312DE3bD05flE3^7fl OF FARM ANIMALS M. W. Harper LIBRARY OF THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COT t KGE no..4^&£ 65 ±£T7r-£ L.OT UaxLht: -■ * SOURCE This book may be kept out TWO WEEKS only, and is subject to a fine of TWO CENTS a day thereafter. It will be due on the day indicated below. At V FEB 1 - 1928 MA** i9 JAN 1 f I55t 2£6t \Y 27 1936 MOV 2 l937 b3l» 7-/ 2.3 FEB iT- im /2 c-tar »>i_ Library Bureau 13-723 C4/?o MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Uhc IRurai flDanuais * Manual OF Gardening — Bailey Manual OF Farm Animals — Harper Farm and < 'tArden Rule-Book — Bailey Manual OF Home-Making — In preparation Manual OF Cultivated Plants — In prepara- Hon Jersey head of quality, illustrating what has been accomplished by improved methods of breeding and feeding, together with proper care and manage- ment. MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE CHOOSING, BREEDING, AND XEEP OF HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE BY MERRITT W. HARPER ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1911 All rights reserved Copyright, 1911, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 191 1. Norfoooto $regg J. S. dishing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE In America, raising farm animals does not receive the recogni- tion that is accorded it in Europe. Because of this relative neg- lect, when in search of animals with which to improve our studs, herds and flocks, we still look largely to foreign lands. Conti- nental Europe provides us with blood to improve our draft horses, dairy cattle, and fine-wool sheep, while the British Isles furnish improved blood for our beef cattle, mutton sheep, bacon swine, as well as for horses, both light and heavy, and for dairy cattle. A comparison of European methods with those employed in America reveals the fact that our methods are lacking and en- tirely inadequate to produce the greatest improvement. The live-stock farmers of Europe exercise much careful judgment in choosing their animals, in feeding, in breeding, and in the care and management. It has been with a view of aiding to promote such interest in the daily work with farm animals that this volume is written. This has been done with the thought that increased interest will lead to improved care, which in time, it is hoped, will produce a better and more useful class of farm live-stock. It is well recognized that a good animal husbandry lies at the bottom of a good agriculture. Erom the above, it will be seen that the author's purpose is to discuss the general care and management of farm animals rather than the breeds. However, a knowledge of the breeds is necessary. To economize space and the reader's time, the writer has adopted the method of freely inserting pictures of good animals of many breeds, with liberal legends, letting them run as a minor motive throughout the book. By this plan it is hoped that some of the main characteristics of the breeds may be taken away by the reader with little effort on his part. vi PREFACE In a book of this range, many kinds of advice must be given. This advice may not all be of equal value, even though it be the product of actual experience. The author gives it for what it is worth, and it is the responsibility of the reader to apply it and to work it out as best he can. In the discussion of diseases, par- ticularly, it is very difficult to give formal advice that will apply to all cases ; and the statements are meant to be used as guides and suggestions and not as " doctor book " prescriptions or as substitutes for the help of a trained veterinarian. It is hoped that by calling attention to the diseases and ailments, the reader will see the importance of securing reliable aid when the subject is beyond his knowledge or skill. The book is a manual, and therefore it considers the common practical matters in much detail. No doubt much information which we now accept in the breeding and feeding of animals is very imperfect ; but the writer has tried to discuss the daily handling of farm live-stock in the light of such knowledge as is at present best accepted and most capable of application. Recognizing the importance of such a work, the writer will be glad to correspond with those into whose hands the book may fall, concerning difficulties in the management of animals, and also to receive suggestions that will make future editions of the Manual — if such should be called for — more useful as a practical guide in raising farm animals. M. W. HARPER. Ithaca, N.Y., June 7, 1911. CONTENTS PART I — HORSES CHAPTER I Choosing a Horse — Judging General Examination of the Horse Examination in the stable Examination in action . How to estimate the Age of a Horse General considerations . Examination of the teeth Colt — Three years old — Four years old — Five years old — Six years old — Seven years old — Eight years old — Nine years old — Ten years old — Eleven years old — Aged horses. Irregularities in the teeth Detecting Unsoundness A blemish ............ An unsoundness .......... Decayed and broken teeth — Discharge from the nostrils — Impaired vision — Defective hearing — Poll-evil — Sweenied shoulders — Fistulse — Capped elbow — Unsound knees — Splints — Ring-bone — Side-bone — Scratches — Unsound hoofs — Thoroughpin — Spavin — Stringhalt — Curb — Forging and overreaching — Interfering — Locating lame- ness— Unsound in wind. Types of Horses .... The light type .... Heavy type Choosing a Light Horse General appearance in light horses Form — Action — Quality — Temperament. Detail characters of a light horse ...... Head — Neck — Chest — Shoulders — Arms — Elbows — Fore vii PAGES 3-36 5 5 6 7 7 13 14 14 14 19 20 20 20 21 23 viil CONTENTS PAGES arms — Knees — Cannons — Fetlock — Pasterns — Feet — Ribs — Body — Loin — Croup — Thigh — Hind legs — Hocks — Hind cannons — Hind pasterns — Hind feet. Choosing a Heavy Horse " . .29 General appearance in heavy horses 29 The form — The weight — The action — Quality. Detail characters of heavy horses 33 Head — Neck — Chest — Shoulders — Arm — Fore-arms — Knees — Cannon — Pasterns — Feet — Body — Croup — Thighs — Hock. CHAPTER II The Feeding op Animals — General Consideration . . 37-55 Food . 37 Use of food 37 Composition of food 38 Water — Ash — Protein — Carbohydrates — Fat. Function of various food materials 41 Water — Ash — Protein — Carbohydrates — Fat. Digestibility of Food 44 Digestion . 44 Size of digestive organs 45 Digestible nutrients 46 Conditions Influencing Digestion ..... ... 48 Palatability 48 Time of harvesting — Grinding the food — Curing food — Various processes. Maintenance Rations and Productive Rations ..... 50 Maintenance rations 50 Productive rations . . .50 Feeding standards for farm animals 51 Balanced Ration 51 Nutritive ratio 52 Method of calculating . 52 Other methods of computing rations 54 Using balanced rations 55 CHAPTER III The Feeding of Horses 56-69 Food Requirements for Work 56 CONTENTS ix PAGES Regularity in feeding . 57 Order of supplying food 57 Watering the horse 50 Feeding the Work Horse 60 Feeding the Driving Horse 63 Wintering the Idle Horse 64 Feeding the Brood Mare . 65 Feeding Mules 67 Sample Rations for the Horse 68 CHAPTER IV The Breeding of Animals in General ..... 70-95 Like produces like . . . 71 Variation is the Basis of Improvement ...... 72 Variation universal among farm animals . . . 72 Kinds of variation . .... . . 73 Proximate Causes of Variation ........ 75 Environment — Climate — Food supply — Care — Crossing. Selection 77 Individual merit — Pedigree — Mating. Heredity ...... ... 83 Inheritance of disease — Prepotency — Prolificacy or Fecundity — Sterility — Relative influence of parents. Systems of Breeding . ... ... ... 89 Grading — Crossing — Line-breeding — In-breeding — Breeding from the best. CHAPTER V The Breeding of Horses and Mules ..... 96-126 Plan of Breeding 96 • Cooperative breeding 98 Securing stallions . 98 Selecting Breeding Stock 99 The breed and type — Uniformity — Soundness. The Stallion 102 The Mare 103 Season of the year to breed ........ 164 When mares should be tried 167 Barrenness in mares 169 Abortion in mares . . . . . • • • .116 Parturition time ...... .o. . 116 X CONTENTS PAGES The mare and the young foal 112 The Foal 113 Ills of the young foal 115 Constipation — Diarrhea or scours — Nave'v infection. Feeding the young foal .118 Weaning the young foal . .110 Breeding Jacks, Jennets, and Mules . . » . . . .121 Jacks and jennets .......... 121 Mules and hinnies 124 CHAPTER VI Care and Management or Horses 127-150 Grooming ............ 127 Care of the Horse's Teeth 128 Clipping 128 Bedding the Horse 120 Blankets 130 Stable blankets — Outdoor blankets. Care of the Feet 131 Shoeing. Training the Colt 132 Training to the halter — Training to the uses of the bit — Im- portance of a good mouth — Bitting the colt — Harnessing the colt — Hitching double — Hitching single — Training to mount. Harness and Harnessing . . .141 The bit and the bridle — The bit — Head-stall — Blinds — Center- pieces, ear-bobs, and tassels — The check-rein — Fitting the collar — Adjusting the hame-tug — Breast harness — Fitting the back-band and crupper — Fly-nets — Caring for harness — Harness room. CHAPTER VII Diseases of the Horse ........ 151-181 Treating Sick Horses .......... 151 Administering Medicine ......... 154 Drenching — Hypodermic Medication — External medication — Enemas or injections into the rectum — Counter-irritants — Blisters — Firing. Lameness ; its Cause and Treatment . 158 CONTENTS XI PAGES Lameness due to ailments of the bones ..... 158 Splints, ring-bones, side-bones, bone spavin, and bony en- largements — Fracture. Lameness due to ailments of the joints ..... 160 Wind-galls, blood-spavin, bog-spavin, and thoroughpin. Lameness due to ailments of muscles and tendons . . . 161 Sprains — Shoulder lameness — Sweeny shoulder — Sore shoulder and neck, and galls — Curb. Lameness due to capped-elbows or shoe-boils .... 164 Capped-elbows — Capped-knee — Capped-hock — Shoe-boil. Lameness due to ailments of the foot ...... 165 Interfering — Overreaching — Calk wounds — Corns — Punc- tured wounds of the foot — Cracked hoofs. Diseases of the Legs 168 Scratches — Mud fever — Eczema. Diseases of the Digestive Organs . 169 Ailments of the Mouth ......... 169 Sore mouth — Abnormal and diseased teeth — Lampas. Ailments of the throat and gullet . . . . . . .170 Choking. Ailments of the stomach and intestines . . . . .171 Indigestion — Colic — Diarrhea or scouring — Constipation. Diseases of the Respiratory Organs . 174 Catarrh — Heaves, broken wind, asthma — Roaring, whistling, thick wind. Miscellaneous Diseases ......... 177 Wounds — Distemper — Influenza — Azoturia — Foul sheath — Diseases of the eye. PART II — CATTLE CHAPTER VIII Choosing Cattle — Judging Types of Cattle .... The dairy type The beef type How to estimate the Age of a Cow General examination Examination of the teeth 185-202 185 186 186 187 187 187 Xll CONTENTS Examination of the horns . . . . . Choosing a Dairy Cow ......... General consideration in dairy cows Form — Quality — Constitution — Temperament. Detail characters of a dairy cow ....... Head — Neck — Fore-quarters — Body — Hind-quarters — Udder — Milk-veins — Milk signs. , Choosing Beef Cattle ......... General characteristics of beef cattle Form of the feeder — Quality of the feeder — Condition of the feeder — Uniformity among feeders. Detail characters of beef cattle ....... Head — Neck — Fore-quarters — Body — Hind-quarters — Fat steer. 189 189 190 194 198 199 200 CHAPTER IX Feeding Dairy Cattle 203-226 Food Requirements for Milk . . . . . . ■ . ■ 203 Haecker Feeding-standard — Mature Cow 206 Haecker Feeding-standard — Heifers ....... 209 Feeding-standards mere guides 210 Effect of Food on Composition of Milk ...... 210 Effect of food on total solids — Effect of food on the percentage of fat — Food and flavor of milk — Order of supplying food — Effect of food on quantity of milk. Watering the Milking Cow 213 Feeding the Milking Cow 214 Summer feeding of dairy cattle — Protecting cows from flies — Winter feeding of dairy cattle — Grain or concentrated feeds — Dry forage — Succulent feeds — Silage — Roots and tubers — Soiling. Feeding for High Production ........ 222 Feeding the Heifer 223 Sample Rations for the Dairy Cow 224 CHAPTER X Breeding Dairy Cattle ... ... Milk-records Method of keeping records — Value of milk-records. 227-256 . 229 CONTENTS xm Testing Milk for Butter Fat Sampling the milk — Using the acid — Whirling the bottles — Reading the percentage of fat. Testing Associations General plan Records of Preformance and of Breeding The individual animal the unit of improvement . . . • . Plan of Breeding Raise the heifer calves from the best cows — Cooperative breeding. Forming the Dairy Herd Grading-up the Herd .......... The first generation — Select heifer calves from the high-produc- ing dams — The second generation — Continued judicious selec- tion the means of improvement. The Dairy Bull Choosing a dairy bull — Uniformity of get — Number of cows to the bull. The Dairy Cow .... Productive period in dairy cattle Season of the year to breed . Parturition time . The Calf Feeding the dairy calf . Removing horns from young calves Castrating the male calf PAGES 232 235 235 236 237 237 238 239 244 246 246 247 248 250 251 255 255 Utensils — Milking. CHAPTER XI Care and Management of Dairy Cattle Sanitary Milk Production .... The cow — The stables — Milk-house Milking Machines .... Management of the Bull . Ringing the bull .... The Dairy Barn Light in abundance should enter the dairy barn — Ventilation essential to health — Floors are best made of cement — Water- ing device. The Silo 270 The size of the silo — Filling the silo .271 257-274 . 257 . 260 . 263 . 264 . 264 XIV CONTENTS CHAPTER XII PAGES 275-304 . 275 Feeding Beef Cattle . Essentials of Feeding Cattle Age at which to feed cattle Form for feeding cattle Condition of feeding cattle Quality of feeding cattle Uniformity in feeding cattle Food Requirements for Beef Wintering Stockers and Feeders Roughage increases feeding capacity Summer Feeding on Pasture How to turn to grass — Feeding grain to cattle on pasture — The pastures. Winter Feeding in Dry -lot Feeding gram to cattle in dry-lot. Baby-beef ............ Cattle used in baby-beef production — Feeding for baby-beef production — Advantages of baby-beef production — Disadvan- tages of baby-beef production. Feeding Cattle for the Local Market Hogs following Grain-fed Cattle Getting Cattle " On Feed " Length of Feeding Period . Marketable Condition When to market cattle. Shipping Cattle 299 Preparing cattle for shipment — Drifting cattle for the local market. Sample Rations for Fattening Cattle . . 300 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 284 284 289 291 293 295 296 297 297 CHAPTER XIII Breeding Beef Cattle .... Plan of Breeding .... Cooperative grading-up Raise heifer calves from best cows Selection of Breeding Stock The breed — Crossing — The dual-purpose cow — Uniformity The Beef Bull The cost of a bull. 305-319 . 307 . 307 . 307 . 308 . 311 CONTEXTS XV PAGES The Beef Cow 313 Production-period in cattle — Season of the year to breed — The pregnant cow — Cow with calf at foot — Weaning — Feeding the beef calf. CHAPTER XIV Care and Management of Beef Cattle 320-330 Farms for Fattening Cattle 322 Equipment for Summer Feeding 322 Pasture — Feed-bunk — The self-feeder — Shade — Water — Salt. Equipment for Winter Feeding 326 Shelter for winter feeding — The feed lot — Platform for feed- bunks — Dry-forage-rack — Water-tanks. CHAPTER XV Diseases of Cattle 331-355 Diseases of the Generative Organs, and Difficulties of Parturition . 331 Barrenness in cows ......... 332 Abortion in cows 332 Difficult parturition 334 Retained afterbirth 336 Eversion of the womb 338 Milk-fever 338 Garget 340 Ills of the Young Calf 340 Constipation 341 Diarrhea or scours 341 Tuberculosis 343 Methods of infection 343 The tuberculin test . . . 345 The testing outfit 345 Directions for making the test " .. 346 Retesting 349 Tuberculin not infallible 349 Prevention of tuberculosis 349 Eradication of tuberculosis ........ 350 Bloating in Cattle 351 Impaction of the Rumen 353 Cattle off feed. Dehorning 354 Vices of Dairy Cattle . . 354 Kicking cows — Sucking cow. XVI CONTENTS PART III — SHEEP CHAPTER XVI PAGKS Choosing and Judging Sheep 359-376 Catching and Holding Sheep 360 How to estimate Age of Sheep 361 Examination of the teeth 362 Types of Sheep 263 The fine-wool type 363 The mntton type 365 Choosing Sheep 365 General appearance 366 Form — Condition and weight — Quality — Constitutional vigor — Uniformity. Detail characters of sheep ........ 368 Head — Neck — Shoulders — Chest — Body — Rump — Leg of mutton. Examining the fleece ......... 372 Quantity of fleece — Density — Length — Quality of fleece — Softness — Crimp — Soundness — Condition of fleece — Purity — Luster — Brightness — Yolk — Summary. CHAPTER XVII Feeding Sheep 377-402 Food Requirement of Sheep . . . . . . . . 370 Feeding the Flock 380 The flock in summer . . . . . . . . .381 Pasture for sheep — Turning to pasture — Tagging the sheep — Change in pasture — Providing shade — The use of sown pasture. The flock in winter 386 The winter ration — Exercise — Care of feet — Bedding. Fattening Sheep 388 Growing winter lambs ...... ... 388 Foundation stock — Winter quarters for winter-lamb produc- tion— Feeding the lambs — Dressing winter-lambs. Growing spring lambs ......... 396 Feeding lambs for fall 396 Getting the lambs on full feed. CONTENTS xvii PAGKS Fattening lambs in winter . 398 Feeding in the semiarid West — Feeding in the corn-belt — Feeding in the East. Sample Rations for Fattening Sheep ....... 401 CHAPTER XVIII The Breeding of Sheep ........ 403-421 Plan of Breeding 404 Choosing Breeding Stock s 404 Type — Uniformity. The ram 406 The ewe flock 406 The Breeding of the Ewes 407 Productive period — Season to breed — Method of mating — Managing the ram — The pregnant ewe — Lambing time — Difficult parturition. The Lambs 413 The first meal — A chilled lamb — A disowned lamb. Lamb ills 416 Constipation — Diarrhea — " Pinning " — Sore mouth — Sore eyes. General care of lambs 417 Feeding the lambs — Weaning the lambs — Castrating male lambs — Docking the lambs — Marking lambs. CHAPTER XIX Care and Management or Sheep ...... 422-438 Dipping Sheep . 423 Importance of dipping — The dipping vat — How dips are used — Frequency of dipping. Shearing Sheep 427 Washing sheep — When to shear — Hand shearing — Machine shearing — Tying the wool. Practical Sheep Barns ......... 433 The feed-racks — Quantity of bedding — The sheep lot. CHAPTER XX Diseases of Sheep 439-450 Treating Sick Sheep 439 XVlll CONTENTS PAGES External Parasites 440 Internal Parasites 440 The stomach- worm — The tape- worm. Digestive Disorders . 446 Bloating — Constipation — Disorders caused by overfeeding. Other Diseases 448 Caked udder — Garsret. PAET IV— SWINE CHAPTER XXI Choosing and Judging Swine 453-466 Types of Swine 453 The lard type 453 The bacon type 454 Age of Swine 454 Choosing Lard Hogs 455 General appearance of lard hogs ....... 456 General form — Weight and condition — Quality — Constitu- tion — Uniformity. Detail characters of lard hogs ....... 459 Head — Jowls — Neck — Shoulders — Back and loin — Sides — Belly — Hips — Rump — Hams — Legs. Choosing Bacon Hogs 464 Condition — Form — Shoulders — Sides — Hams. CHAPTER XXII The Feeding of Swine . . . . . . . . 467-486 Food Requirements for Swine 468 Preparing Food 469 Grinding feed — Soaking the feed — Cooking the feed. Making up a Ration 470 Feeding capacity among swine — Giving swine their feed — Salt — Fresh cool water. Feeding the Breeding Herd . . . . . . . 472 Feeding the herd in summer ....... 472 Ringing to prevent rooting — Pasture for swine — Roots for swine — Pumpkins and squashes. CONTENTS XIX Feeding the herd in winter . Feeding the young and old herd. Fattening Swine .... Feeding the lard hog . Feeding the lard hog in summer Feeding the lard hog in winter Feeding the bacon hog . Summer feeding on pasture Winter feeding in dry-lot Sample Rations for Swine . PAGES 477 478 479 479 481 483 484 484 485 CHAPTER XXIII The Breeding of Swine 487-502 Plan of Breeding 487 Cooperative breeding. Selecting Breeding Stock 489 The type — Uniformity. The Boar 490 The Sows • . 491 Productive period — Season to breed — Method of mating — The pregnant sow — Farrowing time — The brood sow eating her pigs — The sow after farrowing. The Pigs 498 The first meal — Pig ills — Feeding the pigs — Weaning the pigs — Castrating pigs — Marking pigs — Pigs after weaning. . CHAPTER XXIV Care and Management . 503-509 Dipping Swine ........... 503 Shelter for Swine 504 The large hog-house — The individual hog-house — The A-shaped individual hog-house — The shed-shaped individual hog-house — Disadvantages and advantages. The Hog Lot 509 Hog- wallows. CHAPTER XXV Diseases of Swine 510-524 Quarantine lot r 510 XX CONTENTS PAGES Hog Cholera 511 Manner of spreading the disease — Prevention of the disease — Prevention of hog cholera by immunization — Objections to the serum method. Swine Plague 517 Tuberculosis ........... 517 Manner of spreading the disease — Care of a tubercular herd. Worms .519 Prevention of worms — Treatment for worms. Lice 520 Scours 521 Constipation 521 Thumps 522 Sore Mouth 522 Garget 523 Removing the Tusks 523 Chicken-eating Swine ......... 524 APPENDIX Average Weights of Feeding Stuffs ...... 525 Digestible Nutrients in Feeding Stuffs ..... 526 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Jersey Head Frontispiece Arab Stallion ;t Shah wan '' ......... 6 Lower Front Teeth of Horse at Three Years of Age .... 10 Lower Front Teeth of Horse at Four Years of Age . . . .10 Lower Front Teeth at Five Years of Age 10 Front View of Five-year-old Mouth 10 Side View of Five-year-old Mouth 10 Lower Front Teeth at Six Years of Age 10 Lower Front Teeth at Seven Years of Age 10 Lower Front Teeth at Eight Years of Age 12 Upper Front Teeth at Nine Years of Age .12 Upper Front Teeth at Ten Years of Age ...... 12 Upper Front Teeth at Eleven Years of Age ...... 12 Upper Front Teeth at Fifteen Years of Age 12 Upper Front Teeth at Twenty-one Years of Age . . . . .12 Side View of Twenty-one-year-old Mouth 13 Front View of Twenty-one-year-old Mouth 13 Upper Front Teeth of Horse at Thirty Years of Age .... 13 Imported Percheron Stallion " Carnot " 15 First Prize Percheron Stallions .17 Percheron Stallion il Coco " 18 Hackney Coach Team 22 An American Trotter . 24 Clydesdale Stallion " Calipt" 30 Clydesdale Mare 32 Champion English Shire Stallion " Dan Patch " 35 Champion English Shire Stallion '• Mazemore Harold" ... 40 " Wrydelands Sunshine," Champion English Shire Mare . . .45 " Wrydelands Starlight," English Shire Mare 55 Belgian Stallion " Robuste de Thiensies 58 Imported Belgian Stallion 61 Farm Team of Grade Belgians 62 xxi XX11 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Driving Team of Spirit and Good Form Black Percheron Gelding Pair Well-bred Mules Suffolk Stallion " Rendleshau Scorcer" Suffolk Mare " Bawdsey Pearl " . Plackney Coach Stallion "Foundation " Hackney Stallion "Fandango M" . " Decorateur," French Coach Stallion French Coach Stallion, five years old Morgan Stallion "General Gates" . " Carolina," American Saddler Group of Percheron Mares Percheron Mare "Princess" and Four of her Cross-bred Coach and American Trotter Arab Horse as a Polo Pony . Group of French Draft Horses Hackney Coach Mare and Foal Shetland Pony Team Champion Jack " General "Wood ' Catalonian Jack Pair Two-year-old Jacks Pair of Premium Mules . Method of catching Young Foal Method of teaching Young Foal to Drive Arrangement of "Bitting Harness" Colt Hitched for First Time . Harness for controlling Vicious Horses Types of Collars .... Polo Pony of Good Form . ' . Thoroughbred Running Horse Standard Bred Carriage Stallion "Carmon" American Trotting Bred Carriage Horse Hackney Mare "Kitty Grey" in Action Jersey Cow " Tormentor's Lass" . Angus Steer Cow's Teeth arranged according to Age Guernsey Cow "Dolly Dimple" Guernsey Cow " Imported Hayes Rosie " Guernsey Bull " Yeoman " , Holstein-Friesian Bull " King Segis" Colts LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxiii PAGE Holstein-Friesian Cow "Dichter Calamity" 208 Interior View of Dairy Barn ' . . . . 214 Holstein-Friesian Cow " Daisy Pauline Paul 2d " 216 Holstein-Friesian Cow "Betty Lyons Netherland " . . . . 224 Ayrshire Cow ............ 228 Apparatus for testing Milk and keeping Records 234 Jersey Bull " Hood Farm Torono " 245 Jersey Cow " Jacoba Irene " 250 Imported Brown Swiss Bull 2-52 Brown Swiss Cow " Vogel" ......... 258 Device for Cooling Milk. 259 Dutch Belted Bull " Auten " . 262 Dairy Barn 265 Interior View of Dairy Barn showing Feed-carrier . . . 267 Interior View of Dairy Barn showing Litter-carrier .... 269 Dutch Belted Cow " Echo 2 " 271 Silo in Process of Construction by Farm Labor . ... 273 Shorthorn Bull " Avondale " 277 Prize Winning Shorthorn Bull ........ 281 Fattening Steers on Pasture 288 Steer that made Large Gains 294 Aberdeen Angus Bull 298 Hereford Cow . 306 Champion Hereford Bull " Dale " 308 The Shorthorn Cow " Rose of Glenside " 310 Galloway Bull . 312 Galloway Heifers ^ . 313 Feeding Grain to Steers on Pasture . 324 Red Polled Bull "Cremo" ......... 329 Red Polled Herd 337 Devon Bull "Darks Majesty " 344 Devon Herd ; " Sally " and two offspring 352 Delaine Merino Ram " Beacon " 360 Sheeps' Teeth, illustrating Age 362 Champion Merino Ram. A type 364 Champion Merino Ram. B type 365 Delaine Merino Ram " Victor." C type ...... 365 Judging Sheep. Noting General Appearance 369 Determining Condition of Teeth and the Age 369 Noting Fullness of Neck 369 XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fullness of the Shoulder . Width of Chest Width of Body Depth of Chest Fullness of Shoulder Tops Determining Fullness of Back Width of Hips Width of Thighs . Condition of Leg of Mutton Examining the Fleece for the Finest of the Wool Examining the Fleece for the Coarsest of the Wool American Merino Ewes . Rambouillet Ram . Southdown Ewe Southdown Lambs . Shropshire Ram Champion Shropshire Ewes Dressing Hot-house Lamb Hot-house Lamb dressed and ready for Wrapping Hot-house Lamb wrapped and ready for Shipment Hampshire Ram ...... Hampshire Ewe ...... Champion Oxford Ram . Suffolk Ewe .... Method of teaching Helpless Young Lamb to Suck Horned Dorset Ram Method of marking Lambs Horned Dorset Ewe Cheviots Shearing Sheep by Machinery Position while shearing Abdomen . Position while shearing Left Hind Leg Position while shearing Neck . Position while shearing Left Shoulder Position while shearing Left Side . Position while shearing Rump Position while shearing Right Shoulder Position while shearing Right Side . Position while finishing Sheep Position of wool when Finished LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXV PACK Sheep Barn 435 Leicester Yearling Ewe 437 Cotswold Ram 441 Champion Cotswold Ram 445 Lincoln Ram 449 Poland China Yearling Boar 455 Poland China Boar 457 Prize Berkshire Sow 460 Champion Berkshire Pig 463 Large Yorkshire or Large White Sow 465 Large Yorkshire or Large White Sow 467 Duroc Jersey Boar ........... 473 First Prize Duroc Jersey Boar .474 Chester White Boar 476 Chester White Pigs 479 Victoria Sow 482 Champion Hampshire Swine 488 Cheshire Pig of Good Type 493 Prize Cheshire Boar 496 Group of English Small Yorkshires or Small Whites .... 499 Method of marking Pigs 502 Hog-dipping Equipment .......... 504 A-shaped Individual Hog-house . 507 Shed-shaped Individual Hog-house 508 First Prize Tarn worth Sow 515 Tamworth Pig 519 PART ONE — HORSES WITH GENERAL CHAPTERS ON FEEDING AND BREEDING OF ANIMALS MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS CHAPTER I CHOOSING A HORSE — JUDGING In choosing any class of animals, there are three faculties that should be well developed — familiarity with what is wanted, powers of observation, and good judgment. One must first consider the use for which the animal is desired and the type or breed that will best accomplish the given purpose. If the animal is wanted for light trucking and to deliver produce at the market, it might be a mistake to choose a heavy draft horse; whereas if the object is to deliver heavy freight from the car to the freight-house, it would be none the less a mistake to choose a running horse. Again, if the animal is demanded for a farm where there is consider- able heavy work, such as breaking the land, especially if the soil is heavy, the type of horse should be unlike that for a dairy farm, where the team work is ordinarily light. The more familiar one is with the demand and the type best suited to meet it, the better his chance of success. The power of observation should be well developed. The eye must see quickly and accurately, so that there may be no mistake in the observations that are to form the basis for a conclusion. Not only should one see things as they are, but there should be dispatch in detecting deviations from the cor- rect form. There is much difficulty in this. One may be fa- 3 4 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS miliar with the fact that a few white hairs on the knee may indicate that the animal stumbles, and yet when examin- ing the horse entirely overlook them ; in like manner, he may know that gray hairs on the inside of the pastern may indicate that the animal interferes, and yet the white hairs go wholly unnoticed. The difficulty is often increased by the salesman attempting to cover up such signs, and this should serve to put the prospective purchaser on his guard. Having noted the desirable and undesirable qualities of the animals under consideration, a mental picture of each should be retained, for it often happens that in the choice of a horse many animals are examined before one is found that is accept- able. Many live-stock judges, particularly poultry fanciers, have this faculty developed to a marked degree. It often happens that they are called on to judge large rings of ani- mals, fifty or more in a single class, and to be able to place these animals properly they must remember each of the ani- mals, as it is impossible to see them all at a glance. Again, retaining such a picture of horses is of value in matching teams. A well-matched team is far more valuable than if each animal is sold separately. There are those who make a business of buying animals singly, matching them, and selling the team thus matched. This is a very profitable business, a few transactions each year often netting a good sum. After having examined a number of horses, good, bad, and indifferent, some of them filling the demand in part only, and some not at all, the judgment is brought into play to decide on the price. Perhaps one animal answers every demand, but the price is high; another does not please so well, but the price is low. Again, when judging a ring of animals, one must use the judgment as to which of two defects is the more serious. The judgment can and should be trained in much the same way as the power of observation and the ability to retain mental pictures. CHOOSING A HORSE 5 In choosing a horse, efficiency depends much on practice and experience. The type to fill a certain demand, and the value of the animal for such purpose, are recognized much more quickly and accurately by one who is buying many horses daily than by those who buy one only occasionally. There are a few considerations that apply with equal force to all classes of animals, such as the examination in general, esti- mating age, detecting unsoundness, and the like. These will be discussed first; then we will pass to the choice of the individual. GENERAL EXAMINATION OF THE HORSE In examining a horse, some system should be followed in order that no point go unnoticed. To facilitate this and to aid in establishing uniform values for the various points of the animal, the score-card was devised. Official score-cards have been adapted for many of the breeds, and while of little prac- tical value in choosing or judging a horse, they do aid in estab- lishing a uniform standard for the breeder. The examination of the horse cannot always be made at leisure, but enough time should be taken, if possible, to make the task complete. Examination in the stable. — When possible, the horse should first be examined in the stable. Note the way in which the animal is tied to the manger; whether he has been chewing the tie-strap or the fixtures; how he stands in the stall; and his general behavior, when you step to his side. Note the horse's conduct while grooming, particularly along the belly, the backs of the forelegs, and the fronts of the hind legs and about the flank. Harness the animal. Note the manner of taking the bit; the behavior when placing the headstall over the ears; the harness over the back; the crupper under the tail; and when buckling the girth. The horse may how be taken from the stall. Note the action as he is being turned around. In many sale stables there is a contemptible practice of introducing ginger into the rectum as 6 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the animal is being taken out, as this serves to stimulate the animal and he shows to advantage. As the horse passes into the yard, the door-way affords a very good place to examine the horse's eyes, nostrils, mouth, and noting the age. Fig. 1. — Arab Stallion " Shahwan." Imported by J. A. P. Ramsdell, of Newburg, N. Y. The Arab horse, named after his native country, is particularly noted as being the animal that gave the English Thoroughbred running horse its speed and endur- ance. Arabs are full of quality, very intelligent, and docile. They are chiefly used as officers' chargers, or for siring polo ponies. Examination of the horse in action. — First, note action while being led by the halter. Without regard for type, observe the walk. This is a much neglected though very important gait for all types and breeds of horses. Next note the trot, and, CHOOSING A HOUSE 7 with the saddler the various saddle gaits. These trials should take place on pavement or hard surface, as solid footing affords the best conditions to detect the existence of lameness. These gaits should be noted from the front, from behind, and from either side. Second, note the action when hitched to the kind of vehicle for which the horse is intended. Observe the horse first at the walk, then the trot from in front, behind, and either side. Notice manner of starting, turning, stopping, backing, and the like. The prospective purchaser should now mount the vehicle and drive the horse, observing his action, general behavior, manner of taking the bit, ease with which he is driven and guided this way and that. When satisfied in all respects, stop the horse and observe him standing after the exercise, especially with respect to the regularity of breathing and his manner of standing. Third, if the horse is intended for saddle purposes, in part, he should be tried out under the saddle, observing his behavior when mounting, the ease of movement and the like, with even more caution than when being led or hitched to a vehicle. HOW TO ESTIMATE THE AGE OF A HORSE The age of a horse is an important factor in determining his present and prospective value. Familiarity with the characters that indicate age are, therefore, often extremely useful. A knowledge of these characters is not difficult to secure, but skill in their application depends much on continued practice. General considerations. — In estimating the age of a horse, the teeth furnish the best index, yet there are other general con- siderations that play an important part, especially in the case of young and very old animals. In estimating the age of young animals, size is the principal factor to be considered. In very old horses, white hairs make their appearance around the temple, the eyes, the nostrils, and elsewhere ; the poll or top of the head becomes more pointed ; the sides of the face more depressed ; 8 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the hollows above the eyes deeper ; the backbone becomes more prominent and often strongly curved downward, and the animal does not stand squarely on his legs, which show more wear. Examination of the teeth. — While the order of the appearance of the teeth and their method of wearing are considered the most important and accurate means of estimating the age of domestic animals, and are the means employed by all horsemen, these are not absolutel\r accurate, and much depends on the condition as well as the individuality of the animal. The teeth of animals that have bones of somewhat open structure are likely to in- dicate that the animals are older than they really are ; while the teeth of those whose bones are of fine close texture may indicate them to be younger than they are. Again, animals fed on soft and succulent food are likely to show a younger mouth, whereas those fed on hard, dry food are likely to show an older mouth. The horse when full grown has forty teeth, twenty on either jaw, divided as follows: six nippers, two canines, one on either side, and twelve molars, six on a side. In the mare the canines are usually absent. Since only the nippers or incisor teeth are inspected in estimating the age, they alone will be considered. It is the order in which the nippers make their appearance that enables us to estimate the age of the horse up to five years, and the manner in which their surface is worn that aids us in the estimation from five to eleven years of age. After the horse has passed the eleventh year it is difficult to determine the age. In practice the age is designated as eleven, twelve, or fifteen past, as the case may be, but how much past cannot be told with any degree of accuracy. The colt is provided before the end of the first month with a set of temporary or milk teeth, the first or middle pair appearing at about one week of age ; the second or intermediate pair at one to two weeks of age ; and the third or lateral pair appearing at about one month of age. The difference in size of the jaw- CHOOSING A HORSE 9 bone between the foal and the grown horse makes a change from milk to permanent teeth necessary. The permanent replace the temporary teeth at two and one-half or three years of age up to five years. It is seldom that one is called on to esti- mate the age before two and one-half years because the ani- mal has not yet reached the period of usefulness, and even if the age must be estimated, size is considered more than any other factor. Three years old. — At about two years and nine months of age the permanent pair of center nippers replaces the temporary ones, and by the time the animal is three years of age they are up and ready for use. They will have deep cups and are much larger than the temporary teeth. If the colt be a male, small tusks will appear at about this time. Four years old. — At about three years and nine months, the intermediate pair of permanent nippers appear and is up and ready for use at four years of age. The center pair shows much wear and the cups are about one-third gone. The tusks, if any, have enlarged, but are still sharp on their points and flattish on the inside. Five years old. — At about four years and nine months, the permanent corner nippers make their appearance and are up and ready for use at five years of age. At five years of age the horse has a full mouth of permanent teeth ; the center nippers show two years' wear and have changed slightly in shape, having become rounder on the inside, the cups being two-thirds gone ; the intermediate nippers show one year's wear, the cup being one- third gone. Five years is the age preferred on the market, and occasionally horsemen extract the temporary nippers, which hastens the appearance of the permanent teeth. Six years old. — The cups in the center pair in the lower jaw have disappeared, or nearly so ; they have become much smaller in the intermediates and show one year's wear in the corner nippers. 10 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Fig. 2. — Front Teeth in Lower Jaw at Three Years of Age. Two center permanent teeth up. — (Figs. 2-17, from Goubaux and Barrier.) Fig. 3. — Front Teeth in Lower Jaw at Four Years of Age. Four center permanent teeth up. Fig. 4. — Front Teeth in Lower Jaw at Five Years of Age. All permanent teeth up. Fig. 5. — Front Teeth in Lower Jaw at Six Years of Age. Cups out of center teeth. Fig. 6. — Front View of a Five-year-old Mouth. Fig. 7. — Side View of a Five-year-old Mouth. Fig. 8. — Front Teeth in Lower Jaw at Seven Years of Age. Cups out of interme- diate teeth. CHOOSING A HORSE 11 Seven years old. — At seven, the cups are gone from the inter- mediate pair in the lower jaw, and have become quite shallow in the corner nippers. There is a notch in the upper corner nipper where it overlaps the lower one. Marked changes in shape have taken place in the nippers; they are becoming thicker from inside out, rounder on the inside, and meet at a sharper angle than when they first made their appearance. Eight years old. — At eight years, the cups are gone from all the nippers of the lower jaw. They are present in all of the upper jaw. Nine years old. — The cups in the center pair of nippers of the upper jaw have disappeared, but are still present in the intermediate and corner nippers. The cups are not likely to disappear at as regular intervals in the upper jaw as they did in the lower. Therefore it is not always possible to tell the age of the horse so accurately. Ten years old. — At ten years of age, the cups have disappeared from the upper intermediates, but are still retained in the corner nippers, though shallow. The teeth are more triangular in shape, and those of the upper and lower jaw meet at a sharper angle as the age increases. Eleven years old. — At eleven years, the cups are gone from all the nippers of the upper jaw. However, because of the fact that some horses have denser bones than others, it is not un- common to find shallow cups in the upper corner teeth as late as the twelfth or the fifteenth year. Aged horses. — After the horse has passed the twelfth year, the matter of a year or two amounts to little. Much depends on the individuality of the animal, as some animals are worth more at fifteen than others at twelve. One's judgment of the value of a horse at these ages should be formed on general ap- pearances and activities rather than on age. In old horses, the nipper teeth have become nearly triangular, showing long wear and meeting at an acute angle. The tusks 12 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Fig. 9. — Front Teeth in Lower Jaw at Eight Years of Age. Cups all out. Fig. 12. — Front Teeth in Upper Jaw at Eleven Years of Age. Cups all out. Fig. 10. — Front- Teeth in Upper Jaw at Nine Years of Age. Cups out of center teeth. Fig. 13. — Front Teeth in Upper Jaw at Fifteen Years of Age. Teeth quite triangular. Fig. 11. — Front Teeth in Upper Jaw at Ten Years of Age. Cups out of intermediate teeth. Fig. 14. — Front Teeth in Upper Jaw at Twenty-one Years of Age. CHOOSING A HORSE 13 are large, blunt, and round. The nippers may have grown out so long as to . prevent the grinders from meeting, in which case a horse will spit out his food after masticating a part of it. If the nippers are rasped off, the grinders will meet, and the horse's life will be somewhat pro- longed. Irregularities in the teeth. — It often happens that the teeth are not regular, in which case the horse is said to have a false mouth. These irregularities may occur in the number: there may be more or less than the regular number — thirty- six in mares or forty in horses ; they may occur in the form of the teeth or the uniting of two teeth ; they may occur because one jaw happens to be longer or shorter than the other ; they may come as the result of cribbing, some horses have the bad habit of biting the stall fixtures or other surrounding objects, thus break- ing off the free borders of the teeth, which make the teeth irregular and which must not be confused with normal wear. Such cases can usu- ally be recognized by the broken-off particles and the roughed surface. Irregularities may result from the employment of fraudulent means, the horseman striving to give the Fig. 15. — Side View of a Twenty- one-year-old Mouth. Note the sharp angle at which the teeth meet. Fig. 16. — Front View of a Twenty-one- year-old Mouth. Fig. 17. — Front Teeth in Upper Jaw at Thirty Years of Age. 14 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS mouth the characteristics of that period of life in which the horses have their greatest value, thus endeavoring to make the young appear old and the old appear young. It is ordinarily easy for one of experience to detect a mouth that has been tam- pered with. While many are very skillful at bishoping, it is a hard matter very materially to alter the mouth without detec- tion. After the teeth have once been interfered with they can no longer serve as an index in estimating age, the dental tables, the cups, and the like having been partly or wholly destroyed. DETECTING UNSOUNDNESS A satisfactory definition of soundness or unsoundness is not easily given. The term "unsound" as used by horse dealers in this country is often loosely applied. It may mean anything from a mere bad habit to a defect that renders the animal absolutely worthless. The best usage warrants dividing these imperfections into two classes — blemishes and unsoundness. A blemish may be defined as something that depreciates the value of a horse without interfering with his usefulness, such as wire cuts, car bruises, and the like which mar the appearance of a horse but do not limit his functions. An unsoundness may be defined as an imperfection of so serious a nature as to interfere with the usefulness of the horse, such as ring-bones, side-bones, splints, curbs, and the like. The ability to detect unsoundness depends largely on practice; yet some imperfections cannot be detected by an ordinary ex- amination, and it is only after becoming familiar with the animal that these will be observed. In examining a horse for unsound- ness, it is well to follow a regular order beginning with the head and ending with the feet. There are a great number of im- perfections to be found among horses, too many to be catalogued here. The following list contains the more important : — Decayed and broken teeth. — A foul odor indicates decayed or unsound teeth. This can easily be detected, as it attaches CHOOSING A HORSE 15 itself to the hand on being introduced into the mouth. Nippers with broken edges indicate that the horse is addicted to cribbing. Fig. 18. — Imported Percheron" Stallion "Carnot," No. 66666. Imported by J. Crouch & Son, Lafayette, Ind. Sold to W. S. Corso, Whitehall, 111., for $ 10,000. "Champion Percheron Stallion of America." The Percheron draft horse, a native of La Percha, France, is noted for his massive size, quality, endurance, and action. In weight, stallions usually average from 1700 to 2000 pounds and mares from 1400 to 1800 pounds. In height, stallions range from 153^ to 17 hands and mares from 15 to 163^. The color is exceedingly variable, though black and dapple gray predominate. This is the most common breed of heavy draft horses in the United States. Discharge from the nostrils. — There should be no discharge from the nostrils, which should be fresh pink in color. A profuse 16 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS colored discharge suggests glanders, distemper, shipping fever, and similar diseases. This may be only temporary, but one can- not afford to take the risk. Impaired vision. — A horse by its action will usually betray imperfect eyesight. Blind horses have a peculiar high stepping gait or are inclined to shy readily and often without cause. The ears are exceedingly active, as if trying to aid the eyes. Blind- ness may be discovered by moving the hand gently in front of the eyes or by closing the eye with the hand and excluding the light for a moment; the pupil should dilate to its utmost capacity; when the hand is removed and the light strikes the eye, the pupil should rapidly contract to its normal size. This shows that the eye is sensitive to light. Defective hearing. — When the horse's ears are rigid, it in- dicates that the hearing is defective. The animal is unre- sponsive when spoken to, and the eyes are active. Defective hearing is more common than supposed. Poll-evil is a disease located at the top of the head and is in- dicated by the parts being exceedingly tender. Its causes are many, and it is very serious. Sweenied shoulders is a wasting away of the muscle on the out- side of the shoulder blade. This can be readily detected as the shoulder appears flat and the blade bare of muscle. Fistulas. — Exceeding tenderness at the withers may in- dicate that the horse has fistulse, though at the time there may be no external signs. Capped elbows. — Sores formed on the elbows while the ani- mal is lying down are unsightly and can readily be seen. Unsound knees. — The knee should be examined for bony enlargements, wind-puffs, scars on the front, and speed-cuts. Scars on the front indicate the horse is a stumbler. Splints. — Bony bunches on the inside of the cannon are called splints. These must not be confused with the two small bones associated with the cannon. Splints located on the back CHOOSING A DORSE 17 part of the leg near the tendon or close to the knee joint are con- sidered most objectionable, as they are likely to interfere with the action and cause the animal lameness. When located on the side, they are less likely to cause lameness and not so objec- tionable. Splints may disappear from young draft horses. Ring-bones. — Bony bunches on the fetlock and pastern are called ring-bone. There are two forms, called high and low, depending on the location. Side-bone. — Just at the top of the hoof, on either side, the cartilages should be examined to see that they are not ossified, forming side-bones. These are common on the front feet only. Scratches is located on the back of the pastern, and can be easily detected; it often causes the horse a great deal of pain and annoyance. Unsound hoofs. — The hoofs should be closely examined for quarter cracks — cracks extending from the coronary band downward ; for sand cracks — cracks extending from the bot- tom upward ; for seedy toe — a softening of the wall at the toe of the hoof ; for thrush — a diseased condition of the foot in the region of the frog, which makes its presence known by a disagreeable odor ; for quitter — a running sore occurring at Fl^- 19- — First Prize Percheron Stallions. Owned by J. Crouch the top Of the hoof Or coronet, & Son, Lafayette, Ind. sometimes called "gravel" ; for corns — bunions located in the corner of the heels, common in animals with weak low heels ; for laminitis or founder — congestion of blood in the region of the toe, common in heavy horses ; and for navicular disease — caused by overworking the tendons that pass to the navicular bone, common in light and very active animals, c 18 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Thoroughpin occurs between the tendon and the upper point of the hock. It consists of a soft swelling and may be easily detected, as it can be pushed from side to side. Spavin. — There are three kinds of spavin — bone, bog, and occult. Bone-spavin is the most common, and consists of a bony growth on the inside and front of the hind leg just below the hock. To detect bone- spavin, stand in front and to the side of the animal so the inner outline of the hind leg may be clearly seen. Bog-spavin occurs in the natural depression on the inner and front part of the hock and consists of a soft swelling, ^ on -d - formed by the oil, which accumu- Pig. 20. — Percheron Stallion "Coco." A noted prize winner. lates from the joint. The term " blood spavin" is sometimes applied to the enlargement of the vein that passes across the hock from the front. Occult-spavin is located in the joint and is hard to detect. The usual method of detection is to lift the suspected leg and then start the horse off quickly. Stringhalt is a marked jerking of the hind leg as the horse travels. In some cases it is seen only when the horse first starts and disappears after a few steps have been taken. Curb occurs on the back of the cannon just below the hock. It may be easily detected by looking at the leg from the side, as it is a variation from a straight line that should run from the point of the hock to the fetlock joint. Forging and overreaching. — A horse is said to forge when the shoes of the hind feet strike those of the fore feet, making a characteristic sound. Overreaching is the striking of the fore and hind feet in such a way as to injure the horse. CHOOSING A HORSE 19 Interfering. — A horse is said to interfere when he strikes his fore or hind feet together in such a way as to injure them. Locating lameness. — When standing, a horse troubled with sore feet will extend them as far as possible. If only one is sore, he puts the lame one forward and is often spoken of as a pointer. When the trouble is in the shoulder, the leg will be flexed at the knee. When in motion, the horse puts the sound foot down with confidence and makes an effort to ease the ailing one by throwing the head up as it strikes the ground. Unsound in wind. — There are three common defects in the wind — unsound wind, roaring, and heaves. To detect these, drive the horse rapidly for half a mile, then stop quickly and listen to the breathing by placing the ear near the lungs or by standing near the neck. If the horse gets his breath with difficulty, he is thick winded. If in breathing he wheezes and whistles, he is a roarer. If the breathing is irregular, it is likely he is troubled with heaves. To detect this, observe the flanks for the characteristic double movement, as the air from the lungs seems to be half expelled when the respiration stops for a brief period and then the expulsion of the air is completed. If a horse has passed through many hands in a short period, it is safe to conclude that there is some radical blemish or unsoundness that is not easily discovered. TYPES OF HORSES There are two distinct types of horses. First, is the light type, useful for light work and for speed. This group is further divided into running, trotting, pacing, saddling, coaching, ex- pressing type, and the like. Second, the heavy type for heavy work and is further divided into light draft, medium draft, and heavy draft type. Horses belonging to the first type are usually designated light horses; those belonging to the second, draft horses. As the form or conformation best adapted for one is different from that of the other, we cannot find both united in 20 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the same animal. It is a physical impossibility to have maxi- mum speed and maximum draft in the same engine, and such is none the less the case among horses. The light type. — In conformation, horses belonging to the light type vary considerably, depending on the purpose for which they are adopted. For example, the saddle horse differs in many respects from the running horse, and the trotter or pacer has many characteristics unlike either. However, since horses belonging to the light type are each intended for light and rather fast work, they possess many points in common. In general conformation, the light type of horse is rather tall, upstanding, the limbs long, the distance from the chest to the ground is more than one-half the height of the horse from the withers to the ground. The distance from the withers to the knee and from the hips to the hock is great. The animals are somewhat narrow but rather deep in front. In general form the light type resembles the greyhound. Heavy type. — In general conformation, the heavy type of horse is massive, blocky, low set, the limbs short, the distance from the chest to the ground one-half the height of the animal from the withers to the ground. In general form, this type resembles the bull-dog. Weight is important. In order to pull heavy loads the draft horse must possess plenty of weight. A draft horse in fair condition at maturity weighs from 1500 to 2400 pounds, according to the class. CHOOSING A LIGHT HORSE Having considered the method of procedure and the type, we will now discuss the desirable and undesirable characters of each type. For convenience these are divided into two classes : first, the general appearance, those characters having to do with the horse as a whole, such as form, quality, and action ; and second, the detail characters, having to do with each point in- CHOOSING A HOESE 21 dependent of the others, such as the head, neck, shoulder, and the like. General appearance in light horses The form, action, quality, color, and temperament are very- important characters among light horses, and add to or detract from their desirability. Form. — One of the first characters to attract attention among light horses is the general form. In those of good form there is a peculiar balance and harmony throughout the make-up which is difficult to describe and must be observed to be appre- ciated. The form varies according to the object sought, that of the coacher being full and plump, while that of the trotter or runner will be lean and angular. The position and direction of the limbs should receive special consideration. They should be viewed from in front, behind, and either side. In this con- nection, it will prove helpful if one will bear in mind that the limbs should be so formed as to meet the following requirements : the fore leg when viewed from the side should be so formed that a plumb line dropped from the elbow joint would pass through the middle of the knee, the cannon, and the fetlock, and fall a short distance behind the heel ; when viewed from in front, the line lowered from the point of the shoulder would divide equally the knee, the cannon, and the foot, leaving between the two feet an interval equal to the width of the hoof. The hind leg when viewed from behind should be so formed that a plumb line lowered from the point of the buttock will pass through the middle of the hock, cannon, pastern, and foot, leaving between the two feet an interval almost equal to the width of the hock. This line should -also just touch the back of the hock and the pastern joint. Action. — In the market for light horses there is no single feature held in higher estimation than that of good action. Desirable action varies according to the object sought, but to 22 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS sell well a light horse must possess as much as may be displayed and used to advantage. Excellence at a walk is a very desirable quality in all types of horses. The feet of the active walkers leave the ground with a quick snap, and move straight away, swerving neither to the right nor to the left, nor should the folding of the knees or the flexing of the hocks result in an outward pitching or spreading. In addition to being snappy, regular, and straight, it should be fast. This is a point often neglected, and many good acting horses are provokingly slow walkers. Action at the trot will vary according to the class. In the roadster a strong, long-reaching knee-and-hock action, with the feet picked up snappy, is most es- sential. The stride should be long and not too high. In the coacher, a rather high, bold knee-and- hock action is the most sought. In all classes the move- ment should be straight and regu- lar. There must be style and dash in the lifting and planting of the feet. Fig. 21. — Hackney Coach Team. and stylish. Well-trained The foot should be snapped from the ground and carried for- ward, while the limb unfolds, as if following the rim of a wheel. The hind feet should leave the ground with the same quick movement, and at no time should be allowed to hang back and give the horse the appearance of not gathering him- self well together. Quality is a term rather loosely applied and has reference to CHOOSING A HORSE 23 the bones, skin, and hair. Evidences of desirable quality are clean-cut features, soft skin, silky hair, and clean dense bone. In those horses possessing quality the lines of the face are clearly defined, the veins in the skin show clearly, and there is a complete absence of coarseness. Freedom from coarseness in the joints and tendons emphasizes soundness and guarantees durability. Another evidence of quality is seen in those ani- mals whose muscles stand out clearly defined and distinct. The best way to determine quality is to run the hand down the leg over the knee and cannon bone. The hair and skin should feel soft and pliable to the touch and the bone firm and smooth. The fingers should seem almost to touch each other as they pass between the tendon and the bone. Coarse hair is associated with coarse thick skin which indi- cates an abundance of connective tissue which in turn is asso- ciated with soft, spongy bones that cannot endure strain or hard usage. The temperament is reflected in the action and manners. It should be lively and pleasant. When possible, the purchaser should know something of the ancestors of the horse under consideration, as a horse may inherit characteristics which can- not be discovered until he has been used some time, and peculiarities of temper are among these characters. Detail characters of a light horse Having considered the general appearance of the light horse, then pass to a detailed examination of the characters; and in order that none go unnoticed they should be observed in the following order : — Head. — Among light horses the head should be lean, with broad forehead tapering towards the nostrils, and the features of the face should be distinct. The nostrils should be large, open, and of pink color. The eye should be large, full, clear, and bright, indicative of a kind, generous disposition and good 24 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS health. The jaw-bones should be strong and wide, providing ample room for a large wind-pipe. The ears should be active, refined, neither large nor small, carried close and erect and turn- ing slightly in at the tips. Lop ears indicate laziness. A smooth neat attachment of head to neck is. highly essential, a fullness at the throat and about the wind-pipe being most undesirable. Neck. — A nicely arched and well-muscled neck of sufficient length, carrying the head gracefully, is a highly desirable feature Fig. 22. — An American Trotter. A driving horse of good form. The American Trotting breed of horses developed in United States. The breed is the outgrowth of a demand for a light road horse possessing speed and en- durance. The weight and height are exceedingly variable. The body is light, narrow, but deep, and the legs are long, but clean, and free from coarseness. All colors are found, but solid colors such as browns and bays are preferred to grays, roans, and the like. of the light horse. Much of the style and symmetry of the coach horse is observed in the make-up and carriage of the head and neck. The wind-pipe should be large, and the outline appear distinct from the rest of the neck. Many excellent road horses have a ewe neck, but it detracts very much from the CHOOSING A HORSE 25 general appearance. The neck and body should blend smoothly at the attachment. Chest. — Among light horses the chest should obtain its capacity more from depth than width. A deep chest permits a freer play of the shoulders, and indicates staying power. A wide chest throws the fore legs out of line with the hind ones and causes the horse to paddle or roll in his action. The chest should be not only deep, but the breast should be carried forward with some prominence. Shoulders. — To give elasticity to the movement and to per- mit of quick and clean action the shoulder should be long and sloping well into the back, thus strengthening the back and extending the length of the underline. The high action of the coach horse and the long-reaching clean action of the roadster depend much on a long oblique shoulder. A steep shoulder prevents a strong rapid movement and results in hard stilted action, leading to defects of feet and legs. Arms. • — Among light horses the arm should be short and comparatively upright, giving the animal an upstanding ap- pearance. Elbows. — The elbow should work snugly alongside the animal; if too closely "tied in," as it is termed, the toes are usually thrown out; if turned out, the toes are likely to be thrown in. The fore-arms should be long, wide, and well muscled. The capacity of the animal to cover much ground at a step depends on the direction of the shoulders and the length of the fore- arms. Long sloping shoulders, upright arms together with long fore-arms, give much distance from the withers to the knee, which is considered very essential in animals of speed. The muscles should be well developed and stand out distinctly just below the junction of the leg and body and taper gracefully downward. The fat accumulates very little at this point, and it is a safe guide to the muscular development of the animal. 26 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS The knees should be wide, deep, and straight. They should be much broader in front than the rest of the leg, either above or below. Breadth is desirable because the concussion is more evenly distributed among the several bones forming the knee joint. The bone forming the projection at the back of the knee should be prominent, since this gives a better attachment for the muscles and tendons which pass over it, thereby giving the leg a deeper appearance and increasing the efficiency. The knees are subject to many defects more or less serious, such as calf knees, knock knees, spring knees, open knees, speed cuts, scars, and the like. The cannons should be short, wide, clean, and the tendons well detached. The back tendons should be parallel to the cannon-bones, and there should be no shrinking below the knees, as it indicates weakness. This defect is spoken of as " tied in, " and is quite common among light horses. The cannon should be free from bony growths and puffiness. Evidences of firing or blistering to remove such growths are series of lines on the cannons or roughened places caused by blistering. On running the hand over the cannons they should be free from gumminess, puffs, and bony growths. The fetlock joint should be clean, free from fullness due to wind-galls, and should be wide, giving favorable attachments to the tendons. The pasterns should be sloping and strong. When the horse is standing, they should form an angle of 45 degrees with the floor and 135 degrees with the cannons. The upright pasterns cannot resist concussion, and bone diseases, such as ring-bones, side-bones, and the like, are the result. Again, it lessens the usefulness of the light horse, especially the saddler, as the step is short and stilted and very disagreeable to the rider. On the other hand, the pasterns are sometimes too long and slanting, especially among thoroughbreds, which weakens them, and occa- sionally ends in snapping the suspensory ligaments, resulting in CHOOSING A HORSE 27 the animal " breaking down." There should be freedom from wind puffs and bony growths, as in the cannon. The feet should be round, dense, fine in texture, of good size, and perfectly sound. They should be of equal size and shape and in line with the pastern. The hoof should have an oily coat of natural wax, and should not appear flat, brittle, shelly, or contracted. The heel should be rather vertical and about one-half length of toe. The sole should be concave ; the bars strong, and the frog large, elastic, and bear the mark of natural usage as a buffer. The dark-colored feet seem to be in favor. The ribs should be well sprung from the spine, of good length, and well inclined to the rear. The well-sprung rib gives lung capacity, the deep rib gives digestive capacity, and the ribs well inclined to the rear add much to the strength of the back. Body. — The back should be short, strong, and well muscled. The body should have a short back with a long underline which not only adds strength to the back, but gives the legs free play and insures freedom of movements. The long back, the roach back, and the sway back are all very objectionable. The loin should be wide, short, thick, and strongly joined. This combination results when the ribs are directed well back- ward. If the distance from the last rib to the hip is great, the horse is likely to be weak in the coupling and irregular in his action. The croup should be long, muscular, and fairly straight. The croup of light horses should be more horizontal than in heavy horses. This in connection with its length allows greater play of the main muscles, which is favorable to the production of speed. The short, oblique croup interferes with the utility of the light horse and detracts from the general appearance. While examining the croup, the hips should also be observed to see that they are of equal prominence and squarely placed. The thigh should be muscular, long, and deep. It should be so situated as to extend the muscles as far clown towards the 28 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS hock as possible, without giving the leg too straight an appear- ance. Some horses are so straight in this respect that the muscle extends to the hock, giving it a thick appearance. Horses show much variation in the muscling of the quarters; some are full and heavily muscled, some decidedly lacking and called "cat hammed," while others are fairly full in this region, with deep, hard muscles. The hind legs from the thigh to the hock should be long, fairly straight, and well muscled, though they must not be too straight, thereby causing either thoroughpin or bog-spavin. On the other hand, if the legs are bent too far forward, it is likely to develop curb. The position of the croup and thighs, together with the long legs, should be such as to give length from the hip to the hock, as this is the conformation desired among animals of speed. The hocks should be wide, properly set, and clean. They should also be free from gumminess, fleshiness, and puffs of all kinds, and the bone firm without the least indication of unsound- ness. The bone forming the point of the hock should be prominent, since this gives a better attachment for the muscles and tendons which pass over it, thereby giving the hind leg a deeper appearance and increasing its efficiency. The hocks are subject to many defects more or less serious, such as cow hocks, capped hocks, open hocks, crooked hocks, and the like. The hind cannons should be short, wide, clean, with tendons well detached and parallel to cannon bones, which gives better attachments and strengthens the cannon. Slender hocks and narrow cannons, especially at the top, indicate a predis- position to curbs on account of the weakness thus produced. The cannon should be free from all evidences of unsoundness. The hind pasterns should be sloping and strong. When the horse is standing, they will be more upright than the front pasterns, and this is not so objectionable as there is less con- cussion on the hind foot, the weight borne being only four- CHOOSING A HORSE 29 ninths that of the total weight, and in addition the hind limbs are not intended to break concussion as are the fore limbs. The hind feet should be oval, dense, fine in texture, of good size, and perfectly sound. They are inclined to become narrow, the sides often appear sunken, leaving them rather flat, thus causing the foot to appear narrow. The hind feet should have the characteristics that have been described in the refer- ence to the desirable points of the fore feet. CHOOSING A HEAVY HORSE In choosing a heavy horse, it must be borne in mind that the fatter the animal the more difficult it is to detect many of the defects which would stand out clearly were the animal not padded with a thick coat of fat. A horse in serviceable condi- tion will often show many defects, especially in the body, that a thick coating of tissue will hide. By changing the food one can increase or diminish the size of the abdomen: thus by feeding food containing much bulk, the shape of the narrow-gutted horse is modified ; by feeding concentrated foods, such as oats, the cow-belly can be made to disappear. By regulating the light in the stable and increasing the temperature, the coat can be made to assume brighter shades and to reflect a more brilliant luster. By removing or clipping the hairs scattered over the face, around the mouth, nostrils, eyelids, along the lower jaw; in diminishing the thickness and length of the mane and tail; in clipping the thick hairs along the cannons and pasterns ; and finally in cutting the hairs on the inner surface of the ears, the apparent quality of the horse can be greatly changed and a rough, coarse animal can be made to take on a rather refined appearance. General appearance in heavy horses The same general method should be followed in examining a heavy horse as in the light, with the difference, that we place much stress on weight. 30 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS The form. — In form, the draft horse should be massive, compact, blocky, and low set. Power and not speed is the re- quirement, and in order to attain this the animal must be Fig. 23. — Clydesdale Stallion "Calipt." Second Prize, International Live Stock Show, Alex. Galbraith, Dixon, 111. The Clydesdale draft horse originated in Scotland. An active breed, though not so heavy as the Shire or so massive as the Percheron. In weight stallions average 1600 to 2000 pounds, the mares 1400 to 1700 pounds. The height ranges from 15 to 16% hands. Bay or brown with white on forehead and on the legs below the knees and hocks is the most popular color, though there are many blacks, grays, and chestnuts. As with the Shire, the long hair on the back of cannons below the knees and hocks is a breed characteristic. close to the ground, strong, and heavy. In animals of speed we find long bones, long muscles, and slightly angular joints; in animals of strength we find heavy bones, heavy muscles, and a comparative freedom from angularity about the joints. CHOOSING A HORSE 31 The weight. — Among draft horses, weight is a very impor- tant consideration; in iact, a horse must weigh at least 1500 pounds to be classed as a draft animal. Draft horses are divided into three classes according to their weight : light draft, 1500 to 1600 pounds; medium draft, 1600 to 1800 pounds; and heavy draft, 1800 pounds and up. This weight must be due to strong bone, heavily muscled, as well as to large proportions, and not the result of excessive fatness. The importance of bulk is well illustrated in the case of the freight engine, in which the efficiency depends upon the weight to such an extent that engines are graded according to their weight ; thus we have the hundred ton freight engine on a certain section of the road and the hundred and twenty-five ton engine on another section. The engine must have much weight to keep the wheels from slipping on the track. Such is none the less the case among draft horses. This is well illus- trated in the rather common experience of the teamster whose team is stalled, and observing that the animals seem too light to push into the collar, conceives the idea of mounting one of the animals, when to his satisfaction they are able to pull the load. Illustrations of this principle are very common in parts of the country where the heavy cart is used in which the animal carries a part of the load on its back. It frequently happens with vehicles of this kind that when the animal is stalled, if a part of the load is moved forward so that a larger portion rests on the back, it can pull the load with comparative ease. The heavy horse is in very great demand for draft work in the cities. In our large cities the busy streets have be- come so crowded that it is necessary for the traffic to move slow. This has led to the use of larger loads and fewer trips, whereas formerly more trips were made and the loads lighter. To draw these heavy loads requires heavy horses; thus within the past few years there has arisen a great demand 32 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS for the heavy horse. For this extra weight the market is will- ing to pay. It is estimated that the heavy horse is worth 50 cents a pound for each additional pound that it weighs over 1400 pounds. In other words, a thin horse weighing 1400 pounds and worth $200 would be worth $250 if put in good condition and weighing 1500 pounds. The action. — While action in the heavy horse is not con- sidered as desirable as in the lighter types, yet it should receive much attention. The walk de- serves special notice since it is the principal gait of the draft horse. It should be observed in much the same manner as in the lighter types — from before, behind, and either side. The horse should lift the feet clear of the ground with much snap, and the stride should be Fig. 24. — Clydesdale Mare. First regular. Observe the fore Show. International Live"Stock and hind legs to see if they work in unison. Horses with long backs and weak loins often drag their feet in a discon- nected manner. Observed from behind, the movement should be straight away and regular. The hocks are often*turned outward, or bent inward when raised, both of which are very undesirable. The flexion of the hock should be free and straight. While action at the trot is not so essential as in light horses, yet the draft horse in trotting should go level, straight, and regular. The feet should be picked up with snap and carried clear of the ground. High knee and hock action is not essential, but a strong, full, true movement without paddling, dragging, or stiffness is very desirable. Good trotting action is not only valuable in itself, but it indicates many other CHOOSING A HORSE 33 desirable qualities, such as temperament, conformation, and soundness. Quality among heavy horses is as essential as among light ones, and the evidences are the same — clean-cut features, soft skin, silky hair, and clean, dense bone. The lines of the face will not be as clearly defined nor the veins in the skin show as prominently as in the light type. Quality is determined in the same way, and in running the hand over the cannon the bone should be flat, firm, and free from roughness and the tendons should stand out distinct from the bone. Among draft horses the mistake is sometimes made of considering small bone to be an indication of quality, which should be guarded against, as small bone is a very undesirable feature in a draft horse. Detail characters of heavy horses In considering the characters in detail among heavy horses the same general order should be followed as in the lighter types, in order that no character go unobserved. Only the differences are here pointed out, and those characters that are the same in both types are omitted. The head should be lean and of medium size. The heads of draft horses are as a rule larger, fuller, and coarser proportion- ately than in the light type. Many of the breeds of draft horses have a characteristic Roman nose. The assertion is often made that small nostrils is associated with a Roman nose, and consequently the respiratory or breathing organs lack develop- ment ; also that animals with very prominent Roman noses are self-willed. Both statements seem to lack sufficient evidence, and the opinion may owe its origin to a few observations made on Standard-bred animals. The nostrils, eyes, jaws, and ears should be observed as among light horses. The neck should be short, strongly muscled, and massive. A well-arched neck is preferred. The neck of a draft horse is more horizontal than in horses of speed. 34 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS The chest should be deep, wide, and full. Its depth is about one-half height of horse. Horses slack in the heart girth are generally of weak constitution. Exceptional width in the chest is likely to result in rolling and paddling motion of the fore legs. Shoulders. — Among heavy horses, the shoulder should be moderately sloping into the back and heavily muscled. The statement is made that upright shoulders give increased power, but such a conformation increases the concussion of the bones and may result in unsound limbs ; it also increases the length of the back, which may result in weakness ; and the step is short and the action stilted. The arm should be short, heavily muscled, and sloping well to the rear, thus giving the animal a massive and low-set ap- pearance. Fore-arms. — Among draft horses, the fore-arms should be wide, heavily muscled, and large. As in the light type, the muscling affords a safe guide to the muscle development of the animal, as it is not padded with fat. The knees should be broad and well defined. While the knees of heavy animals may not be as clean cut as among lighter horses, yet there should be a freedom from puffiness and gumminess. The cannon should be short, wide, clean, and the tendons well detached. The Clydesdales and Shires have a fringe of hair, called " feather," starting from the knee and hock behind and extending to the fetlock. The " feather" often furnishes an index to the quality, as coarse hair is associated with coarse, thick skin, which indicates coarse, porous bone. On the other hand, fine, soft hair is commonly accepted as an indication of good quality. Pasterns. — Among draft horses the pasterns should be slop- ing, strong, and of medium length. Horses of this type often possess pasterns that are too short and too straight. This con- formation lacks springiness, the concussion comes more on the ends of the bones, resulting in ring-bones, side-bones, and the CHOOSING A HOUSE 35 like, also in a short stilted movement of the legs. Again, pas- terns that are too straight often become more so with age, and the usefulness of the animal depreciates in proportion. Fig. 25. — Champion English Shire Stallion "Dan Patch." Pioneer Stock Farm, Bushnell, 111. Trumans The Shire draft horse was developed in England. This breed has long been noted as the "Cart Horse" ; for heavy draft it is unexcelled. In size, Shires are equal to the largest stallions, ranging from 1700 to 2200 pounds, with the mares correspondingly less. In height stallions average from 15 to 17 hands. The preferred color is bay or brown with white on the forehead and on the legs below the knees and hocks. Grays, blacks, and chestnuts exist in abundance. Long hair on the back of the cannons below the knees and hocks is a breed characteristic. The feet of the heavy horse deserve special attention, as sound feet are rather the exception. The feet should be round, dense, fine in structure, of equal size and shape, and perfectly sound. The hoof should be dark in color, and have an oily coat of natural wax. Common defects of the feet of heavy horses are : 36 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS soft hoof, dry and broken hoof, flat hoof, low or sloping heels, and large hoof. The body should be short, the back broad, and the ribs well sprung, deep, and inclined well to the rear, thus giving a short loin, which should be broad and thick. The upright shoulder gives undue length to the back, which may become roached or sunken. The croup should be broad, thickly muscled, and moderately sloping, although there is considerable difference in draft horses in this regard. A moderately sloping croup gives a favorable attachment of the muscles for the production of power. In some strains of draft horses, the croup is so very sloping that it detracts from their general appearance. The thighs and quarters should be heavily muscled. The direction of the thigh should be such as to give the muscles the most favorable attachment for the development of power. This means perhaps that the lower part of the thigh should be inclined well forward, and that the leg should be moderately sloping from the thigh to the hock. The hock of the heavy horse should be closely observed, for in this joint there is perhaps more work done than in any other single part of the body. The hock should be wide, properly set, and clearly defined. The tendons extending from the hocks downward should be lean and well detached, thus giving a deeper-appearing hock and a more favorable attachment of the muscles for developing power. Crooked, narrow, and tied-in hocks are subject to curbs, spavin, and the like. The hocks of draft horses are likely to be fleshy or gummy, thus indicating a liability to hock troubles and a general coarseness of the organization. CHAPTER II THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS — GENERAL DISCUSSION The economic feeding of farm animals involves a knowledge of the principles underlying the practice. The better knowl- edge one has of the food, its source, use, composition, and di- gestibility, the more familiar he is with the function of the various food materials, and the balancing of rations, the more intelligently can he choose the foods that constitute the ration. FOOD Food may be denned as any material that an animal can take into its digestive organs and from which it can absorb matter for the nourishment of its own body. Plants and their products and by-products constitute the food of farm animals, although some farm animals are in part carnivorous, feeding on other animals or parts of animals. Matter is transferred directly from the food to the tissue with or without chemical or physical change. Materials is not, however, the only thing the animal gets from the food. The plant during growth absorbs heat from the sun, which is held in latent form in the plant compounds. When these compounds are taken into the ani- mal body and broken apart by digestion, some of this stored heat may be transferred to energy. The animal therefore gets from the food both matter and energy. Use of food. — The matter and energy the animal collects from the food are put to three distinct uses : first, to support life; second, to reproduce life; and third, stored up in some 37 38 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS form. The animal must maintain its existence, and for this both energy and matter are required. A large part of the energy of the food goes to the maintenance of the body temperature. The body temperature of farm animals is considerably above that of the surrounding atmosphere, and its maintenance requires much heat, as the body is continually giving off heat. The body tissues become worn out and must be constantly renewed. This must be supplied by the matter and energy from the food. In the case of young animals, there is a constant formation of new tissue. This requires more matter than energy. Again, the muscular function of vital processes require much energy, which must be supplied by the food. Of the total amount of food that an animal will ordinarily consume, a very large proportion goes to support life and a small amount to production. Composition of food. — The value of a food depends, among other things, on its composition. There is a tendency to ig- nore the fact that a food should be considered with reference to its composition. It is assumed that a pound of timothy hay, for example, is equivalent to a pound of clover hay, when as a matter of fact their composition is such as to make them widely different, so that one will not take the place of the other. The number of compounds found in the food is very large, and many of them very complex in their nature. For convenience in comparing foods, these compounds are grouped into classes. These classes are few in number, easy to comprehend, and serve the purpose well from a practical point of view. We recognize five distinct groups, one of which is divided into two sub-groups. They are as follows : — 1. Water 2. Ash (mineral compounds) 3. Protein (nitrogenous compounds) 4. Carbohydrates { ^^-free extract 5. Fats Nutrients Dry- matter It is customary to group together all the substances of a food THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 39 except the water, and to speak of them collectively as dry- matter, and not with respect to their total weight. Ash is also eliminated, and the remaining three constituents are called nu- trients. Each of these groups has its part to perform in the nu- trition of animals, the function of one being different from the others. There are a few foods containing these several constitu- ents in the proper proportions to meet the needs of the animal, but in most foods there is an excess of one and a deficiency of the others. This makes it desirable to add two or more foods of different composition in order to supply the proper balance for the best development of the animal. Water. — Water is present in all foods, even the driest. It varies widely in different foods, running as low as 8 or 10 per cent in the case of grains or concentrates, such as corn, oats, or cotton- seed meal, and dried brewers' grains, to 85 or 90 per cent in the more watery foods, as silage, roots, tubers, and the like. Even dry hay varies considerably in this respect, alfalfa containing as low as 9 per cent and some clovers as high as 20 per cent. Water not being a nutrient, its presence or absence is an important fac- tor in determining the usefulness and therefore the value of a food. Ash. — Ash or mineral matter is present in all plant food, although it forms but a small part, shelled corn containing only 1.5 per cent, and alfalfa, one of the highest, containing only 8 per cent. The leaves and the region of the germ in grain contain the most ash. The animal secures the ash from the food directly by transfer. Most plants contain sufficient ash to meet the needs of the animal, corn and certain prepared foods being the only exceptions. In young animals, because of the large bone development that is taking place, in milk and egg production and the like, it is of special importance to have sufficient mineral matter supplied by the food. Protein. — Of the three nutrients — protein, carbohydrates, and fats — the protein is considered to be the most important. This is perhaps due to two factors; first, protein is absolutely 40 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Fig. 26. — Champion English Shire Stallion "Mazemore Harold." essential to the animal body, and second, the percentage of pro- tein is relatively small in most plants. Like the other nutrients, the protein group contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and in addition it also con- tains nitrogen, which is the characteristic element of the entire group. It is on the element nitrogen that the im- portance of this group de- pends. Protein enters largely into the composition of the bones, muscle, lean meat, white of egg, and the curd of milk. The only source from which the animals can procure this protein is the protein of the food. The amount of digestible protein in various foods varies within rather wide limits, corn containing only 8 per cent, while cotton-seed meal runs as high as 32 per cent, but the larger number of food materials contain rather small amounts of pro- tein. There are comparatively few foods that are relatively rich in protein. The value of the food turns very largely on the protein which it contains. Protein is not, however, as digestible as some of the other nutrients. Carbohydrates. — There are two sub-groups of carbohydrates — nitrogen-free extract, and crude fiber. The carbohydrate group contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but no nitrogen. The nitrogen-free extract is composed largely of starches and sugars, and constitutes the larger part of the dry-matter of most plants. Starch alone forms as much as 75 per cent of the dry- matter of corn, wheat, potatoes, and some other foods. It is easily digested, more so than any of the other three constituents, and therefore foods rich in nitrogen-free extract are ordinarily THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 41 classed as most readily digestible. Fiber or crude fiber consti- tutes the tough woody part of plants. The stems of all plants contain more fiber than does the leafy part. Variation in the digestibility of foods depends largely on the amount of crude fiber, which is mostly insoluble and hence largely indigestible. Crude fiber is the least valuable of the four nutrients, because of its indigestibility. Young plants contain less crude fiber than plants that have matured and formed seeds, and hence are more digestible. Fat. — Plants also contain fat or oil. It occurs in largest quantities in the seed, and varies widely, running less than 2 per cent in rye to 30 and 35 per cent in flaxseed. Fats like carbo- hydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but no nitrogen. The oil content of food is determined by extracting the fat by ether ; hence in tables giving composition of food the fat is often designated as ether extract. A given weight of fat will develop 2\ times as much heat energy as an equal weight of carbohy- drates. If we multiply fat, therefore, by 2\} it reduces it to the starch or carbohydrate equivalent. Fats are not so readily di- gested as nitrogen-free extract. Functions of various food materials A knowledge of the function of the various food materials will enable one to choose and balance a ration more economical^, and to adapt it to the needs of the animal. A very satisfactory ration for a race horse may be entirely inadequate for a dairy cow. Water. — The water of the food takes the place to a certain extent of the water that an animal would otherwise drink. In the case of food containing a large amount of water, the total consumption of water by the animal will be greater than other- wise. Watery foods will not, however, satisfy the animal in this respect, as it will still drink water. In many cases the large consumption of water is of advantage to the animal ; this is 42 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS particularly true of the dairy cow, which, in addition to the water needed for her own body, secretes large amounts in the milk. The animal body requires much water, particularly the younger ones ; their bodies are more than 50 per cent water. Again, water adds succulence to the food, which increases its palat ability. The great importance of an abundance of good water for all animals is often underestimated. Ash. — The ash or mineral matter is chiefly used in the for- mation of bone, but also to some extent in the tissues, blood, digestive fluids, and the like. Young animals fail to develop if given no mineral matter, and mature animals become weak and inactive if deprived of only one substance, that of common salt. Hogs, if closely confined and fed on corn alone, are likely to be weak-boned because of the lack of mineral matter in the food. If to the corn ration some food rich in mineral matter, such as alfalfa, or even wood ashes, is added, no difficulty is experienced. Hens always require more lime than is found in the food. This is strikingly illustrated when we compare the composition of eggs and corn, for example, the former containing 12.2 per cent ash, the latter only 1.5 per cent. The ash in the food of the milk cow also deserves special consideration on account of phos- phoric acid, lime, and potash so abundantly found in the milk which she secretes. In short, the ash or mineral matter in the food of all animals, young and old, deserves much consideration. Protein. — So far as is known, the proteids of the food are the only source of the proteids of the body. In other words, the muscles, the connective tissues, the blood, the skin, the hair, the horn, the hoofs, and the larger part of the tissues of the secretive and excretive organs owe their formation to the protein of the food. Since these are the tissues that largely determine the vigor and quality of the animal, and since they are formed rapidly in the early stages of growth, a normal and continuous development demands an abundant supply of protein food. In addition to this, protein is a source of fat and can serve as fuel, or THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 43 as a source of energy. The amount appropriated as fat and energy depends on the quantity fed to the animal. A pound of protein, however, is worth more than a pound of carbohydrates on the market. Then to use protein substances largely as a source of fat and energy, where cheaper substances would do fully as well and perhaps better, as we shall presently see, is not economical. On the other hand, if the protein in the food is in- sufficient fully to supply the needs of the animal, the very best development will not be attained. The economy of feeding, therefore, depends largely on the balance between the protein on the one hand and the remaining nutrients on the other hand. It is to secure sufficient protein and yet not to use it waste- fully that so much attention is given to the proper balancing of a ration. Carbohydrates. — Carbohydrates are used to maintain heat and in the production of fat. Formerly it was thought that carbohydrates are used for that purpose only, but it is now well established that the animal fats may have their source in the carbohydrates. Again, experiments with milk cows show clearly that milk-fat may also be derived from carbo- hydrates. The fact that carbohydrates can be used as heat- producers and as fat-formers, connected with their ease of digestion and cheapness of production, tends to magnify the importance of this group of nutrients. Fat. — Fat, like carbohydrates, serves as a source of heat and of animal fat. The differences are that the supply of carbohy- drates is much the larger, and the heat value of a similar weight of fats much the greater, — as we have already seen 2^ times as great. Moreover, there seems to be experimental evidence showing vegetable fat to become deposited in the animal without change, whereas fat formed from carbohydrates involves com- plex transformation. From the foregoing statements, it is evident that the water taken into the animal serves as the water of the animal body. 44 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS The ash or mineral matter taken in serves as the mineral matter of the animal body. The protein acquired may serve a three- fold purpose ; it must serve as the proteid supply of the animal body, as, so far as known, there is no other source ; it may serve in heat production; and it may serve as a fat-former. The carbohydrates serve a double purpose, that of heat-production and fat-forming. The fat serves a similar purpose as the carbohy- drates — forming fat and producing heat — and is 2\ times as efficient as the carbohydrates. DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD The value of a food depends on the digestibility of the various materials of which it is composed, and not alone on its composition as shown by a chemist. Because of the importance of the digestibility of the various food materials, and in order to get a clear conception of digestion, it will be necessary to review briefly the process through which the food materials must pass on their way from the food as such to the flesh or energy of the animal body. Digestion. — The process of digestion is largely a process of solution, aided to a certain extent by chemical changes that take place through the influence of various ferments with which the food comes in contact as it passes through the digestive tract. The digestive organs form a canal through the body, and the food in its passage through this tract or canal is acted upon by various fluids. Each fluid has a special work to do in the pro- cess of digestion. To begin, the food is taken into the mouth, where it is reduced to fine particles in order that the digestive juices may better do their work and to put it into condition to be swallowed. During this mastication there is a digestive fluid, called saliva, poured upon the food, which moistens it and changes a part of the starch. After leaving the mouth the food passes down the esophagus into the stomach, where the digestive fluid, called gastric juice, is poured upon it and which changes a THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 45 part of the protein. When the food leaves the stomach, it enters the small intestines, where it comes in contact with two digestive fluids — the bile from the liver, and the pancreatic juice from the pancreas. The bile prepares the partly digested food for the ac- tion of the pancreatic juice and changes the fats. The pancreatic juice has a more complex func- tion. It contains at least three distinct ferments, one changing the proteids, another the starch, i ,1 ji • j ji £ i a j. i_ Fig. 27. — Wrydelands "Sun- and the third the fats. As the SHINE>» Champion ShiRE Mare. material passes along the intes- tines it comes in contact with a juice secreted by the walls of the intestines and which acts upon the starch, but there is no action on the proteids or fats. From the time the food enters the stomach, during its entire course along the digestive tract, in some way not wholly understood, the digested food has been absorbed and received into vessels, through which it is distributed to the various parts of the body. A part of the food materials, however, in passing through the digestive tract, es- cape digestion. The amount of food digested depends on the kind of food, the amount fed, the class of animal, and on the condition of the animal's health. Size of digestive organs. — The length and capacity of the di- gestive organs of the various farm animals differ widely. Among ruminating animals, — those capable of re-chewing the previ- ously swallowed food, — the cow, sheep, and goat, the stomach is a very complicated organ. It has four divisions or sacks called paunch, honeycomb, many-plies, and rennet. The paunch is very large and may be considered as a reservoir for the storage of bulky foods. Because of this provision, ruminating animals can be fed on foods containing much more bulk than can 46 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the pig or horse. The food during its retention in the paunch becomes thoroughly softened and undergoes some fermentation, then it is re-chewed, — called chewing the cud, — and swallowed. The stomach of the horse and pig is a single sack and has not nearly so much capacity. The varying length of intestines and capacity of stomach in farm animals is illustrated in the following table : — Length of intestines and capacity of stomach of farm animals Animals Capacity Quarts Total Length, Feet Stomach Intestines Intestines Horse 19.0 204.8 223.8 98.1 Cow 266.9 109.8 376.7 187.2 Sheep 31.3 15.4 46.7 107.3 Hog 8.5 20.5 29.0 77.1 It requires three to four days for food to pass through the di- gestive tract of farm animals. Since animals of the same class and in good health are fairly uniform in the amount of material they extract from a given class of food, it is practicable to make digestion trials to determine the amount of the various food materials digested and to use these figures as a basis of com- putation for all animals of the same class. Digestible nutrients. — Digestible nutrients are those parts of food materials that are digested and appropriated to the ani- mal's use. Our knowledge of the amount of the food materials that are digested is based on experimental data, and while not absolutely accurate, is sufficiently so for practical purposes. The method of determining the digestible nutrients is as fol- lows : The animal is fed for a sufficient length of time on a certain food or combination of foods, so that the digestive or- gans contain only the food under test. Then for a certain length of time the animal is fed a carefully weighed allowance of some THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 47 food, the composition of which has been previously determined by a chemist. Provision is then made for collecting all excreta. By making an analysis of this waste matter, the undigested protein, carbohydrates, and fat are found. This, deducted from the total in the food, gives the digested part. The amount of each constituent digested divided by the total in the food gives the percentage digestible. This is called the " coefficient of digesti- bility." The grains are more highly digestible than the coarse fodders; for example, in corn the protein is 76 per cent digestible, the crude fiber 58, the nitrogen-free extract 93, and the fat 86 per cent digestible, while in timothy hay the protein is 56 per cent, the crude fiber 58, the nitrogen-free extract 63, and the fat 57 per cent digestible. Among the various food materials the carbohydrates as a rule are the most digestible, running as high as 95 per cent in case of corn, while the crude fiber is the least digestible, and between these lie fat and protein. In general the fat is more digestible than the protein. As a rule, the digestible coefficient falls when large amounts of foods are used. If we crowd the con- sumption of food, the animal does not digest it as thoroughly as it would if fed smaller amounts. On the other hand, we cannot secure a greater digestibility by limiting the consumption. Animals under a starving ration do not digest any more than when fed a normal amount. Having the composition of the food as determined by the chemist, and the digestible coefficient as determined with the animal, it is an easy matter to calculate the amount of digestible nutrients in the various food-stuffs. It is with the digestible nutrients, and not the total food materials, that the feeder is concerned in choosing a ration. A great deal of work has been done at the various experiment stations to determine the digesti- bility of food-stuffs. For ready reference Table II, showing the amount of digestible nutrients in a large number of foods, is published in the Appendix of this manual. 48 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS CONDITIONS INFLUENCING DIGESTION The changes that the food undergoes in the digestive tract during digestion are beyond the control of the feeder. They proceed in accordance with fixed laws. The feeder, however, can manipulate the food or change the conditions under which it is fed so that the completeness of digestion is modified. Palatability. — In the case of most foods, anything that adds to their palatability will promote digestion. While an agreeable flavor or taste adds nothing to the energy of a food, the more it is relished the greater will be the flow of the digestive juices, the more thoroughly the food will be acted on by them, and the more completely the nutrients will be dissolved and digested. Palatability, therefore, is an important factor in feeding, as it promotes a more vigorous action on the part of the digestive organs, which result in a more complete digestion of the food. Time of harvesting. — The effect on digestibility of the time of harvesting plants is great. The time to harvest a plant so as to get the maximum amount of digestible material will depend much on the part of the plant that is to be used for food. In the case of hay, much of the food material is transferred from the stalk to the seed as the plant ripens. These seeds are so small and hard that they are not digested by the animal; hence hay that is cut when ripe is not so digestible as that cut before the seeds ripen and while the food materials were yet in the growing parts. Again, the riper the plants the more crude fiber they contain, and this we have already seen is mostly undigestible. In the case of corn, it is the seed that is used as food, and in this case the plant should not be harvested till the food materials have passed from the stalk into the seed. Therefore hay plants, or those plants of which the stems and leaves are used, should be cut when green, and grain plants, or those plants of which the seeds are used, should be cut when ripe. Grinding the food. — Grinding certain kinds of foods promotes digestion by increasing the surface exposed to the action of the THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 49 digestive juices. It is a well-known fact that when grain is fed whole, many entire grains pass through the tract. Grinding also saves the animal the energy of crushing the grains. Many experiments have been conducted, comparing the feeding of ground grain with whole grain, with the results in favor of grind- ing. The profit from grinding grain hinges, in part at least, upon the relation of the cost of grinding to the loss from not grinding. If the cost of grinding amounts to one-tenth the value of the grain, the probability of profit from grinding is small. Curing food. — The method of curing food may result in a loss of a part of the digestible nutrients. The mere curing, drying, or preserving of food will not alter its digestibility. If, however, hay is cured under adverse conditions, such as exposure to rain and the like, when leaching occurs, or fermentation sets in, or when many of the finer parts of the plants are lost, then the digestibility is very much lessened. Various -processes, such as wetting, steaming, cooking, fer- menting, and the like, are used with the several foods prepara- tory to feeding, with the view of rendering them more acceptable to the animal. When increased efficiency occurs, it is due to more complete digestion rather than to added nutritive value. It has been fairly well proved that cooking renders some parts more undigestible, particularly the protein. On the other hand, cooking certain foods changes the mechanical condition so they are more readily eaten. The advantage of cooking is greater for swine than for any other class of animals. The addition of water, in the form of wetting, soaking, or even steaming, is often advantageous because it increases the palatability and to a cer- tain extent restores the succulence that the food lost in drying. The addition of salt will cause an animal to eat food that it would otherwise reject. The presence or absence of agreeable vege- table oils is a matter to be considered. It is difficult to under- stand why animals will readily eat clover and alfalfa hay, but 50 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS reject sweet clover, and why weeds, which often impart a bad flavor to the product, are sometimes readily eaten. MAINTENANCE RATIONS AND PRODUCTIVE RATIONS A ration may be defined as the quantity of food that will be consumed by an animal weighing one thousand pounds in twenty-four hours. In forming rations, it is necessary to take into account the purpose for which the animal is intended. For a given purpose an animal will require a given amount and kind of food. Thus a one-thousand-pound cow yielding twenty pounds of milk per day will require a certain kind and a certain amount of food. This is called a standard ration. For convenience of study, rations are divided into two general classes, — rations for maintenance and rations for production. Maintenance rations. — A maintenance ration is one that sup- plies the needs of a resting animal without producing any kind of labor and with no loss or gain of body substance. We have already seen that a certain amount of the food consumed by the animal goes to support life, maintain body temperature, repair waste tissue, and to provide muscular activity of vital processes. Since the demands on the body for maintenance are largely for the production of muscular energy and heat, nine-tenths or more of the maintenance ration may consist of carbohydrates. This fact has much significance in the winter- ing of idle animals. Strictly speaking, no farm animal should be fed only a maintenance ration. Animals receiving maintenance rations are yielding no product. All farm animals should be producing something at all times. Productive rations. — Productive rations may be looked upon as made up of two parts: that which is needed to maintain the animal, and that which may be applied to production after the bodily needs have been supplied. It is the food consumed in ex- cess of the amount required for maintenance that enables the animal to produce. The question, then, is as to the quantity of THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 51 food the animal will consume and make sufficient returns for in production. The more an animal consumes in excess of the amount required for maintenance, the more it can produce. While it is true in a sense that the amount of production is in proportion to the amount of food consumed in excess of that required for maintenance, it is only within rather narrow limits that this relation holds strictly true. The individuality of the animal plays an important part. All farm animals will eat and digest more food than is required for maintenance, but the amount of product that comes from this excess of food is very variable, and in many cases this makes the difference between a profitable and an unprofitable animal as well as a successful and an unsuccessful feeder. This variation among individual ani- mals is so great that standards for production can be used only as mere guides. The economical and profitable feeding of farm animals depends much on the feeder's observations of the animals directly in charge, to determine their capacity for the use of food. Feeding-standards for farm animals. — A feeding-standard is a rule to which all rations should conform for a given purpose. The Germans have done much work in establishing such stand- ards, which have long been in general use as guides in computing rations for farm animals. There is now, however, a prevailing impression among American investigators that these standards call for more protein than is needed for best results. Under conditions as they exist in this country, a reduction of the protein seems advisable, although just how much it is impossible to say. A reduction of 10 per cent has been recommended as not un- reasonable. BALANCED RATION A balanced ration is one that contains the food nutrients in the proper proportion to meet the needs of the animal for a given purpose. Skill in balancing a ration depends much on one's knowledge of the composition and digestibility of the more 52 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS common foods. It is not now considered necessary to balance rations with the mathematical exactness that was formerly in vogue. Yet it must conform in a general way to the standard. A great number of experiments demonstrate conclusively the practicability of feeding the balanced ration. Balancing ra- tions is, however, a tedious undertaking, as there is no mathe- matical formula, and one must add to or take from his trial ration until the desired standard is obtained. Nutritive-ratio. — The nutritive-ratio is the proportion between the digestible protein in a given food and the digestible carbo- hydrates and fats. It is ascertained in the following manner : Multiply the digestible fat by 2$, add the product to the digestible carbohydrates, and divide their sum by the digestible protein. The method of calculating the nutritive-ratio of corn, the diges- tible nutrients of which are protein 7.9, carbohydrates 66.7, and fat 4.3, is as follows : — Fat He at Equivalent 4.3 X C; lRBOHYDRATES 9.67 9.67 + 66.7 Protein = 76.37 76.37 -s- 7.9 = 9.6 Nutritive-ratio 1 :9.6 This gives a nutritive-ratio of 1 : 9.6 for corn, and it means that for each pound of digestible protein in the corn there are 9.6 pounds of digestible carbohydrate and fat equivalent. A nutritive-ratio may be distinguished as " narrow" or "wide." A narrow ration is one in which the proportion of protein is quite large, say 1 : 4.5, whereas a wide ration is one where the carbohydrates are large, say 1 : 8 or 1 : 10. These terms do not represent exact values, but are used in a general way. To illustrate the method of calculating a ration for a given THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 53 purpose, we will assume the case of a horse weighing approxi- mately 1000 pounds and at moderate work. From the discus- sion on food requirements for the horse, p. 57, we learn that the standard ration is as follows : — Dry-Matter Protein Carbohydrates Fat Ratio 24.0 2.0 11.0 0.6 1:6.2 Let us choose from Table II of the Appendix such foods as will supply the conditions. For a trial ration, we will take 14 pounds of timothy hay, 10 pounds of oats, and 2 pounds of bran. The digestible nutrients in these are calculated as follows : — Calculation of dry-matter and digestible nutriments in trial ration for a horse at medium work In 100 Pounds 86.8 2.8 43.4 1.4 Timothy Hay 100 X 14 = 100 X 14 = 100 X 14 = 100 X 14 = In 14 Pounds 12.152 0.392 6.076 0.196 Oats In 100 Pounds 89.0 9.2 47.3 4.2 In 10 Pounds 100 X 10 = 8.900 100 X 10 - 0.920 100 X 10 = 4.730 100 X 10 = 0.420 In like manner, calculate the digestible nutrients in two pounds of bran and arrange the result in tabular form as fol- lows : — First trial ration for 1000-pound horse at moderate work Food Dry Matter Digestible Nutrients Nutritive- Protein Carbohydrates Fat Ratio 14 lb. timothy 10 lb. oats . 2 lb. bran . 12.125 8.900 1.762 0.392 0.920 0.244 6.076 4.730 0.784 0.196 0.420 0.054 First trial ra- tion Standard 22.787 24.000 1.556 2.000 11.590 11.000 0.670 0.600 1:8.3 1 : 6.2 54 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS This trial ration falls considerably below the standard in dry- matter and is too wide. We must therefore add a food rich in protein. We will try one pound of linseed meal, old process : — Second trial ration for 1000-pound horse at moderate work Food Dry- Matter Digestible Nutrients Nutritive- Protein Carbohydrates Fat Ratio Ration as above . 1 lb. linseed 22.787 0.908 1.556 0.292 11.590 0.327 0.670 0.070 Second trial ration . Standard 23.695 24.000 1.848 2.000 11.917 11.000 0.740 0.600 1:7.0 1:6.2 The second trial ration is still slightly too low in dry-matter and protein, and somewhat too wide in the ratio. From these trial rations we learn the method of calculating ratios. The standard only serves as a general guide from which to estimate ; then one must adapt the ration to suit his conditions. It often happens, as in our trial ration for the horse, that one will have an excess of certain nutrients and it will be of advantage to feed it even though it is not quite so well balanced because of the ex- pense of making the change; in the case above one would have to dispose of food containing much carbohydrates and procure one rich in protein. In cases, however, where there is a great departure from the standard, it would pay to make the change, as has been proved by many experiments at the various experiment stations and by the experience of our successful stockmen. Other methods of computing rations. — There are two other methods of computing rations for farm animals ; one is some- what simpler than the above and the other much more difficult. In the former the ration is computed on the total amounts of THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 55 nutrients. A 1000-pound cow yielding 22 pounds of milk re- quires 29 pounds of dry-matter, of which at least 16 pounds should be digestible and 2 to 2\ pounds should be digestible pro- tein. The ration is calculated simply on the digestible matter and the protein. The other method of computing rations for farm animals is by the use of energy values of the food. In this method one must know the energy values of the vari- ous constituents; also amount of energy required to produce a unit of whatever is wanted. In other words, it is essential to know the energy required to produce one pound of beef, pork, mutton, or milk. Knowing the energy. of the food and the energy required for produc- tion, thejflgHi^s calculated accordingly. ^'^^SBBppHBb- — The nutritive-ratio may vary from the standard without serious results. Milk cows have produced good results on rations with a nutritive-ratio as wide as 1 : 8, and horses have fared well on rations with a wider nutritive-ratio. Much depends on the individuality of the animal, the conditions, and the individuality of the feeder. It must be remembered that no rules can be given that will apply in all cases, and that our feeding-standards are guides and not laws. Fig. 28. — Wrydelands "Star- light," Champion Shire Mare. CHAPTER III THE FEEDING OF HORSES Feeding the horse presents a problem of as wide interest as any in connection with farm animals. Practically all farmers, whatever branch of farming they may be engaged in, have oc- casion to feed horses. In addition to farmers, commercial firms of various kinds keep horses in large numbers, business men and sportsmen keep many horses for pleasure, all of whom have a deep interest in methods of feeding as well as the proper food. The farmer, the business man, and the sportsman each derive much pleasure in having their horses presentable at all times. The farmer's relation to his horse may not be the same as that of the sportsman, but his interest is as great and his care as pains- taking. FOOD REQUIREMENTS FOR WORK The work horse may be compared to a steam engine in which such foods as grain and hay serve as fuel, but it differs from the engine because fire and steam are not used tooonvert the fuel into work or energy. In the horse the food is converted into energy in a different way. It is of interest to note that the horse makes better use of the energy in the food than does the steam engine of the energy in the fuel. It appears that about one-third of the total food energy can be converted into useful work with the horse, while the steam engine may recover as much as one-tenth of the energy contained in the fuel. Many experiments have been made to determine the exact re- lation between the amount of muscular work performed and the 56 THE FEEDING OF HORSES 57 amount of nutrients required per day. And as a result of such work the following standards have been suggested : — Wolff-Lehman standard showing the amount of food required per 1000- pounds live weight for horses at light, medium, and heavy work Condition of Dry- Matter Digestible Nutrients Nutritive- Animal Protein Carbohydrates Fat Ratio Light work . . Medium work . Heavy work . . 20 24 26 1.5 2.0 2.5 9.5 11.0 13.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1:7.0 1:6.2 1:6.0 These standards were arranged to meet the need of the average horse under normal conditions. They are to serve as guides, to be modified to meet conditions, and not as laws, fixed and absolute. Regularity in feeding. — The importance of regularity in every- thing that pertains to the management of the horse cannot easily be overestimated. This applies- particularly to feeding. Whatever feeding-stuffs are employed in the ration, the horse should be fed regularly and uniformly at all times. The horse anticipates the feeding hour, and becomes nervous if it is delayed. He neighs and coaxes for his food with great regularity. The horse's digestive system and his vital activities become accus- tomed to a certain order, which should be followed. To change the order for even a single meal produces more or less digestive disturbance. The horse's digestive system is not so large pro- portionately as that of a cow or sheep ; he has no rumen, no place to store his food to be masticated at will ; hence, when at work the horse must be fed regularly and often. Undue fasting is followed by taking an excessive supply of food, which in turn calls for excessive drinking with consequent digestive difficulties. Order of supplying food. — Because of the small size of the horse's stomach, the order of supplying grain, hay, and water 58 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS assumes much importance, Investigators have shown that the stomach of the horse must fill and empty itself two or three times for each meal given. It appears that during the fore part of the Fig. 29. — Belgian Stallion "Robuste de Thiensies. Crouch & Son, Lafayette, Ind. Imported by J. The Belgian draft horse is a native of Belgium. This breed varies widely in weight and height, stallions from Flanders weighing 2000 pounds, those from Ardennais weighing about 1200 pounds, with the height varying accordingly. In color chestnuts are the most popular, although bays, browns, and roans are numerous. The Belgians lack the heavy hair on the limbs possessed by the Shires and Clydes. meal the material is pushed into the intestines almost as soon as it enters the stomach by the food which follows, while toward the end of the meal passage is slow and the digestion in the stomach more perfect. This being true, it would seem that the THE FEEDING OF HORSES 59 more nutritious foods should be fed toward the end of the meal, especially since some of the very important nutrients are largely digested in the stomach and at the entrance of the small intes- tines. Watering the horse. — Many feeders think that the horse should be watered before feeding, while others are equally certain that feeding should precede watering. Each of these methods is probably equally good for the horse, and the one employed will be determined by circumstances. Certain conditions may make it necessary to adopt one, other conditions the other. For example, after severe loss of water, such as occurs in consequence of long-continued, severe exertion, the animal may perhaps be al- lowed to drink before he is fed, otherwise he will not feed well. On the other hand if permitted to drink to excess, this method of watering affects the appetite, and the horse will not consume so much food as he otherwise would. Again, it has been very clearly demonstrated that if a horse is fed his grain first and then watered, much of the food is carried by the water into the in- testines. Since the grain of the ration is rich in digestible nu- trients, it should stay in the stomach as long as possible, since the digestion of one of the most important of the nutrients is more complete there. From this it would seem that the horse should be given water first of all, and that should be followed by hay, the grain being withheld until at least a part of the hay has been consumed. There are, however, very serious objections to this practice, as the horse is unsatisfied, is anxious, and very nervous till fed his grain, and should not be compelled to wait for the grain. A middle ground should be taken by watering first, feed- ing the grain sprinkled with a small allowance of moistened, chopped hay, if possible, and watering again after the ration has been consumed. If this practice is followed, it will satisfy the desires of the horse by supplying the most palatable part of his food early, and yet insure the retention of the grain in the stom- ach for a considerable time. 60 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Salt in limited quantities should be kept before the horse at all times. While little is known from investigations on this subject, it is evident from the extreme fondness of the horse for salt that it should be regularly supplied him. It is best not to place too much before him at a time as some horses will eat it to excess. The successful horseman will study each individual and modify the ration according to the varied needs ; one horse should have a little more than the regular allowance, and the next possibly a little less, because some horses are more difficult to keep in con- dition than others doing the same work and under similar con- ditions. In handling horses we should remember that they are very sensitive animals and that we cannot be too quiet in our treat- ment of them. Striking them or shouting commands at them is an inconsiderate practice ; it causes the animals to lose con- fidence in their master, thereby rendering them less teachable, and destroys nervous energy, making them less economical pro- ducers than if they were protected at all times from these ner- vous shocks. FEEDING THE WORK HORSE The work horse has a very hearty appetite, a vigorous digestion, and responds more readily, than any other animal, to intelligent care. He should be fed liberally and frequently, the quantity given being regulated by the size of the animal as well as the amount and kind of work he is required to do. In gen- eral, the horse should be supplied with something over two pounds of provender daily for each hundred pounds of weight. Of this about two-thirds, the exact quantity depending on the severity of the labor performed, should be grain in some form. If the work is exceedingly heavy, the grain in the ration should be increased and the hay diminished; whereas, if the work is light, the grain should be diminished and the hay increased. The morning meal should be comparatively light, consisting mostly of grain. It should not possess much bulk. In many of THE FEEDING OF HORSES 61 the larger stables in the city the mid-day meal is omitted. But most horsemen hold that some grain should be given at noon, which seems reasonable from our knowledge of the horse's stomach. In any case, the mid- day ration should not be. large. The heavy feeding should come at night, after the day's work is over and when the animal has ample time to masticate and di- gest his food. A very good practice is as follows : For the ,. r i , ,, Fig. 30. — Imported Belgian Stal- mornmg ration, feed one-fourth LION. Three years old. of the daily allowance at least one hour before going to work. It should be in condition to be easily and rapidly consumed, so as to be well out of the way when the animal is led from the stable. After being watered, he is ready for the morning's task. If the work is exhaustive and exacting, he should be fed after five hours of labor. When he comes to the stable at mid-day, he should have a drink of fresh, cool water, taking care that he does not drink too rapidly or gorge himself if very warm. At this time give him another quarter of his daily allowance. No greater service can be ren- dered the horse at this time than to remove the harness so that he can eat his meal in quiet and comfort and gain a few minutes of much-needed rest. If possible, he should have one hour to con- sume his meal. He should be watered again before going to work. He is now ready for the second half of his day's labor. When the horse comes to the stable in the evening, tired and warm, he should, first of all, be allowed a fresh, cool drink, care being taken as before that he does not drink too rapidly. He is now ready for the remainder of his day's allowance. Unharness at once, and when the sweat has dried, give him a thorough brushing. If for some reason the horse is forced to stand idle 62 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS in the stable for a few days, the ration should be decreased. Otherwise he will become stocky and his legs become swollen and stiff. During cold weather a more carbonaceous ration may be used. When more food goes to furnish heat for the body, it is reason- able that a horse needs a large proportion of heat-making food. Equal parts of corn and oats by weight would be more satis- factory and ordinarily much cheaper than a larger proportion of oats. Fig. 31. — A Good Farm Team of Grade Belgians. Weight 3500 Pounds. In providing a ration, whether for summer or for winter use, due consideration should be given to the cost. Roughage is ordinarily much cheaper than grain, but a horse at work is un- able economically to dispose of a large proportion of bulky food. If considerable time and energy must be expended in masticating rough feed, the usefulness of the horse for work is lessened thereby. The more concentrated the food, within proper limits, the less percentage of energy will be needed to make it available. The proportion of grain to roughage depends on the amount and kind of work to be performed. A horse at hard work should THE FEEDING OF HOUSES 63 never be expected to consume more roughage than grain by weight. FEEDING THE DRIVING HORSE The driving or carriage horse is more difficult to keep in con- dition than the work horse. The periods of enforced idleness, occasioned by lack of business engagements of his master or by inclement weather, are often followed by long drives and hours Fig. 32. — A Driving Team of Spirit and Good Form. of over-exertion. This irregular work weakens the constitution of the driving horse, which generally has but a brief career. When daily driving cannot be practiced, underfeeding is con- sidered the safe course. In feeding this class of horses, the same general plan that has been suggested for the work horse should be followed. When 64 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the horse is not taken from the stable during the day, the con- centrates, or grain part of the ration, should at once be reduced by one-third and the normal allowance should not again be given until the work is resumed. Driving horses are usually overfed, because of the desire of the owner to keep them in the pink of condition. This overfeeding and irregular exercise are the cause of most of the ills of the driving horse. Oats leads easily among the grains. When it is fed, the horse exhibits mettle as from no other food. If at any time the animal should seem constipated, a bran mash should be given. Timothy is the preferred hay. While a certain amount of roughage must be fed to give bulk or volume to the ration in order that the digestive functions may be properly maintained, yet we must remember that a large ab- domen cannot be tolerated in a driving horse. Another factor that the feeder of this class of horses must ever be on his guard against is the feeding of laxative foods, such as clover or alfalfa hay or bran, in too large quantities, for when the horses are put on the road and warmed up, they will prove very draining on the system as well as disagreeable to the driver. Style and action are prerequisites, while economy in feeding and sometimes the health of the animal are held to be but secondary. Profes- sional drivers may not be the safest persons to advise on feeding. WINTERING THE IDLE HORSE On the average farm most of the work comes during the grow- ing season. It is more economical, and perhaps advisable, that the idle horse be turned into a lot, if it is well protected, to be roughed through the winter rather than confined too closely in the barn. As winter comes on the horse will grow a heavy coat of hair, which will afford excellent protection. Such a horse may be maintained wholly or nearly so upon hay, oat straw, or corn fodder, as it has time to masticate food, and not being taxed by labor, it is able to subsist on food containing a large THE FEEDING OF HORSES 65 percentage of crude fiber. It is better to have the digestive tract of the idle horse well distended with coarse material rather than contracted, as would be the case if grains possessing only the requisite nutrients were supplied. If the protected area is kept dry and well bedded, the horse can be comfortably wintered in this way at much less expense than by stabling. Some grain should, however, be fed at shedding-time, even if the horses are idle. Light grain feeding, together with some work, should begin six weeks before the spring work starts, to put the horse in condition. FEEDING THE BROOD MARE Many farmers are so situated that they may raise a team of colts each year without seriously interfering with farm operations. This is a good practice, as there is a demand for good horses for both city and farm use. A team of mares in foal can be worked until the day of foaling if the work is not too severe and the driver is careful. In fact, moderate exercise is necessary for the mare in foal. Idleness is the bane of horse-rearing, and should be avoided whenever possible. The Arabs have a saying, "Rest and fat are the greatest enemies of the horse." Mares in foal should be fed much as suggested for work horses with perhaps the addition of more protein foods, as bran and oil meal. The ration should be such as will supply the demands for energy and in addition allow abundant nourishment for the development of the foal both before and for a time after birth. A very good ra- tion for the pregnant mare is as follows : Four parts ground oats, four parts wheat bran or its equivalent, and one part lin- seed meal, with bright clover or alfalfa hay for roughage. Pregnant animals have a tendency to fatten as pregnancy ad- vances. This must be guarded against as the mare may, become so fat as to interfere with the development of the foal, cause abortion or other troubles at parturition, such as milk- fever and the like. The ration of the mare should be reduced 66 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS just before and for a short time after foaling. If she is consti- pative, bran mash may be given occasionally. By the use of proper foods the bowels should be kept in good condition and they should be a little loose, rather than otherwise, at the time of parturi- tion. While the mare may be worked up to the time of foaling, she should be given a few days rest after foaling to enable her to gain her strength and give the foal the proper start. For the first few days of recuperation a hot bran mash fed once a day has both a cooling and a laxative effect on the mare, and it is very beneficial. If all has gone well with the mare and foal, the mare may be put to work at the end of one week from the time of parturition. Some dams, especially those with their first foals, fail to supply the proper amount of milk, and the young foals do not thrive. In this case the mare should be provided with food which stimulates the milk flow. Corn and timothy hay fed alone are not good milk-producing foods. The ration suggested for the pregnant mare is better, and it could be much improved if a little succulent food were fed with it, such as carrots. When in season, good pasture grass is best. If there is an over- supply of milk, or if the milk is too rich, the food may be restricted Fig. 33. — Black Percheron Gelding, Four Years Old. Weight 2460 Pounds. Ready for market. Fed by H. D. Snyder & Sons. THE FEEDING OF HORSES 67 and the mare milked, in part, by hand; otherwise the foal will not do well. FEEDING MULES Mules should be fed similarly to horses. The statement is of- ten made that a mule requires less food than a horse to do a given Fig. 34. — A Pair of Well-bred Mules. Photograph from Nation a I Stock- man and Farmer. amount of work. Such is not the case. True, a mule is less likely to overfeed and gorge himself than a horse, and will make 68 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS use of coarse foods that the horse will not eat unless forced to do so by neglect. Mules are often preferred by large business concerns, not that they consume less food for a given amount of work than a horse, but that their feeding can be trusted to less skillful hands without seriously endangering the mule's health. If an extra large mess is given him, he eats what he wishes and leaves the rest; not so with the tired horse, as he will eat all the grain that is given him up to the point of seriously endangering his health. For best results the ration of the mule should be comprised of" easily digested and nutritious feeds which should be varied from time to time as no animal loves a variety better than the mule. The ration should be suitable to the kind of work. For light work a small quantity of grain and a relatively large quantity of hay is best, but when the work is severe and exacting, the quantity of grain should be increased and the hay decreased. As among all other farm animals there is much difference in individuals, and the successful feeder will make a careful study of each and modify the ration accordingly, as some should have a little more than the regular allowance, others less. In all essential features the mule is very similar to the horse, and what we sug- gested for horses applies with equal force to mules. SAMPLE RATIONS FOR THE HORSE The following rations are collected from various sources and furnish a guide in determining the kind and amount of feed that should be allowed the horse under various conditions : — THE FEEDING OF HORSES 69 Ration* Weight of Animal and Work Horse Grain Roughage Colt, weaning time 2 lb. oa-ts Hay ad lib. Colt, one year old . 4 lb. oats Hay ad lib. Colt, two years old 6 lb. oats Hay ad lib. Colt, two years old in training 8 lb. oats Hay allowance lim- ited Colt, three years old Hay allowance lim in training 8-10 lb. oats ited Race horse . 15 lb. oats 6-8 lb. hay Hunter, small . 12 lb. oats 12 lb. hay Hunter, large . 16 lb. oats 10 lb. hay Cavalry horses . 1050 12 lb. oats 14 lb. hay Artillery horses . 1125 12 lb. oats 14 lb. hay Heavy draft 2000 12 lb. oats 3 lb. corn 6 lb. beans 15 lb. clover hay Farm work Farm teams, east . 1220 8 lb. oats 6 lb. corn 2 lb. bran 10 lb. hay Farm teams, east . 1230 8 lb. corn 7 lb. bran 10 lb. hay Farm teams, east . 1170 8 lb. oats 6 lb. corn 2 lb. bran 10 lb. hay Farm teams, east . 1175 7 lb. bran 7 lb. corn 12 lb. corn-stover Farm teams, east . 1000 27 lb. bran 4f lb. corn 87 lb. dried Brewers' grains 6 lb. hay Farm teams, east . 1180 6.55 lb. corn 5.45 lb. linseed meal 8 lb. hay Farm teams, west . 1235 11.5 lb. oats 14.7 lb. alfalfa hay Farm teams, west . 1870 5 lb. bran 5 lb. shorts 25 lb. alfalfa bay Farm teams, west . 1385 19.7 lb. alfalfa hay Farm teams, west . 1420 32.6 lb. alfalfa hay CHAPTER IV THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL The breeding of farm animals is perhaps the most interesting problem connected with their propagation and care. While farm animals have been undergoing improvement from the time that we have authentic history, it is only within the last one hundred years or so that very great progress has been made in their improvement. During this period practically all of our breeds, as we now know them, have been formed, and great dif- ferentiation has taken place in the production of the various classes. Only recently have we paid much attention to the milk-producing capacity of our cattle, although cattle have been kept for milk since the beginning of history ; only recently have we selected horses for strength, though they have been used in war and sport for four thousand years ; and the same is true of all the specialized breeds. Formerly, breeders had no system of selection. Their standards constantly changed, so that no real progress in the development of the most valuable qualities could be made. Shortly after the middle of the eighteenth century, Robert Bakewell of Dishley Grange, Leicestershire, England, originated a system which he practiced in the improvement of Leicester sheep, Long-horn cattle, and the English cart-horse. His method was taken up and successfully practiced by other men ; and we now have as the result of their labors a variety of im- proved breeds, each differing from the others in the particular characters for which they have been selected and that adapt 70 THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 71 them to special conditions and purposes. Thus we have a strain of cattle that, having been selected from generation to generation for their milk yield, have become so profuse in the secreting of milk that we call them by a certain breed name. The object sought being milk yield and through several generations se- lected for this one purpose, the ability to secrete a large flow became fixed and capable of transmission to the offspring. This increased milk flow is not to be understood as a new character, as all cows give some milk, but merely an increase in the ability to secrete milk in large quantities. Like produces like. — Everything brings forth after its kind. In order that the offspring be a high-producing heifer, it is neces- sary that the dam and sire before her be of a high-producing strain of cattle. In other words, the offspring will bear a close resemblance to the parents in all important essentials. This Bakewell recognized, and he shocked the modest people of his time by uniting animals that possessed the characters he wished •to propagate without regard to the relationship of the animals. If a cow and her son possessed the characters he wished to retain, he united them, and in this way secured an offspring possessing the desirable characters to a greater degree than either parent. It has been said of Bakewell that he regarded his animals as wax out of which in time he could mold any form that he desired to create. All farm animals have been molded to a great degree by man. It is now thought that the Percheron draft horse and the Shetland pony have descended from the same original type of horse, and that the Shorthorn and the Jersey descended from the same type of cow. In one case there was a continuous selec- tion, whether natural or artificial, for a large animal with the re- sult that to-day we have the ponderous draft horse; in the case of the pony the selection was for the smaller animal with the result that we have a diminutive horse. This selection has been going on for ages, and now the two types are fixed under their present conditions. Bear in mind, however, that a reversal of the con- 72 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS ditions might result in a reversal of the type. In other words, if one wished to enlarge the Shetland ponies all he need do is to feed them abundance of nutritious feed and unite the largest to the largest in breeding and in time they would no longer be known for their small size. On the other hand, if one wishes to retain the small size of the pony, or to diminish it still farther, all that need be done is to restrict the food and unite the smallest to the smallest in breeding. The same is true of any character one wishes to propagate. From this it can be readily observed that we have two forces operating. The first is that like tends to produce like, and the second that if any improvement is brought about, it is through variation. VARIATION IS THE BASIS OF IMPROVEMENT If characters were absolutely fixed and unchangeable, then no improvement could be secured. The size of the pony could neither be increased nor diminished and the milk flow of cattle would remain constant from generation to generation, and the offspring would be no better than the parent. Variation, then, is the basis of improvement among farm animals. Variation universal among farm animals. — No two animals are alike. To those unfamiliar with swine, each pig of a litter may look exactly like the others, yet the trained eye readily recognizes differences and can describe each so that those with equal training may recognize them. These differences extend to all characters. Two cows of the same breed may differ widely in the richness of their milk ; two steers of like breeding differ widely in their ability to fatten and the beef may also differ, the loin of one being fine and tender while the other may be coarse in grain. Of two sheep of the same breed, one may possess wool of bright luster, fine crimp, and even throughout; the other may have wool rather coarse, no crimp, and differ much in various parts of the body. There is free variation among living things. THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 73 Kinds of variation. — Since variation extends to each char- acter, it may aid us in a clearer understanding of variation among .farm animals if we consider the subject from four points of view. First, we will consider that variation may be expressed only in form and size. This is quantitative variation, having to do with degree only. Such variation is the simplest form, and we observe evidences of it on every hand. For example, of two horses of the same breed, one may be large, the other small ; on the same animal one foot may be larger than the others ; the two ears may not be of the same size ; one eye may be larger than the other. Between two dairy cows of the same breed, one may have a very large, well-proportioned udder, the other small and irregular in shape. Illustrations of the first class are without number. The second class of variation is that which is expressed in the quality, as distinct from form and size. This is qualitative variation; that is, having to do with characters only. Evidences of this are also abundant. For example, of all the cows in existence, no two yield milk containing the same amount of fat; in fact, the individual cow varies widely from day to day in the percentage of fat contained in the milk. Again, no two pieces of beef are exactly alike in flavor, tenderness, juiciness, and the like. The quality of no two horses is alike, — one has coarse, rough hair and a thick hide, the other has smooth, soft hair and a smooth, pliable hide. The third class of varia- tion has to do with the function or with the activity of the vari- ous organs and parts of the body, such as muscular activity, glandular secretions, and the like. There are many examples of this, such as variation in the milk flow, some cows yielding as high as 128 pounds in a single day ; variation in the fertility, some cows producing only four or five young in their lifetime, while the Angus cow Old Granny (No. 1 of the Angus Herd Book) produced twenty-five, the last one in her twenty-ninth year ; variation in speed, scent, and in fact all functions. The fourth class of variations has to do with deviations from 74 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the pattern, especially as regards repeated parts, such as ex- tra toes, extra teats on swine, and the like. This class is not so common among animals, but evidences are everywhere observed among plants, as stooling in wheat, oats, corn, and the like. It Fig. 35. — Suffolk Stallion " Rendleshau Scorcer. Thr. d. The Suffolk draft horse, a native of Suffolk County, England, is a very massive, short-legged breed, possessing clean legs and a docile, teachable disposition. In weight the stallions vary from 1400 to 1900 pounds and the mares from 1200 to 1600 pounds. The height varies from 15 to 16^ hands. The breed color is chestnut, varying from a bright to a dark shade. is familiar in the doubling of flowers, in which the parts may be much repeated. It will be comparatively simple to recognize variation and to make improvement in any of the breeds of farm animals if these THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 75 classes of variation are kept clearly in mind. Not all kinds of variation are desired. The qualitative variations are most sought. PROXIMATE CAUSES OF VARIATION The conditions that bring about variation are worthy much consideration since one, by modifying these conditions, can aid in producing variation in a desired direction. For example, if we want to increase the milk flow of cattle, the conditions that will cause them to vary in that direction are of much im- portance and should be well understood. In general, variation results from environment, from crossing dissimilar animals, and from use or disuse, all of which are under the control of man. Environment. — Of all the external conditions bringing about variation in farm animals, those influences that we sum up under the term " environment " are by far the most important. As a matter of fact, it is through the ability to change the environment of animals that man is able to induce variation and improvement. Among animals in a state of nature, we define environment as those conditions of climate and food that con- cern the life of the animal. Among farm animals the conditions of environment are somewhat changed or enlarged, and we are accustomed to think of it as the sum of all of those conditions that are influenced through association with man. The chief factors of environment through which man seeks to control or improve farm animals are those of climate, food, and care. The environment means the " surroundings." The climate and the kind of animals that exist in it are closely related. The characters that are most often affected are those that have to do with size and the external covering of the animal. The natural relation of climate to size is that animals inhabiting cold climates are usually small as compared with those of the same species inhabiting warm climates. Man modifies the natural effect of climate through the housing that he affords farm 76 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS animals ; hence he can move animals from one climate to another without serious results. Many animals show ease of acclima- tization to wide changes of climate. Climate has a marked effect on the external coat of the animal. When farm animals are exposed to cold, damp weather, the hair becomes longer and thicker than if protected. This heavy coat is produced at the sacrifice of flesh. In some instances the exposure produces a double coat of hair, an upper one being long and wavy and an under one short, fine, and fur- like. The Galloway cattle furnish a good illustration. The food supply is of prime importance in effecting variation and improvement among farm animals. In general, full feeding increases size. No other conditions influence development to a greater extent than the food supply. Large breeds are devel- oped from small ones largely by increasing the food supply. In addition to the increase in size, there is also an increase in the constitutional vigor when the animal is well fed. Withholding the food supply not only arrests development but weakens the capacity for future development as well. Thus it is that ani- mals passing through such periods of arrested development may never attain the development which they otherwise would reach. In order to secure increased development — develop- ment of productive function — the animal must be supplied with more food than is required for the performance of the nor- mal function. Again, there is a correlation between the food supply and the kind of product. The Islands of Great Britain have developed more high grades of flesh-producing animals than any other country, and we find nutritious pastures over almost all of that country. The care that farm animals receive will go a long way towards determining the extent of variation they are likely to undergo. Farm animals that are well cared for, that is, properly housed, fed, watered, groomed, exercised, and the like, cannot fail to respond to such treatment. Many a man has fallen short of THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 77 success in breeding by depending upon blood alone for improve- ment of his stock. He has forgotten that all of our improved breeds are the product of adequate nutrition combined with intelligent breeding, suitable environment, sufficient shelter, and kindly care. Crossing. — The uniting of dissimilar animals is another cause of variation. Up to the time of Bakewell, cross-breeding was one of the chief means by which improvement was sought. This was before the time of pedigree books, and crossing was made easy from the fact that no record of the breeding was kept. It was also observed that the uniting of two animals that were unrelated, or that had existed under different en- __ __ Fig. 36. — Suffolk Mare Bawdsey vironment, resulted in increased Pearl." Three years old. constitutional vigor and in many cases in greater prolificacy, and often individual improve- ments. The great difficulty came when they attempted to breed these cross-bred animals. The offspring of cross-bred animals varied widely, some were good, more poor, and no one could foretell which way the offspring would tend to de- velop. While crossing is a cause of much variation, the results are usually disappointing in the end. The fact must be recog- nized, however, that the abundant crossing practiced by the early British breeders gave to the animals a plasticity of con- formation that prepared them for quick improvement when subjected to the Bakewell method. SELECTION The purpose of selection is to modify the type to suit our purpose, to prevent as far as possible the production of unde- 78 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS sirable individuals, and to encourage the production of those individuals that meet the demand. In choosing farm animals for breeding purposes, there are at least three factors to be taken into consideration : First, the perfection of the individual as a representative of its race or type, or the individual merit of the animal as a specimen; second, the capacity of the individual to reproduce itself or to show improvement, or the pedigree of the animal ; and third, the suitability of the two individuals to be mated. Individual merit. — It is often a question as to whether we should pay more attention to the individual merit of the animal or to its pedigree. It cannot be said that they are equal, or that one is more important than the other. There are two general principles in this connection that should always be borne in mind : the offspring of an inferior individual with a good pedi- gree is very likely to possess merit ; many of the offspring of a superior individual with a poor pedigree will, in all probability, be distinctly inferior in merit. In other words, no matter what the individual merits of an animal may be, unless he has inherited these qualities equally from his ancestors, we can- not expect him to transmit them with any degree of cer- tainty. Pedigree. — The capacity of the individual to reproduce itself or to show improvement depends much upon his ancestors; that is, upon his pedigree. Pedigree is a record of the ancestry of an animal ; it furnishes, therefore, a guaranty of the purity of the stock. The book in which such records are kept is called a herd-book. The mere fact that the lineage of an animal is known, is a certain indication of the quality of the animal, but this fact does not indicate the capacity of the individual to reproduce itself. The knowledge of the individual quality of the animals making up a pedigree is an important factor. Char- acters will be transmitted in proportion to the degree with which they have become fixed in the parents. We are accustomed to THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 79 associate great length of pedigree with high breeding quality. Historical evidence goes to show that we place too high value on extreme length of pedigree. Many of our pure breeds that Fig. 37. — Hackney Coach Stallion "Foundation. wood, Attica, N. Y. Owned at Maple- The Hackney coach horse originated in England, in the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, and York. This breed is noted particularly for style and high action. In height there is much variation. There are Hackney ponies under 14 hands, Hackney cobs that are larger than the ponies, and Hackney coaches over 16 hands, the weight varying accordingly. Chestnut is the most popular color, although bays, blacks, browns, and other colors are of frequent occurrence. This is the most popular breed of coach horses when high-step- ping action is desired. 80 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS show a high tendency to reproduce their characteristics have secured these qualities from a comparatively short line of animals noted for their breeding qualities. It would be difficult to trace the actual influence of the parents back of the fourth or fifth parents, in a number of cases. It is the individuals making up the pedigree for the last four or five generations that are of great influence in giving any individual the power to trans- mit qualities ; and if all of the individuals constituting the pedigree for these generations have the qualities that we rec- ognize as good, we may count upon the animals transmitting their qualities with such a degree of certainty that it makes little difference what the individuals were back of that point. Of late there has been much discussion as to the part each ancestor contributes in the total heritage. Galton was one of the first to answer this question. While he answered it with much hesitation, his suggestions received considerable support and have come to be known as "Galton'sLawof ancestral heredity." Galton set forth the idea that one-half of the full heritage comes from the parents ; one-fourth from the grand- parents ; one-eighth from the great grandparents ; one-sixteenth from the great, great grandparents, and so on to infinity. This being true, an offspring will procure f } of its full heritage from the five nearest generations of ancestors. In selection, the performance of the animal, when available, as it is in race horses and dairy cows, should also be considered. The record of performance affords very valuable information as to what the offspring will probably be like. When breeding dairy cows, if one unites two animals of low-producing strains, as shown by the records, his chance of procuring a high-producing result are not very great.- On the other hand, if one unites two animals of high-producing strains, as shown by the records, his chance of procuring a high-producing offspring are very good, although not sure, as there may be a certain influence of the heritage from the very early ancestors whose records were not so THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 81 good. There is no factor of more use than the record of per- formance, although some breeders push it to an extreme. If one wishes to increase the performance, he must select the indi- viduals upon their performance rather than on fancy. If ani- mals are selected, however, wholly by performance, without regard to form, we are likely to lose the best conformation. There is another reason for selecting animals with a pedigree and a record of performance, which is entirely a commercial one. Animals registered in a herd book and that have a rec- ord of performance back of them are more likely to reproduce themselves and will command a higher price in the market ; and there is always a good market for such stock, as the supply is limited. Mating. — In selecting animals, we must consider the suit- ability of the two animals to mate together. We have already seen that no two animals are alike, and since two animals are essential in the reproduction, the offspring can never be exactly like both parents. We must strike an average between the characteristics of the parents and what we expect to get in the offspring. As compared with its parents the offspring of two individuals will fall into one of the following three classes : First, a perfect com- bination of the qualities of both parents; this is called breeding true. Second, a pre- ponderance of characters of either parent; this is called prepotency ; and third, the offspring may exhibit none or few of the characters of either parent ; this is called reversion. When the offspring shows equal blending of the qualities of Fig. 38. — Hackney Stallion "Fan- dango M." Owned by A. R. Gillis. 82 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS both parents, the mating is considered to be most successful. At the same time it is almost never fully attained. It is approached in proportion to the similarity of the parents. Uniformity of type and characteristics in a herd or flock is one of the very desirable things, for many reasons. The uniformity that is secured by reason of the equal degree of characters secured from each parent is the most desirable type of uniformity. More often the offspring will resemble one parent more than the other, and in this case one parent is said to be prepotent over the other. This resemblance will vary from a very slight preponderance of the characteristics of one parent, up to a great over-balance, amounting almost to a complete exclusion of the characteristics of the other parent. This question of prepo- tency is one of the most important having to do with selection, and one which will be further discussed in the chapters on breeding the various classes of farm animals. When the offspring shows no resemblance to either parent, but to some near ancestor, it is called reversion ; if to some of the far removed ancestors it is called atavism. Examples are often seen : as, in the case of a pure Angus cow, which is naturally black, giving birth to a red calf; the case of Poland China swine, naturally black, occasionally possessing a sandy tint on the hair. Two animals to be suitable for mating must be alike in gen- eral physical characters. Otherwise the outcome of a union cannot be foretold. When the offspring shows good qualities, the mating of the parents is considered a fortunate nick. The history of farm animals is full of such nicks. The success or failure of a stock breeder very often depends on his ability to discover these nicks and to make use of them. Some breeders become very skilful in these matters, even though they may not be able to give reasons for their choice or to instruct others in the same methods. Very often these are untaught and unread men. THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 83 HEREDITY For our purpose, we will define heredity as the transmission or passing down of characters from parents to offspring. We have already noted two great forces underlying our breeding operations ; like tending to beget like, which has to do with heredity ; the other the great run of variation through which improvement is sought in our farm animals. On heredity all successful breeding operations depend. We have just noted the kinds of variation, as well as the causes that lead to their appearance, and now come to the question whether and to ivhat extent such variations are hereditary or transmissible to the offspring. The extent to which these variations are transmitted is a very important matter, because variations that are not re- tained are of no importance in breeding, though they may be of much consequence to the individual possessing them. If they are transmitted, they influence the race for good or bad, depending on whether desirable or undesirable. Practical men work on the supposition that these variations or so-called modified characters are transmitted. All recognize the neces- sity of the highest development of the individual for the specific purpose for which it is intended. If one is to breed the best kind of beef animals, he must unite animals of the best beef strains. If one is to breed the highest class of trotting horses, he must unite horses that can trot fast. If one is to produce cows yielding a high milk flow, he must unite animals with high records of performance. Working breeders are uni- versally of this opinion. All of our improved breeds of ani- mals are comparatively recent. It is difficult to see how we could have secured such development in so short a time, unless it came through the inheritance of modified characters. Inheritance of disease. — In all of the early writings on hered- ity, there is much discussion on the heredity of disease, and 84 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS nearly every disease has at one time been classed as transmis- sible. In a good many cases, diseases seem to pass from gen- eration to generation with regularity or even certainty and are often classed as hereditary diseases, whereas the facts are that such troubles are germ diseases and are due to infection. Again, there are diseases peculiar to certain conformations, such as a curb or a spavined hock on the horse. The peculiar conformation may be hereditary, and the animal contracts the disease because of the conformation, but the disease as such was not transmitted. The results are the same, but it is best to state it correctly. Prepotency is the power that one parent has over the other in determining the character of the offspring. It is usually considered from two points of view; first, "race" or "breed" prepotency, when all the individuals of the race or breed are possessed of such power in transmitting their characters ; and second, "individual" prepotency, when the individual possesses the power to transmit its own characters to the offspring to the exclusion of the other parent. Breed prepotency is clearly exhibited when two distinct breeds are crossed, as the offspring will more clearly resemble one breed than the other. Among cattle, the Galloways are noted for being prepotent in color and in the polled charac- ter, for when crossed upon other breeds, the offspring are nearly all black and hornless. The Herefords are prepotent in transmitting their white face to the offspring when crossed on other breeds. Individual prepotency is a very great factor in breed im- provement. Many of the modern breeds of farm animals owe their existence to the individual characters of the animal that founded the line. Hambletonian 10 among trotting horses is an example. He sired horses who in turn sired animals of great speed, with the result that most of the Standard Bred horses trace either directly or indirectly to Hambletonian 10. THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 85 Again, the breed of American saddle horses owes much of its excellence to the individual prepotency of Denmark. The families of the various breeds of farm animals that owe their existence to the individual prepotency of the animal that founded them are almost without number, such as the St. Lambert family descended from Stoke Pogis, 1259, and the Eurotas family descended from Eurotas, 2454, among Jerseys ; the Johanna family descended from Johanna, 1421, and the De Kol family descended from De Kol 2d, 734, among Holsteins ; the Perfec- tion family descended from Chief Perfection, 32144, and the Corwin family descended from Tom Corwin 2d, 2037, among Poland China swine. Since prepotency is of so great importance in improvement among farm animals, those influences that tend to produce it in the individual are worthy of note. While many of the factors surrounding prepotency are not well understood, yet those that do aid and are under the control of man are : purity of breeding, strong constitutional development, and in-breeding. Purity of breeding strengthens prepotency in individual as well as in the breed or race. It strengthens prepotency because it makes for stability. The introduction of outside animals becomes a disturbing factor in the stability of the characters of the individual and therefore a disturbing factor in the cer- tainty of transmission. On the other hand, each generation of pure breeding adds to the stability of the type and to the cer- tainty of transmission. Vigor in the individual is a very important factor when selecting for prepotency. This is sometimes lost sight of, as in selecting hens for high egg production when nothing but production is considered, and always with serious results, for without vitality all else will fail. In-breeding aids prepotency, for it strengthens dominant characters. The more inbred the animals the more intense their power of transmission. This applies, however, to good 86 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and bad characters alike, and will be discussed in the para- graph on in-and-in breeding (p. 92). These three factors acting in conjunction, and when properly manipulated, give the highest degree of prepotency attainable, and all are under the control of the breeder. The prepotency of the male is given more consideration than of the female. This is due to the fact that it is more noticeable, as the sire is the parent of many more animals than the dam. A stallion may sire fifty or more foals in a year, whereas the dam can give birth to but one, This is a fortunate view of the matter, since improvement can be much more cheaply brought about through a good sire from the mere fact that he is represented in more progeny. Prolificacy or fecundity. — For our purpose we will assume that these terms have the same meaning, and that they refer to the fruitfulness or the number of young brought forth. This is a very important consideration in practical operations. Breeds vary widely in this respect, it being a characteristic of some to give birth to more than they can raise, whereas others are not so fruitful. Under "functional variation" (p. 73) we have noted the Angus cow Old Granny (No. 1 in Angus Herd Book). She produced twenty-five calves, the last one in the twenty-ninth year of her life. Old Fanny Cook, the English Thoroughbred mare, produced fifteen foals, giving birth to twins at twenty-two years of age. The Thoroughbred mare Pocahontas also produced fifteen living foals and lived to the old age of thirty-three years. In this connection it is interest- ing to note the number of performances some of the leading males of the various breeds have sired. Among Holstein cattle, the bull Hengerveld De Kol, 23,102, is the sire of ninety-eight daughters with advanced registry records ; Paul Beets De Kol, 22,235, of ninety-three ; and Lord Netherland De Kol, 22,187, of eighty-nine. The Jersey bull Exile of St. Lambert has ninety- four daughters in the Register of Merit. Among Standard THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 87 Bred (trotting or pacing) horses the stallion Gambetta Wilks, 4659, has two hundred and four standard performers ; Onward, 1411, has one hundred and ninety-eight ; Allerton, 5128, has one Fig. 39. — " Decorateur, " French Coach Stallion. The French coach horse is a native of France. This breed is similar to the Hackney, but possessing more bone and substance and lacking much of the flashy action. In weight stallions vary from 1100 to 1400 pounds, with mares 100 to 200 pounds lighter. The height varies from 15 to lO1^ hands. Bays and browns are the most popular colors, although there are many blacks and chestnuts. hundred and ninety; and there are more than a score with over one hundred. The importance of this high fertility, from a profitable point of view, need not be dwelt upon. 88 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS In these cases much depended upon the opportunity. The better the sire the better will be the class of dams offered and hence the better the offspring, all of which leads to further opportunities. Another fact in this connection well worth re- membering is that imported animals are seldom fertile until acclimated. In general, distance makes less difference than altitude, temperature, sunlight, and food supply. Sterility. — One of the breeders' greatest difficulties is ste- rility among animals. The causes which lead to sterility are very many, some of which are well understood and are more or less preventable, while others are not so well understood and beyond control. If due to the male, then all the females put to him will be sterile, whereas if due to the female, she alone fails to breed. Some of the causes that can be easily controlled are as follows : confinement and lack of exercise ; irregular supply of food and lack of uniformity in conditions ; food lack- ing the proper nutrients or containing too much sugar ; animals in too fat condition ; and in-and-in breeding, close breeding, ex- cessive breeding; and the like. Again, the tendency to sterility or lack of fertility is often hereditary. The Duchess family among Shorthorns affords a good example. This family was always known as "shy breeders," and this was considered one of its valuable attributes. The breeders argued that this diminished the numbers and kept the price very high. The results were that this most excellent family of Shorthorns dis- appeared because of its infertility. Relative influence of parents. — No question in the breeding of farm animals has given rise to more discussion than the influence that each parent exerts on the offspring. As one reviews the literature on the subject, he collects the following ideas : the male controls the external and the female the in- ternal organs of the offspring; the male controls the forward and upper parts of the body and the mental qualities of the offspring; that parent which has the stronger nervous and THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 89 sexual organization controls the characters of the offspring; the female controls the characters because of her close asso- ciation with the offspring; and so on, almost without number. So far as is now known, the parents play an equal part in their control of the characters of the offspring. This, of course, is aside from the question of prepotency discussed above, and in which case either parent is likely to dominate over the other. In general, that parent possessed of the purer breeding and whose characters are the most intensified and most stable, will control the characters of the offspring, be it male or female. SYSTEMS OF BREEDING The system of breeding to be employed will depend on the purpose of the breeder. In the breeding of farm animals the breeder has one of two objects in view, — the one herd im- provement, the other breed improvement. These purposes are separate and distinct. In herd improvement, the object is the betterment of the individual herd. It is perhaps the cheapest and most convenient of all forms of breeding and productive of the most rapid results. In breed improvement, the object is the betterment of the entire race. It is perhaps the most expensive, and calls for much intelligence on the part of the. breeder as well as much patience and painstaking labor. Grading consists in mating unimproved farm animals with those more highly improved or with those that are purely bred. The pure-bred may be either sire or dam, but for eco- nomic reasons the sire is usually the pure-bred parent. This mode of breeding can be used only in herd improvement, and is the one to be recommended to the great mass of stockmen ; and if it could be generally adopted and followed, it would add millions to American agriculture. It is the safest for beginners even though they intend to engage in the business of breeding pure-bred animals, as it will bring out clearly the strong and weak points of the breed, and after becoming familiar with the 90 MANUAL OF FABM ANIMALS work they may undertake the breeding of pure-bred animals with much better prospects of success. The great advantage of grading is that it is cheap, particu- larly when accomplished with the male. For example, a pure-bred bull, in a herd of twenty-five cows, will make half- bloods of the entire crop of offspring, whereas if the grading was attempted in the other way, it would require twenty-five pure-bred cows and the calves would show no more improve- ment. Furthermore, if the improvement were accomplished with the cows, it would be in twenty-five lines, each with its shade of difference, and not in one line as would be the case were the grading done with the bull. This is a very important factor when we consider the value of uniformity among all classes of farm animals. Crossing, as we have seen (p. 77), consists in mating two distinct breeds or families, and is a powerful means of inducing variability. Because of its strong tendency to produce varia- tion, crossing is very seldom employed as a system of animal breeding. Attention is directed to it in this connection because it is the mode employed in breeding mules, the offspring of a jack and mare. The reciprocal cross, or the stallion on the jennet, gives an offspring called hinny. It is interesting to note that the mule more nearly resembles the jack, having long ears, large head, no hairs in mane and tail, and very small feet, whereas the hinny resembles the stallion, having a rather small head, rather short ears, hairs in mane and tail, and large feet similar to the horse. While we have mules and hinnies of both sexes, they are sterile; that is, one cannot produce mules by mating a male with a female mule, nor will the mule breed with either the jack or stallion. The only way to produce a mule is to mate jack and mare. Line-breeding consists in mating animals representing a single line of descent. This system of breeding is used either in THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 91 herd improvement or in breed improvement. Few of the many breeds of farm animals, as well as few of the more noted strains of the various breeds, have been formed without more or less line-breeding. Experience has shown that it is not enough to confine selection to the limits of the breed, for all breeds are exceedingly variable, and for best results one must restrict his selection to those lines that most nearly approach the object sought. Line-breeding combines animals very similar in their charac- ter, narrows the pedigrees to few and closely related lines of descent, intensifies characters both good and bad, and thus gives stability to the strain or breed. It is a very strong factor in securing uniformity, and increasing the prepotency among farm animals. No method is equal to that of line-breeding for the improve- ment of farm animals. It is conservative and safe. It is free from many of the objections that attach to other methods. There are, however, two factors that must not be lost sight of : both good and bad characters alike are intensified, and the importance of the individual in selection is great. Formerly much was said against line- breeding, but since the time of Robert Bakewell it has been a recognized factor in live-stock improvement (p. 77). The chief disadvantage of this System of breeding is that Fl°' 40.- French Coach Station, J m ° Five y ears Old. Imported by the breeder is likely to Select Champlin Bros., Christon, Iowa. by pedigree, and thus fail to note the individuality of the animals he is mating. A line-bred pedi- gree is good or bad according as the animals composing it are good or bad. The breeder who selects by pedigree alone with- 92 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS out regard for merit is likely to find his herd deteriorating in a few generations, for bad characters, if they exist in the parent, will be intensified by this method of breeding just as rapidly as will desirable characters (p. 78). In-breeding consists in mating animals closely related. It is line-breeding carried to its limits, and consequently it intensifies all the advantages and disadvantages of that system of breeding. In-breeding has been used successfully in the improvement of practically all of the present breeds of farm animals. The sys- tem was first put into regular practice by Robert Bakewell, and since that time has been employed more or less by all successful breeders. The objects of in-breeding are twofold : First, more quickly to secure desirable characters in the offspring; and second, to render these characters more stable that they may be uni- formly transmitted. Thus a certain parent, for example, a sire, is found to possess an unusual degree of excellence in some particular which he transmits to the offspring. To retain the excellency this offspring, if a female, when of the proper age is mated with her own sire, and this product, if a female, is in turn mated to the same male that was her sire as well as her grand- sire. This method is resorted to for three and often four genera- tions with the view of intensifying and perpetuating a desirable character for which the sire is especially noted. There are three forms of in-breeding : First, mating sire with daughter, giving rise to an offspring containing three-fourths of the blood lines of the sire. This method, if followed up, pro- duces offspring with but one line of ancestry and eliminates the characters of the dam. It is practiced when it is desired to in- tensify the characters possessed by the sire. Second, mating son with dam, which gives rise to offspring containing three-fourths of the blood lines of the dam. This method is practiced when it is desired to intensify the characters of the dam. Third, mating brother with sister, a method which preserves the characters of THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 93 both sire and dam. It is inferior to either of the other two in strengthening characters, and is not so safe because nothing is known of the breeding of either parent. There are many advantages that follow this system of breed- ing: it intensifies characters, gives stability to the family, increases the prepotency, and favors uniformity. In-breed- ing results in the highest possible percentage of the desired blood being retained in the offspring, and is therefore recognized as the strongest of all breeding. It also gives rise to the simplest form of pedigree. Since the infusion of new strains shatters existing characters, no system equals in-breeding for perpetu- ating characters, doubling up existing combinations, as well as retaining all there is of good in the exceptional individ- ual. Capable of producing the great improvement that it is, in-breeding is not without its disadvantages. It does not respect characters; it does not separate the good from the bad, but intensifies both good and bad alike. In-breeding, if per- sisted in, results in loss of fertility as well as vigor, which may quickly lead to race extinction. These are two most common defects resulting from this method of breeding, and they come about naturally. Few animals are regular breeders, and a still fewer number are both vigorous and regular breeders. Hence, when such animals are in-bred, the tendency is still farther to lower both the vitality and the fertility. When practicing this method, therefore, too much cannot be made of selecting for high fertility and much vigor. There are two situations under which it may be desirable to practice in-breeding. One is in grading, where, if we have a proved sire, one that is known to get excellent offspring, it may be entirely permissible to mate him with his own daughters rather than to procure a new sire, in which the breeding power is not known. Again, such an exchange of sires as would be necessary to prevent in-breeding often calls for a considerable outlay of time and money. 94 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS The other condition under which in-breeding is permissible is when one finds himself in possession of a very limited su- perior blood and is at a loss to know how to retain it. If he breeds out, the desirable characters will be obliterated. In this case, the only way he can retain the desirable characters is to Fig. 41. — The Morgan Stallion, "General Gates," at the Head of the U. S. Government Stud at Middlebury, Vt. The Morgan family of trotting horses originated in Vermont. These horses can scarcely be classed as a breed, but rather a family of the American Trotter. They are noted for their activity and endurance, but are considered by many as undersize. The average weight is from 900 to 1000 pounds, and the height 14 to 15 hands. Bay with dark points is the preferred color. breed in. Often the risk is great, but it is the only way the desired blood can be retained. In such case it is best to strike out boldly and know the worst at once. Many breeders have found themselves in just such position and by in-breeding have not only retained the good characters but have increased THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS, IN GENERAL 95 and intensified them by in-breeding, and in a few generations have succeeded in building up the best herds in the breed. Breeding from the best. — The advisability of breeding from the best depends on the situation. When one is grading, it is advisable to procure the very best obtainable. On the other hand, when one is building up a pure herd, it is equally import- ant to give due regard to the strain with which one is working. That is to say, in actual practice the breeder who breeds from the best without regard for blood lines is likely to bring to- gether a confused herd, out of which nothing of note can be established. Crossing family lines brings about much the same condition as crossing the breeds, only on a more limited scale. From this it must be apparent that if one is to secure the best results from any system of breeding whatsoever, he must have due regard for ancestral lines. He must keep the strains pure, intensify the desirable characters, thus increasing prepotency and securing uniformity. If the purpose is herd improvement, grading is practicable, as it is a cheap, quick, and conserva- tive method, and if persisted in for a few generations, develops animals about equal to pure breds for production. If the pur- pose is breed improvement, then line-breeding or even in- breeding will be found to be most effective, for by these methods the ancestral lines can be kept true. CHAPTER V THE BREEDING OF HORSES AND MULES While we have no data available in the United States on the number of horses and mules consumed, or used up, in a year, yet a very conservative estimate would be between four and five million, this to include export animals as well as those consumed at home. These horses must be replaced as conr sumed, or there will be a horse famine. There are ap- proximately twenty million horses in the United States, of which we will assume one-half, or ten million, are mares. If we are to raise between four and five million colts, both horse and mule, it means that at least one-half, or 50 per cent, of these mares must be bred each year. It must be remembered that the horses that supply this demand are produced on the farms. Their production is the work of the general farmer, who is primarily a grain raiser, a dairyman, or whose main business is general farming, and who raises horses because he is so situated as to be able to propa- gate them with but little inconvenience to his main work. Such farms usually possess three advantages: they grow large amounts of cheap food ; they contain abundant range for the proper exercise of growing animals; and there is considerable team work to be done. On such farms horses can be grown with little extra labor and at a good profit. PLAN OF BREEDING A clearly defined plan of procedure should be thought out before the farmer makes the attempt to breed horses. To do 96 THE BREEDING OF HORSES 97 this a good knowledge of horses and horse-breeding should be secured. Breeding establishments and horse-producing farms should be visited. One should familiarize himself with the methods of successful horse-breeders, should note the condi- tions that lead to success and those that cause failure. The Fig. 42. — "Carolina." The American Saddler owned by John B. Castle- man, LouisviUe, Ky. The American saddle horse is a native of the United States, principally the states of Kentucky, Virginia, and Missouri. This breed is noted for its easy gaits, endurance, and intelligence. The weight varies from 900 to 1200 pounds and the height from 153^ to 16 hands. Saddlers are of two classes : (1) walk- trot-canter horse ; (2) the five-gaited horse ; walk, trot, canter, rack, and run- ning walk or fox trot or slow pace. intending horse-breeder should take account of his likes and dislikes. He may prefer the light active horse to the heavy phlegmatic drafter. The horse-producer should study his con- ditions. Some conditions will be favorable to the production of one class, some to another. It should be kept clearly in h 98 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS mind, whatever the type or class chosen, whether it is light or heavy, or for speed or draft, that none but superior horses will sell at remunerative prices. There will always be an over- production of common horses, which will be the first to be affected by oversupply and other business depressions, and the last to be revived. The market should also be studied. In some sections the demand will be for a certain class and in other sections another class will be in most demand. Cooperative breeding. — From observations made in localities where horses are bred in a commercial way, it would seem ad- visable to breed on the cooperative plan. It is apparent that the formation of horse-breeding associations in townships and counties would do much to advance the progress of the industry. Such associations should be formed of breeders who possess the same class or breed of mares. It would be the work of such an association to protect the interests of its members, provide suitable stallions each year for use on the mares owned by the members, advertise stock, attract buyers, hold sales, make exhibits at the county, district, and state fairs, hold meetings for discussion of horse-breeding matters, and educate the far- mers of the locality to better methods of breeding, feeding, and developing marketable horses. Securing stallions. — The fact that mares are often bred to unsuitable stallions is, in many instances, due more to the diffi- culty of finding the right horse close at hand than to indiffer- ence or carelessness on the part of the breeder. A fitting start may be made in grading up in a certain district, and in a few years no horse of the same blood is to be found to continue the good work in the right direction. The consequence is that a horse of different breed, unsuitable in many respects, is used until a more suitable sire can be secured, or happens to enter the district. It often occurs that a stallion is unexpectedly thrust on a district by a salesman of some importing firm. A company is THE BREEDING OF HORSES 99 formed for the purchase of the horse, and the price is usually high, as it must contain many and sometimes questionable ex- penses. The " company plan" of purchasing a stallion is therefore objectionable. It is much better for the farmers interested in horse-breeding to get together and choose one of their own members and send him to the importing stable or horse-breeding firm to purchase the stallion. He will have an opportunity to choose and will get one much cheaper. Undoubtedly, any reputable breeder or importer of horses would be glad to send into any district the horse desired by a company of farm-breeders and in close accord with their re- quirements as regards pedigree, character, qualit}^, size, and price. It is equally likely that the same firm would be willing, for a certain consideration in price, to replace the stallion when he could no longer be used in that particular district. If such a plan were followed persistently, each district so acting would secure much better results than at present. SELECTING BREEDING STOCK In the selection of breeding stock, we must keep in mind the principle of heredity that "like produces like." This applies to the brood mare as well as to the stallion. Bad qualities in the mare are as likely to appear in the colt as are bad qualities possessed by the stallion. The influence of the mare in the trans- mission of qualities to the foal is often very much underestimated, and frequently ignored entirely by horse-breeders. This can- not be other than a serious mistake, and the farmer who keeps worthless mares for breeding simply because he can- not sell them, will not be able to compete with his neighbor who keeps only the best brood mares, even though they both patronize the same stallion. The mare has as much influence on the colt as has the stallion. Once in a while we may get a very fine colt from an inferior mare, but such is very rarely 100 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the case, and no man can afford to breed horses for this excep- tional case. It is a serious but common error in breeding horses to suppose that the bad points in one animal can be fully offset or overcome by the good points in the mate. The statement that the stallion controls the outward characters and the mare the internal characters has led many breeders to think that the offspring would resemble the paternal parent irrespective of the mother. Such is not the case. The foundation of successful horse-breed- ing is to mate two animals each of which is as nearly perfect as possible. The breed and type. — Choose the breed which best suits the conditions, the markets, and the tastes of the breeders. There is no best breed or type for all conditions. Light horses naturally belong on land devoted to grass, to dairy industry, and to market- gardening, where but little plowing and other heavy horse work is required, and the necessity of reaching the market, the station, or the creamery requires quick-moving horses. On farms devoted to fruit-growing and the like, where the horse work is somewhat heavier than on the dairy farm, the coach horse may be used. Coach horses are well adapted to fruit farms with one exception — they are rather too tall to be used to best advantage in tilling under trees in the orchards. On grain farms, where there is much plowing and the work to be done is .hard, heavy horses are needed. On general farms the draft horse finds his true place. Draft horses can be reared with less risk than the lighter and more active types, such as the roadster and the coachers. They do not require so much training, and can be put to light work younger. The draft horse is in great demand for city traffic. Again, the roadster and the coacher require much training before they can be marketed, if good values are to be secured. This training requires skill, time, and money, which should be taken into account. A well- bred and well-trained coach or driving team will bring a good THE BREEDING OF HORSES 101 price, but the skill, time, and money required to breed and train them is too great for the general farmer. Uniformity. — Each community should produce horses uni- form in type. As it is now, each district produces a number of types. For this reason, buyers in search of a particular type or breed of horse do not know where to find it, and buy, here and Fig. 43. — Group of Percheron Mares. Imported and owned by J. Crouch & Son, Lafayette, Ind. there throughout a wide territory and at a great outlay for traveling expenses, individual horses of the right type, until the lot has been gathered together. When each farmer in a district is breeding according to his individual ideas, he has to find a separate and individual market or buyer for his product, and the price paid is consequently small. Such districts may sell large numbers of horses annually, but they are of non- descript type and character. These horses neither make a name for the district as a horse-breeding center nor attract buyers willing to pay appreciative prices. The individual farmer will do better to cast in his lot with the majority of his neighbors, and breed the same type as they are breeding, even though this type 102 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS may not be the one that suits his fancy best or even the one that is best suited to the district. Under the system suggested, the buyer of any particular type or breed should be able to go to a district noted for the produc- tion of the class of animal required and there find it in sufficient numbers, uniform in type and quality, to meet all needs. Could this be done, buyers would save much time and expense and would be ready and willing to pay better prices for the full supply of horses thus easily found. Soundness. — It is of great importance that the stallion should be free from all forms of unsoundness or disease that are heredi- tary, transmissible, or communicable to the offspring. It is equally important that the mares bred to him should be sound in the same way, for not until both mare and stallion used for breeding purposes are free from unsoundness can we hope to raise the excellence of our horses to the degree possible as the result of intelligent breeding and development. Many imported and home-bred stallions are unsound and transmit to their progeny the predisposition to like unsoundness. This is equally true of mares used for breeding purposes, as many breeders have fallen into the grievous way of considering any broken-down, halt, maimed, blind, or otherwise unsound mare fit for breeding purposes when no longer able to work. THE STALLION The stallion is of prime importance in horse-breeding. We have already seen that the male is concerned with many more individual offspring in a given season than the female and that his influence is much more extensive because of the increased number he influences. To secure the improvement in the horses of a given community through the females would require the use of fifty or more superior mares to accomplish the same result as might be secured by the use of a single stallion, and even then there would be less uniformity in the progeny. This has no THE BREEDING OF HORSES 103 reference to the relative influence of the two parents over the offspring, but is simply because the stallion controls one-half the characters in the entire crop, whereas the mare controls but one. Often one has no choice of stallions when mating the mares because there is but one male in the vicinity, and this no doubt is responsible for much of the mixed breeding among our horse stock. On the other hand, usually there are several stallions available, and one must choose among them. While there are many things to be taken into account, the following are among the most important : individuality, type, soundness, and breeding. THE MARE The most fertile period in the mare's life is usually at four to twelve years of age. In exceptional cases, this period may be extended both ways. Just how young it is safe to breed fillies or young mares is a question concerning which there is great difference of opinion. In some cases it is perfectly safe to breed a two-year-old filly, and in many cases it is far from safe and positively detrimental to both the young mare and her offspring. The advisability of breeding a two-year-old filly depends on at least three important factors: First, the breed. Horses of draft breeding mature much earlier than the lighter and more active breeds, so that a draft filly at two years old is often as forward as a trotting or running filly at three years of age. Second, the individual animal. There is consider- able difference in the way mares mature. Usually a smoothly turned, neat, and well-finished filly makes its growth earlier than a rougher, more vigorous individual. Again, the feed and care have much to do with the early maturity of the filly. One that is kept growing continuously will mature earlier than one imperfectly cared for and which receives a set back each winter. Third, the object sought. Is the question to improve 104 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the strain of horses with which one is breeding, or only to market the greatest possible number of animals ? If the ob- ject is to improve the strain, one should never attempt to breed a two-year-old filly. The practice in certain draft-horse producing countries, Great Britain for example, is to breed the draft fillies the spring they are two years old and allow them no work whatever that season. After weaning their foals, they are taken as three-year-olds and put to work, and not bred again until they are four years old. This system is worthy of adoption when one wishes to know the breeding qualities of his mare as early as possible; otherwise there is no advantage, as one will secure just as many colts if he waits till the mare is three years old and then breeds her. When draft horses are wanted only for marketing, there is no reason why fillies cannot be bred at two years of age, provided they are mature, have been well grown, and their owner is willing to feed and care for them properly during their pregnancy. Nor is there any reason why they should not be bred each year thereafter. They should not, however, be put to work till over three years of age. At about twelve years, the productive powers of some draft mares will begin to wane, although many of them are reliable breeders to about fifteen years, especially if they have been bred continuously from their maturity. Above this age, it is rarely profitable to keep them for breeding. Perhaps it is best to dispose of draft brood mares at ten or twelve years old unless they are exceptionally good breeders, in which case they should be kept as long as they will breed. Season of the year to breed. — The natural time for foals to arrive is in the spring, and under ordinary conditions, especially on breeding farms, this is customary. However, on most farms the mare must do the season's work in addition to raising the colt. This often necessitates breeding the mares so as to have the colts arrive in the fall. With good stables, abundance of food, THE BREEDING OF HORSES 105 "o O fcuD <1 0 02 O O « 8 i. O C3 D O Q < r. H O 2 - O « SB o « -J 106 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and the necessary help, there is no reason why mares should not be made to foal in the fall if it is more convenient to have them do so. In fact, if one is forced to choose between a spring foal with no chance properly to favor the mare and a fall foal which arrives and is suckled while the mare is laid by, the latter would be more desirable. During winter, however, both mare and foal will require more attention than if bred to foal in the spring. Fig. 45. — A Cross-bred Coach and American Trotting Horse. A type used by the New York police. By fall foaling, the youngsters can be given a good start before they are set back by the short pastures and flies of midsummer. The mare is not so likely to breed in the fall and winter as in the spring. She is often thin in flesh after the summer's work. But by increasing the food, especially the grain rations, by regular and moderate exercise, and by blanketing, the desired results can often be brought about. The bowels should be kept free from constipation by feeding moderate amounts of succulent foods. THE BBEEDING OF HOUSES 107 Breeders of race and show horses take every advantage of the age limit, and therefore favor early foaling. There are also un- questionable benefits to be derived from the life in the open, and the new grass, to commend springtime for foaling, but the prejudice against fall colts is not altogether warranted, and cir- cumstances may be such as to make it most advantageous. According to the table (p. 108), a mare bred on January 1 should foal on December 6 ; one bred on March 27 should foal on March 1 the following year. When mares should be tried. — There is great diversity of opinion as to when and how often a mare should be tried after she has been served by the stallion. It can be accepted as a general rule that if the mare is perfectly normal and healthy, she will conceive. If she is not normal or is unhealthy, she either will not conceive at all or only occasionally at best, and even then there is likely to be difficult}-. We should see to it that her organs are perfectly normal and that she is in good health. We should not change her diet or her mode of life so suddenly as to upset her general health. Some mares are shy breeders. If a mare is unwilling and it is desired to breed her, she can occasionally be brought about by hobbling her securely and then breeding her. Then she will behave more or less peaceably for eighteen to twenty-one days, when she may be bred again. There are other mares, and they are numerous, that will freely be served when they are in foal, in some cases almost up to the time of foaling. A mare will almost invariably breed on the ninth day, or thereabouts, after foaling, and if she is healthy and has received no injuries in giving birth, it is the practice to breed her at this time. Just when mares should be returned to see whether they have conceived is a much discussed question. Mares differ greatly in the recurrence of their periods. It is best for each breeder to study the individual differences among his mares. The common practice is to return them fourteen to eighteen 108 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Table showing period of gestation — Mares 340 days Date of service on the left. Date of foaling on the right < u a Q d a z < »-3 ferH 2* ft < ft >> < < a 1-5 < u 1-3 a p o p j P l— 3 ft H CO 6 P < U O ft > o o O G > o 1 6 1 6 1 3 1 6 1 5 1 6 1 5 1 6 1 6 1 5 1 6 1 5 2 7 2 7 2 4 2 7 2 6 2 7 2 6 2 7 2 7 2 6 2 7 2 6 3 8 3 8 3 5 3 8 3 7 3 8 3 7 3 8 3 8 3 7 3 8 3 7 4 9 4 9 4 6 4 9 4 8 4 9 4 8 4 9 4 9 4 8 4 9 4 8 5 10 5 10 5 7 5 10 5 9 5 10 5 9 5 10 5 10 5 9 5 10 5 9 6 11 6 11 6 8 6 11 6 10 6 11 6 10 6 11 6 11 6 10 6 11 6 10 7 12 7 12 7 9 7 12 7 11 7 12 7 11 7 12 7 12 7 11 7 12 7 11 8 13 8 13 8 10 8 13 8 12 8 13 S 12 8 13 8 13 8 12 8 13 8 12 9 14 9 14 9 11 9 14 9 13 9 14 9 13 9 14 9 14 9 13 9 14 9 13 10 15 10 15 10 12 10 15 10 14 10 15 10 14 10 15 10 15 10 14 10 15 10 14 11 16 11 16 11 13 11 16 11 15 11 16 11 15 11 16 11 16 11 15 11 16 11 15 12 17 12 17 12 14 12 17 12 16 12 17 12 16 12 17 12 17 12 16 12 17 12 16 13 18 13 18 13 15 13 18 13 17 13 18 13 17 13 18 13 18 13 17 13 18 13 17 14 19 14 19 14 16 14 19 14 18 14 19 14 18 14 19 14 19 14 18 14 19 14 18 15 20 15 20 15 17 15 20 15 19 15 20 15 19 15 20 15 20 15 19 15 20 15 19 16 21 16 21 16 18 16 21 16 20 16 21 16 20 16 21 16 21 16 20 16 21 16 20 17 22 17 22 17 19 17 22 17 21 17 22 17 21 17 22 17 22 17 21 17 22 17 21 18 23 18 23 18 20 18 23 18 22 18 23 18 22 18 23 18 23 18 22 18 23 18 22 19 24 19 24 19 21 19 24 19 23 19 24 19 23 19 24 19 24 19 23 19 24 19 23 20 25 20 25 20 22 20 25 20 24 20 25 20 24 20 25 20 25 20 24 20 25 20 24 21 26 21 26 21 23 21 26 21 25 21 26 21 25 21 26 21 26 21 25 21 26 21 25 22 27 22 27 22 24 22 27 22 26 22 27 22 26 22 27 22 27 22 26 22 27 22 26 23 28 23 28 23 25 23 28 23 27 23 28 23 27 23 28 23 28 23 27 23 28 23 27 24 29 24 29 24 26 24 29 24 28 24 29 24 28 24 29 24 29 24 28 24 29 24 28 25 30 25 30 25 27 25 30 25 29 25 30 25 29 25 30 25 30 25 29 25 30 25 29 26 31 26 31 26 28 26 31 26 30 26 31 26 30 26 31 26 31 26 30 26 31 26 30 < >-5 « ft ft < < »-3 6 ft w o O > o o Q 27 1 27 1 27 1 27 1 27 1 27 1 27 1 27 1 27 1 27 1 27 1 27 1 28 2 28 2 28 2 28 2 28 2 28 2 28 2 28 2 28 2 28 2 28 2 28 2 29 3 29 3 29 3 29 3 29 3 29 3 29 3 29 3 29 3 29 3 29 3 30 4 30 4 30 4 30 4 30 4 30 4 30 4 30 4 30 4 30 4 30 4 31 5 31 5 31 5 31 5 31 5 31 5 31 5 THE BREEDING OF HORSES 109 days after the first service, and to return them each week there- after for at least one month. Barrenness in mares. — It often happens that mares are served normally, yet fail to conceive. Some of the causes of this difficulty are readily understood and eas- ily prevented, while others are not so well known and are perhaps beyond the control of breeders. Mares that are not served till late in life are often diffi- cult to impregnate at the first time. This is often noticed in mares that have spent a good part of a lifetime at hard work. In such cases it is due perhaps to the long inactivity of the generative organs. An excess of rich and stimulating foods is a common cause of non-breeding; and the dangers attend- ing parturition are more than trebled in the case of fat animals. Milk-fever never occurs in mares that are kept actually at work and are in only moderate flesh at the time of foaling. On the other hand, barrenness may be due to poor feeding and hard work, the system being weakened by the lack of sufficient nutrition. Undue sexual excitement at the most active stage of heat is often responsible for the mare not conceiving. In addition to these, there is a long line of causes of barrenness in mares over which the breeder has little or no control, such as Fig. 46. — Arab Horse used as a Polo Pont. 110 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS derangement of the female organs, diseased ovaries, tumors, and the like. Abortion in mares. — Abortion is the expulsion of the fetus at any period from the date of impregnation until the foal can survive out of the womb. It is produced by any cause operating to disconnect the union of the fetal membrane from the uterus. The mare may abort by reason of almost any cause that very generally disturbs her system, as the influence of too stimulating diet or the reverse, wet seasons, a previous miscarriage, and all circumstances opposed to efficient nutrition and respiration. The more direct mechanical causes are falls, blows, violent exertion, severe illness, large draughts of cold water or eating iced grass, ergot of rye, the smut of corn or other grain, and drinking filthy stagnant water ; also, traveling on heavy muddy roads, soft plowed ground, or jumping over fences, ditches, and the like. The prevention of abortion is the avoidance of all causes which may have a tendency to produce it. When abortion has once occurred, the greatest care in subsequent management is neces- sary. The breeder must avoid all causes of constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, and the like. When all measures fail and miscarriage results, all that can be done is to assist in the removal of the fetus and its membranes as in ordinary parturitions. The mare should have extra care at this time. She should have a roomy, well-lighted stall, with plenty of air and easily digested food. The mare should not be served again for a month or longer, and in no case till after all discharges from the vulva have ceased. Parturition time. — The average period of gestation in the mare is popularly placed at eleven months, more accurately perhaps three hundred and forty days, but it may vary greatly. (See page 108.) Because of the uncertainty of the period, the mare should be closely watched from the tenth month till parturition. There are certain signs of the near approach of parturition that THE BREEDING OF HORSES 111 rarely fail. The udder often becomes greatly distended some time before foaling, but the teats seldom fill out full and plump to the end more than two or three days before the foal is born. About one week or ten days before foaling, there is a marked shrinking or falling away of the muscular parts at the top of the buttocks back of the hips. Another sign is the appearance of the wax on the ends of the teats. This generally appears not earlier than three days before the foal comes. In some cases, however, the foal may be born without any of these signs. Fig. 47. — A Farm Group of French Draft Horses. This breed was developed in France and is similar to the Percheron. About the three hundred and thirtieth day, or when the mare begins to show signs, the work should be much lightened and the grain ration reduced, although for best results the mare should be kept at light work up to the day of foaling. Bran mash will prove very beneficial now, as it will keep the bowels in good condition and allay any tendency to feverishness. She should have a roomy, well-lighted, and ventilated box stall, thoroughly clean and freshly bedded. If birth is easy and normal, let both mare and foal alone. They will come through the ordeal all right. It may be neces- sary that a caretaker be near by at night to render assistance if 112 MANUAL OF FABM ANIMALS need be, but the mare must not know of his presence. Most mares will not give birth to their young in the presence of per- sons if they can help it. If the mare shows after a reasonable time that she cannot de- liver the foal, or if examination discloses that there is an ab- normal presentation (normally the fore feet appear first, then the nose), a veterinarian should be summoned at once. Do not wait too long, for her strength rapidly fails. Difficult par- turition among horses is much more likely to result fatally to the offspring than among cattle, sheep, or swine. The mare and the young foal. — After foaling, if all is normal, the mare will usually get up and tend to her foal. After she is on her feet, offer her a drink of gruel made from a pound of fine oat meal in half a bucket of water from which the chill has been taken. While the mare should be lightly worked up to the day of foaling, it is essential that she have a few days' rest after foal- ing; how long will depend on the condition of the mare and foal, and the financial circumstances of the breeder. Strong mares that have come through satisfactorily will be able to do light work in three or four days if need be, whereas others will need at least two weeks to recover from the shock. Two things require attention at this time so far as the mare is concerned : she must be properly nourished, not fed too much or too little and with the right sort of food ; if able, she must have light exercise or the foal will suffer. The foods given the brood mare when nursing her foal should be such as have a tendency to produce milk. Corn and timothy hay fed alone are not good milk-producing foods. Foods rich in protein and ash, such as oats, bran, clover, and alfalfa hay, are preferred, and they could be improved by the addition of a succulent food such as carrots. Many mares are poor milk-producers at best, and they must be encouraged. Plenty of good fresh grass is one of the best aids to healthy and abun- dant nutrition for both mare and foal. THE BREEDING OF HORSES 113 One should keep close watch on the mare's udder and the condition of the colt's bowels. If the colt is not taking all the milk, the udder will be greatly distended, become sore, and possibly cake, when there will be difficulty with both mare and foal. It is then necessary to milk the mare. If the bowels of the colt are loose and he is scouring, it may be due to the fact that he is getting too much milk. In that case, the mare should be partly milked by hand.- THE FOAL It is essential that the new-born foal get the first milk from the dam. This fore-milk looks thick and yellow and is a natural purgative for the removal of the material that has accumulated in the foal's digestive tract during the last few days of its de- velopment. Its prompt removal is essential to the life of the colt. Sometimes this fore-milk, or colostrum, is drawn off as unfit for the colt, but such practice is a common cause of death to the foal two or three days after birth. The young foal that makes its appearance normally and is bright and active needs only to be let alone as long as both mare and foal are doing well. The infant foal will be better for it. By giving proper attention to the food and exercise of the mare, the foal may be kept thriving and in the pink of condition with- out any special care or attention. Not all foals, however, are so fortunate. Occasionally one loses its life through want of attention at the time of birth. Occasionally foals are troubled with digestive disorders that must be attended to and remedied at once before they prove fatal. Again, they are sometimes troubled with an infectious navel disease which may be due to unsanitary conditions at the time of foaling. It sometimes happens that the new-born foal cannot breathe — does not establish the function of respiration. In this case, steps must be taken quickly to establish respiration by blowing violently up the muzzle and into the mouth, and by briskly 114 MANUAL OF FAEM ANIMALS rubbing the body. If breathing is slow, a few tablespoonfuls of brandy and water, given after the first few respirations, will be of material service in invigorating the low vital process. As soon as the mare has recovered from the shock of giving birth, she should be allowed to tend the foal, for it will be phys- Fig. 48. — Hackney Coach Mare, and Foal Three Weeks Old. by A. R. Gillis, Syracuse, N.Y. Owned ically benefited thereby. If she refuses to dry and caress it, a little flour sprinkled over the back of the foal will often attract her to it. Should she still refuse, the foal must be dried with a soft flannel, aided to find the teat, and assisted to obtain its first nourishment. THE BREEDING OF HORSES 115 Ills of the young foal. Constipation. — Notwithstanding the purgative effects of the colostrum or first flow of milk, the young foal frequently suffers from constipation, especially if the mare has not been in good health during the latter periods of pregnancy. Then again, the dam may have something wrong with her first milk, or the young foal through weakness may not get a good draft. Whatever the cause, if the digestive tract has not been cleaned of its contents within twenty-four hours and the foal presents a droopy, listless appearance, eyes not bright, ears lopped over, something must be done to stimu- late the action of the bowels. The bowels will ordinarily be stimulated actively by administering two ounces of olive oil or castor oil and an injection of warm water into the bowels. The water should be at blood heat and have added to it a little glycerine — a teaspoonful of glycerine and enough warm water to make two or three ounces, not more. Never try to fill the little foal with copious douches of soap-suds, as is often done. Plain cold water is better than soap-suds. Only a very little is needed. Inject gently into the rectum with a common two- ounce hard rubber syringe, taking care not to rupture the tender membrane. This will lubricate the passage and induce the foal to endeavor to pass the fecal matter, which is a yellowish, rather hard, waxy substance. If given as directed, the injection can do no harm, and it may be repeated every hour. In five hours, relief will usually have been gained and the appearance of the youngster will have changed greatly for the better. Diarrhea or scours. — This disease is rather prevalent among suckling animals, and is often fatal. Although less subject to it than calves, foals often die from diarrhea within a short time after birth. The causes are not certainly known. It is ordinarily attributed to changes of an unknown character in the composition of the milk. Two facts, however, have been proved : First, that the causes of scours are many and varied ; second, that their potency is increased by unclean surroundings, espe- 116 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS cially unwholesome stables. Apparent causes are the non- removal of the fecal matter; also anything that very materially affects the health or condition of the mare, such as becoming fretful when kept away from the colt for a time soon after partu- rition. The mare becomes feverish, the quality of her milk materially altered, and the foal coming to her hungry, gorges itself with this changed milk which induces indigestion and diarrhea. Very rich foods may stimulate the flow to such an extent that if the foal is permitted to take it all, digestive dis- orders and diarrhea will result. The same often happens in early spring when the mare is pasturing on a rank growth of succulent grass. Confinement in close buildings is objectionable to mare and foal alike. In both it induces a weakened condition, and leaves the system an easy prey to disease. A' cold damp bed, exposure to cold rain storms, and the like are to be avoided. A passing shower may do no harm, even if cold, but a prolonged exposure to rain with a low temperature is hard on a new-born foal and often leads to disorders of the digestive organs and fatal diarrhea. The best treatment is to avoid conditions likely to cause such disorders. If the dam is properly fed and exercised, there is very little danger. One should attend the foal at the first appearance of digestive disorders and remove the cause; even then it may be too late. If it is due to an oversupply of rich milk, the dam should be milked in part by hand. One should be cautioned against giving an astringent with a view to cutting off the discharge. The best policy in all such cases is to expel the disturber with a laxative, such as two ounces of castor oil, and later when the irritant has been expelled, to check the dis- charge by a weak solution of gum arabic, of slippery elm, or by well-boiled linseed tea or starch, or the like. But even this road is beset by many a difficulty. Navel infection. — Another disease common to young foals is the so-called navel infection, or joint disease. It should be THE BREEDING OF HORSES 117 understood that this disease is due to filth germs that gain access to the body of the foal by way of the open umbilical vein of the navel at birth. When these germs enter, they set up irritation and inflammation ; pus forms and is absorbed into the circula- tion from the navel abscess, and other abscesses are formed in all parts of the body, notably in the joints. The foal is seen to have a swollen joint and one is likely to think the mare caused the injury; but soon other joints will be affected, and it may extend to the throat and poll. It is comparatively rare that an infected colt can be saved after the disease has reached the pus-forming stage. Fig. 49. — Bressary OF PlTTSFORD. ABERDEEN OF PlTTSFORD. Shetland team of stallions. Unbeaten The Shetland Pony, a native of the Shetland Islands, is the smallest breed of domesticated ponies. In height they range from 36 to 44 inches. They are built like miniature draft horses, being thick-set and strong, and so very docile as to require hardly any training. These ponies are com- mon in the United States, where they are used for children to drive. It has been proved that simple hygienic measures will prevent the disease. The stall in which the mare foals should have every bit of old bedding, litter, and dirt removed, and the young foal should be born only on clean fresh bedding. Perhaps it would be safer to wash the stump of the umbilical cord, which 118 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS should never be cut but allowed to break of its own accord, with a saturated solution of boracic acid and then dust it with boracic acid powder. Feeding the young foal. — It often happens that the milk of the mare is insufficient to promote healthy, vigorous growth in the foal, and occasionally it becomes necessary to raise a foal entirely independent of the dam. In such cases the best addi- tion or substitute for the milk of the mare is that of the cow. The milk of the mare has more sugar and less fat than the milk of the cow. One should get milk from as fresh a cow as possible, and the poorer in fat the better, as mare's milk will average only about 1.2 per cent fat, while the milk of most cows runs above 3 per cent. Do not use Jersej^ milk for colts, as it is too rich in fat, A little patient effort will soon teach the colt to drink milk readily, but one must be careful not to give it too much at first. A half pint is enough for a foal two or three days old, but the ration should be repeated often. If it is necessary to feed the foal cow's milk from the beginning, the milk should be modified. To a dessert-spoonful of white granulated sugar add enough warm water to dissolve it. Then add three tablespoonfuls of lime water and enough milk to make a pint. Warm the mixture to blood heat. Let the foal have a half teacupful every hour at first. This takes time, but must be done. If the colt scours, give a dose of two ounces of castor oil and discontinue the feed for two hours. As the colt grows older, the amount of food should be increased and the frequency of feeding decreased, first to twelve, then to nine, six, and lastly four times a day. The purpose is to give the foal all it will drink, and to feed so often that it will not require much at a time. Gruels, made by boiling beans or peas and removing the skins by pressing the pulp through a sieve, or oil meal and shorts made into a jelly by boiling, are excellent for the motherless colt. THE BREEDING OF HORSES 119 As soon as the foal is old enough, it should be encouraged to nibble at grain, preferably ground oats. It will begin to munch in the grain and hay at three or four weeks of age, and should be encouraged to eat. It will eat only a very little at first. If it is necessary that the foal have milk after it is two months old, skimmed milk should be substituted for fresh cow's milk. Never feed a colt sour milk. Never feed milk from unclean vessels. Should there be any trouble from constipation, it will be well to add about one-half pint of oil meal per day to the ration. Oil meal can be fed with profit to growing colts, as it furnishes a large proportion of muscle-forming and bone-form- ing food. The effect of such a ration — sweet skimmed milk, ground oats, and oil meal — on the growth and development of a foal is remarkable, and in all cases when the foal is likely to enter winter in low flesh such a ration cannot be too highly recommended. Many breeders advise leaving the colt in the stable while the mare is at work ; others allow the colt to follow the mare into the field. Much depends on the kind of work that is to be done. Never let a colt drink from a warm mare ; allow her to cool off and perhaps draw some of the milk by hand, when she may be turned into the stall with the foal with perfect safety to both mare and foal. Weaning the foal. — Weaning is more a question of prepara- tion than of the absolute removal of the foal from the dam; and the simplicity of the weaning process depends on the thorough- ness of the preparation. If the foal has been accustomed to grain as suggested, if it has been permitted to take increasingly more as it grew, then the process will not be difficult, for as the ration increases in amount of grain it will decrease in the amount of milk consumed. When the time arrives for complete separa- tion, there will be very little if any set back or disturbance to either foal or dam. On the other hand, if the foal must learn to eat after being deprived of its accustomed source of supply, it 120 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS will require time to get used to the new condition, and the mare will demand special care because of the removal of the colt before her milk supply has been diminished to any extent. Foals are usually weaned at four to six months of age, depend- ing on conditions. If the mare was bred soon after foaling and conceived, it is best to wean the foal early, so that the mare will have time to recuperate and nourish the fetus. If for any reason mare and foal are not doing well, it is perhaps best to wean comparatively early. If, on the other hand, the mare has a full flow of milk and her services are not needed, there is no reason for weaning the foal under six months of age. When dam and foal are separated, it is better for both that the separa- tion be complete. If, after both have become reconciled to the separation, they are permitted to see, hear, or smell each other again, all that has been gained is lost, and it will be necessary to begin over again. Care should also be taken to see that the new quarters where the weanlings are confined are so con- structed and arranged that they cannot injure themselves while fretting over the separation. At this time the food and the udder of the mare require extra attention. Work the mare right along if she has been at work, but reduce her grain ration till she is dried off. When the udder becomes so full as to cause her uneasiness, part of the milk should be drawn, but she should not be milked dry. If the milk is all withdrawn each time, it will take longer to dry her. Skimmed milk may still be given to the colt, especially if it is not in good condition to enter the winter. Clean, sound oats well ground constitute the best of all grains for the weanling. As cold weather approaches, one-fourth in weight of corn meal maybe added, as it helps to produce fat and keeps up the animal heat. If to this a little oil meal, say a half pint a day, is added, the weanling will make good gains in spite of the cold weather and the fact that it has just been separated from its mother. THE BREEDING OF HORSES 121 Do not be afraid of feeding too liberally. Many colts are per- manently injured the first six months after weaning by too scanty supply of food. BREEDING JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES Because of the increasing importance of the mule, it seems desirable to point out some of the peculiarities connected with its breeding. In general, the same suggestions apply to horses, jacks, jennets, and mules, yet there are a few characteristic differences. Jacks and jennets. — In selecting breeding stock, choose those with long, thin, bony head and long, well-tapering ears, sitting gracefully on the head, and with large, flat, clean limbs, big feet deeply cupped. As to color, it should be a good black with dis- tinctly light points. Breadth in hips and pelvis is very essential, particularly in jennet. Many jennets are so deficient or narrow in the pelvis that they have great difficulty in giving birth to their offspring. In size they should be large and well proportioned. The action should be snappy and straight away. Perhaps the most important characters are color, size, action, and boniness. The jennet carries her foal somewhat longer than the mare, perhaps well up to twelve months. At foaling time the jennet must be closely watched. This is essential. When the colt is born, it sometimes has the membrane over its head and nostrils ; if this is not torn and removed, it will smother the young foal. Usually, the navel cord is tough and does not give way or break. If it is pulsating after the colt is born, it should be tied with a silk or flax thread and then cut three or four inches from the navel. Never cut the navel before tieing. Jack colts are liable to have trouble with the navel ; hence the importance of being on hand when the colt is foaled. Again, foaling jennets are often troubled with sore, tender, and inflamed udders, due to the large amount of milk they contain. When such is the case, they will not allow the colt to suck, but kick and bite it, and THE BREEDING OF HORSES 123 it will starve if not looked after properly. The jennet must be carefully milked and the udder bathed in warm salt water to relieve the inflammation. Some jennets give great quantities of milk. It is a good plan not to give much stimulating food before she is due to foal, and not have her too fat. Therefore, the food should be reduced for a short time just before and after foaling. Fig. 51. — A Two-year-old Catalonian Jack. Owned by C. F. Cook, Lexington, Ky. When it is desired to re-breed mares, we have stated that they should be mated about the seventh or ninth day after foaling, for should they fail to breed then, they are likely not to come in again while nursing the colt. On the other hand jennets breed much later, about the twelfth to fourteenth day, and if they fail to breed then, are not likely to mate while nursing. 124 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Jack colts should be cared for and weaned much as suggested for horses. Because of the length of jack colts' limbs, they seem to be more liable to spring their fore legs when feeding on pas- ture than the horse colt. They are required to put too much weight on the fore legs to enable them to reach the grass, and there is a giving way in the joints; usually the knee springs in or out, but often the ankle gives way. Again when the dams are low, thus compelling the colt to stoop and suck, the fore limbs Fig. 52. — Two Two-year-old Jacks. Owned by C. F. Cook, Lexington, Ky. are often cramped in such position as to increase their liability to injury. These difficulties are so serious that Knight gives the following advice : When short grazing is the cause of the trouble, put the colt in the stable and feed with suitable food; when caused by a low dam, the difficulty may be obviated by the colt being put in the stable and fed on modified cow's milk, or milk from the dam. Mules and hinnies. — The mule is the product of a jack and THE BREEDING OF HORSES 125 mare. A hinny is the product of a stallion mated to a jennet. The latter is seldom seen in this country. It resembles the mule. It is asserted, however, that the hinny takes more the characters of the horse, the head is neater and ears shorter than the mule, the hair in mane and tail heavier and the foot larger. The bray is like the horse. Hinnies are scarce because Fig. 53. — A Pair of Premium Mules. Owned by C. F. Cook, Lexington, Ky. the stallion has an aversion to the jennet, and will not mate with her unless he has been reared with jennets. The j ack is likewise peculiar in his habits. Jacks will not serve both mares and jennets. Nor will a jack serve a mare at all if reared along with a jennet. In the rearing of mule-breeding jacks, this is a factor of much importance and cannot be im- pressed too strongly. To mate with mares, in order to breed mules, a jack must be raised along with mare colts and not permitted to see or smell a jennet until well broken 126 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and trained to mate mares properly. If permitted to serve a jennet, he will not again serve a mare, and his usefulness as a mule breeder is at an end. It is best to have a stallion to tease the mare when a jack is to be used. Some mares are afraid of jacks and will not show signs to them, hence the importance of having a stallion as a teaser. After the mare is bred, her subsequent treatment, should be the same as suggested for brood mares. CHAPTER VI CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES Much attention has been given the feeding as well as the breed- ing of horses, yet each of these will fail wholly or in part to bring about the desired results unless animals thus fed and bred receive proper care and attention. Many a person has fallen short of success in breeding by depending on blood alone to improve the stock. He has forgotten that all of our improved breeds of horses are the product of adequate nutrition as well as intelli- gent breeding, suitable environment, sufficient shelter, and kindly care. To make a success with horses, one must be indus- trious, patient, and untiring. He must have a fidelity that is unswerving. He must have a genuine love for his work. GROOMING Nothing contributes so much to the beauty and the luster of the coat as grooming. As a consequence, the body receives much attention and the legs entirely too little, whereas the legs should receive the more attention. On arriving at the stable, if the animal's legs are muddy, they should be roughly cleaned by using a half-worn common broom. The animal should then be placed in the stable, fed, unharnessed, given a thorough grooming, and blanketed. The legs should not then be neglected, but be given a thorough and rapid brushing. Time spent in cleaning and rubbing the horse in the evening after the day's work is done is worth much more than time thus spent in the morning. 127 128 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS If the animal is working in the mud, it is desirable that the hair be clipped from the limbs. It is then all the more important that they should be thoroughly cleaned and rubbed each even- ing after work. The hoofs should be examined and the cleft between the sole and the frog cleaned. Animals cared for in this way will pa}' for the extra care many times over in the satisfaction in having the team come from the stable in the morning in the best of spirit, as indicated by the pleasing appearance, the snap and vigor with which they lift their feet, and by the complete absence of any stiffness in the joints. Again, animals whose limbs are thus cared for will re- main comparatively free from the many diseases to which the legs and feet are subject, This care will greatly increase an animal's efficiency and prolong his usefulness. CARE OF THE HORSE'S TEETH Occasionally a horse does not feed well, due to irregularities of his teeth. If the first, or milk teeth, are not looked after, they are likely to remain, causing the second, or permanent teeth, to grow in crooked. The young horse's mouth should be closely watched and the persistent milk teeth removed with forceps. Again, it must be remembered that the upper jaw is somewhat wider than the lower, and as the teeth are not perfectly op- posed, a sharp edge is left unworn on the inside of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which may cut the tongue or cheeks. This condition can readily be felt by the hand, and the sharp edges when found should be filed down by a guarded rasp; otherwise the tongue and cheeks be- come sore, the food irritates them, and the horse will not feed well. CLIPPING Clipping consists in cutting the hair over the entire surface of the horse's body. Several advantages are secured from clipping ; CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 129 it improves the appearance of the horse and makes his coat more easy to keep clean ; a clipped horse is less liable to take cold than a long-coated one because the evaporation is more rapid and the animal does not get so warm ; the natural process of shedding the hair is a draft on the vitality of the animal, the appetite is dimin- ished and the horse runs down in flesh. Clipping accomplishes in a very short time what nature requires much time to do. From this it would seem that horses with long thick coats should be clipped. The long coat causes them to become warmer, they sweat more, and the coat holds the moisture, and then when permitted to stand, they are likely to catch cold. If horses are to be clipped twice each year, the operation should be performed the first time soon after the hair has grown out in the fall. When thus cared for, they become used to the change before cold weather, and there is some growth of hair before winter. The second clipping should be in early spring as soon as the weather begins to get warm and before the winter coat begins to shed. Horses thus treated will be much more easily kept in presentable condition, and if protected by blankets and properly groomed, will pay many times over for such extra care. When horses cannot be protected from the cold and wet, either in the stable or outside of it, they should not be clipped in the fall. Animals exposed to the weather grow a long coat for their own protection. BEDDING THE HORSE A horse at hard work needs rest at night, and much more rest is had when the animal is given a good liberal bed. The bed- ding should not be permitted to become foul, as this will not only lessen the comfort of the animal but promote disease as well. Of bedding materials, straw leads the list, but when high in price, may be replaced by other materials, such as shavings from the planing mill, rejected parts of corn stalks, tan bark, leaves, and K 130 MANUAL OF FABM ANIMALS the like. Old straw is preferred to new, as it is dryer and more elastic. The more broken and bruised the straw the less its bulk and elasticity and the more of it needed. BLANKETS In cold climates the use of blankets is indispensable. The horse will prove more efficient and will endure much longer if reasonably protected against sudden changes in temperature, the cold rains, and heavy winds. Stable blanket. — The proper use of the stable blanket is of first importance. It is a common practice after the day's work to hurry the horses into their stalls, unharness, blanket them at once, feed and leave them for the night ; in the morning it is desired to get to work early, the horses are fed, the blankets re- moved, the animal's body curried a very little, the harness is put on, and in a few minutes the horses are at work. Animals thus treated stiffen in the joints, develop leg and foot diseases, and soon become useless, and may be sold or traded as part pa}rment on others to undergo the same treatment. The usefulness of a horse can be prolonged and his efficiency in- creased by proper blanketing and grooming. On arriving at the stable very warm and sweating, the horse should not be blank- eted until he has ceased to steam, nor should he be left in a draft If blanketed at once, little opportunity is given for him to dry off, the blanket will become damp, and the hair remain so all night. In case the blanket is not used until the animal has ceased to steam and is somewhat cooled, which will be in a quarter of an hour, the hair will be dry and smooth the following morning. Stable blankets may be dispensed with in the hot summer months if the flies are excluded by screens or by some other means. If blankets are used at this time, they should be of light material and kept clean. As soon as the nights begin to get cool, the blankets should be resumed, as an early use will arrest to a marked degree the growth of hair. This may obviate CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 131 the necessity of clipping. In case the horse is clipped, he should be covered with an extra heavy blanket, or with two blankets, for a time. Outdoor blanket. — The use of the outdoor blanket is as im- portant as the use of the stable blanket. If the horse is allowed to stand outdoors, either for a short or for a long time, he should be well blanketed. If one is going to stop but a short time, the temptation is strong not to blanket the animal. The horse cools off rapidly and may chill, so that it is best to blanket if only for a moment. Again, in the spring when the weather is fair, one is likel}r to think that no ill will result from leaving the animal un- blanketed ; and yet he may chill as before. It is best, on stop- ping the animal, to see that he is well protected at all times. CARE OF THE FEET Because of the great importance of the foot it should be carefully cared for throughout the active career of the horse. Each evening after returning from work as well as in the morning before being sent out, the sole of the foot should be examined and all foreign materials removed. For this purpose a small hay hook with the point sharpened is excellent. It is very common to find foreign bodies, such as nails and stones, either driven into the wall or sole of the foot, or collected in the clefts along the frog, and it is very essential that they be removed if the hoof is to remain in healthy condition. Occasionally the hoofs have a tendency to dry out, thus be- coming hard and brittle. Such hoofs should be oiled with some good oil, as linseed or olive oil, or with hoof ointment, of which there are many kinds on the market. This will soften the wall of the hoof and make it less likely to crack or break. It often happens that a piece is worn or broken from the side of the hoof, which throws the weight of the body in such a way as to bring a strain upon the joints of the leg, which often causes deformity and disease. When such break occurs, the hoof should be leveled 132 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS with a rasp. When horses are closely confined in the stable, the hoofs grow out long, and if not trimmed, will deform the limb and make traveling difficult. The rate of growth of the hoof is of much importance, for we are often interested to know how long it will take a crack, such as quarter-crack, side-crack, or toe-crack, a cleft, or a calk to dis- appear. On the average, the hoof grows one-third of an inch a month. Hind hoofs grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod ones faster than shod. While influenced to some extent by work or exercise, grooming, moisture, and food, the time required for the horn to grow from the coronet to the ground varies in propor- tion to the distance of the coronet to the ground. The toe, there- fore, depending on its height, grows down in ten to thirteen months, the sides, six to eight, and the heel in three to five months. Shoeing. — The horse's hoof wears off faster than it grows out, and it becomes sore. In order to prevent the hoof from wearing too rapidly the feet are shod. While there are many reasons for applying shoes, the most important are as follows : — First, to prevent wearing away of the hoof in order that it may not get sore. Horses show need of shoeing first in the fore feet, and in some parts of the country only the fore feet are shod. For this purpose the light shoe is preferred. Second, to prevent slipping, as on ice or mud. For this purpose, when the work is hard, one needs heavy shoes with large calks, but for easy work they may be lighter. In this connection it must be borne in mind that a smooth-shod (shoes without calks) horse slips more on the ice than though he were bare-footed. There are several makes of shoes with removable calks. Third, horses are shod to modify their action. Of the many things to be considered in fitting a shoe perhaps the most important is to keep the foot perfectly level, thus pre- venting undue weight being thrown on one side, and other attend- ant injuries: The frog should be left in its natural size and shape to serve as a cushion for the foot. Make the foot normal. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 133 Then make the shoe fit the foot. In fitting a shoe, nothing will aid one as much as a careful examination of the wear of the old shoe. The shoe should be fitted cold or not so hot as to burn the sole when placed against it in fitting. In nailing the shoe to the foot, the nail holes should not be too near the edge of the sole, for in such case it is necessary to drive the nails too far up into the wall to make them hold. On the other hand, the nail holes should be well back, the nails small in size, and when driven, should be brought out well down on the hoof. If driven high, when the shoes are reset, or the animal reshod, the former nail holes are near the edge and serve to weaken the hoof and interfere with driving the new nails. After driving the nails, they are to be clinched in a small groove fitted for that purpose. Smooth with rasp, but never rasp the outside of the hoof as it will remove the natural protective covering. This natural covering should not be removed, as the hoof will absorb water in the wet season and dry out much more rapidly in the dry season. TRAINING THE COLT The colt should be taught subordination at the very start and not be allowed to become headstrong. The usefulness of the future horse will depend much on his courage and fearlessness, and it is to promote these that the colt should become familiar with man at as early an age as possible. If taken in time and properly handled, he need never know fear. A colt should never be frightened. Too many persons thoughtlessly try to make the young colt show off by doing something to startle it, by run- ning at it, throwing sticks, " shooing" it, and the like, which should never be done if a reliable animal is to be developed. Teach the colt useful lessons only. Because colts are bright and very susceptible to training, they are often taught tricks and al- lowed to become mischievous — to bite, rear, kick, or anything else that may seem " cute." These very things later become a great annoyance and are very hard to overcome. One should not 134 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS make the mistake of trying to teach the colt too much at a time ; he should understand each lesson thoroughly before a second is attempted. On the other hand, colts should be worked con- tinuously day by day and not simply at the convenience of the trainer. The trainer should be gentle and firm at all times and go through with whatever is attempted. Training to the halter. — The foal should be taught very early the uses of the halter; first to lead, then to drive. But even before haltering the youngster may be taught to "stand over/' to have his foot raised, to back, and the like. In handling the colt be careful about the ears, the back of the fore legs, and the flanks, as these are often very sensitive. Catch the colt by putting one hand under the neck and the other under the hams or around the buttocks (Fig. 54). Never catch a colt around the neck only — if this is done, the colt will go backwards and perhaps fall — but instead catch him around both ends, as described ; then if he attempts to go forward, press back with the hand under his neck, and if he attempts to go backwards, press for- ward with the hand that is around the buttocks. Colts caught in this way will let one walk up to them, whereas if they are Fig. 54. — Method of catching a Young Foal. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 135 caught around the neck, there may be difficulty in coming near them. When ready to halter the foal, choose a strong, well-fitting halter and not a new one that smells of a lot of things that are new to the colt, but one that has recently been used. Care should be taken not to pull heavily on the nose-band at any time. Occasionally deformed face lines and necks are caused by this means. It is not necessary to drag a colt by the halter in order to suggest to him that his business is to follow. As a matter of fact, the reverse effect is usual, and the harder a colt is pulled, the harder he holds back. If, on the contrary, he is coaxed along the accustomed route, as to the water trough and back, he will soon follow promptly. If he resents, however, other means must be tried. Secure a small rope, the size of a light clothes line, about ten feet long, tie a noose or fasten a ring on one end, place this gently over the colt's back just in front of the hips with the noose or ring on the under side of the body, so that when the other end of the rope is run through the noose, the rope can be closely drawn around the flanks ; pass the rope along under the body, then between the fore legs, then up through the ring in the halter. Hold the halter strap in one hand, the light rope in the other, pull gently in the halter strap, and as the colt begins to shake his head give the light rope a sharp pull and the colt will immediately step forward. Do not be in a hurry, but give the colt time to get used to the lesson. Soon he will follow wherever you lead. After the colt understands the uses of the halter and will lead, he may be taught to drive with lines (Fig. 55). To do this successfully a surcingle properly adjusted is required. The sur- cingle must be provided with loops or rings on each side, placed well below the center of the body, the lines passed through these and fastened to the rings on either side of the halter ; never use a bit in the mouth of a very young colt. Now the lines will pass the hind quarters low down , and thus prevent the colt from turning with his head towards the trainer. It is very 136 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS important to keep the reins low in turning to make the guid- ing process easy. After a little, as the colt becomes accus- tomed to being driven, he can be touched up with the lines, guided to the right or left, but he should be stopped often to assure him he is doing well. Training to the uses of the bit. — It is best perhaps to train the horse to the uses of the bit when he is about two years of age. The manner in which the horse is educated to know and mind Fig. 55. — Arrangement of Halter and Lines for teaching Young Colt to Drive. the bit will go far towards determining his usefulness. Inas- much as the conveyance of the master's desire to the horse's mind for execution is through the hands, reins, bit, and mouth, no progress can be made and none should be attempted until this means of communication has been well established. Importance of a good mouth. — No factor contributes so much to the pleasure, comfort, and safety of either rider or driver as a responsive mouth in a horse — one that always obeys promptly the slightest instruction from the master. A good mouth to a CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 137 large extent is natural to the horse. Tender and bad mouths usually result from improper handling. Bad mouths are very aggravating and often the cause of many other imperfections — tongue lolling, crossing the jaws, hobbling, irregular and un- steady gaits, and the like — many of which when well established are very difficult to overcome. Bitting the colt. — The young animal can usually be made familiar with the uses of the bit by the application of the bitting Fig. 56. — Arrangement of "Fitting Harness" to familiarize the Colt with the Bit. harness or "dumb jockey." This harness consists of an open bridle with a large smooth bit and check-rein, a surcingle and crupper, and two side-lines running from the bit to buckles on either side of the surcingle (Fig 56). The adjustment of the bridle is important. The length of the head-stall must be so 138 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS adjusted as to bring the bit in mild contact with the bars of the mouth. If the head-stall is too short, the bars and the corners of the mouth soon become sore, and the animal may become vicious ; on the other hand, if it is too long, the bit drops down in the mouth and the animal becomes careless. With the bit- ting harness properly adjusted, turn the colt into the familiar open paddock to get used to having the bit in his mouth. The check- and side-reins should be left slack at first. Gradually from day to day the reins should be shortened, care being taken that they are never made so short as to place the head in an un- comfortable position, or draw the bit so tightly as to make the corners of the mouth sore. The colt should be subjected to the use of this apparatus for a few hours each day for perhaps a week or less, depending on the individual. Real lines may now be substituted for the side-reins and the colt driven until he knows how to guide this way and that ; to stop at the word "whoa," and to step forward at the command "get up." Train the colt to stand absolutely still when being harnessed, saddled, or when it is desired that he should stand. A horse that is con- tinually stepping about while one is working with him is but half trained at best. Harnessing the colt. — After the colt has become familiar with the bitting apparatus and has learned to obey simple commands he may be harnessed. Do not use new harness, smelling of things unfamiliar, but one that has been in constant use, pref- erably by a horse that the colt knows. After being driven with the bitting apparatus for a time and the colt is rather tired, put him in his stall, bring the collar to him, let him smell of it if he likes, then put it right on as if he were an old horse. Now get the harness, walk up to him, and lift it gently over his back. Do not stand off and throw the harness over his back, for the loose straps hitting his back and abdomen will be resented, and he may kick. Walk behind him, put the crupper strap on, then step to the side and fasten the bands. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 139 The harness should be of good quality and in good repair ; if a part breaks, there may be trouble and the colt ruined for all time. See to it that it fits perfectly. The collar should receive atten- tion, as it is by means of this that the horse exerts his power. The colt's shoulders are likely to be tender and easily abraded, and we must see that the collar fits him well. The collar must be kept scrupulously clean. When the colt is fleshy, we must watch to see that he does not lose flesh, and the collar, which fitted perfectly in the beginning, become too large. A breast- collar is admissible when the load is light ; it must not be ad- justed so high as to choke the horse nor so low as to interfere with the action of his limbs. The saddle and the crupper also need careful attention. Care should be taken to have them fit, neither too loose nor too tight, and then to keep them clean, lest they abrade the back or tail and produce a vicious horse. Hitching double. — With the harness properly adjusted, the colt is ready to be hitched to a vehicle. Get a well-trained, gentle, but active horse if the colt is active, for it is a mistake to hitch a quick, active colt with a slow, lazy horse. The vehicle to which they are attached should be provided with a good brake. The colt should be attached to the "off side" and the team be driven at first in a closed field till the colt learns what is wanted of him. When hitching the colt double for the first few times, it is well to keep a pair of single lines on the colt's bridle which can be handled by an assistant. Hitching single. — When the colt is desired for single use, it is often advisable to train him to go single from the first. This may be done after he has become familiar with the bit, harness, and use of the lines. When training the colt to go single, a train- ing-cart — one with long shafts, substantially constructed, and the seat so arranged that the driver can get off and on quickly — should be employed. Such a cart can easily be constructed from the rear wheels and the axle of a buggy or carriage by fastening two long poles, — hickory or any tough, springy wood, — to the 140 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS axle, securing a cross-bar and whippletree in front, and a board seat in the rear. The shafts should be twelve or fourteen feet long, with provision at the ends for the attachment of a strap across from point to point to prevent the colt in rearing from throwing his front leg over the end of the shaft. At first a kick-strap at- tached to each shaft and passed over the colt's rump should be used, at least till the colt is accustomed to the shafts (Fig. 57). When the colt is first hitched, an assistant should hold him until Fig. 57. — Colt hitched for the First Time, showing Arrangement of Kick-Strap over Rump. the driver is ready, then he should be allowed to go. As soon as he has become familiar with the vehicle he should be compelled to stand still until he is wanted to start. Training to mount. — In training a colt to mount, one must be very careful that the colt does not succeed in throwing the trainer, for if he once succeeds in getting the man off, one will never be able to convince him that he cannot do it again. The best time to take the colt is after he has been exercised vigorously and while tired. The best place is on soft ground where he can CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 141 hurt neither himself nor the rider. Put on the saddle in the same way as we did the harness ; see that it is fastened securely. Have an assistant hold the colt's head while you mount. The horse may rear, bound forward, buck, or lie down. In any event, the rider must stay on, remembering that the colt is already tired and on soft ground. It is often an endurance trial, and this is Fig. 58. — Arrangement of the "Double Safety" for controlling Vicious Horses. When the horse strikes or rears, the trainer pulls the safety and the horse conies down on his knees. the reason why one must have the colt tired to begin with, for otherwise he may be able to bound and buck till the rider is so exhausted that he can no longer hold to the saddle. HARNESS AND HARNESSING In harnessing the horse, much care should be exercised in prop- erly adjusting the various parts of the harness. Properly fitted harness adds much to the efficiency and comfort of the horse. This is well emphasized by the sore mouth, shoulders, neck, back, and tail produced by poorly fitted harness. The tension on these parts is rather great, and as they are very tender they are 142 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the places likely first to show abrasion. Sores thus produced give the horse much pain and are likely to become a cause of viciousness. Sore mouth thus often provokes a horse to run away ; sore shoulders and neck often provoke balking ; and sore tail often provokes kicking. Since the efficiency and comfort of the horse depend so largely on the adjustment of the bit, lines, collar, saddle, and crupper, it seems desirable to discuss each of these separately. The bit and the bridle. — When one recalls the extreme tender- ness of the mouth, the cruel manner in which it is often bitted, the irritation from the sores, he can understand why a horse may lag behind till the parts become numbed, then begin to pull, holding the head to one side, going with mouth open, lolling the tongue, slobbering, tossing the head, crossing the jaws, and in many other ways showing evidence of the discomfort he is suffering. The bit. — Bits of many types have been devised to meet the various and peculiar habits of horses, most of which have been designed to punish the horse and irritate the sensitive parts. With the punishment of the whip at the rear and a harsh and severe bit at the front the horse is between two goads, and if he does not balk, rear, plunge, or run away, he is exceptional. A good-sized straight bit covered with leather or rubber, if the mouth is tender, cannot be improved on in most cases. One must be careful to get a bit of the proper length for the horse's mouth. Many bits are too long and are pulled out of adjust- ment in the mouth, so that the pressure on either side is not equal. The bit must be of the correct length for the particular animal, and properly adjusted. Some horses work better with the jointed or snaffle bit. It gives more room for the tongue, and the pressure is more evenly distributed on the jaws than with the straight bit. Severe bits, of which there are many in the market, and which are intended for punishment, should never be used unless it is absolutely CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 143 necessary. Such bits in the hands of a novice are responsible for much of the viciousness of horses. The tendency of the nervous horse to loll his tongue can often be cured by the use of the " tongue-lolling bit." This is a straight-bar bit with a plate fastened on the bar, and is just as easy in the horse's mouth as the plain straight-bar bit except for the annoyance of the plate. In the training and driving of high-acting horses the curb-bib may be used. A horse properly bitted with this shows himself to better advantage than with any other kind of bit. The curb- bit should be used only by those who are familiar with it, as it may become an instrument of torture in the hands of the in- experienced. The choice of the proper bit for each horse can be determined only by trial, and if several changes are necessary, one should not be discouraged. However, when it has been determined which bit best serves the purpose, no further change should be made. After becoming used to a certain kind of bit a horse does not take kindly to a change. It makes him uncomfortable and may in- terfere with his action. Headstall — The bridle should be so fitted to the horse's head as to let the bit rest easily in the mouth. The head-stall should be neither too long nor too short. If it is too long, the bit drops so that the rings are drawn into the mouth. The horse becomes careless and unmindful of the driver's wish. On the other hand, if the head-stall is too short, the bit is drawn up- wards into the angles of the mouth and becomes a constant source of annoyance to the animal and may produce a sore mouth. Blinds. — As to the advisability of using blinds on the bridles there is diversity of opinion. Some persons contend that they are of benefit to the horse, while others are just as certain that they are cruel. Here much depends upon the individuality of the animal. Some animals work better with them ; some work 144 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS better without them. If the horse works better with blinds on the bridle, use them; if he works better with the open bridle, discontinue the blinds. If blinds are used, they should be firmly adjusted to the bridle so they cannot swing back and forth. Both should be of the same height on the horse's head, as it is very unsightly as well as annoying to the horse to have one placed low and the other high on the face. Center-pieces, ear-bobs, and tassels. — It is said that such fix- tures add to the appearance of the turnout. While fashion and custom seem to demand a certain amount of unnecessary fixtures to worry and annoy the horse, the use of them cannot be too strongly condemned. The check-rein. — The check-rein should be properly adjusted. In common practice there are two methods of checking the horse's head — by means of the side-rein and by the over-check rein. The former is used more often on work horses, the latter on driv- ing horses. The side-rein is used with and without check hooks at the throat-latch. This rein is not so effective in compelling the animal to hold his head up, but is much more comfortable to the horse and enables him to handle himself more efficiently. Horses checked with the side-rein are not so likely to stumble as those with the over-check rein, and will pull a much heavier load. This is because they have more liberty with the head, thereby enabling them to see the ground immediately in front and to lower the head and thus throw more power into the collar. The over-check rein was devised for trotting horses, but has become so popular that it is used almost exclusively for driving horses. Originally it was used on the track where the surface is as smooth as a floor, and was employed only for short periods. To-day it is used on roads of all sorts and for indefinite periods. There are many strong objections to its use if drawn too tightly, — as is the tendency. It holds the horse's head in such position that he is unable to see the ground immediately in front of him, so that he is very likely to stumble. It also holds the head CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 145 in such a way that he cannot pull efficiently. This is particu- larly true in ascending a steep grade. The animal is unable to lower his head and hence can put little power into the collar. An animal that is stalled when thus reined can often pull the load if unreined or if the driver will ride him, thus bringing forward the center of gravity and enabling the animal to get a firmer hold on the ground and to put more power into the collar. The over-check rein is also very hard on the animal's back and front limbs in descending a grade. Again, it holds the head and neck in such an unnatural position that they soon become numbed, and the horse is seen to toss his head from side to side and to take other characteristic attitudes in search of relief. The horse should always be reined mildly. Without the rein he is likely to become careless in his habits, shambling in his gait, and to yield to the temptation to eat grass when standing. When the animal lowers his head and neck the lines, collar, and breast-harness slip down and he is likely to become tangled in the harness and may get into difficulty. Fitting the collar. — The service of the horse is largely accom- plished by the shoulders, and it is of the utmost importance that the collar fit the neck and shoulders perfectly. Poorly fitted collars cause the horse much pain, result in sore necks and shoulders, and are a common cause of viciousness and bad habits. Because of the extreme importance of having a well-fitting collar, many makes have been put on the market, such as the leather, the sweeny, the half sweeny, the pneumatic, the steel, and the humane, each asserting superiority over the others (Fig. 59). Each has its advantages and disadvantages. No attempt is made here to favor any style or make ; only general suggestions are given. Fitting the collar is a rather difficult task. It is so firm and stiff that usually it is impossible to buckle the harness tight enough to bring it to the shape of the animal's neck, and the shoulders are therefore adjusted to the collar rather than the 146 MANUAL OF FABM ANIMALS collar to the shoulders, with sore shoulders as the result. To avoid this soreness, it is necessary that the stiff collar be adjusted to the shoulders of the horse for which it is intended. To do this, take the poorly fitting collar, new or old, place it in three inches of water and let it remain over night. In the morning put the collar on the horse, and with hame-straps draw it snugly to the sides of the neck; be sure that the hame-straps are properly adjusted, then work the horse moderately through the day. After soaking in this way the collar will adjust itself to every inequality of the shoulder, and the horse will seldom be troubled with soreness. Fig. 59. — Types of Collars: (1) common leather; (2) half sweeny; (3) steel; (4) pneumatic ; (5) humane. Every horse should have his own collar. It should fit close to the neck along its entire width and should never be tight in some places and loose in others. The hame-straps should be properly adjusted at top and bottom to suit the shape of the horse's neck. Be sure at all times that the lower hame-strap is buckled as tightly as the thickness of the neck will permit. Oc- casionally the careless driver fails to buckle the hames tightly, and when the horse is backed, the hames slip off the collar. This may not be noticed at the time, and the animal be compelled to pull the load with the hames resting on the shoulders. Adjusting the hame-tug. — The adjustment of the hame-tug is also an important matter and should receive the closest attention. If the draft is too low, the action of the shoulder while walking CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 147 gives too much back-and-forward motion to the collar, which is noticeable at the hame tops. This is likely to cause sore shoulders either at the points or at the top. If the draft is too high, the likelihood of injury will be equally great. There is a proper place for the draft, varying with the conformation of the horse. When the hame-tugs are at the proper place, there will be very little motion at the top of the hames as the horse walks. Again, the tugs should be so adjusted that they are both of the same length. Often careless drivers hitch one tug longer than the other, which is very hard on the horse, and a source of much extra exertion as well as sore shoulders. Breast harness. — For light driving, breast harness is admissible and is to be preferred for such light rigs as runabouts and buggies. In the adjustment of breast harness, care should be taken that the neck strap is not so long as to let the breast harness drop and interfere with the action of the fore limbs. On the other hand, the neck strap should not be so short as to draw the breast harness up and choke the animal. The breast harness is in- tended for light work only, and if the load is heavy, the horse may choke. This is particularly true in ascending a steep grade. Much care should be exercised in its use. Fitting the back-band and crupper. — Perhaps next in impor- tance to the bit and collar is the crupper. If the back-band or the check-rein is too short and the crupper is drawn too tight against the tail, it is likely to cause soreness ; since this is a very tender part, it may lessen the reliability of the horse. A horse with a sore tail is hard to manage. At any time he may get his tail over the line, become excited through fear that the abraded part will be injured, clamp his tail down on the line, and be difficult to control. If the back-band is too long and the crupper too loose, it is likely to result in the back-band, crupper, hip-straps, and breeching all slipping off to one side of the horse, with the result that the animal may become excited and difficult to manage. It is therefore necessary that the back-band and check-rein be so 148 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS adjusted that the saddle is in the proper place on the back and the crupper fits snugly under the tail ; then there will be no trouble from sore back or sore tail. Fly-nets. — The use of fly-nets often brings much comfort to working animals. Such horses should be provided with throat-latch cloths when the bot-flies are present, as these pests are very annoying, and the animals in fighting them will often become excited, with a consequent lessening of their usefulness. Whether to use fly-nets or fly-blankets may depend on con- ditions. The use of the fly-blanket is not advised by many per- sons, but there are conditions in which it proves very desirable, particularly on horses whose color is such as to fade on being exposed to the direct rays of the sun. The fly-blanket, while very efficient in retaining the color and keeping out the flies, is not so presentable and is much warmer than the open net. Leather fly-nets are the most presentable and the most desired by horsemen. But fly-nets and fly-blankets are rather annoying to the teamster and are more or less expensive, for which reasons they are often discarded entirely. To do away with the use of fly-nets a number of " fly-killer " preparations have been compounded. These materials are ap- plied with a small sprayer, and to be effective must be used often. It is said that they "do not soil or injure the hair and, all things considered, are cheaper and more satisfactory outdoor fly pro- tectors than are blankets." Caring for harness. — The proper care of the harness should receive much consideration, as care will increase the length of its usefulness and lessen the liability of its injuring the animal. It is very important that the bearing parts be kept scrupulously clean at all times. This applies particularly to the parts in con- stant contact with the animal, as the collar, saddle, and crupper. It is not possible to prevent sore shoulders, sore back, and sore tail if these parts are permitted to become dirty, which they will, because of the sweat and dandruff. They must be carefully CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 149 watched and frequently cleaned. It is best to clean these parts each morning before harnessing the horses or, better still, immediately after removing the harness. Harness should be thoroughly cleaned and oiled at least once a year, preferably in the spring. This will cause it to retain its fiber and to last longer. While there are many ways of cleaning and oiling harness, the following is as simple and effective as any: Take the harness apart and soak the parts in a wash-tub of luke- warm water containing a handful of washing soda. Let the harness soak for fifteen or twenty minutes, then scrub the parts on a board with an ordinary scrub-brush. When the leather is nearly dry, blacken with edge blackening, which can be ob- tained at any harness shop. Unless the harness is thus black- ened or lamp black put in the oil, it will turn red. When dry, take a cotton cloth and rub the harness thoroughly. Always rub straps with the grain. This lays down the fiber and gives a smooth edge. Take a quart of neatsfoot oil, add a small quantity of kerosene, mix and warm, then give the leather two coats, using the oil freely. Hang up to dry, taking care not to hang in the sun. When the oil is well dried, sponge with white castile soap and buckle the parts together. Harness treated in this way will neither turn red nor become gummy, and if often sponged with white castile soap, can be kept looking like new. A number of oils may be used if neatsfoot oil is not at hand, such as olive, codliver, or castor oil, all of which are considered good for harness. In case the edge blackening cannot be pro- cured, put enough lamp black in the oil at the time the kerosene is added to turn it black. The lampblack will prevent the leather from turning red. Harness room. — Another factor that must not be overlooked in the care of harness is the place where it is kept. It frequently happens that the harness is hung on hooks just back of the horse in the stable. There are at least two very strong objections to this practice. In the first place, gases escaping from the manure 150 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS are very destructive to the harness ; and in the second place, the harness is frequently knocked down under the animal's feet and becomes soiled with manure. It is much better to have a har- ness room convenient to the horse stable where all harness can be kept. When it is kept in a separate room, it is much less difficult to keep in order. If one has a hanger for each horse's harness and hangs it there each time, the work will be much lighter than otherwise. A well-kept harness room will pay for itself each year because of the ease with which the harness is kept in condition and the increased time that it will last. CHAPTER VII DISEASES OF THE HORSE The horse is a robust animal and with proper care is easily kept in health. Like all other farm animals, however, he is subject to ills and accidents, many of which can be prevented if taken in time, while if they go unnoticed, may become serious and render the animal useless. Every one who owns a horse should know how to care for the simpler difficulties, and when to call for the advice of a veterinarian. This chapter will not take the place of a veterinarian ; it may tell you when to call one. Now that we are giving so much attention to feeding and breeding we should also give additional thought to the difficulties and ailments. The horse is subject to a very large number of ailments, some of which are simple and easily cared for, more of which are complicated and require skillful treatment. Little more than a catalogue of the more common ailments is given in the follow- ing pages ; to discuss them fully would require a volume larger than this manual.1 TREATING SICK HORSES Horses that are ailing should receive much care. In many cases good care is to be preferred to the use of medicine. In other cases rest is to be preferred to both. The aim is to hasten recovery from the ill effects of the ailment ; and to be most efficient one must understand the horse thoroughly and be able 1 The reader may consult Mayo's " Diseases of Animals" for fuller popular description and treatment. 151 152 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS to supply his every need. He must be careful, painstaking, and patient. The first thing to be done is to look for the cause of the trouble, and if possible, to remove it. If the disease is con- tagious, the ailing animal should be put away from other animals equally susceptible to the disease. Whether contagious or otherwise, the quarters should be comfortable. Note care- fully the surroundings of the animal, the work it has been doing, the exercise, general care, food, water, and the source of infection if the disease is contagious. The food should receive much attention. When the horse can eat, a small quantity of easily digestible and nutritious food should be given. The food should not contain much bulk and should be rather laxative, as sickness often brings constipation. It should be as attractive as possible, as the appetite is usually poor and sometimes lacking. When it can be prevented, medi- cine should not be put in the food or water, unless tasteless and odorless, as the horse is likely to refuse the food when it is im- portant that he should have it. Natural foods, such as fresh grass, roots, bran mash, and milk, are to be preferred to prepared foods, though the use of patent stock foods may prove beneficial in certain minor ailments, when a tonic is valuable. The feed boxes should be kept clean, and if any food is left, it should be removed and not left until the next meal. In certain ailments, it is necessary to protect the horse against the cold or from drafts. This can be done by the use of blankets. To protect the limbs, bandages may be applied. The bandage should be made from strips of woolen cloth about three inches wide and five to eight feet long. Make it into a neat roll, then apply by beginning at the lower or smaller part of the limb and wind upwards. This requires considerable patience and skill, but after a few attempts it will stay in place. In those ailments in which the horse cannot, stand, yet should remain in an upright position, a sling is used. A sling consists of a wide strip of stout canvas, placed under the animal- and DISEASES OF THE HORSE 153 supported from above by means of a chain and tackle, so that the weight of the animal may be taken off its limbs and still be kept in an upright position. It is rarely advisable to attempt to carry the entire weight of the horse. The sling should be so placed under the animal that he can settle into it of his own ac- cord. In other ailments, when the horse is unable to lie down for a considerable length of time, much relief may often be had by ^2 %\ A m 1 Fig. 60. — A Polo Pony of Good Form. arranging a "lean to." This consists of supports so arranged that the horse can lean up against or settle down on them and thus relieve his weight. The supports in a "lean to" are placed about the animal much like shafts, with the addition of a piece across in front for the chest, and another cross-bar behind for the haunches to rest upon. These supports should be covered with cloths or blankets. Animals are quick to 154 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS take advantage of such supports and will get much relief by leaning against them. ADMINISTERING MEDICINE In giving medicine the rule should be to give only for a definite purpose. This rule must be strictly followed or more ill than good will result. While medicine may be given in many ways, we will discuss only a few of the more simple, such as drench- ing, hypodermic medication, external medication, and enemas (or injection into the rectum), and counter-irritants. Drenching. — A very convenient way to give medicine to the horse is by " drenching." The medicines are first dissolved in water or other suitable liquid. Just enough liquid should be added thoroughly to dissolve the medicine, as more than this makes the drench bulky and is unnecessary. Insoluble medicine, if not irritant or corrosive, may be given simp] y suspended in the water. The bottle should be well shaken immediately before giving the drench. It should be clean, strong, and have a smooth long neck. The head of the horse should be slightly elevated. To do this, place a loop in the end of a rope and in- troduce this loop into the mouth just behind the upper front teeth, then place the free end over a beam and draw the head up, not too high, for in such cases the horses cannot swallow. Gradu- ally pour the medicine into the horse's mouth at the corner. If the horse strangles, lower his head. Hypodermic medication. — Medicines are frequently given by the hypodermic syringe under the skin. In this method much smaller quantities of medicine are required to produce given effects than when given by the mouth, there is less liability to waste, and the action of the medicine is much more rapid and certain. The use of the hypodermic syringe, however, requires more skill, and one should understand it thoroughly before at- tempting to use it. The medicine should be sufficiently diluted, otherwise it will injure the tissue and cause severe pain. It must DISEASES OF THE HORSE 155 be free from sediment and germs. When all is ready, the syringe should be taken in the right hand ; the skin in the region of the neck and shoulder is firmly grasped with the left, and with the right the needle is quickly pushed through in a slanting direction and the medicine injected into the loose tissue beneath the skin. In older animals or those with tough skin considerable force is required to push the needle through the skin. It is of greatest importance that the instrument be perfectly clean and sterile, otherwise infection may be introduced along with the medicine. External medication. — Medicine is often administered to the horse by applying to, or rubbing on, the skin, in the form of liniments, ointments, lotions, or salves. Applications are also made in the form of poultices and bathing. Liniments, of which there are many kinds, are solutions containing some irri- tating substance such as ammonia or turpentine. They should never be applied to fresh wounds or sores, but are useful in chronic cases of inflammation. Liniment is often mixed with oil and applied to the part by rubbing. Care should be taken not to apply too frequently or rub too hard, as it will blister the part. Ointments, of which there are many kinds available, are medi- cines mixed with waxy material and are used to soften, soothe, and heal inflamed parts. Blisters are ointments containing irritating substance, and are used to reduce inflammation. Lotions are medicines in solution and are used to soothe, cool, and heal. Poultices are soft, moist substances. They should be applied hot, but should not remain long, as the tissues become soft and flabby. Poultices are applied to soften and soothe and are very useful to relieve severe inflammation. In old chronic sores they soften the tissues, arrest the irritation, and hasten recovery. They should be changed frequently; and a part should seldom be poulticed for more than forty-eight hours continuously. There are many substances used in making poultices, chief of which are 156 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS flaxseed meal, bran, bread and milk, and mashed boiled turnips. Whatever the substance, it should be clean, soft, and capable of retaining heat and moisture. To keep them clean and sweet, add a teaspoonful of carbolic acid to a pint of poultice. Bathing the parts in hot or cold water often proves very bene- ficial. The application should continue for fifteen minutes to half an hour. When warmed, it may be as hot as can be com- fortably borne. The bathing should take place two or three times a day. It is much used and with good results in lessen- ing inflammation, pain, and swelling of recent injuries, and the like. Enemas, or injections, into the rectum. — Medicines are given by injections into the rectum when they cannot be given by the mouth ; when they are not retained by the stomach ; when it is desired to empty the bowels ; to destroy small worms infecting the large bowels ; and to stimulate action. Foods may also be given in this way. Six to eight quarts of warm water is suffi- cient for an adult horse, and if to this is added a half teacupful of pure glycerine, much better results will be obtained. In- jections are best given by means of a rubber hose four feet long to which a funnel is attached. Oil the hose, insert gently into the rectum about two feet, then pour the liquid into the funnel and by raising it above the animal, it will force itself into the bowels. Counter-irritants. — This is a class of practices applied for the purpose of setting up a local and artificial inflammation in order to cure or counteract a disease or injury. Their appli- cation requires some skill and much experience. The counter- irritants most used are liniments, blisters, and burning with a hot iron or " firing." Blisters. — Two substances are commonly used for blisters : pulverized Spanish flies makes " fly-blister, " and the biniodide of mercury makes " red-blister." Both are poisonous and should be cared for accordingly. They are made by mixing one part DISEASES OF THE HORSE 157 by weight of the drug to eight parts of fresh lard or vaseline. For ordinary use the fly-blister is preferred, but to remove a bunch, the red-blister is most used. Clip the hair from the area, then rub in blister with a cob from three to ten minutes, depending on the severeness of the irritation and the thickness of the skin. As a rule a light blister repeated is more effective than a single severe one. 9 Much care should be taken to see that the horse does not succeed in scatter- ing the blister. To this end his head and tail should be so tied that the animal cannot reach the substance. After twenty- four to thirty-six hours, or when a watery, gummy fluid exudes from the skin, the area should be thoroughly washed with warm water and soap, then wiped dry, and greased with fresh lard or vaseline. Mustard plasters are often used when large surfaces must be treated, as in pleurisy, inflammation of the lungs, and a few other diseases. This plaster is made by stirring up finely ground mustard with warm water into a thin paste, then applied to the area and rubbed in well with a cob or stick. Mustard will prove more satisfactory than fly-blisters when large areas are to be "treated, as the latter often irritates the kidneys, and as a result there is painful passage of the urine. When such symptoms appear, the fly-blister should be washed off and the part greased. Firing. — This consists in burning the skin with a red hot iron. The firing-iron is rather heavy so as to hold heat, but has a sharp point. Firing is used to remove bunches, ring-bones, spavins, and the like. The hair is clipped from the area, the irons heated in a stove, the horse is blindfolded, a twist applied to the nose, and the opposite foot is lifted and in this way the one to be operated on is confined. At first the skin is barely touched and the lines marked, then the lines are burned to a good russet brown by drawing the hot irons through the former lines. A fly-blister is then rubbed on the fired area and the case treated 158 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS as for blistering. The horse should be given plenty of time to recover before being put to work. There are two methods of firing in common use : One consists of making a number of parallel lines, and is known as "line- firing." The other consists in burning a number of little holes over the part to be treated, and is known as "point-firing." It is held that point-firing sets up a deeper inflammation. Oc- casionally both methods are combined, and after the line-firing a few points are made over the most diseased part. LAMENESS : ITS CAUSE AND TREATMENT The horse is used largely for locomotive power. Anything that interferes with his travel and pull materially lessens his usefulness. Of all farm animals, the horse is the most exposed to accidents and injuries leading to lameness. Lameness inter- feres with his usefulness more than with that of any other farm animal. A lame horse cannot work, whereas a lame cow may give as much milk, a lame pig take on fat, and a lame sheep shear as much wool as though it were sound. The causes of lameness among horses are numerous and varied. Only a few of the more important are discussed here, as a complete list would fill a volume. Lameness due to ailments of the bones The bones of the horse's legs are particularly subject to ailments causing lameness; this is especially true of the bones below the knees and hocks. The most important ailments of the bones likely to cause lameness are splints, ring-bones, side-bones, bone-spavin, bony enlargements, and fractures of the bone. Splints, ring-bones, side-bones, bone-spavin, and bony enlarge- ments.— These ailments are caused by severe strains, concus- sion, blows and hurts ; by poorly kept hoofs ; and by certain diseases of the foot as corns, cracks, quittor, and the like. DISEASES OF THE HORSE 159 "3 W>*3 03 ° 3 3 "3 > O 3 S ° o S a 2 o .5 s d >> "3-2-3 "3 -3 << CJ .=. 5 "3 ^3 "S ° ,3-3-3; ^ £ 3x > - CJ "c3 .3 -3 3 -3 . CJ CJ 50 3 c3 c3 ^ O S » 50 j3 cj cj — CJ « a r _z - cj -3 ■th "mi o. "3 - _■ t- _C -3 .3 2 .M u "3 3 3 cj t£ £ o3 3 cj s i— ' _=: "m _ H "C © O a . 3 — • n 3 i « 2 3 co 3 3 fe — 3 CJ CJ -g *J2 X CJ M Sh Sh J2 o -3 «~ M-3 _ 3 cj cj O If ^ C3a o o 3 -T3 ,2 tt) fcfi CJ £ -3 M> •*^ 3 3 g 3 B 160 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS The treatment is to let them alone as long as the horse suffers no inconvenience. If slightly lame, remove shoes and give rest. If lameness persists, try cold water bath and hand- rub thoroughly ; then try astringent lotion. If still lame, try tincture of iodine. Paint on twice daity until skin becomes sore, then withhold a few days. If still lame, try Spanish-fly or red-blister. Lastly, the firing-irons may be resorted to. Such operations should be performed only by those familiar with the work. Fracture. — A fracture is a break in a bone. Fractures are caused by blows, falls, collisions, and the like, as well as by sud- den muscular contractions such as a violent effort to move a load, a quick jump, a sudden stop or too sudden start, and like causes. The treatment of fractured bones consists in replacing the broken bones in their natural position and keeping them there without movement until they grow fast together. This is easiest accomplished by covering with two layers of flannel bandages, smoothly applied. Over this bandage place thin strips of wood, or other light material, so as to hold the bones in place, then bind with bandages. These wooden strips or splints should be as long as convenient. In the place of splints, plaster of Paris bandages can often be used to advantage. Such bandages may be ob- tained from the drug store or made from cheese cloth and plas- ter of Paris. After applying splints, they should be carefully watched to see that they do not shut off the circulation below the break. If the horse is to be maintained in a standing posi- tion, a sling and "lean to" must be supplied to rest the animal. Lameness due to ailments of the joints There are three classes of injuries due to ailments of the joints. These are, affections of the synovial sacs of the joint structures, or of the bones and their articular surface, and dislocations of the joints. The most important ailments of the joints likely to DISEASES OF THE HORSE 161 cause lameness are wind-galls or wind-puffs ; bog, blood, and occult spavin, and thoroughpin. Wind-galls, blood-spavin, bog-spavin, and thoroughpin. — Wind-galls usually occur between tendons where small sacs, containing synovial fluid or joint-oil, are situated to lubricate the tendons as they play over each other. They appear in the form of soft and somewhat rounded or elongated puffs of vary- ing size. They may be located on either side of the leg. Usually wind-galls are painless and cause lameness only under certain conditions. In rare cases they solidify into hard masses. The blood-spavin is situated in front and on the inside of the hock. It is merely a dilated condition of the vein and is soft and yield- ing to pressure. The bog-spavin is a round, smooth, well-de- fined puff situated in front and a little inward of the hock. On pressure it disappears from this joint to reappear on the out- side and just behind the hock. Thoroughpin is found at the back and on the top of the hock in the part known as the " hol- lows "just behind the shank bone. These rarely cause lameness, but may under certain conditions. They are rather unsightly. These ailments are usually due to strains and overexertions. In colts they may disappear. The treatment is to cause the puff to be absorbed. Rest, cold water baths, followed by hand- rubbing, will usually bring about the desired result. If they persist, paint with tincture of iodine twice daily until sore. Later try a dull red-blister, but never a sharp one. Lameness due to ailments of muscles and tendons Diseases and ailments of the muscles and tendons are a fre- quent cause of lameness among horses, the most important of which are sprains, shoulder lameness, hip lameness, knuckling, sprung knees and curb. Sprains is the name applied to the injury of the muscles, tendons, or ligaments whereby their fibers slip or yield. It is very common, as none of the muscles or tendons are exempt M 162 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS from liability to sprains. Severe lameness usually comes on suddenly after the injury. The parts become inflamed, swollen, and tender. The usual cause of a sprain is external violence, such as a fall or a powerful exertion of strength and sudden twisting and bending of the joints. The treatment depends on the conditions. If there is severe pain, hot baths will soften, soothe, and relax the part. If there is much inflammation, cold baths will prove beneficial. The animal should be given rest and kept quiet; hence the box stall is preferable in this case to the pasture. If the lameness persists, apply liniment and perhaps fly-blisters. Shoulder lameness, the result of a sprain, is of common occur- rence. It is by the shoulder that the horse does his work, and for this reason the part is particularly exposed to injury. It would be difficult and not worth while to name all the forms of violence by which the shoulder may be injured. The chief causes are falls, violent efforts in starting heavy loads, balling the feet with snow, and colliding with other objects. If not severe, time and rest will cure. When there is pain and swelling, bathe in hot water for half an hour three times daily and apply some astringent lotion. Warm wet blankets are of great service. Anodyne liniments, camphor, belladonna, either in the form of tinctures or oils, are beneficial. Lastly, try dull blisters. Sweeny shoulder is a rapid wasting away of certain muscles on the outside of the shoulder-blade. While met with in horses of any age, it is more common in young animals. If neglected, it ruins the animal. Sweeny is caused by straining, by severe pulling, and by jerking movements. Idle horses when put to work are most liable. The nerves or blood vessels of the affected part seem to be injured by the pressure of the collar. DISEASES OF THE HORSE 163 The treatment is to remove the cause. Rest the horse if pos- sible ; if not, procure a perfect fitting collar. Rub and manip- ulate the skin and muscle. Later apply a mild liniment, and hand rub. Two months should be allowed for a complete cure. Light fly-blisters three weeks apart may be used. Sore shoulders and neck, and galls are of frequent occurrence among horses and are due to poorly fitting collars and harness as well as to certain kinds of work when the load borne by the neck is great. The remedy is to remove the cause. Keep the parts dry. Wash in cold or hot water, depending on conditions, three times daily, and apply white lotion. If nothing else is at hand, and the galls not bad, wash the parts in hot or cold salt water. Dust on finely pulverized air-slaked lime. Oxide of zinc oint- ment is good. If the parts become calloused, apply a dull red- blister, which will absorb the callous. It will be necessary to give the animal rest while applying the blister. Curb is a thickening or bulging of the ligament on the back part of the hock, and just below the point, giving the cannon a curved, protruding outline. A curb is easily noted when viewed from the side. The cause may be a sprain of the tendon which passes over the back part of the hock. Hocks of certain conformation, such as overbent, coarse, thick, or those too narrow, are liable to this ailment. The tendency seems to be hereditary (see dis- cussion in Chapter IV). The treatment for curb is to give cold bath on the first appearance of inflammation. Allow the animal to rest. Shoe the foot of the affected leg with high-heeled shoe. This will raise the heel and slacken the ligament. Apply ointments of iodine. Later the application of dull red-blister repeated in two or three weeks may prove beneficial. In cases in which animals have a natural curby hock and it does not cause lame- ness, it is best to let it alone. 164 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Lameness due to capped-elbows or shoe-boils Capped joints and shoe-boils first appear as a soft, flabby bag containing a little watery fluid. Capped-elbows are caused by the irritation due to the horse lying on the shoe when the foot is bent back under the body. The treatment of capped-elbows is to devise a means for its prevention. This is often difficult. The horse should be well bedded. If the heels of the shoe protrude, they should be shortened. A good method of preventing a horse from lying on the heel of the shoe is to fasten a piece of wood, say two by six inches, across the stall about one foot back of where the horse usually stands. This prevents the animal from doubling his fore feet back under the body when lying down. Capped-knee is an enlargement on the front of the knee and is somewhat similar to a capped-elbow. Capped-knees may prove a great source of annoyance because of the unsightly blemish they constitute. While there may be many causes of capped-knees, they are most common among horses addicted to the habit of pawing while in the stable and striking the front of the stalls with their knees, and among naturally weak-kneed animals which are sub- ject to falling and thus bruising their knees on the ground. The treatment is first of all to remove the cause. This, of course, cannot be accomplished among animals with weak knees, and this class is difficult to treat. The enlargements can be reduced in size by hot baths and by rubbing with liniment. A warm poultice of oil-meal or ground flaxseed enveloping the entire joint and held in place by bandages is often followed by an absorption of the enlargement. Capped-hock is an enlargement of the point of the hock and is somewhat similar to capped elbows and knees. It is commonly caused either by the horse lying on the hock or by irritation due to the repeated hitting of the hock against a whiffle-tree or DISEASES OF THE HORSE 165 similar object. The treatment should be much the same as that suggested above for capped-knees. The shoe-boil should receive attention. It should be bathed in hot water twice daily, followed by a stimulating liniment well rubbed on the parts. In some cases, however, astringents are used in the form of poultices or pastes. An excellent astringent for such cases is a putty made of powdered chalk and vinegar, L4 Fig. 62. — Standard Bred Carriage Stallion "Carmon ' at the Head of the Government Stud at Fort Collins, Colorado. and the entire swelling is then covered with a thick coating of soft clay made into a mass with water. This will dry and fall off, after which it should be reapplied. Lameness due to ailments of the foot Since the value of a horse depends largely upon his ability to do labor, which in turn depends largely on the condition of his feet, it is, therefore, important that the feet be kept sound ; 166 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and to accomplish this end it is necessary not only to know how to cure ailments to which they are liable, but, better still, how to prevent them. Interfering. — This is the name given to the condition when one foot strikes the opposite leg while traveling. The inner surface of the fetlock joint is the part most subject to this injury, although it may happen along the cannon, when it is usually called " speedy cuts." The hind legs are more liable than the fore legs. As a result of interfering the skin and deeper tissues are bruised, which often causes lameness and thickening of the injured parts. It is often caused by faulty conformation ; from the feet growing too long ; from defective shoeing ; from rough or slippery roads; from exhaustion; from high knee action; from fast work ; and because the chest or hips are too narrow. The treatment is often difficult, and perhaps impossible when due to deformity or faulty conformation. When due to fatigue, fetlock- and ankle-boots may be used. Proper shoeing will often prevent interfering. The outside heel and quarter of the foot on the injured leg should be lowered enough to change the posi- tion of the fetlock joint, by bringing it farther away from the center, thereby permitting the other foot to pass by without striking, at the same time setting the shoe that is causing the injury well under the hoof. After removing the cause, apply cold water bandage to the injured parts to remove the soreness and swelling in recent cases. In older cases, when the parts have become calloused from long-continued bruising, apply a fly-blister to the parts, repeating in three weeks if necessary. Overreaching is the condition when the shoe of the hind foot strikes and injures the heel or quarter of the fore foot. It seldom occurs except when the horse is traveling fast. It is most common in trotting and running horses. Animals that are subject to overreaching should not be driven fast without quarter boots. It can sometimes be remedied DISEASES OF THE HORSE 167 by shoeing treatment, the same as for interfering mentioned above. Calk wounds. — These are wounds near the top of the hoof and are caused by sharp-shod horses either trampling on them- selves or on each other. Heavy draft horses are more subject than lighter ones, and the fore feet more liable to injury than the hind ones, though they often result in the hind feet from the horse resting one foot on top of the other. The treatment is the use of boots properly to protect the top of the hoof, and shoeing the foot causing the injury with blunt calks. When the wound is not deep and soreness slight, cold water bandages and a pro- tective dressing, such as carbolized vaseline, will be all that is needed. Corns result from bruises of the sole. They occur on the in- side half of the sole of the front feet. Corns often accompany weak flat feet, and often result from poor shoeing. The treat- ment is to discover the cause and if possible remove it. Give the horse rest. Horses subject to corns should be shod with wide-webbed bar shoes, as these protect the foot. As to a cure, the blood or pus that has collected needs to be removed. To do this cut a hole through the sole of the foot, allowing the fluid to escape. Wash in warm water and apply a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, turpentine pure or white lotion. When the discharge has ceased, apply pine tar to the opening to keep out the dirt. Punctured wounds of the foot. — The foot of the horse is liable to wounds made by some sharp object puncturing the sole or the frog and injuring the soft tissues. Such wounds may become serious and hence should receive close attention. Te- tanus or lockjaw often follows such wounds in the horse. Such wounds are caused by nails, sharp rocks, glass, wire, and the like. They often cause lameness. The treatment is first of all to withdraw the object. If pus and blood has collected, the hole must be enlarged to facilitate drainage and the sole washed with 168 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Where there is much sore- ness, the foot must be poulticed for a day or two. Keep the horse in a clean, dry stable, as otherwise dirt will get into the wound. Cracked hoofs. — Cracks occur in the wall of the hoof. They are designated by three names depending on the location. A " quarter-crack" is when the crack begins at the top of the hoof and extends downward in the wall; a " sand-crack" when the crack begins at the bottom and extends upward ; a " toe-crack" when the crack is in the front of the hoof. They may be due to severe work, injuries at the top of the hoof, and to a dry, weakened condition of the walls of the hoof. When the cracks extend to or from the top of the hoof, they may cause severe lameness. As the horse steps the hoof spreads and the soft tissues are pinched in the crack. Sand and gravel may get into the crack thus increasing the trouble. The treatment is to clean out the crack neatly. If " proud flesh" has formed, swab with butter of antimony. Wash with 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, then apply pine tar to keep out the dirt and to aid in healing. Draw crack together by shoeing nails driven across the crack and clinched. Small clips can be procured for this purpose. The hoof should be kept well oiled. DISEASES OF THE LEGS Scratches is an inflammation of the skin, especially in the region of the heels, and by some is called " grease heel." This ailment is usually due to mud and filth. The hind heels being more exposed to the manure are more subject. The treatment is to clean the parts. First clip the hair close to the skin, bathe in warm water, then apply a warm poultice of scalded bran or linseed meal, changing twice in twenty-four hours. After scabs are removed wash, wipe dry, and apply an antiseptic as boric acid, dusting into the sores, then cover with some oily dressing as vaseline, glycerine, castor oil, or fresh lard. DISEASES OF THE HORSE 169 Mud fever is an inflammation of the skin of the legs. It is caused by the irritation of the mud and water in the spring of the year, and occasionally by spattering urine against the fore legs in the case of geldings. The treatment is to keep the parts clean. Clip the hair, cleanse by washing with tar soap, wipe dry, then rub with vaseline, castor oil, or glycerine. Eczema is an inflammation of the skin. It usually occurs among horses in good flesh, especially in the spring when the hair is long. It is characterized by small eruptive blisters that dis- charge a gummy substance. This dries about the roots of the hair, causing intense itching, especially when the animal sweats. The treatment is to clip the hair, cleanse by washing with tar soap, wipe dry, then rub the skin with some bland oil as vaseline, glycerine, or castor oil, or better still, oxide of zinc ointment. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS In considering ailments of the digestive organs, it must be remembered that by far the greater number of these difficulties are due to improper food or to careless feeding. Hence in the treatment of the various diseases of the digestive organs, the method of feeding as well as the kind of food should receive careful attention. Ailments of the mouth The mouth is subject to many injuries which may have a serious effect upon mastication and digestion. When the horse does not masticate his food, the mouth should be closely ex- amined. Sore mouth may result from irritating foods, injuries, and germs of diseases, from severe bits and irregular or diseased teeth, also from vicious habits. The treatment is to locate the cause and remove it. Wash the mouth thoroughly with warm water, then apply three times daily a healing lotion, such as a strong solution of alum. Do not use poisonous remedies. 170 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS The horse should be fed soft foods, such as gruels and mashes. Abnormal and diseased teeth. — The outer edges of the upper, and the inner edges of the lower, back teeth may become sharp and cut the cheeks or tongue. With a guarded rasp, remove the sharp points, taking care not to rasp the grinding surface of the teeth. Decayed, ulcered, split, and broken teeth should be removed. This should be done with forceps. Never punch teeth out if it can be avoided, as the tooth is likely to be broken and some of the pieces remain in the jaw where they cannot be removed, and thus cause much trouble. Occasionally, however, it will be necessary to cut a hole through the jaw bone and punch the tooth out. In all cases the opposite tooth should be filed off at least once a year. Lampas is a swelling of the mucous membrane covering the top of the mouth. It is caused by some irritation of the mouth, and is more troublesome at teething time, after which it will disappear. The treatment is to remove the cause when pos- sible. In very bad cases a few pricks with a suture needle, then bathing the mouth in alum water, will prove helpful. If the mouth is pricked, the horse should be fed on soft food for a time. In mild cases the feeding of ear corn will suffice. Burning lampas is cruel and injurious and should never be tolerated. Ailments of the throat and gullet Diseases and derangements of these organs are not common except choking, the result of the introduction of foreign bodies or of giving some irritating medicine. Choking is the closing of the gullet with some foreign body. It often happens when the animal attempts to swallow an apple or turnip and similar objects without crushing them. Some horses choke from feeding too rapidly. The treatment is DISEASES OF THE HORSE 171 to remove the object by getting it up if possible; if not, by pushing it down. If the object is in the beginning of the gullet, it can be worked up. To do this it is necessary to use a mouth- gag in the horse's mouth to protect the hand, then as some one presses upward and forward on the object from the outside of the gullet, pass the hand into the mouth and if possible, with- draw the offending object. It may require some effort to work the object up in this way, but it should be done if possible. If all attempts to work the object up fail, then it should be pushed down with a probang, — a smooth, flexible tube or rod. A piece of three-fourth inch rubber hose is good. Ailments of the stomach and intestines Because of the small size of the horse's stomach, it is often difficult to distinguish between the diseases of the stomach and intestines. While the stomach and intestines of the horse are subject to a great many ailments, we shall discuss only the more important, which are indigestion, colic, diarrhea, and con- stipation. Indigestion is one of the most common ailments of the diges- tive organs among horses. It may be due to both the stomach and small intestines failing to digest the food properly. Some of the more important causes are the feeding of indigestible food, improper feeding, bad teeth, which prevent proper mastication of food, hard work immediately after feeding, and any cause that profoundly disturbs the system. It may occur in either mild or acute form. If the attack is mild, the animal refuses his food, lies down, and immediately after gets up, looks toward the flanks, and frequently paws the ground. In such cases the treatment is not difficult. Give the stomach and intestines a few days' rest in which to recuperate, feeding only a light laxa- tive diet, such as bran mashes and fresh grass. Drench the horse with two ounces of Jamaica ginger, dissolved in a pint of fairly hot water, three times daily. In acute indigestion the 172 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS animal suffers much pain. The symptoms are much the same. The animal, lying down frequently, paws the ground, looks towards the flanks, stands stretched out, and shows evidence of the pain he is suffering. Treat much the same as for mild indigestion, but repeat the Jamaica ginger drench every three hours. If there is much pain, an ounce of laudanum may be given three times daily. Fig. 63. — An American Trotting Bred Carriage Horse possessing Good Form and Stylish Action. Colic. — This term is often loosely applied to almost any ailment of the digestive organs that is accompanied by pain. For our purpose we shall consider it under two forms : spas- modic or cramp colic, and flatulent or wind colic. Spasmodic colic is a violent and painful contraction of the coats of the intestines. It is caused by some irritant in the intestines, such as undigested food, large amounts of cold water when the horse is tired and warm, sudden changes in the food, such as changing from dry to green food, and similar changes. The pain is severe and often comes on suddenly. The horse DISEASES OF THE HORSE 173 stops suddenly, looks towards the flanks, stretches, and strains as if trying to pass urine, paws the ground, kicks at his belly, throws himself down, and rolls. He sweats, and the respiration and pulse are increased in rapidity. After a time the pain ceases, only to be renewed by another attack in a few minutes. The treatment is to get the horse into a comfortable place where he can roll without injury. Inject into the rectum eight quarts of warm water, containing half a teacupful of glycerine. This should be injected slowly so as to allow the animal to retain it as long as possible. Drench with two-ounce doses of Jamaica ginger as in indigestion. Sweet spirits of niter in ounce doses is also good, as is a tablespoonful of common baking soda dis- solved in warm water. To relieve the pain, give one ounce of laudanum and half an ounce of spirits of camphor mixed in half a pint of water. Rubbing the belly vigorously also relieves the pain, as do blankets rung out of hot water and applied to the belly. In flatulent or "wind" colic the pain comes on more gradu- ally and is continuous. The pain is due to the accumulation of gas in the stomach and intestines, resulting from the fermenting of food. Sometimes the pain is severe, other times it is not. The large intestines are often extended with gas; in fact the bloating may be severe enough to interfere with the horse's breathing. The animal acts much the same as in spasmodic colic. He often attempts to lie on the back as this seems to favor passing of the gas. The treatment is much the same as in spasmodic or cramp colic. Diarrhea or scouring. — This is an effort of nature to remove some irritant from the bowels. The discharges are frequent, the matter thin and watery, and often characterized by a very foul-smelling odor. Often there is severe straining. Diarrhea may be caused by overfeeding, by bad food, by sudden changes in the food, by eating too rapidly, by drinking bad water, and by driving immediately after feeding. Again, some horses are 174 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS predisposed to diarrhea, especially when driven on the road. Since diarrhea is caused by an irritant, the treatment is first to locate the cause and remove it. The discharge must not be checked too suddenly. A half teacupful of castor oil, combined with an ounce of laudanum and given as a drench with a little linseed gruel, is excellent. Oak-bark tea, made by steeping the inner bark of white oak, is good for persistent cases. A teacup- ful of this tea combined with an ounce of laudanum should be given as a drench twice daily. Horses that are subject to diarrhea while on the road should be watered and fed as long as possible before put to work. Water sparingly immediately before and during the drive. Constipation is the opposite to diarrhea. The discharge is not frequent, the matter hard and dry and often passed with much effort. The causes are rather numerous and varied. Constipation may be due to bad food, lack of exercise, insuffi- cient water, improper feeding, and is often due to other dis- eases. The treatment is to reach the cause and remove it, then feed laxative foods, such as thin bran mashes, linseed gruels, and if possible, green grass. Injections of warm water and glycerine are good to empty the bowels. If the ailment persists, give small doses cf castor oil or raw linseed oil, say one pint, and if this is not effective, repeat. This is more satis- factory than one large dose. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS The stable is the source of many respiratory ailments. Poorly ventilated, poorly lighted, poorly drained, and poorly kept stables are perhaps the source of more ailments among horses than all other agents combined. Pure air, light, dryness, and cleanliness are essentials to the horse's well being. These can be procured with small cost and should not be neglected in the arrangement of a stable in which to care for the horse. Catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the DISEASES OF THE HORSE 175 nostrils and nasal chamber. There are two well-recognized forms ; the acute and the chronic. Catarrh is often associated with distemper. Acute catarrh comes on rather suddenly. The animal appears dull. There is often a chill in the early stages, followed later by fever. The membrane is dry and rather red. Soon a watery discharge flows from the nostrils, the eyes may be affected and tears flow down the cheeks. The discharge from the nostrils becomes thicker and pus-like. The bowels are often constipated. The cause is exposure to cold and wet. The treatment is to give rest, provide comfort- able quarters, blanket the animal, and feed laxative, easily digested food, such as bran mashes, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. A few days' quiet rest, with pure air and good food, will be of greater benefit than most medication. Give a table- spoonful of saltpeter in the drinking water once daily. Often much benefit can be derived from the inhalation of steam. To do this throw a blanket over the horse's head, place under this a pail of boiling water containing a tablespoonful of carbolic acid. Chronic catarrh comes slowly ; in fact is usually due to some other disease such as a cold, though there are other causes. The animal appears much the same as in acute catarrh, the discharge being thicker, often 3rellowish to white. It may be discharged in lumps. In some cases it clogs, and the face may bulge from the pressure of the pus inside. Occasionally the parts become diseased and the pus cuts through and is dis- charged to the outside. Sometimes there is a cough. The treatment so far as rest and food is concerned is the same as in acute cases. Give the horse a tonic. Steam the head. After steaming spray the nostrils once daily with the following : two drams of boric acid dissolved in one quart of warm water. Occasionally the pus collects in one of the cavities, and it is neces- sary to cut open and wash out the cavity. The boric acid solu- tion makes a good wash for this purpose. This may greatly hasten the cure. 176 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Heaves, broke?i wind, asthma. — Many loosely apply the term " heaves " to all ailments where the breathing is difficult and noisy. While the veterinarians define these ailments as if well understood, yet they seem to be unable to do much for such diseases. Heaves is often associated with indigestion, or to an error in the choice of food. Overfeeding, especially with dusty or moldy hay, is a common cause. Severe work immediately after feeding may bring on the ailment. Again the tendency to the disease seems to be hereditary, hence animals thus dis- posed should not be used in breeding. Heaves is readily rec- ognized by the deep, moist, grunting cough ; by the peculiar movement of the flank during expiration and by the dilated nostrils which frequently discharge a thick mucus. These are more noticeable immediately after feeding or watering. " Heavy " horses are very common. When the disease is established, there is no cure. Proper attention should be paid to the quarters and diet. Provide light, dry, clean, and well-ventilated quarters. Feed easily digested, nutritious, and not bulky food. Moisten the hay and do not feed too much. Molasses as well as carrots, pota- toes, or turnips chopped and mixed with oats and corn, are a good diet. For medicine give arsenic, in the form of Fowler's solution, at first two teaspoonfuls in the food or water three times daily, gradually increasing to a tablespoonful three times daily and continuing for one month. Roaring, whistling, thick wind. — These are due to an obstruc- tion in some part of the respiratory tract which prevents the free passage of air. The causes are numerous and not well understood. It often follows distemper or injury to the throat. The tendency is hereditary. Some animals seem more dis- posed than others, especially those with long slender necks. When the disease is established, there is little that can be done by way of treatment. In certain forms of the ailment, light blistering over the larynx will give relief. DISEASES OF THE HORSE 177 MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES There are many ailments of the horse, more or less general in their nature. Some of them involve more than one of the systems of the animal body. Many of them are not well under- stood. It has seemed best, therefore, to set these ailments out by themselves and discuss under one general heading. Wounds are injuries to the living tissue. Their causes are varied and numerous. First examine the wound to find the depth and direction and to see that there is no foreign substance in it. All foreign materials, such as dirt, hair, and the like, must be carefully washed out with water to which a little car- bolic acid has been added, about a teaspoonful of the acid to a quart of water. Where there is much bleeding, this must be stopped, at least in part. If the bleeding is from an artery, it may be necessary to tie the end of the artery towards the heart. In ordinary wounds the treatment is to hasten the formation of a clot. To do this bring the edges of the wound together and bind them there. If this is not convenient, apply some material, such as absorbent cotton, to the wound ; this serves to gather and hold the blood, thus hastening the clot. Ordinary wheat flour applied to the wound is good to hasten clot formation. So is bathing in alum solutions. Cold water is also good. In large wounds it may be necessary to sew the edges together. In doing this much care must be exercised to keep everything perfectly clean. The parts must be brought together evenly so that the edges will not pucker. In stitching, if possible use silk thread, but whatever material used, it should first be dipped into a solution of carbolic acid. Make the stitches independent, tying the two ends across the wound. Place stitches one-quarter to one-half inch apart. Bathe in 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Protect the wound and re- strain the horse so it cannot rub or bite the injured part. Distemper, often called strangles, colt ill, catarrhal fever, or N 178 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS shipping fever, is peculiar to the horse, mule, and ass, and it is common. It appears as a fever lasting a few days, with formation of matter or pus, in the air tubes, and often the for- mation of abscesses in other parts of the body. It usually leaves the horse perfectly healthy, but may leave it a roarer. The disease is infectious and passes from one animal to another, and few are the animals that escape it. Ordinary light cases require but little treatment beyond proper protection and feed- ing nutritious, easily digested food, such as bran mashes. They must have protection from exposure to cold and damp or the disease will be complicated with bronchitis or similar ailments. If the case becomes serious, more care is required. To reduce the temperature the safest and simplest plan is to inject large quantities of cold water into the rectum ; or give a table- spoonful of nitrate of potassium, as a drench or in the drinking water once daily. To ease the cough and allay the inflammation of the mucous membrane, place a blanket over the head, and steam with the vapor of warm water poured over a bucket of bran and hay in which belladonna leaves or tar have been placed, as in catarrh. If the bowels are constipated, give in- jections of warm water and glycerine. Physic should not be given. If an abscess forms, poultice with warm linseed, chang- ing daily, open and wash with 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Influenza, sometimes called pink-eye, bilious fever, grippe, and various other names, is also peculiar to the horse, mule, and ass. It usually appears as a fever; the animal seems greatly depressed, the mucous membranes of the eyes are very fre- quently enlarged and inflamed, giving rise to the name pink-eye. One attack usually protects the animal from future ones of the same disease, but not always. The disease is infectious and contagious, passing from one animal to another. The treat- ment is to give rest, provide comfortable quarters, and feed easily digested and nutritious foods, such as bran mash, roots, DISEASES OF THE HORSE 179 apples, good oats, and grass in season. The animal must have protection and warmth or complications will develop. If the cough is troublesome, steam the head as suggested for distemper, using a piece of camphor about the size of a walnut in a pail of boiling water and hold the animal's head over it for fifteen minutes at a time at least three times daily. To reduce the temperature, inject cold water as suggested for distemper, or give a tablespoonful of nitrate of potash, as a drench or in the drinking water once daily. If the throat is sore, rub on a little mustard once a day for a few days. Care must be taken to avoid complications. Fig. 64. — Hackney Mare "Kitty Grey Watson. ix Action. Owned bv C. W. Azoturia is a form of poisoning resulting from high feeding and lack of exercise. It is often called " bloody water" because of the dense reddish or brownish urine. Azoturia occurs only among horses that are in good flesh, when they are exercised after standing in the stable for a few days. It often comes on quickly, attacking the animal after traveling only a short dis- tance. The horse becomes stiff, particularly in the hind part, and in severe cases sweats profusely, the muscles tremble, his 180 MANUAL OF FABM ANIMALS hind parts difficult to control, and he goes down and is often unable to rise again. This ailment varies much in severity ; in some cases the animal goes lame and if stopped and blanketed, the disease passes away; in other cases the animal goes down and dies in a few minutes. The treatment in mild cases is a laxative, and graduated daily exercise. Sudden attacks will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the instant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of potassium in half ounce dose and sweet spirits of niter in ounce dose. If the animal does not calm, the bromide may be repeated in five hours and the niter twice daily. Blankets wrung from warm water and placed over the loins are also good to quiet the animal. After the animal has calmed, iodide of potassium in dram doses may be given three times daily in place of the bromide, 'fhe horse should be given all the water he wants, and if unable to stand, must have a thick soft bed, and should be turned from side to side at least every twelve hours. It is often necessary to draw the urine with a catheter. Foul sheath. — Geldings are occasionally troubled by an accumulation of the material from the glands of the sheath which often hinders the free passage of urine. The sheath may become stopped up and the retained urine increase the trouble. In such cases the sheath should be well cleaned, and then greased with fresh lard or vaseline. Diseases of the eye. — The value of sound eyes among horses cannot be overestimated. While there are many diseases and injuries to which the eye is subject, we shall consider only the three common ailments: simple inflammation, "moon blind- ness," and "pink-eye." Simple inflammation is usually due to an injury, or to some foreign bodies in the eye, such as hay seed, chaff, cinders, sand, and the like. Strong light irritates the eye. The eye becomes red and inflamed, the eyelids swollen, and the tears are discharged freely. The treatment is to locate the cause and remove it. Such bodies as hay seed DISEASES OF THE HORSE 181 and chaff can be removed by wiping the surface of the eyeball with a piece of soft silk. To do this it is often necessary to put ,a twitch on the animal. If any substance should stick into the eye, it is best removed with the forceps. After the cause is removed, bathe the eye with cold water and apply cold cloths to reduce the inflammation. If this does not reduce the in- flammation, bathe three times daily with hot instead of cold water. Follow this by applying a few drops of a solution of boric acid, a teaspoonful to a cup of water. This may be ap- plied with a medicine-dropper. In some parts of the country, moon-blindness is a very common disease of the eye among horses. Its causes are not known, though the disease tends to be hereditary. The eye behaves much as in simple inflammation. The eye becomes red and inflamed, the tears are profuse, the lids swollen and kept partly closed to shield the eye. In a week or two the in- flammation goes down, the eye clears up, save there remains around the iris a yellow band. In a few weeks the attack comes on again. These attacks continue until the animal becomes permanently blind. The sight can, however, be pro- longed by careful treatment. When the attack comes on, keep the animal in a moderately dark stall and treat as in simple inflammation. Bathe with hot water and apply boric acid solu- tion. In addition give internally as a drench one teaspoonful of iodide of potassium. Continue for five days, then withhold five days, and repeat. Pink-eye, as we have seen (p. 178), is a sort of influenza. The disease affects the entire system and is contagious. The treatment is to isolate the horse and disinfect his stall. Bathe with hot water and apply boric acid solution as in simple in- flammation. In addition give internally as a drench a heaping teaspoonful of nitrate of potassium, twice daily, as this stimu- lates the kidneys and reduces the fever. PART TWO — CATTLE CHAPTER VIII CHOOSING CATTLE — JUDGING In the choice of a cow, one must cultivate the same general faculties as in the choosing of a horse. Familiarity with what is wanted, powers of observation, and good judgment are equally as important in the choice of a cow as in that of any other animal. These can be gained only by study and prac- tice. The importance of these faculties cannot be overesti- mated in the choice of a cow, either for the dairy or for beef. TYPES OF CATTLE There are two distinct types of cattle : first, the dairy type, adapted to the production of milk; and second, the beef type, employed for the production of beef. These types are con- trolled by the demands made on the body of the animal. For example, in milk production the udder is perhaps as im- portant an organ as any, whereas in beef production it is needed only to sustain the young. Again, in the case of beef pro- duction it is very important that the animal take on flesh and that the body be plump and full, whereas in the production of milk this would be considered an objection, as the food should go to the production of milk and not to fat. These two types are of necessity widely different and one can no more have maximum milk production and maximum beef produc- tion in the same cow than he can have maximum speed and maximum force in the same horse, or in the same machine. 185 186 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Fig. 65. — Jersey Cow "Torment- or's Lass." Owned by Hood Farm, Lowell, Mass. Dairy type. The dairy type. — When we reflect upon the purpose for which dairy cows are kept, the type becomes apparent. They are useful for the milk they can secrete, and not for the flesh of their bodies ; and as the food should go to produce milk and not fat, therefore the body will be spare and not fleshy. The secretion of milk takes place in the udder and allied organs; therefore, the rear development will be large. Furthermore, we cannot have large production without a large factory ; thus a large secretion of milk calls for a large digestive tract, which adds to the rear development (Fig. 65). In general appearance, the form of the dairy cow resembles that of a triple-wedge. Viewed from the side, she shows greater depth of body behind than in front. Viewed from the rear and top, she gradually widens from the chest to the hips. Viewed from the front and top, she gradually widens from the withers backward and down- ward to the abdomen. While this is the desired form and many superior cows possess it, yet exceptions occur, and many heavy milkers are not associated with this form. Fleshiness, however, is dis- tinctly objectionable in the milking cow. The beef type. — In the beef type, the food goes to the pro- duction of flesh ; hence a tendency to fatten is desired. The Fig. 66. — Angus Steer. Grand cham- pion at the International Live Stock Exposition, 1909. Beef type. CHOOSING A COW 187 quality of the flesh in different parts of the body varies widely. In the meat-market, flesh forming certain parts of the body is worth many times that from other parts. We demand there- fore in the beef type not only an animal with a tendency to take on fat, but this tendency must be accelerated in the region of the valuable cuts. In general appearance, the form of the beef type resembles that of a brick set on edge. Viewed from the side, the top and bottom lines are parallel. There is no wedge shape ; the ani- mal is as deep in front as behind. Viewed from the rear and top, the withers and chest present an appearance almost as wide as the hip and rump. The animal is compact and broad of back from shoulders to hips. Cattle of the beef type are often referred to as "blocky," indicating compactness and squareness of form (Fig. 66). HOW TO ESTIMATE THE AGE OF A COW The age of a cow is a very important factor in determining her present and prospective value. Familiarity with the characters that indicate age, therefore, are often extremely useful. As in the case of the horse, a knowledge of these characters is not difficult to secure, but skill in their application depends much on continued practice. General consideration. — In estimating the age of a cow, the order of the appearance of the permanent teeth furnishes the best index, especially from two to five years of age. There are, however, other general considerations that aid in estimat- ing age, especially in the case of young and \zxy old animals. Size is the principal factor in determining the age up to a year and one-half. In old animals the top of the head becomes more prominent, the sides of the face more depressed, and the hollows above the eyes deeper. With age the backbone be- comes more prominent and often strongly curved downward. Examination of the teeth. — While the order of the appearance 188 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS of the permanent teeth and their method of wearing are con- sidered the most accurate means of estimating age among cattle, yet they are not absolutely accurate nor are they as dependable as in the horse. Teeth in cattle vary in much the same manner as in the horse. See page 8 for variation in teeth among horses. As in the horse, there are two sets of teeth, — first, the temporary or milk teeth, and later the perma- nent teeth. The latter differ from the former in their greater size. This replacement of the temporary by the permanent is made neces- sary by the increased size of the jaw as the animal grows older. The calf is often born with the central pair of milk teeth, and the remaining pairs appear within the first month after birth. The calf is provided with four pairs of in- cisor teeth. There are incisors in the lower jaw only, the upper being provided with a cartilaginous pad. When the animal is approxi- mately eighteen months of age, the middle pair of milk teeth is replaced by permanent ones, which are fully twice as broad as the milk teeth, hence easily recognized (Fig. 67). The intervals between the appearance of the succeeding pairs varies much according to the conditions, but can be stated as approximately nine months, perhaps more rather than less. In general the age of the animal at the time Fig. 67. — Cows' Teeth ar- ranged ACCORDING TO AGE. Lowest row represents a 15 months' old mouth, second row 18 months', third row 27 months', fourth row 36 months', fifth row 45 months', and the top row represents the teeth of a ten-year-old cow. — Wallace. CHOOSING A COW 189 each pair is up and in full wear may be estimated as follows : — First or middle pair of permanent teeth 18 months Second or first intermediate pair of permanent teeth . . 27 months Third or second intermediate pair of permanent teeth . . 36 months Fourth or lateral pair of permanent teeth 45 months If there is a variation for this table, the cow is likely to be older rather than younger than the teeth indicate according to the ages. In fact, some authors say the first pair of permanent teeth appear at two years of age ; the second pair at three ; the third pair at four ; and the fourth pair at five years of age. The permanent teeth of the cow differ in many respects from those of the. horse. After they are up and in wear there is com- paratively little change for a few years. They are never firmly fixed in the jaw, as are the permanent teeth of the horse. As the animal grows older the teeth become narrower, and by the ninth year there is much space between them. They shrink away from each other and often become more or less discolored and finally drop out one by one. Examination of the horns. — The horns of cattle are often used in estimating the age. During the first two years the horns grow rapidly, and in this time they make approximately their entire growth. After two years of age, the growth is slow, and each year's addition is marked by a more or less distinct ring. The first ring does not make its appearance until the animal is approximately three years old. The age is estimated, there- fore, by adding two to the number of rings present. CHOOSING A DAIRY COW The dairy cow is desired for her ability to secrete milk at a profit. In estimating the value of a dairy cow there is no method so satisfactory as the actual record of her performance as determined by the scales and the Babcock test. Having 190 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS a record of the quantity of milk, the percentage of fat, and the approximate food consumed, the value of a cow for dairy pur- poses may be determined very accurately. If in addition to her own record, we have a record of the performance of both her dam and her sire's daughters, we can speculate with some degree of certainty her prospective production, as well as that of her daughters and her sons' get. Such records, however, are seldom available, and in their absence we estimate the pro- duction by those signs that most certainly indicate it. While these signs are not always true indications of high production, yet in the absence of more accurate information they are the best we can do. As in the choosing of a horse, it is essential that we examine the animal in systematic order, otherwise some very valuable character may go unobserved. Perhaps the most convenient and simplest method is to note the general appearance of the animal first, that is, the form or shape, weight, quality, and constitution, and if these are satisfactory, then make a more detailed examination, studying each character in relation to milk production. General characteristics in dairy cows By carefully observing the general appearance of the dairy cow, one can gain a fair knowledge of her desirability. Very often the general features are not given much consideration and we pass to a detailed examination, with the result that many very important characteristics go unconsidered. Some persons have such an accurate " eye " for appearances that they are able to judge a cow very surely by a general look; but for most people this method is unsafe. Form. - - The general form should be considered from two points of view : First, with respect to angularity ; second, freedom from beefiness. It will aid us to gain a clearer under- CHOOSING A COW 191 standing of the form among dairy cows if we will remember that there is extra heavy demand made upon four systems. These are the milk-secreting system, the digestive system, the circulatory system, and the nervous system. It is because of the extreme activity of these centers that the dairy cow is in- clined towards a given form. The milk-secreting organs and the digestive organs having an undue amount of work to do tends towards extreme development, while the other parts, be- cause of their inactivity, are inclined to be narrow. The typical form of a dairy cow is that of a triple wedge, as already indicated. Viewed from either side she should show greater depth of body behind than in front. The shoulder should be lower than the hips and the floor of the chest higher than the bottom of the udder. If a straight edge were laid along the back and allowed to project forward, and a second straight edge placed along the under line touching the bottom of the udder, the abdomen, and the floor of the chest, and allowed to project forward, it should meet the one from the back a short distance in front of the animal. Viewed from the rear and top the dairy cow should gradually widen from the chest to the hips. Straight edges placed along either side and. projecting forward should meet a short distance in front of the animal. Viewed from the front and top she gradually widens from the withers backward and downward (Fig. 68). This illustrates the typical dairy form and the one towards which most good milk cows tend, though it does not follow that a cow, to be a good dairy animal, must be of this type. Occasionally a good milker can be found not of this form, but since most good milk cows tend towards this shape, and in the absence of more accurate data, such as the actual records, the choosing of animals possessing such configuration is to be recommended. If the cow tends naturally to take on fat, she is worth just so much less as a milk cow. The dairy cow should be spare. There should be an absence of fleshiness throughout, partic- 192 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS ularly in the region of the shoulders, the back, the rump, and about the tail-head, places likely first to show fat among animals possessing such a tendency. While this is the form ordinarily Fig. 68. — Guernsey Cow "Dolly Dimple." Sired by Yeoman. She gave -18,459 pounds of milk containing 907 pounds of fat. World's record for the breed. Bred and owned by F. L. Ames, North Easton, Mass. The Guernsey dairy cattle originated on the island from which they take their name, one of the Channel Island group. They possess similar characteristics to the Jerseys, but are somewhat larger, and the milk is hardly so rich. The weight will run 900 pounds and upward. The color is either yellowish, brown- ish or reddish, fawn, and white. possessed by the best producers, here too exception can occa- sionally be found. A cow may be found that is so efficient with her food that she can take on fat and in addition secrete more milk than another and less efficient cow can secrete alone, CHOOSING A COW 193 be she ever so spare. But in the absence of more accurate in- formation, the spare form is to be preferred. Quality. — The quality is a very important factor in the choice of a dairy cow. It is well determined by the condition of the skin, hair, and bone. The skin should be soft, mellow, oily to the touch, and comparatively thin. Care must be exercised in respect to the thinness of the skin, as a thin, papery skin as such is usually associated with weakness of constitution. The skin lining the ear, as well as that in the region of the udder, inside the thighs, and at the root of the tail, should be of a golden color and the secretions abundant. The hair should be soft, silky, and comparatively short. Black hairs will usually be harsher than white hairs, even on the same animal. While many good milking cows are loose in form, possessing an open conformation, yet the bone should be dense and of fine texture. Dairy cows possessed of a tight, heavy skin, coarse, harsh hair, and of a heavy, rough, coarse bone are deficient in quality. Constitution. — Because of the peculiar conditions under which most dairy cows are kept, the constitutional vigor de- serves much attention. Vigor is estimated by the expression, by the condition of the hair and hide, and by the chest capacity. The expression of the eyes, ears, and head should be mild and lively, and the animal should be on the alert. The chest ca- pacity should be large, particularly across the floor. A good way to note the width of the floor of the chest is to place the hand along the chest between the front legs, as the width between the front legs should be great. Narrowness between the front legs is objectionable for the reason that it indicates lack of constitution. Temperament. — The dairy cow should have a good tempera- ment. Among cattle there are two divisions of temperament : the nervous and lymphatic. In a cow of the former tempera- ment, the nervous organization is strong and well developed, while a cow of lymphatic temperament is sluggish in disposition 194 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and inclined to fatten. Hence, for the dairy we desire a cow of nervous temperament, one that is sensitive and active, pos- sessing greatest vitality, and that is capable of giving all organs the greatest producing powers. Detail characters of a dairy cow. Having considered the general appearance of the dairy cow, we should pass to a more detailed examination of her characters before choosing. In order that none of these characters go unobserved, they should be considered in order. The head of a dairy cow should be long, lean, and feminine in appearance. There should be freedom from coarseness and heaviness. The face should be prolonged, lean, and the fea- tures distinct. The poll should be prominent and the forehead broad. The eyes should be mild, bright, and full. The nostrils should be large, permitting of the free passage of air. The ear should be of medium size, fine quality, and of an orange color inside. The horn should be rather small and free from coarse- ness, especially at the base. The neck should be rather long, slim, and fine, carrying the head gracefully. There should be freedom from fullness and heaviness. The windpipe should be rather prominent, especially up near the throat. While the neck should have a neat attach- ment at the head and shoulders, yet it should not blend so smoothly as in beef cattle because of the lack of flesh. The animal should not have a " bull neck." Fore-quarters. — The shoulders should be prominent, free from beefiness, and rather angular. The withers should be lean, thin, and refined. Both withers and shoulders should be free from meatiness and heaviness. The legs should be straight and short with fine shanks (Fig. 69). Body. — The producing powers of the dairy cow depend largely on the depth and volume of the barrel. We have already noted the importance of the digestive, circulatory, and respiratory CHOOSING A COW 195 systems in the dairy cow. In order that these systems perform their functions most efficiently it is necessary to provide them ample room. The chest should be deep, with large heart girth, and broad on the floor, partic- ularly as noted between the fore legs. The ribs should be long and sufficiently arched to provide a capacious body. The abdomen should be large and deep, indicative of much Capacity, and should be well FlG- 69. — Guernsey Cow, "Im- , mi l i i i l ported Hayes Rosie." Dam of Supported. Ihe back Should "Yeoman." Owned by F. L. Ames. be lean, backbone rather promi- nent and strong. In many good dairy cows there is much distance between the spinal processes, and the cow is said to be "open jointed." The loin should be broad, although the space between the last rib and hip may be rather open. Hind-quarters. — As a whole, the hind-quarters in a dairy cow should be wide, long, and deep. There should be freedom from fullness and meatiness, particularly at the tail-head. In many very good cows there is a slight raise from the hips to the attachment of the tail. The hip bones should be rather sharp, prominent and wide apart, thus giving ample room for the gen- erative organs. They should not be lower than the spine. The rump should be long and wide, with the thurls and pin-bones high and wide apart. From the points of the hips to the tail- head there should be a marked hollow, due to the absence of flesh. The thigh should be outcurved and thin, as this provides room for the udder. A thick thigh and a full twist are de- cidedly objectionable in a dairy cow. The legs should be comparatively short. Udder. — Too much stress cannot be placed on the impor- tance of thoroughly examining the udder when choosing a dairy 196 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS cow. If one can say that one organ is more important than another, the udder is perhaps the most important organ in the dairy cow. The udder should be considered from two points of view : the size and form, and the quality. The udder should be large. In form it should be moderately thick, attached high and full behind, extending well down, though not pendulant, and extending far in front. The quar- ters should be comparatively even, with the teats of convenient size and well placed. The length of the udder is important since it gives a long line of absorption. It should be approx- imately thirty inches from the attachment at the back to where it joins the belly. More important than the size and form of the udder is its quality. Many persons have purchased a cow because of her large udder, only to learn that it was large because fleshy and not because of containing much milk. Perhaps the best way to determine this is to see the udder milked out. When empty, the udder should almost lose its form. It should appear to consist of folds of soft, pliable, and loose skim The im- portance of this cannot be overestimated. Those of large experience can determine by the touch whether the udder is large because fleshy or large because filled with milk. When filled with milk, the udder yields to pressure somewhat as a sponge when filled with water. On the other hand, when large because fleshy, the yielding is more like soft rubber. There is a characteristic difference which can be learned only by ex- perience. While there are many defects of the udder, the most common are small front quarters, with the teats much higher above or close to the hind ones ; fleshy udders which reduce but little with milking and yield a small flow; udders entirely deficient in size and often with very unequal quarters. One must be on the alert for small teats, -so deficient in size as to be very inconvenient when milking. CHOOSING A CO W 197 4dl0***0** The milk-veins should be large, tortuous, long, and branching. These veins are considered important as they indicate the amount of blood that has passed through the udder. The veins usually lack development in heifers with their first calf. In a cow that has recently dropped her calf, the milk veins should be very prominent and full, extending well forward, and much crooked, passing into the body through large holes called " milk wells." Milk signs. — In the cow, as in the bull, there are a consider- able number of so-called milk signs that are relied upon more or less in the choice of a dairy animal. First among these is the " open " organization. It is said that an animal in which the joints of the skele- ton are loosely knit is likely to have good powers of secre- tion and assimilation. This loose-joint edness or lax organ- ization is well indicated by the distance between the vertebrae in the spinal column, and this open or loose chine — the jointing of the spinal column — is taken to indicate good capacity to secrete milk. When the edges of these spinal pro- cesses are very prominent on either side, it is called a double chine, and this is supposed to be even a better indication of milk production. A long tail is also thought by many to indicate good powers of secretion, and we find many cattle judges who criticize the animal if the tail does not reach to the hock and the longer the better. On the back of the thighs and above the udder, it will be observed that the hair runs in the opposite direction from that on the other parts of the body. This up-growing hair upon the rear of the udder, thighs, and perineum constitutes what Fig. 70. — Guernsey Bull, "Yeoman." Sire of Dolly Dimple. Owned by F. L. Ames. 198 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS is called " the escutcheon " or " milk mirror." It is asserted that the larger the area covered by this up-growing hair, the better producer the cow will be. Guenon, a Frenchman, held that the shape of the escutcheon was indicative of the quantity of milk and that the size was an index of the length of milk flow. Another character which Guenon associated with large production was the "thigh ovals." These are circular patches of hair often found on the rear of the udder and just above the hind teats. They are not present in all udders, but their presence is considered to indicate large milk production. There are many more of these so-called milk signs which have from time to time and by different men been considered to be a true index to the value of a dairy cow as a milk producer. While it is no doubt true that many large-producing milk cows have possessed all of these signs, it is also true that many more and higher producers have been lacking in them, one and all. CHOOSING BEEF CATTLE In beef production there are two classes of cattle to be considered : the breeding animals and the fattening animals. We are concerned here in the selection of cattle to fatten for beef. The beef animal at various times in his life is designated by three names : store animal, feeding animal, and fat animal. Cattle are spoken of as store animals when merely being carried along, as through the summer, or winter, and before feeding begins ; they are called feeding animals during the process of fattening ; and fat animals after they are " finished " and ready for market. For fattening purposes steers are preferred to heifers. All things being equal, steers will feed out better than heifers. This is due in part to the fact that steers are quieter in the feed lot than are heifers. The females are often restless for three or four days every three weeks on account of their periods of heat. For this reason it is objectionable to have even a few CHOOSING FOR BEEF 199 heifers in with a lot of steers as they disturb the steers at such times. Furthermore, too, the market discriminates against heifer beef, and the butcher will not pay as much for a drove of heifers as he will a lot of steers. General characteristics of beef cattle In choosing feeding cattle one should note carefully their general appearance. The form, the quality, the condition, the uniformity, and the age are each important, and should re- ceive due consideration. Form of the feeder. — In form the feeder in general should resemble a brick set on edge. It should fill out a parallelogram. The top and bottom lines should be parallel. The shoulders and chest should be almost as wide as the hips and rump. Feeders should be "blocky," indicating compactness and squareness of form. Those with long bodies are termed " rangy, " while those with long legs showing too little depth and fullness of body are termed "leggy," both of which are objection- able in a feeder. Steers standing high from the ground, light in the flanks, and shallow in the heart girth rarely make good feeders. The quality of the feeder. — Quality in feeders is determined in the same way as in dairy cattle, that is, by a soft, mellow hide, silky hair, and a fine bone. The condition of the skin is thought to be an important indication as to the probable feed- ing qualities of a steer. If the skin is mellow and elastic to the touch, it indicates good " handling." Animals possessed of such skins usually fatten rapidly, whereas those with heavy stiff skins often fatten slowly. The food influences the handling to a marked degree. When liberally fed, especially on oily laxative foods, the skin is soft and elastic and the hair usually silky and fine. On the other hand, if scantily fed or with improper foods, the skin often becomes tightly attached to the body, and it feels dry 200 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and paper-like. Feeders possessed of rough, coarse hair, tight, harsh skin, rough, heavy bones with coarse joints, prominent hips, and rough, open shoulders are objectionable as feeders. Condition of the feeder. — In inspecting a lot of cattle with a view to choosing feeders, it is important to note their condition in respect to thrift and fleshiness. The indications of thrift are a good coat of silky hair ; soft, pliable skin ; a clean and mild eye ; absence of discharge from the nostrils ; and the dung or excreta of proper consistency, neither too loose nor too hard and dry. Thriftiness is of much importance if steers are to make economical and profitable beef-producing animals. Other things being equal, the thinner the steer at the time of beginning the feeding operations, the more rapid and the more economical as well as the more profitable the gains will be pro- viding, of course, that the animal is thrifty and that he has not been stunted in his growth. If the animal has been stunted, it is likely to prove a disappointment in the feed lot. Uniformity among feeders. — Cattle chosen for feeding pur- poses should be of uniform age, color, type, breeding, condi- tion, and quality. While such uniformity will not add to their ability to take on flesh or to make economical gains, yet it will add very materially to their general appearance when on the market. Such a lot of fat steers will command a much higher price than a similar lot of mixed colors, or of mixed types, or of mixed breeding, or even of mixed ages. Detail characters of beef cattle Beef cattle are as a rule not so well trained as are dairy cattle, and it is not so possible to handle them effectively, yet a consideration of details is essential if one is to make a success of choosing animals to feed for beef production. The head is usually considered a good index in the choice of a feeder. It should be broad and short, as such accompanies a CHOOSING FOB BEEF 201 low-set, thick, and wide body; whereas a long, slim face is usually associated with a long, slim body. The face and cheeks should be full and deep with a broad, strong lower jaw. The nostrils should be large, indicating that there is an abundant lung capacity. The eyes should be large, prominent, and mild, in- dicating a quiet temperament. The feeder should be quiet, as a restless, nervous animal usually proves unsatisfactory. The forehead should be somewhat prominent and covered with a mass of wavy hair. The ear should be of medium size, pointed, and covered inside and out with fine silky hair, and should be neatly attached to the head. If horns are present, they should be of fine texture and free from coarseness. The neck should be short and thick, tapering gradually from the shoulders to the head. It should be neatly attached to the head and smoothly blended with the shoulder. The fore-quarters. — The shoulders should be well laid in, smoothly covered with flesh, compact, and blending neatly with the body. The crops or withers should be full, thick, and broad. Both shoulders and crops should be covered uniformly with flesh. Rough, angular shoulders, unevenly covered with flesh, are among the most common defects of feeding cattle. The body. — The chest should be wide, deep, and full, with light development of brisket, yet sufficient to fill out the squareness of the body. Narrow-chested animals are as a rule poor feeders. The ribs should be well sprung and long, giving an abundance of room for the vital organs, such as lungs and heart, and to provide large digestive capacity. The back should be broad and straight from the shoulder to the tail-head and covered with thick, even flesh. The loin should be wide and joining the body to the hinci-quarters, with little or no departure from a straight line. The hind-quarters. — As a whole the hind-quarters in the feeder should be wide, long, and deep. The hips should be wide and in proportion with the other parts, but not prominent. The 202 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS rump should be long from the hips to the tail-head, with pin- bones and thurls rather high and wide, but not prominent. The rump should be level and free from hollowness. The thighs should be full and fleshed well down to the hock, with twist full. The fat steer. — In choosing a fat steer, one must keep in mind the demands of the butchers. They desire a steer to dress with a relatively small percentage of offal ; with a relatively large percentage of meat in the region of the valuable cuts ; and an animal that is in the proper condition to slaughter, that is, neither over nor under fed. Fullness at the base of the tongue and just in front of the point of the shoulder, a full twist, a large mellow cod (scrotum), a full, thick flank that stands out and rolls as the animal walks, fullness at the tail-head and along the rump, indicate that degree of fatness essential to the highest quality of beef. CHAPTER IX FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE Perhaps no other question in connection with the propagation and care of farm animals has received so much consideration as that of feeding the dairy cow. Many and difficult are the prob- lems involved. To catalogue and discuss them all would require a work larger than this manual. It is not, therefore, in this connection, proposed to enter into an elaborate discussion, but only to call attention to some of the more important items in connection with the most successful practice. FOOD REQUIREMENTS FOR MILK The quantity of food required by a milking cow depends on many factors, chief of which are the kind of food, the quantity of milk yielded, the quality of the milk, as well as the individual- ity, the weight and age of the animal. We have already observed, in connection with feeding the horse, that foods vary widely in the amount of energy they con- tain. In addition to this they also vary greatly in their in- fluence upon milk secretion; that is to say, certain foods act favorably on the secreting glands, whereas other foods tend towards the production of fat. The exact action of the foods in- fluencing secretion is not understood, nor is their ultimate effect upon the animal definitely known. Chief among the foods tending to economize milk production are succulent foods, such as green forage crops, silage, and roots; by-products such as bran, brewers' grains, and dried distillers' grains, and the legu- minous hays, such as clover and alfalfa. 203 204 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS J The quantity of food which the milking cow requires wft\ be influenced by the amount of milk which she yields. < This was taken into account by Wolff and Lehman in the;r standard. Thus we notice that a 1000-pound cow yielding. 11 pounds of milk daily requires 25 pounds of dry ^matter, whereas one yield- ing 22 pounds of milk per day requires 29 pounds of dry-matter in her ration : — Wolff-Lehman standard, showing the amount of food required per 1000 pounds live weight for the growing and the mature cow yielding varying quantities of milk Dry- Matter Digestible Nutrients Nutritive Condition u*' animal Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat Ratio Growing Cattle, Dairy Breeds Age, Mo. Weight 2-3 150 23 4.0 13.0 2.0 1 4.5 3-6 300 24 3.0 12.8 1.0 1 5.1 6-12 500 27 2.0 12.5 0.5 1 6.8 12-18 700 26 1.8 12.5 0.4 1 7.5 18-24 900 26 25 1.5 1.6 12.0 10.0 0.3 0.3 1 8.5 Milking Cows, when yielding Daily 11.0 lb. of milk 1:6.7 16.6 lb. of milk 27 2.0 11.0 0.4 1:6.0 22.0 lb. of milk 29 2.5 13.0 0.5 1:5.7 27.5 lb. of milk 32 3.3 13.0 0.8 1:4.5 These standards were arranged to meet the need of the average farm cow under normal conditions. They were not intended to be absolute and fixed, but to be varied in practice as circum- stances suggest; Of late years they have been subjected to FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 205 much criticism by investigators in the United States, who.feel that they call for more protein than is needed, especially by those animals giving a rather large flow of milk rather poor in butter-fat. These investigators object to the fact that the standards do not take into account the quality as well as the quantity of the milk. Tig. 71. — Holstein-Friesian Bull "King Segis" at six Years Old. The sire of fifty A. R. O. daughters owned by H. A. Moyer, Syracuse, N. Y. The Holstein-Friesian breed of dairy cattle originated in Holland. While the Jersey is noted for the quality of milk, the Holstein is noted for the quantity or the large flow of milk. It is often spoken of as "the milk cow." In size they are the largest dairy breed, mature bulls weighing 1700 to 2200 pounds, the cows 1400 to 1800 pounds. The color is black and white. In America this breed is very popular for milk production to supply the cities. The quality of the milk as well as the quantity has an in- fluence on the amount of food required by a milking cow. For example, the daily production of 22 pounds of 3 per cent milk involves the elaboration of approximately 2.5 pounds of milk solids, whereas if the milk contained 6 per cent fat, it 206 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS would require approximately 3 pounds of milk solids, or an actual secretion of one-half pound more solid matter in the milk. Thus the cow yielding the 6 per cent milk would require more food than the cow giving only 3 per cent milk. Haecker has conducted many experiments in an endeavor to gain some knowledge of the relation between the percentage of fat in the milk and the food required to produce the same. From these experiments he has calculated the nutrients — protein, carbohydrates, and fat — required for the production of a given amount of fat, and using this as a basis, has con- structed standards for milk production : — HAECKER' S FEEDING-STANDARD — MATURE COW1 Table showing food of maintenance per 100 pounds live weight and nutri- ents required for the production of 1 pound of milk testing a given per cent of butter-fat For maintenance Milk testing 2.5 Milk testing 3.0 Milk testing 4.0 Milk testing 5.0 Milk testing 6.0 Milk testing 6.5 Protein 0.0700 0.0362 0.0397 0.0467 0.0537 0.0607 0.0642 Carbohydrate 0.700 0.164 0.181 0.214 0.247 0.280 0.296 Fat 0.0100 0.0124 0.0136 0.0159 0.0182 0.0206 0.0217 To illustrate the method of using the table to determine the amount of food required in milk production, choose the case of a 1000-pound cow yielding 22 pounds of milk daily. Let us as- sume that in one case it contains 3 per cent fat and in a second that it contains 6 per cent. 1 Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 79. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 207 From the table we learn : — Nutrients for 1 lb. of 3 per cent milk . Nutrients for maintenance 100 lb. weight Pro. 0.0397 0.0700 C. H. 0.181 0.700 Fat 0.0136 0.0100 For cow weighing 1000 pounds and yielding 22 pounds of 3 per cent milk : — Pro. C. H. Fat Ratio Nutrients for 22 lb. 3 per cent milk . Nutrients for 1000 lb. maintenance . 0.87 0.70 4.00 7.00 0.30 0.07 1 57 11.00 0.37 1:7.5 For cow weighing 1000 pounds and yielding 22 pounds of 6 per cent milk: — Pro. C. H. Fat Ratio Nutrients for 22 lb. 6 per cent milk . Nutrients for 1000 lb. maintenance . 1.34 0.70 6.16 7.00 0.45 0.07 Haecker ration required .... Wolff-Lehman standard .... 2 04 2 50 13.16 13.00 0.52 0.50 1:7.0 1:5.7 Thus we see that even though the flow was 22 pounds in either case, the food required is much greater in the case of the milk rich in fat. By comparing these with the Wolff-Lehman stand- ards we note that they are approximately the same, except in the case of the protein. According to Haecker the protein required, even in the 6 per cent milk, is much less than that called for in the Wolff-Lehman standard. 208 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS While no doubt some such formal standard as the Wolff- Lehman or the Haecker should be followed in calculating the amount of food required for milk production, yet it is well to remember that there are many difficulties encountered in feeding dairy cattle that standards cannot decide. Chief among these are the digestibility of the food and the individuality of the ani- mal. Our methods of arriving at the digestibility of foods are crude, and foods vary widely in their digestibility, and either of these difficulties may seriously interfere with such close figuring as is recommended in the Haecker standards ; that is to say, the digestive values assigned the foods may easily be so erroneous as to offset any saving that seemingly occurs from such calcula- tion. The individuality of the cow is a factor which standards can- not take into account. Cows vary widely in the amount of food they will consume for the production of milk, some requiring twice as much food to produce a given product as others. Some hold that this variation is due to the fact that the cow will consume the .feed, though she does not need it, and that by limiting her ration she can **$J often be made to produce at a profit. That there is a vast Fig. 72. — Holstein-Friesian Cow difference among individuals in b?jTnEArfmAanAMITY''' ^^ the amount of food required for a given product must not be lost sight of if one is to succeed in the dairy business. The age of the animal also has an influence on the amount of food required for milk production. This subject has also been investigated by Haecker. His experiments show that the heifer requires considerably more nutrients for the production of a given amount of fat than the mature cow. From these experi- FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 209 ments he constructed a standard similar to the one for mature cows : — HAECKER's FEEDING-STANDARD — HEIFERS 1 Table showing food of maintenance per 100 pounds live weight and nutri- ents required for the production of 1 pound of milk testing a given per cent of butter- fat For maintenance Milk testing 2.5 Milk testing 3.0 Milk testing 4.0 Milk testing 5.0 Milk testing 6.0 Milk testing 6.5 Protein 0.0" 0.0378 0.0443 0.0573 0.0703 0.0833 0.0898 Carbohydrates 0.700 0.188 0.218 0.287 0.338 0.398 0.428 Fat 0.0100 0.0130 0.0152 0.0197 0.0242 0.0287 0.0310 To illustrate how these differ from the mature cow we will take the same example, that of a heifer weighing 1000 pounds and yielding 22 pounds of 3 and 6 per cent milk. While a heifer might not weigh as much as this, the figuring is on a per- centage basis and the results will be the same. For a heifer weighing 1000 pounds and yielding 22 pounds of 3 per cent milk : — Nutrients for 22 lb. 3 per cent milk Nutrients for 1000 lb. maintenance Heifer, Haecker ration required . Mature cow, Haecker'ration required Protein C. H. Fat 0.98 0.70 4.80 7.00 0.33 0.07 1.68 1.57 11.80 11.00 0.40 0.37 Ratio 7.5 7.5 1 Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 78. P 210 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS For a heifer weighing 1000 pounds and yielding 22 pounds of 6 per cent milk : — Nutrients for 22 lb. of 6 per cent milk Nutrients for 1000 lb. maintenance Heifer, Haecker ration required Mature cow, Haecker ration required Wolff-Lehman standard .... Protein 1.83 0.70 2.53 2.04 2.50 c. H. 8.76 7.00 15.76 13.16 13.00 Fat 0.62 0.07 0.69 0.52 0.50 Ratio 1:6.8 1:7.0 1:5.7 According to this standard, the heifer needs considerably more nutrients than the mature cow, and in the case of high produc- tion calls for more nutrients than the Wolff-Lehman standards provide. This is due to the fact that she needs nutrients in building up her own body as well as for the production of milk. It is worthy of note, however, that in all these cases the Wolff- Lehman ratio is much more narrow than the Haecker ratio. Feeding-standards merely guides. — From the foregoing discus- sion of the food requirement for milk it must be apparent that while one should use a standard, it should be considered only as a guide and be modified to meet the conditions, such as the indi- viduality of the animal and the prices of foods. It is not prac- ticable to attempt to follow standards with strict mathematical accuracy, any more than to follow them slavishly with fer- tilizers or with quantities of seed per acre. EFFECT OF FOOD ON COMPOSITION OF MILK Of all the problems connected with the feeding of dairy cattle, perhaps none has received more attention than the effect of food upon the composition and quality of the milk. There is a pre- vailing opinion among practical dairymen that one can improve the composition of the milk, particularly with respect to the per- centage of fat, by liberal feeding. This, however, is one of the FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 211 results that careful investigations have been trying to secure for the last three decades, and so far they have met with little or no success. It is asserted that the food may affect the milk in many wajrs, the two most important being its composition and its flavor. There are three ways in which the composition might be affected : First, by changing the proportion of water and total solid matter ; second, by changing the proportion of fat, sugar, and proteids ; and third, by changing the constitu- ents or consistency of the fat. Effect of food on total solids. — In the great majority of cases the conclusion of experiments is that no consistent relation seems to exist between the quantity or character of the food and the composition of the milk. In a few cases a temporary change occurred in the milk immediately after changing the food, but in most cases the milk soon returned to its normal composition. While in a very small number of experiments the milk appeared to undergo slight permanent change, yet one is forced to the conclusion that the quality of the milk cannot be changed at will by the feed. It would seem that the treatment of the cattle has a greater influence upon the character of the milk than does the food consumed. Effect of food on the percentage of fat. — The idea prevails that it is possible to feed fat into milk. This problem has been the subject of careful experimentation. After a painstaking perusal of the work one is forced to conclude that it is not pos- sible materially and permanently to increase or diminish the percentage of fat by changes in the amount and character of the food, providing, of course, that the animals receive sufficient nutrition in all cases. It may be possible with a cow that has been insufficiently fed and has never had a chance to develop, to feed her such an abundance of rich milk-producing food as slightly and permanently to increase the percentage of fat in her milk ; but beyond this we probably cannot go. 212 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Food and flavor of milk. — It is definitely known that certain foods, especially if fed in large quantities, impart bad odors to the milk. Chief among the foods producing such deleterious effects are cabbage, turnips, onions, silage, wild leeks, and the like. It is held that such odors may be imparted to the milk in two ways : First, by transference through the animal, and second, by absorption from the air of the stable. Concerning many of these points we have little definite evidence, and there is great difference of opinion as to what odors are absorbed from the air and what are transferred through the animal. There can be little doubt, however, but that the feeding of certain foods before milking imparts certain flavors to the milk, and that such flavors are not detected when the food is given after milk- ing. It is advised particularly that silage be not fed just be- fore milking. Order of supplying food. — Because of the supposed ill effect of some foods in giving odors to the milk, the order of supplying certain of these foods assumes much importance. In the case of cabbage, turnips, and the like, it is perhaps best that they be fed after milking. In the case of hay, which is likely to contain more or less dust, it is perhaps best to feed this after milking also, and in either of these cases it would necessitate the feeding of grain first. Perhaps the ideal way, when the food is of such a nature to permit, is to feed the grain and succulent food to- gether, sprinkling the grain over the succulent food, and then when these are both cleaned up, to feed the hay. A good order for the day's work is as follows : In the morning milk first, then feed grain, then silage, clean stable, water, feed hay, groom the animals, then on pleasant days turn out for an hour or so. In the afternoon water, clean stables, feed grain, milk, feed silage, arrange bedding, and lastly feed some long hay. Sufficient attention is not given to the day's program, in the dairy business. Effect of food on quantity of milk. — Occasionally the state- FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 213 ment that we cannot increase the percentage of fat in the milk by feeding is taken to mean that we cannot increase the total fat yield. This, of course, is not true. We can very materially increase the total yield of fat by increasing the total flow of milk by liberal feeding. This is demonstrated on every hand. On the farms where no succulent food is fed during the winter and very little grain, it is well known that the cows will give a much larger flow when turned to pasture in the spring. On the average the percentage of fat will remain the same. WATERING THE MILKING COW The milch cow requires a liberal supply of water. She not only has the demands of her body to meet, but must supply that in the milk as well. When we recall that cows have yielded over 129 pounds of milk in a single day, we can see the urgent need of a large supply of water. The question is often raised as to meth- ods of watering: whether to make provisions for a constant supply of water, or to supply the animal at certain intervals, two or three times daily. It has been fairly well proved that cattle provided with water constantly give a slightly larger yield than when watered twice daily, though the difference is not marked. This observation has led to the placing of small troughs or vessels in the stable immediately in front of the animals (Fig. 73). If these vessels can be kept clean and free from odor, the practice is a good one. In many instances, however, these individual watering devices are traps of filth and foul-smelling water, and produce anything but good results. There are two factors that must not be lost sight of in water- ing the milking cow : regularity and temperature of water in winter. Whatever method of watering is employed, the animal should be watered regularly and uniformly. When we recall the large amount of water necessary to meet the needs of the high- producing cow, it becomes apparent that she should not be com- pelled to drink ice-cold water. There are many objections to 214 II AN UAL OF FARM ANIMALS such practice ; in the first place it requires much food to heat this water up to the body temperature, and the animal will not drink the required amount. Such large drafts of cold water may Fig. 73. — Interior View of Dairy Barn, showing Feeding Alley, Man- gers, and Individual Watering Device. Bowen & Quick, Auburn, N. Y. cause indigestion and in some cases may lead to abortion.- To take the chill off drinking water in winter is now an accepted practice with progressive dairymen. FEEDING THE MILKING COW Since the quantity of milk produced by a cow depends largely on the amount and character of the feed supplied, it is of the utmost importance that the feeding be given careful considera- tion. Developing the milking cow calls for skill second to none other among farm animals. The milking cow should be fed liberally, frequently, and regularly, the amount given being regu- FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 215 lated by the size of the animal and by the quantity as well as the quality of her milk. Wernay sa^, in general, that' a good dairy cow in full flow should/receive /approximately wo and one-half pounds of dry-matte/ for each hundred pounds of weight. Of this, at least one-half to two-thirds should be digestible matter. Cows giving very large yields may be fed considerably larger quantities to adyantage, while the low-producers should receive less. The reader may recur to the general discussion of food requirements as detailed on pages 203 to 210. Feeding dairy cattle naturally divides itself into two parts : the summer period when the cows are at pasture, and the winter period when they are stabled and fed their entire ration. Summet feeding of dairy cattle. — Pasture is one of the essen- tials of successful dairy farming. The favorable influence of early spring pasture on the secretion of milk is well known. The flow is materially increased, as is the total yield of fat, though the percentage of fat is ^perhaps not materially altered. True, some years the percentage of fat seems to increase, but other years ijt decreases in tile same animal ; and the food is prob- ably not the cause. As a rule, in the early part of the pasture season, the cows will obtain sufficient food from the pastures alone, but later in the season it will often be necessary to supplement the pasture. This may be done by soiling, — cutting the forage and feeding it to the cattle green, — with silage, or with grain. Experiments seem to indicate that the feeding of grain to cows on pasture is profitable only when there is scarcity of pasturage. In fact, they will consume but little while the pasture is abun- dant and nutritious. It would seem wise, however, in case the animals eat it, to provide a few pounds of wheat bran or bran and oats mixed particularly in the case of heavy milkers, as this will insure maximum production. Protecting cows from flies. — The marked falling off in the milk flow of the dairy cow in the late summer and fall is looked upon 216 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS as unavoidable and is attributed to the worry of the stock by flies. This conclusion is not borne out by the experimental data available. Many experiments have been conducted to deter- mine to what extent the worry caused by the flies affects the yield of milk and fat. In these experiments the flies were excluded from the animals at intervals and a careful record kept of the production. These records show that the flies had very little if any effect upon the yield either of milk or fat. The failure to provide an abundance of succulent forage to supplement the parched pastures, thus compelling the animals to graze over large areas in the hot sun, seems to be the principal factor in causing a decreased production in the later summer. Winter feeding of dairy cattle. — Winter feeding is the most expensive, and the profit to be derived from a dairy cow will depend, in a large part, upon the economy of the winter ration. This does not mean that she should be fed sparingly ; on the other hand, the good dairy cow should be fed abundantly with a variety of nutritious feeds. Feed a variety whenever possible. A good dairy cow should make economical use of -seven to ten pounds of grain 4 ^fi JH VAM&^F Per ^a-v' anc* n^een *° twenty 1^ Wm ■! mk pounds of dry forage, or better HJF ™ vml' s^*' th^y to forty pounds of hAtdr^^m ^^ succulent food and five to ten pounds of dry forage or hay, $MI|i the exact amounts to be varied to meet conditions. jfiG. 74. — Holstein-Friesian Cow Grain, or concentrated feeds. "Daisy Pauline Paul 2nd." „,. . * , Owned by John Arfman. — The more common grams ted to dairy cattle are the cereals — corn, oats, wheat, barley, and rye — and the mill refuse, of which there is an almost endless variety upon the market. The amount of grain that can be fed with profit to a dairy cow will depend on the price of the food, the yield of the cow, FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 217 and the price obtained for her products. Some have suggested the feeding of as many pounds of grain per day as the cow produces pounds of butter-fat per week. In determining the amount and kind of grain it is necessary to take into account the forage that is to go with it. For example, in many dairies it is felt that bran may be replaced ton for ton by carefully cured alfalfa hay, or by five tons of pea-vine silage when not too succulent. Dry forage. — The more common dry forage crops fed to dairy cattle are clover, alfalfa, or mixed hays and corn stalks. Occasionally pure timothy hay is fed, though this is not to be recommended, particularly if cut late. Straws of the various small grains are also used, but they are even more worthless as a dairy cow feed than is timothy hay. Hay cut early is more valuable ton for ton, though the yield obtained per acre will not be so great. It is preferable to feed the hay long, if fed in connection with silage. The exact amount of dry forage that should be fed cannot be stated, as it will depend on the amount of grain and whether or not silage is being used. Let the rule be to feed all the hay the animal will eat with relish. Succulent feeds. — Some kind of succulent food should be fed the dairy cow during her entire lactation period. The common succulent foods used in feeding dairy cattle are silage, roots, or tubers. Silage is preferable, but if the herd is not large enough to warrant the construction of a silo, roots make a good substitute. The amount of succulence it is profitable to feed will depend much on the attendant conditions. Thirty to forty pounds serve most conditions. If the supply is limited, it is perhaps best to make it last throughout the winter period ; that is to say, if one has enough succulent food to feed twenty pounds throughout the season or forty pounds for half the season, it would be preferable to feed the twenty throughout the season. This again might be modified by conditions; for 218 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS example, if one had a few cows only and fed but twenty pounds per head and day, the silage would be likely to spoil on top, in which case it would be necessary to feed it faster. There are many ways of procuring succulent foods, such as preserving green foods in the silo, raising of roots and tubers, procuring refuse from the breweries, distilleries, and sugar fac- tories, and soiling. Silage. — Green food preserved in the silo is coming to be a very common succulence for the dairy cow. While there are many green plants, such as alfalfa, clover, cowpea vines, and the like, preserved in this way, yet corn is by far the most im- portant silage crop. No other plant will furnish nearly so much silage per acre as corn. All silage contains a very high per- centage of water, and for this reason is bulky. As a succulent food for milking cows, good corn silage is hard to improve on. It is very palatable, readily digestible, and stimulates the flow of milk second only to grass. Roots and tubers. — When the construction of a silo is not convenient, one can procure a very good succulent food by raising roots and tubers. While there are many roots and tubers, such as potatoes, beets, flat turnips, rutabagas, and the like, that may be grown, mangels are by far the most important root-crop as a succulent food for cattle. These roots all possess a very high percentage of water, even more than silage. As a succulent food for the milking cow they are excellent, being palatable, almost entirely digestible, and stimulating the flow of milk. While the amount that may be fed varies according to conditions, the same as in silage, one may feed from 35 to 50 pounds daily per 1000 pounds of live weight. Soiling. — As we have already seen, soiling consists of cut- ting green crops and feeding them fresh. Successful and economical soiling means furnishing to the milking cow a sup- ply of green forage during the growing season. It means that crops and areas must be so arranged that one green crop will FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 219 succeed another during the entire season. There are many advantages of soiling, such as increased food production from a given area, providing three times that of pasturage ; less waste, -as the cattle are not constantly tramping and lying on the forage ; greater variety of food, as the succession of crops provides many changes ; increased milk and butter production when prices are high, as in the fall; less discomfort of animals, as they are fed in the cool stables; and less fencing required. One great objection is the increased labor; such as preparing the soil for the crops, seeding every few days, cutting the crop of green material and hauling to stables, — the food being green and heavy, — and the extra labor of carrying for the cattle in the stable. Soiling crops vary widely in their composition and as a suc- culent food for the milking cow. As a rule, they contain more waste than silage. They are very palatable, readily digestible, and stimulate the flow of milk. It is customary to feed some- what larger quantities of soiling crops than of silage, 60 pounds being considered a fair daily allowance for a 1000-pound cow. In addition she must have her grain ration, the same as when silage is fed, and a small allowance of hay of good quality, clover, or alfalfa when possible. Instead of choosing coarse grains, such as bran, distillers' dried grains, and the like, it is preferable to feed the more concentrated, such as middlings, oil meal, corn meal, gluten meal, and the like. When soiling is practiced, the area required to the cow and the rotation of crops are interesting problems. Both vary widely in different sections of the country, but on the average one acre should support two cows, when grain and some hay is fed in connection, as suggested. While the crops to be used in rota- tion vary as does the time of planting, yet the following examples will serve as a basis to be varied according to conditions : — 220 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Examples of rotation of soiling crops, showing kind of forage, seed to acre, time of seeding, ay-proximate areas, and time of cutting for a herd of 10 cows, allowing 60 pounds of forage a cow daily or 600- pounds a day in all, for different sections of the country New York — Wing's Soiling System as Basis 5 Months — May 15 to October 15 — 10 Cows — 60 Pounds per Cow Daily Kind of Crop Seed per Acre Time of Seeding Area Time of Cutting Rye 2bu. Fall 1 acre May 15-May 31 Wheat1 . . . 2bu. FaU \ acre June 1-June 10 Red clover . 20 1b. Spring \ acre June 11- June 20 Mixed ■ Clover Timothy Red top • 101b. 101b. 151b. Spring 1 acre June 21- July 10 >jr. , [Oats Mlxedi Vetch 2bu. lbu. Spring \ acre Julyll-July20 >/r. , fOats MlxedlPeas . • • H bu. Ubu.Can- ada peas Spring J acre July 21-July 31 Corn, early flint . . 10-20 lb. Spring % acre Aug. 1-Aug. 15 Corn, medium dent . 10-20 lb. Spring 2 acre Aug. 16-Aug. 31 Second cutting, clover and grasses . . . Sept. 1-Sept. 10 Corn, late, "Mam- moth Evergreen" 10-20 lb. Late spring Aug. 1-10 I acre Sept. 11-Sept. 30 Mixed f^arley • ' (Peas . . . l|bu. Hbu. \ acre Oct. 1-Oct. 15 1 Where alfalfa will do well it should be used instead of wheat. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 221 Illinois — Fraser's Soiling System as Basis 5 Months — May 15 to October 15 — 10 Cows — 60 Pounds per Cow Daily Kind of Crop Seed per Acre Time of Seeding Area Time of Cutting Rye 2bu. Fall 1 acre May 15-May 31 Alfalfa . . . 201b. Spring \ acre June 1-June 10 Red Clover 201b. Spring \ acre June 1 1-June 20 Mixed Clover Timothy Red top • 101b. 101b. 151b. Spring 1 acre June 20-July 1 , ,. , f Oats MlXediPeas . • • Hbu. Ibu. Spring £ acre July 1-July 10 Corn, early (2d cut- ting alfalfa) 10-20 lb. Spring 1 acre Julyll-July31 Corn, medium (2d cutting clover) 10-20 lb. Spring 1 acre Aug. 1-Aug. 31 Corn, late .... 10-20 lb. Spring 1 acre Sept. 1-Sept. 30 Rape 101b. June \ acre Oct. 1-Oct. 15 Wisconsin — Carlyle's Soiling System as Basis 5 Months — May 15 to October 15 — 10 Cows — 60 Pounds per Cow Daily Kind of Crop Seed per Acre Time of Seeding Area Time of Cutting Rye 2bu. Fall \ acre May 15-May 31 Alfalfa 201b. Spring \ acre June 1-June 15 Red clover .... 201b. Spring Spring \ acre June 15-June 25 f Clover Mixed \ Timothy . . 1 Red top . . 101b. 101b. 151b. h acre June 25- July 4 222 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Wisconsin — Carlyle's Soiling System as Basis — Continued 5 Months — May 15 to October 15 — 10 Cows — 60 Pounds per Cow Daily Kind of Crop Seed Per Acre Time of Seeding Area Time of Cutting , ,. , | Oats . . . MlXediPeas . . . Ubu. Ibu. April i acre July 4- July 31 Corn, early (2d cut- ting alfalfa) Corn, medium (2d cutting clover) 10-20 lb. 10-20 lb. Spring Spring June 1 acre 1 acre \ acre Aug. 1— Aug. 31 Sept. 1-Sept. 30 Rape 101b. Oct. 1-Oct. 15 FEEDING FOR HIGH PRODUCTION Those who are raising breeding animals are often interested in high records of production. As we have already seen, the major dairy breeders' associations — Holsteins, Jersey, Guern- sey, and Ayrshire — encourage this by establishing registers in which only those animals that make certain records may be recorded. The feeding of a cow in order that she may make an " advanced registry record," as it is often called, is a different problem from that of feeding a cow in a commercial dairy. In this case, all is sacrificed for a high record of pro- duction. The high record serves as an advertisement, and the breeder is enabled to sell his animals at a much higher price than otherwise. While the methods of feeding as well as the food used by the different breeders vary widely (in fact no two are the same), yet the general procedure is somewhat as follows : have the cow very fat at calving time. To do this she should be dried off some time before calving and receive extra care and feed. It is true that a very fat cow is more subject at calving time to difficulties, such as milk fever, garget, difficult parturition, and FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 223 the like, but these will be cared for by a painstaking and fa- miliar attendant. The argument here is that the cow will use this extra body fat to repair the waste of the body, thus en- abling her to use a larger part of her food in the elaboration of milk, some going so far as to say that a part of the extra fat is used in the manufacture of the milk. While just what processes take place in the animal's body are not known, yet it is true that such an animal will produce more than as if she were in average condition. When extreme high production is sought, the cow is fed and milked four times daily. The time varies somewhat, but the more common is 5 a.m. and 11 a.m.; 5 p.m. and 11 p.m. The reason for choosing these hours is that the 5 a.m. and 5 p.m. feeding and milking are at the same time the rest of the herd is being fed and milked. Everything about the stable should be quiet, and the milking carefully and well done (see page 260). The feeds composing the rations vary widely, no two breeders using the same. In all cases, however, the secret of success is variety. Sometimes the grain part of the ration is composed of a half dozen or more different kinds of grains ; the dry forage of two or more kinds of hay and three or four kinds of succulent foods. The amount given is limited only by the appetite of the cow. FEEDING THE HEIFER As the time of calving approaches, the feeding of the heifer should receive careful attention. Do not feed too stimulating or decayed foods, as they are likely to cause abortion. Clean sweet clover or mixed hay or corn stalks and corn silage or roots with a small allowance of grain, such as ground oats, bran, shorts, or corn, will prove very efficient. Just previous to calv- ing it is best to discontinue the feeding of grain, or at most only a couple of pounds per day, and not increase again till the heifer freshens. Immediately after calving, a warm thin gruel 224 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS consisting of oatmeal or bran should be given. Feed sparingly with rather loosening foods for a few days or until the dangers of milk fever are over. Then increase the ration gradually until she is receiving a full feed. It must be remembered that the heifer is doing double duty : in addition to elaborating milk, she is growing rapidly, and if bred, she must supply the fetus; ,_^- ^' "^ hence the importance of extra ^^^£^H QHB Hz ami ' Ihl ' vtiL*tisk Bu^ Py" care anc^' a^ove an> liberal feed- /*f ■■* Bf^vB -.^^^^ mS- r^° mee* the requirements /jJlf^imm £j of her growing body, the devel- JT oping fetus, and the milk a good . -J^mam^^*- supply of protein must be fur- nished. Protein the young Fig. 75. — Holstein-Friesian Cow growing heifer must have if she "Betty Lyons Netherland." is to develop into a high-produc- Owned by H. A. Moyer, Syracuse, . r^, , • _ ny. inS cow- The treatment given the heifer will largely determine the usefulness of the future cow. Heavy feeding should con- tinue throughout the entire lactation period, which should be extended as long as possible, for the developing of a persistent milking habit is favored by a long continuance of the first lactation period. SAMPLE RATIONS FOR THE DAIRY COW The following rations are collected from various sources, and furnish a guide in determining the kind and amount of feed that should be allowed a dairy cow. They apply to a 1000- pound dairy cow yielding 22 pounds of average milk : - — FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 225 Ration Ratio No. Grain Forage 1 3 lb. corn meal 3 lb. oats 2 lb. linseed meal 20 lb. hay 1:6.7 2 3 lb. corn meal 3 lb. wheat bran 2 lb. cotton-seed meal 10 lb. hay corn stalks ad lib. 1:7.6 3 3 lb. oats 3 lb. wheat bran 2 lb. gluten feed 50 lb. roots corn stalks ad lib. 1:6.9 4 3 lb. middlings 3 lb. dry brewers' grains 2 lb. linseed meal 40 lb. corn silage corn stalks ad lib. 1 : 7.3 5 2 lb. oats 4 lb. wheat bran 2 lb. gluten meal 40 lb. corn silage hay ad lib. 1:6.8 6 3 lb. oats 2 lb. wheat bran 1 lb. linseed meal 1 lb. cotton-seed meal 50 lb. corn silage hay ad lib. 1:6.6 7 2 lb. oats 2 lb. wheat bran 2 lb. corn 30 lb. corn silage clover hay ad lib. 1:7.4 8 2 lb. oats 2 lb. corn 2 lb. cotton-seed meal 25 lb. corn silage 5 lb. clover hay corn stalks ad lib. 1 : 6.6 9 4 lb. wheat bran 2 lb. corn meal 30 lb. alfalfa silage clover hay ad lib. 1 : 5.0 10 4 lb. oats 2 lb corn meal 20 lb. alfalfa hay 1:4.4 11 2 lb. wheat bran 4 lb. cotton-seed meal 20 lb. hay 10 lb. cotton-seed hulls 1:8.2 226 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Ration No. Grain Forage Ratio 12 4 lb. wheat bran 2 lb. cotton-seed meal 30 lb. corn silage cotton-seed hulls ad lib. 1:7.8 13 6 lb. wheat bran 40 lb. corn silage cowpea hay ad lib. 1 : 5.9 14 3 lb. wheat bran 3 lb. cotton-seed meal 10 lb. cowpea hay sorghum cane ad lib. 1:5.1 15 3 lb. cotton-seed meal 15 lb. alfalfa hay cotton-seed hulls ad lib. 1:4.7 Grain Mixture for Calf Ration 3 parts corn meal 3 parts ground oats 1 part wheat bran 1 part linseed meal Age, Mo. Grain Mixture, Lb. Summer Winter 6 12 18 2 4 6 pasture pasture pasture clover hay clover hay clover hay CHAPTER X BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE The breeding of dairy cattle offers a greater field of opera- tion than any other in connection with the propagation of farm animals. Perhaps in no other class is variation so great or improvement so easily accomplished as in the improvement of dairy animals, providing proper methods are used. The in- creasing population is making increasing demands for milk and its products, — butter and cheese ; — and while the supplying of this demand, particularly in our large cities, is a very com- plex problem, improvement in the production of dairy cattle cannot be said to be a difficult task. In the past we have bred dairy cattle without regard to their record of production. In fact records of production were wanting, as none such were kept. True, we have kept pedigrees of our dairy cattle for many generations, but these pedigrees tell us only : the color, the date of birth, the owner and his address, the sire and the dam, none of which supplies us with information as to the merits of the cow. What is equally true, we have estimated pro- duction of dairy cattle from time immemorable by saying one cow gives so many quarts, another so many quarts more, and still another so many quarts less ; but such estimation is almost worthless because of the great variation in the yield of in- dividual cows from day to day. Perhaps two days a week a cow will yield 15 quarts, the other five days only 10 quarts; and in our estimation we are likely to remember the 15 quarts and 227 228 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS forget the 10 quarts. Again, for many years we have kept a more or less accurate record of the show-yard career of our leading dairy animals, but this in turn gives us no information as to their producing powers, for it is now well known that ani- mals with brilliant show-yard careers are not among the best producers. Fig. 76. — Ayrshire Cow. Grand Champion National Dairy Show, 1907. Photograph from National Stockman and Farmer. The Ayrshire dairy cattle originated in the county of Ayr, Scotland, where they are used chiefly in cheese-making. They are trim and neat in appearance. In weight the cows run about 1000 pounds rnd the bulls 1500 pounds. The color includes red, brown, and white. As has been noted in the chapter on general breeding, variation is the basis of improvement. Without variation there can be no improvement, and when great variation exists much improvement is possible. Dairy cows vary widely both in respect to the quantity and the quality of their milk. To BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE 229 illustrate the variation in the quantity, we may compare average production of all cows in the United States with two of the high-producing ones. It should be borne in mind that this is not a comparison of the poorest and the best, as we have no record of the poorest cows : — Average yearly production per cow in the United States Year Milk Lb. Butter Lb. Year Milk Lb. Butter Lb. 1850 . . . 1436 61 1880 . . 2004 85 1860 . . . 1505 64 1890 . . 2709 115 1870 . . . 1772 75 1900 . . 3646 155 Production in one month Name Milk Lb. Butter Lb. De Kol Queen La Polka 2d . . . Colantha 4th' s Johanna .... 3377 2874 145 138 From the table we note that the monthly record of our high- producing cows is approximately equal to the average yearly record of all cows in the United States. Colantha 4th's Johanna yielded 27,432 pounds of milk in one year, or approximately eight times that of the average cow. MILK-RECORDS Record of performance among dairy cattle constitutes the only method of determining their value. Without such records, we would not be able to choose the very high- or the very low- producing, or the profitable from the unprofitable animals. At 230 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS present, many dairy herds possess cattle producing at a loss — not yielding sufficient milk to pay for the food consumed — yet in the absence of accurate records the fact goes unobserved and the owner does not know the profitable from the unprofit- able animals. No person is able to go into a herd of ten cows and pick out all the best by examination. Records are abso- lutely necessary to determine profit and loss. Method of keeping records. — Records are more easily kept than is generally supposed. The time and cost of keeping a record of the amount of milk and butter-fat yielded by each cow is quite insignificant, especially when compared with the value of such records. The materials needed are a pair of scales, a hand Babcock tester with outfit, and a blank milk-sheet. The scale should be graduated to tenths of a pound instead of ounces, as the records are much more easily added. Chatillon's Improved Circular Spring Balances are ordinarily used. The scales should be hung in a convenient place and each cow's milk weighed separately and set down on a Record- Sheet, similar to table on p. 231. Once each month the milk from each cow should be tested for the percentage of butter-fat. To do this, one should take a careful sample of the milk for two successive days. The sample need not be large, but the quantity should be in proportion to the flow. One-half pint saved from the two days' milk- ing is sufficient. This should be placed in a jar and covered to prevent evaporation. In warm weather it is necessary to put some sort of preservative into the milk, otherwise it will sour, and in that case cannot be tested. For each cow there should be a jar with her name pasted upon it, thus avoiding any possibility of getting the samples mixed. B}^ placing the per- centage of fat thus obtained on the record-sheet beneath the flow, one has a complete record of each animal each month. By multiplying the total milk by the per cent of fat, one gets the total amount of fat. This completes the record for the month. BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE 231 Roanie a -* Id ! 1 < G 3 c s Pi i— ! S J2 < h! o c a 5 a pi -O a .2 a" pi • a _2 I— I S3 a pi h1 a J2 < a pi J3* , h-1 1 < Beauty a 1 -= Pi 1 hi a << -2 O a pi J3 1-1 a -Q o s c h H ■s i— I ^h o -co oa g 2 I S '- 08 '.-8 '. £ '. i. „ I. 1.-53 l..- I. o ^%< O ^ >»<§ ^H ^fi ^S >>£ ^S ^O ^ ™ ddddddddd _c ^ * X — • O J re m Ho - T) - in o .— i O 1> „iO a h - 32 i— i fi —1 -3 05 - O l> iO 00 CC - X ,o k < a 5 S 5 C -o =3 i. H >> _2 ^1 — ei Sh X - — OS 71 2 ^H i g i .s i 00 o° CO ^Ol t^ Tf >— 1 CO — ■ — ■ t> co pj cq T3 >-' "OCO t2l> .O > ^ o" dM 010 r. r. o tc 03 - Of 244 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS few herds, even the best, in which the intelligent application of these principles will not result in marked improvement. THE DAIRY BULL The bull is of prime importance in breeding dairy cattle. We have already observed that the male is concerned with so many more individual offspring that his influence is much more ex- tensive because of the increased number he influences. To secure the improvement in a herd of cattle through the females would require the use of twenty-five or more superior cows to accomplish the same results that might be secured by the use of a single bull, and even then there would be less uniformity in the offspring. This is due merely to the fact that the bull controls one-half the characters in the entire crop and not to any special prepotency on his part. Choosing a dairy bull. — In choosing dairy bulls, it may be noted that they have many points in common with the dairy cow, particularly features of type, such as were fully discussed in the chapter on choosing a dairy cow, page 189 ; but it is a much more difficult task to choose a bull than it is to discrimi- nate between cows. The first and most important attribute is good pedigree, based on a record of performance. Not only should the dams in the pedigree have good records of performance, but the males should also be getters of performers. The longer the line of high-producing ancestry, the more certain are the off- spring to be high producers. After having satisfied ourselves with respect to the pedigree, as based on records of performance, then we may take into account the individuality of the bull. In no case should one sacrifice individuality, no matter how perfect, for performance. It would be unpardonable to choose a bull, if he was so weak as to be unable to propagate his kind. The constitutional vigor and prepotency are indicated to a certain extent by the BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE 245 individual. The bull should possess a masculine appearance. The features of the head should be strong, with the eyes mild and clear. The chest should be deep, the heart girth large, the hide loose and pliable, and the hair fine and silky, as these are associated with constitution, vigor, and thrift. Fig. 78. — Jersey Bull "Hood Farm Torono." Sire of ten daughters in the Register of Merit. Owned by Hood Farm, Lowell, Mass. The Jersey breed of dairy cattle, a native of the Island of Jersey, one of the Channel Islands, near England, is unexcelled in the quality and richness of the milk. By many it is considered the "butter cow." In size the animals are small, weighing 700 and upward. The color is fawn, being of many shades, yellowish, reddish, grayish, brownish, and silver fawn. This breed is popular in the United States. Uniformity of get. — The importance of uniformity among the calves sired by a bull is of much importance. At the present time, lack of uniformity among our dairy cattle is one of the most noticeable defects. This is due in a large measure to our 246 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS utter lack of system in breeding. When once we have decided on the breed, there should be no further change. Were this done for a few generations, until certain breeds became identi- fied with certain localities, then we could depend on uniformity of the entire crop of calves sired in any given season. Number of cows to the bull. — The number of cows that it is safe to breed to a bull in a season depends much on the breed. The bulls of the heavy phlegmatic beef breeds are not so prolific as the lighter more active dairy breeds. The same is true among the various dairy breeds, but to a less marked extent. It is entirely safe to count on a bull serving twenty-five cows, and when the bulls are exceedingly strong and vigorous, they may far exceed this number. THE DAIRY COW While all dairy cows must be bred in order that they may freshen, the cows to which we look to replenish the herd should be carefully selected. The first and by far the most important factor to take into consideration is pedigree based upon the record of performance. After having satisfied ourselves as to the performance, then we may look to the individuality, as suggested in the chapter on choosing a cow (p. 189). Productive period in dairy cattle. — The most fertile period in the cow's life is usually from two to eight years of age. In ex- ceptional cases this period may be extended both ways. Just how young it is best to breed heifers is a question concerning which there is great difference of opinion. Some argue that secreting milk is a kind of habit, and the sooner the young ani- mal becomes accustomed to it the better it is for her ; whereas others say that the cow should not be bred until she gets her growth, contending that the demands made on the young animal by the growing fetus and her own growth are too severe, and that she is likely to be stunted. The advisability of breeding a heifer so as to have her drop BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE 247 the calf at two years of age depends much on the individual. If she is vigorous, healthy, and well grown, it will probably be better to breed her rather young, and encourage the milking habit from the beginning. Once giving milk, keep her at it as long as possible, for the cow that dries off after secreting milk a few months is unprofitable at best. Do not breed her a second time till rather late, as the effect of the animal again becoming pregnant is to decrease the flow of milk. This practice has much to recommend it. In the first place, unbred heifers are in heat two or three days every three weeks, and these constant recur- ring periods are as much of a check on the growth of the heifer as that of the growth of the fetus. Again, if the cow is let run in this unbred state, the reproductive organs are likely to be- come deranged and the animal barren. The animal bred young in life will prove a more regular breeder. The condition of pregnancy seems to have a marked stimulating effect on the system of the heifer. The assimilation is much better, and if provided with an abundance of nutritious food, she will make a greater growth during pregnancy than otherwise. It is easier to develop the milk-secreting organs at this early period. Therefore, if the heifer is thrifty and well grown, it would seem best from a practical point of view to breed her young. At about eight or ten years of age, the productive powers of most dairy cows begin to wane, although many of them are reliable breeders well into the teens. Above twelve years of age, however, it is rarely that they will breed, and when an animal of this age persistently fails to conceive, it is perhaps best to dispose of her as the chances of her propagating are exceedingly remote. Season of the year to breed. — The natural time for calves to arrive is in the spring. Under ordinary farm conditions this is the customary time for having the cows drop their calves. There are many advantages in having the calves come at this time. The pregnant cow can be turned to grass, which is the 248 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS natural food for pregnant animals, and need not receive so close attention as would be necessary were she confined to the stable and fed dry foods. The warm weather approaching, the calf is more easily cared for than in the winter. There is natural grass for the calf to feed on, and nothing is better. Fall calving is much to be preferred on dairy farms or where high production is desired. There are many reasons for this. By having the calves dropped in the fall the cows are giving their maximum yield when the price of dairy products is high. While the calf is more trouble to care for in winter, this is the idle season, and more attention can be given it. Again, on the average the flow can be kept up longer, and the total produc- tion made much more when the cow freshens in the fall. This is due, in part, to the fact that she is turned to pasture just as her flow begins to wane, which causes it to rise again. On the other hand, if the cow freshens in the spring, the animals give their maximum yield when the price of dairy products is low, and then the dry fall coming on cuts their flow, then later they are put on the dry food of winter, which still further reduces the yield, so that at the time dairy products are high, the animals are giving very little or no milk at all. A cow bred Jan. 1 should calve Oct. 10, or one bred June 23 should calve April 1, according to the table on next page. Parturition time. — The average period of gestation in the cow is properly placed at nine months, more accurately perhaps two hundred and eighty-three days, but it may vary either way. A calf born at the two hundred and fortieth day may live, and a case is reported where a thrifty calf was dropped on the three hundred and thirty-fifth day. Because of the uncertainty of the period, the cow should be closely watched from the eighth month until calving. There are certain signs of the near approach of parturition that rarely fail. The udder becomes enlarged, firm and resistant to the touch, with more or less swelling in front, and secretes a milky fluid ; the vulva becomes enlarged and swollen, BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE 249 c s 9 8 §, « ■8 3 *w PO 99 l*i <^i <3 eo sf S •^ © .*• O t» « s o S • Q C? ©> «K» R" co CO ^g C5s « •& "5? 5 <0 5^ 5 •cjdag •08Q •any •aon A-pif 'V>0 aunf •*dag Abj^ •3ny •jdy W •jbk aunp •q»j Abjm "UBf •jdy 08Q •j«k •aon •qaj •^oq •UBf 05 0i-HC<)COTti>OCOt*00 05 0'-(MfO-<*XClO — ((NM^iOONXOiOH ft^H CM CO * lO SO t> X ,HHr1HHHrti-li-lr-l01(NNMMM01(N0)MC0m O HNCO^iOCNMffiOiHMCO^iOONXOO-HN CO-#iOCDt^XCiO i-ir-iHrtrtHrtrHrtiH(NNN CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCO 0>-ICSCOTjXCi HHHHHHlHHHHINNNNNNDWOJMMW 5 <3 i-(CNC0^'OC0l>C0C5Oi-iiMC0'*iO-Ot>00OO'-iCNI CO*iOOI>XC5©--< HHHrlHHHHrlrHNIMCq CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CO O^fNeO-^iOCOt^OOCJOi-KNCO-^iOOt^OOOSO-— rHOlCO^iOONXO j-n-n-n-ti-H-H^Hi-d-Hi-HCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCO 3 i-H CM CO -tf »0 <© t» X OS O 1-1 CM CO * iO O l> X CS O 1-1 Nn^WSONXOO ^ i-H i-h 1-1 ^ i-H i-i i-H i-i ^h CM (M CM CM CM CM (N CN CM CM CO o ,h^h,-(,-i,-(,-It-I^Hi--XCiO'-HCMCO*iOXC5©^HCM M^iOONOOOOH _ —I ,-h rt —i ,-c ,-t ^h ,-h ,-< CM CM XC;0--i(MCOTtiiOCOt^X050e3^HCMCO'*iO-X05 ^H^H^Hr-l^^lrHr-I^H^HC^'NCMNNCMOKNIMCVlCO^ i-i CM CO ■* iO (D I- X C5 O i-h CM CO * iO !5 !> X © O i-h CM CO "*i *C O b- X OS O i-H ^H ,-h ^h r-i ,-t ^h -h i-H i-h r-H CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CO O^HCMCOTfiiOCOt^XCSC'-HCMCOTfiiOOt-^XasO-H o'-|CMCO-*iOOt^X HINM^'-'JSNXOOHNMiiiOONOOfflOHN W*iO!ON*OlO rtHrtrt-HiHrtrtiHiHiMINlN CMCMCMCMCMCMCMCO (J l>XCJ5©i- X Oi r_i_i_i,__i^H,-irt,-irtCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMg HM(flTfK5OS0005OiH(NnM,'OCN00O5OHIN NtJilOONOOOOh ,_ _ _ _n ^h i-H -i r-1 ^h h CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CO XO>Oi-HCMCOTf i-lCM CO^m fiNOCO! O ^HCM CO -* lO © l^ X © O ^ CM CO* lOONOOOlO rtH-HrHrHWrHpHrtr-lCSlNMC. ^H^Hrt^Hi-Hr-i-^^i-i^HCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCOCO^ i-ICMCO'<+iiOCOt^XaiOi-~i^h— iCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCO^ HNCOrtiiOCONxOSO'-KNM^iCjONXCvO'H CM CO * »C O t» X HrHrt-HlHlHrHHlHr-lMW CM CM CM CM CM CM CM > OHNMifiO.Xa!0-HCMCOTflOOt^X050^CM CO *.»0 tONXOOH ^i^H^^H^^-l^,rti-(i- Tlie water-bags come rapidly, hang- ing downward toward the hocks, pull at the fetus, and aid in dilating the womb. In this manner these bags aid materially and should not be ruptured until they do so naturally. The after-pains come on later and expel the afterbirth which should not be left longer than twenty-four hours. For difficult parturition and removal of afterbirth, see page 334. Directly after calving, give a warm gruel of oatmeal, wheat bran, or shorts. Increase the grain ration gradually until on full feed. THE CALF The young calf that makes its appearance normally and is bright and active needs only to be let alone as long as both cow and calf are doing well. Not all calves, however, are so fortu- nate. Occasionally one loses its life through want of atten- tion at time of birth. It sometimes happens that the new-born calf cannot breathe — does not establish the function of respi- ration. Steps must be taken quickly to establish respiration. BBEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 251 If detached membranes cover the air passage, remove them. Wiping out the nose deeply with a feather, or even with the finger, excites sneezing and starts breathing. Blowing violently into the nose and mouth has a similar effect. Slapping the chest with the palm of the hand or with a towel dipped in cold water is good to start breathing. As soon as the cow has recovered from the shock of giving birth, she should tend the calf, for it will be physically bene- fited thereby. If she refuses to lick and caress her calf, a little flour sprinkled over the back of the latter will often attract her to it. Should she still refuse, the calf must be dried with a cloth or wisp of straw, and if necessary, assisted to get its first meal. It is especially important for the calf that it get the first or colostrum milk of the dam. This milk is rich in mineral matter and ash, is a powerful laxative, and is effective in removing the fecal matter from the alimentary canal, and in addition serves as a tonic. The calf should be allowed to suck the dam a few times ; some recommend until the milk is fit for human con- sumption, usually about the eighth or ninth milking, while others recommend separating them on the second day, providing the calf is strong and the cow's udder in good shape, as the cow is more easily reconciled to the separation, and the calf can be taught to drink more easily than if it has sucked the cow for some time. If, however, the calf is weak, it is better to have it with the cow, as it will feed of tener and grow stronger ; or if the cow's udder is inflamed, the calf will help to bring it back to the proper condition. The calf may be placed in a near-by pen and in sight of the dam, as it is thought she will be less ex- cited and not attempt to "hold up" her milk. Feeding the dairy calf. — On account of the high price of milk it becomes necessary to feed the dairy calf by hand. This calls for extra labor and sometimes entails extra difficulties, but if proper precautions are taken, these may in a large measure be avoided. 252 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Teaching the calf to drink. — When the calf is taken from the cow, it may not drink at first, but after the omission of a feed it becomes hungry and as a rule can be taught to drink very easily. A calf is much more tractable when hungry. The calf will not learn to drink any younger by being forced to breathe Fig. 80. — Imported Browx Swiss Bull. A first prize winner. Owned by Sedgley Farms, Hinsdale, 111. The Brown Swiss cattle, natives of Switzerland, are classed as dual-purpose ; that is, they yield a fair quantity of average quality milk and the steers when fattened make average beef. In size the bulls weigh from 1500 to 2000 pounds ; the cows 1200 to 1500 pounds. The color is usually light or dark brown, fading to gray along the backbone to the tail and about the belly. the milk into its lungs. It should be remembered that instinct teaches the calf to look up for its food, and the feeder must change this by teaching the calf to look down. There is great difference among breeds as well as among individuals in the ease with which the calves are taught to drink from the pail. Some are taught to drink at the first trial with little or no sucking of BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE 253 the fingers, whereas others require much more persistent effort and considerable patience as well as common sense. Danger of overfeeding. — When feeding by hand, there is much danger of overfeeding and gorging the calf's stomach, thereby causing digestive disorder, scours, and death. When permitted to run with the cow, the calf sucks many times daily, — ten to twenty,- — taking only a little milk at a time. When removed from the dam and left from eight to twelve hours, it gets exceedingly hungry, and when offered milk in large quan- tities, will gorge itself and bring digestive disorders that may prove fatal. If there are two or more calves in the same pen, it will be very necessary to fasten them, so that in case one gets through drinking before the others it cannot rob them of their supply, for if it should, it may prove fatal. The calf on whole milk. — For the first few weeks, the calf should be given the milk from its own dam rather than from an- other cow, as changing from one to another is likely to throw the digestive system out of balance, and result in digestive dis- orders such as scours, colic, and the like. When convenient, it is best to feed the calf three times a day for the first few days. The milk should be fed from a clean pail, directly after milking, while still at the body temperature. The amount of milk fed should be carefully regulated. A good plan with the average calf is to give four pounds — two quarts — of whole milk three times daily. If the cow's milk tests high in butter-fat, it is ad- visable to feed that part of the milk which is first drawn from the udder, as it possesses a lower fat content, and is less likely to cause digestive disorders. In a state of nature, a calf gets milk containing about 3 per cent fat, whereas some of our improved breeds give almost twice that amount. The amount fed should be increased gradually, taking much care to avoid overfeeding. In case scours develop, the feed should be immediately reduced. The calf on skim-milk. — Whole milk, being rather expensive, should not be fed longer than is necessary. The time for begin- 254 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS ning to substitute skim-milk will vary according to conditions. In general the change should begin when the calf is four weeks of age. This change should be made gradually, so that the calf may adjust itself to the new feed without trouble. A good plan is to increase the skim-milk one pound each day and decrease the whole milk by the same amount, and thus requiring about one week to make the complete change. The skim-milk should always be sweet and as nearly the same from day to day as is possible. The amount fed may be gradually increased to 20 pounds daily, but it is not considered advisable to feed more than that amount. When two or three weeks old, the calf should be taught to eat a little grain. This is best accomplished by placing a handful in the pail immediately after the calf has finished drinking the milk. It is not a good practice to put the grain in the milk, as the calf will swallow it with the milk and not learn to masticate it prop- erly. After the calf has learned to eat the grain, a box should be provided in which to feed the grain. If for some reason the calf fails to eat the grain, it must be removed and not left in the box to decay. The grain should be kept fresh and clean. At six weeks of age, the calf should be eating one pound daily of the following mixture : 3 parts corn meal, 3 parts ground oats, 3 parts wheat bran, and 1 part linseed meal. The young calf should be taught to eat hay along with the grain. If sweet nutritious hay is put within its reach, it will soon learn to eat it. Whole hay is preferred to chopped. Among the various hays, alfalfa holds first place, but if not avail- able, bright clover hay of fine quality is excellent for the calf. The hay should not be overripe, as such hay contains too much crude fiber and is coarse and woody. The calf may have all the hay it will consume, providing it gets grain and skim-milk in addition. It is doubtful whether it is advisable to feed silage or roots while the calf is getting skim-milk. Fall calves may be turned to grass the following spring, BREEDING DAIRY CATTLE 255 but grain feeding should also be practiced, as stronger and larger calves will result. Later in the summer, when the grass is short and dead, the flies bad, and weather very warm, some green feed, if available, would be a valuable addition. After the first or second month the calves should have access to cool, clear water, as the milk furnished will not be sufficient for them to drink, particularly if the weather is hot and the flies troublesome. Milk substitutes for raising calves. — Whole milk is the nat- ural food for the calf. On it the average calf will thrive better than on any other food. Because of the high price of milk many substitutes for milk as a calf food have been put upon the market from time to time. From a careful perusal of the literature, both with respect to experiments and practice, it seems that skim-milk, grain, and hay make the best substitutes for whole milk in raising calves. Skim-milk, however, is seldom available, and this has led to trying the substitutes found upon the market. While skim-milk, grain, and hay are the best sub- stitutes for whole milk, it is true that healthy calves can be raised without milk of any kind after the first four weeks. In general calves so raised will be inferior in size, but they can be brought through strong and healthy. Removing horns from young calves. — When dairy cattle are desired without horns, the removal is very easily accomplished while the calf is very young. As soon as the horn can be located by examining the head with the hand, clip the hair away from the budding horn. Wrap a stick of caustic potash in paper to protect the hand, dip the end of the stick in water, and rub this upon the tip of the horn until the skin or scurf begins to loosen up and gets red, taking care all the time that none of the potash comes in contact with the skin surrounding the horn. In a few days the place will scale over. One application is sufficient. Castrating the male calf. — The age at which castration is per- missible varies, but usually is performed during the second or third month. If done in early life, there is less danger of 256 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS complications, as the organs are not fully mature ; and if let go too long, the animal becomes "staggy" in appearance and will not make as good a feeding calf as otherwise. Castrat- ing a calf at so early an age is not a difficult task. The operation may be performed with the calf standing, if one is provided with "stocks" to hold him ; or in the absence of stocks, by throwing the calf upon his side and holding him firm. When ready, hold the testicle in the left hand, and with a sharp instrument in the right make a good free incision, remembering that there are two thick coats that must be cut through. Now the testicle may be removed by simply cutting it off, though this may be followed by a hemorrhage. To avoid this, take the cord in the left hand, having the cord between the thumb and the index finger. Now twist the testicle several times with the right hand and push with the left hand towards the body of the animal. This will do away almost entirely with the bleeding. If, however, this seems too difficult, scrape the cord in two instead of cutting. Let the animal up, and in a few days he will be all right again. CHAPTER XI CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE There are many factors to be considered in the formation and management of a dairy herd, some of which are personal in their nature and do not lend themselves readily to discussion, while others are more general, of interest to all, and may be discussed intelligently. The two most important factors in a dairy herd are of course the owner and the cows. A discussion of the qualities of a good dairyman, further than that he should be in love with his work, have faith in it, be industrious, and pains- taking in selecting, breeding, and caring for his stock, is a difficult task, as all kinds of men on all kinds of farms are making a suc- cess with dairy cattle, whereas other men similarly placed are constantly failing of success. The cow, on the other hand, with her desirable and undesirable qualities more easily defined and more uniform in their nature, may be intelligently discussed. SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION By sanitary milk is meant a clean, wholesome product pro- duced under healthful conditions. The principal factors to be considered in its production are the cows, the stable, the milk- house, the milking, and the cooling and storing of the milk. The cow. — In the production of clean milk, extra care must be given the cows. They must be curried daily to remove the loose hair and dirt. The udder and rear parts of the animal should be clipped, thus removing the long dirt-catching hair and rendering the parts much more easily cleaned. The udder . S * 257 ■ 258 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS should be wiped with a damp cloth just before milking. Hay should not be fed previous to milking, as it fills the air with dust. Care should be taken to feed clean, nutritious foods and such as will not contribute an undesirable flavor to the milk. The drinking water for the cows should be clean, fresh, and the tanks protected from possible contamination. Furthermore, Fig. 81. — Brown Swiss Cow " Vo- the COWS should be healthy. One Hinsdale0 nT01 ** Sedgley ^^ cannot produce sanitary milk and keep diseased cows. Each animal composing the herd should be tested for tuberculosis once each year and the diseased cases removed. The stables. — If one is to produce sanitary milk, the stable must be kept clean. This applies to dust, cobwebs, and the like, as well as to the manure and litter. Much light and good ven- tilation are essential. The floors should be of cement. The gutters and litter should be cleaned out twice daily, and the material hauled to the field, or placed in a protected water- tight pit outside the barnyard and of sufficient distance to pre- vent odors from reaching the stable. The covered shed, if one is used, and stable-yard, must be clean and well drained. It is a rather common practice to house other animals, such as horses or sheep and sometimes swine, in the same stable with cattle. If sanitary milk is to be the product, no other animals should be placed in the same stable with the cows. The cows should be bedded liberally, particularly if the floor is of cement. The bedding should not be permitted to become foul, as this not only lessens the comfort of the cattle, but makes it more difficult to keep them clean and it promotes disease. Old straw makes the best bedding material, but when high in price, it may be replaced by many other materials, such as shav- CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 259 ings from the planing mill, — which make a clean and sweet bedding, — by tan-bark, by leaves, and the like. Milk-house. — Preferably the milk-house should be separate from the barn and located at a safe distance from all sources of Fig. 82. — A Device for cooling Milk. Milk cooled immediately after drawing will keep sweet much longer than otherwise. contamination, yet convenient to the cows. It should be divided into two rooms, one for heating water and cleaning the utensils, and the other for weighing, sampling, cooling, and storing the milk. The milk-house should be well lighted and well venti- lated, the floors should be constructed of cement, and the walls 260 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and ceiling made tight and smooth in order that they may be easily cleaned. The windows and doors should be screened to exclude the flies. The utensils, such as the milk-cooler, the pails, cans, strainers, and the like, should be thoroughly cleaned by first soaking in warm water, then washing in boiling water containing some cleaning material, rinsed in clean hot water, and then sterilized with steam. After thoroughly cleaning, they should be inverted in the pure air, preferably in the sunlight. Milking. — The milker should be cleanly in his habits, and should milk with dry hands. A small-top milk pail should be used to exclude the dirt as far as possible. As soon as each cow is milked, the milk should be taken directly to the milk- house and there weighed, a record made of the weight, a sample taken to test for the fat, then it should be strained, and im- mediately run over a cooler, reducing its temperature as low as possible (Fig. 82). The milk should then be kept at as low a tem- perature as possible. A good plan is to set the cans in a vat containing ice, and cover the vat with a lid. If this is not con- venient, set the cans in running well or spring water. During transportation cover the cans with a blanket. In summer the blanket should be wet, in winter dry. MILKING MACHINES Perhaps the most important factor retarding the development of dairying is the difficulty of securing milkers who can be de- pended on to do their work satisfactorily. In general the size of the dairy is restricted to the number of cows that the owner can attend to at such times as his help fails him. If the question of milking the cows, without being so dependent on hired help, could be satisfactorily solved, the number of animals kept on many dairy farms would increase up to the limit of the acreage to feed the animals. Any possibility, therefore, of milking cows by machinery is likely to appeal strongly to the dairy farmer. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 261 There are now machines on the market that will milk cows. There are, however, many questions relative to their use that cannot be answered with much positiveness ; chief of which are the efficiency with which they milk, the effect on the cow, the effect on the milk, and their economy. It is well known that one milker may secure more milk than others from the same cow, and that after a cow has become accustomed to a milker, a change results in a decrease in the production. It may be expected, therefore, that the immediate effect of changing from hand to machine milking will be at- tended by the same results. The question as to the practicability of machine milking is, therefore, whether or not cows can be milked satisfactorily by this method for an extended period of time. Furthermore there comes the question of the effect upon succeeding generations, whether the machine milking will have a tendency to discourage the transmission of milking qualities. The milking machine is of so recent invention that there are not data enough at hand to answer these questions. The data available go to show that by taking the year through, the average cow yields approximately as much milk to the machine method as to the hand method of milking, particularly if she is stripped by hand after the machine milking. Mechanically, the machine seems to do its work efficiently. There are, however, certain difficulties encountered which hin- der the working of the machine and over which it can have no control. Chief among these are the shape, size, and other peculiarities of the cow's udder and teats. The quality of the udder as regards fleshiness or flabbiness and unevenness of the quarters, teats abnormally small, warty, those that milk down, and those that are very close together, are likely to give much difficulty. The effect of the machine on the milk, particularly the bacteria content, depends much on the manipulation of the apparatus while in operation as well as its care between the milk- 262 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS ings. If the teat-cups slip from the teats while the machine is working, many germs are likely to be drawn into the milk pail. The machines are provided with air filters, and the efficiency in keeping the germ content low depends much on the condition of these filters. The milk in its passage from the teats to the pail Fig. 83. — Dutch Belted Bull "Auten." A first prize winner. Owned by R. F. Sanders, Bristol, N. H. The Dutch Belted breed of dairy cattle is a native of Holland. The cows are fair milkers, producing milk of average richness. The size is much smaller than the Holsteins, the bulls weighing 1400 to 1800 pounds and the cows 1200 to 1500 pounds. The color is black, with a white belt around the body. must pass through the teat-cups and a few feet of rubber tubing. These teat-cups and tubing are likely to crack, and these mi- nute cracks become laden with germs, which are hard to wash out, and if the rubber is steamed sufficiently to kill the germs, it soon wears out. To obviate this difficulty it is recommended to keep the teat-cups and rubber parts in a 10 per cent solu- CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 263 tion of common salt. This treatment proves very effective. If, therefore, the workman is skilled in the manipulation of the machine and cares for it properly, the germ content of the milk can be kept low and a clean product secured. The avail- able data seem to indicate that the machine has no effect on the fat content of the milk, particularly if the cows are stripped by hand, as is usually advisable. MANAGEMENT OF THE BULL The bull calves must be removed from the heifers when four to six months old. In rearing a bull, accustom it to being handled from calfhood. From the very beginning it should be gently but firmly managed and not fondled or permitted to frolic. Give it kind, quiet, firm, and unvarying treat- ment. Always keep it under subjection, that it may never know its strength and power. PlaCe a ring in its nose before it is a year old. This ring should be frequently renewed, in order that it be always strong. If this is neglected, the ring will come in two when most needed. Always lead and handle the bull with a staff. The bull should never run loose in the yard or pasture. It should be provided with abundant and regular exercise. At such times it should be under restraint and full control. For exercise, some recommend placing the bull in a tread-power and use the power thus generated to grind the grain, run the fodder cutter or cream separator, and the like, but this does not seem practicable. A very good plan to provide exer- cise for the bull is to arrange a wire overhead and attach the bull's halter strap to it. This will enable him to take exercise at will and still keep him under control. As age and strength increase, a second ring should be placed in the nose in which to attach a strap, chain, or rope to supplement the staff when the animal is let out for service. Let there always be a double hitch- ing device, so that the buU may never by accident find himself free when he should be tied. In the management of a bull, it is 264 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS well to remember that one physically tired may be depended on to be quiet and easily managed ; hence the importance of much exercise. When possible, it is much better to keep the bull in the presence of the herd than stabled by himself, in a lonely place, as is so often the case. It is a common practice among dairymen to use immature bulls and to dispose of them before their merits as sires are known. This is because bulls of some age are likely to be vicious and dangerous. Many a good bull has been sold for beef only be- cause he was not easily managed and it was thought desirable to dispose of him before some one was injured. A bull that is known to get good offspring should be kept as long as he is useful as a sire. Ringing the bull. — Many neglect to ring the bull calf under the erroneous impression that it is a difficult task. On the other hand, it is very easy. All one needs to do is punch a hole through the membrane between the two nostrils, insert the ring, and screw it together. If one has a bull-ringing punch to make the hole, if is much easier, but in the absence of the punch the hole may be made with a knife, placing the ring in as the blade is drawn out. To restrain the calf it must be tied up securely by the head. The ringing of an older bull is more difficult because of the difficulty of restraining him. THE DAIRY BARN The dairy cow is perhaps the most difficult of farm animals to stable properly. The purpose for which she is kept, that of supplying milk ; the use to which the milk is put, that of human food ; the condition in which it is used, being raw ; the place from which it is drawn, being exposed to greatest filth ; the manner in which it is drawn, by hand and often by unclean milkmen ; and the condition of her dung or manure, as well as the fact that if maximum production is to be obtained, she CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 265 must be fairly warmly housed, yet provided with an abundance of light and much fresh air; — all serve to complicate the problem of providing suitable quarters for the dairy cow. There are certain fundamentals that should be provided in every building in which the dairy cow is stabled. Chief among these are light, ventilation, sufficient room, smooth and light walls and ceilings, a good floor, a comfortable and convenient tie, and properly constructed mangers. Fig. 84. — Dairy Barn, New York State College of Agriculture Milk-house in the Foreground. Light in abundance should enter the dairy barn. — Sunlight is nature's disinfectant. With sufficient light and proper ventila- tion, germ diseases are not likely to occur. It is said that direct sunlight wTill kill the growing tuberculosis germ in a very few minutes. Hence, cattle kept in wTell-lighted and well- ven- tilated quarters are not so likely to contract this much dreaded disease. Again, light shows dirt and makes it easy to keep the barn clean. Dark stables are likely to be dusty or dirty and damp, thus providing conditions for germ growth. In addition to freedom from germ disease, health, cleanliness, and the like, a barn in which the sun shines freely furnishes a cheerful place in which to work. 266 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Sunlight, the most efficient disinfectant as well as the most powerful of all medicines, is free, and provision for its admit- tance into any cow barn need cost but little. Window glass is inexpensive. Old barns that are dark and dismal may easily be provided with sufficient light by cutting holes in the walls and putting in windows. Best results are obtained by cutting the windows long from top to bottom and low, as more direct sunlight will fall on the floors. Ventilation essential to health. — The importance of pure air in a cow stable cannot be overestimated. It is essential to the well being of the herd ; without it, disease will surely work destruction. While there are many methods of ventilating a dairy barn, the King system in some of its modified forms is admitted to be the most efficient. If in addition the windows are arranged as suggested on page 268, ample ven- tilation can be procured. • King's system of ventilation. — While there are many meth- ods of arranging this system, it consists essentially of two parts : the inlets and the outlets, in the form of flues. This system will not work if the walls of the barn are full of cracks or the floor is made of loose boards. The floor, walls, ceilings, and windows must be so constructed as to prevent any large quantity of air from leaving or entering. The inlets must be so constructed as to meet two condi- tions ; first, they must admit the fresh air near the ceiling, where the barn air is warm, in order that the fresh air may mingle with the warmest air of the stable and raise the tem- perature before descending to the floor, thus not allowing the animals to lie in cold air. In the second place, they must not permit the warm air to pass out instead of the cold fresh air to come in. This is accomplished by constructing the inlet flue so that it begins near the ground on the outside and ends near the ceiling on the inside. All that is necessary is to have the outer end of the flue several feet lower than the inner end. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 267 The inlets should be numerous, of small size, and constructed on all four sides of the stable in order to take advantage of the wind, regardless of the direction from which it blows. In this way a large quantity of air is admitted and evenly distributed throughout the stable. A convenient size for these inlets is 4 x 12 inches, as this permits the flue to be built between two Fig. 85. — Interior View showing Feed-carrier, Feed Alley, Mangers, and Stanchion of the Dairy Barn, New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 4-inch studdings. There should be one such flue to each three cows. The flues should be lined with building paper, and this covered with matched lumber. All openings, and especially the outside -ones, should be securely covered with heavy wire netting. The outlets must be so constructed as to meet three con- ditions. First, the ventilators should reach to near the stable 268 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS floor in order to remove the air from that point. This is desirable because the refuse gases from the animals being heavier than the other air of the stable remain near the floor. The animals not only lie down, but they breathe the impuri- ties from the floor when standing. The colder air is at the floor, and it is desirable to remove this, particularly in the winter, in order that the warmer air at the ceiling may move downward. In the second place, these ventilators should be provided with an opening near the ceiling for the removal of the warm air when the stable becomes too warm, particularly if the animals are to be kept in the stable most of the time. This opening must be provided with a door or slide to be closed or opened at will. In the third place, it is important that these ventilators be so con- structed as to afford as little inconvenience as possible, particu- larly when they extend through the hay loft, where they are sometimes in the way of the hay fork. The ventilating flue should be as large as convenient. The essentials of a good ventilating flue are similar to those of a good chimney. In addition to their being of air-tight construction and as straight as conditions will permit, it should rise above the highest part of the roof so as to get the full force of the wind. Window ventilation. — If it is not possible to install the King system in one of its many forms, the windows can be so ar- ranged as to form a fair system of ventilating the cow stable. To do this, hinge them at the bottom, allowing the top to open inward. Place a board edgewise along each side of the window, so that the air will not enter at the bottom and blow directly on the animals when the window is open. By leaving several of the windows open an inch or two at the top they will provide fair ventilation without producing serious drafts. When this plan is employed, it is best to open the windows on the side of the barn away from the wind and to regulate the size of the opening according to the severity of the weather. Floors are best made of cement. — While many objections have CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 269 been raised to the use of cement, such as its cost, its being cold and damp, injuring the cattle and the like, it is nevertheless the most desirable material from which to construct floors for the cow stable. The gutters and mangers should likewise Fig. 86. — Interior View of Dairy Barn showing Litter-carrier, Gut- ter, and Arrangement of Windows. New York State College of Agriculture. be laid in cement. Cement has two very great advan- tages over all other materials : it is easily kept clean, and if properly put down, is durable. If desired, plank may be laid over the cement where the cows stand. This, however, is not necessary, as cement can be made dry and fairly warm by 270 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS placing a layer of some non-conducting material, such as build- ing paper, an inch or so beneath the surface. This may be done as follows : lay the cement as usual until within one and one-half inches of the desired thickness. Now lay down one thickness of heavy building paper, leave a strip at least six inches wide, along the edge next to the gutter. Paint this build- ing paper with asphaltum paint, then lay down another thick- ness of the paper. Spike this paper down, leaving the heads of the spikes sticking up about one-half inch above the paper. Put on the remainder of the cement and proceed as though the paper was not there. This paper need be put only where the cattle lie. Figs. 85 and 86 show good cement construction. Watering device. — There are many devices on the market for keeping a constant supply of water before the animal. The question of their use depends largely on the ease of keeping them clean. In many cases they are provided with tops which the cow soon learns to raise and which fall down and cover the device when she is not drinking, but these do not keep the water clean. The cow with her mouth partially full of grain or hay often opens the lid and slobbers the grain into the water. This material soon decays and the device becomes a trap for foul-smelling water. Perhaps the safest and most convenient plan is to have a large tank located near by. This can be easily cleaned, the water kept fresh and cool in summer, and the chill easily driven off in winter. THE SILO The silo has passed the experimental stage, and the economy as well as the practicability of preserving fodder in it has been fully demonstrated. Silage is a valuable food, and is relished by all classes of farm animals, but is more particularly adapted to ruminating animals like the dairy cow. In fact, in order to secure maximum production, some kind of succulent food is necessary, and ordinarily silage will be found the most efficient CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 271 as well as the most economical form of succulence that can be provided. The fundamental principle in the preservation of green forage when placed in a silo is the exclusion of air. To pre- vent the air from reaching the silage, the silo must be constructed with air-tight walls. These walls must be rigid enough to pre- vent springing out of shape by the pressure of the silage, for in this case air will enter next to the wall. The pressure is greatest from the second to the sixth day after filling. The silage at this time begins to heat and settle, and if the walls are not sufficiently rigid to prevent any bulging, a considerable loss of silage is likely to result. The walls should be perpendicular, and the diameter the same from the bottom to the top. The size of the silo. — On being exposed to the air, silage spoils rapidly, and to avoid this must be fed off at the rate of one and one-half to two inches daily in the winter and three inches in the summer. A good plan is so to construct the silo that the horizontal feeding area for each cow will be approxi- mately six square feet daily. If we feed six square feet off the top and two inches down, this means One cubic foot to the COW. Fig. 87. — Dutch Belted Cow The approximate weight of a cu- "EcH° *" A J^st Prize ™nneT' . . ., ... Owned by R. F. Sanders, Bristol, bic foot of silage is forty pounds, n. h. though this varies much between the top and the bottom. As this is about the proper quantity to feed daily, it becomes evident that six square feet is the proper area for each cow. The table that follows gives the capacity of a silo of various widths and depths; also the area required to fill it, and the approximate quantity that should be fed daily to lower the 272 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS surface two inches per day, based on an average weight of forty pounds to the cubic foot. By examining the table one can get an idea of the size desired ; also the economy of increas- ing the depth : Approximate capacity in tons of round silos of different diameters and depths and the area required to fill them as well as the amount that should be fed daily Inside Diameter Feet' Height Feet Capacity Tons Acreage to fill 10 Tons to Acre Amount that should be fed Daily 10 28 42 4.2 525 10 32 51 5.1 525 10 36 61 6.1 525 12 30 67 6.7 755 12 34 80 8.0 755 12 3S 94 9.4 755 14 30 91 9.1 1030 14 34 109 10.9 1030 14 38 128 12.8 1030 16 30 119 11.9 1340 16 34 143 14.3 1340 16 38 167 16.7 1340 16 42 193 19.3 1340 18 36 196 19.6 1700 18 40 229 22.9 1700 18 46 282 28.2 1700 20 36 243 24.3 2100 20 42 300 30.0 2100 20 50 382 38.2 2100 22 36 292 29.2 2300 22 42 366 36.6 2300 22 50 469 46.9 2300 Filling the silo. — Occasionally the construction of a silo is criticized, whereas the fault may be found in the method of CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 273 filling. It is essential to the preserving of silage that it be well packed, keeping it level and thoroughly tramped. This very important task is often intrusted to a lad who spends his Fig. 88. — Silo in the Pkocess of Construction by Farm Labor. This silo, 16 feet in diameter and 30 feet high, was completed at a cost of one dollar for each ton capacity. time in standing in the breeze of the blower, with the result that the silage comes out of the silo somewhat molded the following winter. 274 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS In filling with corn there is a tendency toward an uneven distribution of the ears ; these, being heavier than the other parts of the plant, are blown to the opposite side of the silo. To obviate this, many devices are employed, perhaps the most simple of which is a long bag open at both ends and fastened to the end of the carrier. By means of a small rope attached to this bag the corn may be deposited in any part of the silo desired. CHAPTER XII FEEDING BEEF CATTLE Feeding beef cattle differs considerably from feeding dairy cattle, as well as from feeding horses. In the case of horse feed- ing, the product sought is energy in the form of work ; in the case of dairy cattle the product is milk; whereas in the case of beef cattle the product is flesh. This calls for special methods of feeding, special foods or food, combinations, and special management. Much discussion was devoted (in Chap- ter IX, page 203) to the production of milk in which it was treated largely as an independent industry because of the fact that the successful dairymen have time for little if anything else; whereas beef production is not a special industry and does not require all of the feeder's time, and on the average is conducted successfully only in connection with grain farm- ing. Among successful beef producers, beef-raising is regarded as a convenient way of marketing grain, as well as a means of conserving soil fertility, and hence the ability to grow more grain to feed more stock and also a profitable means of utiliz- ing much coarse forage which otherwise would be largely wasted. ESSENTIALS OF FEEDING CATTLE In feeding beef cattle one of the most important factors is the kind of cattle, for on the choice of them will turn in a large measure the possibility of success. In considering the cattle with a view of estimating their profit as beef producers, there are a number of essentials to be taken into account. 275 276 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Chief among these are the age, form, condition, quality, uni- formity, and the price. Age at which to feed cattle. — In recent years no question has been more discussed, or the object of more experimentation among cattle feeders, than the most profitable age at which to fatten cattle. This interest has been due in part at least to the fact that writers on agricultural topics strongly advised feeding young cattle, whereas the professional feeder, whose livelihood depends upon his success, has shown a decided preference for older cattle. To secure some idea of the age at which gains can be made most cheaply, let us examine the com- position of the body of an old and young steer. In Jordan's " Feeding of Animals," we note the composition of the body of an aged fat steer and of a fat calf to be as follows : ■ — Water Per Cent Ash Per Cent Protein Per Cent Fat Per Cent Aged fat steer . Fat calf .... 49.5 64.6 4.4 4.8 15.6 16.5 30.5 14.1 From this we observe that the body of the fat calf con- tains 15.1 per cent more water and 16.4 per cent less fat than that of the aged fat steer, the ash and protein being practically the same. This would seem to indicate that the aged steer in fattening required considerably more solid food, particu- larly those foods rich in fat, whereas the calf requires less fat, and less dry-matter to the pound of gain. As water is cheaper than fat we would expect the calf to make the cheaper gains, and such is the case. Not only does the age influence the cheapness of the gains, but it affects the rate of gain as well. Here, too, the younger animal has the advantage ; that is to say, all things being equal, the younger animal will make more rapid gains for 1000 pounds FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 277 live weight than the aged one. This is due in part no doubt to the fact that the younger animal's digestive organs are likely to be in better condition, the teeth are sounder, the glands more active, so that the food is better masticated, more thoroughly digested and assimilated than in the aged steer. Fig. 89. — The Noted Shorthorx Bull "Avoxdale." ter & Ross, Mansfield, Ohio. Owned by Carpen- The Shorthorn, a native of England, is the most popular beef breed all over the world. Though not so early maturing, they attain the largest size of any of the beef breeds, cows weighing around 1500 pounds, bulls 2200, and finished steers from 1200 to 1500 pounds. The bulls are noted for the excellency of their get when bred to native cows, while the finished steers are noted for their good quarters. In color they are red, white, and roan. Form for feeding cattle. — The form of the steers must be such as to meet two conditions: those demanded by the cattle feeder, and those demanded by the butcher. The cattle feeder wishes an animal that will make rapid and economical gains in the feed lot, while the butcher wishes one that will dress a rela- 278 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS tively high percentage of edible meat, particularly of the high- priced cuts, such as prime of rib, porterhouse, sirloin, rump, and round, which are taken from the back, loin, rump, and quarters. In general the form that best fills these conditions will be low set, deep, broad, and compact, rather than high up, gaunt, narrow, loosely made. The cattle should be low set, standing on short legs, as animals of this form are likely to prove good feeders capable of maturing early. The top and bottom lines should be straight and nearly parallel, the flanks should be low, thus giving much depth and great capacity. Cattle possessing such a form are likely to prove rapid and economic producers while in the feed lot, thus making a profit for the feeder, and when slaughtered to dress a relatively high percentage of edible meat, particularly of the high-priced cuts. Such an animal should dress out 55 to 60 per cent or better with approximately one-half of the edible meat in the region of the valuable cuts, and this will sell for about 75 per cent of the value of the entire carcass, leaving the other half from the region of low-priced meat to bring the other 25 per cent of the valuation. Condition of feeding cattle. — In considering steers to feed, their condition should be carefully scrutinized from two points of view : their thrift, and the amount of flesh they possess. Feeding cattle should be thrifty but not coarse. Thrift is indi- cated by a wide, deep chest, by fullness in the heart girth, by depth and breadth of body, and by good handling quality. While the cattle should not be coarse, too much refinement is likely to prove disappointing, as it often means delicacy or lack of thrift, and no animal lacking in thrift should find its way into the feed lot. To make rapid and economic feeders the cattle should not possess much flesh at the beginning of the feeding period. All things being equal, the thinner the steer at the beginning of the feeding process the more rapid and economical gains it FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 279 will make, providing there is no lack of thrift. It is easily pos- sible, however, for a steer to be so low in flesh as to lack thrift. Such animals require time to get back into normal condition, and there is a possibility of their being stunted permanently. If we examine the bodies of the thin and fat steer, it may give us an insight as to why the animal gains in flesh more rapidljr and on less feed when in a thin condition. In Jordan's " Feed- ing of Animals " we note the composition of the bodies of such steers to be as follows : — Water Per Cent Ash Per Cent Protein Per Cent Fat Per Cent Thin steer . . . Fat steer .... 66.2 49.5 5.9 4.4 19.2 15.6 8.7 30.5 It seems that the body of the thin steer contains a relatively high amount of water and low fat, whereas the fat steer's body contains a relatively small amount of water and high fat con- tent. This may have a bearing on the fact that a thin steer gains more rapidly and on less feed than a fat one, and also on the fact that as the full feeding proceeds the gains are made less rapidly and require more feed. Quality of feeding cattle. — Quality should be considered from two points of view : general quality, and handling quality. By general quality is meant that general refinement of external form found in the neat head, fine horn, dense bone, smooth outline, and compact body. This quality is affected by nothing so much as breeding. General quality and good breeding are closely associated, well-bred animals being likely to possess quality, whereas it is often wanting in the common-bred steers. The importance of general quality in feeding cattle cannot be over- estimated, as steers possessing it will give higher profit to both 280 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the cattle feeder and the butcher, not because such animals will necessarily make more meat from a given amount of food, but because they will dress out better and bring a higher price on the market. Good handling quality indicates that the steer is a good feeder. By good handling quality is meant a fine silky hair and a loose mellow skin. These are associated with thrift and the ability to take on flesh rapidly and economically, whereas a heavy stiff hide is considered to indicate slower fattening. The previous care that the steers have received has a marked influence on the hair and skin, and hence on the handling quality. The importance of good handling quality is not to be over- looked if one is to succeed in feeding cattle. Uniformity in feeding cattle. — Feeding cattle should be uni- form in age, weight, color, type or form, condition, breeding, and quality. As we have observed, young steers gain more rapidly than aged ones, and, as we shall see, aged steers fatten more rapidly than young ones ; hence it is not likely that a lot of steers of mixed ages would all be ready to market at the same time. If some of the animals are fat, while others are only half fat, they will not command as high a price on the market as though they were uniform in flesh. Not only must they be uniform in flesh, but they must be approximately uni- form in weight if the highest price is to be obtained. Butchers and packers desire cattle uniform in weight, so that the cuts of meat will run uniform, as their trade demands. While uni- formity of color does not add to the animal's capacity to take on flesh economically or to his ability to dress out well, yet the butchers desire such similarity and are willing to pay for it. The cattle should be uniform in type or form. If they vary in type, the weight of the cuts of meat will likewise vary, and to this the butcher objects. The butcher also demands animals equal in condition and quality, to meet the demands of his trade calls. FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 281 FOOD REQUIREMENTS FOR BEEF The quantity of food required to fatten a beef animal depends on many factors, chief of which are the kind of food and the age, weight, and condition as well as the individuality of the animal. Some foods promote the formation of flesh and bone, and as a result the animal tends to grow, whereas certain other food en- courages fat formation and the animal tends to fleshen rather than to grow. The age, weight, and condition also have much influence on the amount of food required to fatten the animal. •PI '^ 1 :'"l J • M 1 * t *' ■i Fig. 90. — A Prize Winning Shorthorn Bull. Owned by Carpenter & Ross, Mansfield, Ohio. The younger the animal the less food will be required to produce a given gain in flesh. The thinner the animal, providing it is thrifty, the less food will be required to produce a given weight. Perhaps most important of all is the individuality of the steer. Some steers will gain three pounds daily, while others receiving the same amount and kind of food will gain but one pound. The only method of distinguishing the animal that makes three 282 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS pounds from the animals that make but one is by external appearance. The external indication of a good feeder is a low-set form, being deep, broad, and compact, with low-down flanks, showing that the animal possesses great capacity for digestion and assimilation (p. 278-279). No definite quantities can be given that will apply to all animals, to all conditions, and to all foods. The Wolff-Lehman standards furnish us a guide to be modified by the judgment and experience of the feeder : — Wolff-Lehman standards, showing the amount of food required per 1000 pounds live weight for both the growing and fattening beef animal Condition of Animal Digestive Nutrients Growing Cattle Beef Breeds Dry- Matter Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat Nutritive Ratio Age, Mo. 2-3 Weight 160 23 4.2 13.0 2.0 1:4.2 3-6 330 24 3.5 12.8 1.5 1 4.7 6-12 550 25 2.5 13.2 0.7 1 6.0 12-18 750 24 2.0 12.5 0.5 1 6.8 18-24 950 24 1.8 12.0 0.4 1 7.2 Fattening Cattle First period . . Second period Third period . . 30 30 26 2.5 3.0 2.7 15.0 14.5 15.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 1 1 1 6.5 5.4 6.2 WINTERING STOCKERS AND FEEDERS Large numbers of feeding cattle are purchased in fall and early winter for the special purpose of economically disposing of such roughage as corn stalks, straw stack, second-class clover hay, clover chaff after the seed has been removed, and the like. Wintering cattle with a view to fattening the following summer on pasture is a very convenient way of converting such feeds into cash. The cattle feeder is now confronted with the question FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 283 as to how well he shall winter these animals. That is to say, he is often at a loss to know whether to feed a small allowance of grain along with the roughage or to feed the roughage alone. If he feeds the roughage alone, it is doubtful whether the steers can be wintered without loss in weight, unless the roughage is of good quality and a legume, such as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay. On the other hand, if he feeds grain, then comes the ques- tion as to how much shall be fed, for it is well known that if steers are grained too liberally through the winter, they will not do so well the following summer on pasture. While different systems of feeding should undoubtedly be recommended for cattle of various ages and quality, there are at least three conditions that should be kept clearly in mind : first, cattle wintered on roughage alone, providing they retain their thrift, will make more economical beef producers the following summer on pasture than when they receive grain along with the roughage; second, cattle wintered on a too liberal grain ration may fail to make a profit the following summer on pas- ture; and third, other things being equal, cattle wintered on a ration containing a liberal supply of protein, particularly if this protein is contained in the roughage, as clover, alfalfa, or cow- pea hay, will make greater and more economical gains during both winter and summer than if this nitrogenous roughage is wanting. It is true that animals receiving this nitrogenous roughage will not finish or fatten so quickly, but they will make gains more economically, and the quality of the flesh will be better than otherwise. From practical experience, there- fore, it would seem best to provide considerable protein in the ration of the wintering stocker or feeder. If this protein is lacking in the roughage, in which it should be provided if possible, then supply the needed protein by feeding such grains as cotton-seed meal or linseed-oil meal in rather limited quantities in the grain ration. In case the grain is fed no suggestions can be given as to the exact 284 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS amount, but when one is simply wintering the steers without any attempt to fatten them, the maximum amount should not exceed six pounds daily, and perhaps better results can be obtained by feeding two to four pounds daily. Roughage increases feeding capacity. — It is conceded by ex- perienced cattle feeders that roughing steers preparatory to put- ting them on full feed requires much skill. The feeding of an abundance of roughage encourages the enlargement and develop- ment of the digestive organs, thus increasing the capacity for handling more concentrated feeds later on. This, of course, gives the thin animal a large paunch, which must certainly be reduced before the animal is ready for market. A large- paunched steer is not wanted on any fat-cattle market. From this it would seem that before beginning to feed, or in the early part of the feeding process, the enlarging of the paunch should be encouraged in order to increase the capacity, while the latter part of the feeding period should be devoted to reducing this paunch and smoothing up the steer. SUMMER FEEDING ON PASTURE Fattening cattle in the summer on pasture is usually more profitable than winter fattening. By such feeding the labor is reduced to a minimum, there is no handling of bulky foods, no bedding to provide, no lots to clean of manure, and no outlay for an extensive plant, such as sheds, lots, and the like. Approxi- mately the only labor in summer fattening is that of feeding the grain, when such is fed. There are two methods of fattening beef cattle on pasture : pasturing alone with no grain, which is called " grass fatten- ing"; and feeding grain, often all they will eat, in connection with the pasturage. Which of these methods should be em- ployed will depend on conditions. When land is cheap and there is an abundance of pasture, one may secure fairly good returns from pasturing without grain. On the other hand, if FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 285 the pasture is limited, the land high in price, and one has the grain, no doubt it will be more profitable to feed grain in con- nection with the pasture. The previous treatment of the cattle may likewise have an influence. To .get good results from fattening cattle on pasture alone, the cattle should be wintered very largely on roughage and should be rather thin in flesh though not lacking in thrift. Cattle that are accustomed to grain and in the habit of depending on it very largely for their nourishment will shrink heavily if the grain is refused them. While cheaper gains can usually be made from pasturing alone, the cattle cannot, as a rule, be made very fat, and hence will not command a high price on the market, which will often offset the advantage of cheap gains. There are, however, many ex- perienced cattle feeders who rely on grass fattening, particularly on the edge of the corn-belt. Cattle feeders in the corn-belt will, as a rule, secure greater returns from a liberal grain feed in connection with the pasture. How to turn to grass. — As cattle are very subject to bloating if turned to succulent grass, especially if wet with dew or rain, much care should be exercised. This is particularly true on clover or alfalfa. If it is convenient, one should turn the cattle out for an hour or so in the afternoon and then take them up for the day, turning them out the following day at noon and leaving a few hours longer, then taking them up again, when on the third day they may be allowed to remain. Feeding grain to cattle on pasture. — The amount and kind of grain that should be fed to fattening cattle on pasture will de- pend much on the previous treatment, age, condition, and quality of the cattle as well as the time of marketing them. Young stock, that are to be made thick fat, will need grain con- tinually throughout the summer. Older cattle, that are not in- tended for market until fall, may well have their grain withheld until the pasture begins to get short, say along in July. On the other hand, many cattle feeders prefer to "warm the cattle up" 286 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS in the feed lot before going to grass, and then to finish them on pasture, disposing of them by the middle of July before the hottest of the weather and just about the time the pasture begins to fail. Under this system it would be necessary to feed grain liberally from the beginning of the pasture season. While this method has much to commend it, there is the serious objec- tion of turning cattle to succulent pasture when they are receiv- ing a liberal supply of grain. On account of the very succulent grass so early in the spring such cattle " drift" or shrink con- siderably, even though the grain is continued. This drift is so serious that if the cattle are intended for market by, say, the middle of June, it will be more profitable on the average to finish them in a dry-lot. In addition to the disadvantage of the heavy drift it is poor economy to turn cattle to pasture before the grass gets a good start; this is particularly true if the grass was closely cropped the preceding fall. There is difference of opinion as to the kind of grain that should be fed cattle of the various ages on pasture. In some cases perhaps corn alone cannot be improved on, particularly if there is some leguminous grass, as clover or alfalfa, in the pasture. Some contend that with young stock especially, it is advisable to supplement corn with a food rich in protein, as linseed or cotton-seed meal, whereas in the experience of others the addition of this extra protein food has caused the young stock to grow and not fatten so readily as if the extra food was withheld. Among this class of cattle feeders, when they supplement corn, it is more likely to be for the older cattle. The pastures. — There are two general plans for providing pasture land : permanent pastures ; and pastures in rotation with other crops. Permanent pastures are rapidly disappear- ing from those sections of the country suitable for growing grain, because of the increased value of the land for grain raising, but there are vast areas unsuited for grain growing which can be very profitably utilized for permanent pasture. In fact much FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 287 of the land east of the Sciota, south of the Ohio, and west of the Missouri rivers is suitable for permanent pasture. This cheap land, much of it, could be laid to permanent pastures and yield a very creditable return as pasture for beef cattle. In fact, if conditions continue in the future as in the past, much of our beef must come from these cheap outlying lands. The grains grown on the grain farms are rapidly becoming too valu- able as food for human consumption to permit of their being fed to animals. No definite suggestions can be given as to the choice between permanent pastures and pastures in rotation further than to say that all depends on the location. If those farms or parts of farms that are unsuited for growing grains can be laid to permanent pasture, it will, on the average, be profitable to do so. Each of these systems has certain advantages. For example, permanent pasture simplifies the fencing, provides the water supply, the shade, and the feed racks or bunks, while pastures in rotation give a much better opportunity to distribute the manure to all parts of the farm. Permanent pastures even if seriously affected by drouth are not likely to be a failure, while pastures in rotation occasionally do fail. Properly managed permanent pastures will increase in value with age. The pasture crop is perhaps the most neglected of farm crops at the present time. Many pastures that are now supporting one animal to two or three acres can with proper care be made to support twice the number. First, secure a good stand. Many pastures do not now possess more than one-half a crop. Blue- grass should form the basis of all permanent pastures in the East, but should be reenforced by white clover, orchard-grass, and red-top. The pasture should be harrowed and reseeded each spring until a stand is secured. Second, keep down the weeds. Animals eat the grass and leave the weeds. To ob- viate this, pastures should be mown twice each year. This not only keeps the weeds down, but keeps the pasture in such 288 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS condition that the animals will feed more evenly over the entire field. Animals are likely to feed where the grass is rather short and tender, and leave the ranker growth. Third, drain pastures well. This is often entirely neglected, and the parts of the farm that are too wet to grow crops are left to pasture. Fourth, top-dress permanent pastures with manure when con- venient. Often corn stalks or straw scattered over the north 4i. ^H HL ' ^H IhuII Bk" B - Fig. 91. — Fattening Steers on Pasture. Feeding Clover Hay to sup- plement the Pasture. slopes when the land is broken will materially improve the pasture. Another factor which often reduces the total yield of a pasture is the fact that the grass is pastured too early in the spring, which hinders the growth of the young plants before they get a good start, whereas if they were left a week longer, they would return a much greater total yield. Pastures thus treated will increase in value with age, as has been practically demon- strated, as far east as Central New York and as far west as FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 289 Western Missouri, where there are permanent pastures vary- ing in age from one-third to one-half of a century, and are now supporting one animal to each acre from four to six months each year without extra feed, and supporting two animals an equal length of time when grain is fed in addition. (Fig. 91.) WINTER FEEDING IN DRY-LOT While feeding steers in the summer time on pasture may be the most profitable for those cattle feeders possessing the pas- ture, there are many farms, especially in the corn-belt, lacking in pasture and yet possessing an abundance of grain and dry forage that the farmer desires to convert into beef. On such farms. winter feeding in the dry-lot is the common practice. This system of feeding beef cattle is not without its advantages. For example, the feeding is done at a time of a year when there is little other work, and if the cattle are measurably protected from the wind and rain, they suffer less from the weather than from the heat of summer, and especially if the flies are trouble- some. When the steers are purchased in the fall and fattened during the winter, the cattle feeder has his money tied up a much shorter period, resulting in correspondingly quicker returns. Furthermore, such a system affords a very convenient method of converting the previous crop, grain and dry forage, into ready cash to finance the farm the coming season, as the steers are marketed and out of the way before farm work begins in the spring. Feeding grain to cattle in the dry-lot. — The amount and kind of grain that should be fed to fattening cattle in the dry-lot will depend much on the age, condition, and quality of the cattle as well as upon the kind of dry forage. Young stock will need a heavy grain ration from start to finish if they are to be made fat, whereas older cattle may be fed grain rather spar- ingly at first, gradually increasing to a full grain feed sixty days before marketing. With the older cattle already having their 290 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS growth, they have but to fatten; whereas with younger cattle there is continued growth, and to fatten them requires an extra effort, as increasing the grain in the ration. With steers rather rough and coarse in quality that cannot be made prime in any event, there is not the necessity for the heavy grain ration re- quired by steers of finer quality that can be made prime and thus command a premium on the market. This heavy grain ration for the steers of finer quality is likely to increase the cost of gains, making them even more expensive than the lighter grain ration for the coarse steers, but the extra premium commanded on the market will make the finer bred steers the more profitable. The amount of grain that can be fed economically to fattening cattle depends much on the kind of dry forage. On the average animals receiving a leguminous forage, such as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay, will make economical use of a larger grain ration than when other forage, such as timothy, red-top, corn stalks, and the like, is fed. In fact, fattening farm animals will make more economical use of a larger grain ration if the grain also contains a high percentage of protein. The length of the fat- tening period will also have much to do with the amount of grain that should be fed. If it is intended to market the steers in 100 days or less, they will have to be full-fed grain from the beginning if they are to be made reasonably fat, whereas if the feeding period is to last 150 days or more, the cattle may be fed grain rather sparingly at first. As to the 'kind of grain to feed fattening cattle, this likewise depends largely on the cattle and the kind of dry roughage. When rather young steers are being fattened, it is the com- mon opinion that a more nitrogenous ration should be used; hence it is considered the better plan to provide much protein for the young animals, whereas in the case of older and more mature cattle the grain ration often contains less protein. While this plan is usually recommended, it is well to remember that a ration rich in nitrogenous material has a tendency to FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 291 keep the young cattle growing rather than to fatten them. While it is true that young stock thus fed will make gains more rapidly and more cheaply, the cattle will oftentimes lack in finish because they have been growing rather than fattening. The kind of roughage determines, in part, the kind of grain that should be fed. When the cattle are being fed a dry roughage containing much protein, as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay, the grain may contain a correspondingly less amount of protein. On the other hand, when the dry forage lacks the protein, the de- ficiency should be made up by feeding a grain rich in protein, as cotton-seed or linseed meal. In addition, the length of the fattening period will have an influence on the kind of grain to feed. If the period is short, it will be necessary to feed very fattening foods, such as corn and cotton-seed meal, from the beginning; whereas if the cattle are to be fed 150 days or more, they may be given foods containing less fat during the early stages of the feeding period. BABY-BEEF By baby-beef is meant fat cattle between one and two years of age and weighing from 800 to 1100 pounds. Of recent years much has been written concerning the advantages of producing this class of beef. A general perusal of the recent literature on beef production would lead one to think that it is far more profitable to produce beef from young animals than from ani- mals possessing some age, and yet the practical cattle feeder has continued to employ two-year-old cattle in his feeding opera- tions. The experiment literature has in a large measure fostered the idea that beef could be more profitably produced by feeding younger cattle. These recommendations are based largely on the fact that the younger animal will make much more economical gains than older animals. There are, however, many factors besides economic gains entering into profitable beef production. 292 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Cattle used in baby-beef production. — First of all, the cattle must be young. They must be well bred and of fine quality, as such cattle can be finished for the market at a much younger age than the plainer kinds. The cattle to be used in the pro- duction of baby-beef should not be permitted to lose their calf fat. They must be kept fleshy from start to finish, for if once they get run down in flesh, it is very difficult to make them prime under eighteen months of age. Feeding for baby-beef production. — If young animals are to be made fat, they must be fed liberally on fat-producing feeds, particularly grain. Heavier grain feeding is required in the production of baby-beef than of older beef. Calves and yearlings have a tendency to grow rather than to fatten, and to overcome this they must be fed a heavy ration of grain, a fact not to be lost sight of in figuring the cost. In the beginning the calf should be fed considerable quantities of dry forage, such as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay, as such foods have a tendency to increase the digestive capacity of the calf, thereby enabling it to handle large quantities of grain later on. If heifer calves instead of steers are fed, they will finish more quickly and hence should *be marketed earlier. The younger the prime heifers are at the time of the marketing, the less discrimination in price the butcher will make between them and steers. In feeding for baby-beef, the most common mistake is to market the animals before they are fat enough. There is little likeli- hood of getting them too fat to meet the demands of the market. Advantages of baby-beef production. — The production of baby- beef has two very distinct and outstanding advantages over that of older beef. First, young animals require less food for a given gain than older animals. Second, the same capital invested in young animals produces more meat than in older animals. During recent years these two advantages have been much heralded by experimenters, and while at first sight they may FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 293 seem to be the beginning and the end of beef production, they are nevertheless far from it. While, possibly, each advantage has been exaggerated, they are both certainly true, and since there is an abundance of experimental data to prove them, we will let them stand as unimpeachable. Disadvantages of baby-beef production. — The production of baby-beef is not without its disadvantages, most of which have been lost sight of because of the lack of practical knowledge on the part of its exponents. Chief among the disadvantages are : first, the difficulty of obtaining cattle possessing sufficient quality to make choice baby-beef. Second, the marked difficulty in making the younger animals fat, it requiring a heavy grain ration. Third, since much baby-beef finds its way to market lacking in finish, it fails to command a high price. Fourth, cattle possessing sufficient quality being scarce, the cost price of such animals is high and because they lack finish on the market the selling price is low; hence the margin between cost and selling price is small. Fifth, the initial weight of the calf is small ; hence in the production of baby-beef the cattle feeder cannot depend for his profit on the advance in value to the hundredweight on the initial weight. From the foregoing it must be apparent that there are many questions involved in the production of baby-beef, and that the profit is not in proportion to the cheap- ness of the gains. FEEDING CATTLE FOR THE LOCAL MARKET Feeding cattle for the local meat market varies greatly from feeding for a large central market. The agricultural writers and practically all of the experiment literature give advice on feeding cattle by the car-load and for the large central market, yet according to the best figures obtainable nearly one-half the cattle slaughtered in this country are slaughtered by local butchers. The local butcher in small places cannot charge enough for 294 MANUAL OF FABM ANIMALS Fig. 92. — A Steer that made ex- ceedingly Large Gains for a Six Months' Feeding Period. meat to warrant his paying a high price for the cattle he kills; hence he usually purchases plain butcher cattle. As a rule, the local slaughter houses are not equipped to handle heavy cattle; the cuts of meat are usually retailed in small amounts; therefore, the local butcher demands a rather small animal, weighing from 600 to 1000 pounds. The local butcher cannot pay for high finish. Thick fat cattle carry too much waste. Grass- fat cattle can be made to carry sufficient flesh for the local butcher. While no con- sumer, rich or poor, wishes to pay for waste fat, yet highest quality of beef is impossible without considerable quantities of such waste. There is, however, no demand in the local market for beef carrying waste fat, no matter how excellent its quality. From the foregoing it is apparent that the cattle feeder who plans to feed cattle for the local market and make a profit should procure heifers, young cows, or low-grade steers as his feeding stock, since such cattle can be purchased at a low price. These cattle must be fattened as economically as possible, largely on dry forage or on pasture, and then sold before they become too fat to meet the demands of the local market. This class of butcher cattle can be very profitably produced on farms lying east, south, and west of the corn-belt. Perhaps the greatest handicap to profitable beef production in these regions is lack of suitable pasture land. That much of the land in these regions can be made to grow pastures suitable for the profitable production of this grade of beef no longer admits of doubt (page 286). FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 295 HOGS FOLLOWING GRAIN-FED CATTLE Among grain-fed cattle, hogs are considered indispensable to profitable beef production. Cattle receiving a rather heavy grain ration fail to digest the grain completely, and hogs, if given a chance, will pick up this grain and convert it into pork. So great is the saving thus effected that beef production is sel- dom profitable without the hog. The principal questions in connection with hogs following grain-fed cattle are : the kind of hogs to use, the number of hogs to a steer, the advisability of feeding the hogs grain in addition to what they get from the droppings, and the gains that the hogs may be expected to make. The most satisfactory hog to follow grain-fed cattle is one weighing approximately 100 pounds and thin in flesh. If the hogs are too heavy or too fat, they do not make good rustlers, and will fail to find all the droppings, especially in pasture. On the other hand, it is not good practice to use pigs too young because of the danger of injury from the cattle. Brood sows are oftentimes used to follow cattle. They are not likely to be good rustlers, however, and will fail to find many of the droppings, especially if heavy with pig. The advisability of feeding grain in addition to that ob- tained from the droppings will depend much on the conditions. If the price of cattle is high and that of hogs low, one would prefer to allow the hogs only what they gather from the drop- pings; whereas if the price of hogs is high and cattle low, then it would no doubt be more profitable to feed the hogs in addition, especially since hogs are more economical feeders than cattle. The great majority of cattle feeders use grain in addition to that secured from the droppings. The number of hogs to follow each steer will depend on two conditions : the form in which the grain is fed, whole or ground; ■ and whether extra grain is fed in addition to that obtained 296 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS from the droppings. When grain is fed extra, the number of hogs to each steer will depend on the amount of grain thus fed. The common practice is to put a 100-pound hog behind each steer and feed grain in addition. If, however, grain is not fed in addition, one hog to two steers will be sufficient to pick up the grain of the droppings when the grain is fed to the steer in the whole form, and one pig to four steers when the grain is fed in the form of meal. There is much less available material for the hogs when the grain is fed in the form of meal than when fed as shelled or ear corn. The gains that may be expected from hogs following steers will depend on the method. When meal is fed, the gains will be less than when the grain is fed whole; and when grain in addition is fed, the gains will depend entirely on the amount of grain that is fed to the hogs. When one 100-pound hog is placed behind each steer and grain fed in addition, as is the common practice, the cattle feeder expects to secure at least one pound gain on each hog daily for a period of 100 days. By this time the hogs are weighing over 200 pounds and are too heavy to make good rustlers, so they are withdrawn from the feed lots and another drove of 100-pound hogs placed with the cattle. The 200-pound hogs may be marketed at once or fed extra grain for two weeks, by which time they average better than 225 pounds each when they are put on the market. GETTING CATTLE "oN FEED" There is no more important question connected with cattle feeding than that of getting the cattle on a full feed of grain, meaning by full feed all the grain they will consume. Opin- ion differs widely as to the time that should be required, some very successful cattle feeders employing the so-called short method, that is, getting the cattle on full feed in one to two weeks, whereas others equally as successful employ the long method, taking one to two months. Which of these methods FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 297 one should choose will depend somewhat on the length of the feeding period and the amount of grain that the cattle feeder plans to feed. LENGTH OF FEEDING PERIOD The length of the cattle feeding period is extremely variable, ranging from ninety days to fifteen months. Either of these ex- tremes or any intervening time may be profitable under certain conditions. There are several factors affecting the length of the feeding period, chief of which are the kinds of foods, the quality and condition of the cattle, and the age of the cattle. If the cattle feeder wishes to feed a relatively large proportion of dry forage and a small amount of grain, the fattening process will be slow and the feeding period prolonged; whereas if he wishes to feed a maximum amount of grain and a correspondingly small amount of dry forage, the fattening process will be acceler- ated and the period shortened. If the steers are rough and of such poor quality that they cannot be made prime, the feeding period may be of shorter duration than if the steers are of finer breeding, and of good quality; the extra finish requires much time, but it is considered profitable because of the premium commanded in the market. Furthermore, the age of the cattle affects the length of the feeding period, as in common practice it requires from ninety to one hundred and fifty days to finish mature cattle and approximately fifteen months to finish calves, with intervening ages ranging between these extremes. MARKETABLE CONDITION The cattle feeder is often at a loss to know just when to mar- ket his cattle. The problem is complicated all the more by the fact that the finishing process is a very expensive one, and yet this extra finish is what commands the premium of the market. The butcher at the large central market demands excessive fat- ness, and for it he is willing to pay an extra price, whereas the i 20S MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS local butcher fails to appreciate such finish and may even discriminate against it, saying that his patrons will object to the waste fat. Much depends on the market also ; if there is a light demand and a heavy run of extra fat cattle, the butchers will Fig. 93. — Aberdeen Angus Bull. Owned by J. S. Goodwin, Naperville, 111. The Aberdeen Angus breed of beef cattle developed in northeastern Scotland. Like the Hereford, Angus mature early, but lack the size of the Shorthorn, cows weighing around 1400 pounds, bulls 2000, and finished steers 1000 to 1400 pounds. The steers are unexceled for fattening in the feed lot and are held in high esteem by the butchers, although if made too large they are likely to become coarse. They are all black and hornless. take advantage and bid down the price, whereas if there is a light run and a heavy demand for cattle showing much finish, the butchers will bid up the price accordingly. Therefore, the ques- tion as to when the cattle are ready for the market cannot be answered without a knowledge of, first, the age of the cattle ; FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 299 second, the quality of the cattle; third, the relative cost of put- ting cattle in prime condition compared with the cost of merely " warming them up"; and fourth, a knowledge of the condition of the market. The more prominent indications of a finished steer are fullness at base of tongue, a roll of fat in front of the point of the shoulder, a full thick flank that stands out as the animal walks, a large mellow cod, a full twist, and fullness at the tail-head. When to market cattle. — As to where and when to buy feeders, no definite statement can be made. The demand for 'extra prime beef, such as is used by the high-grade hotels and restaurants, is fairly good every month. There is an extra demand for such beef during the Christmas season, beginning about Novem- ber 20 when the Christmas order for export beef begins to come and continuing to about •the middle of December. There is good demand for prime baby-beef the year round, with an extra call during the Christmas season. Export cattle are in greatest demand in the winter and spring months; Canada supplies the demand in the late summer and fall. Common cattle are in greatest demand in the spring months, as after the first of July they come into competition with the cheap western range cattle. SHIPPING CATTLE There are some precautions that should be taken in getting cattle ready for shipment. The object sought is to ship the cat- tle with as little " drift" or loss in weight as possible. While there are those who manage the cattle in such a way as to induce them to drink an unusual amount of water when they reach the market, thus securing an abnormal fill, such practice is far from commendable. Cattle buyers are always on the lookout for such cattle and discriminate heavily against them. On the other hand, it is perfectly legitimate for the cattle feeder to take such precautions as will insure his animals against the likelihood of scouring and to prevent abnormal shrinking in weight. 300 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Preparing cattle for shipment. — Since there are certain foods that have a tendency towards loosening the bowels, such should be withheld for at least 24 hours before shipment. Chief among the foods likely to scour cattle are shelled corn, corn meal, oil meal, clover, alfalfa, cowpea hay, and green grass. In fact, a full grain ration of any kind is likely to loosen the bowels. There- fore, for 24 hours before shipment the cattle should be shut up in a dry lot, fed grain sparingly, but may have all the timothy hay they like. Oats make a very good grain to feed at this time. Water should be withheld four hours before shipment. The car in which the cattle are to be shipped should be well bedded with straw. If in addition to these precautions it is not overloaded, the cattle should arrive at the market fresh and clean. Cattle thus treated will make a normal fill. Several car loads of cattle thus treated have been shipped a 36 to 40 hour journey without unloading on only a 3 per cent drift or loss. Drifting cattle for the local market. — When the fat cattle are sold on the local market instead of shipping, it is customary in some localities to sell them on a 3 per cent drift, taking the weight at the farm. From the fact that cattle can be shipped 40 hours on a 3 per cent drift, this would seem to be the maxi- mum that should be allowed the local buyer, and this should be on weights taken at the farm where the animals are fed. SAMPLE RATIONS FOR FATTENING CATTLE The following rations are collected from various sources and furnish a guide in determining the kind and quantity of feed that should be allowed fattening cattle. They apply to 1000 pounds live weight : — FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 301 Age and Ration Food per Pound Gain of Cattle Grain Dry Forage Grain Dry Forage Calves 457 lb. 22 lb. shelled corn 3 lb. cotton-seed meal 12 lb. clover hay 5.9 2.9 Calves 534 lb. 18 lb. shelled corn 2.5 lb. cotton-seed meal 5 lb. clover hay 18 lb. corn silage 5.8 1.4 * 5.3 2 Calves 508 lb. 18 lb. shelled corn 3 lb. cotton-seed meal 4.5 lb. clover hay 19 lb. corn silage 5.3 1.1 l 4.8 2 Yearlings 685 lb. 21 lb. shelled corn 3.5 lb. cotton-seed meal 11 lb. clover hay 7.3 3.2 Yearlings 854 lb. 19 lb. shelled corn 2.5 lb. cotton-seed meal 4.5 lb. clover hay 18 lb. corn silage 7.9 1.7 » 6.8 2 Yearlings 799 lb. 17.5 lb. shelled corn 2.5 lb. linseed-oil meal 11 lb. prairie hay 8.1 4.6 Yearlings 808 lb. 19 lb. shelled corn 11 lb. alfalfa hay 7.7 4.7 Yearlings 777 lb. 17.5 lb. shelled corn 2.5 lb. linseed-oil meal 15 lb. cornstalks 8.0 5.7 Yearlings 788 lb. 17.5 lb. shelled corn 2.5 lb. linseed-oil meal 15 lb. sorghum 8.7 6.4 1 Clover hay. 2 Corn silage. 302 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Age and Ration Food per Pound Gain Cattle Grain Dry Forage Grain Dry Forage Two-year-olds 966 lb. 18 lb. shelled corn 3.2 lb. cotton-seed meal 9.5 lb. clover hay 8.9 4.1 Two-year-olds 1010 lb. 16 lb. shelled corn 3 lb. cotton-seed meal 4 lb. clover hay 15 lb. corn silage 7.6 1.5" 5.82 Two-year-olds 975 lb. 10 lb. snapped corn 18 lb. prairie hay 7.4 15.2 Two-year-olds 979 lb. 10 lb. snapped corn 12 lb. prairie hay 10 lb. alfalfa hay 4.7 10.5 Two-year-olds 977 lb. 10 lb. snapped corn 22 lb. alfalfa hay 4.6 10.7 Two-year-olds 893 lb. 20 lb. ear corn 10 lb. clover hay 9.5 4.0 Two-year-olds 896 lb. 21 lb. ear corn 2 lb. linseed meal 5 lb. shredded stalks 3 lb. oat straw 10.5 3.9 Two-year-olds 1017 lb. 18 lb. shelled corn 7 lb. timothy hay 9.3 3.4 Two-year-olds 1054 lb. 16 lb. shelled corn 5.4 lb. cotton-seed meal 8.8 lb. timothy hay 10.0 3.9 Clover hay. 2 Corn silage. FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 303 Age and Weight of Cattle Ration Food per Pound Gain Grain Dry Forage Grain Dry Forage Yearlings 774 lb. i4 lb. shelled corn 3.1 lb. gluten feed Pasture 7.9 Yearlings 723 lb. 14 lb. shelled corn 3.5 lb. linseed meal Pasture 7.0 Yearlings 734 lb. 14 lb. shelled corn 3.5 lb. cotton-seed meal Pasture 7.5 Yearlings 730 lb. 16 lb. shelled corn Pasture 7.2 Two-year-olds 859 lb. 11 lb. shelled corn 2.8 lb. cotton-seed meal 2.8 lb. wheat bran Pasture 7.8 Two-year-olds 940 lb. 16 lb. shelled corn 2.5 lb. gluten feed Pasture 8.7 Two-year-olds 933 lb. 16 lb. shelled corn 2.5 lb. linseed meal Pasture 8.3 Three-year- olds 1269 lb. 12 lb. shelled corn 2 lb. cotton-seed meal Pasture 9.6 Three-year- olds 1251 lb. 14 lb. shelled corn Pasture 10.1 304 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Sample rations for wintering cattle with no attempt to fatten them Weight of Ration for Each Steer Gain per Cattle Grain Dry Forage Day lb. 736 lb. none 16 lb. timothy hay 0.4 707 lb. none 20 lb. whole cornstalks 0.2 667 lb. none 15 lb. shredded corn- stalks -0.1 743 lb. none 44 lb. corn silage 1.0 771 lb. none 10 lb. cornstalks 10 lb. clover hay . 0.7 788 lb. none 20 lb. cowpea hay 0.5 765 lb. 4 lb. shelled corn 16 lb. timothy hay 0.6 767 lb. 4 lb. shelled corn 9 lb. cornstalks 9 lb. clover hay 0.9 783 lb. 4 lb. shelled corn 19 lb. cowpea hay 1.5 i 6 lb. shelled corn 17 lb. timothy hay 1.4 6 lb. shelled corn 19 lb. clover hay 1.9 6 lb. shelled corn 17 lb. alfalfa hay 1.6 6 lb. shelled corn 17 lb. cowpea hay 1.3 6 lb. shelled corn 9 lb. cornstalks 9 lb. clover hay 1.6 6 lb. shelled corn 8 lb. wheat straw 8 lb. clover hay 1.3 1 Weight approximately as above. CHAPTER XIII BREEDING BEEF CATTLE The breeding of cattle for the production of beef should re- ceive more attention from the general farmer than is being ac- corded it at the present time. During the past decade the breed- ing of beef cattle on the common farms has been on the decline, especially in the north and central part of the country. For- merly, in traveling over this section, it was not an uncommon sight to see large herds of well-bred beef cattle grazing, often On permanent pasture, while at present such a herd is so un- common as to elicit much comment. As has been pointed out in the discussion on purchasing feeding cattle, the reasons for this decline in beef breeding are many, the chief one being that there is more money to be made in other branches of farming. Along with this decline in breeding there has been an increase in consumption, until the problem of supplying the demand for beef has taken on a serious aspect. The remedy for this is only to breed more and better beef-producing animals. No doubt other branches of farming are more profitable for that section of the country lying west of the Sciota, north of the Ohio, and east of the Missouri rivers, yet such may not be true of the immediate surrounding territory. In this outlying ter- ritory there is land not well suited to growing grain that with proper management can be turned to the profitable production of beef cattle (pages 276, 290). The chief defect of the common cattle is their lack of quality and uniformity. This is due both to the lack of good blood and x 305 306 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS to the indiscriminate admixture of the blood of the several breeds of both beef and dairy types. Proof of this is not wanting. In traveling about the country one notes a great variation in the type, form, and especially the color of the animals in each herd. In many small herds one often sees red, white, black, brindle, and all conceivable combinations of these colors, as well as in- Fig. 94. — Hereford Cow. First prize winner, International Live Stock Show. The Hereford beef cattle originated in the county from which they take their name in England. In size this breed is a close second to the Shorthorn. Herefords are noted for their early maturing qualities and for their good grazing qualities ; on the ranges they are often preferred to the Shorthorn. This breed lacks the full quarters of the Shorthorn. The color is red, with white markings. Herefords are often called "White Faces." % dividual animals that conform in a measure to the strictly beef form, others of the dairy form, with all gradations between the two. There is lack of uniformity in all respects. Before any community can improve its cattle, it must decide upon a plan, and each person must proceed largely along the lines of this well developed idea. BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 307 PLAN OF BREEDING Before deciding upon a plan of breeding beef cattle one should make a careful study of his conditions ; he should visit farms where beef cattle are successfully bred, noting conditions and comparing with his own. Such improvement as he may be able to bring about must be upon the common native cattle of the community. To dispose of the native cattle and purchase well- bred uniform cattle would be very expensive and in most cases very unprofitable. The task is then to adopt some plan of breeding that will result in an improvement of the native stock. In most cases this can be most profitably accomplished by the grading-up process; that is, by the use of pure-bred bulls on the native common females. Cooperative grading-up. — A very successful plan to improve the beef-producing qualities of the cattle of a locality is by the cooperative grading-up method. The formation of beef-breed- ing associations throughout a given locality would do much to advance the progress of the industry. Each association should have for its object the production and improvement of high- grade and pure-bred beef cattle, and should be formed of breed- ers who possess the same class or breed of cattle. It would be the duty of such an association to protect the interest of its mem- bers, provide suitable bulls each year for use on the cows owned by the members, advertise stock, attract buyers, hold sales, call meetings for the discussion of beef breeding and feeding matters, and to educate the farmers of the locality to better methods of caring for live-stock. Raise heifer calves from best cows. — Because of the excellency of the heifer calves from the good cows, the cattle feeder is tempted to fatten them for beef. This should not be done. They should be reserved for breeding purposes. Many cattle breeders are actually reducing the quality of their beef -produc- ing herd by fattening the best calves and reserving the poorer ones for breeding because they will not make good feeders. 308 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK The best cattle should be retained and propagated and the poorer animals discarded. In a very few generations, by em- ploying such a method, the common cattle of the country could be greatly improved. It is the application of haphazard methods that has resulted in the lack of character that exists among our common native cattle. The breed. — Choose the breed that best suits the conditions, the markets, and the fancy of the breeders. There is no best breed of beef cattle for all conditions. There is much variation in the temperament, size, and quality of product among the leading beef breeds. Whether Shorthorns, Herefords, Angus, or Galloways should be chosen de- pends on the attendant condi- tions and the personal preference among the breeders and feeders. The Shorthorns have excellent Fig. 95. — Champion Hereford hind-quarters and nick Well with Bull "Dale" Photograph from the common cattle as well as National Stockman and Farmer. other beef breeds. The Here- fords mature early and are excellent grazers. The Angus ma- ture fairly early, produce a high quality of beef, and are much sought on the markets. They are hornless though rather nervous. The Galloways produce high quality beef, are hornless, and often possess good coats of hair; the hides are much sought for tanning, and are used in manufacturing coats, robes, and the like. The breed itself is never so important as is the individuality and the uniformity. Crossing. — For the propagation of animals intended solely for beef many experienced cattle breeders and feeders prefer a Short- horn-Hereford cross, contending that the cross-bred steer in- BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 309 herits the good grazing and early maturing qualities of the Here- ford and the desirable hind-quarters of the Shorthorn. But it must be understood that this cross-bred offspring should not be used for breeding, no matter how excellent an individual, for the second generation is very likety to inherit the poor qualities or other qualities of both ancestors. The dual-purpose cow. — By dual-purpose cow is meant one capable of yielding a good flow of milk, and in which the offspring will make a fair quality of beef as will the cow when dried off. This is the so-called " farmer's cow," concerning the profitable- ness of which there is much discussion. Because of the high price of land over much of the grain belt, it is no longer profit- able to keep a cow merely for the calf she raises. This has led to the opinion that it is possible to develop a strain of dual- or double-purpose cattle, one that while raising a calf that would make a fair quality of beef would also yield milk sufficient to pay for her keep. The demand for such double-purpose animals has led a few of the breeders, of at least three of the established breeds, Short- horn, Red Polled, and Devon, to endeavor to breed such animals. In the breeding of such cattle there are two very pertinent ques- tions to be considered : First, the amount of milk or butter-fat that should be expected; and second, the degree of excellency in beef production that should be sought among the offspring. These questions assume much importance, for, as we have already seen, the type suited to the production of milk is ill adapted to the production of beef, and the type that takes on beef economi- cally is not likely to make good milkers. Dual-purpose cattle breeders vary widely in their opinion as to the amount of milk and fat that should be expected as well as the excellency sought in the calves. While the flow and fat required to make a profit will vary according to conditions, yet if one can secure 5000 to 7000 pounds, yielding 200 to 250 pounds of butter-fat yearly, and a calf of sufficient quality to reach a weight of 350 pounds 310 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS by the time it is 6 months of age, there should be no difficulty in realizing a handsome profit, providing, of course, that the prod- ucts are marketed to advantage (Fig. 96). Instead of procuring dual-purpose strains of cattle, some persons suggest breeding the dairy cows to a beef bull, thus producing a half-blood beef animal. They recommend the following plan : Since a good cow, properly cared for, may be profitably milked for a period of six to eight years, during which time she is likely to produce three or four heifer calves, only one-third to one-fourth of the cows need be bred to a dairy bull; or the breeding of the _ ~ entire herd to a dairv bull once Fig. 96. — The Shorthorn Cow "Rose of Glenside." The dairy in three or four years is suffi- type From March, 1909, to cjent to maintain the dairy herd. March, 1910, she gave 18,072 *; pounds of milk containing 625 All other calves are available for pounds of fat. Owned by May & beef production and should be Otis, Granville Center, Pa. Ex- , . . « . .. n i i ample of a dual-purpose cow. sired by a beef bull. Such a plan is likely to encounter practical difficulties that would render its serviceability doubtful. It would no doubt result in the production of calves of little value to maintain a dairy herd and with doubtful value as feeding cattle. It would also be extremely hazardous to attempt to maintain a dairy herd with only one-fourth to one-third of the calves to select from. Uniformity. —Lack of uniformity is one of the greatest faults connected with breeding common cattle. As it is now, each locality is producing cattle of a number of types and breeds. Such cattle' are not desirable feeding animals, as they will not finish or fatten evenly and must be sent to market lacking in uniformity in type, color, weight, quality, and con- BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 311 ditions. Mixed droves of cattle of this kind are not desired on any market, and hence are discriminated against and must sell for an exceedingly low price. On the other hand, if each farmer in the locality would conform with the majority of his neighbors and cooperate in propagating the same breed, even though this breed may not be the one that suits his fancy best or even the one that is best suited to the district, until the community became noted for the production of such a breed, then a cattle feeder in search of any particular type should be able to go to the district noted for the production of the breed required and there find cattle in sufficient numbers to meet all needs. THE BEEF BULL To the bull we must look for the improvement of the common cattle. To secure the improvement in a herd of cattle through the females would require the use of forty or more superior cows to accomplish the same results as might be secured by the use of a single bull, and even then there would be less uniformity in the offspring. This is be- cause the bull controls one-half the characters of the entire crop of calves. This has led to the assertion that "the bull is half the herd." This assertion is misleading in a way, for when it comes to herd improvement, he is even more than one-half the herd. The cost of a bull. — Among dairymen who keep a record of the production of their cows, there is a fair knowledge of the value of a good bull, while those who breed feeding cattle seem to lack such information, or at least ignore it entirely. From this it must not be inferred that one should pay a fancy price for a beef bull. Many general farmers are depending on practically worthless grade and scrub bulls to head the herds of grade cows. Properly cared for, a bull should sire forty calves in a season. Suppose the bull is of sufficient quality 312 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS to increase the value of each calf $5, a very conservative estimate, then he makes $200 with his first crop of calves. One-half of this sum will bring a very desirable bull of any of the leading beef breeds into any locality. Such a bull in- troduced into a locality can be made to pay for himself the Fig. 97. — Gall.oway Bull. First prize, Illinois State Fair. Owned by C. S. Hechtner, Clariton, la. The Galloway breed of beef cattle originated in southwestern Scotland, adjacent to the sea, where the breed developed much hardiness. Though neither so early maturing nor so large as the Angus, the flesh is of good quality. This breed is particularly noted for its fine coat of hair, which seems to be com- posed of two parte, a very fine, short under growth and a long, wavy outer growth. The hides are often used to manufacture coats, robes, and the like. All animals are black and hornless. first year. When once a desirable bull is procured, he should be retained as long as he remains a true breeder. Bulls possessing some age are likely to be difficult to control, and many an excellent sire has been sold for beef simply because the owner was afraid he would injure some one. BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 313 THE BEEF COW While all common cows must be bred in order that they may freshen, yet the cows to which we look to replenish the herd should be carefully selected. The heifer calves from the best cows should be retained for breeding. By using a good pure-bred sire and retaining the best heifers to replenish the herd, in a few generations one can have a herd of cows equal to any pure-bred herd for the production of feeding cattle. The production-period in cattle. — As in the dairy cow, the most fertile period is two to eight years of age. In exceptional cases this period may be extended both ways (see page 246). Season of the year to breed. — While it seems desirable to have dairy calves dropped in the fall, it is equally desirable to have beef calves dropped in the spring. With dairy cattle, a some- what larger flow can be ob- tained when calves come in the fall. With beef cattle the milk flow is not so important. Cows may be wintered more cheaply when not in milk, requiring less room, less careful attention, and less food. Calves dropped in the spring get a good start on pasture. They need be car- . i i . Fig. 98. — Galloway Heifers. True Tied OVer but One Winter, as totype Owned by C. S. Hechtner. they can be fattened or finished the following fall when approximately eighteen months of age, if it is so desired ; or if desired to fatten them during the winter, they can be finished the second winter and put on the market at two years of age. Fall-dropped calves are more trouble to care for during the winter, although the advo- cates of fall-dropped beef calves say that better steers can be produced and developed by fall calving, as the cow in the fall 314 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS is in better condition ; they also say that the increased flow of milk caused by turning the cow to pasture in the spring is a good thing for the calf, and that the fall-dropped calf is better able to endure the heat and flies the following summer. After a careful consideration of both practices, the writer thinks it desirable to have the beef calves dropped in spring. A very important factor in the breeding of calves for feeding is to breed the cows in such a way that the calves will be as nearly uniform in age as possible. This applies to both fall and spring bred calves that are intended for feeding. Farmers who possess only a few cows have them freshen at intervals throughout the year in order that they may be well supplied with milk the year round. This, of course, makes the calves of unequal age, and they are not so desirable as feeding cattle. The pregna?it cow. — The pregnant cow should receive some attention, particularly when she is to drop her calf in the spring. Cows are often carried through the winter on a ration of dry forage, such as corn stalks with no grain in addition, with the result that they are in very poor condition at calving time. This often leads to trouble at parturition time, the cow being so weak she cannot bear the calf, which is likely to be very small, thin, and weakly. The cow may not have milk for it at first, or if she does, it will be thin and scant. Such a condition must be avoided if profitable feeding calves are to be propagated. If the pregnant cow may have succulence in the shape of corn silage, with clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay in addition, no grain need be fed. These feeds should be free from mold. On the other hand, if non-nitrogenous dry forage is to be fed, she should have grain in addition. Corn and wheat bran with a small amount of linseed meal as a conditioner cannot be improved upon. This may be fed at the rate of six pounds daily per 1000 pounds live weight. Shelter from the storms and rain should be provided; for this a common shed open to BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 315 the south is sufficient except in very cold climates. Pregnant cows thus cared for will come through the winter in good con- dition and give birth to a strong thrifty calf that, if bred right, will make a profitable feeder. Cow with calf at foot. — The cow that is to suckle her young need not receive the extra care that must be accorded the dairy cow. When the calves are dropped in the spring and the pasture is of good quality and abundant, the cows and calves will require very little attention during the pasture season. If, however, the pasture becomes short in late sum- mer and fall, extra feed, such as clover, alfalfa, green forage, or grain of some kind, should be given. Cows and calves at pasture should have free access to fresh water. Salt should be supplied at regular intervals or kept before them at all times. Shade of some kind should be provided in the absence of trees. As soon as convenient the calves should be taught to eat grain. This may be done by arranging a small pen with small gates or passages through which the calves may enter but the cows cannot. The pen may be placed near the water tank. By all means calves should be taught to eat grain before being weaned, as this will prevent shrinking at weaning time. For suckling and weanling calves, the following grain mixture proves satisfactory : 3 parts of corn meal, 3 parts ground oats, 3 parts of wheat bran, and 1 part of linseed meal. When the calves are dropped in the fall, the cow and calf will require more careful attention ; this, however, comes during the winter when there is little urgent work on farms where cows are thus kept. The object sought is so to feed and manage both cow and calf that they may be brought through the win- ter in a healthy and thrifty condition; the cow in order that she may properly nourish the suckling and be in condition to breed again when so desired, the calf in order that it may make a profitable feeding animal, as its future development depends 316 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS much upon its growth during the first six months of its life. If possible, the cow should have some succulent food, as corn silage, as such food improves her physical condition and encourages the milk flow, thereby giving the calf a more liberal supply. Clover, alfalfa, cowpea, or mixed hay should con- stitute at least a part of the dry forage, with some grain fed in addition. For the grain, a mixture of corn and bran with a little linseed meal added cannot be improved upon, and if a leguminous dry forage with silage is fed, a small amount of this grain, say four pounds daily, will prove ample to keep the cow and calf in thriving condition. If the dry forage consists of non-leguminous plants only, such as prairie or timothy hay or corn stalks, then a somewhat larger grain ration should be fed and the proportion of linseed meal may be increased. Pro- tection from the storms and rain must be provided. While a common shed open to the south will serve where the mercury seldom goes below zero, it is not sufficient in colder climates, particularly if very moist. On the other hand, the quarters must not be dark, damp, and poorly ventilated, as such is the ideal place for the propagation of all kinds of calf ills. The quarters should be measurably protected, well lighted, well ventilated, and dry. Cows and calves thus cared for will come through the winter in a thrifty and healthy condition. As on pasture, the calves should be taught to eat grain as soon as convenient and by all means at least one month before weaning. The calf that is permitted to suckle its dam can be raised with little extra care. It should have attention at birth to see that the function of respiration is started, and that it gets some of the first or colostrum milk of the dam. If the calf scours badly, some of the dam's milk should be drawn off, remembering that the last milk is richer in fat, and is the part likely to cause the trouble. After the calf gets a start by proper BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 317 feeding of the dam, both cow and calf can be kept in healthy condition. Male calves should be castrated before they have reached the age of three months, and this may be done any time after the calf is one week old. If hornless animals are desired, the horns should be removed with caustic potash as soon as they begin to appear (page 255). Calves should be weaned at five to eight months of age. Weaning is rather a question of preparation than of the absolute removal of the calf from the cow, and the simplicity of the weaning process depends on the thoroughness of the preparation. If the calf has been accustomed to the grain as suggested, if it has been permitted to take increasingly more as it grows, the process will not be difficult, for as the ration increases in the amount of grain it will decrease in the amount of milk. With such precaution, there will be very little if any set-back or disturbance to calf or dam. On the other hand, if the calf must learn to eat after being deprived of its accus- tomed source of food supply, it will require time to get used to the new condition, and the cow will demand special care, be- cause of the removal of the calf before her milk supply has been diminished to any extent. Weanlings should be well cared for during their first winter if they are to make profitable feeding cattle. They should have snug quarters, with opportunity for exercise, and be well fed. Weanling calves are often let run with the stock cattle and compelled to subsist entirely on dry forage, with the result that they run down in condition and sometimes are stunted, from which they never fully recover. A calf that is once stunted will not make a good feeding animal. On the other hand, if these weanlings are fed a liberal allowance, say four pounds daily per head, of the grain mixture suggested for the sucking calf, with clover, alfalfa, cowpea, or mixed hays in addition, they will come through the winter strong and thrifty 318 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and will give a good account of themselves when fattened the following summer. Calves cared for as suggested should reach a weight of 375 to 450 pounds by the time they are six months of age. While such calves make very excellent beef when well fed, they are nevertheless very expensive, for the breeder must keep the cow one year for the production of this 400-pound calf. No exact figures can be given as to the cost, for much will depend on the conditions.. It is true that formerly many calves were thus raised in the grain belt, whereas at the present time prac- tically none are so raised. It would seem then to be no longer profitable on land suited for grain growing. In view of recent developments it seems unlikely that the price of beef will go high enough to make it a profitable industry. That producing such calves can be made a profitable industry in the outlying territory of cheap pasture lands, however, admits of no doubt. Feeding the beef calf. — If the cow's milk is desired, the calf should be weaned on or before the ninth milking, when the milk becomes fit for human consumption. As a rule the earlier the calf is weaned the more easily it can be taught to drink from the pail. On the other hand, it is better for both cow and calf to have the calf suckle as long as possible. The beef calf can be taught to drink and changed from whole to skim milk much as suggested for the dairy calf (pages 251 to 255). There has been much discussion from time to time, among beef producers, as to the possibilities of the skim-milk-fed calf as a beef-producing animal. In fact, the skim-milk calf as a beef producer is not likely to be considered seriously by the experienced beef producers of the middle West. To these men the skim-milk calf means a stunted, pot-bellied animal with papery skin, lacking in quality and thrift, a fit subject for ridi- cule, but hardly worth while in the feed lot. That these ex- perienced men are justified in their opinion there can be no doubt, for the average skim-milk calf has not much to recom- BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 319 mend him as a beef-producing animal. On the other hand, conditions are rapidly becoming such that we are obliged to rety, in part at least, on these skim-milk calves for the coun- try's beef supply. Furthermore, it has been proved that by giving the skim-milk calf proper care a fair kind of beef-produc- ing animal may result. Such a calf should have extra care and be encouraged from the beginning, for it must be remem- bered to attempt to make beef from a stunted calf will prove an unprofitable venture. They must be kept strong and thrifty. CHAPTER XIV CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE The ability to fatten cattle rapidly and quickly is to be increased and strengthened by careful study and experience. All that may be spoken or written will not make one suc- cessful, nor cover his defects, if he does not take kindly to the work. Study, observation, and especially practice add to the ability of the cattle feeder. The ability to carry a steer through a one-hundred-and-eighty-day fattening period without once getting him "off feed" is the end to be attained. The importance of regularity in everything that pertains to the management of feeding cattle cannot easily be overesti- mated. This applies particularly to administering feed and water. Cattle anticipate the hour of feeding and become nervous if it is long delayed; they bellow, coax, and become much excited, all of which operates against the economical pro- duction of beef. Sudden changes in the food are to be avoided, as the digestive system is unable to accommodate itself at once to such changes, and digestive disorders are likely to follow. Such shifts sometimes result in scours, other times in colic, and in fact may result in various kinds of indigestion. When necessary to change from one food to another, the transfer should be made slowly and gradually, replacing the old with the new. Scouring is very disastrous and should be carefully avoided, as a single day's laxness may offset a week's gain. The inexperienced feeder is likely to overfeed because of the 320 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 321 desire to push the cattle to better gains, which not only often induces scours, but has a tendency to throw the cattle off feed. Cattle of about the same size and strength should be fed in the same lot or pasture, while weak animals and those unable to push their way to the feed-rack and get their share should be placed where they can be supplied in quiet. Strong animals often push the weak away from the feed-troughs, which not only prevents the weaker from feeding, but enables the stronger to get an overfeed, resulting in scours or other digestive disorders. Unwholesome food, or a fault in the feeding mixture, may result in scours. At a glance, the successful and experienced cattle feeder recognizes the shortcomings among his fattening cattle. By going through the feed lots, noting the condition of the manure or droppings, their general appearance and odor, by noting the feed-boxes and the general conduct of the cattle, he is able to discern their needs, and governs himself accordingly. The droppings of the steers are an excellent index to the prog- ress of fattening cattle. While these droppings should never be hard, they should, however, be thick enough to pile up and have that greasy or bland appearance that indicates a healthy action of the liver. The droppings from steers that are not fattening well, or suffering from indigestion, have a disagreeable odor. Sour-smelling odors, and thin watery droppings indicate something wrong with the feeding cattle. The behavior of the cattle is a further index to their general thrift and progress in fattening. Their quiet pose while rumi- nating; their peculiar loud breathing when lying down, due no doubt to the cramped position of the internal organs be- cause of a well-filled paunch ; the quiet and prominent eyes ; their manner of approaching the feed-box ; the way in which they feed ; their mellow skin and oily coat ; and in fact each movement, gives the experienced cattle feeder a clew as to their general condition. 322 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS FARMS FOR FATTENING CATTLE While cattle feeding may be conducted on any farm, there are two general types of farms on which it is likely to prove the more profitable. First, grain farms that grow large quan- tities of dry forage incidental to the grain and which would be otherwise largely wasted ; second, pasture farms, where for some reason grain cannot be successfully grown and where the land is suitable for pasture. EQUIPMENT FOR SUMMER FEEDING In considering the profits likely to result from steer feeding, among the first items to be taken into account is the equip- ment. While the equipment for beef production is not nearly as extensive as for milk production, there are, nevertheless, a few necessities to be provided. Since the equipment for sum- mer feeding on pasture differs from that of winter feeding in the dry-lot, each will be considered separately. The necessary equipment for summer feeding on pasture consists of the pasture, the feeding-boxes or bunks, water, shade, and salt. Pasture. — The importance of properly managed pastures cannot be overestimated. The general management, such as the importance of a good stand of grass ; of keeping down the weeds ; of providing suitable drainage ; of top dressing with barnyard manure when convenient; and of not turning to pasture too early in the spring, was discussed on pages 284 to 289. It was there shown that many pastures that are now supporting one animal to three or four acres could, with very little extra care, be made to support an animal to the acre with- out feed in addition, or two animals to one acre by the use of additional feed, such as is commonly practiced in the beef- producing localities of the central West. CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 323 Feed-bunk. — While any kind of durable box or trough, slightly elevated, may be used in feeding grain, a feed-bunk similar to those illustrated in Fig. 99 will prove the most efficient. These feed-bunks are three feet wide, fifteen feet long, inside di- mension, and two and one-half feet high. They are constructed as follows : From a 4" X 4" scantling cut six posts two and one-half feet long, bevel off the top of each so as to shed water and prevent the sharp corners from injuring the cattle. Cut three 2"X12" plank sixteen feet long and six 2"X4 "'s four feet long. Place two of the 2" X 4"\s, edges up, on a level place, in such a position that when the sixteen foot plank are placed upon them, the plank will project over one inch on either end, thus leaving the 2" X 4"'s fifteen and one-half feet apart, inside dimensions. Spike or, better still, bolt the three 2" X 12" plank to these 2" X 4"'s, leaving six inches clear on either end of the 2" X 4"'s. Place a third 2" X 4" under the three planks two inches to one side of the middle, and spike or bolt fast, leaving six inches on either end of the 2" X 4" projecting as before. Cut two 2" X 8" plank sixteen feet long and place one, edge up, either side of the platform, thus making a box; spike fast to the 2" X 12"'s and to the 2" X 4"'s. Elevate the box thus con- structed, and with six 8" bolts, bolt fast to the 4" X 4" posts, thus making a bunk as illustrated in Fig. 99. Cut two 2" X 6"'s approximately three feet long for the ends. This should be accurately measured in order to fit tightly. Place the remaining three 2" X 4"'s under the box on the opposite side of the 4" X 4" posts, bolt and spike all together. Invert the bunk and batten the cracks with 1" X 3"\s, otherwise the timber in the bunk will dry out, leaving cracks through which the grain will leak. This bunk can be materially strengthened by plac- ing three 4 rods across, one at either end and one in the center. One bunk of the dimensions given will be sufficient to accommodate fifteen to twenty cattle, depending on their size. Any kind of lumber may be used, but oak is the more durable 324 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS i i o p H O tc M H H X o 3 35 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 325 and will make a stronger bunk. Such a bunk can be moved from place to place. The self-feeder is a feed box or bin holding a large amount of grain and so arranged that part of the grain is accessible to the cattle at all times. The great advantage stated for self- feeders is that they save labor. They have been used with vary- ing success, some cattle feeders using them continuously, others using them one or two years and then abandoning them. In some localities the self-feeder is common, in others not known. Shade. — When there are trees in the pastures, the matter of shade need receive no attention, but in the absence of natural shade, some provision should be made for it especially during the hot, dry weather when the flies are troublesome. Droves of fattening cattle occasionally become so excited, due to the excessive heat and flies, that they bunch up or stampede and sometimes injure each other, or whoever comes in their way. Water. — Fattening cattle must be supplied with an abun- dance of fresh water at all times. Many pastures through- out the country are not thus supplied. As a rule beef cannot be produced economically on such farms. The hotter and dryer the weather, the more the cattle need, and this is just the time there is likely to be a shortage. In the absence of running water, perhaps the most efficient source is a good well, equipped with a wind pump. When the water is pumped by hand and the drove of cattle large, the water supply is likely to be deficient. It is also important that the water be fresh and clean. Hot, stale, and muddy water, laden with mosquito larvae and other impurities, is not fit for cattle to drink. Something better than mud-holes should be supplied. Salt should either be kept before the feeding cattle at all times or supplied them regularly twice each week. A very good plan is to cut a common salt barrel in two at the middle and place one-half where the cattle can have free access to it. This should be under a shed, as rain dissolves the salt. 326 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS EQUIPMENT FOR WINTER FEEDING The equipment for feeding cattle in the winter deserves special attention ; not that it is difficult or expensive but that the proper kind of equipment is often neglected and much money expended for items that are not only unnecessary but positively objectionable. The most particular item is that of efficient shelter. Other items are the feed-lot and its location, the racks from which to feed dry forage, and the like. Shelter for winter feeding. — While it is essential to provide warm winter quarters for the dairy cow, because she is thin in flesh and because of the nature of her product, such warm quarters are not necessary for the fattening steer. The fat- tening steer possesses a coat of fat or flesh which serves to protect him from the cold, and when on full feed the heat gen- erated in the body by masticating, digesting, and assimilating the food is sufficient to maintain the body temperature. No doubt the needs of the fattening animal are such as to make a reasonable amount of cold air beneficial rather than detrimental. But it is very desirable that the fattening steer be kept dry and provided with a comfortable dry bed. Dry quarters are far more important than warm quarters. A structure which protects the animals from the rain and snow and provides them with a dry comfortable bed is sufficient. Waters, who has thoroughly investigated the shelter prob- lem, concludes his work as follows : " Apparently then the only shelter required for cattle of this class is that which will protect them from rain and snow and break the northwest winds and furnish a dry place in which the animals may lie down. It is more important that the fattening animal lie down regularly and during a large portion of the time than that he be pro- tected from the cold. An abundance of sunshine and fresh air, a comfortable place in which to lie, and freedom from external CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 327 disturbances furnish ideal conditions for rapid and economic gains." The feed-lot. — Relatively too little attention is given the feed- lot. In choosing the location of the lot, consideration should be given to drainage and the natural protection. A south slope is the most desirable, as the water will drain off quickly after a rain, and the fall benefit of the sun's rays will be received. A muddy lot is one of the greatest objections to winter feeding. Over much of the grain belt the soil is rather impervious to water, which is held at the surface. The cattle in walking mix the water with the soil, which is often clay, thus making a most disagreeable mud. The only known corrective for such lots is to pave them, or at least in part, particularly where the animals must lie and where the feed-bunks and racks are placed. For this purpose various materials are used, chief of which are cobble stones, bricks, cement, and plank. Before laying the pavement a grade should be established slightly higher than the sur- rounding surface, to eliminate the surface water. The grade should have a slope of at least one inch to six feet. The surface should then be covered with six inches of gravel rolled and tamped down solid ; over this place a one-inch covering of fine sand on which the brick or cobble stone may be laid. Roll, or better still, tamp down solid. Over this should be placed a cement mortar of the consistency of cream made by thoroughly mixing one part clean sharp sand and one part of Portland cement. This mixture should be thoroughly swept into the joints and cracks. A second coat of the cement mortar may be laid in ten days to insure the complete filling of the cracks and joints. A feed-lot thus paved will be free from mud, can be cleaned with team and scraper, and makes a very desirable place on which to feed cattle. Platform for feed-bunks. — On soils that are porous and from which the water drains off rapidly, the mud gives little incon- 328 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS venience except about the feed-bunks, dry-forage-racks, and water-tank. About these and extending back six feet, may be placed a few loads of coarse gravel or, better still, a pave- ment similar to that described above, or a plank platform. Whatever the material used in construction, it should be so arranged that the farmer may drive alongside the bunk or rack with a load of feed. Such platforms will save feed bills enough each year to pay for their construction, to say nothing of the extra annoyance caused by the mud in case they are not used. The same feed-bunks suggested for feeding on pasture may be moved to the lot and used for winter feeding as well. As a rule, it is not desirable to place the feed-bunk under the shed except when the winters are extra severe. Dry-forage-rack. — It is not advisable to have the feed-bunks and the dry-forage-racks combined, since the litter from the dry forage falling upon the grain renders it distasteful to cattle, particularly when on a full grain ration. Neither is it advis- able to construct such racks under the shed except where the climate is very disagreeable, though they should be placed to the south of the shed or barn to protect them measurably from the winds and driving storms. The form and shape of the dry- forage-racks will depend on the condition in which dry forage is fed, corn stalks calling for one form, hay for another, and chopped hay or shredded fodder for still another. As these racks are likely to be permanent, they should be constructed to meet the particular conditions under which they are to be used. Water-tanks. — A liberal supply of fresh water is as essential for winter feeding as for summer feeding. While water is likely to be more plentiful in winter than in summer, it is often allowed to freeze for days at a time, so that the cattle are wholly deprived of a supply and often compelled to eat snow or lick the ice to get the water needed for their bodies. In very severe weather cattle are not likely to drink much ice water ; this ob- servation has led the rather careless cattle feeder to think the CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 329 cattle do not need much water at such times. This is a mis- taken idea, as fattening cattle need a liberal supply of fresh water at all times, even though they will not consume as much as in the hot, dry weather of mid-summer. Fig. 100. — Red Polled Bull "Cremo. " Avery noted prize winner, owned by Frank Davis & Son, Holbrook, Neb. The Red Polled cattle, natives of Norfolk and Suffolk counties, England, are classed as dual purpose. They give good returns in both beef and milk, but do not equal the beef cattle for beef or the milk cattle for milk. In size the bulls range from 1500 to 2000 pounds, the cows 1200 to 1400 pounds. The color is always red, and the horns wanting. When the water-tanks are not too large, a very good way to prevent freezing, except in very severe weather, is to encase the tank in a box or frame and fill this frame with litter from the horse stable. The frame should be so constructed as to permit the use of a layer of this manure at least one foot thick all around the tank. By covering all, both frame and tank, with a large lid which is to be shut down at night, and 330 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS during a part of the day when the weather is severe, there is not much likelihood of the water freezing. A little labor spent in constructing such a frame will save many times its cost in food, as it requires considerable heat to warm up the ice water that cattle drink. CHAPTER XV DISEASES OF CATTLE Cattle are very subject to certain diseases which render their usage for domestic purposes questionable. Milk from diseased cows, or meat from diseased carcasses, may endanger the lives of those who consume it. While these diseases are properly classed as incurable, it should be remembered that they are communicable germ diseases and are therefore pre- ventable. Therefore, some space will be devoted to their pre- vention. In addition to these diseases, cattle are subject to a number of ailments, some of which are simple and easily cared for, but more of which are somewhat complicated, requiring skilled treatment. The sick cow should receive much care, as in many cases good care is to be preferred to the use of medicine (see page 151). This chapter is intended merely to serve as a guide and to make suggestions; it is not designed to take the place of a good veterinarian, who should always be called in case of serious difficulty or doubt. The dosages here advised, except when otherwise noted, are for mature animals. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS, AND DIFFICULTIES OF PARTURITION There are few diseases to which cattle are subject that are of wider interest than those of the generative organs. This is particularly true of those herds that are being kept for breed- ing purposes and when the principal product is the offspring. 331 332 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Cattle are particularly subject to a contagious form of abortion which destroys many young before they can live out of the womb. The principal diseases or difficulties are barrenness ; abortion, both contagious and non-contagious ; difficult parturition ; re- tention of the afterbirth; milk-fever; garget. Barrenness in cows. — It often happens that cows are served normally, yet fail to conceive. Some of the causes of this diffi- culty are readily understood and easily prevented, while others are not well understood and are beyond control of the breeder. An excess of rich and stimulating foods is a common cause of non-breeding, especially if the animals are denied exercise. The dangers attending parturition are often more than tre- bled in the case of fat animals. This excessive fat, however, may be of much advantage once these dangers are past. On the other hand, barrenness may be due to poor feeding, the system being weakened by the lack of sufficient nutrition. Undue sexual excitement at the most active stage of heat is often responsible for the cow not conceiving. Cows that for some reason have missed a season are often difficult to impregnate. Animals that are too closely inbred are also likely to be barren. In addition to these, there is a long line of causes of barrenness in cows over which the breeder has little or no con- trol, such as derangement of the sex organs, diseased ovaries, tumors, and the like. Abortion in cows. — Abortion in cows is either contagious or non-contagious. Because of the great differences as to cause and subsequent treatment, we consider them separately. Non-contagious abortion. — This is produced by any cause operating to disconnect the union of the fetal membrane from the uterus. A cow may abort by reason of almost any cause that very generally disturbs her system, as from the influence of a too stimulating diet or the reverse, as when the nourishment is so deficient that the fetus dies in the womb; damp, unhealthy stables ; worms in the bowels, lungs, or liver ; indigestion of all DISEASES OF CATTLE 333 kinds ; the drinking of putrid, stagnant water ; of ice water ; the eating of iced grass ; of ergot, of smuts on corn or other grains; and severe illness. The more direct mechanical causes are falls, strains, violent exertion, and blows ; also traveling on icy ground, muddy roads, or jumping over fences, ditches, and the like. The prevention of non-contagious abortion is the avoidance of all causes that are likely to produce it. All causes of excite- ment, of constipation, of diarrhea, of indigestion, and the like must be avoided. With cattle, non-contagious abortion may often be prevented, although the first signs have appeared. So long as the fetus has not perished, the waters not discharged, nor the water-bags presented, attempts should be made to check the progress. Place the cow alone in a quiet stall and check the labor pains if possible. To do this, laudanum given in one ounce doses for small cows and two ounce doses for large ones is good. Repeat the dose in three or four hours should the labor pains recur. When all measures fail and miscarriage results, all that can be done is to assist in the removal of the fetus and its mem- branes, as in ordinary parturition. Contagious abortion in cows. — -Though not well understood, contagious abortion is known to be due to an organism. The germ producing the disease is conveyed by infected bulls, by the tongue or tail of infected animals, or by the external genital organs coming in contact with the wall, fence, rubbing post, litter, or floor which has been previously soiled by an injected animal. Cows should be kept in fair flesh and in vigorous condition. The method of preventing contagious abortion differs from non- contagious only in the separation of the infected animals and in free use of disinfectants. When a cow shows signs of aborting, or when she has aborted, she should be separated from the other cows and the stable or stall she occupied thoroughly disinfected. For this purpose, use a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid or a 334 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS 1 to 1000 solution of corrosive sublimate. All litter and the dead fetus should be burned. After the cow has aborted, she must be kept thoroughly clean by use of a disinfectant. Dissolve 1 dram of corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce each of alcohol and glycer- ine, shake this up in a gallon of water, and use as an injection into the vagina and wash the parts about the vulva and root of the tail. Disinfect the animal each day as long as the discharge continues. Do not breed aborting cows for two or three months. For two days before breeding, the vagina should be washed out with the sublimate-alcohol-glycerine-solution, but on the day of breeding warm water only should be used as the corrosive sublimate will destroy the semen. The disease seems to run out and disappear from the herd after a time. The best methods of combating contagious abortion are cleanliness, the free use of disinfectants, isolation of infected cows, and precautions against using infected bulls. Many pre- ventive remedies have been suggested, of which the following is as good as any: Mix one pound of pulverized hyposulfite of soda, one pound of sulfur, and ten pounds of common salt. Give a small handful to each pregnant cow two or three times a week. Difficult parturition. — There are a number of causes of diffi- cult parturition among cattle. Cows, however, have an ad- vantage over mares, in that the fetus and fetal membranes are more strongly attached and not so likely to be disconnected and may, therefore, be left alone longer with practically no danger to the young. Among cows the maxim may be : Do not inter- fere too soon. Bruising, tearing of the passages, and bleeding from the uncontracted womb may follow the too rapid extrac- tion of the calf. If there is no obstruction, let the calf be ex- pelled slowly by the unaided efforts of the cow. If, however, after the cow has labored some time, there seems to be some mechanical obstruction, she should be ex- amined. As this is likely to be much of a task, the operator DISEASES OF CATTLE 335 should prepare himself for it by dressing in a shirt from which the sleeves have been cut off at the shoulder. This avoids danger of soiling the clothing or of exposure, as is the case when the shirt is removed, and yet leaves the whole arm free for the work. The hand and arm should be smeared with oil, lard, or vaseline. This grease should be fresh, neither salted nor rancid, and should be purified by boiling or rendered antiseptic by the addition of a tablespoonful of carbolic acid to the pound of grease. This should always be done, as it protects both the cow and the operator from infection. After the labor pains have lasted some time without any signs of the fetus, the hand should be introduced to examine ; if the water-bags have burst and neither feet nor head appear for some time, if one fore foot only and the head appears, or both fore feet without the head, or the head without the fore feet, and if one hind foot appears without the other, make very careful examination. In normal presentation the fore feet, hoofs down, should first appear, then the nose. In any of these abnormal presentations, secure the presented limb or head by a rope with a running noose, so that in case it should slip back into the womb it will not get lost during the examination, but may be retained in the vagina or easily brought up again. This examination can be made much easier if one turns the cow with head down hill, as the internal organs gravitate forward into the belly of the cow thus making more room in which to bring up the missing limb or head and to manipulate the fetus. In case the cow is lying down, turn her on the side opposite to that on which the limb is missing, so that there may be more room to arrange the fetus or to bring up the missing member. Do not attempt to arrange the fetus, limb, or head, during the labor pains, but wait until the pain has ceased and then straighten out the part before the next pain comes on. One must be patient and painstaking, remembering that the fetus 336 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS will not come until properly arranged, and when so arranged, it is likely to come fairly easy. The task is all the more difficult because it is very trying on the arm of the operator, as the arm of the strongest man is likely to become numb working in such positions. If the passages have lost their natural lubricating liquid and become dry, smear the interior of the passages, the womb, and the surface of the calf as far as can be reached with fresh lard or sweet oil. In pulling on the fetus, draw only while the cow is straining. When pulling, draw downward toward the hocks as well as backward, as the natural curvature of both fetus and passages are thus followed and the extraction of the fetus rendered easy. If the pains of the cow are violent and long continued, they may be checked by pinching the back or by placing a tight surcingle around the body in front of the udder. If the pains continue, one to one-and-one-half ounces of chloral hydrate in a quart of water may be given to check them. Retained afterbirth. — The cow of all farm animals is especially subject to this difficulty. When the afterbirth is retained it decomposes and is discharged as a yellow or reddish fluid, having an extremely offensive odor. This discharge is most apparent when the cow is lying down and while she ruminates. The rear parts of the cow, rump, tail, and vulva are soiled by the discharge, which often contains lumps of decomposing material. To avoid this, the afterbirth should be removed within twenty- four or thirty-six hours after calving. To do this, a simple method which is often effective is to hang a small weight, not to exceed one or two pounds, to the hanging portion of the after- birth and allow this by its constant dragging and by its jerking effect as the cow moves along to pull the membranes from their attachments and to stimulate the womb to expulsive contrac- tions. In neglected cases when the hanging mass is already badly decomposed this cannot be done, as the membrane is liable to tear under the added weight, leaving a part of the material in the womb. If the bowels are constipated, a physic DISEASES OF CATTLE 337 consisting of one ounce of ginger given with a quart of sweet oil will prove advantageous. If the afterbirth remains, it is neces- sary to remove the membrane by hand. This should be done within twenty-four hours after calving, since the mouth of the womb may be so closed that it becomes difficult to introduce the hand. The operator had better dress as suggested for diffi- cult parturition (p. 334). The arm should also be greased as suggested for that operation, as otherwise the operator may become infected from the decaying membrane. It is* a good Fig. 101. — Red Polled Herd. Owned by Frank Hartlin, Strasburg, Ohio. plan to wind the free portion of the hanging membrane around a small stick and roll up until it reaches the vulva. An assistant should hold the tail and membrane to one side while the operator introduces the greased arm which he passes along until the places of attachment are reached. These places of attachment will be found to resemble mushroom-shaped bodies and are detached one by one by pushing the hand between the membrane and the womb and slipping the membrane from the heads of these bodies, taking care not to rupture the womb. As the membrane is released, the assistant should keep rolling it up on the stick. 338 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS After the whole membrane is removed, it may be well to disin- fect the womb with a two per cent solution of carbolic acid. Eversion of the womb. — This ailment is commonly called "casting the wethers," and is rather common among cattle. It often follows difficult parturition, the cow continuing to strain until the womb is forced out and hangs in a large mass from the vulva. The womb can be instantly recognized from the other membranes by the presence of the mushroom-shaped bodies, each two to three inches in diameter and attached by a narrow neck. There are a large number of these bodies, fifty to one hundred. The displaced womb should be carefully washed with cold water containing a one per cent solution of carbolic acid. The cold is useful to drive out the blood and reduce the bulk. Now with the closed fist planted in the rounded end of the largest horn of the womb, push back so as to reinvert the womb into place. This must be done gradually. The cow will strain while this is being done, but the womb is to be firmly held until the straining is over. This straining may be overcome in part by pinching on the back. The holding of the womb in place is the next point. This is perhaps best accomplished by the use of a rope truss. This truss can be made from a long one inch rope. Double the long rope at its middle and place over the neck of the cow; bring the ends, one on either side of the neck, down between the fore legs, twist them together to make firm, carry back between the hind legs and up to the vulva, here cross them and tie firmly with a string, then, just before the tail is reached, cross back and tie firmly, thus making a ring which when drawn tight will press the vulva ; then carry the ropes forward along the back and tie into the middle of the rope at the top of the neck. The rope should be drawn so tight that the rope ring is made to press firmly all around the vulva. Milk-fever. — This disease is also known as parturition DISEASES OF CATTLE 339 apoplexy and parturition fever. There is, however, very little if any fever connected with the disease, as temperature is usually below normal. High-producing, fleshy, aged cows that have been closely confined are likely to be attacked. In fact, the best and heaviest milkers are most subject to the disease. It is more likely to occur when the birth has been comparatively easy and quick, and from one to ten days after calving. There is a sudden dullness, hanging back in the stall, drooping of the head, uneasy movement of the hind limbs, unsteady steps; and the cow staggers, lies, or falls down and is unable to rise. At this time there may be some temperature. At first the cow lies with her head turned around with nose resting on the right flank; later she may stretch full on her side. She soon becomes unconscious, the eyes are glazed, their pupils widely dilated and their lids not movable when the ball of the eye is touched with the finger. Treatment must follow quickly or she will soon expire. While this disease was formerly considered very fatal, with the air-treatment it is seldom so. This air-treatment consists simply of injecting air into the udder and carefully kneading the udder at the same time. Care must be taken that the air be sterile. There are Schmidt-Kolding sterile-air milk-fever outfits on the market with which to force the air into the udder, yet if one of these is not near at hand, a very convenient ap- paratus can be made from a common bicycle air-pump and a milk-tube. In fact, this simple apparatus will prove as efficient as any. Attach the milk-tube to the pump, insert the tube into the teat and as the air is pumped in, knead the udder well. In two hours milk the air out, rest a few minutes, and pump up again. This may be repeated every two hours until the animal is relieved. If the animal is badly bloated, puncture the paunch in the left loin with a canula and trocar as suggested for bloating (page 351). This treatment should be pursued while there is life, irrespective of how low the cow may seem. Do not let the 340 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS cow die. In case the milk-tube is not at hand, use a medicine dropper to get the air into the udder. If the canula and trocar are not at hand, stick a knife into the paunch. This is recom- mended only in the absence of something better. Many a cow has been saved by these crude methods. Garget is perhaps one of the principal forms of mammitis, of which caked-udder is a second. The udcler often becomes highly inflamed soon after the young is born, and occasionally before when the glands are active, congested with blood, and the udder over-distended with milk. In addition to this, inflammation of the udder is often due to mechanical injuries such as blows, kicks, scratches, and being horned by other cows; and especially by germs entering the udder. The treatment is to relieve the congestion by drawing the milk frequently. This should be done before calving if the udder is distended. After the milk is drawn gently but thoroughly, rub the udder. Bathe the parts with hot water for fifteen min- utes at a time, rub dry, and apply an ointment made as follows : Dissolve two tablespoonfuls of gum camphor in a teacupful of melted fresh lard. This can be greatly improved by the addition of one ounce of the fluid extract of belladonna. The udder should be bathed three times daily and the ointment well rubbed in. It is often advantageous to support the udder by the use of a wide piece of cloth with holes cut for the teats and this held in place by arranging a band over the back. When the trouble is due to germs entering the udder, a two per cent solution of carbolic acid should be injected into the udder; leave this in ten to fifteen minutes; milk out and bathe as before. This solution may be injected by fastening a milk-tube on a syringe with a small rubber tube. ILLS OF THE YOUNG CALF The young calf, even though it establishes the function of respiration and gets its first meal without difficulty, is still DISEASES OF CATTLE 341 subject to many ills, chief of which are digestive disorders of some kind. These digestive defects are likely to be more numerous among dairy calves or those that are weaned while young and fed from the pail. This is often due to the difficulty in keeping the conditions just right: the milk may get cold, the pails may be unclean, the calf may drink too fast, and many other irregularities. Constipation. — Notwithstanding the purgative effects of the colostrum or first milk, the young calf occasionally suffers from constipation, especially if the cow has not been in good thrift, or has been fed on dry innutritious foods during the latter periods of pregnancy. Whatever the cause, if the calf is costive, straining violently without passing dung, lying down and rising at once as in colic, and failing in appetite, no time should be lost in giving relief. First remove the cause, if it can be located. The bowels will ordinarily be stimulated to action by administering one to two ounces of olive or castor oil. An injection of warm water into the bowels will prove helpful. The water should be at blood heat and have added to it a little glycerine, — a teaspoonful of glycerine and two or three ounces of water. It is not advisable to inject too much, or to use soap suds as is often done. Inject gently into the rectum with a common hard rubber syringe, taking extra care not to rupture the tender membrane. This will induce the calf to try to pass the fecal matter and in addition will lubricate the passage. The injection may be repeated every hour. Diarrhea or scours. — This disease is prevalent among calves and occurs in two forms: simple; and contagious or "white scour." The causes of simple diarrhea are many and varied; bad food, over-feeding, and too rapid feeding are the most common. The surroundings of the calf often bring on the dis- ease. Calves kept indoors are more liable to attacks than those in the open air and having exercise, pure air, and sunshine. Closely crowded, filthy, foul smelling buildings are likely to 342 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS bring on an attack. Whatever the cause, it should be removed and the case treated at once, as the calf is not likely to live long if the diarrhea continues. Perhaps the first thing to do is to reduce the feed from one-half to two-thirds. In treating, one must keep in mind the nature of the disease, that it is caused by an irritant in the stomach or bowels which must be removed before a cure can be effected. For this reason one should be cautious about giving an astringent with a view to cutting off the discharge. The best policy in all such diseases is to expel the disturber with a laxative, such as one to two ounces of castor oil. Later when the irritant has been removed by the oil, check the discharge by a weak solution of gum arabic, or by adding a little lime water, not to exceed one-third to the milk each meal, or by adding parched flour to boiled milk, or by the essence of Jamaica ginger well diluted with hot water, and in persistent cases by the use of such astringent as oak bark tea, which is made by stripping the inner bark of white oak. White scour is a violent and deadly form of diarrhea, frequently attacking young calves. This may appear immediately after birth and is likely to show itself within the first or second day. It often occurs as a contagious disease, attacking all the calves that are dropped in the stable for some time. For this reason it is often called " contagious scours." The disease is caused by a germ that enters in most cases through the navel. The calf appears dull and weak, the eyes are sunken, the belly retracted, the breathing is short and rapid, the temperature very low, and the calf soon becomes unconscious. The dis- charge from the bowels is rather profuse, of a yellowish white color and very offensive odor. As a rule the calf dies within twenty-four to thirty-six hours. As there seems to be no treatment, we must rely on pre- vention. A week before calving the pregnant cow should be placed in comfortable quarters where no sick calves have been confined. This seems to be the only safe course, for after the DISEASES OF CATTLE 343 disease breaks out in a stable, often the most thorough disinfect- ing fails to stop future calves from infection. As soon as the calf is dropped, the cord should be tied close to the navel and the parts thoroughly wet with a twenty per cent solution of carbolic acid, or better still, with a solution of the tincture of iodine. Fresh milk, diluted with lime water, not to exceed one- third, in which a teaspoonful of dried blood has been dissolved, should be given the calf in small quantities and at frequent in- tervals. The stable in which the first attack occurred should be thoroughly disinfected, and to do this perhaps nothing is better than corrosive sublimate; however, if this seems undesirable and ordinarily disinfectants are used, they should be used strong and flushed into every nook and corner of the stable. TUBERCULOSIS Perhaps no disease to which cattle are subject is more dis- cussed than tuberculosis. This is due in a large measure to the use of cattle to provide food for the human race. There are perhaps few diseases so common among cattle as tuberculosis, particularly among those animals that are kept closely confined. Tuberculosis is a communicable germ disease, and is, therefore, preventable. The disease is caused by a small germ or bac- terium known as Bacillus tuberculosis. This germ is, of course, invisible to the naked eye. Methods of injection. — As tuberculosis is a communicable germ disease, the methods of infection should receive much at- tention. This can be made clear by considering from two points of view: first, how the small germs escape from diseased ani- mals; and second, how sound animals become infected. All diseased animals possess the germ. This germ escapes when the tissues it has destroyed are being discharged from the body. Thus, if the lungs are affected, the animal on coughing dislodges the germs, which may be forced directly out of the body or lodged in the mouth, when they leave the body with the saliva. 344 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS In the cases in which the germs are found in the saliva they are left in the watering troughs, on the bottom of the mangers, on the grass, on other animals when licked by diseased ones, and in fact spread wherever the diseased animal goes. If the dis- ease happens to be in the glands of the intestinal walls, the germ Fig. 102. — Devon Bull "Darks Majesty." Owned by Stockwell and Gifford, Sutton, Mass. The Devon cattle originated in the counties of Devon and Somerset, England. They are variously classified, sometimes as beef cattle, at other times as dual- purpose animals. They tend more toward beef than milk. The animals are symmetrical and trim. In size the bulls weigh from 1500 to 2000 pounds, the cows from 1300 to 1500 pounds. The color is red, although the shade is often light. escapes with the dung. If the glands of the udder are diseased, the germ passes out with the milk. If the disease is located in the glands of the skin, the germs may escape through the openings of the skin. When the germs have escaped into the watering troughs, mangers, on the grass, and the like, they are readily taken up by DISEASES OF CATTLE 345 healthy cattle. In case the germs escape in the milk, whatever feeds upon it is liable to infection. The length of time that will pass after infection and before the disease visibly appears varies widely, even to months or years. The length of time the animal may possess the disease varies equally as much. With some it may prove fatal in a few months; others may carry it for years. The tuberculin test. — Often it is not possible to tell by a phys- ical examination which animals are infected with tuberculosis and which are not. The most accurate means of detecting the disease in cattle is by noting the temperature of the animal following the injection of a small amount of tuberculin be- neath the skin. The tuberculin is prepared by sterilizing, filtering, and concentrating the liquids in which the tubercle bacillus has been allowed to grow. It contains the cooked products of the growth of these germs, but not the germs them- selves. Hence when this liquid is injected under the skin of cattle, it is absolutely unable to produce the disease, but it sets up a characteristic reaction or symptoms. Any intelligent owner of cattle, who will make a little effort to familiarize himself with the test and its limitations, can use it on his own cattle with safe results. It does not require the trained veterinarian. The operator must, however, be familiar with the method, be very careful, painstaking, and patient. The testing outfit. — The testing outfit consists of five things: (1) tuberculin, (2) syringe, (3) thermometer, (4) disinfectant, (5) vaseline. 1. Tuberculin. — Tuberculin can be procured from the ex- periment stations in the various states. If the Experiment Station fails to provide it, the Bureau of Animal Industry, Wash- ington, D.C., can tell where to secure it. 2. Syringe. — A hypodermic syringe of 6 c.c. to 10 c.c. capacity, such as is commonly used to inject liquid vaccine, is 346 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS necessary. This syringe should be provided with short, stout needles, well reenforced at the base. Any druggist will procure the syringe and needles and show how to use them. 3. Thermometer. — A guaranteed clinical thermometer is necessary. If a large number of animals is to be tested, it will facilitate matters to provide two or three thermometers. Any druggist will provide a thermometer and show how to adjust or shake down and how to read it. A string should be tied around the thermometer, at the other end of which should be fastened a wire hook, or a small bull-dog clamp. After inserting the thermometer in the rectum, the clamp or wire hook is fastened to the long hairs at the base of the tail, or the wire wound around the tail so that if the thermometer is thrown out, it will not be broken by dropping to the ground. Cows are likely to void dung soon after the insertion of the thermometer, and unless this precaution is taken, the thermometer is very likely to drop to the floor before many temperatures are taken. 4. Disinfectant. — A small bottle of strong carbolic acid (95 per cent) , to be used in disinfecting the syringe before begin- ning the test and to disinfect the needle-point before injecting each animal, is essential. This can be procured at any drug store. 5. Vaseline. — A small can of vaseline or lard should be pro- vided to grease the thermometer before insertion. A vaseline jar also affords a safe and convenient place to keep the ther- mometer between times of taking temperature. Directions for making the tuberculin test. — While making the test is not difficult (in fact easier done that told), one should be exceedingly careful, going about the work methodically and keeping everything neat and clean. The test may be divided for convenience into five essential parts: (1) keep- ing records, (2) taking the normal temperature, one day, (3) injecting the tuberculin same day, (4) taking temperature DISEASES OF CATTLE 347 after injection, second day, (5) interpretation of the tempera- ture records. It is very essential that the animals be well known or num- bered, for in no case should they get mixed. It is not advisable for the beginner to attempt to test more than twenty animals at one time. Cattle suffering from such diseases as garget, retained afterbirth, and the like, or those that are in heat or far along in pregnancy, should not be tested. 1. Keeping records. — An accurate record of each tempera- ture must be kept. To do this procure a large sheet of paper, writing the names or number of each animal down the left side, and the hour at which the temperature is taken across the top. As each temperature is taken, record it under the hour and op- posite the name. 2. Taking the normal temperature. — On account of the variation in temperature it is essential to take the temperature of each animal at intervals of two hours until at least four temperatures are taken, before the tuberculin is injected. These temperatures must be carefully recorded to compare with the temperatures of the same cow after injection. After becoming familiar with the method of reading the thermometer, shake it down, smear it with vaseline and insert full length into the rec- tum. Attach the thermometer to the base of the tail by means of the clamp of wire, and allow to remain in the rectum for three minutes. Withdraw the thermometer, read the temperature, record on the sheet at once, shake the thermometer down, and proceed as before. Because of the ease with which variations in temperature are caused, it is important to keep the animals that are being- tested under normal conditions. They should be fed, watered, and milked as usual. 3. Injecting the tuberculin. — This is preferably done in the evening, say eight hours before the time of milking in the morn- 348 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS ing. For example, if the cows are milked at 6 a.m., inject the tuberculin at 10 p.m. The syringe should be disinfected by drawing it full of carbolic acid, emptying it, and then rinsing in boiling water before beginning the injection. In addition to this, just before injecting each animal, dip the needle in strong carbolic acid to disinfect it. Carefully fill the syringe through the needle from the bottle of tuberculin. Set the burr on the pis- ton-rod of the syringe so that not more than the dose intended can be injected. The druggist will show how this is done when the syringe is purchased. The size of the dose will be stated on the tuberculin bottle. With the cow restrained in a stanchion, or tied short in a stall, take hold of the skin with the left hand along the side of the neck where it is thin and loose and with the syringe in the right hand quickly insert the point in the pocket thus formed and inject the dose. Occasionally some force is needed to insert the needle into the skin. Before in- jecting another cow, see that the syringe is working properly and the needle is in good shape. 4. Taking temperature after injection. — Begin taking tem- peratures eight hours after the injection of the tuberculin and continue every two hours until six temperatures are taken, and continue those cases showing a rise in temperature. For ex- ample, if the tuberculin was injected at 10 p.m., begin taking temperatures at 6 a.m., then at 8 a.m., 10 a.m., 12 m., 2 p.m., and 4 p.m., and make a careful record of each temperature as taken. When an animal shows a rise above 103, it is well to take the temperatures at more frequent intervals. 5. Interpretation of the temperature records. — The tem- peratures after injecting the tuberculin must be carefully studied and compared with those taken the day before. In typical cases of tuberculosis, an elevation of temperature usually comes on gradually, although in the more pronounced reactions, when the temperature goes above 105.5 degrees, the rise is often rapid. This elevation usually occurs between the eighth and sixteenth DISEASES OF CATTLE 349 hours after injection. It should remain practically at a maxi- mum for two hours or more and gradually subside. When it reaches 104 degrees or more and is maintained for some hours, the animal is regarded as tubercular, if no fever was shown before the injection. Sudden rises for a short time only do not indicate a reaction. The rises of less than 1.5 degrees do not indicate a reaction. In all cases of doubt, the animal should be separated from the herd and retested not sooner than four to six weeks (the test will not give reaction under this time). Retesting. — A single test of a diseased herd cannot be relied upon to detect every tuberculous animal. If animals are found by the first test to be affected, they should be tested again in four to six weeks. Even in those herds in which no reacting animals are found, it is a good plan to test once each year. Tuberculin not infallible. — While tuberculin is the best method known for detecting tuberculosis, it is not infallible. On the average if properly handled, it will detect 97 per cent of the cases. In some cases, especially when the animals are badly diseased, it fails to react, and in a very few cases it seems to cause a rise of temperature in healthy animals. Prevention of tuberculosis. — In the beginning of this discussion it was stated that tuberculosis is a communicable germ dis- ease, and therefore preventable. In order to prevent, infected animals must not be brought into healthy herds, for as we have observed diseased animals spread the infection wherever they go. Much space has been given to methods of locating the disease in order that those herds already free may not be infected by the addition of an infected animal. If a herd is known to be healthy, never bring a new animal into the herd until it has been tested, and if there is the slightest doubt about its being tubercular, it should be excluded. If in addition to the tuberculin test and the exclusion of all diseased animals, the quarters where the cattle are kept are well ventilated, and well lighted, admitting the direct rays of the sun, 350 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS the chance of the herd's being infected is very slight. Since the trouble and expense of making the test are so slight, it is well worth while to make it in order to have the assurance that the herd is entirely free and there is absolutely no danger in the con- sumption of their products, either milk or meat. Eradication of tuberculosis. — The eradication of tuberculosis, once it gets a foothold, is not so easy or at least not so inexpen- sive. There is of course no cure for the disease, so other methods of eradication must be sought. It has been suggested that all diseased animals be slaughtered, but this would mean untold waste and were it enforced, might lead to a national calamity, for it is doubtful if the nation could spare all of its tubercular cattle at one time. There is one plan, however, which, if it could be employed, would seem to bridge the difficulty and in a few generations would result in bovine tuberculosis being practically swept from the land. This plan, however, requires extra labor, as well as the expense of extra equipment, and its em- ployment is purely economical; but since, from the nature of the disease and the importance of the animals concerned, it seems to be the only avenue of hope, the plan is here given. The Bang method of eradicating bovine tuberculosis. — This method, recommended by Dr. Bang of the Copenhagen Veteri- nary College, is being successfully employed in Denmark. The object of the method is to replenish a tuberculous herd with as little loss as possible. The original method has been modified from time to time and at present stands thus : Immediately after testing the herd divide it into two parts, placing the sound animals in one and the diseased animals in the other, thus mak- ing two herds, one diseased, the other sound. At once remove the sound herd to new and uninfected quarters, and keep it away from the infection. The difficulty of this is that it means two sets of equipment, barn, lots, pastures, and the like; for if the plan is to succeed, the sound herd must be kept entirely away from the infected barn, lots, and pastures. They must even have DISEASES OF CATTLE 351 different care takers. Since calves at birth are free from tubercu- losis, those from the diseased herd may be put with those from the sound herd. No animals should be admitted to the sound herd without first being tested and the sound herd itself should be tested once each year, and if any animals react, they are to be put with the diseased herd and the stable thoroughly disin- fected with corrosive sublimate. If dairy cattle, the milk from the tuberculous herd must be handled in entirely separate utensils and pasteurized at 185° F., after which it is considered harmless both for stock and human food. This method, though it involves much expense, seems to be the only feasible one for the eradication of bovine tuberculosis. It is being successfully conducted on several farms in this coun- try at the present time. The painstaking and careful cattle owner can eradicate tuberculosis from his herd in a very few years by the Bang method, or some modification, if he so desires. BLOATING IN CATTLE Bloating, or "hoven," is the distention of the paunch or rumen with gas. It is liable to occur when cattle are first turned to young clover or alfalfa, especially if the growth is rank, as they eat it so greedily that gas formation results. Turnips, potatoes, and cabbage may likewise set up fermenta- tion, which proceeds rapidly; the gas does not escape, and soon the rumen becomes distended to a large size. Bloating is easily recognized by the distension of the rumen, particu- larly on the left side, that part bulging outward and upward very noticeably, and when struck with the tips of the fingers, giving a drum-like sound. Breathing is very difficult, the animal reels, and soon may lie down or fall. The treatment varies according to the severity of the case. In mild attacks, driving the animal at a walk often gives relief, or dashing cold water by the bucketful against the sides may suffice. 352 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS If the animal is bad, it may be necessary to put a gag in the mouth as follows : Take a piece of inch rope, smear it with pine tar, wagon grease, or other unsavory substance, place it in the animal's mouth as a bit, and fasten by tying around the horns ; or, take a stick the size of a fork handle and eight or ten inches long, place this in the mouth as a bit and secure with a string by tying around the head. It will try to dislodge these objects by movements of the tongue, jaws, and throat, thus stimulating the secretion of saliva and swallowing, which opens the esophagus and permits the gas to escape. At this time a little salt thrown Fig. 103. — Devon Herd; "Sally" in the Center, her Two-year-old Bull Calf to the Right, and her Yearling Calf to the Left. Owned by L. P. Sisson. into the mouth often proves advantageous. In severe cases, how- ever, the gas must be allowed to escape without delay, and this is best accomplished by the use of a trocar and canula. On the left side, about halfway between the last rib and the hip, make an in- cision through the skin about three-quarters of an inch long with a sharp knife ; through this incision insert the trocar and canula, directing downward, inward, and slightly forward, and thrust the point into the paunch. If this happens to be a fat animal, it will be some distance through, but thrust it home. Remove the trocar, leaving the canula in place, through which the gas DISEASES OF CATTLE 353 may escape. This should be left in place as long as the gas is generating. In the absence of a trocar, a sharp knife may be thrust through to let the gas escape. Do not let the animal die of bloating. Give internally two ounces of aromatic spirits of ammonia in a quart of cold water. Repeat every half hour. Turpentine in two-ounce doses is also good, but it must be well diluted with milk to prevent injuring the animal. After bloat- ing has subsided give physic; one pound of Glauber's salt is good. Since there is danger of bloating in turning cattle to luxuriant pasture, especially if wet with dew, they should always be well fed and turned to pasture in the afternoon when the grass is dry. Some advise taking them up the first night, feeding them well the next morning, and not turning in pasture again till after- noon. A little dry hay put in the pasture is excellent to prevent bloating, as the cattle seem to crave it. IMPACTION OF THE RUMEN This difficulty often occurs among cattle and is due to the fill- ing of the third stomach with indigestible material, such as frozen grass, weeds, or foreign materials. The animal refuses to eat, stands with back slightly arched, breathes rapidly, and may bloat, though not always. Often the mass of undigested food can be felt on the left side. The animal on lying down usually lies on the right side. For treatment give a mild purgative, three-fourths to one pound of Epsom salts and two ounces of ginger dissolved in warm water, and administer in the form of a drench. Feed gruels and bran mashes if the animal will eat, and allow plenty of water. To aid the bowels in moving one may give an injection of warm water. Cattle off feed. — Often cattle are thrown "off their feed" by overfeeding, by irregular feeding, or by consuming indigestible things such as frozen grass, weeds, and perhaps by eating foreign 2 a 354 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS matter, particularly if it be salty. Such animals are simply in- disposed, do not eat, and stand around with a dejected look. If no attention is given them, they may remain in this condition for some time. This is to be avoided if possible, as animals that are not doing well are sure to prove unprofitable. The treat- ment is to give pound doses of Epsom salts dissolved in warm water to which a little ginger has been added. If they will eat, give gruels or mashes, and allow all the fresh water they will drink. DEHORNING In case the horns were not removed when the calf was small, as suggested on page 255, and it is desired to remove them later, it will be necessary to remove them with either a saw or a pair of dehorning clippers. The animal must be confined in a chute or stocks made for such purposes, a rope placed around the head, which should be pulled to one side and held firmly while the horn is removed. Whether sawed or clipped, remove the horn so close to the head as to take a ring of hair off at the base of the horn, otherwise the horn will grow out as a stub. If in fly time, apply tar to keep the flies away. The bleeding will stop of its own accord. The pain of the operation is slight, and whenever animals are disposed to be vicious the horns should be removed. It is not a good plan to dehorn when the flies are bad, nor should dehorned animals have access to straw or hay stacks where they can get the chaff into the wounds. VICES OF DAIRY CATTLE There are a few bad habits or vices to which dairy cattle are subject. They are often serious and lessen the usefulness of the animal. Most of them, however, can be remedied with a little patient effort, or by the arrangement of inexpensive apparatus. Kicking cow. — To prevent a cow from kicking, procure a half-inch rope long enough to reach around the cow's body and DISEASES OF CATTLE 355 tie ; place the rope, with slip noose on one end, around the body of the cow, just in front of the udder and back of the hip bones. Draw tight and tie. Repeat each milking, always treating the cow gently. After a time one need only lay the rope over the cow's back. Finally the rope may be discarded. Another method recommended by some is to take a hame strap and buckle the two hind legs together, but this is not efficient as she is likely to get one leg loose or throw herself endeavoring to do so. When the cow is tied by the stanchion, the experienced milker will be able to milk almost any cow by crowding her over as far as the stanchion will let her go, then by placing his knee in front of her hock and his head in her flank she is not likely to try to kick ; in fact she cannot, if the milker understands holding her in the proper position. Sucking cow. — Occasionally a cow develops the habit of either sucking herself or another cow. While there are many ways of preventing this, perhaps as efficient way as any is to procure a stiff piece of old leather, say one and one-half inches wide and eight inches long, drive through this several eight- penny wire nails with the ends filed down to a point and fasten to the nose-band of a common halter and place this halter on the sucking cow. With this she cannot reach her own teats or those of any other cow without injuring the flanks, and she not likely to try more than once. PART THREE — SHEEP CHAPTER XVI CHOOSING AND JUDGING SHEEP Familiarity with what is wanted, powers of observation, and good judgment are equally as important in choosing sheep as in choosing cows or horses. These can be gained only by careful study, and more especially by practice, as sheep are often de- ceptive. The importance of these faculties cannot be overesti- mated in the choice of any class of farm animals. The wool-covering of the body of the sheep makes an examina- tion of the form rather difficult. The wool is often so trimmed as to deceive. An expert trimmer, possessing much skill with the shears, can give a rather inferior sheep the appearance of a plump full form; thus animals with sway backs, narrow, flat ribs, narrow, peaked rumps are often so trimmed as to conceal such defects. To facilitate the inspection and hasten the work, to avoid being deceived and to enable the examiner to discover all defects, the following method of examining sheep is suggested : — After noting the general appearance, the age, the teeth, the eyes, and the like, then, with the open hand, as shown in the illustrations (page 369) , proceed to a detailed examina- tion. Do not depend on the eye alone, but fortify it with the touch, carefully noting each character as described under detail examination (page 368). During this examination keep the fingers and thumb together and the hand flat. Never stick the fingers into the wool. When it is desired to examine the wool, open up the wool with the hand flat (Fig. 121). 359 360 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Catching and holding sheep. — There are two places to catch sheep: First, the hind leg above the gambel joint; second, by Fig. 104. — Delaine Merino Ram "Beacon." A prize winner, owned by C. Marshall, New London, Ohio. The Delaine Merino sheep are of American Merino ancestry, bred mainly by selecting from varieties free from folds. This breed resembles the American Merino except lacking the heavy fold, and the fleece is not so heavy. There are several families of Delaines, such as National, Standard, Dickinson, and Black Top. Rams shear from 12 to 20 pounds, the ewes from 8 to 15 pounds of strong, fine wool. In weight the rams vary from 130 to 200 pounds, the ewes from 100 to 140 pounds. This breed is popular in the United States. placing the hand underneath the jaw and around the neck. Do not catch a sheep by its wool, as this not only pulls and injures the wool, but leaves a black mark or bruise on the body which CHOOSING AND JUDGING SHEEP 361 interferes very much with the sale of the carcass of mutton. If the shepherd's crook is used in catching the sheep, the aim should be to catch above the gambrel joint, as there is danger of injuring the leg if caught below this joint. To hold a sheep, stand on the left side and place the left hand under the animal's jaw, keeping the right hand free to place behind the sheep in case it attempts to move backward. Do not attempt to keep the sheep from moving backward by pull- ing on the head or the wool, as either of these methods will be quickly resisted, which will result in injury to the wool and carcass. Gently place the right arm around back of the thighs, and the sheep will stop the backward movement at once. Like- wise do not attempt to keep the animal from going forward by pulling on the wool, but place the left hand gently under the jaw. HOW TO ESTIMATE AGE OF SHEEP The age of sheep is a very important factor in determining their present and prospective value. Familiarity with the characters that indicate age are, therefore, often extremely use- ful. As in the case of the horse a knowledge of these characters is not difficult to secure, and skill in their application depends much on continued practice. In estimating the age of sheep the order of the appearance of the permanent teeth furnishes the best index, especially from one to four years of age. There are, however, other general considerations that aid in estimating the age, especially in the case of young and very old animals. Size is the principal factor in determining the age up to one year. In very old animals the poll becomes more prominent, the sides of the face more depressed, and the hollows above the eyes deeper. With age the backbone becomes more prominent and often strongly curved downward, the sheep loses its plumpness, and in many ways shows the effects of age. 362 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Examination of the teeth. — While the order of the appear- ance of the permanent teeth and their subsequent method of wearing are considered the most accurate means of estimating age among sheep, they are not absolutely accurate nor are they as dependable as in the horse. Teeth in sheep vary much according to the conditions, as in the case of the horse (see page 8). Sheep, like cattle, are provided with two sets of teeth ; first, the temporary or milk teeth, and, later, the permanent teeth. The permanent teeth differ from the temporary in their greater size. The replacement of the temporary teeth by the perma- nent is made necessary by the increase in size of the jawbone as the animal becomes older. As in the case of cattle, sheep have incisor teeth in the lower jaw only, the upper being pro- vided with a cartilaginous pad. The number likewise is the same, eight in either case. The lamb is often born with one pair of milk teeth and the others soon make their appear- ance. These milk teeth are narrow and peg-like in appear- ance. When the animal is approximately fifteen months of age, the middle pair of milk teeth is replaced by permanent ones, which are fully twice as broad as the milk teeth, hence easily recognized (Fig. 105). The interval between the appearance of the succeeding pairs varies according to conditions, but can be stated as approximately eleven months. In general the age of the animal at the time each pair is up and in full wear may be estimated as follows : — Fig. 105. — Sheeps' Teeth, trating Age. 12 months. — 15 months. 26 months. — 37 months. 4S months. — 8 years. ILLUS- CHOOSING AND JUDGING SHEEP 363 First or middle pair of permanent teeth 15 months Second or first intermediate pair of permanent teeth . . 26 months Third or second intermediate pair of permanent teeth . 37 months Fourth or lateral pair of permanent teeth 48 months After the teeth are up and in wear, there is comparatively little change for a time, but as the animal grows older the teeth become narrower, and by the eighth or ninth year there is much space between them. They shrink away from each other, become more or less discolored, and finally drop out one by one. TYPES OF SHEEP There are two distinct types of sheep: the wool type, adapted for the production of much wool, and the mutton type, adapted for the production of meat. These types are controlled to a considerable extent by the demands made upon the body of the animal. Thus in the case of wool production as much skin surface as possible is desired, and the skin is thrown into folds. Large wool yields depend much on the con- stitution, the vigor, and the condition of the skin; hence much consideration is given these characters in choosing wool sheep. Likewise much attention is paid the skin secretions, which should be oily in appearance This oil is commonly called "yolk." The wool should be fine, with a natural bright luster and a clean white color. On the other hand, the mutton type calls for a form similar to that of beef cattle. The carcass is the product, and a plump full body is desired. The energy of the food should go to the production of mutton and not of wool. These two types, therefore, are of necessity widely different, and one can no more expect maximum wool production and maximum mutton production in the same sheep than he can have greatest milk flow and greatest yield of beef in the same cow. The fine-ivool type. — There are three important breeds of 364 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS fine-wool sheep, the American Merino, the Delaine Merino, and the Rambouillet. The fine-wool, or Merino and Ram- bouillet type, may be compared to that of the dairy cow. The body is spare, lacking in fullness, in breadth of back, and in general thickness throughout. The wool is rather short, very thick over the entire body, and exceedingly fine. Fig. 106. — Champion Merino Ram. A type. Photograph from National Stockman and Farmer. Owing to the difference in type, as shown by the folds or wrinkles on the neck and over the body, fine-wooled sheep are divided into three classes. Class A, Merino, represents the class or type with very heavy folds ; Class B, Merino, has a smoother body ; Class C, Merino, has a smooth body with only a few or no folds at all about the neck and breast. There are three classes of fine-wool sheep, grouped according to the folds or wrinkles on the neck and body. By common consent these forms are distinguished by letter as follows : Class A. — Merino, representing those with heavy folds at the neck and over the body and hind-quarters, and possessing an ^CHOOSING AND JUDGING SHEEP 365 Fig. 107. — Champion Merino Ram. B type. Photograph from National Stockman and Farmer. abundance of yolk or grease (Fig. 106). Class B. — Merino, representing those with fewer and smaller folds on neck and body and carrying less yolk in the wool (Fig. 107). Class C. — Merino, representing those with comparatively smooth bodies, possessing less yolk than Class B, though the wool is, as a rule, somewhat longer (Fig. 108). Of the three classes A is perhaps the heaviest shearer, a case being reported of an animal shearing 36 per cent of his gross weight. The mutton type. — There are many breeds of mutton sheep, divided into two general groups, known as the medium-wool and the long-wool; each, however, in the main possesses the characteristic mutton type. The mutton type resembles the beef type. The animals are low- set, compact, and blocky in appearance. CHOOSING SHEEP In choosing sheep, whether for the production of mutton or fine wool, they should be care- fully examined. It is essential that the examination be syste- matic. Perhaps the most con- venient and simplest method is to note, first, the general ap- pearance, the form, weight, con- dition, quality, and constitution, and if these are satisfactory, to make a more detailed examination. Fig. 108. — Delaine Merino Ram "Victor." C type. First prize yearling ram at four State fairs, 1909. Bred and owned by W. X. Cook and Son, New London, Ohio. 366 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS General appearance By carefully observing the general appearance of a sheep, one can gain a fair knowledge of its desirability. Very often the general appearance is not given much consideration, with the result that many important characters go unobserved. Before proceeding to a detailed examination one should care- fully note the form ; this applies with equal force when selecting for mutton or wool ; if for mutton, the weight and condition are important and the quality as well as the constitution are of vital importance to both types and should receive much careful attention. The form will vary according to the object sought. In the fine-wool sheep the form may differ materially from that desired for mutton. Class A, fine-wool, should have very heavy folds over the entire body. Great depth of body is often more sought than width, and the animals are often quite angular in appearance. The form sought is that which indicates great vitality and gives much surface for the production of wool. Fine-wool sheep are therefore often high-standing; deep of chest, though narrow; long of body, though well supported; light in the hind-quarters with skin fold varying according to the class. On the other hand, the form of the mutton sheep should be comparable to that of the beef animal. They should be low and condensed in organization. The top and bottom lines should be parallel, the shoulders and chest almost as wide as the hips and rump. The body should be short and thick, as long bodies lacking in depth and fullness are objectionable to the sheep feeder and to the butcher. The region of valuable cuts of mutton are the same as those of beef, that is, along the back, loin, rump, and thigh ; hence these regions should be ex- ceedingly strong and well developed. CHOOSING AND JUDGING SHEEP 367 Condition and weight. — Since the weight depends much on the condition of the sheep, they will be considered together. As weight is a breed characteristic, no definite figures can be suggested, but the animals chosen should be fairly large for the particular breed to which they belong. Among wool sheep the condition should be such as to indicate thrift and health ; exces- sive fleshiness is not essential. In general, the condition must be determined by the touch, as the wool often deceives the eye. Among mutton sheep a fair amount of flesh is desirable, even in the breeding stock, as the tendency to fatten quickly is a very important consideration in this type. Quality. — Sheep possessing much quality are desired for both mutton and wool production. With sheep, as with other farm animals, quality is determined by the bone, skin, and hair. The bone should be dense, clean, and of fine texture. The skin should be soft, pink in color, and comparatively thin. Care must be exercised in respect to the thinness of the skin, as a thin paper skin is often associated with weakness of constitu- tion. The hair on the ears, face, and legs should be soft and silky. These are important features in sheep intended for wool or for mutton, for breeding or for feeding. Sheep possess- ing a tight, heavy, pale skin, coarse, harsh hair about the face and on the legs, and heavy rough, coarse bone are deficient in quality. The constitutional vigor deserves much attention, for in its absence the wool will be of poor quality and the mutton sheep an unprofitable animal. Vigor is estimated by the general expression, by the condition of the skin, and by the chest ca- pacity. The expression of the eyes, ears, and head should be mild and lively, and the sheep should be on the alert. The skin should be deep pink and not pale. The chest capacity should be large. A good way to estimate the chest capacity among sheep is to note the distance between the front legs along the floor of the chest. If the distance between the legs is small, it 368 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS denotes a narrow chest. A narrow chest is always objection- able, as it may indicate lack of constitutional vigor. Uniformity. — The importance of uniformity in a flock of sheep chosen either for wool or mutton cannot be overestimated. They should be uniform in type, size, and breeding. While such uniformity may not add to the production of wool or to the ability to take on flesh, it materially improves their general appearance and increases their market value. Either the butcher or the sheep breeder will pay more for a uniform flock than for one in which such regularity is wanting. Detail characters of sheep A detailed examination of the characters of sheep is of greater importance than that of any other class of farm ani- mals. This is due to the wool covering many defects. In order that none of the characters be overlooked, they should be considered in order. The head should be short, with strong jaws and large nostrils. The mouth should be examined to note the age and whether any teeth are missing. Sheep with missing teeth are undesirable at any price, either for mutton or wool. The eyes should be mild, bright, and prominent; the forehead broad and full. The ears should be refined, short, and active. Coarse, leathery ears are objectionable, as they indicate poor quality. The horns, if pres- ent, should be strong, rather angular at the base, and have a spiral shape turning backward and around, sometimes making two complete turns (Fig. 110). Neck. — With the flat hand note the length and fullness of the neck. Among mutton sheep the neck should be full, short, and neatly attached to the head and shoulders. In fine-wool sheep it may possess some length, deep folds, and lack the full- ness, though it should be neatly attached at both head and shoulders (Fig. 111). Shoulders. — Among mutton sheep the shoulder should be CHOOSING AND JUDGING SHEEP 3G9 Fig. 110. — Determining Condition of Teeth, and the Age. Fig. 109. — judging Sheep. Noting the General Appearance. •3S»*'t* "*•• Fig. 111. — Noting Fullness of the Neck. Fig. 112. — Fullness of the Shoulder. Fig. 113. — Width of Chest. 2b Fig. 114. — Width of Body. 370 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS full, neat, and closely rounded along the sides and over the top. Sharp, angular shoulders are very objectionable. They should be smoothly curved with flesh (Fig. 112). Chest. — With the flat hand note the capacity of the chest as follows : kneeling on the left side of the animal, place the left hand on the floor of the chest, between and just back of the fore legs, at the same time placing the right hand on the back just to the rear of the shoulder-tops. In this position one can note lack of depth as well as the narrowness of the chest at both top and bottom. Next note the heart girth and width of chest by placing one hand on either side at the same time. The importance of a wide, deep chest, indicating great vitality, cannot be overestimated. In no other way except by the touch can these dimensions be determined, as the wool covers the parts so completely (Fig. 115). Body. — With the hands in the same position, one either side of the animal, note the width of the body. Next place the flat hand on the back at the shoulder-tops and note the width and straightness of the back from the shoulder-tops to the tail- head, by pressing down gently as the hand is drawn to the rear. In so doing one must observe that the sheep does not move his back as the hand is passing over and make the back appear swayed when in reality it is not. Since the back, loin, and rump contain the valuable cuts, a close examination of this region is important, and, as in the chest, this can be noted only by the touch (Figs. 114 and 117). The rump should be long, wide, and level. This can be ascer- tained only by the touch. The fleshiness should be carried well down to the hock, and the twist should be plump and full (Figs. 118 and 119). The leg of mutton, which includes the rump also, is the most valuable cut of mutton ; therefore, the thigh should be heavily meated. This can be determined only by the touch, and to do this one places the left hand around the leg at the flank and the right around the rear at the thigh (Fig. 120). CHOOSING AND JUDGING SHEEP 371 Fig. 115. — Depth of Chest. Fig. 116. — Fullness at Shoulder Tops. Fig. 117. — Determining Fullness of Back. Fig. 118. — Width of Hips. Fig. 119. — Width of Thighs. Fig. 120. — Condition of Leg of Mutton. 372 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS The legs should be carefully observed. Sheeps' legs are at best far from straight. As a rule, the fore legs of fine-wool sheep are too close together, the knees often almost touching. This is objectionable, for, as we have already observed, fore legs placed close together indicate a narrow chest, which in turn signifies lack of constitutional vigor. Fine- wool sheep also have very crooked hocks, which is equally as objectionable. Often the legs below the hocks are carried too much under the body, the shanks being too slanting. The toes are often neg- lected and let grow out too long, which throws the legs still farther out of their proper position. Examining the fleece In the examination of the wool the chief factors to consider are the quantity, the quality, and the condition. In consider- ing the quantity the entire body must be examined. To note the quantity along the belly and arm pits, the sheep should be turned up and placed on its rump. To turn the sheep, stand on the left side of the animal, place the left arm around under the neck at the shoulder points, with the right hand reach under the sheep, seize the right hind foot, gently lift the animal off his feet, and place him on his rump, belly up. One should have a mat or gunny sack on which to place the sheep to prevent soiling the wool of the rump, particularly if in the show ring. With the sheep in this position, the wool along the belly and arm pits can be carefully noted. These places should be densely covered, though such is seldom the Fig. 121. — Examining the Fleece for the Finest of the Wool. CHOOSING AND JUDGING SHEEP 373 case among many of the mutton breeds. In considering the quality, the best method is to open the fleece along the side just back of the shoulder and in the region of the thigh. With the hands placed in a flat position, open the wool just back of the shoulder (Fig. 121). It is in this region that the finest and soundest wool of the fleece is found. With the hands in like position, open the wool along the thigh (Fig. 122). In this region the poor- Fig. 122. — Examining the Fleece est and Coarsest Wool of the FOR THE Coarsest of the Wool. entire fleece is to be found. Quantity of fleece. — The chief factors to be considered in determining the quantity of fleece are the density and length, and the evenness of both over all parts of the sheep's body. By density is meant the closeness of the fibers or the number of fibers that grow on a square inch. As a rule the greater the number, the finer the fibers will be; hence the fleece will not only be heavier, but more valuable as well. A dense fleece is desired, as it affords the animal more protection than one that is loose and open; hence sheep with dense fleeces suffer less from catarrhal and other diseases. A dense, oily fleece is im- pervious to rain, snow, and wind, as well as dirt, dust, and pieces of hay. On the other hand, the loose open fleece becomes saturated with water on exposure, the sheep catch cold, suffer from catarrh, running at the nose, scouring, and various other diseases, and the fleece becomes loaded with dust, dirt, and chaff. The length of the fleece is one of the important features in considering the quantity. The length is a breed characteristic, and the only suggestion that can be made is that it should be 374 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS long for the particular breed concerned. The length will vary from approximately two inches in the case of the fine-wool to twenty and even more inches for a single year's growth in the case of some of the long-wool breeds. Quality of fleece. — The chief factors to be considered in de- termining the quality of the fleece are the softness, crimp, and the soundness. Quality and quantity are not associated; that is to say, as a general rule the shorter-wool breeds of sheep possess the finest quality of wool. As stated, the finest quality of wool is located over the heart region and the poorest quality on the thigh. The softness is estimated by pressing the fleece with the closed hand. The amount of oil or yolk influences the softness to a considerable extent; also the management, the kind of food, and the nature of the soil. Providing the sheep suitable quarters, feeding foods rich in fat, and pasturing them on clay soils, all have a tendency to increase the softness of the fleece. Chalky soils, on the other hand, are noted for emphasizing harshness of the fleece. Harshness is due in a large measure to the absence of yolk, which results from exposure, lack of proper food, ill health, and the like. Crimp refers to the folds or spirals of the fiber. The crimp should be fine, close, and regular from one end of the fiber to the other, as this indicates wool of finest quality. If the crimp is irregular, short and close in places, long and wavy in others, the fiber is probably unsound. In all coarse wool, the crimp is open and wavy. Soundness indicates that the fiber should be strong from end to end, as it usually will be if the crimp is fine, close, and regular. To furnish an additional guide in locating unsound- ness, remove a small lock of the wool and stretch evenly and gently until the strength becomes apparent. If the fibers each break in approximately the same place, it indicates an un- sound place in the wool. When such break occurs near the CHOOSING AND JUDGING SHEEP 375 bottom, it is spoken of as "weak bottoms"; when near the middle, "weak middles," and when near the top, "weak tops." If the fibers are resistant, each breaking in a different place, and the crimp fine, close, and even, the fiber is sound. Condition of the fleece. — The chief factors to be considered in determining the condition of the fleece are its purity, luster, brightness, and the oil or yolk. The condition of the fleece is influenced by breeding, feeding, and management, some breeds possessing much brighter wool than others, some foods produc- Fig. 123. — American Merino Ewes. Owned by W. M. Staley, Marysville, Ohio. The American Merino developed from the Spanish Merino, although they have been much improved in America. This breed is noted particularly for the strong, fine, and heavy fleece. Ewes shear from 10 to 15 pounds, while rams easily attain 20 pounds of fine wool. In weight the ewes reach 100 pounds and up, while the rams weigh 130 pounds and up, often attaining 200 pounds. This breed is very popular in the United States. ing more yolk than others; and providing suitable quarters and giving proper care keeps the wool much more clean than otherwise. Purity refers to the freedom of the fleece from foreign ma- terial. In the absence of proper management, where sheep are long exposed to conditions opposed to thrift, the wool has a tendency to revert to its original form. Hairs and dead fibers, often called "kemp," make their appearance. The fleece that is loose and open often accumulates much chaff, pieces of 376 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS hay, and the like. This foreign material is very injurious to the fleece, as it is difficult to remove, does not absorb dyes, and interferes in the manufacture of cloth. Luster refers to the glistening appearance of the fiber. On being held in the light the fiber appears as if it were varnished. Luster is independent of oil, as fibers possessing a small amount of oil or yolk may be very lustrous, while other fibers possessing much oil may be rather dull. The significance of this luster is that wool possessing it more readily takes delicate dyes. Brightness refers to the color of the fibers. Wool is spoken of as bright or dark, the former signifying a clear white color, the latter signifying the darker colors. Yolk refers to the oil or grease that is found in the wool. This oil is readily recognized by running the hand over the wool. The various breeds differ widely in the amount of oil secreted and the amount is influenced by the food. Yolk is desirable as the fleece is much softer, more compact, as well as brighter and cleaner, and in addition it indicates thrift in the sheep. Excessive quantities of yolk are of no advantage, and may be a source of direct loss, especially in the manufacturing of woolens. Summary. — In the examination of wool, therefore, one must consider first the quantity, second the quality, and third the condition. Under quantity note the covering over the entire body, including the belly and arm pits, also the density and length which should be even over the entire body; under quality note the softness, crimp, and soundness; and under condition note the purity, luster, brightness, and yolk. CHAPTER XVII FEEDING SHEEP Sheep are among the most difficult of farm animals to feed. Thorough familiarity with their habits is essential to success. No other farm animal is less understood by the masses of American farmers. A knowledge of their peculiar characteris- tics can be gained only by a careful study and much experience in handling the animals. Sheep are naturally very timid in their disposition, very dainty feeders, and are easily frightened out of their appetite. A sudden noise or disturbance of any kind, as the bark of a dog, will often greatly frighten them and sometimes create a stampede or panic in the entire flock. Sheep have a natural aversion for strange dogs, and one coming near the flock will cause the sheep to run, which excites the dog to the chase, not necessarily because he is a vicious dog but because of his nature to give chase to whatever flees from him. In the excitement of the chase, the dog may tear the skins of the sheep with the teeth, sometimes inflicting fatal wounds. Sheep thus chased may die of exhaustion, and the entire flock will shrink badly in weight. In most cases if the sheep would stand their ground, the dog would not give chase. As goats do not ordinarily run from dogs, one or two placed in the flock often prevents the sheep from becoming frightened. The difficulty is to get the goats to stay with the flock. It may be necessary to raise the goats with the flock to teach them to remain with it at all times. It is very apparent that if sheep are to be profitable, they must be kept free from all 877 378 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS such excitement, and all unnecessary noise must be avoided. To avoid startling the sheep, herdsmen often make it a prac- tice to whistle or talk to them as they approach. Sheep are the most susceptible of farm animals to the ravages of parasites, both internal and external. These para- sites in some one or more of their many forms are responsible for the larger number of failures in this country. No part of our land is free from them all. In certain localities one form will be the more destructive, in other localities another form is to be dreaded. For example, in the corn-belt the stomach worm (Stro?igylus contortus) is by far the most serious, while in the far West, scab is the more troublesome. As a rule little attention is given these parasites; the flock becomes infested, many of the sheep become ill and die, and the others fail to thrive, and sometimes the owner does not know what causes the trouble. Sheep possess a very dainty appetite. The food must be at- tractive when placed before them or they are likely to refuse it. Any food left in the feed boxes must be removed as soon as the sheep are through feeding. If such food is left, it undergoes slight change, becoming sour, and when the fresh food is placed in this, the sheep refuse it entirely. Sometimes the trough in which the grain is fed is placed beneath the hay-rack in such a way as to collect the dust, dirt, and chaff that sifts from the hay. This construction, while economical of material and space, is objectionable because the grain trough cannot be kept clean as it should be, with the result that occasionally the sheep refuse the grain. While sheep can withstand the cold without suffering much inconvenience, they cannot endure the rain or snow that satu- rates their wool, nor dark, damp, and poorly ventilated quar- ters. Such conditions lead to colds, running at the nose, catarrh, inflammation, diarrhea, and all kinds of sheep diseases. From this it follows that if sheep are to prove profitable, they FEEDING SHEEP 379 must be kept quiet ; all unnecessary excitement avoided, prop- erly nutritious foods and suitable quarters provided. FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF SHEEP The quantity of food required by sheep depends on many factors, chief of which are the kind of food, and the age, weight, condition and individuality of the animal as well as the chief product sought, whether wool or mutton. Since foods vary widely in the energy they contain as well as in their influence upon wool or mutton production, and since young animals, for an equal weight, require more food, and of a different kind than older animals, it is not possible to state exact amounts. The Wolff-Lehman standards, however, will serve as a guide to be modified to suit the foods, animal, and conditions. These standards (p. 380) were arranged to meet the need of the average farm sheep under normal conditions, and as general guides to be varied in practice as circumstances suggest. Sudden changes in the food of sheep are to be avoided for the reason that the alimentary system, in many cases, is unable to accommodate itself at once, and digestive disorders follow. Such changes sometimes result in bloating, as when sheep are transferred from a dry to a watery diet, from the dry-lot feed- ing of winter to the early spring pasture where the grass is very succulent. Some pasture grasses are very likely to pro- duce bloating, particularly alfalfa and clover. In regions of considerable rainfall and much dew, alfalfa is serious in this respect. Fresh cool water should be available at all times. In winter, when it is exceedingly cold, sheep are not likely to drink very much, but if one is to succeed with them, they must have free access to water. Sheep are peculiar in their habit of drinking as well as eating, and if watered at intervals, do not do so well as when the water is available at all times. Salt in limited quantities should be kept before the sheep. 380 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS It is especially useful in the spring when the grass comes, and no doubt often checks bowel troubles when the sheep have free access to it. Wolff-Lehman standards, showing the amount of food required per 1000 pounds live weight for both wool and mutton as well as growing, mature, and fattening sheep Condition of Animal Dry- Matter Digestible Nutrients Growing Sheep Wool Breeds Nutritive Ratio Age, Mo. Weight Protein Carbohy- drates Fat 4-6 60 25 3.4 15.4 0.7 1:5.0 6-8 75 25 2.8 13.8 0.6 1 : 5.4 8-11 80 23 2.1 11.5 0.5 1:6.0 11-15 90 22 1.8 11.2 0.4 1:7.0 15-20 100 22 1.5 10.8 0.3 1:7.7 Growing Sheep Mutton Breeds 4-6 60 26 4.4 15.5 0.9 • 1:4.0 6-8 80 26 3.5 15.0 0.7 1:4.8 8-11 100 24 3.0 14.3 0.5 1:5.2 11-15 120 23 2.2 12.6 0.5 1:6.3 15-20 150 22 2.0 12.0 0.4 1:6.5 Mature Sheep Coarse wool . . 20 1.2 10.5 0.2 1:9.1 Fine wool . 23 1.5 12.0 0.3 1:8.5 Breeding ewes with lambs . 25 2.9 15.0 0.5 1:5.6 Fattening sheep, first period . Second period . 30 28 3.0 3.5 15.0 14.5 0.5 0.6 1 : 5.4 1:4.5 FEEDING THE FLOCK The feeding of the flock deserves special attention. The flock is often sadly neglected; it is pastured along lanes and FEEDING SHEEP 381 highways, in woodland and marshland, or in hilly land in summer; given the protection of the woodland or straw stack; and fed at intervals during the winter ; and as a result of such treatment the sheep become affected with parasites, both exter- nal and internal, many may die; all are unthrifty, and the owner becomes discouraged, selling the animals for little or nothing. Fig. 124. — Rambouillet Ram. Photograph by National Stockman and Farmer The Rambouillet breed of fine-wool sheep developed in France, although tracing to Spanish origin. This breed is similar to the Delaine, but possessing more size, the rams weighing from 150 to 225 pounds, the ewes 125 to 175 pounds. The fleece is the lightest of the fine-wool sheep, the rams shearing from 10 to 20 pounds and the ewes from 8 to 12 pounds. The flock in summer Unlike stock cattle, the flock must receive careful attention in summer as well as in winter, particularly in those regions infested with stomach worms, — the sheep's greatest enemy. 382 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS These worms have done more to discourage the propagation of sheep than all other causes combined, especially on the fertile farm lands in the central states. These pests seldom trouble sheep in cool regions, or in cold weather. Lambs are espe- cially susceptible to attack, the older suffering much less and being more easily managed in summer. Because of the cool weather, the New England states, northern New York, Ontario, upper Michigan, and northern Minnesota and Wiscon- sin are comparatively free from these pests. Only occasionally do stomach worms trouble sheep west of the corn-belt, and there they may be avoided by clearing up the watering places. Much of the cheap farm land throughout this section could be put to the profitable production of sheep. Pasture for sheep. — Pastures for sheep need similar care to those suggested for cattle. The stand of grass, the drainage of the soil, and keeping down the weeds deserve much attention. It is even more important that they be kept free from weeds, particularly burrs of various kinds, as they are especially inju- rious to the wool (page 286). Sheep thrive on pasture as nowhere else. They are particu- larly adapted to grazing short forage, and prefer it, as it is tender and juicy. In fact, sheep often keep parts of the pasture grazed so closely as to injure the plants, while the grass in other parts of the same field is left to grow up and seed. This can be pre- vented in part by mowing the entire pasture twice each year. The sheep will then pasture on the tender second growth. Turning to pasture. — Care should be exercised in turning sheep to pasture, otherwise some of the flock may be troubled with bloat. The extent of the trouble depends much on the condition as well as the kind of grass, young succulent grass being more troublesome than older and riper grass, and alfalfa or clover more than blue-grass or orchard-grass. In regions of much dew, alfalfa is likely to be the most troublesome of all. After alfalfa becomes woody there is not so much danger from FEEDING SHEEP 383 bloating. Mixed grasses are also less dangerous. There are many methods suggested for turning sheep to pasture. The following is as good as any; when the grass is very succulent, make the change from dry forage to pasture gradually ; that is, after feeding the sheep, turn to pasture say two hours during the middle of the first day, taking the sheep off the pasture before the dew falls. The second day leave them on a little longer, and by the fourth or fifth day they may remain in the pasture over night. When the sheep are familiarized with the pasture in this way, they must be carefully noted the next morning to see that none is suffering from bloat. Tagging the sheep. — When sheep are first turned to pasture, the succulent grass often induces a more or less lax condition of the bowels. The soft dung soils the wool below the tail-head, causing the parts to become foul, and may produce troublesome and vicious sores unless given attention. Such troubles are not likely to occur when the sheep have been shorn previous to turn- ing to pasture. If, however, it is desired to turn to pasture before shearing, the wool should be carefully clipped away be- neath the tail-head and along the inside of the thighs behind. Change in pasture. — When convenient, an occasional change of sheep from one pasture to another will prove advantageous. On farms heavily stocked with sheep there are two reasons for this : first, the change gives a chance for the fresh grass to grow, thereby preventing the sheep from cropping parts of the pasture too closely; and, second, it lessens the danger from par- asitic germs by allowing the larvae to die before finding lodg- ment in the sheep's body. More satisfactory results would be obtained by dividing large pastures into several small ones, and pasturing them in turn from the time warm weather sets in until the cool weather of the fall. AVhile this system would no doubt largely enable the sheep to escape parasite infection, it involves extra equipment in the way of fencing, shade, water supply, and the like, and there may be other means of accomplishing the 384 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS desired end without the extra expense, such as by the use of sown pastures. Providing shade. — Sheep on pasture should be given pro- tection from the sun. They are fond of shade and will seek it. Fig. 125. — Southdown Ewe. First prize ewe, International Live Stock Show, 1909. Owned by Chas. & Jas. Leet, Mantua, Ohio. The native home of the Southdown breed of mutton sheep is in England. This breed is noted for its rapid maturing qualities, and its delicious mutton. In outward appearance the animals are perfect. In weight the rams average about 175 pounds, and the ewes 135 pounds. As a wool breed it occupies a subordinate place, the fleece not Aveighing much over 4 to 8 pounds. even though all they can find is that provided by the shade of a wire fence-post. They will spend much of the time in the shade during the heat of the day. Unlike cattle, the shade tree is not sufficient for sheep, artificial shade being much preferred. The FEEDING SHEEP 385 great objection to the shade tree as a resting place for sheep is the danger of parasite infection. (There is also danger from lightning.) There is an accumulation of droppings, which either bear or afford a convenient brooding place for such harmful parasitic germs as "grub in the head/' throat worms, stomach worms, nodular disease, and the like. The droppings encourage the growth of sweet rich grass near the tree. The germs are harbored about the base of this sweet grass. When the pasture is near the shed or barn, no better shade can be provided than to give the sheep the freedom of these quarters, which should then be slightly darkened by hanging blankets or gunny sacks over the windows. A blanket may be so hung over the door that the sheep in passing into the shed will brush the flies off their backs. The shed or barn should be kept well bedded, as this preserves the manure which otherwise wrould be largely wasted. Hay kept in the racks will prove advanta- geous, as the sheep will eat much of it and be benefited thereby. If small sheds are provided in the field, they should be placed on runners in order to move them from place to place as the sheep are changed from one field to another. This plan scat- ters the manure more thoroughly and does away with much of the evil caused by parasites. These shades need be only a roof and may be made of pine boards, as it is not essential that they be rain-proof. They need not be high. Such a roof sixteen feet square will provide shade for a flock of forty sheep. The use of soivn pastures. — The best way to care for the flock in summer, in order to avoid parasite infection, particularly with a flock of lambs, is to sow special pasture crops for the flock. In this way the owner may have various green forage crops coming on regularly at different times, and thus avoid having the sheep graze on the same area for any considerable time. It avoids practically all danger from the many parasites that at- tack sheep during the summer season. There are many plants 2c 386 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS that may be used as green feeds for summer pasture, chief of which are rye, oats, alfalfa, clover, rape, kale, cabbage, turnips, and pumpkins. While it is less trouble to provide permanent pastures and grow the common farm crops for the sheep, and while sheep may be maintained upon them alone, it is nevertheless essential to highest and healthiest development. Such food aids in escap- ing the ravishes of the parasites. Rape, kale, cabbage, and turnips add to the healthfulness and soundness as well as the quality of the wool, and pumpkin seeds are among the best vermifuges known. The owner who is to attain greatest success with sheep will find it necessary to grow such supplementary foods. They need not necessarily occupy extra land, as both rape and pumpkins may be grown in the corn field and the corn not be injured thereby ; or they may be grown similarly to soiling crops for dairy cattle (page 220). There will be extra labor connected with harvesting and feeding, but the ad- vantage will pay many times over. It is these little things that make sheep farming profitable. The flock in winter In winter the flock is entirely dependent on the care of the owner, and it must receive more careful attention than during the summer. This is the season of catarrhs, running at the nose, inflammation, diarrhea, and the like. When convenient, the change from the fields to the yards should be made gradually. The flock should be yarded at night as soon as the pastures be- come crisp from night frosts, as frosty forage is likely to lead to digestive disorders. Hay should be provided in the lot, so that the sheep will not go to pasture hungry in the forenoon. If on permanent pasture or where there is much old grass, such yard- ing is not so necessary, as the sheep will feed on the dead grass in preference to the frosty succulent grass. The winter ration. — The feeds that should enter into the FEEDING SHEEP 387 winter ration will depend on the kind available. If convenient, succulence of some kind should be provided. On farms where there are silos, nothing is better than corn silage. In the absence of silage, roots will serve, some sheep owners even preferring roots to silage. The roots suggested for late fall use, such as mangels and ruta-bagas, will serve admirably. When such suc- culence is available at the time of changing from pasture to dry- lot, the sheep will suffer no loss whatever. In the absence of silage or roots, a little wheat bran, oats, linseed meal, or similar grain should be fed, particularly to the ewes that are to lamb in the spring. The advisability of feeding grain when succulence is available will depend on the kind of dry forage being fed and Fig. 126. — Southdown Lambs. A prize pen, owned by Chas. & Jas. Leet, Mantua, Ohio. on the use to which the lambs are to be put. If winter lambs are desired, grain should be fed. On the other hand, if ewes are not to lamb until time of going to grass, and the dry forage con- sists of clover, alfalfa, or mixed hay, then the grain may be dis- pensed with at least until the sheep show signs of falling off in flesh. It may be of advantage to begin grain feeding four to six weeks before lambing time. Exercise. — In order to keep the sheep healthy and thrifty they should take exercise daily. This often becomes a serious problem in the cold climates when the ground is covered with deep snow much of the winter season. It may be advisable to 388 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS remove the snow from parts of the lot and feed them some dry forage in some spot not too near the winter quarters. Care of the feet. — During the winter season when the sheep are rather closely confined, it is important to watch the feet and see that the toes do not grow out too long, as they very often do at this season of the year. Long toes should be trimmed. The aim in trimming should be to keep the feet natural, so that the sheep stands squarely upon them. Lack of trimming is some- times responsible for diseases of the feet. The toes may be trimmed with a sharp knife, a chisel and block, or better still a sharp hand pruning knife ; take care not to cut them too short, for if the quick is cut, the feet will get very sore and prove very annoying. If the hind parts become foul tag as suggested on page 383. Bedding should be used liberally, otherwise the floors will be- come damp and foul smelling. Sheep lying on damp, filthy beds are subject to the same ills as those exposed to draughts. Fresh bedding is of greatest importance during the lambing season, as damp, filthy quarters are particularly hurtful to lambs and will soon prove fatal to them. At this time, fresh bedding should be put down daily. This not only increases the healthfulness of the sheep-fold, but increases the quantity of valuable ma- nure as well. FATTENING SHEEP Feeding sheep to fatten them differs considerably from feeding the flock in general or feeding for the production of wool; it is somewhat similar to feeding cattle for the production of beef. Growing winter lambs In recent years a considerable demand has developed for winter lambs, particularly in the eastern cities. Because of the forced methods of feeding adopted in pushing the lambs forward so as quickly to prepare them for market, they are spoken of as FEEDING SHEEP 389 " hot-house" lambs, a term which has misled many as to the con- ditions under which the animals are raised. The high price that these lambs command on the market has led many to think the demand only a fad that will soon pass. While the de- mand could no doubt be oversupplied, it has managed to take care of the supply and bids fair to continue to do so for some time to come, particularly all that can be supplied from Christmas to Easter. Many sheep owners have not attempted to raise winter lambs because they did not, know where to find a market, not realizing that such lambs are a regular product 'upon the provision market and can be sold through any commission merchant. Some persons have not gone into the business be- cause they think it difficult to prepare the lambs for market; but this is an easy task, as any one can prepare a carcass who is willing to exercise a little care. Foundation stock. — There are two characteristics that the foundation flock must possess for the production of winter lambs : the ewes must drop the lambs in the fall and early winter, and this is perhaps the greatest difficulty in winter lamb production; and the ewes must be good milkers in order to nourish the lambs well, as they should weigh fifty to sixty pounds at ten to twelve weeks of age. All things considered, it is thought best that the sheep composing the foundation flock, for the produc- tion of winter lambs, be grades rather than pure-bred animals. The mutton breeds would, of course, produce the best lambs, but they will not breed at the proper season. The Merino bears lambs fairly early, but the lambs grow too much wool before they have size or are fat enough for the market. The best plan is to choose a grade Merino flock. Put it on good pasture and mate the ewes with a good, vigorous pure-bred Horned-Dorset ram. The lambs of this mating will probably be dropped in January, February, and March. This crop will come too late for winter lambs. The ewe lambs should be saved for breeding and the others may be fattened for spring lambs. The 390 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS grade flock should be shorn rather early, in March or before if the quarters can be well protected for a few days. In May turn the sheep to pasture and in addition feed considerable stimulating grain, such as ground oats, or bran, and, at the same time, mate to a thrifty, vigorous pure-bred Horned-Dorset ram by turning the ram to the flock each morning, as suggested on page 407, Fig. 127. — Shropshire Ram "Davison's Ambition." Champion, Interna- tional Live Stock Show, 1909. Owned by Dr. G. H. Davison, Millbrook, N. Y. The Shropshire Down breed of mutton sheep originated in the county of Shrop- shire, England. This breed is similar to the Southdown, but somewhat larger, the standard weight for mature rams being 225 pounds, with 150 for the ewes. It, also, is noted for its early maturing qualities and delicious mutton. As wool-producers this breed excels the Southdowns, bearing from 5 to 10 pounds of medium-length wool. This breed is extremely popular in the United States. rather than letting him run with them all the time, and at the same time marking the ewes served for identification. This system of mating should result in the lambs being dropped in October, November, and December. It is not considered a FEEDING SHEEP 391 good plan to have the lambs dropped before the ewes go into winter quarters, as the lambs then entirely escape danger from stomach worms and as a rule can be taught to eat grain much younger. After purchasing the grade Merino flock, some persons prefer to give the ewes a year's rest, shearing them in March and begin- ning the breeding in May. This has the advantage that the ewes are not nursed down in flesh as a result of raising a crop of lambs. Whatever system is used, the ewes must have weaned their lambs sometime previous to going to pasture, they must have been shorn for some time, and they must be gaining in flesh while mating. With such a flock thus treated, there should be no difficulty in having the lambs dropped in the late fall and early winter months. The winter quarters for winter-lamb production. — In the discus- sion on care and management will be found a statement of the method and equipment for housing sheep (page 433). The term "hot-house" lambs has led many to think that extra warm quarters must be provided, some thinking that artificial heat must be used, others that the roof or side of the sheep barn should be of glass construction resembling a green-house. Not only is such extra equipment unnecessary, but if the quarters are too warm, neither the ewes or lambs will thrive. On the other hand, winter lambs cannot be grown if the ewes are ex- posed to the rain, snow, or storm. The winter quarters must be well lighted, well ventilated, and free from draughts. There should be sufficient window space to make the quarters light and comfortable. Artificial heat is entirely unnecessary. Feeding the lambs. — The ewes should be fed milk-producing foods, such as wheat bran, silage, and clover hay, in order that the milk flow be large, but in addition to the dam's milk the lambs should be taught to eat grain as soon as they will take to it. Some lambs will begin to nibble grain when only ten days or two weeks old, and they should be encouraged to do so. A lamb 392 mJnual of farm animals creep should be provided. This " creep " consists of a little pen with openings so small that the lambs may pass in and out at will, but through which the sheep cannot pass. These openings may be made of vertical slats placed seven inches apart, and the edges of the slats rounded. These must be conveniently placed for the lambs or they will fail to find them, as the young lamb is largely a victim of circumstances. The grain boxes within the creep should be flat-bottomed and placed rather low. The first feed put into the trough may be wheat bran, to which has been added a little brown sugar. At first it may be necessary to aid the lambs by placing some of this mixture on their lips. The troughs Fig. 128. — Champion Shropshire Ewes. An almost perfect flock, by Dr. G. H. Davison, Millbrook, N. Y. Owned must be cleaned daily and the food kept fresh. After the lambs have learned to eat grain, the following mixtures should be used : 50 parts of cracked corn, 50 parts of wheat bran, and 10 parts of oil meal, coarse ground. This may be varied by adding oats, barley, or gluten feed as circumstances demand. A fresh sup- ply should be provided each day. Lambs thus cared for should grow rapidly and fatten at the same time, so that by the time they are ten to twelve weeks of age they will weigh from 50 to 60 pounds, when they should be slaughtered. The most desirable weights vary somewhat on the different markets, and the owner FEEDING SHEEP 393 should find out what weights are mostly in demand. The weight demanded will range from 45 to 65 pounds, — not more, as they will not sell for hot-house lambs if larger. The lambs must in all cases be fat, as it will not pay to ship a thin carcass to a winter-lamb market. Dressing winter lambs. — Dressing winter lambs requires some skill, — not more, however, than dressing a squirrel, — and any one can develop the required skill after carefully reading the directions and practicing on a few lambs. The methods vary somewhat, but the following is as simple and efficient as any: Suspend the lamb by fastening a rope around the hind legs so that the head comes within a foot of the floor. With a sharp-pointed knife sever the artery and vein in the neck close above the head. It is very important to have the lamb thor- oughly bled out. Bright red blood gives this assurance. It is well to hold the head, otherwise the lamb will throw blood over the operator and may soil the wool. As soon as the lamb ceases to struggle, remove the head. This can be easily done if severed at a vertebra. Place the carcass on a table. Remove the front feet and cannons at the knee. Loosen two or three inches of hide along the front of the cannons to cover the joints. Remove the hind feet at the pastern joints. Slit the skin from the tail to the brisket. Loosen and remove the skin along the Fig. 129. — Dressing Hot-house Lamb, show- ing Methods of removing the Hide from the Abdomen. 394 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS floor of the abdomen and for about four inches up the inside of the hind-quarters (Fig. 129). Suspend the carcass by the hind legs. Open the lamb and carefully remove the caul fat, — a sheet of fat surround- ing the intestines. Save the caul fat to cover the openings, and if the weather is cold, put in warm water. Remove the intestines, stomach, and esoph- agus, and in warm weather the liver, heart, and lungs, though these may be left in when the weather is cold. Pro- cure two spreaders or back-sets twelve or fourteen inches long, depending on the size of the lamb. These back-sets should have shoulders about one inch up from the pointed end to prevent them from entering the flesh too far. Insert one in the outer and upper part of the hind flank, then cross the back diagonally, entering the opposite side nearly or quite as far forward as the chest. The second crosses the first at right angles across the back. Carefully spread the caul fat over all exposed flesh, holding in place by means of tooth picks (Fig. 130). Make small slits in it over the kidneys Fig. 130. — Hot-house Lamb dressed and ready for wrapping. FEEDING SHEEP 395 and pull them through. Hang the carcass in a cool place for twelve to twenty- four hours. As soon as the animal heat is given off wrap in two separate wrappers. The first may be of cheese- cloth or muslin, which should be drawn tight to prevent soiling when handling. The outer covering may be of bur- lap or sacking and must be well secured. The lamb is now ready for consignment to a provision commission mer- chant (Fig. 131). When the lambs are to be shipped a long distance, they are often crated, placing three carcasses in a crate. In warm weather ice may be put between the lambs but never in them. The lambs should be dressed, as they are ready for market, preferably sending a few each week during the season which runs from Christmas to Easter. After the lamb is removed, the udder of the ewe must be watched closely and not per- mitted to spoil. If necessary, remove the milk by hand for a few days. Fig. 131. — Hot-house Lamb wrapped and ready for shipment. 396 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Growing spring lambs Because of the difficulty in getting ewes to conceive suffi- ciently early for the growing of winter lambs and the disad- vantages of dressing and marketing, many sheep owners prefer to grow spring lambs. There is much profit in selling lambs afoot in May and June. Usually the highest prices are obtained in June, as at this time the supply of winter-fed western lambs is exhausted and the summer-fed lambs are not yet on the market in any considerable number. The foundation stock and the management should be much the same as that suggested in growing winter lambs. The ewes should be mated in August, September, and October, as the lambs should be dropped in late January, February, and March, not later than March. The lambs should be provided with creeps and fed grain in the same manner as advised for winter lambs ; for if they are to be marketed in a thick fat condition at the age of four or five months, they must be forced from the beginning. It is rather difficult to fatten lambs for the spring market if they once lose their baby fat. Lambs thus cared for should be able to make a vigorous start before grass comes and be in condition to make the most of it when turned to pasture. Lambs dropped in February and thus cared for should make a weight of approximately eighty pounds by the middle of June. As this is the weight demanded of this class of mutton, it should be the aim of the sheep owner to supply it. When there are several lambs or when one is located convenient to market, it maybe advisable to make two drafts, selling the larger and fatter ones say the first of June and the remainder of the lamb flock the latter part of the month. Feeding lambs in the fall Lambs may be fattened at almost any season, but ordinarily the fattening period extends from September until the follow- FEEDING SHEEP 397 ing May. Fall feeding is extensively practiced both by the farmer who raises his own lambs and by the sheep feeder who buys his lambs either locally or from the western range and fattens them in seventy to one hundred days. Fall feeding is practical on pasture, either permanent or sown, when supple- mented by feeding grain. The various pastures that may be used for this purpose are the same as those suggested for the flock in summer (pages 382 to 386). Getting the lambs on full feed. — Much care must be exercised in getting a flock of lambs on full feed, particularly if they are from the range and not familiar with grain. Furthermore, many of the plants used in fall pastures for fattening lambs are likely to produce bloating, and for this reason much care must be exercised in turning the flock to pasture, particularly if the grass is com- posed of alfalfa, clover, or rape plants. These are most ex- cellent crops for fattening lambs in the fall, but due care must be exercised in turning on the sheep. The grain should be fed sparingly at first and gradually increased from day to day until the full amount is being fed. Most satisfactory results can be obtained by feeding the grain twice daily. Care must be ex- ercised never to feed more than the lambs will consume; or if there is any grain remaining, it should be removed before a new supply is placed in the troughs. Lambs thus cared for should make rapid and economical gains. Under such feeding, 60-pound lambs should attain a weight of 85 pounds in 75 days and be sufficiently fat for the market. Thus, lambs put on feed September 1 would be ready for the market November 15. As suggested in the case of spring lambs, when the flocks are sufficiently large and the sheep feeder is located conveniently near to market, it will, as a rule, pay to make two drafts, selling the fattest at the end of about 75 days and the remainder of the flock in 90 to 100 days. This keeps the two flocks more even and avoids holding those already fat for the slower maturing ones to 398 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS fatten, and avoids selling a few thin in flesh after the majority have fattened. Fattening lambs in winter By far the greater number of lambs are fattened during the winter season. The methods employed differ fundamentally in different localities. In the West little or no attention is paid to shelter, and exercise is considered essential ; in the corn-belt much attention is given to the shelter, at least to protect the lambs from the rain, snow,- and storm, and to provide them dry footing and exercise; in the East, where lamb-feeding is rapidly developing, shelter is considered essential, though exercise under the methods employed is likely to prove fatal, and the sheep must be kept absolutely quiet or trouble will result. Feeding in the semiarid West. — Large flocks of lambs are shipped from the ranges to points where alfalfa hay is available. Here the sheep are confined in corrals which are divided into lots containing approximately 500 head. No shelter is provided other than that furnished by the fence or the alfalfa hay which is often stacked near by. Rain and snow storms are rather in- frequent, and it is felt that the loss occasioned by the lack of protection is less expensive than shelter. These corrals provide accommodations for many thousands of sheep. To save labor in feeding, the lots are arranged in rows with feeding lanes be- tween. In these lanes the hay is stacked and fed out each morning and evening. Sometimes the fence has a space be- tween the first and second boards large enough for the sheep to introduce its head, and the rack is arranged on the stack side of the fence. In each lot are placed rows of grain troughs sufficient to accommodate the entire flock. These lots are pro- vided with water, often pumped by windmills, though sometimes by hand or with an engine. Salt is kept before the animals at all times. In this way five men can care for 10,000 or 12,000 head of sheep. FEEDING SHEEP 399 Feeding in the corn-belt. — In the corn-belt the practice is entirely different ; in the West sheep are fed in larger numbers and by few men, while in the corn-belt few sheep are fed by great numbers of farmers. Here feed, both grain and hay, is very abundant, but the climate is the objectionable element. Sheep need dry coats and dry footing. The dripping skies of the corn-belt makes this impossible without providing shelter from the rain and snow. Hence, before attempting to feed lambs ample provision must be made to shelter them. Much care should be exercised in getting the lambs on full feed. The lambs may be fed hay liberally, but the grain must be fed sparingly, beginning with one-fourth pound to the head daily and gradually increasing the ration to one pound by the time the sheep have been on feed three weeks, and continuing until they are getting all they will consume. The lambs should not be fed more grain than they will clean up at each feeding. As the grain is increased, less hay will be required. Lambs thus cared for should make a gain of 25 to 30 pounds in 100 days, when they should be fat and ready for the market. If desired, two droves of lambs may be fed each winter, purchasing the first drove in November and fattening by the last of January, immediately purchasing a second and fattening by the first of May. This system is extensively practiced when feeds are comparatively low and mutton high. Feeding in the East. — During the recent high price of mutton many lambs have been fed in the eastern part of the United States, and the methods are peculiar to the East. The feeding pens are usually rectangular in shape, with hay- racks and grain-troughs the entire length of either side. These grain-troughs are protected with vertical slats so arranged that there is just room for one lamb to feed in each opening, and there are just as many of these openings as lambs and not one more. When the lambs are feeding, they are packed solid along either side of the pen. The space allowed each pen is approximately 400 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS twice the room on which they stand while feeding. Water and salt are supplied in this pen, and the lambs do not leave it from the time they are put in until they are finished and ready for the market. The lambs are put on full feed in about three weeks and forced until fat. Fig. 132. — Hampshire Ram. Champion, International Live Stock Show, 1908. Photograph from National Stockman and Farmer. The native home of the Hampshire Down breed of mutton sheep is in Hampshire County, England. This breed is noted for its large size and its mutton quali- ties. Mature rams should weigh about 240 pounds and the ewes 180 to 200 pounds. In general appearance this breed is somewhat coarser than either the Southdown or the Shropshire, but in quality of the mutton is not inferior to either. As a wool producer the breed does not rank high, the average yield being about seven pounds, which is inferior in quality to wool of either the Southdown or the Shropshire. Two factors deserve special attention, and they are at vari- ance with accepted ideas. First, there must be no more feeding space than lambs ; and second, the lambs must be prevented from being excited. A violation of either of these will prove fatal in FEEDING SHEEP 401 this method of feeding. Formerly those engaged in lamb feed- ing lost many lambs without apparent cause. They were the thriftiest and fattest lambs, and the loss was often very heavy, for when one lamb died, others were sure to follow. This led to experimentation which brought out the following facts : the lambs died of apoplexy, the result of overeating or of excitement. When one lamb died, this left an extra feed space, another lamb overate and died of the same cause. When the feed space was closed as a lamb was removed and the amount fed was cut down accordingly, and when the animals were kept perfectly free from excitement, no fatalities occurred. In all other re- spects, such as the feeds used, watering, salting, and the like, the lambs were treated the same as suggested for corn-belt feeding. SAMPLE RATIONS FOR FATTENING SHEEP The following rations are collected from various sources, to furnish a guide in determining the kind and amount of feed that should be allowed fattening lambs. In all cases the rations are calculated for 100 head: 1 Roots. Weight Ration Food per Pound Gain Lambs Grain Dry Forage Grain Dry Forage 55 1b. 92 lb. corn 13 lb. oats 1101b. mixed hay 1121b. roots 4.7 4.7 5.01 56 1b. 49 lb. bran 37 lb. linseed meal 37 lb. cotton-seed meal 147 lb. hay 143 lb. roots 4.5 5.4 5.3 ' Ill lb. 140 lb. speltz 10 lb. bran 180 lb. clover hay 3.5 4.2 110 lb. 140 lb. soy beans 10 lb. bran 180 lb. clover hay 3.5 4.7 2D 402 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Weight Ration Food per Pound Gain Lambs Grain Dry Forage Grain Dry Forage 109 lb. 93 lb. corn 45 lb. gluten 10 lb. bran 180 lb. clover hay 3.2 4.2 109 lb. 135 lb. corn 10 lb. bran 180 lb. clover hay 3.2 4.2 82 1b. 149 lb. shelled corn 104 lb. clover hay 4.8 3.3 80 1b. 81 lb. shelled corn 81 lb. bran 107 lb. clover hay 6.4 4.2 85 1b. 64 lb. shelled corn 64 lb. wheat 124 lb. clover hay 5.1 5.1 83 1b. 164 lb. oats 140 lb. clover hay 100 lb. roots 5.2 4.5 3.11 83 1b. 132 lb. corn 33 lb. oil meal 110 lb. clover hay 4.8 3.2 76 1b. 87 lb. shelled corn 87 lb. peas 183 lb. corn fodder 5.3 5.8 76 lb. 154 lb. shelled corn 188 lb. corn fodder 5.6 6.8 89 lb. 94 lb. shelled corn 94 lb. oats 95 lb. hay 4.9 2.5 74 1b. 211 lb. wheat screenings 72 lb. timothy hay 7.2 2.5 76 1b. 189 lb. barley 14 lb. oil meal 72 lb. timothy hay 5.8 2.2 62 1b. 97 lb. cotton-seed meal 97 lb. cotton-seed hulls 3.4 3.4 89 1b. 67 lb. corn 290 lb. alfalfa hay 2.2 10.0 80 1b. 80 lb. corn Pasture 1.7 81 lb. 78 lb. oats Pasture 1.9 80 1b. 77 lb. barley Pasture 2.0 75 1b. 65 lb. corn 24 lb. oats Pasture 1.5 1 Roots. CHAPTER XVIII THE BREEDING OF SHEEP There are fewer sheep bred in America than of any other of our farm animals. This is due in a large measure to the average American farmer's lack of knoAvledge in propagating sheep. He is wont to treat them as swine, and under such care sheep fail to thrive. Sheep breeding is a very profitable branch of farm- ing in England and France, where entire farms are devoted to the industry. These farms are profitable because in charge of a competent flock-master, who does no other work, but makes a very careful study of the needs of his flock and supplies every want. On many of these farms the soil was formerly very poor, but through sheep farming they have been restored to fertility, and at present many of them grow very luxuriant crops of forage. In America conditions are somewhat different, though there is no reason why our cheap pasture lands cannot be made to yield a handsome profit if slowly converted into sheep pastures. Lack of suitable labor is the greatest drawback to sheep farm- ing in America. We have no flock-masters, as do the English, and the average American seems to be too nervous and unsteady to tend sheep with perfect assurance of success. Properly cared for, sheep are among the most profitable of farm animals, and restore fertility to the land as do no other animals. Every farm devoted to general agriculture should possess a small flock. While they will need considerable care, on such a farm, the food they consume will be largely that which otherwise would be wasted. 403 404 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS At present, the farmer should start with a small flock, increas- ing it gradually as he learns its habits and needs. The unex- perienced should begin with a grade flock of ewes, which should be mated to a pure-bred ram. The sire is as important in the flock as in the herd of dairy cattle. The second year a few pure- bred ewes, of the same breeding as the ram, may be purchased; and with these as a basis, start a pure-bred flock. Some of the best flocks in America have been started in this way. PLAN OF BREEDING A clearly defined plan should be outlined before the farmer makes an attempt at breeding sheep. The intending sheep breeder should make a careful study of successful sheep farms, noting the conditions wherein his differs, and the modifications that must be adopted. The farmer who rushes into sheep breeding blindly because the price of wool or mutton seems to warrant it is likely to pay dearly for his experience. Cooperative breeding. — The value of united effort cannot be overestimated in breeding sheep. This does not mean that the farmers should be partners from a financial point of view, but all should help to advance the interests of each other's flock. Free conversation on all matters relating to the flock will prove of common advantage ; the owner will improve in sheep knowl- edge, and the flock improve in excellency. There are many things that a few sheep breeders would be able to do that one alone would hardly undertake, and not least among these is the purchasing of a pure-bred ram of much excellency. The influence of such a ram is left in the flocks of several breeders, and uniformity is promoted. The old saying, "in unity there is strength," applies to the sheep industry, as to others. CHOOSING BREEDING STOCK In choosing the foundation flock, the farmer must have in mind the demand that he means to supply, wool or mutton, and THE BREEDING OF SHEEP 405 if mutton, whether he means to raise hot-house lambs or older mutton. He should bear in mind that in general "like pro- duces like" and that "blood will tell." This applies to the ewes as well as to the ram. Bad qualities of one are as likely to appear in the lambs as bad qualities of the other. Even after using the greatest care in finding the breeding stock, the breeder must be prepared to expect many lambs inferior to both parents. The type or breed should depend on the individual preference of the breeders. The advisability of selecting wool or mutton sheep will depend on the conditions. Mutton is preeminently adapted to the corn-belt, although a great many wool sheep are found there. Where hot-house and early spring lambs are to be produced, Merino and Horned-Dorset blood must predominate. Where the grazing land is much broken, some breed other than the pure mutton is likely to give best results. For such lands a good grazing breed is demanded. Whatever breed is chosen, there should be no further change, for it is indiscriminate and zigzag crossing that has produced our present common stock. Uniformity. — In choosing the foundation flock of breeding ewes, no single factor is of greater im- portance than uniformity. The ewes should be uniform in type, _, _ . Fig. 133. — Hampshire Ewe. weight, quality, and breeding. Champion, International Live Such a flock will cost slightly more Stock show' 1908- Photograph . . . by National Stockman and Farmer. than one not uniform in these characters, but will prove much the more profitable in the long run. As we have already observed in the discussion of mutton production, uniformity is a market requirement, and when it is wanting in the breeding ewes, it will also be lacking in the crop of lambs. When one is producing wool, an even, uni- form clipping is to be desired. Furthermore, if the breeder 406 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS wishes to sell his surplus ewes for breeding purposes, they will command a much higher price if uniform in all features, both because of their intrinsic worth, and because of their improved general appearance. The ram The ram is by far the most important member of the flock. Successful sheep breeders rely on him for much of the improve- ment of the flock. What has been said about the stallion (page 102) and the bull (page 244) also applies here. The ewe flock If the farmer is just beginning, the best time to purchase the foundation ewes is in the early fall; the best place to purchase is in the locality in which the flock is to be kept. Breeding ewes on the large markets are often discarded from other flocks or from the western ranges. Such ewes are usually sent to market because of their age or failure to breed, and are to be avoided when possible. Local ewes will give much better satisfaction when they can be procured; they are adapted to climatic conditions and parasite dangers. Western ewes do not resist parasites as do native ewes. By purchasing the flock in the early fall, the new owner has time to become familiar with it before winter ; he can see to the mating, and thus know exactly what time to expect the lambs. In choosing foundation ewes, too much attention cannot be given the individual animals. They should each be carefully considered. If purchased on a large market, the condition of their teeth should be especially noted, as a ewe without teeth, even though she breeds, is likely to give much trouble at lamb- ing time. Moderately heavy fleeces are to be preferred, as they indicate stronger sheep and greater feeding capacity. When possible the condition of the udder should be noted, as many ewes have spoiled udders and imperfect teats. THE BREEDING OF SHEEP 407 THE BREEDING OF THE EWES Productive period. — There is a strong tendency on the part of beginners to breed yearling lambs, particularly if they are well grown. The yearling ewe should not be bred, as the drain on her system weakens her condition and leaves her an easy prey to parasite infection. Furthermore, if breeding the yearling is persisted in, it wall lessen the size of the ewe. The ewe may remain in the breeding flock as long as she continues to breed true. She will be unreliable after her teeth drop out, as it is difficult for her to nourish the fetus in winter when dry forage is the main feed. Unless a valuable ewe, a better plan is to fatten her as soon as she begins to lose her teeth. Ewes vary widely in the age at which they stop breeding, some being unreliable at four or five years, while others will continue to breed until eight years, and even longer. Season to breed. — The season to mate the ewes will depend on the time the lambs are wanted. In this country, on the average farm, the breeding season begins in September 01 October. To encourage breeding early, the ewes are often fed a very stimulating ration, a practice sometimes spoken of as 11 flushing"; and some owners hold the ewes while the ram serves them, then in a few days the ewes come around natu- rally, when the ram serves them again in the natural way. When spring lambs are to be produced, the mating must be done in August, September, and October, as the lambs should be dropped in January, February, and March. To get the lambs to mate in August requires similar treatment to that suggested for winter lambs (page 389) . On the average farm the mating should all be done before Christmas, as lambs dropped after the middle of May are not likely to thrive without much extra care. Method of mating. — The common practice is to let the ram run with the flock during the breeding season. This is not a wise practice. 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CO CO ," HiHrtwiHMrtrtrtrt to ^NMi'iOCSXSO^N Mt|) «o COb- OOOSO >-l N CO "# 1© to t^OO OS© tH i— i .— i t— i .— ii— ihhi- ii— ii— ooosOi-tcsieO'<*»ocot«.oooj OSOi-ltNeQ-4iiac0b.oOOSO — — ' — -^ — — 1 — — '-"-hcnicnicnicnionionicnicnionicnico © ^ oi co -? 10 -.r t^ x or. o«'^CNicoT}ii-o:r!t>.x©©'-ieNioo>*io©t«.ooos© Cn|CNICni0JCniCn]Cn1CMCN|9IC0q i-Ii-Ii-Ii-It-Ii-Ii-Ii-i.-4.-ic3 rtM^^OONKOOH CNCOTj(»OCOI>OOa>OrHcNeO-*lOoot^x© CMCMCMCMCMOMCMCMCMCMCOq _,-r^r-ir-r^r-ir-.x©©*-* 2.^h cm co ■<* >-e v9 r ^ x — i c — 9jco«#ioot>x© CMCMCMCMCMCMCM919l9IC9CO« rtr-0©t-00©©>-l3'HX©0 — X©©r-i t-h r-i i-h ^-1 ^h i-h r-i — rt rt o^i ^ o^i os o-i 0^1 cm oXCi ©-^0\|CO'*Lf-i©I^XC>5©'^010N|CMOO-rH T_^H^-lr-l^-.^H^H^Hr-lrtO-10\|0K| »-• 0N| 00 ■* uO © t>. X © O rH M »0 -f lO r N X C O >-i Ol W Tf LO C N X O! O >-i T-lrHrti-li-lr^rHr^^T-l0N|0N|0N|0N|CN|0N|0'l0NI0N|0N|0O0O 496 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS only to provide a clean and dry nest. Sometimes pigs are lost when the nests are too deep. If convenient, the nest should be so situated that the sun can warm it during a portion of the day. Straw, chaff, leaves, or hay make good nests. When at pasture the sow will build her own nest, in which case she gathers grass and leaves and provides a very shallow place. When the sow is to farrow in the hog-cot or pen, the little pigs may be kept from danger of being crushed by the mother by a fender made of a pole or scantling securely fastened, say eight inches from the floor and the same distance from the wall. The young pigs soon learn the protection furnished by this device when the mother lies down. Farrowing time. — For several hours before farrowing, the sow will be very restless and spend much of her time in collect- ing material and making it into a nest. At this time the feed should be reduced. The signs that indicate the near approach of parturition are a distended udder, an enlarged vulva, and a relaxation of the muscles on either side of the tail. During the summer season the pigs will of their own accord usually find their way to the teats and begin Fig. 170. — Prize Cheshire Boar. . . . , nursing ; but in the winter season the young pigs often need assistance in finding the teats, other- wise they may become chilled and perish. If for any reason the pigs become chilled, they should be treated similarly to that sug- gested for chilled lambs (see page 414). Occasionally a sow will be found that is very nervous and unquiet at farrowing time, and it will be necessary to keep the pigs from the teats to prevent the youngsters from being crushed. When such is the case the pigs should be kept warm, as suggested for lambs. When permitted to nurse, care should be taken to see that the THE BREEDING OF SWINE 497 young ones do not overfeed and that each. pig receives its share. Extra attention should be given the pigs at the time they make their choice of teats, to see that the weaker pigs get their share, as they usually continue to use the teats first chosen. The stronger pigs, however, are very likely to take a few pulls at the teats of their less robust mates. To reduce this difficulty, each sow and litter should be placed in a lot by themselves. Brood sows, like all other farm animals, often need assistance at farrowing time. Difficult parturition among sows should be handled much as suggested for difficult parturition among sheep (see page 412). Feeding a heavy corn ration to the pregnant sow is likely to increase the troubles at farrowing time. A better plan is to use food containing more protein and mineral matter, as such foods strengthen the sow, while corn has a tendency to produce fat and thus to weaken her. The brood sow eating her pigs. — The causes that induce a sow to eat her own young are perhaps numerous, though not well understood. This abnormal appetite may be due to the failure to remove the afterbirth promptly. If left in the farrowing pen, the sow scents it and is likely to devour it ; and since the scent of the young pigs is similar, they too may be eaten. If the sow has not been properly fed during pregnancy, if the ration lacks flesh-producing and bone-making material, she may have an appetite for blood. Sows that have access to clover or alfalfa pasture in summer, or those that are provided with roots in winter, seldom eat their pigs, especially if a box of charcoal and salt is kept before them at all times. When the sow possesses the abnormal appetite, it has been recommended to feed her pork, preferably salt pork. The salt pork causes her to drink water, which allays the fever. The assertion is made that when the appetite is satisfied she will' leave the pigs alone. The sow after farrowing. — The sow is in a feverish condition after farrowing and should be provided with an abundance of 2k 498 MANUAL OF FABM ANIMALS lukewarm water. Never give her ice-cold water. In a few hours she will show signs of wanting to eat, when she should be given a little thin mash or gruel made from shorts, bran, or oat- meal. This should be given warm, in cold weather. For the first week the feed should be light, consisting mainly of mashes, but no corn should be given at this time. Milk-producing foods, such as skim-milk, shorts, bran, oat meal, and a little clover or alfalfa hay, should be given, while fattening foods, such as corn, are to be avoided. Occasionally the sow's udder is injured on account of an unusual development of the pig's teeth. This condition causes the sow to withhold her milk, produces a bad temper, and often excites her to injure the pigs. When such is the case, take the pigs under the arm and hold the mouth open with one hand while the sharp teeth are broken off with small pincers. To do this remove the pigs out of hearing distance from the sow, as she is likely to object and create a disturbance. THE PIGS The pig that is safely born and within a few minutes gets a firm hold of a teat full of milk, has made a good start in life. Not all pigs are so fortunate, and many perish for want of care at farrowing time. When at all convenient, one should be near by to give assistance if need should arise. Often pigs must be assisted to find the teat, especially in cold weather. Sometimes the sow is nervous, and the pigs should be removed as farrowed, otherwise she may crush them ; and sometimes it is necessary to help dry the pigs to keep them from chilling. The first meal. — It is important that the young pig get his stomach full of the first milk of the sow. This should be accom- plished within a few minutes after farrowing, otherwise the pig's strength will rapidly decrease. If for any reason the sow has no milk for the pigs and it is desired to raise them by hand, they should be given a very small quantity of cow's milk warmed to THE BREEDING OF SWINE 499 body temperature. This may be given from a bottle and nipple. Great care should be taken not to feed the little fellows too much at a time, but they should be fed often, every two hours for a while, then every three hours, then every four hours, and later they should be fed four times daily. This involves much work, but is essential if the pigs are to be raised, as hand-fed pigs often die from overfeeding following a long period during which they received no food whatever. Pig ills. — The young pig is very subject to digestive dis- orders, the result of overfeeding, underfeeding, or otherwise i Fig. 171. — Group of English Small Yorkshire or Small Whites. The Small Yorkshire, or Small White, was developed in England. This breed is noted for its fattening qualities, not particularly early maturing. The breed- ing qualities are only fair, the sows medium in fecundity. In size the breed is classed as small. The color is white, ears erect, and face greatly dished. improperly feeding its dam. The brood sow should be fed in such a way as to encourage a good flow of only medium rich milk. If her food is too rich, consisting of skim-milk, linseed-oil meal, corn, and the like, the pigs are likely to be attacked with thumps, diarrhea, or constipation. On the other hand, if the sow is underfed, the pigs are likely to suffer. A better plan is to feed the brood sow regularly on a ration consisting of moderately rich food, such as mashes made from ground oats, shorts, and bran. 500 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS When the pigs are troubled with thumps or scours, cut down on the ration of the sow; and if the pigs are valuable, it may be well to milk the sow at least in part by hand, remembering that the last milk drawn is the richer in fat. Feeding the pigs. — At about three weeks of age, the pigs are likely to begin to nibble at their mother's food, to bite at the grass, and perhaps try to root. This indicates that they are acquiring an appetite, and they should be encouraged to take food other than that supplied by the mother. Place a small trough in one corner of the lot or pen, and arrange a fence across the corner so the old sows cannot have access to it, but the young pigs can. Into this trough a little sweet milk may be poured three times daily. Do not provide more than the pigs will drink at once, and never leave the milk to sour in the trough, as digestive disorders and death are sure to follow. In a few days replace the milk with a small amount of bran and shorts, scalded and made into a gruel. Later corn soaked for 24 hours may be placed in the trough. For best results the young pigs should be fed a variety. Whatever food-stuffs are used, care must be taken not to feed more than they will clean up. Pigs fed in this way will make a much more rapid growth than if the extra trough had not been provided. Weaning the pigs. — With pigs fed as suggested above, the weaning process is easy and simple. As the pigs learn to rely more on the extra food, the mother's milk-producing food should be cut down so that she will not be in the height of her flow when the pigs are taken away. The age to wean pigs varies : with the youngsters that have made a rapid growth they should be weaned at about eight weeks of age; or in case the pigs and mother are not doing well, it may be wise to wean at a much younger age even though the pigs are small. As a general rule, it is safer to say the best age for weaning is between seven and ten weeks. Some advise turning out the most thrifty pigs first, leaving the weaker ones to nurse a few days longer, the state- THE BREEDING OF SWINE 501 ment being made that in this way there is no danger of the sow's udder spoiling, as the weaker ones will take the milk. This practice is of doubtful merit ; it is perhaps best to take the sows entirely away from the pigs, thus leaving the youngsters in their own pen. If the sows have previously had their food reduced as suggested and the pigs are fed extra, this will surely give best results. Castrating the pigs. — The* boar pigs not desired for breed- ing purposes should be castrated. This should be done rather early in order that the pigs may recover from the resulting sore- ness before weaning, say from three to six weeks of age. At this age, the operation is very simple. Have an assist- ant hold the pig by the hind legs, placing the pig's back against the assistant's breast, and holding the hind legs apart in such a way as to expose the scrotum. Simply slit the "end of the scro- tum and remove the testicles by pulling them out ; smear a mix- ture of fresh lard and turpentine half and half on the scrotum, and let the pig go. With ridglings and hernia there is more dan- ger and more care should be used. A ridgling is an animal in which one or both testicles have not descended into the scrotum. Marking pigs. — When one is breeding pure-bred animals, some system of identification is necessary, as even an expert cannot identify pigs when they are reared in large droves. The method suggested in Fig. 172 is very good. Pigs after weaning. — Many pigs are stunted for want of proper care the first month after weaning. If in summer, they are frequently turned out to hot dry pasture to forage for them- selves ; or if in winter, they are placed in close, dark, cold and muddy quarters, and they are likely to fail to develop. An- imals thus treated, of course do not make satisfactory gain. For best results, if in summer, the pigs just weaned should be provided with shade, a clean mud wallow, and receive grain in addition to the pasture ; if in winter, dry, well lighted, well ventilated, and protected quarters should be provided, and if at 502 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS 200 100 all possible the animals should receive succulent food in the shape of roots in addition to the grain, which grain should not consist entirely of corn. The breeding hogs and the fat hogs may run together until three months of age, when the breeding ani- mals should be taken out. At this age the sows will begin to show up, so that those likely to make the best an- imals may be chosen for breeding. If later on some of the sows not chosen should show good form, they too may be taken out of the fat herd. Those animals chosen for breeding should be fed a nitrog- enous ration. In addi- tion, they should be permitted to take abundance of exercise. If they are confined too closely and fed a fattening ration, their breeding powers are likely to be weakened. Fig. 172. — Method of marking Pigs for Future Identification, or until Perma- nent Tags can be inserted into the Ear. CHAPTER XXIV CARE AND MANAGEMENT Aside from the various practical points on care and manage- ment discussed in the chapters on feeding and breeding, special attention is now given to sanitation and equipment. Many of the common diseases that often prove so very fatal to swine are due entirely or in a large measure to carelessness or indifference in management. It is well known to swine breeders that few hogs are free from lice. These vermin are blood suckers, and in a very short time they produce a weakened condition of the animal, thereby rendering it far more susceptible to other dis- eases; even cholera is more virulent and more deadly when the herd is infested with lice. DIPPING SWINE To free the hogs from lice or other vermin, all newly ac- quired hogs should be dipped immediately upon arriving at the farm in much the same way as suggested for sheep (see page 423). The hogs should not be permitted to infect the quarters or lots before dipping. The same dipping-vat as that suggested for sheep may be used, as well as the same coal-tar preparation, although the solutions may be used somewhat weaker for swine. All stock hogs should be dipped at least twice each year, or whenever they become infested with lice (Fig. 173). Good results are reported from the use of a self-dipping device. This device consists of a shallow vat about ten inches deep and eight to ten feet square. It is built of two-inch plank and placed 503 504 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS near by or convenient to the well or large water-tank. The vat is filled about three-fourths full of water and one quart of dip added. The dip is renewed about once in two weeks and the water supplied as needed. During the muddy season the tank should be cleaned and a fresh start made. The liquid may be removed in a few minutes with a scoop shovel. The hogs Fig. 173. — Hog-dipping Equipment. Dipping- vat set in ground. wallow in this at will, and they do not seem to mind the dip ; when the water is fresh they often drink small quantities of the liquid. This keeps the hogs free from lice and skin diseases and helps to keep down worms, cholera, and other swine plagues. SHELTER FOR SWINE Some one has fittingly said, "The hog does not need a palace or an upholstered cage, nor does he prosper in a dungeon." Occasionally much money is uselessly expended in the construc- tion of a large and expensive building which is in use only a part of the year ; more often, however, swine are housed in a hole in the straw stack or in a shed constructed from fence rails or poles and covered with straw or fodder. Such places are dun- CARE AND MANAGEMENT 505 geons. There is no ventilation, they are dark and damp in wet weather, and soon become filthy dens of infection. As with the barn for other farm animals, the hog barn should be well ventilated, well lighted, well drained, and dry, serviceable, and sanitary. Any structure that answers these conditions will prove fairly satisfactory. Convenience and adaptability should be considered in constructing the hog-house. In general, hog-houses are of two types : large houses, or those accommo- dating a considerable number of hogs ; and small individual houses or cots. The large hog-house. — There are almost as many types of large hog-houses as there are swine breeders or feeders who have built them, each having its advantages and disadvantages. When properly constructed, the large hog-house is serviceable, sanitary, and convenient ; but, if properly constructed, they are expensive, especially since they are only used a part of the year. It is difficult to locate them accessibly to the pastures, particularly in case sown pastures are used, as they are likely to be on various parts of the farm. Furthermore, when many sows are housed in close proximity to each other, if one is disturbed or molested in any way, all the others are likely to become fretful ; and when feeding is begun in one part of the house the other animals become uneasy and often injure their litters. The individual hog-house. — Of late years the small individual hog-house has become very common. These small houses are constructed on runners so they can be moved from one field or lot to another. They are well adapted to accommodate a sow and her litter, and a few of these "cots," as they are often called, set side by side afford excellent shelter for a drove of hogs. The Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station has issued a bulletin devoted chiefly to the construction of these small houses, and from which we quote: "The portable hog-house is easily and economically constructed; it can be easily moved and located wherever desired ; it is useful to the general farmer 506 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS and to the breeder of pure-bred stock ; and of all systems of housing swine it is the most natural and sanitary. Only the simplest workmanship is necessary to build the portable house, and much old lumber can be worked into it. "The portable house is peculiarly advantageous, since it can be readily moved. The renter who finds it impossible to pro- vide expensive quarters for his hogs can well afford to construct portable houses, which can be retained as personal property. It is useful on any sized farm as the number can be regulated to the size of the herd. With separate paddocks to accommodate swine of different ages and sexes the portable house is practically a necessity. Swine will never pile up in a damp, poorly venti- lated quarter and come out steaming in the cold morning air, unless compelled to do so. Where a large number of animals are continually housed in one hog-house, the surroundings are sure to become more or less filthy and unsanitary. If feeding is done on the inside, it keeps a portion of the floor wet, and gives the entire building an offensive disagreeable appearance. On the other hand, by using the portable house, moving it occa- sionally to a fresh piece of ground, and feeding the hogs at dif- ferent places, one avoids those unsanitary conditions. These portable houses can be built to accommodate from four to six mature animals or ten to twenty shotes. This method of housing keeps them much cleaner and more thrifty than when allowed to congregate in large numbers, and individuals of a herd showing evidence of a contagious disease can be readily isolated." The A-shaped individual hog-house. — These portable houses are usually constructed of two types, the A-shaped and the shed- roof-shaped. A convenient size for the A-shaped house is eight feet square and seven feet high. It may be constructed with or without a wood floor, as desired. If one has paved or very dry lots where the cots are to remain in winter, perhaps they will give better satisfaction without the wood floor. On the other hand, CARE AND MANAGEMENT 507 if the lots where they are kept for winter use are muddy, a wood floor should be provided. A ventilator should be provided, which may be made by sawing off the ends of two roof boards and cov- ering the hole thus formed with a V-shaped hood (Fig. 174). In order to provide light a window- glass ought to be placed in the front above the door and a second in the rear. A door two feet wide and two feet and six inches high Should be provided Fig. 174.- A-Shaped Individual Hog-house. at one end. The door itself may be suspended by a rope and arranged to slide up and down as it will need to be used only in very cold weather. For summer use a gunny sack may be hung over the door, as this will serve to brush the flies off as the hog enters and to keep the cot cool. To facilitate moving from lot to lot, the structures should be placed on runners. If brood sows are due to farrow in very cold weather, these cots can be made very comfortable by standing fodder or placing straw about them. The shed-shaped individual hog-house. — In Fig. 175 is shown the front elevation of a shed-roof hog-house eight feet wide, twelve feet long, and seven feet high in front and three behind, which is sometimes preferred to the A-shaped house. It is provided with doors in the rear, the same size as the lower front doors, and placed diagonally opposite, so that by opening all the doors it makes a cool house in summer. On the other hand, by closing the lower doors and opening the upper doors, for ventilation, it makes a warm house for cold winter weather. The upper front doors are arranged with wooden ratchets on the back side, 508 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS which holds them in any desired position. By having the hinges on the top, the storm and hot sun cannot enter and yet by ad- justing the opening, air may circulate freely without causing a draft on the animals. These top doors are very important. It is a serious mistake to build these houses with but one opening, as is sometimes done. There is no ventilation whatever, and the house in warm weather becomes a suffocating quarter. Fig. 175. — Shed-shaped Individual Hog-house, with Shade Attached. The illustration of the shed-roof portable hog-house shows a shade at the rear under which the pigs can lie in comfort. This shade is five feet wide, made of inch boards placed upon remov- able supports which rest on cleats nailed to the ends of the house (Fig. 175). Disadvantages and advantages. — The individual hog-house has the disadvantage of requiring more labor to feed and care for the herd. With each sow and litter in a pen or cot by them- selves it takes considerable time to make the rounds, and this must often be done in the storm. Furthermore, vicious sows are more difficult to attend, and the feeder is often obliged to enter CARE AND MANAGEMENT 509 the cot to arrange the bedding and clean the quarters. These small houses, however, are very inexpensive and very efficient, and all things considered, answer the general farmer's conditions much better than the large and expensive hog-house. THE HOG LOT The lot in which hogs are quartered should be such as can be kept clean. A filthy and carelessly kept lot encourages disease by providing lodgment for the germs ; and constant cleanliness is the most effective means of preventing germ dissemination. Where disease germs have once been established, an absolutely thorough disinfection is essential to eradicate them. To facilitate cleanliness and disinfection, at least a part of the lot should be paved with brick, stone, or concrete. On this pavement the cots may be placed during the winter season and on it the feeding may be done. Hog-wallows. — Some very successful breeders heartily favor hog-wallows, while others equally as successful are much opposed to their use. Those who are outspoken in opposi- tion to the wallow have perhaps been influenced from infections due to a filthy wallow, or from infections at the time of an outbreak of cholera. There can be no doubt that filthy wallows are often a source of danger, nor can there be any doubt that once a cholera hog wallows in the water, however clean, all other hogs wallowing in or drinking this contaminated water are likely to contract the dreaded disease. On the other hand, with the healthy herd there can be no ob- jections to a clean mud wallow, and there are many advantages to be derived from it. During the heat of summer the hog cools mainly by radiation, and a cool mud bath is very soothing ; it cleans the scurf from the skin and enables the hog to find protection from the flies. This wallow or mud bath should be so arranged that fresh water may be added as needed, and to insure absolute freedom from all germ life a quart of coal-tar dip may be poured in the wallow occasionally (see also page 504). CHAPTER XXV DISEASES OF SWINE While swine are not ordinarily considered as being subject to so great a variety of diseases as horses, cattle, or sheep, they are very often attacked by ailments far more serious than afflict any other class of our farm animals. Chief of these diseases are cholera, swine plague, and tuberculosis. Throughout the corn- belt of the United States, the loss caused by these diseases among swine is not equaled by any other class of diseases to which farm animals are subject. These very deadly diseases are all contagious or infectious and therefore, with proper sanitary methods, can be prevented, although when the animal once becomes afflicted, there is no cure. It is the ravages caused by these diseases that makes pork production such a hazardous business. Sometimes the swine breeder or feeder will have a drove of swine ready for the market when they will contract one of these diseases and the entire herd be taken in a few weeks. Quarantine lot. — On every farm where hogs are kept in con- siderable numbers, a small quarantine lot should be provided. This lot should be located at some distance from the other lots,it should be tightly fenced and at least a part of it should be paved. When a new animal arrives, it maybe dipped as suggested (page 503) and then placed in this quarantine pen for at least three weeks. Cholera or any other diseases will be apparent before this. If all is well, it may then be turned with the herd. Such a pen could be used by any of the animals of the herd that may become sick, as all ailing hogs should at once be 510 DISEASES OF SWINE 511 separated until the nature of the disease is determined. Such a lot set apart for this purpose may prevent outbreaks of very serious diseases. HOG CHOLERA Hog cholera is an infectious disease of swine. It exists in all sections of the United States, but is particularly prevalent in the corn-belt. In that section it is the most dreaded disease to which swine are subject. Not so many animals are condemned at the large packing houses because of this disease, as of tuberculosis, but this is due to the nature of the dis- ease. With cholera the hogs die or recover quickly, while with tuberculosis they may linger for months. Cholera varies in its virulence ; sometimes comparatively few hogs that have it will die, while at other times nearly every animal in the entire herd will succumb to the disease. When the disease once appears, it spreads very rapidly, not only among the animals of a herd, but across the country from one farm to another. Manner of spreading the disease. — Cholera is a germ disease and may be spread in many ways. These germs are very hardy and vigorous. They are able to live for a long time in the water of ponds and streams ; they may live in the soil for at least three months and in accumulations of straw and litter for a much longer time. The hog, taking in these germs either by in- haling with the breath or by ingestion with the food, is likely to contract the disease. Only the very smallest particle is necessary to convey the germ. Thus, an attendant passing from a lot of infected hogs to a lot of healthy ones may carry the infection on his shoes; dogs, chickens, pigeons, and even birds are known to have carried the germs. The wind blowing particles of dust from place to place will also carry with it sufficient of these germs to produce the disease. A cholera hog having access to a stream may contaminate the water sufficiently to infect animals miles below. 512 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Prevention of the disease. — Up to the present time, there has not been discovered any means by which hog cholera can be cured, the only safeguard being prevention. All that is necessary to prevent the disease is to keep the germs of the disease away from the herd. In the vast majority of cases the germ is transported mechanically, in the bodies of sick hogs and on the feet of men or animals, including birds. It follows, therefore, that the chances of an outbreak of hog cholera will be greatly lessened, if not completely avoided, if the herd is pro- tected from these sources of infection. To do this the herd should be placed on a part of the farm that will be least accessible to men or animals from other farms. The hogs should be con- fined to a dry lot free from running water or wallows, unless one is constructed as suggested on page 509, and the disinfectant added every two weeks. Careful attention should be given the feed and water. The hogs should be provided with shade and clean dry sleeping places. If at any time any of the animals show signs of sickness, they should be separated from the healthy ones. Air-slaked lime should be scattered about the lot, and the feed troughs thoroughly disinfected or replaced by new ones. For a condition powder prepare the following : — Wood charcoal 1 lb. Sulfur . 1 lb. Sodium chloride 2 lb. Sodium bicarbonate 2 lb. Sodium hyposulfate 2 lb. Sodium sulfate 1 lb. Antimony sulfite 1 lb. Completely pulverize and thoroughly mix. This powder is mixed with the feed in the proportion of a large tablespoonful to each 200 pounds weight of hogs, and given once a day. When hogs are suspected to be affected with cholera, they should not be fed on corn alone, but have, at least once a day, soft feed made by mixing bran and middlings, or middlings and corn meal, or DISEASES OF SWINE 513 ground oats and corn, or crushed wheat, and then stirring into this the proper quantity of the medicine. After an outbreak of cholera the yards and pens should be thor- oughly cleaned, all dead hogs should be burned, the litter should be collected and burned, and quicklime scattered freely over the ground. The houses should be washed thoroughly with a coal- tar preparation before new stock is brought in. The troughs should be burned, or if this is not practicable, they should be thoroughly soaked in coal-tar preparation and then washed out. The lots and houses should not be used again for some time. Prevention of cholera by immunization. — The Bureau of Ani- mal Industry, Department of Agriculture, has developed a serum which by means of vaccination will render hogs immune to chol- era. While its preparation and use are attended with difficul- ties, the method is briefly given here because of the feeling that if it is to prove practicable, it must be so simplified as to be used by any careful workman. Furthermore, a drove of cholera hogs affords a very good opportunity to practice, as their value is not likely to be great, especially if the attack is virulent. In order to make the method clear it will be divided into two main parts: the preparation of the serum, and the use of the serum. Preparation of the serum. — To prepare the serum one must first procure an immune hog with a long heavy tail, since it is at this point that the serum is drawn, and it may be necessary to clip the end two or three times in drawing the serum. This may be a hog that has recovered from an attack of cholera, as such animals are immune to further attacks, or it may be one rendered immune by the method herein described. This hog we will call the supply animal. This. animal must now be hyper-immunized. This consists of inoculating him, in the mus- cles of the thigh, with about 10 c.c. (cubic centimeters) of virulent hog cholera blood, from which the clot has been re- moved by stirring or whipping with a clean stick, to the pound 2l 514 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS live weight of hog. Thus a 100-pound hog should receive 1000 c.c. of virulent blood taken from a hog sick with cholera. This virulent blood may be obtained by allowing the cholera hog to bleed to death, taking care to collect the blood free from particles of dirt; or it maybe obtained by clipping the end of the tail and allowing it to flow slowly into a jar well protected from dirt. If the tail stops bleeding, thump it or cut the end again. After collecting the blood, gently stir it with a clean stick, or better still a glass rod to remove the clot. The clot will collect on the rod while stirring. This diseased blood from which the clot has been removed is now ready to inject into the muscles of the supply hog. This is done with a hypodermic syringe and inoculated into the inner side of the thigh after placing the pig on his back. There are two methods of inoculating, — the slow method, and the quick method. By the slow method, in- creasing amounts of virulent blood are injected at regular inter- vals, which requires so much time that it is seldom used. By the quick method, the virulent blood is all injected at one time. After the injection of this blood, the supply animal is said to be hyper-immunized. One week after the injection of the virulent blood into the supply animal, the hog is ready to have his blood drawn for the purpose of protecting hogs from cholera. This blood may be drawn in two ways : the supply animal may be killed and the entire supply of blood taken at once, or he maybe bled at the tail. The tail should be thoroughly cleaned, disinfected, and then the end is cut off and the blood caught in a clean jar. Much care should be used to keep everything clean and free from germ-laden dirt. In this way, 500 c.c. of blood may be drawn at one time. This may be repeated three times at intervals of one week, after which the blood gradually loses its protective properties and should not be used. The blood thus collected is allowed to clot, after which it is filtered through sterilized gauze in order to get the serum or the DISEASES OF SWINE 515 liquid part of the blood separated from the clot. Then add suffi- cient carbolic acid to make a one-half per cent solution; that is, if there is 500 c.c. of the serum, add 2 V£ c.c. of carbolic acid. Use of the serum. — There are two methods of using the serum for the prevention of hog cholera: the serum-alone method, in which the serum only is used; and the serum- Fig. 176. — First Prize Tamworth Sow at Illinois Fair. The Tamworth breed of swine is a native of England. This breed is similar to the Large Yorkshire and is noted for bacon production. The quality of pork is unexceled, although the animals are rather late maturing. The breeding qualities are excellent, the sows being very prolific. The breed is classed as large. The color is red or sandy, the ears almost erect and the face long and straight. siinultaneous method, in which the serum and virulent blood from a hog infected with cholera are used. Serum-alone method. — With the hypodermic syringe, inject into the arm and thigh pits 20 c.c. of serum for each 100 pounds weight of pig. That is, if the pig weighs 50 pounds, inject 10 c.c. 516 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS of the serum, whereas if the pig weighs 150 pounds, inject 30 c.c. of serum. This method gives immediate h>ut tempo- rary immunity lasting perhaps four or five weeks, possibly longer. It is recommended for use in herds where cholera already exists, but to be used on seemingly healthy pigs only. Pigs already sick will probably not benefit by its use, although if the animals should be infected with the disease germ immediately after the serum is injected, the immunity will last much longer than otherwise. There is no danger attending this method. Serum-simultaneous method. — With the hypodermic syringe, inject simultaneously into the arm and thigh pits 20 c.c. of serum and 1 c.c. of virulent hog cholera blood for each 100 pounds weight of pig. The virulent blood must be obtained from a hog sick with cholera and the clot removed. Pigs treated by this method are immune for six months to one year. This is the method usually employed, but is attended with greater danger than the serum-alone method ; however, the resulting immunity is much longer. Objections to the serum method. — There are two objections to this method of vaccinating hogs to protect them against cholera : it is expensive and somewhat dangerous. It is expensive because a 125-pound hog will furnish a comparatively small amount of blood, perhaps 500 c.c. at each four bleedings and 1000 c.c. more at death, making a total of only 3000 c.c, from which the clot must be taken. Furthermore, this animal must be ren- dered hyper-immune, which involves much labor and expense. The process of immunization is dangerous because it requires the use of the virulent hog cholera blood containing the living hog cholera germ. When this is used without the protective serum, an outbreak of hog cholera is immediately started. With proper precautions, an attendant that takes an interest in the method can prevent serious outbreaks of hog cholera and thus reduce the risk in pork production. DISEASES OF SWINE 517 SWINE PLAGUE Swine plague is an infectious germ disease of swine. It is frequently associated with hog cholera, which it resembles. In fact, the two diseases resemble each other so very closely that it often requires a post mortem examination by an expert to dis- tinguish between them. From this it follows that the manner of spreading the disease as well as its prevention are practically the same as in the case of hog cholera. While these two diseases cause untold loss among swine, it must be remembered that by proper sanitary methods they can be practically prevented. This calls for better treatment than is ordinarily given swine. Well-lighted, comfortable quarters; clean, dry lots free from filthy wallows, but provided with a self-dipping device ; a liberal use of disinfectants in the houses and of air-slaked lime in the lots, will go a long way towards reducing the ravages of these two diseases to a minimum. TUBERCULOSIS Tuberculosis is most prevalent among swine in those sections where cattle are most affected. Great numbers of hogs are condemned by the large packing-houses because of this disease, more than from all other diseases combined, and the percentage is increasing year by year until at present it is thought that about three per cent are being thrown out. Manner of spreading the disease. — The tubercular germ gains entrance to the bodies of various animals in different ways. Thus in the case of man and also cattle, the germ may be either inhaled or taken in with the food, while in the case of swine the germ gains entrance by the food alone. It is very seldom that the disease starts by the germs being inhaled. This being true, the disease should be very easily controlled in swine. The chief sources of infection among swine are the skim-milk from a tuber- cular cow, the grain in the droppings of a cow or steer infected 518 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS with the disease, hogs eating carcasses of animals that have died with the disease, foods containing sputum of the human affected with tuberculosis, and like causes. Prevention consists in the avoidance of all foods containing the tubercular germs and in providing quarters similar to those suggested for hog cholera, for poorly ventilated, dark, damp, and filthy quarters furnish ideal quarters for the breeding of tuberculosis germs. The direct rays of the sun and cleanliness provide conditions impossible for the lodgment of these germs. Care of a tubercular herd. — Tuberculosis in swine is considered *as not curable. Furthermore, its detection is often difficult. A hog may be affected with the disease and not show the inarms of it until after he is slaughtered. As a rule, pigs are more subject to the disease than older animals, and weak animals more liable to attack than strong and vigorous ones. The difficulty of de- tecting the disease renders the care of the tuberculous animal haz- ardous. The general signs are coughing, losing in weight rather than gaining, and a swelling of the glands about the neck. When the disease is discovered, all animals showing external indications should be immediately destroyed and the carcasses burned. The remainder of the herd should be put upon the market at once and passed upon by a government inspector. Any animals that are so diseased as to render their carcasses unfit for food will be con- demned. Not all hogs affected with tuberculosis are condemned. When the disease is present only in the first stages and only a few of the organs of the body are affected, these parts only are con- demned ; whereas if the disease is general throughout the car- cass, the entire animal is condemned. After an outbreak of tuberculosis and the animals have been disposed of, the quarters should be thoroughly disinfected. To do this, use a five per cent carbolic acid solution, or a 1 to 1000 corrosive sublimate solution, and then whitewash with fresh lime. The pastures and lots which are exposed to the sun are not so seri- ous a source of infection as the buildings. When at all possible, DISEASES OF SWINE 519 neither the house nor the lots should be used for a time, thus giving the sun sufficient time to destroy all the germs. WORMS Internal worms are of frequent occurrence in swine. They in- habit both the stomach and intestines. These worms interfere with digestion ; in consequence the pigs fail to thrive and become pot-bellied, rickety, profitless runts, or quickly succumb to the effects of the worms. Swine infested with worms become an easy prey to more deadly diseases because of their weakened condi- tion. Prevention of worms. — Well-fed swine, in general, are not sub- ject to worms. The strong thrifty pig is usually able to resist the parasites. Hogs having free access to wood ashes, charcoal, air-slaked lime, and coal cinders are not likely to be troubled. The alkali in the wood ashes, together with the grit in the cinders, have a tendency to destroy the worms. Pumpkins, fed seed and all, in the fall also help to keep swine free from worms. Stagnant surface water, in which hogs wallow, are ideal places for the incubation and development of worms. For this reason old pens and pas- tures, if wet, should not be used for hogs. The pens and pastures should be well drained and all stagnant water fenced out or the ponds filled in. The drink- ing water should come from a deep well, and it should be kept pure by using clean troughs so constructed or protected that the hogs cannot wallow in them and fill them with filth. Treatment for worms. — The average herd of pigs is kept under such conditions that it is desirable to dose them at least once during the year with some remedy that will destroy the Fig. 177. — Tamworth Pig owned by University of Illinois. 520 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS worms or drive them out of the intestines. Turpentine is the most popular remedy and perhaps the least dangerous. It is given in the mash for three successive mornings at the rate of one teaspoonful for each 80 pounds live weight of pig. With- holding all food should be practiced for a short time before giving the remedy. Sulfate of iron or copperas is a more effective remedy, and is given as follows : Dissolve half a dram of cop- peras in warm water and mix in the mash for each pig for five consecutive mornings, the. food being withheld for a short time before giving remedy. In very bad cases and when immediate action is desired, the affected pigs may be given 5 grains of calomel and 8 grains of santonin for every 100 pounds of live weight. The food should be withheld for at least 12 hours before administering the medicine, which is best given in a little mash. Santonin is somewhat dangerous and should be given in the proportion mentioned. LICE The hog louse is a common cause of lack of thrift in young pigs, and when numerous, it tends to retard fattening. It is advisable and profitable to keep swine free from lice at all ages. To this end the houses and pens should be frequently cleaned and disinfected, the woodwork whitewashed, the bedding material kept fresh, clean, and dry, and the yards free from accumulations of litter and filth. The hogs should be dipped twice each year in a coal-tar dip, 1 part of dip to 50 of warm water, and the treatment repeated in 10 days to 2 weeks. To destroy lice, when dipping is not possible, mix equal parts of kerosene and machine oil, or one part of turpentine and two parts of machine oil, and apply to every part of the hog by means of a rag, or swab of cotton waste. It may be applied along the back, from ears to tail, with a common ma- DISEASES OF SWINE 521 chine-oil can and allowed to run down the sides of the hog. Repeat the application in ten days. SCOURS Scours in pigs results from two causes, — improper feeding and contagious infection. Often the trouble comes from overfeeding on corn, or other rich food just after farrowing. Sudden changes in the food or feeding sour decomposing slops, or food from dirty troughs, sour swill barrels, and the like, tend to cause diarrhea. The best treatment for scouring pigs is to feed properly the sows. The food should consist largely of rather thin mash made from bran, middlings, crushed oats, and the like, which should be fed regularly. In ordinary cases, treatment consists in giving the nursing sow parched corn or scalded milk in her food night and morning. After the trouble has been checked, a little limewater placed in the mash often proves advantageous. The best cure for the contagious form of scours is a physic: one tablespoonful of castor oil in the form of a drench, after which the pens should be cleaned and thoroughly disinfected. CONSTIPATION Constipation frequently occurs among pregnant sows and other hogs when given too little exercise and too much food. Brood sows troubled with constipation are likely to farrow weak, puny pigs. This trouble seldom occurs when hogs are fed laxative foods, such as bran, linseed-oil meal, or roots, and in addition are made to take exercise. When it becomes neces- sary to treat the animals, a very simple method is to mix two to four ounces of raw linseed oil once daily in the food; or if more active treatment seems necessary, give four ounces of Epsom salts at one dose in the same way. Swine that will not eat the food thus medicated should be drenched. Great care should be exercised in drenching hogs or they will suffocate. 522 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Drive the animals into a small pen where they have little room to move about. To hold the animal, secure a quarter-inch rope, place a noose about the upper jaw well back towards the angle of the lips, and elevate the head. Wait until the animal stops struggling. Pull the cheek away from the teeth so as to form a pouch into which the medicine may be slowly poured. It will flow from the cheek into the mouth, and when the hog finds out what it is, he will stop squealing and will swallow. A very easy method is to cut off the toe of an old shoe, insert the cut end into the hog's mouth, and pour the medicine into the shoe. THUMPS Thumps is the term applied to that ailment of young pigs which is indicated by a jerking motion of the flanks. In thumps there is usually a derangement of the digestive organs, due to overfeeding or lack of exercise. The tendency towards the disease seems to be hereditary. When once the trouble occurs, the treatment is prevention by decreasing the sow's milk-producing food until the pigs are older. Compel the pigs to take exercise by driving them from their nests. A very good method when one has the time is to place the little pigs in a lot near the mother and let them wony about getting back. They must be separated but a very short time, for they may nurse too much when turned back. SORE MOUTH Pigs are often troubled with sore mouth. Large white blisters occur about the mouth and snout, and later thick brown scabs appear, which open into deep cracks. These scabs extend over the face and later to all parts of the body if not treated. These sores are due to a germ, and are likely to attack pigs kept in filthy quarters. Prevention consists in providing comfortable quarters for the youngsters. Treatment is not DISEASES OF SWINE 523 difficult, but should be prompt and thorough. Prepare a solu- tion of permanganate of potash, using one and one-half ounces of the crystals dissolved in one gallon of warm water. Dip the young pig, head foremost, into this solution and hold it there a few seconds. Repeat three times, giving the pig time to catch his breath in the intermission. The treatment should be re- peated for four days, after which the quarters should be dis- infected. GARGET Inflammation of the udder is rather common among heavy- milking brood sows, and is usually caused by the milk not being removed. The udder thus becomes congested, sore, and later cakes. The treatment is to relieve the congestion by drawing off the milk. This should be done before farrowing, if the udder is distended. After the milk is drawn, gently but thoroughly rub the udder. Bathe the parts with hot water fifteen minutes at a time and rub dry and apply an ointment made as follows : Dissolve two tablespoonfuls of gum camphor in a teacupful of melted fresh lard, to which add one ounce of the fluid extract of belladonna. The udder should be bathed three times daily and then the ointment well rubbed in. REMOVING THE TUSKS After one year old, all boars should have their tusks removed twice a year. To hold the hog, place a noose around the upper jaw (as suggested in drenching, p. 522) and tie to a post. Then with strong nippers or sharp blacksmith's pincers remove the tusk. In older boars, when the tusks are hard and will not cut, they should be filed and then broken off as follows : after tying the boar to the post, an assistant stands astride the animal and places a stick in his mouth, takes hold of either end, and pulls back as far as he can and holds steady. With a three-cornered file notch each corner of the tusk, then put the 524 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS point of an iron wedge in one of the notches, and tap the tusk with a hammer, and it will break squarely off. The tusk may then be filed off rounding. CHICKEN-EATING SWINE While not a disease, chicken eating is a vicious habit often contracted by swine kept near chicken yards. The habit once acquired is often difficult to overcome. A very good device to prevent the hogs from catching the fowls is a common four- inch ring hung before the hog's snout. This may be held in place with the ordinary hog-ring placed around the four-inch ring and into the nose, as when ringing to prevent rooting. Thus the large ring hangs in front of the hog's snout and pushes the chicken away as the hog reaches for it. APPENDIX AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF FEEDING STUFFS As a rule under average farm conditions, it is not practicable to weigh each mess of food, nor is it necessary, as measuring is sufficiently accurate. The food from the measure should be weighed a few times at the beginning. To aid in approxi- mating the weight of the various foods, the following table of weights and measures is quoted from Farmers' Bulletin No. 222 : - Table r Average Weights of Different Feeding Stuffs Feeding Stuff Corn, whole Corn, meal ..... Corn, bran . . '. . . Corn and cob meal . . . Gluten meal Gluten feed Germ meal Hominy meal .... Distillers' grains, dried Wheat, whole .... Wheat, ground .... Wheat, bran Wheat middlings (standard) Wheat middlings (flour) . Oats, whole Oats, ground ..... Rye, whole ..... Rye, meal Rye, bran Barley, whole .... Barley, meal Brewers' dried grains . . Malt sprouts Linseed meal, old process Linseed meal, new process Cotton-seed meal One Quart Weighs Pounds 1.7 1.5 0.5 1.4 1.7 1.3 1.4 1.1 0.6 2.0 1.7 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.0 0.7 1.7 1.5 0.6 1.5 1.1 0.6 0.6 1.1 0.9 1.5 One Pound Measures Quarts 0.6 0.7 2.0 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.9 1.2 0.5 0.5 2.0 1.3 0.8 1.0 1.4 0.6 0.7 1.8 0.7 0.9 1.7 1.7 0.9 1.1 0.7 525 526 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FEEDING STUFFS In calculating a ration for any class of farm animals, the digestible nutrients of the foods must be known, as it is the digestible part only that is of use to the animal. The following table, adopted from Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. Ill, gives a very complete list of American feeding stuffs and their digestible nutrients : — Table II Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 1 Dry Digestible Nutrients Fertilizing Constitu- Mat- ter IN 100 Pounds in 100 Pounds ents i n 1000 Pounds Name of Feed Protein Carbo- hy- drates Ether Extract Nitro- gen Phos- phoric Acid Potash Concentrates Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Corn, all analyses . 89.1 7.9 66.7 4.3 18.2 7.0 4.0 Dent corn 89.4 7.8 66.7 4.3 16.5 Flint corn 88.7 8.0 66.2 4.3 16.8 . • • Sweet corn .... 91.2 8.8 63.7 7.0 18.6 Corn cob 89.3 0.4 52.5 0.3 5.0 0.6 6.0 Corn and cob meal . 84.9 4.4 60.0 2.9 14.1 5.7 4.7 Corn bran 90.9 7.4 59.8 4.6 16.3 12.1 6.8 Gluten meal .... 91.8 25.8 43.3 11.0 50.3 3.3 0.5 Gluten feed .... 92.2 20.4 48.4 8.8 38.4 4.1 0.3 Germ meal .... 89.6 9.0 61.2 6.2 26.5 8.0 5.0 Starch refuse .... 91.8 11.4 58.4 6.5 22.4 7.0 5.2 Grano-gluten .... 94.3 26.7 38.8 12.4 49.8 5.1 1.5 Hominy chops . . . 89.9 7.5 55.2 6.8 16.3 9.8 4.9 Glucose meal .... 91.9 30.3 35.3 14.5 57.7 Sugar meal ..... 93.2 18.7 51.7 8.7 36.3 4.1 0.3 Distillery grains (dried) principally corn . 93.0 21.9 38.1 10.8 . . . Atlas gluten feed (dis- tillery by-products) . 92.6 23.3 35.6 11.9 APPENDIX 527 Table II — Continued Name of Feed Wheat .... Wheat bran . . Wheat bran, spring Wheat bran, winter Wheat shorts . . Wheat middlings Wheat screenings Dark feeding flour High grade flour Low grade flour . Rye Rye bran . . . Rye shorts . . Distillery grains (dried) principally rye Barley .... Malt sprouts . . Brewers' grains, wet Brewers' grains, dried Oats . . Oatmeal Oat feed or Oat hulls Oat dust Rice . . Rice hulls Rice bran Rice polish shorts Dry Mat- ter in 100 Pounds Lb. 89.5 88.1 88.5 87.7 88.2 87.9 88.4 90.3 87.6 87.6 88.4 88.4 90.7 93.2 89.1 89.8 24.3 91.8 89.0 92.1 92.3 90.6 93.5 87.6 91.8 90.3 90.0 Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds Protein Lb. 10.2 12.2 12.9 12.3 12.2 12.8 9.8 13.5 8.9 8.2 9.9 11.5 11.9 10.4 8.7 18.6 3.9 15.7 9.2 11.5 12.5 1.3 8.9 4.8 1.6 5.3 9.0 Carbo- hy- drates Lb. 69.2 39.2 40.1 37.1 50.0 53.0 51.0 61.3 62.4 62.7 67.6 50.3 45.1 42.5 65.6 37.1 9.3 36.3 47.3 52.1 46.9 40.1 38.4 72.2 44.5 45.1 56.4 Ether Extract Fertilizing Constitu- ents in 1000 Pounds Lb. 1.7 2.7 3.4 2.6 3.8 3.4 2.2 2.0 0.9 0.9 1.1 2.0 1.6 6.4 1.6 1.7 1.4 5.1 4.2 5.9 2.8 0.6 5.1 0.3 0.6 7.3 6.5 Nitro- gen Lb. 23.6 26.7 28.2 26.3 24.4 31.8 18.9 28.9 17.6 23.2 18.4 15.1 35.5 8.9 36.2 20.6 23.5 17.2 5.2 21.6 10.8 5.8 7.1 19.7 Phos- phoric Acid Lb. 7.9 28.9 13.5 9.5 11.7 21.4 2.2 5.6 8.2 22.8 12.6 7.9 14.3 3.1 10.3 8.2 9.1 2.4 1.8 1.7 2.9 26.7 Potash Lb. 5.0 16.1 5.9 6.3 8.4 10.9 1.5 3.5 5.4 14.0 8.1 4.8 16.3 0.5 0.9 6.2 5.3 5.2 0.9 1.4 2.4 7.1 528 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Table II — Continued Dry Digestible Nutrients Fertilizing Constitu- Mat- ter in 100 Pounds in 100 Pounds ents in 1000 Pounds Name of Feed Protein Carbo- hy- drates Ether Extract Nitro- gen ■ Phos- phoric Acid Potash Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Buckwheat .... 87.4 7.7 49.2 1.8 14.4 4.4 2.1 Buckwheat middlings . 87.3 22.0' 33.4 5.4 42.8 21.9 11.4 Buckwheat bran . . 89.5 7.4 30.4 1.9 36.4 17.8 12.8 Buckwheat shorts . . 88.9 21.1 33.5 5.5 Buckwheat hulls . . 86.8 2.1 27.9 0.6 4.9 0.7 5.2 Sorghum seed . . . 87.2 7.0 52.1 3.1 14.8 8.1 4.2 Broom corn seed 85.9 7.4 48.3 2.9 16.3 . . . 84.8 7.8 57.1 2.7 . . . Millet ...... 86 0 8.9 45.0 3.2 20.4 8.5 3.6 Flaxseed 90.8 20.6 17.1 29.0 36.1 13.9 10.3 Linseed meal, old process 90.8 29.3 32.7 7.0 54.3 16.6 13.7 Linseed meal, new pro- cess ..... 89.9 28.2 40.1 2.8 57.8 18.3 13.9 Cotton-seed .... 89.7 12.5 30.0 17.3 31.3 12.7 11.7 Cotton-seed meal . . 91.8 37.2 16.9 12.2 67.9 28.8 8.7 Cotton-seed hulls . . 88.9 0.3 33.1 1.7 6.9 2.5 10.2 89 5 16.8 51.8 0.7 30.8 8.2 9.9 85.2 18.3 54.2 1.1 33.3 Soybean 89.2 29.6 22.3 14.4 53.0 18.7 19.0 Horse bean .... 85.7 22.4 49.3 1.2 40.7 12.0 12.9 Coconut meal . . 89.7 15.6 38.3 10.5 32.8 16.0 24.0 Palm-nut meal . . 89.6 16.0 52.6 9.0 26.9 11.0 5.0 Sunflower seed . . . 92.5 12.1 20.8 29.0 22.8 12.2 5.6 Sunflower seedcakes 91.8 31.2 19.6 12.8 55.5 21.5 11.7 Peanut meal .... 89.3 42.9 22.8 6.9 75.6 13.1 15.0 Rapeseed meal . 90.0 25.2 23.7 7.5 49.6 20.0 13.0 APPENDIX 529 Table II — Continued Dry Digestible Nutrients Fertilizing Constitu- Mat- ter IX 100 Pounds ents in 1000 ] ^ouxds Name of Feed in 100 Pounds Protein Carbo- hy- drates Ether Extract Nitro- gen Phos- phoric Acid Potash Roughage Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Fodder corn — Fodder corn, green . 20.7 1.0 11.6 0.4 4.1 1.5 3.3 Fodder corn, field- 57.8 2.5 34.6 1.2 17.6 5.4 8.9 Corn stover, field- cured 59.5 1.7 32.4 0.7 10.4 2.9 14.0 Kafir corn . stover, field-cured .... 86.5 2.3 44.8 0.8 ■ ■ • Sorghum (cane) . . 94.2 2.5 44.3 0.9 Fresh grass — Pasture grasses (mixed) . . . . 20.0 2.5 10.2 0.5 9.1 2.3 7.5 Kentucky blue grass. 34.9 3.0 19.8 0.8 Timothy, different stages .... 38.4 1.2 19.1 0.6 4.8 2.6 7.6 Orchard-grass, in bloom .... 27.0 1.5 11.4 0.5 4.3 1.6 7.6 Redtop, in bloom 34.7 2.1 21.2 0.6 Oat fodder .... 37.8 2.6 18.9 1.0 4.9 1.3 3.8 Rye fodder . . . 23.4 2.1 14.1 0.4 3.3 1.5 7.3 Sorghum .... 20.6 0.6 12.2 0.4 2.3 0.9 2.3 Meadow fescue, in 30.1 1.5 16.8 0.4 Hungarian grass . . 28.9 2.0 16.0 0.4 3.9 1.6 5.5 Green barley . . 21.0 1.9 10.2 0.4 Peas and oats . . 16.0 1.8 7.1 0.2 Peas and barley . 16.0 1.7 7.2 0.2 . . . Kafir fodder . . . 27.0 0.9 13.8 0.4 2 H 530 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Table II — Continued Dry Digestible Nutrients Fertilizing Constitu- Mat- in 100 Pounds ents in 1000 Pounds Name of Feed in 100 Pounds Protein Carbo- hy- drates Ether Extract Nitro- gen Phos- phoric Acid Potash Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Fresh legumes — Red clover, different stages .... 29.2 2.9 14.8 0.7 5.3 1.3 4.6 Crimson clover 19.1 2.4 9.1 0.5 4.3 1.3 4.9 Alsike, in bloom . 25.2 2.7 13.1 0.6 4.4 1.1 2.0 Alfalfa 28.2 3.9 12.7 0.5 7.2 1.3 5.6 Cowpea 16.4 1.8 8.7 0.2 2.7 1.0 3.1 Soybean . . . . 24.9 3.2 11.0 0.5 2.9 1.5 5.3 Hay — Timothy .... 86.8 2.8 43.4 1.4 12.6 5.3 9.0 Orchard grass . 90.1 4.9 42.3 1.4 13.1 4.1 18.8 Redtop 91.1 4.8 46.9 1.0 11.5 3.6 10.2 Kentucky blue grass . 78.8 4.8 37.3 2.0 11.9 4.0 15.7 Hungarian grass . 92.3 4.5 51.7 1.3 12.0 3.5 13.0 Mixed grasses . . . 87.1 5.9 40.9 1.2 14.1 2.7 15.5 Rowen (mixed) 83.4 7.9 40.1 1.5 16.1 4.3 14.9 Meadow fescue 80.0 4.2 43.3 1.7 9.9 4.0 21.0 Mixed grasses and 87.1 6.2 42.7 1.5 Soybean hay . . . 88.7 10.8 38.7 1.5 23.2 6.7 10.8 Oat hay 91.1 4.3 46.4 1.5 Marsh or swamp hay 88.4 2.4 29.9 0.9 White daisy 85.0 3.8 40.7 1.2 Barley 89.4 5.1 35.9 1.6 . . . Prairie (native) . . 94.4 3.7 43.6 0.9 Legume hay — Red clover, medium . 84.7 6.8 35.8 1.7 20.7 3.8 22.0 Red clover, mammoth 78.8 5.7 32.0 1.9 22.3 5.5 12.2 Alsike clover . 90.3 8.4 42.5 1.5 23.4 6.7 22.3 APPENDIX 531 Table II — Continued Dry Digestible Nutrients Fertilizing Constitu- Mat- in 100 Pounds ents in 1000 Pounds Name of Feed ter in 100 Pounds Protein Carbo- hy- drates Ether Extract Nitro- gen Phos- phoric Acid Potash Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. White clover . . . 90.3 11.5 42.2 1.5 27.5 5.2 18.1 Crimson clover . . 90.4 10.5 34.9 1.2 20.5 4.0 13.1 Alfalfa 91.6 11.0 39.6 1.2 21.9 5.1 16.8 Cowpea 89.3 10.8 38.6 1.1 19.5 5.2 14.7 Soybean-straw 89.9 2.3 40.0 1.0 17.5 4.0 13.2 Pea vine-straw . 86.4 4.3 32.3 0.8 14.3 3.5 10.2 Straw — Wheat 90.4 0.4 36.3 0.4 5.9 1.2 5.1 Rye 92.9 0.6 40.6 0.4 4.6 2.8 7.9 Oat 90.8 1.2 38.6 0.8 6.2 2.0 12.4 Barley 85.8 0.7 41.2 0.6 13.1 3.0 20.9 Oat chaff .... 85.7 1.5 33.0 0.7 Wheat chaff . . . 85.7 0.3 23.3 0.5 7.9 7.0 4.2 Silage — Corn 20 9 0.9 11.3 0.7 2.8 1.1 3.7 Clover 28.0 2.0 13.5 1.0 Sorghum .... 23.9 0.6 14.9 0.2 Alfalfa 27.5 3.0 8.5 1.9 Grass 32.0 1.9 13.4 1.6 Cowpea vine . 20.7 1.5 8.6 0.9 Soybean .... 25.8 2.7 8.7 1.3 Barnyard millet and soybean .... 21.0 1.6 9.2 0.7 Corn and soybean . 24.0 1.6 13.0 0.7 Roots and tubers — Beet, mangel . . . 9.1 1.1 5.4 0.1 1.9 0.9 3.8 Beet, sugar 13.5 1.1 10.2 0.1 2.2 1.0 4.8 Beet, common 13.0 1.2 8.8 0.1 2.4 0.9 4.4 532 MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS Table II — Continued Dry Digestible Nutrients Fertilizing Constitu- Mat- ter IN 100 Pounds in 100 Pounds ents in 1000 Pounds Name op Feed Protein Carbo- hy- drates Ether Extract Nitro- gen I Phos- phoric Acid Potash Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Rutabaga .... 11.4 1.0 8.1 0.2 1.9 1.2 4.9 Carrot 11.4 0.8 7.8 0.2 1.5 0.9 5.1 Flat turnip . . . 9.5 1.0 7.2 0.2 1.8 1.0 3.9 Artichoke .... 20.0 2.0 16.8 0.2 2.6 1.4 4.7 Potato 21.1 0.9 16.3 0.1 3.2 1.2 4.6 Parsnip . . . . . 11.7 1.6 11.2 0.2 1.8 2.0 4.4 Miscellaneous — Rape 140 1.5 8.1 0.2 4.5 1.5 3.6 Cabbage .... 15.3 1.8 8.2 0.4 3.8 1.1 4.3 Pumpkin, field 9.1 1.0 5.8 0.3 Pumpkin, garden 19.2 1.4 8.3 0.8 1.1 1.6 0.9 Sugar beet leaves 12.0 1.7 4.6 0.2 4.1 1.5 6.2 Spurry 20.0 1.5 9.8 0.3 3.8 2.5 5.9 Prickly comfrey . 11.6 1.4 4.6 0.2 4.2 1.1 7.5 Acorns, fresh . . . 44.7 2.1 34.4 1.7 Beet molasses . 79.2 9.1 59.5 0.0 14.6 0.5 56.3 Beet pulp .... 10.2 0.6 7.3 0.0 1.4 0.2 0.4 Dried blood . . . 91.5 52.3 0.0 2.5 135.0 13.5 7.7 Meat scrap . . . 89.3 66.2 0.3 13.7 113.9 7.0 1.0 Tankage .... 93.0 31.7 15.3 13.6 . . . Dried fish .... 89 2 44.1 0.0 10.3 77.5 120.0 2.0 Cow's milk .... 12.8 3.6 4.9 3.7 5.3 1.9 1.8 Cow's milk, colostrum 25.4 17.6 2.7 3.6 28.2 6.6 1.1 Skim-milk, gravity . 9.6 3.1 4.7 0.8 5.6 2.0 1.9 Skim-milk, centrifugal 9.4 2.9 5.2 0.3 5.6 2.0 1.9 Buttermilk .... 9.9 3.9 4.0 1.1 4.8 1.7 1.6 Whey 66 0.8 4.7 0.3 1.5 1.4 1.8 INDEX Aberdeen Angus cattle, 298. Abortion, in cows, 332 ; contagious, 333 ; non-contagious, 332 ; in mares, 110. Acid, sulfuric, 253. Action in horses, 21, 22. Afterbirth, 336. Age, of cow, how to estimate, 187 ; to feed cattle, 276 ; of horse, how to estimate, 7 ; of sheep, how to esti- mate, 361 ; of swine, 454. Aged horses, 11. Allerton, 87. American Merino, 364, 375. American saddle horse, 97. American trotter, 24. Ames, F. L., 192, 197. Angus cattle, 73. Animals, breeding, 70; feeding, 37. Apoplexy parturition, 339. Arab horse, 6. Arfman, John, 208. Arms, in horses, 25, 34. Artichoke, 475. A-shaped hog house, 507. Associations, testing, 235. Asthma, 176. Atavism, 82. Auten, A. O., 250. Average production for cow, 229. Ayreshire cattle, 228. Azoturia, 179. Baby-beef, 291 ; advantages, 292 ; cattle used, 292 ; disadvantages, 293 ; feeds used, 292. Back-band, 147. Back, in swine, 461. Bacon, Canada, 483 ; skim-milk for, 488 ; type, 454. Bacon-hog, choosing, 464 ; condition, 464 ; feeding, 483 ; form, 464 ; feed- ing in summer, 484; feeding in winter, 484. Bakewell, Robert, 70. Balanced ration, 51 ; use, 55. Bandage, 152. Bang, Dr., 350. Barn, dairy, 264; floors, 268; hog, 505; sheep, 433; ventilation, 266; watering device, 270. Barrenness in mares, 109 ; in cows, 332. Barrier, 10. Bathing, 156. Bedding for horses, 129 ; corn stalks, leaves, shavings, straw, 129 ; the cow, 258; sheep, 388, 436. Beef, baby, 291 ; food requirements for, 281. Beef cattle, Aberdeen Angus, 298 abortion, 332 ; age to feed, 276 barrenness, 332 ; bloating, 351 breeds, 308 ; breeding, 305 ; breed- ing stock, 308; bull, 311; butchers' demands, 277 ; care and manage- ment, 320 ; calves from best cows, 307; care of calf, 315-317; choos- ing, 198 ; condition of feeder, 200 ; condition for feeding, 278 ; compo- sition of carcass, 276 ; cooperative grading-up, 307; cost of bull, 311; cow, 313 ; cow with calf at foot, 315 ; crossing, 308 ; dehorning, 354 ; detail characters, 200 ; difficult parturi- tion, 334 ; diseases, 331 ; drifting, 300 ; dual purpose cow, 309 ; equip- ment for summer feeding, 322 ; equipment for winter feeding, 326 ; essentials of feeding cattle, 275 ; eversion of the womb, 338 ; farms, 322 ; fat steer, 198 ; fat steer indi- cations, 202; feed-bunk, 323, 327; feed lot, 327; feeding, 275, 318; 533 534 INDEX feeding for local market, 293 ; feed- ing grain or pasture, 285 ; feeding- standards, 282 ; feeding shed, 326 ; feeder, 198 ; forage racks, 328 ; form of feeder, 199 ; form for feeding, 277; Galloway bull, 312; garget, 340 ; general examination, 199 ; food requirements, 281 ; Hereford cow, 306 ; hogs following, 295 ; increasing feeding capacity, 284 ; indications of doing well, 320 ; impaction, 353 ; length of feeding period, 297 ; milk fever, 338 ; "on feed," 296 ; pasture, 322 ; percentage dress, 278 ; plan of breeding, 307 ; preparing for ship- ment, 300 ; pregnant cow, 314 ; pro- duction period, 313 ; quality for feeding, 279 ; quality of feeder, 199 ; retained afterbirth, 336 ; salt, 325 ; sample rations, 300-304 ; season to breed, 313 ; self-feeder, 325 ; shade, 325 ; shipping, 299 ; store steer, 198 ; summer feeding on pasture, 284 ; turning to grass, 285 ; tuberculosis, 343; type, 186; uniformity, 200, 310; value of uniformity, 280; water, 325 ; weaning the calf, 316 ; when to market, 299 ; white face, 306 ; wintering, 282 ; winter feeding in dry lot, 289. Belgian horse, 58. Belly in lard hogs, 462. Berkshire swine, 463 ; sow, 460. Bit, 142; curb, 143; its use, 136; snaffle, 142 ; straight, 142 ; tongue- lolling, 143. Bitting, 137. Bitting-harness, 137. Black Top Merino, 360. Blankets, fly, 148 ; for horses, 130 ; outdoor, 131 ; stable, 130. Blemish, 14. Blinds, 143. Blisters, 156. Bloat in cattle, 351 ; in sheep, 446. Blood-spavin, 18, 161. Boar, 490. Body, in beef cattle, 201 ; dairy cattle, 194 ; horses, 27, 36 ; sheep, 370. Bog-spavin, 18, 161. Bone-spavin, 158. Bony enlargements, 158. Bot-flies, 148. Bottles, whirling test, 233. Bowen & Quick, 214. Breast harness, 147. Breeching, 147. Breeding animals, 70 ; atavism, 82 ; beef cattle, 305; beef bull, 311; calves from best cows, 237 ; co- operative, 238 ; crate for swine, 493 ; crossing beef breeds, 308 ; dairy cattle, 227 ; ewe flock, 406 ; ewes, 407 ; grading-up beef cattle, 307 ; heredity, 83 ; horses and mules, 96 ; inheritance of disease, 83 ; like pro- duces like, 71 ; marc, 103 ; mating, 81 ; mating sheep, 407 ; plan of, 237 ; plan beef cattle, 307 ; plan for sheep, 404 ; plan for swine, 487 ; prepotency, 84 ; purity of, 85 ; ram, 406; reversion, 82; season of year to breed horses, 104 ; selection, 77 ; selection and improvement, 242 ; sheep, 403 ; soundness, 102 ; stal- lion, 102 ; sterility, 88 ; swine, 487 ; systems of, 89, breeding from best, 95, crossing, 90, grading, 89, line- breeding, 90, in-breeding, 91. Bridle, 142 ; blinds, 143 ; center-pieces, 144 ; check-rein, 144 ; ear-bobs, 144 ; head-stall, 143; tassels, 144; throat latch, 144. Broken wind, 176. Brown Swiss bull, 252. Brown Swiss cow "Vogel," 258. Bull, 244 ; beef (see beef cattle) ; dairy (see dairy cattle) ; ringing, 264. Bunions, 17. Butter, 227. Cabbage, 386. Calf, 250 ; and cow, 315 ; castrating male calf, 255 ; constipation, 341 ; dairy, 250 : danger of over-feeding, 253 ; diarrhea, 341 ; feeding beef, 318 ; from best cows, 237 ; grain mixture for, 226 ; ills, 340, consti- pation, 341 ; scours, contagious or "white scours" and simple, 341 ; milk substitutes for feeding, 255 ; on skim-milk, 253 ; on whole milk, INDEX 535 253 ; removing horns, 255 ; scours, 341 ; teaching to think, 252. Calk- wound, 132, 106. Cannon in light horses, 26, 28 ; in heavy horses, 34. Cans, milk, 260. Canula and trocar, 352. Capped-elbows, 164. Capped-hock, 164. Capped-knee, 164. Care, beef cattle, 320 ; dairy cattle, 257 ; horse, 127 ; sheep, 422 ; swine, 503. Carpenter & Ross, 277. Cart-horse, 70. Cart training, 139. Caryle, 221. Caryle's soiling system, 221. Castleman, J. B., 97. Castrating calf, 255 ; lambs, 419 ; swine, 501. Catalonian jack, 123. Catarrh, 174. Cattle (for beef cattle see beef cattle) ; (for dairy cattle see dairy cattle) ; age by horns, 189 ; estimating age, 178; teeth, 187; types, 185; beef and dairy, 186. Champlin Bros., 91. Chatillon's Spring Balance, 230. Check-rein, 144. Cheese, 227. Cheshire, swine, 496 ; pig, 493. Chest, in light horses, 24 ; in heavy horses, 34. Chester White, swine, 479 ; boar, 476. Cheviot, sheep, 425. Chicken-eating swine, 524. Chief perfection, 85. Choking, 170. Cholera, in swine, 511; immunization, 513; preventing, 511; spreading disease, 511 ; serum, 513; use of se- rum, 515. Choosing cattle, 185 ; horses, 3 ; sheep, 359 ; swine, 453. Clipping cow's udder, 258 ; horses, 128. Clover, 386. Clydesdale horse, 30. Colantha 4th's Johanna, 229. Collar, 145 ; kinds : common leather, half sweeney, humane, pneumatic and steel, 146. Colic, 172. Colt, age, 8 ; age to bit, 136 ; bitting, 137; harnessing, 138; ill, 115; con- stipation, 115; scours, 115; navel disease, 116; method of catching, 134 ; training, 133 ; training to mount, 140 ; training uses of the bit, 136. Company plan of buying horses, 99. Composition beef cattle carcass, 276. Condition of beef cattle, 200 ; market- able, 297; of dairy cattle, 193; of swine, 464. Constipation, 174 ; calf, 341 ; foal, 115; lamb, 416; sheep, 447; swine, 521. Constitution in swine, 457. Cook, C. F., 122. Cook & Son, W. N., 365. Cooking feed, 470. Cooler for milk, 259. Cooperative breeding, 23S; cattle, 238; horses 98 ; sheep, 404 ; swine, 489. Corns, 167. Corsa, W. S., 15. Cots hog, 505. Cotswold ram, 441. Cow, barn, 264 ; beef, 313 ; dairy, 246 ; testing associations, 235 ; with calf at foot, 315. Creep for sheep, 392. Cribbing, 13 (see horse). Crossing, 77, 90. Crouch & Son, J., 58. Croup in horses, 27, 36. Crupper, 147. Curb, 18, 163. Curb-bit, 143. Dairy-barn ventilation, 265. Dairy cattle, abortion, 332 ; Ayreshire, 228; baby-beef, 291; barn, 264; barrenness, 332 ; bloating, 351 ; breed- ing, 227 ; bull, 244 ; calves from best cows, 237 ; care and management, 257 ; care of bull, 263 ; choosing, 185 ; choosing dairy bull, 244 ; con- stitution, 193 ; cooperative breeding, 238 ; dehorning, 354 ; detail char- 536 INDEX acter, 194; difficult parturition, 334; diseases, 331; dry forage for, 217; Dutch Belted, 262; eversion of the womb, 338; feeding, 203; feeding calf, 251 ; feeding in lot, 289 ; feeding-standard, 204 ; food-effect on composition of milk, 210 ; food requirements for milk, 203 ; form, 190 ; forming the herd, 238 ; garget, 340 ; general examination, 190 ; grading-up, 239; grading, first gen- eration, 240 ; grading, second gen- eration, 241 ; Guernsey cow, 192 ; Haecker's feeding-standard, 206 ; heifer calves from high-producing dams, 240 ; high production, 222 Holstein-Friesian, 205 ; kicking, 354 impaction, 353 ; milk fever, 338 milking, 260 ; milk-records, 229 milk signs, 197 ; milk veins, 197 order of supplying food, 212 ; par- turition time, 248 ; plan of breeding, 237 ; productive period, 246 ; pro- tecting from flies, 215 ; quality, 193 ; retained afterbirth, 336 ; ringing the bull, 264 ; sample rations, 224 ; season to breed, 247 ; selection and improvement, 242 ; silage, 218 ; succulent feeds, 217; sucking cow, 355 ; summer feeding, 215 ; tem- perament, 193 ; testing associations, 235 ; tuberculosis, 343 ; udder, 195 ; uniformity, 245; watering, 213; winter feeding, 216. Dairy cow (see dairy cattle). Dairy herd, 238 ; (see dairy cattle) . Dairy type, 186. Davis & Son, Frank, 329. Davison, Dr. G. H., 390. Daytholeum, 426. Dehorning, 354. De Kol 2d, 85. Delane Merino, 360, 364. Denmark, 85. Devon bull, 344. Diarrhea, 173 ; in calves, 341 ; in foal, 115; in lamb, 416. Dickinson Merino, 360. Difficult parturition, 334. Digestion, 44 ; conditions influencing, 48. Digestive organs, 45. Dip, how used, 425. Dipping, frequency, 426 ; importance, 423 ; self, 503 ; sheep, 423 ; swine, 503. Dipping-vat, 424. Diseases of cattle, 331 ; of the horse, 151; of sheep, 439; of swine, 510; prevention, 265. Distemper, 177. Docking lambs, 419. Dogs and goats, 377. Double safety, 141. Drenching, 154. Dressing winter lambs, 393. Driving horse, feeding, 63. Drove (see swine). Dry forage, 217. Dry-lot, 289. Dry matter in food, 526. Dual-purpose cow, 309. Dumb jockey, 137. Duroc Jersey, swine, 474. Dutch Belted cattle, 262. Ear marking sheep, 420 ; swine, 502. Eczema, 169. Elbows, 25; capped, 164; "tied in," 25. Enemas, 156. English shire horse, 35. Environment, 75. Erotas, 85. Escutcheon, 198. Eversion of the womb, 338. Ewe, 406; lambing time, 411; lamb- ing pens, 412 ; method of mating, 407 ; parturition, 412 ; pregnant, 410 ; productive period, 407 ; season to breed, 407. Exercise for sheep, 387. Exile of St. Lambert, 86. External medication, 155. Eye, diseases of, 180 ; moon-blindness, 181 ; sore, 417, 440. Fall lambs, 396 ; feeding, 396. Farmer's cow, 309. Farms for fattening cattle, 322. Farrowing swine, 496. Fat, reading, 233. INDEX 537 Fattening, cattle, 284 ; sheep, 388 ; swine, 478. Fecundity {see prolificacy). Feed-alley, 267. Feed-bunk, 323 ; platform, 327. Feed-carrier, 207. Feed cooking, 470 ; digestible nutrients, 526; "full," 296; grinding, 469; list, 526 ; measures, 525 ; mixture for lambs, 392 ; racks, sheep, 436 ; soaking, 467 ; succulent, 217 ; weights, 525. Feeders, wintering, 282. Feeding animals, 37 ; baby-beef, 291; beef cattle, 275 ; beef cattle on pasture, 284 ; breeding herd, 472 ; cattle for local market, 293 ; capacity among swine, 470 ; capacity in- creased, 284; dairy calf, 251 ; dairy cattle, 203 ; dairy cattle in summer, 215; dairy cattle in winter, 216; dry forage, 217 ; equipment for sum- mer, 322 ; equipment for winter, 326; feed-bunk, 323; the flock, 380; flock in summer, 381 ; flock in winter, 386 ; for high production, 222; the heifer, 223; horses, 56; grain to beef cattle on pasture, 285 ; grain to cattle in lot, 289 ; lambs, 391, 417; large hog,, 479; mare at parturition, 112 ; milking cow, 214 ; mules, 67; "off feed," 353; on pasture, 324 ; pigs, 500 ; sheep, 377 ; sheep in corn belt, 399 ; sheep in East, 399; sheep in West, 398; silage, 218 ; steers in winter, 289 ; succulent feeds, 217 ; swine, 467 ; young foal, 117. Feeding-standard, 51 ; for beef cattle, 282 ; for dairy cattle, 204 ; for the horse, 57 ; mere guides, 210 ; for sheep, 380 ; for swine, 468. Feet, 27, 29, 35 ; care of, 131 ; sheep's, 388; shoeing, 132. Fetlocks in horses, 26. Fever, bilious, 178 ; shipping, 178. Filly, breeding, 103. Firing, 157. Fleece, 372 ; brightness, 376 ; condi- tion, 375 ; crimp, 374 ; density, 373 ; length, 373 ; luster, 376 ; kemp, 375 ; purity, 375; quality, 373, 374; softness, 374 ; soundness, 374 ; yolk, 376. Flies, protecting cows from, 215. Flock, feeding, 380; (see sheep). Floors, 268. Flushing, 407. Fly-blankets, 148. Fly-blister, 156. Fly-killer, 148. Fly-nets, 148. Foal, 112, 113; care of, 113; feeding, 117; grain for, 119; ills, 115; con- stipation, diarrhea, navel infection, 116; jack, 121; skim-milk for, 120; weaning, 119. Food, 37 ; composition, 38, 526, ash, 39, carbohydrates, 40, fat, 41, protein, 39, water, 39 ; and composition of milk, 210 ; cooking for horses, 49 ; curing, 49 ; digestibility, 44, 526 ; dry matter to 100 pounds, 526 ; effects on flavor in milk, 212 ; effect on percentage of fat, 211 ; effect on quantity of milk, 212 ; effect of total solids in milk, 211 ; fermenting, for horses, 49 ; fertilizing constituents, in 1000 pounds, 526 ; functions, 41, ash, 42, carbohydrates, 43, fat, 43, pro- tein, 42, water, 41 ; grinding, 48 ; list, 526 ; nutrients, 46 ; order of supply- ing, 57, 212 ; preparation for swine, 469 ; requirements for beef, 281 ; requirements for milk, 203 ; require- ments for sheep, 379 ; requirements for swine, 468 ; required for work, 56 ; steaming, 44 ; use, 37 ; used for baby-beef, 292 ; wetting, 49. Foot, corns, 167 ; cracked hoofs, 168 ; lameness, 165 ; rot in sheep, 440 ; wounds, 167. Forage racks, 328. Fore-arms in horses, 25, 34. Fore-quarters, in beef cattle, 201 ; in dairy cattle, 194 ; in sheep, 370. Foul sheath, 180. Founder, 17. Fracture, 160. Fraser, 221. Fraser's soiling system, 221. French coach horse, 87. 538 INDEX French draft horse, 111. Fruit-growing, 100. Full feed, 296. Galbraith, Alex., 30. Galloway bull, 312. Galls, 163. Galton's Law, 80. Gambetta Wilks, 87. Gammon, 466. Garget, in cattle, 340 ; sheep, 4 IS ; swine, 523. Generative organs, 331. Gestation table, cattle, 249 ; horse, 108 ; sheep, 408 ; swine, 495. Gifford & Stockwell, 344. Gillis, A. R., 81. Glista, 243. Glista family, 243. Goats and dogs, 377. Goodwin, John, 488. Goodwin, J. S., 298. Goubaux, 10. Grade dairy herd, 239. Grading, 89. Grading-up table, 243. Grain-farming, 100. Grass, fattening, 284 ; turning to, 285. Gravel, 17. Grinding feed, 469 ; food, 48. Grippe, 178. Grooming the horse, 127. Gruels for foal, 118. Guenon, 198. Guernsey cow, 192. Gutter, 269. Hackney coach horse, 22, 79 ; cob, pony, 79. Haecker, 206. Halter training, 134. Hambletonian, 10, 84. Hame-tug, 146. Hampshire sheep, 400, 488. Hams, 463, 466. Harness, caring for, 148 ; cleaning, 149; room, 149. Harnessing, 141 ; adjusting hame-tug, 146 ; bit, 142 ; breast harness, 147 ; bridle, 142 ; colt {see colt) ; fitting back-band, 147; fitting the collar, 145 ; fitting crupper, 147. Hartline, Frank, 337. Harvesting time, 48. Head, beef cattle, 200; dairy cattle, 194 ; horse, 23 ; sheep, 368 ; swine, 459. Hearing, 16. Heart's Delight Farm, 418. Heaves, 176. Hechtner, C. S., 312. Heifer feeding, 223. Hengerveld De Kol, 86. Herd, dairy, 238; grading-up, 239; {see cattle). Heredity, 83. Hereford cow, 306. Hind-quarters in dairy cattle, 195. Hinny, 125 ; breeding, 124. Hitching, double, 139; single, 139. Hips in swine, 462. Hip-straps, 147. Hocks, 28, 36 ; capped, 164. Hog-dipping equipment, 504, 509. Hogs following beef cattle, 295 ; {see swine) . Holstein-Friesian cattle, 205. Hood Farm, 245. Hoof, care of, 131; cracked, 168; oil, 131; quarter crack, 168; rate of growth, 132 ; sand crack, 168 ; toe crack, 168; (see horse). Horned Dorset ram, 418. Horns, in estimating age, 189 ; re- moving, 255, 354. Horse, abortion, 110; action, 21, 32; American saddler, 97 ; Arab, 6 ; asthma, 176 ; azoturia, 179 ; bad mouth, 137 ; barrenness, 109 ; bed- ding, 129; Belgian, 58; bitting, 137; blankets, 130; blemish, 14; bred each year, 96 ; breeding, 96 ; breeding two-year filly, 103 ; breed- ing stock, 99 ; broken wind, 176 ; capped elbows, 16; care, 127; care of teeth, 128 ; catarrh, 174 ; choos- ing, 3 ; choosing heavy, 29 ; choos- ing light, 20 ; clipping, 128 ; clipped hair on legs, 128 ; Clydesdale, 30 ; constipation, 174 ; colic, 172 ; co- operative breeding, 98 ; cribbing, 15 ; INDEX 539 curb, 18 ; defective hearing, 16 ; detail character of heavy horses, 33, of light horses, 23 ; diarrhea, 172 ; discharge of nostrils, 15 ; diseases, 151 ; distemper, 177 ; English shire, 35 ; estimating age, 7 ; examination in action, 6 ; examination in stable, 5 ; feeding, 56 ; feeding brood mare, 65 ; feeding for driving, 63 ; feeding for work, 60 ; feeding when idle, 64 ; feet, 131; fistulse, 16; foal, 112; forging, 18 ; for police, 106 ; French coach, 87; French draft, 111; general appearance in heavy, 29, in light, 21 ; general examination, 5 ; gestation table, period, 108 ; good mouth, 136 ; hackney coach, 79 ; harnessing, 141 ; heaves, 19, 176 ; "horse company," 99; impaired vision, 16 ; indigestion, 171 ; in- fluenza, 178; interfering, 19; judg- ing, 3 ; lameness, 158 ; locating lameness, 19 ; management, 127 ; mare, 103 ; Morgan, 94 ; number, 96 ; order of supplying food, 57 ; overreaching, 18 ; parturition time, 110; Percheron, 15; plan of breed- ing, 96; poll-evil, 16; quality, 22; regularity in feeding, 57 ; ring-bone, 17 ; roaring, 19, 176 ; sample rations, 68, artillery, cavalry, colt, draft, farm, hunter and race horse, 69 ; scouring, 173 ; scratches, 17 ; season of year to breed, 104 ; Shetland pony, 117; shoeing, 132 ; sick, 151 ; side-bone, 17 ; sound, 14 ; sound- ness in breeding, 102 ; spavin, 18 ; splints, 16 ; stallion, 102 ; stringhalt, 18 ; Suffolk, 74 ; sweenied, 16 ; tem- perament, 23 ; thick-wind, 176 ; thoroughpin, 18 ; training, 133 ; training vicious, 141 ; types, 19, heavy and light, 20 ; type to breed, 100 ; uniformity in breeding, 101 ; unsound, 14 ; unsound hoofs, 17 ; unsound knees, 16 ; value of care, 128 ; watering, 59 ; weight of heavy horses, 31 ; when mares should be tried, 107; whistling, 176. Hot-house lamb, 389. Hypodermic medication, 154. Idle horse, feeding, 64. Impaction in cattle, 353. Improvement, the basis of, 72 ; unit of, 237. In-breeding, 92. Indigestion, 171. Individual merit, 78. Influenza, 178. Inheritance, 83 ; of disease, 83. Ink marking, 421. Interfering, 166. Irritants, 156. Jack, 125 ; breeding, 121 ; care of, 124 ; Catalonian, 123; foals, 121. Jennet, 125 ; breeding, 121 ; parturi- tion, 121. Jersey bull, 245. Jersey cow, "Jacoba Irene," 250. Jersey Red hog, 474. Jerusalem artichoke, 475. Johanna, 85. Jordan, Dr., 276. Jowls, 459. Judging, cattle, 185 ; beef cattle, 198 , dairy cow, 189 ; faculties, 3 ; horse, 3 ; lard-hogs, 455 ; sheep, 359 ; swine, 453. Kale, 386. Kansas Agricultural College, 105. Kemp, 375. Kicking cow, 354. Kick-strap, 140. Knee, 26, 34; bucked, 463; capped, 164. Lambing time, 411. Lambs, 413 ; care, 417 ; castrating, 419 ; chilled, 414 ; constipation, 416 ; diarrhea, 416 ; disowned, 415 ; dock- ing, 419; dressing, 393; fall, 396; feeding, 391, 417; first meal, 413; full feed, 397 ; ills 416, constipation 416, diarrhea 416, pinning 416, sore eyes 417, sore mouth 417 ; mark- ing, 420 ; spring, 396 ; teaching to drink, 414 ; weaning, 417 ; winter, 388, 398. Lameness, 158 ; blood-spavin, 161 bog-spavin, 161 ; bone-spavin, 158 bony enlargements, 158 ; curb, 163 540 INDEX fractures, 160 ; foot, 165 ; interfer- ing, 166 ; overreaching, 166 ; ring- bones, 158 ; shoulder, 162 ; side- bones, 158 ; splints, 158 ; sprains, 161 ; sweeny shoulder, 162 ; thoroughpin, 161 ; wind-galls, 161. Laminitis, 17. Lampas, 170. Lard-hog, winter feeding, 481. Lard type, 453. Large Yorkshire swine, 465. "Lean to," 153. Leet, Chas. & Jas., 384. Leg of horse, 2S ; of mutton, 370 ; in swine, 463. Leg of mutton, 370. Lehman & Wolff, 57. Leicester ewe, 437. Lice, 440 ; swine, 520. Lincoln sheep, 449. Line-breeding, 90. Liniments, 155. Litter-carrier, 269. Loin in beef cattle, 278 ; in horses, 27. Long-horn cattle, 70. Lord Netherland De Kol, 86. Lot, 327; dry, 289; feeding, 289; hog, 509 ; paving, 327 ; quarantine, 510 ; sheep, 438. Machines, milking, 260. Maintenance rations, 50. Management, beef cattle, 320 ; dairy cattle, 257 ; horses, 127 ; sheep, 422 ; swine, 503. Mangels for sheep, 387. Mangers, 267. Maplewood, 79. Mare, 103; abortion, 110; barren- ness, 109 ; brood, 65 ; colostrum milk for foals, 113; feeding, 65; parturition time, 110; at weaning time, 120 ; when to try to breed, 107. Marketable condition, 297. Market condition of steers, 299 ; local, 293. Market-gardening, 100. Marshall, C, 360. Mating, 81 ; sheep, 407. May & Otis, 310. Mayes' "Diseases of Animals," 151. Measure of feed, 525. Medication, 154 ; bathing, 156 ; blis- ters, fly and red, 156 ; drenching, 154; enemas, 156 ; external, 155 ; firing line and point, 157 ; hypodermic, 154 ; liniments, 155 ; lotions, 155 ; ointments, 155 ; plasters, 157 ; poul- tices, 155. Medicine, administering, 154. Merino, American, 375 ; A type, 361 ; B type, 365 ; C type, 365 ; Delaine, 360; ram, 364. Milk, colostrum, 113; cooling, 259; effect of food on composition, 210 ; effect of food on fat, 211 ; effect of food on quantity, 212 ; effect of total solids, 211; for calf, 253; for foal, 118 ; food and flavor, 212 ; food requirements for, 203 ; reading per- centage fat, 233 ; sampling, 232 ; sanitary, 257 ; signs of milking ca- pacity, 197 ; skim-milk for calves, 253 ; substitutes for calves, 255 ; testing for fat, 232 ; using acid, 233 ; whirling bottles, 233. Milk-cooler, 260. Milk-fever, dairy cattle, 338 ; mare, 111; sheep, 448; swine, 523. Milk-house, 259. Milking, 260. Milking-machines, 260. Milk-mirror, 198. Milk-oil, 426. Milk-records, 229; keeping, 230; record-sheet, 231 ; value, 232. Milk-signs, 197. Milk-veins, 197. Moon-blindness, 181. Morgan horse, 94. Mouth, ailments of, 164 ; importance of a good one, 136 ; lampas, 170 ; sore, 417 ; sore, swine, 522. Moyer, H. A., 205. Mud fever, 169. Mules, 67, 124, 125; breeding, 124; feeding, 67. Mustard plaster, 157. Mutton, leg of, 370. Naptholeum, 426. National Merino, 360. INDEX 541 National Stockman and Farmer, 67. Navel infection, 116. Navicular disease, 17. Nock sore, 163. Nets, fly, 148. Nutrients, 46. Nutritive-ratio, 52. Oats, 386. Oil, neatsfoot, 149. Ointments, 155. Old Fanny Cook, 86. Old Granny, 86. Onward, 87. Otis & May, 310. Outdoor blanket, 131. Over-check rein, use of, 144. Overreaching, 166. Oxford sheep, 409. Pails, milk, 260. Palatability, 48. Parasites, external, 440 ; internal, 441. Parents, relative influence, 88. Parnell, G. W., 425. Parturition, 334 ; apoplexy, 339 ; diffi- cult in cattle, 334 ; difficult in horse, 112; difficult in sheep, 412; in jen- nets, 121 ; time in cows, 248 ; time in mares, 110; time in sheep, 411; time in swine, 496. Parturition fever, 339; cattle, 339; sheep, 448 ; swine, 523. Pasterns in light horses, 26, 28 ; in heavy horses, 34. Pastures, 286, 322, 382; caring for, 287 ; change for sheep, 383 ; for swine, 475 ; sown for sheep, 385 ; steers at, 288 ; turning sheep, 382 ; turning to, 285. Paul Beets De Kol, 86. Paving feed lot, 327. Pedigree, 78. Pens, lambing, 412. Percheron horse, 15 ; why large, 71. Permanent pastures, 286. Pigs, 498 ; after weaning, 501 ; care of, 496 ; castrating, 501 ; feeding, 500 ; first meal, 498 ; marking, 501 ; ills, 499, digestive disorders, 499, scours 500, thumps 500 ; sow eating, 497 ; weaning, 500. Pink-eye, 181. Pinning in sheep, 416. Platform for feed-bunks, 327. Plumb, C. S., 476. Pocahontas, 86. Poland China swine, 455, 457. Pork chop, 461 ; roast, 461. Porterhouse steak, 278. Poultices, 155 ; bran, bread and milk, flaxseed meal, mashed boiled turnips,, 156. Prepotency, 84 ; breed, 84 ; race, 84. Prime of rib, 278. Productive rations, 50. Prolificacy, 86. Pumpkins, for sheep, 386 ; for swine, 476. Quality, in light horses, 22, 23 ; in heavy horses, 33 ; in beef cattle, 199 ; in dairy cattle, 193 ; in sheep, 367 ; in swine, 457. Quarantine lot, 510. Quarter-cracks, 17, 132, 168. Quick & Bowen, 214. Quitter, 17. Racks, 328, 398. Ram, 406 ; managing, 410. Rambouillet, 364 ; ram, 381. Ramsdell, J. A. P., 6. Ratio, method of calculating, 52 nutritive, 52. Ration, balanced, 51 ; for sheep, 386 for swine, 484 ; sample, for horse, 68 Rations, maintenance, 50 ; productive 50 ; sample, 68 ; sample, beef cattle 300-304 ; sample for dairy cattle 224 ; sample for sheep, 401 ; sample for swine, 484. Records, 229 ; keeping, 230 ; of per- formance, 236. Red-blister, 156. Red polled bull, 329. Rein, 144 ; over-check, side, 144. Retained afterbirth, 336. Reversion, 82. Ribs in horses, 27. Ring-bones, 158. 542 INDEX Ringing swine, 474. Roaring, 176. Roots, 218 ; for dairy cattle, 218 ; for sheep, 387 ; for swine, 475. Ross & Carpenter, 277. Rotation pastures, 286. Rump, in sheep, 370 ; in swine, 462. Rye, 386. Saddle horse, 97; five-gaited, three- gaited, 97. Salt, 60, 379; for beef cattle, 325; for horses, 60 ; for swine, 472. Sand cracks, 17, 168. Sanitary milk, 257 ; cow stable, 258 ; milking, 260; utensils, 260. Scab, 423, 440. Schmit-Kolding sterile-air outfit, 339. Score card, value, 5. Scouring, 173. Scours in calves, 341; colts, 115; sheep, 416; swine, 521. Scratches, 168. Season of the year to breed beef cattle, 313 ; dairy cattle, 247 ; horses, 104 ; sheep, 407 ; swine, 492. Sedgley Farms, 252. Seedy toe, 17. Selection, 77. Self-feeder, 325. Shade, for beef cattle, 325 ; for sheep, 384; for swine, 508. Shearing sheep by hand, 428 ; by ma- chinery, 429. Shearing, sheep, 427 ; tying wool, 433 ; when to shear, 428 ; wool-box, 433. Sheath, foul, 180. Shed, covered, 258 ; cattle feeding, 326. Shed-shaped hog house, 508. Sheep, 359 ; barns, 433 ; bedding, 388, 436 ; bloating, 446 ; breeding, 403 ; breeding ewes, 407 ; caked udder, 448; care, 422; care of feet, 388; castrating lambs, 419 ; catching and holding, 360 ; change of pasture, 383; Cheviot, 425; chilled lamb, 414 : choosing breeding stock, 404 ; condition and weight, 367 ; consti- pation, 447 ; constitutional vigor, 367 ; Cotswold ram, 441 ; Delaine Merino, 360 ; detail characters, 368 ; difficult parturition, 412 ; dipping, 423 ; diseases, 439 ; disowned lamb, 415 ; docking lambs, 419 ; dogs, 377 ; dressing winter lambs, 393 ; exer- cise, 387 ; estimating age, 361 ; ewe flock, 406 ; fall lambs, 396 ; fatten- ing, 388 ; feeding, 377 ; feeding the flock, 380 ; feeding flock in summer, 381 ; feeding flock in winter, 386 feeding lambs, 391 ; feeding in corn belt, 399; feeding in East, 399 feeding in West, 398 ; feed racks 436; fine-wool, 363; fleece, 372 flock in winter, 386 ; flushing, 407 food requirements, 379 ; foot rot 440 ; form, 366 ; general appearance 366 ; garget, 448 ; gestation, table 408 ; Hampshire, 400 ; holding and catching, 360 ; hot-house lamb, 388 judging, 359 ; lambs, 413 ; lamb ills, 416; lambs on full feed, 397 lambing pens, 412 ; lambing time 411; Leicester ewe, 437; lice, 440 Lincoln, 449 ; lot, 438 ; management 422 ; managing the ram, 410 marking, 421 ; mating, 407 ; method of examination, 359 ; mutton type 365 ; Oxford, 409 ; overfeeding, 447 pasture, 382 ; plan of breeding, 404 productive period, 407 ; quality 367; feeding rack, 398; ram. 406 ration, 386 ; roots, 387 ; sample rations. 401 ; scab, 423, 440 season to breed, 407 ; shade, 384 385 ; shearing, 427 ; Shropshire 342; sick, 439; silage, 387; sore eyes, 440 ; sore teats, 440 ; South- down, 384 ; spring lambs, 396 ; stomach-worm, 446 ; tagging, 383 ; tape-worms, 444 ; tick, 426 ; turning to pasture, 382; types, 363, 405; uniformity, 368, 405 ; washing, 427 ; weaning lambs, 417 ; winter lambs, 398 ; Wolff-Lehman standards, 380. Shetland pony, 117; why small, 71. Shields on swine, 454. Shipping beef cattle, 299. Shoe-boil, 165. Shoe, fitting, 133. Shoeing, 132. INDEX 543 Shorthorn bull, 277. Shoulders, in horses, 25, 34 ; sores, 163 ; in sheep, 368 ; in bacon-hogs, 464; in lard-hogs, 461. Shoulder-lameness, 162. Shropshire sheep, 392 ; ram, 390. Side-bones, 158. Side-craek, 132. Side-rein, use of, 144. Sides in bacon-hogs, 465 ; in lard-hogs, 461. Sight impaired, 16, 180. Silage, 218; for cattle, 218; for sheep, 387. Silo, 270 ; construction, 273 ; filling, 272 ; size, 271 ; table showing ca- pacity, 272. Sirloin steak, 278. Sisson, L. P., 352. Skim-milk for beef calf, 318 ; for dairy calf, 253 ; for foal, 120 ; for sheep, 414 ; for swine, 484. Sling, to support sick animals, 152. Small Yorkshires. 499. Snyder & Sons, H. D., 66. Soaking feed, 469. Soap, castile, 149. Soiling, 218; examples 220, cattle 220, sheep 386, swine 481. Soundness, in breeding, 102 ; in horses, 14. Southdown sheep, 384. Sows, 491 ; after farrowing, 497 ; eat- ing pigs, 497 ; feeding summer, 472 . winter, 477 ; pregnant, 494 ; pro- ductive period, 492 ; season to breed, 492. Spavin, 18 ; bog, bone and occult, 18. Speedy cuts, 166. Splints, 158. Sprains, 161. Spring lambs, 396 ; feeding, 396 ; foundation stock, 396 ; marketing, 396. Stable-blankets, 130. Stable-cow, 258. Stable-yard, 258. Staley, W. M., 375. Stallion, 102 ; securing, 98. Stanchion, 267. Standard-feeding, 51. Standard Merino, 360. Steer, fat, 202 ; indications when fat, 299. Steers at pasture, 288. Sterility, 88. St. Lambert, 85. Stockers, wintering, 282. Stockwell & Gifford, 344. Stoke Pogis, 85. Stomach, 45 ; honeycomb, many-plies, paunch, rennet, 45. Stomach-worm, 440. Strainers, milk, 260. Strangles, 177. Stringhalt, 18. Strongylus contortus, 440. Stud (see horses). Succulent feeds, 217 ; cattle, 217 ; sheep, 386 ; swine, 480. Sucking cow, 355. Suffolk ewe, 411. Suffolk horse, 74. Sulfuric acid, 233. Sweeny shoulder, 162. Swine, after weaning, 501 ; age, 454 ; bacon type, 454 ; Berkshire, 463 ; boar, 440 ; breeding, 487 ; breeding crate, 493 ; care, 503 ; care of pigs, 496; care of tubercular herd, 518; castrating pigs, 501 ; Cheshire, 496 ; Chester White, 479 ; chicken eating, 524; cholera, 511; condition, 456; constipation, 521 ; constitution, 457 ; choosing lard-hog, 455; cooking feed, 470 ; detail characters, 459 ; dipping, 503; diseases, 510; Duroc Jersey, 474 ; fattening, 478 ; farrowing time, 496 ; feeding, 467 ; feeding breeding herd, 472 ; feeding capacity, 470 ; feeding for lard, 479, 481 ; feeding old sow, 478 ; feeding pigs, 500 ; feeding standards, 468 ; feed- ing in summer, 472, 479 ; feeding in winter, 477 ; feeding young sow 478 ; food requirements, 468 ; form 456 ; garget, 523 ; giving feed, 471 general appearance of lard-hog, 456 grinding feed, 469 ; Hampshire, 488 house, A-shaped, 506 ; house, shed- shaped, 507 ; individual hog house, 505; lard type, 453; lice, 520; 544 INDEX judging, 453 ; lot, 509 ; manage- ment, 503 ; marking, 501 ; method of mating, 492 ; pasture, 475 ; plague, 517 ; plan of breeding, 487 ; pig ills 499, constipation 521, scours 521, thumps 522; Poland China, 457 ; pregnant sow, 494 ; pro- ductive period, 492 ; pumpkins, 476 ; quality, 457 ; quarantine lot, 510 ; shelter, 504 ; removing tusks, 523 ; ringing, 474 ; rooting, 474 ; roots, 475 ; salt, 472 ; sample rations, 484 ; scours, 521 ; season to breed, 492 ; selecting breeding stock, 489 ; self- dipping vat, 503 ; skim-milk for, 480 ; soaking feed, 467 ; sore mouth, 522 ; soiling for, 473 ; sows, 491 ; sow after farrowing, 497 ; sow eating pigs, 497 ; Tamworth, 519 ; thumps, 522 ; types, 453, 489 ; tuberculosis, 517 ; uniformity, 458, 490 ; wallows, 509 , self-dipping, 504 ; water for, 472 ; weaning pigs, 500 ; weight, 456 ; worms, 519. Syringe, 345. Taenia expansa, 444. Tagging sheep, 383. Tamworth swine, 519 ; sow, 515. Tanks, water, 328. Tape-worms, 444. Teaching the colt, 133. Teams, matching, 4. Teats, sore, 440. Teeth, abnormal, 170 : bishoping, 14 ; broken, 170 ; of cattle, 187 ; care of, 128 ; decayed, 14, 170 ; diseased, 170 ; of horse, 8 ; irregularities, 13 ; sheep, 362; split, 170; ulcered, 170. Temperament, in dairy cattle, 193 ; in horses, 23. Testing milk, 232. Thermometer, 346. Thick wind, 176. Thigh in horses, 27, 36. Thigh-ovals in cows, 198. Thoroughpin, 18, 161. Throat latch, 144. Thrush, 17. Thumps, 522. Tick, sheep, 426. Toe-crack, 132, 168. Tom Corwin 2d, 85. Tongue-lolling bit, 143. Training the horse, 133. Training, cart, 139 ; to harness, 137 ; hitching double, 139 ; hitching single, 139; kick strap, 140; to lead, 134 ; to mount, 140 ; vicious horses, 141. Trees, shade, 325 ; cattle, 325 ; sheep, 384. Trocar and canula, 352. Tuberculosis, 343, 345 ; Bang method of eradicating, 350 ; eradication, 350 ; directions for making tuber- culin test, 346 ; methods of infection, 343 ; prevention, 349 ; retesting, 349 ; spread, 517 ; in swine, 517 ; testing outfit, 345 ; tuberculin, test, 345. Tubers, 218; sheep, 387; swine, 475. Turnips, 386. Tusks, removing, 523. Udder, 195 ; caked, in cattle, 339 ; caked, in sheep, 448 ; garget in cattle, 340 ; garget in sheep, 448 ; garget in swine, 523 ; milk-fever, 338. Uniformity, beef cattle, 310 ; dairy cattle, 345 ; horse, 101 : sheep, 405 ; swine, 490. Unsoundness, 14. Variation, 72 ; causes of 75, crossing 77, environment 75, climate, 75, care, 76, food, 76 ; kinds of, 73, func- tional, qualitative and quantitative, 73 ; importance, 72. Vaseline, 346. Vat, dipping, 424 ; dipping swine, 503 ; self-dipping swine, 503. Ventilation, 265, 266 ; King's system, 266 ; sheep barns, 434 ; window, 268. Vicious horses, 141. Victoria sow, 482. Vision impaired, 16. Wallace, 188. Wallows, swine, 504, 509. Water-device, 270. INDEX 545 Watering beef cattle, 325; the horse, 59; the milking cow, 213; sheep, 427; swine, 472. Waters, 326. Water-tanks, 328. Weaning, the calf, beef, 317; dairy, 252; the foal, 119; the lamb, 417; the pig, 500. Weight, of feed, 525 ; of horses, 31 ; of sheep, 367 ; of swine, 456. Whistling, 176. Wind, thick, 176 ; unsound, 19. Wind-galls, 161. Windows, 269. Wing, 220. Wing's soiling system, 220. Wintering feeders, 282 ; stockers, 282. Winter lambs, 398 ; crating, 395 ; dressing, 393 ; foundation stock, 389 ; packing, 395 ; shipping, 395 ; winter quarters, 391. Wolff & Lehman, 57. Womb eversion, 338. Wool-box, 433. Wool, sacks, 433 ; tying, 433. Work, food required for, 56. Work horse, feeding, 60 ; grooming, 127 ; watering, 59. Worms, prevention, 519 ; in sheep, 440; in swine, 519; treatment, sheep, 442 ; swine, 519. Wounds, 177. Yard, stable, 258. Zenoleum, 426. 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