beauty of
fruit. When to its desirable fruit characters are added hard-
iness, productiveness and vigor of vine, the variety is surpassed
by no other green grape. Diamond is a diluted hybrid between
Labrusca and Vinifera and the touch of the exotic grape 1s just
sufficient to give the fruit the richness in flavor of the Old World
grape and not overcome the refreshing sprightliness of the native
fox-grapes. The Vinifera characters are wholly recessive in
vine and foliage, the plant resembling closely its American
parent, Concord. Diamond is well established North and
South and can be grown in as great a range of latitude as Con-
cord. Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York, grew Diamond
about 1870 from Concord seed fertilized by Iona.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes short, brown with a
slight red tinge; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermit-
tent, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth;
lower surface light bronze, downy; lobes three in number, indistinct ;
petiolar sinus very shallow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open
early; stamens upright.

360 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters medium to short, broad, blunt,
eylindrical, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick
with a few inconspicuous warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries
large, ovate, green with a tinge of yellow, glossy, covered with thin
bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh
pale green, transparent, juicy, tender, melting, fine-grained, aromatic,
sprightly ; very good. Seeds free, one to four, broad and long, sharp-
pointed, yellowish-brown.

DIANA
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Diana (Plate XII) is a seedling of Catawba to which its fruit
bears strong resemblance, differing chiefly in having lighter color,
in being less pulpy and more juicy. The flavor resembles that
of Catawba but has less of the wild taste. The chief point of
superiority of Diana over Catawba is in earliness, the crop
ripening ten days sooner, making possible its culture far to the
north. The defects of Diana are: the vine is tender in cold
winters; the grapes ripen unevenly; the berries and foliage
are susceptible to fungi; and the vine is a shy bearer. Diana
demands poor, dry, gravelly soil without much humus or
nitrogen. On clays, loams or rich soils, the vines make a rank
growth, and the fruits are few, late and of poor quality. The
vine needs to be long pruned and to have all surplus bunches
removed, leaving a small crop to mature. Diana is a satis-
factory grape for the amateur, and where it does especially well
proves profitable for the local market. Mrs. Diana Crehore,
Milton, Massachusetts, grew Diana from seed of Catawba,
planted about 1834.

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, often unproductive. Canes
pubescent, long, reddish-brown, covered with thin bloom; nodes
enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid.
Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green, heavily pubescent ;
lobes three to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, wide,
often closed and overlapping; basal,sinus shallow; lateral sinus
narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season ;
stamens upright.

Pirate XXVI. — Niagara (x 2).

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 361

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, occasionally
shouldered, compact; pedicel covered with small warts; brush slender,
pale green. Berries medium in size, slightly ovate, light red covered
with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, slightly adherent ;
flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, fine-grained, vinous, good.
Seeds adherent, one to three, light brown.

DowNING
'(Vinifera, Adstivalis, Labrusca)

Downing is well worthy a place in the garden because of the
high quality, handsome appearance and good keeping qualities
of the grapes. Added to these qualities of the fruits are fair
vigor and health of vine. When grown as far north as New
York, the vine should be laid down in the winter or receive
other protection. In most seasons, unremitting warfare must
be kept up to check mildew. In appearance of bunch and berry,
Downing is distinct, the clusters being large and well-formed
and the berries having the oval shape of a Malaga. The flesh,
also, shows Vitis vinifera in texture and quality, while neither
seeds nor skins are as objectionable as in pure-bred American
varieties. J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, first grew
Downing about 1865.

Vine tender to cold, unproductive. Canes short, few, slender,
dark green with an ash-gray tinge, surface covered with thin bloom,
often roughened with a few small warts; nodes much enlarged, strongly
flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid.
Leaves small, round, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, rugose ;
lower surface dark green, glabrous; lobes one to five, terminal lobe
_ acute; petiolar sinus narrow, closed and overlapping; basal sinus
shallow and narrow when present; lateral sinus shallow, narrow:
teeth wide, deep. Flowers open late; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps until spring. Clusters large, long, slender, eylin-
drical, sometimes loosely shouldered; pedicel slender, covered with
numerous warts; brush long, slender, green. Berries large, markedly
oval, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with light bloom, strongly
persistent, firm; skin thick, tender, adherent; flesh green with a
yellow tinge, translucent, very juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous, mild ;
very good in quality. Seeds free, one to three, notched, long, brown.

362 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Dracut AMBER
(Labrusea)

Dracut Amber is representative of the red type of Labrusca.
The fruit has no particular merit, its thick skin, coarse pulp,
seeds and foxy taste all being objectionable. However, the
vine is very hardy, productive, and ripens its fruit early so that
this variety becomes valuable in locations where a vigorous,
hardy, early grape is wanted. Asa Clement, Dracut, Massa-
chusetts grew Dracut Amber from seed planted about 1855.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, dark
brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or
trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth;
lower surface pale green, cobwebby ; lobes three to five with terminal
one obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus shallow, wide;
teeth shallow. Flowers on plan of six, semi-fertile, mid-season.

Fruit early, season short. Clusters short, broad, cylindrical,
irregular, rarely shouldered, compact; pedicel short, covered with
warts; brush long, light yellowish-green. Berries medium to large,
oval, dull pale red or dark amber, covered with thin bloom, soft;
skin very thick, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent,
juicy, tough, very foxy; inferior in quality. Seeds adherent, two to
five, large, broad, light brown.

Dvu7TcHEss
(Vinifera, Labrusea, Bourquiniana? Aistivalis ?)

Dutchess (Plate XIII) is not grown largely in commercial vine-
yards because of several faults, as : the vine is tender to cold ; the
berries do not ripen evenly ; berries and foliage are susceptible
to fungi; and in soils to which it is not adapted, berries and
bunches are small. In spite of these defects, Dutchess should
not be discarded by the grape-lover, for there are few grapes of
higher quality. The grapes are sweet and rich, yet do not
cloy the appetite; although of but medium size, they are
attractive, being a beautiful amber color with distinctive dots ;
the flesh is translucent, sparkling, fine-grained and_ tender ;
the seeds are small, few and part readily from the pulp; the

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 363

skin is thin, yet tough enough for good keeping ; and the bunches
are large and compact when well grown. The variety is self-
fertile and, therefore, desirable when only a few vines are
wanted. The clusters are especially fine when bagged. A. J.
Caywood, Marlboro, New York, grew Dutchess from seed of a
white Concord seedling pollinated by mixed pollen of Delaware
and Walter. The seed was planted in 1868.

Vine vigorous, an uncertain bearer. Canes dark brown with light
bloom, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves irregular
in outline; upper surface pale green, pubescent; leaf entire with
terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus shallow when
present ; lateral sinus medium in depth or a mere notch. Flowers self-
fertile, open late; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long,
slender, tapering with a prominent single shoulder; pedicel slender,
smooth; brush amber-colored. Berries of medium size, round, pale
yellow-green verging on amber, some showing bronze tinge with thin
bloom, persistent, firm; skin sprinkled with small dark dots, thin,
tough, adherent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained,
tender, vinous, sweet, of pleasant flavor; quality high. Seeds free,
one, two or occasionally three, small, short, sharp-pointed, brown.

Earty Daisy
(Labrusea)

The qualities of Early Daisy render the variety more than
commonplace. Its earliness commends it, the ripening period
being eight or ten days earlier than Champion or Moore Early,
making it one of the very earliest varieties. For a grape
maturing at its season, it both keeps and ships well. Early
Daisy would seem to be as desirable as Hartford or Champion.
The variety originated with John Kready, Mount Joy, Penn-
sylvania, in 1874, as a seedling of Hartford.

Vine vigorous, hardy, produces fair crops. Canes of medium
length, numerous, slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened ;

tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves small, light green; upper surface
rugose; lower surface slightly pubescent, cobwebby ; lobes wanting or

364 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

faintly three; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; teeth shallow, narrow.
Flowers nearly self-sterile.

Fruit early. Clusters small to medium, often blunt at ends, eylin-
drical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender,
smooth; brush reddish, slender. Berries of medium size, round,
dull black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent; skin tough, pur-
plish-red pigment; flesh tough, solid, aromatic, tart at the skin, acid
at center; inferior in flavor and quality. Seeds numerous, adherent,
of average size, dark brown.

EarLy OHIO
(Labrusea)

Early Ohio is remarkable, chiefly, in being one of the earliest
commercial grapes. The fruit resembles that of Concord, of
which it is probably a seedling. Notwithstanding many
defects, Early Ohio is grown somewhat commonly, although its
culture is on the wane. The variety was found in 1882 by
R. A. Hunt, Euclid, Ohio, between rows of Delaware and
Concord.

Vine weak, tender, usually unproductive. Canes short, slender,
brown with a red tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ;
tendrils continuous, short, bifid. Leaves intermediate in size; upper
surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green tinged with
bronze, pubescent; lobes wanting or one to three, terminal one acute ;
petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus
shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-
season; stamens upright.

Fruit very early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size,
tapering; pedicel slender with a few small warts; brush slender,
tinged with red. Berries variable in size, round, purplish-black,
glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin adherent, astringent ;
flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, aromatic; poor in quality.
Seeds adherent, one to four, notched, brown with yellowish-brown tips.

Earity VICTOR

(Labrusea, Bourquiniana ?)

Early Victor is highest in quality of early black grapes. It
is especially pleasing to those who object to the foxiness so

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 365

marked in Hartford and Champion. Were the season but a few
days earlier and bunch and berry a little larger, Early Victor
would be the best grape to start the grape season. The vines
are hardy, healthy, vigorous and productive, with growth and
foliage resembling Hartford, which is probably one of its
parents, Delaware being the other. The bunches are small,
compact, variable in shape and the berries are about the size
and shape of those of Delaware. Its season is that of Moore
Early or a little later, although, like many black grapes, the
fruit colors before it is ripe and is often picked too green. Un-
fortunately the fruit is susceptible to black-rot and _ shrivels
after ripening. John Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, first grew
Early Victor about 1871.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
slender, dark brown, surface pubescent; nodes enlarged; internodes
long; tendrils continuous, bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves thick;
upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface white, heavily
pubescent; lobes three to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus
intermediate in depth and width; basal sinus shallow and wide when
present; lateral sinus narrow. Flowers semi-sterile, open in mid-
season; stamens upright.

Fruit very early, does not keep well. Clusters small, variable in
shape, cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel
short, covered with numerous small warts; brush wine-colored or
pinkish-red. Berries small, round, dark purplish-black, dull with
heavy bloom, persistent ; skin thin, tough, adherent, contains much red
pigment, astringent; flesh greenish-white, opaque, fine-grained,
aromatic, vinous; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, broad, notched,
blunt, dark brown.

EATON
(Labrusea)

Eaton (Plate XTV) is a pure-bred seedling of Concord which it
surpasses in appearance but does not equal in quality of fruit.
The flesh is tough and stringy, and though sweet at the skin, is
acid at the seeds and has the same foxiness that characterizes
Concord, but with more juice and less richness, so that it is well

366 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

described as a “diluted’’ Concord. The grape-skin is very simi-
lar to that of Concord, and the fruit packs, ships and keeps
about the same, perhaps not quite as well because of the greater
amount of juice. The season is a few days earlier than Concord.
The vine is similar in all characters to that of its parent. The
grapes ripen unevenly, the flowers are self-sterile, and in some
locations the vine is a shy bearer. The variety has not found
favor with either grower or consumer. Eaton originated with
Calvin Eaton, Concord, New Hampshire, about 1868.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes thick, light
brown with blue bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ;
tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round, thick;
upper surface dark green; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily
pubescent; lobes three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow,
wide; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow, often
notched; teeth shallow. Flowers semi-sterile, early; stamens up-
right.

Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, short, broad, blunt, sometimes
double-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, thick, smooth; brush
slender, pale green. Berries large, round, black with heavy bloom,
persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, purplish-red pigment, astrin-
gent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, stringy, foxy; fair in
quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, broad, notched, plump, blunt.

ECLIPSE
(Labrusea)

Eclipse (Plate XV) is a seedling of Niagara and, therefore, a
descendant of Concord which it resembles, differing chiefly in
earlier fruit which is of better quality. Unfortunately, the
bunches and berries are small. The vines are hardly surpassed
by those of any other variety, being hardy, healthy and produc-
tive, qualities that should commend it for commercial vine-
yards. The ripe fruit hangs on the vines for some time with-
out deterioration, and the grapes do not crack in wet weather.
The crop ripens several days eartier than that of Concord.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 367

Eclipse originated with E. A. Riehl, Alton, Illinois, from seed
planted about 1890.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes medium in length,
dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged ; tendrils continuous, long, bifid.
Leaves large; upper surface dark green; lower surface white with a
bronze tinge, heavily pubescent; lobes wanting or three with terminal
one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus usually lacking ;
lateral sinus narrow, often notched; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers
self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters of medium size, broad, tapering,
frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick, covered
with small warts; brush long, pale green. Berries, large, oval, dull
black with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin tender, slightly ad-
herent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-
grained, foxy, sweet; good. Seeds free, one to four, short, broad, dis-
tinetly notched, blunt, brown.

EDEN
(Rotundifolia, Munsoniana ?)

Eden is of value as a general-purpose grape for the South
and is interesting as one of the few supposed hybrids with V.
rotundifolia. It is probably a hybrid between the species
named and V. Munsoniana, another southern wild grape. The
vine Is exceedingly vigorous and productive and thrives on clay
soils, whereas most other Rotundifolias can be grown success-
fully only on sandy lands. Eden was found some years ago on
the premises of Dr. Guild, near Atlanta, Georgia.

Vine very vigorous, productive, healthy and bearing a dense canopy
of foliage. Canes darker in color than most other Rotundifolias.
Leaves of medium size and thickness, longer than wide; petiolar sinus
wide; marginal teeth rounded; leaf-tip blunt. Flowers perfect.

Fruit early, distinct first and second crops, ripens uniformly. Clus-
ters large, loose, bearing from five to twenty-five berries which adhere
fairly well to the pedicels. Berries round, one-half inch in diameter,
dull black, faintly specked; skin thin, tender; flesh soft, juicy, pale
green, sprightly ; good in quality.

368 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ELDORADO
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

The fruit of Eldorado is delicately flavored, with a distinct
aroma and taste and ripens about with that of Moore Early —
a time when there are few other good white grapes. The vines
inherit most of the good qualities of Concord, one of its parents,
excepting ability to set large crops. Even with cross-polli-
nation, Eldorado somet'mes fails to bear and is not worth grow-
ing unless planted in a mixed vineyard. The clusters are so
often small and straggling under the best conditions that the
variety cannot be recommended highly to the amateur; yet
its delightful flavor and its earliness commend it. J. H.
Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, grew Eldorado about 1870
from seed of Concord fertilized by Allen’s Hybrid.

Vine vigorous, hardy, an uncertain bearer. Canes long, few, thick,
flattened, bright reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils
intermittent, rarely continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large to
medium, irregularly round, dark green; upper surface rugose on older
leaves; lower surface tinged with brown, pubescent; lobes wanting or
faintly three; petiolar sinus deep; teeth shallow. Flowers self-
sterile, open late; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters do not always set perfectly and
are variable in size, frequently single-shouldered ; pedicel short, slender,
smooth; brush short, yellow. Berries large, round, yellowish-green
changing to golden yellow, covered with thin bloom; flesh tender, foxy,
sweet, mild, high flavored; good to very good in quality. Seeds
intermediate in size and length, blunt, yellowish-brown.

ELVIRA
(Vulpina, Labrusea)

Although it has never attained popularity in the North,
Elvira (Plate XVI), after its introduction into Missouri about
forty years ago, reached the pinnacle of popularity as a wine-
grape in the South. The qualities which commended it were:

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 369

great productiveness ; earliness, ripening in the North with Con-
cord ; exceedingly good health, being almost free from fungal
diseases ; great vigor, as shown by a strong, stocky growth and
ample ice: and almost perfect hardiness even as far north
as Canada. Its good qualities are offset by two defects: thin
skin which bursts easily, thus wholly debarring it from distant
markets; and flavor and appearance not sufficiently good to
make it a table-grape. Elvira originated with Jacob Rommel,
Morrison, Missouri, from seed of Taylor.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous,
dark brown; nodes flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous,
trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thin; upper surface light green, pubes-
cent, hairy; lobes wanting or one to three with terminus acute;
petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal
sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, often notched; teeth
deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters short, cylindrical,
usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel smooth; brush short,
greenish-yellow with brown tinge. Berries medium in size, round,
green with yellow tinge, dull with thin bloom, firm; skin very thin,
tender, adherent, astringent; flesh green, juicy, fine-grained, tender,
foxy, sweet; fairin quality. Seeds free, one to four, medium to large,
blunt, plump, dark brown.

EMPEROR
(Vinifera)

Emperor is one of the standard shipping grapes of the Pacific
slope, being one of the mainstays of the interior valleys. On the
coast and in southern California, it is irregular in bearing, and on
the coast the fruits often fail to ripen. It is chiefly grown in the
San Joaquin Valley. It could hardly be expected to ripen even
in the most favored grape regions in the East. The following
brief description is compiled :

Vine strong, healthy and productive. Leaves very large, with
five shallow lobes; teeth short and obtuse; light green in color;

28

370 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

glabrous above, wooly beneath. Bunches very large, loose, some-
times inclined to be straggling, long-conical. Berries large, dull
purple, oval; flesh firm and crisp; skin thick; flavor and quality
good. Ripens late and keeps and ships well.

EMPIRE STATE
(Vulpina, Labrusea, Vinifera)

Empire State (Plate XVII) competes with Niagara and Dia-
mond for supremacy among green grapes. The variety is as vig-
orous in growth, as free from parasites, and on vines of the same
age Is as productive, but is less hardy, and the grapes are not as
attractive in appearance as those of the other varieties named.
In particular, the clusters are small in some localities, a defect
which can be overcome only by severe pruning or by thinning.
The quality is very good, approaching the flavor of the Old
World grapes, its slight wild taste suggesting one of the Muscats.
Empire State ripens early, hangs long on the vine and keeps
well after picking without losing flavor. This grape originated
with James H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, bearing fruit
first in 1879.

Vine vigorous, somewhat tender. Canes short, few, slender,
brownish; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
bifid. Leaves small; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth or
somewhat rugose ; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent ;
lobes three to five when present, terminal one acuminate; petiolar
sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus variable
in depth and width; lateral sinus deep, narrow, often enlarged at
base; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens
upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylin-
drical, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with
small warts; brush short, light green. Berries medium or small,
round, pale yellowish-green, covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm ;
skin thick, adherent to the pulp, slightly astringent; flesh pale yellow-
ish-green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, agreeably flavored ;
good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, broad, notched,
short, blunt, plump, brown.

Puate XXVII. — Salem (X 3).

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 371

ETTA
(Vulpina, Labrusea)

In appearance, taste and texture of fruit, Etta is very similar
to Elvira, of which it is a seedling. The small, yellow clusters
which characterize Elvira are reproduced in Etta, which differs
chiefly in having a shoulder quite as large as the main bunch
itself and in having a better flavor, lacking the slight foxiness of
Elvira. The vine is very vigorous, hardy, and is productive
to a fault. The fruit ripens with that of Catawba. The
tendency of Elvira to crack and overbear influenced the
originator of that variety, Jacob Rommel, Morrison, Missouri,
to try for a grape without these faults, and the result was Etta
from seed of Elvira. The fruit was first exhibited in 1879.

Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
light to dark brown; tendrils continucus, bifid. Leaves large, thick ;
upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green,
somewhat cobwebby. Flowers self-fertile, early ; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters small, short, broad, irregularly
eylindrical, usually with a short, single shoulder but sometimes so
heavily shouldered as to form a double bunch, very compact. Berries
small, round, pale green, dull with thin bloom, shattering when over-
ripe, firm; skin thin, tender; fiesh juicy, fine-grained, tough, stringy,
slightly foxy, mild; fair in quality. Seeds free, long, blunt, brown.

EUMELAN

(Labrusea, Vinifera, A‘stivalis)
Washington

The good qualities of Eumelan are: vines above the average
in vigor, hardiness and productiveness; clusters and_ berries
well formed, of good size and handsome color; flesh tender,
dissolving into wine-like juice under slight pressure; and pure
flavor, rich, sweet, vinous. The season is early, yet the fruit
keeps much better than that of most other grapes maturing

372 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

with it and becomes, therefore, a mid-season and late grape.
The defects of the variety are susceptibility to. mildew, self-
sterile flowers and difficulty in propagation. The latter char-
acter has greatly hindered its culture, as the vines can be se-
cured only at extra expense and nurserymen are loath to grow
the variety at all. Eumelan may be recommended to amateur
growers. It is a chance seedling which grew from seed, about
1847, in the yard of a Mr. Thorne, Fishkill Landing, New York.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, covered with
bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
long, trifid or bifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark green, glossy,
smooth; lower surface pale green, smooth; lobes usually three with
terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, variable in width; basal
sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow.
Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early, keeps until late winter. Clusters long, slender, tapering,
often with a long, loose, single shoulder; pedicel short, slender with
a few small warts; brush short, stubby, pale green. Berries of medium
size, round, black, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin
tough, adherent with wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh dark
green, juicy, fine-grained, tender, stringy, spicy and aromatic, sweet ;
good. Seeds adherent, one to four, large, wide, blunt, plump, brown.

Fair
(Vulpina, Labrusea)

Although spoken of as a desirable grape in some regions, Faith
is of little value in most localities. The fruit is unattractive in
appearance, and the quality is not high. If the variety has
any preéminently good character, it is productiveness. The
blossoms put forth so early that they often suffer from spring
frosts. Faith is of the same breeding as Etta and from the
same originator, Jacob Rommel, Morrison, Missouri, both
having come from seed of Elvira.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
thick, cylindrical; nodes prominent; internodes long; tendrils con-
tinuous, bifid. Leaves large, dark green; upper surface dark green,

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 3/0

dull; lower surface grayish-green, thinly pubescent; lobes wanting or
faint; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-sterile to partly self-fertile,
open early ; stamens upright.

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, variable
in length, usually slender, often heavily single-shouldered, loose ;
pedicel short, slender, warty; brush pale green, slender. Berries
small, round, dull green, frequently with a yellow tinge changing to
pale amber, with abundant bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, adherent,
astringent; flesh juicy, tender, agreeably flavored; fair to good in
quality. Seeds numerous, broad, dark brown.

FEHER SZAGOS
(Vinifera)

This variety succeeds rather well at Geneva, New York, bear-
ing fruits of excellent quality. It has two defects, dull color of
the berries and irregular bunches. It is worth trying in the
East. Feher Szagos is said to make a very good raisin in
California and usually appears in lists of table-grapes for that
state.

Vines vigorous, somewhat uncertain bearers. Opening leaves
pubescent, red along the edges and a tinge of red on the upper surface.
Flowers have upright stamens. Fruit usually ripens the first week in
October and does not keep well in storage; clusters large to medium,
broad, loose, frequently irregular because of poor setting of fruit;
berries large, oval to elliptical, rather dull green, with thin bloom;
skin thick, tender, neutral; flesh greenish, translucent, juicy, meaty,
tender, sweet; quality of the best; seeds free.

Fern Munson
(Lineeecumii, Vinifera, Labrusea)

Admirable, Fern, Hilgarde, Munson’s No. 76

Fern Munson is a southern grape not adapted to northern
regions, 40° north latitude being its limit of adaptation. The
fruits show some very good characters, as attractive appearance,
agreeable quality and unobjectionable seeds and skin. The

374 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

vines are vigorous and productive, but the foliage is not healthy
although very abundant. This variety originated with T. V.
Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of Post-oak with mixed
pollen. The seed was planted in 1885, and the variety was
introduced by the originator in 1893.

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy. Canes long, numerous, thick,
dark brown with a faint red tinge; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves
large, thick; upper surface rugose and heavily wrinkled ; lower surface
dull, pale green with a bronze tinge, faintly pubescent. Flowers semi-
fertile, open very late; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, irregularly tapering, usually
single-shouldered, often with many abortive fruits. Berries large,
round, slightly flattened, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with
thin bloom, strongly persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, astringent ;
flesh juicy, tough, firm, fine-grained, vinous, briskly subacid; good.
Seeds adherent, broad.

FLAME TOKAY
(Vinifera)

This is the leading shipping grape of the Pacific slope where
it is everywhere grown under the name “Tokay,’’ with several
modifying terms, as “Flame,” “Flame-colored” and “Flam-
ing.” The fruit is not especially high in quality nor attractive
in appearance, but it ships and keeps well, qualities making it
popular in commercial vineyards. The description is compiled.

Vine very vigorous, luxuriant in growth of canes, shoots and leaves ;
very productive; wood dark brown, straight with long joints. Leaves
dark green with a brown tinge; lightly lobed. Bunches very large,
sometimes weighing eight or nine pounds, moderately compact ;
shouldered. Berries large, oblong, red when mature, covered with

lilac bloom; flesh firm, erisp, sweet; quality good. Season late,
keeps and ships well.

FLOWERS
(Rotundifolia)

Flowers is a late, dark-colored Rotundifolia very popular
in the Carolinas. The variety is noted for its vigorous and

VARIETIES OF GRAPES ato

productive vines, its large fruit-clusters and grapes that cling
in the cluster unusually well for a variety of this species. The
crop ripens in North Carolina in October and November. The
fruit is valuable only for wine and grape-juice, having little to
recommend it for dessert purposes. Flowers was found in a
swamp near Lamberton, North Carolina, more than a hundred
years ago by William Flowers. Improved Flowers, probably
a seedling of Flowers, was found near Whiteville, North
Carolina, about 1869. It differs from its supposed parent in
having a more vigorous and productive vine and_ larger
clusters, the berries of which cling even more tenaciously.

Vine vigorous, healthy, upright, open, very productive. Canes
long, slender, numerous. Leaves variable but average medium in size,
longer than broad, pointed, cordate, thick, dark green, smooth, leath-
ery; margins sharply serrate; flowers perfect.

Fruit very late, keeps well. Clusters, large, consisting of ten to
twenty-five berries. Berries large, round-oblong, purple or purplish-
black, clinging well to the cluster-stem; skin thick, tough, faintly
marked with dots; pulp white, lacking in juice, hard, sweetish, austere
in flavor; poor for a table-grape but excellent for grape-juice.

GAERTNER
(Vinifera, Labrusca)

The berries and clusters of Gaertner are large and hand-
somely colored, making a very showy grape. The plant is
vigorous, productive and as hardy as any of the hybrids between
Labrusea and Vinifera. In view of these qualities, Gaertner
has not received the attention it deserves, probably because it
is more capricious as to soils than some others of its related
hybrids. As a market grape, the variety has the faults of
ripening unevenly and of shipping poorly. The fruit keeps
well and this, with the desirable qualities noted, makes it an
excellent grape for the home vineyard. Gaertner is often
compared with Massasoit, the two varieties being very similar

376 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

in fruit characters, but Gaertner is of distinctly better quality
than Massasoit. The variety originated with E. 5. Rogers,
Salem, Massachusetts. It was first mentioned about 1865.

Vine vigorous, hardy except in severe winters, productive. Canes
long, dark reddish-brown, surface covered with thin bloom; tendrils
continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size, round; upper
surface dark green; lower surface pale green, pubescent. Flowers self-
sterile, open late; stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season, matures unevenly, keeps only fairly well.
Clusters medium in size, short, cylindrical, usually with a single
shoulder but sometimes double-shouldered, loose with many abortive
fruits. Berries large, round-oval, light to dark red, glossy, covered
with bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender; flesh pale green, juicy,
fine-grained, tough, stringy, agreeably vinous; good to very good.
Seeds free, large, broad, distinctly notched, brown.

GENEVA
(Vinifera, Labrusca)

Geneva is surpassed by so many other grapes of its season in
quality that it has never become popular, although it has much
to recommend it. The vine is vigorous and productive, al-
though not quite hardy, and the berries and clusters are attrac-
tive; the fruit is nearly transparent and there is so little bloom
that the grapes are a lustrous green or iridescent in sunlight ; the
berries cling well to the stem and the fruit keeps exceptionally
well. Geneva originated with Jacob Moore, Brighton, New
York, from seed planted in 1874 from a hybrid vine fertilized
by Iona.

Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Canes covered with thin
bloom; tendrils intermittent or continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves
medium in size; upper surface light green, dull; lower surface gray-
ish-white, pubescent; lobes three to five, acute; petiolar sinus,
shallow, wide; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile or partly
fertile, open late; stamens upright.

I'ruit mid-season, ships well and keeps into the winter. Clusters
large, blunt at the ends, usually not shouldered, with many abortive

fruits; pedicel long, slender, smooth; brush long, green. Berries
large, oval, dull green changing to a faint yellow with thin bloom;

VARIETIES OF GRAPES StL

skin thick, tough, unpigmented; flesh pale green, tender, soft, vinous,
sweet at skin but tart at center; fair to good. Seeds of medium size
and length.

GOETHE
(Vinifera, Labrusea)

Of all Rogers’ hybrids, Goethe shows Vinifera characters
most, resembling in appearance the White Malaga of Europe,
and not falling far short of the best Old World grapes in quality.
But the variety is difficult to grow, especially where the seasons
are not long enough for full maturity. The vine is vigorous to a
fault; it is fairly immune to mildew, rot and other diseases ;
and, where it succeeds, the vines bear so freely that thinning
becomes a necessity. Added to high quality, which makes it an
excellent table-grape, Goethe keeps well. Goethe was first
mentioned in 1858 under the name of Rogers’ No. 1.

Vine vigorous, hardy. Canes short, dark brown; nodes enlarged,
flattened ; internodes short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, long,
bifid to trifid. Leaves irregularly round, thin; upper surface light
green, glossy; lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf usually
not lobed, terminus broadly acute; petiolar sinus narrow, closed and
overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow,
often a notch; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers partly self-fertile,
open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters short, broad, tapering, frequently
single-shouldered, usually two bunches to shoot; pedicel long, thick
with numerous conspicuous warts; brush long, slender, yellowish-
brown. Berries very large, oval, pale red covered with thin bloom,
persistent; skin thin, tender, adherent, faintly astringent; flesh pale
green, translucent, tender with Vinifera flavor; very good. Seeds
adherent, one to three, large, long, notched, blunt, brown.

GoLp CoIN
(Aistivalis, Labrusca)

In the South, where alone it thrives, Gold Coin is a handsome
market variety of very good quality. The vines are productive
and are unusually free from attacks of fungal diseases. The

378 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

variety originated with T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from
seed of Cynthiana or Norton pollinated by Martha and was
introduced by the originator in 1894.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes slender, numerous; ten-
drils continuous, sometimes intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves
medium in size; upper surface light green, slightly rugose; lower sur-
face pale green, tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent. Flowers self-
fertile; stamens upright.

Fruit late mid-season, keepslong. Clusters medium to small, usually
single-shouldered. Berries large, round-oval, yellowish-green with a
distinct trace of reddish-amber, with thin bloom, usually persistent ;
skin covered with small, scattering brown dots, thin, tough ; flesh faintly
aromatic, tart from skin to center; good. Seeds free, numerous,
medium in size.

GREEN EARLY
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Green Early is a white grape coming in season with Winchell,
which surpasses it in most characters, quality in particular.
Green Early was found in 1885, growing by the side of a ditch
near a Concord vineyard, on land belonging to O. J. Green,
Portland, New York.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes variable in length and
thickness, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes
short; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid or trifid.
Leaves variable in size, medium green; upper surface dark green,
glossy ; lower surface pale green, pubescent ; lobes wanting or faintly
five; teeth shallow, narrow; stamens upright.

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters variable in size, length
and breadth, sometimes single-shouldered, variable in compactness.
Berries large, oval, light green tinged with yellow, with thin bloom,
persistent, soft; skin thin, tender, inclined to crack; flesh tough and
aromatic, sweet at skin but acid at center; fair in quality. Seeds
medium in size, length and breadth, sharp-pointed.

GREIN GOLDEN
(Vulpina, Labrusea)

Grein Golden is very similar to Riesling, but the vine is much
stronger in growth. For a variety of the Taylor group, both

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 379

cluster and berry are large and uniform, which, with the attrac-
tive color of the berries, make it a most handsome fruit. The
flavor, however, is not at all pleasing, being an unusual commin-
gling of sweetness and acidity very disagreeable to most palates.
The quality of the fruit condemns it for table use, although it is
said to make a very good white wine. Nicholas Grein, Her-
mann, Missouri, first grew Grein Golden about 1875.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender,
dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; ten-
drils intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface
dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, lightly pubescent ;
lobes lacking or one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep,
narrow; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, wide,
obscure; teeth deep. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season;
stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, irregular,
often heavily single-shouldered, loose; pedicel with a few incon-
spicuous warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries uniform in size,
large, round, golden yellow, glossy with thin bloom, persistent; skin
very thin, tender; flesh green, translucent, very Juicy, tender, vinous ;
good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, plump, light brown.

Gros CoLMAN
(Vinifera)

Dodrelabi

Gros Colman has the reputation of being the handsomest
black table-grape grown. It is one of the favorite hot-house
grapes In England and eastern America and is commonly grown
out of doors in California. The variety is remarkable for hav-
ing the largest berries of any round grape, borne in immense
bunches, and for the long-keeping qualities, although the tender
skins sometimes crack. The following description 1s compiled :

Vine vigorous, healthy and productive; wood dark brown. Leaves
very large, round, thick, but slightly lobed; teeth short and blunt;

380 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

glabrous above, woolly below. Bunches very large, short, well filled
but rather loose; berries very large, round, dark blue; skin thick but
tender; flesh firm, crisp, sweet and good; quality not of the highest.
Season late and the fruits keep long.

HARTFORD
(Labrusea)

The vine of Hartford may be well characterized by its good
qualities, but the fruit is best described by its faults, because
of which the variety is passing out of cultivation. The
plants are vigorous, prolific, healthy and the fruit is borne early
in the season. The canes are remarkable for their stoutness
and for the crooks at the joints. The bunches are not unat-
tractive, but the quality of the fruit is low, the flesh being
pulpy and the flavor insipid and foxy. The berries shell badly
on the vine and when packed for shipping, so that the fruit does
not ship, pack or keep well. The grapes color long before ripe,
and the flowers are only partly self-fertile, so that in seasons
when there is bad weather during blooming time the clusters
are loose and straggling. The original vine of Hartford was a
chance seedling in the garden of Paphro Steele, West Hartford,
Connecticut. It fruited first in 1849.

Vine vigorous, very productive. Canes long, dark brown, covered
with pubescence; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; ten-
drils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark
green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent; lobes
variable; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus usually lacking;
lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers partly self-
fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

_ Fruit early. Clusters medium in size, long, slender, tapering, ir-
regular, often with a long, large, single shoulder, loose; pedicel short
with a few small warts; brush greenish. Berries medium in size,
round-oval, black, covered with bloom, drop badly; skin thick, tough,
adherent, contains much purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh green,
translucent, juicy, firm, stringy, foxy; poor in quality. Seeds free,
one to four, broad, dark brown.

Prate XXVIII. — Triumph (x2).

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 381

Hayks
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

In 1880, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society awarded
a certificate of merit to Hayes for high quality in fruit. This
brought it prominently before grape-growers and for a time
it was popular, but when better known several defects became
apparent. The vine is hardy and vigorous, but the growth is
slow and the variety isa shy bearer. Both bunches and berries
are small, and the crop ripens at a time, a week or ten days
earlier than Concord, when there are many other good green
grapes. Excellent though it is in quality, the variety is hardly
worth a place in any vineyard. John B. Moore, Concord,
Massachusetts, is the originator of Hayes. It is a seedling of
Concord out of the same lot of seedlings as Moore Early. It
was first fruited in 1872.

Vine variable in vigor and productiveness, hardy and healthy.
Canes numerous, slender; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes short ;
tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves uniform in size; upper
surface dark green; lower surface pubescent; lobes one to three;
teeth shallow, small. Flowers almost self-sterile, open medium late;
stamens upright.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters variable in size and length,
often single-shouldered; pedicel long, slender; brush small, pale
green. Berries medium in size, round, greenish-yellow, covered with
thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender with a few small reddish-
brown dots; flesh fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet at the skin,
agreeably tart at center, mild; good. Seeds few, of average size,
short, plump, brown.

HEADLIGHT
(Vinifera, Labrusea, Bourquiniana)

Headlight is more desirable for southern than for northern
vinevards, yet it is worthy of trialin the North. Its meritorious
characters are: productiveness, outyielding Delaware, with

382 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

which it competes; disease-resistant foliage and vines; more
than average vigor of vine; high quality of fruit, being almost
the equal of Delaware in flavor and having tender, melting
pulp which readily parts from the seeds; and earliness, ripening
before Delaware and hanging on the vines or keeping after being
picked for some time without deterioration. The originator
of Headlight, T. V. Munson, states that the variety came from
seed of Moyer fertilized by Brilliant. The seed was planted
in 1895 and the grape was introduced in 1901.

Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes short, few in num-
ber, slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short;
tendrils continuous, short, bifid, very persistent. Leaves small,
thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale
green, pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus obtuse; petiolar
sinus intermediate in depth and width; basal sinus usually lacking ;
lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile,
open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, short, tapering, frequently
single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, covered with a
few small warts; brush yellowish-brown. Berries small, round, dark
red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, astrin-
gent; flesh green, translucent, very juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous,
sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to three, small, light brown.

HERBEMONT

(Bourquiniana)

Bottsi, Brown French, Dunn, Herbemont’s Madeira, Hunt,
Kay’s Seedling, McKee, Neal, Warren, Warrenton

In the South, Herbemont holds the same rank as Concord
in the North. The vine is fastidious as to soil, requiring a well-
drained warm soil, and one which is abundantly supplied with
humus. Despite these limitations, this variety is grown in an
immense territory, extending from Virginia and Tennessee to
the Gulf and westward through Texas. The vine is remark-
ably vigorous, being hardly surpassed in this character by any

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 383

other of our native grapes. The fruits are attractive because
of the large bunch and the glossy black of the small berries,
and are borne abundantly and with certainty in suitable local-
ities. The flesh characters of the fruit are good for a small
grape, neither flesh, skin nor seeds being objectionable in eat-
ing; the pulp is tender, juicy, rich, sweet and highly flavored.
The ample, lustrous green foliage makes this variety one of the
attractive ornamental plants of the South. Herbemont is
known to have been in cultivation in Georgia before the Revo-
lutionary War, when it was generally called Warren and War-
renton. In the early part of the last century, it came to the
hands of Nicholas Herbemont, Columbia, South Carolina,
whose name it eventually took.

Vine very vigorous. Canes long, strong, bright green, with more
or less purple and heavy bloom; internodes short; tendrils intermit-
tent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round, entire, or three to seven-
lobed, nearly glabrous above and below; upper surface clear green;
lower surface lighter green, glaucous. Flowers self-fertile.

Fruit very late. Clusters large, long, tapering, prominently
shouldered, compact; pedicels short with a few large warts; brush
pink. Berries round, small, uniform, reddish-black or brown with
abundant bloom; skin thin, tough; flesh tender, juicy; juice colorless
or slightly pink, sweet, sprightly. Seeds two to four, small, reddish-
brown, glossy.

HERBERT
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

In all that constitutes a fine table-grape, Herbert (Plate
XVIII) is as near perfection as any American variety. For a
Vinifera-Labrusca hybrid, the vine is vigorous, hardy and
fruitful, ranking in these respects above many pure-bred
Labruscas. While the fruit ripens with Concord, it keeps
much later and packs and ships better. The variety is self-
sterile and must be set near other varieties. Herbert is
deserving attention from commercial growers who supply a

384 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

discriminating market, and its many good qualities give it high
place as a garden grape. The variety is one of Rogers’ hybrids,
named Herbert in 1869.

Vine very vigorous, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick,
dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils
intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round; upper sur-
face dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green with some
pubescence ; leaf entire, terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow,
closed, overlapping; basal and lateral sinuses lacking; teeth shallow.
Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, tapering,
two to three clusters per shoot, heavily single-shouldered, loose;
pedicel thick with small russet warts; brush yellowish-green. Berries
large, round-oval, flattened, dull black, covered with thick bloom,
persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh light
green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained; very good. Seeds
adherent, three to six, large, broad, notched, long with swollen neck,
blunt, brown with yellow tips.

HERCULES
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Hercules is characterized by very large berries, fruit hand-
somely colored and cluster large and well-formed. The flavor,
while not of the best, is good. Added to the desirable qualities
of the fruit, the vines are hardy, vigorous and productive.
These good characters, however, cannot make up for the several
defects of the variety. The grapes drop and crack badly and
the pulp is tough and adheres too firmly to the seed for a des-
sert grape, so that the variety is worthless except for breeding
purposes. Hercules was introduced by G. A. Ensenberger,
Bloomington, Illinois, about 1890; its parentage is unknown.

Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes long, dark
reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils
continuous, bifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, glossy,
smooth; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent; lobes one to three,
terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus usually

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 385

absent; lateral sinus shallow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile,
open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters very large, broad, tapering,
one to three clusters per shoot, compact; brush pale green. Berries
very large, round, black, glossy with heavy bloom, firm; skin ad-
herent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, very tough, coarse,
stringy, foxy; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, large,
broad, deeply notched, blunt, brown.

Hicks
(Labrusea)

Hicks is a remarkably good grape and were it not that the
fruit is almost identical with that of Concord, ripening with it
or a little earlier, it would have a place in the viticulture of the
country. However, since it was introduced some years ago and
has not found great favor with growers, it seems that it cannot
make headway against Concord, with which it must compete.
In many localities the vines are more prolific than those of
Concord and of stronger growth. Hicks was introduced in
1898 by Henry Wallis, Wellston, Missouri, who states that it is
a chance seedling sent from California about 1870 to Richard
Berry, a nurseryman of St. Louis County, Missouri.

Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes medium to
long, numerous, reddish-brown, covered with thin bloom; tendrils
continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark
green, glossy; lower surface white, changing to a heavy bronze,
strongly pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, open early ; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, taper-
ing, often single-shouldered. Berries large, round, purplish-black with
heavy bloom, shatter when overripe, firm; skin tender with dark wine-
colored pigment; flesh green, juicy, tough, fine-grained, faintly foxy ;
good. Seeds adherent, large, short, broad, blunt, brown.

HIDALGO

(Vinifera, Labruseca, Bourquiniana)

The grapes of Hidalgo are rich, sweet, delicately flavored,
and with color, size and form of berry and bunch so well com-
_2¢c

386 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

bined as to make the fruits singularly handsome. The skin is
thin but firm and the variety keeps and ships well. ‘The vines,
however, are doubtfully hardy, variable in vigor and not al-
ways fruitful. While Hidalgo may not prove of value for the
commercial vineyard, in favorable situations it may give a
supply of choice fruit for the amateur. The parentage of
Hidalgo, as given by its originator, T. V. Munson, is Delaware,
Goethe and Lindley. The variety was introduced by the
originator in 1902.

Vine variable in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes thick,
dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent
or continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, irregularly round, thick;
upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green,
bronzed, heavily pubescent; lobes three when present; petiolar sinus
narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus wanting;
lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth very shallow, narrow. Flowers
semi-fertile, open after mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long,
slender, cylindrical, often blunt, not shouldered, one to two bunches
per shoot, compact; pedicel long, slender with small warts; brush
yellowish-green with brown tinge. Berries large, oval, greenish-yellow,
glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent,
astringent; flesh green, transparent, juicy, tender, melting, aromatic,
sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, two to four, large, plump,
light brown.

HIGHLAND
(Vinifera, Labrusea)

Few varieties of black grapes equal Highland in appearance
and quality of fruit. When given good care under favorable
conditions, the bunches are unusually large and handsome in
appearance, sometimes attaining a weight of two pounds, and
bear beautiful bluish-black berries with the fine flavor and
tender texture of Jura Muscat, one of its parents. The flesh
is solid, firm and the fruit keeps and ships well. The vine is
vigorous, productive to a fault but is doubtfully hardy. Where
the climate is temperate and the season long enough for the

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 387

vine and fruit of Highland to develop, this is one of the choicest
grapes for the amateur. The variety originated about the
close of the Civil War with J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New
York, from seed of Concord fertilized by Jura Muscat.

Vine variable in vigor, productive, healthy. Canes long, numerous,
dark brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes long;
tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark
green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent; lobes
one to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, variable in width ;
basal sinus shallow, narrow; lateral sinus a notch; teeth deep, wide.
Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering,
usually single-shouldered, usually two bunches per shoot; pedicel
long, thick, smooth; brush green with yellow tinge. Berries large,
round-oval, purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ;
skin tough, free; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, vinous; good.
Seeds free, one to six, large, long, notched, brown.

HOPKINS
(Rotundifolia)

Hopkins is named by grape-growers in the South Atlantic
states as the best early Rotundifolia grape. Its season in
North Carolina begins early in August, nearly a month before
any other. It is, also, one of the best in quality and for quality
and earliness should be in every home vineyard in the region
in which it grows. Hopkins was found near Wilmington,
North Carolina, about 1845, by John Hopkins.

Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, slender, up-
right. Leaves of medium size, variable, cordate, longer than broad,
thick, leathery, smooth, dark green; margins sharply serrate. Flowers
self-fertile.

Fruit very early. Clusters large, containing from four to ten
berries. Berries large, dark purple or almost black, round-oblong,
shelling badly; skin thick, tough, faintly marked with dots; pulp
white, tender, juicy with a sweet, pleasant flavor; one of the best of
the Rotundifolias in quality.

388 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Hosrorp
(Labrusea)

Hosford is an offspring of Concord, differing from the parent
chiefly in the greater size of bunch and berry and in being less
fruitful. The variety is surpassed by Worden and Eaton, of
the same type, and is probably not worth cultivation. It is
claimed by some that Hosford is identical with Eaton but there
are noticeable differences in both vine and fruit characters.
The vine looks very like that of Concord except that the inden-
tations along the margins of the leaves are deeper. Hosford
originated in the garden of George Hosford, Ionia, Michigan,
about 1876, as a chance seedling growing between two Con-
cord vines.

Vines lacking in vigor, hardy, unproductive. Canes short, few
in number, slender; nodes enlarged; internodes very short; tendrils
continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface
light green, rugose; lower surface grayish-white to bronze, heavily
pubescent; lobes faint; petiolar sinus wide; teeth small, sharp.
Flowers shallow, semi-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters large, tapering,
slightly shouldered, compact; pedicel short with small warts; brush
slender, green. Berries large, round-oval, dull black with abundant
bloom, persistent; skin thick, tender; flesh pale green, juicy, fine-
grained, tender, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds few, large, broad, blunt,
plump, brown.

Hyprip FrAaNc
(Vinifera, Rupestris)

Hybrid Franc is the best-known cross between Rupestris
and Vinifera. It is one of the few varieties used in Europe
as a resistant stock now recommended for a direct producer.
The vines are hardy, vigorous and very productive. The fruit
is fit only for wine or grape-juice, being too acid to eat out of
hand. The coloring matter in the fruit is very intense and

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 389

might be used in giving color to grape products. The variety
is of French origin.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, thick, light
brown with blue bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils
intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small, thin; upper surface
light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface green, hairy along ribs
and large veins; lobes three to five with terminal one acute; petiolar
sinus narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; lateral sinus a notch.
Flowers semi-fertile, open early ; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters medium in sizc,
short, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, sletide>
with few small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries small,
oblate, black, glossy with thick bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin,
tender with very dark wine-colored pigment; flesh green with reddis'1
tinge, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, spicy, tart; fair in
quality. Seeds free, one to five, small, short, ight brown.

IDEAL
(Labrusea, Vinifera, Bourquiniana)

Ideal is a handsome seedling of Delaware, from which it dif-
fers chiefly in being larger in bunch and berry, attaining in both
of these characters nearly the size of Catawba. In Kansas and
Missouri, this variety is highly recommended, not only for the
high quality of the fruit, ranking with Delaware in quality, but
because of vigorous, healthy, productive vines. But farther
north the vines are precariously hardy and not sufficiently fruit-
ful, healthy nor vigorous to warrant high recommendation.
Ideal originated with John Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, from
seed of Delaware, about 1885.

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive; tendrils intermittent,
bifid or trifid. Canes long, numerous, slender, dark brown; nodes
enlarged, flattened; internodes long. Leaves large, variable in color ;
lobes three to five; petiolar sinus deep, wide; teeth deep, narrow ;
upper surface light green, dull; lower surface pale green, pubescent.

Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, heavily
shouldered; pedicel thick; brush green. Berries large, round, dark

390 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

red with thin bloom, usually persistent, firm; skin thick, tough,
adherent; flesh green, tender, aromatic, sweet next the skin, acid at
the center; good to very good. Seeds adherent, large, plump, brown.

IoNA
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

In flavor, the fruit of Iona (Plate XIX) has a rare combina-
tion of sweetness and acidity, pure, delicate and vinous. The
flesh is transparent, melting, tender, juicy and of uniform con-
sistency quite to the center. The seeds are few and small and
part readily from the flesh. The color is a peculiar dark-red
wine with a tint of amethyst, variable and not always attrac-
tive. The bunch is large but loose, with berries varying in size
and ripening unevenly. The fruit may be kept until late winter.
The vine characters of Iona are not as good as those of the fruit.
To do well, the vine must have a soil exactly suited to its wants,
seemingly thriving best in deep, dry, sandy or gravelly clays.
Iona responds especially well when trained against walls or
buildings, attaining under such conditions rare perfection. The
vines are doubtfully hardy and in many parts of the North
must have winter protection; they are not vigorous and are in-
clined to overbear, to remedy which they must have close prun-
ing. In localities in which mildew and rot thrive, the variety
is badly attacked by these diseases. Iona originated with
C. W. Grant, Iona Island, New York, from seed of Diana planted
in 1885.

Vine weak, doubtfully hardy, unproductive. Canes short, light
brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower
surface grayish-green, heavily pubescent; lobes three to five with
terminal one acute; petiolar sinus of medium depth and width; basal
sinus shallow; lateral sinus shallow, wide; teeth shallow. Flowers
self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, sometimes double-
shouldered, slender, tapering, loose; brush pale green. Berries uni-

PutateE XXIX.— Vergennes (X 2).

ws A
a i My)
‘ *

ota its Post oh oe “y
: yma ‘ee Me
LY oy

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 391

form, oval, round, dull, light and dark red with thin bloom, persistent,
firm; skin tough, adherent, slightly astringent; flesh green, trans-
lucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, melting, vinous; very good. Seeds
free, one to four, small, broad, plump, brown.

ISABELLA
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Alexander, Black Cape, Christie’s Improved Isabella, Conck-
ling’s Wilding, Constantia, Dorchester, Gibb’s Grape, Hensell’s
Long Island, Payne’s Early, Helene, Woodward

Isabella (Plate XX) is now of little more than historical inter-
est, it having been one of the mainstays of American viticulture.
In appearance, the fruit of Isabella is fully as attractive as that
of any black grape, the clusters being large and well formed and
the berries glossy black with thick bloom. The flavor is good,
but the thick skin and muskiness in taste are objectionable. The
grapes keep and ship well. Isabella is surpassed in vine char-
acters by many other kinds, notably Concord, which has taken
its place. The lustrous green, ample foliage which remains
late in the season, and the vigor of the vine, make this variety
an attractive ornamental, well adapted for growing on arbors,
porches and. trellises. The origin of Isabella is not known.
It was obtained by William Prince, Flushing, Long Island,
about 1816 from Mrs. Isabella Gibbs, Brooklyn, New York.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous with
heavy pubescence, thick, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; in-
ternodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves
thick; upper surface dark green, smooth, glossy; lower surface
whitish-green, heavily pubescent; lobes three when present with
terminal lobe obtuse; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, often closed,
overlapping; basal sinus usually wanting; lateral sinus shallow,
narrow, frequently notched ; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile,
open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical,
frequently single-shouldered; pedicel slender, smooth; brush long,

392 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

yellowish-green. Berries medium to large, oval, black with heavy
bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh
pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, meaty, some foxi-
ness, sweet; good. Seeds one to three, large, broad, distinctly notched,
short, brown with yellow tips.

ISABELLA SEEDLING
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Isabella Seedling is an early, vigorous, productive offspring
of Isabella. In fruit characters it greatly resembles its parent,
but ripens its crop earlier and has a more compact bunch.
Like that of its parent, the fruit is of good quality and keeps
remarkably well. This seedling is now grown more than Isa-
bella and, while not of any considerable commercial importance,
is far more deserving attention as a market grape than some of
the poorly flavored kinds more generally grown. There are
several varieties under this name. Two are mentioned by
Warder; one of Ohio and one of New York origin. The
Isabella Seedling here described originated with G. A. Ensen-
berger, Bloomington, Illinois, in 1889.

Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick,
dark brown, often with a red tinge, with thin bloom; nodes prominent,
flattened ; internodes long; tendrils intermittent or continuous, bifid.
Leaves healthy, large, thick; upper surface green, dull; lower surface
pale green or grayish-green, occasionally with a tinge of bronze,
pubescent. Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical,
usually single-shouldered, loose, compact. Berries large, oval, often
pear-shaped, dull black with thick bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick
with some red pigment; flesh pale green, juicy, tender, coarse, vinous ;
good. Seeds numerous, free, large, broad, notched, dark brown.

ISRAELLA

(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Tsraella came from C. W. Grant contemporaneously with
Tona and was heralded as the earliest good grape in cultivation.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 393

For several years after its introduction, it was widely tried but
was almost everywhere discarded because of the poor quality
and unattractive appearance of the fruit and Jack of vigor,
hardiness and productiveness in the vine. Grant grew Israella
from seed of Isabella planted in 1885.

Vine lacking in vigor, unproductive. Canes slender, dark brown;
nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous,
bifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower
surface pale green, pubescent; lobes one to five, faint; petiolar
sinus deep, narrow; teeth shallow, sharp; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, of medium length and
breadth, tapering, often single-shouldered, compact, frequently with
many abortive fruits. Berries of medium size, round-oval, black or
purplish-black with thin bloom, inclined to drop, soft; skin thick,
tough with a large amount of purplish-red pigment; flesh pale green,
juicy, stringy, mild, sweet from skin to center; fair in quality. Seeds
free, medium in size, notched, blunt, light brown, often covered with
grayish warts.

IvEs
(Labrusea, Aistivalis)

Ives’ Madeira, Ives’ Seedling, Kittredge

Ives has a high reputation as a grape for making red wine,
being surpassed only by Norton for this purpose. The vine
is hardy, healthy, vigorous and fruitful. The fruit is poor in
quality, colors long before ripe, has a foxy odor, and the flesh
is tough and pulpy. The bunches are compact, with well-
formed, jet-black grapes, which make them attractive. The
vine is easily propagated and is adapted to any good grape soil,
but is so rampant in growth that it is difficult to manage. The
variety is not widely cultivated. Ives was grown by Henry
Ives from seed planted in 1840 in his garden in Cincinnati,

Ohio.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, thick,
reddish-brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened ; internodes
short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper

394 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent ;
lobes three to five when present with terminal one acute; petiolar sinus
deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus shallow ;
lateral sinus narrow; teeth shallow.

Fruit late mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, tapering, fre-
quently single-shouldered, compact, often with numerous abortive
berries; pedicel slender with numerous small warts; brush short,
slender, pale with a reddish-brown tinge. Berries oval, jet-black with
heavy bloom, very persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, wine-
colored pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-
grained, tough, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, often
abortive, broad, short, blunt, plump, brown.

JAMES
(Rotundifolia)

James is one of the largest of the Rotundifolia grapes and
probably the best general-purpose variety of this species. The
vine is noted for vigor and productiveness. It cannot be grown
north of Maryland. It thrives in sandy loam soils with clay
subsoil. The variety was found by B. W. M. James, Pitt
County, North Carolina. It was introduced about 1890 and
was placed on the grape list of the American Pomological
Society fruit catalog in 1899.

Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Canes slender, numerous,
long, slightly trailing. Leaves of medium size, thick, smooth, leathery,
cordate, as broad as long, with a serrate margin. Flowers open late;
stamens reflexed.

Fruit ripens late, hangs on the vine for three weeks, keeps well.
Clusters small, containing from four to twelve berries, irregular, loose.
Berries large, three-fourths to one and one-fourth inches in diameter,

round, blue-black, marked with specks; skin thick, tough. Pulp
juicy, sweet; good in quality.

J ANESVILLE

(Labrusea, Vulpina)

Endowed with a constitution enabling it to withstand cold
to which most other grapes succumb, Janesville has made a

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 395

place for itself in far northern localities. Moreover, the grapes
ripen early, being about the first to color although they are not
ripe until some time after coloring. The vine also is healthy,
vigorous and productive. The fruit, however, is worthless
when better sorts can be grown. The clusters and berries are
small, the grapes are pulpy, tough, seedy, have a thick skin and
a disagreeable acid taste. Janesville was grown by F. W.
Loudon, Janesville, Wisconsin, from chance seed planted in 1858.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes spiny, numerous,
dark brown; nodes flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent
or continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small, thin; upper sur-
face glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, lightly pubescent; leaf
usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow, often
closed and overlapping; basal and lateral sinuses lacking ; teeth shal-
low. Flowers self-fertile, open very early ; stamens upright.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, short, cylindrical, usually
single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, covered with small,
scattering warts; brush dark wine color. Berries round, dull black
with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent with
dark wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh pale reddish-green,
translucent, juicy, tough, coarse, vinous, acid; fair in quality. Seeds
adherent, one to six, large, broad, angular, blunt, dark brown.

JEFFERSON
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Jefferson (Plate X XI) is an offspring of Concord crossed with
Iona, and resembles Concord in vigor, productiveness and
healthiness of vine, and Jona in color and quality of fruit. The
vine producesits fruit two weeks later than Concord and is not as
hardy, faults that debar it from taking high rank as a commer-
cial grape. Fortunately the vines yield readily to laying down
for winter protection so that even in commercial plantations it is
not difficult to prevent winter injury. The bunches of Jefferson
are large, well-formed, compact with berries of uniform size and
color. The flesh is firm yet tender, juicy with a rich, vinous
flavor and a delicate aroma which persists even after the ber-

396 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ries have dried into raisins. The fruit ships and keeps well,
the berries adhering to the cluster and the fruit retaining its
freshness into late winter. Jefferson is widely distributed and
is well known by viticulturists in eastern America. It is not
particular as to localities, if the season be long and the climate
temperate, and thrives in all soils. The variety originated with
J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York; it fruited first in 1874.

Vine vigorous, healthy, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes
short, numerous, light to dark brown; nodes enlarged, round; inter-
nodes short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves
healthy ; upper surface light green, older leaves rugose; lower surface
pale green, strongly pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus
acute; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal
sinus usually absent; lateral sinus shallow, often a mere notch; teeth
regular, shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical, usually
single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, compact; pedicel
short, slender with a few inconspicuous warts; brush long, slender,
pale yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, oval, light and dark red,
glossy with thin bloom, persistent, very firm; skin thick, tough, free,
slightly astringent ; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, coarse-grained,
tender, vinous; good to best. Seeds free, one to four, broad, short,
blunt, plump, brown.

JESSICA

(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Jessica is an early, hardy, green grape. The fruit is sweet,
rich, sprightly and almost free from foxiness, but is unattrac-
tive and does not keep well. The clusters and berries are
small, and the clusters are too loose for a good grape. Jessica
may be commended for earliness and hardiness and is, there-
fore, desirable, if at all, in northern regions. William H.
Read, Port Dalhousie, Ontario, grew Jessica from seed planted
some time between 1870 and 1880.

Vine medium in vigor, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes long,
thick, dark brown with red tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; inter-

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 397

nodes short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, bifid or trifid.
Leaves small; upper surface dark green, glossy, often rugose; lower
surface pale green, very pubescent; lobes three; petiolar sinus narrow ;
teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season ;
stamens upright.

Fruit very early. Clusters small, slender, tapering, usually single-
shouldered. Berries small, round, light green, often tinged with yellow,
covered with thin bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, adherent, faintly
astringent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy, tender, soft, sprightly,
sweet; good. Seeds adherent, medium to broad, notched, brown.

JEWEL
(Labrusea, Bourquiniana, Vinifera)

The notable characters of Jewel are earliness and high quality
in fruit; although, as compared with Delaware, its parent, the
vine is vigorous, healthy and hardy. In form and size of bunch
and berry, Jewel closely resembles Delaware, but the grapes
are deep black in color. The flesh characters and flavor of the
fruit are much like those of Delaware, the pulp being tender
- yet firm, and the flavor having the same rich, sprightly, vinous
taste found in the parent. The seeds are few and small. The
skin is thin but tough, and the grapes ship well, keep long, do
not shell, and although early, hang until frost. Jewel is a
most excellent grape, worthy the place among black grapes that
Delaware has among red varieties. In particular, it is recom-
mended for earliness and for localities in the North where
standard varieties do not ripen. John Burr, Leavenworth,
Kansas, grew Jewel from seed of Delaware planted about 1874.

Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes slender, light
reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils
continuous, bifid. Leaves secant, thick; upper surface light green,
dull, rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent;
lobes three when present with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow;
basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, wide; teeth shallow.
Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early. Clusters small, slender, cylindrical, single-shouldered,
compact; pedicel short, slender; brush short, wine-colored. Berries

398 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

medium in size, round, dark purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom,
persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, wine-colored pigment ;
flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, sprightly,
vinous, sweet; very good. Seeds adherent, one to four, frequently
one-sided, blunt, light brown.

KENSINGTON
(Vinifera, Vulpina)

Kensington has several very meritorious fruit and vine
characters. ‘The vine resembles that of Clinton, its Vulpina
parent, in vigor, hardiness, growth and productiveness, but
the fruit has many of the characters of the European parent,
Buckland Sweetwater. The grapes are yellowish-green, large,
oval and borne in loose clusters of medium size. In quality
the fruit of Kensington is not equal to that of Buckland Sweet-
water but is much better than that of Clinton. The flesh is
tender and juicy with a rich, sweet, vinous flavor. The hardi-
ness of the vine and the high quality of the fruit should make
Kensington a favorite green grape in northern gardens. This
variety was grown by William Saunders, London, Ontario.
It was sent out some time between 1870 and 1880.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, slender, light
brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils persist-
ent, intermittent or continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves thin;
upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green,
pubescent, hairy; lobes wanting or one to three with terminus obtuse;
petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus shallow when present; lateral sinus
shallow, usually a notch; teeth deep and wide. Flowers self-fertile,
open early, stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, cylindrical, often heavily single-
shouldered, loose, frequently with many undeveloped berries; pedicel
long and slender with small, inconspicuous warts; brush short, pale
green. Berries variable in size, oval, yellowish-green, glossy with
thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, faintly as-
tringent; flesh green, transparent, juicy, tender, vinous, sweet; good.
Seeds free, two to four, wrinkled, large, long, broad, sharp-pointed,
yellowish-brown.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 399

KING
(Labrusea)

King is similar to Concord, compared with which the vine is
more vigorous and prolific, time of ripening and length of season
the same, the clusters are one-fourth larger, the grapes are more
persistent, the pulp is more tender, the flavor nearly the same
but more sprightly, the seeds fewer in number, the wood harder
and of shorter joints and the pedicels larger. King was found
in the Concord vineyard of W. K. Munson, Grand Rapids,
Michigan, in 1892. The vine was set for Concord and is sup-
posed to be a bud-sport of that variety.

Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes large, dark reddish-
brown; nodes enlarged, slightly flattened; internodes short; tendrils
continuous or intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves unusually large,
thick ; upper surface green, dull; lower surface grayish-white changing
to slight bronze, pubescent; lobes three when present, terminal one
acute; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-
season; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, irregu-
larly tapering, usually single-shouldered, compact. Berries large,
round, black with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, ad-
herent, astringent; flesh pale green, very juicy, tough, stringy and
with some foxiness; good. Seeds adherent, few, large, short, broad,
lightly notched if at all, blunt, plump, light brown.

Lapy
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

The vine of Lady is much like that of Concord, its parent,
although not quite so vigorous nor productive, but ripens its
fruit fully two weeks earlier. The fruit is much superior to
that of Concord in quality, being richer, sweeter and less foxy.
The grapes hang on the vines well but deteriorate rapidly
after picking. The term, “ironclad,” used by grape-growers
to express hardiness and freedom from disease, is probably
as applicable to Lady as to any other of the Labrusca grapes.

400 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

The foliage is dense and of a deep glossy green, neither scald-
ing under a hot sun nor freezing until heavy frosts, making
it an attractive ornament in the garden. Lady is deservedly
popular as a grape for the amateur and should be planted for
nearby markets. It succeeds wherever Concord is grown, and
because of its early ripening is especially adapted to northern
latitudes where Concord does not always mature. Although
the fruit ripens early, the buds start late, often escaping late
spring frosts. When Lady was first heard of, it was in the
hands of a Mr. Imlay, Muskingum County, Ohio. George
W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, introduced it in 1874.

Vine vigorous, hardy, medium in productiveness, healthy. Canes
short, slender, dark reddish-brown ; nodes flattened ; internodes short ;
tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper
surface light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubes-
cent; lobes one to five with terminal one acuminate; petiolar sinus
shallow, wide; lateral sinus variable in depth and width; teeth shallow.
Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters small, short, slender,
cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick,
smooth; brush slender, long, greenish-white. Berries large, round,
light green, often with a tinge of yellow, glossy with thin bloom,
persistent, firm; skin covered with small, scattering, dark dots, thin,
tender, adherent, astringent; flesh greenish-white, translucent, juicy,
tender, aromatic; very good. Seeds free, few, broad, light brown.

Lapy WASHINGTON
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Lady Washington is in many respects a most excellent
grape but falls short in quality and does not excel in vine char-
acters. The grapes make a good appearance, keep and ship
well and are tender, juicy and sweet. The vines are luxuriant,
hardy, for a grape with Vinifera blood, and healthy although
slightly susceptible to mildew. As an exhibition grape, few
green varieties show better when grown with care than Lady
Washington. In the West and Southwest, the variety is said

Puare XXX.— Winchell (X 3).

i Sar ee Te

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 401

to succeed better than any other Concord seedling. Lady
Washington is another of J. H. Ricketts’ fine seedlings, this
variety having come from seed of Concord fertilized by Allen’s
Hybrid. It was introduced in 1878.

Vine vigorous, productive. Canes long, few, thick, dark brown;
nodes greatly enlarged, variable in shape; internodes long; tendrils
eontinuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface
dark green, older leaves strongly rugose, glossy; lower surface pale
green, pubescent; leaf entire with terminal acute; petiolar sinus deep,
narrow, frequently closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually want-
ing; lateral sinus shallow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-
fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit late mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, broad,
irregularly cylindrical, single-shouldered, frequently double-shouldered,
loose; pedicel short with numerous conspicuous warts; brush very
short, greenish. Berries variable in size, round-oblate, yellow-amber,
glossy with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender, adherent; flesh
pale green, transparent, juicy and tender, stringy, aromatic, sweet;
very good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, brown.

LENOIR
(Bourquiniana)

Alabama, Black El Paso, Black July, Black Spanish, Blue
French, Burgundy, Cigar Box Grape, Devereaux, Jack,
Jacques, July Sherry, Longworth’s Ohio, MacCandless, Ohio,
Springstein, Warren

Lenoir is a tender southern grape which has been used largely
in France and California as a resistant stock and a direct
producer. The fruit is highly valued for its dark red wine and
is very good for table use. The vine is very resistant to phyl-
loxera and withstands drouth well. The origin of Lenoir is
unknown. It was in cultivation in the South as long ago as
the early part of the last century. Nicholas Herbemont
states in 1829 that its name was given from a man named
Lenoir who cultivated it near Stateburg, South Carolina.

2D

402 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Vine vigorous, thrifty, semi-hardy, productive. Canes numerous,
with some bloom at the nodes; tendrils intermittent. Leaves from
two to seven-lobed, usually five, with characteristic bluish-green color
above and pale green below.

Clusters variable, medium to very large, tapering, usually shoul-
dered. Berries small, round, dark bluish-purple, nearly black with lilae
bloom; skin thick, tough; flesh juicy, tender, sweet, very rich in
coloring matter.

LigNan BLANC
(Vinifera)
White July, Lughenga, Joannene

At Geneva, New York, Lignan Blane ripens first of all
grapes, native or European. It is not of highest quality but
is better than any other early grape and makes a valuable
addition to the home vineyard. It is a favorite grape in Europe
and is rather commonly grown in California. This variety
offers excellent material for hybridization with native grapes.

Vine vigorous, medium productive; buds open early; opening
leaves light green, glossy, tinged with red along the edges, thinly
pubescent. Leaves medium in size, roundish, somewhat dull green,
slightly rugose ; lower surface glabrous; blade thick; lobes usually five
though sometimes three; petiolar sinus medium in depth, wide; lower
lateral sinus medium in depth, narrow; upper lateral sinus shallow, nar-
row; margin dentate; teeth long, narrow. Flowers appear early for a
Vinifera ; stamens upright.

Fruit ripens the first of September and is a good keeper; clusters
above medium in size, tapering, medium compact; berries medium to
large, oval, yellowish-green, with thin bloom; skin thin, tender,
neutral; flesh greenish-white, firm, juicy, meaty, sweet; quality good.

LINDLEY
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

By common consent, Lindley (Plate XXII) is the best of the
red grapes originated by Rogers in his crosses between La-
brusca and Vinifera. The bunches are of only medium size and

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 403

are loose, but the berries are well-formed, of uniform size and an
attractive dark red color. The flesh is firm, fine-grained, juicy,
tender with a peculiarly rich aromatic flavor. The skin is
thick and tough but js not objectionable in fruit fully ripe.
The fruit keeps and ships well, and the berries neither crack
nor shatter. The vine is vigorous, hardy for a Vinifera
hybrid, healthy but, as with most of its kind, susceptible to
mildew. The chief defects of Lindley are self-sterility, preca-
riousness in bearing and lack of adaptation to many soils.
Lindley is a general favorite in the garden. In 1869 Rogers
gave this grape its name in honor of John Lindley, the English
botanist.

Vine vigorous, usually hardy, susceptible to mildew. Canes very
long, dark reddish-brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, usually
flattened ; internodes long, thick; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or
trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green, dull, slightly
rugose; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent ; obscurely three-lobed
with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and
overlapping; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season ;
stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters long, broad,
cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, the shoulder being connected
to the bunch by a long stem, loose; pedicel short, slender, smooth;
brush short, pale green. Berries large, round-oval, dark-red with
faint bloom; skin tough, adherent, unpigmented, strongly astringent ;
flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous;
good to best. Seeds adherent, two to five, notched, brown.

LUCILE
(Labrusea)

In vigor, health, hardiness and productiveness, Lucile (Plate
_ XXII) is not surpassed by any native grape. Unfortunately,
the fruit characters are not so desirable. The size, form and
color of bunches and berries are good, making a very attractive
fruit, but the grapes have an obnoxious, foxy taste and odor and
are pulpy and seedy. Lucilg is earlier than Concord, the crop

404 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ripening with that of Worden or preceding it a few days.
For an early variety, the fruit keeps well and in spite of thin
skin ships well. The vine thrives in all grape soils. Lucile
may be recommended where a hardy grape is desired and for
localities in which the season is short. J. A. Putnam, Fredonia,
New York, grew Lucile. The vine fruited first in 1890. It is
a seedling of Wyoming, which it resembles in fruit and vine
and surpasses in both.

Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes long, light brown;
nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid
or trifid. Leaves large, firm; upper surface light green, glossy,
smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf with terminus acute;
petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping ;
basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus a notch when present; teeth
shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open early ; stamens upright.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, eylindrieal,
usually single-shouldered, very compact; pedicel short, thick with
few, small, inconspicuous warts; brush light brown. Berries large,
round, dark red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tender,
astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, stringy, foxy ;
fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, broad, short,
blunt, dark brown.

LUTIE
(Labrusea)

Lutie (Plate XXIII) is chiefly valuable for its vine characters.
The vines are vigorous, hardy, healthy and fruitful, although
scarcely equaling Lucile in any of these characters. Pomologists
differ widely as to the merits of the fruit, some claiming high
quality for it and others declaring that it is no better than a
wild Labrusca. The difference of opinion is due to a pecul-
larity of the fruit; if eaten fresh, the quality, while far from
being of the best, is not bad, but after being picked for several
days it develops so much foxiness of flavor and aroma that
it is scarcely edible. Lutie is a seedling found by L. C.
Chisholm, Spring Hill, Tennessee. It was introduced in 1885.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 405

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes short, slender,
dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils
continuous, short, bifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface dark
green, rugose; lower surface bronze or whitish-green, pubescent ; leaf
usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, wide;
basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present ;
teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens upright.

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, short,
broad, blunt, cylindrical, usually not shouldered, compact; pedicel
short with small, seattering warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries
large, round, dark red, dull with thin bloom, drop badly from pedicel,
firm; skin tender, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent,
juicy, tough, foxy; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four,
large, broad, short and blunt, dark brown.

MALAGA
(Vinifera)

Malaga is one of the favorite table-grapes in California and
also a popular grape to ship to eastern markets. In some
parts of southern California, where the Muscats do not thrive,
it is much grown, and in the San Joaquin Valley it is rather
largely used in making raisins. It requires a long season and
probably could not be grown in eastern regions except in the
most favored localities. The description is compiled.

Vine very vigorous, healthy and productive; wood reddish-brown,
short-jointed. Leaves of medium size, smooth, leathery ; light glossy
green above, lighter below; deeply lobed. Bunches very large, long,
loose, shouldered, sometimes scraggly ; stem long and flexible; berries
very large, oval, yellowish-green, covered with light bloom; skin
thick; flesh firm, crisp, sweet and rich; quality good. Season late,
keeps and ships well.

McPIKE
(Labrusea)

McPike is noteworthy because of the large size of the berries
and bunches. It is very similar to its parent, Worden, differ-

406 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ing in having fewer but larger berries, grapes not as high in
flavor and fewer and smaller seeds.. Because of the thin, tender
skin, the berries crack badly. The grapes shell more or less,
and the vines are less productive than those of Worden. The
faults named debar it from becoming a commercial grape
and it is not high enough in quality to make it of value for
the amateur. This variety originated with H. G. McPike,
Alton, Il!inois, from seed of Worden planted in 1890.

Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes of medium length,
dull reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes very
short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick;
upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-white,
heavily pubescent; leaf entire with terminus acute; petiolar sinus
deep; basal and lateral sinuses lacking. Flowers nearly self-fertile.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, broad,
irregularly tapering, usually not shouldered; pedicel long, thick,
smooth; brush long, slender, green with brown tinge. Berries unusu-
ally large, round, purplish-black with heavy bloom, firm; skin eracks,
adherent to pulp, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy,
tender, stringy, vinous; fair to good. Seeds adherent, one to four,
short, broad, blunt, plump, light brown.

MARION

(Vulpina, Labrusea)
Black German, Marion Port

Marion so closely resembles Clinton in botanical and horti-
cultural characters as to be clearly of the same type. The
vine is vigorous and hardy, but hardly sufficiently productive,
and is susceptible to mildew and leaf-hoppers. The fruit
is pleasantly sweet and spicy, although not high enough in
quality for a table-grape, but makes a very good dark red wine.
The fruit colors early but ripens late, hangs well on the vines
and improves with a touch of frost. Marion was brought
to notice by a Mr. Shepherd, Marion, Ohio, about 1850.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 407

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes very long, dark reddish-
brown, covered with bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
very long; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, long, bifid.
Leaves very large; upper surface dark green, glossy; lower surface
pale green, smooth; leaf entire, terminus acuminate; petiolar sinus
very deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal and lateral
sinuses usually lacking; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-sterile,
open very early; stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, short,
slender, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender
with a few inconspicuous warts; brush very short, wine-colored.
Berries small, round, black, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ;
skin thin, tough, adherent with much wine-colored pigment, astrin-
gent; flesh dark green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, sprightly,
spicy, tart; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, medium in
size, broad, short, very plump, brown.

MartTHa
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Martha was at one time a popular green grape, but the
introduction of superior varieties has reduced its popularity
until now it is but little grown. It is a seedling of Concord
and resembles its parent, differing chiefly as follows: fruit
green, a week earlier, bunch and berry smaller, flavor far
better, being sweeter, more delicate and less foxy. The vine
of Martha is a lighter shade of green, is less robust, and the
blossoms open a few days earlier than those of Concord. One
of the defects of Martha, and the chief cause of its going out
of favor, is that it does not keep nor ship well. The variety
is still being planted in the South but is generally abandoned
in the North. Samuel Miller, Calmdale, Pennsylvania, grew
Martha from seed of Concord; it was introduced about 1868.

Vine hardy, productive, susceptible to attacks of mildew. Canes
long, dark reddish-brown, surface with thin bloom, roughened ; nodes
enlarged, slightly flattened ; tendrils continuous, or intermittent, bifid.
Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green; lower surface light

408 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes wanting or faint; petiolar sinus
shallow, very wide; teeth irregular. Flowers self-fertile, open in
mid-season ; stamens upright.

Fruit early mid-season. Clusters medium in size, tapering, single-
shouldered, loose; pedicel short, slender; brush very short, green.
Berries medium in size, round, light green with thin bloom, persistent ;
skin thin, very tender, adherent; flesh pale green, Juicy, tough, fine-
grained, slightly foxy; very good. Seeds few in number, adherent,
broad, blunt, dark brown.

MASssaASsoIr
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Massasoit is distinguished as the earliest of Rogers’ hybrids,
ripening with Delaware. The grapes have the peculiarity
of being best before full maturity, developing, after ripening,
a degree of foxiness which impairs the quality. In shape and
size of berry and bunch, there is a striking resemblance to
Isabella, but the color is that of Catawba. The texture of
the fruit is especially good, firm but tender and juicy, while
the flavor is rich and sweet. The vine is vigorous, hardy and
productive but subject to mildew and rot. Massasoit is worth
a place in the home vineyard and as an early grape of fine
quality for local markets.

Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive, subject to rot and
mildew. Canes long, thick, dark brown with reddish tinge; nodes
enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, long, trifid or bifid. Leaves
variable in size; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower sur-
face pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five with terminus acute;
petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus shallow, narrow, obscure ;
teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open late; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, broad, eylin-
drical, frequently single-shouldered ; pedicel slender with a few in-
distinct warts; brush pale green. Berries large, round-oval, dark
brownish-red, dull with thin bloom, very persistent, firm; skin thin,
tender, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy,
fine-grained, soft, stringy, foxy; good to very good. Seeds adherent,
one to five, large, broad, distinctly notched, plump, blunt.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 409

MAXATAWNEY
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

While at one time very popular, grape-growers now seldom
hear of Maxatawney. It is a southern grape, ripening its
fruit in the North only occasionally. The variety is interesting
historically as being the first good green grape and as showing
unmistakable Vinifera characters, another example of the
fortuitous hybridization which gave so many valuable varieties
before artificial hybridization of Vinifera with native grapes
had been tried. In 1843, a man living in Eagleville, Pennsyl-
vania, received several bunches of grapes from Maxatawney.
The seeds of these grapes were planted and one grew, the result-
ing plant being the original vine of Maxatawney.

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, variable in productiveness.
Canes medium in length, slender, reddish; nodes enlarged, flattened ;
internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, dark
green, thick; lower surface grayish-white with tinge of bronze, heavily
pubescent; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus narrow; teeth shallow.
Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters small to medium, short, slender,
cylindrical, occasionally with a small, single shoulder, compact;
pedicel long, slender, warty; brush long, yellow. Berries variable in
size, oval, pale red or dull green with amber tinge, with thin bloom,
persistent; skin tough, astringent; flesh tender, foxy; good to very
good. Seeds free, few, large, very broad, blunt.

Memory
(Rotundifolia)

Memory is one of the best of the Rotundifolia grapes for
the garden and local markets, its fruits being especially good
for dessert. As yet, however, the variety has not been widely
distributed even in North Carolina where it originated. The
vine is given credit for being the most vigorous grower and
the most productive of the grapes of its species. Memory
is probably a seedling of Thomas, which it much resembles,

410 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

having been found in a vineyard of Thomas grapes near White-
ville, North Carolina, by T. 5S. Memory, about 1868.

Vine very vigorous, healthy, productive. Leaves large, longer
than broad, thick, smooth with coarsely serrate margins. Flowers
perfect.

Fruit ripens in September in North Carolina; clusters large, with
from four to twelve berries which hang unusually well for a variety of
V. Rotundifolia. Berries very large, round-oblong, deep brownish-
black, almost jet black; skin thick; flesh tender, juicy, sweet; good
to best.

MERRIMAC
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Merrimac is often accredited as the best black grape among
Rogers’ hybrids, but an analysis of the characters of the several
black varieties grown by Rogers shows that it is surpassed
by Wilder, Herbert and possibly Barry. The vine is strong
in growth, productive, hardy and exempt from fungal diseases ;
but the grapes are not high in quality, and flesh, skin and
seed characters are such that the fruit is not as pleasant to
eat as the other black varieties named. Merrimac is worthy
a place in collections for the sake of variety. Rogers gave this
variety the name Merrimac in 1869.

Vine vigorous, usually hardy, productive. Canes slender, dark
brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid. Leaves large, thin; upper
surface very light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green,
pubescent and cobwebby; lobes three with terminal one obtuse;
petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal
sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow.
Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters variable in size,
broad, tapering; pedicel slender, covered with numerous inconspicuous .
warts; brush wine-colored. Berries large, round, black, glossy with
abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent, astrin-
gent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, stringy ;
good. Seeds adherent, one to five, broad, long, with enlarged neck,
brown.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 411

MILLS
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

The bunches and berries of Mills are large and well-formed ;

the berries are firm and solid, with the skin adherent as in Vi-
niferas; the flesh is juicy and parts readily from the seeds; the
flavor is rich, sweet and vinous; and the grapes are hardly
surpassed in keeping quality. But when the fruit characters
of Mills have been praised, nothing further can be said in its
favor. The vines are neither vigorous, hardy nor fruitful and
are very subject to mildew; neither wood nor roots ripen well
in the North in average seasons; and the variety is a most
difficult one for nurserymen to grow. Mills is of doubtful
commercial value, but for the garden it is possible that the
grower may be able to graft it to advantage on some variety
with better vine characters. William H. Mills, Hamilton,
Ontario, grew Mills about 1870 from seed of Muscat Hamburg
fertilized by Creveling.

Vine medium in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes long,
thick, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent,
bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull,
rugose; lower surface pale green, cobwebby ; lobes three to five with
terminus acute; petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width; basal
and lateral sinuses deep and wide; teeth deep. Flowers self-fertile,
open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cy-
lindrical, often double-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with nu-
merous, small warts; brush long, wine-colored. Berries large, oval,
jet-black with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough,
adherent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, rich, tender, sprightly,
vinous, sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, one to three, large, brown.

Mitsu
(Rotundifolia)

Mish is a favorite Rotundifolia in North Carolina, being
planted extensively in some parts of that state. Its outstand-

412 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ing characters are vigor and productiveness in vine and high
quality in the fruit. Mish is named by many as the best all-
round Rotundifolia, being of value for dessert, wine and grape-
juice. The variety was found by W. M. Mish, about 1846,
near Washington, North Carolina.

Vine very vigorous, productive, healthy, open in growth; canes
somewhat trailing. Leaves large, round, thick, smooth, leathery with
coarsely dentate margin. Flowers perfect.

Fruit late, does not ripen uniformly, keeps and ships well. Clusters
of medium size with from six to fifteen berries which cling well to the
pedicel. Berries of medium size, round-oval, deep reddish-black
with numerous conspicuous dots; skin thin, cracking in wet weather ;
flesh tender, juicy, sweet, exceptionally well flavored; very good to
best.

MIsston
(Vinifera)

Of all grapes, Mission has probably played the most impor-
tant part in the vineyards of California. Grown from the
earliest times at the old missions, its source or its name has
never been determined. Its viticultural value for table and
Wine-press was early appreciated by California grape-growers,
and its culture rapidly spread to every county in the state
adapted to grape-growing. With vines vigorous, healthy and
productive, bearing grapes of delicious quality, Mission is
a mainstay on the Pacific slope, surpassed by few vineyard
varieties for general usefulness. The description is compiled.

Vine vigorous, healthy, productive; wood short-jointed, grayish-
brown, dull, dark. Leaf medium to large, slightly oblong, with large,
deeply-cut compound teeth; basal sinus widely opened, primary
sinuses narrow and shallow; smooth on both sides with scattered
tomentum below, bright green above, lighter below. Bunch divided
into many small, distinct lateral clusters, shouldered, loose, sometimes
very loose; berries of medium size, purple or almost black with heavy
bloom; skin thin; flesh firm, crisp, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious.
Seeds rather large and prominent; season late,

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 413

Missourr RIEesLINnG
(Vulpina, Labrusea)

Missouri Riesling attains perfection only in the South.
The vines are hardy, vigorous, productive and healthy in the
North, as a rule, but the fruit is lacking in quality. In the
South, Missouri Riesling is a beautiful fruit when well grown
and has many good qualities of fruit and vine. It originated
with Nicholas Grein, Hermann, Missouri, about 1870, probably
from seed of Taylor.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes very long, numerous,
thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged; internodes long; tendrils contin-
uous, long, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark
green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent ;
lobes five with terminal one acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, narrow;
basal sinus shallow, wide; lateral sinus deep, wide; teeth deep, wide.
Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit late, does not keep nor ship well. Clusters short, eylin-
drical, single-shouldered; pedicel long with few small warts; brush
green. Berries of medium size, round, yellowish-green changing to
light red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin sprinkled with small
brown dots, thin, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, trans-
lucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, lacking in aroma, mild; fair in
quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, surface rough, dark brown.

MONTEFIORE
(Vulpina, Labruseca)

Montefiore is extensively grown in Missouri and the South-
west but is almost unknown in the North and East. It is
reported as succeeding in the Lake District of Ohio and, with
the exception that it is uncertain in bearing and not always
productive, it grows well in sections of New York. While it
is essentially a wine-grape, yet it is pleasing in taste and texture
of fruit and is far better in quality than many of the coarser
Labruscas commonly cultivated. It keeps and ships well

414 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

and presents an attractive appearance. Jacob Rommel,
Morrison, Missouri, grew this variety about 1875 from seed
of Taylor fertilized by Ives.

Vine vigorous and hardy. Canes long, thick, dark brown with thin
bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils contin-
uous, long, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull,
smooth; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; lobes three when
present with terminus acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus lacking ;
lateral sinus shallow when present; teeth deep. Flowers semi-fertile,
open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, short, tapering,
single-shouldered, the shoulder being connected to the buneh by a long
stem, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush red. Berries
small, oval, often compressed, black, glossy with abundant bloom, per-
sistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green,
translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, melting, vinous, sweet; fair
to good. Seeds free, one to five, small, broad, faintly notched, short,
plump, brown.

Moore EArty
(Labrusea)

Moore Early (Plate X XIV) is the standard grape of its season.
Its fruit cannot be described better than as an early Concord.
The vines are readily distinguishable from those of Concord,
differing chiefly in being less productive. To grow the variety
satisfactorily, the soil must be rich, well-drained and loose,
must be frequently cultivated, and the vines should be pruned
severely. The bunches of Moore Early are not as large as
those of Concord and are less compact; the berries shell rather
more easily, and the skin cracks more readily. The
flesh characters and the flavor are essentially those of Con-
cord, although the quality is not as high as in the older variety.
The quality is, however, much higher than that of Champion
and Hartford, its chief competitors, and varieties which it
should replace. Moore Early is by no means an ideal grape
for its season, but until something better is introduced it will
probably remain the best early commercial sort. Captain

VARIETIES OF GRAPES A415

John B. Moore, Concord, Massachusetts, originated this vari-
ety from seed of Concord, planted about 1868.

Vine vigorous, hardy, unproductive. Canes short, dark reddish-
brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils contin-
uous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green,
dull; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent; leaf
usually not lobed, terminus acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus
lacking; lateral sinus a notch when present; teeth shallow, narrow.
Flowers fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, length,
and breadth, cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, loose; pedicel
short, thick, smooth; brush short, pale green. Berries large, round,
purplish-black, firm; skin tender, adherent; flesh green, translucent,
juicy, fine-grained, tough with slight foxiness; fair to good. Seeds
one to four, large, broad, plump, blunt, brown with yellow tinge at tips.

MoscaTELLo
(Vinifera)

Moscatello Nero. Black Muscat

Beautiful in appearance and having a delicate Muscat
taste and aroma, this variety is one of the good table-grapes of
the Pacific slope. Unfortunately it ripens so late that it is
hardly worth trying in the East. The variety has the reputa-
tion of being very productive. The description is compiled.

Vine vigorous, healthy, very productive. Leaves of medium size,
with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses; glabrous above, slightly
downy below, very hairy on the veins, with long, sharp teeth. Bunch
large to very large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical, winged; berries
very large, borne on long slender pedicels, dark purple, almost black ;

skin thin but tough; flesh rather soft, juicy; flavor sweet, rich,
aromatic, musky; quality very good. Season late, does not keep well.

Moyer
(Labrusea, Bourquiniana)

Jordan, Moyer’s Early Red

Moyer is almost a counterpart of its parent, Delaware.
Were it not that the variety is from one to two weeks earlier

416 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

than Delaware, and somewhat hardier, hence better adapted
for cold regions, it could have no place in viticulture. Com-
pared with Delaware, the vine is hardly as vigorous and is
less productive, but is freer from rot and mildew. The bunches
are much like those of Delaware but have the fault of setting
fruit imperfectly even when cross-pollination is assured; the
berries are a little larger, of much the same color and of like
flavor, rich, sweet, with pure vinousness and without a trace
of foxiness. The fruit keeps well, ships well and does not crack
nor shell. Moyer is well established in Canada, proving per-
fectly hardy wherever Concord is grown, possibly standing
even more cold. W. H. Read, Port Dalhousie, Ontario,
raised the original vine of Moyer, about 1880, from seed of
Delaware fertilized by Miller’s Burgundy.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes numerous,
slender, dull, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; inter-
nodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small ;
upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green or with
faint blue tinge, heavily pubescent; lobes two to five with terminus
acute; petiolar sinus shallow; basal sinus shallow when present ;
lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth very shallow, narrow. Flowers
self-sterile, open early ; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early, keeps well but loses color if kept too long. Clusters
small, short, slender, tapering, sometimes single-shouldered ; pedicel
short with small warts; brush yellowish-green. Berries small, oblate,
dark red with faint bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, free, astrin-
gent; flesh translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous; good to
very good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, short, very blunt, brown
with yellow tinge at tips.

MuscaTEL
(Vinifera)
White Frontignan

This old and standard sort is rather commonly grown in
some of the grape regions of California to follow Chasselas

PLate XXXI.— Worden (X3)-

at)
7

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 417

Golden. It might be tried with some show of success in favored
grape regions in the East. The description is compiled.

Vine of medium size, vigorous, healthy; canes strong, spreading,
reddish-brown with short internodes. Leaves of medium size, thin,
five-lobed; glabrous except on the lower sides of the well-marked ribs
where a few hairs show. Bunches long, cylindrical, regular, compact ;
berries round, golden-yellow becoming amber; flavor sweet, rich,
aromatic, peculiar; quality very good. Season late mid-season, keeps
and ships well.

Muscat HAMBURG
(Vinifera)

Muscat Hamburg (Plate X XV) is an old European grape well
known in some parts of America in greenhouse graperies, since
it is one of the best for forcing. All who know the beautiful
fruits of this variety grown in forecing-houses will want to test
it out of doors, where at the Geneva, New York, Experiment
Station, they have done well, many clusters attaining a
weight of a pound anda half to two pounds. The accom-
panying plate, the fruit much less than half natural size,
shows what a fine grape Muscat Hamburg is. One is struck
with wondering admiration at a vine laden with these grapes
growing alongside Concord, Niagara or Delaware. The quality
is delectable, the quintessence of the flavors and aromas which
make the grape a favorite fruit. The grapes keep long and
retain their form, size, color and rich, delicate flavor almost to
the end. This variety is a treasure to the amateur; and the
professional who wants another grape for local markets should
try grafting over a few vines of some native to this sort, fol-
lowing the directions given in Chapter X in caring for the
vines.

Vines vigorous, tender, need protection during the winter; canes
long, numerous, slender to medium, light brown, darker at the nodes
which are enlarged and flattened. Leaves medium to large, inter-
mediate in thickness; upper surface light green, dull; lower surface

pale green, faintly pubescent, densely hairy.
25

418 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Fruit ripens in October, ships and keeps well; clusters very
large, long, broad, tapering, single or double-shouldered. Berries large,
firm, oval, very dark purplish-red, covered with lilac bloom, very
persistent; skin thick, adheres strongly to the pulp; flesh pale green,
translucent, meaty, very juicy, tender, vinous, musky, sweet, rich ; very
good to best; seeds separating easily from the pulp, large.

Muscat oF ALEXANDRIA

This is possibly the leading table- and raisin-grape of the
Pacific slope. From the literature or from a visit to vineyards,
one cannot make out whether one or several varieties are grown
under the name. Probably there are several strains grown under
the distinctive name “Muscat” which applies to these sweet,
light yellow, musky grapes. This is one of the standard
sorts to force indoors but requires too long a season for out of
doors in the East. The following description is compiled :

Vine short, straggling, bushy, sometimes forming a bush rather
than a vine, very productive; wood gray with dark spots, short-
jointed. Leaf round, five-lobed; bright green above, lighter green
below. Bunches long and loose, shouldered; berry oblong, light
yellow and transparent when fully mature, covered with white bloom ;
flesh firm, crisp; flavor sweet and very musky; quality good. Season
late, the laterals producing a second and sometimes even a third crop.

NIAGARA
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Niagara (Plate XXVI) is the leading American green grape,
holding the rank among grapes of this color that Concord main-
tains among black varieties. It is, however, a less valuable
grape than Concord, and it is doubtful whether it should be
ranked much higher than several other green grapes. In vigor
and productiveness, when the two grapes are on equal footing as
to adaptability, Niagara and Concord rank the same. In hardi-
ness of root and vine, Niagara falls short of Concord; it cannot

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 419

be relied on without winter protection where the thermometer
falls below zero. Niagara has much of the foxiness of the
wild Labrusea, distasteful to many palates. Both bunches
and berries of Niagara are larger than those of Concord and
are better formed, making a handsomer fruit if the colors are
liked equally well. The fruit shells as badly as that of Con-
cord and does not keep longer. Both vine and fruit of Niagara
are more susceptible to fungal diseases than those of Concord,
especially to black-rot, which proves a veritable scourge with
this variety in unfavorable seasons. Niagara was produced
by C. L. Hoag and B. W. Clark, Lockport, New York, from
seed of Concord fertilized by Cassady planted in 1868.

Vine vigorous, lacking in hardiness, very productive. Canes long,
thick, reddish-brown deepening in color at the nodes which are enlarged
and slightly flattened; internodes long, thick; tendrils continuous,
long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface glossy, dark
green, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to
five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus of medium depth and width;
basal sinus shallow, wide, often toothed; lateral sinus wide, frequently
toothed; teeth shallow, variable in width. Flowers self-fertile, open
in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering,
frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick with a few,
small, inconspicuous warts; brush pale green, long. Berries large,
oval, pale yellowish-green with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin,
tender, adherent, astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy,
fine-grained, tender, foxy; good. Seeds free, one to six, deeply
notched, brown.

Noau
(Vulpina, Labrusea)

Noah is little grown at present outside of Missouri, where
it is still planted somewhat. Noah and Elvira are often con-
fused but there are very marked differences. The clusters of
Elvira are smaller, the berries are more foxy in taste, and the
skins are more tender and crack more readily than do those of
Noah. The large, dark, glossy green leaves make the vines of

420 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

this variety very handsome. As with Elvira and other varieties
of this group, Noah is of little value in the North. It origi-
nated with Otto Wasserzieher, Nauvoo, Illinois, from seed of
Taylor planted in 1869.

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes long, thick,
dark brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils
continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark green,
glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent; leaf
usually not lobed with terminus acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, wide;
basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus very shallow when present; teeth
shallow, wide. Flowers semi-fertile, open early; stamens upright.

Fruit late mid-season, does not ship nor keep well. Clusters variable
in size, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short with a
few small warts; brush short, brown. Berries small, round, light
green tinged with yellow, dull with thin bloom, firm; skin adherent to
pulp; flesh yellowish-green, translucent, Juicy, tough, fine-grained,
vinous, sprightly; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, dark brown.

NORTHERN MUSCADINE
(Labrusea)

That this variety, together with Lucile, Lutie and other
grapes with the foxy taste strongly marked, has not become
popular, in spite of good vine characters, is evidence that the
American public do not desire such grapes. In appearance of
fruit, Northern Muscadine is much like Lutie, the two being
distinguished from other grapes by an unmistakable odor. A
serious defect of the fruit is that the berries shatter badly as
soon as they reach maturity. Taken as a whole, the vine
characters of this variety are very good and offer possibilities
for the grape-breeder. The variety originated at New Lebanon,
New York, and was brought to notice by D. J. Hawkins and
Philemon Stewart of the Society of Shakers about 1852.

Vine vigorous, productive, healthy, hardy. Canes slender, dark
brown, heavily pubescent; tendrils continuous, bifid, dehisece early.
Leaves large, round, thick; upper surface dull, rugose; lower surface

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 421

dark bronze, heavily pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-
season; stamens upright.

Fruit early mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters medium in
size, short, occasionally single-shouldered, compact. Berries large,
oval, dark amber with thin bloom, drop badly from the pedicel; skin
tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, juicy, fine-grained,
tender, soft, very foxy, sweet; poor in quality. Seeds free, numerous,
large, broad, faintly notched, long, brown.

NORTON
(Astivalis, Labrusea)

Norton is one of the leading wine-grapes in eastern America,
the fruit having small value for any other purpose than wine
or, possibly, grape-juice. The vine is hardy but requires a
long, warm season to reach maturity so that it is seldom grown
successfully north of the Potomac. Norton thrives in rich
alluvial clays, gravels or sands, the only requisite seemingly
being a fair amount of fertility and soil warmth. The vines
are robust; very productive, especially on fertile soils; as free,
or more so, from fungal diseases as any other of our native
grapes; and are very resistant to phylloxera. The bunches are
of but medium size and the berries are small. The grapes are
pleasant eating when fully ripe, rich, spicy and pure-flavored
but tart if not quite ripe. The variety is difficult to propagate
from cuttings and to transplant, and the vines do not bear
grafts well. The origin of Norton is uncertain, but it has been
under cultivation since before 1830, when it was first described.

Vine very vigorous, healthy, half-hardy, productive. Canes long,
thick, dark brown with abundant bloom; nodes much enlarged ; inter-
nodes. long; tendrils intermittent, occasionally continuous, long,
bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves large, irregularly round ; upper surface
pale green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf
usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow,
sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually absent; lateral
sinus shallow or a mere notch when present. Flowers self-fertile,
late; stamens upright,

422 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, short, broad,
tapering, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with a few warts;
brush dull, wine-colored. Berries small, round-oblate, black, glossy
with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, free with much dark red
pigment; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, spicy, tart. Seeds
free, two to six, small, brown.

Oporto
(Vulpina, Labrusca)

Oporto was at one time in demand as a wine grape because
its wine resembled in color and flavor that from Oporto. The
variety is now scarcely known, being inferior in most of its hor-
ticultural characters to others of its species, but might be valu-
able in breeding for some of its characters. The vine is very
hardy, unusually free from fungal diseases, is very resistant to
phylloxera and has been used in France as a phylloxera-resist-
ant grafting-stock. The juice is very thick and dark, a deep
purple, hence suitable for adding color to wine or grape-juice.
The origin of Oporto is unknown. It was brought into culti-
vation about 1860 by E. W. Sylvester, Lyons, New York.

Vine very vigorous, hardy, healthy, variable in productiveness.
Canes long, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
long, diaphragm thin; tendrils continuous, bifid. Stamens reflexed.

Fruit mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters small, cylindrical,
often single-shouldered. Berries medium in size, round, black, glossy
with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin very thin, tender, with
much dark wine-colored pigment; flesh white, sometimes with purple
tinge, juicy, fine-grained, solid, sweet, spicy; fair quality. Seeds
free, numerous, small, broad, faintly notched, sharply pointed, plump,
dark brown.

OTHELLO
(Vinifera, Vulpina, Labrusea)
Arnold’s Hybrid, Canadian Hamburg, Canadian Hybrid

In France, Othello does remarkably well as a direct producer
and is used also for a resistant stock. While most of its

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 423

characters are spoken of in the superlative by the French, in
America the variety is not so highly esteemed because of sus-
ceptibility to fungi. Moreover, the fruit matures so late that
it could never become a valuable variety for the North. It is
in no sense a table-grape but makes a well-colored, pleasant
wine. Charles Arnold, Paris, Ontario, grew Othello from seed
of Clinton fertilized by Black Hamburg and planted in 1859.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, brown; nodes
enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid
or trifid. Leaves of average size; upper surface light green, dull
and smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five
with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, very narrow, frequently
closed and overlapping; basal sinus shallow, narrow; lateral sinus
deep; teeth deep, wide; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps fairly well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering,
frequently with a loose single shoulder, compact; pedicel long, slender
with numerous small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries
large, oval, black, glossy with abundant bloom, very persistent; skin
thin, tough, adherent with red pigment; flesh dark green, very juicy,
fine-grained, tough, sprightly ; low in quality. Seeds free, one to three,
neck sometimes swollen, brown.

OzaRK
(Astivalis, Labrusca)

Ozark belongs to the South and to Missouri in particular.
Its merits and demerits have been threshed out by the Mis-
sourl grape-growers with the result that its culture is some-
what increasing. It is a grape of low quality, partly, perhaps,
from overbearing, which it habitually does unless the fruit is
thinned. The vine is healthy and a very strong grower, but
is self-sterile, which is against it as a market sort. In spite of
self-sterility and low quality, Ozark is a promising variety for
the country south of Pennsylvania. Ozark originated with
J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas, from seed of unknown
source. The variety was introduced about 1890.

424 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick with
thin bloom, surface roughened ; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
long; tendrils intermittent, usually bifid. Leaves dense, large;
upper surface light green; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent,
ecobwebby; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; serra-
tions shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile or nearly so, open late;
stamens reflexed.

Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, usually with a long,
loose shoulder, very compact; pedicel short, thick, smooth; brush
long, red. Berries variable in size, dull black with abundant bloom,
persistent ; skin tough with much wine-colored pigment; flesh tender,
mild; fair in quality. Seeds free, small. |

PALOMINO
(Vinifera)
Golden Chasselas. Listan

This variety seems to be grown in California under the three
names given — while in France Palomino is described as a
bluish-black grape. Palomino seems to be grown commonly
in California as a table-grape and is worth trying in eastern
America. The variety received under the name Palomino
from California at the New York Experiment Station has the
following characters, agreeing closely with those set down by
Californian viticulturists :

Fruit ripens about the 20th of October, keeping qualities good;
clusters medium to large, long, single-shouldered, tapering, loose;
berries medium to small, roundish, pale greenish-yellow, thin bloom;
skin and the adhering flesh medium tender and crisp, flesh surrounding
seeds melting; flavor sweet, vinous; quality good.

PEABODY

(Vulpina, Labrusea, Vinifera)

Peabody is as yet a comparatively unimportant offspring of
Clinton. The grapes are of excellent quality. It appears to
do better in the northern tier of states or in Canada, than

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 425

farther south. This variety was grown by J. H. Ricketts
about 1870.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick,
light brown with ash-gray tinge, darker at nodes, covered with thin
bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils inter-
mittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface dark
green, thin; lower surface pale green, nearly glabrous; lobes three,
acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; serration deep, narrow.
Flowers semi-fertile, mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, usually with a shoulder
connected to the bunch by along stem, compact; pedicel short, slender,
warty; brush short, green. Berries oval, black, glossy, covered with
thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough; flesh very juicy, tender,
vinous, spicy, agreeably sweet at the skin, tart at the center; good.
Seeds free, broad.

PERFECTION
(Labrusea, Bourquiniana, Vinifera)

Perfection is a seedling of Delaware, which it greatly re-
sembles but does not equal in fruit; its fruits being hardly as
high in quality, do not keep as well, shrivel more before ripen-
ing, and shell more readily. In its vine characters, it is much
_more like a Labrusca than Delaware, suggesting that it is a
Delaware cross. In the Southwest, Perfection is considered a
valuable early red grape. J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas,
grew Perfection from seed of Delaware; it was sent out for
testing about 1890.

Vine vigorous, healthy, injured in severe winters, productive.
Canes of medium length and number, slender; nodes enlarged, flat-
tened ; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves
healthy, medium in size; upper surface light green; lower surface
grayish-white with a tinge of bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes wanting
or three to five; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; serration shallow.
Flowers self-fertile or nearly so, open in mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit early. Clusters usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel
short, slender, smooth; brush short, yellow. Berries small, round, red
_ but less brilliant than Delaware with faint bloom, inclined to drop
from pedicel, soft; skin thin, free from astringency; flesh medium in

426 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

juiciness and tenderness, vinous, mild, sweet; good in quality. Seeds
adherent, numerous, small, often with an enlarged neck.

PERKINS
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

At one time Perkins was grown largely as an early grape but
has been discarded very generally on account of the poor qual-
ity of the fruit. The pulp of the grape is hard and the flavor
is that of Wyoming and Northern Muscadine, grapes char-
acterized by disagreeable foxiness. As with nearly all Labrus-
cas, Perkins is a poor keeper. Notwithstanding the faults of
its fruit, the variety may have value in regions where grape-
growing is precarious; for in fruiting it is one of the most re-
liable grapes cultivated, the vines being hardy, vigorous, pro-
ductive and free from fungal diseases. Perkins is an accidental
seedling found about 1830 in the garden of Jacob Perkins,
Bridgewater, Massachusetts.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
thick, dark brown, deepening in color at the nodes, surface heavily
pubescent; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils con-
tinuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size, thick; upper surface
rugose; lower surface heavily pubescent; veins distinct; lobes three ;
petiolar sinus deep, narrow; serration shallow. Flowers self-fertile,
early ; stamens upright.

Fruit early, ships well. Clusters of medium size and length, broad,
eylindrieal, often with a single shoulder, compact; pedicel short,
thick, warty; brush long, yellow. Berries large, oval, pale lilae or
light red with thin bloom, inclined to drop from the pedicel, soft;
skin thin, tough, without pigment; flesh white, juicy, stringy, fine-
grained, firm, meaty, very foxy; poor in quality. Seeds adherent,
numerous, medium in size, notehed.

POCKLINGTON
(Labrusea)

Before the advent of Niagara, Pocklington (Plate XXIT) was
the leading green grape. The variety has the fatal fault, how-

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 427

ever, of ripening its crop late, which with some minor defects
has caused it to fall below Niagara for northern grape districts.
Pocklington is a seedling of Concord and resembles its parent
in vine characters; the vines are fully equal to or surpass those
of Concord in hardiness, but are of slower growth and not
quite as healthy, vigorous nor productive. In quality, the
grapes are as good if not better than those of Concord or Ni-
agara, being sweet, rich and pleasantly flavored, although as
with the other grapes named, it has too much foxiness for criti-
eal consumers. Pocklington is not equal to several other grapes
of its season in quality, as Iona, Jefferson, Diana, Dutchess
and Catawba, but it is far above the average and for this reason
should be retained. John Pocklington, Sandy Hill, New York,
grew Pocklington from seed of Concord about 1870.

Vine medium in vigor, hardy. Canes of medium length, number and
size, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils contin-
uous, bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size, thick; upper surface
light green, glossy ; lower surface tinged with bronze, pubescent ; lobes
one to three with terminus acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, wide;
teeth narrow. Flowers self-fertile, mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit late mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, eylin-
drical, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick with
afew small warts; brush short, green. Berries large, oblate, yellowish-
green with tinge of amber, with thin bloom, firm; skin with seattering
russet dots, thin, tender, adherent, faintly astringent; flesh light

green with yellow tinge, translucent, juicy, tough, fine-grained, slightly
foxy; good. Seeds adherent, one to six, of medium length and breadth.

POUGHKEEPSIE
(Bourquiniana, Labrusea, Vinifera)

Poughkeepsie has been known long on the Hudson River,
yet it is now little grown there and has not been disseminated
widely elsewhere. In quality of fruit, it is equal to the best
American varieties, but the vine characters are all poor and
the variety is thus effectually debarred from common cultiva-
tion. Both vine and fruit resemble those of Delaware, but in

428 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

neither does it quite equal the latter. In particular, the vine
is more easily winter-killed and is less productive than that of
Delaware. The grapes ripen a little earlier than those of the
last named sort and this, with their beauty and fine quality,
is sufficient to recommend it for the garden at least. About
1865, A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, New York, grew Pough-
keepsie from seed of Iona fertilized by mixed pollen of Delaware
and Walter.

Vine of medium vigor. Canes short, thick, dark reddish-brown ;
tendrils intermittent, frequently three in line, bifid or trifid. Leaves
small; upper surface green, glossy, older leaves rugose; lower surface
grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, late; stamens upright.

Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters small, tapering, usually
single-shouldered, very compact. Berries small, round, pale red with
thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tender, without pigment;
flesh pale green, very juicy, tender, melting, fine-grained, vinous, sweet ;
very good to best. Seeds free, small, broad, with enlarged neck, brown.

PRENTISS
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Prentiss is a green grape of high quality, once well known
and generally recommended, but now going out of cultivation
because the vine is tender to cold, lacks in vigor, is unpro-
ductive, uncertain in bearing and is subject to rot and mildew.
There are vineyards in which it does very well and in such it
is a remarkably attractive green grape, especially in form of
cluster and in color of berry, in these respects resembling the
one-time favorite, Rebecca, although not so high in quality
as that variety. Its season is given as both before and after
Concord. Prentiss always must remain a variety for the
amateur and for special localities. It originated with J. W.
Prentiss, Pulteney, New York, about 1870 from seed of Isabella.

Vine weak. Canes thick, light to dark brown; tendrils continuous,
bifid. Leaves small, thick; upper surface light green, rugose in the

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 429

older leaves; lower surface pale green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile,
mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit variable in season, about with Concord, keeps well. Cluster
medium in size, tapering, sometimes with a single shoulder, compact.
Berries medium in size, oval, light green with a yellow tinge, thin
bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, without pigment; flesh pale
green, juicy, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, numerous, notched, short,
sharp-pointed, dark brown.

PURPLE CORNICHON
(Vinifera)

Black Cornichon

By virtue of attractive appearance and excellent shipping
qualities of the fruit, this variety takes high place among the
commercial grapes of California. Late ripening is another
quality making it desirable, while its curious, long, curved
berries add novelty to its attractions. The fruit does not take
high rank in quality. The description has been compiled.

Vine very vigorous, healthy and productive; wood light brown
striped with darker brown, short-jointed. Leaves large, longer than
wide, deeply five-lobed; dark green above, lighter and very hairy
below; coarsely toothed; with short, thick petiole. Bunches very
large, loose or sometimes scraggly, borne on long peduncles; berries
large, long, more or less curved, dark purple, spotted, thick-skinned,
borne on long pedicels; flesh firm, crisp, sweet but not rich in flavor ;
quality good but not high. Season late, keeps and ships well.

REBECCA
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

In the middle of the last century, when grape-growing was in
the hands of the connoisseurs, Rebecca was one of the sterling
green varieties. It is wholly unsuited for commercial vine-
yards and for years has been disappearing gradually from
cultivation. The fruit is exceptionally fine, consisting of well-
formed bunches and berries, the latter handsome yellowish-

430 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

white and semi-transparent. In quality, the grapes are of the
best, with a rich, sweet flavor and pleasing aroma. But the
vine characters condemn Rebecca for any but the amateur.
The vines lack in hardiness and vigor, are susceptible to mildew
and other fungi and are productive only under the best con-
ditions. The original vine was an accidental seedling found
in the garden of E. M. Peake, Hudson, New York, and bore its
first fruit in 1852.

Vine weak, sometimes vigorous, doubtfully hardy. Canes long,
numerous, slender, dull brown, deepening in color at the nodes; tendrils
continuous or intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size;
upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-green,
pubescent. Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright.

Fruit late mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters small, short,
cylindrical, rarely with a small, single shoulder, compact. Berries
of medium size, oval, green with yellow tinge verging on amber, thin
gray bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, without pigment; flesh pale
green, very juicy, tender, melting, vinous, a little foxy, sweet; good
to very good. Seeds free, short, narrow, blunt, brown.

Rep EAGLE
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Red Eagle is a pure-bred seedling of Black Eagle which: it
resembles in all characters except color of fruit. Vine and
fruit exhibit the characters found in Rogers’ hybrids. It takes
high rank as a grape of quality and can be recommended for
the garden. The variety originated with 'T. V. Munson, Deni-
son, Texas, and was sent out in 1888.

Vine medium in vigor and hardiness, productive. Canes few, slen-
der, dark brown with heavy bloom; nodes prominent, flattened ;
tendrils continuous or intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves thick; upper
surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-green, pubes-
cent; lobes three to five with terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus deep,
narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus wide; lateral
sinus deep, wide; teeth deep, wide. Flowers semi-fertile, late;
stamens upright.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 431

Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, taper-
ing, single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, loose with many
abortive berries; pedicel very long, slender; brush green with brown
tinge. Berries variable in size, round, light to very dark red with
heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tender, adherent with some
red pigment; flesh green, transparent, juicy, very tender, melting,
slightly foxy, tart; very good. Seeds free, one to five, large, long,
blunt, light brown.

REGAL
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

Regal is an offspring of Lindley, which it greatly resembles.
The fruit is attractive in appearance and high in quality. A
seemingly insignificant fault might make Regal undesirable in
a commercial vineyard; the clusters are borne so close to the
wood that it is difficult to harvest the fruit and avoid injury to
the berries next to the wood. The variety is worthy of ex-
tensive culture in vineyards and gardens. Regal originated

with W. A. Woodward, Rockford, Illinois, in 1879.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, very productive. Canes interme-
diate in length and size, numerous, dark reddish-brown. Tendrils
intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface green,
glossy and rugose; lower surface pale green with a bronze tinge,
strongly pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, mid-season ; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, cylindrical,
usually with a short single shoulder, sometimes double-shouldered, very
compact. Berries large, round, purplish-red with faint bloom, per-
sistent. Skin thin, tough, without pigment. Flesh pale green, very
juicy, fine-grained, tender, musky; good. Seeds free, numerous, long,
narrow, notched, blunt with a short neck, brown.

REQUA
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

This is one of Rogers’ hybrids which equals other grapes of
its color and season. The grapes are attractive in cluster and
berry and are of very good quality but are subject to rot and

432 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

ripen too late for northern regions. The variety was named
Requa in 1869, it having been previously known as No. 28.

Vine vigorous, hardy except in severe winters, medium in produc-
tiveness. Canes long, thick; tendrils continuous or intermittent,
trifid or bifid. Leaves medium in size, dark green, often thick and
rugose; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers semi-fertile,
late; stamens reflexed.

Fruit late, keeps long. Clusters large, cylindrical, often with
a long, single shoulder, compact. Berries large, oval, dark, dull red
covered with thin bloom, strongly adherent; skin thin, tough, ad-
herent; flesh pale green, tender, stringy, vinous, foxy, sweet; good
to very good. Seeds adherent, medium in size and length, broad, blunt.

ROCHESTER
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

The fruit of Rochester is a large-clustered red grape, handsome
and very good in quality. The vine is a strong grower, pro-
ductive and free from diseases. The variety is difficult to
propagate and, therefore, not in favor with nurserymen. The
grapes are sweet, rich and vinous but should be used as soon as
ripe, as they do not keep well and the berries quickly shatter
from the bunch. As an attractive early red grape, Rochester
is worth a place in the garden and in favored locations for a
special market. Ellwanger and Barry, Rochester, New York,
in 1867 grew Rochester from mixed seed of Delaware, Diana,
Concord and Rebecca.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, dark reddish-brown ;
nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, glossy,
smooth; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent; lobes one to three
with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep; basal sinus absent; lateral
sinus shallow; teeth shallow. Flowers fertile, mid-season; stamens
upright.

Fruit does not keep well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, usually
single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender with few warts;
brush slender, yellowish-brown, Berries medium, oval, purplish-red,

Pirate XXXII. — Wyoming (2).

ee ee

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 433

dull with thin, lilac bloom, drop from the pedicel, soft; skin thick,
tough, inclined to crack, free, without pigment, astringent; flesh pale
green, transparent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous, sweet; good
to very good. Seeds free, one to three, large, short, broad, dark brown.

ROMMEL
(Labrusea, Vulpina, Vinifera)

Rommel is rarely cultivated in the North, because the vines
lack in robustness, hardiness and productiveness and are sus-
ceptible to the leaf-hopper; and the grapes do not attain high
quality and crack as they ripen. The bunch and berry are
attractive in form, size and color. At its best, Rommel is a
good table-grape and makes a fine white wine. It is worth
growing in the South. T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, origi-
nated Rommel in 1885, from seed of Elvira pollinated by Tri-
umph, and introduced it in 1889.

Vine vigorous in the South. Canes long, numerous, thick, reddish-
brown, surface roughened ; nodes enlarged, often flattened ; internodes
short; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in
size, round, thick; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower sur-
face pale green, free from pubescence but slightly hairy; leaf not
lobed, terminus acute to acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often
closed and overlapping; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow when
present; teeth deep. Flowers semi-fertile, late; stamens upright.

Fruit mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters medium to short,
broad, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact ; pedicel slender, smooth ;
brush short, pale green. Berries large, roundish, light green with a
yellow tinge, glossy, persistent, firm; skin thin, cracks badly, tender,
adherent, without pigment or astringency; flesh greenish, translucent,
juicy, tender, melting, stringy, sweet; fair to good. Seeds free, one to
four, broad, sharp-pointed, plump, brown.

Rosak1I
(Vinifera)

Rosaki is a table- and raisin-grape of southeastern Europe and
Asia Minor. According to some of the California nursery
2F

434 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

companies, it is grown in that state under the name Dattier de
Beyrouth, although it would seem from French descriptions
that there is a separate, very late variety of the latter name.
Rosaki is similar to Malaga and there is a possibility that in
some of the warmer parts of the East, it may be grown commer-
clally as a substitute for the latter. The variety seems to be
little grown on the Pacific slope.

Vines vigorous, usually very productive. Leaves large, roundish,
rugose, usually five-lobed; terminal lobe acuminate; petiolar sinus
moderately deep to deep, medium broad; lower lateral sinus shallow,
broad, occasionally lacking; upper lateral sinus shallow to medium,
broad; margins broadly and bluntly dentate. Fruit ripens the third
week in October, keeping qualities excellent; clusters large, loose,
tapering, shouldered; berries large to very large, oval to long-oval,
pale yellow-green; flesh translucent, tender, meaty, vinous, sprightly ;
quality good to very good.

Rose oF PERU
(Vinifera)

Rose of Peru is a favorite table-grape in California, confused
with and possibly the same as Black Prince. Its chief com-
mendable characters are handsome appearance and high quality
of fruit and very productive vines. It is not adapted for
shipping and does not enter plentifully into commerce. Its
season is so late that the variety is hardly worth trying
in the East, and yet it has matured in favorable seasons
at Geneva, New York. The following description is com-
piled :

Vine vigorous, healthy, productive; wood short-jointed, dark
brown. Leaves of medium size; deep green above, lighter green
and tomentose below. Bunches very large, shouldered, very loose,
often seraggly; berry large, round, black with firm, crackling flesh ;
skin rather thin and tender; flavor sweet and rich; quality very good
to best. Season late, keeping rather well but not shipping well:

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 435

SALEM

(Labrusea, Vinifera)
Rogers’ No. 22, Rogers’ No. 53
Salem (Plate X XVII) is the one of Rogers’ hybrids of which

the originator is said to have thought most, and to which he
gave the name of his place of residence. The two chief faults,
unproductiveness and susceptibility to mildew, are not found
in all localities, and in these districts, near good markets, Salem
ought to rank high as a commercial fruit. The vine is hardy,
vigorous and productive and bears handsome fruit of high
quality. This variety was christened Salem by Rogers in
1867, two years earlier than his other hybrids were named.

Vine vigorous, hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes long,
dark brown; nodes enlarged ; tendrils continuous or intermittent, long,
bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size; upper surface dark green,
dull; lower surface pale green with slight bronze tinge, pubescent ;
lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow,
often overlapping; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow,
notched. Flowers sterile, mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, short, broad,
tapering, heavily shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick with small
warts, enlarged at point of attachment to berry; brush short, pale
green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull, persistent, soft; skin
thick, adherent, without pigment, astringent; flesh translucent, juicy,
tender, stringy, fine-grained, vinous, sprightly; good to very good.
Seeds one to six, large, long and broad, blunt, brown.

SCUPPERNONG
(Rotundifolia)
American Muscadine, Bull, Bullace, Bullet, Fox Grape, Green

Scuppernong, Green Muscadine, Hickman, Muscadine, Roanoke

Scuppernong is preéminently the grape of the South, the
chief representative of the great species, V. rotundifolia, which

436 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

runs riot in natural luxuriance from Delaware and Maryland to
the Gulf and westward from the Atlantic to Arkansas and Texas.
Scuppernong vines are found on arbors, in gardens, or half wild,
on trees and fences on nearly every farm in the South Atlantic
states. As a rule, these vines receive little cultivation, are
unpruned and are given no care of any kind; but even under
neglect they produce large crops. The vines are almost immune
to mildew, rot, phylloxera, or other fungal or insect pests; they
give not only an abundance of fruit but on arbors and trellises
are much prized for their shade and beauty. The fruit, to a
palate accustomed to other grapes, is not very acceptable,
having a musky flavor and a somewhat repugnant odor, which,
however, with familiarity becomes quite agreeable. The pulp
is sweet and juicy but is lacking in sprightliness. The grapes
are not suitable for the market since the berries drop from the
bunch in ripening and become more or less smeared with juice
so that their appearance is not appetizing.

Vine vigorous, not hardy in the North, very productive. Canes
long, numerous, slender, ash-gray to grayish-brown; surface smooth,
thickly covered with small, light brown dots; tendrils intermittent,
simple. Leaves small, thin; upper surface light green, smooth; lower
surface very pale green, pubescent along the ribs; veins inconspicuous.
Flowers very late; stamens reflexed.

Fruit late, ripens unevenly, berries drop as they mature. Clusters
small, round, unshouldered, loose. Berries few in a cluster, large,
round, dull green, often with brown tinge, firm; skin thiek, tough
with many small russet dots; flesh pale green, juicy, tender, soft,
fine-grained, foxy, sweet to agreeably tart; fair to good. Seeds ad-
herent, large, short, broad, unnotched, blunt, plump, surface smooth,
brown.

SECRETARY
(Vinifera, Vulpina, Labrusca)

Injured by mildew and rot which attack leaves, fruit and
young wood, the vines of Secretary are able to produce good
grapes only in exceptional seasons and in favored localities.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 437

The fruit characters of Secretary, however, give the grapes
exceptionally high quality, the berries being meaty yet juicy,
fine-grained and tender, with a sweet, spicy, vinous flavor.
The bunches are large, well-formed, with medium-sized, pur-
plish-black berries covered with thick bloom, making a very
handsome cluster. While the vine and foliage somewhat
resemble those of Clinton, one of its parents, the variety is not
_ nearly as hardy, vigorous nor productive. Moreover, in any
but favored localities in the North, its maturity is somewhat
uncertain. These defects keep Secretary from becoming of
commercial importance and make it of value only to the
amateur. Secretary is one of the first productions of J. H.
Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, the original vine coming from
seed of Clinton fertilized by Muscat Hamburg, planted in 1867.

Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, variable in productiveness.
Canes numerous, light brown, conspicuously darker at nodes, surface
ecvered with thin, blue bloom; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves
small to medium, thin; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower
surface pale green, glabrous. Flowers semi-fertile, early; stamens
upright.

Fruit ripens after Concord, keeps and ships well. Clusters large,
long, cylindrical with a large, single shoulder, often loose and with many
abortive fruits. Berries large, round, flattened at attachment to
pedicel, dark purplish-black, glossy, persistent, firm; skin tough with
wine-colored pigment; flesh green, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous,
sweet; good. Seeds free, large, broad, notched, long, dark brown.

SENASQUA
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

The vine of Senasqua lacks in vigor, hardiness, productiveness
and health. The grapes are of good quality, and when well
grown are up to the average fruits of the Labrusca-Vinifera
hybrids. Unfortunately the berries have a tendency to crack
which is aggravated by the bunches being so compact as to
crowd the berries. Senasqua is one of the latest grapes to open
its buds and is, therefore, seldom injured by late frosts. It

438 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

can be recommended only for the garden for the sake of variety.
Stephen W. Underhill of Crown Point, New York, originated
Senasqua from seed of Concord pollinated by Black Prince.

Vine weak and tender, often unproductive. Canes short, few, red-
dish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent, long,
trifid or bifid. Leaves light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface
whitish-green, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute;
petiolar sinus narrow; basal and lateral sinuses shallow and narrow
when present. Flowers fertile, late; stamens upright.

Fruit a little later than Concord, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, ~
irregularly tapering, usually with a small, single shoulder, very com-
pact; pedicel thick, smooth, enlarged at point of attachment; brush
short, reddish. Berries large, round, reddish-black, persistent, firm ;
skin thick, tender, cracks, adherent, contains some wine-colored pig-
ment; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, meaty, vinous, spicy ;
good. Seeds free, one to five, long, narrow, one-sided, light brown.

SULTANA
(Vinifera)

This variety was formerly the standard seedless grape in
California for home use and raisins, but it is now outstripped by
Sultanina. Sultana is possibly better flavored than Sultanina
but the vines are hardly as vigorous or productive and the
berries often have seeds. The description is compiled.

Vines vigorous, upright, productive. Leaves large, five-lobed,
with large sinuses, light in color, coarsely toothed. Bunches large,
long, cylindrical, heavily shouldered, sometimes not well filled,

often loose and seraggly; berries small, round, firm and crisp, golden-
yellow, sweet with considerable piquancy ; quality good.

SULTANINA
(Vinifera)
Thompson’s Seedless

Sultanina is one of the standard seedless grapes of the Pacific
slope, grown both to eat out of hand and for raisins. Probably

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 439

it can be grown in home plantations in favored parts of eastern
America where the season is long and warm. The following
description is compiled from Californian viticulturists :

Vine very vigorous, very productive; trunk large with very long
eanes. Leaves glabrous on both sides, dark yellow-green above,
light below; generally three-lobed, with shallow sinuses; teeth short
and obtuse. Bunch large, conico-cylindrical, well filled, with her-

baceous peduncles; berries oval, beautiful golden-yellow color;
skin moderately thick; flesh of rather neutral flavor; very good.

TAYLOR
(Vulpina, Labrusea)

Bullitt

While it is from the species to which Taylor belongs that we
must look for our hardiest vines, nevertheless this grape and its
offspring, although not tender to cold, do best in southern
regions, as they require a long warm summer to mature prop-
erly. The quality of the fruit of Taylor is fair to good, the
flavor being sweet, pure, delicate and spicy and the flesh tender
and juicy; but the bunches are small and the flowers are in-
fertile so that the berries do not set well, making very imperfect
and unsightly clusters. The skin is such, also, that it cracks
badly, a defect seemingly transmitted to many of the seedlings of
the variety. The vine is strong, healthy, hardy but not very
productive. The original vine of Taylor was a wild seedling
found in the early part of the last century on the Cumberland
Mountains near the Kentucky-Tennessee line by a Mr. Cobb.

Vine vigorous to rank, healthy, hardy, variable in productiveness.
Leaves small, attractive in color, smooth. Flowers bloom early;
stamens reflexed.

Fruit ripens about two weeks before Isabella. Clusters small
to medium, shouldered, loose or moderately compact. Berries small
to medium, roundish, pale greenish-white, sometimes tinged with
amber; skin very thin; pulp sweet, spicy; fair to good in quality.

440 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

TRIUMPH
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

When quality, color, shape and size of bunch and berry are
considered, Triumph (Plate XXVIII) is one of the finest
dessert grapes of America. At its best, it is a magnificent bunch
of golden grapes of highest quality, esteemed even in southern
Europe where it must compete with the best of the Viniferas.
In America, however, its commercial importance is curtailed by
the fact that the fruit requires a long season for proper develop-
ment. ‘Triumph has, in general, the vine characters of the
Labrusca parent, Concord, especially its habit of growth, vigor,
productiveness and foliage characters, falling short in hardiness,
resistance to fungal diseases and earliness of fruit, the fruit
maturing with or a little later than Catawba. While the vine
characters of Triumph are those of Labrusca, there is scarcely a
suggestion of the coarseness, or of the foxy odor and taste of
Labrusca, and the objectionable seeds, pulp and skin of the
native grape give way. to the far less objectionable structures of
Vinifera. The flesh is tender and melting and the flavor rich,
sweet, vinous, pure and delicate. The skins of the berries under
unfavorable conditions crack badly, the variety, therefore,
neither shipping nor keeping well. ‘Triumph was grown soon
after the Civil War by George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio,
from seed of Concord fertilized by Chassalas Musque.

Vine vigorous. Canes long, dark brown with much bloom; nodes
enlarged; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid, sometimes bifid. Leaves
large; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-
white, pubescent ; leaf usually not lobed with terminus obtuse; petiolar
sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus absent ;
lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present; teeth deep, wide.
Flowers self-fertile, late; stamens upright.

Fruit very late. Clusters very large, long, broad, cylindrical,
sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, smooth; brush
short, yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, oval, golden yellow,
glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, inclined to crack,

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 441

adherent, without pigment, slightly astringent; flesh light green,
translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous; good to very good.
Seeds free, one to five, small, brown.

ULSTER
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

The vines of Ulster set too much fruit in spite of efforts to
control the crop by pruning; two undesirable results follow,
the bunches are small and the vines, lacking vigor at best, fail
to recover from the overfruitfulness. These defects keep the
variety from becoming of importance commercially or even a
favorite as a garden grape. The quality of the fruit is very
good, being much like that of Catawba, and under favorable
conditions it is an attractive green with a red tinge. The
fruit keeps well when the variety is grown under conditions
suited to it. Ulster originated with A. J. Caywood, Marlboro,
New York, and was introduced by him about 1885. Its
parents are said to be Catawba pollinated by a wild Aésti-
valis. Both vine and fruit show traces of Labrusca and
Vinifera, but the A#stivalis characters, if present, are not
apparent.

Vine hardy, productive, overbears. Canes short, slender, dark
brown, surface roughened and covered with faint pubescence; nodes
enlarged and flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid,
dehisce early. Leaves small, thick; upper surface light green, glossy,
smooth; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed
with terminus acute; petiolar sinus medium to wide; basal sinus
absent; lateral sinus a notch when present; teeth shallow, wide.
Flowers self-fertile, early ; stamens upright.

Fruit late mid-season. Clusters long, cylindrical, often single-~
shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, with numerous warts ; brush
short, yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, round, dark dull red
with thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent ;
flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, faintly aro-
matic, slightly foxy; good to very good. Seeds free, one to six,
medium in size, plump, brown.

442 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

VERDAL
(Vinifera)
Aspiran Blanc

Verdal is one of the standard late grapes of the Pacific slope,
ripening among the last. The grapes are seen seldom in distant
markets and the quality is not quite good enough to make it
a very great favorite for home plantations. Vigor and hardiness
of vines commend it as do the large and handsome fruits, and
these qualities, with late ripening, will probably long keep it on
grape lists in the far West. The description is compiled.

Vines vigorous, hardy, healthy and productive; canes rather
slender, half ereet. Leaves of medium size, glabrous on both surfaces,
except below near the axis of the main nerve; sinuses well marked and
generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance of having five holes;
teeth long, unequal, acuminate. Bunches large to very large, irregu-
lar, long-coniecal, usually compact; shoulders small or lacking; berries
large or very large, yellowish-green; skin thick but tender; flesh erisp,
firm; flavor agreeable but not rich; quality good. Season very late,
keeping and shipping well.

VERGENNES
(Labrusea)

The most valuable attribute of Vergennes (Plate XXIX) is
certainty in bearing. The vine seldom fails to bear although it
often overbears, causing variability in size of fruits and time of
ripening. With a moderate crop, the grapes ripen with Con-
eord, but with a heavy load from one to two weeks later.
Vergennes is somewhat unpopular with vinevardists because
of the sprawling habit of the vines which makes them untract-
able for vineyard operations; this fault is obviated by grafting
on other vines. The grapes are attractive, the quality is good,
flavor agreeable, the flesh tender, and seeds and skin are not
objectionable. Vergennes is the standard late-keeping grape

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 443

for northern regions, being very common in the markets as
late as January. The original vine was a chance seedling in
the garden of William E. Greene, Vergennes, Vermont, in 1874.

Vine variable in vigor, doubtfully hardy, productive, healthy.
Canes long, dark brown; nodes enlarged, strongly flattened; tendrils
continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thin; upper surface
light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface pale green, very pubescent ;
leaf usually not lobed with terminus broadly acute ; petiolar sinus wide ;
teeth shallow. Flowers semi-sterile, mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters of medium size, broad,
cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, loose; pedicel with numerous
small warts; brush slender, short, pale green. Berries large, oval,
light and dark red with thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough,
adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, juicy, fine-grained, somewhat
stringy, tender, vinous; good to very good. Seeds free, one to five,
blunt, brown.

WALTER
(Vinifera, Labrusea, Bourquiniana)

Were it not almost impossible to grow healthy vines of Walter,
the variety would rank high among American grapes. But
stuntedsby fungi which attack leaves, young wood and fruit, it
is possible only in exceptionally favorable seasons satisfactorily
to produce crops of this variety. Besides susceptibility to
diseases, the vines are fastidious to soils, everywhere variable in
growth and are injured in cold winters. As if to atone for the
faults of the vine, the fruit of Walter is almost perfect, lacking
only in size of bunch and berry. The bunch and berry resemble
those of Delaware, but the fruit is not as high in quality as that
of its parents. Walter is adapted to conditions under which
Delaware thrives. A. J. Caywood, Modena, New York, grew
this variety about 1850 from seed of Delaware pollinated by
Diana.

Vine vigorous. Canes medium in length and size, dark reddish-
brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermit-
tent, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth ;

444 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes one to three
with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus lacking; lat-
eral sinus a notch if present. Flowers mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters medium in size, broad,
cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender,
with small, scattering warts; brush short, slender, green with brown
tinge. Berries small, ovate, red, glossy with thin bloom, persistent,
firm; skin very tough, adheres slightly, unpigmented; flesh pale
green, translucent, juicy, tough, somewhat foxy, vinous, aromatic;
good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, sharp-pointed,
light brown.

WILDER
(Labrusea, Vinifera)

The fruit of Wilder is surpassed in quality and appearance
by other of Rogers’ hybrids, but the vine is the most reliable of
any of these hybrid sorts, being vigorous, hardy, productive,
and, although somewhat susceptible to mildew, as healthy as
any. Wilder is not as well known in the markets as it should
be, and now that fungal diseases can be controlled by spraying
should be more commonly planted in commercial vineyards,
especially for local markets. Wilder is one of the fgrty-five
Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids raised by E. S. Rogers, Salem, Mas-
sachusetts, having been described first in 1858.

Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, susceptible to mildew. Canes
long, numerous, reddish-brown, darker at the nodes; internodes long ;
tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, irregularly round ;
upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green,
pubescent; usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus
deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus lacking;
lateral sinus shallow, narrow, or a mere notch when present. Flowers
self-sterile, mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters variable
in size, short, broad, tapering, heavily single-shouldered, loose ; pedicel
long, thick with numerous warts; brush thick, green with tinge of red.
Berries large, oval, purplish-black with heavy bloom, persistent, firm ;
skin thick, adherent to pulp, with bright red pigment, astringent ;
flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender; good. Seeds adherent, one to
five, long, light brown.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 445

WINCHELL

(Labrusea, Vinifera, Austivalis)
Green Mountain

The vines of Winchell (Plate XXX) are vigorous, hardy,
healthy, productive, and the fruit is early, of high quality and
ships well—altogether a most admirable early grape. There
are some minor faults which become drawbacks in the culture of
Winchell. The berries, and under some conditions the bunches,
are small and the bunch is loose with a large shoulder. Some-
times this looseness becomes so pronounced as to give a strag-
eling, poorly-formed cluster ; and the shoulder, when as large as
the cluster itself, which often happens, makes the cluster un-
sightly. The grapes shell when fully ripe, a serious fault.
Again, while the crop usually ripens evenly, there are seasons
when two pickings are needed because of the unevenness in
ripening. Lastly, the skin is thin and there is danger in un-
favorable seasons of the berries cracking, although this is seldom
a serious fault. These defects do not offset the several good
characters of Winchell which make it the standard early
green grape, deserving to rank with the best early grapes of
any color. The original vine was raised by James Milton
Clough, Stamford, Vermont, about 1850 from seed of an un-
known purple grape.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, very productive. Canes long, nu-
merous, slender, dark brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flat-
tened; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid. Leaves
large; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface dull
green, tinged with bronze, faintly pubescent; lobes three to five with
terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep; basal sinus shallow; teeth
shallow, wide. Flowers fertile, mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters long, slender, cylindri-
eal, often with a long shoulder, compact; pedicel short, slender with
few inconspicuous warts; brush greenish-white. Berries small,
round, light green, persistent, soft; skin marked with small, reddish-

446 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

brown spots, thin, tender, slightly astringent; flesh green, translucent,
juicy, tender, fine-grained, sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, one
to four, small, plump, wide and long, blunt, brown.

WoopDRUFF
(Labrusea, Vinifera ?)

Woodruff is a handsome, showy, brick-red grape with large
clusters and berries, but its taste belies its looks, for the flesh
is coarse and the flavor poor. The variety would not be worth
attention were it not for its excellent vine characters; the
vines are hardy, productive and healthy. The grapes ripen a
little before Concord and come on the market at a favorable
time, especially for a red grape. Woodruff originated from C.
H. Woodruff, Ann Arbor, Michigan, as a chance seedling which
came up in 1874 and fruited first in 1877.

Vine very vigorous, hardy. Canes dark brown; nodes enlarged,
flattened; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves round; upper
surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface greenish-white, pubes-
cent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus wide ;
basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present;
teeth shallow. Flowers semi-fertile, early; stamens upright.

Fruit ripening before Concord. Clusters broad, widely tapering,
usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick, smooth;
brush long, pale green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull, firm;
skin thin, tender, adherent, slightly astringent; flesh pale green, trans-
lucent, juicy, tough, coarse, very foxy; fair in quality. Seeds ad-
herent, one to five, broad, short, plump, blunt, brown,

WorDEN
(Labrusea)

Of the many offspring of Concord, Worden (Plate XXXI) is
best known and most meritorious. The grapes differ chiefly
from those of Concord in having larger berries and bunches, in
having better quality and in being a week to ten days earlier.

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 447

The vine is equally hardy, healthy, vigorous and productive but
is more fastidious in its adaptations to soil, although now and
then it does even better. The chief fault of the variety is that
the fruit cracks badly, often preventing the profitable marketing
of acrop. Besides this tenderness of skin, the fruit-pulp of
Worden is softer than that of Concord, there is more juice, and
the keeping qualities are not as good, so that the grapes hardly
ship as well as those of the more commonly grown grape.
Worden is very popular in northern grape regions both for com-
mercial plantations and the garden. It is a more desirable
inhabitant of the garden, because of higher quality of fruit than
Concord, and under conditions well suited to it is better as a
commercial variety, as the fruit is handsomer as well as of
better quality. In the markets the fruit ought to sell for a
higher price than Concord if desired for immediate consumption,
and if it can be harvested promptly, as it does not hang well on
the vines. Its earlier season is against it for a commercial
variety and, with the defects mentioned, will prevent its taking
the place of Concord to a great degree. Worden was originated
by Schuyler Worden, Minetto, Oswego County, New York,
from seed of Concord planted about 1863.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes large, thick,
dark brown with reddish tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils
continuous, slender, bifid, sometimes trifid. Young leaves tinged
on the under side and along the margins of upper side with rose-
earmine. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy,
smooth; lower surface light bronze, pubescent; leaf usually not
lobed; petiolar sinus wide, often urnshaped; teeth shallow. Flowers
fertile, mid-season; stamens upright.

Fruit early. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, usually single-
shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with a few small warts; brush
long, light green. Berries large, round, dark purplish-black, glossy
with heavy bloom, firm; skin tender, cracks badly, adheres slightly,
contains dark red pigment, astringent. Flesh green, translucent,
juicy, fine-grained, tough, foxy, sweet, mild; good to very good. Seeds
adherent, one to five, large, broad, short, blunt, brown.

448 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING

WYOMING

(Labrusea)
Hopkins Early Red, Wilmington Red, Wyoming Red

Such value as Wyoming (Plate XXXII) possesses lies in the
hardiness, productiveness and healthiness of the vine. The ap-
pearance of the fruit is very good, the bunches are well formed
and composed of rich amber-colored berries of medium size.
The quality, however, is poor, being that of the wild Labrusca
in foxiness of flavor and in flesh characters. It is not nearly as
valuable as some other of the red Labruscas hitherto described
and can hardly be recommended either for the garden or the
vineyard. Wyoming was introduced by S. J. Parker of Ithaca,
New York, who states that it came from Pennsylvania in 1861.

Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous,
slender, dark reddish-brown covered with blue bloom; nodes enlarged,
frequently flattened; tendrils continuous, short, bifid. Leaves of
average size and thickness; upper surface light green, dull, smooth;
lower surface dull green with tinge of bronze, pubescent; lobes one to
three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus
usually wanting; lateral sinus shallow and wide when present; teeth
shallow. Flowers sterile, mid-season; stamens reflexed.

Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters slender, cylindrical, compact ;
pedicel short, slender with small warts; brush slender, pale green
with brown tinge. Berries medium, round, rich amber red with thin
bloom, persistent, firm; skin tender, adherent, astringent; flesh pale
green, translucent, juicy, tough, solid, strongly foxy, vinous; poor in
quality. Seeds adherent, one to three, slightly notched, ight brown.

INDEX

(Names of species, and synonyms of varietal names, are in italics.)

Actoni, 330.

Adaptations of stocks, 66.
Adlum, John, mentioned, 58.
Admirable, 373.

Adoxus obscurus, 216.
Aestivalis grapes, 11.
Affinity of stock and cion, 67.
Agawam, 331.

Air currents, 27.

Alabama, 401.

Alexander, 5, 6.

Alexander, 391.

Alicante, for forcing, 198.
Alleys, 75.

Almeria, 331.

Amadas & Barlowe, mentioned, 5.

America, 332.

American Muscadine, 435.

Aminia, 333.

Anaheim disease, 226.

Anthony, on grafting, 47.

Anthracnose, control of, 223.
description of, 223.

Aramon X Rupestris, 2, 64.

Arbors, training vines on, 142.

Arkansas, 345, 357.

Arnold’s Hybrid, 422.

Aspiran Blanc, 442.

August Giant, 333.

Bacchus, 324.
Bagging grapes, 293.
cost of, 294.
Bakator, 335.
Barbarossa, for forcing, 197.
Bark, structure of, 303.
Barry, 335.
Bartram, on the Alexander, 7.

2G

Beach Grape, 313.

Beacon, 336.

Beaconsfield, 346.

Beak defined, 308.

Bench grafting, 50.
essentials of, 50. '
operation of, 51.
preparing cuttings for, 51.

Berckmans, 337.

Berry, characters of, 308.

Bioletti, on callusing beds, 56.
on grafting, 48, 52.
on pruning in California, 151.
on resistant stocks, 63.
quoted, 18.

Bird Grape, 312.

Bitter-rot, 225.

Black Cape, 391.

Black Cornichon, 429.

Black Eagle, 338.

Black El Paso, 401.

Black German, 406.

Black Hamburg, for forcing, 197.

Black July, 401.

Black Malvoise, 339.

Black Morocco, 339.

Black Muscat, 415.

Black rot, control of, 320.
description of, 319.

Black Spanish, 401.

Bloom defined, 301.

Blooming dates of grapes, 288.

Blooming, time of, 305.

Blue French, 401.

Blue Grape, 318, 322.

Borders in graperies, making, 195.
care of, 195,

Bottsi, 382.

449

450

Bowed canes, 174.

Branches defined, 301.

Brighton, 340.

Brilliant, 341.

Brown, 342.

Brown French, 382.

Brush defined, 307.

Buckland Sweetwater, for forcing, 197.

Buds, characters of, 304.
defined, 304.

Bull, 435.

Bull, Ephraim W., mentioned, 9.

Bull Grape, 310.

Bullace, 435.

Bullace Grape, 310.

Bullet, 435.

Bullet Grape, 310.

Bullitt, 439.

Bunch Grape, 318.

Burgundy, 401.

Bush Grape, 312.

Bushy Grape, 310.

By-products of the grape, 269.

Callusing bed, 56.
Campbell Early, 342.
Canada, 348.
Canadian Hamburg, 422.
Canadian Hybrid, 422.
Canandaigua, 344.
Canandaigua Lake grape region, 21.
Cane-renewal, 116.
Canes, characters of, 303.
defined, 301.
disposition of, in pruning, 124.
Care of young vines, 87.
Carman, 344.
Catawba, 345.
history of, 8.
Catawba Tokay, 345.
Catch crops, 89, 90.
Cato, on grafting, 45.
quoted, 76.
Cayuga Lake grape region, 21.
Central Lake grape region, 20.
Chalaza defined, 308.
Champagne, 253.
Champagne industry, 21.
Champion, 346.
Chasselas Golden, 347.
Chasselas Doré, 347.

IN DEX

Chasselas Rose, 348.
Chautauqua, 348.
Chautauqua grape-belt, 18.
Chautauqua training, 125.
Cherokee, 345.
Chicken Grape, 317, 318.
Cigar Box Grape, 401.
Clevener, 349.
Climate and grape-growing, 23.
Clinton, 15, 350.
Colerain, 351.
Columbian Imperial, 351.
Columbian Jumbo, 351.
Commercial factors, 30.
Concord, 352.

history of, 9.
Constantia, 391.
Coéperative fertilizer

102.

Cordon pruning, 153.
Cordons, horizontal, 176.

vertical, 175.
Cottage, 354.
Coulure, 226.
Cover-crops, 89, 91.
Craponius inequalis, 217.
Cream of tartar, 270.
Cross-pollination, 284.
Croton, 355.
Crown-gall, 225.
Cryptosporella viticola, 224.
Cunningham, 356.
Cuttings, dormant, 38.

hard-wood, 38.

herbaceous, 42.

planting, 39.

single-eye, 40.

time to make, 38.
Cutting wood, selecting, 38.
Cut-worms on grapes, 315.
Cynthiana, 357.

experiments,

Dead-arm disease, control of, 324.
description of, 324.

Delaware, 11, 358.

Depth to plant, 86.

Desmia funeralis, 216.

Determinants of grape regions, 22.

Devereaux, 401.

Diamond, 359.

Diana, 360.

INDEX

Diaphragm, characters of, 303.
defined, 301:

Digging holes, 83.

Direct producers, 71.

Direction of rows, 74.

Distances in planting, 75.

Dodrelabi, 379.

Dorchester, 391.

Double-headed vines, 174.

Double Kniffin, 135

Downing, 361.

Downy mildew, control of, 222,
description of, 220.

Dracut Amber, 362.

Drainage for grapes, 28, 77.

Duck-shot Grape, 318.

Dunn, 382.

Dutchess, 362.

Dynamite in digging holes, 84.

Early Champion, 346.
Early Daisy, 363.
Early Ohio, 364.
Early Victor, 364.
Eaton, 365.
Eclipse, 366.
Eden, 367.
Egg Harbor grape region,
Eldorado, 368.
Elvira, 369.
Emasculating grape-flowers, 279.
Emperor, 369.
Empire State, 370.
Etta, 371.
Eumelan, 371.
European grapes, in eastern America,
184.

grafting, 186.

varieties for eastern America, 191.
Everbearing Grape, 312.
Exposures for grapes, 34.

99

mee

Factors limiting yield, 105.
Faith, 372.

Fall Grape, 318.

Fancher, 345.
Fan-training, 131.

Feher Szagos, 373.

Fern, 373.

Fern Munson, 373. °
Fertilizers, applying; 106.

451.

Fertiizers, — Continued.
effects on leaves, 102.
effects on vines, 102:
effects on yield, 101, 102
experiment, 98.
necessity of, 97.
when needed, 106.

Fidia viticida, 206.

Fitting land, 78.

Flame Tokay, 374.

Flesh, characters of, 308.

Florida Grape, 312.

Flowers, 373.

Flower, characters of, 305.

Fontainebleau, 347.

Fox Grape, 317, 324.

Fox Grape, 435.

Fox grapes, cultivation of, 7.

Foxiness defined, 307.

French Grape, 358.

Frost Grape, 317.

Frosts and grape-growing, 25.

Fruit-bearing, manner of, 113.

Fruit, characters of, 307.
parts of, 307.

Fungi, determinants of grape regions,

29.
Fungous diseases of the grape, 218.

Gaertner, 375.
Geneva, 376.
Gibbs Grape, 391.
Gladwin, on Chautauqua training,
126.
on Keuka training, 129.
on vineyard returns, 248.
Glomerella rufomacullans, 225.
““Go-devil,’”’ 119.
Goethe, 377.
Gold Coin, 377.
Golden Chasselas, 424.
Grading grapes, 235.
Grading land, 78.
Grafting, 45.
at New York Station, 46.
bundling grafts after, 55.
essentials of, 45.
European grapes, 186.
rooted cuttings, 56.
Grafted vineyards, care of, 48.
Grafting wax, 54.

452

Grafts, care of, in nursery, 58.
number made per hour, 56.
Grape, botany of, 300.
by-products of, 269.
domestication of, 1.
habitats of, 4.
habits of growth of, 302.
mutations in the, 60.
number of species of, 1.
organs of, 300.
pests of, 204.
products, 250.
Grape-berry moth, control of, 215.
life history of, 213.
Grape-breeding, 273.
results of, 282.
Grape-curculio, 217.
Grape hawk-moth, 217.
Grape-hybrids, 274.

Grape-juice, commercial making, 258.

development of industry, 257.
making at home, 262.
regions in which made, 257.
Grape leaf-folder, 216.
Grape leaf-hopper, control of, 213.
life history of, 211.
Grape regions, determinants of, 16.
in California, 18.
Grape root-worm, Californian, 216.
eastern, control of, 206.
life history of, 206.
Grape seedlings, 37.
Graperies, 193.
borders in, 195.
care of vines in, 201.
construction of, 193.
essentials of, 194.
heating, 194.
varieties for, 196.
ventilating, 194, 202.
watering, 202.
Grapes, American, 4.
classified as to self-fertility, 296.
domestic use of, 271.
European, 2.
forcing, 194.
immunity to disease, 303.
immunity to insects, 303.
propagation of, 37.
under glass, 192.
Grape-vinegar, 269.

INDEX

Grape-vine root-borer, 217.
Grape-vine flea-beetle, control of,
209.
life history of, 208.
Greeley, Horace, mentioned, 9.
Green Early, 378.
Green Mountain, 445.
Green Scuppernong, 435.
Grein Golden, 378.
Grizzly Frontignan, for forcing, 197.
Gros Colman, 379.
for forcing, 197.
Guignardia Bidwellii, 220.

Haltica chalybea, 209.
Hardiness of grapes, 302.
Hartford, 380.
Hartzell, mentioned, 213.
Harvesting, in California, 243.
in the East, 230.
Museadine grapes, 240.
Hawkins, Captain John, mentioned,
5

Hayes, 381.

Heading-back canes, 116.

Headlight, 281.

Heart-leaved Vitis, 317.

Heating vineyards, 25.

Heeling-in vines, 82.

Helene, 391.

Herbaceous cuttings, 42.

Herbemont, 12, 382.

Herbert, 383.

Hercules, 384.

Hermann grape region, 22.

Hickman, 435.

Hicks, 285.

Hidalgo, 385.

Highland, 386.

Hilgarde, 373.

Hilum defined, 308.

Hopkins, 387.

Hopkins Early Red, 448.

Horizontal cordons, 176.

Hosford, 388.

Hudson horizontal training, 141.

Hudson River grape region, 21.

Humidity in grape-growing, 25.

Hunt, 382.

Husmann, on making grape-juice, 258.
on raisin-making, 264.

INDEX 453

’ Husmann & Dearing, on harvesting | Lady Washington, 400.

Museadine grapes, 240. Lake Erie grape region, 22.

on pruning Muscadine grapes, 143. Laterals defined, 301.
Hybrid Franc, 388. Lawton grape region, 22.
Hybridizing grapes, 278. Layering, 42.
Hybrids, secondary, 276. dormant wood, 43.

essentials of, 43.

Ideal, 389. green wood, 44.
Improved Kniffin, 135. to fill vacancies, 44.
Inflorescences, number of, in species, | Laying down vines, 295.

304. Laying out vineyards, 74.
Insect pests, 204. — Leaf-margins, characters of, 307.
Insects as determinants of grape re-| Leaf, characters of, 307.

gions, 29. parts of, 306.

Internodes defined, 301. Lebanon, 345.
Tona, 390. Legaux, Peter, mentioned, 7.
Trrigation, 95. Leif the Lucky, mentioned, 5.
Isabella, 390. Lenoir, 13, 401.
Isabella, 391. Lignan Blanc, 403.
Isabella Seedling, 392. Lime, effects of, 101, 104.
Israella, 392. Lincoln, 345.
Ives, 393. Lindley, 402.

Listan Blanc, 402.
Jack, 401. Little Grape, 318.
James, 394. Little Winter Grape, 318.
Janesville, 394. Long, 356.
Jaques, 401. Longworth, Nicholas, mentioned, 8.
Jarring Muscadine grapes, 241. Lucile, 403.
Jefferson, 395. Luglienga, 402.

Jefferson, Thomas, on native grapes, 5. | Lutie, 404.
Jessica, 396.

Jewel, 397. Macrodactylus subspinosus, 210.
Joannenc, 402. Malaga, 405.
Jordan, 415. Mammoth Catawba, 435.
July Sherry, 401. Marion, 406.

Marion Port, 406.
Kay’s Seedling, 382. Marketing, 230, 246.
Keller’s White, 345. cooperative, 246.
Kensington, 398. Markets, accessibility, 30.
Kentucky Vineyard Society, 7. general versus local, 31.
Keuka Lake grape region, 21. Marking for planting, 79.
King, 399. Martha, 407.
Kittredge, 393. Massasoit, 408.
Kniffin, Wm., mentioned, 132. Maxatawney, 409.

McKee, 382.
Labels for packages, 238. McPike, 405.
Labor, determinant of grape regions, | Mead’s Seedling, 345.

32. Mealy-bug, 202.

Ladies’ Choice, 358. Memory, 409.
Lady, 399. Memythrus polistiformis, 217.

Lady Downs, for forcing, 198. Mendel’s laws, 281.

454 INDEX

Merceron, 345. Oporto, 422.
Merrimac, 410. Othello, 422.
Michigan, 345. Ozark, 423.
Mildew in graperies, 203.
Mills, 411. Packages for California, 245.
Mish, 411. for eastern America, 236.
Mission, 412. for Muscadine grapes, 243.
Missouri Riesling, 413. Packing houses, 233.
Montefiore, 413. construction of, 234.
Moore Early, 414. cost of, 233.
Moore, Jacob, mentioned, 276. Packing, in the East, 237.
Moscatello, 415. Muscadine grapes, 241.
Moscatello Black, 415. Packing tables, 234.
Mountain Grape, 313, 318. Palomino, 424.
Moyer, 415. Paw Paw grape region, 22.
Moyer’s Early Red, 415. Payne's Early, 391.
Muncy, 345. Peabody, 424.
Munson, mentioned, 277. Pedicel defined, 305.
on pruning, 136. Peduncle defined, 305.
on resistant species, 63. Perfection, 425.
Munson method of pruning, 136. Pergolas, training vines on, 142.
Muscadine Grape, 310. Perkins, 426.
Muscadine, 435. Pests in graperies, 202.
Muscadine grapes for wine, 256. Petiole, characters of, 307.
Muscatel, 416. Pholus achemon, 217.
Muscat Hamburg, 417. Phosphorus, benefits from, 101.
for forcing, 197. Phylloxera, 13, 61, 205. J
Muscat of Alexandria, 418. control of, 206.
Mustang Grape, 323. Phylloxera vastatrix, 205.
of Florida, 312. Pickers, 231.
Mutations in improving grapes, 277. Picking, accounts for, 232.

appliances, 232.
time of, 231.
+ | Pigeon Grape, 318.
Pine-wood Grape, 320.
Piquette, making, 270,

Napoleon I, mentioned, 196.
Neal, 382.
Niagara, 418.

Niagara grape region, 20. :
Nitrogen, benefits from, 101. arise tee
Noah, 419. Pane

grafted vines, 68.

in graperies, 198.
Plasmopara viticola, 220.
Pliny, mentioned, 2.
Plowing the vineyard, 94.

to combat pests, 95.
Pocklington, 426.
Pollen, characters of, 306.
Pollinating in hybridizing, 280.
Polychrosis viteana, 214.
Pomace as a by-product, 270,
Ohio, 401. Possum Grape, 317.
Ohio River grape region, 22. Posts, 119.

Nodes defined, 301.

Nodosities, 66.

Northern Astivalis, 322.

Northern Muscadine, 420.
Northern Summer Grape, 322.
Norton, 421.

Norton, Dr. D. N., mentioned, 11.
Noyes, Dr., mentioned, 15.
Number of vines to the acre, 76.

INDEX

Posts, — Continued.
bracing, 120.
material, 119.
setting, 120.
Post-oak Grape, 320.
Post-oak grapes, 13.
Potassium, benefits from, 101.
Poughkeepsie, 427.
Powdery mildew, control of, 223.
description of, 222.
Powell, 358.
Pre-cooling grapes, 245.
Prentiss, 428. :
Preparation for planting, 76, 82.
Preparing vines for planting, 80, 81.
Prince Edward, 356.
Prince, W. R., mentioned, 274.
Profits from fertilizers, 101.
Pruning, before planting, 160.
cordon method, 153.
European grapes in eastern America,
107.
fan-shaped, 153, 172.
first summer, 160.
first winter, 161.
for fruit, 112.
for wood, 112.
in eastern America, 108.
Muscadine grapes, 143.
on the Pacific slope, 150.
principles of, 111.
second summer, 161.
second winter, 163.
single vertical cordon, 157.
summer, 115.
third summer, 167.
third winter, 168.
to regulate the crop, 110.
to regulate the vine, 111.
unilateral horizontal cordon, 158.
vase-form, 153.
winter, 114.
work of, 118.

Pruning and training distinguished, 109.

Prunings, collecting, 118.
Purple Cornichon, 429.

Quality defined, 307.

Raffa, in grafting, 54.
Raisin industry, seat of, 263.

Raisin-making, account of, 264.
Raisin output, value of, 263.
Raisins, classes of, 266.
dipping and scalding, 264.
packing, 265.
seeded, 267.
varieties for, 263.
Randall, 331.
Raphe defined, 308.
Rating as to resistance to pieiloxeer!
66.
Rattling, 224.
Rebecca, 429.
Reciprocal influence of stock and cion,
68.
Red Eagle, 430.
Red River, 357.
Red-spider in graperies, 202.
Refrigerator cars for grapes, 245.
Regal, 431.
Rejuvenating old vines, 147.
Renewal by canes, 116.
by spurs, 117.
Renewing fruiting wood, 116.
Requa, 431.
Returns from Muscadine grapes, 242.
Ricketts, J. H., mentioned, 274.
Ringing grape vines, 289.
operation of, 290.
results of, 291.
theory of, 290.
Riparia Gloire, 64, 65.
Riparia grande glabre, 64, 65.
Riparia Solonis, 64.
Ripening dates for grapes, 296.
Ripe-rot, control of, 225.
description of, 225.
River Grape, 314.
Riverbank Grape, 314.
Riverbank grapes, 13.
Riverside Grape, 314.
Roanoke, 435.
Robins, depredations of, 293.
Rochester, 432.
Rock Grape, 313.
Rogers, E. S., mentioned, 274.
Rommel, 433.
Rommel, Jacob, mentioned, 276.
Root, its parts named, 301.
Root-forms of grapes, 67.
Rootlets defined, 301.

456 INDEX

Root-tip defined, 301.

Rosaki, 433.

Rose chafer, control of, 211.
life history of, 210.

Rose of Peru, 4384.

Rose of Tennessee, 345.

Rotundifolia grapes, 9.

Ruff, 358.

Rupestris St. George, 64.

Salem, 435.
Sand Grape, 313.
Sandusky grape region, 22.
Sanitation in the vineyard, 227.
Saratoga, 345.
Scuppernong, 310, 435.
Seasonal sum of heat, 24.
Secretary, 436.
Seedlings, selecting, 37.
Seeds, as by-products, 271.
characters of, 308.
parts of, 308.
Selecting vines, 81.
Selection in improving grapes, 277.
Self-sterility in grapes, 285.
cause of, 286.
remedy for, 287.
Senasqua, 437.
Seneca Lake grape region, 21.
Shelling, 424.
Shipping from California, 245.
Shoots, characters of, 303.
defined, 301.
disposition of, in training, 123.
drooping, in training, 132.
horizontal, in training, 141.
upright, in training, 125.
Single-eye cuttings, 40.
making, 41.
planting, 41.

Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin, 132.

Singleton, 345.

Single vertical cordon, 157.
Sites for vineyards, 26, 32.
Skin, characters of, 308.

Smith, Captain John, mentioned, 5.

Smudging vineyards, 25.

Soil adaptations, 29.
fertility, 28.

Soils for grapes, 27.
ideal, 28.

Soils for grapes, — Continued.
over-rich, 107.
uneven, 105.
Sour Winter Grape, 317.
Southern Astivalis, 321.
Southern Fox Grape, 310.
Spanish Grape, 318.
Species, conspectus of, 310.
resistant to phylloxera, 62.
Sphaceloma ampelinum, 223.
Sports in improving grapes, 277.
Spraying suggestions, 228.
Springstein, 401.
Spurs defined, 301.
Spur-renewal, 117.
Staking vines, 162.
Stamens, characters of, 306.
Stem defined, 301.
its parts named, 301.
Stocks, resistant to phylloxera, 61.
for American grapes, 69.
for European grapes, 69.
Storage-room for grapes, 239.
Storing grapes, 238.
Stripping, 118.
Suckers defined, 301.
Sugar Grape, 313.
Sultana, 438.
Sultanina, 438.
Summer Grape, 318.
Summer grapes, 11.
Summer pruning, 115.
Swamp Grape, 318.
Sweet-scented Grape, 314.
Sweetwater, 347.
Syrian, for forcing, 198.

Talman’s Seedling, 346.
Tap-root defined, 301.
Taylor, 439.
Tekomah, 343.
Tendrils, characters of, 304.

defined, 301.
Theophrastus, on grafting, 45.
Thinning in graperies, 201.
Thompson's Seedless, 438.
Thrips, 211.

in graperies, 202.
Tillage, 92.

methods, 93.

time to cease, 95.

INDEX

Tillage, — Continued.
tools for, 93.
Time to plant, 84.
Tokay, 345.
Tongue grafting, 52.
Training, Chautauqua method, 125.
classification of methods, 125.
in eastern America, 123.
fan-method, 131.
in graperies, 198.
Keuka method, 139.
Trellises, 119.
Triumph, 440.
Tuberosities,
66.
Turkey Grape, 320.
Two-trunk Kniffin, 135.
Tying, 122.
Typhlocyba comes, 211.

caused by phylloxera,

Ulster, 441.

Umbrella Kniffin, 134.

Uncinula necator, 222.

Unilateral horizontal cordon, 158.

Valk, Dr., mentioned, 274.
Varieties of European grapes for eastern
America, 191.
Varieties resistant to phylloxera, 62.
Verdal, 442.
Vergennes, 442.
Vertical canes, 174.
cordons, 175.
Vinegar from grapes, 269.
Vines, nursery versus home grown,
59.
“pedigreed,” 59.
rejuvenating old, 147.
resistant to phylloxera, 61.
young, care of, 87.
Vineyard grafting, in eastern America,
45.
on Pacific slope, 48.
Vineyard, management, 73.
returns in the Hast, 247.
sanitation, 227.
sites, 32.
Vintage, time of, 254.
Virgil, on soils, 28,
quoted, 31, 34, 37.
Virginia Amber, 345.

457

Vitis, genus defined, 308.
Vitis estivalis, 11, 318.
Bourquiniana, 11, 321.
glauca, 321.
Lincecumii, 13, 320.
Berlandieri, 318.
bicolor, 322.
candicans, 323.
cordifolia, 317.
Labrusca, 7, 324.
Munsoniana, 312.
riparia, 314. (Syn. of V. vulpina.)
rotundifolia, 9, 310.
rupestris, 313.
vinifera, 2, 328.
vulpina, 314.
Vulpina grapes, 13.
as direct producers, 13.

Wakeman, Elbert, mentioned, 136.
Walter, 443.
Warren, 382, 401.
Warrenton, 382.
Washington, 371.
Water, influence
Bs
Watering, at planting, 86.
in graperies, 202.
Water sprouts defined, 301.
Weather data and _ grape-growing,
26.
White July, 402.
White Nice, for forcing, 198.
White Frontignan, 416.
Wilder, 444.
Wilmington Red, 448.
Winchell, 445.
Windbreaks
Dl
Wine, aging, 253.
crushing grapes for, 252.
fermentation of, 253.
fining, 253.
kinds of, 251.
racking, 253.
yeasts for, 253.
Wine-grapes, prices paid for, 255.
Wine-making, 252.
Wire for trellises, 121.
Wire grafting, 54.
Winter Grape, 314, 317, 318.

of, on climate,

in grape-growing, 25,

458 INDEX

Winter-killing, 26. Worthington, 15, 350.
precautions against, 295. Wyoming, 448.
Winter protection of grapes, 187, 294. | Wyoming Red, 448.
cost of, 296.
Winter-pruning, 114.
Woodruff, 446. Yields in fertilizer experiments, 100,
Woodward, 391. 101.
Worden, 446. Y-trunk Kniffin training, 136.

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