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"e » ; ‘ TANT ™ 2 rah pees Witte pate fay Latte Fasten ao te y t | = Leer pe ae AAA raon ce ie oo es ar : TET Me Re Wah any, Bek. * a OP ts MD NTE te oly a i Nestea Qraniinthn Se =e SMa A Mere Se werner ea tse Sess nwatise msn, Sarah, b Meta te, : ~ tats ee Baan he Pac fee eTehanyey Cea Seater cant a Cec lmrerens Soren ee ae — Es Ts : ractoren ; MAMMA ct hal et agie, by, ° " 1S de Ayomsioy Sohne Moths maashisae ie ashy 5 : . ; NERY Chan Minted Esti tat , etal 8h hata @ Buje oS Sein DEAE MEE, nT" 5 Teena tas bee | kblaieiatAs oes 2 sen et Spt Se ety nat Piece, Fetes oe hake aca "a" PaSncawtonas ees Ee eerl sie Mere Rant care o ite al gn 2oee wah age tt Age bees tee! i eGo nag Tite ae AP. oer eces ch sels amd D- ty rea . i - ie ‘e 4 MANUAL “2 OP=: HORTICULTURE —FOR— Grade and High Schools Bye SS. BUSCHE ES. —AND— E. E. GUS@EN; B. 5S. In Agriculture and Horticulture "08, of W. S.C. = A = wn Oe ee CONTENTS Subjects. Pages 1. Structure of Blossoms-and Setting Fruit................ 5-6 CASSIE TES EFT DRO POU ag aU FT Aime eae kN el pa 6-7 Ein E 25 iy a ROA foes 2G, , Sa ee ele ERMAN 2.3. Spe en RO RN eer a a ie ben Gee © ee 10 11-14 MTR! |. ie emi er tey a gd aise mk cle ioe ee te 14-27 6. Respiration of Apples DBAs hcielouinis Tale po aye Sep Hie ea «'s 21-28 iieneienrasre: tol Spat eh ety ee ch gesiays emichee 2d lave dew Bhienie eee 28-33 Bebra, Wi cpkcet eee ine ite icles seu bodilee pra oe ai Neela'arS we 33-34 5. Geography ef Print Growing 2... 2.2.2 Jee aan. 34.35 oe SIRES on aS a JO ea 6S Se ne a 35-36 © CL SSTEYC INURE SS) 0, [S01 1A ea eee na 36-37 i The ilies rns Mands = 5 A) ssi aces he aie te wn Bo 31-3 eee PO ue ee pe ee RS Se ca gales yahant Ranl tae, a, a0 38-41 A SAN arn ee er TNO ONE cca cae lo = + se wk io oan eee aeee elm el acl 4] Paes Bleneliniye ds. ofc otk SRR Sy Se Ce ee cD 41-45 iSeries ed Sod Be TI Ok idea ce ed 45-48 17. Growth of Fruit Trees Compared with Other Crops ...... 48-54 ie sorepacaiion or Plants i)... 200. 228 BAS. REGO yt 54-72 19. Plant Study and Organs of Weel auion Orga nat ale te cee 72-86 da ead eras Ghiecte ce ee rane wc dae smeeg une a k 86-91 Pee anita a -Orehnard: 3902 8 60 ico Soe oS ee a SE 91-99 DMICUNEIN A 8. iaG. Shevlin pI. AS nied Se bebe eee 2 oe. Le 99-106 Beianimine ghe AG me towel Ul lide ea ele e eZ 106-109 re Mea TIY GABE eee tae tions Oe athe. teeatw eo 109-111 TTI ee dE ITH CO. foe tS ie cen ws oie em es 111-112 earn eeMNNET RE CD oi pe sett ea esp. =. 22 omy? sia e- soshiei a> 21's nie ogee - 112-120 Ch Eramne the Apricot, Cherny; Pham... sc. =<... 025-26 22 120-122 Ned a BEIMIINO Ce cede eth kT = AL WAL 2 2isic nin Gums Ged tendicbes HE 122-126 ee eames CEM igre Lt Nie ia hs, Dib aeed Oke ds Pore. eis 126-137 Moe uInE IT ys SOMME, Sl eo eae Te Ab 137-140 moosiaekporry and maspperry Culture 2.2.0.6... 22. ke he 140-142 22) ugran. and, Goaseperry. Cniture 2... 6. oko. sired 142 Seer sTVSEMIDE TNA eh Li: fps UE 1S AS 3dr apa BE: cae ou Spae wre << x5, pe 143-144 SeemeibremE en tii les RR CRSiy sete eh em Rs no tia cea 144-150 2/5 ONES TN 1G) eek Oe Sipe ss Geer Ae ae CCS cae aM toh Oh See oa 150-151 ne aR HOS)... 10% ie eee meee tt... Nee i 151-156 Paee Wale ATISECLS.«.,. 2 renee eee SS. ee 156-193 onan es (eb atlG WOISCASCS chee Mc see... . . + eee aoe iVe wale 5A) Gr PENT E Ele Ee aR arr 2 20 edo i on Re Ss 212-216. A omiphiinlme frahendar vai gad jah eer eons «see R Ohio OE 217 ollohete eevee Gen F710 Ee Re ie eR er Sg 218 _ EXPLANATION. : The manual is intended for the second year of high ist ‘but it. can, eee be used in other grades: first semester to page 99; second semester, manual completed. . The aim is not only to give an outline of the principal subjects of horticulture, arranged according to seasons, but also to explain and illustrate each subject. Orariien help is given by referring to a number of reférence books and bulletins. . Each school should have all the given references referred to in the ‘manual, _ All the essential statements’ that each pupil finds when reading should be copied in a note book and referred to at tlie time of the recitation. * ane ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. . The writers are under special indebtedness to: “a. A. L. Melander and H. B. Humphrey of the Washington State. College for permitting the use of the Sulphur-lime Calendar and Orchard Spray: Calendar. 'b. Louis Michaelson of the Horticulture Union, C:,L. ‘Hamilton . of, the Fruit Growers’ Association, and Frank Kinsey, for their-helpful suggestions. in pre- paring the manuscript on grading and packing; and A. Lundstrum for. mak: ing the drawings for the apple and the pear packs and also for’ Figures 73, 714, and 77. c. F. A. Huntley, State Commissioner of Horticulture, (cuts 175, 179,’ 180) ; 'T..0. Morrison, District Horticulture Inspector for Yakima and’ Kittitas Counties, (cut 177); C. J. DaVise, who has special charge -of insect pests and. fungi for Yakima Valley Fruit Growers’ Association, for their helpful sug- gestions in preparing the manuscript on insects and plant diseases. d. Colorado Experiment Station for cuts 114, 134; California Experiment Sige flon nor Cuts eA NAS linen ofken lume 174, 176. 178: New Hampshire. Ex- periment Station for cuts 5, 167, 168, 169, 172; Nebraska Experiment Station for cut 181; New York Experiment Station for cuts 1 and 2; Maryland Ex- periment Station for cuts 97, 98, 99, 100, 103, 104, 107, 108; Towa Experiment Station for cuts 135, 162 to 166; Montana Experiment | Station for cut: Bk e. Thee Book Company for cuts from the following books.: 1. Andrews’ Botany, cuts 3, 4, 6, 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 68, 70, fae, (72. : Agriculture by Goff and Mayne for cuts 238, 30, 31, 69. f. The Macmillan Company for cuts from the following books: 1. Principles of Agriculture by Bailey, cuts 24 to 29. 2. Fruit Growing in Arid Regions by Paddock and Whipple, euts 41, 43, 45, 79, S9;, Q0;n0s) 20. LOOs LO: 3. Pruning Book by Bailey, cuts 85 to 88, 101, 102, 105, 106. . United States Department of Agriculture for cuts 32 to 40, 42, 44, 46, 48 to 54, 58, 59, 64 to 67, 75, 76, 78, 80 to 84, 91, 92, 94, 95, 112, 113, 116 to 129, 133, 137, 138, 140, 148, 149, 153, 154, 155, 157, 159, 160, 161. ile} STRUCTURE OF BLOSSOMS AND SETTING OF FRUITS 1. The fruit buds on opening in the spring release one or more blos- . som buds. a. For the formation of fruit buds—see buds. 2. The blossom bud consists of floral envelopes and organs of repro- duction. 3. The structure of an apple blossom—see flower. a. The floral envelopes. 1. e—calyx, which is the outer green covering of the buds; its parts are sepals. 2. pt—corolla, which is the in- ner colored, showy covering of the bud; its parts are petals. 3. The calyx and corolla may be taken off and still it is possible for the fruit to de- _Fig. 1.—Shows an apple blossom. velop (N. Y. Exp. Station.) b. Organs of reproduction. 1. st—stamens are the thread-like organs that produce the pollen. 2. p—pistil is the ovule-bearing or seed- bearing organ. a. Stigmatic surface which is the rough, sticky surface of,the stigmas. b. o—ovary, which has five cavities, each containing two ovules. LOE ey EG Sik ea a ce. ov—ovules, which develop into seeds corolla _and_ stamens when fertilized. Seas Oe aa 4. Setting of fruit. a. It is caused by the union of two elements. 1. Nucleus of a plant cell borne in the pollen grain. 2. Egg cell borne in the ovary. b. The stamens produce the pollen, which must reach the stigmatic surface of the pistil, either by insects or in some other way. e. When the stigmatic surface is ready to receive the pollen, it be- comes. covered with a sticky fluid which easily holds any of the pollen that happens to touch it. d. The pollen in a few hours after it reaches the stigmatic surface, sprouts and sends tubes down through the soft tissues of the style to the ovules. e. Through these tubes there passes into the ovary a substance . Sections of apples a. c—carpels. b. £ — fibrovascu- : . pl—placenta. . p—pedunele. . S—seeds. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE which stimulates the ovules to growing into a seed, or in other words, which fertilizes them. f. Fruit is, ‘‘The ripened ovary with its attachments.”’ lar bundles. any. . Vascular system of an ap- ple. a. The vascular system has numerous sets of vessels or ducts that begin in the stem and extend to all parts of the apple. . The ducts are food- conducting vessels. . The fungus diseases follow the ducts from the rind to the core, and from core to rind. Fig. 38.—Cross section of an apple. (Andrew’s Bot- Fig. 4.—Vertical section. ) + of an apple. (Andrew’s Fig. 5.—Shows the vascular system of an Study thesstructureson the 222i. Co sapeauon) blossoms and setting of fruits of the different kinds of fruits in the spring. DESCRIPTION OF THE POME FRUIT. . The Forms: a. The horizontal diameter is the distance from cheek to cheek at b. oe the widest point. The vertical diameter is the distance from stem to blossom. Kinds of forms. 1. Round form when the two diameters are about equal. 2. Oblong or long form when the vertical diameter is longer than the horizontal diameter. 3. Oblate or flat form when the vertical diameter is distinctly shorter than the horizontal diameter. On pS . Conic form when the apple tapers toward the blossom end. . Other forms; as, oblong-conic, round-oblate, round-conic, oblique, regular and irregular. 1 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE _d. Sizes of each variety. 1. Small, medium, large and very large. e. Cavities. 1. Stem end. a. Shallow, medium or deep. b. Narrow or medium broad. ce. Abrupt, rounded or slop- ing. d. Smooth, regular, irregu- lar or wavy. 2. Blossom end. a. Long or small. Fig. 6.—Shows the lenticels on the skin. b. Open, half open, or closed. : f. Color, Fig. 6. 1. Blush on cheek. 2. Washed all over. 3. Striped color. 4. Solid color. 5. Dots or lenticel. a. White, gray or russet. b. Round or irregular. e. Sunken, raised or scattered o. Skin. . 1. Thin, thick, tough, or brittle. h. Flesh. 1. Hard, soft, coarse, fine, crisp, spongy or woody. 2. Dry, juicy, acid, sub-acid, flat or sweet. i. Each fruit should be studied as it is very important that the quality of each be known. 1. Use ‘‘Systematic Pomology’’ by Waugh. 2. “‘Fruit Growing,’’ by Paddock and Whipple. PICKING. Fig. 7.—Shows a well-formed apple. 1. Time to pick. Perishable fruits. Depends on varieties. Distance to market. Period of organization. 1. No marked lines between greenness and immaturity. 2. No marked lines between ripeness and maturity. 3. No marked lines between maturity and decay. 4. One stage passes into the other insensibly. 2. Classification. a. Rules for picking apples. 1. General rules. a. Pick when seeds begin to turn a light brown and before they become dark around the edges. b. Pick when the color characteristic of variety has devel- oped; as, Fameuse and McIntosh. Sei hee co bo 10. sts 12a, 13. 14. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE e. Pick when the fruit yields slightly to pressure. d. Pick when the stems readily separate from the spurs. . Red apples are commonly gauged by their color. . Red apples are sometimes left on trees after the seeds indi- cate maturity to allow them to put on more color which they readily do under the influence of the bright days and frosty nights. . Yellow apples are gauged by the color of the seeds. . The picking after the seeds indicate ripeness, invites water core, and shortens the life of the fruit in storage. . Apples that develop no red color are picked when full size, or begin to soften or part readily from the spurs. . Karly picking reduces the loss from wind storms and wind falls. . Picking over the tree twice. a. First, taking off such apples: that are well colored and up to size. b. Second, taking off those that have developed since first picking. . Properly developed and well colored apples stand cold stor- age better. The hand should grasp the apple cautiously with the fore- finger at the stem and by a twist of the wrist, given with an upward or downward movement, unjoints the stem from the fruit spur. Apples should not be grabbed and jerked off or shaken down nor clubbed off. Careless picking destroys many fruit spurs and injures the fruit by bruising. The fruit will not keep so well if the stems are pulled out, the skin broken, or flesh bruised. Some varieties, as Jonathan, should be picked before fully ripe to prev ent rotting at the core. b. aie for picking pears. 1. Some gather the fruit as soon as the seeds turn brown, if the ee WD shipment is any distance. . The pear should be perfectly green and hard. . The pears should be picked before they reach the stage of golden color. . Determined by separating the fruit from the stem. a. The stems should easily part from the limbs by twisting or turning the fruit from the natural position with thumb and forefinger ; or, b. Grasping the pear in the hand and turning it in an oppo- site direction from which it hangs. ~ If they part from the twig easily, they are ready to pick. : The size of the fruit is not a safe guide because young trees and old trees with light crops will produce larger frnit than old trees heavily loaded. . The proper size for a Bartlett pear is 244 inches; Comice, much larger; Winter Nellis, smaller. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 9 7. Pears should be picked before fully ripe to prevent rotting at the core, or hard woody granules forming in them. 8. The pears, when picked, should be wrapped and stored in a moderately cool, dark place to ripen; but not in piles. e. Rules for picking quinces. 1. They should be gathered when they begin to turn yellow. 2. They must be handled with great care. nid: ae for picking peaches. 1. Distant shipments—the peach must be picked while still firm, but should be fully grown and well colored. . The greenness on the lighter side should be very dim. . The peach must reach the market just as it is in condition to use. . Local market—the peach may be allowed to begin to ripen on the tree. . Early morning is a better time to pick peaches because the cooler the fruit is kept while in packing house and transit, the better condition it will be in when the destination is reached. e. Rules for picking plums. 1. Plums will bear picking when decidedly green. 2. Local market—they should be allowed to hang as long as possible except for jelly making. 3. Many ripen very nicely after being picked and keep for three or four weeks in moderately cool, dark places and come out ripe and juicy. 4. For long distance shipping, peach plums need not be colored, but there must be a light yellow spot appearing on one side or they will not color up when they ripen. f. Rules for picking cherries. 1. They are generally picked just before they ripen and the best test for ripeness is to eat a few. . They should be handled with great care. . The stems should be left on and only the stems touched with fingers. . Use an 8-pound basket in picking. . The bottom fruit in the basket should never be pressed too heavily. 6. The fruit spurs should not be pulled off. g. Rules for picking apricots. 1. See peaches. 2. For long distance shipping, apricots need not be colored, but there must be a light yellow spot appearing on one side or they will not color up when they ripen. h. Rules for picking strawberries. 1. Berries must be pink all over or three-fourths red. 2. Berries should be picked riper in cool weather than warm weather. 3. Berries should be picked with stems, breaking them off a 4. Oo - wb OF oo bo fourth to one-half inch above fruit. Berries should be picked greener for shipping, than home market. 10 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE OT . Berries must not be picked while there is moisture on the vines. 6. Pickers must not hold several berries in their hands at the same time. i. Rules for picking raspberries. 1. Red raspberries are picked as soon as they begin to soften slightly. 2. Black raspberries are picked as soon as they will part from the receptacle. 3. Raspberries are picked and put into pint boxes, which are placed in hand carriers which contain six boxes and carried direct to packing house. j. Other rules. 1. Blackberries and dewberries are usually picked when they are evenly colored. 2. Gooseberries are picked while yet quite green. 3. Currants are allowed to color but are picked before they are ripe. 3. Picking receptacles. a. Baskets. b. Galvanized buckets of 12 to 14-quart size. c. Stout wire hook. 4. Essential points in handling. a. Avoid bruising the fruit. b. Avoid breaking the skin of the fruit. ce. Avoid sudden cooling of the fruit. d. Avoid leaving fruit in piles or letting stand in the sun in the orchard: ~~ e. Secure a good storage house at temperature from 30° to 35° F. 5. Picking with stems off or on. Picked with stems on ' Picked with stems off Apples Pears Raspberries Peaches Plums ~ Quinces Blueberries Apricots Cherries Grapes Juneberries Tomatoes Currants Gooseberries Blackberries Strawberries Persimmons 6. Benefit with stems. . a. Prevents the juice escaping. b. Prevents the moistening of the packages e. Checks the decay of fruits. d. Acts as packing material. e. Aids in looks. 7. Conveniences for picking. a. Picking shears. b. Step-ladders with three legs. ce. Low wagons. 8. Managing pickers. a. Daybook system. b. Check system. ce. Punch-eard system. 9. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 11 Questions. a. How should an apple be grasped to take it from stem? b. What effect on the fruit system to jerk the fruit off? ce. Should there be more than one picking? d. What is a good picking receptacle ? e. Why is early morning the best time to pick fruit? 10. References. Ne roe As os . Fruit Harvesting, Sorting, and Marketing, by Waugh. . Fruit Growing by Bailey. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. Maryland Bulletins Nos. 144, 160, 159. Iowa Bulletin No. 114. Idaho Bulletin No. 70. Get rules from different Fruit Associations. GRADING. . The general rule is to sort each variety into two or three grades, and two sizes to each grade. . It takes more experience and better judgment for grading than picking or packing. . The sorting and packing tables should be conveniently arranged to facilitate the work. . Pickers should be required to empty the fruit carefully into apple boxes by hand, and should look for bruised and blemished fruit which should be put in piles under the shaded sides of the trees to be disposed of as soon as possible. . The fruit so assorted may then be stored in the storing house for packing. . The requirement of uniformity is the one chiefly to be considered in handling fruit. . The different grades of winter apples. a. Extra fancy. 1. Each specimen must be a well formed, fully matured apple, free from insect pests, worms, worm stings, scale, scab, sun scald, dry rot, water core, or other defects; limb rubs, skin puncture, or other evidences of rough handling will be con- sidered defects. 2. Solid red varieties. a. Like Spitzenberg, Winesap, Arkansas Black, Gano, Jona- than, Missouri Pippin, ete., must have 75 per cent red. 3. Partially red or striped varieties. a. Like Ben Davis, Delicious, Rome Beauty, Baldwin, Wag- ner, Stayman Winesap, and other varieties of similar color, must be at least 50 per cent of good color. 4. Red cheek or blush varieties. a. Like Red Cheek Pippin, Winter Banana, ete., must have a distinctly colored cheek. 5. Green or yellow varieties. a. Like Grimes Golden, Yellow Newton, White Winter Pear- main, ete., must show a good bright color. 6. No greater count than 200 will be accepted except sometimes Missouri Pippin and Winesap may be packed as small as 225. 12 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 7. Boxes lined and apples wrapped. b. ee 1. This grade shall consist of well formed, fully matured apples, free from insect pests, worms, worm stings, ‘scale, scab, sun scald, dry rot, water core, or other defects; limb rub, skin puncture, or other evidences of rough handling will be con- sidered defects. 2. Solid red varieties. . a. Same as extra fancy, must at least be 25 per cent (by some associations 33 1-3 per cent.) of good natural color. 3. Partially red or striped varieties. a. Same as extra fancy, must be at least 10 per cent (some fruit associations 20 per cent.) of good red color. 4. Red cheek varieties. a. Physical qualities must be good; no requirements as to color. 5. Green or yellow varieties. a. No requirements as to color. 6. No greater count than 175 will be accepted; except— a. Newton Pippins, Missouri Pippins and Winesaps may be packed up to 200 inclusive. . Boxes lined and apples wrapped. Grade. . All merchantable apples not included in the Extra Fancy or Fancy grades will be accepted in this grade. . Each apple to be free from worm holes, scale or other infec- tious diseases; but no mis-shapen apples or limb rub, or other like defects will be accepted. 3. No requirements as to color except a fruit must be clearly mature. 4. No count greater than 163. 8. The different grades of summer apples. a. Extra Fancy. 1. The same as Extra Fancy grade of winter apples, except color is eliminated. 2. All apples wrapped. b. Fancy. 1. The same as Fancy and C grades of winter apples. 2. Color is eliminated. 3. All apples wrapped. 9. Different grades of pears. a. Extra Fancy. 1. This grade shall consist of pears not less than 244 inches in diameter (except Winter Nellis which shall not be less than 134 inches). 2. This grade shall be free from worms, seale, all bruises and defects, mis-shapen or limb rubs. 3. Pears without stems will not be accepted. b. Fancy. 1. See Extra Fancy. 2. This grade shall be free from worms, scale and bruises, but mis-shapen, limb rubs, or other defects will be accepted. e m FEN MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 8.8) _ 8. The stems or part of the stems must be on the pears. 10. The grading of peaches. a. The excellence of the pack depends wpon uniform grading. b. No over-ripe, undersized, immature, bruised, mis-shapen, dis- eased, wormy, or defective fruit should be packed. e. Note: Over-ripe peaches may be packed for special purposes. _d. Peaches less than two inches in diameter should not be packed for shipment. 11. The grading of plums, prunes, and apricots. a. They should be free from worms, bruises, punctures, or other defects. 12. The grading of cherries. a. They should be in perfect condition; right degree of ripeness. b. There should be no stemless cherries. 13. The grading of strawberries. a. No green, over-ripe, stemless, undersized, or mis-shapen berries should be packed. b. Varieties like the Hood River or Clark’s Seedling should be pink all over and must be not less than 75 per cent red when picked. . Varieties like Nick Ohmer should be red all over. . The Glen Mary should be picked before it acquires the full red color all over, but not less than half of the berry should be well colored. . e. Grades of strawberries. 1. First or ‘‘A’’ grade. a. Berries of good size, well colored, firm and clean. b. Cups filled solidly, faced on top, no stems showing. e. Berries smaller than five across the cup should not be packed. 2. Second or ‘‘B’’ grade. a. This grade includes unpacked, unfaced, or undersized ber- ries when well colored, firm, clean, and otherwise same as first grade. 3. Third or ‘‘C’’ grade. a. This grade includes all merchantable berries excluded from the first and second grades. 14. The grading of raspberries. a. All broken, crushed or over-ripe berries should be thrown on the ground or put in a separate box for home or cannery use. b. Raspberries should be picked as soon as they will slip off the core without crumbling or mashing. e. Over-ripe berries must not be put into the cup; one over-ripe berry will cause mould in the cup; one mouldy cup will destroy - a crate; a bad erate will spoil a carload. d. The Onthbert Raspberry cannot be picked until it is all red, and should be picked before it turns dark; Antwerp Red Raspber- ries can be picked before entirely red, but do not pick them until half the berry is red and the balance pink, but do not pick with any part of the berry green. e. Pickers should use small carriers attached to the waist, and as a0 14 ihe MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE quickly as the berry is removed from the bush, it must be put in the carrier and not held in the hand. Berries will lose their strength and be crushed if held in the hand. 15. The grading of Evergreen blackberries. a. The unripe berries will turn red the day after they are picked, CAO o and are only fit for cannery purposes. Every berry should be deposited in the cup as quickly as picked. . No berry moulds as fast as the Evergreen. Every broken seedpod means a mouldy berry. . The berries must be picked directly into the cups, and not trans- ferred from one cup to another. Keep carriers and all berries out of the sun and dust. . Evergreen berries must be picked every day, or at least every other day, so as to get them off the vines at the proper time. . A ripe berry is much larger than an unripe berry and takes less to fill the cup. . They should be taken off the vines as quickly as they become sweet. . Cover the berries in the wagons to protect from sun and dust. PACKING. 1. Packing is the classification of fruits into their proper sizes and the placing of the same size solidly into boxes in such a manner as to insure uniformity of appearance, neatness, and protection from bruising. 2. Packing house. a. b. C: Composed of a packing room and store room. Center opening between the packing and the store rooms. Packing tables should be equipped with places for: 1. Cardboard which is a thin piece of pasteboard 11x17% inches, used in top and bottom, inside of the lining paper. 2. Lining paper, which is 18x26 inches. 3. Wrapping paper. a. Size of paper. 12x12 inches for 64 apples and larger. b. Size of paper 10x10 inches for 72 apples to 96 apples. c. Size of paper 9x9 inches for 100 apples to 175 apples. d. Size of paper 8x8 inches for 188 apples and smaller. 3. Boxes for packing. a. pees . Northwest Standard box. a. Size 1014x1114x18 inches inside dimensions containing 2173.5 cubic inches. 2. Thickness of lumber in boxes. a. End boards should be at least 3A inch in thickness. b. Side boards should be 3% inch in thickness. c. Side boards should be of one piece. d. Top and bottom boards should be of two nienes each 4 inch thick. 3. Two cleats each for top and bottom. 4, Lining of box. a. It takes two sheets of lining paper for each box. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 15 b. Lining the left side of the box. 1. Take a sheet of lining paper and place it over the left side of the box, letting the edge come just past the cen- ter of the bottom. 2. Place the right hand flat on the inside bottom of the box and press hard enough to make an opening between the bottom and the side. 3. Press the paper out a little way through this opening with the thumb and finger. 4. This opening will close and catch a fold in the paper when the hand is removed. e. Lining the right side of the box. 1. It is done in the same way as lining the left side, except the left hand is used instead of the right hand. 2. The edges of the lining paper should lap a little in the bottom. d. The fold is needed in the lining paper to keep it from bursting when nailing up the box, which causes a bulge in the bottom of the box. e. The layer-board is only used when the apples are very ripe and repacked in the spring. f. Always pack in clean boxes. b. Pears. 1. Size 814x1114x18 inches inside dimensions. 2. Thickness of lumber. a. The end boards should be 34 inch thick. b. The top and bottom boards should be 14 inch thick. e. The sides should be %& inch thick. c. Peaches. 1. Size 4, 444, or 5x1114x18 inches inside dimensions. 2. Thickness of lumber. a. The end boards should be 11/16 inch thick. b. The top, side and bottom boards should be 14 inch in thickness. d. Prunes. 1. Small wood-veneer boxes, each 8 inches square and 4 inches deep. 2. Size of crate 414x16x175% inches, except for extreme sizes, then increase or diminish depth of pack only. 3. Plums and apricots, same as prunes. e. Cherries. . 1. Size of crate 214x9x19%4 inches inside dimensions. 2. The box is generally divided into two equal parts. 4. Wrapping fruits. a. Apples. 1. Place the wrapping paper in the left hand so that the center of the paper is over the palm of the hand. 2. Pick up the apple with the right hand and place it into the center of the wrapping paper. _ 3. The apple should be tossed or slightly thrown into place in order to jerk up the edges of the paper, making it easier to fold around the apple. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 4. The stem of the apple should be towards the lower right- t. 8. hand corner of the paper. . Grasp the loose edges of the paper next to the packer with the right hand, turning it to the right enough to fold the paper over the ‘apple. . With the fingers of the left hand fold the loose parts of the paper farthest from the packer, giving a slight twist toward the left. Each apple must be completely covered with paper drawn down smoothly. The apple is ready to put into the box when properly wrapped. b. Pears. 18 2. 3. 5. 6. Place the paper diagonally in the left hand. Pick up the pear with the right hand and slightly throw it into center of paper with stem from the packer. The right hand gathers the lower corners up over the fruit and at the same time giving it a twist which wraps the re- mainder of the paper around the neck forming a cone-shaped package. . Show method. a. Place the pear in the corner of the paper nearest to packer. b. Grasp the corner and pear with the fingers of the right hand, giving the pear a twist to the right. e. This forms a perfect cone. The bottom of the paper is folded under the fruit. Use the proper size paper for the size fruit. ec. Peaches. ib 5. size See apples. of fruits. a. Apples. ik ta The sizes are classified into what are called tiers. The size of the apple is determined by its diameter from cheek to cheek at the widest point, never from stem to blos- som end. . Grouped by tiers. a. 3 -tier means the sizes from 36 to 56 inclusive. b. 314-tier means the sizes from 64 to 88 inclusive. ec. 4 -tier means the sizes from 96 to 125 inclusive. d. 444-tier means the sizes from 138 to 175 inclusive. e. 5 -tier means the sizes from 188 to 225 inclusive. b. Pears. in Grouped by tiers. a. 4-tlier means the sizes from 40 to 120 inclusive. b. 5-tier means the sizes from 120 to 245 inclusive. ce. Peaches. 1. Sizes in packs from 40 to 96 inclusive. 6. Placing fruit in boxes. a. Apples. a. General Rule: Without moving the apple from the left hand after it is properly wrapped, place it in the box, stem toward 3. 4. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 17 the end of the box next to the packer, laying the apples on the fold of paper and on its cheek. . Remember that all apples in the same box should be of the same size and packed in the same manner. Never turn the stem of one apple to the cheek of another apple. Very flat apples may be tilted to keep the pack from coming too high at the ends. . Pears. ie 2. 3. Begin each pack by placing the blossom end of the pear against the end of the box next to the packer. Place the pears in the second row into the spaces in the first row, with stem ends toward the packer. This will throw the blossom end of the pears to the ends of the boxes. : Peaches. lp 2. 3. 4. See apples. Packed with stem ends down in both layers. The peaches should be pressed together tightly enough to give a slight bulge to the sides of the box. Place the larger peaches nearer the center of the box to give a slight bulge to top and bottom. . Prunes. i: 2. 3. 4. The way in which the prunes are packed depends on the size. The prunes are best packed with the diagonal pack when they are large enough. The prunes should fill the box and stand high enough to touch the lid. Plums and apricots are similar to the prunes. . Cherries. a 2 3. 4 The cherries are packed double-faced in bottom of box; then the box filled. . No stems should be shown on top; no stemless cherries should be packed. Cherries should be packed with flat or creased side against the boards. . Make neat square packs. . Nail on top and turn the box over and mark the packed side as top. 5 . Strawberries. a The packers should empty the boxes brought in by the pick- ers and refill them snugly, but without bruising the berries, so that there will be no settling to destroy the appearance of the pack. . The top of the box should be faced with 16, 20 or 25 berries, — all of uniform size and color. . The boxes should be filled so that the top layer will show three-eighths of an inch above the top of the box. . However, care must be exercised so that berries do not ex- tend over the edge of the box, or they will be cut when the cover is nailed on the crate causing discoloration of boxes and hastening decay of berries. 18 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 5. Berries brought from the field should be emptied on screens in order to allow the sand and dust to fall away from the fruit. . g. Raspberries. 1. See picking. h. Blackberries. 1. See picking. 7. Diagonal packs. a. Apples. 1. The apples are so placed that the rows will not run in a straight line from side to side across the bottom of the box. 2. Name of diagonal packs. a. Two-one pack which is a three layer pack. 1. The way to start a two-one pack. Bonlsecls = F/ 7S. GE TZO Fig. 8.—Shows how to start a two-one pack, a. Place an apple in each corner of the box next to packer, as 1 and 2 of cut No. 1. b. Place an apple in the pocket formed by 1 and 2; as, 3 of cut No. 1. e. Continue to place apples in the pockets thus formed until the first layer is completed. d. Make all the pockets even. 2. Placing the second layer. a. The first apple of the second layer is placed in the pocket formed by 1, 2 and 3 of cut No. 1. b. Continue to place apples of the second layer in the pockets of the first layer, until completed. 3. Placing the third layer. a. The third layer is laid like the first layer. 4. 3-tier counts of the two-one pack. a. Tabulated. No. in Box No. in Rows No.of Layers No. of Cut Remarks 4y 5-4 3 | 2 | Large apples. A5 De) 3 | 3 | Large apples. 50 6-5 3 | 4 | Very flat apples. +54 | 6-6 | 3 | 5 | Very flat apples. 5. When the apples are small enough to make a straight row across the end of the box, they are packed into a two-two pack. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 19 “_-b, Two-two pack which is a four-layer pack. 1. The way to start atwo-two pack. a. Place an apple in the right- hand corner of C O box, as 1 of cut 2 G No. 6. () () b. Place second (6) 'G we " apple midway ) ( e between the @ first apple and AY a C) side of the box, So= EE z= 56 as 2 of cut No. Fig. 9.—Shows how to start a two-two 6 pack. ce. Place two apples in the two pockets formed by the first two apples, as 3 and 4, of cut No. 6. d. Place the next two apples; as 5 and 6 of cut No. 6. e. Continue as 7, 8, 9, 10 until first layer is completed. 2. Placing the second layer. a. Place first apple in the left-hand corner between 2 and 4 of cut No. 6. b. Place second apple in the pocket of 1, 2 and 3 of cut No. 6. ec. Place the second layer on the first layer and show how the apples of the _ sec- ond layer fit in the pock- ets of the first layer. Fig. 10, Two-two Fig. 11, Two-two 3. Place the third pack, 88. pack, 96. layer onthe | second and the fourth layer on the third layer, ex- plain. a. If the first layer is started in the right-hand corner, the second layer would be started in the left-hand corner. 4. The first and third layers; second and fourth layers of a two-two pack are the same—Figures 10 and 11. 5. 3-tier counts of the two-two pack. _ a. Tabulated. No. in Box No. in Rows No. of Layers No of Cut Remarks 48 ; a 4 | 7 | Long apples. 56 4-3 4 8 | Medium long apples. 6. 314-tier counts of the two-two pack. 24 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE So = 6F Fig. 12.—Shows the 3%-tier counts of the two-two pack. a. Tabulated. No. in Box No. in Rows No. of Layers No, of Cut Remarks 64 4-4 9 12 5-4 | 10 | 80 5-5 11 88 6-5 Ae oe a 7. 4-tier counts of the two-two pack. a O| Bem 35 =7T2 Fig. 13.—Shows 4-tier counts of the two-two pack. a. Tabulated. No. in Box No. in Rows No.of Layers No. of Cut Remarks 96 | 6-6 | 4 | 13 | . 104 7-6 + 14 Flat apples. 112 | ei | 4 | 15 | Very flat apples. 120 Seth aa 4 | 16 Very fiat apples. 8. When the apples are small enough to make a straight row across the end of the box, they are packed into a three-two pack. c. Three-two pack which is a five layer pack. 1. The way to start a three-two pack. a. Place an ap- ple in each corner of the box next . to the pack- er, as 1 and 2 of cut No. ie b. Place an ap- ple im the center be- Fig. 14.—Shows how to start a three-two pack, MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 21 Na fREN OG ds tween the first two, as 3 of cut No. 17. e. Continue to place the apples, as 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, of cut No. 17 until - the first layer is completed. 2. Placing of the second layer, Fig. 15. a. The first apple is placed in pock- et formed by 1, 3 and 4 of cut Nowe b., Thetisecondsapplenisiplaced in. iris 45) «tHres-two pocket formed by 2,3 and 5 of pack, 188. cubi(No. aie) ce. Continue placing the apples of second layer in the pockets of the first layer until completed. 3. The third layer is placed like the first layer; the fourth like the second; the fifth like the first layer. 4. 4-tier counts of the three-two pack. a. Tabulated. 7 eeearth Layers No. in Box No. in Rows No.of Layers No. of Cut Remarks 113 5-4 dD 18 125 5-5 5 ng 5. 444-tier counts of the three-two pack. oa Fig. 16.—Shows the 4%-tier counts of the three-two pack. a. Tabulated. No. in Box No.in Rows No. of Layers Noa. of Cut Remarks 138 6-5 3) 20 150 6-6 | qe t| 21 | 163 7-6 5 | 22 175 7-7 5 | 23 Packed also in 5-tier 7. The 5-tier counts of the three-two pack. Fig. 17.—Shows the 5-tier counts of three-two pack. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE a. Tabulated. No. in Box No.in Rows’ No. of Layers No. of Cut Remarks 188 8-7 5) 24 Wid 200 8-8 5 | 25 Very flat apples 213 9-8 5 26 Very flat apples 225 | 9-9 | 5 | 27 Very flat apples 9. When the apples are small enough to make a straight row across the end of the box, they are packed into a three-three pack. d. Three-three pack which is a six layer pack. 1. The way to start a three-three pack. a. ‘Places 2 aiite first apple in ihe sigh hand corner of the box next to the packer; as 1 of cut No. 28. b. Place the 1/3 ae me ie 18.—Shows how to start a three-three pack. remaining distance; as 2 of cut No. 28. . Place the third apple 1% of the remaining distance; as 3 of cut No. 28. d. Place the three apples in the pockets formed in the first row; as 4, 5, 6 of cut No. 28. : e. Continue in the same manner until the first layer is completed. 2. Place the apples of the second layer in the pockets of the first layer. 3. If the first layer begins in the right-hand corner, the second layer should begin in the left-hand corner, ete. ie) 4, 5-tier counts of the three-three pack. a. Tabulated. No. in Box No. in Rows No. of Layers No. of Cut Remarks 198 | 65 6 | 29 | Long apples. 216) Cees eee tees One| 5. Very rare diagonal pack. Name of No. in Box No.in Rows No. of Layers Pack Remarks 36 | 4-4 3 [eae Very large apples. 100 4-4 5 eee Very long apples. b. Pears. 1. Names of diagonal packs. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 23 * a. Three-two pack which is a four layer pack and ealled 4 . tier pack. 1. See apple. . Place the pears oe 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Fig. 19.—Shows the way to start a three- 6, 7, oe ae pO roc oO three-three pack (b); four- A in Fig 19. : ; 3. Place blossom end siaon Nl we and 3 against end of.box. 4. Reverse the pears by plac- ing the stem ends toward - the packer. 5. Placing the second layer. e a. Place it h € ; a pears of sec- \ oO \ Veeey, ond layer in MA NA the pockets \) \ of the first ) WW, CN WA XO) Weta Vile ] SOMA PA bo layer. b. Place blos- som ends of the first row of second layer to end Fig. 20.—Shows the 4-tier counts of the of box then three-two pack. reverse and place stem ends toward the packer. 6. The third layer is laid like the first ; fourth layer is laid like the second. 7. 4-tier counts of the three-two pack. a. Tabulate. No. in Box No.in Rows No.of Layers No. of Cut Remarks 70 4.3 + 1 | 80 4.4 4. 2 90 5-4 Ar fal Br itlags| 100 AEDS | 4 ANS ed 110 PeGbeae ie Spoeaie 120 Geb ts 4 Bee 8. When the pears are small enough to make a straight row across the end of the box, they are packed into a three-three pack. 24 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE b. Three-three pack which is a 5 layer pack and called 5-tier pack. 1. Place the pears as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 of cut B in Fig. 18. 2. Place other layers. a. See 3-2 pack. 3. 4-tier counts of the three-three pack. Fig. 21.—Shows the 5-tier counts of the three-three pack. a. Tabulate. 120 44 5 Aeetin| 135 5-4 5 Biknesl 150 5-5 5 9 | 165 6-5 5 10 180 6-6 5 nae 5. When the pears are small enough to make a straight row across the end of the box, they are packed into the four-three pack and called a five-tier pack. ce. Four-three pack which is a five layer pack. 1. Place the pears as 1, 2, 3, ete., of cut C in Fig. 19. 2. Place other layers. a. See 3-2 pack. , 3. 5-tier counts of the four-three pack. Fig, 22.—Shows the counts of the four-three pack. a. Tabulated. No. in Box No. in Rows No. of Layers No. of Cut Remarks - 193 12 210 6-6 5 eee 228 7-6 5 14 pee ee Name of MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 25 ce. Peach. 1. Diagonal pack of peaches. a. There are only two layers in a box of peaches. b. Peaches less than two inches should not be packed. e. Pack the stem ends down in both layers. d. The Elbertas should not be less than 214 inches in diam- eter. e. The peaches in a box should not vary more than one-eighth of an inch in diameter. f. All grades must be carefully wrapped in suitable paper. g. Three-two pack which is a two-layer pack. 1. Pack peaches between 214 and 3 inches in diameter in this pack, in 414-inch boxes. 2. Start the three-two pack of peaches the same as a three- two pack of apples. 3. Place the peaches in second layer in the Bpaeee between the peaches in the first layer. 4. The counts of the three-two pack. a. Tabulated. ~ No. in Box No. in Rows No.of Layers Remarks 40 44 | | 45 5-4 50 5-5 5d 6-5 60 6-6 65 7-6 70 7-7 75 8-7 1. Three-three pack which is a two layer pack. 1. Pack peaches between 2 and 2% inches in diameter in this pack, in 4-inch and 414-inch boxes. 2. Start the three-three pack of peaches, the same as a three-three pack of apples. 3. Place the peaches in second layer in the spaces between the peaches in the first layer. 4. The counts of the three-three pack. a. Tabulated. DS DS DS DD Db bh No. in Box No. in Rows No. of Layers Remarks 78 7-6 Cae 84 7-7 2 90 8-7 2 96 8-8 os ae d. Prunes, plums and apricots. 1. Tabulated. Pack No. in Rows No. of Layers Remarks Bo 3-4 ES) | Diagonal pack. 3-2 penoee 2 | Diagonal pack. 4-4. 2 or 3 | Square pack. 5-5 3 | Square pack. 5-6 3 | Square pack. 6-6 3 | Square pack. 26 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . 9-row, 10-row, 1l-row, 12-row, solid pack. They are packed in a square pack. They are packed double-face in the bottom of the box. . The flat or creased side of the cherry rests against the boards. . Then the cherries are poured into the remaining space. . After the top is nailed on, the pack is turned over and marked. 8. Making the bulge. a. Apple. LO bulge is best obtained by packing the apples a little 3, closer in the center of the box than at the ends. . When the apples are packed closer in the center than the ends, the pockets between the center apples are smaller and the apples of the second layer will not go so deep in the pock- ets of the first layer and the center is built up higher. . When the ends are left a little more loose than the center, the apples of the second layer drop further into the pockets of the first layer and do not build up so high. i Alternating the laying of apples at the end. a. It is necessary when apples are very flat, like the Wagner. b. One or two apples at ends of each layer are placed flat. _ e. The stem or blossom ends are turned to the top or bottom of the box. d. It is easy to determine what apples are to be turned when the first layer is almost completed. e. If it is a four layer pack, turn the apples on layers Nos. 1 and 3 on end of layer farthest from packer, and on Nos. 2 and 4 on end nearest the packer. f. By alternating, the ends are kept lower, no space left, nicer and closer pack, less liable to bruise the cheeks of end fruit when cover is put on. . The packer will soon learn by practice how tight to pack the center and how loose to pack the ends. . When the box is finished the end apples should be very little above the head of the box, and the center apples should be 114 to 2 inches higher than the end apples. . This will give from 1% to 34-inch bulge on both top and bot- tom, when nailed. . Do not select large apples for the center as they will make larger pockets and the next layer will drop down deeper and nothing is gained toward making the bulge. The slight degree irregular apples should be packed at the ends in order to keep the apples low at the end. b. Pear. ie 2 3. 4 The center pears should be from 2U2 to 3 inches higher than the end pears. . Pears packed green will have a big shrinkage which would cause the pears in a flat pack to loosen. Do not pack the first layer too tight, if you do you a are sure to make too big a bulge. . The end pears should be pressed in toward the center of the box in order to keep the center higher than the ends. @ MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 27 a Selection. a. An attractive box is one made up of fruit of the same size for each box. : b. A fruit of the right size for the box will go in one place Just as well as another. e. The proper alignment and uniformity is based on nearly the . same size fruit for the box. d. See grading. 10. Marking boxes. a. When packed, the number of fruit, the grade and the variety should be stamped on the end of the box. b. The grower’s name and address are required to be placed on the box. e. A neat label adds to the appearance of the package. 11. Nailing press. a. The best nailing press is one which presses only on the ends of the lid and holds the cleats and top firmly in place until nailed. b. There should be theese on the press for nails, cleats, tops and rubber stamps. e. After the boxes are nailed up, they should always be laid on the sides, as the sides are straight and the fruit is not bruised. 12. References. a. See picking. THE RESPIRATION OF APPLES. 1. All living cells, whether a part of animal matter or vegetable matter, must have oxygen to keep them alive and they give up carbon dioxide and water as a result of the action of the oxygen on some of their contents. 2. Parts of plants when cut. off from the main stem do not die at once, and must continue to breathe. 3. This is true, whether the severed part is a leafy branch, a fruit, or a root; but some parts live much longer after removal than others, and the apple continues to breathe for many weeks after it has been picked from the tree. 4, The chief products of respiration are the same in plants as in ani- mals, namely, carbon dioxide (commonly called carbonic acid) and water. 5. Respiration, whether in animals or in plants, causes a destruction of matter in the cells much like the destruction of wood in a stove, and the rate at which this destruction goes on can be meas- ured by determining the amount of carbonic acid that is breathed out in a given length of time. 6. In animals, under usual conditions, the food which they eat makes good the losses produced by respiration. 7. An animal, however, may live without food for some time, during which period it still breathes in oxygen and breathes out carbon dioxide and water, but it steadily loses weight and grows thin in flesh because there is a steady destruction of cell material with no food to replace it. 8. Fruit, after having been picked from the tree, is in the condition of the starving animal. 28 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . Its cells still keep up respiration with nothing in the way of food to make good the losses produced by the action. . Apples and other fruits have no body heat to maintain, the breathing process is not so active as in animals, and they may last months after being picked from the tree. . There is a steady, continuous, loss in weight, although the fruit is sound and firm. . Faney apples intended for long keeping in cold storage should be cooled as soon as possible and kept cold. . The breathing process is at the expense of cell contents and must weaken the keeping qualities as it goes on. . This destructive action is from four to six times as fast out of cold storage as inside it. . The respiration is not stopped in cold storage, but simply slowed. . Apples cannot be kept indefinitely, but keep about twice as long in cold storage as in a cool cellar. Exercise 1. 1. Object: To show the respiration of apples. 2. Method: a. Place one or more apples in a jar and cover it tightly. b. In a few hours a dewy film will cover the inner surface of the jar, that in time will collect into drops which will trickle to the bottom. ce. On opening the jar, a little clear lime water may be poured into it, without touching the fruit. d. The lime water will be seen to turn milky. . Just as it will if an animal’s breath is forced through it. a’) Exercise 2. 1. Object: To show that apples take up oxygen from the air. 2. Method: a. In a large basin partially filled with water set a small sup- port on which is placed an apple and a small open dish con- taining a solution of caustic soda or potash. b. The apple should not touch the water or the caustic solution. . Cover the support and its contents by a large bell glass or wide jar with its mouth wholly in the water. d. Now as the apple breathes in the oxygen in the air, and breathes out carbonic acid gas, the latter will be absorbed by the caustic solution, while the water will rise in the jar to fill the space made vacant by the removal of the oxygen. e. Finally the water will fill about one-fifth of the air space originally present, and remain stationary because the oxy- gen is all used. STORAGE OF FRUIT. io) 1. Requirements. a. Quality of fruit. 1. It does not pay to store anything but first grade fruit. 2. Shrinkage and loss are not checked but retarded in storage. b. Handling of fruit. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 29 1. Careful picking, sorting and packing. 2. Subsequent handling after storing. 3. Wrapping in paper serves to reduce the bruising from poor packing and in transportation. 2. Delaying storage. a. Causes deterioration of large quantities of fruit. b. Extent of the loss depends on: 1. Temperature during delay. 2. Whether put in piles in orchard or in tight building where the warm air can pass off readily. 3. Fungus diseases readily start while fruit is warm and can not be checked when put in cold storage. ce. Any treatment that checks the ripening after picking prolongs the marketing period. 3. Problems of storage. a. The ability to hold part of the crop until the perishable surplus has been disposed of, means higher prices, easier sales, and bet- ter accommodations. b. Storage system will check over-stocking the market. . The economical problem is not to secure high prices for small quantity, but an average price for large quantity. d. Essential points. 1. What varieties are best suited for storage? 2. What conditions must be provided to secure the best and most economical management of stored fruit? 3. Some varieties in storage vary in behavior, scalding, shrink- 4 a ing, losing flavor, becoming dull colored and unattractive. . Other varieties come out of storage smooth, bright, fra- grant and crisp. 5. Early ripening varieties are held one or two degrees higher, but may be held at lower temperature for longer time, but decay very rapidly when taken from storage. 4. Handling the fruit in storage. . Placing on shelves. . Placing in shallow bins. . Amount put in room at one time. . Method now used is to store fruit in packages. . The amount of fresh, warm fruit put into a storage room at once should not be excessive . It is better to fill a room slowly and allow time for each lot to cool. 5. Temperature. a. Temperature varies from 32° to 34° F. for apples. b. Long keeping varieties that go down slowly are held at a lower temperature than 32° F. ce. Early ripening varieties that go down quickly are held one or two degrees higher. d. Some fruit cannot be held as low as 32° since fe freezes at a higher temperature. e. Very large fruit does not keep as well as smaller fruit of the same variety. TnoOocms FR 30 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE f. Approximate temperature: Name. Summer Winter | General Apples: emer 8 36-42 | 32-35 OP \ ea Deane... | Bein 33:39 Peachesetaeuvesis. 0... i ee 2 a 36-38 Plumse even LL ety 5 eG OA ee 2 36-42 Chenniese tee joc) 23): 6. | Acie mete cee)! Oe | 38-40 Grapesiiae ee a. So RR | CNS 32-36 Sivdherriest oo...) PE. be | 36-44 POlahOeS Mae ws .; 0s oe ne. 36-40 Oriionse Bape he | Raeteeimeeneee Js. ae Bit | 34-38 Cabioemaew es... ay oc... Sei (oa | 34-36 Mrrnmpsmiee Oo . T | a peeiememare ts 2) Pe ae | 34-40 6. Influence of cold storage on the decay of apples. a. Chemical changes in apples during storage. 1 6. The apple is a living organism when picked from the tree and remains so after picking for days, weeks, and even months, under favorable. conditions. . This life is maintained at the expense of its own constitu- ents, and the apple is really undergoing a slow form of disso- lution until decay attacks and destroys it, leaving only the fibrous portions of its structure and the seeds. . The process of dissolution is a continuous one, and is mani- fested by the respiratory action, during which water and ecar- bon dioxide are exhaled. . At the same time there are transformation and destruction of the constituents of the fruit, in order to produce these pro- ducts of respiration. . These changes have been shown to be mainly a transforma- tion of starch into sugar cane in the first stage after picking, next change of the cane sugar into invert sugar, and finally a slow decrease in the total quantity of sugars. At the same time, the acid in the fruit gradually grows less in amount, there being most in the unripe fruit. b. Storage in cellars. 1) One of the chief sources of trouble arises from an imperfect understanding of the principles involved in keeping fruit and in the management of the cellar. . The prevalent notion was that the cellar is for the purpose of keeping cold air out and to protect the contents of the cellar against freezing. : The conditions are to keep cold air in, and by careful atten- tion to the ventilation during cool weather and of nights to cool the interior of the cellar and its contents and maintain as far as possible a uniformity in the inside temperature. . This uniformity has more to do with keeping apples success- fully than the actual temperature itself. . Once chilled, any subsequent rise in temperature causes the fruit to sweat from the deposit of moisture from the air on the cool surface of the fruit, hence a rise in temperature is more to be guarded against than the contrarv- 13. 14. 15. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 31 In ordinary storage it is almost impossible to maintain wholly uniform temperature, the thing then to do is to avoid sudden changes. . A cool air, free from excessive dampness, uniform temper- ature, and darkness, are the conditions favorable to the keeping of fruit in ordinary storage. . A well insulated door and a well insulated vestibule entrance to the cellar make it much easier to prevent sudden changes and contributes to prolong the period through which fruit may be kept in sound condition. . It is desirable also to enter the cellar as little as possible except when the outside temperature is lower than the within. . Apples which are allowed to mellow on the tree or after they are gathered, have their life period greatly shortened. . The ideal stage is when the fruit is full grown, but some days before it would begin to show signs of mellowness. . Other points to be observed formerly are the selections of late maturing, good keeping varieties, and gathering the fruit in cold weather or late in the day when it can stand open all night to become chilled before going into the cellar. The location of the cellar on a slope or hillside to the north, with openings up and down the hill, favors thorough ventila- tion during the cool nights. By opening the cellar early in the night in cold weather and closing the doors before sunrise, the cellar is cooled and the cool air is kept caged in. The essential idea is in keeping the cool air in rather than _ keeping out the warm air, or protection against freezing and 16. maintaining as equable temperature as possible by careful attention to ventilation. Fruit does not keep in cold storage satisfactorily unless it is carefully and properly handled by the grower before send- ing it to the storage room. e. Systems of storage. i. 2. Mechanical refrigeration. a. The expense of installing and maintaining a plant places mechanical refrigeration out of reach of the fruit grower and makes it a business by itself. b. The mechanical refrigeration furnishes the ideal cold storage, gives the best control of temperature and results. c. The mechanical refrigeration is cooled by machinery and costs less when large quantities are handled. d. Fruit grower can rent space in mechanical refrigeration at less expense than to have a plant. e. What the grower cares to know is ‘‘Is this method of storage successful?’’ and ‘‘ What does it cost?’ Ice refrigeration. a. The use of ice for cooling a fruit storage room is often practicable on farms. b. The difficulty is that the ice has to be carried all summer as it is needed in late fall. : 32 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE ce. The usual method is to build an ice refrigeration plant. 1. Place the ice above the storage room. 2. The cool air should flow from the ice room into the fruit room and the warm air carried off through flues or shafts. 3 The cool air is best allowed to flow down at the sides of the building behind guides, which bring it near to the floor, in which case the warm air exit is placed in the center of the room and opens near the ceiling. 4. The compartments consist of a refrigerator room, a cooling room, and a small entrance room. 5. The floor should be laid tight, and provided with good drainage. 6. Another method is to arrange around the sides of the storage room a series of vertical pipes, which are set in wooden troughs and terminate in a board trough in the ice chamber above. 3. Cooling by ventilation. «.. The most economical method of storage for the farm use and for ordinary fruit growers is one that depends on ventilation for the regulation of the temperature. b. The requirements. 1. Thorough insulation against outside changes of temper- ature. 2. Adequate ventilation. 3. Careful and constant attention when fruit is put in and before. 4. Protection from frost. 5. Air moist enough to prevent evaporation. 4. Building a storage house. a. Use 2x4 studdings. b. ‘The outside wall. 1. Layer of 1-inch board. 2. Layer of building paper. 3. Finished with well matched siding. ve. The inside wall. 1. Layer of 1-inch board. 2. Two layers of building paper. 3. Layer of well matched ceiling. 4. Heavily painted. d. The ventilating system consists of an intake for cold air and an outlet for warm air. e. The intake should be beneath the floor and the cold air brought up through the registers. _ The warm air exit must be placed in the upper part of the room. ear) g. Study plans of a good storage house. h. Make a drawing of a good storage house. i. Make out the specifications of a good storage house. j. Figure out the cost of a good storage house. 7. Questions. 9. What effect have soils on the color and ripening of fruits? MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 33 b. What effect has dry weather on keeping? e. What effect has wet weather on keeping? d. What kind of fruit should be stored? e. What influence has color on the keeping of fruit? FRUIT MARKET. . It is important that the fruit market and its requirements are known by those who expect to grow fruit for sale. . If one knows where the fruit is going and what is to be expected, better preparation can be made to meet the needs of the consumer. . Two markets. a. First—the wholesale, general or indirect market. b. Second—the retail, special or direct market. e. Quantity. 1. The first handles fruit in large quantities. 2. The second handles fruit in small quantities. d. Market problems. 1. Growing fruit. a. The proper kind and quality must be the first requisite. b. The grower must know how to grow the best quality of fruit. e. The grower must know when to harvest the different crops of fruit, in order to put them on the market in the best condition. d. The grower must know how to grow the crops at the least expense. 2. Preparing the fruit for market. a. See picking, grading, packing and storage. b. The grower must know how to prepare different kinds of fruit for market in order to bring the best prices. 3. Transportation. a. No other one condition has more to do to determine the _ kind of fruit, localization and profit, than transportation. b. Facilities and rates are of great importance. 4. Different ways of selling. a. Individual market. 1. Each grower may look up his market some weeks in ad- vance of the market season. 2. The grower may definitely arrange with the different local dealers to sell a certain amount of fruit, then the dealers can inform their customers and find a sale for the given amount. 3. Individual markets are an annual enterprise which must be renewed each year. b. Commission men. 1. Explain how commission men handle fruit for the grower. 2. The grower must produce first-class fruits uniformly and honestly graded and packed and delivered to the commission men in sound and attractive condition. 3. The commission man should find the best market and _ make honest returns to the grower. 34 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . Suggestive points. a. Stick to one man. b. Ship the same varieties. e. Grade and pack with the most rigid honesty. d. Follow the advice of the commission man in prepar- ing fruit for market. e. The relation between the fruit grower and commission man has created two ways of retreat for the fruit grower. ue 2. Individual markets. Co-operative markets or associations. d. Favorable points for an association. SO oe . Transportation. . Better and more uniform grading and packing. . Command of markets. . Restriction of outputs. . Better distribution of the fruit. . Special salesmen to handle the fruit. . Economy. a. Better storage for fruit. b. Better and cheaper labor. e. Selling supplies to growers. e. Unfavorable points for associations. ils 2. 3. Distrust of the grower. Grower wants to pay low wages to managers. Irregularity in grading the different grower’s fruit. — f. Conditions affecting market supply. OonNDoBRc;hr . Production; whether over-production or shortage. . Transportation facilities. . Information concerning markets. . Perishability of the fruit. . Storage equalizes the supply. . Quantity determines the sale. . Acquaintance of the quality of fruit. . Price depends on the supply and demand. . Demands for certain fruit out of season. 10. Supply of other fruits. 4, References. 2 ro Boop Fruit Growing, by Bailey. . Fruit Harvesting, Storing and Marketing, by Waugh. Fruit Growing, by Paddock and Whipple. . lowa Bulletin No. 108. Arkansas Circular No. 13. N. H. Bulletin No. 93. . N. Y. Bulletins Nos. 248, 297. GEOGRAPHY OF FRUIT GROWING. 1. Relief form. Location. a. Low lands. ce. Water. Plans: 1. Oceans. 2. Valleys. 2. Lakes. b. High lands. 3. Rivers. 1. Plateaus. 2. Mountains. 2. Hy co DD A € MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE Fruit. zones. a. Temperature—typified by Pome fruit. b. Semi-tropical—typified by citrous fruit. e. Tropical—typified by tropical fruit. d. Draw a map and locate each zone. e. Relative annual temperature. 1. Depends on latitude, altitude, and bodies of water. . Climate. a. Modification. . Distribution of land and water. . Elevation. Slopes. . Mountains. Nature of surface. Prevailing winds. . Bodies of water. . Latitude. . Moisture. a. Isotherms—lines of equal temperature. b. Isohyetoses—lines of equal rainfall. 1. Pacific coast zone. 2. Atlantic coast zone. 3. Plain zone. 4, Arid zone. 10. Winds and air currents. a. Name of wind zones. b. Breezes. 1. Land and sea breezes. 2. Canyon breezes. e. Mountain winds. > d. Local winds. e. Study local air drainage. CAD OBR co dO . Accessibility. a. Railroads. b. Communication. ce. Transportation. d. Wagon roads. e. Markets. 1. Facilities. 2. Consumption. SITES. . The site should be elevated above its immediate surroundings. . An elevated site will afford better soil drainage. . An elevated site will afford better air drainage. . Slopes. ‘a. The most intelligent and experienced orchardists differ as to the best location and exposure of an orchard, some preferring a northern slope, others an eastern slope. b. It is believed that the advantages preponderate in favor of a gentle eastern or northeastern slope, as orchards located on such 35 a site suffer less from the effects of heat, drought, and poor soil. | 36 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE e. An orchard with such an exposure will maintain its vigor and longevity better than if inclined to the west or southwest. d. All farms do not afford these most favorable sites, especially near the home, which is the most desirable location for the fam- ily orchard. e. The planter will often be forced to forego such a location and take his chances where the natural conditions are not so favor- able. . A free circulation of air will be a great aid in guarding against late spring frosts, so fatal to young fruit at the blooming season. . References: a. Fruit Growing by Bailey. b. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. ce. Farm and Garden Rule-Book, by Bailey. d. Popular Fruit Growing by Green. KIND OF SOILS. . Loamy soil. a. A loamy soil is naturally rich in plant food; hence it will need little, if any, manuring in its preparation. b. It should be deeply stirred and thoroughly broken up by sub- soiling. e. This loamy soil is what may be termed free soil, as it seldom becomes compacted, even by abusive treatment. . Clay soil. a. A clay soil is the most difficult to prepare, and often requires manuring, as well as thorough plowing, re-plowing and subsoil- ing. b. It should also be frequently stirred during the summer months and especially as soon after each rainfall as is practicable, to prevent it from baking and becoming compacted. c. This becomes even more important in seasons of long droughts. . Sandy soils. a. Sandy soils.are generally lacking in the necessary plant food. b. They also have the objection of losing such fertilizers as may be added by the several crops. . Effects of several soils. a. The wood growth on loamy soils will be strong and vigorous, but may not be sufficiently mature to withstand the freezing of the more vigorous winters. b. Clay lands not apt to produce such vigorous growth, and orch- ard trees on such lands will be hardier as to winter-killing than on most other soils. ec. With a free subsoil underlying it, a loamy clay soil will prob- ably yield the best results, especially if it be well prepared by thorough cultivation and subsoiling before the trees are planted. d. Timber lands, or lands on which forests have grown, if having the proper exposure and drainage, are good orchard sites. e. Such lands contain all the elements of plant food necessary to insure a good and sufficient wood growth and fruitfulness. f. Sandy soil is well adapted for fruit if it can be irrigated or is located where the water-table is within the reach of the roots of the trees. ket MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE THE TILLING OF FRUIT LANDS. . Object. a. To improve the physical texture of the soil. b. To conserve the moisture of the soil. e. To give light, air and soil to plants by destroying the weeds. d. To protect from drought by keeping the top soil loose. 1. To prevent evaporation. 2. To increase capillary attraction. 3. To hold moisture from subsoil near the surface. e. To set plant food free. 1. Unlock the organic and inorganic elements. . Kind of tools. a. Name and describe the different tools. b. Use of the various tools. e. Cultivators and rollers. . Mulching. a. Kind. ce. Conservation of moisture. b. Protect the trees or plants. d. May harbor insects. . Preparation. a. The principal requirement in preparing land for planting an orchard is deep tillage, and the more thoroughly this work is done the more certain is the success. b. The preparation had best be done late in the fall, so that the land will be ready for early spring planting or for fall planting. ce. Many successful orchardists, especially in the Western States, plow the ground in “‘lands’’ so as to make an open furrow where each row of trees is to be set, and then after the trees are planted back-furrow the ground so as to make lands with tree rows in the center. . Suggestions for tilling fruit lands. a. Begin to till when the orch- ; ard is planted and keep it up. b. Begin tillage early in the season because of the hia growth of the trees early in ina the season. ; e. Tillage should generally be stopped by August 15th. d. Keep the land in a uniform fine tilth. e. If the tree growth is too rapid, tilling should be stopped. f. It is from capillary water that agricultural plants, for the most. part, obtain the water necessary for their growth. g. There should be no large spaces since these cause the soil to dry out readily and ticles. (Goff and Maynes.) 3 Fig. 283.—Shows spaces between par- 38 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE prevent the development of the many fine branching rootlets necessary to the best development of th plants. . Mechanical condition of the soil must be porous but not loose; firm, but not hard or consolidated; close-grained, but not run together nor adhesive. . Pulverizing breaks the soil into granules which are free to move under capillary force and yet it does not exclude the air, nor interfere with any of the vital, chemical or physical processes in the soil, but is conducive to them. 6. Effect of tillage. a. pw. 0g rh © ao,0 oO ap Fining the soil and presenting greater feeding surface to the roots. . The roots will have a greater foraging and holding area. . The soil is made warmer and dryer in the spring. . The temperature and moisture are more uniform. Checks evaporation. . Increases the water-holding capacity. Promotes chemical action and nitrification. . Hastening decomposition of organic matter. . The soil should be brought into the desirable condition already described, so that there will be a deep, mellow, but firm seed and root bed to absorb and store the rainfall and to prepare plant food. Plowing is the most important of the operations in preparing the seed bed. 7. References. a. See references under sites. DRAINAGE. 1. All orchard lands should be thoroughly surface-drained and under- drained. roots strike downward. (Principles of Agriculture, by Bailey.) 2. No orchard can endure for a great length of time with stagnant water either on the surface or within the soil. 3. All surplus water from excessive rainfall or from other causes should be promptly removed by either surface or sub-drainage. 4. If the natural formation of the land does not afford such prompt drainage it must be provided artificially. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 39 5. Need of air in the soil. a. There are flat lands and heavy clays where a system of tile drains is of more value than other treatment that can be given them. Such soils hold water within them in a form that has been des- ignated as free water, or gravitational water. There are several disadvantages or injurious consequences re- sulting from having a soil so filled with water. The oxygen of the air is necessary in soils for the direct use of plants. Their roots can not grow and extend into the soils to find water and food constituents except in the presence of oxygen. Seeds can not germinate in the absence of oxygen. Microscopie organisms, which are so essential in properly main- taining the fertility of soils, require oxygen just as much as higher organisms do. . The decay of organic matter in the soil in the presence of oxy- gen is of such character that its products are usually favorable to plant growth. Nitrates, generally the most important elements of plant food, are produced in the presence of free oxygen only. 6. Disadvantages of wet soils. _Fig. 26.—A well-d a. aoe eg Ol, Fig. 27—A wet, uncongenial soil. (Principles of Agriculture.—By Bailey.) The entrance of this essential oxygen of the air into soils is hindered when the pores of the soil are filled with water. Fig. 28.—Showing the condition in Fig. 29.--When the drought comes spring on cold, undrained soils, when the plant is still shallow-rooted and it the water-table is too high, suffers. (Principles of Agriculture.—By Bailey.) 40 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . Wet soils are cold, because the water as well as the soil must be heated and water warms up much more slowly than soil. . The removal of the excess of water by drainage permits the heat of the sun to warm the soils earlier to a proper degree for the germination of seeds. . Clay soils, when too wet, run together and become plastic, and with difficulty, are permeated by water, air, and the roots of plants. . If they be plowed when too wet, they become still more puddled, and it requires protracted weathering to bring them into fair condition again. 7. Depth of drains. a. b. Cc. d. . The depth depends on the subsoil. e ie Generally the deeper the tiles are placed, the more effective and perfect the drainage, and also the more expensive. Drains should be laid below the frost line and out of the way of all tillage operations. They should be laid by the use of a level, so that there may be no sags or traps in the drain, and the outlets should be such that the water runs freely from the tile. The depth varies from 21% to 4 feet deep. The ground-water surface should not be below the limit that the water can be lifted by capillarity. 8. Distance between drains depends on: a. b. Cc. The freedom with which water may flow through the subsoil toward the drains. The depth at which the drains are placed. The interval of time between rainfalls. 9. Kind of drains. a. d. Surface ditches or furrows between the rows of trees may af- ford temporary drainage, but they are objectionable on other accounts that will be apparent ; for an orchard thus drained will be difficult to get over in its necessary care and in gathering and handling the fruit. . Under-drainage is far better on these accounts; besides it is much more thorough, especially if accomplished by means of well laid tile. . A thorough breaking up of the subsoil will afford temporary drainage in a stiff clay soil, but in a few years the soil may again become compacted, when it will require re-stirring. But in all cases the planter must be the judge of the special drainage requirements of his soil and location. 10. How water enters tile drains. a. b. Through the walls and joints of the tile. The length of the tile should be short. 11. The size of tile. a. b. Six-inch tile generally gives better satisfaction than smaller tile. There are less chance for six-inch tile to become cloeees with roots and silt than smaller tile. 12. References. a. b. See references under sites. Soils, Vol. I, by Brooks. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 41 ce. Irrigation and Drainage by King. WINDBREAKS. 1. Position of windbreaks. 2. How to make windbreaks. 3. Benefits. i. Lessens the drying of fruit. a. Protection from cold. _j. Lessens the maturity of fruit. b. Reduces evaporation. k. More birds. e. Lessens windfalls. 4, Injurious. d. Lessens damage to trees. a. May be colder. e. Retains snow and leaves. b. Increases insects and diseases. f. Facilitates labor. 1. Check by spraying. g. Protects blossoms. e. Trees less thrifty. h. Makes straighter trees. d. Damage from late spring frosts. 5. Kind of trees. 6. References. a. Fruit Growing by Bailey. b. Fruit Growing by Poddock and Whipple. c. Colorado Bulletin No. 35. d. North Dakota Bulletin No. 88. e. £, Towa Extension Bulletin No. 5. Nevada Bulletin No. 79. SOIL FERTILITY. 1. It is fully realized that all soils are not of the same producing 5 8 alue and we are to determine in a large measure the causes which o to make towards fertility and also those causes which tend to make a soil sterile. 2. Comparison of soils. a. Two soils may give practically the same mechanical analysis, and one may be a good soil, while the other may be a very poor soil. . Two soils may give practically the same chemical analysis, and one may be productive, while the other may not. . Two soils may contain practically the same content of plant food elements and may be very far apart in agricultural value. d. Agricultural value. 1. This is due to the fact that plant food exists as soluble mat- ter in the soil water. 2. The water capacity of the sandy soil is less than the silty or clayey. 3. Under the same conditions, if a plant begins to suffer for water when the clayey soil has its water contents reduced to 12%, the plant will not suffer in silty soil until the water con- tents are reduced to 8% and in sandy soil from 6 to 4%. 4, Hence the soluble plant food is more concentrated in sand than in the others. 5. For this reason the chemical analysis may show less total ‘ plant food in the sandy than in the clay, yet the former may produce better crops. 3. The capacity of a soil to grow crops does not depend upon the quantities of food compounds present but upon the quantities of them which are available to the plants in liquid form. 42 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 4, Plant food made available in liquid form by a. Oxidation caused by warm moisture and air, as rust. als Plowing, cultivation, and irrigation may loosen, pulverize and aerate the soil causing oxidation. b. Solution caused by bacteria producing acid of decay. Lt Addition of humus or organic matter aids the bacteria in pro- ducing the acid of decay. 5. Soil may be made more fertile by— a. Green manuring. 1. Co Ss) Ey ex oh Green manuring, or the plowing under of crops, is one of the oldest methods used to maintain or le increase the productiv- ity of the soil. . The effect of ereen manuring varies acesnande to the original character of the soil. . In general, sandy or gravelly soils are made darker in color and become more retentive of moisture. . Clayey soils are made more porous and friable, so that they are less likely to puddle or bake, and are less subject to washing. . The most important object achieved by green manuring is the addition of humus to the soil. . Deep-rooted plants are decidedly preferable to shallow-rooted ones because they penetrate into the subsoil. . In this way, air and water find entrance, especially after the roots decay. . It is also supposed that such plants, especially when plowed under, tend to enrich the surface soil with potash and phos- phorus from the subsoil, thus bringing these substances with- in reach of the shallow- ‘rooted plants. See Cover crops. b. Barnyard manure. ile 2. 3. Barnyard manure is the most important manurial resource of the farm and should be carefully saved and used. It represents fertility which is drawn from the soil and must be returned to it if productiveness is to be maintained. It not only enriches the soil with nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, but it also renders the stored-up materials of the soil more available; improves the mechanical condition of the soil, makes it warmer, and enables it to retain more moisture. . The amounts of fertilizing constituents in the manure stand in direct relation to those in the food. a. As regards the value of manure produced, the concen- trated feeding stuffs, such as meat scraps, cotton-seed meal, linseed meal and wheat bran, stand first; the legum- inous plants (clover, peas, etc.) second ; the erasses, third ; cereals (oats, corn, ete.), fourth; and root crops, such as turnips, beets and mangel wurzels, last. . The nitrogen of the food exerts a greater faa cnc a on the quality of the manure than any other constituent. . It undergoes more modification in the animal stomach than the mineral constituents (potash and phosphoric acid), and rapidly escapes from the manure in fermentation. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 3 43 --7. The deterioration of manure results from two chief causes. ' a, Fermentation, whereby nitrogen, either as ammonia or in the gaseous state, is set free. b. Weathering or leaching, which involves a loss of the solu- ble fertilizing constituents. 8. The loss from destructive fermentation may be largely pre- vented by the use of proper absorbents and by keeping the manure moist and compact. 9. Loss from leaching may be prevented by storage under cover or in water-tight pits. 10. The disposition to be made of the manure of the farm (both fermented and unfermented) must be determined largely by ' the nature of the crop and soil. 11. Where improvement of the mechanical condition of the soil is the principal object sought, fresh manure is best adapted for this purpose to heavy soils and well-rotted manure to light soils. It is not advisable to let manure rot even for the latter soil; it ought to be used fresh. 12. It not only supplies humus, but it contains a large per cent of other necessary nutritive elements for maintaining health, vigor and fruitfulness of tree and for the developemnt of the proper qualities for fine fruit. ce. Commercial Fertilizers. 1. Nitrogen. a. Sources. 1. Animals, dried blood, tankage, fish offal, meat scraps, flesh and meal. 2. Vegetation. © a. Cotton seed meal. b. Leguminous crops, as clover and peas. b. Use of nitrogen. 1. Organic nitrogen exists in combination with other ele- ments, either as vegetable or animal matter. 2. All materials containing nitrogen are valuable in pro- portion to the rapidity of decay or change. 3. Organic nitrogen differs in availability, not only ac- cording to the kind of material which supplies it, but according to the treatment it receives. 4. Gradual change makes nitrogenous manures valuable in light, open soils, from which the nitrate or ammonia nitrogen tends to disappear too quickly. 5. The amount of available phosphoric acid, potash and lime is determined by the decay of the nitrogenous organic matter. . Nitrogen is essential to vigorous growth, and over- supply promotes rank growth of twigs and foliage. . Nitrogen gives a full, dark green color to the foliage. . Nitrogen gives a splendid leaf and wood growth. . Nitrogen used in excess produces too much wood and less fruit. 2. Potash. a. Sources. Nowe ols for) 44 OTH CO DOD b. Us MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE Wood ashes. Stassfurt salts. Kainite. Muriate of potash. Sulphate of potash. es of potash. 1. It is important in fruit growing. 3. a. It aids in developing buds and leaves. , b. It aids in developing color. ce. It is the base in combination with fruit acids. d. It adds ash to the fruit. . Its presence is necessary for the formation of starch and sugar, although it does not enter into their compo- sition. It gives firmness and aids in maturing and ripening the wood. 3. Phosphates. a. Sources. d. 2. 3. 4. Phosphoric rocks. Phosphate slug. Bone. Guano. b. Use of phosphate. tlie “10> Ol > 4. Lime. Phosphoric acid is derived from materials called phos- phates in which it may exist in combination with lime, iron or alumina. . Phosphate of lime is the form most largely used as a phosphoric acid. . Phosphoric acid occurs in fertilizers, as: a. That soluble in water, and readily taken up by plants. b. That slightly soluble in water, but still readily used by plants, also known as ‘‘reverted.’’ ec. That very sparingly soluble in water, and conse- quently very slowly used by the plant. d. The gases and organic acids produced in the decay of vegetable substance greatly increases its solubil- ity and causes phosphates to serve as a source of available plant food. . It is important in the developing of seeds. . It adds to the perfect ripening of the fruit. . It is an essential constituent of tree and fruit. . It will correct the too great a growth caused by the excess of nitrogen, turning the excessive growth into flowers and fruit. a. Sources. ap 2. 3. 4, Limestone. Chalk. Shells. Marl. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 45 ee siceiof Wie. 1. It aids in producing hard, firm wood. 2. It aids the tree to mature and to go into the dormant state. 3. It liberates plant food. 4. It liberates potassium. . Signs of need for fertilizers. a. See nitrogen, potash, phosphate. b. When the growth of the terminal branches fails to make an annual growth of at least one foot, the tree should be stimulated by manuring the land and giving it a thorough cultivation. ce. Study the tubercles of the leguminous plants in the field that gives poor results. . Orchards that are well tilled, well drained and properly sup- plied with organic matter from stable manure or cover crops need very little commercial fertilizers. . If trees are not vigorous, bearing well, and making fair growth each year, the thing to do is to look to the drainage, tillage and health of the trees first. . References. a. Fruit Growing by Bailey. b. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. e. U.S. Dept. Bulletins Nos. 77, 121, 192, 271, 278. d. Wisconsin Bulletin No. 82. e. Maryland Bulletin No. 144. f. Soils and Fertilizers by Snyder. IRRIGATION. 1. Physical properties. a. Climatic conditions. b. Character and depth of soil. a Examination should be made. a. The character and depth of the soil. b. Its behavior when irrigated. e. The slope and evenness of the surfaces. d. The presence of injurious salts. e. The facilities for drainage. e. The top layer of the soil. 1. Protects the moist soil beneath, which furnishes both food bo 3. 4. and water to the fibrous roots. . The presence of any hard, impervious stratum is objection- able. A porous stratum of coarse gravel may waste large quanti- - ties of irrigation water. The subsoil is determined by boring holes to a depth of 10 feet, and taking samples of soil at different depths. 2. Proper percentage of soil moisture. a. Too little, as well as too much moisture in soils, injures plants and it is not easy to find out how much is best for each kind of soil and for each kind of crop. b. About three-fifths of the volume of clay soils and two-fifths of sandy soils are cpen spaces, while the loams range between. 46 Cc. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE The greater part of the water found in the open spaces fur- nishes moisture to the roots of plants; the remainder clings to the soil particles and requires a considerable amount of heat to drive it off in the form of vapor. . Moisture is not the only essential. 1. In attempting to find out how much free moisture cropped soils should contain, it is well to bear in mind the fact that while moisture is the principal element in growing crops on arid lands, it is not the only essential. 2. Temperature, winds, sunshine, fogs, disease and a lack of air in the soil very frequently affect crops. 3. When a crop is suffering, an effort should be made to dis- cover the cause and not jump to the conclusion that more water is needed. 3. Movement of water in soils. a. b. The greater part of the water that falls as rain passes into the soil. The water which does enter the soil passes downward, as free or eravitational water which forms visible liquid layers on the soil grains or occurs between them being pulled down by gravity. . The water held by the soil particles against the force of gravity is called capillary water. . It can not be seen as liquid water, but its presence may be recog- nized by its effect upon the color of the soil. . If in too great quantity to be disposed of by capillarity, the rain water runs down into the lower soil and finally joins the so- called gravitational water, raising its level temporarily. . In dry weather the capillary water evaporates from the surface of the soil; the soil draws more water from below, but not in sufficient quantity wholly to replace that lost by evaporation. g. There is a continual decrease in the content of capillary water until another rainfall. . The free or gravitational water may rise into the soil as capil- lary water to replace that lost by evaporation. . It is constantly running out of the soil into the natural drainage channels as spring and seepage waters. . These several motions of water all take place when the rainfalls are sufficient to give an excess over what the soil can hold in what has been called the capillary state. . If the surface soil be open and loose, heavy rains completely fill the spaces of the upper soil. 1. When the pulverized layer is thin, it often becomes so soft and filled with water that this loose layer washes and greatly injures a field. 4, Time to irrigate. a. Tests for moisture. d 1. Healthy, vigorous growth of stems, branches and foliage of light green color are an indication of moisture. 2. Do not wait to irrigate until the leaves turn to dark, dull shade of green and begin to curl. 3. Find out where the feeding roots are located; nature of soil around them; test the soil from 6 to 12 inches beneath the MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 47 surface by compressing it in the hand; if it falls apart, it is too dry. EXERCISE 3. 1. Object: To test for capillary water in the soil. 2. Method: a. Take a sample of soil from around the roots of the tree about 2 feet. b. Place sample of soil in a glass fruit jar and screw on the cover tightly on a rubber band. . Weigh sample before drying. . Dry the sample in sun or drying oven. . Weigh sample after it is dried. . Divide the loss in weight by the weight of moist soil to get the per cent of free water. g. The moisture should range between 5 to 10 per cent in orchard loams. hh Od 0,0 5. The number of irrigations depends on: a. DD: Cc. Depth and nature of soil; amount of rainfall; temperature ; wind. When the rainfall is less than 20 inches, irrigation is a great help with such fruit; as, the apple. Three irrigations during the growing season are ample under most conditions if followed by intensive cultivation. . Irrigation usually begins about the last of April or early in May and at intervals of 20 to 30 days. . Light irrigation may be given the last of August to produce: Good crop of fruit; prevent heavy dropping; give more color to fruit. . Do not use large amount of water near the time of picking as it tends to keep the trees in active growth and may have a bad effect on the fruit; as, peaches. g. It is poor practice to irrigate peaches within three weeks of ~ picking time. h. Heavy irrigation with young orchards may increase winter- ~— killing and is sure to retard root development, hence growth. . There must be good drainage. . Irrigation at intervals of thirty to forty-five days during the irrigation season will provide ample moisture for ordinary loamy soils. . Young trees are watered by a furrow on each side of the row, and as the trees grow older and larger the number of furrows is increased until all the space between the rows is watered. . It is better to make the irrigation ditch in the tree row in alkali soil as there will be more alkali between the furrows than in the irrigating furrows. . The idea to be kept in mind is to train the roots outward and — downward so as to enlarge their feeding zone. The less a young tree is irrigated and yet kept in a rapid grow- ing condition the greater the development of the root system. : . The best guide to successful practice is to make frequent exca- vations to find out not only the location of the roots, but also how far and in which direction the water from the furrows has percolated. 48 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 6. Cultivation after irrigation. a. b. c. When the tract is planted with the right kind of stock the next most important thing is frequent and thorough cultivation. The surface should be cultivated after each rain and after each irrigation, and occasionally in the intervals. The proper depth to cultivate will depend on a variety of con- ditions, but it is well to bear in mind that if anything like com- plete protection from soil evaporation is desired, the cultivator teeth should be lowered to eight inches beneath the surface. . Objects: . To maintain a sufficient supply of moisture. To make available plant food. . To pulverize the soil making a greater fooding area for the rootlets of the trees. To give an additional root-holding area for the plants. . To promote nitrification. . To hasten decomposition of humus and organic matter. . To form a mulch to prevent evaporation. 7. References: PReoS Fruit Growing by Bailey. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. U. 8. Bulletins Nos. 116, 404, 158, 263. Oregon Bulletin No. 111. Irrigation and Drainage by King. GROWTH OF FRUIT TREES Compared With Other Crops. 1. First comparison. a. b. ce Trees have a preparatory time of several years before fruit bearing begins. Trees have several ‘‘off years’’ during their life. Farm crops make their growth, bear crop and pass away in a single season. . Essential factors for both. 1. Temperature. a. It is sufficient to say that the Bune of a section of a country, with regard to temperature, fixes within limits, the kind of crops which can be grown with success. 2. Moisture. a. Water is a very important factor in crop production. b. The size of the crop decreases if the amount of water is lessened, or increased beyond a certain point, that is to say, if the soil is kept too wet or too dry. ce. A clay soil requires more moisture than a sandy soil, but at the same time the clay soil has greater power of hold- ing the moisture than a sandy soil.. d. Sandy soil requires more frequent rains or more frequent. application of irrigation water. 3. Air. a. Air is necessary for plant growth, and free circulation of air should surround the roots of a plant as well as the fol- lage. h_ If the soil is compact or water-logged, the air cannot free- MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 49 ly penetrate and the plants will not thrive under these conditions. e. The conditions regarding air in the soil can be made more favorable for the growth of plants by thoroughly stirring. d. If plants are crowded for room, we find that the foliage is not so luxuriant, neither is the growth so vigorous as where more space is given. e. It is possible by proper methods of cultivation to give the plant roots more air and by judicious planting, to give more air to the foliage. 4. Sunshine. a. The amount of sunshine which a plant receives is very important as regards the growth of the plant. b. Without sunshine it is impossible for plants to assimilate carbon dioxide and build up plant tissue. c. Plants absorb carbon dioxide through the leaves, and this is changed to carbohydrates by the action of sunshine. d. The amount of sunshine which the land receives during the day is not under the control, but the amount which the individual plant receives can be controlled within limits, and this depends largely upon the amount of space given the plant. 2. Second Comparison. a. b. Trees begin early in the spring and continue to grow until late fall, so that fruit, leaf, and wood have a longer period in which to develop than annual and biennial crops. There would seem to be less need for highly concentrated foods for the slow growing crops. 3. Third Comparison. a. b The roots of trees run much deeper in the soil and probably spread as far as those of the succulent plants. . The larger root-run and feeding ground should enable trees to thrive with less artificial feeding than is necessary with farm crops. . That trees can grow vigorously under natural conditions in poor soil for a long time, is an indication of their ability to obtain more nourishment from soil than farm crops. . Essential factors for both. 1. Space. a. Other conditions being favorable, the largest individual plant is secured when it has unlimited space at its disposal for the extent of foliage and roots. b. By increasing the number of plants per acre, the size of the individual plant is decreased, but the yield per acre is increased up to a certain point on account of the increase of the number of plants. e. The space offered the roots depends upon the distance be- tween the plants and the depth of soil to which the roots may penetrate. d. Not only is the amount of water available to the plant in- creased as the roots go deeper, but the amount of plant food is also increased with the bulk of soil which the roots penetrate. 50 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . Loosening a fine soil or compacting a coarse soil, increases the amount of water which it will hold. . The quantity of water in the soil at any given time de- pends upon the location; the character of the soil; the treatment which it has received, and the rainfall or the amount of water applied artificially. 2. Physical conditions. a. The physical conditions of the soil determine the amount of moisture which it absorbs and holds, and the penetra- tion of the air into it. . Air is necessary both for the roots of plants and for the changes in the soil which are essential to its productive- ness. . A heavy soil may be made more easily workable by the application of manure, and it is interesting to note that light, sandy soils are improved in the same way. . The physical condition depends to a limited extent upon its physical compositions; its chemical composition; its biological conditions, and the treatment to which it has been subjected. 3. Biological conditions. a. b. In good agricultural soils we find bacteria which play a very important part in Soil fertility. They set up fermentation in the soil, decomposing organic matter, forming organic acids which react with the min- eral ingredients in the soil, decomposing them and making them available to the plants. . The nitrogenous substances in organic matter are con- verted into ammonia compounds and eventually to nitric acid, or salts of nitric acid, making the nitrogen available to the plants. . The nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 1. They are capable of fixing the free nitrogen of the at- mosphere, making it available, as plant food, while the nitrifying bacteria work upon the organic nitrogen, or the fixed nitrogen, which is already present in the soil, converting it into nitric acid or salts of nitric acid. 2. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria which are harbored by the legumes should not be confused with the nitrifying bac- teria which are present in the soil. 3. Certain kinds of bacteria are capable of converting fixed nitrogen to nitrous acid, or salts of nitrous acid, while another set convert these compounds to nitric acid or salts of nitric acid. 4. Other factors. a. The action is most rapid in a damp soil, and ceases entirely if the soil is air dried. b. Bright light suspends the action and eventually de- stroys the bacteria. ce. Free supplies of oxygen are necessary, hence nitrifi- cation cannot take place in boggy soils, nor can it MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 51 5 take place in strongly alkalied soils or water-logged soils. ‘| dissolved ; balhal mineral «! matter Fig. 30.—Shows the formation of plant food.—(Goff and Mayne.) e. pene the above figure, explain the following: 1. Plants derive their food both from the air and from the soil. How? 2. The elements derived from the air are carbon-dioxide, oxygen. How? 3. Those derived from the soil are taken up through the roots, and are as follows: Phosphorus in the form of phosphoric acid, or its salts (probably an acid calcium phosphate), potash, nitrogen (in combination as a salt of nitric acid), lime, iron, sulphur, chlorine, and mag- nesia. How? 4. If any of these substances are withheld, the plant ceases to grow, or at best, makes a very sickly growth. Why? 5. The elements which are liable to be deficient in the soils of the arid and semi-arid countries are phosphoric acid and nitrogen. 4. Fourth Comparison. a. Trees probably transpire larger quantities of water than herb- aceous crops. d. e. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . The more woody and fibrous the plant, the greater the number of tons of water required for a ton of dry matter. . The relatively great number of stomata on the leaves of fruit trees indicate that the fruit trees are ‘‘heavy drinkers’’ and transpire a greater amount of water in proportion to their leaf- areas than succulent plants. The nutritive soil solutions may be less concentrated for fruit trees than for grass and vegetable crop. See irrigation. 5. Fifth comparison. a. The fruit crops have a greater per cent of water than field crops. ; b. Apples are about 85 per cent water. ce. The fruit crops require smaller amount of solid and mineral matter than field crops. d. Tabulation of the elements that the different fruit crops re- move from the soil by one acre of orchard. Name Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash Lime Magnesium Apple ..| 515 Tbs. | 14 ibs.” [ “S55 ibs. “| ST ibs) 2p Peach ..| 74.5 tbs. | 18 ibs. | 72 Ibs. | 114 ibs” | “Soap Pear: /..|'. 29.5 lbs. |.) Vase | sa dest 38 ibs. | 11 tbs: Pinm > ...| 29.5 Ibs. |: 7 Seite —|--38 Ips. 41 tbs. | 13 ibs. e. Study the above table. 1. Which crop removes the greatest amount of plant food? 2. What fertilizer is needed for apples? Peach? Pears? Plums? f. The three elements that must be supplied to soil by commercial fertilizers are nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid. 6. Sixth comparison. a. b. Fruit crops are a continuous cropping of one kind. There being no opportunity to change the crop to some other which might require different amounts of the plant-food con- stituents. ce. It seems certain that nitrogen at least must have to be replaced. d. Cultivated crops in an orchard. 1. Space of three to four feet should be left on each side of each row of trees. 2. Early maturing crops are the best kind to grow because late cultivation for late maturing crops may cause large growth ~ of the trees and if this growth fails to ripen, the trees may be winter killed. 3. It will give to the orchard thorough cultivation. 4. They will afford a shade to the newly planted tree at the sea- son when it most needs the portection from the sun’s greatest heat. 5. The physical condition of the soil will be improved. 6. Such crops as corn, potatoes, cabbage, etc., may be grown to an advantage. . Cover crops in an orchard. 1. Important uses of a cover crop. a. Covering the ground when the tree growth is not very active or entirely dormant. S £; g. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 53 . They check the growth of the trees in the fall and cause them to ripen their wood. . They hold the soluble plant food which might leach out by drainage in late fall and early spring. . They catch the rain and conduct it into the soil and pre- vent the soil washing away. They hold the snow for further protection of the soil. They protect the ground from deep freezing. They add vegetable matter to the soil. . Humus improves the physical conditions. a. uA It loosens up the soil particles and prevents cementing or puddling. b. It increases the water holding power of the soil. ce. It provides a favorable home for soil bacteria. d. e. It assists In breaking up chemical compounds of plant It furnishes elements of plant food in available form. foods. Humus is the final product of organic decay. . Classification of crops. a. b. Leguminous plants. 1. Crops—clover, vetches, alfalfa, cowpeas, soy beans, ete. 2. These crops are nitrogen gatherers, because special forms of soil bacteria associate with them and extract free nitrogen from the air and store it in tubercles on the plant roots. é 3. If the soil is defic- 2 ient in nitrogen, a aN a these bacteria form rs many tubercles on an $ Fy af) the roots of the ty, R plant, but if the soil X@, is well supplied with g humus and nitrogen “ef ay / Ee ne SS > *S > ws tubercles on the Lo roots. ~ CaS QW 4. This class of plants Nitrates 2, returns large = awe § amounts of potash, nitrogen and humus they form fewer \ Ea to the soil. Ls Potash plants. bighs Fee 1. Crops — cowhorn, Gains turnips, and rape. 2. They are gross feed- ers and take up eruder forms of plant food than the \ more delicate nitro- gen gatherers. aad 3. They store up some nitrogen, potash, and some phos- phoric acid. 54 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE e. Ordinary plants. 1. Crops—rye, oats, wheat, buckwheat, ete. 2. They are useful when enough nitrogen is stored in the ground, as a winter cover or to return humus to the soil where only the physical texture needs to be improved. 4. Cover crops furnish nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid to the soil. 5. Amount of fertilizers in each crop. ! Glen eae Oh sist oe bo ay : 2 rs n HD < a nn a'o so) iol Od @U &SD ire] EES gf BOS E65 35 255 £8 Bee BES B80 #o6 mae S68 gee FS ams ba ae OD e 5, Bie 2, oF 2 Nitrasenmeerne yy en 109.5 129.4 1344 108.0 95.2 1212 69.5 140.2 Equal to Nitrate of Soda (16%)....684.2 808.8 840.0 643.8 595.0 757.5 483.4 876.2 Phosmbemey Weide ho: os. cows 26.0-. 46.9) 61.2 ).29.0.;, 216... 2712 5 dang) aaa Equal to Acid Phosphate (14%)..... 185.7 335.0 487.1 207.1 154.8 194.3 185.0 287.1 Dopaskyeee saute ai eu. sae 142.6 161.3 88.2 | 56:4 y\f41c7) 985.5) Aoi e a naaeg Equal to Muriate of Potash (50%)..285.2 322.6 176.4 112.8 83.4 171.0 99.6 96.0 -1 6. What and when to plant. a. In general, if the trees make good erowth, but if the soil lacks humus as shown by it not being friable or mealy, then plant such crops as winter wheat or rye. b. If the ground seems friable or mealy and loamy, but the trees do not make proper growth, the tree lacks nitrogen yet there is plenty of humus in the soil; in this case plant a legume as Russian hairy vetch. ce. Plant cover crops in July or early August and let grow un- til late spring, then turn under. . References. a. See Soil Fertility. | PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. . Purposes. a. Reproduction of plants. b. Perpetuated valuable varieties. ce. Aid nature in producing good stock. . Means by which plants are reproduced. a. Natural reproduction. . Rootstock. a. Many species of plants are reproduced by means of rootstocks which push out laterally in all directions from parent plant, de- veloping rootlets and throwing up stems; as, Johnson grass, and Bermuda grass. . Stolens. a. Some plants throw out trailing branches or runners, which take root and produce new plants. b. Examples—strawberry, raspberry. . Suckers and root-sprouts. a. Plants reproduce by means of suckers and sprouts. b. Plants like red raspberry, blackberry and.some plums. ce. Plants reproduced by cuttings grow by means of root sprouts; as willows, poplars. . Bulbs and corms. a. A bulb is a short rudimentary axis encased in more or less close MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 55 fitting, fleshy leaves or bulb scales, in which is stored up nutri- ment to be used in subsequent growth. b. Bulbs usually form at or just beneath the surface of the ground. g. h. b. . They may be divided into two general classes. 1. Those composed of scales which are more or less narrow and loose, as in the lily. 2. Those composed of more or less continuous and close fitting layers or plates, as in the onion. . Bulbs often divide naturally into two or more parts, or may be so divided artificially, each of which part serves the purpose of a complete bulb in propagation. . Bulbs are often caused to produce bulblets artificially by wound- ing or mutilating them. . A corm resembles a bulb in appearance, but differs from it in being solid throughout. Small corms, or cormels, are developed in very much the same manner as are daughter bulbs. Examples of corm-producing plants are the Indian turnip, cro- cus, gladiolus and caladium. . Spores are not true seeds. a. They are the means of reproduction of a great number of spe- cies, such, for instance, as ferns and the various fungi. Mushrooms are the most important class of cultivated plants which depend on spores for reproduction. Exercise 4. 1. Object: To show how spores are developed. 2. Method: a. Spores can be developed easily by cutting a potato in two, rubbing lightly the freshly cut surface of one-half with a piece of moldy bread and putting it on a plate under an inverted tumbler. b. Keep this covered potato in a warm, but rather dark place, for several days, examining it every few hours to note pro- gress in the growth of the mold. . A heavy growth of mold grows in two or three days. . Little globular spore-cases will grow at the tops of slen- der branches which spring up from a network of whitish threadlike material. . Observe spore cases to see if any change occurs in them as they mature. f. Study molds by using a microscope if available. ge. The rusty spots seen near the margins of fern leaves are h a0 @ spore cases. . When you step on a puffball it sends up a cioud of spores. b. Artificial reproduction. . Glass buildings. . Frame buildings. . Hot-beds. Cold frame and forcing hills. . Management of buildings. 56 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 6. The process to be used, is chosen with reference to: a. No. of buds. b. Seasons. e. Condition of ma- terial. 1. Cutting — one to 1. All year except 1. Dormant or several. July and Au- growing. gust. 2. Grafting — two or 2. Last month of 2. Scions — dor- more. winter or first mant, stock- , or second of dormant or spring. growing. 3. Layering — one to 3. Spring and 3. Growing. several. winter. 4. Budding—one. 4, Early and late 4. Growing or summer. dormant pre- ferably the CUTTINGS. first. 1. Kind of cuttings. a. Forms of hard-wood cuttings. Fig 32—Cuttings: a, simple cutting; b, heel cutting; c, mallet cutting; d, single- eye cutting. 1. Simple cutting. a. The most common form of hard-wood cuttings is that usually employed in propagating the grape and currant. bh Sneh a cutting consists of a straight portion of a shoot or cane early uniform in size throughout and containing two or more uds. ce. At the lower end it is usually cut off just below a bud, because roots develop most readily from the joints. d. At the top it is usually cut off some distance above the highest bud. 2. The heel cutting. a. A eutting of this form consists of the lower portion of a branch, MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 57 containing two or more buds, cut off from the parent branch in such a manner as to carry with it a small portion of that branch forming the so-called ‘‘heel.’’ 3. The mallet cutting. a. b. c. Yb. Cc. d. d. . In the spring, the fall cuttings are Y t set out about six inches apart in a Y ¥ trench with only the topmost bud 7 UY 4\\ Z . Fine mellow soil is packed tight yj . In planting, the cuttings should 7 A cutting of this form is produced by severing the parent branch above and below a shoot, so as to leave a section of it on the base of the cutting. The principal advantage in the use of the heel and mallet eut- tings lies in the greater certainty of developing roots. The principal drawback is that only one cutting can be made from each lateral branch. . Single-eye cutting. a. It is used to make the largest number of cuttings containing but one bud each. Such cuttings are commonly started under glass with bottom heat either in greenhouse or hotbed. They may be set in either horizontal position with the bud on the upper side or perpendicularly. In either case the bud is placed about an inch below the surface of the ground in soil which should be kept uniformly moist. . Treatment of hard-wood cuttings. a. b. C. Cuttings are usually made with two or more buds. Spring cuttings are made and then set out in nursery rows. Fall cuttings are tied together in bundles of 25 to 50 with butts one way; and, They should be buried out of doors or put in moist sand or saw- dust in the cellar with tips down. . The top buds are protected from freezing and the butts receive the benefit of the warmth of the sun in the spring, thus stimu- lating root growth. > or buds above the surface. four inches deep. ly around them from three to _ be exposed to light and air as lit- tle as possible. Fig. 33, Cutting set in trench Exercise 5. 1. Object: To show hard-wood cuttings. 2. Method: a. At any time when they are dormant, take from last year’s vigorous, thrifty, mature growth, cuttings of the grapes, flowering shrubs, gooseberries, currants, willows, pop- lars, ete. . Let the cuttings be from 6 to 8 inches long. . Let. the lower cut be made just below the last node. . Tie them in bundles of twenty to twenty-five, label, and pack in boxes of green sawdust or moist sand, and place i in a cool place if the cuttings are taken before spring. aoe 58 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE e. When spring comes the cuttings may be started in a prop- agation box or out of doors. f. Plant in a slanting position, leaving the last node above the ground. Fig. 34, Shows greenwood cuttings. g. Press the soil firmly around the base of the cuttings. h. Plant two or three inches apart in the row and the rows four feet apart. 1. Cultivate during the season. j. Transplant at the end of one season’s growth. b. Soft-wood cuttings. 1. This class of cuttings is exemplified in the ‘‘slips’’ used to increase the number of house plants. 2. Many greenhouse plants, including roses, carnations, geraniums, chrysanthemums, fuchsias, begonias, and the like are propagated in this way. Low 3. This method of propaga- tion can be employed in the winter time under glass. 4. Near the large cities the propagation of ornament- al plants for use on lawns. or in parks, yards, and gardens, has become an important and remunera- tive business. Exercise 6. 1. Object; To show soft- wood cuttings. 2. Method: a. Make a frame 15 to 20 inches wide, 8 inches high at one side, 12 inches high at the other; long as the width of the window ; tight bot- Fig. 35, Frame to show rooting cuttings. . Some plants may be propagated by inserting the edge of a leaf or even a piece of a leaf in sand and supplying it with moisture. . Plants will spring up at the broken edges of the leaf or at cut places in the veins. a. te © . Object: To show leaf Saas . Method: Take most any very ech leaf, prefer- able one of a begonia, and peg down upon moist sand. . Use toothpicks and peg down across the Fis. 36 Leaf cutting; main veins being sure to break the veins. . Bury the base of the leaf in the soil. . If the trouble known as ‘‘damping MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 59 tom; 3 or 4 one-half inch holes in the boca : Depth of the sand to be used in the propagation bed varies with the plants to be propagated, but usually an inch of broken stone or coarse gravel overlaid with 214 to 3 inches of sand will be found amply sufficient for all soft-wood cuttings. A confined atmosphere over the tops is especially required in propagating plants, which have leaves that are thin and lia- ble to wilt easily ; also for herbaceous cuttings which require a long period in which to form roots; and those from soft- wood which suffer from exposure. . Such a close atmosphere can be secured by means of a sash supported by a tight frame. The simplest device for use in a small way is the bell glass. Single cuttings may be covered with inverted glass jars. off’’ develops in connection with this work, the sand should be removed, the inside of the box or frame should be serubbed and white-washed, and fresh sand should be put in. ce. Leaf cuttings. Exercise 7. part of leaf. Fig. 37, Leaf cutting: whole leaf. d. In a little while roots will be thrown out at the cut ends of the veins and new plants will form. 60 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE d. Stem cuttings. Exercise 8. 1. Object: To show stem cut- J 2. tings. Method: a. Ho Object: To show root cuttings. Bi . Methods: a. b. c. . Divide these shoots into . Reduce the leaf surface to . Most of these do best when started with bottom Use thrifty shoots from the growing rose, geran- ium, coleus, tomato, nas- turtium, potato, ete. euttings having at least two nodes each, letting the lower cut be through the stem just below the lower node. check evaporation by re- moving the leaves of the lower half of the cutting. Fig. 38, Stem eutting or **slip’”’ of coleus. . Insert the cuttings in the soil to about one-half their depth and firm the soil around them. . Plant one inch apart each way. Keep uniformly moist and when the roots are about an ee iong transplant to larger quarters. is e. Root cuttings. Exercise 9. Explain where the roots started. All plants which sprout from the roots may be propagated by means of root cuttings. Examples of these are horse-radish, rhubarb, blackberries, quince, sweet potatoes, etc. Make cuttings from the roots two to three inches long, planting horizontally, close together and cover with two or three inches of soil. heat. Fig. 39, shows GRAFTING. roots and buds propagated from Principles. a root cutting. a. b. c. The cambium layer of the graft must coincide with that of the stock in at least one place. A moderate pressure must be provided for this union to take place. All exposed surfaces must be protected by some means of.-coy- ering. . Grafting, unlike budding, is usually performed during the dor- mant period of growth, generally in the spring. It is accomplished by carefully fitting a small dormant twig or scion of the variety we wish to propagate into a cut in a stock, or seedling tree which we wish to change. There are several forms of grafting, but they differ more in MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 61 method than, in results, in fact, so far as the top of the tree is concerned the results are the same in all cases whether we bud or graft. g. The object sought is to change an undesirable or uncertain tree into one which we know will produce a variety whose fruit will possess certain desirable characteristics. h. The scion and its treatment. Fig 40. 1. A scion is a portion cut from a plant to be Inserted upon another (or the same) plant with the intention that it will grow. = . Point out the scion and stock in Fig. 40. eeanicae! Cross See ; : : ; nd . Explain how the scion is put into the stock. scion. . Except for herbaceous grafting the wood for scions should be taken while in a dormant or resting condition. The time usually considered best is after the leaves have fallen, but before severe freezing bgins. . The scions are tied in bunches and buried in moist sand, where they will not freeze and yet will be kept cold enough to prevent growth. 7. Good results often follow cutting scions in the spring just be- fore or at the time the grafting is to be done. 8. If cleft grafting is the style to be employed, this practice fre- quently gives good results, but spring cutting of scions for whip grafting is not desirable, as not enough time is given for the proper healing of the wound before planting time in the spring. 1. The stock and its treatment. 1. The stock is the plant or part of a plant upon which or into which the bud or scion is inserted. 2. For best results in grafting it is essential that the stock be in an active condition, or so that active growth can be quickly brought about. . Kinds of grafting. D> oo wWoD a. Splice grafting. Exercise 10. . Object: To show splice grafting. . Method: a. This is a simple form of grafting. b. It is used when the stock and scion are very nearly the same size. e. It consists in splicing or lapping the scion on the stock by scarfing each at the same angle. d. When a close joint is secured the parts are held in place by means of some kind of wrapping material. b. Tongue grafting. Exercise 11. . Object: To-show tongue grafting. . Method: a. This form differs from splice grafting in that both scion and stock are split at corresponding points on the scarf with a thin- bladed knife so as to form tongues. b. The object of this is to unite more firmly the two portions and 62 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE present a larger surface for the effusion of cell tissue, and to promote the callousing process. e. This is the method commonly practiced by nurserymen under the name of root grafting. Exercise 12. 1. Object: To show how sap travels up the stem. 2. Method: a. Color a glass of water with a good quality of red ink. b. Place some cuttings of live branches of maple or willow in this water over night. c. The next day split one of the branches and notice how the ecol- ored fluid has been drawn into and up these stems. d. Has it traveled upward in the bark, sapwood, or heartwood? e. What value is it to know that sap travels up the stem? c. Cleft grafting. 1. Top working. a. Many trees, which did not come true to name and many varie- ties which are worthless may be made into popular varieties by top working. b. It takes about four years for the _ top- worked tree to grow as large as it originally was. e. Cut off the whole top of the tree. d. The argument that the erafting should run through a whole num- ber of years is fallible. Fig. 41. e. If the old tree stock has been headed-in low, then you can use the scaffold limbs for the foundation upon which to put the scions. f. If the tree has been headed high, then cut off the whole top not higher than two feet from the ground. g. Do not try to top-work |ze® Be res See els. a tree that has a de- fis. 41, shows transcendent crab grafted to cayed trunk. winesap. (Paddock and Whipple). h. The time of top-working is in the spring extending from when the sap begins to ascend until early summer. i. The scion should be dormant. j. As the scion will grow rapidly, it is necessary that severe treat- ment be used to encourage lateral growths. k. Severe thinning out should also be practiced. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 63 2. Principles, a. This style of graft is particularly adapted to large trees when for any reason it becomes neces- sary to change the variety. b. Branches too large to be worked by other methods can be cleft _ grafted. ce. Split the exposed end of the stock with a broad chisel or grafting tool. Fig. 42. d. The scion should consist of a por- tion of the previous season’s Fig. 42, Grafting tool inserted in growth, and should be Passes: long enough to have two or three buds. e. In general, it is a good plan to cut the scion so that the lowest bud will come just at the top of this wedge, so that in will be near the. top of the stock. f. If the proper pressure of the cleft be not suf- ficient to hold the scion in place, it must be | wrapped with cloth or | strings before waxing. g. The stock and scion are now ready for the grafting wax, which may be applied, whether in liquid form with a brush or in plastic condition after having been worked with the hands, or they may be wrapped with strips of muslin or manila paper previous- ly spread with wax, as = ES - - - Heretovotetmentioned. , wart (esidoc: ana neu OTe Veet h. Great caré should be taken to make every joint air tight or the operation may be a failure. 64 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE Exercise 13. Object: To show cleft graft- ing. a. yore Fig. 44. Find the scion stock. : Note the buds, where lo- cated. 3. How is the scion put into the stock? —— Method: Cs a9 ay) a. Should the limbs be no more eS “Ze than one to one and one- half inches in diameter, sev- er with a saw, being careful that the bark is not injured. b. Split the exposed end with a broad chisel or grafting tool - and then with a wedge spread the cleft so that the We scion may be inserted. metic Hee aan a, scion; b, scions ce. The scion should be cut wedge shape and outer edge thicker than the other. d. The growing tissues of both scion and stock should have inti- mate contact. e. Use two scions for each stock, inserting them each into the cleft and inclining them at a slight angle, as this gives a closer and surer contact between the cambium layers. f. Take out the wedge, being sure that the scions are not dis- lodged. g. Cover all the exposed portions with grafting wax. d. Bark grafting. 1. A branch is sawed off, as for cleft grafting, and the scions, instead of be- ing inserted in a cleft, are eut very thin and slipped between the bark and wood, being inserted far enough to bring the grow- ing parts together. 2. The bark is then securely bound and wax is used as in cleft grafting. 3. This is called crown grafting by the English and French. 4. It is an excellent method for grafting larger limbs, , hows a well-formed srafte (Paddock and Whipple.) MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 65 as it injures the stock less than cleft grafting and is easier per- formed, and also more scions may be inserted per limb. Exercise 14. . Object: To show bark grafting. . Method: a. Cut off the tree where you desire to top-work it. b. Cut a vertical line through the bark of the stock about one inch long. . Cut the scion on a bevel (not on a wedge) so that it is very thin. . Insert the scion between the bark of the stock and the crown. . Put in several scions this way in the same stub. . Wax all the exposed surface and wrap a tight bandage around the base of the scions and the top of the stock in order to hold the scions close until they unite. g. The subsequent treatment is the same as for the cleft grafting. e. Saddle grafting. HO 0. _ The stock is cut to a wedge-shape and the lower end of the scion is split and set upon the wedge, the place of union being tied and waxed. . This is for small limbs and nursery stock. f. Veneer grafting. . The tip of the stock is removed with an abrupt slanting cut. . Then beginning at the highest portion of the top of the stock, cut a shaving which is thickest at its base, and which can only be re- moved by a sloping cut. . Cut the lower end of the scion in like manner and bind the two firmly together with waxed string. . When this style of graft is used as a root graft, no wax is neces- sary, but when used above ground the wound should be well covered. . This method of grafting is adapted to use in either summer or winter. o. Side orafting. . The scion is cut wedge-shaped, as for cleft grafting, a chisel or a thick knife blade is forced into the stock, and the wedge of the scion is then forced into the incision. . Waxed string and wax are then used. h. Shield grafting or scion budding. . The scion is cut very thin as in bark grafting, and is inserted un- der the bark of the stock as a bud is inserted in the process of bud- ding and is firmly bound in place with waxed cord or raffia. i. Whip or root grafting. . This style is called root grafting when the scion is grafted on the root and is the method practiced by nurserymen. . Thrifty 1 to 2-year-old stocks grown from seed are taken up in the fall and stored in a cellar or buried in the soil, where they will keep fresh and be accessible at any time in the winter when wanted. . The scions having been secured in the fall, the work of grafting may be performed at any time during the winter. . The roots only are used in this method, and they may be cut into 66 ~] . Object: To show root grafting. . Method: MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE two or more sections, according to their size and length or the desire of the propagator. . But the larger or stronger roots, as a rule, may be relied upon for the most satisfactory results. . The scions may be cut much longer and the roots may be cut shorter and the graft planted so deep as to cause the roots to issue from the lower end of the scions. . When taken up to set in the orchard, the original root may be re- moved entirely, leaving nothing but the scion and the roots which have put forth from it. . When roots are cut into lengths of 2 to 6 inches to be used as stocks, the operation is called piece root. . In piece root grafting, the entire root is cut up into pieces, three or four inches long, thus furnishing material for two or three grafts. Exercise 15. a. By holding the stock or scion in the left hand, with the end supported by the index finger, a diagonal cut through the base of the scion or top of the stock may be made. b. Holding the wood in the same position, cut from one-third of the length from the outer end of this cut, making a vertical slit about an inch long. Wi 4 e. After the scion and stock are fy al both thus prepared, carefully vai Hall insert the tongue of the one ft | into the slit of the other in bili such a manner as to bring the _ Fis. 46, Shows root grafting; a, the cambium, layer of the scion ims (crag 02 Ae SCOR Cee direct contact with that of the stock. d. It is not necessary that the scion and stock be of the same size. e. More depends upon the smoothness of the cuts and the snugness of their fitting together than upon anything else. f. Wrap, so that the cut faces are kept in close contact, with No. 18 knitting cotton which has been previously dipped into eraft- ing wax. g. The wrapping need not be over a foot in length. h. When the graft is finished, it will be about one foot long. i. The grafts should be tied in bundles and packed in sawdust or leaf-mold until planting time. j. At the point of union, little swollen limps (callouses) should start to force a union k. The callouses may be hastened by putting the box of grafts j in a warm room. 10. After-culture of root grafts. a. When the operation has been performed, the grafts are packed MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 67 “away in moss, sawdust, or sand, in a cool cellar, to remain until spring. b. It is important that the place of storage should be cool, else the erafts may start into growth, and be ruined, or heating and rot- ting occur. ce. If the temperature is kept low, not above 40° F’., there will be no growth except callousing, and the knitting together of stock - and scion. d. This callousing must be commenced before the stocks are planted in the spring for it will not take place in the damp soil. e. In ordinary propagation by means of whip grafts, the scion is cut with about three buds, and the stock nearly as long as the scion. f. The ground in which the grafts are planted should be plowed deep and very thoroughly pulverized. g. The root grafts should be planted about four to six inches apart in the row and the rows three and one-half to four feet apart. h. Be sure to press the soil firmly around the roots. i. They should be planted deep enough so that but one bud ap- pears above the ground. j. Every effort should be centered upon making the grafts grow. k. The best treatment for this is to cultivate, often, deeply and thoroughly. . No danger of overdoing the cultivation. . Results. 1. As the plants grow they will first form, as a rule, one upright leader. ° . If more than one leader starts, trim to one leader. . Later, at the axil of each leaf, a lateral branch will start. . Rub the lateral off, but do not rub any leaves off. . From now on, it will necessitate someone going over the stock every two weeks to rub off the laterals. . Under no consideration let the laterals remain. . If you rub off the leaves, the plant will not grow so fast and it will also be very spindling. ; . At the end of the season you will have one-year-old nursery stock, the best kind to plant for an orchard. 9. Of course, there will be some very small trees in the nursery rows. 10. These may be kept for the second year. o. If this is done, in the next spring, cut them back to one strong bud above the graft and let them grow, treating them subse- quently as if they were the other grafts. BUDDING. 1. Budding is meant to take the bud from the plant which one desires to grow and to insert it into the bark of some allied specie plant in which it.is to grow. 2. This must be done when the bark peels easily in the spring and to early fall. 8. This operation consists in removing a bud from a twig of the vari- ety which we wish to propagate and inserting it beneath the bark ee CO Es eon) OV oo DO 68 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE of the stock or young seedling tree we wish to change; and this is then held in place by tying it fast until the bud and stock unite. 4. The expense of the operation is, therefore, not more than that of whip grafting, although the work has usu- ally to be done in July, August, or early September. 5. The bud. a. b. 6. The stock. a. C. . This is what is usually called a shield bud and is cut . With the apple and pear a second season’s growth The bud should be taken from wood of the present season’s growth, and in a good state of maturity. Since the work of budding is done during the sea- son of active growth, the bud sticks are prepared so that the petiole or stem or each leaf is left attached to serve as a handle to aid in pushing the bud in place when inserting it beneath the bark of the stock. so that a small portion of the woody tissue of the branch is removed with the bud. The stock for puddin should be at least as thick as an ordinary lead pencil, and in a healthy growing condition. will be necessary to develop this size, while with the /, peach a single season will suffice ; hence peach stocks wig 47, a can be budded the same season the pits are planted, bud stick. Consequently the peach is left until as late in the season as is practicable in order to obtain stocks of suitable size. 7. June budding. -a. If it is desired to start the bud into growth the same season it is inserted, the budding should be done as early in the season as well-developed buds can be obtained from growing trees. . As soon as it is found that the bud has united with the stock or branch, the material used to fasten the bud in place must be re- moved and the stock or branch cut back to within a short dis- tance from the bud, to force the growth of the inserted bud. 8. Late fall budding. a. This is the kind of budding more commonly practiced among nurserymen, the buds being inserted into the stock as late in the season as the bark of the stock will separate freely to receive it. . In such instances the bud remains dormant through the follow- ing winter. . The following spring, the wrapping is removed and wherever the buds appear sound, the tops of the stocks are cut back and treated in the same manner as described for June budding. . All buds on the stocks below the one inserted should be rubbed off as they start to grow. . The objection to early, or June budding, i is that the growth from such buds does not always mature sufficiently in northern sec- tions to pass a severely cold winter without injury. Exercise 16. 1. Object: To show budding. 2. Method: Fig. a. d. cae MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 69 \ « 4 a Fig. 49, Biadine! Preparing ie Le 48, Cutting the bud. The strongest twigs of last year’s growth should be se- lected while dormant and stored away in boxes of green sawdust or moist sand until the stock is in condition for inserting the buds. . The stock best suited for this work is one year old seed- lings. . It should be used as soon as the bark will slip upon it; or as soon as the sap begins to rapidly ascend in the spring, or early summer. The stock is prepared by making two incisions in the bark, one at right angles to the other, thus forming a T- shaped cut. . Make the cut on the north side for protection from the sun. The bud is prepared by cutting off about one inch of bark and wood, paring off a small portion of the woody tissue with the bud. Fig. 50, Budding: a, Inserting ea bud; b, tying; c, cutting off the top. 70 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE h. Loosen the flaps of the T-shaped cut on the stock and insert the bud under the flaps and push it firmly in place until its cut surface is entirely in contact with the peeled body of the stock. i. Wrap with moist raffia, or bands of wrapping cotton about ten to twelve inches long, above and below the bud. j. As soon.as the bud has united with the stock, which ought to be done in ten days, cut the ligature to prevent girdling. k. This done, the operation is finished until the next spring, when all the trees in which the buds have ‘‘taken’’ should have the top cut off just above the bud. Formulas for Grafting Wax. 1. Formula No. 1 for outdoor work. a. Resin 4 to 5 parts, beeswax 11% to 2 parts, linseed oil or tallow, 1 to 14% parts. b. This is melted in a mass, and when cool enough it may be drawn out into thin strips and applied by wrapping it firmly around the stock where the scion is inserted. . A more convenient mode of using this wax is to spread it while melted upon thin muslin or strong manila paper and when cool, eut or tear in strips of convenient width for wrapping around the grafted stock. . When the wax is applied it should be melted but not hot enough to cook the tissue of the plant. . The wax should be carefully spread over all cut. or exposed sur- faces and pressed closely so that it will form a sleek coating which will exclude air and moisture. . Note: 1. Waxed string may be prepared by dropping a ball of No. 18 cotton into a kettle of the above melted wax. 2. In a few minutes, it will be thoroughly saturated, tier which it may be taken out. 3. It will remain in this condition indefinitely. 2. Formula No. 2 for indoor and outdoor work. a. b. Cc. 1. This is the common method of reproducing the ae Be dew-. Resin 6 pounds, beeswax 1 pound, linseed oil 1 pint. Melt together, and when at the temperature of 180° F. apply directly to the joints with a small bristle brush. In order to keep it at the proper consistency the vessel contain- ing the wax may be placed in another vessel containing boiling water. LAYER. berry, black raspberry, etc. ald 2. Exercise 17. Object: To show simple layering. Method: 1 2. a. b. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 71 ieend down one of the lower shoots, placing it m a small depression and pegging it down with a forked stick, and covering with a | few inches of mel- low soil. we If the soil hee cde peg fl iin) Weyering been moist enough, roots will have started from each new node which has been covered up and a new plant may be se- cured by separating the new plant from the old. Exercise 18. Object: To show mound layering. Method: a. “SULIGS OT} . By the following . Next the stool or The old plant is first cut off near the surface of the ground, before erowth begins in spring many shoots will have grown from the ““stool.’’ base of these me shoots are mound- “aii ma NN 77 / ed up with dirt ae 52, Mound eae. for several inches. Sega . Roots will form at the underground nodes of these, the same summer as they are mounded up. . In fall or the following spring, the newly rooted shoots may be removed from the stool and planted as new plants. . The old stool may be used to produce more plants the ensu- ing year. Exercise 19. . Object: To show vine layering. . Method: an Stretch a vine along the ground, burying its entire length in a shallow trench or covering it in certain places, leaving the remaining portion exposed. . Roots will be put forth at intervals and branches thrown up. . Later- cut the vine between these, leaving a number of inde- pendent plants. é Grape and ivies may be readily propagated in this way. 72 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE Sir Bhs ‘i OLY Sie ch ANWR \G CRY NY uN AHN \\ OTH Co DO eA D> OV Co DO 020 82 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 4, Process takes place in dark, as well as light. 5. It is a breaking-down process. f. Note: 1. Blow through a tube into a dish of lime water and note re- results. 2. Lower a burning candle into a bottle. What happens? 3. Pour a little limewater into the bottle and shake. 4. Note results. 5. Let a dish of limewater remain over night exposed to the air. 6. What happens? 7. Questions. a. What is the work of the leaves? b. What keeps a plant rigid? e. What is transpiration? d. How much water must a plant take in to get enough food to make a pound of try plant tissue? a. 00 rt © ae . Plants are made mostly of what? . Name two kinds of foods. Give an example of each. . What is the test for starch? Of what is it composed? . Where is starch made in the plant? How do you know? . What is chorophyll and what is its use? How does carbon dioxide get into the air? 8. References. a. a> © oO Any Botany. Fruit Growing by Bailey. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. Lessons with Plants by Bailey. Experiments with Plants by Osterhout. Organ of Reproduction. 1. Parts of a flower. \ YY - “Stig7a ANNAN AN AAA — Yo SAN \\ > ANY - -Stamens anther] SW SSSSSMK wh uN SS ANA PARTY ) WS ‘A LESH HO TM SAN Fig. 65, Vertic section of a tomato Fig. 66, A stamen. blossom. oO MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 83 a. Calyx (the cup). _ St7gma---FS “J. Sepal. b. Corolla (blossom). 1. Petal. Stylém————-| | ce. Stamens. Fig. 66. 1. Anther. 2. Pollen. 3. Filament. d. Pistil. Fig. 67. 1. Ovary. a 2. Style. Ovary—-— Fy 3. Stigma. ~ a . Essential organs. a. Stamens (male organs). : 1. Anther (bearer of pollen). ie b. Pistils (female organs). 1. Stigma (receiver of pollen). . Kind of flowers. a. Perfect has both stamens and pis- til. | b. Imperfect has stamens only or pistil only. . Kind of flower-bearing plants. A -u a. Monoecious is a plant that has I = 4 stamens and pistil in separate Pp. | = flowers on same plant. 2 i = --V b. Diocecious is a plant that has sta- q 5 |= mens and pistil in separate flow- ue LY jf —2 ers on different plants. ANS a _ Study of a flower. Fig 68. tS Vf yy. a. Transverse section of an anther dN \ IAA < before its dehiscence. if SWZ, -P pb. An anther dehiscing, with pollen. | q e. Filament. d. Base of floral leaves. Fig. 68, Diagram_of a simple e. Nectaries. flower. (Andrew’s Botany.) f. Wall of carpels. g. Style. h. Stigma. i. Germinating pollen grains. m. A pollen tube which has reached and entered the micropyle of the ovule. A stalk of ovule. . Base of the inverted ovule. Outer integument or testa. Inner integument, Rudimentary ovule. . Cavity of the embryo sae. . Its basal portion: — Endosperm. . Oosphere. Node of 2 Oop: OFS 84. 1. Kind. a. b. 2. M a b. c. d e 3. Lack in setting fruit. a. b. c. f a. b. c . Pollen tubes. . Germ eell. . Union of two bodies (ga- . Dropping of blossoms. . Climatic conditions. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE Pollination. Close pollination. Cross pollination. 1. By wind. 2. By animals. ethod. Fig 69. Course of pollen tubes. Embryo sac. metes). 1. Egg cell in embryo sac. 2. Pollen grains. Lack of pollination. Inability of certain varie- ties to pollinate. Certain fruit spurs fail to produce fruit buds. 1. Vegetative vigor of trees. . Poor condition of trees. . Insects and diseases. . Rain or snow during blooming period. . Spraying in blooming period. On H 03 DO 1. Winter freezes’ kill fruit buds. 2. Spring frost injures fruit buds. : ° Fig. 69, Pollination of the ovules. Spraying when in full bloom. (Goff and Mayne.) 4. Essentials of good pollination. Varieties must bloom at the same time. Varieties must have an affinity for each other. Varieties must be good pollen producers. 5. Pollination of varieties. a. b. c. Self-fertile is one which sets perfect fruit without the aid of pollen from some other variety. Self-sterile is one which does not set fruit without the aid of pollen from some other variety. Partially self-fertile or self-sterile is one which under certain conditions will set a limited number of fruit. Mixed Planting. 1. Many varieties will not bear well alone. a. b. This is because they require the pollen from blossoms of other varieties. Since all varieties are benefited by cross-pollination, it is a good MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 85 thing to plant two, four, or six rows of one kind and then plant ~ another kind. c. It is best to plant two, four, or six rows rather than one, three, or five, as it facilitates the work when the number of rows are even. This especially is true in spraying as the period of blossoming, and the time of spraying will vary slightly with each variety. e. Plant varieties together which bloom near the same time. f. When the following varieties are grown by themselves and set fruit, the fruit is inferior in size. Duchess. Anjou. Bartlett. Clargeau. Clapp. 1. Pears—Self-Sterile. Lawrence. Winter Nellis. Easter. Doyonne. | Howell. 2. Pears—Self-Sterile, partially. Bose. Manning. Seckel. Angouleme. Autumn Sweet Arkansas Black Bietigheimer Bellflower (Yellow) Chenanga Strawberry Canada Sweet Canada Reinette Early Strawberry Fallawater Gravenstein Gano Hoover Haas Hyde’s King King Jonathan MecMahon’s White Mammoth Black Twig York Imperial Maiden’s Blush Baldwin Bailey’s Sweet Grime’s Golden Keswick Codlin Flemish Beauty. Le Comte. Tyson. White Doyonne. 3. Self-Sterile Apples. Missouri Pippin Northern Spy Norton’s Melon Ortley Pewaukee Primate Golden Pippin Red Cheek Pippin Rome Beauty Rambo Red Astrachan Rhode Island Greening Rosbury Russet Salome Spitzenburg ~ Tallman’s Sweet Wealthy Winesap Transcendant Crab 4, Self-Fertile Apples. Duchess of Oldenburg Shiawasse White Pippin Yellow Newton Pippin 5. Partially Self-Sterile Apples. Ben Davis Canada Red Spitzenburg Wagner 86 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE Mann Whitney’s Crab Rambo Yellow Transparent 2. Questions. . Is it always best to plant two or more varieties together ? . What varieties of apples are best to plant together? . What varieties of pears are best to plant together? . What varieties of plums are best to plant together? What varieties of peaches are best to plant together? What varieties of cherries are best to plant together ? . What varieties of each of the small fruits are best to plant to- gether ? . How does the pollen get from anther to stigma? . Is the stigma ever closed? When? j. What becomes of the pistil in ripe fruit? k. What is the value of pollination? 3. References. . Plant Breeding, by Bailey. . Fruit Growing, by Bailey. . Fruit Growing, by Paddock and Whipple. . Oregon Bulletin No. 20. New York Bulletins Nos. 169, 224, 350. Lessons with Plants by Osterhout. . Experiments with Plants, by Osterhout. . The American Fruit Culturist, by Thomas. BUDS AND BRANCHES. 1. Buds. ‘ee WMmMeAaaceys m0 hoo oD 1. Buds. a. Study a twig. Fig. 70. 1. t—terminal bud. ax—axillary bud. . ls—leaf scars. . tr—leaf traces. . —lenticel. . rs—ring of scars left by. bud scales of pre- ceding season. 7. Study a twig of a fruit tree. 2. Buds are the undeveloped branches or flowers. a. Composed of a mass of tiny leaves. 1. Inside ones are crumpled and compacted. 2. The outside ones are known as the bu scales with a regular formation and drop off when the bud starts to grow, leaving a leaf scar. b. Kind of buds. 1. Terminal buds are ones that grow at the end of twigs or shoots. a. A terminal bud may be either a leaf bud or a flower bud, or both a leaf bud and flower bud. 2. Axillary buds are the ones that grow in the axil of leaves. a. An axillary bud may be a leaf bud, flower bud, or dormant bud. igre OD OUP co do Fig. 70, Winter twig of a ; maple. a d (Andrews’ Botany) MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 87 45) Exercise 33. 1. Object: To locate the buds, scar and leaf traces, ete. 2. Method: a. Collect several fruit twigs; one year old; two years old; three year old. b. Point out the different buds. c. Point out the number of leaves on each twig. d. Point out the leaf traces. e. Point out the leaf scars. f. Point out the ring of scars. g. Compare the growth, buds, number of leaves ot the different a: Pull off the bark of the tree and note the little incipient branches which never develop. b. What would have been the result if the bark above each in- eipient branch had been cut? e. Study the twigs of the Apple Rosette. . Function of buds. . Terminal flower buds produce fruit. . Terminal leaf bud continues the growth of its twig or shoot. . Axillary flower bud produces fruit. . Axillary leaf bud continues the growth of a spur which a be a fruit spur or a leaf spur. e. Axillary dormant bud may lie inactive for months or even years, then through the injury or destruction of its strongest rivals-or some other favorable cause, develops into a branch, as sprouts on stumps. . Growth of buds. a. The tendency of a plant is to grow Snot its uppermost or term- inal buds. b. It will be noted that these buds are the strongest because they have had the most air, heat, and light, to develop them. ce. They grow in the direction that they are pointed. d. Pruning may change the direction of growth. e. Light will change the natural direction. . Causes of the difference between fruit-buds and leaf buds. a. Leaf-buds are the result of rapid growth and fruit buds of slow growth. | b. Check the growth by any means and many fruit-buds will be produced. e. Check the free flow of the sap and fruit-buds are produced. d. Fruit-spurs, produced from leaf-buds, but which, making little growth, become fruit-bearing. e. Pruning leaf-buds produces fruitfulness of the tree. f. Pruning fruit-buds produces more vigorous growth. . How to tell the fruit buds. a. Structure of the buds. 1. The fruit buds are larger, thicker, rounder, more blunt and more fuzzy than leaf buds. 2. The fruit buds contain miniature unopened flowers when ex- amined. Boos 88 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE b. Character of spurs. 1. The fruit spurs generally remain such and so many of them may be many years old and yet be only a few inches long. 2. The fruit spurs that produce terminal fruit buds grow _erooked. 3. The fruit spurs that mature fruit one year, produce only leaf buds that year, and make blossom buds the following year. 7. Location and habits of fruit buds. a. Apple. ie) anes 1. The fruit buds may be terminal on spurs of one or more year old. 2. The fruit buds may be terminal on twigs of last year’s growth. 3. The fruit buds may be axillary buds on last year’s growth. 4. The fruit buds contain both flowers and leaves. 5. The fruit buds are formed in the summer and lie dormant during the winter. 6. Vigorous growth checks fruitfulness and checking the growth — produces fruitfulness. 7. Fruit bearing on spurs is conductive to the production of annual crops. 8. Fruit buds grow singly and expand into clusters of flowers with several leaves. . Pears are same as apples. Quinces. 1. The fruit buds are terminal on shoots formed the same year upon new grown wood. . General of the stone fruit. 1. The fruit buds are lateral on twigs, and develop in axil of leaves of the current year’s growth and the fruit is borne on one year old wood. 2. The fruit buds contain flowers; no leaves, or only rudiment of leaves. Peach. . Same as general, except— . The fruit buds are nearer the tips of strong growing twigs. . The fruit buds carry from one to two flowers. The fruit buds are generally two in a place with leaf buds between. . The fruit buds are formed in summer and lay dormant dur- ing winter. . The fruit buds grow in groups in the axil of clusters of three leaves. pricot. . Same as general, except— . The fruit buds may be terminal on.spurs of new growth which are often very short. . Fruit buds grow in the axils of single leaves. . The fruit buds form the same year on new spurs which’ grow on old wood. . The apricot and peach are almost similar in their fruiting habits. no PO NES Dm oT PwDH MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 89 2. Plum. 1. Same as general, except— 2. The fruit buds are on spurs of old wood, seldom new. 3. The fruit buds carry som one to five flowers. h. Cherries. 1. Sour cherries. a. Same as general, except— b. The fruit bud carries from one to five flowers. 2. Sweet cherries. a. Same as general, except— b. Generally the short spurs on second year’s wood are the fruit bearing part. e. Fruit buds may be terminal and carry from one to five flowers. i. Prunes same as plums. Exercise 34. 1. Object: To study fruit buds of the pome and stone fruits. 2. Method: a. Select a twig of each variety. b. Locate the fruit buds of each. e. The number of flowers in the fruit bud. d. Position of leaves and axillary buds. e. Study the scars and bud scales. 3. Compare fruit buds of stone fruit with pome fruit. 4. Describe the growth of the fruit buds, leaf buds, of stone fruit and the pome fruit. j. Gooseberries. 1. The fruit buds are terminal on spurs of one or more years old. k. Currants. 1. The fruit buds are either terminal or lateral on spurs of one or more years old. 1. Raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, ete. 1. The fruit buds are either terminal or lateral on lateral sum- mer shoots. m. Grapes. ne The fruit buds are (intenal on shoots of current season’s growth from buds which spring from last year’s growth. n. Select shoots of the berry fruit and study the fruit buds as of stone fruit. 8. Environments. a. Air, light, heat and food supply. Exercise 35. 1. Object: To show the effect of environments on the growth of buds. 2. Method: a. Compare a compact headed tree with a free growing, open-centered tree. 1. Amount of air admitted and size of buds. 2. Amount of light admitted and size of buds. 3. Amount of heat admitted and size of buds. 90 ee Watersprouts are often produced by heavy co = . Branches are produced from leaf buds which may be terminal, lateral, or adventitious. . Buds are buds only so long as they remain dormant. . Lateral branches are of varying lengths, some being so short as to be mistaken for buds. . Kind of branches. a. b. b. @: MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 2. Branches. Fruit. spurs are short lateral branches, which usually remain fruit spurs. Adventitious branches are ones that develop anywhere on the stem or branch except at nodes, winter pruning because more plant food is sent up from the roots than the top can use, Fis. 71, Shows ex- resulting in the growth of dormant lateral current S100 ie top. buds. E (Andrews’ Botany.) . Arrangements of branches. a. b. c. . Growth of Branches. a. Opposite. Alternate. Series of rings. Heavy pruning of the tops in winter or during dormant period produces wood growth because the plant food taken up by the root in the spring is concentrated into smaller portion of top, and forcing a rapid growth of the parts left. The strongest shoots or branches are the terminal ones. If the terminal buds are fruit buds or become injured or pruned, the growth of the branch is produced from a lateral bud, resulting in a zig-zag growth. . Give the functions of the branches. . Collect twigs from different kinds of trees. a. b. ¢. Make a drawing of each. Compare their growth. Study a cross section. Exercise 36. 1. Object: To determine what buds pro- duce branches. 2. Method: a. Examine a fruit tree. b. Find branches from what buds they grow. e. Determine from what buds they Fig. 72 shows deliques- STow. cent growth; Intermediate d. From what year’s growth? top. (Andrews’ Botany.) e. Do branches grow better from lateral buds close to end of limb or lower down on limb? f. The formation of a flower bud has what effect on the growth of lateral branch? ge. Examine two-year-old wood to determine what becomes of lateral buds. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 91 ( a References. a. See references under mixed planting. PLANTING AN ORCHARD. 1. Time of planting. 2. a. b. Spring planting. 1. It is preferable where there is extreme low temperature in winter and where the ground is exposed to extreme dry freezing. 2. Generally, the trees maintain their dormant condition better in the spring if they are heeled in during the winter. 3. Plant with the opening of spring before the stored-up plant food is set free is the proper time. Fall planting. 1. It is practiced in warm sections where the winters are not very cold. 2. Fall planted trees, in warm sections get an earlier start than in the spring. 3. The danger of other work or bad weather may delay spring planting. 4. Fall planting has this objectionable feature that the roots do not take hold of the ground sufficiently to supply enough moisture to maintain a healthy, active circulation of sap which is required to prevent shriveling of the branches dur- ing winter’s. extreme cold and exhaustive evaporation from drying winds. Selection of trees. a. The selection of trees is one of the most important things and upon the care and judgment in this matter largely depends the kind of an orchard that will be grown. . A vigorous, well grown, one-year-old tree, with a large, strong heavy base having .a well developed root system, should be selected. . Trees of this type and age are more satisfactory and profitable in time and suffer less in transplanting, and are much more easily handled than older ones. . The local nurseryman, if perfectly familiar with his business, will understand the needs and demands of his home customers and should grow the varieties best suited to his section of coun- try. . By securing trees at the nearby nursery all danger from damage by long transit and the injurious effects of sunshine and frost are avoided. . Some prefer budded trees to grafted ones, as grafted trees in- duce crown gall. . Study the different varieties. 1. Variety best suited for given soil. . Whether vigorous or weak growing kind. . Variety that will properly color on given soil. . Whether upright or spreading in form. . Whether early or late varieties. . Whether good or poor keepers. o> OH Co DD 92 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 3. Choose varieties that will pollinate together. a. b. Cc. If there are two or more varieties, plant four rows of each va- riety. The above arrangement is better and more convenient for har- vesting, pruning and spraying. Any variety occurring in any of the following columns is well pollinated by any one or more varieties in the same column. d. Table of early and late pollination. 1.. Apples. Early. Late. Ortley. Gravenstein. Arkansas Black. Red-cheek Pippin. Oldenburg. Baldwin. Rome Beauty. Red Astrachan. Ben Davis. Spitzenberg. Tetofsky. Black Twig. Wagener. Wealthy. Gano. Willow Twig. Yellow Transparent. Grimes Golden. Winesap (shy pollen Jonathan. producer). McIntosh. White Winter Pear- Newton. main. Northern Spy. Yellow Bellflower. 2. Pears. Early. Late. Bartlett. Angouleme. Clairgeau. Bose. D’ Anjou. Du Comice. Howell. Easter Beurre. Kieffer. iP Barrys Winter Nellis. . Varieties that do best on rich medium mesa soils. 1. Ben Davis, Gano, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, White Winter Pearmain, Winesap, Spitzenberg. . Varieties that do well on heavy soils. 1. Missouri Pippin, Newtown Pippin, both green and yellow. g. Varieties that do well on light soils. 1. Arkansas Black, Ben Davis, Gano. . Varieties that do well on any soils. 1. Ben Davis, Gano, Yellow Transparent. . Commercial aces, 1. Gano, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, Winesap, Newtown Pippin, Spitzenberg and Arkansas Black. Make a list of the varieties for your section. 4, iiisianres for planting. a. b. c. A decision as to the proper distance apart to set apple trees varies with different planters. Some plant 16 to 32 feet, that is, the trees 16 feet apart in rows 32 feet apart. The object of this method is to obtain a crop from the trees un- til they begin to interfere with each other, when every alternate tree in the row is cut out, leaving the trees in the entire orchard at a distance of 32 feet each way. . The trees to be cut out should be early-bearing, short-lived va- rieties. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 93 e. This system has the advantage of more fully utilizing the land for fruit production until the thinning out becomes necessary. f. Other planters adopt a distance between trees of 24 or 30 feet apart each way, claiming that by the time the trees interfere with each other they will have finished their growth and the orchard will begin to decline. g. The distance of 30 feet each way is generally used. 1. It will afford ample space between the rows for growing any crop which requires cultivation, such as corn, beans, potatoes, ete. 2. It will afford free circulation of air and sunshine, both of which are essential to the growing of well developed and highly colored fruit. h. Tabulated distances. he: Slat Gales) = ese sor ae mame 30 feet each way 2 SPAT ARO ECHE BE he ee ke aiay oe ime ae 20 feet each way Bi nSuebiacheruies |G s0 te tek SE Aram Anes, 30 feet each way ASOT EINES OS 1 OMe a Se see 20 feet each way 5. Standard plums, peaches, apricots, : MOCHALIMES ioe Waar SUR OL hes 16 to 18 feet each way 6. Quinces, dwarf pears and apples....10 to 12 feet each way ACR Bailey bs oe) ciao ahiiee tra ays 7x10 to 16x16 feet each way 8. Currants and gooseberries................ 4 feet each way 9. Raspberries and blackberries..... 3x5 to 4x7 feet each way ie osiraw berries an tel@. i202 Vi... sis se 1x3 to 314 feet apart dies Straw perries| Im arden 25. es es a) 1 to 2 feet apart 5. Methods. a. Square Method. 7@——® & z 1. Rule: Multiply the dis- tance in feet between the rows by the distance the trees or plants are apart in the rows, and the pro- ¢4<_ duct will be the number ° i NM . i$ of square feet for each one, which, divided into 3.¢——_o—_#@ © © ) the number of feet in an a - w Pa A acre (43,560) will give. the number for the acre. 2. It is the easiest laid out ? © ° and cultivated and per- 26. mits of gradual thinning Tore out of fillers if they are needed, but the land is a —2—© not evenly distributed to each tree. 3. Fig. 73 shows the square method using thirty feet 8 as the distance that the « £ oy trees are to be apart. a. The dots indicate the permanent, primary, secondary trees. Fig. 73, Shows the square method. 94 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE b. No. 1 shows that permanent trees are set in the corner of the square. c. No. 2 shows where the primary and secondary fillers are Set. d. No. 3 shows that the secondary fillers are removed. e. No. 4 shows that the primary fillers are also removed. . In this, the trees are set at the corners of a square, making the rows an equal distance in both directions. Exercise 37. 1. Object: To lay out an orchard by the square method. 2. Method: a. b. > Tr h. Establish a line (BJ) along one side of the field. Locate where trees are to be set. 1. Use a No. 10 or 12 gauge galvanized wire as long as the field; have washers soldered on wire, use tags on wire, or make links in wire at distances that the trees are to be set apart. 2. Place the wire on any line and drive a peg. where each tree is to be set as indicated by the washers, tags, or links. . Place wire on line (BI ) and drive pegs where trees are to be set. . Establish the line (AB). 1. Use a carpenter’s square which has sides in the ratio of 3, 4 and 5. 2. Place the square at the corner (B); one side will be on the line (BJ) and another will mark the line (AB); then locate the corner (A) by meyer from the corner (B). . Establish line (Al) in the same manner as line (AB) and locate the trees by using the wire. . Establish rows across the field. 1. Stretch the wire from ‘‘A”’ to “‘B’’ and drive a peg where each tree is to be set. 2. Locate other tree rows by using the corresponding stakes in lines (Al and BJ). . When this is done by using the planting board, the holes may be dug and the trees planted, and the rows kept straight. Should the field be large, run a base cross rows midway of the field, or sub-base lines to help out. . Should the land be cut up by a steep draw running through it, draw the wire tight just the same and drop small stone from the link in the wire. . Where it strikes the ground drive a peg to locate the tree. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 95 b. Hexagonal or triangle meth- od. 1. Rule: Divide the number required to the acre ‘‘square method’’ by the decimal .866; or calculate the number by _ the “‘square method’’ and add 15 per cent to get the number of plants re- quired to the acre by this method. 2. Fig. 74 shows the hexag- onal system, using 30 feet as the distance that the trees are to be apart. a. Dots indicate perma- nent and primary trees. b. No. 1 shows. where permanent trees are set: c. No. 2 shows where pri- mary fillers are set. d. No. 3 shows that primary fillers are removed. 3. In this, the trees are more evenly distributed over the surface which allows of more permanent trees being planted per acre; 15 per cent more than the square method and yet the trees are the same distance apart as in the square method. 4. This in itself is worthy of considering. . 5. The triangular system is not so easily cultivated, especially at the ends of the rows and in the corners. Exercise 38. 1. Object: To lay out an orchard by the BES ELS method. 2. Method: a. Establish the lines BH, AB, and AG; as in the square method. b. Use wire, as in square method. -c. The trees on lines AG and BH are farther dart than on the lines AB and GH. d. To find the distance that the trees are apart in lines AG and BH. 1. In triangle ADC, the side DC is the distance that the trees are to be apart and the side AC is double the distance that the trees are apart. 2. Extract the square root of the difference between the square of AC and the square of DC and the " answer is the distance AD which is the same as AL. 3. The distance AL may be found by fastening one end of the wire at D, then the second mark on the wire will meet the line AG at a point L. Fig. 74, Shows the Hexagonal cd aw 96 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 4. AL is the distance that the trees are to be apart on lines AG and BH. 5. Mark off the distance AL along the lines AG and BH and drive pegs where the trees are to be set. e. The first row of trees will be the line DL, and the sec- ond row will start at ‘‘C.’’ f. After a few rows are pegged off, a base row may be run diagonally from the corner ‘‘A.’’ e. Quincunx Method. iL 2. 3. It takes one-half more trees to plant an acre by the Quincunx method than the square method. This system plants in triangles rather than in squares. Usually the fifth tree is set in the center of a square. d. Problems. iL 2. 3. Work out the number of permanent trees required to plant an acre by each method, from 15x15 to 40x40 feet. Work out the number of fillers required to plant an acre by each method. Tabulate the result. Exercise 39. 1. Object: To determine how to plant several varieties. 2. Method: a. Make selections of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 8 varieties. b. Use some of the selections as fillers. c. Use 14, 15, 1614 feet as distance. d. Determine how to set trees in order that any variety, or varieties, may be cut out after 8 to 10 years. e. Note: The commercial value of fruit in ten years may be different than at present. 6. Transplanting. a. Preparing the land at time of planting. 1. The land should be in as good condition as it is possible to ~ Cw bh 5. make it. . There should be a deep, rich bed of mellow soil and well drained for the tree rows. . The soil had better be prepared in the late fall in order that it will be ready for early spring planting. . The method of plowing the land in the fall and leaving it lay up loose through the winter is a good one because the effect of the rain, snow and freezing will leave the soil in better condition. Never use manure in contact with the roots but if soil is poor use nitrate of soda. ; b. Protect the roots. is 2. Keep the roots covered with straw, burlap, or canvas and on reaching home heel in, wetting and packing the ground thoroughly. Take only a few at a time out of the ground at planting time. 7. Digging the hole. Fig. 77. a. 8. Setting the tree. a. _ No. 2 shows the board in posi- _ No. 3 shows another planting _ No. 4 shows the end (A) in po- . Make the hole large enough: to . The above holes show how the . Pour in’ some water when the’ —,> MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 97 3, Keeping the trees in a barrel or a tub of water in the field 2. When the tree is placed in position, the smooth cuts should come in con- tact with the moist soil either at the sides or bot- peer ante tom of the hole... eyets Ba racaeh darweine top. after the 3. Many of the fruit-bearing “™® Beat plants as the apple, pear, peach, plum, and grape will stand quite a severe root pruning. '/ while planting, insures against needless exposure. . Preparing the tree for plant- ing. | 1. All mutilated or dead roots should be removed \| and in cutting away roots aa - it should be the aim to make the cut im such a - manner that a smooth, clean surface is left. =e Hic. 76 — Shows the re- No. 1 shows a board four feet by four inches with notches on side. tion after the hole is dug. board four feet by four inches hinged in the center. 1. The end (A) is to be raised after the board is placed, in ‘order to dig the hole, with- out moving the board from position. sition after the hole is dug. admit the roots without cramp- ing or bending. bottoms should be in order to give the roots plenty of room. Cover the roots with fine soil vhich shoul ; 4. Vy Wp whic should be carefully Vos Uf Uf worked among them. hole is partially filled; if in an irrigated district run in the water from the ditch. 98 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . The ground should be firmly and solidly packed over all parts of the roots to prevent dry air and frost entering and destroying them. . Fill the holes with the surrounding surface after the fresh earth settles and leave a dry mulch of earth on top. . It is best to set the trees a little deeper than when in the nursery, and leaning slightly against the prevailing wind. . By this position the tops will soon shade and protect the bodies from the intense heat of the summer sun which is likely to cause sun seald. . Large trees should be staked and tied. Exercise 40. 1. Object: To transplant seedlings by ‘‘tin can’’ method. 2. Method: a. Get some small, thrifty seedlings about 6 to 8 inches high, growing in nursery beds or in the open, if possible. b. Dig them up carefully, allowing as much earth as possible to remain clinging to the roots. c. Get some tin cans, such as tomato cans, in which to plant the seedlings. d. Across the bottom of the cans make two cuts at right angles to provide drainage, and allow the roots of the seedlings to escape. e. Place the seedlings in the cans and fill in rich earth until they are firmly planted in the cans. f. They may now be kept in the schoolroom windows if the cans are set in a trough or tray so that the little trees can be watered and tended like ordinary plants. g. In the spring set out cans and all in places where it is de- sired to plant the trees. h. The cans will soon rust away and the little trees will con- tinue to grow unchecked. 3. Note: If desired, seeds can be planted in the cans and the trees grown in this way instead of transplanting the seedlings to the cans. 9. Study of Bush Fruits. a. References. 1. Bush Fruits by F. W. Card. 2. Washington Bulletins Nos. 18, 25, 26. 3. U. 8. Dept. Bulletins Nos. 154, 198, 213. 10. References. Pr: 4. 0g bb 2.9 ow . Fruit Growing by Bailey. . Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. American Horticulture Manual, 2 Vols. by Budd and Hansen. The American Fruit Culturist by Thomas. Popular Fruit Growing by Green. . Nursery Book by Bailey. . Lessons with Plants by Bailey. . Experiments with Plants by Osterhout. . Montana Bulletins Nos. 44, 77. . Oregon Bulletins Nos. 20, 111. . Washington Bulletins Nos. 14, 24. l. U.S. Dept. Bulletins Nos. 113, 181, 482. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 95 pe) PRUNING. . Pruning and training are requisites in the successful management of an orchard. . The objects to be attained are:. a. Symmetrical and evenly balanced heads. b. To admit sunlight and free circulation of air into all parts of the tree tops to give color and quality to the fruit. e. To maintain sufficient density of foliage to protect the trunks and branches from the direct intense heat of the sun’s rays, which is likely to scald and injure trees. d. To remove dead, dying, diseased, or broken branches. . To reduce the annual growth for the purpose of correcting the bad habits of the plant. f. To remove branches in order to prevent the breaking or disfig- uring of the tree in later years. g. To reduce the annual growth in order to reduce the crop in pro- portion to the capacity of the tree. h. To protect trees against storms. i. To facilitate tillage, spraying, thinning and harvesting. . Pruning accelerates or augments growth in plants because the re- maining parts receive more plant food. . Tends to develop the lateral and the dormant buds. . Rejuvenation of trees. a. Old, weak, diseased, or winter-killed trees are rejuvenated by heavy pruning of the tops, which induces the trees to throw out strong new shoots. b. Fruit trees which have reached a great age resulting in pro- ducing undersized fruit may be headed back as far as two- thirds of the length of the limbs, or even more. ce. All heading-back should be to such an extent as to completely remove the injured branches. d. If this is not practiced, the injured branches may start to grow in the spring and then die later in the season. e. Injured trees should be thoroughly headed-back. . Methods of pruning. a. Heading-out. 1. Study the location of fruit-buds. 2. Cutting limbs back just above an outside bud or lateral branches. 3. Causes spreading tops. a. The natural form of a tree. b. One factor used to develop a spreading head is to prune the limb to an outer bud. 4. This causes the new growth to point outward. 5. This may be increased still farther by leaving a stub about two inches above the bud, cutting the stub away later in the . season. 6. This causes the new growth to grow more nearly at right angles with the parent limb. 7. The more upright the tree grows, the more heading-out ought to be practiced. 8. Study where the fruit spurs are located before pruning. (av) 100 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE b. Heading-in. 1. 2. 3. Study the location of fruit buds. Cutting limbs back just above an inside bud. Causes upright tops. a. Heading-in causes the growth to point inward. b. Heading-in tends to thicken the crowns of the trees, mak- ing them have dense tops. . Young trees are generally headed-in to make thick, stocky branches. . Heading-in must be lessened as the tree ages. . The more spreading the tree grows, the more heading-in ought to be practiced. ce. Heading-back. Bs 2} It may be combined with heading-in or heading-out. 2. Heavy cutting back of the top-center limbs. 3 4, Points to determine. Tends to make thick and stocky branches. a. Thick and round-headed tops, or, b. Free-growing and open-centered tops. e. Nearness the trees are to each other. d. Type of trees. 1. Branches grow upright or spreading. 2. Branches that grow upright at first, then grow spread- ing after the tree begins to bear fruit. . Never prune a tree until you know why you are pruning it. . A tree having upright growth, as some varieties of apples, and most pear trees, should be headed-back when young, so that the lateral buds will develop and thus make the head of the tree broader. . Begin to prune when the trees are young and prune a little each year. . The heading-back of old trees tends to develop water-sprouts out of the fruit spurs and fruit twigs. These water-sprouts, then, must be cut off and results in the loss of the fruit which should have been grown on the spurs. 10. Always cut out the large limbs of a tree before you cut the smaller ones if the top of the tree is too thick. 11. We are apt to prune off the necessary limbs which we can conveniently get at and leave a mass of smaller limbs in the top. 12. Study the tree as a unit, remembering that each variety of trees needs its own kind bf pruning. 13. The formation of a good shape and framework on the tree, rather than to produce fruit bearing, is the first principle. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE Toi 14. The load of fruit is carried nearer the trunk on main structural branches which are larger in pro- portion to their length than lateral branches, and better able to carry a load of fruit which the tree may develop. 7. Pruning the stem. Cut back the top from twelve to eighteen inches a. above the ground. -b. Leave the buds so arranged that three or five shoots will develop. e. The orchard consists of a lot of stubs sticking out of the ground not over eighteen inches high. d. During the season, these stubs will develop shoots from each bud. 2), SA e. Allow all the shoots to grow until early in July;if ““~ “# the tree stems are slender let grow until the first of _ Fis. 78 — Shows where August, then remove the surplus shoots. to cut stem 8. Main branches. Ce ee a. Three to five branches are considered the ideal number. b. More may be left upon some varieties, particularly those which are strong growers and upon trees which have a well developed root system at planting time. . If the roots have been badly mutilated in removing the tree from the nursery, it will be safer to reduce the branches to three rather than to maintain a larger number. ss A, A B D Fig. 79.—Shows how tops are shaped and scaffold limbs arranged. (Paddock and Whipple.) d. Study Fig. 79. 1. A—shows tree at end of first season’s growth. 2. B—shows the same tree headed-back. 3. C—shows the same tree at end of second season’s growth. 4. D—shows the same tree headed-back, but branches too close. 102 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE e. Pruning should be directed toward retaining the above shape, cutting back excessive growths and thinning and renewing the bearing wood and to develop fruit spurs. f. Arrangement of branches. i 2. Disposed. of equal distances about the main stem or axis of the plant in order that the development will be symmetrical. Branches should be disposed at some distance from one an- other. a. The second branch should be at an angle of 33° or 45° from the first and several inches above it. b. The third branch should be at an angle of 66° or 90° from the first and several inches above the second branch. ce. The other branches should be arranged in the same pro- portion. . The above arrangement forms the best union between branch and body; and is less liable to. injury from heavy snows and winds. 9. Forming the top. a. Merits of low-headed top. HS OF CO Dd HE . Low limbs may be trained upright. . Hold their weight and position better. . It is easier to spray, prune and gather the fruit. . Symmetry and solidity are better formed. . Less danger from high winds. . Protection against sun scald. b. The horizontal diameter of the top should be double the height of the top, which is true with peach trees and many varieties of apple trees. ce. The top should be free-growing, open-headed, in order that the fruit may receive sufficient air, heat, and light. d. The lowest scaffold limb may be only a few inches above the eround, depending on the number of limbs. e. In forming the head, care should be taken to have the framework branches disposed at differ- ent heights along the body of the tree, several inches apart, and distributed as evenly as possi- ble around the body as a central axis. Fig. 80. f. End of the first season’s growth. i 2. 3. 4, growth. Consider each shoot as a separate tree. Select from three to five of the best shoots to form the head of the tree when the tree is pruned. ah Care should be taken that no two spring out ,, : ; Tes 8 0. — opposite one another. Fig. 80. Shows how the Cut back to an outside bud, the shoots 1, 2, 3, pomenes S70NG from one-third to one-half of the last year’s ae hes Beas Fig. 81. planting. . End of second season’s growth. Be 2. . End of the third season’s growth. i 2. . Leave the buds so arranged that the . To secure a well formed and nicely . Those left should be the strongest . Remember that the leaves are to . Prune second year’s growth back from 1/3 . When the growth is eight inches or legs, . This will leave a properly shaped frame . What may seem an open MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 103 first year’s shoot will subdivide; as in Fig. 81. balanced head, these shoots must be frequently watched and any which grow too fast, pinch them back, to maintain an equality. shoots, at equal distances apart around the stem, and should tend to an outward growth to spread and make an open head. $ Fig. 81.—Shows a _ three the plantowhat lungs are, to animals... 7 oe ar the end ut . Sometimes trees are planted that the first season’s growth. have two or more pruned limbs, which sub- divide and several shoots are grown on each limb at the end of the first season’s growth. Fig. 82. Study how the top is formed and pruned in Fig. 83. The tree may be spread or contracted, by cutting to a bud which points inward or out- ward. to 1/2 of their original length in the winter or spring of the third year. heading-back should be less. Fig. 32.—Shows the branches sub- divided. upon which the crown is to be grown, leaving the most central one as a_ leader, which should be _ pruned from four to six inches longer than the others. head when young may prove, when the trees are older, to be too dense and crowded. Select from two to three’ Fig. s3—Shows plan of top after limbs torieach branch ok the, 7° Yee"*: Srowit. frame, removing the superfluous, broken, or crossed limbs. Cut third year’s growth back from one-third to one-half of their length in the spring of the fourth year. ie 8. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . The leader should be maintained, and the top carefully formed in order to prevent heavy growth in undesirable places. . The next year or two, pruning should only differ from the last described, in that the shortening of limbs should be less each year and the crown thinned out more as years pass. . More attention should be given the location of the fruit spurs after the third year. . In all pruning of young trees care should be taken that no two limbs should emerge opposite one another thus forming a bad erotch. : Cut out every limb that forms a closed crotch. Cut every limb to a bud so that no dead stubs will be left. i. Forms of top. As j. Balance top. il, . The half-vase form with . Do not let one side, with- . Do not cut off a single . This is accomplished, not The pyramidal form is the opposite of the vase form in that the main stock or leading shoot of the tree is allowed to maintain its upright growth and the side branches are short- ened back so as to produce the form of a pyramid, as shown in Fig. 71. : . Intermediate form is between the vase and the pyramid, which gives a round, symmetrical shape to the tree and suf- ficiently open to allow free circulation of air and sunlight, as shown in Fig. 72. . The vase or goblet form, which is obtained by cutting out the central stock or leader and training by a system of pruning into the shape as shown in Fig. 84. a leader exposes almost all the fruit and is a more profitable shape, easier to support and more nat- ural. Study the tree with the idea of pruning it and leaving: it with a well balanced head. out it be the side toward the wind, be heavier than another side. limb without there is a good reason for it. 4. Endeavor to prune and shape the. tree so that there will not be long leaders formed. by heading-in, but by cut- ting back the leaders to MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 105 three or more laterals, thus making two or three leaders each out of the three or more laterals. 6. These lateral leaders, in turn, should be treated the same way, some will have to be thinned out, however. 7. By following this method, strong, sturdy main branches may be formed, giving more room for fruit to be borne upon, and also less chance for the fruit to be whipped off by the wind. 8. Don’t forget to make a clean cut when severing a limb from the tree. 9. Cover the cut over with white lead which has been thinned with oil. 10. Method of root pruning after several years of growth. a. The operation is performed by digging out a circular trench at a distance of from 3 to 6 feet from the stem, according to the size and age of the tree, and from 2 to 4 feet in depth, cutting all the roots that may be encountered or can be reached. . If but few strong roots are met with, and if it appears evident that the strong taproots exist, the soil should be undermined with a sharp mattock, severing all the strong roots that can be reached; the soil is then returned being well firmed as the trench is filled, and the process is completed. ce. Effects of root pruning. 1. Stimulation of fruit buds. a. When a tree has attained to a fruit bearing size and shows no indication of fruiting, but continues to maintain a vig- orous growth of branches and is evidently barren as the result of excessive luxuriance, judicious root pruning will have the effect of encouraging formation of fruit buds. b. Trees in this condition, if root pruned about the middle of July, will receive a check to growth which will cause for- mation of fruiting buds during the fall and show a flow- ering disposition the following spring. 11. Summer pruning. a. b. c. d. It should be done the last of June or early July. It may encourage the formation of fruit buds on tardy bearing varieties but it may have the opposite effect unless it is done at the proper time. All watersprouts, cross ibs and unnecessary limbs should be removed. Young trees that are making vigorous growths may be headed back causing side branches to develop and making a round- shaped top. . Such varieties as Spitzenberg and Yellow Newtown, that are slow to come into bearing, may be headed-back when they are five or six years old. 12. References. a. See references under cee planting. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 1. Apples. 106 PRUNING THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUIT TREES a. Attention must be given not only to the height and formation 1. General principles. of the head, but to the removal of wood as well. b. The apple bears its fruit on spurs which are themselves devel- oped from wood two or more years of age. e. The removal of wood which carries fruit spurs reduces the crop that the tree is capable of bearing d. Pruning lessens the annual growth and forces the energy of the plant into the fruit. e. Prolific varieties should be heavily pruned 2. Pruning different varieties. a. Because of their slim twigs, the Limber Twig, Willow Twig, Geneton, Rome Beauty and Yellow Bellflower have to be headed back more than most other varieties, because they have a tend- ency to make long limbs without branching, or with few branches. b. Heading-in a bearing fruit tree produces an excessive growth of new wood, which is in the wrong place, causing the tree to become dense shading the fruit, and producing an inferior quality. ce. The fruit spurs, when the tree is headed-back, as well as the fruit twigs, are apt to spring into growth and thus develop water sprouts, which next year have to be cut off. - Sa— d. The Stayman Winesap, King of Tompkin’s County, Spitzenberg and Red Cheek Pippin must frequently be headed-in more se- verely than the average tree. e.. Upright growth. A. King of Tompkin’s County, Northern Spy, Rome Bea R S BY S| KS Is =; Fig. eer Fig. 85 rs eM te ™ ¥ Lam rg “eB = Fig. 85.—Shows a Rhode Island Green ing of two seasons’ growth. pruned. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 107 . J. Greening, Spitzenberg, Wagner, Grimes Golden, York Im- - perial, Newtown Pippin, Northwest Greening, Yellow Bell- flower, Gano, Tolman’s Sweet, Wealthy, Wolf River, Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Red June, McIntosh Red, De- licious, Winter Banana, Red Cheek Pippin, sweet cherries and some plums. 2. These frequently require heading-out to spread them. APMC ih — Fig. 87.—Same as Fig. 86 having four Fig. 88.—Same s Fig. 87 pruned. 85, 86, 87, 88, from Pruning Book, by Bailey.) seasons’ growth. (Cuts 3. Questions. a. How are the above trees pruned to make spreading tops? b. Do they appear to have a heavy growth? ce. Have they a_ well- balanced top? d. Are the above trees pruned according to the rules of pruning for heading-out ? 4. Study the White Pear- man, a good type of up- right growth. a. It is a strong grower. b. Does not bear heavy on young spurs. e. Fruit spurs are dis- tributed along the larger limbs. d. Some varieties do not need heavy prun- Fig. 89.—Shows a White Pearmain type of Ing. growth.—(Paddock and Whipple.) 108 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE ik. . Unfruitful varieties Summer pruning in- cites fruitfulness, but not always satisfactory. may be forced to bear by planting — on hght soil. f. Spreading growth. Jonathan, Limber Twig, Willow Twig, Geneton, ete: Some which are not so bad are the Maiden Blush, Fameuse, Stay- man Winesap, Graven- stein, Hyde’s King, AI- exander, King David, Arkansas Black and sour cherries. May require heading-in to compact their tops. Study the Jonathan, a good type of growth. a. Some varieties, as Rig. 50 SORE TOaLEaR Sell pease ae Winesap and Mis- (Paddock and Whipple.) souri Pippin are prolific growers and require severe heading- back to prevent spindling tops. b. The stocky limbs are better to bear fruit buds than the spindling ones. c. Varieties that bloom heavily but set very little fruit, should be treated as overbears and heavily prune during dormant season. g. Compare the Jonathan with the White Pearmain. Annual and biennial crops. a. Judicious pruning, as has been pointed out, not only facilitates the work of cultivation, and spraying, but at the same time de- termines to a very considerable extent the fruiting habits of the tree. . The quantity of bearing wood which a tree carries can be modi- fied by pruning so that it will be practically impossible for the top to retain more fruit in any given season than the roots are capable of supplying with a proper amount of nourishment. . Orchardists in general are coming to believe that the reason for the biennial crop in many orchards is due to the fact that during the crop year the trees are allowed to overbear and that their vitality is therefore so much reduced that it is impossible for fruit buds to set a satisfactory crop the succeeding year. The thinning of the fruit, with the result that a crop is borne each year, has convinced practical growers that over-bearing is the cause of the biennial fruit production. 1. General principles. a. 3. b. Cc. . Pruning the stem. a. b. Main branches. a. . While three is given as the . These should be distributed . The number of br ches to MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 2. Pear. What has been said of the apple applies well to the pear. Mature pear trees need little pruning. Fruit bearing of the pear is practically the same as the apple. . With proper training there is no reason why the pear tree may not be grown with a moderately broad and low head. . The forming of the tree belongs to the province of pruning the young tree; but a little judicious head- ing-back practiced on the old tree, taking care to cut to outside buds or branches, will improve on an undesirable form. . When it becomes necessary to head-back the large pear trees, always cut to side limbs and do not make the mistake of choosing an ‘‘off year’’ to do this severe pruning; a heavy crop tends to check , rampant growth encouraged by vigorous pruning. * . The practice of the most successful growers is tu 109 ee 91. — eut the tree back each year and remove some of Shows where to eut back at the new wood that may have been forced by the time of plant- last pruning. ine: . The main object of pruning the mature tree should be to thin the fruit and thus improve the quality, as fel as to encourage more regular bearing. Cut back the young tree as soon as it -has been planted to the height from 12° to 18 inches. The cutting back ale cause several of the upper buds to break and grow. In forming the head of the pear, how- ever, more branches may be left than in the case of the apple. ideal number for the apple, as many as four to eight may be retained by a well- grown pear tree. about the body so as to give practically an equal space between them, and, if pos- sible, they should stand at different heights upon the main stem. be left upon any particular at time of pruning. Fig. 92.—Shows a- two-year-old pear tree must, however, be de- tree. The lines show where to cut back 110 b. . The branches should . The upright growing . The slender, straggling . All pruning and train- . Each branch should, at MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE termined by the conditionof the roots. . The strongest shoots should be left at equal distances apart around the stem and should tend obliquely outward so as to spread and make an open head. . Forming the top. a. A low-headed pear tree is quite as desirable as a low-headed apple tree. — As the tree grows older it will be found that the original growth of the annual shoots will reduce themselves in many cases to 6 or 8 inches in length. . This is due to the fact that the energy of the roots are distrib- uted through a large number of branches, rather than to a few. . By adhering to the following system of pruning a symmetrical, broad-headed tree can be secured, and as fruit bearing increases the framework branches will tend to become more and more drooping. . The plan of pruning for the first four years should be in cutting back one-half of the last year’s growth. . The orchardist should keep clearly in mind the form of a tree that is desired; for what seems to be an open head when the tree is young may prove to be too dense and crowded when older. not be too close to- gether. varieties should be headed-out. growth should be head- ed-in. ing should be done when the tree is young. the close of the first season, be treated as though it were a separ- ate plant, and the num- ber of shoots which it has developed be re- duced to three or more, and these in turn short- ened to at least one- half of last year’s erowth. This operation should be repeated from year to year until the tree comes into full bearing, when less Shortening Fig. 93.—Shows a top-grafted pear tree.— will be required. (Paddock and Whipple.) MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 111 5. Forms of tops. a. Fig. 84. b. The vase form or some modification of it has been found to be best suited for the pear tree. 6. Fig. 93 shows top grafted tree. a. The best time for grafting is just as the buds are beginning to swell. -b. It shows a two-year-old top grafted on the small limbs. e. The larger lower limbs were removed later. . It is well known that orchard trees in general, tend to make their greatest growth near the extremity of the heading branches. . The leaders are the strongest growers and it is frequently a diffi- oult task to stimulate lateral branches to grow sufficiently to pre- . serve a symmetrical development in the tree. 9. The manner of cutting back the annual growth on the various parts of the tree must be carefully studied in order to preserve the sym- metrical development desired. 10. Heavy pruning in the dormant season will stop the shedding or thinning of the blooms or the young fruit as there is less shedding from trees that bear good crops. 3. Quince. ao nn 1. General principles. a. Young quince trees generally receive no training until planted. b. The flowers are co-terminal, borne on this spring’s new wood. e. Heading-in necessarily thins the fruit. 2. Pruning the stem. a. It should be cut back near to the ground and a single upright stem allowed to grow. b. Severe pruning will aid in securing a good shaped tree. 3. Main branches. a. A distinct trunk is generally preferred instead of a bush form. b. The main trunk should divide into several branches a few feet above the ground, which should subdivide, ete. 4. Forming the top. a. Almost like the peach. b. Among the fruit trees herein considered, the quince has a fruit bearing habit peculiar to itself. e. With the advance of spring the dormant buds on the one-year- old wood push out leafy shoots from three to four inches in length and these are terminated by a single flower. d. While both axillary and terminal buds produce these flower- bearing shoots, the stronger flowers come from the axillary buds on the last half of the annual growth; terminal buds more fre- quently give rise to branches or weak flower-bearing shoots. e. While with some varieties the plant assumes a tree-form quite readily, others are, at their best, only a bush. f. A course of severe pruning for the young tree, however, will aid the grower in securing a desirable shaped tree. 2. When the tree has reached a bearing age it should be pruned annually by thinning out the new wood and clipping the re- maining back to about two-thirds of its legnth. h. With proper pruning, the quince should produce annual growths from twelve to twenty-four inches in length. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 4. Peach. 1. General principles. a. b. c d. e. i 2. Pruning the stem. a. b. e Two-year-old tree pruned for shape rather than d. e. 8. Main branches. These young plants are usually reduced to a single stem or whip at planting time. year of its growth. It is an easy matter to go over the newly planted tree and rub off such shoots as are not desired. The peach suffers greatly from neglect and responds The peach is a stronger and more rapid grower than the apple or the pear. : Yearling peach trees are considered more satisfactory by orch- ardists than older trees. The head being formed from the shoots which de- velop along the body of the tree during the first readily to careful treatment. Practically the same rule that holds for pruning the stems of the apple and the pear is adhered to in pruning the stem of the peach. Fig. 95. ae Bee Fig. 96 shows a well pruned tree the second season Peach Mee 5 rom the after it was planted. nursery. fruit. It is necessary to prune severely and possibly to outside buds or branches to secure a top well spread and the fruit wood near the ground. The pruner should constantly keep before him an ideal form for peach tree. a. See apple and pear. Fig. 95, Shows : t 4. Forming of the tops. readgtty AE. a. b. d. Study the location of buds before pruning. . There is a strong tendency in the terminal . The peach tree needs more heading-back and Ordinarily it will be found most satisfactory to prune the peach so as to make a broad, round-headed tree. The fruit is always borne on the outside buds or upon the new wood of the tree. continual pruning than any other fruit tree. buds to push upward and outward, at the ex- pense of the lateral shoots, which soon die. Fig. 96, Low headed tree. Two- . It leaves the tree in time with long bare poles, and Whipple.) : j 5 Brio pruned. (Paddock with only tufts of leaves at their extremities. y.a;-01d, well . It is necessary to head-back each year, in order to furnish a con- tinued supply of young wood, evenly distributed throughout the top. . At the close of winter or early spring, cut off about four-fifths of last year’s growth. ay MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 113 ‘This will thin out the fruit buds by one-third or one-half, but (the fruit will be so much larger and of finer quality. j. lt The division between the one-year-old growth and two-year-old growth is marked by the color of the bark and leaf scars. The annual growth should be at least 18 inches. 5. Freezing and frost. a. Fig. It frequently happens that the freezes are severe enough to re- duce the annual growth as much as it is desirable to reduce it by pruning, and had the pruning been done before the freezing occurred, there might have been an entire loss of the peach crop. . When pruning is delayed until all danger of freezing is past, the pruning can be gauged so as to reduce the fruit bearing wood in proportion to the capacity of the tree. . The peach bears singly, rather than upon fruit spurs, as in the case with the apple and pear. . For this reason, therefore, the heading-back of the peach trees plays an important part in thinning the crop. . Winter killed peach trees may be rejuvenated by cutting back. . Clipping back and thinning should be done after the danger of frost is past. . Where the injury to the new, and even old growth, is severe, the importance of this cannot be too strongly urged, even if there be but a few live buds left upon the tree and the smaller twigs and limbs be entirely killed. It is better to head them back, than to allow them to exhaust themselves in the endeavor to develop a crop and at the same time make a new growth. . If the fruit bud is killed, the pistil turns black or brown; if alive, the pistil is green. = — 97, First year’s growth, fall of Fig. 98, Same as Fig. 97. Properly 1901, low-headed. pruned in March, 1902. 114 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 6. The following cuts will illustrate the growth and method of prun- ing the peach tree for several years. i (The cuts marked W.R.B. are from Maryland Experiment Station.) a. The end of the first year’s growth. 1. How did the tree in Fig. 97 look when planted? 2. The stem after it is planted is cut back to about one foot in Fig. 100, Same as Fig. 99. Properly pruned, March, 1903. 3. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 115 length and is allowed to divide into three or five branches during the next season’s growth. The same heading-back and multiplication of the branches takes place the next year. b. The end of the second year’s growth. al 2. 3 4. 5) 6 it 3 to 5 branches should be left to form the framework of the tree, and the others cut off close to the trunk. The limbs retained should be distributed around the trunk, each pointing in different directions. . About three-fourths of the length of last year’s growth is cut off and the cut is made just above a side limb. Note how the top has grown in one year. . Compare Fig. 99 and Fig. 97. . Plenty of fruiting wood left; good framework for a product- ive tree. . It will broaden out a little more, if properly pruned in the Fig. 102, Shows the same as Fig. Fig. 101, Shows a peach tree two 101 properly pruned and headed- years old before pruning. 8. a: 10. (Paddock and Whipple.) eae (Paddock and Whipple.) Study how Fig. 101 was properly pruned and headed-back. How are the leaders pruned ? Is width of top greater than the height? ce. The end of third year’s growth. ee) AD OF (Se) bor . Same principles that are used in the second year. . Surplus branches and dead and broken limbs must be re- moved. — . The leaders and long side limbs must be shortened-in to keep the top low, strong and spreading. . Side limbs with bearing twigs must not be pruned. . All cuts should be made just above a side limb or bud. . Pruning should be from top downward. . Cuts should be made right up to the trunk or supporting branches. . Wound one inch across or larger should be covered with paint or grafting wax. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE a Ny ns yi RNA NY a Mi Ww Ay ve el ra = 4 ES SANG AW vane AY S NG , INS Oe oy ey fea “A — SO an aa —SS ~ — ———S st ——— = ae SSS ——— = — = = Se = ———— —— a ea = ee =e —— = Se Guia Ee eal oe MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 117 9. Study shape of top, leaders, and how to prune it. 10. Study how the leaders are cut back. 11. Study how the top is thinned by heading-back and out. d. Pruning four-year-old trees. 1. See second and third years. ERD aR Pdiidea deity Gh ila Fig. lua, Shows a neglected four-year- Fig. 106, Same as Fig 105 properly old peach tree. (Paddock and Whipple.) pruned. (Paddock and Whipple.) 2. Tell how Fig. 105 was pruned. 8. Study the shape, top, leaders, and how to prune trees that are four years old. 118 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE e. Pruning five-year-old trees. 1. See second and third years. 2. Note the long-legged, bare-branched, high-topped tree. 3. How should it be pruned by heading-out or heading-in. Fig. 108, Same as Fig 107 properly pruned. ae ————— SS eS ae eS = SS SSS SS ES SSS SS —— ee = ———————— SSa=SSa—SS—_——= ——= SS 4. Study how tie tree was pruned and explain why certain branches were cut off. 7. Low-headed tree. a. Fig. 109 shows a well-trained, low-headed tree. (Paddock and Whipple.) MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 119 by The top forms a right angle and the spread is double the height. ce. The productiveness is increased by forming a spreading top . Dehorning large limbs. a. b. . It should be done as rather than a high top. Fig. 110 shows how to dehorn old trees. The rejuvenating old peach trees is an important principle and should be care- fully considered be- fore it is undertak- en. The best time is when the crop has been killed by late frost. soon as possible af- ter the loss. Rejuvenating and dehorning are neces- sarily the same in their mode of opera- tion. All adventitious growth and suckers should be removed as soon as they begin to form. The equilibrium of Fig. 110, Shows dehorning large limbs. (Paddock and Whipple.) the tree has been so much upset by the heavy pruning that wa- ter sprouts and suckers may arise for several years. . Bracing. a. The limbs of two scaffold branches that need to be braced are twisted together as tightly as possible. Many trees are easily braced in above manner. The limbs that are twisted to- gether will produce fruit spurs. Fig. 111 shows how to brace a top by using wire braces. Fig. 111, Shows how to Wire-brace a top. 120 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 5. Apricot. 1. General principles. . a. The general plan of planting and pruning the apricot will re- semble the peach but not quite as. severe in pruning. b. Young apricot trees that are strong growers must be put through about the same course of pruning as the young peach. ce. Pruning the apricot like the peach, will strengthen the frame branches and develop a broad, low-headed tree. d. Sometimes, simply heading-back the new strong growth will be sufficient to keep the fruiting wood growing thriftily. 2. Forming the top. a. Follow the plan of the peach. 3. Study the location of fruit-buds. a. Fruit buds are developed in the axils of the leaves on 1. Shortened spur-like twigs. 2. Stronger growing branches. 3. Both of current season’s growth. b. Fruit spurs develop no true terminal buds. e. Lateral bud may be a fruit bud or a branch bud. 6. Cherry. i. General principles. a. The planting and pruning the cherry will resemble the apple but not quite as severe in pruning. b. The cherry tree is hardy and readily adapts itself to varied con- ditions. ce. The cherry tree should have a rather dry sandy loam to light clay loam; rich in mineral plant food but poor in nitrogen, with a porous subsoil, well drained. d. The cherry requires little pruning after the first two or three years. e. Forming the top. 1. Some prefer to have a low-spreading top composed of from three to five branches. ilies: i Fig. 113 ehowe the top of a sour cherry. Fig. 112 ewe Pie top of a sweet cherry. MANUAL OR HORTICULTURE : 121 2 The fruiting area should be kept as near the ground as possi- ble; to shade the trunk, to prevent sun-seald, and to encour- age the growth of the fruiting wood throughout the entire top. 3. The sweet and semi-sweet varieties are upright growers and should be headed back to keep them within bounds. 4. The sour varieties are spreading growers and should be head- ed-in. 5. The growing of weak fruit-buds is a sign that the tree is not pruned enough; heavy pruning during the dormant season will often correct the fault. 6. Lack of bloom is generally due to excessive pruning or to much water. 7. Study the location of fruit buds. a. See Apricot. b. Fruit is borne on one-year-old wood, and also mostly on short growths, or spurs. e. Spurs carry. 1. Terminal buds which are generally a branch bud. 2. Axillary buds which are generally a fruit bud. d. The fruit buds are found as axillary buds near the base of the strong-growing new wood. 7. Plum. 1. General principles. a. 2. The varieties ; as, Burbank, Abundance, Salsuma, Red June, and others of the Japanese groups resemble the apricot in system of pruning. . The Domestica plums represented by the prunes are pruned very little, except the varieties that over bear require a certain amount of thinning out.. . The habit of the plum to bear early and abundantly under fav- orable conditions limits its annual growth so that little pruning is necessary other than to remove dead or interfering limbs or to head back an occasional strong shoot which may appear from time to time in the center of the crown. . The plum, as well as the cherry, has the annoying habit of oe- easionally producing strong shoots from adventitious buds along the trunk of the tree or from near the surface of the ground. . A close watch should be kept for such interlopers in order that they may be promptly removed. . In the early period of the growth, the annual growth will need more or less severe cutting back, depending upon the soil and climatic conditions, in order to maintain them within bounds. On general principles, this heading should be done just before the growth starts in the spring. 2. Forming the top. a. b. G d. Some varieties require heading-out to spread the tops. Other varieties require heading-in to compact the tops. They should be low-headed to protect the trunk from sun-seald. There should be annual heading-back and thinning out to force strong new growth. 122 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 3. Study the location of fruit-buds. a. No terminal buds, with few exceptions. b. Last axillary bud is generally a branch bud, except on weak spurs. ce. Branch or spur is the growth of last year’s bud. d. Fruit buds are developed in the axils of the leaves on both spurs and ranker growing new wood. References. 1. See references under planting an orchard. 2. Send to the Washington Nursery Co., Toppenish, Wash., for a com- plete descriptive book of the different varieties of fruit; of orna- mentals, shrubs, vines, shade trees, flowering plants and bulbs. THINNING. 1. Object: a. To maintain the vigor of the trees. b. To secure annual crops instead of alternate. e. To produce fruit of maximum size, color and quality. d. To increase commercial value. 2. Methods: a. Pruning. 1. Study the location and habits of the fruit buds of the differ- ent classes of fruit trees. . Remove the superfluous branches. . Winter pruning tends to produce wood. . Summer pruning tends to produce fruit by checking the growth of the branches. 5. Successful fruit growers understand the importance of prun- ing to gauge the quantity of fruit allowed to be borne by a tree to the capacity of the tree. 6. The ability of the tree in this respect is measured by the growth, the variety, the soil and climatic conditions, to which it is subjected. 7. Pruning the co-terminal fruit-bearing plants; those which bear their fruit upon the growth which grows the same year the fruit does and which springs from last year’s growth. 8. If fruit spurs or twigs burst into growth, it is usually best to head them back each year to their original length, rather than cut them off entirely. 9. Remember, that fruit spurs bear fruit and not leaves and when they are cut off, the tree is not only thinned but the fruit bearing region can never be grown on again. 10. It should be here noted that the tendency to grow rapidly is the most pronounced in young trees, hence the pruning should be more severe than in old trees of the same variety. 11. The disadvantage of pruning to thin the fruit is that you do not know how many buds or young fruit may subsequently be destroyed by disease or cold. 12. Properly pruned trees generally need little thinning of fruit. 13. Thin out the trees that are too close in the tree rows. H= © DOD b. Hand-thinning of apples. 1. Picking off redundant fruits. 2. 13. . Important conditions. . The ways of thinning. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . 128 Requirements vary with dif- ferent individual trees and with the same tree at differ- ent season. a. The different varieties. b. Age and condition of trees. e. Amount of fruit whicn has set. d. Distribution of fruit on trees. Fig. 114, Shows a Winesap branch a. To remove all wormy and three feet long before and after thin- inferior specimens. ning. (Colorado Exp. Station.) b. To remove all terminal fruit on long, slender branches. ce. To remove all limb-bruised and frost-marked fruit. d. To remove all but one fruit from each cluster. . Distance for apples. Fig. 114. a. Some varieties are thinned from 9 to 10 inches apart on old trees. b. Other varieties are thinned from 6 to 8 inches apart on young trees. c. Proper distance prevents limb-bruised fruit caused by wind. d. The size of the fruit determines in a measure the distance that the fruit should be left apart on the limb. . Principle of alternation. a. All the fruit should be removed from some of the spurs. b. This gives the spurs time to form strong fruit buds for the succeeding year. ce. The older the tree, the more fixed is the habit of alterna- tion of bearing fruit, hence thinning should be commenced as early in its growth as possible. . . Time to thin. a. Natural thinning takes place in June—‘‘June Drop.’’ b. Generally after June Drop. ec. June and early July is the proper season to thin apples and pears. . Commence at the top of the tree and work down. . Fruit on lower limbs next to the trunk should be thinned a little farther apart on account of the shade. . In thinning always ‘‘look up and not down.’’ . Be sure that every branch is so thinned that it will support a load of natural fruit. . Fruit spurs with terminal fruit buds, as those of the apple and pear, generally bear only alternate years, and if the spurs are all full of fruit one year, the next may be an ‘‘off year.’’ Not only do the spurs fail to bear annually, but if the tree is 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE overloaded, spurs that produce bloom, even though they fail to set fruit, may not be sufficiently nourished to produce fruit buds for the following season. If the tree bears only a moderate crop of fruit, spurs that produce bloom but no fruit, often develop fruit buds the same season. Where the tree is bearing a light load, spurs may mature fruit and develop fruit buds the same season. a. Much depends upon the general thrift of the trees, and, as in pruning, the grower will have to learn much by ex- perience. Some thin to leave the fruits so far apart, but a rule fixing a certain space between apples will not hold good in all cases. If we were always sure the tree had been properly pruned, . we might be able to give a satisfactory rule to be followed, leaving the fruits so many inches apart. Suppose you decide that the trees should produce ten boxes of faney fruit each. a. Fairly uniform grade of apples ranging from two and one- half to three inches in diameter will pack from 96 to 125 to the box and by thinning two or three trees and leaving from 960 to 1250 apples, actually counting them or esti- mating them as closely as possible, one learns what a tree properly thinned should look like. b. With these trees as a model it is surprising how close one can come to leaving just the right number. e. I think it is possible, by careful work, to come within a box of the ideal. d. By knowing how much the tree should produce is where the experience counts. ce. Hand-thinning of pears. ie 2. 5. Methods of thinning pears differ little from methods of thin- ning apples. As a rule, the pear tree will produce about as many boxes of pears as will the apple tree of the same age produce boxes of apples. . The fruit is generally picked on the installment plan, and it is possible to mature a large crop of fancy fruit; and fruit that is small may be left until it reaches the decided size. . Pears running from 135 to 150 to the box are considered ideal size, and pears for such a pack must measure from two and one-fourth to two and three-fourths inches in diameter. Pears larger than three inches are really not as desirable for the fancy fruit trade as those of smaller size. d. Hand-thinning of peaches. ip In growing peaches much of the thinning is done with the pruning shears during the pruning season, but additional hand-thinning is absolutely necessary. . The thinning should be done before the foliage gets too heavy and before the pits begin to harden. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 125 3. The pruning shears may be used as a help in thinning, and '( fruiting wood not necessarily needed may be removed en- tirely. Fig. 115, Shows how to thin an Alexander peach tree. 4. Fig. 115 shows the results of thinning. a. Upper left—neither pruned nor thinned. b. Upper right—moderately pruned, thinned to 4 inches. ce. Lower right—moderately pruned, thinned to 6-8 inches. d. Lower left—heavily pruned. thinned to 6-8 inches. 9. A good grade of peaches should run less than 90 to the box, and we may say it seldom pays to ship smaller fruit. 6. A size that will pack less than 80 to the box is desirable. 3. The market demands generally what you do not have. a. b. When there is a large crop of fruit, there is an over-supply of small fruit—thin accordingly. When there is a small crop of fruit, there is usually an over- supply of large fruit—thin accordingly. 4. Questions. a. aes Does heavy seed production cause trees to bear crops one year and lessen the amount of fruit the following year? . Do fruit spurs produce fruit and fruit buds the same year? . How are fruit buds produced? . What effect on fruit buds if the fruit spurs produce a full crop of fruit? . How many boxes of apples should a tree produce? Pears? Peaches ? . What effect has sunshine on fruit? 126 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE g. What causes one side of a tree to bear fruit lightly and the other side heavily ? h. Does the fruit tree furnish the same amount of plant food to the fruit that is left after thinning as before thinning? 5. References. . The Pruning Book by Bailey. . The Principles of Fruit Growing by Bailey. _ Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. . Colorado Bulletin No. 139. Colorado Bulletin No. 170. New York Bulletin No. 77. . Montana Bulletin No. 77. . Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 106. 1. GRAPE CULTURE. a. Propagation. 0g ho ao oD 1. Cuttings. a. See Propagation. b. Make cuttings of the last season’s growth as soon as the vines are matured. c. Let the cuttings be from 8 to 20 inches long; the hotter and drier the climate, the longer the cuttings. d. Make the cuttings from young, well-matured, medium-sized and short-jointed wood. e. Cut just below the lower bud, making the cut slanting, and about one inch above the upper bud to keep the bud from drying out. f. Tie in small bundles (butts one way) and heel in or set in trench- es (butt ends up) and cover with three to six inches of dirt. g. Inverting the bundles causes the tops to remain dormant while the butts callous. h. When the cuttings are planted in the spring, the rootlets readily grow before the tops. i. If this is not done the tops start to grow before their roots form to support them. j. Plant in the spring in deeply plowed and mellow ground, in rows three to four feet apart and the cuttings three to four inches apart in the rows. | k. Place so deep that but one eye or bud remains above the ground. 1. Keep the soil clear of weeds, cultivating very often. m. Do not irrigate often, but cultivate constantly. 2. Laying. a. See Propagation. b. This method is usually followed in the Rotundi- folia vines and a few others which do not start read- ily from cuttings. c. Choose a cane of last season’s & gerowth which has Md : SINAY ARE INS = PREY, PPLE: I started near the "6 110) A yma fe ae we ee 2 ee A SS ee 5 eae 1 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 127 base of the vine, and fasten down in a trench about three doches deep. d. Each bud on the cane will usually produce a shoot growing upward. e. After the shoots are well started and rooted at the base, the trench should be filled with soil. f. A slight incision opposite each shoot will assist the formation of roots. g. During the fall or winter the plants may be taken up and divided. 3. Grafting. a. See propagation. b. This is done by cleft grafting or veneer grafting, if on large stocks as top-working; tongue grafting, if upon small roots. e. Treat as in regular nursery practice. b. Planting a vineyard. 1. Time of planting. a. The spring is the best time to set out grape plants. 2. Selection of plants. a. Two years old vines are the most popular for planting. b. Yearlings of the strong growing varieties, as the Concord and Niagara are frequently planted. c. The vines should be free from diseases. 3. Varieties. a. The Concord and its family, Brighton, Niagara are strong erowers. b. The Catawha is a very strong and upright grower. ce. The Black July, Sweet-water and Delaware are weak growers. d. By careful computation it has been found that the greatest yield of grapes is from the fourth to the sixth buds inclusive of the Concord; from the seventh to the ninth of the Niagara, Delaware and Brighton. | e. With this idea in mind they should be pruned and no more than twelve bud _ to the cane should be left. 4. Distance to plant. a. Strong growing ones are usually plant- ed eight to ten feet apart in the rows and the rows from eight to nine feet apart. b. Delawares and other small growing vines are planted closer. 5. Before planting. a. The roots should be cut back to 3 to 4 inches. b. One cane should be left and it should be cut back to two or three buds and let grow on the ground the first year. e. All suckers and scion roots on grafts should be removed. 6. Set out the plants. a. The top bud should only =} Fig. 117, showing where to prune the project above the ground. roots ready for planting. 128 a. b. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . If cuttings are planted, set two in each place in order to get a stand, it is easy to pull one out if both grow. . The hole should be broad and rounded up in the center of the bottom. . Fine pulverized soil should be put around the plant. ce. Grape Terminology. po¥ at pee yp 17 Fig. 118 shows the different parts of a aun cane system of training. : Nomenclature, Fig. 118. A’s are the arms and are two or more years old. B’s are the branches of matured wood and may be score years old. . C’s are canes, called shoots when green and canes when ma- tured. d. L’s are the laterals, the secondary shoots of a cane. e. S’s are suckers, the shoots starting below the ground, from the main body. f. T is the trunk, stem, or main body of the vine. g. W.S.’s are water sprouts which start from wood older than one year. h. The two-year- old arms are 1, 2, 3 and 4. i. The basal eye or bud is near the base of the cane and it is not counted in reckoning the number of eyes on a fruit spur, j. When more than four eyes of a cane are left in pruning, it is called a fruiting cane. Gs Panis . Principles. a. The sap flows with greatest force as it nears the extremity of the canes. b. The more upright the branch is, the more sap flows into it; the more abundant and active the sap, the greater the wood growth and larger and later the fruit. ce. If the sap is checked, the plant bears earlier and produces more and richer fruit. d. The fruit is borne upon new shoots which spring from last year’s erowth. e. The time for pruning is in early spring or late winter, but the MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE ~ 129 -vyines should not be cut when frozen or when the sap flows rapidly. f. The vine should be cut off an inch or so beyond the last bud so that the last bud will not dry out. . Methods. a. Remove all the diseased parts and suckers. b. Shorten the extended shoots, side shoots, and laterals. e. Put upright the parts whose rapid growth is desired. . Pruning the stem. ; a. It may be done at any time during the winter when the vine is dormant. b. The extent depends on the growth made. ce. If the growth is small, all the canes except the strongest should be removed and the strongest cut back to two eyes. d. If a strong growth has been made and there is one straight well ripened cane, all other growth should be removed and the strong cane eut back to the height intended to form the head. e. In the fall or winter all the canes but one, are cut off and this one is cut back to two or three buds. f. From this it will be seen that at the beginning of the second season’s growth the vine is no , larger than at the beginning of the first sea- son after planting. Pie Ulocshowe a _g. It must be noted that the roots have become pruned vine at the well established for the second season’s growth. oe Reet crs . Winter pruning. a. All three-year-old vines should have erect, straight stems with two or more canes growing from the trunk, on which the head or crown is to be formed and from which the growth of the vines is to be renewed from year to year. b. Prune and shape or adjust the main body or permanent parts of the vine to the desired system. ce. Then the fruit bearing part of the plant should be so pruned that the vine will be renewed from year to year; never allow the vine to overbear but make it bear to its full capacity. d. Below the basal buds are one or more dormant buds, which pro- duce sterile canes when too few eyes are left in pruning, thus forcing them to grow. e. If one of them grows the same season it is formed, it makes a lateral from which a secondary lateral may also grow. f. The first and secondary laterals bear the second and third crops of grapes. . Summer pruning. a. When the vine is cut back to two buds, only one should be al- lowed to grow. b. All other young shoots should be removed. ce. When the shoots have grown to a foot above where it is intended to head, they should be topped slightly above where the head is to be formed, causing laterals to grow where they are desired. 130 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE ~svi N ¥ i Fig. 120. Vines ended back for different systems of Paine A, the spur and fan system; B, the four-arm renewal system; C, the two-arm Kniffin, Munson, umbrella and overhead system. d. Summer pruning is practical on the young growth to regulate the quantity of fruit and the shape of the plant. e. The only summer pruning that should be done is to rub off the superfluous shoots growing from the base of the trunk or from the trunk, buds as S and W.S., Fig. 118, and the secondary branches which frequently start from the base of the season’s growth. . e. Different systems. 1. The high-renewal system. Fig. 122. a. The high-renewal system of training requires a trellis consisting of three or more wires or other suitable supports carried by posts or stakes placed at convenient distances apart in the row of grapevines, the vines themselves being planted 8 to 10 feet apart in the row. Fig. 121, pees of an bisa mete) showing the pres (A, B, C) and b. Trellis. devices (D) used for tightening the wires. 1. The first or lowest wire of size No. 12 upon the trellis is usu- ally 18 to 20 inches from the ground. 2. The next wire of size No. 11 to 12 is about 20 inches Winker and the third about 3 feet still higher. 3. The main trunk of the vine is cnrrice to the height of the lowest wire or support. e. Principles. 1. If the high renewal or upright system is followed to train the vine by, all of the season’s growth is cut off each year, Page: the head of the vine. 2. This leaves a cane or spur on each side, so that the canes can be tied to the wire. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 131 _-3. The length of the cane and the number of eyes left on the - vines will vary with the variety and size of the vine, but roughly speaking, 20 to 30 eyes for weak growing ones and 40 to 50 for strong growing vines. 4. A cane carrying about eight buds is trained in either direc- tion along the lowest wire. 5. From each of these buds shoots develop which bear the crop of the season; but as these shoots are seldom able to care for themselves they must be tied ig the upper supports of the trellis. i 6. It will be noted from this that the summer tying of plants trained on this sys- tem is very much greater than with plants trained on the Kniffen system. 7. From the T head which, as_ i has been stated, is carried’ Hf’ ° © og, to the height of the lowest’ yy kg winston a, Wire, canes are carried in bese dated uel ices: ds hacteabyiaee both directions along the {| lowest and are firmly tied %—————+> ——_ — —_ to it. N\g 8. Near the base of each of these canes, but upon the older wood: of the T head, short spurs carrying two or three buds are maintained, A and B, Fig. 123, from | which shoots develop Which WWBhmruis(rnen whstint na 2 in turn are usually em-* ployed to furnish: the fruit- ing canes of the succeeding _ year; that is, the spurs are the means of renewing the fruiting wood of the vine grown on the high-renewal system. d. Pruning. . Fig. 122, 1. The end of the second year. GA @ a. At the allies of the second season after planting, you should have a vine like the illustration; with two good canes extending in _ the . opposite directions, — and tied to the wire. b. The -pruning this. year’ should be to cut off the - ends of the canes back to vy J nein AR Ti cca Ne an D firm, strong wood, leav- rig. 122, A pruned and an unpruned vine at different ages. 132 2. 3. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE ing from five to eight buds. ec. Observe the renewal stubs, one on each side of the crotch on B. d. If the second season’s growth is too weak to support the arms which are now to be formed upon it, cut it back at the end of the second season, as at the end of the first season. The end of the third year. (B) a. The third year’s shoots will grow upright from these five to eight buds and should be tied to the upper wire, or they may be allowed to droop from the first wire to the ground. b. Some of the upright shoots will bear a crop the third year, but unless the vines are strong, the flower clusters should be removed. ce. The vine is pruned at the end of the third year like (B). The end of the fourth year (C and D). a. At the end of the fourth season the vines look like (D) if it is a strong grower. b. The vine at the end of the fontth year is pruned like (C). 9. Kniffen four-cane system. a. Trellis. ake It consists of two wires; first 30, and second, 56 inches above the ground. b. Principles. 1. See Fig. 118. 2. oO Be oO 10. Two canes and two spurs of last year’s growth are left at the lower wire; two canes and two spurs at the top vine. . It will be noted that the long trunk employed in the Kniffen system carries the fruiting branches far above the ground. . This permits the annual growth to fall from the supporting wires in a natural way without the necessity of tying. . Slight advantage which the Kniffen system has over high- renewal system is that the fruits are farther from the ground and less liable to injury from mildew and rot. . They are also somewhat easier to spray, although there is comparatively little difference in this regard between the Kniffen and the high-renewal system. . The Kniffen system consists in the carrying of either one or two main trunks to the height of 3 to 5 feet above the ground; sometimes they are carried to the height of 6 feet or more. _ If two trunks are employed, one is carried 6 feet or more above the ground and the other about 18 to 20 inches lower. . It is not desirable to attempt to make two stories on a single trunk as the laws of growth induce development at the ex- tremity of the cane and therefore the set of branches which are the lowest upon a common trunk makes little or no de- velopment, growth being confined almost entirely to the up- permost set of branches. When two trunks are employed, the case is different and each set of branches becomes, as it were, terminal branches and a much more satisfactory growth results. eC. Pr MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 133 uning. 1. The method of renewal employed in the Kniffen system is 5. practically the same as that in the high-renewal system; that is, the canes which are to bear the fruit during the next sea- son are selected from wood which developed the previous year. . These canes are cut back to six or eight buds and are tied to the central wire of the overhead trellis. . At the close of the season the bearing cane is removed and a new shoot, which. developed from near the head of the trunk, is used to replace it during the sticceeding year. . The same treatment is employed for the other side of the head; that is, the T head at the top of the trunk on the Knif- fen trained vine serves the same purpose as the T head at the top of the trunk of the high-renewal vine. The vine trained according to the four cane Kniffen system at the end of the fourth year is shown in figure 128. 3. Kniffen two cane system, or Umbrella system. a. Principles. b. Pruning. Fig. 123. 1. See pruning of the four cane system. 4. Short pruning system. a. This system is also called the spur or stool system, and is extensively used in Califor- nia, especially with the stockier growing varieties. . The body of the vine is first allowed to grow Cc. i. The trunk of the vine extending directly to the top wire where the growth is annually cut back to two canes and two Spurs, one on each side, which are fastened to the top wire. . The absence of the two lower canes insures a good upright trunk and the reiiewal of the fruit bearing wood to one head makes the vine more easily pruned, leaves less old wood, and results in a cleaner and better ventilated vines. to the desired height and shoots are permit- ‘3 gyReess ted to grow only from the two uppermost “> Saaiet buds. . Fig. 124, A pruned Two canes thus resulting are cut back in the vine in its fifth year, showing the winter to spurs of two eyes each. method of training by the spur, stool d. Next year, these spurs are allowed to pro- - or short system. 134 =o Pos . The two-cane Kniffen system. a.. b. a. b. Cc. . The advantage ofthese two tis is . ‘The renewal of the fruit-bearing wood to ‘vine. . The High-renewal system. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE duce growth and the canes thus resulting, are again cut back to spurs which are allowed to remain if the vine is strong enough. Fig. 120A. . At the end of the fourth or fifth year the vine should consist of a trunk from which springs four or five arms on each of which a cane has been cut back to a spur as illustrated by Fig. 124. . When the vine is again pruned, all or nearly all of the outer canes that have grown then from the spurs are entirely removed. . The spurs of the last season are cut off just outside of the inner canes, which are cut back to spurs, after this, the pruning each winter is to promote a regular system of spur renewal. . The older the vines, the stronger they get and hence more spurs may be left on to increase the fruiting capacity of the plant. . In time the arms upon which the spurs are borne will have to be renewed. ial Essay to keep the head of the vine vase- shaped. i . Vines like the Niagara, Delaware and the Brighton, which have poor growth from the first may be improved by increasing the length of the spurs and number of eyes, leaving four or five eyes. f. Comparison of the different Sytens . The four cane Kniffen system. . See Figure 118. . Its advantages over the single stemmed Kniffen is that the laws of growth encour- age the greater development of the upper set of branches at the expense of the lower. that the canes fall naturally upon the wires and are easily tied. See Figure 123. It is an improvement over the four caned Kniffen in that the absence of the two lower- canes insures a good upright trunk. one head, makes the vine more easily; ~ pruned, and leaves less wood and result- ing’in a cleaner and better ventilated - ‘See Figure 122. The only difference between this and the at jet ve ae two is that the new growth of the vine in its Attn year, atter must be tied up to the higher wire, Showings the method o rather than be aed to fall to the system. oe Aaa ground. an This necessitates a great deal more mee | in the summer and also more wire. 4. The Horizontal-arm spur system. a. b. See Pig. 126. This is the same as the above ones except that the arms are left MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 135 on and the new growths are made from the canes which are left upon the arms and are renewed thereon every year. ce. This method gives more surface upon which the new growth is made, © : d. New spurs are grown from the horizontal arms to replace the old-one and for the new shoots to start out from. e. Heavy wood-growing varieties may be successfully pruned this way. Fig. 126, A vine in its fourth year according to the horizontal arm spur renewal system. 5. Fan System. ! a. See Figure 127. Ye) / Dees Ane": Ata an a } B Ptah = rie [ae Fig. 127, A vine at different ages, showing the method of training by the fan system; . A, an unpruned vine in its third year; B, a pruned vine in its fourth year; C, an unpruned vine in its fourth year. b. In this method most of the old wood is disposed of each year. ce. The vines can be laid down and covered each year if the climate is severe; and the young growing shoots can be laid across the wires and the tendrils catch onto the wire doing away with the necessity of tying. d. The renewals are seen in B, and the explanation at the base of - - the illustration is sufficient to enable the operation to be under- stood. > 6. Short system. a. See Figures 124 and 120A. b. The advantages of this system are that it is the simplest, easiest and cheapest method in use. 136 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE ae on . The vines in figure 120 g. Pruning old vines. The vines in figure 123 show how they were -- pruned for the first four years according to the two-cane system which will also represent how the top is formed in the other system. Sp Soy 5 C show how the vines of the different systems are pruned at the end of the third year. . Let the vine in figure 118 represent the | growth at the end of the fifth year. reel a. The two-year-old arms (1, 2, 3 and : C : Fi 128, A vine pruned ac- 4) which grew during the previous eorame to the four-cane Knif- tem; C, canes, called summer, were the only ones allowed (ufo ona erecn analeamed 1 5 ., Spurs, canes to remain of all the canes when the W200 tae ee ane vine was pruned in the winter. oa ee ei ee aoe b. When the canes Gs 2, 3, 4) were first 2rms succeeding those shown at their 2-year-old stage in fig- left, they were tied to the wire. ure 119 at 1, 2, 3, 4. ce. The canes grew from the above arms and bore fruit the next summer. . Study the parts of the figure 128. . The vine in figure 118 is pruned the following winter and it looks like the vine in figure 128. a. The canes (a, b, ec, d) were only left and tied to the wire as the arms (1, 2, 8, 4) of figure 118. b. The canes (a, b, c, d) are only one year old but become arms when canes grew upon them. e. The C canes in figure 128 in the spring should never be more than one year old. d. This necessitates a constant renewal of wood for the bearing surface. . The renewal of spurs. a. This is affected by keeping a new growth Sp in Fig. 128 erow- ing each year, out of which shoots grow to become canes upon which the next year’s crop is to grow. b. These canes grow from Sp shoots while the present crop is being borne upon C. canes in Fig. 128. ce. The spur, Sp. in Fig. 128 should be cut to from one to four buds from which the new canes start. d. Remember the basal buds do not grow strong shoots and for that reason should not be left on. . The entire vine, Fig. 118 is pruned in ten cuts. h. Renewal. . It must be remembered that we must have some method of renew- ing the tops or bearing wood of the vine. Ne} oo on) MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 137 . In order to do this intelligently, we must remember that the fruit is borne in a few clusters near the base of the growing shoot of the present season and that these spring from wood of last year’s growth. . Each bud on the old cane produces a new shoot which may bear fruit as well as leaves and then the shoots ripen into canes. . These canes have buds every foot or less from which a new fruit bearing shoot may start in the next spring. . The cane cannot bear a shoot for every bud, therefore it is neces- sary to cut off the cane leaving only as many buds as experience teaches that the variety can stand. . This is from five to ten buds, never more than ten. . Each shoot from these should bear from two to four clusters. . From two to five canes not bearing over five to ten buds, each should be left for each spring growth. . It will be seen from this that the constantly ageing of the main branches, B. Fig 118 extending into A, Fig. 118, will have a tend- ency to keep carrying the fruit bearing wood away from the main body or trunk of the vine. 10. It is for this reason that the little growths are started as in B and C, Fig. 122 and A and B in Fig. 123. 11. As the wider extending two branches age and earry the fruit . Propagation. bearing wood farther and farther away from the trunk, these two renewal stubs may be bent down to the wire and fastened to the wire and then the older arms cut off in due time. 1. References. . See References under Thinning. . U.S. Dept. Bulletin No. 471. STRAWBERRIES. a. By seeds to secure new forms. b. By Stolons. . Time to plant. a. Spring planting is preferable becatise the soil is moist, warm and in better condition for the plants. b. Fall planting is practiced but the plant has not time to produce a large crown system before winter. . Selection of plants. a. Plants that have developed strong crowns and healthy root sys- tem are capable of producing large crops. b. Plants that are formed by stolons should be used. ce. Plants from the old bed should be avoided as continued fruiting saps the vitality and prevents the development of strong run- ners. d. Pollination. 1. Bi-sexual or perfect plants have power of producing both stamens and pistils. a. Bi-sexual varieties. Aroma Oregon Iron Clad \ Brandywine Parker Earle Clark’s Seedling Parson’s Beauty Gandy Rough Rider 138 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE Marshall Senator Dunlap Midnight Wm. Belt Miller 2. Pistillate or imperfect plants produce pistils only. a. Pistillate varieties should not be planted alone. Buback President Haverland Sample Mark Hanna 3. Fruiting seasons. a. Early to medium varieties. Aroma Parker Earle Brandywine ' Parson’s Beauty Clark’s Seedling Rough Rider Midnight Senator Dunlap. Miller. Wm. Belt b. Late varieties. . Buback - Marshall . Gandy Oregon Tron Clad — Haverland eee President Mark Hanna | Sample 4. Distance to plant. a. Hill system. 1. Plants are set singly either 3 by 3 feet apart or with rows 4 feet apart and the plants 2 feet apart in the rows depending on soil. 2. The hill system affords more intensive cultivation. © b. Matted system. 1. Plants are set in single rows 4 feet apart with the plants 12 inches apart in the row, or the rows from 3 to 31% feet apart and plants from 20 to 30 inches apart in the row. 2. After the second crop has been harvested the runners can take possession of the cultivated middle; and when the plants are thoroughly established, the old- rows can be broken up, thus cheaply renewing the pateh. ce. Single-Hedge Row. | 1. The plants are set in rows from 2 to 3 feet apart and the plants from 20 to 30 inches apart in the row. 2. The mother plant is allowed to set two runners: which are turned into the row. 3. All other runners are clipped off. d. Double-Hedge Row. 1. The plants are set In rows about 3 feet apart, and the plants about 30 inches apart. 2. The mother plant is allowed to set four runners, one ‘from ' each side of the plant. 3. Superfluous runners are clipped off. G4 Chis eliminates crowding and permits plenty of nn and air. 5. Before planting. © a. Plants should be nésledi in by digging a trench deep enough to cover the roots and laying in the plants close together in a single MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 139 row with roots spread out, and the soil should be pressed firmly -around the roots leaving the crowns and leaves exposed. b. When transplanting, the roots should not be exposed to wind as drying out of the roots is very detrimental to the life of the plant. e. Dip the roots in water and place the plants in small bundles then wrap with a damp cloth. d. Prune off all diseased and dead leaves and all large ones except one or two of the thriftiest. e. Prune off about one-third of the roots. 6. Setting out the plants. a. A shovel-toothed cultivator can be faea ee making the rows. b. The hole may be opened with spade or trowel and the plant placed in at the proper depth. e. The roots should be spread apart like a fan. d. The crown should be just at the surface of the soil. -e. The soil should be pressed firmly against the roots of the plants. 7. Pruning. a. Runners exhaust and check the plants more than weeds. b. If strong plants and large excellent. fruit, are desired, the run- ners should be kept off by pruning once a week through the summer. _.¢e. Begin to prune as soon as the plants begin to form runners. ‘-d. Sometimes a strawberry pruner is used, which is made out of a heavy sheet-iron about 30 inches long and 6 inches wide, the ends riveted to form a cylinder about 9 inches in diameter; the edge should be kept very sharp. 8. Irrigation. a. The water is best: applied in small rills piace to the row. b. Use-a small amount of water over a long period on soils that have a tendency to. puddle instead of a ee amount for less Se IMO, - .e.. Coarse ie ‘soils should receive copious. nite: of shorter - duration than fine soils. d. Irrigate for plants when the ground heging to get dry, and two or three times a week when the berries begin to ripen in order to - make big berries. &: Gultizations. ’ a. Intensive cultivation. is teal to mature a large crop of berries. b. General rules. 1. Strawberry Bic are shallow rooted and cultivation should be shallow so as not to disturb the fibrous roots. 2. Dust mulch should be obtained to prevent evaporation. 3. Keep out the grass and weeds as they rob the strawberry plants of nourishment. e, Thorough clean cultivation i is the secret of success in strawberry culture. - 10. Mulching. a. The material used is whole or cut straw, straw manure or marsh ~ hay. 140 b. c. d. e. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE It is to protect the plants from cold, prevents freezing and thaw- ing and thus lifting of the plants. It retards the growth in cold regions by shading the crowns and maintaining a low soil temperature longer than in soil not mulched. It acts as a conserve of moisture, discourages weed growth of smothering the young seedlings. It protects the fruit from contact with the soil. 11. References. a. b. & U. S. Dept. Bulletin No. 198. Idaho Bulletin No. 70. Delaware Bulletin No. 28. 2. Blackberries and Raspberries. 1. Object of pruning. a. b. G: d. Removing superfluous shoots from the base of the plant so that no more than five or six canes remain. Heading back the shoots when they reach the required height, thus causing them to throw out laterals and be more stocky. Heading back these laterals next spring before the growth starts. Cutting out the canes after they have borne rather than waiting to do this the next spring. 2. The first step. a. The usual plan is to allow the young shoots which annually spring up from the root of the plant to grow to the height of 2 feet or a little more. . When the shoots have attained this height the first step in the pruning begins by breaking off 3 or 4 inches of the topmost por- tion of the shoot, leaving it 20 or 22 inches in height. . The rapidly growing succulent shoots snap off easily between the thumb and finger, and as a rule, no shears or other pruning device will be found necessary to accomplish this heading-in. . As a result of the check sustained by breaking off the terminal bud, the stalk thickens, the leaves grow larger, the axillary buds near the end of the stalk increase in size, and soon lateral shoots develop from them. . As a rule, five or six of the topmost buds push out and, instead of having one sturdy stalk several feet in length which would carry one-half dozen fruit clusters near its tip the succeeding season, pruning has restricted its height to 20 or 22 inches and has induced the formation of five or six lateral shoots, each of which may grow to be as much as 18 inches or more in length before the close of the season and, instead of a single cane for fruit production, there are five or six, each of which will carry as many fruit clusters as would have been produced by the orig- inal shoot, had it been left to itself. 3. Second step. a. b. —@. The second step in pruning consists in. cutting out all the wood which is older than the present season’s growth. This pruning should be done immediately after the season’s 's crop has been harvested. If done at this period it is easy to distinguish the fruiting wood from that which has grown during the season, and by taking . A cutting edge is provided on the . In one case the implement serves : Third step. a. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 141 ~out all the useless wood at this time the whole energy of the root is reserved for the new growth which is to supply the crop next season. hook which reduces it to a hawk- bill knife, and as well upon the chisel-shaped portion upon the back. the purpose of a brush hook on a small scale, and in the other, when the chisel blade is used, it serves as a spud. A third step in the pruning is short- ening the lateral branches which A have developed from the headed-in wa hh fhe shoot. Fig. 129, Shows raspberry . This work is usually done in the propery) uPuned: spring before or at blooming time, and is for the purpose of regulating the crop as well as reducing the wood so as to enable the cane more vasily to support the fruit and to make the work of harvesting more easy. 5. New growth from roots. a. From what has been stated it will have been inferred that the raspberry bears its fruit most abundantly upon wood one year of age, and that older wood is of little or no use and should be cut out for the good of the plant. _ There are exceptions to the rule, for raspberries frequently bear a few fruits upon the new shoots which annually come up from the root of the plant when those shoots are allowed to grow unchecked ; but as this forms a late or second crop and as it does not occur as a fixed habit of the plant but rather as a result of peculiar weather conditions, it is never taken into ac- count in commercial raspberry culture. 6. Results of pruning. a. The shortening of the shoots to 2 feet or less in height together with the thickening which follows, renders them able to sup- port a crop of fruit without the aid of a trellis. 7. Method of stalking. a. If the upright growing varieties are planted in hills they may be stalked to a single stake from four to six feet high, and the canes loosely but firmly fastened to the stake. . Another method is to have two stakes about eighteen inches apart at each hill with the idea of training the fruiting canes on one post and the growing canes on the other. . Where the plants are planted in a continuous row they may be ~ supported by a wire trellis of two wires running from the posts. . One of ‘the wires should run along the top of the posts and the other from eighteen to twenty-four inches from the top. . Another method is to put across arms about eighteen inches long, on a single line of posts about three feet from the ground running a wire at each end of the cross pieces. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE f. Another set of cross pieces at the top of the posts with heavy (No. 10) wire staples should be fastened. g. This ‘forms a lateral support. h. This latter (the four-wire support) makes also, an excellent support for the viney -varieties. . By this system the growing canes can and should be kept from the fruiting ones, thus facilitating picking, harvesting and - pruning. ee . Method of growth. a. The canes of these plants are biennial. b. The canes grow the first season, fruit the second, after which they die. New ones grow up to take their place at the same time. . When the new canes of the black-cap and Antwerps have reached the height of three to four feet, they should be pinched back which will cause them to become stout and thick, and strong laterals to develop. e. After the laterals are a foot or.so long, they, in turn should be pinched back. oo £ When suckers are numerous they should be cut away, leaving only enough to replenish the plant for next year. g. Usually five or six years is the age of one of these 6 Pr . References. a. Washington Pulletin No. 18. 3. ‘Currants- Gooseberries. : coe a. In general, a currant bush should be composed of from five to eight stalks, stopped about 18 to 20 inches in height. b. If the plants are vigorous, shoots stopped at this height will produce several lateral branches, thus. forming a compact, broad-headed bush with a maximum expanse of bearing wood. ce. To grow currants in tree form all the grower has to do is to remove all the buds from the part of the layer or cutting that is put in the ground. d. This prevents any growth shooting up from below the surface of the soil, hence no suckers are’ formed. . Gooseberries. a. The gooseberry should be treated like currants, but will be found to require less heading-back, because its normal habit is to produce numerous side shoots rather than strong, upright ones. . The canes of the currant and gooseberry bear several times. a. Only the first two or three crops are the best; after this the fruit deteriorates in size. b. For this reason, it is necessary that a succession of strong, new canes be coming on all the time. ce. Then, as the older canes age, they should be cut out. d. A good bush may be allowed from four to eight canes, the fewer of course, the larger the fruits. . References. a. Washington Bulletins Nos. 25, 26. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 143 : ORNAMENTALS. 1. Objects in pruning ornamental trees and shrubs. a. To produce some desired form. b. To develop strong and uniform foliage. e. To produce flower buds. 2. The important things to remember in pruning flowering shrubs. a. Those flowering in spring usually flower from winter buds. b. Those flowering in summer or autumn from buds formed that _ season. ce. It will be seen that winter pruning of the former cuts away flower buds. d. Heading-in, just as soon as the flowers fall encourages the growth of new shoots, with the formation of new buds which will bloom the following year. . e. These shoots will form without the aid of the pruner, but when the bush begins to get crowded or old, it is advisable to prune or head in and then thin out. _ Summer blooming trees or shrubs bear flowers on shoots grown the same season. The flowers are not formed until growth begins. These plants should be made to bear a profusion of strong spring and early growths. -™o facilitate this it is necessary to prune in the fall, winter or early spring. ae _ The best example of this is the roses. o _ Climbing and pillar roses need only the weak branches and tips shortened. Na . Other hardy varieties need heading back from one-third to two- thirds of their length, early in the spring. rath | 10. All old wood should be entirely cut out leaving only the last year’s shoots. jh mwiam ia 11. A cutting back after the June blooming will also encourage new erowth with a second crop of flowers. 12. If the cutting back is too severe in the June pruning, there will be only vigorous, leafy shoots without flowers. 13. Do not cut back over one-third.» ' ay 1 14.In trimming roses, prune strong growing varieties moderately ; weak growing ones severely. 15. The spring blooming flowers should be pruned just after they flower. | © ON D TOF Ww Wmelanchieriie «i iio ‘Mock Orange - “Amydalus . ' * . | Most Woody Spireas Asiatic Hydrangea -' +. . Rhodedéndron Azalea ~ > - Snowball Barbery 4 Syringas Cerasus Tamarix Africana Deutzia Tamarix Gallica Flowering Crabs Viburoums, French and Asiatic Flowering Currants V. Lantan and V. Opulas Forsythia V. Aricties, V. Plicatum .Leneriea ° Seay da Cane a § .Weigela Lilae | Wistaria Magnolias 144 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 16. The summer and autumn blooming plants should be pruned in winter or early spring. American Hydrangeas Genista Ceanethus Hydrangea Paniculata Clematis Kersia Cornus Most roses Fly Honeysuckle True or Twining Honeysuckle HEDGES. 1. Form. a. One of the best forms for a hedge which is to serve either as a fence, windbreak, or as an ornament is the pyramid. 2. Shaping the hedge. a. When the plants are first set out in line they should be pruned or shortened to within 2 or 3 inches of the ground and allowed to grow undisturbed during the first season. b. At the end of the yearly growth, the plants should again be pruned down to within 6 or 8 inches of the first pruning, and the side or horizontal growths being pruned within an inch of the main stem. ce. During the growth of the second season the hedge may be par- tially shaped by an occasional pinching out of the points of stronger upright shoots, but preserving every shoot and leaf on the weaker side erowth. 3. Varieties of hedges. a. Honey Locust which makes the best quick-growing protective hedges ; big strong spines. b. Barberry which is low, spreading and showy. e. Japan Quince, which has the finest flower of all hedge plants. d. Privet which is the fastest growing hedge. 4. Pruning evergreens. a. Evergreens, such as the arbor vitae, require less labor in pre- paration or training and maintenance than deciduous plants, as most of them naturally assume a pyramidal form, and by a practice, based upon the principles already noted, good hedges can easily be produced. b. The main points are to keep the top of the hedge shaped to a point and allow the sides to expand sufficiently so that all parts of the hedge surface may be exposed to light. ec. Very rarely will it be necessary to trim the growing hedge more than once a year and the best time for the work is just before the commencement of the growth in spring. d. When the hedge has attained a height of 5 feet, it should be about 3 feet wide at its base or at the surface of the ground and all pruning should be directed with a view to securing this form. ORNAMENTAL TREES. 1. Planting of seeds. a. See Stratification. 2. Time to plant. a. It depends upon the conditions of the soil, and the weather that follows transplanting. b. Many trees may be planted at any time during their dormant or leafless period. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 145 .c. Early spring is generally the best time to transplant. 3. Before planting. a. See Apple. 4, Setting the tree. a. See Apple. 5. Pruning the stem. a. The tree should remain under the nursery culture till it has reached a height from 8 to 10 feet. b. It should be headed-back from 7 to 8 feet. e. The young limb grows in the direction to which it is pointed in an angle to the parent branch according to its variety; it devi- ates from this to the light in more or less short curves. Know- RES ing these three facts, ‘ NY besides the fact that ” NZ the strongest limbs eae. grow from the top , buds, we should nev-:| | er prune so the bud+} | ff will point inward to- sat deiatvena ward the center. PINS igre peace tat e. Practically the train- * ZI ing process should Figs. 120 shows how to prune the stems and tops. commence in the nursery, where the growth of a leading shoot should be maintained and all side branches kept back by pinch- ing their points. f. These branches should not be removed entirely, as they tend to strengthen the main stem, and can be removed later. 6. Cutting branches. a. Do not leave stubs or cut too close to trunks of trees. b. The cut should be as small as possible. e. Strong branches do not always develop from the highest cut. We =-Wreng- t Ny & wrig hs Fig. 131 shows the proper way to make cuts. d. No. 1 shows the cuts should be made smooth and not too close to bud. e. No. 2 shows where the strong bud developed and the strong terminal bud of the ash and walnut. f. No. 3 shows the right way to prune a rapidly grown branch. 7. Main branches. a. The young tree ought to have a crown of from 3 to 5 branches, and the lowest of which should be from 6 to 8 feet above the ground. 146 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE b. Keep in mind what the ideal tree looks like and the manner in which it is to be pruned. ce. Should the trees be planted in clusters or as specimen trees, in the park or on the lawn, of course it should not be headed nearly so high. d. Remember the only beauty to be found in barren trunks of trees is when the lower limbs must be sacrificed for utility. e. Since branches develop strongest from buds near the top, those which develop from buds lower down should be semoved at the next pruning. f. When five or six branches have developed to form a crown they should be headed-back about two-thirds of their length which i is. usually about two to two and one-half feet. g. Naturally the length to cut them back will be Helen by the number of branches forming the crown. h. The purpose. of heading-back is to induce the tree to branch to such an extent as to form a wide crown. <— i. Should too many limbs develop some may have to be taken out entirely. j. Thus it will be seen that a young crown composed of three limbs would have to be headed-in shorter than a crown with five or six limbs. 8. Forming the top. a. Pruning at end of first year’s growth. 1. The exact length to head-back can not be specifically deter- mined as it. depends upon the variety. and vigor of the tree. . A close observation by the pruner coupled with BOE judg- ment will result in the right heading-back. : JA fairly safe rule to follow, is to cut..off two-thirds: of last year’s growth for the first year. - . After pruning, the tree will throw out numerous limbs, ‘suf- ficient to keep the crown full but not crowd it too much.’ . Should a limb rub or‘cross, it should be cut out. . Should the crown be too open, then it should be Headedan . Should the crown be too eomipaeL, then it shouid be headed- out. . The first pruning is to direct the srourth of the young: tree. runing at the end of second year’s growth. Cut off about one-third of the last year’s growth. This pruning is to correct its development. . Not later than the second year after planting, a careful in- spection should be made after the leaves fall, and if more than one shoot seems developing to leaders, select the fittest and remove the tops from the other; also cut the points of any side branches that appear to require checking, -so as to maintain symmetry-in the tree. _4, The idea should be to aid the tree in its natural form, never losing the esthetic effect a naturally oe plant a necessarily have upon the viewer. e. Pruning subsequent years. 1. See second year. m= Ww bd Ss CODD hy GC NIN MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 147 The ordinary shade tree does not need pruning after the fourth year. Should crowns be too full, branches should be taken out, but not in such a manner as to leave holes or unsightly places. This may be done by cutting the branch back to a lower branch but not to the trunk. Young trees that have strong terminal buds, as the chestnuts, ash, walnut, horse-chestnut, which represent the vitality of the limbs’ should not be treated by, having the end of the limbs cut off as it will shorten their period of growth for four to five weeks and perhaps eudenees the life of the tree itself. 6..If this type of trees develops a crown on one side, cut off the longer limbs entirely but do not head them back. 7. The.ideal street tree is one having a straight, well defined central stem throughout its entire length, with side branches regularly disposed around it and sub-ordinate to it. 8. Trees grown in this shape will withstand fiercer storms and sudden bursts of wind without injury. 9. Not.many deciduous trees naturally assume this form, but by timely pruning when young trees they can be greatly helped to approach - att, 10. This training process should commence while , the tree is young and its growth easily controlled. 9. Symmetrical tree. _. _a. .The crown must extend horizontally from trunk in all directions. b. This should mean that the cross- -section would be circular with the trunk for the center. _. e. If the trunk is te center of such a tree we have the ideal tree ov. coe NS Cas barca. Beh @slmec & Fig. 132 indicates the habits in which different types of trees grow. for the landscape, in fact any tree, either fruit or shade, for an ideal must be this way. d. This applies to all trees regardless of their shape, or natural habit of growth, pyramidal, conical, cylindrical, depressed-coni- cal, globe-shaped, erect, spreading, ‘drooping or pendulous. 148 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE e. Fig. 132 illustrates seven types of trees with their respective natural shape. f. Keep these shapes in mind as it is necessary to direct their growth. g. Lower part of the above figure shows how to treat rank and out of proportion branches to keep the tree symmetrical. h. Trees like type I (Lombardy) and 2 (Carolina poplars) forming an upright, undivided crown, may be started with branches five to six feet from the ground. 1. Don’t clip poplars over head. 2. You can not change the habit of growth without distorting the crown and making it unsightly. 3. Should telephone and telegraph wires necessitate it, then treat as 2 in lower cut. 4. By reducing the center branches most of the side branches will be left longer and finally overtop the wire without touching them. i. Type 4, Elm, as Black Honey Locusts may also be treated this way. j. Trees like type 4, as an elm, which takes the form in its crown of an inverted pyramid, and those taking form of type 414, the pyramid, should be pruned as indicated by a and b. k. Trees like type 5, as birch and larch, starts in its early life to grow two main branches. 1. If so, cut one of them back, giving the other a chance to forge ahead and become a leader, thus doing away with the danger of splitting. 2. The same treatment should be applied to a Lombardy poplar. 3. Avoid forks as they are weak places. . Trees like type 6, as various maples, Sycamore maple, English maple, soft maple, box elder, etc., with nearly globular crowns, should be pruned according to a and b. m. Trees like type 7, as the linden, basswood, and the Catalpa erow according to e¢. n. When it is not then the pruning must be severe enough to cor- rect entirely. sv. Lower branches. a. The removal of all lower branches is rendered necessary in order that they may not interfere with the proper use of the side- walks and streets, but such removal has a tendency to weaken the main body of the tree and diminish its power of resistance against the sweeping blasts to which street trees are oftentimes subjected. b. This trimming up from below will require attention for a num- ber of years, because as the lower branches extend they will droop at the ends and become an interference. ce. The points of these drooping branches may be removed for a time but this will afford only temporary relief, and ultimately the whole branch will have to be removed by cutting it off close to the main stem; but this should not be done until it be- comes absolutely necessary. — MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 149 11. Large trees. a. b. c. The best method of pruning large trees in cities is sometimes a different question to decide. As a rule, the worst treatment they can receive is to cut off their tops ‘‘heading down’’ as it is termed. When this involves the removal of heavy branches, so as to leave a mere skeleton of stumps, it not only destroys the beauty of the tree but induces decay, especially with trees that do not speedily send out growth immediately below the cut. . Heading-down is objectionable in so far as it causes a low, dense growth not desirable even as shade, and increases the lia- bility to destruction from windstorms. 12. General remarks. a0 . In general, the pruning of shade trees is to be discouraged. _ It is only necessary, at the most, to prune them for a few years in order to get the crown properly balanced. . Opening the top up as some do, is decidedly foolish. . Topping old trees, thus leaving large, unsightly stubs for num- erous watersprouts to grow from and form a thicket, is one of the rankest crimes committed against a tree. _ In general, after the first three years, a shade tree needs only to be pruned but a little merely as a correction to its shape. Exercise 42. . Object: To estimate the height of a tree, ‘‘shadow method.’’ . Method: a. Set a short pole in the earth near the tree so that the shadow of the pole-will fall on ground the slope of which is as near- . ly as possible the same as that on which the shadow of the tree falls. b. Measure the height of the pole from the surface of the earth. e. The height of the tree may then be computed as follows: d. Multiply the length of the tree’s shadow by the height of the pole, and divide the product by the length of the pole’s shadow. e, The proportion may be expressed thus: f. The height of the pole is to the length of its shadow as the height of the tree is to the length of the shadow. Exercise 43. . Object: To show where the increase in height takes place in trees. . Method: a. In the early spring find a vigorous tree, 2 feet or more in height with smooth bark, such as a young hickory, box elder, or cottonwood. b. Cut a notch in the bark at a given height above the ground and another notch about a foot above the first. ec. Record the exact height of the first notch and the distance between it and the second. d. Now measure the height of the sapling to the topmost termi- nal bud. 150 Do rR MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . Return to the sapling in the autumn and repeat the measure- ments. . How much has the tree increased in height? g. Has either notch been lifted from the eround? = 09 be . Have the notches grown farther apart? . Where has the new growth taken place? . Do you think that the tree in growing pushes its whole trunk upward, stretches that part already built or merely adds to its height at the top? . After a ‘branch has developed from the trunk, would it be lifted higher from the ground by the growth of ‘the amen . Exercise 44, , . Object: To show how a tree increases in diameter. | ary . Method: ae Early in the spring select a. young, vigorously erowing Pe 3 to 4 inches in diameter, with a thin bark which peels easily, for example, a willow or box elder tree. . With a sharp knife make a horizontal cut through the bark about one inch long. . From each end of this cut make a vertical slit extending up- _ ward about 11% inches. . Carefully peel back the flap of bark thus loosened (being sure to expose the sapwood) and place a thin sheet of tinfoil beneath the bark on the exposed surface of the wood. . Turn the bark into its place ‘and seal up ia incision with erafting wax. . Examine the tinfoil at the close of the growing season. . Has the deposit of new wood appeared in this instance on the inside or the outside of the tinfoil? . Which part, then, builds the tree—the cambium layer or the sapwood? i. How thick is the layer of atl built this season? 13. References. - a. See reference under Tene out an orchard. b. Washington Bulletin No. 90. or e. Minnesota Bulletin No. 96. d. Send to the Washington Nursery Co., Popneaten: ‘Wash., for their complete descriptive catalogue. WEATHER. 1. Relation of weather to crops. Effect of temperature. Effect of temperature on blossoms and matured fruit. Evaporation and radiation cause temperature of plants to be lower than elsewhere. Variation between day and night is from 4° to 8°. a. b. Cc. d. e. Effect of irrigation on the temperature: 2. Effect of direct sunshine. Fig. 178. a. Injury to the tissue. b. Injury to the leaves. e. Injury to the stem and trunk. d. Trees of heavy foliage. al Protects the stem or trunk. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 151 _ 2. Protects the roots. 3. Protects the crop. . e. The difference between the temperature of the soil and of ob- jects in direct sunshine and of soil and of objects in shade, is ‘greater than the difference between the temperature of the at- mosphere over or about the exposed objects and that over or about the shaded objects. f. Shutting off or admitting sunlight has what effect upon plants? . Effect of humidity. | a. Effect of low humidity on crops. b. Effect of high humidity on crops. » . Effect of local rainfall. a. Effect depends on humidity. b. Effect depends on irrigation. . Effect of winds. . a. Effect on moisture. ~ . Weather maps. a. Secure maps from U. S. Weather Bureau. b. Trace the storm. ut | tae . The force and direction of the wind should always receive equal consideration. ©“ ; ; . The different kinds of clouds and what each indicates should have considerable consideration. ° ; | - - Dew and Frost. . Dew. 3 ekg POSE alien a. Plants usually receive more heat from the sun during the day - than they give off; but at night the plants give off more heat than they receive. ) b. The atmosphere is capable of holding a certain quantity of vapor for any assigned temperature. ) ae ce. There is a minimum temperature at which the vapor can be sus- pended in the atmosphere. . . d. This minimum temperature is called the dew-point, or the dew- point is when the air contains as much vapor as it is capable of holding... = ‘3 . rest e. Dew is generally the vapor that falls in the evening, either visi- ble or invisible. | - eh f. Ifthe temperature falls below the dew-point, the vapor that can be no longer held in suspension is deposited on the surface of the earth or objects as, dew. | g.. The temperature of the dew-point must be above 32° if the vapor falls as dew. . h. Deposits of dew. — 1. More dew is deposited on some objects than others because some objeéts radiate heat more rapidly than others. 2. More dew is deposited during a clear night than a cloudy one. a. Objects cool more rapidly during a clear night. -b. The clouds act as a blanket to the earth and prevent it los- ing heat. pe caiine nk ak ae uae ort 3. More dew is deposited during a still night than a windy one.. a, Air must remain long enough in contaet. with cold objects to lower its temperature. © Si ie Bh 2. Frost. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE b. Powerful winds prevent the contact of the air with objects. e. The cold air at the surface is not mixed with the warm air above. a. When the objects are colder than 32° the dew is deposited as frost. b. When the surface of the plant has lost sufficient heat to cause its temperature to fall to 32° or below, frost is formed. ce. When the dew-point is 10° or more above the frost point, 32°, a frost is not likely to occur; but if the ieee: wpieenaes 32° frost is likely to occur. d. Prediction of frost. e. il 2 3 4 5. 6. B Clear nights. Still nights. . Dry atmosphere. . Changes of temperature accompany changes in barometric pressure. Dew-point reaches 32°. Study Weather Bureau Bullen! arometric pressure. 1. It is determined by aneroid barometer which costs about $18 to $20. It indicates the air pressure and the highs and lows which may be seen marked on weather maps. High pressure is an indication of frost and low pressure which means that there is a considerable quantity of water vapor in the atmosphere, frosts are not so likely to appear. Fig. 133.—Shows a home-made nsyohnonslar: A, shows the arrangemeént of wet bulb; 1, the bulb of the thermometer is dropped below the frame in order to wrap with thin’ muslin; 2, the heavy wire to protect the bulb; B shows the two’ thermometers soldered together: 3, the dry thermometer; 4, wet thermometer; 5, heavy wire loop; 6, a string tied to ring serves as a mean with which to whirl the psychrometer. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 153 4. -Aneroid barometer indicates the high and low pressure and acts as a check on the psychrometer observation. f. Measurement of atmospheric moisture. 1. General method is to observe the temperature of evaporation. 2. This method is determined by the difference between the tem- perature indicated by wet and dry bulb thermometers. 3. Sling psychrometer is the most reliable instrument. a. d. e. The muslin is first tied around the bulb at top then a loop of thread is formed around the bottom of the bulb thus drawing the muslin tight over the bulb. . The wet bulb must be thoroughly saturated with water by dipping it into a small cup or wide-mouthed bottle. . The psychrometer is whirled rapidly for 15 to 20 seconds; stopped and quickly read, the wet bulb first. This is repeated until two successive readings of the wet bulb are found to agree very closely. A good psychrometer costs about $4 to $5. Exercise 45. 1. Object: To find dew-point. 2. Method: a. b. Hang psychrometer on a wooden frame in the shade and open air, from four to five feet above the ground. Cover the bulb of the wet thermometer with a thin piece of muslin cloth, fastening it securely with thread around the bulb. Fig. 133A. . When this cloth is wet with water and exposed to the air it constitutes the ‘‘wet bulb’’ thermometer. . Whirl or fan the ‘‘wet bulb’’ thermometer until the tem- perature ceases to fall and two successive readings are the same. old . Quickly compare the temperature of the two thermometers. . For example: 1. Dry bulb thermometer.... 50° 2. Wet bulb thermometer.... 40° . Find dew-point in the following table. 1. Read down the left column which shows difference in temperature between the two thermometers. 2. Then read across to the column under the temperature of dry thermometer. 154 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE eg. Dew-point table from Oregon Bulletin No. 111. Difference of read- Temperature of Air—Fahrenheit. ing of dry and’ 450 909° 95° 30° 35° 40° 45° 50° 55° 60° 65° 70° OAR IRCA 11 16) 29 R7 32°38. 43°, 48 boo 58 ota o7 utinset atc Gialeseds 24.30.35 CAL” (AG a2 oC oom Baas Ra OAS 21. 27. 38 189) 440508 850 GUsoa «seni E2 LOTLES) Ba POLO 17. 3 24) 30 Pah i420 4s teased oommos ca owes bometiddwipie: 4: 9-18.,; 205+ 2740834 405046 aioe ieee sine suey ela enn Hoe tele Th 16): 24 80 bi Ag Ao aoe Gm a ica emauinele fe a de 11) 20 27 284 ei oes sihstereke waders bee et we O LG G24 Sil (SOs Daren is isle sald gumeagake s OF TOES TAS TAY NOI RNTD Gt MMS in aes inert MM ERE MASE beh Were) F&O a6 2 biaye ait Areas wo debbie cls Bea ah cecilidise You etrees Louies’ yy dle yp Ql pO eeros) meets ME HN chi? os o'e “Eecstict Seay: vate & aey Emel ype ayers a aa es ee ie ge Sig pe a San Ge alate a! elt eee Bea la ay hse enn ee mM Dito Nai 20 LE Bees anata ete es he RSE RE EAA ae ne a . Effect of frost. 1. Frost russet. a. It appears as a band about the center of fruit or at either the calyx or stem end of the mature fruit. b. It may be distributed over the entire surface of the pear. 2. Frost blister. a. It is an injury to the foliage causing the leaves to crinkle and crack. 3. Injury to buds. a. Sometimes buds are killed before they open, but they will shed their petals. b. Discoloration of the pistil when the flower buds are swollen. 4, Injury to blossom. a. Flowers injured after fertilization may develop and ma- ture fruit. b. Discoloration of the basal part of the pistil of a plum, peach, or cherry seldom sets fruit. c. Discoloration may show in the minute apple seed and the fruit will develop to maturity if previously fertilized. d. The apple blossoms that show injury outside of seed cavi- ties do not mature fruit. e. The yellowing of the tissues about the stem end of the blossom is the first indication of fatal injury. 5. Injury to young fruit. a. Discoloration and injury within the pit cavity of the stone fruit cause the fruit to fall at the beginning of the ripen- ing period. b. Apples frozen after the blossom has fallen proves fatal. 6. Destruction of the fruit bloom causes a. Second crop bloom of the apple and the pear. 1. First type of second crop bloom. a. Springs from the axil of leaf and will produce ma- MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 155 ture fruit; but is later and requires extension of time to ripen. 2. Second type of second crop bloom. a. Springs from the fruit spurs from large limbs or. tree trunks; this type of growth seems to terminate the erowth of a watersprout. 3. Third type of second crop bloom. a. Springs from axillary fruit buds which develop when the earlier bloom is destroyed. ’ b. This type of fruit is produced from previous season ’s growth. e. Fruit is often produced from axillary fae when other blooms:are not killed. i. Prevention of frost. _ 1. Mulching oeenanie the radiation of heat fone ae tad: 2. Irrigation checks the radiation of heat from the surface of the ground; it should be used: only as. the last resort to pre- vent light frost in orchards. 3. Irrigation is an efficient means of protection for strawberries and any garden crops. . 4, Smudging. a. It is to, protect the trees ‘Gn the. early morning sun where some slight freezing of the blossoms and the fruit has occurred during the night.. i Smudges cause a dense smoke which acts like a dloud. over the surface of the fruit. . The cold draws the sap from the ploskon and forms it ta _ frost and the dense smoke keeps the sun from the blos- soms until the temperature rises and melts the frost: and the moisture is returned to the blossom. 5. Heating. pas oho} Heating is to maintain the temperature and not raise it The danger period is from the first swelling of the buds in the spring until danger is past; period of from 4 to 6 weeks when different varieties are in the same orchard. . The best time to start fires is when the Temperature is at Se pay . Each orchard Shon be provided’ with several | ther- mometers.’ . The critical time is usually just before sunrise in the morn- ing. Exercise 46. 1. Object: | To ate the action of frost on soils. 2. Method: a. b. Cc. a) Puddle a pint of stiff clay, mold it into a ball, and bake it on the stove. In freezing weather moisten this ball and NE it out of doors over night. If it. does not break up the first night, moisten it again ane subject it to the action of the frost. . What happens? . From this result what would you say of the pr actice of fall plowing? 156 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE f. Is there advantage of fall plowing aside from the action of the frost on the soil? 3. References. Fruit Growing by Bailey. Fruit Growing by Paddock and Whipple. U.S. Dept. Bulletin No. 401. Nevada Bulletin No. 79. Indiana Bulletin No. 154. Towa Bulletin No. 129. Orchard Heating by B. E. Burley, Salt Lake City. STUDY OF INSECTS. 1. Apparatus needed for the study of insects. a. Nets, cyanide bottles and a few empty bottles are needed in col- lecting insects. b. The net may be made by bending a heavy wire into a circle about a foot in diameter, turning the ends of the wire out and fastening into the end of a broomstick. e. Take a cheese-cloth sack a yard long and rounded to a point and sew onto the circular wire. d. The cyanide bottle for killing insects may be a wide- mouthed pottle, holding about one pint. e. Put in a few pieces of potassium cyanide and cover this with a layer of plaster of Paris. . Thoroughly moisten the plaster and let set until it sets sold! . Remove the surplus water and let the bottle become completely dry before using. . Keep the bottle tightly corked and label POISON. . Breeding-jars for rearing insects should be prepared before the insects are collected. j. Mason fruit jars with about two inches of moistened sand in them, are good. k. Cheese-cloth or mosquito netting with closed tops held in place by rubber bands are good. Ar-throp’-o-da. 1. The injurious insects belong to the branch arthropoda. 2. The features that distinguish this group from all saps C10 a: is the presence of jointed legs. 3. Classification of insects. a. ae ¥; . This includes all insects in that stage of development in which their mouth parts are formed for biting. 2. These insects bite off and chew, and swallow the portions of the plant upon which they feed. 3. Most of these are killed by poison. 4. Examples of these are erasshep pe beetles, caterpillars, larva of the codling moth. b. Group 2. 1. This includes all insects in that stage of development in which their mouth parts are formed for sucking. 2. These insects obtain their food by thrusting their beaks into the surface of the plant and feed by sucking the juice. Oe aia ae a ate ee > 0@ Fr MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 157 3. For this reason, any poison placed upon the surface of the plant does not affect them. - 4, These must be killed by some contact spray as kerosene emul- d. E: sion, tobacco leaf, or sulphur-lime. 5. Examples of these insects are plant-lice, scale insects, ete. . Group 3. . Insects that work in the wood of the tree. . This class belongs to the class of chewing insects. . They vary in their habits and must be considered in the light of its own history. . They tunnel just under the bark and can be easily located by the discoloration of the bark. 5. Example of these insects is the borers. Group 4. 1. Insects that attach themselves to ae roots. 2. This class belongs to the class of sucking insects. 3. Examples of these are woolly aphis, and root louse of the grape. m cwroH . Group 5. Parasites. 1. The most important factors in checking the spread of insects are the numerous parasites. 2. Kind of parasites. a. Animal parasites. 1. The most common of these are the small wasps, two- winged flies that deposit their eggs in or on the eggs and larva of injurious insects. b. Vegetable parasites. 1. Fungus diseases that will kill insects. a. Chinch bugs are killed by fungus disease. b. Cabbage worm is destroyed by the cabbage plusia. Group 6. 1. Predacious insects search out and destroy their prey. 2. The praying mantis, tiger Bees lady bugs, and some wasps, and dragon flies. . Natural agencies that destroy insects. Le eed CAS . Heavy rains. . Change in temperature. Winds. . Predaceous and parasite ieee. . Fungus and bacterial diseases. Exercise 47. . Object: To collect and classify the insects. . Method: a. Collect all the insects possible. b. Classify them and label each bottle. ce. Note the different stage of development. d. Keep the same species in the same group. Exercise 48. . Object: To study how to preserve specimens. . Method: a. Collect the insects. 158 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE q i q y t | } b. Any live insect may be quickly killed by placing in a bottle of cyanide and corking the bottle. ce. Mount by sticking a slender needle through the middle of the insect. d. Should any specimens be desired to be preserved im liquid, place them in a solution of formaldehyde, 40% with oy parts water. e. Insects may be preserved dry without any preservatives. 5. An outline to study the external anatomy of each insect. a. Study the grasshopper first, as its parts are readily pointed out. b. The division of the apeEet 1. The head. a. Antenne (feelers). e. Mandibles (jaws). b. Compound eyes. f. Ligula (tongue). e. Ocelli (simple eye). 3 go. Maxille. d. Labrum (upper lip). Exercise 49. 1. Object: To locate the parts of the head. 2. Method: a. Find the antenne (feelers). 1. How many segments in each? b. Find the compound eye. 1. Examine under a low power microscope. 2. What is the general shape of the facets of the eye? 3. In what direction can a grasshopper see? . How many ocelli or simple eyes do you find? . Find the upper lib or labrum—lift and remove it. . Draw. . The parts exposed by the removal of the labrum is the true jaw or mandibles. - ‘ 1. In what direction can you move them? f. Point out the parts of the maxillee. ‘1. Base segment. 2. Maxillary palpus (jointed Saget 3. Blade (large thin plate). 4, Make a drawing of the maxille: g. Look for the labial palpi attached to the Fa 1. How many segments in each palpus? h. The maxillx is just in front of the labium. 1. These each consist of three parts united at the base. 2. The outer one is the maxillary palpus. 3. The middle spoon-shaped piece, the galea. 4. The inner piece, the lacina or maxille proper. i. Draw front view of the head, Pe all the parts. 3. Thorax. a. Segments or somites. 1. Prothorax (near head). 2. Mesothorax (middle). 3. Metathorax (hind). b. Parts of the segments or somites. 1. Tergum is the top part. 2. Sternum is the underneath part. 3. Plura is the side part. 0 Aa0 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 159 Exercise 50. 1. Object: To study the parts of the thorax. 2. Method: _ a. Locate the segments ‘of the thorax. Ty 2. 3: b. Draw the thorax, labeling each part. ae Legs. Hach segment bears a pair of legs. Numbers of appendages has each segment. Breathing pores. 1. Parts—hbeginning next to the body. a. Coxa. d. Tibia. b. Trochanter. e. Tarsus. ce. Femur. f. Claws. Exercise 51. 1. Object: To locate each part of the leg. 2. Method: etd a. b. Remove one of the legs. Make a drawing of the leg, labeling each part. ¢. The direction which the legs extend from the body. 3. Questions. . a. b. d. Wing. How do the first and second pair of legs differ from the third in size? ; What is the use of the hooks and pads? 1. Note the wings on one side of the body while they are folded, and their position with reference to the body also with reference to each other. 2. Spread them out and compare as to size, shape, color, tex- ture, and position. 3. Make drawings. e. Abdomen. 1. Somites. a. There are eleven. d. The dorsal (upper) and ventral (under) part of each is composed of a single plate called the tergite or sternite. c. The sternite of the last three somites are wanting in the female. Exercise 52. 1. Object: .To locate the parts of the abdomen. 2. Method: prog Te Py Cute . How many abdominal segments do you find ? . Are the last three distinct? . Look along the grooves on each side of the abdo- men for spiracles. How many in each of these segments? In how many segments are they found? Catch a live grasshopper and watch it breathe. Do the walls of the abdomen move? . How do the spiracles move ? Find the ear membrane on the side of the first seg: ment. . Examine the end of the abdomen. 160 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE k. If it is blunt, and composed of two segment ap- pendages, the specimen is a male. ]. The upper appendage is the cerci. m. If the end of the abdomen is tapering and divided into four parts, the ovipositer, the specimen is the female. n. Draw the abdomen showing all its parts. — o. Cut through the mouth beyond the esophagus into the crop, open it, and examine its contents. p. See if you can tell what is the insect’s food. 6. Metamorphosis of insects. ; a. Development without metamorphosis. 1. The young insect just hatched from the egg is of the same form as the adult. 2. These insects merely grow larger without any more marked changes; as spring-tails. b. Metamorphosis incomplete. 1. The young insect just hatched from the egg greatly resem- bles the adult. 2. The young insect undergoes a striking change of form dur- ing its life. 3. The young insect never passes into a quiescent state similar to the chrysalis; as the locust. 4. Nymph is the term applied to young insect. c. Metamorphosis complete. 1. The young insect just hatched from the egg bears almost no resemblance in form to the adult. 2. The young insect undergoes several stages before it reaches the adult stage. 7. The different stages of complete metamorphosis. a. The egg is the first stage. b. The larva is the second stage. 1. This is the form hatched from the egg. 2. The larve simply eat and grow. 3. All molting to increase in size is done in this stage. 4. But later molts are to change shape. ce. Pupa is the third stage. 1. This is a period of inaction when great changes go on within the body. 2. The insect either remains in old larve skin or spins a case for itself. : 3. Different terms use: a. Chrysalis is a term applied to the pupa of a butterfly. b. Cocoons are terms applied to silken cases which are se- ereted by the larve themselves. - d. The adult is the last stage. Exercise 53. 1. Object: To study how insects are developed. 2. Method: a. Keep each insect in the breeding jar supplied with fresh food. ‘ MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 161 ~ pb. Watch each successive stage of the subsequent develop- ments. e. Make careful notes and drawings on each stage. d. Does the insect eat the tissue or suck the juice of the plant? e. How do you know? f. How does it secure its food in each stage of its develop- ment ? g. Do any of the insects, either in the larval or adult stage, prey upon any other insects? Exercise 54. 1, Object: To study the later forms of insects. , Method: a. If the student has access to a pond or stream, let him col- lect forms which pass through all their stages of develop- ment in the water. b. Let him take a quantity of mud and water in which the water forms are found together with the aquatic plants for food, to the laboratory and place the different species in breeding jars. e. Observe all the stages in their development. Order Ac-a-ri’-na (mites). . They are not true insects having eight legs when adults. . The mode of life of the different members. a. Some are parasitic upon animals. b. Others infest living plants. ce. Many feed upon dead animal or vegetable matter. . Study external anatomy. a. Brown Mites. . Stages of development. a. The egg. 1. The egg is tiny red, giobular form. 2. The eggs are laid on the trunk, limbs, and in the crotches of trees. 3. The winter is spent in the egg stage and the eggs hatch when warm weather comes in the spring. The eggs begin to hatch shortly after the leaves come out. b. Renph. 1. The newly hatched mites have only three pairs of legs. 2. They continue to grow and remain red until after they molt for the first time, when they are brownish or olive green. 3. They have eight legs after the first molt which remain with them throughout life. 4. They do not thrive in moisture. e. Adult. Fig. 1841. 1. They are brown except the legs and head; which have a red- dish hue. | 2. They deposit their eggs in May, June and July. . Nature and appearance of injury. a. They i injure the apple, peach, plum, cherry, pear trees by feed- ing upon the foliage. 162 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 3 . Fig. 134—1, brown mite; 2, red spider: 5, lady-bird beetle, 3, larvae, 4, pupa, 6, eggs. (Colorado Exp. Station.) | : | | MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 183 . They pierce through the epidermis of the leaf and suck out the sap. . The signs of infestation are the pallid leaves and tiny black spots of excreta. . Sometimes the foliage of the entire tree is covered, causing the leaves to turn yellow and drop off, thus weakening the vitality of the tree. . The fruit of a badly infected tree is small and does not mature properly. b. Red Spider. 1. Stages of development. Fig 134—2. a. b. See brown mite. The species of red spider is light green, with small dark colored spots on the back when first hatched; and later turns to a deep brown or bright red. . The adult spider hibernates in the winter and the few that sur- vive crawl out and ascend the trees to deposit their eggs when spring opens. 2. The nature and appearance of injury. od: bb. c. d. They injure both large and small fruit. The leaves of the infested tree are often yellow in spots which present a blister-like appearance. The leaves are sapped of their vitality, turn yellow and drop early. The fruit of an infested tree is small, often not maturing suf- ficiently to be salable. e. Blister mites. 1. Stages of development. a. The egg. 1. The eggs are laid in the spring in the gall on the leaves, from which the young mites are hatched. b. Nymph. 1. The young mites hatch and grow to full size in the parent blister. e. Adult. 1. They migrate to the younger leaves on terminal growth and produce other blisters. 2. They are about 1/16 inch across and have four legs attached at the anterior end. 3. They hibernate on the trees, generally under the bud scales. 2. Damages. a. They affect the leaves of the apple and pear trees. b. They burrow into the leaves from the under surface and feed on the tissue between the two surfaces. ce. The blister or galls on the apple leaves are brown as they grow old, no coloration at first. The affected leaves shrink and the cells of the leaves are d. destroyed. Order Or-thop’-te-ra (locust). 1. The insects have four straight wings. 2. the metamorphosis is incomplete. 3. The mouth parts are formed for biting. 164 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE . Study the external anatomy of the grasshopper, as it is the easiest insect to study. . Study the cockroaches. . Study the thrips. . Study the praying mantis. . Order He-mip’-te-ra (bugs). . The winged insects of this order usually have four wings. . The metamorphosis is incomplete. . The mouth parts are formed for piercing and sucking. . Study the external anatomy. a. Apple Leaf Hopper. They are a tiny, active, greenish insect about an eighth of an inch long. . The metamorphosis is incomplete. The hind legs are very slender and adapted to hopping. . Stages of development. a. Egg stage. 1. The eggs are laid in bark of the trees and hatch soon after the buds burst in the spring. 2. Some pass the winter in the egg stage. b. Nymph stage. 1. The nymphs are very small and generally found on the under side of the leaves. 2. The first generation appears about May and feed mostly on the old leaves. 3. The second, third and fourth generations appear about the last of June, July and August. PRwDH Ano -# WOOD ue hig. 135.—Shows the nymphs in their development. (Iowa Exp. Station.) aon FF © NF MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 165 e. Adults. -]. They are provided with wings. 2. Some live through the winter, hiding away under dead leaves. 3. They move very rapidly and are able to hop some distance. . Damages. a. They retard the growth of nursery stock and apple trees. b. They feed on the under side of the leaves causing them to curl. ce. The new growth is checked and the leaves grow closer together and the tree fails to attain the size it should. b. Grape Leaf Hopper. . See apple leaf hoppers. . They vary greatly in color, but the prevailing color is a light yel-- lowish green. . The adults are very small, measuring about one-eighth of an inch in length. . The young resemble the adults and are green or yellowish green color. . Damages. a. See apple leaf hoppers. ce. Pear Psylla. . The adult is a four-winged insect measuring one-tenth of an inch in length. . Stages of development. a. Similar to the leaf hopper. b. The eggs are laid in the spring and hatch in a few days. e. There are a number of broods produced during the summer. d. The adults live through winter. . The larve or nymphs commence at once to suck the juice from the leaves. . The favorite place for young nymphs is in the axil of leaves and at the base of the fruit stems. . They occur in such a large number that entire pear orchards have been destroyed. . Damages. a. The sap is sucked out of the leaves and in some instances the tree killed. b. The trees become stunted and have an unhealthy appearance. ce. The nymphs in a few days after hatching cover themselves with a honey dew which disfigures the tree and fruit. d. The honey dew becomes covered with a black mold and the leaves and fruit become disfigured. d. Aphis, or plant lice. . Stages of development. a. The sexual forms. 1. Generally on the setting in of cold weather, or lack of food if weather is warm, there is produced a generation of indi- - viduals of both sexes. . The males are either winged or wingless. . The females are- wingless. . The sexual forms pair and the female produces one or more true eggs called winter eggs. H> Co DD 166 _ MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 5. The winter is passed either in the egg stage or adult stage. b. The egg stage. 1. The eggs hatch an agamic female when warm weather comes in the spring. 2. Generally when the buds open in the spring. ce. Agamic female. 1. She is the stock from which the summer generations spring. d. Spring generations. 1. Wingless agamic forms. a. They are females. b. Sometimes this form gives birth to living young instead of laying eggs, during hot weather, thus making the re- production very rapid. ce. From time to time young females reproduce which become winged. 2. Winged agamic forms. a. They reproduce the wingless agamic forms. b. A single individual may fly to.a new plant and start a new colony. 3. The cycle is continued by sexual forms being reproduced in the fall. e. The peculiar reproduction of the agamic form is often called budding. vg f. There are about four generations each year. ary ees en eye iis) Telia ome TR Fig. 136.—Shows Green Apple Aphis. A, stem mother just hatched from egg; B, | winged female such as migrate from tree to tree during summer; C, wingless female of summer form; D, leaves curled by this aphis; BH, eggs magnified; F, buds just opening, showing newly hatched eggs; G, Twig showing eggs as they appear in the winter time. (Montana Experiment Station.) = H> CO DO Wl oe MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 167 ~ 1. Green Apple Aphis. _ This is a specie which is very small having a body only about one- fourth inch in length. . The winged aphis has two pair of delicate transparent wings. . There are both winged and wingless forms. . Stages of development. a. See aphis. . They secrete a clear liquid like honey dew which sticks to the leaves and twigs and finally turns black because of the black fungus which grows in it. Damages. a. They injure the fruit oe the apple, plum, pear, cherry and peach, ete. b. They attack the buds, leaves and twigs sucking the sap out of | their tissues. e. They attack the blossoms and young fruit, causing several fruits to set on a single spur, but the fruit will not develop properly. d. They irritate the leaves causing them to curl. 2. Woolly Aphis. : They are very small, about the size of a pinhead. . They secrete from a gland opening on the back of the insect a woolly, waxy substance. . Stages of development. a. See aphis. b. Females both winged and ee Fig. 1837.—Woolly aphis. a, agamic A enagilee b, larval louse; c, pupa; d, winged female with antenna enlarged above. All greatly enlarged with waxy excretion removed. 4, Three sources. a. A migration of part of the young lice from the roots to the lmbs in the spring. b. A special hibernating form, which descend from the branches to the crown of the tree in ‘the fall, ascend to the limbs in the spring. 168 HCO bd MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE ce. A migration of winged forms which are produced in late sum- mer or early fall and fly from tree to tree. d. The last form gives birth to sexed individuals which pair and deposit eggs to hatch next season. . Damages. a. The tree form. 1. This form is light brown. 2. It is found on the trunk, limbs, of apple trees. 3. It is very injurious to young trees affecting the bark which is made to swell when attached by the aphis. 4. It is found in the axil of leaves and forks of branches. b. The root form. 1. This form is dark brown. 2. They live on dead roots for years; some are known to live for ten years on dead roots. 3. The root forms are the same as the tree form which crawl down from the limbs. : 4, If the aphids are found on the limbs, it is safe to conclude that they are also on the roots. 5. It is found on the fibrous roots, causing gall knots or swelling. c. The forms are easily recognized by the blueish-white cottony substance which cover the bodies. d. They are found on grafts and watersprouts. 3. Black Peach Aphis. . Stages of development. a. See aphis. . The young are of a faint greenish brown color, when they reach the adult stage they are black. . Similar to woolly aphis. . The two forms. a. The winged form. b. The wingless form. . The tree form. a. The winged aphids affect the tender shoots and leaves. b. Wingless aphids affect the leaves. . The root forms. a. The wingless aphis affect the roots. b. They migrate from the roots to the limbs in the spring. ce. They breed continuously during the season except during hiber- nation. d. They cause knots to form on the roots. . When the tree is badly infested, the foliage has a yellowish green, sickly appearance; the leaves become curled at the edges and blotch. 4, Grape Phylloxera. . Stages of development. : a. See aphis. . Damages. a. There appear upon the lower surface of the leaves fleshy swellings which are more or less wrinkled and hairy; these are hollow galls, opening upon the upper surface of the leaf and containing a wingless plant louse and her eggs. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 169 b..They cause the roots to become swollen and knotty and some- times decayed. _ There are found in these swellings agamic wingless egg-laying aphis. . They affect young grafted stock. . The entire plant is often killed by the aphis. e. SCALE INSECTS. 1. San Jose Scale. _ The insect is concealed under a hard scale which is secreted by the insect. _ Matured scales are about a sixteenth of an inch in diameter. . Stages of development. There is no egg stage. a. b. The adult female gives birth to living young about April. e. d. There will be found under the female a flat insect which has no legs, wings, eyes or antenne, but will have a -long, thread-like probos- cis. . Larva. 1. The winter is passed in half-grown state by both sexes. seale and crawls The larva emerges from under the about over the Fig. 138—San Jose Scale. branches for a a, ge from below; b, larva just Ber and : waxy filaments beginning to appear; c, larva short time before round, convex, waxy filaments are ready to coal- settling. ee ad, white scale just formed from above and side. . On settling, the larva inserts its sucking proboscis into the bark to the sap beneath. . The larva begins to secrete the scale for a covering over its body. Fig. 138, ¢. . Molting periods of the female. a. Fluffy stage. 1. It is from birth to first molt about 12 days. 2. It is due to the secretion of cottony threads. b. Tufted stage. 1. It is from first molt to second molt, from 6 to 8 days. 2. It is due to the secretion of a waxy thread. ce. Black stage. 1. It is from second molt to maturity, from 10 to 12 days. 2. ee scale becomes thicker and passes into the mature ‘form. d. It takes about 30 days for the female to develop fully. . The molting stages of the male are similar to the female but it only takes about 25 days from birth until a two-winged insect is developed. Fig. 143. 170 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 4. Adult female. 6. Means of distribution.- —_ oe a al a. b. . Adult male. a. Cc. d. . It matures in about five It is an ashy gray color and almost round in outline. It shows in the center of the upper surface a prom- inence called the nipple, surrounded by a darker colored ring. Fig. 139. weeks and commences to give birth to living young, bringing forth from three to four hundred within a few weeks and then dies. The male differs from the female by being smaller, darker in color and near- ly twice as long as wide. The nipple is at one end. The male develops into a tiny two-winged fly. See purple scale. a. By the birds. - ee b. By insects. 8 oo ae e. By wind. : ae d. By nursery stock. Fig. 189.—Shows San Jose scale on a pear Damages. and also an enlarged scale. a. They affect the branches, leaves and fruit. b. They attack the deciduous fruit trees; shade and ornamental trees and shrubs. ce. They suck the sap out of the tender leaves and bark. . d. The bark of the trees becomes pitted and the regu aay of the trees is altered. e. The growth of the tissues is arrested. f. The fruit becomes infested and not fit for market. . Preventatives. a. By killing the insect or larva. b. By destroying the eggs. ce. By spraying before the larve or nymphs have in any way formed a protection. d. See spraying calendar. 2. Oyster Shell Scale. The scale is slightly convex and usually curved in outline to re- semble a miniature oyster shell. 3 2. Stages of development. a. The egg stage. 1. The eggs are laid beneath the scale in the fall and hatch in the spring during April or May. 2. The eggs are pearly white. 3. The winter is passed in this stage. —- MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 7 b. Larva stage. ‘1. Similar to the San Jose Seale. 3. Adult female. a. The full grown female is about an eighth of an inch in length. b. By lifting a scale, there may be seen a number of pearly white egos during the winter. 4, Adult male. a. The covering of the male is shorter than the female and very little curved. b. The male develops into a tiny two-winged insect and appears in midsummer. e. See purple scale. Fig. 140—Shows oyster shell scale: a, female scale from beneath filled with eggs; b, same from above: c, twig infested by female scale; d, male scale; e, twig infested. 5, Means of distribution. a. See San Jose seale. .6. Damages. a. See San Jose scale. 7. Preventatives. a. The winter egg should be destroyed. b. The young insects should be killed while they are crawling about. ce. See spraying calendar. y 3. Scurfy Scale. 1. Stages of development. a. The egg stage. 1. The eggs are laid beneath the scale in the fall and hatch in the spring during April and May. 172 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 2. The eggs are purplish. 3. The winter is passed in this stage. b. Larva stage. 1. Similar to the San Jose scale. . Adult female. a. It is about one-tenth of an inch long and very flat and pear- shaped in outline. b. The nipple is at the pointed end. e. The color is light grayish or white, seldom pure white. . Adult male. a. The male is pure white and smaller than the female and further differs by having parallel sides and three parallel ridges along the back. b. They are found on twigs separated from the female. ce. They develop into a two-winged insect. . Means of distribution. a. See San Jose seale. . Damages. a. The injuries are insignificant compared with the San Jose scale. . Preventatives. a. See San Jose scale. 4. Lecanium. . Stages of development. a. The eggs are deposited beneath the scale-like body of the female. b. The winter is passed either in the egg or young stage. . Larva stage. a. Similar to the San Jose scale. . Adult female. a. The wingless insect is about twice as long as wide and very small. b. There is very little difference between the male and female until the second or third stage when the female emerges as an adult. e. It takes several weeks before the egg laying organ is developed and the egg laying period lasts for several weeks. d. The number of eggs laid by each female varies with the different species from 100 to 200. . e. It takes the female from 25 to 30 days to develop fully, depend- ing upon the specie. . Adult male. a. The stage of growth is similar to the purple scale. b. The two-winged male differs very little from the purple scale. Fig. 143. . There are several species; as, the black scale, soft scale, and hemi- spherical scale. . The hemispherical scale. 3 a. It is lighter color, glossy surface, smaller than black scale. b. It is easily killed by oil emulsion. ! J MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE : 173 Fig. 141 Shows the lecanium. (Cal. Exp. Station.) 1. Shows the. stages of growth of the black scale. 2. Shows how the scales attach themselves to the bark after settling. 3. Shows the eggs of Rhizobius ventralis under a black scale. a. The larva of which feed on the eggs, the young of the black scale before and aiter settling. Joy, Ihe a also illustrate how coccinellid feed on the eggs and young of other scales. : : Shows the hemispherical scale on left and black on the right. 5. Shows an inverted black scale with eggs of parasite of the scutellista. sal 174 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 7. The brown scale. a. It is flatter and lighter color than the black: seale. _. 5. Purple. 1. Stages of development. a. Similar to Lecanium: 2. Larva stage. a. Similar to San Jose seale. 3. Adult female. a. Similar to Lecanium. 4, Adult male. a. The male is generally cinailes than the fe- ; : Fig. 142.—An active larva male. ; , of purple scale. Fig. 143.—Shows a purple male scale. (Cal. Exp. Station.) 1, second stage; 2, stage before pupa with the exuvium of the second state adher- ing to tip of body; 3, propupa;: 4, pupa; 4, adult male X40. He Go DD ONE Go DO EE MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 175 be It takes about 25 days for the male to develop from the scale form to a delicate two- winged insect. c. The adult of the different species will differ in some of the recog- nition marks. . Stages of molting of the purple scale. a. The following cut will show in a general way the stages of de- velopment of the male insect. -b. The appearance of the larva at different stages of development will differ according to the different kind of scales. ce. The stages denote the molting periods of the male larva. d. Different scales will differ in their process of molting. Order Neu-rop ’-te-ra. . The insects have four wings. . The mouth parts are formed for biting. . The metamorphosis is complete. The larve of the following feed upon other insects: a. Anti-lion feed upon ants and lice. b. Aphis-lion (lace-wing fly) feed upon plant lice and mites. c. Dragon flies feed upon mosquito larve. Order Lep-i-dop’-te-ra (Butterflies). . The insect has four scale wings. The metamorphosis is complete. . The mouth parts are formed for piercing and sucking. . Study the external anatomy. . Difference between butterflies and ave a. Butterflies. b. Moths. 1. Day flying, usually. 1. Night flying, usually. 2. Wings erect when resting. 2. Wings sloping when resting. 3. Antenne knobbed. 3. Antenne not knobbed. 4. Pupa, chrysalid. | 4. Pupa, often in a cocoon. 5. Larger. 5. Smaller. a. Codling Moth. . The moth (g). a. The adult is rather variable in size, but the maximum wing $ expanse rarely exceeds three- 4 fourths of an inch. b. The forewings above are. ot a brownish gray color, with nu- merous cross lines of gray. ce. Near the top of each wing is a - conspicuous brown spot, or ocellus, in which are two irreg- ular broken lines of a metallic enppery or golden color. d. The hind wings above are gray- ish brown, becoming darker toward the margin, which A , : j Fig. 144.—Codling Moth. bears a delicate fringe, at the . rece Hn unlee* E entcanee oak base of which is a narrow line. pupa; e, large worm; f, moth closed : wing; g, ing : , eo When ay rest on’ thererayisl a iacis it cocon 176 ie) h. b. c. d. L yi c. © o ie MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE bark of an apple tree, the color of the moth so harmonizes with its surrounding that it is not readily distinguished. . Shortly after the moths leave their cocoons (i) the sexes mate ~ and females begin to deposit eggs which are on the average of 50 eggs for each female moth. . The moth appears in the spring about two weeks or more after the beginning of the blooming period, or when about 80 per cent of the petals have fallen. The moths mate and eggs are laid in a day or two which hatch in about 8 days. . The egg. a. The eggs are small, flat, somewhat oval in shape and about the size of a pinhead. When recently deposited they are of a pearl white color, but be- come darker with the development of the embryo, which, after a few days are easily distinguished as a reddish ring within the egg. Under a lens the surface is seen to be covered with a network of ridges, coarser toward the edge. The eggs are deposited on leaves, twigs, and blossom end of the apple. . The larva (e). a. It is in the larval or ‘ apple. The larva as it hatches from the egg is very small, from one- twentieth to one-sixteenth of an inch in length, and it soon be- gins to search for food. The larve chew more or less into the leaf or other portions of the plant in their wandering around. The head is brown and well developed. There are eight pairs of legs; three pairs of which are true legs, on the thorax, and five pairs of which are prolegs on the ab- domen. ‘worm’’ stage that injury is done to the | Fig. 145.—Shows a full grown larva, magnified. When the codling worm emerges from its egg-shell it is small, delicate and hungry, and seeks for shelter and food in some dark place. g. The blossom end of the apple provides both, and actually at- tracts about 80 per cent of the worms, whether early or late in the season. h. That the majority of the coddling worms are instinctively di- rected to the calyx cavity is probably due to the absence of a tough skin and the presence of the nectaries at this place. i. Some worms eat their way through the side of the fruit, even —— —— ); fo) MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 177 though this part be covered with a woolly coat or with a tough skin. . Where two apples touch, or where a leaf overlaps an apple, the codling worm is apt to begin feeding. After entering the apple the larva feeds and grows rapidly and in the course of about twenty days has become full grown and emerges from the apple. . At this time the insects are about three-fourths of an inch long, and the majority of them are pinkish or flesh colored on the upper surface and whitish below. When ready to leave the fruit, the larva eats out a hole at the side, or less usually makes its exit by enlarging the entrance hole. . If the infested apple is hanging on the tree, the larva usually makes its way out to the limb and thence crawls down the branches to the trunk until a suitable place for pupation is found. . If the apple has fallen before the larva has gotten its growth, the latter simply crawls to a convenient place and there con- structs a cocoon. . The pupa (d). a. b. The full grown larva, upon leaving the fruit and finding a pro- tected place, constructs a whitish silken cocoon (i) within which in the course of a few days it may change to a pupa. The pupa is about one-half inch long, at first, yellowish or brown, but later becoming quite dark brown, and shortly before the emergence of the moth assuming a distinct bronze color. . This stage varies much in length, but on the average about twenty days elapse from the spinning of the cocoon until the emergence of the moth. . After emergence of the moths, in the course of a few days they begin egg laying, the entire life cycle from egg to egg requiring, on the average, some fifty days. Exercise 55. 1. Object: To tell when the moth appears. 2. First method: , a. Prepare a breeding cage by taking a wide-mouthed fruit jar and tie some light wire gauze over the mouth so that neither worm nor moth can get out; or b. Enclose an entire branch with gauze netting and also the moth should be caged within. e. All cages and bottles should be kept in the orchard and under a tree so as to be in conditions as natural as pos- sible. d. Refer daily to your cage when the apples begin to blossom. e. Compare the emerging of the moth with the falling of the petals. 3. Second method: a. Band the trees with heavy strips of cloth or burlap. b. Fasten one of the cloths to the tree by driving a finishing nail in order that the other end may be attached to the 5. The number of generations. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE same nail, but: make a fold in the cloth before wrapping the tree. c. Examine the bands every 10 days as it only takes: about 20 days for the larva to change to a moth. d. Note: - what effect the last spray had. The above exercise will tell when to spray and also a. The number of generations of the codling moth in a season var- ies with the latitude and region. ils ae larva May Second generation....... 4 . Spring pupa 3. Moth of 1st brood 4, Ege of Ist brood J 5. Larva of 1st brood. 6. Pupa of 2d brood 7. Moth of 2d brood {8. Hgg of 2d brood Partial third generation ............ eee) August * June July Second or third generation aerate First generation 9. Liarva of 2d brood, if wintering return to J 10. Pupa of 3d brood 11. Moth of 34. brood J 12. Egg of 3d brood 13. Larva of 3d brood September October b. Tabular form of the course of development by Melander. 1. . Study Study ‘when the moths of the differ- ent broods appear. when the larve of the differ- ent broods appear. Study when the pu- pation of the differ- ent broods take place. ce. Life cycle from egg to ib OUP co egs. From egg to larva 8 days. From larva to pupa . From pupa to moth . From moth to middle of egg-laying 5 days. Total of fifty days. d. The wintering of larva: 2. tion. i fy u ht ls yet yh Fig. 146.—Life eycle of a codling moth. a, moth or adult; b, egg; c, larva; d, pupa; e, pupa in cocoon on inner side of piece of bark: f , moth on bark and empty pupa skin from which it emerged. 19 days. 18 days. See above diagram, Nos. 1, 9 and 13. 1. In late summer or fall, larve will seek protected places upon the trees, as holes, ‘cracks or crotches of limbs, or under bark scales, or even underneath trash on the eround, construct tough cocoons, and here pass the winter in Hag larval condi- In the spring, the larve enter new cocoons or remodel win- ter cocoon and in about 18 days the moths emerge. 6. Damages. a. They injure the fruit of the apple, pear, quince and English walnut. b. The greater part of the life of the larva is spent within the fruit, during which period it feeds freely on the substance of es fe MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 1a Fig. 147—Section of a wormy apple: codling moth; ‘larva. the apple, eating out a cavity or tunnel and pushing out from the entrance hole a considerable quantity of powdery brown frass. ec. Most apples injured when small, .as by larve of the first gen- eration, drop from the trees, and these are a large percentage of the so-called windfalls. d. Larve of the first generation will mostly enter the fruit at the blossom end, some, however, entering at the side, as where two fruits are in contact or where an apple is touched by a leaf. e. Larve of the second generation enter the fruit more from the side than the calyx end, and by reason of their greatly increased numbers cause the larger part of the total injury. Fig. 147. f. In localities where a third or partial third brood may occur, the habits of this generation are no doubt practically identical to those of the second. b. Cutworms. _ The cutworms are among the most troublesome insects with which the farmer has to deal. . The cutworms are ‘‘general feeders’’ and are able to find a living anywhere. . The cutworms are generally nocturnal, remaining hidden during the day concealed around the plants which they have destroyed during the previous night. . Most species are single-brooded northward, but many produce two or more broods southward. . Principal species. a. Greasy cutworm. b. Granulated cutworms. e. Fall army worm. d. Army worm. e. Variegated cutworms. a. Variegated Cutworms. . The variegated cutworm is the most destructive and widely known of all cutworms. 180 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 2. Stages of development. a. The egg. 1. The eggs are deposited often in large masses on grasses, weeds, leaves and twigs. 2. The eggs hatch in from 10 to 12 days. . The larva. i The larva is about one and _. three- fourths inches in length. . The larve feed on all parts of the plants. The larve of the va- riegated cutworms are climbing worms and when abundant assume the army worm habit. . The larva is cosmo- Fig. 148.—Variegated cutworm. a, adult; b, larva, sideview; c, Same curled up; d, dark-colored larva; e, single egg; f, cluster of eggs on twig. politan in the broadest sense of the word in its feeding habits. The pupa. 1. The larva having attained full growth enter the earth and construct a compact earthen cell or cocoon which is lined with a silken substance. 2. The larva remains in pupal stage from three to six weeks before the moth appears. d. Adult. 1. The adult is a large moth with pale, grayish-brown fore- wings tinged with reddish and shaded with darker brown. There is a considerable variability in markings, witch is often 2. 3. suffused. The last appearing generation of moths issues from the eround in mid-summer or autumn and deposit eggs from e. Winter hibernation. 1. Some species pass the winter in the pupal condition. 2. Some species pass the winter in the larva stage, which is generally the last appearing larva of the season and only half to three-quarters grown. 3. Some species pass the winter in the adult stage. . Damages. The cutworms feed upon tee green and succulent, whether foliage, flowers, buds, fruit, stalks, tubers, or roots. The variegated cutworms are destructive to foliage of fruit trees and from their habits of climbing are known as eee worms. a. b. which larve hatch and feed until cold weather drives them to their winter quarters. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 181 -4, Preventatives. ' a. Poisoned bait. b. Bran arsenic mash. ce. Bordeaux mixture. c. Bud Moth. 1. Adult is very small, measuring about three-fourths of an inch across the wing. 2. Study the external anatomy. 3. Stages of development. a. The egg. 1. The eggs are laid in June and July on the underside of the leaves. 9. The eggs hatch in about 8 days and the larve feed on the under side of the leaves. ° b The larva. ool Dae larve -protect, themselves by a thin, silken web. 2. They migrate before winter to the twigs and form the silken case in which they live during the winter. 3. In the spring about the time the buds open, the : larve come forth and pig 149—apple tree Bud Moth; a, moth: bore into the buds, and ». larva; c, pupa. as the leaves and flowers unfold, form nests by tying the leaves together. 4. They do not leave their nests to feed. 5. They become full grown during June. ce. Pupa. 1. They pupate in the nest. 2. They pupate in about 10 days, a small brown moth emerg- ing. 3. They begin to lay eggs for the next geenration. d. Damages. | 1. They injure the fruit of the apple, cherry, peach, pear, plum and quince. 9. They destroy the foliage and eat into the fruit buds and leaf buds. 3. Sometimes large trees are so severely injured that the fruit crop is almost destroyed. 4. Note:+ Study the following moths. a. Tiger moth. b. Tussock moth. e. White-marked Tussock moth. » f. Case-Bearers. 1. Two species. a. Pistil case-bearers. b. Cigar case-bearers. ec. Their life history is similar. 182 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 2. Repti of development. a. The egg. 1. The eggs of both. species are deposited singly on the under sides of the leaves during May and June. 2. They hatch in about 10 to 14 days. b. The larve. 1. The larvee feed on the tender pulp of the leaves. 2. They migrate dur- ing September to PISTOL-CASE BEAREF the branches and a oS oe twigs to remain until spring in their silken cascs. 3. They become ac- tive in the spring, feeding while thev remain in their - eases. 7 Fig. 150.—Pistol Case-Bearer; a, af- 4. They enlarge their fected twigs and leaves; b, larva; e, silken cases as cocoon; d, moth their growing bodies demand intil about the middle of May, when ney are ready to pupate. e The pupa. 1. The case-bearers migrate to the twigs and apa themselves to the bark. . They turn around in the ease so that their heads will be toward the upper and curved ends. 3. The pupation lasts about two weeks. +. The moths appear during May and June. ’. Principal difference between the species. a. The case of the cigar case-bearers is straight. b. Phe case of the pistol case-bearer resembles a pistol. ce. The coler of the cigar case-bearer is steel gray. d. The eclor of the pistol case-bearer is brown. 4. Damages.. a. They effect the apple and pear trees. b 'Thev attack the growing buds in the spring. ce They injure ihe leaves by feeding on the soft tissnes. d. They attack ihe flower buds, flowers and fruit. bo e. Spring Canker Worms. 1. Stages of development. a. The egg. 1. The small oval eggs are laid in ee bunches on the bark of main branches. 2. The eggs hatch about the time eds the leaf buds open. b. The caterpillar, or larva. 1. The catterpillars have very small body and of olive green color. 2. The caterpillars are about an inch long and have eight longi- tudinal bands. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 183 -3. Head and shield are shiny black. 4. They crawl to the ground when full grown to pupate. e. Pupa. 1. The caterpillars go into the ground where they spin a silken cocoon. 9. They emerge in the spring, but sometimes in the fall and winter in pupation. | d. The adult moths. 1. The males have wings, while the females are wingless. 9. When the females emerge they ascend the tree to lay their eggs. 3. ‘The flying season is in the spring. \\ \“/ a i) \\ a 6 “ah iit ! cal I Fig. 151.—Spring canker worm. Fig. 152.—Fall canker worm. a, malé moth; b, female moth; ¢, joints of a, male moth; b, female moth; c, joints of ; eaterpillar; d, eggs. caterpillar; d, eggs. f. Fall Canker Worm. 1. Stages of development. Fig. 152. a. The egg.. 1. The smal! irregular eggs are laid in regular masses on twigs and leaves in the fall. 2 ™hey are hatched about the time the leaf buds open bh. The caterpillar, or larva. 1. The caterpillars are small and of a light green eolor. /2. They are about an inch long and have 6 longitudinal bands. 2. No ahdominal spines. . | 4. They crawl to the ground when full grown to pupate. e Pupa. eae 1. The caterpillars go into the ground, where they spin a silken cocoon. ; 2. They emerge in the fall as moths. A. The adult moths. — 1 ‘The males have wings while the females are wingless. ® ‘Ihe tenales ascend the trees to lay their eggs. 2 Few of the moths live through the winter. 4. The fiving season is in the fall. e. The females may be easily caught by banding the trees. f. The caterpillars are commonly known as measuring worms, inch worms, or span worms. gs. Damages. 1. The caterpillars feed upon the tender leaves of the apple and « the pear trees and some times defoliating them. g. Green Fruit Worms. . 1 See bud moth. 2. Stages of development. a. The egg. : ‘J. The eggs are jaid in the spring and hatch in a few days. 184 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 3. 3. 1. The moths are of a pure white color. ah, b. Larva. 1. They are yellowish-green color with cream-colored markings and stripes down the back. GREEN FRUIT WORMS. — 2. They are about one and one-half inches long when full grown. 3. They are mest abundant in May. Fig. 153.—Green fruit worm; C. Pupa. a, larva; b, moth. 1. When the larvee are full grown, they go into the ground and spin a cocoon and pupate. d. The adult moths. 1. They emerge from their cocoons as dull-colored moths, meas- uring about two inches from tip to tip of wings. 2. They remain over winter in some sheltered place, laying eges in the spring. Damages. a. They affect the apples, pear, plum, peach and quince trees. b They feed upon young fruit. c. They feed at night, resting on the under side of the leaves dur- ing the day. h. Fall Web Worms. Sometimes the wings are spotted with black. Stages of development. a. The egg. 1. The eggs are laid by the female during July, on leaves in masses of 400 to 500. 2. They are of a pale yellowish- green color. 3. They hatch in about 10 days. b. The larva or caterpillar. 1. They seem to be almost all head and hair; commence to spin their web over the foliage. | 2. The web extends over quite an PAN as GM A area enclosing the foliage upon oe etic which they feed. b, Me ol ene 3. Within this web the colony from an egg mass feeds, enlarg- ing it as it becomes necessary. 4. The caterpillars will leave their web and form a new web upon fresh foliage when the foliage within the old web is consumed. 5. The caterpillars are about one inch long and quite woolly. 6. The caterpillars molt about five times before pupation. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 185 c. Pupa. 1. The caterpillars find secluded places under barx, rubbish in fence corners, cracks of buildings, under eaves, surface of loose soil and sometimes in old cocoons. 2. They spin their cocoons which are flimsy affairs. 3. They shed their skin for the last time and then transform into moths. ae They pass the winter in pupa stage and emerge in June. . The adult moths. 1. The moths lay their eggs in July. 4. Damages. a. They affect the foliage of the apple and pear trees. i. Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar. 1. The moth is brown, with two oblique par- -allel white lines on the forewings. 2. Stages of development. a. ae eg. 1. The eggs of each are laid in July in masses about the twigs. 2. The eggs remain unhatched for about nine months. 3. The eggs are covered with a sub- stance which protects them during winter. 4 The eggs hatch in early spring about the time the leaves appear. b. Caterpillar, or larva. 1. They form a colony from each egg mass and spin a tent in which they stay when not feeding. 2. They generally migrate down the : branch until they find a good-sized pig i55-Aapple tree tent fork to build a large tent, which is caterpillar; a, b, caterpillar; ce, egg mass; d. cocoon; e, often 2 feet or more in length. Rot. 3. They go out daily to feed; and spin a silken thread wherever they go. 4. They spin thin cocoons in about five or six weeks after hatching. e. Pupa. 1. The caterpillars, when full grown, find a sheltered place to spin cocoon: and to pupate. 2. It takes about three weeks for the pupation. d. The adult moths. 1. They emerge in the latter part of June or early July. 2. The females lay their eggs in July. 3. Damages. a. The young earerpillars feed upon the unopened buds until the leaves expand. b. The apple is greatly injured by the caterpillars. 4. Note: Study the following. a. The yellow-necked apple caterpillar. 186 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE ig 2. b. The red-humped apple caterpillar. ce. Brown-tail moth. d. Gypsy moth. j. Peach tree borer. The adult moths are a beautiful blue color. Stages of development. a. The egg. 1. They are laid on the bark of the trees near the ground during May and June. 2. They are small, reddish and oval in shape. 3. They hatch in from 9 to 10 days. 4. Hach female may lay from 200 to 800 eggs. b. The larva. 1. The young at once seek cracks in the bark where they feed upon the sapwood during the remainder of the season. Fig. 156.—The peach tree borer. a, female moth; b, male moth; e¢, larva; d, female Go DD re pupa; e, male pupa; f, pupa skin and cocoon. 2. Their location is easily detected by the powdery lich brown- ish frass that is pushed out from their burrow. 3. They remain in this stage in the tree through the winter and feed again in the spring before they pupate. e. Pupa. 1. The larve leave their burrows and construct cocoons at or near the surface of the ground on the trunk of trees or on the loose soil. 2. The larve emerge from their cocoons in about 3 or 4 weeks as moths. d. The adult moths. 1. The moths mate and the female at once begins to deposit her ees. . Damages. a. They affect the fruit of the apricot, prune, plum and peach trees. b. They affect the above varieties by boring into the sap wood. k. Peach twig borer. . The stages of development are like the peach tree borer. . There are two or three genrations during the summer. . Damages. a. Harly in the spring as the foliage is putting out, the larve be- gin to leave their burrows and attack the tender leaves and shoots, boring into and down the pith. Re OC De mob MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 187 b. The injured shoots soon wilt and die. e. The larva enters the peach at the stem end boring into the pit, causing the stone to burst as the fruit ripens. d. The larva may make its way to and around the stone, if split, it may enter and feed upon the seed. e. The larvex of the summer broods feed beneath the bark or in the fruit stem of the peach. Order Dip’-te-ra (flies). . The adult insects have two wings. . The mouth parts are formed for sucking. . The metamorphosis is complete. . Study the external anatomy. a. House fly. — b. Mosquito. . They are agents of disease. . Study the fungus gnat. a. It causes gall spots on leaves and twigs. a. Apple Maggot. . The adult is a two-winged, black and white lal . Stages of development. a. The egg. 1. The eggs are deposited in June in the fruit by the female puncturing the skin with her sharp ovispositor. 2. They hatch in a few days into maggots or larve. b. The maggots or larve. 1. They make numerous channels in the pulp of the fruit. 2. The infested fruit generally falls early. 3. The winter is passed in larve state in the ground. 4. The maggots crawl out of the fruit and enter the ground to pupate. ce. Pupa. 1. The pupa is enclosed in the last larva skin which serves as a cocoon. 2. They emerge from their cocoon in June. d. They damage the fruit of the apple. e. They can be checked by fall plowing and destroying windfall apples by allowing hogs to run in the orchard. . Study the pomace fly. Order Co-le-op’-te-ra (Beetles). . The insects have a pair of horny wing covers, beneath which there is a single pair of membrane wings. . The mouth parts are formed for biting. . The metamorphosis is complete. . Study the external anatomy. a. Flat-headed apple tree borer. . The beetle is about 14-inch long and flattish oblone. 188 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 2. H> OO . The beetle is about 34-inch long. . It is brown and has two broad . Stages of development. . The borers tunnel into the inner & . The beetle is about 1/3-inch . Stages of development. . They attack the apple, pear, . The infested limbs should be Stages of development. a. The egg. 1. The eggs are deposited under the loose scales or within the cracks of the bark during the summer. 2. The eggs hatch in a short time and the larve bore channels in the sap wood. b. The larva. 1. It remains in the sapwood until shortly before pupation then it bores deép into the solid wood. ce. Pupa. 1. It takes from one to three years for the uy ieee ere eee larve to change to a beetle. 4 ie hover a. ae nee d. The beetles are steel colored, flattened full grown; b, pupa; ec, re- verse side of the head; d, above with irregular depression on the beetle. wing COVELS. . These borers attack apple, pear, peach trees. . The presence of the larva may be detected by the digcolorauee of the bark or exudation of sap or sawdust castings. . They should be dug out of the trees. b. Round-headed apple tree borer. white stripes extending the length _. of the body. a. It is similar to that of the flat- $= headed apple tree borer. bark and the sapwood, and also bore around the tree and girdle it. Fig. i158.—Round-headed apple tree . It takes about three seasons for poree 2b, Phe lana: eh eer nee the larva to reach maturity. d, pupa. . They are very injurious to the young apple trees. . They are detected the same as the flat-headed apple tree borers. ce. Apple Twig Borers. long, cylindrical form, brownish above and black underneath. a. It is similar to the flat- headed apple tree borer. cherry, and other trees, and . bore into the twigs just above a bud for food and shelter. eut off and burned. d. Fruit Bark Beetle. . The stages of development fig. 159.—Apple twig borer. a, a, two views of beetles; b, pupa; c, larva; d, e, f, twig burrows. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 189 are like the flat-headed apple tree borer. . Damages. a. They attack plum trees in preference to other plants. b. They infest the apple, peach, cherry, plum, pear, quince, apri- cot trees. ce. The larve live beneath the bark where they feed upon the sap- wood. d. The beetles generally infest the sickly tree. . The infested trees should be burnt. FRUIT BARK BEETLE. Fig. 160.—Fruit Bark-Beetle; a, adult; b, beetle in profile; c, pupa; d, larva. e. Plum Curculio. The beetle is about 14-inch long, brown with ae black ae . The beetles leave the trees __.. in the fall and hide away in secure places for the winter period of hibernation. _The beetles emerge from their hiding places in the spring when the vegetation | | \ begins to grow and the buds | begin to push out. . The beetles mate about the time the trees begin to bloom and deposit their eggs when the young fruit begins’ to en- | large. ues Bu su) ns ne Eee ee eee i Stages of development. ‘Fig. 161—Plum curculio; shows larva, adult, pupa, infected plums. a. The egg. 1. The eggs are deposited oe June, July and August. 2. The eggs are deposited in the young fruit by puncturing the tissue and inserting the eggs. 3. A ecrescent- shaped groove is cut around one side of eggs to prevent the growing tissue from crushing the eggs. 4. The eggs are hatched in from 4 to 6 days. 5. The beetles die after they deposit their eggs. b. The larve. 1. The larve feed for about 20 days in the fruit, then they bore out of the fruit and enter the ground as matured larve. 190 MANUAL OF HORTIGULT. nae =~ 09 DO e. The pupa. 1. The larve remain in the avouad for about 28 days sae emerge as a perfect beetle. 2. The lary. are large white grubs. d. The beetles. © 1. They remain quiet for a few days then they fly to the trees to feed on the fruit. 2. The beetles of the new generation cause the greatest injury to the fruit crops. Damages. a. The larve or maggots cause the fruit to drop before ripe and hard knots to form on the fruit. b. They affect apples, cherries, plums, peaches, pears and quince buds and leaves, and the larvee bore into the fruit around the pit. e. The curculio of the apple, cherry, peach, pear, haws and quince are similar to the plum ecurculio. d. They may be caught and destroyed by jarring them off the tree into a sheet. 7. Note: Study the following: a. Plum gouges; b, Tiger beetle; ¢c, Ladybug. Order Hy-me-nop ’-te-ra. The insects have four membranous wings. The mouth parts are formed for biting and sucking. The metamorphosis is complete. Study the external anatomy. a. Study the bee and wasp. | a. Saw Fly. They belong to the order that has four wings of a delicate membranous text- ure. The bees, wasps, and ants belong to the same order. © Study one of the above in- sects if a saw fly can not be secured. Stages of development. a. The egg. 1. The egg is oval in outline sometimes slightly flattened at one side. 2. It is pale and almost colorless appearing light green through the leaf tissue. 3. The eggs are depos- ited in the tissue of Fig. 162.—The eggs of a pear-slug or saw-fly. the leaves. % (Iowa Exp. Station.) MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE S100 SOA ie 4. They are placed just ‘ beneath the epider- mis of the upper side of the leaf by the fe- male saw fly. pb. The larva or slug. t. The young larva’ “| - emerges from the . egg to the upper sur- face of the leaf, cut-. ting. a semi- -cireular hole in the: aor TIS. ee 2. The body is pale, free from slime, the head is light brown and the thorax is broad. 3. The slug molts fectn five to seven times. 4. A coat of slime is se- ereted very soon after hatching and the slug then ap- pears dark olive green in color, with a dark brown head. ®. The larve drop to Pig. i63.The mature larva. : : 3 (lowa Exp. Station.) Fig. 165.— The pupa. (lowa Ex- per. Station.) Fig. 164.—Shows two cocoons of the pear slug. (lowa Exp. Station.) the ground when they are molting for the last time. ¢. a uDe 1. The larva ee an earthen cell lined with sticky substance, making the particles of earth adhere. 2. The earthen cells are found one or more inches below the sur- face of the soil in summer; deeper for winter. 3. The larva pupates in 6 to 8 days after entering the cocoon if = ° an adult saw fly is to emerge the same year ; but if to emerge the next spring the larva remains as it is until spring, pupat- ing just before ene 192 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 4. The adult saw fly emerges from the cocoon and deposits its eggs in the spring or summer. d. Adult saw fly. 1. It emerges spring from its win- 3. Note: ter in the cocoon which ¢ may be of the first \ generation or second generation. . There is no proof that the saw flies mate. Study a. The rose slug. b. Currant worm. 5. Numbers of generations. a. There are two genera- — tions each year. ay Fig. 166.—The adult saw-fly. (lowa Exp. Station.) April May June July August September October 10 20 3:0 16 20 3\0 10 20 30 16 2@ 3/0 10 0 3/0 10 20 3/0 10 20 3 Adjults comms Eggs om, Larvae) commen | eon Ofer eco ee Ajdalts mums Eggs comes |x Larvae ES | SE | Co COONS = qa) | |e Diagram ef the Life Cycle. b. Study the above diagram. 1. Study when the flies of the different broods appear. 2. Study when the larve of the different broods appear. 3. Study when the pupation of the different broods takes place. ce. Life cycle from egg to egg. 1. From eggs to larve about 18 days. 2. From larve to pupa about 19 days. 3. From pupa to adult about 8 days. 4. From adult to middle of egg-laying about 5 days. 5. Total of about 50 days. 6. Damages. — a. The larve feed upon the leaves of the pear, plum, cherry and quince. The slugs feed on the upper surface of the leaves, not eating holes through them, but taking the upper portion and leaving the vines bare. . The injured trees appear as if they had been scorched by fire. . The damaged leaves turn brown, curl up and finally fall. b. ns MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 193 Preventatives. See spraying calendars. 2. Study the preventatives given in bulletins and in books. 6 CONISD OUR CODD EE References. . Manual for the Study of Insects by Comstocks. . Practical and Descriptive Zoology by Colton. . Practical Zoology by Davison. Economic Entomology by Smith. Fruit Growing in Arid Region by Paddock and Whipple. . Insects Injurious to Fruits by Saunders. . New Mexico Bulletins Nos. 35, 68. . Colorado Bulletins Nos. 112, 114, 152. . New York Bulletin No. 170. . Ohio Bulletin No. 164. . New Hampshire Bulletin No. 109. . Washington Bulletin No. 77. . lowa Bulletin No. 130. . The Spraying of Plants by Lodeman. . Write to U.S. Dept. of Agriculture and to the different State Ex- perimental Stations for bulletins on any of the above insects. STUDY OF PLANT DISEASES. Cryp’-to-gams. 1. The Cryptogams. a. They are seedless plants and are propagated by means of spores. b. The spore is a single organic body consisting of a single cell which separates from the parent plant at maturity and gives rise to a new individual. c. Three great orders of the cryptogams. 1. Thallophytes or thallus plants. a. The thallus plant is the simplest kind of a vegetable struc- ture. b. Two divisions. 1. Algae, as seaweeds, pond scums. 2. Fungi. a. Mushrooms, puffballs, molds, rust, mildew and lichens. b. Miscroscopic organisms, as bacteria. 1. Produces fermentations, putrification and disease. 2. Bryophytes or Moss Plants. a. Mosses. b. Liverworts. 3. Pteridophytes or Fern Plants. a. Ferns. b. Horsetails. e. Club mosses. d. The study of the eryptogams will aid in understanding the lower form of plant life and make the study of the fungi easier. Plant Diseases. 1. The word disease may be applied to any unhealthy or abnormal condition in a plant which may be caused by faulty nutrition, fungi and bacteria. 194 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 2. Any disease involves three things. a. A plant to be diseased. i 2. 3. 4. Some varieties of plants are more susceptible to diseases than others. Vigorous and healthy trees resist the attacks of diseases while weak ones are susceptible to the attacks of disease. Trees that are injured by insects are susceptible to diseases. A plant upon which a parasite lives is called its host. b. Environments. Ae 2. Q Oo. Heavy dews and cloudy damp weather are favorable to the development of fungus diseases. The weather is very important and it sometimes is erron- eously given credit for the diseases. Proper selection of an orchard site, and careful and thorough pruning will aid in preventing diseases. . A site located on high land with good air drainage is less susceptible to disease and winter injury. . A tree pruned to admit air and sunlight is less susceptible to disease. . Good soil, good cultivation, good air drainage, and free from weeds are direct preventives to diseases. . Things that help diseases. a. Weeds protect many diseases and pests during winter. b. Dead and dying branches in the trees. c. Old dying trees in young orchards harbor deere and pests. d. Peach and pear trees in any apple orchard may carry brown rot, curculio, crown gall and pear blight. ce. Bacteria and fungi. i He OD They belong to the lower forms of life and are very different from the familiar green plants in their manner of reproduc- tion and in their method of obtaining food. . Because of their lack of chlorophyll or green coloring mat- ter they are unable to make their own starch and sugar good material and are compelled to depend upon other plants for the preparation of a large part of their nutriment. . They feed upon both living and dead organisms. . Those living upon dead organic matter are known as Sapro- phytes. . The moulds that ate stored vegetables and fruits are eX- amples of saprophytes. . Fungi that obtain their food from living creatures are known as Parasites. . The vegetative portion of a fungus consists of minute threads known as Hyphe (d). . A mass of these hyphe is Soler of collectively as the my- celium (b) which spread between or into the cells of the host and absorbs its food material from them. . Fungi form no seeds but are reproduced by means of spores. (i). A. These serve the same purpose as seeds but are produced in ga keoics| MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 195 much greater numbers and are much more simple in structure. b. They are too small to be seen with the eye and so light that they are readily scattered by the wind. c. Spores may be divided into two classes, Fig. 167. 1. The summer spores (f) are produced in enormous num- Fig. 167 shows the structure of the scab fungus. (N. H. Exp. Station.) . Portion of a section through a scab spot on an apple showing the fungus 1. a—The cuticle or rind of an apple. 2. b—Fungus spreading under and lifting the cuticle. 38. c—Partly disorganized cells of the apple. . Sporophores. 1. d—Two spores-bearings stalks (hyphae). 2. f—Summerer spores cut off from the hyphae. - Spores germinating or hyphae. f . Winter spores which have developed in an infected apple leaf which has lain on the ground over winter. 1. g—Perithecium, or spore case containing a bundle of spore sacs (asei), . Two spores (asci) each containing 8 two-celled winter spores. . Three two-celled Winter spores. 196 10. Ce 12. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE bers and serve for the spread of the disease in the sum- mer. 2. The winter spores (g) can endure more unfavorable conditions and serve to carry the disease over winter and through dry seasons. 3. The spores are usually produced in a iothoune body called Perithecium (B). 4. The spores that are nrodnecd in the perithecia are en- closed in a sac called Asci (g). d. The spores germinate by sending out germ tubes (C). 1. This tube or hypha may enter the host tissue and de- velop a new mycelium there. — The breathing pores of the leaves and fruit and the wounds on the limbs and the trunk of the tree furnish opportunities to gain entrance to the host plant. The fact that the spores can yerminate only in the presence of moisture and that the germ tube is thin-walled and deli- cate, gives an opportunity te destroy it before it gains en- trance to the host. The host plant should be sprayed with some substance which will be poisonous to the germinating spores and which will slowly dissolve in the dew or other moisture that may be on the plant. 3. The three preventatives. a. Trees themselves should be resistant. als 2. 3. 4. They will resist if kept growing evenly and healthy. They should have cultivation, pruning and fertilization. Improper. falling of leaves and ‘buds growing in the fall are signs of improper nourishment and poor resistance to dis- eases. Varieties that are in themselves resistant to diseases should be selected. b. Proper environments. 1; Clean orchards, good drainage, fertile soil, wood Culiiectaen and good nursery stock are essential to prevent diseases. c. Spraying to kill the spores before they enter the host is the prcauees preventative. Apple Scab. 1. Cause. a. Apple scab is due to the presence of a Pet aiich grows beneath the cuticle of the leaves and fruit, invading the super- ficial cells with its branching threads. b. In a short time the fungus gives rise to groups of small stalks which break through the cuticle, or skin, and give forth numer- ous minute olive-colored spores. 2. Description. a. The scab first appears early in the spring and these sponds are scattered in April and May on the young buds and unfolding leaves, and new infections may continue to take place through- out the season. b. Seabs are circular, rough, somewhat irregular in outline, grayish or olive green, becoming black when older, and range in size MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 197 - from mere specks to spots one-fourth to one-half inch in diam- peter . Two or more spots may coalesce, forming large, irregular scabby areas. . The ruptured skin of the apple usually persists around the mar- gin of the spot, leaving a light-colored ring at the border of the healthy tissue. , pee ade. a. These spores are blown about by the winds, and it is by means Cc. d. of these wind-dispersed spores that the infection takes place. . The fungus is carried over winter in the diseased leaves on the ground, where spores of the perfect stage are produced, which are discharged in early spring as the young leaves and fruit buds begin to open. These winter spores start the infection which is further spread by the summer spores, soon produced by the new scab spots. The first spread is early in the season and second spread is in August. . Damages. - a. b. It affects the fruit of apples, pears and quinces. Young fruits affected with this disease may become pitted, one- sided, and otherwise distorted, and in severe cases the fruit be- comes cracked. . The fungus may attack and destroy the blossoms and even the unopened buds; the flower stalks may become so weakened by the disease that the young fruit drops off. . Seabs are circular, rough, somewhat irregular in outline, grayish . The disease also appears on both sides of the leaves and on the leaf-stalks in the form of smoky brown patches, which become swollen and blister-like. . The winter spore stage on the leaves often causes the leaves to curl more or less and results in the premature shedding of the foliage. g. The fruit crop suffers in moist localities a greater loss by far from the attacks of scab than from any other fungous disease. . It often affects 50 to 75 per cent of the crop over wide areas, and is not unfrequently responsible for total failures by killing the young fruits when in blossom or soon thereafter and by rendering the fruit too unsightly for the market. . Scab has a wide distribution, being exceedingly serious in the Pacific Northwest, except in the dry climates similar to that of Yakima. . Cold storage scab. b. C. a. The scab spots that develop in cold storage are either from col- onies that were too small to be seen on the fruit or from spores carried into the box with the fruit. The scab fungus is checked in its growth by low temperature and of cold storage. The black sunken spots develop on the fruit sometimes 14 inch thick, before any break is made in the cuticle of the fr ah . Study. a. Apple blotch. 198 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE b. Bitter rot. 7. Preventatives. a. See spraying calendars. Fig. 168, shows scab on cold storage apples. (N. H. Exp. Station.) Black Rot, Cankers and Leaf Spot. 1. Cause. a. The above three diseases have been found to be due to a single fungus. b. Disease of fruit is called black rot; of branches, cankers; of leaves, leaf-spot. 2. Description. a. Black rot. 1. It is a dark brown or black in color, and affects the tissue of the fruits, causing them to be comparatively firm. 2. It generally starts at the blossom end, but may start on any part of the fruit. 3. It is primarily a rot of ripe fruit, but may be found on fruit several weeks before maturity. 4. The spots may develop very slowly until picking time, then it begins to spread rapidly till the whole apple is involved. 5. Numerous minute black elevations may be seen on the fruit as the rot develops; these bodies contain the spores of the fungus. 6. The worthless fruit is a breeding place for the spores. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 199 , Canker. . Black-rot Canker is a term ap- plied to the rough, unsightly diseased areas that are found on limbs. . It destroys the bark and lays bare portions of the wood. .It attacks the larger limbs where it may be detected by the swollen appearance of limbs, the rough, black bark and in many instances, bare wood, black and decaying. . It may girdle the limb causing the part above the girdle to die. _It is sometimes called the ‘“‘New York apple tree cank- ere e. Leaf spot. 1 . It attacks the foliage after the | 2. When the leaves are full grown the spots are brown, brittle, circular and sharply defined outline. 3. Several black specks about the | _ size of a pinhead appear at the | center of the spots. 4. A secondary growth may start from the center spots. ee 3. Spread. a. The above diseases are spread by means of spores. 4. Damages. a. Black rot. buds break, and the young leaves show small _ reddish- brown spots. Fig. 169.—Shows the black rot eanker. (N. H. Exp. Station.) 1. It affects fruit of the apple, pear and quince. 2. It causes the fruit to become hard and wrinkled. b. Canker. 1. It affects the limbs of the apple, pear and quince. 2. It interferes with the circulation of the sap and sometimes ce. Le 1 2: causes the tree to die. ai spot. . It affects the foliage of the apple, pear and quince. This diseased condition causes the leaves to drop premature- ly, frequently leaving the trees denuded in early autumn, six weeks or two months before the normal period of leaf fall. . Trees thus deprived of their foliage cease activity, and as a ‘result the fruit is small and not properly matured; the buds for the crop of the following year are weakened and in some 200 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE cases not fully developed, and the life of the tree is material- ly shortened. . 4. These leaf diseases are partly responsi- ble for the failure of the trees to produce erops, and for the early decline of the orchard. 5. Preventatives. a. Destroy all rot- ten fruit. b: Pruner Sout; > all eankered limbs. e. Keep the orchard free from weeds and rubbage. d. See spraying cal- endar. Black Knot. . Cause. a. It is caused by a fun- ous. . Description. a. It causes a swelling un- derneath the bark, fin- ally rupturing it and developing a spongy texture covered with dark olive green mold. b. In this stage, the sum- mer spores are pro- duced. ¢. Water, -the knot,” be- comes hard with a black surface inside of which are matured winter spores. d. The winter spores es- cape late in winter or early spring. . Damages. a. It affects the plum, Fig. 170—Shows the black knot on a grape cherry and grape. vine. (Cal. Exp. Station.) b. It causes a peculiar black growth on the limbs, large branches and trunk of trees. c. It causes considerable damage to young trees and vines. . Preventatives. a. The infested parts should be destroyed. b. The winter knots should be destroyed before the spores escape. Brown Rot. . Cause. a. It is caused by a fungus. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 201 Fig. 171._-Shows brown rot of apricot. (Cal. Exp. Station.) b. Warm and moist weather causes the spores to germinate read- ily. 2. Description. a. It affects the stone fruits. b. It causes the fruit to turn brown and rot, and Geyerep: on the skin a powdery brown coating. The coating consists of a number of minute spores. The germinating tubes penetrate the skin and develop a mass mycelium which destroys the tissue of the apple causing it to TOue! e. The spores remain in the fried up fruit until the following sea- son when they start the disease again. f. The spores also pass the winter in diseased branches. ase 202 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 7. Preventatives. a. See spraying calendar. Crown Gall. 1. Cause. a. Crown gall is caused by faces ani slime mold. 2. Description. a. It is an abnormal outgrowth and may appear on the trunk, at the. crown, or anywhere on the roots. b. The knots are irregular in form, rough on the surface, soft and spongy within, and of various sizes. 3. Two types. a. Hard callous type. 1. It is found on grafted trees at the union of the roots and scion. 2. It is also found on root system where wounds are caused by cultivation or transplanting of trees. b. Soft type. 1. It is found more common on seedlings but may be found on grafted stock. 4. Hairy-root. a. It has an excessive production of small fibrous roots originating in clusters from the main root. b. It is characterized both in seedlings and in eee’ or budded trees by a stunted root system. e. Galls often occur in connection with hairy-root rut are a result. of wounds rather than a oe of the hairy700u disease. 5. Spread. a. It is spread in the orch- ard from tree to tree by means of culture. b. It is spread by nursery stock. ’ 6. Damages. a. It is fatal to all kinds of orchard trees. b. The knots are detriment- al to the tree and when they occur at the crown, the tree is worthless. e. Trees being affected with crown gall produce infer- lor fruit. 7. Preventatives. a. Affected trees should nev- er be planted. : b. Avoid planting trees in soil that is infested by the disease. ce. Apple trees should be re- moved from _ orchard when affected with the Fig: 172. ageaTENG Gall on eenie root. crown gall. (N. H. Exp. Station.) MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 203 oS Leaf Curl. 1. Cause. a. It is caused by a fungus. 2. Description. a. It affects the leaves and sometimes the twigs of peach trees. b. It causes the leaves to distort, crumple, and curl. ce. It can be readily detected in the spring when the leaves first start. 3. Preventatives. a. See spraying calendar. Fruit Rot. 1. Cause. a. It is caused by a fungus growing under the epidermis of the apple like A in Fig. 167. b. Mycelia containing spore sacs (Spermogonia) are developed un- der the epidermis and when the spore cases are matured, they break through the epidermis and discharge the spores. e. The thick walled spores are common in the apple and carry the disease over winter. Fig. 173.—Shows the fruit spots of an apple. (Cal. Exp. Station.) 2. Description. a. First, the fruit spots may be seen as deep red on the colored surface of the apple and of a dark green on the lighter portion. b. As the spots become larger, they become slightly sunken and more colored. ; 204 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE c. Numerous black specks appear causing the center of the spot to have a black appearance. d. The tissue beneath the spots is rendered brown and corky. e. The disease is spread by the matured spore sacs discharging the spores on the surface of the apple. 3. Damage. a. This fungus does not attack the fruit until nearly grown. b. It causes the rottening of the ripening fruit of the apple, cher- ry, plum, apricot and peach. ce. This fungus may attack the twigs and blossoms when the weath- er is Warm and moist. d. The rotted fruit remains on the tree over winter in a mummied form and the following spring under favorable weather con- ditions becomes covered with spores by means of which the disease is propagated. 7. Preventatives. a. Destroying all mummied fruits before growth starts in the spring. b. See spraying calendar. Fire Blight. 1. Cause. a. It is caused by a bacterial disease which gains entrance to the tree through insect wounds or the flowers. b. The insects are attracted by a dark, mucilaginous fluid that oozes from the diseased wood in the spring and which is swim- ming with bacteria. Fig. 174.—Shows pear blight. (Cal. Exp. Station.) Cc. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 205 The blight gains entrance to the tree in a majority of cases through the flowers, and as the flowers are borne upon spurs, and as these spurs are developed from wood which is one or more years of age. 2. Description. a. b. - die and sometimes the whole — 3. Spreads. ; a. . The blighted twigs, branches . It may creep back along the . It may kill the new shoots of . The affected leaves and . A dark mucilaginous fluid . If one of the beads is put in . It may be found on the blos- It is known as the apple twig blight, blossom blight and pear blight. It causes the leaves, blossoms and young fruit to wither, droop and turn black on the affected portions, remaining attached to the twigs during winter ; but sometimes they may drop off when the leaves fall. . A tree that is severely attacked with the blight will often look _as if a fire swept through the tree. . The infection is largely through the blossoms and proceeds down and through the inner bark of the twigs and branches. . The blight runs down into large limbs and remains alive over winter, producing the so-called ‘‘hold- over” blight, or canker, which is the source of the foo season’s infection. Fig. 74. or trunks of a pear show a | red, sappy, juicy condition of the inner bark. spur and form a blight can- ker on the tree. the present year’s growth. twigs turn black and finally tree dies. that oozes from the diseased parts forms beads of gum which is swimming with bacteria. a drop of water and exam- ined under a microscope, it will be found to contain bac- teria. soms, twigs, watersprouts, stem, or any part of the tree. The insects get some of the mucilaginous fluid on their feet or mouth parts and car- ry it from blossom to blos- som where the bacteria mul- tiply very rapidly. oft takes place through) ‘the 90 aeli75\-shews the trunk’ of a pear tree that was treated for the blight. 206 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE blossom, tender shoots, or any wound on the tree. c. The bacteria continue to spread by breaking down the eells of the cambium layer. 4. Damages. a. It affects the blossoms, twigs, large branches and the trunk of the apple, pear, crab apple and quince trees. b. It kills the blossoms, leaves, twigs and sometimes the entire tree. c. The fire blight is formed in the growing season and if allowed to remain in tree, becomes ‘‘hold-over’’ blight or canker. d. Fig. 175 shows the trunk of a pear affected with “‘hold-over”’ blight or canker. 1. The bark was peeled off the trunk and the trunk was treated for the blight. 2. Where the cambium layer was not injured the bark grew back. : 3. The bare spot that is shown on the trunk is where the cam- bium layer was scraped off. 5. Preventatives. a. The bacteria lies dormant during winter as ‘‘hold-over’’ plake or canker in the apple or pear tree. b. The hold-over blight-is often the result of late infections which do not develop very much in the fall. c. The trees should be caretally pruned if there are any signs of the blight. d. The cut in pruning saad be made several inches below the lowest sign of the discoloration. e. The pruning instruments should be sterilized with corrosive sub- limate. . The wound or cut should be sterilized with corrosive sublimate. g. It therefore becomes evident that if these fruiting spurs are al- lowed to remain upon the large structural branches of the tree, and the blossoms of such a spur become affected by the blight, the blight will immediately become communicated to the frame- work branch upon which the spur is situated. . It is evident that if the fruiting spurs which bear these blos- soms are kept off the large branches of the tree there is less lia- bility of injury to them from the blight. . Persons engaged in fruit culture should pay the strictest atten- tion to the removal of all fruiting spurs from the main branches of the trees. . This will force the development of spurs upon the smaller branches, and as these can be allowed to develop at a consider- able distance from the main body of the tree, contamination with the blight will only necessitate the removal of one of these smaller, minor branches, rather than the loss of a main frame- work branch. . By systematically cutting out all blighted branches which ap- pear among the fruit-bearing branches of a properly pruned pear tree, it will at once rid the tree of the blight, without any serious detriment to the tree itself. MANUAL OF. HORTICULTURE 207 Fig. 176.—Shows apple twig affected by mildew. (Cal. Exp. Station.) Mildew. 1. Cause. a. It is caused by a surface-growing fungus. 2. Description.. a. The early stages appear as white frost-like eR es on the leaves, twigs and fruit. 208 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE b. The leaves on new growths are most susceptible to attacks and are much crumpled and dwarfed. ce. It attacks fruit, making the flesh under the spots hard and the skin takes on a brown color. 3. Damages. a. Mildew affects the eee leaves, and fruit of apple and peach trees. b. It checks the growth of twigs or kills them outright. c. The hardening of the flesh of fruit makes it unmarketable and sometimes the entire crop is ruined. 4. Preventatives. a. See spraying calendar. Root ee 1. Causes. a. Several different fungi seem to cause this disease among which armillaria mellea is probably the most import- ant. b. The fungi that cause root rot of the fruit’ trees are generally called the ‘toad stool’’ fungi. 2. Two types. a. The fungi that affect the roots. b. The fungi that affect the stem. 3. Description. a. The first indication is the appear- ance on the trunk and branches of dark brown spots caused by exuda- 9 P'S suey a tion of sap. b. The bark dries down to the wood and has a dark color. ce. The disease causes a splitting of the bark. d. The affected trees ripen their foliage early in the fall and the bark of the branches has a reddish cast. e. The inner wood of the branches has a dark color. f. The dead trees are found to be girdled just below the ground and the roots are decayed. Russeting. 1. Causes. a. By long continued cloudy, wet weather immediately after the setting of the fruit. b. By spraying with Bordeaux mixture during cloudy wet weather. cG. { \ 2. Description. a. b. 1. Description. a. c. By the freezing of the MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 209 dew on the fruit while young. It affects the apple and the pear. The fruit shows areas on which the skin is rough, brown and corky. These areas may be ir- regular, in which case the fruit is said to be russeted, or it may form a definite area around the fruit, pro- ducing a condition called belting. Sunburn. The bark on one side of the tree dies and poe ane A ea pronmdsyareletion the: (7). — (cal way Statiot) 90). 1 tree: The wound becomes infested with a fungus which shows itself in a cluster of small bracket-like growths something like a toad- stool. The fungus works into the sapwood of cambium. d. The apple is quite susceptible to winter sunburn injury of the trunk and branches. é. It is prevented by painting the trunk with whitewash; keeping the ground covered with vegetation or a mulch of some sort. Apple Rosette. (By F. A. Huntley.) 1. Causes. Gert 99 Hho Qo . Apple rosette is a condition resulting from defective nutrition of the tree and may be caused by: . Trees standing too close together, thus impairing both leaf and root action. Lack of soil fertility. . Neglect of cultivation. Persistent shallow cultivation. A hardpan subsoil. . A cold subsoil (occasioned by the presence of seepage or spring water). . A water-saturated subsoil moisture. Insufficient subsoil moisture. Impaired soil drainage. 2. Description. a. bs The leaves on one or more branches of the tree fail to develop and have a yellowish appearance. The branches on which these leaves appear fail to elongate and 210 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE at a time of the year when they would normally have grown one to three feet, ordinarily, would make no terminal growth what- ever. ce. The wood of the previous year’s growth has failed to grow and has a sickly or shriveled appearance. d. The bark of the tree is often yellowish; the cambium layer lacks vigor as 1s manifested at the top. Fig. 179.—Shows both healthy and rosetted twigs. 1. Shows a healthy nursery twig one year old. a. Note the appearance of the buds. 2. Shows a rosetted nursery twig one year old. a. Note the appearance of the buds. b. Caused by poor soil and hard-pan a foot below the surface. ce. Note that the terminal bud looks shriveled. 3-4-5 are taken from a bearing tree. . They show that they bore leaves by the leaf-scars. . They show no fruit buds or healthy leaf growth. . They can never produce a terminal growth. . The growth can only take place from lateral buds lower down on the twig. a SblLoye Hie. a0 ea a. Note the healthy and rosetted twigs on the same branch. b. Note how the ends of the twigs are affected. _ c. The texture of the wood of a rosetted twig is found to be spongy when examined. 4. The improper nutrition ee be caused by lack of available plant food. 5. The restriction of the root expansion may be caused by hard pan or a dry subsoil. Ooo) MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 211 |e oF. Fig. 180. Alemoues healthy rosetted twigs. ; 6. Any injury to the structure of any part of the ee will hinder the function of the injured part; flow of the sap which carries the plant food from the roots to the leaves will be checked. 7. Remedies. a. Plant trees 30 feet apart each way to admit sun and air. b. Plow deeply every fall. e. Fertilize the soil with stable manure or plowing under green crops in the spring following deep fall plowing and seeding. d. Provide free drainage to a depth of at least four feet. e. Irrigate to the full depth and throughout the expansion of the root system. f. Irrigate seldom but thoroughly. g. Practice surface cultivation throughout the entire spring and summer. 212 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE SPRAYING. 1. Important principles. a. The habits and characteristics of each insect and fungus should be studied. b. A study of the different varieties of fruits as to their susceptibility to fungi and insects. ce. A knowledge of how to protect the susceptible varieties from fungi and insects. d. A knowledge of the inter-relation between crops and fungi and insects. e. A knowledge of how to care for orchards and to watch for new pests. f. A study of how fungi and insects are distributed. 2. Objects of spraying. a. It is to kill the fungi and insects directly. b. It is to coat the plant with poison which will kill the orchard pests. ce. It is to give a better quality and greater quantity of fruit. 3.. The blooming periods depend on: . Location as to latitude and altitude. . Site as to air and water drainage. Exposure as to winds and frost. . Soils: Black loamy, late; Sandy, early. . The blooming period in some localities will be earlier, and other localities later than given in the following table, but the same relative time will exist between the different varieties as given in the table. 4. The space between the X’s indicate the blooming period. a. Early apple bloomers. Cao of Date. APRIL. Name. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 (Olebatens fey Sh he Sn ee ee i > Cm Ammer Cini Got on oc oo oS LDpWM Aignts cigeh (710 Aigal aE EA hv Data oda Cl Ante eM NG oa og. snd oo no: 2 TI ERSHD Ke 20 E25 ae ea ea ere o> Caner eats Snir er in eam ES MUSED AInmes 5-6) Ghee min a os oo GLaVieimStelnms ey oe ee Sik rah Sees Ra a I ON SSNS cree Sey ay eG co IBS Gg won aero oon EES een er AIO, Gane ee lsu ea on mene eM nen SUN A NN Cla sa Sa. od Mann .... onan Pa ea Nc Aaa, Gaia Meme B eS Nal UPS bis) od bo Duch. of Old’brg SSA LUEUARE a Niiey cighraltat Rigo Mae yaaa 5: WDRGrcale: ataeile ope Ortleyinee abe sitcddinteecMincanN kits: i darias itu pallet MpseeeaREeanT ALE I Cus EAD ALE ied ees PRUCO VASE ACTIVA AS Sire ee LOS ait Sar OR atone ates wert Maa Ae Oe nc Starkey psec eee iy La RH en ke rarey cise pa aie >.< tae me Transe’d’t Crab x . ee Gas Radi ie Wolf River..... BLN PRED Naiiese tawds) Stanigie aca Sy ul bette et ap ve SSE ONS Bras zeae SC a eats Avs Gt kee Wealthy ....... PE Serene i hele, , Gore arene nM Sma UN Ca Ey A eo Oe (Baileyis WS weet. 4. 2 Pe aka oa ee: > SORES ec ee ae ea enn, Genie sigs, Sie. oo Jeon f= oKSih oaKena! je epee tnt lepecHs oi ecko eo P, GHnEPra A a ROMS Cine RO en ion ens nels sc Ben Davis RED, SOE toe Mica mE Guard Wane onc a3 ERE Gayl ys ahi suisse re stave eanenetededces tmemenane Hib fide eesti ati 4) Shouse wri eee GN orihaiiare hater teibe( folate ae aS a Carma danrEVe dei loe cesta Mesetemeutots PRO Re an RETA IITA 3 rege Lea Bea Ree ae RATAN CULS OY ise eh iO. ats Gaia eneworcrenepiauens veWelcom nite Boos | DR hi ene an Sa ee peas Ree 05 i SR Sn CATV OME acy eve casita csieisl/s so aN oka eae cn eke EEO pe ee, Gane oi ats Ail Stale 2am Ae GrimesiGoldem soc ee wees eee on eon dete Fit, Ghee ee iene tema eae | a) a 5 ok : Ey SLOP Crary ace ulcers reietetete > Gus Mire EEL pr neR Near, US meant ey ce See te TETAS GU SSIb AES lems eS oil Us GeO BS aie SO nen aNED. Ganon mmmenEve Dru GR iui Io ETO OST Be ere Soe No a ialinnre dowels letebsbe cove oie eokene teas ie, Gn ene ene eee ome tat ir wi ual wh Se 3 5'o JOMMEMAMG iretlevnG tac vshoacsideareteres a teneete pial lapel ustez dh cueylttelion joey GDR: sb lete debra olistee cea sac ame Une rat ae King of Tompkins County ...... Some, ORES er Cia eh mn ee erm Mite bo Sty oS ig Mammoth Black Twig .......... By Bewe caRS ales MRE RRCe Pomnnie | iia! na can sthats Sis IMIOM ED avorasp \Wilavhiemg poe see oemo le oc Pee, Gretna nl Msn une AM IP, rR RE sig | is oe IMAGENS MSS hence shicrsterse apres Be es EVR ES CSG CSR UES car MRED Pe AAI AT ce ee Mellow MNewtowmn! =. fics e ss Js eee. AT Toate, Geshe ernaa macau Usa taint onk ash ig oo Oe IN(OM EM SEMA Vis vs oie veie ie cesta ev ue Ker ona ora o Gites in) samara ail OK PE WAUIKES Ei iat she Robiol Brakes Se Ruedas oe, Sa e eee sitsata ieni, Miia Nts a sg eS Rhode Island Greening .......... PAE ERRAND, Ginna seria mi inn Mar avn ts Mee 5 BAD, abst FEVOUMIS WES CANCE Van terin,c airats Sea sanee sik Gos ediaviciaei a talaleare Be kant Re oe aR SEC EA TAM OO Mpa ane ete eexs sure Valls aay eta pia tanercse oat ek lenny nts ee Bee, Saks BED Stu iy ReduGneek Pippin lees eck ck es eee > Sak > Pea Mabrs ees SPLEZEeMIp ere yeild hose slate aaczonater esate MPL AM EHAE MD, UMA GUMEINOD cx be ory we ARLE ERTS SHON AaVE ois GOs c/OTCHDRG OCR LAE ROHERET SERGE P Re HM rae EE ean Sil is ise oo a IMAWIAISSCOMfeiers ecteielaleie sis ie eter ese oe a RE on ae ah OR a OO a SWC CEE OU rau cee hieeeis ss lessee Rute ED Gr Meme eer GS RAMEE > iis la Soi as 5 DS OMA SI WICC a erelelsiais bor sesereisitaces stl ays AMPA EMAUP TURE N TTL D>, Sault icine chin cee PM a TESneM x. WialbriGeieiinnme tiie csiine sss elses eer eh, Gn ener i GAMES er ty 36. NG Wai emer eager bisinicuersic sisisvevesacsteuetusted ars PD, Gen eee Cah cane TOR MOREE GS Gi DS oo IWVGIIMIS Seo teense ieee oveucn-cevcvaicien=-coscetelens PRA PREC, Car nore Emir OS 5 ca No MOG Ks MAO CUA aris eis isus tole oeensseve: see eae ree Olina Guia a se Baretta ete kG) nee eS Yellow Transparent .............. ATR RDC, Guinea Rae bOI aI P AS o'SIS. 616 negroes MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 213 e. Early pear bloomers. - Date MARCH APRIL Name 29 R30) eee, lo, amo CuO LO) dilate 2rtiS M4 ob. 1G (GLAS CAM ras sap isRoe snc ae col see host wake p FeHhe eS ste Se EAT rege OT At HORT CEN Ta AUP eT ST NEGO VTE EW 7 Bae reyes Srvc ree ticsete seme recess ug enue enia RGEVEioth Maree ns meU ES cots eRe ue Mma SE LAy ruta Spit RDC | NN ee NRCC ion Ets aa: ESTING © lnaiepiss rule aaa Uadete iano cotati eens Sat une Nat ce caPe tint < Gatetee avy CRM NulwuN Tn 2 REL i mec NE ARWAL CIC Cla reietea ose ee acohcge ceil SANUS ci teccetg cas air peataay ts AUD Rn ree OLN ART abs Blane E Se SK MCHE OMICS toto sets elie a Oia eietorcnnte aye RS ect ave Meter! tshic lee sik aia ait ea En oN ARDC RL Wott fancy 25 d. Late pear bloomers. Date APRIL Name 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 PANTO) OUI. auvtar tr sane ckecoen star a chsackerete eM aie eel alee Ee anes PS NOC: BOLO ERD Gees ES Cee eo PANT OUMUCIINC Hye merce cee co sia Noe tinisrotejeun Mens He cao atic onus RG sy staiiaeryhrcy oo) of chine eh Ow es TALE eR) etal areas (OVA S MENA TSG Casey eal ove Tecz, Sin ots aio yah eiansu mes a arfeae bone IatRen Hon iN Metal ArT D UN enas eaten, hari, GneLin a IASG CT ES UL CIPI Cnet sep atickster see ey Bre Scie Peto ae atau becuse dia PINE a PCa GAs en eee aNermIaE, aie, CURT DIR ae PLS TAMUSTIP patente ois lees eictar stave sa Vali lava Me DeMie toes cuneate suse Alpe Me RES n> aera ios Cate A, Cie parE ag PEVOMWVCUIG Serr nicmerere ic sinich « arsiesan ai reais ee rte ee SSRN | one ayaa ah at Mech oar eH RAC, Cone TYG EN GICOY, AB caer ci eclasnterty che CoRR cara AUN me EULA EDO LE AU pace ctie psp ov OONCe ee cg auasen yes x SS CGI ea eitr nace ay Men enc isos iar Maa PALS detuulcuk Wun puiraia x x ARATE eS Ree ile ieee ee aN Tee HT Eto UR i x x WWIIGEEN eae ROR NG a MU Ar et BRD A il UE xX x AVIVA SITET Sei sco.) soo hens sunnier mapa eis aia) Nie x x e. Early cherry bloomers. Date MARCH APRIL Name slot 2 38 4°55 6 7 8 910 11 12 13 14 MarhyweunrplevGuismeta. sean secre ele ake > Rr eR AS UR “inc ols 2 Met PY, en TEBE ICO Na Cacho aiior a ates Aiea ai) Fd OSU On PSR aa Ee ere ee ED ote CoN NeC alec alae Se ee SR CA ABUT O Dra gwer eee Wer ees claves at chee cs MRRg any sy any eT SAN SOA Acc tia aN ee ROR RECO, CR f. Late cherry bloomers. Date APRIL Name 8 9 10 11. 12) 13°14 15 16 47 18 19 20 21 VIO RCN ONS perio eae me wee ree ge ik teas Nene Baer a Oe AS heat MERE NS Ram S in oc uarnnan ep, Claes acme i age I VINTgaed) Ulkc Chae seri eeere eis tee OL mince oo wl 2) Aad atk eG Rain Allin eM NNT SSISA Se re enel ite pactle aU Nc ea IO PK Montmorency ......... Chas alte WA ei NA teen bE Rletccctall\ tn ihe Rat eee > CG Ai aero Su te Royal Ann (Napoleon) ...................... x AB > eens g. The blooming period of each variety should be studied and tabulated for each locality. h. The blooming period is important as upon which depends the time to give the different sprays and also the development of the fungi and insects. 5. How to spray. -a. Spray thoroughly. b. Direct your attention to the hardest places to reach. z ec. Cover every surface and wet behind the buds, d. Reach the bottom of every crack and fill each lower calyx cup. e. Do not try to economize on spray. f. Use a high-pressure pump (at least 200 Ibs.). g. Use Bordeaux nozzels only and an 8-foot spray rod. h. Have a crook to set the nozzles at an angle of 43 degrees. i. Spray from a tower if the trees are beyond your reach. 6. How to give the calyx spray. a, Washington Bulletin No. 45. . The best spray poison. a. Washington Bulletin No. 45. b. Washington Bulletin No. 28. ce. Washington Spray Calendar. ~ 214 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 8. Apple blossoms. cee tie Fig. 181.—Shows the apple blossom in different stages of development. (Neb. Exp. Station.) 1 shows a cluster bud before opening (first spray) for fungi. . 2 shows a cluster bud opened (wrong time to spray). 3 shows the flower after petals have dropped off (first spray for codling moth and curculio) and also second spray for fungi. 4 shows the calyx lobes beginning to close (second spray for codling moth). 5 shows calyx lobes almost closed (somewhat late for second spray for codling moth). 6 shows calyx lobes closed (no poi- son can enter the calyx cup). 9. Parts of the blossom. Fig. 182. a b ( d. e if 1 shows the calyx lobes. . 2 shows the stamens. 3 shows the pistil. 4 shows the calyx cup. . Study figure 65. . The central or terminal bud in each fruit cluster is generally the first one to open its bloom. . Its petals are first to drop and the central blooms generally set the best quality of fruit. . Calyx cup. Fig. 182. Fig. 182. ‘Soenieaet diagram of an apple blossom. 1. The calyx cup is in the center of the flower avoundl the pistil. 2. It is hidden from view by the stamens. 3. The stamens must be forced apart by the spray in order to reach the calyx cup. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE © 215 4. The spray must fill the calyx cup in order to kill the insects that crawl into the calyx cup. 5. The poison generally remains in the calyx cup throughout the season. 6. The first spray will kill the codling moth and curculio. 7. The spray on the outside of the apple will wear off and must be renewed. 10. Calyx condition. Fig. 183. a. The left shows calyx lobes open and some more closed than others; right time for first spray. b. The right shows calyx lobes closed and almost too iate for first spray. ce. The direction of the calyces should be kept in mind. . 1. One-third of the calyces should point downward. . Two-thirds of the calyces should point upward. Some, of course, will point in all directions. . The calyces on the center and top will generally point upward. . The calyces on the limbs will generally point downward. . The center and top calyces will close first. & OB oo bo Fig. 183.—Shows a cluster of young apples. Plans of Treatment. 1. Fall spraying. a. Spray just after the leaves fall. b. What to spray for and how. 1. See spraying calendar, or, 2. Sulphur lime calendar. 2. Winter spraying. a. Spray while buds are swelling. b. What to spray for and how. 1. See spraying calendar. 2. See sulphur lime calendar. 3. Spring spraying. a. Spray when flower buds are nonin to open. 1. What to spray for and how. a. See spraying calendar. b. See sulphur lime calendar. b. ee while the last blossoms are Aen 1. What to spray for and how. a. See spraying calendar. 2. It is rare that a moth emerges from its winter-pupa-case before most of the petals have fallen; often it does not take place until a week or two after this time. 3. The moths mate and eggs are laid in a day or two, which hatch in about 8 days (first brood of worms). 4. The object of spraying is to coat the food of the newly hatched worm with poison. 5. Since most worms attack the apple at the blossom end, it is necessary to fill this part of the fruit with poison. 216 MANUAL OF HORTICULTULL 6. This can be done only during the week or ten days immediately follow- ing the blossoming period, before the calyx lobes fold over. 7. Sometimes for the sake of thoroughness, the calyx spraying is repeated a | few days later. 8. While the first spraying primarily aims to fill the calyx cup, it coats the outside of the apples and leaves as well. 9. This exterior poison reduces the number of side entering worms of the first brood. 10, At this time one spraying may be sufficient, if thoroughly done, depend- ing upon the number of calyx cups which are open in condition to receive the spray and the number which examination proves to have been pene- trated by the spray. ll. The trees should be banded and observed whether many or few worms are trapped; bands catch about one-half of the worms. 12. The first or calyx spray is given sometime before the first brood of cod- ling worms appear. 13. By the time the eggs are hatching, the young apples will have grown considerably and a second or even a third spray may be deemed necessary to coat the apples. 14. The above constitutes the first or calyx spray for the codling moth. 15. Summary of sprays for codling moth.- a. First or calyx spray—just after the blossom petals fall; there may be one, two or three sprays at this time. b. Second—about three weeks later. ce. Third—from July 15 to Aug. 10, depending upon season and locality. d. Fourth—about one month later. e. Other sprays. 1. See spraying calendar. 2. See sulphur lime calendar. 4. Summer spraying. a. Spray when pest appears. 1. What to spray for and how. a. See spraying calendar. b. See sulphur lime calendar. 5. References. a. Washington Bulletins Nos. 28, 45, 81. b. Idaho Bulletin No. 55. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 217 _ A SULPHUR-LIME SPRAYING CALENDAR. When to Spray What to Spray For. Suggestions. When buds are swelling. Use the Bordeaux Spray down from Wet behind the buds. Spray with force. nozzle and a crook above the branches. San Jose scale. Oyster shell scale. Blister mite. Any scale insects. Moss. Lichens. Green aphis. This treatment for the eggs is more effective than summer sprayings with tobacco or kerosene emulsion. Peach leaf eurl. Bud moth. If insects appear later apply Peach twig borer. arsenate of lead. ea Guiglains. The wool must be wetted through. If mildews appear during sum- mer apply sulphur-lime imme- diately. Peach mildew. Apple mildew. Grape mildew. Rose mildew. Gooseberry mildew. 6ae$—$——vwowro—eSsSsSsSs>s99900606c_“_“_<0uo“0909—$s—s —<—<———————woasSSOSOSSSSSSS Just before blos- soms open. When the pest ap- pears. Keep the trunks coated all summer. Keep the trunks coated all winter. po a ea This checks most of the scab. 7 Where there is much scab we suggest a spraying as soon as the blossoms fall. Red spider. Use half strength with Black- Young of oyster shell seale. leaf 40, 1 to 1000, and fishoil soap added. Aphis. Grasshoppers. As a repellant. Cutworms. Flea beetles. As soon as the leaves fall. Sheep scab. Sheep ticks. Dip the sheep. Trunk and bark borers. Add strong sulphur-lime to a thick whitewash of slaked lime. Rabbits and field mice. Frequently during the summer. ~ Black spot canker. Repeat in two weeks. Spray manure piles and privies Typhoid fly. ; for fly maggots. Chicken mites and lice. Spray the roosts and the in- sides of chicken houses. PLA ae Lee eS ar MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE 218 ‘uMoUy ApoUIEI ON|"'*****UMOIG YSTYOR[q pPeuTeIs puv Peep POOMIvOFI|"** °°"? 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Sulphur, 1 pound; Fresh stone lime, '% pound; Water, '% gallon. Slake the lime in the cooker. Add the sulphur and the water. Boil briskly till the sulphur is dissolved (about 45 minutes), stirring continuously and keeping the cooker covered. As it boils down keep adding water. When finished let settle. Use only the clear liquid, which may be stored if kept from the air. Prepared in this way sulphur-lime should have a hydrometer reading of about 26 degrees, but little weaker than the factory-made product. Write for bulletin on sulphur-lime. For use, any concentrated sulphur-lime may be diluted according to the following table: Hydrometer test of concentrate. To make dilute spray. eS ear a Re eat ays WOuueesicou bs 1h) SiG ALS) Beaume Specific, 1 tb. sulphur 1 Tb. sulphur Degrees. Gravity. in 5 gal. ; in 10 gal. Winter spray. Summer spray. 34 1.302 | 1 to 14 water 1 to 28 32 1.279 | 13 26 30 15259 } 12 24 28 1.236 ital 22 26 1.215 \| 10 20 24 1.196 || 9 18 20 1.158 || 7 14 16 1.122 il 6 11 OIL SPRAY. Crude oil emulsion for winter spraying: Fish-oil soap, 10 pounds (dissolved in 10 gallons hot water; Lye, 2 pounds (dissolved in 1 gallon water). Mix, add water to make 88 gallons: run agitator at full speed, and add Crude oil, 10 gallons. When emulsified do not add anything else to the spray liquid, or free oil will separate. TOBACCO. Blackleaf 40, 12! pounds; Fish-oil soap, 35 pounds; Water, 1000 gallons. Dissolve the soap in hot water. Blackleaf (old style) is one-tenth as strong. For orchard mites or scab add 36 gallons of 32° sulphur-lime. BORDEAUX. Bluestone, 6 pounds; Good lime, 4 pounds; water, 50 gallons. Dissolve the bluestone by suspending it in.a sack in 25 gallons of water in a barrel. Slake the lime in another vessel, adding a little water slowly, and dilute to 25 gallons. Mix the two thoroughly. Even the best Bordeaux may scorch in rainy weather. ~ POISON MASH. Bran and flour, 25 parts; Paris green or zinc arsenate, 1 part. Mix dry, add water to form a stiff mash and season with stale beer or molasses. ARSENATE OF LEAD. Arsenate of lead (poison), 1 pound; water, 50 gallons. For newly hatched insects it is not necessary to use it stronger. For old or large insects use double the quan- tity. Mix the paste well with a small amount of water. Powdered arsenate of lead is about twice as strong as the paste. .Do not use arsenate that settles quickly or feels gritty. Arsenite of zinc powder is about four times as strong as paste lead. It may scorch in a damp season. SPRAYING PROGRAM FOR THE MORE USUAL SPRAYINGS. 1—When buds begin to swell—Oil spray or sulphur-lime (38°), for scales and insect eggs. 3 2—When new foliage is first, appearing—Tobacco, for aphis, orchard mites, thrips, leaf hoppers. With arsenate added for budworm, twig-borer. 3—When flower clusters are ready to open—Sulphur-lime (1.5°), for apple and pear scab. With tobacco added for orchard mites, thrips, aphis. 4—-When last petals are falling—Arsenate of lead, 1 Ib. to 50 gal., for codling moth. 5—In November (for Western Washington)—Sulphur-lime (3°), for black-spot canker and general clean-up. J ; , ay Additional summer sprayings may be needed, as for codling. moth, aphis, young oyster shell scales, orchard mites, etc 222 MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE Acarina, 161. Air, 36, 39, 48. Anatomy of insects 158. Aphis 165-169. Apple blossom 5, 154, 214. Apple food 48-54. Apple leaf-hopper 164. Apple maggot 187. Apple scab 195-197. Apple Rosette 209. Apple tree tent caterpillar 185. Apple twig borer 188. Apricot 120. Arthropoda 156. Asgsimiliation 81. Bacteria 42, 50, 194, 204. Barometer 152. Biological 50. Blackberry 140. Black rot 198. Black knot 200. Blister mite 163. Blooming periods 212, 213. Branches 90, 101, 102. Bracing 119. Brown mite 161. Brown rot 200. Bud moth 181. Budding 67-70. Buds 5, 68, 86-90, 105. Buildings 32, 55. Bulbs 54. Bush fruit 98. Calendars 217-222. Calyx 5, 83, 214, 215. Canker 198, 205. Carbon dioxide 49,-51, 81. Case-bearer 181. : Cherry 120, Climate 35. Codling moth 175. Coleoptera 187. Corms 54. Cover crops 52. Crown gall 202. Cryptogams 193. Cultivation 42, 48, 52, 66, 210. Currants 142. Cuttings 56-60. Cutworms 179. Description of fruit 6. Description of diseases 194-209. Dew 151-156. Dehorning 119. INDEX Diptera 187. Distance for planting 92, 93. Drainage 38, 40. Environments 89, 194, 196. Fall canker worm 183. Fall web worm 184. Fire blight 204-207. Flat-headed borer 187. Fertilizers 43-45. Floral envelope 5. Flowers 82-83, 214. Frost 151-156. Fruit bark beetle 188. Fruit buds 5, 6, 87, 88, 89. Fruit market 33-34. Fruit rot 203. Fruit zone 35. Fungi 194, 195, 198, 200, 203. Geography 34. Germination 73, 196. Gooseberry 142, Grading 11-14. Grafting 60-67. Grafting wax 70. Grape culture 126-137. Grape leaf-hopper 165. Green fruit worm 183. Hedges 144. Heading-out 99. Heading-in 100. Heading-back 100. Heating 155. Hemiptera 164. Humus 48, 53. Hymenoptera 190. Irrigation 45-48. Layering 70-72. Leaf 79-82. Leaf curl 203. Leaf spot 198. Lecanium 172. Leguminous 42, 53, 54. Lepidoptera 175. Lime 44, 52. Manufacture 81. Manuring 42. Metomorphosis 160. Method of planting 93-96. Mildew 207. Mixed planting 84-86. Moisture 45, 46, 48. Movement of water 46, 47. Neuroptera 175. Nitrates 39, 53. MANUAL OF HORTICULTURE Nitrogen 43, 50, 52, 53, 54. Nitrification 38, 50. Organs or reproduction 5, 82. Organic matter 38, 42, 48, 52. Ornamentals 143. Ornamental trees 144-150. Orthopoda 163. Osmosis 75. Ovary 5, 83. Oxygen 39, 81. Oyster shell scale 170. Packing 14-27: Boxes 14. Wrapping 15. Placing 16-17. Kind of packs 18-27. Bulge 26. Peach tree borer 186. Peach twig borer 186. Phosphate 42, 44, 52, 54. Photosynthesis 81. Physical properties 45. Physical condition 50, 53. Phylloxera, grape 168. Picking 7-11. Pistil 5, 83. Plans of spraying 215. Plant diseases 193-212. Plant food 42, 48-54. Planting 91-99. Plum curculio 189. Pollen 5, 84. Pollination 5, 84. Potash 42, 43, 52, 53, 54. Propagation 54-72. Pruning 99-122. Apple 106-109. Apricot 120. Cherries 120. Pear 109-111. Peach 112-120. Plum 121. Quince 111. Psychrometer 152. Purple seale 174. Psylla 165. Raspberry 140. Respiration 27, 81. Red spider 163. Rootstock 54. Root pruning 105. Root rot 208. Roots 49, 75-77. Round-headed borer 188. Russeting 208. San Jose scale 169. Sap 78. Saw-fly 190. Scale insects 169-175. Scion 61. Scurfy scale 171. Self-sterile 85. Self-fertile 85. Sections of fruit 6. setting of fruit 5, 84. Setting trees 97. Sites 35. Soils 36, 50. . Soil fertility 41-45. Space 37, 49. Spraying 212. Spores 55, 195. Spring canker worm 182. Starch 51. Stamens 5, 83. Stems 77, 78, 101. Strawberry 137-140. Stratification 72-74. Stock 61, 68. Stolen 54. | Storage 28-32, 197. Suckers 54. Summer pruning 105. Sunshine 49. Sunburn 209. Temperature 48. Thinning 122-126. Tilling 37. Tops 102-105. Transpiration 51, 80. Transplanting 96, 98. Transportation 33, 35. Vascular system 6. Varieties 91, 92. Windbreaks 41. Weather 150. 223 ‘MAR 17 1913 tA NS oy oi & Te oy Yr Nha My Hi Viay ky ay am ag ; pr LIBRARY OF CONGRESS TINIAN ore a aes Fase Bs jem Smet eoa ys ea east vane : pee Sse ENG Pa suatww yon Sareea TWA eRe pete can Pega Benge Says ben : peina aa ‘ é SS Ga a Ee gop Serre ee ras: aeaeres 4 ged: ee wean Ee He ene Secu ou seem Qa we dng IP : ¥ peutic ce ores “ 4 5 : mA reas: epee ‘ 4 waren i : 3 nos go 16 ES EE RGEN Ug men nda : te 33% mie