se we oe ee ee be Ge feieticdaded she A Sy mina inte | aM wthndat! att bn 50 Se | Ie ee oebe at Pod mre tate ot 5 ee age em for 0 e a aPreh ethe Latte bis ee ne aie a haw aes ete cea ot eter ote ee 9a 2 tote - +2 'ge' eran - ay a ree ie? ‘ « oa ate? 0 @ ected ti eae ient Ee ies ro > ~ ‘ = ~ 2 woe od -? . te oetels leas > rs : > vor _ : a Nae pe - . » " ¢ athe Bme a . . ~ oe ateta ' d a eee ee ee ne eet cttw os eta i as M- WwW ALEX. AGASSIZ. Hibrary of the Museum OF 'COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. Founded by private subscription, in 1861. Deposited by ALEX. AGASSIZ. No. VYS23 * eit MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ney , "my ) a mt ‘a Wi ry Lad i ee ll ‘Fig | per ee ne ‘ aie ‘ . en oe Wm —_ 4 ‘eee apa ‘ ' ne P WHO IPIEAIRILY NAW TULUS (after Owen’) a The mantle 7 Hood. 6__TIts dorsal fold © 00 Eatertor adivitations e ANidamental Gland 2? Tentacles G- Shell mauscle S Hye Ut’ Siphon aa Septa ke. Funnel x Last (hamber Leridon, Sola Weile,59, High Holborn, 18S . A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA: RUDIMENTARY TREATISE OF RECENT AND FOSSIL SHELLS. BY S. P. WOODWARD, F.G:S. ASSOCIATE OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY; ASSISTANT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM; AND MEMBER OF THE COTTESWOLDE NATURALISTS’ CLUB. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND WOODCUTS, LONDON: JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN. ” MDCCCLI-VI. 4 ~ : LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM OSTELLE, HART STREET, BLOOMSBURY. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA; OR, A RUDIMENTARY TREATISE OF RECENT AND FOSSIL SHELLS. BY S. P. WOODWARD, ASSOCIATE OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY ; ASSISTANT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM; AND MEMBER OF THE COTTESWOLDE NATURALISTS’ CLUB. ILLUSTRATED BY A. N. WATERHOUSE anp JOSEPH WILSON LOWRY. LONDON: JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN. MDCCCLI. LONDON PRINTED BY WILLIAM OSTELL, HARTY STREBT, BLOOMSBURY. PREFACE. Tats Manual, which for six years has occupied the writer’s unceasing attention, was intended as a companion to Col. Portlock’s Geology ; and the desire to make it worthy of that association has led to an amount of labour and expense which only a very extended circulation will repay. The plan and title have been taken from the “Manuel des Mollusques” of M. Sander Rang, (1829)—incomparably the best work of its kind—for an acquaintance with which the writer was indebted, sixteen years ago, to his friend and master, Wittiam LoyspaLe—the founder of the “ Devonian System ” in Geology. On the subject of classification and nomenclature he has followed the advice and example of his former colleague in the Geological Society, the late Pror. Epwarp Forses ; without Whose approval he has seldom added to, or deviated from, the practice and plan of the “ History of British Mollusca.” That he was right in taking this course, he has now the sanc- tion of the highest authority in this country for believing ;—since the same scheme has been employed by Pror. Owen in the Hunterian Lectures and Catalogue. It has also been adopted by Dr. E. Batrour in the Madras Museum ; by the Rey. Pror, Hznstow, in his Report to the British Association on the Formation of Typical Collections ; and by Pror. Morris in his Catalogue of British Fossils. It was the writer’s desire, by abstaining from the introduc- tion of personal and peculiar views, and by adhering to whateyer was well established and sanctioned by the best examples, to li PREFACE. make the work suitable for the use of Natural History Classes in the Universities.* To facilitate reference, and meet the most general require- ments, the number of large groups and genera of shells has been restricted as much as possible, and those less important or less understood, have been treated as “‘ sub-genera.”” A great many duplicate and unnecessary names have been mentioned only, as will be seen by a glance at the Index, where they are printed in italics ; the writer’s own wishes coincide with those of the dis- tinguished botanist Sir J. E. Smiru, that ‘“‘the system should not be encumbered with such names;” but they have been admitted in deference to custom, and general opinion. It has even been suggested that an additional list of synonymes might be given at the end, and some progress was made in preparing one; but it was found that it would occupy the whole of the “ Third Part,” and consisted of names chiefly obsolete, or ‘‘based on misconception of characters, and of the purpose of generic appellations.” (Forbes and Hanley, IV. 265.)+ The rules of the British Association, intended to secure uni- formity, have called into existence a few active opponents, seeking to distinguish themselves by the employment of pre- Linnean, and MS. names, on the pretence of carrying out the ** Jaw of priority,” (p. 60.) But this folly has reached its height and will fall into contempt when it has lost its novelty.} * The former parts have been already adopted as a text book at Edinburgh, in the largest natural history class in the kingdom, under Prof. E. Forbes ; and also by Profs. King and Melville, of Queen’s College, Galway ; Prof. Tennant, of King’s, and Prof. Morris, of University Coll., London; and Prof. Sedgwick at Cambridge. + All the blundering and bad spelling of English and French genus- makers will be found carefully recorded in the “‘ Index Generum Malaco- zoorum,” by the accurate and lamented Dr. HERRMANNSEN,—a work indispensable to every writer on Conchology. + One example will suffice. In an “ Atheneum” report, by Prof. E. Forbes, the name “ Lottia fulva” was misprinted “Jothia fulva:”’ but although immediately corrected, the erratum was formally installed as a “new genus,’ in theworks of Gray, Philippi, Catlow, Adams, and other conchologists! PREFACE. iil The investigation of dates is the most disheartening work upon which the time of an author can be employed ; it is never safe to take them second-hand, and even reference to the origi- nal works is not always satisfactory.* Two lists of Errata have been given, and it is earnestly re- commended that these corrections be made with pen and ink at the places indicated. Small and self-evident typographical errors have not been enumerated; the difficulty of avoiding them, in a treatise of this kind, can only be appreciated by those who have had personal experience. Those portions of the work have been treated in most detail which throw light on particular branches of anatomy and physio- logy ; or on great natural-history problems, such as the value of species and genera, and the laws of geographical and geological distribution. It is in these departments that the affinity of natural science to the highest kinds of human knowledge is most distinctly seen; and in them the richest and noblest results are to be obtained. For to the thoughtful and earnest investigator, nature ever discloses indications of harmony and order, and reflects the attributes of the Maker. The recreations of the young seldom fail to exercise a serious influence on after life; and the utility of their pursuits must greatly depend on the spirit in which they are followed. If wisely chosen and conscientiously prosecuted they may help to form habits of exact observation; they may train the eye and mind to seize upon characteristic facts, and to discern their real import ; to discriminate between the essential and the accidental, and to detect the relations of phenomena, however widely separated and apparently unlike. In this way “la belle Science,” (as Mr. Gaskoin calls Conchology !) may acquire the influence of pursuits more usually resorted to for mental development and discipline. The writer desires again to acknowledge the assistance he * The dates on the title pages of Journals and Transactions of Scientific Societies, are not usually dates of publication, but refer to the years for which they are issued to the subscribers. It is almost impossible, afterwards, to correct these false dates. lv PREFACE. received in preparing particular portions of the work; and es- pecialiy from Mr. T. Davidson, GS. in the investigation of the Brachiopoda; Mr. J. W. Wilton of Gloucester, in reference to the lingual dentition of the Gasteropods; Mr. T. Huxley, FRS. for the revision of the chapter on the Tunicata; and to Mr. Albany Hancock, of Newcastle, for advice and information, often only to be obtained by new and careful investigations. To Mr. H. Cuming he is indebted for the use of books and specimens ; to the officers of the Museum, especially to Dr. Baird, and Mr. Waterhouse, for encouragement and sympathy ; and to the Council of the Geological Society (1853-4) for the expression of their approval by the Wollaston award. The wood-cuts have been principally executed by Miss A. N. Waterhouse of Marlborough House, from original drawings by the author; and although printed from stereotypes they have the advantage of accurately representing what was wished to be shewn. The engravings of Mr. Wilson Lowry, speak for themselves ; many of the figures are from the specimens in his cabinet ; and the interest he has taken in the work will be seen in the care with which the technical characters of the shells are expressed. BaRNSBURY, March, 1856. Directions to the Binder. In binding the complete work, the Tables of Contents of the three Parts should be placed together at the beginning. The Plates should be arranged in pairs, face to face, with the Explanation opposite to each. CONTENTS. SS eee eee Table of the Sub-kingdoms and Classes of Animals INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. On THE Position of THE Montusca In THE ANIMAL Kine@pom. —Characters of the four primary groups ;—Vertebrata— Mollusca—Articulata—Radiata. Their equal antiquity ... CHAPTER IL. CuassEs oF THE Motiusca.—1. Cephalopoda.—2. Gasteropoda. — 3. Pteropoda.— 4. Brachiopoda. — 5. Conchifera. — 6. Tunicata ee ee ee ee ee eee eee ee eee ee ee | CHAPTER III. Hasits anp Economy or tHE Mo.tiusca.—Sedentary tribes, their mode of attachment ; locomotive tribes, their means of progression ; situations frequented by shell-fish.—Food : vegetable- infusorial- and animal-feeders.— Use of shell-fish to other animals for food; use of shells for ornamental and other purposes; prices of shells —Duration of molluscous animals; tenacity of life; fecundity; oviposition : oo V1 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. Bane STRUCTURE AND PuystoLocy or THE Moxiusca. — Nervous system; organs of sense.—Muscular system. —Digestive system; lingual teeth; secretions.— Circulating system ; aquiferous canals. — Respiratory system.— The shell, its composition and structure; nacreous, fibrous, and porcel- laneous shells; epidermis; erosion of fresh-water shells. Formation and growth of the shell; adult characters; de- collated shells; monstrosities; colours; the operculum; homologies.— Temperature and hybernation. — Reproduc- tion : of lost parts; by gemmation; viviparous; alternate ; Ovipacous:—DevelopMent ..,.......scsecsesceeransece sien an@ereeee CHAPTER V. CuasstFication.—Affinities; analogies; species; genera; fami- Hes the guiliary SYStEM |... ..2...0.-s+2 seete sees eee CHAPTER VI. NoMENCLATURE.—Synonynis ; authorities ; TYPES: 02 scncgeaeeeeee PAMEEUUEVEATIONS i) cosas seseheesperaqsep qnacisdes sace eee se nea SYNOPSIS OF THE GENERA. Crass I. CepHALOPoDA. ORDER I, DIBRANCHIATA ........-.-. PMCTION A. 'OCTOPODA: :.....0i0cccciesaceas oo peiccdd oxen scot Fam. I. Argonautide.—Argonauta ..........ceseceececececees Fam. IT. Octopodide.—Octopus, Pinnoctopus, Eledone, Cirroteuthis, Philonexis ...... sibs dinwiapiniabiow edna Cee eee SECTION Ub: - DECAPODA ».. Josie. oe eee Fam. III, Teuthide.—ULoligo, Gonatus, Sepioteuthis, Belo- teuthis, Geoteuthis, Leptoteuthis, Cranchia, Sepiola, Lo- ligopsis, Cheiroteuthis, Onychoteuthis, Enoploteuthis, Ontmnastrophies 25 225.4256. J. en ee 21 55 CONTENTS. Vii PAGE Fum. IV. Belemnitide—Belemnites, Belemnitella, Acan- thoteuthis, Belemnites, Belemnoteuthis, Conoteuthis .,. 73 Fam. V. Sepiade.—Sepia, Spirulirostra, Beloptera, Be- Weenies’: lus .5 dseeemeaene tes eaeSacn tea aseeaee il cusses 76 Fam. VI. Spirulide.—Spiula ......cccseeeceseceeessanereenes 77 ORDER TI. 'THTRABRANCHIATA.......cccescececeserseeseeseeseceoenes 83 Fam. i Nautilide —Nautilus, Lituites, Trochoceras, Cly- 83 Fam. If, Orthoceratide.—Orthoceras, Gomphoceras, On- coceras, Phragmoceras, Cyrtoceras, Gyroceras, Ascoceras 87 Fam. III. Ammonitide. —Goniatites, Bactrites, Ceratites, Ammonites, Crioceras, Turrilites, Hamites, Ptychoceras, CELE conc cccscesesecseerercosnees os ovens guuvadeouovesevauenay 91 Gusass IL. GasTBROPODA oo... ‘igi <'siatp-ev ewpaciaks Weg QRS Saag ox 97 ORDER I. PROSOBRANCHIATA ...sccssaseceeereesseseneeetneseeenes 103 SECTION A. SIPHONOSTOMATA .psccccceseeseeerseseneneesenenceneuees 104 Fan. I. Strombide.—Strombus, Pteroceras, Rostellaria, Seraphs ...i.....nnsererorrserecacaeseccecerseesersevsearscencado oes 104: Fam. II. Muricide—Murex, Pisania, Ranella, Triton, Fas- ‘4 ciolaria, Turbinella, Cancellaria, Trichotropis, Pyrula, Fam. III. Buccinide.—Buccinum, Pseudoliva, Anolax, Halia, Terebra, Eburna, Nassa, Phos, Ringicula ?, Pur- pura, Purpurina, Monoceros, Pedicularia, Ricinula, Pla- naxis, Magilus, Cassis, Oniscia, Cithara, Cassidaria, Do- lium, Harpa, Columbella, Oliva, Ancillaria...............+ 110 Fam. IV. Conide.—Conus, Pleurotoma .........sssceceeeees 117 Fam. V. Volutide—vVoluta, Cymba, Mitra, Volvaria, Mar- grimella .....sseceeesecenaseecnneeeeecesesceescneuscesaeseanspeeees 118 Vill CONTENTS. PAGE Secmes 'G. HorcspoMaTa .........200.5. 005 dee 122 Fam. I. Naticide.—Natica, Sigaretus, Lamellaria, Narica, eA S ois). chis a does Joey 00. aves Dept pcdss aac 122 Fam. II, Pyramidellide—Pyramidella, Odostomia, Chem- nitzia, Stylina, Loxonema, Macrocheilus................000+- 125 Fam. IIT. Cerithiade.—Cerithium, Potamides, Nerina, Fastigiella, Aporrhais, Struthiolaria ..............csesceeees 127 Fam. IV. Melaniade.—Melania, Paludomus, Melanopsis... 130 Fam. V. Turritellide.—Turritella, Aclis, Cecum, Verme- Bye UAUAEIA, CMATIA.. sc 0c2s0 ce e.neceedes onan sone 132 Fam. VI. Litorinide.—Litoriaa, Solarium, Phorus, Lacuna, Litiopa, Rissoa, Skenea, Truncatella, ? Lithoglyphus ... 134 Fam. VI, Paludinide.—Paludina, Ampullaria, Amphibola, . A ae ies a obs «ins web eniewis hv pedscns pesae 138 Fum.VIII. Neritide.—Nerita, Pileolus, Neritina, Navicella 140 Fam, IX. Turbinide.—Turbo, Phasianella, Imperator, Tro- chus, Rotella, Monodonta, Delphinula, Adeorbis, Huom- poalus, Stoniatella, Broderipia.....:..:...4...<.-c.sessseeneeen 142 Fam. X. Haliotis—Haliotis, Stomatia, Scissurella, Pleuro- tomaria, Murchisonia, Trochotoma, Cirrus, Ianthina...... 146 Fam. XI. Fissurellide.—Fissurella, Puncturella, Rimula, Mmarniola, Parmoplorus.<:....00.css cody eee aed Oe 233 Fam. VI... Craniada, — Cramia .......00.c0ccccee seeee 235 Fam. VII. Discinide. — Discina, Siphonotreta...... 237. Fam. VIII. Lingulide.—Lingula, Obolus............ 238 Bitanes, CONCHI VERA helen vos cess u/s uuccdays 240 Sec rian, ss. ASEPHONEDA OY 00 eau eae a nail 253 Fam. I. Ostreide.—Ostrea, Anomia, Placuna, Pecten, Lima, Spondylus, Pedum, Plicatula .................. 253 Fam. II, Aviculide. — Avicula, Posidonomya, Avi- culo-pecten, Gervillia, Perna, Incceramus, Pinna ... 260 Fam. Ill. Mytiide.— Mytilus, Myalina, Modiola, Lithodomus, Crenella, Dreissena ...................-. 264 Fam. IV. Arcade.—Arca, Cuculleea, Pectunculus, Limopsis, Nucula, Isoarca, Leda, Solenella, Solemya 267 Fam. V. Trigoniade.—Trigonia, Myophoria, Axinus, 0 GET wt Rese | AOR ee eS AAEM str yi Fam. VI. Unionide. — Unio, Castalia, Anodon, Iridina, Mycetopus, Aitheria, Miilleria............... 273 SECTION B. SrpHonipa; Integro-pallialia ............... 276 Fam. VIT. Chamide.—Chama, Monopleura, Diceras, ee eee sav ns sah sean «sue vse gee 276 Fam. VII, Hippuritide. — Wippurites, Radiolites, Caprinella, Caprina, Caprotina. .. 0. apie... i. ee 279 Fam. IX. Tridacnide.—Tridacna, Hippopus......... 289 Fam. X. Cardiade. — Cardium, Hemicardium, Li- thocardium, Serripes, Adacna, Conocardium ...... 290 Fam. XI. Lucinide.—Lucina, Cryptodon, Corbis, Tancredia, Diplodonta, Ungulina, Kellia, Monta- enta, Lepton, Galeomma 7.) ..2)-°. 2... eee. ENOP xii CONTENTS. Fam. XII. Cyciadide.—Cyclas, Cyrenoides, Cyrena Fam. XIII, Cyprinide.— Cyprina, Circe, Astarte, Crassatella, Isocardia, Cypricardia, Pleurophorus, Cardilia, Megalodon, Pachydomus, Pachyrisma, Opis, Cardinia, Myoconcha, Hippopodium, Car- dita, Venericardia, Verticordia .............2s.s0esess- Section C. SIpHONIDA; sinu-pallialia..................05 Fam. XIV. Veneride. — Venus, Cytherea, Meroe, Trigona, Grateloupia, Artemis, Lucinopsis, Tapes, Venerupis, Petricola, Glaucomya -... :./7¢ eee Fam. XV. Mactride.—- Mactra, Gnathodon, Lu- traria, Amatimelia ... 245.2... ae Fam. XVI. Tellinide.—Tellina, Diodonta, Capsula, Psammobia, Sanguinolaria, Semele, Syndosmya, Scrobicularia, Mesodesma, Ervilia, Donax, Galatea Fam. XVII. Solenidea. — Solen, Cultellus, Cerati- solen, Macheera, Solecurtus, Novaculina............ Fam. XVIII. Myacide.— Mya, Corbula, Sphenia, Nera, Thetis, Panopzea, Saxicava, Glycimeris...... Fam. XIX. Anatinide. — Anatina, Cochlodesma, Thracia, Pholadomya, Myacites, Goniomya, Ce- romya, Cardiomorpha, Edmondia, Lyonsia, Pan- dora, Myadora, Myochama, Chamostrea ............ Fam. XX. Gastrochenide. — Gastrocheena, Chena, Clavagella,*“Aspefeillum |... 02.02... .... Fam. XXI. Pholadide.—Pholas, Pholadidea, Jouan- netia, Xylophaga, Teredo, Teredina ...............+5. PAGE 296 298 304 304 008 309 314 317 (4 CONTENTS. Cuass VI. TuNTCATA. (Hetero-branchiata.) .......000 _ Fam. JI. Ascidiade.—Ascidium, Molgula, Cynthia, Pelonzea, Chelyosoma, Boltenia..................206-.- Fam. IT, Clavellinide.—Clavellina, Perophora, Syn- Oe! SR aie ae Be? ane Oe ee BA Fam. III. Botryllide. Abella: Botrylloides, Di- demnium, Eucelium, Leptoclinum, Distomus, Dia- zona, Polyclinum, Aplydium, Sidnyum, Amorcecium, Parascidium, Syneecium, Sigillina...............6.. 60 Fam. 1V. Pyrosomide.—Pyrosoma .. Fam. V. Salpide.—Salpa, Doliolum, iiipentiedlaee CONCLUSION, CHAPTER I. NoumericaL Estrmate.—Living and fossil species; animal- feeders and vegetable-feeders ; fresh-water, marine, and land-shells ; shell-bearing and naked mollusca CHAPTER II. GroGRaPHICAL DisTRIBUTION.—Land provinces; marine provinces.—Specific areas; specific centres.—Generic areas; sub-generic areas.—Boundaries; influence of climate.—Origin of provinces ee ee ee ee oe eo ee ) Marine Provinces.—Arctic gencra; tropical genera; Mes MONLATL SPECIES... fC kde ec kee vee oencs Wiermerra PROVENCE: > ioc teil. Lites Ii. Boreat Province: Norway, New England III. Crutic Province: Britain, Denmark......... IV. Lusirantan Province: Portugal, Canaries, Madeira, Azores, Mediterranean, Black Sea V. ARALO-CasPiaAN PROVINCE VI. West-ArricaN PROVINCE VIL... Sourm-AFRIcCAN PROVINCE... ......0........-6. VIII, Inpo-Paciric Province: Red Sea, Persian Gulf eee ee ee ee eo oe ee ee xili . 331 337 339 340 343 344 347 349 353 354 357 359 361 364: 366 367 Xiv CONTENTS. IX. AUsTRALO-ZELANDICPROVINCE: N.S. Wales, Tasmania, N. Zealand X., JAPONIC PROVING |... SiS eee 371 Xl. ALEUTIAN Province: Ochotsk, Sitka... ... 372 Provinces on the Western Coast of America ..........0 373 Xl. CabrtroRNiaN PROVINCE!.2) Gi 2 eee. 374 XIII. Panamic Province: Galapagos. ............ 375 AAV; Peruvian PRovINcs) .... 0027 eee 376 XV. MacGetuanic Province: Falkland Islands.. 377 XVI. PaTAGONIAN PROVINCE X Vil!) Carreenan: PROVINCE) ...0..500eee eee 378 XVIII. TRANSATLANTIC PROVINCE Lanp Recions.—Distribution of land and fresh-water shells ; genera of the Old and New World; arctic regions 381 1. “Germantc ReGion: ‘Siberia ... 2.0 2 eee 383 2. LusiTanian Reaion: Mediterranean Islands ; Madeira, Azores, Canaries, C. de Verdes, INSCENSIOW Joo... ecco soo «2 ioe ckh Coe 385 ©: Helena, Tristan d’Acunha’ ...i)...2 cee 389 Be “AFRICAN REGION. ....0....0. sas -ac aa. 390 5. YremMEN—Mapacascak: Comorolds. Seychelles, Mauritius, Bourbon, Rodriguez............... 391 6.;cInpran, ReGron? ‘Ceylon 7.2.2.7, c.02ee eee 392 7.) OBINA AND JAPAN. 2... alc dcevs eae CO ee 394 8... PHILIPPINE ISLANDS ..,.....;..ssccsude. abc 9. JAVA Saisie eee 395 10... BOBNEOY. cideaht. déancyia tl. Jase 395 ll. Papuasa.ann Niw.leenanpyadd. neta 395 12... AUSTRALIANUREGION “3...45).464.4 dn gaa 396 13... 8. AUSTRALIA AND TASMANIA>isiaMil.s..-s.00 O06 14. New ZEALAND 15. PotyNnesran Rueion : Salomons, New Hebrides, N. Caledonia, Feejees; Friendly, Navi- gator’s, Society Ids.; Low Coral Ids. ; pandwich Ids. .:.:¢5ssaserms: es SEs eee 397 CONTENTS. XV 16. Canapian Recion: New England ............ 398 PRT EAN TIO SPAMUS Tose vis suet catowe sae de gsencinc 399 Pe hh MERIC AN RUGIONMN iki. ss... otadaets color oe 400 PS) .OREGON AND, CALIFORNDA, 2.2 .4....-...c0ec ed OD rE CO AN . TRE GHORD Patent: Wc <'staeinte alte ig sied-Uvnet teas 401 BRITT ELL MS? . . 0 ot dteae st rcare omnes asinceinse ame toate 401 22. CotumBiaNn Recion: Galapagos ............... 402 POPMOHAZILTAN IMGHON Y coc. 2... chces von dab ede oaks Shee 403 SPPPEMRUVEAN HEGEON. 0. ccs... ov cecegcepesngnnussotene HOS Pe ARGENTING TEGVON cysicde sce ssase jcenacilnetenalsac 404 26. Cxit1an Rucion: Juan Fernandez ............ 405 27. PataGcontaNn Recion: Fuegia, Falklands ...... 406 fistim ATE, of Species in each Province .............-<. 0. 407 CHAPTER III. DISTRIBUTION OF THE Motivusca 1N Time.—Geological Table; distribution of Species in the Strata; of Genera ; table of Characteristic genera; table shewing range of genera; range of families; numerical development in time.— Order of appearance of groups of shells ; order of succession.—Migration of species and diffusion of Genera in former times.—Method of Geological inves- tigation.—Tertiary Age.—Secondary Age.—Paleeozoic Re de suid ale blebs caine RRR GMI Me eG 408 CHAPTER IV. On CoLiEecTING sHELLS.—Land-shells; elevation on mountains. —Fresh-water shells.—Sea-shells, litoral spe- cies; floating mollusca: the towing-net; trawling ; kettle nets; deep-sea fishery ; trapping whelks ; dredging 423 Dredging papers, by M‘Andrew and Barrett, Norway ...... 431 redeimg papers, by Horbes, Algeaty.e..:.teccssoe cessed acess 436 Zones of depth: litoral; laminarian; coralline; deep-sea Re RENCE i)... 3. AB waee ta mr amueamd ta clettehs tele Sieh SL 439 Preservation of Molluscous animals for examination ......... 4,4] Xvi CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON THE MOLLUSCA. CrPHALOPODA.—Development ; Hectocotylus ; _ lingual dentition; additional genera; Helicerus, Discosorus, PAIGIOCETAS ol. kiwi etav ese ssctt. ies: ts. s8t cee GasTEROPODA.—Lingual dentition ; figures of the princi- pal types; prehensile collar of animal-feeders ; mode of examining and preparing teeth as microscopic objects... Prosobranchiata.—Dibaphus, Rhizochilus, Borsonia, Pachy- bathron, Monoptigma, Vicarya, Holopella, Scoliostoma, Paludomus, Petaloconchus, Discohelix, Platystoma, Phi- lippia, Patudestrina, Vitrinella, Scissurella (animal), Ca- tantostoma, Raphistoma, Holopea, Brownia, Calcarella, Hechwta, Patella (habits Of)... 2... ox«s.020+e0e eee Pulmonifera.—Tanystoma, Pfeifferia, Spiraxis, Janella, Testacella, Planorbula, Gundlachia, Adamsiella, Opistho- PERRO noes oa yo ee we vane od cos wn cael sae tee en euneee BracHropopa.—Observations on living species; Suessia, Zellania, Anoplotheca, Meganteris eeerece eee rereraeseteseeeeses ConcHirera.— Development ; Ostreide ; Dimya, Placuna, Streblopteria, Hoplomytilus, Limopsis, Yoldia, Miulleria ; Hippuritide; Tridacna, Diplodonta, Scintilla, Astarte, Crassatella, Gouldia, Cypricardia, Goniophora, Redonia, Verticordia, Sowerbya, Psammobia, Glycimeris, Ribeiria, Scaldia, Panopza, Isoleda, Anomianella, Crenella ABBREVIATIONS OF AUTHORS’ NAMES coe erereoreeeseeeeseses InpeEx of Genera and Technical Terms 44.6 450 461 464 465 465 467 474 . 475 Errata aNpD AppENDA.—Alaria, Amberlya, Anaulus, Bra- — chytrema, Ceritella, Coccoteuthis, Corbicella, Crossosstoma, Deslongchampsia, Diastoma, Euspira, Quenstedtia, Resania 484 NOTICE. THE second part of this Manual is now in preparation, and will be published early in the summer. It will contain an ac- count of the remaining orders of shell-fish: a chapter on the Geographical Distribution of the Mollusca, with a Map of the Marine and Terrestrial Provinces ; a chapter on the distribution of Fossil Shells ; another on the methods of collecting and pre- serving Land, Fresh-water, and Sea-shells ; the Preface; and an Index of the genera and technical terms. The -writer desires to acknowledge his obligations to Mr. Hugh Cumming, Professor Edward Forbes, and other gentlemen who have assisted him by advice, and the loan of specimens; also to Mr. Van Voorst, for permission to copy some interesting 5 figures from the “ British Mollusca ;”’ and his thanks are most especially due to Mr. John Edward Gray, Keeper of the Zoolo- gical Department of the British Museum, for access to his library and cabinet, and the use of some of the best engravings which illustrate these pages. fi Kinepom ANIMALIA. SuB-kInNGpom LI. Crass I. Lt EL. IV. Sus-kinepom II. MOLLUSCA. Crass I. CePHALOPODA. Il. GASTEROPODA. III. Prreropopa. IV. BRacHIOPODA. V. CoNCHIFERA. VI. Tunicata. SuUB-KINGDOM Cuass I. LE TTY. IV. Wi VI. VERTEBRATA. MAMMALIA. AVES. REPTILIA. PISCES. Sus-kinepom IIT. ARTICULATA. Crass I. InsEcta. Il. ARACHNIDA. III. Crustacka. IV. CrrRIPEDA. V. ANELLATA. VI. Entozoa. IV. RADIATA. ACALEPHA. EcHINODERMATA. ZOOPHYTA. FORAMINIFERA. INFUSORIA. AMORPHOZOA. A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. INTRODUCTION. CuapTer I. ON THE POSITION OF THE MOLLUSCA IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. AL known animals are constructed upon four different types, and constitute as many natural divisions or sub-kingdoms. 1. The first of these primary groups is characterized by an internal skeleton, of which the essential, or ever-present part, is a backbone, composed of numerous joints, or vertebra. These are the animals most familiar to us; beasts, birds, reptiles, and fishes, are four classes which agree in this one -respect, and are hence collectively termed vertebrate animals, or the vertebrata. 2. Another type is exemplified in the common garden-snail, the nautilus, and the oyster; animals whose soft bodies are pro- tected by an external shell, which is harder than bone, and equally unlike the skeleton of fishes, and the hard covering of the crab and lobster. These creatures form the subject of the present history, and are called mollusca.* * Mollusca soft (animals), from mol/is. The Greeks termed then Ma- lakia, whence the modern word Malacology, or the study of shell-fish. B 2 4 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. 8 The various tribes of insects, spiders, crabs, and worms, have no internal skeleton; but to compensate for it, their outer integument is sufficiently hard to serve at once the purposes of bones, and of a covering and defence. This external armature, like the bodies and limbs which it covers, is divided into seg- ments or joints, which well distinguishes the members of this group from the others. The propriety of arranging worms with insects will be seen, if it be remembered, that even the butterfly and bee commence existence in a very worm-like form. This division of jointed animals bears the name of the articulata. 4. The fourth part of the animal kingdom consists of the coral-animals, star-fishes, sea-jellies, and those countless micro- scopic beings which swarm in all waters. Whilst other animals are bi-lateral, or have a right and left side, and organs arranged in pairs,—these have their organs placed in a circle around the mouth or axis of the body, and have hence obtained the appella- tion of radiata. These groups illustrate successively the grand problems of animal economy. The lower divisions exhibit the perfection- izing of the functions of nutrition and reproduction; the higher groups present the most varied and complete development of the senses, locomotive powers, and instincts. We may also trace in them an ideal progression from the simplest to the most complicated structure and conditions. Commencing with the Infusorial monad, we may ascend in imagination by a succession of closely allied forms, to the sea-urchin and holothuria*; and thence by the lowest organized worms, upwards to the flying insect. Or, starting at the same point, we may pass from the polypes to the tunicaries ; and from the higher kinds of shell- fsh to the true fishes, and so on to those classes whose physical organization is most nearly identical with our own. The mollusca are thus related to two of the other primary groups ;—by the affinity of their simpler forms to the zoophytes, * See the History of British Star-fishes, by Professor E. Forbes. MOLLUSCA IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 5 and of their highest class to the fishes ;—1to the cirripedes and other articulate animals, they present only superficial and illusive resemblance. And further, we shall find that although it is customary to speak of shell-fish as ‘less perfect’? animals, yet they really attain the perfection of their own type of structure ; indeed it would seem to have been impossible to make any further advance, physical, or psychical, except by adopting a widely different plan from that on which the molluscous animals have been constructed. The evidence afforded by geological researches at present tends to shew that the four leading types of animal structure have existed simultaneously from the very beginning of life upon the globe ;* and though perpetually varying in the form under which they were manifested, they have never since entirely ceased to exist. By adding to the living population of the world, those forms which peopled it in times long past, we may arrive at some dim conception of the great scheme of the animal kingdom. And if at present we see not the limits of the temple of nature, nor fully comprehend its design,—at least we can feel sure that there is a boundary to this present order of things; and that there has been a plan, such as we, from our mental constitution, are able to appreciate, and to study with ever-increasing admiration. * Mr E. Logan, Geological Surveyor of the Canadas, has discovered foot prints of a tortoise, near Montreal, in the “ Lingula Shale,” or oldest fossi- biferous rock at present known. 6 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Cuapter II. CLASSES OF THE MOLLUSCA. THE mollusca are animals with soft bodies, enveloped in a mus- cular skin, and usually protected by a univalve or bivalve shell. That part of their integument which contains the viscera and secretes the shell, is termed the mantle; in the univalves it takes the form of a sac, with an opening in front, from which the head and locomotive organs project: in the bivalves it is divided into two lobes. The univalve mollusca are encephalous, or furnished with a distinct head; they have eyes and tentacula, and the mouth is armed with jaws. Cuvier has divided them into three classes, founded on the modifications of their feet, or principal locomo- tive organs. 1. The cuttle-fishes constitute the first-class, and are termed cephalopoda,* because their feet, or more properly arms, are at- tached to the head, forming a circle round the mouth. [oy a et ‘Oy, Geow pe o 42. EOS —s Sea Fig. 1.+ Oral aspect of a Cephalopod. * From Cephale, the head and poda feet. See the frontispiece and pl, I. + Fig. 1. Loligo vulgaris, Lam. +. From a specimen taken off Tenby, by J. S. Bowerbank, Esq. The mandibles are seen in the centre, surrounded by the circular lip, the buecal membrane (with two rows of small cups on its lobes), the eight sessile arms, and the long pedunculated tentacles (t), with their en- larged extremities or clubs (c). The dorsal arms are lettered (d), the funnel (f). CLASSES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 7 2. In the gasteropoda,* or snails, the under side of the body forms a single muscular foot, on which the animals creep or glide. Fig. 2. A Gasteropod.t+ 3. The pterpodat only inhabit the sea, and swim with a pair of fins, extending outwards from the sides of the head. Fig. 3. A Pteropod. § The other mollusca are acephalous, or destitute of any dis- tinct head; they are all aquatic, and most of them are attached, or have no means of moving from place to place. They are di- vided into three classes, characterized by modifications in their breathing-organ and shell. 4. The brachiapodaY are bivalves, having one shell placed on the back of the animal, and the other in front; they have no * Gaster, the under side of the body. + Fig. 2. Helix desertorum. Forskal. From a living specimen in the British Museum, March, 1850. + Pteron, a wing. § Fig. 3. Hyalea tridentata, Lam., from Quoy and Gaimard. {| Brachion, an arm; these organs were supposed to take the place of the feet in the preceding classes. 8 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. special breathing organ, but the mantle performs that office ; they take their name from two long ciliated arms, developed from the sides of the mouth, with which they create currents that bring them food. Fig. 4,5, 6. Brachiopoda.* 5. The conchifera,| or ordinary bivalves, (like the oyster), breathe by two pairs of gills, in the form of flat membraneous plates, attached to the mantle; one valve is applied to the right, the other to the left side of the body. 6. The ¢unicata have no shell, but are protected by an elas- tic, gelatinous tunic, with two orifices; the breathing-organ takes the form of an inner tunic, or of a riband stretched across the internal cavity. Five of these modifications of the molluscan type of organiza- tion, were known to Linneeus, who referred the animals of all his genera of shell-fish to one or other of them ;} but unfortu- nately he did not himself adopt the truth which he was the first * Fig. 4. (3). Rhynchonella psittacea, Chem, sp., dorsal valve, with the animal (after Owen). 5, 6, Terebratula australis, Quoy. From specimens collected by Mr. Jukes. (2). Ideal side view of both valves, (f, the retractor muscles, by which the valves are opened). (1). Dorsal valve. These wood- cuts have been kindly lent by Mr. J. E. Gray. + Conchifera, Shell-bearers. + The Linnzan types were—Sepia, Limax, Clio, Ancmia, Ascidia. Tere- bratula was included with Anomia, its organization beiug unknown. CLASSES OF THE MOLLUSCA. g to see ; and here, as in his botany, employed an artificial, in pre- ference to a natural method. The systematic arrangement of natural objects ought not, however, to be guided by convenience, nor ‘framed merely for the purposes of easy remembrance and communication.” The true method must be suggested by the objects themselves, by their qualities and relations ;—it may not be easy to learn,—it may require perpetual modification and adjustment,—but inas- much as it represents the existing state of knowledge it will aid in the UNDERSTANDING of the subject, whereas a ‘‘ dead and arbitrary arrangement” is a perpetual bar to advancement, “ con- taining in itself no principle of progression.” (Coleridge.) a aura PecHerrer el Fig. 7. A Bivalve.* Fig. 8. A Tunicary.+ Mya truncata, L. 3. From Forbes and Hanley. + Ascidia mentula, Mill. Ideal representation; from a specimen dredged by Mr. Bowerbank, off Tenby. B 3 10 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Cuapter III. HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSCA. Every living creature has a history of its own; each has charac- teristics by which it may be known from its relatives; each has its own territory, its appropriate food, and its duties to perform in the economy of nature. Our present purpose, however, is to point out those circumstances and trace the progress of those changes which are not peculiar to individuals or to species, but have a wider application, and form the history of a great class. In their infancy the molluscous animals are more alike, both in appearance and habits, than in after life; and the fry of the acquatic races are almost as different from their parents as the caterpillar from the butterfly. The analogy, however, is reversed in one respect ; for whereas the adult shell-fish are often seden- tary, or walk with becoming gravity, the young are all swimmers, and by means of their fins and the ocean-currents, they travel to long distances, and thus diffuse their race as far as a suitable climate and conditions are found. Myriads of these little voyagers drift from the shores into the open sea and there perish ; their tiny and fragile shells become part of a deposit that is for ever increasing over the bed of the deep sea,—at depths too great for any living thing to‘inhabit. (fordes.) Some of these little creatures shelter themselves beneath the shell of their parent for a time, and many can spin silken threads with which they moor themselves, and avoid being drifted away. They all have a protecting shell, and even the young bivalves have eyes at this period of their lives, to aid them in choosing an appropriate locality. After a few days, or even less, of this sportive existence, the HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSCA. ll sedentary tribes settle in the place they intend to occupy during the remainder of their lives. The tunicary cements itself to rock or sea-weed; the shipworm adheres to timber, and the pho/las and lithodomus to limestone rocks, in which they soon excavate a chamber which renders their first means of anchorage unneces- sary. The mya and razor-fish burrow in sand or mud; the mussel and pinna spin a byssus; the oyster and spondylus attach themselves by spines or leafy expansions of their shell ; the drachiopoda are all fixed by similar means, and even some of the gasteropods become voluntary prisoners, as the hipponysx and vermetus. Other tribes retain the power of travelling at will, and shift their quarters periodically, or in search of food ; the river-mussel drags itself slowly along by protruding and contracting its flexible foot ; the cockle and ¢trigonia have the foot bent, enabling them to make short leaps; the scallop (pector opercularis) swims rapidly by opening and shutting its tinted valves. Nearly all the gasteropods creep like the snail, though some are much more active than others; the pond-snails can glide along the surface of the water, shell-downwards; the nucleobranches and pteropods swim in the open sea. The cuttle-fishes have a strange mode of walking, head-downwards, on their outspread arms; they can also swim with their fins, or with the webbed arms, or by expelling the water forcibly from their branchial chamber; the calamary can even strike the surface of the sea with its tail, and dart into the air like the flying-fish. (Ozen.) By these means the mollusca have spread themselves over every part of the habitable globe; every region has its tribe; every situation its appropriate species; the land-snails frequent moist places, or woods, or sunny banks and rocks, climb trees, or burrow in the ground. The air-breathing limneids live ir fresh-water, only coming occasionally to the surface; and the auriculas live on the sea-shore, or in salt-marshes. In the sea, each zone of depth has its molluscous fauna. The limpet and periwinkle live between tide-marks, where they are left dry twice 12 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. a-day ; the ¢rochi and purpure are found at low water, amongst the sea-weed; the mussel affects muddy shores, the cockle re- joices in extensive sandy flats. Most of the finely-coloured shells of the tropics are found in shallow water, or amongst the breakers. Oyster-banks are usually in four or five fathom water ; scallop- banks at twenty fathoms. Deepest of all, the éerebratule are found, commonly at fifty fathoms, and sometimes at one hundred fathoms, even in Polar seas. The fairy-like pteropoda, the oceanic-snail, and multitudes of other floating molluscs, pass their lives on the open sea, for ever out of sight of land; whilst the itiopa and scyllea follow the gulf-weed in its voyages, and feed upon the green delusive banks. The food of the mollusca is either vegetable, infusorial, or animal. All the land-snails are vegetable-feeders, and their de- predations are but too well known to the gardener and farmer ; many a crop of winter corn and spring tares has been wasted by the ravages of the ‘small grey slug.” They have their likings, too, for particular plants, most of the pea-tribe and cabbage- tribe are favourites, but they hold white mustard in abhorence, and fast or shift their quarters while that crop is on the ground.* Some, like the ‘‘ cellar-snail,” feed on cryptogamic vegetation, or on decaying leaves ; and the slugs are attracted by fungi, or any odorous substances. The round-mouthed sea-snails are nearly all vegetarians, and consequently limited to the shore and the shallow waters in which sea-weeds grow. Beyond fifteen fathoms, almost the only vegetable production is the nullipore; but here corals and horny zoophytes take the place of alge and afford a more nutritious diet. The whole of the bivalves, and other head-less shell-fish, live on infusoria, or on microscropic vegetables, brought to them by the current which their ciliary apparatus perpetually excites; such, too, must be the sustenance of the magilus, sunk in its | * Dilute lime-water and very weak alkaline solutions are more fatal to snails than even salt. HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 13 coral bed, and of the calyptrea, fettered to its birth-place by its | calcarious foot. The carnivorous tribes prey chiefly on other shell-fish, or on zoophytes ; since, with the exception of the cuttle-fishes, their organization scarcely adapts them for pursuing and destroying other classes of animals. One remarkable exception is formed by the stylina, which lives parasitically on the star-fish and sea- urchin; and another by the testacelle, which preys on the com- mon earth-worm, following it in its burrow, and wearing a buckler, which protects it in the rear. Most of the siphonated univalves are animal-feeders; the carrion-eating stromb and whelk consume the fishes and other - creatures whose remains are always plentiful on rough and rocky coasts. Many wage war on their own relatives, and take them by assault; the bivalve may close, and the operculated -nerite retire into his home, but the enemy, with rasp-like tongue, armed with silicious teeth, files a hole through the shell,—vain shield where instinct guides the attack! Of the myriads of small shells which the sea heaps up in every sheltered ‘ ness,” a large proportion will be found thus bored by the whelks and purples; and in fossil shell-beds, such as that in the Touraine, nearly half the bivalves and sea-snails are perforated,—the relics of antedi- luvian banquets. This is on the shore, or on the bed of the sea; far away from land the carinaria and firola pursue the floating acalephe ; and the argonaut, with his relative the spzrwla, both carnivorous, are found in the “high seas,” in almost every quarter of the globe. The most active and rapacious of all are the calamaries and cuttles, who vindicate their high position in the naturalists’ “system,” by preying even on fishes. As the shell-fish are great eaters, so in their turn they afford food to many cther creatures ; fulfilling the universal law of eat- ing, and being eaten. Civilized man still swallows the oyster, although snails are no longer reckoned “a dainty dish ;” mussels, cockles, and periwinkles are in great esteem with children and 14 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. the other unsophisticated classes of society; and so are scallops and the haliotis, where they can be obtained. Two kinds of whelk are brought to the London market in great quantities ; and the arms of the cuttle-fish are eaten by the Neapolitans, and also by the Hast Indians and Malays. In seasons of scarcity, vast quantities of shell-fish are consumed by the poor inhabitants of the Scotch and Irish coasts.* Still more are regularly collected for bait; the calamary is much used in the cod-fishery, off New- foundland, and the limpet and whelk on our own coasts. Many wild animals feed on shell-fish ; the rat and the racoon seek for them on the sea-shore when pressed by hunger; the South-American otter, and the crab-eating opossum constantly resort to salt-marshes, and the sea, and prey on the mollusca ; the great whale lives habitually on the small floating pteropods ; sea-fowl search for the litoral species at every ebbing tide; whilst, in their own element, the marine kinds are perpetually devoured by fishes. The haddock is a “great conchologist ;”’ and some good northern sea-shells have been rescued, unbroken, from the stomach of the cod; whilst even the strong valves of the cyprina are not proof against the teeth of the cat-fish (anarhicas). They even fall a prey to animals much their inferiors in saga- city ; the star-fish swallows the small bivalve entire, and dissolves the animal out of its shell; and the bubble-shell (phyline), ‘itself predacious, is eaten both by star-fish and sea-anemone (actinia). The land-snails afford food to many birds, especially to the thrush tribe; and to some insects, for the luminous larva of the glow-worm lives on them, and some of the large predacious beetles (@. g. carabus violaceus and goertus olens), occasionally kill slugs. The greatest enemies of the mollusca, however, are those of their own nation; scarcely one-half the shelly tribes graze peace- * See Hugh Miller’s “ Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland.” HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 15 fully on sea-weed, or subsist on the nutrient particles which the sea itself brings to their mouths; the rest browse on living zoo- phytes, or prey upon the vegetable-feeders. Yet in no class is the instinct of ‘‘self-preservation”’ stronger, nor the means of defence more adequate; their shells seem ex- _ pressly given to compensate for the slowness of their movement, and the dimness of their senses. The cuttle-fish escapes from attack by swimming backwards and beclouding the water with an inky discharge; and the sea-hare (aplysia) pours out, when irritated, a copious purple fluid, formerly held to be poisonous. Others rely on passive resistance, or on concealment for their safety. It has been frequently remarked that molluscs resemble the hue and appearance of the situation they frequent; thus, the limpet is commonly overgrown with dalant and sea-weed, and the ascidian with zoophytes, which form an effectual disguise ; the lima and modiola spin together a screen of grotto-work. One ascidian (a. cochligera) coats itself with shell-sand, and the carrier-trochus cements shells and corals to the margin of its habitation, or so loads it with pebbles, that it looks but like a little heap of stones. It must be confessed that the instincts of the shell-fish are of a low order, being-almost limited to self-preservation, the escape from danger, and the choice of food. ‘Their history offers none of those marvels which the entomologist loves to relate. An instance of something like social feeling has been observed in a Roman snail (helix pomatia) who, after escaping from a garden, returned to it in quest of his fellow-prisoner ;—but the accom- plished naturalist who witnessed the circumstance hesitated to record a thing so unexampled. The limpet, too, if we may trust the observations of Mr. Robert, of Lyme Regis, is fond of home, or at least possesses a knowledge of topography, and returns to the same roost after an excursion with each tide. Professor Forbes has immortalized the sagacity of the razor-fish, who sub- mits to be salted in his hole, rather than expose himself to be caught, after finding that the enemy is lying in wait for him. 16 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. On the other hand, Mr. Bowerbank has a curious example of “instinct at fault,” in the fossil spine of a sea-urchin, which appears to have been drilled by a carnivorous gasteropod ! We have spoken of shell-fish as articles of food, but they have other uses, even to man; they are the toys of children, who hear in them the roaring of the sea; they are the pride of “collectors” —whose wealth is in a cone or “ wentle-trap ;”* and they are the ornaments of barbarous tribes. The I'riendly-islander wears the orange-cowry as a mark of chieftanship (Stutchbury), and the New Zealander polishes the elenchus into an ornament more brilliant than the ‘pearl ear-drop” of classical or modern times. (Clarke.) One of the most beautiful substances in nature is the shell-opal, formed of the remains of the ammonite. The forms and colours of shells (as of all other natural objects), answer some particular purpose, or obey some general law; but besides this, there is much that seems specially intended for our study, and calculated to call forth enlightened admiration. Thus the tints of many shells are concealed during life by a dull external coat, and the pearly halls of the nautilus are seen by no other eyes than ours. Or descending to mere ‘utility,’ how many tracts of coast are destitute of limestone, but abound in shell-banks which may be burned into lime; or in shell-sand, for the use of farmers. * The extravagant prices that have been given for rare shells, are less to be regretted, because they have induced voyagers to collect. Mere shell-col- lecting, however, is no more sczentific than pigeon-fancying, or the study of old china. For educational purposes the best shells are the types of genera, or species which illustrate particular points of structure ; and, fortunately for students, the prices are much diminished of late years. A Carimaria once “ worth 100 guineas” (Sowerby) is now worth 1s. only; a Wentle-trap which fetched 40 guineas in 1701 (Rumphius) was worth only 20 guineas in 1753, and may now be had for 5s.!_ The Conus gloria-maris has fetched £50 more than once, and Cyprea umbilicata has been sold for £30 this year, 1850. + Shell-sand is only beneficial on peaty soils, or heavy clay land. It sometimes hardens into limestone, as on the coast of Devon; and at Guada- loupe, where it contains litoral shells and human skeletons of recent date. HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 17 Not much is known respecting the individual duration of the shell-fish, though their length of life must be very variable. Many of the aquatic species are annuals, fulfilling the cycle of their existence in a single year; whole races are entombed in the wintry tide of mud that grows from year to year in the beds of rivers, and lakes, and seas; thus, in the Wealden clay we find layer above layer of small river-snails, alternating with thin strata of sediment, the index of immeasureably distant years. Dredgers find that whilst the adults of some shell-fish can be taken at all seasons, others can be obtained late in the autumn or winter only; those caught in spring and summer being young, or half-grown; and it is a common remark that dead shells (of some species) can be obtained of a larger size than any that we find alive, because they attain their full-growth at a season when our researches are suspended. Some species require part of two years for their full development; the young of the doris and eolis are born in the summer time, in the warm shallows near the shore; on the approach of winter they retire to deeper water, and in the following spring return to the tidal rocks, attain their full-growth early in the summer, and after spawning-time dis- appear. The land-snails are mostly biennial; hatched in the summer and autumn, they are half-grown by the winter-time, and acquire their full-growth in the following spring or summer. In confine- ment, a garden-snail will live for six or eight years; but in their natural state it is probable that a great many die in their second winter, for clusters of empty shells may be found, adhering to one another, under ivied walls, and in other sheltered situations; the animals having perished in their hybernation. Some of the spiral sea-shells live a great many years, and tell their age in a very plain and interesting manner, by the number of fringes (varices) on their whirls; the contour of the ranella and murex depends on the regular recurrence of these ornaments, which occur after the same intervals in well-fed individuals, as in their less fortunate kindred. The Ammonites appear, by their varices, 18 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. or periodic mouths (pl. III., fig. 3), to have lived and continued growing for many years. Many of the bivalves, like the mussel and cockle, attain their full-growth in a year. The oyster continues enlarging his shell by annual “shoots,” for four or five years, and then ceases to grow outwards ; but very aged specimens may be found, especi- ally in a fossil state, with shells an inch or two in thickness. The giant-clam (¢ridacna), which attains so large a size that poets and sculptors have made it the cradle of the sea-goddess,— must enjoy an unusual longevity; living in the sheltered lagoons of coral-islands, and not discursive in its habits, the corals grow up around, until it is often nearly buried by them; but although there seems to be no certain limit to its life (though it may live a century for all that we know), yet the time will probably come when it will be overgrown by its neighbours, or choked with sediment. The fresh-water. molluscs of cold climates bury themselves during winter, in the mud of their ponds and rivers; and the land-snails hide themselves in the ground, or beneath moss and dead leaves. In warm climates they become torpid during the hottest and driest part of the year. Those genera and species which are most subject to this’ ‘summer sleep,” are remarkable for their tenacity of life; and numerous instances have been recorded of their importation from distant countries, in a living state. In June, 1850, a living pond-mussel was sent to Mr. Gray, from Australia, which had been more than a year out of water.* The pond-snails (ampul- lariz) have been found alive in logs of mahogany from Honduras (Mr. Pickering) ; and M. Caillaud carried some from Egypt to Paris, packed in saw-dust. Indeed, it is not easy to ascertain the limit of their endurance ; for Mr. Laidlay having placed a number in a drawer for this purpose, found them alive after jive * “Tt was alive 498 days after it was taken from the pond; and in the interim had been only twice for a few hours in water, to see if it was alive.” — Rev. W. O. Newnham. HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 19 years, although in the warm climate of Calcutta. The cyclosto- mas, which are also operculated, are well known to survive impri- sonments of many months; but in the ordinary land-snails such cases are more remarkable. Some of the large tropical bela, brought by Lieutenant Graves from Valparaiso, revived after being packed, some for thirteen, others for twenty months. In 1849, Mr. Pickering received from Mr. Wollaston a basket-full of Madeira snails (of twenty or thirty different species), three- fourths of which proved to be alive, after several months’ confine- ment, including a sea-voyage. Mr. Wollaston has himself told us that specimens of two Madeira snails (helia papilio and. tecti- formis) survived a fast and imprisonment in pill-boxes, of two years and a half, and that a large number of the small helix turricula, brought to England at the same time, were aii living after being inclosed in a dry bag for a year and a half. But the most interesting example of resuscitation occurred to a specimen of the Desert snail, from Egypt, chronicled by Dr. Baird.* This individual was fixed to a tablet in the British Museum, on the 25th of March, 1846; and on March 7th, 1850, it was observed that he must have come out of his shell in the interval (as the paper had been discoloured, apparently in his attempt to get away); but finding escape impossible, had again retired, closing his aperture with the usual glistening film; this led to his immersion in tepid water, and marvellous recovery. He is now (March 13th, 1850) alive and flourishing, and has sat for his portrait. (Fig. 2.) The permanency of the shell-bearing races is effectually pro- vided for by their extreme fecundity ; and though exposed to a hundred dangers in their early life, enough survive to re-people the land and sea abundantly. The spawn of a single doris may contain 600,000 eggs (Darwin); a river-mussel has been estimated to produce 300,000 young in one season, and the oyster cannot be much less prolific. The land-snails have fewer enemies, and, fortunately, lay fewer eggs. * An. Nat. Hist. 1850. 20 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Lastly, the mollusca exhibit the same instinctive care with insects and the higher animals, in placing their eggs in situations where they will be safe from injury, or open to the influences of air and heat, or surrounded by the food which the young will require. The tropical dwdcmz cement leaves together, to protect and conceal their large, bird-like, eggs; the slugs bury theirs in the ground; the oceanic-snail attaches them to a floating raft ; Fig. 9. Lanthina with its raft. and the argonaut carries them in her frail boat. The horny cap- sules of the whelk are clustered in groups, with spaces pervading the interior, for the free passage of sea-water; and the nidamental ribbon of the doris and eolis is attached to a rock, or some solid surface from which it will not be detached by the waves. The river-mussel and cyc/as carry their parental care still further, and nurse their young in their own mantle, or in a special mar-— supium, designed, like that of the opossum, to protect them until they are strong enough to shift for themselves. If any one imbued with the spirit of Paley or Chateaubriand, should study these phenomena, he might discover more than the ‘barren facts” which alone appear, without significance, to the unspiritual eye ; he would see at every step fresh proofs of the wisdom and goodness of God, who thus manifests his greatness by displaying the same care for the maintenance of his feeblest creatures, as for the well-being of man, and the stability of the world. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 21 CHAPTER IV. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. Mo.tuscovs animals possess a distinct nervous system, in- struments appropriated to the five senses, and muscles by which they execute a variety of movements. They have organs, by which food is procured and digested,—a heart, with arteries and veins, through which their colourless fiuids circulate,—a breathing-organ,—and in most instances, a protecting shell. They produce eggs; and the young generally pass through one preparatory, or larval, stage. The nervous system, upon which sensation and the exercise of muscular motion depend, consists of a brain or principal centre, and of various nerves possessing distinct properties: the optic nerves are only sensible of light and colours ; the auditory nerves convey impressions of sound; the olfactory, of odours ; the gustatory, of flavours ; whilst the nerves of touch or feeling are widely: diffused, and indicate in a more general way the pre- sence of external objects. The nerves by which motion is pro- duced, are distinct from these, but so accompany them as to ap- pear like parts of the same cords. Both kinds of nerves cease to act when their connection with the centre is interrupted or destroyed. There is reason to believe, that most of the move- ments of the lower animals result from the reflection of external timulants (like the process of breathing in man), without the intervention of the will.* In the mollusca, the principal part of the nervous system is ring surrounding the throat (wsophagus), and giving off nerves to different parts of the body. The points from which the nerves adiate, are enlargements, termed centres (ganglia), those on the * See Miiller’s Elements of Philosophy, edited by Dr. Baly. * ¥ } 22 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. sides and upper part of the ring represent the brain, and supply nerves to the eyes, tentacles, and mouth; other centres, con-— nected with the lower side of the cesophageal ring, send nerves - to the foot, viscera, and respiratory organ. In the bivalves, the branchial centre is the most conspicuous, and is situated on the — posterior adductor muscle. In the tunicaries, the corresponding nervous centre may be seen between the two orifices in the muscular tunic. This scattered condition of the nervous i is eminently characteristic of the entire sub-kingdom. : Organs of special sense.—Sight. 'The eyes are two in num- : — ber, placed on the front or sides of the head; sometimes they are sessile, in others stalked, or placed on long pedicels (om- matophora). The eyes of the cuttle-fishes resemble those o fishes in their large size and complicated structure. Each con- sists of a strong fibrous globe (slerotic), transparent in front (cornea), with the opposite internal surface (retina) covered by a dark pigment which receives the rays of light. This chamber is occupied by an aqueous humour, a crystalline lens, and a vi- treous humour, as in the human eye. In the strombide, the eye is not less highly organised, but in most of the gasteropoda it has a more simple structure, and perhaps only possesses sen= sibility of light without the power of distinct vision. The larval bivalves have also a pair of eyes in the normal position (fig. 30) near the mouth; but their development is not con- tinued, and the adults are either eyeless, or possess merely ru- dimentary organs of vision, in the form of black dots (ocelli) along the margin of the mantle.* These supposed eyes have been detected in a great many bivalves, but they are most con- spicuous in the scallop, which has received the name of argus from Poli, on this account (fig. 10). : In the tunicaries similar oce/li are placed between the ten tacles which surround the orifices. * “Bach possesses a cornea, lens, choroid and nerve; they are, without doubt, organs of vision.” — Garner. , 1 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 23 Fig. 10. Pecten varius.* Sense of Hearing. In the highest cephalopods, this organ consists of two cavities in the rudimentary cranium which pro- tects the brain ; a small calcarious body or ofolithe is suspended in each, as in the vestibular cavities of fishes.t Similar auditory capsules occur near the base of the tentacles in the gasteropoda, and they have been detected, by the vibration of the otolithes, in many bivalves and brachiopods. With the exception of tritonia and eolis, none of mollusca have been observed to emit sounds. (Grant). Sense of Smell, This faculty is evidently possessed by the cuttle-fishes and gasteropods; snails discriminate their food by it, slugs are attracted by offensive odours, and many of the ma- Tine zoophaga may be taken with animal baits. In the pearly nautilus, there is a hollow plicated process beneath each eye, Fig. 11. Tentacle of a Nudibranch.¢ * Pecten varius, L., from a specimen dredged by Mr. Bowerbank, off Tenby ; m, the pallial curtains ; 7, the branchice. + In the Octopods, there is a foramen near the eye, and in some of the Calamaries a plicated organ, which M. D’Orbigny regards as an external car. t Fig. 11. Tentacle of Holis coronata, Forbes, from Alder and Hancock. 24 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. which M. Valenciennes regards as the organ of smell¥. Messrs. { Hancock and Embleton attribute the same function to the la-— mellated tentacles of the nudibranchs, and compare them with ; the olfactory organs of fishes. 7 The labial tentacles of the bivalves are considered to be or- — vans for discriminating food, but in what way is unknown (fig. 18.0. ¢.) The sense of taste, is also indicated rather by the - habits of the animals, and their choice of food, than by the structure of a special organ. The acephala appear to exercise little discrimination in selecting food, and swallow anything that | is small enough to enter their mouths, including living animal- cules, and even the sharp spicuda of sponges. In some instances, ; however, the oral orifice is well guarded, as in pecten (fig. 10.) In the Zncephala, the tongue is armed with spines, employed . in the comminution of the food, and cannot possess a very de-— licate sense. The more ordinary and diffused sense of touch is pos- sessed by all the mollusca; it is exercised by the skin, which is everywhere soft and lubricous, NGA ai and in a higher degree by the fringes of the bivalves (fig. 12), and by the filaments and tentacles (wdracula) of the gasteropods ; — the eye-pedicels of the snail are evidently endowed with great sensitiveness in this respect. That shell-fish are not very sensi- | ble of pain, we may well believe, on account of their tenacity of life, and the extent to which they have the power of reproducing lost parts. Muscular System. The muscles of the mol/usca are prin- cipally connected with the skin, which is exceedingly contractile’ in every part. The snail affords a remarkable, though familiar ee a a Fig. 12. Lepton Squamosum.t : : * Mr. Owen regards the membraneons lamelle between the oral tentacles” and in front of the mouth, as the seat of the olfactory sense. Sve Fig. 44. + Fig. 12. Lepton sqgaumosum Mont., from a drawing by Mr. Alder, in the British Mollusca; copied by permission of Mr. Van Voorst. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 25 instance, when it draws in its eye-stalks, by a process like the inversion of a glove-finger ; the branching gills of some of the sea-slugs, and the tentacles of the cuttle-fishes, are also emi- nently contractile.* The inner tunic of the ascidians (fig. 8, ¢.) presents a beau- tiful example of muscular tissue, the crossing fibres having much the appearance of basket-work; in the transparent salpians, these fibres are grouped in flat bands, and arranged in charac- teristic patterns. In this class (¢unicata) they act only as sphincters (or circular muscles), and by their sudden contraction expel the water from the branchial cavity. The muscular foot of the bivalves is extremely flexible, having layers of circular fibres for its protrusion, (fig. 18. /) and longitudinal bands for its re- traction (fig. 30 2); its structure and mobility has been com- pared to that of the human tongue. In the burrowing shell-fish (such as so/en), it is very large and powerful, and in the boring species, its surface is studded with silicious particles (spicuda), which render it a very efficient instrument for the enlargement of their cells. (Hancock.) In the attached bivalves it is not developed, or exists only in a rudimen- tary state, and is subsidiary to a gland which secretes the material of those threads with which the mussel and pinna attach themselves. (Fig. 13.) These threads are termed the dyssus ; the plug of the aoma, and the pedicel of ¢eredratula are modifications of the dyssus. In the cuttle-fishes alone, we find muscles attached to in- ternal cartilages which represent the bones of vertebrate animals ; the muscles of the arms are inserted in a cranial cartilage, and those of the fins in the lateral cartilages, the equivalents of the pectoral fins of fishes. Fig. 13. Dreissena.t * The muscular fibres of shell-fish do not exhibit the transverse stripes Which characterize voluntary muscles in the higher animals. t Fig. 13. Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas sp.) from the Surrey timber- docks. /, foot. 2, byssus. C 26 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Muscles of a third kind are attached to the shell. The valves” of the oyster (and other mono-myaries) are connected by a single muscle; those of the cytherea (and other di-myaries), by two; the contraction of which brings the valves together. They are hence named adductors ; and the part of the shell to which they are attached is always indicated by scars. (Fig. 14, a. a). Fig. 14. Left valve of Cytherea chione.* The border of the mantle is also muscular, and the place of its attachment is marked in the shell by a line called the padial inpression (p); the presence of a bay, or sinus (s), in this line, shews that the animal had retractile siphons; the foot of the- animal is withdrawn by retractor muscles also attached to the shell, and leaving small scars near those of the adductors (Fig. 30*). The gasteropods withdraw into their shells when alarmed, by a shell-muscle, which passes into the foot, or is attached to the operculum ; its impression is horse-shoe-shaped in the lm- pet, as also in navicella, concholepas, and the nautilus ; it be- * Fig. 14. Cytherea chione, L., coast of Devon, (original) ; 2, the hinge ligament ; u, the umbo; JZ, the lunule; ¢, cardinal tooth; ¢ 2’, lateral teeth i a, anterior adductor; a’, posterior adductor; p, pallial impression ; 8, sinus, oceupied by retractor of the siphons. : STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 27 comes deeper with age. In the spiral univalves, the scar is less conspicuous, being situated on the columella, and sometimes divided, forming two spots. It corresponds to the posterior retractors in the bivalves. Digestive system. This part of the animal economy is all- important in the radiate classes, and scarcely of less consequence in the mollusca. In the ascidians (fig. 8,7), the alimentary canal is a convoluted tube, in part answering to the wsophagus, and in part to the intestine; the stomach is distinguished by longitudinal folds, which increase its extent of surface ; it receives the secretion of the liver by one or more apertures. In those bivalves, which have a large foot, the digestive organs are con- cealed in the upper part of that organ; the mouth is unarmed, except by two pairs of soft membranous palpi, which look like accessory gills (fig. 18. 7. ¢.) The ciliated arms of the brachi- pods, occupy a similar position (figs. 4, 5, 6), and are regarded as their equivalents. The encephalous mollusca are frequently armed with horny jaws, working vertically like the mandibles of a bird; in the land-snails, the upper jaw is opposed only by the denticulated tongue, whilst the limneids have two additional horny jaws, acting laterally. The tongue is muscular, and armed with recurved spines (or lingual teeth), arranged in a great va- riety of patterns, which are eminently characteristic of the genera.* Their teeth are amber-coloured, glossy, and trans- lucent; and being silicious (they are insoluble in acid), they can be used like a file, for the abrasion of very hard substances. With them the limpet rasps the stony nullipore, the whelk bores holes in other shells, and the cuttle-fish doubtless uses its tongue in the same manner as the cat. ‘The tongue, or lingual ribbon, usually forms a triple band, of which the central part is called the rachis, and the lateral tracts pleure, the rachidian teeth * The preparation of the lingual ribbon as a permanent microscopic object, requires some nicety of manipulation, but the arrangement of the teeth may be seen by merely compressing par. of the animal between two pieces of glass, C 2 28 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. sometimes form a single series, overlapping each other, or there are lateral teeth on each side of a median series. The teeth on the pleuree are termed uncini ; they are extremely numerous in the plant-eating gasteropods. (Fig. 15. A.)* Ly HA) y Th i Lee WI NMAITA MIM YB ee Wy Uf, YY Fig. 15. Lingual Teeth of Mollusca. Sometimes the tongue forms a short semi-circular ridge, contained between the jaws ; at others, it is extremely elongated, and when withdrawn, its folds extend backwards to the stomach. The lingual ribbon of the limpet is longer than the whole ani- mal; the tongue of the whelk has 100 rows of teeth ; and the great slug has 160 rows, with 180 teeth in each row. Mi) eit z 1 SS pr fe ey es NaI Fig. 16. Tongue of the Whelk.+ The front of the tongue is frequently curved, or bent quite over; it is the part of the instrument in use, and its teeth are * Fig. 15. A. Lingual teeth of trochus cinerarius (after Lovén). Only the median tooth, and the (5) lateral teeth, and (90) wncze of one side of a single row are represented. B, One row of the lingual teeth of cyprea europea ; consisting of a median tooth, and three wacini on each side of it. + Fig. 16. Lingual ribbon of duccinum undatum (original), from a pre- paration communicated by Wm. Thomson, Hsq., of King’s College. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 29 often broken or blunted. The posterior part of the lingual rib- bon usually has its margins rolled together, and united, forming a tube, which is presumed to open gradually. The new teeth are developed from behind forwards, and are brought successively into use, as in the sharks and rays amongst fishes. In the bullade the rachis of the tongue is unarmed, and the business of communicating the food is transferred to an organ which re- sembles the gizzard of a fowl, and is often paved with calcarious plates, so large and strong as to crush the small shell-fish which are swallowed entire. In the aplysia, which is a vegetable-feeder, the gizzard is armed with numerous small plates and spines. The stomach of some bivalves contains an instru- } ment called the “ crystalline stylet,”’ Hie. 1? Gxaard up Butta. ® which is conjectured to have a si- ~ milar use. In the cephalopods there is a crop in which the food may accumulate, as well as a gizzard for its trituration. The liver is always large in the mollusca (fig. 10) ; its se- eretion is derived from arterial blood, and is poured either into the stomach, or the commencement of the intestine. In the nudibranchs, whose stomachs are often remarkably branched, the liver accompanies all the gastric ramifications, and even enters the respiratory papille on the backs of the eolids. The existence of a renal organ has been ascertained in most classes ; in the bivalves it was detected by the presence of uricacid. The intestine is more convoluted in the herbivorous than in the car- nivorous tribes: in the bivalves and in haliotis it passes through the ventricle of the heart; its termination is always near the respiratory aperture (or excurrent orifice, when there are “ Fig. 17. Gizzard of bulla lignaria (original). Front and side view of a half-grown specimen, with the part nearest the head of the animal down- wards ; in the front view the plates are in contact. The cardiac orifice is in the centre, in front; the pylorze orifice is on the posterior dorsal side, near the small transverse plate. 30 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. two*), and the excrements are carried away by the water which has already passed over the gills. Besides the organs already mentioned, the encephalous mol- lusks are always furnished with well-developed salivary glands, and some have a rudimentary pancreas ; many have also special glands for the secretion of coloured fluids, such as the purple of the murexr, the violet liquid of zanthina and aplysia, the yellow of the dullade, the milky fluid of eodis, and the inky secretion of the cuttle-fishes. A few exhale peculiar odours, like the garlic- snail (helix alliaria) and eledone moschata. Many are phos- phorescent, especially the floating tunicaries (salpa and pyrosoma), and bivalves which inhabit holes ( pholadidg). Some of the cuttle- fishes are slightly luminous ; and one land-slug, the phosphoraz, takes its name from the same property. Circulating system. The mollusca have no distinct absorbent. system, but the product of digestion (chy/e) passes into the ge- neral abdominal cavity, and thence into the larger veins, which. are perforated with numerous round apertures. The circulating organs are the heart, arteries, and veins ; the blood is colourless, or pale bluish white. The heart consists of an auricle (sometimes divided into two), which receives the blood from the gills; and a muscular ventricle which propels it into the arteries of the body. From the capillary extremities of the arteries it collects again into the veins, circulates a second time through the respi- ratory organ, and returns to the heart as arterial blood. Besides this systemic heart, the circulation is aided by two additional branchial hearts in the cuttle-fishes ; -and by, four.in.the-dmachto=» _podt, Myr. Alder has counted from 60 to 80 pulsations per minute in the nudibranchs, and 120 per minute in a vitrina. Both the arteries and veins form occasionally wide spaces, or * In most of the gasteropods the intestine returns upon itself, and ter- minates on the right side, near the head. Occasionally it ends in a perfo- ration more or less removed from the margin of the aperture, as in ¢rocho- toma, fissurella, macrochisma, and dentalium. In chiton the intestine is straight, and terminates posteriorly. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 31 sinuses ; in the cuttle-fishes the cesophagus is partly or entirely surrounded by a venous sizus; and in the acephala the viceral cavity itself forms part of the circulating system. The circulation in the tunicaries presents a most remarkable exception to the general rule, for their blood ebbs and flows in the same vessels, as it was supposed to do in the human veins before the time of Harvey. In the transparent salpe it may be seen passing from the heart into vessels connected with the viscera and tunics, and thence into the branchial vessels; but when this has continued for a time, the movement ceases, and recommences in the opposite direction, passing from the heart to the gill and thence to the system. (Lister.) In the compound tunicaries, there is a common circulation through the connecting medium, in addition to the individual currents. Aquiferous canals. Sea-water is admitted to the visceral cavity of many of the mollusks (as it is also in radiate animals), by minute canals, opening externally in the form of pores. These aguiferous pores are situated either in the centre of the creeping disc, as in cyprea, conus, and ancillaria ; or at its mar- gin, as in haliotis, doris, and aplysia. In the cutile-fishes, they are variously placed, on the sides of the head, or at the bases of the arms; some of them conduct to the large sub-orbital pouches, into which the tentacles are retracted. Respiratory system. 'The respiratory process consists in the exposure of the blood to the influence of air, or water con- taining air; during which oxygen is absorbed and carbonic acid liberated. It is a process essential to animal life, and is never entirely suspended, even during hybernation. Those air- breathers that inhabit water are obliged to visit the surface fre- quently ; and stale water is so inimical to the water-breathers, that they soon attempt to escape from the confinement of a glass or basin, unless the water is frequently renewed.* In general, When aquatic plants are kept in the same glass with water-breathing snails, a balance is produced ; which enables both to live without change of water. 32 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. fresh-water is immediately fatal to marine species, and salt-water to those which properly inhabit fresh; but there are some which affect brackish water, and many which endure it to a limited ex- tent. The depth at which shell-fish live, is influenced by the quantity of oxygen which they require ; the most active and energetic races live only in shallow water, or near the surface ; those found in very deep water are the lowest in their instincts, and are specially organized for their situation. Some water- breathers require only moist sea-air, and a bi-diurnal visit from the tide,—like the periwinkle, limpet, and ellia ; whilst many air-breathers live entirely in the water or in damp places by the water-side. In fact, the nature of the respiratory process is the same, whether it be aquatic or aérial, and it is essential in each case that the surface of the breathing-organ should be preserved moist. The process is more complete in proportion to the ex- tent and minute sub-division of the vessels, in which the circu- lating fluid is exposed to the revivifying influence. The land-snails ( pwlmonifera), have a lung, or air-chamber, formed by the folding of the mantle, over the interior of which the pulmonary vessels are distributed ; this chamber has a round orifice, on the right side of the animal, which opens and closes at irregular intervals. The air in this cavity seems to renew itself with sufficient rapidity (by the law of diffusion), without any special mechanism. In the aquatic shell-fish, respiration is performed by the mantle, or by a portion of it specialized, and forming a gill (sranchia). It is effected by the mantle alone in one family of tunicaries ( pelonaiade), in all the drachiopoda, and in one family of gasteropods (acteonide). In most of the ¢wnicata, the breathing organ forms a distinct sac lining the muscular tunic, or mantle (fig. 8. 6.); this sac has only one external aperture, and conducts to the mouth, which is situated at its base. It is a sieve-like structure, and its inner surface is clothed with vibratile cilia* which create a perpetual * From ciliwm, an eyelash ; they are only visible under favourable circum- STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 33 current, setting in through the (branchial) orifice, escaping through the meshes of the net, and passing out by the anal orifice of the outer tunics. The regularity of this current is interrupted only by spasmodic contractions of the mantle, occurring at irregular intervals, by which the creature spirts out water from doth orifices, and thus clears its cavity of such accumulated particles as are rejected by the mouth; and too large to escape through the branchial pores. In the salpians, these contractions are ryth- mical, and have the effect of propelling them backwards. In the ordinary bivalves, the gills form two membranous plates on each side of the body ; the muscu- lar mantle is still sometimes * united, forming a chamber with two orifices, into one .— of which the water flows, ~ 2%: whilst it escapes from the other; there is a third open- ey ing in front, for the foot, but ah at i} tas this in no wise influences the eons primal branchial circulation. Some- Fig. 18. Zrigonia pectinata.* times the orifices are drawn out into long tubes, or siphons, es- pecially in those shell-fish which burrow in sand. (Figs. 19 and 7.) Fig. 19. Bivalve with long nae t stances, with the aid of a microscope ; but the currents they cause are easily made perceptible by dropping fine sand into the water over them. * Trigonia pectinata, Lam. (original). Brought from Australia by the late Captain Owen Stanley. The gills are seen in the centre through the transparent mantle. o, mouth; / 7, labial tentacles; f, foot v, vent. + Fig. 19. Psammobia vespertina, Chemn. after Poli, reduced one half. The arrows indicate the direction of the current. 7 s, respiratory siphon. e 8, excurrent siphon. C38 34 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Those bivalyes which have no siphons, and even those in which the mantle is divided into two lobes, are provided with valves or folds which render the respiratory channels just as complete in effect. These currents are not in any way connected with the opening and closing of the valves, which is only done in moving ; or in efforts to expel irritating particles.* In some of the gasteropoda the respiratory organs form tufts, exposed on the back and sides (as in the nudibranches), or pro- tected by a fold of the mantle (as in the inferobranches and tectibranches of Cuvier). But in most the mantle is inflected, and forms a vaulted chamber over the back of the neck, in which are contained the pectinated or plume-like gills (fig. 61). In the carnivorous gasteropods (siphonostomata) the water passes ito this chamber through a siphon, formed by a prolongation of the upper margin of the mantle, and protected by the canal of the shell; after traversing the length of the gill, it returns and es- capes through a posterior siphon, generally less developed, but very long in ovulum volva, and forming a tubular spine in ¢yphis. In the plant-eating sea-snails (Aolostomata), there is no true siphon, but one of the “ neck-lappets’” is sometimes curled up and performs the same office, as in paludina and ampullaria (fig. 84). The in-coming and out-going currents in the branchial chamber, are kept apart by a valve-like fringe, continued from the neck-lappet. The out-current is still more effectually isolated in fissurella, haliotis, and dentalium, where it escapes by a hole in the shell, far removed from the point at which it entered. Near this outlet are the anal, renal, and generative orifices. The cephalopods have two or four plume-like gills, symme- trically placed in a branchial chamber, situated on the under-side * Tf a river-mussel be placed in a glass of water, and fine sand let fall gently over its respiratory orifices, the particles will be seen to rebound from the vicinity of the upper aperture, whilst they enter the lower one rapidly. But as this kind of food is not palatable, the creature will soon give a plunge with its foot, and closing its valves, spirt the water (and with it the sand) from both orifices; the motion of the foot is, of course, intended to change its position. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 35 of the body; the opening is in front, and occupied by a funnel, which, in the nautilus, closely resembles the siphon of the palu- dina, but has its edges united in the cuttle-fishes. The free edge of the mantle is so adapted that it allows the water to enter the branchial chamber on each side of the funnel ; its muscular walls then contract and force the water through the funnel, an arrangement chiefly subservient to locomotion.* Mr. Bower- bank has observed, that the eledone makes twenty respirations per minute, when resting quietly in a basin of water. In most instances, the water on the surface of the gills is changed by ciliary action alone; in the cephalopods and salpians, it is renewed by the alternate expansion and contraction of the respiratory chamber, as in the vertebrate animals. The respiratory system is of the highest importance in the economy of the mollusca, and its modifications afford most va- luable characters in classification. It will be observed that the Cuvierian classes are based on a variety of particulars, and are very unequal in importance; but the orders are characterized by their respiratory conditions, and are of much more nearly equal value. Orders. Classes. Dibranchiata. Owen. Tetrabranchiata. Owen. Nucleobranchiata. BI. -ENCEPHALA ( Prosobranchiata. M. Edw. CEPHALOPODA. Pulmonifera. Cuv. GAaSTERORODA, Opisthobranchiata. M. Edw. Aporobranchiata. Bil. PTEROPODA. Palliobranchiata. Bl. BRACHIOPODA. ACEPHALA Lamellibranchiata. BL. CONCHIFERA. Heterobranchiata. Bl. TUNICATA. The Shell. The relation of the shell to the breathing-organ is very intimate ; indeed, it may be regarded as a paewmo-skeleton, * A very efficient means of locomotion in the slender pointed calamaries , which dart backwards with the recoil, like rockets. 36 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. being essentially a calcified portion of the mantle, of which the breathing-organ is at most a specialised part.* The shell is so characteristic of the mollusca that they have been commonly called ‘testacea” (from ¢esta ‘a shell’’), im scientific books; and the popular name of “shell-fish,” though not quite accurate, cannot be replaced by any other epithet in common use. In one whole class, however, and in several families, there is nothing that would be popularly recognised as a shell. Shells are said to be external when the animal is contained in them, and internal when they are concealed in the mantle; the latter, as well as the shell-less species, being called waked mollusks. Three-fourths of the moJllusca are univalve, or have but one shell; the others are mostly divalve, or have two shells; the pholads have accessory plates, and the shell of chiton consists of eight pieces. Most of the multivalves of old authors were arti- culate animals (ci7ripedes), erroneously included with the mollusca, which they resemble only in outward appearance. All, except the argonaut, acquire a rudimental shell before they are hatched, which becomes the nucleus of the adult shell ; it is often differently shaped and coloured from the rest of the shell, and hence the fry are apt to be mistaken for distinct species from their parents. In cymba (fig. 20) the nucleus is large and irregular; in fusus antiquus it is cylindrical ; in the pyramidellide it is oblique; and it is spiral in carinaria, atlanta, and many limpets, which are symmetrical when adult. The rudimentary shell of the nudibranchs is shed at an early * Tn its most reduced form the shell is only a hollow cone, or plate, pro- tecting the breathing organ and heart, as in dimaz, testacella, carinaria. Its peculiar features always relate to the condition of the breathing-organ ; and in terebratula and pelonaia it becomes identified with the gill. In the nudi- | ‘branchs the vascular mantle performs wholly or in part the respiratory office. In the cephalopods the shell becomes complicated by the addition of a distinct, internal, chambered portion (phragmocone), which is properly a visceral skeleton ; in sperwla the shell is reduced to this part. ; STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 37 age, and never replaced. In this respect the molluscan shell differs entirely from the shell of the crab and other articulate animals, which is periodically cast off and renewed. In the bivalves the embryonic shell forms the uméo of each valve ; it is often very unlike the after-growth, as in unio pictorum, cyclas henslowiana and pecten pusio. In attached shells like the oyster and anomia the umbo fre- quently presents an exact imitation of the sur- face towhich the young shell originally adhered. Shells are composed of carbonate of lime, with a small proportion of animal matter. The source of this lime is to be iooked Fig. 20. Cyméa.* for in their food. Modern inquiries into organic chemistry have shown that vegetables derive their elements from the mineral kingdom (air, water, and the soil), and animals theirs from the vegetable. The sea-weed filters the salt-water, and separates lime as well as organic elements; and lime is one of the most abundant mineral matters in land plants. From this source the mollusca obtain lime in abundance, and, indeed, we find frequent instances of shells becoming unnaturally thickened through the superabundance of this earth in their systems. On the other hand, instances occur of thin and delicate-shelled varieties, in still, deep water, or on clay bottoms; whilst in those districts which are wholly destitute of lime, like the lizard in Cornwall, and similar tracts of magnesian-silicate in Asia Minor, there are no mollusca. (fordes.) The texture of shells is various and characteristic. Some, when broken, present a dull lustre like marble or china, and are termed porcellanous ; others are pearly or nacreous ; some have a fibrous structure; some are horny, and others glassy and trans- lucent. * Fig. 20. Cymba proboscidalis, Lam., from a very young specimen in the cabinet of Hugh Cuming, Esq., from Western Africa. 38 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Fig. 21. Pinna. Fig. 22. Zerebratula. Fig. 23. Pearl.* The zacreous shells are formed by alternate layers of very thin membrane and carbonate of lime, but this alone does not give © the pearly lustre which appears to depend on minute undulations — of the layers, represented in fig. 23. This lustre has been suc-_ cessfully imitated on engraved steel buttons. Nacreous shells, © when polished, form ‘mother of pearl ;’’ when digested in weak acid, they leave a membraneous residue which retains the original form of the shell. This is the most easily destructible of shell-— textures, and in some geological formations we find only casts of the nacreous shells, whilst those of fibrous texture are completely preserved. | Pearls are produced by many bivalves, especially by the — Oriental pearl-mussel (avicula margaritifera), and one of the British river-mussels (wvi0 margaritiferus). They are caused by particles of sand, or other foreign substances, getting between — the animal and its shell; the irritation causes a deposit of nacre, — forming a projection on the interior, and generally more brilliant than the rest of the shell. Completeiy spherical pearls can only — be formed loose in the muscles, or other soft parts of the animal. j The Chinese obtain them artificially, by introducing into the — living mussel foreign substances, such as pieces of mother-of-pearl : fixed to wires, which thus become coated with a more brilliant 4 material. | * Bigs. 21, 22, 23. Magmified sections of shells, from Dr. Carpenter. — Fragments of shell ground very thin, and cemented to glass slides with Canada balsam, are easily prepared, and form curious microscopic objects. A great” variety of them may be procured of Mr. C. M. Topping, of Pentonville. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 39 Similar prominences and concretions—pearls which are not pearly—are formed inside porcellanous shells; these are as yariable in colour as the surfaces on which they are formed.* The jidrous shells consist of successive layers of prismatic cells containing translucent carbonate of hme; and the cells of each successive layer correspond, so that the shell, especially when very thick (as in the fossil txoceramus and trichites), will break up vertically, into fragments, exhibiting on their edges a structure like arragonite, or satin-spar. Horizontal sections exhibit a cellular net-work, with here and there a dark cell, which is empty. (fig. 21.) The oyster has a laminated structure, owing to the irregular accumulation of the cells in its successive layers, and breaks up into horizontal plates. In the boring-shells (pholadide) the carbonate of lime has an atomic arrangement like arragonite, which is considerably harder than calcarious spar; in other cases the difference in hardness depends on the proportion of animal matter, and the manner in which the layers are aggregated. + In many bivalve shells there occurs a minute tubular structure, which is very conspicuous in some sections of pinna and oyster- shell. The brachiopoda exhibit a characteristic structure by which the smallest fragment of their shells may be determined; it consists of elongated and curved cells, matted together, and often perforated by circular holes, arranged in quincunx order (fig. 22), But the most complex shell-structure is presented by the porcellanous gasteropoda. These consist of three strata which readily separate in fossil shells, on account of the removal of their * They are pink in ¢urdinellus and strombus; white in ostrea ; white or glassy, purple or black in mytilus; rose-coloured and translucent in pinna. (Gray.) + The specific gravity of floating shells (such as argonanta and ianthina) is lower than that of any others. (De da Beche.) 40 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. animal cement. In fig. 24, @ represents the outer, 5 the middle, and c the inner stratum ; they may be seen, also, in fig. 25. Hach of these three strata is composed of very nume- rous vertical plates, like cards placed on edge; and the di- rection of the plates is some- times transverse in the central stratum, and lengthwise in the outer and inner (as in cyprea, cassis, ampullaria, and buli- mus), or longitudinal in the middle layer, and transverse in the others (e. g. conus, pyrula, oliva, and voluta). Each plate, too, is composed of a series of prismatic cells, arranged obliquely (45°), and their direction being changed in the successive plates, they cross each other at right angles. Tertiary fossils best exhibit this structure, either at their broken edge, or in polished sections.+ (Bowerbank). The argonaut-shell, and the bone of the cuttle-fish, have a peculiar structure; and the Hippurite is distinguished by a can- cellated texture, unlike any other shell, except, perhaps, some of the cardiacee and chamacee. Epidermis. All shells have an outer coat of animal matter called the ‘‘ epidermis” (or periostracum), sometimes thin and transparent, at others thick and opaque. It is thick and olive- coloured in all fresh-water shells, and in many arctic sea-shells (e. g. cyprina and astarte); the colours of the land-shells often Fig. 24. Sections of a cone.* * Sections of conus ponderosus, Brug., from the Miocene of the Touraine. A, longitudinal section of a fragment, B, complete horizontal section; a, outer layer; 5, middle; c, inner layer; d, e, J, lines of growth. + It is necessary to bear in mind that fossil shells are often pseudomor- phous, or mere casts, in spar or chalcedony, of cavities once occupied by shells ; such are the fossils found at Blackdown, and many of the London clay fossils at Barton. The Paleozoic fossils are often metamorphic, or have undergone a re-arraugement of their particles, like the rocks in which they occur. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 4] depend on it; sometimes it is silky as in helix sericea, or fringed with hairs, as in ¢richotropis ; in the whelk and some species of triton and conus it is thick and rough like coarse cloth, and in some modiolas it is drawn out into long beard-like filaments. In the cowry and other shell-fish with large mantle lobes, the epidermis is more or less covered up by an additional layer of shell deposited externally. The epidermis has life, but not sensation, like the human scarf-skin ; and it protects the shell against the influence of the weather, and chemical agents; it soon fades, or is destroyed, after the death of the animal, in situations where, whilst living, it would have undergone no change. In the bivalves it is organ- ically connected with the margin of the mantle. It is most developed in shells which frequent damp situations, amongst decaying leaves, and in fresh-water shells. All fresh- waters are more or less saturated with carbonic-acid gas, and in limestone countries hold so much lime in solution as to deposit it in the form of ¢wfa on the mussels and other shells.* But in the absence of lime to neutralise the acid, the water acts on the shells, and would dissolve them entirely if it were not for their protecting epidermis. As it is we can often recognise fresh-water shells by the erosion of those parts where the epidermis was thinnest, namely, the points of the spiral shells and the wzbones of the bivalves, those being also the parts longest exposed. Specimens of melanopsis and dithinia become truncated again and again in the course of their growth, until the adults are sometimes only half the length they should be, and the discoidal planorbis some- times becomes perforated by the removal of its inner whirls ; in these cases the animal closes the break in its shell with new layers. Some of the unios thicken their umbones enormously, and form a layer of animal matter with each new layer of shell, so that the river-action is arrested at a succession of steps. * As at Tisbury, in Wiltshire, where remarkable specimens of anxodons were obtained by the late Miss Benett. 42 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. shell-fish, indeed, each layer of it was once a portion of the man- tle, either in the form of a simple membrane, or as a layer of cells; and each layer was successively calcified (or hardened with carbonate of lime) and thrown off by the mantle to unite with those previously formed. Being extra-vascular it has no inherent power of repair. (Carpenter) ; The epidermis and cellular structures are formed by the mar- gin (or collar) of the mantle; the membranous and nacreous layers, by the thin and transparent portion which contains the viscera; hence we find the pearly texture only as a lining inside the shell, as in the wxawtilws, and all the aviculide and turbinida. i If the margin of a shell is fractured during the life-time of the” animal, the injury will be completely repaired by the reproduction. both of the epidermis and of the outer layer of shell with its pro-— per colour. But if the apex is destroyed, or a hole made at a distance from the aperture, it will merely be closed with the material secreted by the visceral mantle. Such inroads are often made by boring worms and shells, and even by a sponge (cliona) which completely mines the most solid shells. In Mr. Gray’s cabinet is the section of a cone, in whose apex a colony of lithodomt: 9 Fig. 25. Section of a cone perforated by lithodom. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 43 had settled, compelling the animal to contract itself, faster even than it could form shell to fill up the void. Lines of growth. So long as the animal continues growing, each new layer of shell extends beyond the one formed before it ; and, in consequence, the external surface becomes marked with lines of growth. During winter, or the season of rest which cor- responds to it, shells cease to grow; and these periodic resting- places are often indicated by interruptions of the otherwise regu- lar lines of growth and colour, or by still more obvious signs. It is probable that this pause, or cessation from growth, extends into the breeding season; otherwise there would be two periods of growth, and two of rest in each year. In many shells the srowth is uniform; but in others each stage is finished by the development of a fringe, or ridge (vari), or of a row of spines, as in éridacna and murex. (Owen, Grant.) Adult characters. 'The attain- ment of the full-growth proper to each species is usually marked by changes in the shell. Some bivalves, like the oyster, and gryphea (fig. 26), continue to increase in thickness long after theyhave ceased to grow outwards; the greatest addition is made to the lower valve, especially near the umbo; and in the spondylus some parts of the mantle secrete more than others, so that cavities, filled with fluid, are left in the substance of the shell. The adult ¢eredo and _fistulana close the end of their burrows ; the pholadidea fills wp the great pedal opening of its valves; and the aspergillum forms the porous disk from which it takes its name. Sculptured shells, particularly ammonites, and species of rostellaria and fusus, often become plain in the last part of their Fig. 26. Section of gryphaa.* * Vig. 26. Section of gryphva incurva, Sby. Lias, Dorset, (original ; dimi- nished one half), the upper valve is not much thickened; the interior is filled with lias. ‘ 44 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. growth. But the most characteristic change is the thickening and contraction of the aperture in the univalves. The young cowry (fig. 27) has a thin, sharp lip, which becomes curled in- wards, and enormously thickened and toothed in the adult; the pteroceras (pl. 4, fig. 3) deve- lopes its scorpion-like claws, only when full- grown; and the land-snails form a thickened lip, or narrow their aperture with projecting pro- cesses, so that it is a marvel how they pass in and out, and how they can exclude their eggs, Fig. 27. Youngl (e. g. pl. 12, fig. 4, anastoma; and fig. 5, helix Cowry.* hirsuta). Yet at this time they would seem to require more space and accommodation in their houses than before, and there are several curious ways in which this is obtained. The neritide and am culide dissolve all the internal spiral columny of their shells; the cone (fig. 24, B,) removes all but a paper-like portion of its” inner whirls; the cowry goes still further, and continues removing the internal layers of its shell-wall, and depositing new layers | externally with its overlapping mantle (fig. 76), until, in some cases, all resemblance to the young shell is lost in the adult. 4 The power which mollusks possess of dissolving portions their own shells, is alse exhibited by the murices, in removing those spines from their whirls which interfere with their srowth; and by the purpure and others in wearing away the wall of their aperture. The agency in these cases is supposed to be chemical. Decollated shells. It frequently happens that as spiral shells become adult they cease to occupy the upper part of their cavity; — the space thus vacated is sometimes filled with solid shell, as m magilus; or it is partitioned off, as in vermetus, euomphalus, turritella and triton (fig. 62). The deserted apex is sometimes very thin, and becoming dead and brittle, it breaks away, leaving * Cyprea testudinaria, L., young. + This is sometimes done by the hermit-cra> to the shells it occupies. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 45 the shell truncated, or decollated. This happens constantly with the truncatelle, cylindrelle, and bulimus decollatus ; amongst the fresh-water shells it depends upon local circumstances, but is very common with pirena and cerithidea. Forms of shells. These will be described particularly under each class ; enough has been said to show that in the molluscan shell (as in the vertebrate skeleton) imdications are afforded o many of the leading affinities and structural peculiarities of the animal. It may sometimes be difficult to determine the genus of ashell, especially when its form is very simple; but this results more from the imperfection of our technicalities and systems, than from any want of co-ordination in the animal and its shell. Monstrosities. The whirls of spiral shells are sometimes separated by the interference of foreign substances, which adhere to them when young; the garden-snail has been found in this condition, and less complete instances are common amongst sea- shells. Discoidal shells occasionally become spiral (as in speci- mens of planorbis found at Rochdale), or irregular in their growth, owing to an unhealthy condition. The discoidal ammo- mites sometimes show a slight tendency to become spiral, and more rarely become unsymmetrical, and have the keel on one side, instead of in the middle. All attached shells are liable to interference in their growth, and malformations consequent on their situation in cavities, or from coming in contact with rocks. The dreissena polymorpha distorts the other fresh-water mussels by fastening their valves with its dyssws ; and dalani sometimes produce strange protube- rances on the back of the cowry, to which they have attached themselves when young.* In the miocene tertiaries of Asia Minor, Professor Forbes * Tn the British Museum there is a hex terrestris (chemn.) with a small stick passing through it, and projecting from the apex and umbilicus. Mr. Pickering has, in his collection, a helix hortensis which got entangled in a nut- shell when young, and growing too large to escape, had to endure the incubus to the end of its days. 46 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. discovered whole races of neritina, paludina, and melanopsis, wit 1 whirls ribbed or keeled, as if through the unhealthy influence of brackish water. The fossil periwinkles of the Norwich Crag are similarly distorted, probably by the access of fresh-water ; parallel , cases occur at the present day in the Baltic. Reversed shells. Left-handed, or reversed varieties of spiral shells have been met with in some of the very common species, like the whelk and garden-snail. Bulimus citrinus is as often sinistral as dextral; and a reversed variety of fusus antiquus was more common than the normal form in the pliocene sea. Other shells are constantly reversed, as pyrula perversa, many species @ pupa, and the entire genera, clausilia, cylindrella, physa, and tris phoris. Bivalves less distinctly exhibit variations of this kind but the attached valve of chama has its wmbo turned to the righi or left indifferently ; and of two specimens of lucina childreni i the British Museum, one has the right, the other the left valve flat. | The colours of shells are usually confined to the surface beneath the epidermis, and are secreted by the border of the mantle, which often exhibits similar tints and patterns (e. g. voluta undu- lata, fig. 73). Occasionally the inner strata of porcellanous shells are differently coloured from the exterior, and the makers of shell- cameos avail themselves of this difference to produce white or rose-coloured figures on a dark ground.* | The secretion of colour by the mantle depends greatly on the action of light ; shallow-water shells are, as a class, warmer and brighter coloured than those from deep water; and bivalves” which are habitually fixed or stationary (like spondylus and pecten pleuronectes) have the upper valve richly tinted, whilst the lower one is colourless. ‘The backs of most. spiral shells are darker * Cameos in the British Museum, carved on the shell of cassis cornuta, are white on an orange ground; on e. tuberosa, and madagascariensis, white upon dark claret-colour ; on ¢. rufa, pale salmon-colour on orange; and on . strombus gigas, yellow on pink. By filing some of the olives (e. g. oliva utri- culus) they may be made into very different coloured shells. r STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 47 than the under sides; but in iauthina the base of the shell is habitually turned upwards, and is deeply dyed with violet. Some colours are more permanent than others; the red spots on the naticas and nerites are commonly preserved in tertiary and oolitic fossils, and even in one example (of n. subcostata schl.) from Devonian limestone. Terebratula hastata, and some pectens of the carboniferous period, retain their markings; the orthoceras anguliferus of the Devonian beds has zig-zag bands of colour; and a terebratula of the same age, from arctic North America,* is ornamented with several rows of dark red spots. The operculum. Most spiral shells have an operculum, or lid, with which to close the aperture when they withdraw for shelter (see gasteropoda). It is deve- loped on a particular lobe at the posterior part of the foot, and consists of horny layers, some times hardened with shelly matter (fig. 28). It has been considered by Adanson, and more recently by Mr, Gray, as the equivalent of the dextral valve of the conchifera ; but however similar in appearance, its anatomical relations are altogether different. In position it represents the dyssus of the bivalves (Lovén); and in function it is like the plug with which unattached specimens of dysso-arca close their aperture. (Forbes.) Homologies of the shell. The shell is so simple a structure that its modifications present few points for comparison; but even these are not wholly understood, or free from doubt. The Fig. 28. Trochus ziziphinus.t # Presented to the British Museum by Sir John Richardson. + Trochus xiziphinus, from the original, taken in Pegwell Bay abundantly. This species exhibits small tentacular processes, neck-lappets, side-lappets, tentacular filaments, and an operculigerous lobe. + Parts which correspond in their real nature—(their origin and develop- ment)—are termed homologous ; those which agree merely in appearance, or office, are said to be analogous. 48 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. bivalve shell may be compared to the outer tunic of the asczdian, cut open and converted into separable valves. In the conchifera this division of the mantle is vertical, and the valves are right and left. In the drachiopoda the separation is horizontal, and the valves are dorsal and ventral. The monomyarian bivalves lie habitually on one side (like the plewronectide among fishes); and their shells, though really right and left, are termed ‘‘ upper” and “lower” valves. The univalve shell is the equivalent of both valves of the bivalve. In the pteropoda it consists of dorsal and ventral plates, comparable with the valves of ¢erebratula. In the gasteropoda it is equivalent to both valves of the conchifera united above.* The nautilus shell corresponds to that of the gasteropod; but whilst its chambers are shadowed forth in many spiral shells, the siphuncle is something additional ; and the entire shell of the cuttle-fish and argonaut} have no known equivalent or parallel in the other molluscous classes. The student might imagine a resemblance in the shell of the ovtheceras to a back-bone ; but the true homologue of the vertebrate skeleton is found in the neural and muscular cartilages of the cephalopod; whilst its_ phragmocone is but the representative of the calcarious axis (or splanchno-skeleton) of a coral, such as ampleaus or siphonophylha. Temperature and hybernation. Observations on the tempera- ture of the mollusca are still wanted ; it is known, however, to vary with the medium in which they live, and to be sometimes a degree or two higher or lower than the external temperature; with — snails (in cool weather), it is generally a degree or two higher. The mollusca of temperate and cold climates are subject to hybernation ; during which state the heart ceases to beat, respira- — * Compare jissurella or trochus (fig. 28) with lepton squamosum (fig. 12). The disk of Aipponyz is analogous to the ventral plate of hyalea and tere- bratula. + The argonaut shell is compared by Mr. Adams to the nidamental cap- sules of the whel&; a better analogue would have been found in the raf¢ of the zanthina, which is secreted by the foot of the animal, and serves to float the egg-capsules. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 49 tion is nearly suspended, and injuries are not healed. They also estivate, or fall into a summer sleep when the heat is great; but in this the animal functions are much less interrupted. (MZzuller.) Reproduction of lost parts. It appears from the experiments of Spallanzani, that snails, whose ocular tentacles have been de- stroyed, reproduce them completely in a few weeks; others have repeated the trial with a like result. But there is some doubt whether the renewal takes place if the brain of the animal be removed as well as its horns. Madame Power has made similar observations upon various marine snails, and has found that por- tions of the foot, mantle, and tentacles, were renewed. Mr. Hancock states that the species of eolis are apt to make a meal off each other’s dranchie, and that, if confined in stale water, they become sickly and lose those organs; in both cases they are quickly renewed under favourable circumstances. Reproduction by gemmation. 'The social and compound tu- nicaries resemble zoophytes, in the power they possess of bud- ding out new individuals, and thus of multiplying their commu- nities indefinitely, as the leaves ona tree. This gemmation takes place only at particular points, so that the whole assemblages are aggregated in characteristic patterns. The buds of the social tunicaries are supported at first by their parents, those of the compound families by the general circulation, until they are in a state to contribute to the common weal. Viviparous reproduction. This happens in a few species of gastropods, through the retention of the eggs in the oviduct, until the young have attained a considerable growth. It also appears to take place in the acephalans, because their eggs gene- rally remain within some part of the shell of the parent until hatched. Alternate generation. Amongst the tunicaries an example is found of regulated diversity in the mode of reproduction. The ‘salpians produce long chains of embryos, which, unless broken by accident, remain connected during life ;—each individual of these compound specimens produces solitary young, often so un- D Or i) MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. like the parent as to have been described and named by natural- ists as distinct species ;—these solitary salpians again produce chains of embryos, like their grand-parents. (Chamisso.) Oviparous reproduction. The sexes are distinct in the most highly organised (or diwcious) mollusca; they are united in the (moncecious) land-snails, pteropods, brachiopods, tunicaries, and in part of the conchifers. The prosobranchs pair; but in the dicecious acephalans and cuttle-fishes, the spermatozoa are merely discharged into the water, and are inhaled with the respiratory — currents by the other sex. The moncecious land-snails require reciprocal union ; the limneids unite in succession, forming float- ing chains. The eggs of the land-snails are separate, and protected by a shell, which is sometimes albuminous and flexible, at others cal- carious and brittle; those of the fresh-water species are soft, mucous, and transparent. The spawn of the sea-snails consists _ of large numbers of eggs, adhering together in masses, or spread out in the shape of a strap or ribbon, in which the eggs are ar- ranged in rows; this xidamental ribbon is sometimes coiled up spirally, like a watch-spring, and attached by one of its edges. The eggs of the carnivo- rous gasteropods are in- closedin tough albuminous | Ae guys capsules, each containing A Ww eS W/W I ae : A\\ cM numerous germs; these WY aes a are deposited singly, or in rows, or agglutinated in groups, equalling theparent _ animal in bulk (fig. 70%. The nidamental capsulks of the cuttle-fish are clus- — tered like grapes, each containing but one embryo; those of the calamary are grouped | SN ag \ eg Fig. 29. Spawn of Doris.* * Nidamental ribbon of Doris Johnstont. (Alder and Hancock.) STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 51 ‘im radiating masses, each elongated capsule containing 30 or 40 ova. The material with which the eggs are thus cemented together, or enveloped, is secreted by the nédamental gland, an organ largely developed in the female gasteropods and cepha- lopods (fig. 43, n). Development. The molluscan ovwm consists of a coloured yolk (vitelius), surrounded by albumen. On one side of the yolk is a pellucid spot, termed the germinal vesicle, having a spot or nucleus on its surface. This germinal vesicle is a nucleated cell, capable of producing other cells like itself; it is the essential part of the egg, from which the eméryo is formed; but it undergoes no change without the influence of the spermatozoa.* After im- pregnation, the germinal vesicle, which then subsides into the centre of the yolk, divides spontaneously into two; and these again divide and subdivide into smaller and still smaller globules, each with its pellucid centre or nucleus, until the whole presents a uniform granular appearance. The next step is the formation of a ciliated epithelium on the surface of the embryonic mass ; movements in the albumen become perceptible in the vicinity of the cilia, and they increase in strength, until the embryo begins to revolve in the surrounding fluid. * No instance of “ partheno-genesis” is known among the mollusca ; the most “equivocal” case on record is that related by Mr. Gaskoin. A speci- men of helix lactea, Miill., from the South of Europe, after being two years in his cabinet, was discovered to be still living; and on being removed to a plant-case it revived, and six weeks afterwards had produced twenty young ones ! + According to the observations of Professor Lovén (on certain bivalve mollusca), the ova are excluded immediately after the inhalation of the sper- Matozoa, and apparently from their influence; but impregnation does not take place within the ovary itself. The spermatozoa of cardium pygmeum ‘were distinctly seen to penetrate, in succession, the outer envelopes of the ova, and arrive at the vitellus, when they disappeared. With respect to the “ ger- minal vesicle ;”’ according to Barry, it first approaches the inner surface of the vitelline membrane, in order to receive the influence of the spermatozoa ; it then retires to the centre of the yolk, and undergoes a series of spouta- neous subdivisions. In M. Lovén’s account, it is said to ‘‘ burst’? and par- D 2 52 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Up to this point nearly the same appearances are presented by the eggs of all classes of animals,—they manifest, so far, a complete ‘‘ unity of organization.” In the next stage, the de- velopment of an organ, fringed with stronger cilia, and serving both for locomotion and respiration, shews that the embryo is a molluscous animal; and the changes which follow soon point out the particular class to which it belongs. The rudimentary head is early distinguishable, by the black eye-specks; and the heart, by its pulsations. The digestive and other organs are first *< sketched out,” then become more distinct, and are seen to be covered with a transparent shell. By this time the embryo is able to move by its own muscular contractions, and to swallow food; is is therefore ‘ hatched,” or escapes from the egg. The embryo tunicary quits the egg in the cloacal cavity of its” parent, and is at this time provided with a swimming instrument, like the tail of the tadpole, and with processes by which it attaches” itself as soon as it finds a suitable situation. The young bivalves also are hatched before they leave their parent, either in the gill cavity or ina special sac — attached to the gills (as in eyclas), or in the in- terspaces of the external branchial lamine (as in unio). At first they have a swimming disk, fringed with long czlza, and armed with a slender ten- tacular filament (flagellum). At a later period this disk disappears progressively, as the labial palpi are developed; and they acquire a foot, and with it the power of spinning a byssus. They now Fig. 30.* tially dissolve, whilst the egg remains in the ovary, and before impregnation ; it then passes to the centre of the yolk, and undergoes the changes described by Barry, along with the yolk, whilst the xawc/eus of the germinal vesicle, or some body exactly resembling it, is seen occupying a small prominence on the surface of the vitelline membrane, until the metamorphosis of the yolk — is completed, when it disappears, in some unobserved manner, without ful- filling any recognized purpose. * Fig. 30. Very young fry of crenella marmorata, Forbes, highly magni- fied ; d, disk, bordered with cilia: f, flagellum ; vv, valves; m, ciliated mantle. P STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MOLLUSCA. 53 have a pair of eyes, situated near the labial tentacles (fig. 30*, ¢), which are lost at a further stage, or replaced by numerous ru- dimentary organs placed more favourably for vision, on the bor- der of the mantle. Most of the aquatic gasteropoda are very minute when hatched, and they enter life under the same form,—that which = [x TNL KZ = XX AM ni TO a], TRS i AS TET TTT Naan mee i NXE feed Fig. 30*. Fry of the Mussel.* has been already referred to as permanently characteristic of the pteropoda. (Vig. 60.) The Pulmonifera and Cephalopoda produce large eggs, con- * Fig. 30*. Fry of mytilus edulis, after Lovén. e, eye; e’, auditory capsule; 77, labial tentacles; ss’, the stomach; 4, branchix; h, heart; », vent; /, liver; 7, renal organ; a, anterior adductor; a’, posterior adductor ; J; foot. The arrows indicate the incurrent and excurrent openings; between which the margins of the mantle are united in the fry. 54 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. taining sufficient nutriment to support the embryo until it has attained considerable size and development ; thus, the newly-born cuttle-fish has a shell half an inch long, consisting of several layers, and the dulimus ovatus has a shell an inch in length when hatched. (Fig. 31.) These are said to undergo no transforma- tion, because their larval stage is concealed in the egg. The embryonic development of the cuttle-fishes has not been observed ; t is probable that they would reveal more curious changes than occur in any other class. The researches of John Hunter + into the embryonic condi- tion of animals, led him to the conclusion that each stage in the development of the highest animals corresponded to the perma- nent form of some one of the inferior orders. This grand gene-. ralisation has since been more exactly defined and established by a larger induction of facts, some of which we have already de- scribed, and may now be stated thus :— In the earliest period of existence all animals display one. uniform condition; but after the first appearance of special de- velopment, uniformity is only met with amongst the members of Fig. 31.* the same primary division, and with each succeeding step it is more and more restricted. From that first step, the members of each primary group assume forms and pass through phases which have no parallels, except in the division to which each belongs. The mammal exhibits no hkeness, at any period, to the adult mollusk, the insect, or the star-fish; but only to the * Keg and young of dulzmus ovatus, Mull. sp., Brazil, from specimens in the collection of Hugh Cuming, Esq. + “In his printed works the finest elements of system seem evermore to flit before him, twice or thrice only to have been seized, and after a momentary detention to have been again suffered to escape. At length, in the astonishing preparations for his museum, he constructed it, for the scientific apprehension, out of the unspoken alphabet of nature.” (Coleridge.) CLASSIFICATION. 55 ovarian stage of the invertebrata, and to more advanced stages ef the classes formed upon its own type. And so also with the highest organized mollusca ; after their first stage they resemble the simpler orders of their own sub-kingdom, but not those of any other group. These are the views of Professor Owen—the successor of Hunter—by whom it has been most clearly shewn and stead- fastly maintained, that the ‘unity of organization’? manifested by the animal world results from the design of a Supreme Intelligence, and cannot be ascribed to the operation of a me- chanical ‘‘ law.” CHAPTER V. CLASSIFICATION. TuE objects of classification are, first, the convenient and intel- ligible arrangement of the species;* and, secondly, to afford a summary, or condensed exposition, of all that is known respect- ing their structure and relations. In studying the shell-fish, we find resemblances of two kinds. First, agreements of structure, form, and habits; and, secondly, resemblances of form and habits without agreement of structure. The first are termed relations of affinity; the second of analogy. Affinities may be near, or remote. There is some amount of affinity common to all animals; but, like relationships amongst men, they are recognized only when tolerably close. Resem- blances of structure which subsist from a very early age are pre- sumed to imply original relationship; they have been termed * At least 12,000 recent, and 15,000 fossil species of molluscous animals are known. 56 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. genetic (or histological), and are of the highest importance. Those which are superinduced at a later period, are of less con- sequence. Analogies. Modifications relating only to peculiar habits are called adaptive; or teleological, from their relation to final causes.* A second class of analogical resemblances are purely external and illusive; they have been termed mimetic (Strick- land), and, by their frequency, almost justify the notion that a_ certain set of forms and colours are repeated, or represented im every class and family. In all artificial arrangements, these mi- metic resemblances have led to the association of widely dif- ferent animals in the same groups.- Particular forms are also represented geographically ¢ and geologically,§ as well as sys- tematically. In all attempts to characterise groups of animals, we find, that in advancing from the smaller to the larger combinations, many of the most obvious external features become of less avail, and we are compelled to seek for more constant and comprehen- sive signs in the phases of embryonic development, and the con- dition of the circulating, respiratory, and nervous systems. Species. All the specimens, or individuals, which are so much alike that we may reasonably believe them to have descended from a common stock, constitute a species. It is a particular provision for preventing the blending of species, that hydrids are always barren; and it is certain, in the case of shells, that a great many kinds have not changed in form, from the tertiary * For example, the paper nautilus, from its resemblance to carimaria, was — long supposed to be the shell of a nucleobranche, parasitically occupied by the “ ocythoe.” + E.g. Aporrhais with strombus, and ancylus with patella. ¢ Monoceros imbricatum and buccinum antarcticum take the place, in South America, of our common whelk and purple, and solen gladiolus and — solen americanus of our solen siliqua and ensis. § The frequent recurrence of similar species in successive strata may lead beginners to attribute too much to the influence of time and external circum- stances; but such impressions disappear with further experience. CLASSIFICATION. 57 period to the present day,—a lapse of many thousand years,— and through countless generations. When individuals of the same brood differ in any respect, they are termed varieties ; for example, one may be more exposed to the light, and become brighter coloured; or it may find more abundant food, and grow larger than the rest. Should these peculiarities become perma- nent at any place, or period,—should all the specimens on a particular island or mountain, or in one sea, or geological forma- tion, differ from those found elsewhere,—such permanent variety is termed a race; just as, in the human species, there are white and coloured races. The species of some genera are less subject to variation than others; the nucule, for example, although very numerous, are always distinguishable by good characters. Other genera, like ammonites, terebratula, and tellina, present a most perplexing amount of variation, resulting from age, sex, supply of food, variety of depth, and of saltness in the water. And further, whilst in some genera every possible variety of form seems to have been called into existence, in others only a few, strikingly distinct forms, are known. Genera are groups of species, related by community of struc- ture in all essential respects. The genera of bivalves have been characterised by the number and position of their hinge-teeth ; those of the spiral univalves, by the form of their apertures; but these technical characters are only valuable so far as they indicate differences in the animals themselves. Families are groups of genera, which agree in somé more general characters than those which unite species into genera. Those which we have employed are mostly modifications of the artificial families framed by Lamarck, a plan which seemed more desirable, in the present state of our knowledge, than a subdi- vision into very numerous families, without assignable characters. The orders and classes of mollusca have already been referred to; those now in use are all extremely natural. . It has been sometimes asserted that these groups are only scientific contrivances, and do not really exist in nature; but D 3 58 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. this is a false as well as a degrading view of the matter. The labours of the most eminent systematists have been directed to the discovery of the subordinate value of the characters deriv- able from every part of the animal organization ; and, as far as their information enabled them, they have made their systems expressive “ of all the highest facts, or generalisations, in natural history.”” (Owen.) M. Milne Edwards has remarked, that the actual appearance of the animal kingdom is not like a well-regulated army, but like the starry heavens, over which constellations of various mag- nitude are scattered, with here and there a solitary star which cannot be included in any neighbouring group. | This is exceedingly true; we cannot expect our. systematic groups to have equal numerical values,* but they ought to be of equal structural importance; and they will thus possess a sym- metry of order, which is superior to mere numerical regularity. All the most philosophic naturalists have entertained a belief that the development of animal forms has proceeded upon some regular plan, and have directed their researches to the discovery of that ‘reflection of the divine mind.” Some have fancied that they have discovered it in a mystic number, and have ac- cordingly converted all the groups into jives.+ We do not under-' value these speculations, yet we think it better to describe things so far only as we know them. Great difficulty has always been found in placing groups according to their affinities. This cannot be effected in—the way in which we are compelled to describe them—a single series ; for each group is related to ald the rest; and if we extend the representation of the affinities to very small groups, any arrange- * The numerical development of groups is inversely proportional to the bulk of the individuals composing them. ( Waterhouse.) y The guinarians make out five molluscous classes, by excluding the tunz- cata; the same end would be attained in a more satisfactory manner by re- ducing the pteropods to the rank of an order, which might be placed next to the opistho-branches. NOMENCLATURE. 59 ment on a plane surface would fail, for the affinities radiate in all directions, and the “ net-work’’ to which Fabricius likened them, is as insufficient a comparison as the “chain” of older writers.* CuaptTer VI. NOMENCLATURE. Tue practice of using two names—generic and specific—for each animal, or plant, originated with Linnzeus; therefore no scientific names date further back than his works. In the con- struction of these names, the Greek and Latin languages are preferred, by the common consent of all countries. Synonyms. It often happens that a species is named, or a genus established, by more than one person, at different times, and in ignorance of each other’s labours. Such duplicate names are called synonyms; they have multiplied amazingly of late, and are a stumbling-block and an opprobium in all branches of natural history. * The quinary arrangement of the molluscous classes reminds us of the eastern emblem of eternity—the serpent holding its tail in its mouth. The following diagram is offered as an improved circular system :— [FisHes. | Di-branchiata. Nucleo- Tetra- Opistho- Proso- Aporo- Pulmo- Pallio- Lamelli- Hetero-branchiata. [ZOOPHYTES. | + In Pfeiffer’s Monograph of the Helicide, a family containing seventeen genera, no less than 330 generic synonyms are enumerated ; to this list, Dr. Albers, of Berlin, has lately added another hundred of his own invention ! 60 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSGA. One very common estuary shell rejoices in the following variety of titles :— Serobicularia piperata (Gmelin sp). Trigonella plana (Da Costa). Mactra Listeri (4uczZ). Mya Hispanica (Chemnitz). Venus borealis (Pennant). Lutraria compressa (Lamarck). Arenaria plana (Megerle). As regards specific names, the earliest ought certainly to be adopted,— with, however, the following exceptions :— 1. MS. names; which are only admitted by courtesy. 2. Names given by writers antecedent to Linneus. 3. Names unaccompanied by a description or figure. 4, Barbarisms; or names involving error or absurdity, * It is also very desirable that names having a general (Eu- ropean) acceptation, should not be changed, on the discovery of earlier names in obscure publications. With respect to genera,—those who believe in their real ex- istence, as “‘ ideas of the creating mind,” will be disposed to set aside many random appellations, given to particular shells with- out any clear enunciation of their characters; and to adopt later names, if bestowed with an accurate perception of the grounds which entitle them to generic distinction. Authority for specific names. The multiplication of syno- nyms having made it desirable to place the authority after each * This subject was investigated, and reported upon, by a committee of the British Association, in 1842; but the report was not sufficiently circulated. + Several bad practices—against which there is, unhappily, no law— should be strongly discountenanced. First, the employment of names already in familiar use for other objects; such as cédaris (the title of a well-known genus of sea-urchins), for a group of spiral shells; and avexaria (a property of the botanists), for a bivalve. Secondly, the conversion of specific into generie titles, a process which has caused endless confusion; it has arisen out of the vain desire of giving new designations to old and familiar objects, and thus obtaining a questionable sort of fame. NOMENCLATURE. 61 name, another source of evil has arisen; for several naturalists (fancying that the yenus-maker, and not the species-maker, should enjoy this privilege) have altered or divided almost every genus, and placed their signatures as the authorities for names given half a century or a century before, by Linnmus or BRUGUIERE.* British naturalists have disowned this practice, and agreed to distinguish, by the addition of “sp.,” the authorities for those specific names whose generic appellations have been changed. Types. The type of each genus should be that species in which the characters of its group are best exhibited, and most evenly balanced. (Waterhouse.) It has, however, been cus- tomary to take as the type, that species which the genus-maker placed first on his list; although by so doing there is risk of adopting an aberrant form, or one which very feebly represents the group, of which it is an obscure member. * The authorities appended to specific names, are supposed to indicate au amount of work done in the determination and description of the species; when, therefore, the real author’s name is suppressed, and a spurious one substituted, the case looks very like an attempt to obtain credit under false pretences. ABBREVIATIONS. Hiym., etymology. Syn., synonym. Distr., distribution. M.S., manuscript, i. e., wnpublished. Sp., species. Brit. M., (in the) British Museum. Distr.. Norway—New Zealand ; including all intermediate seas, fossil, lias—chalk ; implies that the genus existed in these, and all inter- vening strata. Chalk —; means that the genus commenced in the chalk, and has existed ever since. Depth; — 50 fms.; genus found at all depths between low-water and 50 fathoms. A fathom is six feet. = one-fourth the real size ; + magnified four times. Lat., breadth. Long., length. Alt., height or thickness. Une., (uncia) an inch. in., (linea) a line, the ~s of an inch, Mili., willimetre, the twenty-fifth part of an inch. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. CLASS I. CEPHALOPODA. Tue cuttle-fishes, though excluded by dealers from the list of shell-fish, are the most remarkable, and, rightly considered, the most interesting of any; whilst their relatives, the zaudili and ammonites, are unmatched for the sym- metry and wondrous architecture of their pearly shells. The principal locomotive organs of the cephalopods, are attached to the head, in the form of muscular arms or tentacles ;* in addition to which, many have fins; and all can propel themselves by the forcible expulsion of water from their respiratory chamber. Unlike most of the mol/usca, they are symmetrical animals, having their right and left sides equally developed ; and their shell is usually straight, or coiled in a vertical plane. The nautilus and argonaut alone (of the living tribes) have external shells; the rest are termed “naked cephalopods,” be cause the shell is internal. They have powerful jaws, acting vertically, like the mandibles of birds; the tongue is large and fleshy, and part of its surface is sentient, whilst the rest is armed with recurved spines ; their eyes are large, and placed on the sides of the head; their senses appear to be very acute. All are marine; and predatory, living on shell-fish, crabs, and fishes. The nervous system is more concentrated than in the other mollusca ; and the brain is protected by a cartilage. The respiratory organs consist of two or four plume-like gills, placed symmetrically on the sides of the body, in a large branchial cavity, opening forwards on the wadery side of the head ; in the middle of this opening is placed the siphon or funnel. The sexes are always distinct ; but the males are much less numerous than the females, and in many species, at present unknown. They are divided into two orders, the names of which are derived from the number of the dranchie. ORDER I. Drerancurata, Owen. Animal swimming ; naked. Head distinct. Eyes sessile, prominent. Mandibles horny (Pl. L, fig. 2). Arms 8 or 10, provided with suckers. Body round or elongated, usually with a pair of fins; branchie two, fur- * M. Schultze compares the arms of the cephalopods to the oral filaments of PY LINC» + According to the established usage, we designate that the wnder or ventral side of the body, on which the funnel is placed. But if the cuttle fishes are compared with the nucleobranches, or the nautilus with the holostomatous gasteropods, their extcrnal analogies seem to favour an opposite conclusion. CEPHALOPODA. 63 nished with muscular ventricles ; ixk-gland always present ; parietes of the funnel entire. Shell internal (except in argonauta), horny or shelly, with or without air-chambers. The typical forms of the cuttle-fishes were well described by Aristotle, and have been repeatedly examined by modern naturalists; yet, until Professor Owen demonstrated the existence of a second order of cephalopods, departing from all the abovementioned characters, it was not clearly understood how inseparably the organisation of the cuttle-fishes was connected with their con- dition as swimming mollusca, breathing by two gills. The characters which co-exist with the two gills, are the internal ru- dimentary shell, and the substitution of other means of escape and defence, than those which an external shell would have afforded ; viz. : powerful arms, furnished with suckers; the secretion of an inky fluid, with which to cloud the water and conceal retreat; more perfect organs of vision ; and super- added branchial hearts, which render the circulation more vigorous.* The suckers (antla or acetabula), form a single or double series, on the inner surface of the arms. From the margin of each cup, the muscular fibres converge to the centre, where they leave a circular cavity, occupied by a soft caruncle, rising from it like the piston of a syringe, and capable of retraction when the sucker is applied to any surface. So perfect is this mechanism for effecting adhesion, that while the muscular fibres continue retracted, it is easier to tear away the limb than to detach it fromitshold.+ In the decapods, the base of the pzston is surrounded by a horny deutated hoop ; which in the uncinated calamaries, is folded, and produced into a long sharp claw. The ink-bag (fig. 38), is tough and fibrous, with a thin silvery outer coat ; it discharges its contents through a duct which opens near the base of the funnel. The ink was formerly used for writing (Cicero), and in the pre- paration of sepia ;¢ and from its indestructible nature, is often found in a fossil state. * In a few species, which have no fins, the arms are webbed. In the only kind which has an external shell, it is confined to the female sex, and is secreted by the membranes of the arms, It is now quite certain that such shells as those of the fossil ammonites and orthocerata. would be incompatible with dibranchiate organization. + ‘‘The complex, irritable mechanism, of all these suckers, is under the complete control of the animal. Mr. Broderip informs me that he has attempted, with a hand- net, to catch an octopus that was floating by, with its long and flexible arms entwined round a fish, which it was tearing with its sharp hawk’s bill; it allowed the net to ap- proach within a short distance before it relinquished its prey, when, in an instant, it relaxed its thousand suckers, exploded its inky ammunition, and rapidly retreated under cover of the cloud which it had occasioned, by rapid and vigorous strokes of its circular web.” (Owen.) I Indian ink and sepia are now made of lamp-smoke, or of prepared charcoal. 64 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. The skin of the naked cephalopods is remarkable for its variously coloured vesicles, or pigment-cells. In sepia they are black and brown ; in the calamary, yellow, red, and brown; and in the argonaut, and some octopods, there are blue cells besides. These cells alternately contract and expand, by which the colouring matter is condensed or dispersed, or perhaps driven into the deeper part of the skia. The colour accumulates, like a blush, when the skin is ingi- tated, even several hours after separation from the body. During life, these changes are under the control of the animal, and give it the power of chang- ing its hue, like the chameleon. In fresh specimens, the sclerotze plates of the eyes have a pearly lustre ; they are sometimes preserved in a fossil state. The aguiferous pores are situated on the back and sides of the head, on the arms (4rachial), or at their bases (Juccal pores). The mantle is usually connected with the back of the head by a broad (“nuchal”) muscular band; but its margin is sometimes free all round, and it is supported only by cartilaginous ridges, fitting into corresponding grooves, * and allowing considerable freedom of motion. The cuttle-fishes are nocturnal, or crepuscular animals, concealing them- selves during the day, or retiring to a lower region of the water. They in- habit every zone, and are met with equally near the shore, and in the open sea, hundreds of miles from land. They attain occasionally a much greater size than any other mollusca. MM. Quoy and Gaimard found a dead cuttle- fish in the Atlantic, under the equator, which must have weighed 2 ewt. when perfect ; it was floating on the surface, and was partly devoured by birds. Banks and Solander, also met with one under similar circumstances, in the Pacific, which was estimated to have measured six feet in length. (Owen.) The arms of the octopods are sometimes two feet long.t From their habits, it is difficult to capture some species alive, but they are frequently obtained, uninjured, from the stomachs of dolphins, and other fishes which prey upon them. SECTION A. Ocropopa. Arms 8; suckers sessile. yes fixed, incapable of rotation. Body united to the head by a broad cervical band. Branchial chamber divided longitudinally by a muscular’ partition. Oviduct double; no distinct nida- mental gland. Shel? external and one-celled (mono-thalamous), or internal and rudimentary. The Octopods differ from the typical cuttle-fishes in having only eight. arms, without the addition of tentacles; their bodies are round, and they sel- * Termed the “ apparatus of resistance,” by D’Orbigny. + Denys Montfort, having represented a ‘‘ kraken octopod,” in the act of seuttling a three-master, told M. Defrance, that if this were ‘‘ swallowed,” he would in his next edition represent the monster embracing the Straits of Gibraltar, or capsizing a whole* squadron of ships. (D’Orbigny.) CEPHALOPODA. 65 dom have fins. They are the most eccentric or ‘aberrant’? mollusks, supe- rior in organization to all the rest, but manifesting some remarkable and unexpected analogies with the lowest classes of animals. The males of some species of octopus and eledone, are similar to the fe- males, but are comparatively scarce. Only the females of many others are known, and every specimen of the argonaut hitherto examined (amounting to many hundreds), has been of that sex. Dr. Albert Kolliker has suggested that the real males of the argonaut, and also of octopus granulatus and tremoctopus violaceus are the hectocotyles, previously mistaken for parasitic worms. The hectocotyle of octopus granulatus was described by Cuvier,* who ob- tained several specimens from octopods captured in the Mediterranean. It is five inches in length, and resembles a detached arm of the octopus, its under surface being bordered with 40 or 50 pairs of alternate suckers. The hectocotyle of tremoctopus was discovered by Dr. Kolliker, at Messina, in 1842, adhering to the interior of the gill-chamber and funnel of the poulpe ; it is represented in Pl. I., fig. 3. The body is worm-like, with two rows of suckers on the ventral surface, and an oval appendage at the posterior end. ‘The anterior part of the back is fringed with a double series of bran- chial filaments (250 on each side). Between the branchie are two rows of brown or violet spots, like the pigment cells of the tremoctopus. The suckers (40 on each side) closely resemble those of the ¢remoctopus, in miniature. Between the suckers are four or five series of pores, the openings of minute canals, passing into the abdominal cavity. The mouth is at the anterior extremity, and is minute and simple; the alimentary canal runs straight through the body, nearly filling it. The Aeart is in the middle of the back, between the branchiee ; it consists of an auricle and a ventricle, and gives origin to two large vessels. There is also an artery and vein on each side, giving branches to the branchial filaments. A merve extends along the in- testine, and one ganglion kas been observed. The oval sac incloses a small bat very long convoluted tube, ending in a muscular vas deferens ; it contains innumerable spermatozoa. The hectocotyle of the argonaut was discovered by Chiaje, who considered it a parasitic worm, and described it under the name of ¢richocephalus aceta- bularis ; it was again described by Costa,+ who regarded it as “a spermato- phore of singular shape ;” and lastly by Dr. Kolliker.¢ Tt is similar in form to the others, but is only seven lines in length, and has a filiform appendage in front, six lines loug. It has two rows of alternate * An. Sc. Nat. 1 Series, t. 18. p. 147. 1829. + An. Sc. Nat. 2 Series, 7. p. 173. ft Lin. Trans. Vol. 20, pt. 1, p. 9; andin his own zootomical berichte, where it is figured. 66 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. suckers, 45 on each side; but no dranchie; the skin contains uumerous changeable spots of red or violet, like that of the argonaut.* ‘i According to the observations of Madame Power, ‘“‘ the newly hatched argonaut has no shell, and is quite unlike what it afterwards becomes; it is sort of little worm, having two rows of suckers along its length, with a fili- form appendage at one extremity, and a small swelling at the other. It might be supposed to represent an extremely small brachial appendage, from which the other parts were afterwards to be developed.”’+ (Kdllker.) ) FAMILY I. ARGONAUTIDZ. Dorsal arms (of the female) webbed at the extremity, secreting a symme trical involuted shell. Mantle supported in front by a single ridge on the funnel. Genus ArconavTa, Lin. Argonaut or paper sailor. Etymology, argonautai, sailors of the ship Argo. Synonyms, ocythoé (Rafinesque). Nautilus (Aristotle and Pliny). Example, A. hians, Soland, pl. II., fig. 1. China. CASE £> Fig. 32. Argenauta argo L. swimming.t f The shell of the argonaut is thin and translucent; it is not moulded on the body of the animal, nor is it attached by shell-muscles; and the wnocet pied hollow of the spire serves as a receptacle for the minute clustered eggs The argonaut sits in its boat with its siphon turned towards the keel,§ and its sail-shaped (dorsal) arms closely applied to the sides of the shell, as in fig. 32, where, however, they are represented as partially withdrawn, in order to show the margin of the aperture. It swims only by ejecting water from its fau- * Similar instances of a permanently rudimentary condition of the male sex, 00 cur amongst the lowest organized parasitic crustaceans; the males of achtheres, ler- neopoda, tracheliaster, §c., are frequently a thousand times smaller than the female upon whom they live, and from whom they differ both in form and structure. Mr Gosse has described a similar disparity of the sexes in asplanchna. j # An. Sc. Nat. 2 Series, vol. 16, p. 185. t From a copy of Rang’s figure, in Charlesworth’s Magazine; one-fourth the na- tural size; the small arrow indicates the current from the funned, the large arrow th e direction in which the ‘‘ sailor” is driven by the recoil. § Poli has represented it sitting the opposite way; the writer had once an argonaut shell with the nucleus reversed, implying that the animal had turned quite round in its shell, and remained in that position. The specimen is now in the York Museum. CEPHALOPODA. 67 ‘nel, and crawls in a reversed position, carrying its shell over its back like a snail. (Madame Power and M. Rang.) It was the nautilus (primus) of Aristotle, who described it as floating on the surface of the sea, in fine weather, and holding out its sail-shaped arms to the breeze ; a pretty fable, which poets have repeated ever since. Distribution : 4 species of argonaut are known; they inhabit the open sea throughout the warmer parts of the world. Captain King took several from the stomach of a dolphin, caught upwards of 600 leagues from any land. Fossil: A. hians is found in the sub-apennine tertiaries of Piedmont. This species is still living in the Chinese seas, but not in the Mediterranean. FAMILY II. OCTOPODIDA. Arms similar, elongated, united at the base by a web. Shel/ represented by two short styles, encysted in the substance of the mantle. ( Owen.) Ocropus, Cuvier. Poulpe. Etym., octo, eight, pous (poda) feet. * Byn., cistopus. ( Gray.) _ #z., O. tuberculatus Bl., pl. I., figs. 1 and 2 (mandibles). Body oval, warty or cirrose, without fins; arms long, unequal; suckers in two rows; mantle supported in front by the branchial septum. The octopods are the “ polypi” of Homer and Aristotle; they are solitary animals, frequenting rocky shores, aud are very active and voracious; the females oviposit on sea-weeds, or in the cavities of empty shells. In the markets of Smyrna and Naples, and the bazaars of India, they are regularly exposed for sale. ‘Although common (at St. Jago) in the pools of water left by the retiring tide, they are not very easily caught. By means of their long arms and suckers they can drag their bodies into very narrow crevices, and when thus fixed it requires great force to remove them. At other times they dart tail first, with the rapidity of an arrow, from one side of the pool to the other, at the same instant discolouring the water with a dark chesnut-brown ink. They also escape detection by varying their tints, according to the nature of the ground over which they pass. In the dark they are slightly phospho- rescent.” (Darwin.)* Professor EH. Forbes has observed that the octopus, when resting, coils its dorsal arms over its back, and seems to shadow forth the argonaut’s shell. Distr., universally found on the coasts of the temperate and tropical zones ; 46 species are known; when adult they vary in length from 1 inch to 2 feet, according to the species. Pinnoctopus, D’Orb. Finned octopus. Body with lateral fins, united behind. * Journal of a Voyage round the World. The most fascinating volume of travels published since Defoe’s fiction. 68 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. The only known species, P. cordiformis, was discovered by MM. Quoy and Gaimard, on the coast of New Zealand; it exceeds 3 feet in length. ELepone. (Aristotle.) Leach. Type, E. octopodia, L. Suckers forming a single series on each arm; length 6 to 18 inéhes. JF, moschata emits a musky smell. Distr., 2 sp. Coasts of Norway, Britain, and the Mediterranean. CrrroTevtTuis, Eschricht. 1836. Etym., cirrus, a filament, and ¢euthis a cuttle-fish. Body with two transverse fins; arms united by a web, nearly to thei tips; suckers in a single row, ite with cirri. Length 10 inches. Colour violet. The only species (C. Miilleri Esch.) inhabits the coast of Greenland. Puimonexis, D’Orb. Etym., philos, an adept in nezis, swimming. Type, P. atlanticus, D’ Orb. Arms free; suckers in two rows ; mantle supported by two ridges on the: funnel. Total length, 1 to 3 inches. Distr., 6 sp. Atlantic and Medit. Gregarious in the open sea; feeding on floating mollusca. Sub-genus. Tremoctopus (Chiaje), pl. L., fig. 3. Name from two large aquiferous pores (¢remata) on the back of the head. Arms partly, or all webbed half-way up. Distr., 2 sp. T. quoyanus and violaceus. Atlantic and Medit. SECTION B. Decapopa. Arms 8. Tentacles 2, elongated, cylindrical, with expanded ends. Suckers pedunculated, armed with a horny ring. Mouth surrounded by a buccal membrane, sometimes lobed and funished with suckers. yes moveable in their orbits. Body oblong or elongated, always provided with a pair of fins. Funnel usually furnished with an internal valve. Oviduct single. Mdamental gland largely developed. Shell internal; lodged loosely in the middle of the dorsal aspect of the mantle. The arms of the decapods are comparatively shorter than those of the octopods ; the dorsal pair is usually shortest, the ventral longest. The tenta- cles originate within the circle of the arms, between the third and fourth pairs; they are usually much longer than the arms, and in chevroteuthis are six times as long as the animal itself. They are completely retractile into large sub- ocular pouches in sepia, sepiola, and rossia; partly retractile in Jogo and seproteuthis ; non-retractile in cheiroteuthis. They serve to seize prey which may be beyond the reach of the ordinary arms, or to moor the animal in safety during the agitation of a stormy sea. CEPHALOPODA. 69 The shell of the living decapods is either a horny “pen” (gladius) or a calearious ‘‘ bone” (sepion); not attached to the animal by muscles, but so loose as to fall out when the cyst which contains it is opened. In the genus spirula, it is a delicate spiral tube, divided into air-chambers by a series of partitions (septa). In the fossil genus spirzlirostra, a similar shell forms the apex of a cuttle-bone ; in the fossil conoteuthis a chambered shell is combined with a pen; and the de/emnite unites all these modifications. The decapods chiefly frequent the open sea, appearing periodically like fishes, in great shoals, on the coasts and banks. (Owen, D’ Ord.) FAMILY III. TEUTHIDA. Catamartss, or Sauips. Body, elongated; fins short, broad, and mostly terminal. Sheil, (gladius or pen) horny, consisting of three parts,—a shaft, and two lateral expansions or wings. Sub-family A. Myopside, D’Orb. yes covered by the skin. Louieo. (Pliny) Lamarck. Calamary. Syn., teuthis (Aristotle) Gray. Type, L. vulgaris (sepia loligo L.) ‘Fig. 1. PI. L., fig. 6 (pen). Pen, lanceolate, with the shaft produced in front; it is multiplied by age, several being found packed closely, one behind another, in old specimens. (Owen. ) Body tapering behind, much elongated in the males. Jims terminal, nited, rhombic. Mantle supported by a cervical ridge, and by two grooves in the base of the funnel. Swekers in two rows, with horny, dentated hoops. Tentacular club with four rows of suckers. Iength (excluding tentacles) om 3 inches to 25 feet. The calamaries are good swimmers; they also crawl, head-downwards, on their oral disk. The common species is used for bait, by fishermen, on the Cornish coast (Couch). Shells have been found in its stomach, and more rely sea-weed (Dr. Johnston). Their egg-clusters have been estimated to contain nearly 40,000 eggs (Bohadsch). Distr., 21 sp. in all seas. Norway—New Zealand. Sub-genus. Teudopsis, Deslongchamps, 1835. Etym., teuthis, a calamary and opsis like. Type, T. Bunellii, Desl. Pen, like /oligo, but dilated and spatulate behind. Fossil, 5 sp. Upper Lias, France, and Wurtemberg. Gonatus, Gray. Animal and pen like oligo in most respects. Arms with 4 series of cups, tentacular club with numerous small cups, and a single large sessile cup armed with a hook; funnel valveless. 70 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Distr., a single species (G. amena, Moller sp.) is found on the coast o Greenland. SEPIOTEUTHIS, Blainville. Type, S. sepicidea, Bl. Animal like oligo ; fins lateral, as long as th body. Length from 4 inches to 3 feet. Distr., 18 sp., West Indies, Cape, Red Sea, Java, Australia. BELOTEUTHIS, Miinster. Etym., belos, a dart and teuthis. Type, B. subcostata, Miinst. PI. IT., fig. 8., U. Lias, Wurtemberg. Pen, horny, lanceolate; with a very broad shaft, pointed at each end and small lateral wngs. } Distr., 6 sp. described by Minster, considered varieties (differing in age and sex), by M. D’Orbigny. GrotrEvTHis, Munster. Etym., ge, the earth (i. e. fossil) and teuthis. Syn., belemnosepia (Agassiz.) belopeltis (Voltz) loligosepia Quenstedt. )*_ Pen broad, pointed behind ; shaft broad, truncated in front; lateral wing: shorter than the shaft. | ( Fossil, 9 sp. U. Lias, Wurtemberg; Calvados; Lyme Regis. Seve undescribed sp. in the Oxf. clay, Chippenham. Besides the pens of this calamary the ixk-bag, the muscular mantle, ¢ the bases of the arms, are preserved in the Oxford clay. Some of the ink. bags found in the Lias are nearly a foot in length, and are invested with brilliant nacreous layer; the ink forms excellent sepia. It is difficult to um derstand how these were preserved, as the recent calamaries “ spill their ink” on the slightest alarm. (Buckland). LEPTorevTHis, Meyer. Etym., Leptos thin, and teuthis. Tyne, L. gigas Meyer, Oxford clay, Solenhofen. Pen very broad and rounded in front, pointed behind; with obscure diverg ing ribs. CrancuiA, Leach, 1817. Named in honour of Mr. J. Cranch, naturalist to the Congo expedition. — Type, C. seabra, Leach. | Body \arge, ventricose ; fins small, terminal; mantle supported in from by a branchial septum. Length 2 inches. Head very small. yes fixed. Buccal membrane large, 8-lobed. Arms short, suckers in two rows. Tenta: { cular clubs finned behind, cups in 4 rows. Funnel valved. Pen long and narrow. * These names must be set aside, being incorrect in themselves, and founded on a total misapprehension of the nature of the fossils. j ‘ CEPHALOPODA. 71 Distr., 2 sp. W. Africa. In the open sea. This genus makes the nearest approach to the octopods. SEprota. (Rondelet) Leach, 1817. £z., 8. atlantica (D’Orb.) PI. L, fig. 4. Body short, purse-like ; mantle supported by a broad cervical band, and a ridge fitting a groove in the funnel. ins dorsal, rounded, contracted at the base. Suckers in 2 rows, or crowded, on the arms, in 4 rows on the tentacles. Length 2 to 4 inches. Pen, half as long as the back. S. stenodactyla (sepioloidea, D’Orb.) has no pen. Distr. 6 sp. Coasts of Norway, Britain, Medit., Mauritius, Japan, Australia. Sub-genus. Rossia, Owen (Fidenas? Gray). Mantle supported by a cervical ridge and groove. Suckers in 2 rows on the tentacles. Length 3 to 5 inches. _ Distr., 6 sp. Regent Inlet, Britain, Medit., Manilla. Sub-family B. Ocgopside, D’Orb. Hyes naked. Fins always terminal, and united, forming a rhomb. Loriecorsis, Lam. 1811. Hiym., \oligo, and opsis, like. Lype, L. pavo (Lesueur). Body elongated, mantle supported in front by a branchial septum. Arms short. Cups in 2 rows. Tentacles slender, often mutilated. Funnel valveless. Pen slender, with a minute conical appendix. Length from 6 to 12 inches. Distr., pelagic. 8 sp. N. Sea, Atlantic, Medit., India, Japan, S. Sea. CHEIROTEUTHIS, D’Orb. Etym., cheir, the hand, and teuthis. Type, C. veranii, Fér. Mantle supported in front by ridges. Funnel valveless. Ventral arms very long. Tentacles extremely elongated, slender, with distant sessile cups on the peduncles, and 4 rows of pedunculated claws on their expanded ends. Pen slender, slightly winged at each end. Length of the body 2 inches; to the tips of the arms 8 inches; to the ends ot the tentacles 3 feet. Disir.,2 sp. Atlantic, Medit. On gulf-weed, in the open sea. Histioreutuis, D’Orb. Ftym., histion, a veil; and teuthis. Type, H. bonelliana, Fér. Length 16 inches. Body short. Fins terminal, rounded. Mantle supported in front by ridges and grooves. Buccal membrane 6-lobed. Arms (except the ventral pair), webbed high up. Tentacles long, outside the web, with 6 rows of den- tated cups on their ends. 72 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Pen short and broad. Distr., 2 sp. Mediterranean ; in the open sea. Onycuoteutuis, Lichtenstein. Uncinated calamary. Etym., onyx, a claw, and teuthis. Type, O. banksii, Leach. ( = bartlingii?) PI. I., fig. 7 and fig. 8 Syn., ancistroteuthis (Gray). Onychia (Lesueur). Pen narrow, with hollow, conical apex. Arms with 2 rows of suckers.. Tentacles long and powerful, armed wi a double series of hooks ; and usually having a small group of suckers at t base of each club, which oe are supposed to unite, and thus use their “a cles in conjunction.* Length 4 inches to 2 feet. The uncinated calamaries are solitary animals, frequenting the open sé and especially the banks of gulf-weed (sargasso). O. banksii ranges ro Norway to the Cape and Indian ocean; the rest are confined to warm se: O. dussumieri has been taken swimming in the open sea, 200 leagues not of the Mauritius. M Distr., 6 sp. Atlantic, Indian ocean, Pacific. Enopiotevrats, D’Orb. Armed calamary. Etym., enoplos, armed, and teuthis. Type, &. smithii, Leach. Syn., ancistrochirus and abralia (Gray), octopodoteuthis er! vera (Krohn). Pen lanceolate. Arms provided wlth a double series of horny hooks, eo cealed by retractile webs. Zentacles long and feeble, with small hooks ¢ t end. Length (excluding the tentacles) from 2 inches to 1 foot; but 50 spore attain a lar ger size. In the museum of the College of Surgeouaiy Cook's first voyage inaationed: at = 64) eel to have been 6 feet ; when perfect. The natives of the Polynesian Islands, who dive for shell-f shave a well-founded dread of these formidable creatures. (Owen.) Distr., 10 sp. Medit., Pacific. OmMASTREPHES, D’Orb. Sagittated calamary. Etym., omma, the eyes, and strepho, to turn. Type, O. sagittatus, Lam. a Body cylindrical ; terminal fins large and rhombic. Arms with 2 row suckers, and sometimes an internal membranous fringe. Tentacles short ¢ strong, with 4 rows of cups. Pen, consisting of a shaft with three diverging ribs, and a hollow com appendix. Length from 1 inch to nearly 4 feet. 4 * The obstetric forceps of Professor Simpson were suggested by the suckers of the calamary. ‘ a CEPHALOPODA. 73 The sagittated calamaries are gregarious, and frequent the open sea in all climates. They are extensively used in the cod-fishery off Newfoundland, and are the principal food of the dolphins and cachalots, as well as of the albatross and larger petrels. The sailors call them ‘‘sea-arrows” or “flying squids,” from their habit of leaping out of the water, often to such a height as to fall on the decks of vessels. They leave their eggs in long clusters floating at the surface. Distr., 14 recent sp. ; similar pens (4 sp.) have been found fossil in the Oxford clay, Solenhofen; it may, however, be doubted whether they are ge- nerically identical. FAMILY JV. BELEeMNITIDA. Shell consisting of a pex, terminating posteriorly in a chambered cone, sometimes invested with a fibrous guard. The air-cells of the phragmo-cone are connected by a siphuncle, close to the ventral side. BELeMNITES, Lamarck. 1801. _ Etym., belemnon, a dart.* Er., B. puzosianus, pl. I1., fig. 5. Phragmocone horny, slightly nacreous, with a minute globular nucleus at its apex; divided internally by numerous concave septa. Pen represented by two nacreous bauds on the dorsal side of the phragmocone, and produced be- yond its rim, in the form of sword-shaped processes (pl. I., fig. 5). Guard, fibrous, often elongated and cylindrical ; becoming very thin in front, where it invests the phragmocone.t Nearly 100 species of belemnites have been found in a fossil state, ranging from the lias to the gault, and distributed over all Europe. The phragmocone of the belemnite, which represents the terminal appendix of the calamaries, is * The termination ites (from lithos, a stone) was formerly given to all fossi] genera. + The most perfect specimens known are in the cabinet of Dr. Mantell, and the British Museum; they were obtained by William Buy in the Oxford clay of Christian Malford, Wilts. The last chamber of a lias belemnite in the British Museum is 6 inches long, and 24 inches across at the smaller end; a fracture near the siphuncle shows the ink-bag. The phragmocone of a specimen corresponding to this in size, Measures 73 inches in length. t The specific gravity of the guard is identical with that of the shell of the recent pinna, and its structure is the same. Parkinson and others have supposed that it was originally a light and porous structure, like the cuttle bone; but the mucro of the Sepiostaire, with which alone it is homologous, is quite as dense as the belemnite. We . ate indebted to Mr. Alex. Williams, M.R.C.S., for the following specific gravities of Tecent and fossil shells, compared with water as 1,000 :— Belemnites puzosianus, OXfOrd Clay ..eeccccssseccceceevecseecsecsees 2,674 ineipmimnitelia mucronata, Chalkis; .\..c.dsssh cesses caenacececstcaspessseccat 2,000 Pinna, recent, from the Mediterranean ......csccsccesccscceccscesece 2,607 Trichites plottii, from the inferior Oolite...........cscscsescoecsseceee 2,670 MPTMPENIIOUILC? TECENE, Wecscadeecs ccccccecenstoresceteer rete iat eteae LG Conus ponderosus, Miocene, Touraine..........-scccccsceesestereceeee 2/18 E 74 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. divided into air-chambers, connected by a small tube (s¢phuncle), like the shell of the pearly nautilus. It is exceedingly delicate, and usually owes its prese y tion to the infiltration of calc. spar; specimens frequently occur in the lias, with the meniscus-shaped casts of the air-chambers loose, like a pile of wate J glasses. Tt is usually eccentric, its apex being nearest to the ventral side of the guard. The guard is very variable in its proportions, being sometimes M. D’Orbigny believes that the shells of the males are always (comparatively) long and slender; those of the females are at first short, but afterwards grows ing only at the points, they become as long in proportion as the others. The _ guard always exhibits (internally) concentric lines of growth; in B. erregula f its apex is hollow. The belemnites have been divided into groups by the pre- sence and position of furrows in the surface of the guard. SECTION I. Acczi (Bronn.) without dorsal or ventral grooves. Sub-section 1. Aeuarii, without lateral furrows, but often channelled at | the extreme point. | Type., b. acuarius. 20 sp. Lias—Neocomian. Sub-section 2. Clavati, with lateral furrows. Type, vb. clavatus. 3 sp. Lias. SECTION II. Gasrroce@1i (D’Orb.) Ventral groove distinct. Sub-section 1. Canaliculati, no lateral furrows. Type, b. canaliculatus. 5 sp. Inf. oolite—Gt. oolite. Sub-section 2. Hastati, lateral furrows distinct. Type, b. hastatus. 19 sp. U. lias—Gault. SECTION III. Norocext (D’Orb.) witha dorsal groove, and furrowed on each side. q Type, b. dilatatus. 9 sp. Neocomian. The belemnites appear to have been gregarious, from the exceeding abund- ance of their remains in many localities, as in some of the marlstone quarries of the central counties, and the lias cliffs of Dorsetshire. It is also probable that they lived in a moderate depth of water, and preferred a muddy bottom to rocks or coral-reefs, with which they would be apt to come in perilous col- lision. Belemnites injured in the life-time of the animal have been frequently noticed. : BELEMNITELLA, D’Orb. Syn., actinocamax, Miller (founded on a mistake.) Type, B. mucronata, Shy. Pl. IL., fig. 6. Distr., Europe; N. America. 5 sp. U. greensand and chalk. 4 The guard of the belemnitella has a straight fissure on the ventral side of | — its alveolar border; its surface exhibits distinct vascular impressions, D8 CEPHALOPODA. 75 phragmocone is never preserved, but casts of the alveolus show that it was chambered, that it had a single dorsal ridge, a ventral process passing into the fissure of the guard, and an apical nucleus. ACANTHOTEUTHIS (Wagner), Minster. \ Litym., acantha, a spine, and teuthis. Syu., Keleeno (Munster.) Belemnoteuthis ? Type, A. prisca, Ruppell. _ Founded on the fossil hooks of a calamary, preserved in the Oxford clay of Solenhofen. These show that the animal had 10, nearly equal arms, all furnished with a double series of horny claws, throughout their length. A pen like that of the ommastrephes has been hypothetically ascribed to these arms, which may, however, have belonged to the Jelemnite or the belemno- teuthis. u BELEMNOTEUTHIS (Miller), Pearce, 1842. Type, B. antiquus (Cunnington), fig. 33. Shell consisting of a phragmocone, like that of the belemnite ; a horny dorsal pen with obscure lateral bands; and a thin fibrous guard, with two diverging ridges on the dorsal side. Animal provided with arms and tenta- cles of nearly equal length, furnished with a double alternating series of horny hooks, from 20 to 40 pairs on each arm; mantle . free all round; fizs large, medio-dorsal (much larger than in fig. 33). d Fossil in the Oxford clay of Chippen- fam. Similar horny claws have been found in the lias of Watchett; and a guard equally thin is figured in Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise, t. 44, fig. 14. In the fossil calamary of Chippenham, the shell is preserved along with the mus- cular mantle, fins, ink-bag, funnel, eyes, and tentacles with their horny hooks; all the specimens were discovered, and deve- loped with wnexampled skill, by William Buy, of Sutton, near Chippenham. HII Fig. 33. Belemnoteuthis.* * Fig. 83. Belemnoteuthis antiquus, 3, ventral side, from a specimen in the cabinet of William Cunnington, Esq., of Devizes. The last chamber of the phragmocone is Preserved in this specimen. a, represents the dorsal side of an uncompressed phrag- mocone from the Kelloway rock, in the cabinet of J. G. Lowe, Esq.; c, is an ideal seg- tion of the same. Since this woodcut was executed, a more complete specimen has E 2 716 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ConoteutTuis, D’Orb. Type, C. Dupinianus, D’Orb. PI. IL., fig. 9. Meocomian, France. Phragmocone slightly curved. Pen elongated, very slender. This shell, which is like the pen of an ommastrephe, with a chambered cone, connects the ordinary calamaries with the belemnites. FAMILY V. Sepiap2. Shell (cuttle-bone or sepiostaire) calcarious ; consisting of a broad lami- nated plate, terminating behind in a hollow, imperfectly chambered apex (mucro). Animal with elongated tentacles, expanded at their ends. Sepi (Pliny), Linneeus. Type, S. officinalis, L. Pl. I., fig. 5. Syn., belosepia, Voltz. (B. sepioidea, pl. IT., fig. 3, mucro only.) Body oblong, with lateral fins as long as itself. Arms with 4 rows of suckers, MMaztle supported by tubercles fitting into sockets on the neck and funnel. Length 3 to 28 inches. Shell as wide and long as the body; very thick in front, concave internally behind; terminating in a prominent mucro. The thickened part is composed of numerous plates, separated by vertical fibres, which render it very light and porous. TT. Orbignyana, pl. II., fig. 2. The cuttle-bone was formerly employed as an antacid by apothecaries; it is now only used as “pounce,” or in casting counterfeits. The bone of a Chinese species attains the length of 1} feet. (Adams.) The cuttle-fishes live near shore, and the mzcro of their shell seems in- tended to protect them in the frequent collisions they are exposed to in swim- ming backwards. (D’ Ord.) Distr., 830 sp. World-wide. Fossil, 5 sp. Oxf. clay, Solenhofen. Several species have been founded on mucrones from the Eocene of London and Paris. PI. IL., fig. 3. SPIRULIROSTRA, D’Orb. Type, 8. Bellardii (D’Orb.) Pl. IL., fig. 4. Miocene, Turin. Shell, mucro only known; chambered internally; chambers connected by a ventral s¢phuncle ; external spathose layer produced beyond the phrag- mocone into a long pointed beak. BELopPTERA (Blainville) Deshayes. Litym., belos, a dart, and pteron, a wing. Type, B. belemnitoides, Bl. PI. IL., fig. 7. been obtained for the British Museum; the tentacles are not longer than the ordinary arms, owing, perhaps, to their partial retraction; this specimen will be figured in Dr, Mantell’s ‘‘ Petrifactions and their Teachings.” d, is a single hook, natural size; the specimens belonging to Mr. Cunnington and the late Mr. C. Pearce, show the large acetabular bases of the hooks. CEPHALOFODA. Tf Shell, mucro (only known) chambered and siphuncled; winged externally. Fossil, 2 sp. Eocene. Paris; Bracklesham BELEMNosIs, Edwards. Type, B. anomalus, Sby. sp. Eocene. Highgate (unique.) Shell, mucro, chambered and siphuncled; without lateral wings or elon- gated beak. FAMILY VI. Sprrvuiipz. Sheil entirely nacreous ; discoidal ; whirls separate, chambered (polythala- mous,) With a ventral siphuncle. Sprruta, Lam., 1801. Syn., lituus, Gray. z., 8. levis (Gray.) Pl. L., fig. 9. _ Body oblong, with minute terminal fins. Dantle supported by a cervical and 2 ventral ridges and grooves. Arms with 6 rows of very minute cups Tentacles elongated. Funnel valved. Shell placed vertically in the posterior part of the body, with the involute spire towards the ventral side. The last chamber is not larger in proportion than the rest; its margin is organically connected; it contains the ink-bag. The delicate shell of the spirula is scattered by thousands on the shores of New Zealand ; it abounds on the Atlantic coasts, and a few specimens are yearly brought by the Gulf-stream, and strewed upon the shores of Devon and Cornwall. But the animal is only known by a few fragments, and one perfect specimen, obtained by Mr. Percy Earl on the coast of New Zealand. Distr., 3 sp. All the warmer seas. ORDER II. TrTRABRANCHIATA. Animal creeping; protected by an external shell. Head retractile within the mantle. yes pedunculated. Mandrbies cal- carious. Arms very numerous. Body attached to the shell by adductor mus- eles, and by a continuous horny girdle. Branchie four. Funnel formed by the folding of a muscular lobe. Shell external, camerated (poly-thalamous) and siphuncled; the inner layers and septa nacreous ; outer layers porcellanous.* It was long ago remarked by Dillwynn, that shells of the carnivorous gas- teropods were almost, or altogether, wanting in the paleozoic and secondary strata; and that the office of these animals appeared to have been performed, in the ancient seas, by an order of cephalopods, now nearly extinct. Above 1,400 fossil species belonging to this order are now known by their shells; whilst their only living representative is the nautilus pompilius, * The Chinese carve a variety of patterns in the outer opaque layer of the nautilus shell, relieved by the pearly ground beneath. 78 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. of which several specimens have been brought to Europe within the last few years.* The shell of the tetrabranchiate cephalopods is an extremely elongated cone, and is either straight, or variously folded, or coiled. It is straight in. . . . . « orthoceras . _ baculites. bent onitselfin. . . . . ascoceras . ptychoceras. curved MM. . 2 ew Cy tOCeras 2 GOmecetame spiral im .° «0, .\.. . # trechogeras’ ) “imeriiites: discoidalin . . . gyroceras . crioceras, discoidal and oa in. lituites . . ancyloceras. mvolutemn .. . nautilus . . ammonites. Internally, the shell is devied fle alls or chambers, by a series of parti- tions (septa), connected by a tube or siphuncle. 'The last chamber is oceupied by the animal, the rest are empty during life, but in fossil specimens they are often filled with spar. When the outer shell is removed (as often happens to fossils,) the edges of the septa are scen (as in PI. IIL, figs. 1, 2.) Sometimes they form curved lines, as in zautilus and orthoceras, or they are xig-zag, as in gontatites (fig. 53,) or folaceous, as in the ammonite, fig. 34, | ng te ae Fig. 34. Suture of an ammonite.t The outlines of the septa are termed sutures ;{ when they are folded the elevations are called saddles, and the intervening depressions Jodes. In ceratites (fig. 54) the saddles are round, the lobes dentated; in ammonites both lobes and saddles are extremely complicated. Broken fossils show that the septa are nearly flat in the middle, and folded round the edge (like a shirt- frill), where they abut against the outer shell-wall (fig. 37). The siphuncle of the recent xawtilus is a membranous tube, with a very thin nacreous investment ; in most of the fossils it consists of a succession of, funnel-shaped, or bead-like tubes. In some of the oldest fossil genera, aeti- noceras, gyvoceras, and phragmoceras, the siphuncle is large, and contains in * The frontispiece, copied from Professor Owen’s Memoir, represents the animal of the first nautilus, captured off the New Hebrides, and brought to England by Mr. Ben- nett; it is drawn as if lying in the section of a shell, without concealing any part of it. The woodcut, fig. 43, is taken from a more perfect specimen, lately acquired by the British Museum, in which the relation of the animal to its shell is accurately shown. { A. heterophyllus, Sby., from the lias, Lyme Regis. British Museum. Only one side is represented ; the arrow indicates the dorsal saddle. t From their resemblance to the sutures of the skull. CEPHALOPODA. 79 its centre a smaller tube, the space between the two being filled up with radiat- ing plates, like the lamelle of a coral. The position of the siphuncle is very variable ; in the ammonitide it is external, or close to the outer margin of the shell (fig. 37). Inthe xautilide it is usually central (fig. 35), or eternal (WF, AX XS Fig. 35. Nautilus. Fig. 36. Clymenia. Fig. 37. Hamities.* The air-chaméers of the recent nautilus are lined by a very thin, living membrane; those of the fossil orthocerata retain indications of a thick vascu- lar lining, connected with the animal by spaces between the beads of the siphuncle.t+ The body-chamber is always very capacious; in the recent nautilus its _ cavity is twice as large as the whole series of air-cells; in the goniatite (fig. 89), it occupies a whole whirl, and has a considerable lateral extension; and in ammonites communis it occupies more than a whi. Fig. 38. Ammonites. Fig. 39. Goniatites.} * Fig. 35. Nautilus pompilius, L. Fig. 36. Clymenia striata, Miiust., see pl. IT., fig. 16. Fig. 37. Hamites cylindraceus Defr., see fig. 58. ¢ The apocryphal genus spongarium, was founded on detached septa of an ortho- ceras, from the Upper Ludlow rock, in which the vascular markings distinctly radiate from the siphuncle. Mr. Jones, warden of Clun Hospital, has several of these in apposition. t Fig. 38. Section of ammonites obtusus, Sby. lias, Lyme Regis; from a very young specimen. Fig. 39. Section of goniatites sphericus, Sby. carb. limestone, Bolland (in the cabinet of Mr. Tennant.) The dotted lines indicate the Jateral extent of the body- chamber. 80 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. The margin of the aperture is quite simple in the recent nautilus, and affords no clue to the many curious modifications observable in the fossil forms. In the ammonites we frequently find a dorsal process, or lateral pro- jections, developed periodically, or only in the adult (fig. 55, and pl. IIL, fig. 5). In phragmoceras and gomphoceras (figs. 40, 41) the aperture is so much contracted that it is obvious the animal could not have withdrawn its head into the shell like the nautilus. ae Oe — Fig.40. Gomphoceras. Fig. 41. Phragmoceras.* M. Barrande, from whose great work on the Silurian Formations of Bohemia these figures are taken, suggests that the lower part of the aperture (s s) which is almost isolated, may have served for the passage of the funnel, whilst the upper and larger space (¢ ¢) was occupied by the neck; the lobes probably indicate the position of the external arms. The aperture of the pearly nautilus is closed by a disk or hood (fig. 43, 2), formed by the union of the two dorsal arms, which correspond to the shell- secreting sails of the argonaut. In the extinct ammonites we have evidence that the aperture was guarded still more effectively by a horny, or shelly operculum, secreted, in all probabi- lity, by these dorsal arms. In one group (arietes,) the operculum consists of a single piece, and is horny and flexible. In the round-backed ammonites the operculum is shelly, and divided into two plates by a straight median suture (fig. 42). They were de- scribed in 1811, by Parkinson, who called them ¢7z- gonellites, and pointed out the resemblance of their Fig. 42.1 * Fig. 40. Gomphoceras Bohemicum (Barrande), reduced view of the aperture; s, the siphonal opening. Fig. 41. phragmoceras callistoma (Barr.) both from the U. Silurian, Bohemia. + This form was discovered by the late Miss Mary Anning, the indefatigable col- rector of the lias fossils of Lyme Regis, and described by Mr. Strickland, Geol. Journal, yol. I., p. 232. Also by M. Voltz, Mem. de 1’Institute, 1837, p. 48. t Trigonellites lamellosus, Park. Oxford clay, Solenhofen (and Chippenham, ) as- 1 sociated with ammonites lingulatus, Quenstedt. (= A. Brightii, Pratt). From aspeci- men in the cabinet of Charles Stokes, Esq. CEPHALOPODA. 81 internal structure to the cancellated tissue of bones. Their external surface is smooth or sculptured ; the inner side is marked by lines of growth. Forty- five kinds are enumerated by Bronn; they occur in all the strata in which ammonites are found, and a single specimen has been figured by M. D’Archiac, from the Devonian rocks of the Hifel, where it was associated with goniatites.* Calcarious mandibles or rhyncholites (F. Biguet) have been obtained from all the strata in which zaviz occur; and from their rarity, their large size and close resemblance to the mandibles of the recent nautilus, it is probable that they belonged only to that genus.¢ In the Muschelkalk of Bavaria one nautilus (NV. arietis, Reinecke, = N. bidorsatus, Schlotheim,) is found, and two kinds of rhyncholite ; one sort, corresponding with the upper mandible of the recent nautilus, has been called “rhyncholites hirundo” (pl. IL., fig. 11), the other, which appears to be only the lower mandible of the same species, has been described under the name of “conchorhynchus avirostris.”’$ In studying the fossil tetrabranchiata, it is necessary to take into consi- deration the varying circumstances under which they have been preserved. In some strata (as the lias of Watchett) the outer layer of the shell has dis- appeared, whilst the inner nacreous layer is preserved. More frequently only the outer layer remains; and in the chalk formation the whole shell lias perished. In the calcarious grit of Berkshire and Wiltshire the ammonites. have lost their shells; but perfect casts of the chambers, formed of calcarious spar, remain. $ Fossil orthocerata and ammonites are evidently in many instances dead shells, being overgrown with corals, serpulze, or oysters ; every cabinet affords ‘such examples. In others the animal has apparently occupied its shell, and prevented the ingress of mud, which has hardened all around it; after this it has decomposed, and contributed to form those phosphates and sulphurets commonly present in the body-chamber of fossil shells, and by which the sediment around them is so often formed into a hard concretion.|| In this state they are * The trigonellites have been described by Meyer as bivalve shells, under the eneric name of aptychus; by Deslongchamps under the name of Munsteria. M. D’Orbigny regards them as cirripedes! M. Deshayes believes them to be gizzards of the ammonites. M. Coquand compares them with feudopsis; an analogy evidently suggested by some of the membranous and elongated forms, such as 7’. sanguinolarius, ound with am. depressus, in the lias of Boll. Ruppell, Voltz, Quenstedt, and Zieten, Tegard the trigonellites as the opercula of ammonites, an opinion also entertained by many of the most experienced fossil collectors in England. + M. D’Orbigny has manufactured two genera of calamaries out of these nautilus beaks ! (rhynchoteuthis and pal@oteuthis). In the innumerable sections of ammonites which have been made, no traces of the mandibles have ever been discovered. t Lepas avirostris (Schlotheim ), described by Blainville as the beak of a achiopod ! § Called spondylolites by old writers. || In the alum-shale of Whitby, innumerable concretions are found, which, when Struck with the hammer, split open, and disciose an ammonite. See Dr. Mantell’s “Thoughts on a Pebble,” p. 21. 82 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. permeated by mineral water, which slowly deposits calcarious spar, in erys- tals, on their walls; or by acidulous water, which removes every trace of the shell, leaving a cavity, which at some future time may again become filled with spar, having the form of the shell, but not its structure. In some sec- tions of orthocerata, it is evident that the mud has gained access to the air- cells, along the course of the blood-vessels ; but the chambers are not entirely filled, because their lining membrane has contracted, leaving a space between itself and certain portions of the walls, which correspond in each chamber. With respect to the purpose of the azr-chambers, much ingenuity has been exercised in devising an explanation of their assumed Aydrostatze fune- tion, whereby the nautilus can rise at will to the surface, or sink, on the approach of storms to the quiet recesses of the deep. Unfortunately for such poetical speculations, the nautilus appears on the surface, only when driven up by storms, and its sphere of action is on the Jed of the sea, where it creeps like a snail, or perhaps lies in wait for unwary crabs and shell-fish, like some gigantic “sea-anemone,” with outspread tentacles. The tetrabranchs could undoubtedly swim, by their respiratory jets ; but the discoidal nautili and ammonites are not well calculated, by their forms, for swimming ; and the straight-shelled orthocerata and baculites must have held a nearly vertical position, head-downwards, on account of the buoyaney of their shells. The use of the air-chambers, is to render the whole animal (and shell) of nearly the same specific gravity with the water.* The object of the numerous partitions is not so much to sustain the pressure of the water, as to guard against the collisions to which the shell is exposed. They are most complicated in the ammonites, whose general form possesses least strength.t The purpose of the siphuncle (as suggested by Mr. Searles Wood) is to main- tain the vitality of the shell, during the long life which these animals cer- tainly enjoyed. Mr. Forbes has suggested that the inner courses of the hamites, broke off, as the outer ones were formed. But this was not the case with the orthocerata, whose long straight shells were particularly exposed to danger ; in these the preservation of the shell was provided for by the in- creased size and strength of the siphuncle, and its increased vascularity. In endoceras we find the siphuncle thickened by internal deposits, until (m some of the very cylindrical species) it forms an almost solid axis. The nucleus of the shell is rather large in the nawézi, and causes an * A nautilus pompilius (in the cabinet of Mr. Morris) weighs lb., aud when the siphuncle is secured, it floats with a 3lb weight in its aperture. The animal would have displaced2 pints (= 23lbs ) of water, and therefore, if it weighed 3lbs., the specifice gravity of the animal and shell would scarcely exceed that of salt water. + The siphuncle and lobed septa did not hold the animal in its shell, as Von Bueh imagined: that was secured by the shell-muscles. The complicated sutures perhaps indicate lobed ovaries; they occur in genera, which must have produced very small eggs. CHPHALOPODA. 83 opening to remain through the shell, until the wmdzlicus is filled up with a callous deposit; several fossil species have always a hole through the centre. In the ammonites, the nucleus is exceedingly small, and the whirls com- pact from the first. It has been stated that the septa are formed periodically ; but it must not be supposed that the shell-muscles ever become detached, or that the animal moves the distance of a chamber all at once. It is most likely that the adductors grow only in front, and that a constant waste takes place behind, so that they are always moving onward, except when a new septum is to be formed ; the septa indicate periodic rests. The consideration of this fact, that the nautilus must so frequently have an air-cavity between it and its shell, is alone sufficient to convince us, that the chambered cephalopods could not exist in very deep water. They were pro- bably limited to a depth of 20 or 30 fathoms at the utmost.* It is certain that the sexes were distinct in the ¢etrabranchiata, but since only the female of the living nautilus is known, we are left to conjecture how ar the differences observable in the shells, are dependant on sex. M. D’Orbigny, having noticed that there are two varieties of almost every kind of ammonite, —one compressed, the other inflated—naturally assumed that the first were the shells of male individuals (¢), the second of females (2). Dr. Melville has made a similar suggestion with respect to the nautili; namely, that the umbilicated specimens are the males, the imperforated shells, females. This is rendered probable by the circumstance, that all the known specimens of NV. pompilius were female, and that the supposed male (VV. macromphalus) is very rare, as we have noticed amongst the male dibranchiata. Of the other recent species, both the presumed sexes (1. wmdilicatus $ and NV. stenom- phalus &) are comparatively rare. FAMILY I. Navrinip.-. Shell. Body-chamber capacious. Aperture simple. Sutures simple. Siphuncie central, or internal. (Figs. 35, 36.) Navutitus, Breynius, 1732. Shell involute or discoidal, few-whirled. Szphuncle central. Tn the recent nautili, the shell is smooth, but in many fossil species it is corrugated, like the patent iron-roofing, so remarkable for its strength and lightness. (Buckland.) See pl. I1., fig. 10. * By deep water, naturalists and dredgers seldom mean more than 25 fathoms, a comparatively sma!l depth, only found near coasts and islands. At 100 fathoms the pressure exceeds 265lbs. to the square inch. Empty bottles, securely corked, and sunk with weights beyond 100 fathoms, are always crushed, [If filled with liquid, the cork is driven in, and the liquid replaced by salt water; and in drawing the bottle up again, the cork is returned to the neck of the bottle, generally in a reversed posi- tion, (Sir F. Beaufort.) ~ rai 84 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. | i Lidf fi] My) Mt Wy S$ S S SS = NS Fig, 43. Nautilus pompilius in its shell.* The wmbilicus is small or obsolete in the typical nautil, and the whirls In the paleozoic species, the whirls increase slowly, and enlarge rapidly. The last air-cell is frequently shallower are sometimes scarcely in contact. in proportion than the rest. Animal. In the recent nautilus, the mandibles are horny, but calcified to a considerable extent; they are surrounded by a circular fleshy lip, external to which are four groups of /adzal tentacles, 12 or 13 in each group, they appear to answer to the buccal membrane of the calamary (fig. 1). Beyond these, on each side of the head, is a double series of arms, or brachial ten- tacles, 36 in number; the dorsal pair are expanded and united to form the hood, which closes the aperture of the shell, except for a small space on each side, which is filled by the second pair of arms. The ¢eztacles ave lamellated — * This woodcut and 18 others. illustrating the tetrabranchiata, are the property of Mr. Gray, to whom we are indebted for their use. Fig. 43 represents the recent nautilus, as it appears on the removal of part of the outer shell-wall (from the specimen in the British Museum). The eye is seen in the centre, covered by the hood (A): #, tentacles, nearly concealed in their sheaths; f, funnel; m, margin of the mantle, very much contracted; , nidamental gland; a,c, air-cells and siphuncle; s, portion of the shell; a, shell-muscle, The internal organs are indicated by dotted lines; 6, bran- chiz; 4, heart and renal glands ; c, crop; g, gizzard; J, liver; o, ovary. ete CEPHALOPODA. 85 on their inner surface, and are retractile within sheaths, or ‘“ digitations,” which correspond to the eight ordinary arms of the cuttle-fishes ; their supe- riority in number being indicative of a lower grade of organization. Besides these there are four ocular tentacles, one behind and one in front of each eye ; they seem to be instruments of sensation, and resemble the tentacles of doris and aplysia (Owen). On the side of each eye is a hollow plicated process, which is not tentaculiferous. The respzratory funnel is formed by the folding of a very thick muscular lobe, which is prolonged laterally on each side of the head, with its free edge directed backwards, into the branchial cavity ; behind the hood it is directed forwards, forming a lobe which lies against the black- stained spire of the shell (fig. 43 s.)* Inside the funnel is a valve-like fold (fig. 44s). The margin of the mantle is entire, and extends as far as the edge of the shell; its substance is firm and muscular, as far back as the line of the shell-muscles and horny girdle, beyond which it is thin and transparent. The shell-muscles are united by a narrow tract, across the hollow occupied by the involute spire of the shell; and are thus rendered horse-shoe shaped. The siphuncle is vascular ; it opens into the cavity containing the heart ( pe- ricardium), and is most probably filled with fluid from that cavity. (Owen.) Respecting the habits of the nautilus, very little is known, the specimen dissected by Professor Owen had it crop filled with fragments of a small crab, and its mandibles seem well adapted for breaking shells. The statement that it visits the surface of the sea of its own accord, is at present unconfirmed by observation, although the air cells would doubtless enable the animal to rise by a very small amount of muscular exertion. Professor Owen gives the following passage, from the old Dutch naturalist, Rumphius, who wrote in 1705, an account of the rarities of Amboina. “ When the nautilus floats on the water, he puts out his head and all his tenta- cles, and spreads them upon the water, with the poop of the shell above water ; but at the bottom he creeps in the reverse position, with his boat above him, and with his head and tentacles upon the ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly upon the ground, creeping also sometimes into the nets of the fishermen; but after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops, floating on the water, Jeing driven up by the agitation of the waves. This sailing, however, is not of long continuance ; * The funnel is considered the homologue of the foot of the gasteropods, by Loven, a conclusion to which we cannot agree. The cephalopods ought to be compared with the Jarval gasteropods, in which the foot only serves to support an operculum ;—or with the floating tribes in which the foot is obsolete, or serves only to secrete a nida- mental raft (ianthina). However, on examining the nautilus preserved in the British Museum, and finding that the funnel was only part of a muscular collar, which ex- tends all round the neck of the animal, we could not avoid noticing its resemblance to the siphonal lappets of paludina, and to that series of lappets (including the oper- ewligerous lobe) which surrounds the trochus (fig. 87). 86 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. for having taking in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the bottom.” Fig. 44. Nautilus erpanded.* Distr., 2 or 4 sp. Chinese seas, Indian ocean, Persian gulf. Fossil, about 100 sp. In all strata, S. and N. America (Chile). Europe, India (Pondicherry). Sub-genus. Aturia (Bronn), = Megasiphonia D’Orb. Type, N. zic-zac Shy. Pl. II., fig. 12, London clay, Highgate. Shell, sutures, with a deep lateral lobe; siphuncle nearly internal, large, continuous, resembling a succession of funnels. Fossil, 4 sp. Eocene, N. America, Europe, India. Sub-genus ? Discites, McCoy. Whuirls all exposed ; the last chamber sometimes produced. L. silurian.—Carb: limestone. Temnocheilus, McCoy. Founded on the carinated sp. of the Carb. lime- stone. Cryptoceras, D’Orb. Founded on NV. dorsalis Phil. and one other species, in which the siphuncle is nearly external. * Ideal representation of the nautilus, when expanded, by Professor Lovén, who appears to have taken the details from M. Valenciennes memoir in the Archives da Museum, vol. 2, p. 257. h, hood. s, siphon. It is just possible, that when the nautilus issues from its shell, the gas contained in the last, incomplete, air-chamber, may expand; but this could not happen under any great pressure of water. . CEPHALOPODA. 87 Litvrtes, Breynius. Ltym., lituus, a trumpet. Syn., Hortolus, Montf. (whirls separate.) Trocholites, Conrad. Ez., L. convolvans, Schl. L. lituus, Hisinger. Shell, discoidal ; whirls close, or separate; last chamber produced in a straight line; siphuncle central. Fossil, 15 sp. Silurian, N. America, Europe. TROCHOCERAS, Barrande, 1848. Ex., T. trochoides, Bar. Shell, nautiloid, spiral, depressed. Fossil, 16 sp. U. Silurian, Bohemia. Some of the species are nearly flat, and having the last chamber pro- duced would formerly have been considered Lituites. Fig. 45. Clymenia striata, Munst.* Fig. 46. C. linearis, Munst. CryMeEeniA, Munster, 1832. Eitym., clymene, a sea-nymph. Syn. Endosiphonites, Ansted. Sub-clymenia, D’Orb. Ex., C. striata, pl. I1., fig. 16 (Mus. Tennant). Shell, discoidal; septa simple or slightly lobed; siphuncele internal. Fossil, 43 sp. Devonian, N. America, Europe. FAMILY II. Onrrnoceratip. Shell, straight, curved, or discoidal ; body chamber small; aperture con- tracted, sometimes extremely narrow (figs. 40, 41); siphuncle complicated. It seems probable that the cephalopods of this family were not able to withdraw themselves completely into their shells, like the pearly nautilus ; this was certainly the case with some of them, as M. Barrande has stated, for the siphonal aperture is almost isolated from the cephalic opening. The shell appears to have been often less calcified, but connected with more vas- cular parts than in the nautilus; and the siphuncle often attains an enor- mous development. In all this, there is nothing to suggest a doubt of their being tetrabranchiate ; and the chevron-shaped coloured bands preserved on the orthoceras anguliferus,+ suiticiently prove that the shell was essentially external. * Fig, 45. Sutures of two species of Clymenia from Phillips’ Pal. Fos., Deyon- shire. + Figured by D’Archiac and Verneuil, Geol. Trans. 88 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. OxntTHoceRas, Breyn. Etym., orthos, straight, and ceras, a horn. Syn., cycloceras, McCoy. Gonioceras, Hall.* Er. O. giganteum (diagram of a longitudinal section), pl. IT, fig. 14. Shell, straight ; siphuncle central ; aperture sometimes contracted. Fossil, 125 typical sp. (D’Orb).+ L. Silurian—Trias ; N. America, Aus- tralia, and Europe. The orthocerata are the most abundant and wide spread shells of the old rocks, and attained a larger size than any other fossil shell. A fragment of O. giganteum, in the collection of Mr. Tate of Alnwick, is a yard long, and 1 foot in diameter, its original length must have been 6 feet. Other species, 2 feet in length, are only 1 inch in diameter, at the aperture. Sub-genus 1. Cameroceras, Conrad (— melia and thoracoceras, Fischer ?). Siphunele lateral, sometimes very large (simple 7). Casts of these large siphuncles were called Ayolites by Hichwald. 27 sp. L. Silurian—Trias ? N. America and Europe. Fig. 47. Actinoceras.} Fig, 48. Ormoceras. 2. Actinoceras (Broun), Stokes. Siphuncle very large, inflated between the chambers, and connected with a slender central tube by radiating plates. 6 sp. L. Silurian—Carb, N. America, Baltic, and Brit. 3. Ormoceras, Stokes. Siphuncular beads constricted in the middle (making the septa appear as if united to the centre of each). 3 sp. L. Silurian, N. America. 4, Huronia, Stokes. Shell extremely thin, membraneous or horny ? Siphuncle very large, central, the upper part of each joint inflated, connected * Theca and Tentaculites are provisionally placed with the Pieropoda, they proba- bly belong here. + M Barrande has discovered 100 new species in the Upper Silurian rocks of Bohemia. ¢ Fig. 47. Actinoceras Richardsoni, Stokes. Lake Winipeg (diagram, reduced 3). Fig. 48. Ormoceras, Bayfieldi, Stokes. Drummond Island, (from Mr. Stokes’ paper, Geol, Trans.) CEPHALOPODA. 89 with a small central tube by radiating plates. 3 sp. L. Silurian. Drummond Island, Lake Huron, Fig. 49. Hurenia vertebralis.* Numerous examples of this curious fossil were collected by Dr. Bigsby (in 1822), and by the officers of the regiments formerly stationed on Drum- mond Island. Specimens have also been brought home by the officers of many of the Artic expeditions. But with the exception of one formerly in the possession of Lieut. Gibson, 68., and another in the cabinet of Mr. Stokes, the siphuncle only is preserved, and ot a trace remains of septa or shell wall. Some of those seen by Dr. Bigsby in the limestone cliffs, were 6 feet in length. 5. Endoceras, Hall (Cono-tubularia Troost). Shell extremely elongated, drical. Siphuncle very large, cylindrical, lateral; thickened internally by re- peated layers of shell, or partitioned off by funnel-shaped diaphragms. 12 sp. Lower Silurian, New York. 6. Shell perforated by two distinct siphuncles? O. bisiphonatum Sby, Caradoc sandstone, Brit. “Orthocerata with two siphuncles have been observed, but there has always appeared something doubtful about them. In the present instance, however, this structure cannot be questioned.” (J. Sowerby.) Small orthocerata of various species, are frequenlly found in the body chamber and open siphuncle of large specimens.t The endoceras gemelli- parum and proteiforme of Hall, appear to be examples of this kind. GompHoceras, J. Sby, 1839. Etym., gomphos, a club, and ceras, a horn. * Fig.49. Huronia vertebralis, Stokes. a, from aspecimen in the Brit. M., presented by Dr. Bigsby. The septa are added from Dr. Bigsby’s drawing; they were only in- dicated in the specimen by ‘‘ colourless lines on the brown limestune,” 6. represents a weathered section, presented to the Brit. Mus. by Captain Kellett and Lieutenant Wood of H.M.S. Pandora. The figures are reduced 3. t Shells of Bellerophon and Murchisonia arefound under the same circumstances. 90 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Syn., Apioceras (Fischer). Poterioceras (McCoy). Type, G. pyviforme, Sby., fig. 51, and G. Bohemicum, Bar. fig. 40. LX _, RN = Roe a bece Fig. 50. Endoceras.* Fig. 51. Gomphoceras.+ Shell, fusiform or globular, with a tapering apex; aperture contracted in the middle ; siphuncle moniliform, sub-central. Distr., 10 sp. Silurian—Carb ; N. America, Europe. Oncoceras, Hall. Etym., oncos, a protuberance. Type, O. constrictum, Hall. Trenton limestone. Shell, like a curved gomphoceras; siphuncle external. Distr., 3 sp. Silurian, New York. PuHraGMoceras, Broderip. Etym., phragmos, a partition, and ceras, a horn. Type, P. ventricosum (Steininger sp.), pl. IL., fig. 15. Shell curved, laterally compressed ; aperture contracted in the middle siphunele, ventral, radiated. Ex., P. callistoma, Bar., fig. 41. | Distr, 8 sp. U. Silurian—Devonian, Brit., Germany. * Fig. 50. Diagram of an endoceras (after Hall), a, shell-wall 6. Wall of sip- huncle. ccc. Diaphragms (‘‘ embryo-tubes” of Hall). + Fig: 51. Gomphoceras pyriforme. L. Ludlow rock, Mochtre hill, Herefordshire (from Murch, Silur, syst., reduced 3). s. Beaded siphuncle. CEPHALOPODA. 91 Cyrtéceras, Goldf. 1833. Etym., curtos, curved, ceras, horn. Syn., Campulites, Desh. 1832 (including gyroceras). Aploceras, D’Orb, Campyloceras and trigonoceras, McCoy. Ez., C. hybridum, volborthi and beaumonti (Barrande). Shell, curved ; sephuncle small, internal, or sub-central. Distr. 36 sp. L. Silurian, Carb—N. America, and Europe. Gyréceras, Meyer, 1829. Etym., gyros, a circle, and ceras. Syn., Nautiloceras, D’Orb. Ez., G. eifeliense, D’Arch., pl. II., fig. 18. Devonian, Hifel. Shell, nautiloid; whirls separate; siphuncle excentric, radiated. Fossil, 17 sp. U. Silurian—Trias ? N. America, and Europe. AscocErkas, Barrande, 1848.+ Etym., ascos, a leather bottle. Shell, bent upon itself, like ptychoceras. Distr., 7 sp. U. Silurian, Bohemia. FAMILY III. Amwonritip2. Shell. Body-chamber elongated ; aperture guarded by processes, and closed by an operculum ; swtwres angulated, or lobed and foliated; siphuncle external (dorsal, as regards the shell). The shell of the wmmonitide has essentially the same structure with the nautilus. It consists of an external porcellanoust layer, formed by the collar as Fig. 52. Gyroceras goldfussit (= ornatum Goldf). 6. Siphuncle of G. depressum, Goldf. sp. Devonian. Eifel. From M.M. D’Archiac and Verneuil. ¢# In Haidinger’s Berichte. { Its microscopic structure has not been satisfactorily examined; Prof. Forbes detected a punctate structure in one species, 92 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. of the mantle only ; and of an internal nacreous lining, deposited by the whole extent of its visceral surface. There is an ammonite in the British Museum, evidently broken and repaired during the life of the animal,* which shews that the shell was deposited from within. In some species of ammonites the collar of the mantle forms prominent spines on the shell, which are too deep for the visceral mantle to enter ; they are therefore partitioned off (as in A. armatus, Lias) from the body whirl and air cells, and not exhibited in casts. The baculites, and ammonites of the section eristatz, acquire when adult a process projecting from the outer margin of their shell. Certain other ammonites (the ornatz, coronati, &c.) form two lateral processes before they cease to grow (pl. III., fig. 5). As these processes are often developed im very small specimens, it has been supposed that they are formed repeatedly in the life of the animal (at each periodic rest), and are again removed when growth recommences. ‘These smail specimens, however, may be only dwarfs. In one ammonite, from the inferior oolite of Normandy, the ends of these lateral processes meet, “forming an arch over the aperture, and dividing it into two outlets, one corresponding with that above the hood of the nautilus, which gives passage to the dorsal fold of the mantle; the other with that below the hood, whence issue the tentacles, mouth, and funnel ; such a modi- fication, we may presume, could not take place before the termination of the growth of the individual.”+ (Owen.) M. D’Orbigny has figured several examples of deformed ammonites, in which one side of the shell is scarcely developed, and the keel is consequently lateral. Such specimens probably indicate the partial atrophy of the branchiae on one side. In the British Museum there are deformed specimens of 4m. obtusus, amaltheus, and tuberculatus. Fig. 53.f * A serpentinus Schloth, U. Lias, Wellingboro. Rev. A. W. Griesbach. + This unique and abnormal specimen is in the cabinet of S. P. Pratt, Esq. t Fig. 53. Goniatites sphericus, Sby. Front and side views of a specimen from the carb. limestone of Derbyshire, in the cabinet of Mr. J. Tennant; the body-chamber and shell-wall have been removed artificially. CEPHALOPODA. 93. GonratitTEs, De Haan. Etym., gonia, angles (should be written gonialites ?), Syn., aganides, Montf. Examples, G. Henslowi, pl. IIT., fig. 1., G. sphericus, fig. 53, and 39. Shell, discoidal; sutures lobed ; siphuncle dorsal. Distr. 150 sp. Devonian—Trias, Europe. Bacrrites, Sandberger (= stenoceras, D’Orb °). Shell, straight ; sutures lobed. ype, B. subconicus, Sbger. Distr., 2 sp. Devonian—Germany. i a | Mee. tC. \ ras has rk harm Fig. 54.* CrratitTEs, De Haan. Type, C. nodosus, pl. TII., fig. 2. Shell, discoidal ; sutures lobed, the lobes crenulated. Fig. 54. Distr., muschelkalk, 8 sp. Germany, France, Russia, Siberia. Salt-marls (Keuper). 17 sp. 8S. Cassian, Tyrol. M. D’Orbigny describes 5 shells from the gault and U. greensand as ceratites ; but many ammonites have equally simple sutures, when young. Fig. 55.+ Ammonites, Bruguiere. Eiym., ammon, a name of Jupiter, worshipped in Libya under the form ofaram. The ammonite is the cornu ammonis of old authors. * Fig. 54. Suture of ceratites nodosus (Brug). The arrow in the dorsal lobe points towards the aperture. + Fig. 55.° Ammonites rostratus, Sby. From the U. green-sand of Devizes, in the cabinet of W. Cunnington, Esq. 3, front view of one of its partitions. 94 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Syn., orbulites Lam. planulites, Montf. Shell, discoidal; inner whirls more or less concealed; septa undulated ; sutures lobed and foliated ; siphuncle dorsal. Distr., 530 sp. Trias—chalk. Coast of Chili (D’Orb.) Santa Fe de Bogota (Hopkins), New Jersey, Europe, and S$. India. Capt. Alexander Gerard discovered ammonites similar to our L. oolitie species, in the high passes of the Himalaya, 16,200 feet above the sea. ; Section A. Back, with an entire keel. 1. Arietes, L. oolites, A. bifrons (pl. III., fig. 6), bisulcatus (pl. II, fig:7). 2. Faleiferi, L. oolites, A. serpentixus, radians, hecticus. 3. Cristati, cretaceous, A. cristatus, rostratus (fig. 55), varians. B. Back crenated. 4. Amalthei, ool. A. amaltheus, cordatus, excavatus. 5. Rhothomagenses, cret. A. rhothomagensis (pl. IIL, fig. 4). C. Back sharp. 6. Disci., oolitie, A. discus, clypeiformis. D. Back channelled. 7. Dentati ‘Son A. dentatus, lautus. ; ool. A. Parkinsoni, anguliferus. E. Back squared. * 7 8. Armati, L. ool. A. armatus, athletus, perarmatus. 9. Capricorni, * L. ool. A. capricornus, planicostatus. § 10. Ornati, ool. A. Duncani, Jason (pl. TIL, fig. 5). Ki X—Miocene—. Brit., France Fig. 70. Nidamental capsules of the Whelk.* The whelk is dredged for the market, or used as bait by fishermen; it may be taken in baskets, baited with dead fish. Its nidamental capsules are aggregated in roundish masses, which, when thrown ashore, and drifted by the wind resemble corallines. Each capsule contains five or six young, which, when hatched, are like fig. 70, 4: a, represents the inner side of a single capsule, shewing the round hole, from which the fry have escaped. * Tig. 70. From a small specimen, ou an oyster-shell, inthe cabinet of Albany Hancock, Esq. The line at 4, represents the length of the young shell. GASTEROPODA. MB HH 8 Sub-genus. Cominella, Gray. Ex. B. limbosum, purpura maculosa, &e, Operculum as in fusvs. About 12 sp. PsEUDOLIVA, Swainson. Etym., named from its resemblance to oliva, in form. Syn., sulco-buccinum, D’Orb. Gastridium (Gray), G. Sony Type, P. plumbea. PI. V., fig. 12. Shell globular, thick ; whi a deep spiral furrow near the front of the body-whirl, forming, as in monoceros, a small tooth on the outer lip; spire short, acute ; suture channelled ; inner lip callous aperture notched in front ; operculum ? Animal unknown. Distr., 6 sp.? W. America. Fossil, 5 sp. Eocene. Brit., France, Chile. ? ANoLAX (Roissy), Conrad. Lea. Ltym., an avlax, without furrow. Syn., buccinanops, D’Orb. Leiodomus, Sw. Bullia, Gray. Types, A. gigantea, Lea. Bue. levigatum. B. semiplicata, Pl. V., fig. 14. Shell variable ; like buccinum, pseudoliva, or terebra ; sutures enamelled ; inner lip callous. Animal without eyes; foot very broad; tentacles long and slender ; operculum pointed, nucleus apical. Distr., 26 sp. Brazil, W. Africa, Ceylon, Pacific, W. America. Fossil, 3 sp. Eocene—. N. America, France. ? Hatta, Risso. Etym., halios, marine. Syn., priamus, Beck. Types, bulla helicoides (Brocchi). Miocene, Italy. Helix priamus (Meus- chen). Coast of Guinea ? Shell like achatina ; ventricose, smooth; apex regular, obtuse ; opere. ? The fossil species occurs with marine shells, and sometimes coated by a coral (lepralia). TeREBRA, Lamarck. Auger-shell. Syn., acus, Humph. Subula, Bl. Dorsanum, Gray. Type, T. maculata. PI. V., fig. 13. Shell long, pointed, many-whirled ; aperture small; canal short ; operc. pointed, nucleus apical. Animal blind, or with eyes near the summit of minute tentacles. Distr., 109 sp., mostly tropical. Medit. (1 sp.) India, China, W. America. Fossil, 24 sp. Eocene—. Brit., France, Chile. Expurna, Lamarck. Ivory-shell. Etym., ebur, ivory. Syn., latrunculus, Gray. La. . MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Type, B. spirata. Pl. V., fig. 11. Shell umbilicated when young ; inner lip callous, spreading and covering the umbilicus of the adult ; opereu/um pointed, nucleus apical. Distr., 9 sp. Red Sea, India, Cape, Japan, China, Australia. Solid, smooth shells, which have usually lost their epidermis, and are pure white, spotted with dark red ; the auimal is spotted like the shell. 14 fms. (Adams.) Nassa, Lam. Dog-whelk. Etym , nassa, a basket used for catching fish. Syn., desmoulinsia and northia, Gray. Type, N. arcularia. PI. V., fig. 15. Sheil like buccinum ; columellar lip callous, expanded, forming a tooth- like projection near the anterior canal. Operc. ovate, nucleus apical. Lingual teeth arched, pectinated; uncini, with a basal tooth. The animal has a broad foot, with diverging horns in front, and two little tails behind. NV. obsoleta (Say) lives within the influence of fresh water and becomes eroded. NV. reticulata, L., is common on the English shores, at low-water, and is called the dog-whelk by fishermen. Distr., 68 sp. Low-water—50 fms. World-wide. Arctic, Tropical and Antarctic Seas. Fossil, 19 sp. Eocene—. Brit., &c., N. America. Sub-genus, cyllene, Gray. C. Oweni, Pl. V., fig. 17. Outer lip with a slight sinus near the canal; sutures channelled. W. Africa, Sooloo Islands, Borneo. Fossil, Miocene, Touraine. Cyclonassa, Swainson. C. neritea, Pl. V., fig. 16. Puos, Montfort. Etym., phos, light. Syn., rhmodomus, Sw. Type, P. senticosus, Pl. V., fig. 18. Sheil like nassa ; cancellated ; outer lip striated internally, with a slight sinus near the canal; columella obliquely grooved. The animal has slender tentacles, with the eyes near their tips. Distr., 30 sp. (Cuming.) Red Sea, Ceylon,, Philippines, Australia, W. America. ? RryeicuLa, Deshayes. Etym., diminutive of ringens, from ringo, to grin. Type, R. ringens, Pl. V., fig. 21. Shell minute, ventricose, with a small spire; aperture notched, columella callous, deeply plaited ; outer lip thickened and reflected. Distr., 4 sp.? Medit., India, Philippines, Gallapagos. Fossil, 9 sp., Miocene—. Brit., France. Ringicula is placed with nassa GASTEROPODA. ita by Mr. Gray, and Mr. S. Wood ; it appears to us very nearly allied to exnulia (=avellana, D’Orb.) in tornatellide. Purpura (Adans), Lam. Purple. Type, P. persica, Pl. VI., fig. 1. Shell striated, imbricated or tuberculated ; spire short; aperture large, slightly notched in front ; inner lip much worn and flattened. Opere. lamellar, nucleus external. Pl. VI., fig. 2. Lingual dentition lke murex erinaceus ; teeth transverse, 3 crested ; uncini small, simple. Many of the purpure produce a fluid which gives a dull crimson dye ; it may be obtained by pressing on the operculum. P. dapil/us abounds on the British coast at low-water, amongst sea-weed; it is very destructive to mussel-beds (Fleming). Distr., 140 sp. W. Indies, Brit., Africa, India, New Zealand, Pacific, Chile, California, Kamschatka. From low-water—25 fathoms. Fossil, 30 sp. Miocene—. Brit., France, &c. Sub-genus. Concholepas, Pavan. C. lepas (Gmelin sp.) Pl. VI, fig. 3. Peru. The only sp. differs from purpura in the size of its aperture, and smallness of the spire. ? Purpurtna (Lycett, 1847). D’Orb. Shell, ventricose, coronated ; spire, short ; aperture, large, scarcely notched in front. Fossil, 9 sp., Bath-oolite. Brit. France. The type, P. rugosa, some- what resembles purpura chocolatum (Duclos), but the genus probably belongs to an extinct group. Monoceros, Lam. Etym., monos, one; ceras, horn. Syn., acanthina, Fischer. Chorus, Gray. Type, M. imbricatum. PI. VI, fig. 4 (Buc. monoceros, Chemn). Shell, like purpura; with a spiral groove on the whirls, ending in a pro- minent spine on the outer lip. This genus is retained on account of its geo- graphical curiosity ; it consists of sp. of purpura, lagena, turbinella, pseudo- liva, &e. ; Distr., 18 sp. W. coast of America. Fossil, tertiary. Chile. M. gigantens (chorus) has the canal produced like fusus. I. eingulatum is a turbinella, and several sp. belong more properly to /agena. PEDICULARIA, Swainson. Type, P. sicula. Pl. VL, fig. 5 (thyreus, Plul.). Shell very small, limpet-like ; with a large aperture, channelled in front, and a minute, lateral spire. Lingual dentition peculiar ; teeth single, hooked, denticulated ; wxcini, 3; 1, four-cusped, 2, 3, elongated, three-spined. 114 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Distr., 1 sp. Sicily, adhering to corals. Closely allied to purpura madreporarum, Sby. Chinese Sea. RicINnuLA, Lam. Ltym., dimunitive of ricinus, the (fruit of the) castor-oil plant. zx., R. arachnoides. Pl. VI., fig. 9 (=murex ricinus L.). Shell, thick, tuberculated, or spiny ; aperture contracted by callous pro- jections on the lips. Opere. as in purpura. Distr. 25 sp. India, China, Philippines, Australia, Pacific. Fossil, 3 sp. Miocene—. France. Pranaxis, Lam. Type, P. sulcata. Pl. VI, fig. 6. Syz., quoyia and leucostoma. Shell, turbinated ; aperture notched in front ; immer lip callous, channel- led behind ; operculum szbspiral (quoyia) or semi-ovate. PI. VL., fig. 7. Distr., 11 sp. W. Indies, Red Sea, Bourbon, India, Pacific, and Peru. Fossil, miocene ? Small coast shells, resembling periwinkles, with which Lamarck placed them. Macitus, Montf., 1810. Syn., campulote, Guettard, 1759. Leptoconchus, Riippell. Type, M. antiquus. Pl. V., figs. 19, 20. Shell, when young, spiral, thin; aperture channelled in front; adult, prolonged into an irregular tube, solid behind; operculum lamellar. Distr., 1 sp.? Red Sea. Mauritius. The magilus lives fixed amongst corals, and grows upwards with the growth of the zoophytes in which it becomes immersed ; it fills the cavity of its tube with solid shell, as it advances. Cassis, Lam. Helmet-shell. Syn., bezoardica, Schum. Levenia, Gray. Cypreecassis, Stutch. Type, C. flammea. Pl. VL, fig. 14. ; Shell, ventricose, with irregular varices; spire, short; aperture long, outer lip reflected, denticulated ; inner lip spread over the body-whirl ; canal sharply recurved. Operculum small, elongated ; nucleus in the middle of the straight inner edge. Distr., 34 sp. Tropical seas; in shallow water. W. Indies, Medit., Africa, China, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific, Mexico. , Fossil, 36 sp. Eocene—. Chile, France. The queen-conch (C. madagascariensis) and other large species, are used in the manufacture of shell cameos, p. 46. The periodic mouths (varices) which are very prominent, are not absorbed internally as the animal grows. OniscrA, Sowerby. Etym., oniscus, a wood louse. Syz., morum, Bolten. GASTEROPODA. 115 Type, O. oniscus ; O. cancellata, pl. VI., fig. 15. Shell, with a short spire, and a long narrow aperture, slightly truncated in front ; outer lip thickened, denticulated; inner lip granulated. Distr., 6 sp. W. Indies, China, Gallapagos. (20 fms.) Fossil, 3 sp. Miocene. CitHara, Schumacher. Eiym., cithara, a guitar. Syn., mangelia, Reeve (not Leach). Type, cancellaria citharella, Lam. (cithara striata, Schum.) Shell, fusiform, polished, ornamented with regular longitudinal iis. aperture linear, truncated in front, slightly notched behind; outer lip mar- gined, denticulated within ; inner lip finely striated. Operc. Distr., above 50 sp. of this pretty little genus were discovered by Mr. Cuming, in the Philippine Islands. CassipariA, Lam. Etym., cassida, a helmet. Syn., morio, Montf. Sconsia, Gray. Type, C. echinophora. Pl. VI., fig. 13. Shell, ventricose ; canal produced, rather bent. No operculum. Distr., 5 sp. Medit. Fossil, 10 sp. Eocene—. Brit., France, &c. Fig. 71.* Doutum, Lam. The tun. Type, D. galea. Pl. VI, fig. 12. Shell, ventricose, spirally furrowed; spire small; aperture very large; outer lip crenated. No operc. Distr., 14 sp. Medit., Ceylon, China, Australia, Pacific. * D. perdix, L.sp. 4 nat. size (after Quoy). Vanicoro, Pacific. The proboscis is exserted, and the siphon recurved over the front of the shell. 116 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Fossil, 7 sp. (?Chalk. Brit.) Mioeene—. S. Europe. Sub-genus, malea, Valenc. (D. personatum) outer lip thickened and denti- culated ; inner lip with callous prominences. Harpa, Lam. MHarp-shell. Type, H. ventricosa. Pl. VI, fig. 11. (Bue. harpa, L.) Shell, ventricose ; with numerous ribs, at regular intervals; spire small ; aperture large, notched in front. No opere.. The animal has a very large foot, with the front crescent-shaped, and divided by deep lateral fissures from the posterior part, which is said to sepa- rate spoutaneously when the animal is irritated. Mostly obtained from deep- water, and soft bottoms. Distr., 9 sp. Mauritius, Ceylon, Philippines, Pacific. Fossil, 4 sp. Hocene—. France. CoLUMBELLA, Lam. Ltym., diminutive of columba, a dove. Type, C. mercatoria. Pl. VI., fig. 10. Shell, small; with a long narrow aperture ; outer lip thickened (especi- ally in the middle), dentated ; inner lip crenulated. Operculum very small, lamellar. Distr., 200 sp. Sub-tropical. W. Indies, Medit., India, Gallapagos, California. Small, prettily-marked shells ; living in shallow water, on sandy flats, or congregating about stones. (Adams.) Fossil, 8 sp. Miocene—. (The Brit. sp. are pisanie). Sub-genus. Columbellina, D’Orb. 4sp. Cretaceous. France, India. Ottva, Lam. Olive, rice-shell. Type, O. porphyria. Pl. VI., fig. 16. Syz., strephona, Brown. Shell, cylindrical, polished ; spire very short, suture channelled; aper- ture long, narrow, notched in front; columella callous, striated obliquely ; body whirl furrowed near the base. No opere. in the typical sp. : Animal, with a very large foot, in which the shell is half immersed; mantle lobes large, meeting over the back of the shell, and giving off filaments which lie in the suture and furrow. The eyes are placed near the tips of the tentacles. The olives are very active animals, and can turn over, when laid on their back ; near low water they may be seen gliding about or burying in the sands as the tide retires ; they may be taken with animal baits, attached to lines. They range downwards to 25 fms, Distr., 117 sp. Sub-tropical, W. and E. America. W. Africa, India, China, Pacific. Fossil, 20 sp. Eocene—. Brit., France, &e. GASTEROPODA. LaF Sub..genera. Olivella, Sw. O. jaspidea, pl. VI., fig. 19. Animal with small, acute frontal lobes. Operc. nucleus sub-apical. Scaphula, Sw. O utriculus, pl. VI., fig. 18. Frontal lobes large, rounded, operculate. Agaronia, Gray. O. hiatula, pl. VI., fig. 17. No eyes or tentacles. Frontal lobes moderate, acute. ANCILLARIA, Lam. Etym., ancilla, a yoaiden. Types, A. subulata, pl. VI., fig. 20. A. glabrata, pl. VI. fig. 21. Shell like oliva; spire produced, and entirely covered with shining enamel. Opere. minute, thin, pointed. Lingual teeth pectinated. Uncini simple, hooked. Animal like oliva; said to use its mantle-lobes for swimming. (D’Orb.) In A. glabrata, a space resembling an wnbilicus, is left between the callous inner lip and the body whirl. Distr., 28 sp. Red Sea, India, Madagascar, Australia, Pacific. Fossil, 21 sp. Hocene—. Brit., France, &c. FAMILY IV. Conips, Cones. Shell inversely conical; aperture long and narrow ; outer lip notched at or near the suture; operculum minute, lamellar. Animal, foot oblong, truncated in front; with a conspi- cuous (aquiferous?) pore in the middle. Head produced. Tentacles far apart. Eyes on the tentacles. Gills 2. Lin- gual teeth (wncini ?) in pairs, elongate, subulate, or hastate. Conus, L. Cone-shell. Types, C. marmoreus, pl. VIL., fig. 1. C. geographicus, antediluvianus, &c. Shell conical, tapering regularly ; spire short, many-whirled ; columella smooth, truncated in front; outer lip notched at the suture; operculum pointed, nucleus apical. Distr., 269 sp. All tropical seas. Medit., 2; Africa, 23; Red Sea, 5 ; Asia, 124; Australia, 16; Pacific, 25; Gallapagos, 3; W. America, 20; W. Indies and Brazil, 21. Fossil, 80 sp. Chalk—. Brit., France, India, &c. The cones range northward as far as the Mediterranean, and southward to the Cape ; but are most abundant and varied in equatorial seas. They inhabit fissures and holes of rocks, and the warm and shallow pools inside coral-reefs, ranging from low water to 30 and 40 fathoms ; they move slowly, and some- times (C. aulicus) bite when handled; they are all predatory. (Adams.) Sub-genus. Conorbis, Sw. C. dormitor, Pl. VII., fig. 2. Hocene—. _Brit., France. * Fig. 72. Lingual teeth of bela turricula (after Lovén). Fig. 72.* 118 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. PiLevrotoma, Lam. Etym., pleura, the side, and toma, a notch. Syn., turris, Humph. Types, P. Babylonica, Pl. VIL., fig. 3. P. mitreeformis, &e. Shell fusiform, spire elevated ; canal long and straight ; outer lip with a deep slit near the suture. Operculum pointed, nucleus apical. Distr., 430 sp. World-wide. Greenland, Brit., 17; Medit., 19; Africa, 15; Red Sea and India, 6; China, 90; Australia, 15; Pacific, 0? W. America, 52; W. Indies and Brazil, 20. The typical sp. about 20 (China, 16; W. America, 4.) Low water to 100 fathoms. Fossil, 300 sp. Chalk—. Brit., France, &c. Chile. Sub-genera. Drillia, Gray. D. umbilicata, canal short. Clavatula, Lam., canal short, opere. pointed, nucleus in the middle of the inner edge. C. mitra, Pl. VIL, fig. 4. Tomella, Sw., canal long ; inner lip callous near suture. T. lineata. ? Clionella, Gray. C. sinuata, Born sp. (= P. buccinoides) freshwaters, Africa. Mangelia, Leach, (not Reeve). Apertural slit at the suture ; no operc., M. teeniata, Pl. VII., fig. 5. Greenland, Brit., Medit. Bela, Leach. Opere. nucleus apical. B. turricula, Pl. VII., fig. 6. | Defrancia, Millet,* no opere. JD. linearis, Pl. VIL, fig. 7. ? Lachesis, Risso, L. minima, Pl. VII., fig. 8, apex mammillated ; opere. — claw-shaped. Medit., S. Brit. In shallow water. Daphnella, Hinds. D. marmorata. New Guinea. (Bue. junceum. L. clay). FAMILY V. Votutipa. Shell turreted, or convolute ; aperture notched in front; columella ob- | liquely plaited. No operculum. Fig. 73.+ Animal with a recurved siphon ; foot very large partly hiding the shell ; * According to Mr. S. Hanley, Defrancia is synonymous with Mangelia. j Fig. 73. V. undulata, Lam. 3 Australia (from Quoy and Gaimard), y 3 ‘ et oe, ee q mantle often lobed and reflected over the shell; eyes on the tentacles, or near their base. Lingual ribbon linear ; rachis toothed ; pleure unarmed. GASTEROPODA. 1G Vontuta, L. Volute. _ Type, V. musica, Pl. VIL, fig. 9. Syz., cymbiola, harpula, Sw. Volutella, D’Orb. Scapha, &c., Gray. Shell ventricose, thick ; spire short, apex mammillated ; aperture large, deeply notched in front; columella with several plaits. V. musica and a few others have a small operculum. Animal, eyes on lobes at the base of the tentacles ; siphon with a lobe on each side, at its base; lingual teeth 3 cusped. V. vespertilio and hebrea fill the nuclei of their spires with solid shell. V. brasiliana forms nidamental capsules 3 inches long. (D’Orb.) In V. angulata the mantle is produced into a lobe on the left side, and overlaps the shell. Distr., 70 sp. W. Indies, Cape Horn, W. Africa, Australia, Java, Chili. Fossil, 80 sp. Chalk—. India, Brit., France, &c. Sub-genera. Volutilithes, Sw. Spire pointed, many-whirled, columella plaits indistinct. V. spinosus, Pl. VII., fig. 10. Living, 1 sp. (V. abyssicola), dredged at 132 fathoms; off the Cape. (Adams). ; ; Fossi/, Kocene. Brit., Paris. Scaphella, Sw. Fusiform, smooth. Ex., V. magellanica. Fossil, V. Lamberti, Crag, Suffolk. Melo, Brod. Large, oval; spire short. Type, M. diadema, Pl. VIL, fig. 11. New Guinea, 8 sp. Cympa, Broderip. Boat-shell. ~ Syn., Yetus (Adans.) Gray. - Type, C. proboscidalis, Pl. VII., fig. 12, and fig. 74 (= V. cymbium, L.) Shell like voluta; nucleus large and globular ; Whirls few, angular, forming a flat ledge round the nucleus. The foot of the animal is very large, aud deposits \\ athin enamel over the under side of the shell, It is ovo-viviparous, and the young animal is very large When born; the zclews becomes partly concealed by the growth of the shell. Distr., 10 sp. W. Africa, Lisbon. . Mirra, Lam. Mitre-shell. Syn., turris, Montf. Zierliana, Gray, Tiara, ‘ Sw, Fig. 74. Cymba. { 120 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Types, M. episcopalis, Pl. VII., fig. 13. M. vulpecula, fig. 14, : Shell fusiform, thick ; spire elevated, acute; aperture small, notched in — front ; columella obliquely plaited ; operculum very small. The animal has a very long proboscis; it emits a purple liquid, having a nauseous odour, when irrritated. The eyes are placed on the tentacles, or at their base. Range, from low water to 15 fathoms, more rarely in 15—80 fathoms. ri Distr., 350 sp. Philippines, India, Red Sea, Medit., W. Africa, Green- land (i sp.), Pacific, W. America. The extra-tropical species are minute. — M. Greenlandica and M. cornea (Medit. sp.) are found together in the latest British Tertiaries (Forbes.) Fossil, 90 sp. Chalk—. India, Brit., France, &c. Sub-genera. Imbricaria, Schum. (conelix, Sw.) Shell, cone-shaped. I. conica, Pl. VII., fig. 15. Cylindra, Schum. (Mitrella, Sw.) Shell, olive-shaped. C. crenulata, Pl. VII., fig. 16. Votyaria, Lam. Etym., volva, a wrapper. Type, V. bulloides, Pl. VIL, fig. 17. Shell cylindrical, convolute; spire minute; aperture long and narrow : columella with 3 oblique plaits in front. f Fossil, 5? sp. Eocene. Brit., France. MarGIneLLA, Lam. Etym., diminutive of margo, a rim. os Syn., porcellana (Adans.) Gray. Persicula, Schum. ; Types, M. nubeculata, Pl. VII, fig. 18. M. persicula, fig. 19. Sheil, smooth, bright; spire short or concealed; aperture truncated i front; columella plaited; outer lip (of adult) with a thickened marge : Animal similar to cyprea. “ Distr., 90 sp. Tropical, W. Indies, Brazil, Medit. (1 small sp.) we Africa, China, Australia. q Fossil, 30 sp. Eocene—. France, &c. A Sub-genus. Hyalina, Schum. Outer lip scarcely thickened. Type, voluta pallida, Mont., W. Indies. FAMILY VI. Cypraip%. Cowries. Shell convolute, enamelled; spire concealed; aperture narrow, channelled at each end; outer lip (of adult) thickened, inflected. No operculum. Animal with a broad foot, truncated in front; mantle expanded on each side, forming lobes, which meet over the back of the shell; these lobes are usually ornamented with tentacular filaments; eyes on the middle of the ten- tacles or near their base; branchial plume single. Lingual ribbon long, — GASTEROPODA. Tot rtly contained in the visceral cavity ; rachis 1 toothed ; unemi 3. The mies inhabit shallow water, near shore, feeding on zoophytes. ; Crprma, L. Cowry. Eiym., Cypris, a name of Venus. _ Types, C. tigris, C. mauritiana, Pl. VII., fig. 20. : Shell ventricose, convolute, covered with shining enamel; spire concealed ; aperture long and narrow, with a short canal at each end; inner lip crenulated; outer lip inflected. and crenulated. (Lingual wacini similar). The young shell has a thin and sharp outer lip, a prominent spire, and is covered with a thin epidermis, fig. 75. When full- grown the mantle lobes expand on each side, and deposit a shining enamel over the whole shell, by which the spire is entirely concealed. There is usually a line of paler colour which indicates where the mantle lobes met. Cy- Cyprea, : Li young.* prea annulus is used by the Asiatic Islanders to adorn their dress, to weight their fishing-nets, and for barter. Fig. 76. Specimens of it were found by Dr. Layard in the ruins of Nimroud, 77: The money-cowrey (C. moneta) is also a native of the Pacific and Eastern Seas; many tons weight of this little shell are annually imported into this country, and again exported for barter with the native tribes of Western Africa; in the year 1848 sixty tons of the money-cowry were imported into liverpool ; and in 1849 nearly three hundred tons were brought to the same place, according to the statement of Mr. Archer in the Industrial Exhibition. Mr. Adams observed the pteropodous fry of C. annulus, at Singapore, adhering i masses to the mautle of the parent, or swimming in rapid gyrations, or with abrupt jerking movements by means of their cephalic fins. Distr., 150 sp. In all warm seas (except E. coast S. America®) but ‘most abundant in those of the old world. On reefs and under rocks water. 4 Fossil, 78 sp. Chalk—. India, Brit., France, &e. Sub-genera. Cyprovula, Gray. C. capensis, Pl. VIL, fig. 21. Aper- al plaits continued regularly over the margin of the canal. ~ Luponia, Gray. C, algoénsis, Pl. VII, fig. 22. Inner lip irregularly aited in front. at low * Fig. 75. Cyprea testudinaria, L., young, China. + Fig. 76. Trivia europea, Mont. From the “British Mollusca,” by Messrs. bes and Hanley. G 122 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Trivia, Gray. C. europea, Pl. VII., fig. 23; fig. 76, and 15, B. Small shells with strize extending over the back. (Uncinz; 1st denticulate 2, 3, simple.) Distr., 30 sp. Greenland, Brit., W. Indies, Cape, Australia, Pacific, W. America. Erato, Risso. Ltym., Erato, the muse of love-songs and mimicry. Type, HE. levis, Pl. Vil., fig. 24. Shell minute; like marginella ; lips minutely crenulated. Animal, like trivia. Distr., 8 sp. Brit., Medit., W. Indies, China. Fossil, 2 sp. Miocene—. France, Brit. (Crag.) Ovutum, Lam. Etym., dimunitive of ovwm, an egg. Syz., amphiceras, Gronov. Types, O. ovum, pl. VIL., fig. 25. O.gibbosa and verrucosa. Shell, like cyprea; wner lip smooth. Distr., 36 sp. Warm seas. W. Indies, Brit., Medit. China, W. America. Fossil, 11 sp. Eocene—. France, &e. Sub-genus, calpurna, Leach.’ O. volva (“ The weaver’s shuttle’). Aper- ture produced into a long canal at each end. Foot narrow, adapted for walking on the round stems of the gorgonie, &c., on which it feeds. C. patula inhabits the S. coast of Britain, it is very thin, and has a sharp outer lip. SECTION B. Hotosromata. Sea-Snails. Shell, spiral or limpet shaped; rarely tubular or multivalve: margin of the aperture entire. Operculum, horny or shelly, usually spiral. Animal with a short non-retractile muzzle; respiratory siphon wanting, or formed by a lobe developed from the neck (fig. 61), gills pectinated or plume-like, placed obliquely across the back, or attached to the right side of the neck; neck and sides frequently ornamented with lappets and tentacular filaments. Marine or fresh-water. Mostly phytophagous.* FAMILY I. Naticr2. Shell, globular, few-whirled ; spire small, obtuse; aperture, semi-lunar; lip, acute; pillar often callous. Animal, with a long retractile proboscis ; lingual ribbon linear ; rachis, 1 toothed ; wzcinz, 3 (similar to trivia, fig. 15, B.) ; foot very large ; mantle-lobes largely developed, hiding more or less of the shell. Species all marine. * These ‘ sections” are not very satisfactory, but they are better than any others yet proposed, and they are convenient, on account of the great extent of the order proso-branchiata. Natica and scalaria have a retractile proboscis. Pirena has notched aperture, and aporrhais, a canal. GASTEROPODA. 123 Natica (Adans.), Lamarck. Syn., mammilla, Schm. Cepatia, Gray. Nacca, Risso. Type, N. canrena, Pl. VIIL., fig. 1. Shell, thick, smooth; inner lip callous; umbilicus large, with a spiral eallus ; epidermis thin, polished ; operculum sub-spiral. Animal blind ; tentacles connate with a head veil ; front of the large foot provided with a fold (mentum), reflected upon and protecting the head ; operc. lobe large, covering part of the shell; jaws horny ; lingual ribbon short ; branchial plume single. The coloured markings of the natice are very indestructible; they are frequently preserved on fossils. The natice frequent sandy and gravelly bot- toms, ranging from low water to 90 fathoms (Forbes). They are carnivorous, feeding on the smaller bivalves (Gould), and are themselves devoured by the cod and haddock. Their eggs are agglutinated into a broad and short spiral band, very slightly attached, and resting free on the sands. Distr. 90 sp. Arctic seas, Brit., Medit., Caspian, India, Australia, China, Panama, W. Indies. Fossil, 260 sp. Devonian—. 8. America, N. America, Europe, India. Sub-genera, naticopsis, M‘Coy. N. Phillipsii. Shell imperforate ; inner lip very thick, spreading. Opere. shelly (Brit. Mus.). Carb. limestone, 7 sp. Operculum, horny. Neverita, Risso. N. Alderi. Fig. 77. LIunatia, Gray. N. Ampullaria. Perforation simple; epidermis dull, olivaceous. Northern seas. Globulus, J. Sby. (Deshayesia,t Raulin ; Ampullina, Desh. not Bl.) N. Sigaretina. Pl. VII, fig. 2. Umbilicus narrow (rimate), lined by a thin callus. Fossi/, eocene. Brit., Paris. Polinices, Montf., (naticella Guild.) N. mammilla. Shell oblong ; callus very large, filling the umbilicus. Cernina, Gray. N. fluctuata. Pl. VIIL., fig. 3. Globular, imperforate ; inner lip callous, covering part of the body whirl. Naticella, Miller. 19 sp. Fossil, Trias, S. Cassian. * Fig. 77. Natica Alderi, Forbes. From an original drawing, communicated by Joshua Alder, Esq. t Deshayesia was founded on a specimen v ith prominences on the pillar. G 2 124 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Srearetus (Adans.), Lamarck. Syi., cryptostoma, Bl. Stomatia, Browne. Type, §. haliotoides. Pl. VIII, fig. 4. Shell, striated ; ear-shaped; spire minute; aperture very wide, oblique — (not pearly). Operculum minute, horny, sub-spiral. : The flat species are entirely concealed by the mantle when living; the convex shells only partially, and they have a yellowish epidermis. The ante-— rior foot lobe (mentum) is enormously developed. ; Distr., 26 sp. W. Indies, India, China, Peru. Fossil, 10 sp. Eocene—. Brit., France, S. America. y Sub-genus, naticina, Gray. N. papilla, pl. VIIL., fig. 3. Shell ventricose, — thin, perforated. W. Indies, Red Sea, China, N. Australia, Tasmania Eocene, Paris. ' LAMELLARIA, Montagu. Etym., lamella, a thin plate. Syz., marsenia, Leach. Coriocella, Bl. Type, L. perspicua. Pl. VIII, fig. 6. Sheil ear-shaped; thin, pellucid, fragile; spire very small; aperture large, patulous ; inner lip receding. No operc. Animal much larger than the shell, which is entirely concealed by th reflected margins of the mantle ; mantle non-retractile, notched in front ; eyes at the outer bases of the tentacles. Lingual wzeimz 3, similar; or one very large. : Distr., 5 sp. Norway, Brit., Medit., New Zealand, Philippines. Fossil, 2 sp. Miocene—. Brit. (Crag.) Nanrica, Recluz. Syn., vanicoro, Quoy. Merria, Gray. Leucotis, Sw. Type, N. cancellata. Pl. VIIL., fig. 8. . Shell thin, white, with a velvety epidermis; ribbed irregularly, and spi- rally striated; axis perforated. Operc. very small, thin. 4 Animal, eyes at the outer base of the tentacles; foot with wing-like lobes. j Distr., 6 sp. W. Indies, Nicobar, Vanikoro, Pacific. Fossil, 4 sp. Gault— (D’Orb.) Brit., France. VELUTINA, Fleming. Etym., velutinus, velvety (from vellus, a fleece). Type, V. levigata. Pl. VIII., fig. 7. Shell thin ; with a velvety epidermis; spire small; suture deep; aperture very large, eater peristome continuous, thin. No opere. Animal with a large oblong foot; margin of the mantle developed al yound, and more or less reflected over the shell; gills 2; head broad; tentacles subulate, blunt, far apart ; eyes on prominences at their outer bases. Carni- | vorous. Lingual dentition like trivia (fig. 15, B.). GASTEROPODA. 125 Distr.,4 sp. Britain, Norway, N. America, Icy sea to Kamtschatka, ing on stones near low water, and ranging to 30 fms. Fossil, 3 sp. Miocene—. Brit. Sub-genus. Otina (Gray). V. otis. Sheld minute, ear shaped. Animal like velutina, but with a simple mantle, and very short tentacles. W. and §. W. Brit. coast ; inhabiting chinks of rocks, between tide-marks (Forbes). FAMILY II. Pyrammetyiipa. _ Shell spiral, turreted ; nucleus minute, sinistral ; aperture small; columella sometimes with one or more prominent plaits, Opercudwm horny, imbricated, nuelas internal. Animal with broad ear-shaped tentacles, often connate; eyes behind the tentacles, at their bases; proboscis retractile; foot truncated in front; ton- gue unarmed. Species all marine. Several genera of fossil shells are provisionally placed in this order, from their resemblance to evlima and chemnitzia.* a usually placed in or near this family, is opestho-branchiate. PYRAMIDELLA, Lam. Etym., dimunitive of pyramis, a pyramid. Syn., obeliscus, Humph. (P. dolabrata. PI. VIIL, fig. 11.) Type, P. auris-cati. Pl. VIIL., fig. 10. Shell slender, pointed, with numerous plaited or level whirls; apex sinis- tral; columella with several plaits ; lip sometimes furrowed internally. Opere. indented on the inner side to adapt it to the columellar plaits. The shell of the typical pyramidelle bears some resemblance to cancellaria. Distr., 11 sp. W. Indies, Mauritius, Australia. Fossil, 12 sp. Chalk ?—. France, Brit. OpostomiA, Fleming, 1824, Htym., odous, a tooth, and stoma, mouth. Type, O. plicata, Pl. VIIT., fig. 12. Shell subulate or ovate, smooth ; apex sinistral; aperture ovate; peristome not continuous ; columella with a single tooth-like fold; lip thin; operculum horny, indented on the inner side. Distr, sp. Brit., Medit., Red Sea, Australia. Fossil, 15 sp.2> Eocene—. Brit., France. Very minute and smooth shells, having the habit of rissoe, and like them sometimes found in brackish water. They range from low water to 40 fms. The animal is undistinguishable from chemnitzia. * “The Pyramidellide present subjects of much interest to the student of extinct Mollusca; numerous forms, bearing all the aspect of being members of this family, “Occur among the fossils of even the oldest stratified rocks. Many of them are gigantic Compared with existing species, and the group, as a whole, may be regarded, rather @8 appertaining to past ages than the present epoch.” (Forbes.) 126 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. CuemnitziA, D’Orbigny. Etym., named in honour of Chemnitz, a distinguished conchologist of Nuremburg, who published seven volumes in continuation of Martini’s “ Con- chylien- Cabinet,” 1780-95. Syn., turbonilla, Risso. Parthenia, Lowe. Pyramis and Jaminea, Br. Monoptigma, Gray. Amoura, Moller. Type, C. elegantissima. Pl. VIII., fig. 13. Shell slender, elongated, many-whirled; whirls plaited; apex sinistral ; aperture simple; ovate; peristome incomplete; operculum horny, sub-spiral. Animal, head very short, furnished with a long, retractile proboscis ; ten- tacles triangular; eyes immersed at the inner angles of the tentacles ; oa truncated in front, with a distinct mentum. . Distr., Brit. (4 sp.), Norway, Medit. Probably world-wide. Range from low water to 90 fms. Fossil, 180 sp. Permian—. Brit., France, &c. The “ melanie” of the secondary rocks are provisionally referred to this genus. Those of the paleozoic strata to oxonema. Sub-genus. Eulimella, Forbes. E. scillee, Scacchi. 4 Brit. sp. Shell smooth and polished ; columella simple; apex sinistral. Evutma, Risso, 1826. FEtym., eulimia, ravenous hunger. Syz., pasithea, Lea. Tyne, BH. polita. Pl. VIIL., fig. 14. Shell small, white, and polished; slender, elongated, with numerous level whirls; obscurely marked on one side by a series of periodic mouths, which form prominent ribs internally; apex acute; aperture oval, pointed above; outer lip thickened internally ; inner lip reflected over the pillar. Operculum horny, sub-spiral. Animal, tentacles subulate, close, with the eyes immersed at their poste- rior bases; proboscis long, retractile; foot truncated in front, mentum bi- lobed ; opere. lobe winged on each side; branchial plume single ; mantle with a rudimentary siphonal fold. The eulimze creep with the foot much in advance of the head, which is usually concealed within the aperture, the tentacles only protruding. (Forbes.) Distr., 15 sp. Brit., Medit., India, Australia, Pacific. In 5—90 fms. water. Fossil, 40 sp. Carb.?—. Brit., France, &e. . Sub-genus. Niso, Risso (=Bonellia, Desh.}. N. terebellatus, Lam. sp. Axis perforated. Fossil, 3 sp. Eocene—. Paris. Distr, 5 sp. China, W. America (Cuming). \ Sryzina, Fleming. Er., S. astericola. PI. VIIT., fig. 15. (Syn. stylifer, Brod.) GASTEROPODA. 127 Shell, hyaline, globular or subulate, apex tapering, styliform, nucleus sinistral. Animal with slender, cylindrical tentacles, and small sessile eyes at their outer bases; mantle thick, reflected over the last whirls of the shell; foot large, with a frontal lobe. Branchial plume single. Attached to the spines of sea-urchins, or immersed in living star fishes and corals. Distr., 6 sp. W. Indies, Brit., Philippines, Gallapagos. LoXONEMA, Phillips. Etym., loxos, oblique, and nema, thread ; in allusion to the striated sur- face of many species. Shell elongated, many-whirled ; aperture simple, attenuated above, effused below, with a sigmoidal edge to the outer lip. Fossil, 75 sp. LL. silurian—Trias. N. America, Europe. MacrocHEILws, Phillips. Etym., macros, long, and cheilos, lip. Shell, thick, ventricose, buccinoid ; aperture simple, effuse below; outer lip thin, inner lip wanting, columella callous, slightly tortuous. Type, M. arculatus, Schlotheim sp. Devonian. Hifel. Fossil, 12 sp. Devonian—Carboniferous. Brit., Belgium. FAMILY III. Crriraiap#. Cerites. Shell spiral, elongated, many-whirled, frequently varicose ; aperture chan- nelled in front, with a less distinct posterior canal; lip generally expanded in the adult ; operculum horny and spiral. Animal with a short muzzle, not retractile; tentacles distant, slender ; eyes on short pedicels, connate with the tentacles; mantle-margin with a rudimentary siphonal fold; tongue armed with a single series of median teeth, and three laterals or uncini; marine, estuary, or fresh-water. Creriraium (Adans.). Bruguiere. Etym., ceration, a small horn. Type., C. nodulosum. Pi. VIIL., fig. 16. Shell turreted, many-whirled, with indistinct varices; aperture small, with a tortuous canal in front; outer lip expanded; inner lip thickened. Operculum horny, paucispiral. Pl. VIII, fig. L6*: Distr., above 100 sp. World-wide, the typical species tropical. Norway, Brit., Medit., W. Indies, India, Australia, China, Pacific, Gallapagos. Fossil. 460 sp. Trias—. Brit., France, U. States, &c. Sub-genera. Rhinoclavis, Sw. C. vertagus. Canal long, bent abruptly operc., sub-spiral. Bittium, Leach. C. reticulatum, Pl. VIIT., fig. 17. Small northern species, ranging from low-water to 80 fathoms. 128 ; MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA, %, Triphoris, Deshayes. C. perversum, Pl. VIII, fig. 18. 30 sp. Norway —Australia. Fossil. Eocene—. Brit., France. Shell sinistral; anterior aud posterior canals tubular. The third canal is only accidentally present, forming part of a varix. 4 Cerithiopsis, Forbes. C. tuberculare, Brit. Shell like bitin P proboscis. retractile ; operculum pointed, nucleus apical. Range 4—40 fms. # PoramipEs, Brongniart. Fresh-water Cerites. Liym., potamos, a river, and eidos, species. Type., P. Lamarckii, Brong. (= Cerit. tuberculatum, Brard.) fiz., P. mixtus. Pl. VIII, fig. 19. 7 Syn., tympanotomus, Klein, C. fuscatum, Africa. Pirenella, Risso, G ) mamumillatum, Pl. VIII, fig. 22. | Shell like cerithium, but without varices, in the = , numerous typical fossil species; epidermis thick, olive- brown; operculum orbicular, many-whizled. ; Distr., old world only? Africa, India. In the mud » of the Thos they are mixed with sp. of ampullaria } venus, purpura, vulsella, &e. (Major W. E. Baker.) i Fossil (sp. included with cerithium) Eocene—. : Europe. Sub-genera. Cerithidea. Sw., C. decollata, Pl. VIIL, + fig. 24. Aperture rounded: lip expanded, flattened. Inhabit salt-marshes, mangrove swamps, and the mouths of rivers; they are so commonly out of the water as to have teen taken for land-shells. My. Adams notie them in the fresh-waters of the interior of Boreal creeping on pontederia and sedges; they often suspend themselves by glutinous threads, fig. 78. Distr. India, Ceylon, Singapore, Borneo, Pte nee! Port Essington. — Terebralia, Sw. Cerith, Telescopium, Pl. VIIL., fig. 21. A Shell pyramidal ; columella with a prominent fold, more or less continuous: towards the apex ; and a second, less distinct, on the basal front of the whisls (as in zerinea, fig. 79). India, N. Australia. T. telescopium is so abundant near Calcutta, as to be used for burning into lime ; great heaps of it are first exposed to the sun, to kill the animals. They ae been brought alive to England (Bensen). Pyrazus, Montf. Cerit, palustre, Pl. VIIL., fig. 20. Shell with numerous indistinct varices ; ead straight, often tobplarg outer lip expanded. ‘India, N. Australia. Cerith radulum and granulatum of the W. African rivers approach very nearly the fossil potamides, but they have numerous varices. Fig. 78. Cerithidea.* * C. obtusa, Lam. sp. copied from Adams. GASTEROPODA. i 128 » Lampania, Gray (batillaria, Cantor). Cerith, zonale. Pl. VIII., fig. 23. Shell without varices, canal straight. Chusan. The fossil potamides decussatus, Brug., of the Paris basin, resembles this section, and retains its spiral red bands. * NerinazA, Defrance. Hiym., nereis, 2 sea-nymph. iz., N. trachea. Fig. 79. Shell elongated, many-whirled, nearly cylindrical ; aperture channelled in front; interior with continuous ridges on the co- lumella and whirls. Fossil, 150 sp. Inf. oolite—U. chalk. Brit., France, Ger- many, Spain, and Portugal. They are most abundant, and attain the largest size to the south; and usually occur in calcarious strata, associated with shallow-water shells. (Sharpe.) Sub-genera. 1. Nerinea. Folds simple: 2—3 on the co lumella ; 1—2 on the outer wall; columella solid, or perforated. Above 50 sp. 2. Nerinella (Sharpe), columella solid; folds simple; co- lumellar, O—1; outer wall 1. 8. Trochalia (Sharpe), columella perforated, with one fold ; outer wall simple, or thickened, or with one fold ; folds simple. 4, Ptygmatis (Sharpe), columella solid or perforated, usually with 3 folds; outer wall with 1—3 folds, some of them com- plicated in form. . Fig. 79.* ? FASTIGIELLA, Reeve. Type., ¥. carinata, Reeve. Shell like turritella ; aperture with a short canal in front (Mus., Cuming, and Brit. M.). AporrHAIS, Aldrovandus. Etym., aporrhais (Aristotle) “‘spout-shell’? from aporrheo, to flow away. Syn., chenopus Philippi. Type, A. pes-pelecani. PI. IV., fig. 7, and fig. 80. Shell with an elongated spire; whirls numerous, tuberculated ; aperture narrow, with a short canal in front ; outer lip of the adult expanded and lobed or digitated ; operc. pointed, lamellar. Animal with a short broad muzzle ; tentacles cylindrical, bearing the eyes on prominences near their bases, outside; foot short, angular in front ; * Fig. 79. Nerinzea trachea, Desl., partly ground down to shew the form of the interior. Bath oolite, Ranville. Communicated by John Morris, Esq. G3 130 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. branchial plume single, long; lingual ribbon linear; teeth single, hooked, denticulated ; uncini 3, the first transverse, 2 and 3 claw-shaped. Fig. 80.* Distr., 3 sp. Labrador, Norway, Brit., Medit. W. Africa. Range,— 100 fms. ' Fossil ; see Pteroceras and Rostellaria ; above 200 species, ranging from the lias to the chalk, probably belong to this genus, or to genera not yet ) constituted. STRUTHIOLARIA, Lam. Etym., struthio, an ostrich (-foot), from the form of its aperture. Type, S. straminea, Pl. IV., fig. 6. Shell turreted; whirls angular; aperture truncated in front; columella very oblique ; outer lip prominent in the middle, reflected and thickened in the adult; inner lip callous, expanded; operculum claw-shaped, curved in-~ wards, with a projection from the outer, concave edge. Animal with an elongated muzzle? tentacles “eyinaeeale eye-pedicels short, adnate with the tentacles, externally ; foot broad and short. (Kiener.) Distr., 5 sp. Australia and New Zealand; where alone it occurs sub- fossil. FAMILY IV. MeELantap2. Shell spiral, turreted; with a thick, dark epidermis; aperture often channelled, or notched in front; outer lip acute; operculum horny, spiral. The spire is often extensively croded by the acidity of the water in which the animals live. Animal with a broad non-retractile muzzle; tentacles distant, subulate ; eyes on short stalks, united to the outer sides of fhe tentacles ; foot broad and short, angulated in front; mantle-margin fringed; tongue fone and linear, with a median and 3 lateral series of hooked fat cuspid teeth. Often viviparous. Inhabiting fresh-water lakes and rivers throughout the warmer parts of the world. Only fossil in Britain. * Fig. 80. Aporrhais pes-pelecani, L., from a drawing by Joshua Alder, Esq., n the ‘British Moliusca.” GASTEROPODA. 131 Metania, Lam. Etym., Melama, blackness (from melas). Type, M. amarula. Pi. VIIL., fig. 25. Syn. Thiara, Megerle. Pyrgula, Crist. Shell turreted, apex acute (unless eroded) ; whirls ornamented with strize or spines ; aperture oval, pointed above: outer lip sharp, sinuous ; operculum subspiral. Pl. VIIL,, fig. 25*. Distr., 160 sp. S. Europe, India, Philippines, Pacific Islands. Distinct groups in the southern states of N. America. Fossil, 25 sp. Hocene—. Europe (v. chemnitzia). Sub-genera. Melanatria, Bowdich. M. fluminea* Pl. VIII, fig. 26. Aperture somewhat produced in front ; operculum with rather numerous whirls. This section includes some of the largest sp. of the genus, and is well typified by the fossil, M. Sowerbii (cerit. melanoides, Sby.) of the Woolwich sands. Old World, India, Philippines. Vibex, Oken, V. fuscatus, Pl. VIII, fig. 29. V. auritus. W. Africa. Whirls spirally ridged, or muricated ; aperture broadly channelled in front. Ceriphasia, Sw., C. sulcata. N. America. Aperture like vibex ; slightly notched near the suture. Hemisinus, Sw., H. lineolatus. W. Indies. Aperture channelled in front. Melafisus, Sw. (Io, Lea. Glottella, Gray.) M. fluviatilis. Pl. Wilt: fig. 27. U. States. Aperture produced into a spout in front. Melatoma, Authony (not Sw.) M. altilis. Shell like anculotus; with a deep slit at the suture. U. States. Anculotus, Say. A. premorsus. Pl. VHUL., fig. 28. Shell globular ; spire very short ; outer lip produced. U. States. Amnicola, Anthony. A. isogona. Pl. IX., fig. 23. U. States. ? Pachystoma, Gray. M. marginata, Eocene. Paris. Peristome thick- ened externally, all round. PALUDOMUS, Swainson. Etym., palus, a marsh, and domus, home. Syn., tanalia, Gray. Hemimitra, Sw. Type, P. aculeatus, Gm. sp. Pl, IX., fig. 34. Shell, turbinated, smooth or muricated; with wavy stains beneath the olive epidermis ; spire small, usually eroded ; opere. horny, lamellar, nucleus external. Animal like melania; mantle-margin fringed (Kydoux). Distr., 10 sp. Ceylon (Himalaya ?) in the mountain-streams, sometimes at an elevation of 6,000 feet. The Himalayan sp. (melania conica, Gray, * This is a good section of melania, but Mr. Gray’s type does not well represent it, being more like a pirena in the form of its aperture. see 132 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. hemimitra retusa, Sw., and several others), referred to this genus, have a concentric operculum, like paludina. Metanopsis, Lam. Types, M. buccinoides, M. costata. Pl. VIII, fig. 30. Shell ; body-whirl elongated ; spire short and pointed ; aperture distinctly notched in front; inner lip callous; operculum sub-spiral. Distr., 20 sp. Spain, Asia Minor, New Zealand. Fossil, 25 sp. Eocene—. Europe. Sub-genus. Piréna, Lam. (faunus, Montf.) P. atra. Pl. VIIL, fig. 31. Spire elongated, many whirled; outer lip of the adult produced. Distr., 4 sp.? §. Africa, Madagascar, Ceylon, Philippines. FAMILY V. TurrireLuip2. Shell tubular, or spiral; upper part partitioned off; aperture simple; operculum horny, many-whirled. Animal with a short muzzle; eyes immersed, at the outer bases of the tentacles; mantle-margin fringed ; foot very short ; branchial plume single; tongue armed. TURRITELLA, Lam. Etym., diminutive of turris, a tower. Syn., terebellum, torcula, zaria and eglisia, Gray. Type, T. imbricata. Pl. IX., fig. 1. Shell elongated, many-whirled, spirally striated ; aperture rounded, mar- gin thin; operculum horny, many-whirled ; with a fimbriated margin. Animal with long, subulate tentacles; eyes slightly prominent; foot” truncated in front, rounded behind, grooved beneath ; branchial plume very — long ; lingual ribbon minute; median teeth hooked, denticulated ; uncini 3, serrulated. Carnivorous ? Distr., 50 sp. World-wide. Ranging from the Laminarian Zone to 100 fms. W. Indies, U. States, Brit. (1 sp.), Iceland, Medit., W. Africa, China, Australia, W. America. Fossil, 170 sp., Neocomian—. Brit. &c., S. America, Australia. Sub-genera. Proto, Defr., P. cathedralis, Pl. IX., fig. 3, aperture trun-— cated below. Mesalia, Gray, M. sulcata (var.) Pl. IX., fig. 2. Greenland—S. Africa. Fossil, Kocene. Brit., France. ? Actis, Lovén. Etym., 4, without, klezs, a projection. Syn., alvania, Leach (not Risso). Type, A. perforatus, Mont. Pl. IX., fig. 4. Shell minute, like turritella ; spirally striated; aperture oval; outer lip prominent ; axis slightly rimate; operculate. cna GASTEROPODA. 128 _ Animal with a long retractile proboscis ; tentacles close together, slender, inflated at the tips; eyes immersed at the bases of the tentacles; operc. lobe ample, unsymmetrical ; foot truncated in front. Ranges to 80 fathoms water. 3 Brit. sp. Norway. Fossil. ? sp., Miocene—. Brit. (Crag). Cacum, Fleming. Syz., corniculina, Mister. Brochus, Bronn. Odontidium, Phil. Type, C. trachea, Pl. IX, fig. 5. Young sp., fig. 6. Shell at first discoidal, becoming decollated when adult ; tubular, cylindri- eal, arched ; aperture round, entire; apex closed by a mammillated septum. Opere. horny, many-whirled. Lingual teeth, 0; uncini, 2, the inner broad and serrulated. Distr., Brit., 2 sp., 10 fathoms. Medit. Fossil, 4 sp. Hocene—. Brit., Castelarquato. Vermetus, Adanson. Worm-shell. | Syn., siphonium, Gray. Serpuloides, Sassi. Types, V. lumbricalis, Pl. IX., fig. 7. Shell tubular, attached; sometimes regularly spiral when young; always irregular in its adult growth; tube repeatedly partitioned off; aperture round ; opere. circular, concave externally. Distr., Portugal, Medit., Africa, India. Fossil, 12 sp. Neocomian—. Brit., France, &c. £ Subgenus. Spiroglyphus, Daud. 8. spirorbis Dillw. sp., irregularly tubular ; attached to other shells, and half buried in a furrow which it makes as it grows. Perhaps an annelide ? SILIQUARIA, Brug. Litym., siliqua, a pod. Type, 8. anguina, Pl. IX., fig. 8. Shell tubular ; spiral at first, irregular afterwards; tube with a continuons longitudinal slit. Distr., 7 sp. Medit., N. Australia. Found in sponges. Fossil, 10 sp. Hocene—. France, &c. ScaLariA, Lam. Wentle-trap. Etym., scalaris, like a ladder. Type, S. pretiosa, Pl. IX., fig. 9 (= T. sealaris, L.) _ Sheil, mostly pure white and lustrous; turreted ; many-whirled; whirls round, sometimes separate, ornamented with numerous transverse ribs ; aper- ture round; peristome continuous. Opere. horny, few-whirled. Animal with a retractile proboscis-like mouth ; tentacles close together, long and pointed, with the eyes near their outer bases; mantle-margin simple, with a rudimentary siphonal fold ; foot obtusely triangular, with a fold (men- tum) in front. Lingual dentition nearly as in bulla ; teeth 0; wxeimt nume- rous, simple; sexes distinct ; predacious? Range from low water to 80 fathoms. ‘The animal exudes a purple fluid when molested. Distr., nearly 100 sp. Mostly tropical. Greenland, Norway, Brit., Medit., W. Indies, China, Australia, Pacific, W. America. Fossil, nearly 100 sp. Coral-rag—. Brit., N. America, Chile, India. 134 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. FAMILY VI. LtroRiniDZ. Shell spiral, turbinated or depressed, never pearly ; aperture rounded ; peristome entire; operculum horny, pauci-spiral. Animal with a muzzle-shaped head, and eyes sessile at the outer bases of the tentacles; tongue long, armed with a median series of broad, hooked teeth, and 3 oblong, hooked uncini. Branchial plume single. Foot with a linear duplication in front, and a groove along the sole. Mantle with a rudimentary siphonal canal ; opere. lobe appendaged. ; The species inhabit the sea, or brackish water, and are mostly litoral, feed- ing on alge. Lirortna, Férussac. Periwinkle. Etym., litus, the sea-shore. Type, L. litorea, Pl. TX. fig. 10. Shell turbinated, thick, pointed, few-whirled ; aperture rounded, outer lip acute, columella rather flattened, imperforate, operculum pauci-spiral, fig. $1. Lingual teeth hooked and tri- / lobed; uncini hooked and dentated. Distr., 40 sp. The periwinkles are found on the sea-shore, in all parts of the world. In the Baltic they live within the in- Fig. 81. fluence of fresh-water, and frequently become distorted; similar monstrosities are found in the Norwich crag. The common sp. (Z. /itorea) is oviparous ; it inhabits the lowest zones of sea-weed between tide-marks. An allied sp. (LZ. rudis) frequents a higher region, where it is scarcely reached by the tide; it is viviparous, and the young have a hard shell before their birth, in consequence of which the species is not eaten. The tongue of the periwinkle is two inches long; its foot is — divided by a longitudinal line, and in walking the sides advance alternately. The periwinkle and trochus are the food of the thrush, in the Hebrides, during winter. Fossil, 10 sp? Miocene—. Brit., &c. It is probable that a large propor- tion of the oolite and cretaceous shells referred to ¢urbo, belong to this genus, and especially to the section ¢ectaria. Sub-genera. Tectaria, Cuvier, 1817 (= Pagodella, Sw.) L. pagodus, Pi. IX., fig. 11. Shell muricated or granulated ; sometimes with an umbilical GASTEROPODA. 135. fissure. Opere. with a broad, membranous border. W. Indies, Zanzibar, Pacific. Modulus, Gray (and nina, Gray) M. tectum, Pl. IX., fig. 18. Shell tro- ehiform or naticoid; porcellanous ; columella perforated ; inner lip worn or ‘toothed ; operc. horny, many-whirled. Dis¢r., Philippines, W. America. Fossarus (Adans.) Philippi. F. sulcatus, Pl. IX., fig. 12. Syz., pha- sianema, Wood. Shell perforated; inner lip thin; operc. not spiral. Destr., Medit. Fossil, 3 sp. Miocene—. Brit., Medit. Risella, Gray. Lit., melanostoma, Pl. IX., fig. 14. Shell trochiform, with a flat or concave base; whirls keeled ; aperture rhombic, dark or varie- gated, operc. pauci-spiral. Distr., N. Zealand. Sonartum, Lam. Stair-case shell. Etym., solarium, a dial. Syn., architectoma, Bolten. Philippia, Gray. Helicocryptus, D’Orb ? Type., 8. perspectivum, Pl. IX., fig. 15. Shell orbicular, depressed ; umbilicus wide and deep; aperture rhombic ; peristome thin; operculum horny, sub-spiral. The spiral edges of the whirls, seen in the umbilicus, have been fancifully compared to a winding stair-case. Distr., 25 sp. Tropical seas. Medit., E. Africa, India, China, Japan, Australia, Pacific, W. America. Fossil, 56 sp. Eocene—. Brit., &c. 26 other sp. (oolites—chalk,) are provisionally referred to this genus; the cretaceous sp, are nacreous (Vv. trochus). Sub-genera. Torinia, Gray. T. cylindracea, opere. conical, & multi-spiral, with projecting edges, fig. 82. Living, New Ivre- Ss land. Fossil, Eocene. Brit. Paris. Omalaxis, Desh. (altered to bifrontia) S. bifrons, discoidal, = the last whirl disengaged. 6 sp. Eocene, Paris, Brit. ? Orbis, Lea. Discoidal, whirls quadrate. Fossil, Eocene, Fig. 82.* America. ? Puorus, Montf. Carrier-shell. Etym., phoreus, a carrier. Sya., onustus, Humph., Xenophorus, Fischer. Lramples, P. conchyliophorus, Born. P. corrugatus, Pl. X., fig. ne Shell trochiform, concave beneath ; whirls flat, with folineddus: or stellated margins, to which nie stones, &c., are usually affixed ; aperture very oblique, not pearly; outer lip thin, much produced above, receding far beneath. Opere. horny, imbricated, nucleus external (as in purpura and paludomus,) with the trans- verse scar seen through it, fig. 83. (Mus. Cuming.) * Operculum of S. patulum, Lam. 3, from Deshayes. 136 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Animal with an elongated (non-retractile ?) proboscis ; tentacles long and slender, with sessile eyes at their outer bases; sides plain; foot narrow, elongated behind. (Adams.) Related to scalaria ? Most of the phori attach foreign substances to the margins of their shells, as they grow; particular species affecting stones, whilst others prefer shells or corals. They are called “ mineralogists,” and ‘ conchologists,” by collectors ; P. solaris and P, indicus are nearly or quite free from these disguises. They are said to frequent rough bottoms, and to scramble over the ground, like the strombs, rather than glide evenly. Distr., 9 sp. W. Indies, India, Malacca, Philippmes, China, W. America. Fossil, 15 sp. Chalk ?—EHocene—. Brit., France. Shells extremely like the recent phorus, are met with even in the carb. limestone. Lacuna, Turton. Ltym., lacuna, a fissure. ; Type, L. pallidula, Pl. IX., fig. 16. Syz., medoria, Gray. Shel/, turbinated, thin; aperture semi-lunar; columella flattened, with an umbilical fissure. Operc. pauci-spiral. Animal, operculigerous lobe furnished with lateral wings and tentacular filaments. Teeth, 5 cusped; uncini 1, 2 dentated, 3 simple. Spawn (ootheca). vermiform, thick, semicircular. Range, low-water—50 fathoms. Distr., Northern shores, Norway, Brit., Spain. Fossil, 1 sp. Glacial beds, Scotland. ? Liriopa, Rang. Eiym., litos, simple, ope, aperture. Type, Ll. bombix. Pl. IX., fig. 24. Shell minute, pointed ; aperture slightly notched in front; outer lip sim- ple, thin ; inner lip reflected. Operc. spiral. Distr., Atlantic, Medit., on floating sea-weed, to which they adhere by threads. Jssil, 1 sp. Miocene (Crag.). Rissoa, Frémenville. Etym., named after Risso,* a French zoologist. Type, R. labiosa, Pl. IX., fig. 17. Syz., cingula, Flem. Shell minute, white or horny ; conical, pointed, many-whirled ; smooth, ribbed, or cancellated ; aperture rounded ; peristome entire, continuous ; outer lip slightly expanded and thickened. Opere. sub-spiral. The animal has long, slender tentacles, with eyes on small prominences near their outer bases; the foot is pointed behind; the operculigerous lobe has a wing-like process and a filament (cirrvs) on each side. Lingual teeth single, sub-quadrate, hooked, dentated ; uncini 3; 1 dentated, 2, 3, claw- * It is much to be regretted that some modern naturalists have tried to find out and bring into use the obscure genera of Risso, and the worthless fabrications of Mont- fort and Rafinesque, which had better have remained unknown. GASTEROPODA. 137 shaped. They range from high-water to 100 fathoms, but abound most in shallow water, near shore, on beds of Jucus and zostera. Distr., about 70 sp. Universally distributed, but most abundant in the north temperate zone. N. America, W. Indies, Norway, Brit., Medit., Cas- pian, India, &e. Rissoa parva adheres to sea-weeds, by threads, like litiopa (Gray). Fossil, 100 sp. Permian—. Brit., France, &c. Sub-genera. Rissoina, D’Orb. Aperture channelled in front. Living and Fossil (10 sp. Bath oolite— Brit.) —Zuba, Lea? America. Hydrobia, Hartm. (—Paludinella, Lovén. Paludestrina, D’Orb.) Shell ‘smooth; foot rounded behind; opere. lobe without filament. ype, litorina ulvee, Pl. IX., fig. 18. Fossil, 10 sp. Wealden—. Brit., &e. Syncera, Gray (Assiminea, Leach). $. hepatica. Shel like Hydrobia; tentacles connate with the eye pedicels, which equal them in length. Teeth 5—7 cusped; uncini 1, 2, dentated, 3 rounded. Distr., brackish water. Brit., India. Nematura, Benson. N. delte. Pl. 1X, fig. 21. Aperture contracted ; peristome entire. Opere. pauci-spiral. Fossil, eocene. Isle of Wight. Jefreysia, Alder (—Rissoélla, Gray, MS.), J. diaphana. Shell minute, translucent. Opere. semilunar, imbricated, with a projection from the straight, immer side. (PI. IX., fig. 19.) Head elongated, deeply cleft, and produced into two tentacular processes; mouth armed with denticulated jaws, and a Spinous tongue; tentacles linear, eyes far behind, prominent, only visible through the shell; foot bi-lobed in front. 2sp. Brit. On sea-weed, near low water (Alder), SKENEA, Fleming. Litym., named after Dr. Skene of Aberdeen; a cotemporary of Linneus. Syn., delphinoidea, Brown. _ Type, 8. planorbis, Pl. IX., fig. 20. Shell minute orbicular, depressed, few-whirled; peristome continuous, entire, round. perc. pauci-spiral. Animal like rissoa, foot rounded behind. Found under stones at low-water, and amongst the roots of corallina offic- nalis. Distr.,? sp. Northern seas. Norway, Brit. ? TRuNCATELLA, Risso. Looping-snail. Type, T. truncatula. Pl. IX., fig. 25. (Mus., Hanley.) Shell minute, cylindrical, truncated ; whirls striated transversely ; aper- ture oval, entire; peristome continuous. Operculum sub-spiral ! Animal with short, diverging triangular tentacles; eyes centrally behind : head bi-lobed; foot short, rounded at each end (Forbes). The truncatelle are found on stones and sea-weeds between tide-marks, and survive many weeks out of the water (Lowe). They walk by contracting © 138 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. the space between their lips and foot, like the geometric caterpillars (Gray). They are found semi-fossil, along with the human skeletons in the modern limestone of Guadaloupe. Distr., 15 sp. W. Indies, Brit., Medit., Rio, Cape, Mauritius, Philippines, Australia, Pacific (Cuming). ? LirnociypPHus, Megerle. Type, L. fuscus. Pl. IX., fig. 22. Shell naticoid, often eroded; whirls few, smooth; aperture large, entire ; peristome continuous, outer lip sharp, inner lip callous; umbilicus rimate ; epidermis olivaceous; operculum pauci-spiral. Distr., sp. Europe, Oregon. FAMILY VII. PaLuptnip. Shell conical or globular, with a thick, olive-green epidermis ; aperture rounded ; peristome continuous, entire ; operculum horny or shelly, normally concentric. Animal with a broad muzzle ; tentacles long and slender ; eyes on short pedicels, outside the tentacles. Inhabiting fresh-waters in all parts of the world. Patupina, Lam. River-snail. Etym., palus (paludis) a marsh. Syn., viviparus, Gray. Type, P. Listeri. Pl. IX., fig. 26. (P. vivipara, fig. 61.) Shell turbinated, with round whirls; aperture slightly angular behind ; peristome continuous, entire; operc. horny, concentric. Animal with a long muzzle, and very short eye-pedicels; neck with a small lappet on the left side, and a larger on the right, folded to form a respiratory siphon ; gill comb-like, single ; tongue short; teeth single, oval, slightly hooked and denticulated ; uncini 8, oblong, denticulated. The paludine are viviparous ; the shells of the young are ornamented with spiral rows of epidermal curl. Distr., 60 sp. Rivers and lakes throughout the N. hemisphere; Black sea, Caspian. Fossil, 50 sp. Weald—. Brit., &c. Sub-genus. Bithinia (Prideaux), Gray. B. tentaculata, Pl. IX., fig. 27. Shell small; opere. shelly. Animal oviparous; with only one neck-lappet, on the right side. The bithinie oviposit on stones and aquatic plants; the female lays from 30 to 70 eggs in a band of three rows, cleaning the surface as she proceeds; the young are hatched in three or four weeks, and attain their full growth in the second year (Bouchard). Amputiaria, Lam. Apple-snail, or idol-shell. Etym., ampulla, a globular flask. Ex., A. globosa, Pl. IX., fig. 30. Syz., pachylabra, Sw. Shell globular, with a small spire, and a large ventricose body-whirl ; peristome thickened and slightly reflected. Opere. shelly. GASTEROPODA. 139 Animal with a long incurrent siphon, formed by the left neck-lappet ; left gill developed, but much smaller than the right* ; muzzle produced into Fig. 84.4 two long tentacular processes ; tentacles extremely elongated, slender. Inha- bits lakes and rivers throughout the warmer parts of the world, retiring deep into the mud in the dry season, and capable of surviving a drought, or removal from the water for many years. In the lake Mareotis, and at the mouth of the Indus, ampullariz are abundant, mixed with marine shells. Their eggs are large, inclosed in capsules, and aggregated in globular masses. Distr., 50 sp. S. America, West Indies, Africa, India. Sub-genera. Pomus, Humph. A. ampullacea. Operc. horny. Marisa, Gray (ceratodes, Guilding). A. cornu-arietis. Pl. IX., fig. 31. Operc. horny. Shell discoidal. Asolene, D’Orb. A. plate. Animal without a respiratory siphon ; operc. shelly. Distr., S. America. Lanistes, Montf. A. bolteniana, L., Pl. IX., fig. 832. Shell reversed, umbilicated, peristome thin; operc. horny. Distr., W. Africa, Zanzibar, Nile. Meladomus, Sw. Paludina olivacea, Sby. Shell reversed, imperforate ; peristome thin; operc. horny. ? AMPHIBOLA, Schumacher. Syn., ampullacera, Quoy. Thallicera, Sw. * The ampullaria is said to have a pulmonic sac in addition to its gills (Gray, Owen), but we have not met with specimens sufficiently well preserved to exhibit it. would be very desirable to examine the amp. cornu-arietis, in which, probably, the gills are symmetrical, as in the cephalopods. + Fig. 84. Ampullaria canaliculata, Lam. (from D’Orb.) South America. The branchial siphon (s) is seen projecting from the left side; 0, operculum 140 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ; Type, A. australis, Pl. IX., fig. 33. Shell globular, with an uneven, battered, surface; columella fissured ; outer lip channelled near the suture; operc. horny, sub-spiral. Anemal with- out tentacles; eyes placed on round lobes; air-breathing; respiratory cavity closed, except a small valvular opening on the right side; a large gland occu- pies the position of the gill of paludina; sexes united (Quoy). Mr. Gray places this genus amongst the true pulmonifera. Distr., 3 sp. Shores of New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. The living shells sometimes have serpule attached to them (Cuming). They are eaten by the New Zealanders. Varvara, Miller. Valve-shell. Types, V. piscinalis, Pl. IX., fig. 28. V. cristata, Pl. IX., fig. 29. Shell turbinated, or discoidal, umbilicated; whirls round or keeled ; aper- ture not modified by the last whirl; peristome entire; operc. horny, multi- spiral. ; Animal with a produced muzzle ; tentacles long and slender, eyes at their outer bases ; foot bi-lobed in front; branchial plume long, pectinated, parti- ally exserted on the right side, when the animal is walking. Lingual teeth broad; uncini 3, lanceolate ; all hooked and denticulated. Distr., 6 sp. Brit., N. America. Fossil, 19 sp. Wealden—. Brit., Belgium, &c. FAMILY VIII. Neriripz. Shell thick, semi-globose; spire very small; cavity simple, from the absorption of the internal portions of the whirls ; aperture semi-lunate; colu- mellar side expanded and flattened; outer lip acute. Operculum shelly, sub- spiral, articulated. At each end of the columella there is an oblong muscular impression, connected on the outer side by a ridge, on which the operculum rests ; within this ridge the inner layers of the shell are absorbed. Animal with a broad, short muzzle, and long slender tentacles; eyes on prominent pedicels, at the outer bases of the tentacles ; foot oblong, triangular. Lingual dentition similar to the turdinide. Teeth 7; uncini very numerous. * Fig. 85. Nerita polita, L. (from Quoy and Gaimard) New Ireland. GASTEROFODA. 141 Nenrita, L. Nerite. Etym. WNervtes, a sea-snail, from nereis. Type, N. ustulata, Pl. IX., fig. 35. Shell thick, smooth or spirally grooved; epidermis horny; outer lip thickened and sometimes denticulated within ; columella broad and flat, with its inner edge straight and toothed; opere. shelly, fig. 86. G/ Distr. 116 sp. Nearly all warm seas. W. Indies, Red e Sea, Zanzibar, Philippines, Australia, Pacific, W. America, (¢ (Cuming). Fig. 86.* Fossil, 60 sp. Lias—. Brit. &c. The palzozoic nerites are referred by D’Orbigny to turbo, natica, &c. N. haliotis is a pileopsis. Sub-genera. Neritoma, Morris, 1849. N. sinuosa, Sby. Portland stone, Swindon. (Mus., Lowe). Shelli ventricose, thick; ‘apex eroded ; aperture with a notch in the middle of the outer lip. Casts of this shell are common, and exhibit the condition of the interior characteristic of all the xerztes ; it was probably fresh-water. Neritopsis, Grateloup. N. radula, Pl. VIII, fig. 9. Shell like zerita ; inner lip with a single notch in the centre. Distr., 1 sp. Pacific. Fossil, 20 sp. Trias ? Brit., France, &e. Velates, Montf. N. perversa, Gm. Pl. IX., fig. 36. Inner lip very thick and callous; outer lip prolonged behind, and partially enveloping the spire. * PiteoLus, (Cookson) J. Sowerby. Etym., pileolus, a little cap. Type, P. plicatus, Pl. IX., fig. 37, 38. Shell limpet-like above, with a sub-central apex ; concave beneath, with a small semi-lunar aperture, and a columellar disk, surrounded by a broad con- tinuous peristome. Distr., marine ; only known as fossils of the Bath oolite, Ancliffe, and Minchinhampton, 3 sp. P. neritoides is a neritina. Neritina, Lam. Fresh-water nerite. Examples, N. zebra, Pl. IX., fig. 39. N. crepidularia, Pl. IX., fig. 40. Shell rather thick at the aperture, but extensively absorbed inside; outer lip acute; inner straight denticulated; operc. shelly, with a flexible border ; slightly toothed on its straight edge. Animal \ike nerita ; \ingual teeth ;—median, minute ; laterals 3, 1 large, sub-triangular, 2, 3, minute; uncini about 60, first very large, hooked, denti- culated ; the rest equal, narrow, hooked, denticulated. The neritinee are small globular shells, ornamented with a great variety of black or purple bands and spots, covered with a polished horny epidermis * Fig. 86. Operculum of N. peloronta. W. Indies. 142 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. They are mostly confined to the fresh waters of warm regions. One sp. (N. fluviatilis) is found in Brit. rivers, and in the brackish water of the Baltic. Another extends its range into the brackish waters of the N. American rivers. And the West Indian . viridis and meleagris, are found in the sea. NV. crepidularia has a continuous peristome, and approaches zavicella in form ; it is found in the brackish waters of India. N. corona (Madagascar) is ornamented with a series of long tubular spines. Distr., 76 sp. W. Indies, Norway, Brit., Black Sea, Caspian, India, Philippines, Pacific, W. America. Fossil, 20 sp. Hocene—. Brit., France. &c. NaviceLia, Lam. Etym., navicella, a small boat. Type, N.’porcellana. Pl. IX., fig. 41. Shell oblong, smooth, limpet-lke; with a posterior, sub-marginal apex; aperture as large as the shell, with a small columellar shelf, and elongated lateral muscular scars ; operculum very small, shelly. Distr., 18 sp. India, Mauritius, Moluccas, Australia, Pacific. FAMILY IX., Turpinma. Shell spiral, turbinated or pyramidal, nacreous inside; operculum calca- rious and pauci-spiral, or horny and multi-spiral. Animal with a short muzzle; eyes pedunculated at the outer bases of the long and slender tentacles; head and sides ornamented with fringed lobes and tentacular filaments (civrz) ; branchial plume single ; lingual ribbon long and linear, chiefly contained in the visceral cavity; median teeth broad ; laterals 5, denticulated; uncini very numerous (sometimes nearly 100), slender, with hooked points (Fig. 15, A.). Marine, feeding on sea-weeds (alge). The shells of nearly all the turbinide are brilliantly pearly, when the epidermis and outer layer of shell are removed ; many of them are used in this state for ornamental purposes. Turso, L. Top-shell. Etym., turbo, a whipping-top. Syz., batillus, marmorostoma, callopoma, &c. (Gray). Type, T. marmoratus. Pl. X., fig. 2. Shell turbinated, solid; whirls convex, often grooved or tuberculated; aperture large, rounded, slightly produced in front; operculum shelly and solid, callous outside, and smooth, or variously grooved and mammuillated, internally horny and pauci-spiral. In 7. sarmaticus the exterior of the oper- culum is botryoidal, like some of the tufaceous deposits of petrifying wells. Animal with pectinated head-lobes. GASTEROPODA. 143 -Distr., 60 sp. Tropical seas, W. Indies, Medit., Cape, India, China, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific, Peru. Fossil, 360 sp. (including litorina) L. Silurian—. Universal. PHASIANELLA, Lam. Pheasant-shell. Syn., eutropia (Humphr.) Gray. Tricolea, Risso. Type, P. australis. Pl. X., fig. 3. Shell elongated, polished, richly coloured; whirls, convex; aperture oval, not pearly; inner lip callous, outer thin; operc. shelly, callous outside, sub- spiral inside. Animal with long ciliated tentacles ; head-lobes pectinated, wanting in the minute sp.; neck-lobes fringed; sides ornamented with 38 cirri; branchial plume long, partly free; foot rounded in front, pointed behind; its sides moved alternately in walking ; lingual teeth even-edged ; laterals 5, hooked, denticulated; uncini about 70, gradually diminishing outwards, hooked and denticulated. Distr., 25 sp. Australia, large sp. India, Philippines ; small sp. Medit., Brit., W. Indies, very small sp. Fossil, 70 sp. Devonian ?—. Europe. The similarity of the existing Australian fauna, to that of the European oolites, strengthens the probability that some, at least, of these fossil shells are rightly referred to Phasianella. Imperator, Montf. Type, I, imperialis, Pl. 10, fig. 4. Syz., calcar. Shell trochiform, thick, with a flat or concave base; whirls keeled or stellated; aperture angulated outside, brilliantly pearly ; operc. shelly. Distr., 20 sp.? S. Africa, India, Australia, New Zealand. Fig. 87.* Trocuus, L. Etym., trochus, a hoop. Syn., cardinalia, tegula, and livona, Gray. Infundibulum, Montf. Chlo- rostoma, Sw. ‘Trochiscus, Sby. Monilea, Sw. Types, T. niloticus. Pl. X., fig.5. TT. zizyphinus. Fig. $7. * * Fig. 87. Trochus xizyphinus, L., Pegwell Bay, Kent. 144 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Shell pyramidal, with nearly a flat base ; whirls numerous, flat, vario striated ; aperture oblique, rhombic, pearly inside; columella twisted, slightly truncated ; outer lip thin ; operculum horny, multi-spiral. Fig. 88 (T. pica). Animal with 2 small or obsolete head-lobes between the tentacles; neck lappets large: sides ornamented with lobes, and 8—5 cirri; gill very long, linear; lingual teeth 11, den- Fig. gg. ticulated ; uncini—-90, diminishing outwards. : Distr., 150 sp. World-wide. Low-water to 15 fathoms; the smaller species range nearly to 100 fathoms. sl Fossil, 360 sp. Devonian—. Europe, N. America, Chile. — Sub-genera. Pyramis, Chemn., Tr. obeliscus, Pl. X., fig. 6, eolume contorted, forming a slight canal. Gibbula, Leach. Tr. magus, Brit. Shell depressed, widely umbilicated; | whirls tumid. Head-lobes largely developed; lateral cirri 3. Margarita, Leach. Tr. helicinus. Pl. X., fig. 7. Shell thin; cirri 5 om) each side. Distr., 17 sp. Greenland, Brit., Falkland Islands. Near low water, under stones and sea-weed. 3 Elenchus, Humph. (= Canthiridus, Montf.) E. iris. Pl. X., fig. & Smooth, thin, imperforate, with a prominent base. Australia, N. Zealand. F. iris scarcely differs in form from Tr. zizyphinus; £. dadius is like a pearly phasianella; and EZ. varians (bankivia, Menke) would be called a chemnitzia, if fossilized. Pl. X., fig. 9. Rotewzia, Lamarck. Etym., diminutive of rota, a wheel. (Syn., Helicina, Gray !) Type, R. vestiaria. Pl. X., fig. 10. Shell, lenticular, polished ; spire depressed; base callous; lingual teeth 13 ; uncini numerous, sub-equal. Distr., 10 sp. India, Philippines, China, New Zealand. Monoponta, Lam. Etym., monos, one, and odous, (odontos) a tooth. Syn., labio, Oken. Clanculus, Montf. Otavia, Risso. Types, M. labeo. Pl. X., fig. 11. M. pharaonis. Pl. X., fig. 12. Shell, turbinated, few-whirled ; whirls spirally grooved and granulated ; lip thickened internally, and grooved; columella toothed, more or less pro- minently and irregularly ; operc. horny, many-whirled. Distr., 10 sp? W. Africa, Red Sea, India, Australia. Fossil, (included with trochus) Devonian—. Eifel. DELPHINULA (Roissy), Lam. Etym., diminutive of delphinus, a dolphin. (= Cyclostoma, Gray !) GASTEROPODA. 145 Type, D. laciniata. Pl. X., fig. 13. (= T. delphinus, L.) Shell orbicular, depressed ; whirls few, angulated, rugose, or spiny ; aper- ture round, pearly ; peristome continuous ; umbilicus open ; operculum horny, many-whirled. On reefs, at low-water. Animal without head-lobes ; sides lobed and cirrated. Distr., 20 sp. Red Sea, India, Philippines, China, Australia. Fossil, 30 sp.? Trias ?—Miocene—. Europe. Sub-genera. Liotia, Gray. L. gervillii. Pl X., fig. 14. Aperture pearly, with a regular, expanded border. Opere. multi-spiral, calcarious. Distr., 6 sp. Cape, India, Philippines, Australia. Fosse/, Kocene—. Brit., France. Collonia, Gray, 1850. C. marginata. Pl. X., fig. 16. Peristome sim- ple. Opere. calcarious, with a spiral rib on the outer side. Distr., Africa. Fossil, Kocene—. Paris. Cyclostrema, Marryat. C. cancellata, Pl. X., fig. 15. Shell nearly dis- coidal, cancellated, not pearly ; aperture round, simple; umbilicus wide. Opere. spiral, calearious. Distr. 12 sp. Cape, India, Philippines, Australia, Peru. In5—1l7 fathoms. Serpularia, Roemer, has the whirls smooth and dis-united. Eocene, Paris. Aprorsis, Searles Wood. Type, A. sub-carinatus. Pl. X., fig. 17. Shell minute, not nacreous, depressed, few-whirled, deeply umbilicated ; peristome entire, nearly continuous, sinuated in its inner side, and slightly so externally. Opere. shelly, multi-spiral. Distr., W. Indies—China. Low-water to 60 fathoms. Fossil, 5 sp. Miocene—. Brit. EvomPHatvs, Sowerby. Etym., eu, wide, and omphalos, wnbilicus. Syn., schizostoma, Bronn. Maclurea, Leseuer. Ophileta, Vanuxem. Platyschisma, McCoy. Type, H. pentagonalis. Pl. X., fig. 18. Sheil depressed or discoidal ; whirls angular or coronated ; aperture poly- gonal; umbilicus very large. Opere. shelly, round, multi-spiral (Salter). Fossil, 80 sp., L. sil.—Trias. N. America, Europe, Australia. Sub-genus. Phanerotinus, J. Shy. 1840, E. cristatus, Phil. Carb. lime- stone. Brit. Shell discoidal; whirls separate; outer margin sometimes foliaceous. SroMATELLA, Lam. Etym., diminutive of stoma, the aperture. Type, S. imbricata. PI. X., fig. 19. Shell ear-shaped, regular ; spire small; aperture oblong, very large and ig 146 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. oblique, nacreous; lip thin, even-edged; opere. circular, horny, multi-spiral. On reefs and under stones at low-water. Distr., 20 sp. Cape, India, N. Australia, China, Japan, Philippines. Sub-genus ? Gena, Gray. Spire minute, marginal; no operculum. 16— sp. Red Sea, India, Seychelles, Swan River, Philippines (Adams). BRODERIPIA, Gray. Etym., named in honour of W. J. Broderip, Esq., the distinguished con- chologist. Type, B. rosea. PI. X., fig. 20. Shell minute, limpet-shaped, with a posterior sub-marginal apex; aper- ture oval, as large as the shell, brilliantly nacreous. Distr., 3 sp. Philippines; Grimwood’s Island, S. Seas (Cuming). FAMILY X. HAatiorip«. Shell spiral, ear-shaped or trochiform; aperture large, nacreous; outer lip notched or perforated. No operculum. Animal with a short muzzle and subulate tentacles; eyes on pedicels at the outer bases of the tentacles ; branchial plumes 2; mantle-margin with a posterior (anal) fold or siphon, occupying the slit or perforation in.the shell ; opere. lobe rudimentary ; lingual dentition similar to trochus. In addition to the true haliotids, we have retained in this group such of the trochi-form shells as have a notched or perforated aperture. Haniotis, L. Ear-shell. Etym., halios, marine, and ous (otos) an ear. Type, H. tuberculata, Pl. X., fig. 21. Shell ear-shaped, with a small flat spire; aperture very wide, iridescent ; exterior striated, dull ; outer angle perforated by a series of holes, those of the spire progressively closed. Muscular impresssion horse-shoe shaped, the left branch greatly dilated in front. In H. ¢ricostalis (padollus, Montf.) the shell is furrowed parallel with the line of perforations. Animal with fimbriated head-lobes ; side-lobes fimbriated and cirrated ; foot very large, rounded. Lingual teeth ;—median small; laterals single, beam-like ; uncini about 70, with denticulated hooks, the first 4 very large. The haliotis abounds on the shores of the Channel Islands, where it is called the ormer, and is cooked after being well beaten to make it tender. (flanley) ; it is also eaten in Japan. It is said to adhere very firmly to the rocks, with its large foot, like the limpet. The shell is much used for inlay- ing, and other ornamental purposes. Distr., 75 sp. Brit., Canaries, Cape, India, China, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific, California. Fossil, 4 sp. Miocene—. Malta, &e. Sub-genus ? Deridobranchus, Ehrenberg, D. argus, Red Sea. Shell GASTEROPODA. 147 large and thick, like haliotis, but entirely covered by the thick, hard, plaited mantle of the animal. SromatTrA (Helblin), Lamarck. Etym., stoma, the aperture. Type, 8. phymotis, Pl. X., fig. 22. Sheil like haliotis, but without perforations, their place being occupied by a simple furrow; surface rugose, spirally ridged; spire small, prominent aperture large, oblong, outer margin irregular. Distr., 12 sp. Java, Philippines, Torres Straits, Pacific. Under stones at low water (Cuming). Fossil. M. D’Orbigny refers to this genus 18 SP ranging from the L. ‘Silurian to the chalk, N. America, Europe. ScIssURELLA, D’Orb. Etym., diminutive of scissus, shit. Type, 8. crispata, Pl. X., fig. 23. Syz., anatomus, Montf. Shell minute, thin, not pearly ; body-whirl large; spire small; surface striated ; aperture rounded, with a slit in the margin of the outer lip. Oper- culate. , Distr.,5 sp. Norway, Brit., Medit. In 7 fathoms water off the Orkneys, and in deep water east of the Zetland Isles. Fossil, 4 sp. Miocene—. Brit., Sicily. | PLEUROTOMARIA, Defrance. Etym., pleura, side, and tome, notch. Type, P. anglica, Pl. X., fig. 24. Shell, trochiform, solid, few-whirled, with the surface variously ornamented ; aperture sub-quadrate, with a deep slit in its outer margin. The part of the slit which has been progressively filled up, forms a band round the whirls. Fossil, 400 sp. Lower silurian—chalk. N. America, Europe, Australia. Specimens from clay strata retain their nacreous inner layers, those from the chalk and limestones have lost them, or they are replaced by crystalline spar. Pleurotomarice with wavy bands of colour have been obtained in the carb. limestone of Lancashire. In this extensive group there are some species which rival the living turbines in magnitude and solidity, whilst others are as frail as ianthina. Sub-genus. Scalites, Conrad (= raphistoma, Hall.) £.g., S. angulatus and stamineus. L. silurian, New York. Shel! thin; whirls angular, flat above (tabulated), 8 sp. LL. silurian—carb. Poly-tremaria, YVOrb., is founded on P. catenata, Koninck, in which the margins of the slit are wavy, converting it into a series of perforations. Murcuisonia, D’Archiac. Etym., named in honour of Sir Roderick 1. Murchison. Type, M. bilineata. Pl. X., fig. 25. 148 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Shell elongated, many-whirled; whirls variously sculptured, and zoned like pleurotomaria; aperture slightly channelled in front; outer lip deeply notched. The murchisoniz are characteristic fossils of the palzeozoic rocks ; they have been compared to elongated pleurotomariz, or to cerithia with notched aper- tures ; the first suggestion is most probably correct. Fossil, 50 sp. L. silurian—Permian. N. America, Hurope. Trocnotoma, Lycett. Etym., trochus, and tome, a notch. Syn., ditremaria, D’Orb. Type, T. conuloides. Pl. X., fig. 26. Shell trochiform, slightly concave beneath ; whirls flat, spirally striated, rounded at the outer angles ; lip with a single perforation near the margin. Fossil, 10 sp. Lias—Coral Rag. Birit., France, &c. ? Crrrus, Sowerby. Etym., cirrus, a curl. Type, C. nodosus, Sby. Min. Con. t. 141 and 219. Shell sinistral, trochiform, base level; last whirl enlarging rather more vapidly, somewhat irregular. Fossil, 2 sp. Inf. oolite, Bath oolite. Brit., France. This genus was founded on a pleurotomaria, a euomphalus, and C. nodosus. (v. Min. Con.) It is still doubtful what species may be referred to it. Fig. 89.* TANTHINA, Lam. Violet-snail. Etym., canthina, violet-coloured. Type, helix ianthina L. (1. fragilis, Lam.) Pl. X., fig. 27. Shell thin, translucent, trochiform; nucleus minute, styliform, sinistral ; whirls few, rather ventricose; aperture four-sided ; columella tortuous ; lip thin, notched at the outer angle. Base of the shell deep violet, spire nearly white. Animal :—head large, muzzle-shaped, with a tentacle and eye-pedicel on * Fig. 89. Ianthina fragilis, Lam. (from Quoy and Gaimard). Atlantic. a raft, b egg capsules, c gills, d tentacles and eye-stalks. GASTEROPODA. 149 each side, but no eyes; foot small, secreting a float composed of numerous cartilaginous air-vesicles, to the under surface of which the ovarian capsules are attached. Lingual ribbon, rachis unarmed; uncini numerous, simple (like scalaria). Branchial plumes 2. Sexes separate. Distr., 6 sp. Atlantic, Coral sea. The ianthinee, or oceanic-snails, are gregarious in the open sea, where they are found in myriads, and are said to feed on the small biue acalephe (velella). They are frequently drifted to the southern and western British shores, especially when the wind continues long from the S.W.; in Swansea bay the animals have been found quite fresh, When handled they exude a violet fluid from beneath the margin of the mantle. In rough weather they are driven about and their floats broken, or detached, in which state they are often met with. The capsules beneath the further end of the raft have been observed to be empty, at a time when those in the middle contained young with fully formed shells, and those near the animal were filled with eggs. They have no power of sinking and rising in the water. The raft, which is much too large to be withdrawn into the shell, is an extreme modification of the operculum. FAMILY XI. FissureLiipaz. Shell conical, limpet-shaped; apex recurved; nucleus spiral, often dis- appearing in the course of growth; anterior margin notched, or apex perfo- rated ; muscular impression horse-shoe shaped, open in front. Aximal with a well-developed head, a short muzzle, subulate tentacles, and eyes on rudimentary pedicels at their outer bases ; sides ornamented with short cirri; ‘branchial plumes 2, symmetrical; anal siphon occupying the an- terior notch or perforated summit of the shell. Lingual dentition similar to trochus.* FissurELLA, Lam. Key-hole limpet. Etym., diminutive of fissura, a slit. Type, ¥. Listeri. Pl. X1., fig. 1. Shell oval, conical, depressed with the apex in front of the centre and perforated; surface radiated or cancellated; muscular impression with the points incurved. In very young shells the apex is entire and sub-spiral; but as the perfo- ration increases in size it encroaches on the summit and gradually removes it. The key-hole limpets are locomotive ; they chiefly inhabit the laminarian zone, but range downwards to 50 fms. Distr., 120 sp. America, Brit., S. Africa, India, China, Australia. U. California—Cape Horn. * Fissurella is the best gasteropod for comparison with the bivalves; its large gills, placed one on each side, and its symmetrical shell, pierced with a median orifice for the escape of the out-going branchial current, are unmistakeable indications of hemo- logies with the lamelli-branchiata. Seep. 48. 150 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ! Fossil, 25 sp. Carb. ? oolites—. Brit., France. Sub-genera. Pupillia, Gray. ¥. apertura, Born. (= hiantula, Lam.) Shell smooth, surrounded by a sharp white edge; perforation very large. Distr., S. Africa. Fissurelhdea, D’Orb. F. hiatula, Lam. (=megatrema, D’Orb.) Shell cancellated ; covered by the mantle of the animal. 8 sp. Cape, Tasmania. (Macroschisma, Sw.) ¥. macroschisma. Pl. XL, fig. 2. Anal aperture close to the posterior margin of the shell. The animal is so much larger than its shell, as to be compared to the testacelle by Mr.Cuming. Distr., Philip- pines, Swan river. | Lucapina, Gray. F. elegans, Gray (=aperta, Sby.). Shell white, can- cellated, margin crenulated ; covered by the reflected mantle. 8 sp. California. PUNCTURELLA, Lowe. Syn., cemoria, Leach. Diadora, Gray. Type, P. noachina. PI. XI., fig. 3. Shell conical, elevated, with the apex recurved ; perforation in front of tag apex, with a raised border internally ; surface eaneallgee Distr., 2sp. Greenland, Boreal America, Norway, N. Brit., Tierra- del fuego. in 20—100 fathoms water. ; Fossil, in the glacial formations of N. Brit. Riuvuta, Defrance. Etym., diminutive of rima, a fissure. (Syn., Rimularia.) Recent type, R. Blainvillii. Pl. XI., fig. 4 Shell thin and cancellated, with a perforation near the anterior margin. Distr., several sp. found on sandy mud at low-water, or a in from, 10—25 a Philippines (Cuming). Fossil, 3 sp. Bath oolite—coral-rag. Brit., France. EMARGINULA, Lam. Etym., dimunitive of emarginata, notched. Type, Hi. reticulata. Pl. XL., figs. 5, 6. Shell oval, conical, elevated, with the apex recurved ; surface cancellated ; anterior margin notched, Muscular impression with recurved points. The nucleus (or shell of the fry) is spiral, and resembles scisswrella. The anterior slit is very variable in extent. The animal of Emarginula (and also of pune- turella) has an isolated cirrus on the back of the foot, perhaps representing the operculigerous lobe (Forbes). Lingual dentition; median teeth sub- quadrate ; laterals 4, oblong, imbricated ; uncini about 60, the first large and thick, with a lobed hook, the rest linear, with serrulated hooks (Lovén). Distr., 26 sp. W. Indies, Brit., Norway, Philippines, Australia. Range from low-water to 90 fathoms. Fossil, 40 sp. Trias—. Brit., France. GASTEROPODA. 151 Sub-genus. Hemitoma, Sw. Type, HK. octoradiata. (E. rugosa. Pl. XI., figs. 7, 8.) Shell depressed ;. anterior margin slightly channelled. ParMOPHOoRUS, Blainville. Duck’s-bill limpet. Etym., parme, a shield, and phoreus, a bearer. Type, P. australis, Pl. XI., fig. 9. Syn., Scutus, Montf. Shell lengthened-oblong, depressed ; apex posterior ; front margin arched. Muscular impression horse-shoe shaped, elongated. The shell is smooth and white, and permanently covered by the reflected borders of the mantle. The animal is black, and very large compared with the shell; its sides are fringed with short cirri, and its eyes sessile on the outer bases of thick tentacles; it is found in shallow-water, and walks freely (Cuming). Distr., 10 sp. New Zealand, Australia, Philippines, Singapore, Red Sea, Cape. Fossil, 3 sp. Hocene?—. Paris basin. FAMILY XII. Catyprraips. SBonnet-limpets. Shell limpet-like, with the apex more or less spiral ; interior simple, or divided by a shelly-process, variously shaped, to which the adductor muscles are attached. Animal with a distinct head; muzzle lengthened; eyes on the external bases of the tentacles ; branchial plume single. Lingual teeth single, uncini 3. The bonnet-limpets are found adhering to stones and shells ; most of them appear never to quit the spot on which they first settle, as the margins of their shells become adapted to the surface beneath, whilst some wear away the space beneath their foot, and others secrete a shelly base. Both their form and colour depend on the situation in which they grow ; those found in the cavities of dead shells are nearly flat, or even concave above, and colour- less. They are presumed to feed on the sea-weed growing round them, or on animacules ; a calyptrea, which Professor Forbes kept in a glass, ate a small sea slug (goniodoris) which was confined with it. Both calyptrea and pile- opsis sometimes cover and hatch their spawn in front of their foot (Alder and Clarke). Mr. Gray arranges the bonnet-limpets next after the vermetide; their lingual dentition is like velutina. Catyptr#A, Lam. Cup-and-saucer limpet. * Etym., calyptra, a (lady’s) cap. Syn., lithedaphus, Owen. Types, C. equestris. Pl. XI., fig. 10. C. Dillwynnii, fig. 11. Shell conical; limpet-shaped; apex posterior, with a minute, spiral nucleus ; margin irregular ; interior with a half-cup shaped process on the posterior side, attached to the apex, and open in front. Surface rugose or eancellated. 152 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Animal with a broad muzzle ; tentacles rather short ; lanceolate ; eyes on bulgings at the outer bases of the tentacles; mantle-margin simple, sides plain. Found under stones, between tide-marks, and in shallow water (Cuming). Distr., 50 sp. W. Indies, Honduras, Brit., Medit., Africa, India, Philip- pines, China, Japan, New Zealand, Gallapagos, Chili, Fossil, 30 sp. Carb? chalk—. Brit., France, &c. Sub-genera. Crucibulum, Schum. (Dispotzea, Say., Calypeopsis, Less.) Ex. C. rudis, Pl. XI., fig. 12. Shell spinulose ; internal cup entire ; attached by one of its sides. Distr., W. America, Japan, W. Indies. Found on shells, with its base worn, or smoothed by a shelly deposit (Gray). Between this section and the next there are several intermediate forms. Trochita, Schum. (Infundibulum, J. Sby., Galerus, Humph. Trocha- tella and Siphopatella, Lesson.) TT. radians, Pl. XI., figs. 13, 14. (—Patella trochoides, Dillw.) T. sinensis, Pl. XL, fig. 15. Shell circular, more or less distinctly spiral; apex central; interior with a more or less complete sub- spiral partition. Distr., chiefly tropical, but ranges from Britain to New Zealand. 7. prisca (McCoy) is found in the carb. limestone in Treland ; and several large species occur in the London clay and Paris basm. The recent C, sinensis — the ‘‘ China-man’s hat’’ of collectors—is found on the southern shores of England, and in the Mediterranean, in 5—10 fms. water (Forbes). Its lingual dentition is given by Lovén ;— median teeth broad, hooked, den- ticulated ; uncini 3, the first hooked and serrated, 2, 3 claw-shaped, simple. CREPIDULA, Lam. Etym., crepidula, a small sandal. Type, C. fornicata, Pl. XI., fig. 16. Syz., erypta, Humph. Shell oval, limpet-like ; with a posterior, oblique marginal apex; interior polished, with a shelly partition covering its posterior half. 7 The crepidule resemble the fresh-water navicelle in form ; but the inter- nal ledge which mimics the columella of the nerite, is here the basis of the adductor muscles. They are sedentary on stones and shells, in shallow water, and are some- times found adhering to one another in groups of many successive generations. The specimens or species which live inside empty spiral shells are very thin, uearly flat, and colourless. Distr., 40 sp. W. Indies, Honduras, Medit., W. Africa, Cape, India, Australia, W. America. Fossil, 14 sp. Eocene—. France, N. America, Patagonia. Pizeopsis, Lam. Bonnet-limpet. Ltym., pileos, a cap, and opsis, like. Syn., capulus, Montf. Brocchia, Bronn. Type, P. hungaricus, Pl. XI., fig. 17. P. militaris, Pl. XI., fig. 18. GASTEROPODA. 153 Shell conical ; apex posterior, spirally recurved; aperture rounded ; mus- cular impression horse-shoe shaped. Animal with a fringed mantle-margin ; lingual teeth like calyptrea. P. hungaricus (the Hungarian-bonnet) is found on oysters, in 5 to 15 fms. water; more rarely as deep as 80 fms., and then very small. P. mili- taris is extremely like a velutina. Distr., 7 sp. W. Indies, Norway, Brit., Medit., India, Australia, Cali- foruia. Fossil, 20 sp. Lias—. Europe. Sub-genus. Amathine, Gray. A. tricarinata, Pl. XI, fig. 19, Shell depressed, oblong ; apex posterior, not spiral, with three strong ribs diverging from it to the anterior margin. Platyceras, Conrad (acroculia, Phil.). P. vetustus. Carb., limestone. Brit. Fossil, 20 sp. Devonian—Trias. America, Europe. Hreponyx, Defrance. Etym., hippos, a horse, and onyz, a hoof. Type, H. cornucopia, Pl. XI, figs. 20, 21. Shell thick, obliquely conical, apex posterior; base shelly, with a horse- shoe-shaped impression, corresponding to that of the adductor muscle. Distr., 10 sp. W. Indies. Persian Guif, Philippines, Australia, Pacific, W. America. Fossil, 10 sp. U. chalk—. Brit., France, N. America. Sub-genus. Amalthea, Schum. A.conica. Like hipponyx, but forming no shelly base; surface of attachment worn and marked with a crescent- shaped impression. Often occurs on living shells, such as the large turbines, and turbinellee of the Eastern seas. FAMILY XIII. Parexiipa. Limpets. Shell conical, with the apex turned forwards; muscular impression horse- shoe-shaped, open in front. Animal with a distinct head, furnished with tentacles, bearing eyes at their outer bases; foot as large as the margin of the shell; mantle plain or fringed. Respiratory organ in the form of one or two branchial plumes, lodged in a cervical cavity ; or of a series of lamellee surrounding the animal, between its foot and mantle. Mouth armed with horny jaws, and a long ribbon-like tongue, furnished with numerous teeth, each consisting of a pel- lucid base and an opaque hooked apex. The order cyclo-branchiata of Cuvier included the chitous and the limpets, and was characterised by the circular arrangement of the branchie. Ata comparatively recent period it was ascertained that some of the patelle (acmea) had a free, cervical gill; whilst the chitons exhibited too many peculiarities to admit of being associated so closely with them. Professor 154 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. z Forbes has very happily suggested that the cyclo-branchiate gill of patella is, in reality, a single, long branchial plume, originating on the left side of the neck, coiled backwards round the foot, and attached throughout its length. This view is confirmed by the circumstance that the gill of the sea-weed Impets (zacel/e) does not form a complete circle, but ends without passing in front of the animal’s head. Pateiia, L. Rock limpet. Etym., patella, a dish. Syzn., helcion, Montf. Ex., P. longicostata, Pl. XI., fig. 22. Shell oval, with a sub-centr A apex ; surface smooth, or ornamented with — radiating striz or ribs; margin even or spiny; interior smooth, Animal with a continuous series of branchial lamellae ; mantle-margin fringed ; eyes sessile, externally, on the swollen bases of the tentacles; mouth notched below. Lingual teeth 6, of which 4 are central, and 2 lateral ; uncini 3. The tongue of the common British limpet (P. vulgata) is rather longer than its shell ; it has 160 rows of teeth, with 12 teeth in each row, or 1,920 in all (Forbes.) The limpets live on rocky coasts, between tide-marks, and are consequently left dry twice every day; they adhere very firmly, by at- mospheric pressure (15lbs per square inch), and the difficulty of detaching them is increased by the form of the shell. On soft calcarious rocks, like the chalk of the coast of Thanet, they live in pits half an inch deep, probably formed by the carbonic acid disengaged in respiration; on hard limestones only the aged specimens are found to have worn the rock beneath, and the margin of their shell is often accommodated to the inequalities of the surround- ing surface. These circumstances would seem to imply that the limpets are sedentary, and live on the sea-weed within reach of their tongues, or else that hey return to the same spot to roost. On the coast of Northumberland we have seen them sheltering themselves in the crevices of rocks, whose broad surfaces, overgrown with nullipores, were covered with irregular tracks, apparently rasped by the limpets in their nocturnal excursions.* The limpet is much used by fishermen for bait ; on the coast of Berwick- shire nearly 12,000,000 have been collected yearly, until their numbers are so decreased that collecting them has become tedious (Dr. Johnston). In the north of Ireland they are used for human food, especially in seasons of scarcity; many tons weight are collected annually near the town of Larne alone (Pattison). On the western coast of S. America there is a limpet which attains the diameter of a foot, and is used by the natives as a basin (Cuming). * If limpets are placed in stale water, or little pools exposed to the hot sun, they creep out more quickly than one would expect; the tracks they leave are very peculiar, and not likely to be mistaken when once seen. GASTEROPODA. 155 Distr., 100 sp. Brit., Norway, &c. World-wide. Fossil, above 100 sp. of patellide, including acmaa, L. silurian—. N. ‘America, Europe. Sub-genera. Nacella, Schum. (=patina, Leach.) Example, P. pellucida. Pl. XI., fig. 28. Shell thin; apex nearly marginal. Animal with the mouth entire below. Branchic not continued in front of the head. Found on the fronds and stalks of sea-weeds. Brit., Cape, Cape Horn. Scutellina, Gray. S. crenulata. Shell with a broad margin, internally. 7 sp. Red Sea—Philippines—Pacific—Panama (Cuming). Metoptoma, Phillips. M. pileus Ph. Shell limpet-like, side beneath the apex truncated. Resembling the posterior valve of a chiton. 7 sp. Carb. limestone. Brit. Acmuma, Eschscholtz. Etym., acme, a point. Syn., tectura, M. Edw. Lottia and scurria, Gray. Patelloida, Quoy. Type, A. testudinalis. Pl. XI, fig. 24. Shell like patella. Animal with a single pectinated gill; lodged in a cervical cavity, and exserted from the right side of the neck when the crea- ture walks. Lingual teeth 3 on each side of the median line. Low-water to 380 fms. (Forbes.) Distr., 20 sp. Norway, Brit., Australia, Pacific, W. America. Sub-genera. Lepeta, Gray (= pro-pilidium, Forbes). Patella ceca, Mill. Shell minute, apex posterior. Animal blind. Brit. 380—90 fms. Pilidium, Forbes. P. fulva, Mill. Brit. 20—80 fathoms water. Shell small, apex anterior. Animal blind; gills 2, not projecting; mantle even- edged. Both lepeta and pilidium have large single median teeth, with trilobed hooks; and 2 hooked uncini on each side. Gaprinta (Adanson), Gray. Type, G. peruviana. Plate XI., fig. 26. Syz., mouretia, Sby. Shell conical; muscular impression horse-shoe shaped, the right side shortest, terminating at the siphonal groove. Animal with a single cervical gill; tentacles expanded, funnel-shaped. Distr., 8 sp. Medit., Red Sea, Africa, Peru. Fossil, 1 sp. Sicily. ? SrpHonaRrta, Blainville. Type, S. sipho. Pl. XI., fig. 25. Shell like patella; apex sub-central, posterior ; muscular impression horse-shoe shaped, divided on the right side by a deep siphonal groove, which produces a slight projection on the margin. 156 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Animal with a broad head, destitute of tentacles ; eyes sessile on promi- nent rounded lobes; gill ? single. The siphonariz are found between tide- marks, like limpets; Mr. Gray places them with the pulmonifera, between auriculide and cyclostomide. Distr., 30 sp. Cape, India, Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific, Gallapagos, Peru, Cape Horn (Cuming). Fossil, 3 sp. Miocene —. FAMILY XIV., Dentatiap&. Tooth-shells. DENTALIUM, L. Type, D. elephantmum. PI. XI., fig. 27. Shell tubular, symmetrical, curved, open at each end, attenuated pos- teriorly ; surface smooth or longitudinally striated; aperture circular, not constricted.* Animal attached to its shell near the posterior, anal orifice; head rudi- dimentary, eyes 0, tentacles 0; oral orifice fringed; foot pointed, conical, with symmetrical side- lobes, and an attenuated base, in which is a hollow communicating with the stomach. Branchize 2, symmetrical, posterior to the heart ; blood red (Clarke); sexes united? Lingual ribbon wide, ovate; rachis 1-toothed ; uncini single, flanked by single unarmed plates. The tooth-shells are animal-feeders, devouring foraminifera’ and minute bivalves; they are found on sand, or mud, in which they often bury them- selves. The British sp. range from 10—100 fms. (Forbes.) Distr., 30 sp. W. Indies, Norway, Brit., Medit., India. Fossil, 70 sp. Devonian—. Europe, Chile. FAMILY XV., Curronip&. Curron, L. Etym., chiton, a coat of mail. Ex., C. squamosus, spinosus, fascicularis, fasciatus. Pl. XI., figs. 283—381. Shell composed of 8 transverse imbricating plates, lodged in a coriaceous mantle, which forms an expanded margin round the body. ‘The first seven plates have posterior apices; the eighth has its apex nearly in front. The six middle plates are each divided by lines of sculpturing into a dorsal and two lateral areas. All are inserted into the. mantle of the animal by processes (apophyses) from their front margins. The posterior plate is considered ho- mologous with the limpet-shell, by Mr. Gray; the other plates appear like portions of its anterior slope, successively detached. The border of the mantle is either bare, or covered with minute plates, hairs, or spines. * D. gadus of Montagu is an annelide, belonging to the genus ditrupa. GASTEROPODA. 157 Animal with a broad creeping disk like the limpet; proboscis armed with cartilaginous jaws, and a long linear tongue; lingual teeth 3; median small, laterals large, with dentated hooks; uncini 5, trapezoidal, one of them erect and hooked. No eyes, or tentacles. Branchize forming a series of lamellee between the foot and the mantle, round the posterior part of the body, The heart is central, and elongated like the dorsal vessel of the amnelides; the sexes are united ; the re-productive organs are symmetrically repeated on each side, and have two orifices; the intestine is straight, and the anal orifice pos- terior and median. Distr. More than 200 species are known; they occur in all climates throughout the world; most abundant on rocks at low-water, but frequently obtained by dredging in 10—25 fathoms water. Some of the small British species range as deep as 100 fms. (Forbes.) W. Indies, Europe, S. Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, California to Chiloé. Fossil, 24 sp. Silurian—. Brit., Belgium, &c. Sub-genera.* Chiton, (Syn., lophurus, Poli. Radsia, callo-chiton, ischno-chiton, and lepto-chiton, Gray). Ezx., C. squamosus. Pl. XI., fig. 28. Border tessellated. Distr. Brazil, W. Indies, Newfoundland, Greenland, Brit., Medit., Cape, Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, W. America. Tomcia, Gray. C. elegans. Margin bare. Distr. Greenland, C. Horn, New Zealand, Valparaiso. Acanthopleura, Guilding. C.spinosus. Pl. XI., fig. 29. Margin covered with spines, or elongated scales. Syn. Schizo-chiton, corephium, plaxiphora, onycho-chiton, enoplo-chiton, Gray. Dzstr. W. Indies, C. Horn, Falklands, Africa, Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, Valparaiso. Mopaha, Gray. C. Hindsii. Border hairy. Diéstr., W. America, Falk- land Islands. Katharina, Gray, C. tunicatus. Mantle covering all but the centre of the plates. Distr. New Zealand, W. America. Cryptochiton, Gray, “ Saw-dust chiton.”’ C. amiculatus. Valves covered with scaly epidermis. Syz., cryptoconchus, Sw. Amicula, Gray. Distr., Ca- lifornia, New Zealand. Acanthochites, Leach. C. fascicularis. Pl. XI., fig. 30. Border orna- mented with tufts of slender spines, opposite the plates. Distr., Brit., Medit. New Zealand. Chitonellus, Lam. C. fasciatus, Quoy. Pl. XI., fig. 31. Border velvety ; exposed portion of the plates small, distant; apophyses close to- * The sub-genera of Mr. Gray are founded on the form of the plates of inser - tion ; they are described in detail in the proceedings of the Zoological Society. Dr. Middendorf employs the number of the branchial lamine for distinguishing the sections, 158 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ¢t gether. Destr., 10 sp. W. Indies, W. Africa, Philippines, Australia, Pacific, Panama. The chitonelle are found in fissures of coral rock (Cuming). , Grypho-chiton, Gray. C. nervicanus. Helminthochiton, Salter, 1847. H. Griffithi, Salter Geol. Journ. Plates” sub-quadrate, not covered by the mantle; apophyses widely separated. Fossid. Silurian, Ireland. W. OSTELL. PRINSER, HART STREET, BLOOMSBURY. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA; OR, RUDIMENTARY TREATISE RECENT AND FOSSIL SHELLS. BY Ss. P. WOODWARD, F.G.S. ASSOCIATE OF THE LINNZAN SOCIETY 5 ASSISTANT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM; AND MEMBER OF THE COTTESWOLDE NATURALISTS’ CLUB. ILLUSTRATED BY A. N. WATERHOUSE anp JOSEPH WILSON LOWRY. PAL . if. LONDON. JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN. MDCCCLIV. q : bee % toe z a ae sae x * Daca? Ta . in . oe . a ‘ a o I< ' = a) “ ' " 4 i ‘ 2 ‘ t . hy * Li ; > ‘ 4 oN b BPs. f a . ~ By a i + . : _ LONDON: | PRINTED BY WILLIAM OSTELL, ue ney HART STREET, BLOOMSBURY, A i) Page ERRATA AND ADDENDA. 7 line 5 for “ pterpoda” read “ pteropoda.” — © 13 for “brachiapoda” read “ brachiopoda.” 11 “ 16 for “ pector” read “ pecten.” 15 “ 30 for “Mr. Robert” read “Mr. George Roberts ;” the statement is undoubtedly correct. 22 “ 16 for “slerotic” read “ sclerotic.” 25 Note. Striped muscular fibre has been observed in Sa/pa. (Huxley.) 28 line 8 erase the words “ when withdrawn.” 28 Fig. 16 a, anterior; p, posterior ; Z, lateral; 7, rachidian. 30 line 27 erase “and by four in the brachiopoda.” 39 “ 92 the “tubular structure” of pinna is probably occasioned by the growth of a confervoid sponge between the laminz- (Quekett.) 46 “ 18 erase the word “ cylindrella.” 50 “ 7 for “brachiopoda” read “ opisth o-branches.”’ 52 erase lines 20—23, and see p. 245. 54 line 12 see Supplement. 65 M. Verany and H. Miiller have shown that the Hectocotyle is developed in place of the right arm of the third pair of the male cephalopod, and spontaneously detached. See SUPPLE- MENT. : 67 line 8 from bottom, for “ dorsal” read “ ventral.” 68 Tremoctopus is a sub-genus of Octopus, not of Philonezts. 70 line 16 add “ Zype, Loligo Aalensis, Schubler.” 71 “ 14 for “Fidenas ? Gray” read “ R. palpebrosa.” 79 Note. for “the apocryphal genus spongarium was founded on” read “ most of the so-called spongaria are.” 89 Sub-genus 6, Diploceras (Salter), The shell is supposed to have resembled Gonioceras, and the external tube to be a simple cavity fornied by the approximation of the lateral angles. 94 line 15 (and PI. III. fig. 4) for “‘ Rhothomagensis” vead “‘ Rotho- magensis, from Rothomagum, Rouen.” 100 “ 6 for “ riam” read “ rima.” 105 “ 8 for “ Strombidia, Sw.” read “ Rimella, Ag.” 106 erase line 3. 108 Admete (viridula) is a boreal form of Cancellaria, without plaits. Page 108 Cuma (angulifera) and Rapana (p. 109) are Purpure. 115 Cithara, Schum. belongs to Fam. Conidae. 127 line 15 add Syn. Polyphemopsis, Portlock. 128 “ 2 for “ Triphoris,” read “ Triforis.” — “ 9 for “ eidos, facies” read “ ides, patronymic termination.” 129 Fastigiella; Fossil, Kocene. Paris (Cerithium rugosum, Lam.) 131 for “ Pachystoma, Gray” read “ Chilostoma, Desh.” 132 Remove Aciis to the Pyramidellide. — line 8 from bottom, (and Pl. IX. fig. 4) for “ A. perforata, Mont. MS.” read “ A. supranitida, Wood.” 135 line 4 erase “ Nina, Gray.” — “ 6 for “ many-whirled” read “ few-whirled.” 136 (and Pl. IX. fig. 24).for “ Litiopa dombix” read “ L. bombyx.” 142 Navicella inhabits freshwaters, adhering to stones and plants. 145 line 30 for “ Maclurea, Les.” read “ Straparollus, D’Orb.” 154 line 6 from bottom, for “ Pattison” read ‘‘ R. Patterson.” 155 Metoptoma is a sub-genus of Pileopszs, not Patella. Exp. Plates. Pl. V. fig. 5, fcr “ California” read ‘‘ W. Indies.” FS — fig. 7, for “ China” read “ W. Indies.” VII. fig. 15, for “ Philippines” read “ Tahiti.” - XII. fig. 13, for “ Australian Ids.” read “ Tahiti.” : — fig. 43, for ‘ Sby. Philippines” read “ Gray, 4 Jamaica. Page 165 Glandina; the Lusitanian Bulimus Algirus belongs to this genus. 168 line 15 insert “ devour” Jefore “ animal substances.” 177“ 16 for “ Megaloma” vead ‘‘ Lomastoma.” 253 ‘* 3 from bottom, erase ‘‘ #theria has a large foot.” 261 “ 25 erase “‘ Aucella, Keyserling ;” it is a pearly shell, distinct from Donotis of Minster. NOTICE. In the long interval since the publication of the first part of this Manual, materials have so accumulated on the writer’s hands, that it has been found impracticable to condense them within the space at first contemplated. The illustrations also have been more numerous than was originally expected, and occupy considerably more room. But although a SuPpPLEMENT has become inevitable, the publisher has allowed an extra number of pages, in order to render the present part complete in itself. The writer hopes to make the Appendix more valuable by figures and descriptions of the animals of many hitherto un- described Bivalve genera, the materials for which have already been placed at his disposal by Dr. J. E. Gray. The present part owes much to the assistance of Mr. Albany Hancock, of Newcastle; Mr. Thos. Davidson, F.G.S., and Mr. T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. ce Gb 24 1 be dale igen ‘a wes” le ists’ ub afet oni ino ie wit j age b Kine eG y hie a GALES ae: 4 obeigt.: tty Ao ate wee mes: eb'g ait ut ie ay ite haa kes gird sbeakgil ssh . stan a Had Tag xe od) icon wali Bi Avew ated’ yalnid is te iy dance , cance . Sie ah ana Ae: wialbad fi > pe aps ste 4 OF Bic ihae oh AmROES tamertey Py werk, JEL lag biome cick tee oot? aA AM 6 sortnjaleae otk wd shonlten, 20d BS =f in if . Dita ey MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. PARDEE. CLASS II. GASTEROPODA.—ORDER II. Putmonirera. Tus order embraces all the land-snails and other modlusca which breathe air. They are normal gasteropods, having a broad foot, and usually a large spiral shell; their breathing-organ is the simplest form of lung, and is like the branchial chamber of the sea-snails, but lined with a network of respiratory vessels. One large division of the land-snails is furnished with an operculated shell ; the rest are in-operculate, and sometimes shell-less. The pulmonifera are closely related to the plant-eating sea-snails (holo- stomata), through Cyclostoma, and to the nudibranches by Oncidium. As a group, they are generally inferior to the sea-snails, on account of the com- parative imperfection of their senses, and the union of the functions of both sexes in each individual. SECTION A. IN-oPERCULATA. The typical pulmonifera vary much in appearance and habits, but agree essentially in structure. Most of them have sufficiently large shells; in the slugs, however, the shell is small and concealed, or rarely quite wanting. Snail-shells contain a larger proportion of animal matter than sea-shells, and their structure is less distinctly stratified (p. 40). In form, these shells repre- sent many marine genera. ‘The greater part are terrestrial, only some of the smaller families inhabit fresh-waters, or damp places near the sea. The res- piratory orifice is small and valve-like,* to prevent too rapid desiccation in the land-snails, and to guard against the entry of water in the aquatic tribes. Land-snails are universally distributed; but the necessity for moist air, and the vegetable nature of their food, favour their multiplication in warm and humid regions; they are especially abundant in islands, whilst in hot and desert countries they appear only in the season of rain or dews. Their geological history is less complete than that of the purely marine orders; but * Hence they are called Adelo-pneumona (concealed-lunged) by Gray. 160 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. their antiquity might be inferred from the distribution of peculiar genera in remote islands, associated with the living representatives of the ancient fauna of Europe. Fresh-water snails (Zimneide) occur in the English Weald, but fossil land-snails have not been found in strata older than the Tertiary in Europe, and then under forms generically, and even in one in- stance specifically, identical with living types of the new world (Megaspira, Proserpina, Glandina, and Helix labyrinthica). In the coal-strata of Nova Scotia, Sir Chas. Lyell has discovered a single specimen of a reversed and striated shell, apparently a Clauszlia. The ingual dentition of the pulmonifera confirms, in a remarkable manner, those views, respecting the affinities of the order, and its zoological value, which have been deduced from the more obvious characters afforded by the animal and shell. The operculated land-snails have seven-ranked teeth, like Paludina and Intorina. The in-operculated air-breathers have, without known exception, rows of very numerous, similar teeth, with broad bases, resembling tessellated pavement. Their crowns are recurved, and either aculeate or dentated. The lingual ribbon is very broad, often nearly as wide as it is long; and the number of teeth in a row (though usually a third less) is sometimes as great, or even greater, than the number of rows. The rows of teeth are straight or curved or angulated; when the rows are straight the teeth are similar in shape; curves indicate gradual changes, and angles ac- company sudden alterations of form. Fig. 90. Lingual teeth of Achatina.* The absolute number of teeth is only a specific character, and is usually greatest in the larger species; but the He/icelle have fewer teeth in propor- tion than the Helices, and Velletia has fewer than Axcylus. The anomalous genus Amphibola (p. 139) has an unusually broad tongue, armed with teeth similar to those of the snail. elulelalylelabulelalalelulvjvlele als iplselgiaigaie el oll salallalolleulaidutle aii ullalllpbtay Fig, 91. Lingual teeth of Amphibola.t About one-third the lingual membrane is spread over the tongue; the rest has its margins rolled together, and is lodged in a sac or dental canal, which * Fragment of the lingual membrane of Achatina fulica, with central and lateral teeth more enlarged, from a specimen communicated by J. W. Laidlay, Esq. + Part of the tongue of Amphibola avellana, from a preparation by J. W. Wilton, Esq., of Gloucester. GASTEROPODA. 161 diverges downwards from the posterior part of the mouth, and terminates outside the buccal mass of muscles.* The mode in which the tongue is used, may be seen by placing a Lemnea or Planorbis in a glass of water, inside which the green conferva has begun to grow ; they will be observed incessantly cleaning off this film. The upper lip with its mandible is raised, the lower lip—which is horse-shoe shaped— expands, the tongue is protruded and applied to the surface for an instant, and then withdrawn ; its teeth glitter like glass-paper, and in Lemnea it is so flexible, that frequently it will catch against projecting points, and be drawn out of shape slightly as it vibrates over the surface. “The development of the (in-operculate) Pulmonifera has been worked out by Van Beneden and Windischmann,+ by Oscar Schmidt,} and by Gegen- baur;§ the memoir, by the last named author, contains “full information respecting Limaa and Clausilia, and some important notices with regard to Helix. “The yelk undergoes complete division. The first stage of development consists in the separation of the embryo into mantle and foot. The anterior, part of the body, in front of the mantle, dilates and forms a contractile sac— the homologue of the velwm of marine gasteropods—which in Doris, Poly- cera, and olis, has been seen to exhibit similar contractions. (Gegen- baur.) To this contractile vesicle the name of Yelk-sac was given by Van Beneden and Windischmann, but it is a very different organ from the true Yelk-sac, which exists in the Cephalopoda alone among molluscs. ‘‘ A similar contractile dilatation exists at the end of the foot—and the contractions of this ‘caudal’ vesicle and of the ‘ vitellary’ vesicle alternate, so as to produce a kind of circulation before the development of the heart. “The oral tentacles and parts about the mouth are the last to be com- pleted. “ A peculiar gland exists during the embryonic period, attached to the parietes of the ‘vitellary’ vesicle, which Gegenbaur and Schmidt compare to a Wolffian body. “Gegenbaur draws attention to the fact, that the first rudiment of the shell in Limax, Clausilia and probably Helix, is not secreted on the exterior of the mantle, as in other gasteropoda; but is deposited, in the form of calcarious granules, within its substance. “Besides, therefore, the possession of Wolffian bodies, and of especial contractile organs, which subserve respiration and circulation during em- bryonic life—the terrestrial gasteropoda are further distinguished by the * Thomson, An. Nat. Hist. Feb. 1851. + Recherches sur l’embryogenie des Limaces. Miiller’s Archiv. 1841. t Ueber die Entwickelung von Limaz agrestis Miiller’s Archiv, 1851. § Beitrige zur Entwickelungs geschichte der Land-gasteropoden. Siebold and Kolliker’s Zeitschrift, 1852. T 2 162 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA., peculiar mode of development of their shells—if the observations upon Clau- sila and Helix may be extended to the rest. The first development of the shell within the substance of the mantle (a relation found hitherto only in the Cephalopoda) is up to the present time a solitary fact, without parallel among the other gasteropodous families.” (Hualey.) FAMILY I. Hettcipm.* Land-snails. Shell external, usually well developed, and capable of containing the entire animal ; aperture closed by an epiphragm during hybernation.+ Animal, with a short retractile head, with four cylindrical, retractile ten- tacles, the upper pair longest and bearing eye-specks at their summits. Body spiral, distinct from the foot ; respiratory orifice on the right side, beneath the margin of the shell; reproductive orifice near the base of the right ocular tentacle; mouth armed with a horny, dentated, crescent-shaped upper man- dible; lingual membrane oblong, central teeth in-conspicuous, laterals numer- ous, similar. (See Intr. p. 97.) Hex, Lt Type, H. pomatia, L. Roman snail. Etym. Helix, a coil. Shell umbilicated, perforated or imperforate; discoidal, globosely-de- pressed or conoidal ; aperture transverse, oblique, lunar or roundish ; margins distinct, remote or united by callus. Animal with a long foot, poimted behind; lingual teeth usually in straight rows, edge-teeth dentated. Distr. including the sub-genera, above 1,200 sp. (several hundred sp. are undescribed). World-wide ; ranging northward as far as the limit of trees, and southward to Tierra-del-fuego, but most abundant by far in warm and humid climates. M. D’Orbigny observed 6 sp. at elevations exceeding 11,000 feet, in S. America, and Layard found H. gardeneri at the height of 8,000 feet in Ceylon. The species of tropical and southern islands are mostly peculiar. Several of the smaller British species, and even the large garden- snail (H. aspersa), have been naturalised in the most remote colonies. The Neapolitans and Brazilians eat snails. Fossil (extinct) sp. about 50. Eocene —. Europe. Sections ; Acavus, Montf. Shell imperforate. HH. heemastoma, Pl. XII. fig. 1. Geotrochus (lonchostoma) Hasselt, Trochiform, flat beneath. Polygyra, Say. Depressed, many-whirled. H. polygyrata, Pl. XII. fig. 2. * The account of this family is chiefly taken from Dr. L. Pfeiffer’s Monographia Heliceorum. + The epiphragm is a layer of hardened mucus, sometimes strengthened with car- bonate of lime; it is always minutely perforated opposite the respiratory orifice. t The synonomy of the genus would fill several pages. See Intr. 1, p. 59. GASTEROPODA. 163 Tridopsis, Raf. Aperture contracted by tooth-like projections. H. hir- ‘suta, Pl. XIT. fig. 5. Carocolla, Lam. Peristome continuous. H. lapicida, Pl. XII. fig. 3. Sub-genera. Anastoma, Fischer. (Tomigerus, Spix.) H. globulosa Pl. XII. fig. 4. Aperture of adult turned upwards, ringent; 4 sp. Brazil. Hypostoma (Boysii) Albers, is a minute Indian snail, in which the aperture is similarly distorted. Lychnus (Matheroni, Req.) has a similar shell, but no apertural teeth; 3 sp. occur in the Eocene Tertiary of the S. France. Streptaxis, Gray. H. contusa, Pl. XII. fig. 6. Sub-globose, lower whirls receding from the axis of the upper; 24 sp. Brazil, W. Africa, Mas- carene Ids. S. Asia. Sagda, Beck. H. epistylium, Pl. XII. fig. 7. Imperforate, globosely conoid, close-whirled, aperture lamellate within, lip sharp; 3 sp. Jamaica. Prosérpina (nitida) Guilding. Shell depressed, shining, callous beneath ; aperture toothed inside; peristome sharp. Dvzstr. 6 sp. Jamaica, Cuba, Mexico. Fossil, Hocene—. I. Wight (Ff. Edwards). Helicella, Lam.* Type, H. cellaria, Pl. XII. fig. 8. Shell thin, de- pressed ; peristome sharp, not reflected. Lingual edge-teeth aculeate. 90 sp. Stenopus (cruentatus) Guild. Syn. Nanina (citrina) Gray; Ariophanta (leevipes, Pl. XII. fig. 9) Desm. Shell thin, polished; peristome thin, not reflected. Animal with the tail truncated and glandular, like Arion ; mantle- margin produced, partly covering the shell. Dzstr. 70 sp. S. Asia and Ids. N. Zealand, Pacific Ids. W. Indies. Virrina, Draparnaud, Glass-snail. Type, V. Draparnaldi, Pl. XII. fig. 28. Sy. Helicolimax, Fer. Shell imperforate, very thin, depressed; spire short, last whirl large ; aperture large, lunate or rounded, columellar margin slightly inflected, peris- tome often membranous. Animal elongated, too large for complete retraction into the shell; tail very short; mantle reflected over the shell-margin, and furnished with a posterior lobe on the right side. Lingual “teeth (of type) 100 rows of 75 each; marginal teeth with a single, long, recurved apex (Thomson). Occa- sionally animal-feeders, like the slugs. V. Cuviert and Freycimetz (Helicarion Fer.) tail longer, more abruptly truncated, with a caudal gland like avon, mantle more developed, Distr. 64 sp. Old World, 58; Greenland, 1; Brazil, 5. Sub-genera. Daudebardic, Hartm. (Helicophanta, Fér.) V. brevipes, PL XII. fig. 29, Shell perforated, horizontally involute; aperture oblique, ample; 3 sp. Central Europe. Simpulopsis (sulculosa) Beck; shell succinea-shaped. 5 sp. Brazil. * For this group Mr. Gray formerly employed the name Zonites, given originally by Montfort to Helix Algira; in his later works be adopts Helicella. 164 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Succtnea, Draparnaud. Amber-snail. Type, 8. putris, Pl. XII. fig. 23. Syn. Cochlohydra, Fér. Helisiga (S. Helenze) Less. Amphibulima (patula) Beck ; Pelta (Cumingii) Beck. Shell imperforate, thin, ovate or oblong; spire small; aperture large, obliquely oval ; columella and peristome simple, acute. Animal large, tentacles short and thick, foot broad; lingual teeth like helix ; S. putris has 50 rows, of 65 teeth each (Thomson). Inhabits damp places, but rarely enters the water. Distr. 68 sp. Europe 5, Africa 3, India ], Australia 1; Pacifie Ids. 17, N. America 14, S. America 11, W. Indies 11. Fosszd. Eocene, Brit. Sub-genus. Omalonyx,D’Orb. O. unguis. Pl. XII. fig. 24. Shell oval, convex, translucent, spire nearly obsolete, margins sharp. Animal large, slug-like ; shell placed on the middle of the back, with the mantle slightly reflected upon it all round. Dist. 2sp. Bolivia; Juan Fernandez. Butimus, Scopoli. Etym. ? Boulimos, extreme hunger (in allusion to its voracity !) Syn. Bulinus, Brod. (not Adans). Type. B. oblongus. Pl. XII. fig. 10: Shell oblong or turreted ; aperture with the longitudinal margins unequal, toothless or dentate; columella entire, revolute externally or nearly simple; peristome simple or expanded, Animal like Helix. B. ovatus attains a length of 6 inches, and is sold in the market of Rio; it oviposits amongst dead leaves, the eggs have a brittle shell, and the young when hatched are an inch long. (See p. 54, fig. 31.) } Sections. Odontostomus (gargantuns) Beck, aperture toothed, 13 sp. Brazil. Pachyotis, Beck (Caprella, Guild.) fig. 91.* Partula, Fer. P. faba. Pl. XII. fig. 13, Tahiti. 26 sp. Asiatic, Australian and Pacific Ids. 24; S. America 2. The @nimal is ovo- viviparous. Gibbus (Lyonnetianus) Montf. Shell hump- {4 backed; Mauritius, 2 sp. Li Bulimulus, Leach. B. decollatus. Pl. XII. QW figs. 11, 12. Shell small, lip acute. Above 300 sp. England 3 sp. Zua, Geach. Z. lubrica. Pl. XII. -fig. 14. Shell polished, columella slightly truncated. Azeca, Leach. A.tridens. Pl. XII. fig. 15. Shell polished, peristome thickened and toothed. Fig. 91* B. auris-oulpina. . i oD Ait, tty Fy} * Fig. 91. Bulimus aurisevulpina, Chemn. The great extinct land-snail of St. GASTEROPODA. 165 Distr. 650 sp. Europe 30, Asia 130, Australia and Pacific Ids. 46, Africa 50, S. States 3, Tropical and S. American 330. Fossil. 30 sp. Eocene —. Europe, S. Helena, Australia, W. Indies. B. Guadalupensis occurs in modern limestone, with human remains. Acuatina, Lamarck. Agate-shell. Type, A. variegata, Pl. XII. fig. 22. Sy. Cochlitoma, Fér. Columna, Perry. Subulina (octona) Beck. Li- guus (virgineus) Montf. Cionella (acicula) Jeffr. Sheil imperforate, bulimiform ; columella twisted, and truncated in front ; aperture oval, angular above; peristome simple, acute. Animal snail-like. The great African Achatine are the largest of all land-snails, attaining a length of 8 inches; their eggs exceed an inch in length, and have a calcarious shell. Distr. 120 sp. Europe 9, Africa 88, Asia 8, tropical America 29. Fossil. 14 sp. Eocene —. Europe; St. Helena. Sub-genera. Glandina (voluta) Schum, (Oleacina, Bolten; Polyphe- mus, Montf.) Shell oblong, fusiform; aperture narrow, elliptical. Animal twice as long as the shell; eye tentacles deflected at the tips, beyond the eyes; vibracula much shorter, also deflected; lips elongated, tentacular. Frequents low and moist situations; in confinement one refused vegetable food, but at another snail. (Say.) 40 sp. W. Indies, Central America, Mexico, Florida. Fossil. Bocene —. Glandina costellata. I. Wight. (fF. Edwards.) Achatinella (vulpina) Sw. (Helicteres, Fér.) Columella twisted into a strong, tooth-like fold. Sandwich Ids. 25, Mariannes 2, Ceylon 1. Pupa, Lamarck. Chrysalis-shell. Type, P.uva. Pl. XT. fig. 16. Syn. Torquilla (juniperi) Studer. Sheil rimate or perforate, cylindrical or oblong; aperture rounded, often toothed ;* margins distant, mostly united by a callous lamina. Animal with a short foot, pointed behind ; lower tentacles short. Distr. 160 sp. Greenland 1, Europe 76, Africa 23, India 12, Pacifie Ids. 2, N. America 30, S. America 5. Fossil. 40 sp. Eocene —. Europe. Sub-genus. Vertigo, Mill. V. Venetzii. Pl. XII. fig. 17. Shell mi- nute, sometimes sinistral. Animal with the oral tentacles rudimentary or obsolete. 12 sp. Old World. CyLInDRELLA, L. Pfeiffer. Cylinder-snail. Type, C. cylindrus. Pl. XII. fig. 20.7 Helena; froma specimen presented by Chas. Darwin, Esq. See ‘“‘ Journal of a Voyage round the World.” * Dr. Pfeiffer terms those teeth parietal which are situated on the body-whirl those on the outer lip palatal, and on the inner lip columellar. + The figure is taken from a sp. in Mr. Cuming’s cabinet, in which the empty apex, usually decollated, remains attached to the adult shell. 166 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Syn. Brachypus, Guild. Siphonostoma, Sw. Shell cylindrical or pupiform, sometimes sinistral, many-whirled, apex of the adult truncated, aperture round, peristome continuous, expanded. Animal similar to clausilia ; foot short, oral tentacles minute. Distr. 50 sp. W. Indies 35, Mexico 5, Texas 2, S. America 1. Baea, Prideaux. Type, B. perversa. Pl. XII. fig. 21. Sy. Fusulus, Fitz. Shell slender, usually sinistral, fusiform, multispiral, aperture ovate ; pe- ristome acute, margins unequal, wall of the aperture with one slight plait; columella simple. Animal snail-like; teeth 20.20; rows 130 (Thomson). Distr. 8 sp. Norway, Hungary, New Granada, Tristan d’Acunha. The British sp. is found, very rarely, in Porto Santo, only on the highest peak, at an elevation of 1,665 feet. (Wollaston.) Sub-genus. Megaspira (elatior) Lea. Pl. XII. fig. 18. Shell dextral, with the columella transversely plaited. Dzstr.1 sp. Brazil. Fosszl, 1 sp. Eocene —. Rheims. TORNATELLINA, Beck. Etym. Diminutive (or patronymic termination) of ¢torzatella. Type, T. bilamellata, Ant. Syn. Strobilus, Anton. Elasmatina, Petit. Shell imperforate, ovate or elongated; aperture semi-lunar, margins un- equal, disunited ; columella twisted, truncated ; inner lip 1-plaited. | Distr. 11 sp. Cuba 1, S. America 2, Juan Fernandez 2, Pacifie Ids. 5, N. Zealand 1. Paxittus, A. Adams. Type, P. adversus, Ad. Borneo. Shell small, pupiform, sinistral, rimate; spire pointed; aperture semi- ovate, ascending on the body-whirl; inner lip spreading, 1-plaited, outer lip expanded, notched in front. CrausiLia, Draparnaud. Etym. Dimin. of elausum a closed place. Syn. Cochlodina, Fér. Ex. C. plicatula, Drap. (=C. Rolphii, Leach). Pl. XII. fig. 19. Shell fusiform, sinistral; aperture elliptical or pyriform, contracted by lamelle, and closed when adult by a moveable shelly plate (c/awsiwm) in the neck. Animal with a short, obtuse foot; upper tentacles short, lower very small. C. didens has 120 rows of 50 teeth; C. nigricans 90 rows of 40 teeth each. Distr. Above 200 sp. Europe 146, Asia 48, Africa 4,8. America 3. Fossil, 20 sp. Eocene —. Brit. France. Coal-strata, N. Scotia. (Lyel/.) C. maxima, Grat. Miocene, Dax is two inches in length. GASTEROPODA. 167 FAMILY II. Limactpa. Slugs. Shell small or rudimentary, usually internal, or partly concealed by the mantle, and placed over the respiratory cavity. . Animal elongated; body not distinct from the foot; head and tentacles retractile ;-tentacles 4, cylindrical, the upper pair supporting eyes; mantle small, shieldshaped ; respiratory and excretory orifices on the right side. Fig. 92. Limax Sowerbii Fér. Brit. LIimax, L. Slug. Type, L. maximus. Pl. XII. fig. 25. (L. cinereus, Mill.) Shell internal, oblong, flat, or slightly concave beneath, nucleus posterior ; margin membranous; epidermis distinct. Animal, foot pointed and keeled behind; mantle shieldshaped, on the front of the back, granulated or marked with concentric striz ; respiratory orifice on the right side, near the posterior margin of the mantle; repro- ductive orifice near the base of the right ocular tentacle; lingual teeth tricuspid, those near the margin simple, aculeate. The slugs are connected with the snails by Vitrima; their teeth are similar, but have more elongated cusps. The creeping-disk, or sole of the foot, extends the whole length of the animal ; but they frequently lift up their heads, like the snails, and move their tentacles in search of objects above them. ‘They often climb trees, and some can lower themselves to the ground by a mucous thread. When alarmed they withdraw their heads beneath the mantle, as in fig. 92. Slugs feed chiefly on decaying vegetable and animal substances; they oviposit at any time of the spring and summer when the weather is moist, and bury themselves in drought and frost. Lemax nocti- lucus, Fér. (Phosphorax, Webb.) found in Teneriffe, has a luminous pore in the posterior border of the mantle. Distr. 22. sp. Europe, Canaries, Sandwich Ids. Fossil. Eocene —. Brit. The Ancylus ? latus, Edw. of the I. Wight appears to be a Limax. Sub-genus. Geomalacus (maculosus) Allman. Ireland. She// ungui- form. Animal with a mucus gland at the extremity of the tail; respiratory orifice near the right anterior border of the mantle. Incitarta, Benson. Type, I. bilineata, Cantor, Chusan. Sy. ? Meghimatiam, Hasselt. J 3 168 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Animal elongated, tapering behind, entirely covered by a mantle ; tenta- cles 4, the upper bearing eyes, the lower entire ; respiratory orifice on the right side, near the front of the mantle. Lon. 14 inches. Philomycus (Raf.) Fé. =Tebennophorus, Binney, 1842, Bost. Soc. Journ. (Helix Carolinensis, Bosc) is alsoa slug with a long mantle. Arion, Férussac. Land-sole. Type, A.empiricorum, Fér. Syn. Limacella, Brard. Shell oval, concave; or represented by numerous irregular calcarious gra- ules. Animal, slug-like; respiratory orifice on the right side, towards the front of the mantle; reproductive orifice immediately below it; tail rounded, slightly truncated, terminated by a mucus-gland. Lingual teeth, as in maz; A. empiricorum has 160 rows of 101 teeth each. The land-soles occasionally animal substances, such as dead worms, or injured individuals of their own species. They lay 70-100 eggs, between May and September, are 26-40 days hatching, and attain their full growth in a year; they begin to oviposit a month or two before that period. he eggs of 4. hortensis are very phos- phorescent for the first 15 days. (Bowchard.) Distr. 6 sp. Europe. Norway, Brit. Spain, S. Africa. Fossil. Newer Pliocene, Maidstone. (Jforris.) . Plectrophorus (corninus, Bosc) Fér. 8 sp. Teneriffe; represented as having a small conical shell on the tail; probabl} an erroneous observation. PARMACELLA, Cuvier. Type, PB. Olivieri, Cuv. Etym. parma, a small shield. | Syn. > Peltella (Americana), Van Beneden. Shell concealed, oblong, nearly flat, apex sub-spiral. Animal vitrina-like, with an ample foot, pointed behind, and furnished with a mucus-pore; martle small, shield-like, in the middle of the back, partly or entirely concealing the shell. P. calyculata, Sby. (Cryptella, Webb,) Pl. 12, fig. 27, is patelliform, with an exposed papillary spire. Distr. 7 sp. S. Europe; Canary Ids. N, India. TESTACELLA, Cuvier. Shell small, ear-shaped, situated on the posterior extremity of the body. Aninal, slug-like, elongated and tapering towards the head; back with * Back view of a half-grown individual; side-view of shell on the tail, and front view of the head. From specimens communicated by Arthur Mackie, Esq., of Norwich. GASTEROPODA. 169 2 principal lateral furrows, from which numerous vein-like grooves ramify ; mantle not larger than the shell; respiratory orifice on the right side, beneath sub-spiral apex of the shell; reproductive orifice behind the right tentacle. The Testacella is subterranean in its habits, feeding on earth-worms, and visiting the surface only at night. Its lingual membrane is very large and wide, with about 50 rows of 20.20 teeth, which diminish rapidly in size to- wards the centre; each tooth is slender, barbed at the point, and slightly thickened at the base, and furnished with a projection on the middle of the posterior side. Meo > VRAMAQ “NAL Bal” W/Z SN ~ Ws Wah, SSA a0 Se ty if) i / Va WR a w~S 3 » Yih aE LZ . NLT ae Me Wh . SS Ly. Hf ff Mp Cj 2 SSS SR HG Loy Mf YET fe SSS LF Fig. 94.* Distr. 3 sp. S. Europe; Canary Ids. Brit. (introduced.) FAMILY III. Onciprapz. Animal, slug-like, destitute of any shell, completely covered by a coriace- ous mantle; tentacles cylindrical, retractile, with eyes at their extremities ; foot much narrower than the mantle. OncipDIuM, Buchanan. Type, O. Typhe, Buch. Etym. Diminutive of Onkos, a tubercle. Animal oblong, convex, usually tuberculated; head with 2 retractile ten- tacles, bearing the eyes; mouth covered by a notched veil; no horny jaws; tongue broad, with above 70 rows of lingual teeth (in O. celticum), teeth 54.1.54;7 the central teeth minute, triangular, with a single obtuse spine; laterals, slightly curved; heart opistho-branchiate; respiratory orifice poste- rior, distinct from the vent; sexes combined, ¢ organ under the right ten- tacle, 2 at the posterior extremity of the body. Distr. 16 sp. Brit. Medit. Red Sea, Mauritius, Australia, Pacific. The typical Oncidia live on aquatic plants, in the marshes of the warmer parts of the old world. Those which frequent sea-shores have been separated under the name Peronia, Bl. (Onchis, Fér). One species (0. celticum) is found * Part of the lingual membrane of 7. haliotides, from a preparation by Fisher vag Cocken, Esq., of Botesdale. The dentition resembles that of Fantkina. fut x + This is a convenient mode of stating the number of lingual teeth in each row; ¥ : it means that there is a single (symmetrical) tooth in the centre, and 54 lateral (un- *symmetrical) teeth on each side. If thenumber of rowsof teeth on the dental mem- brane is known, it may be added below, thus—Peronia Mauritiana, I 170 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA, on the coast of Cornwall, congregated in little groups, about a foot or two from the surface of the sea, where the waves break over them. They ascend and descend, so as to maintain their distance as the tides rise and fall; but will not bear long immersion in sea-water. (Couch.) ? Buchanania (oncidioides) Lesson. Named after Dr. F. Hamilton (Buchanan), the Zoologist of India. Azzmal oval, entirely covered by a simple mantle ; respiratory orifice in the centre of the back; head with 4 ten- tacles, retractile beneath the mantle; foot oval, much smaller than the mantle; length 33 inches. Coast of Chile. (Requires confirmation.) VacinuLus, Férussac. Type, V. Taunaisii, Fér. Syn. Veronicella, Bl. Animal elongated, slug-like, entirely covered by thick coriaceous mantle, smooth or granulated; head retractile under mantle; tentacles 4, upper pair slender, cylindrical, inflated at the tips and bearing eyes, lower pair short, bifid; foot linear, pointed behind; sexes united; ¢ orifice behind the _ right tentacle, 2 midway on the right side, beneath the mantle: respiratory and excretory orifices at posterior extremity, between mantle and foot. In- habits forests, in decayed wood and under leaves. Distr. 6 sp. W. Indies, S. America, India, Philippines. FAMILY IV. Lomazipa. Shell thin, horn-coloured; capable of containing the whole animal when retracted ; aperture simple, lip sharp; apex sometimes eroded. Animal with a short dilated muzzle; tentacles 2, eyes sessile at their inner bases; mouth armed with an upper mandible, tongue with teeth similar to Helix. The Limneeids inhabit fresh-waters, in all parts of the world; they feed chiefly on decaying leaves, and deposit their spawn in the form of oblong transparent masses, on aquatic plants and stones. They frequently glide be- neath the surface of the water, shell downwards, and hybernate or restivate in the mud. Fig. 95. Limnaa,* Lamarck. Pond-snail. Etym. Limnaios, marshy. Type, L. stagnalis, fig. 95. Pl. XII. fig. 30. * Adjectives employed as names for shells should have the feminine termination. GASTEROPODA. RUT Shell spiral, more or less elongated, thin, translucent ; body-whirl large, aperture rounded in front; columella obliquely twisted. Animal with a short, broad head; tentacles triangular, compressed ; lin- gual teeth (Z. stagnalis) 55.1.55, about 110 rows, central teeth minute, laterals bicuspid, the inner cusp largest. J. peregra feeds on the green fresh- water algae; LZ. stdgualis prefers animal substances. Distr. 50 sp. . Europe, Madeira, India, China, N. America. Fossil, 70 sp. Wealden —. Brit. France. Sub-genus, Amphipeplea, Nilsson. A. glutinosa, Pl XII. fig. 31. Shel/ globular, hyaline. Azimal with a lobed mantle, capable of expansion over the shell. Europe; Philippines. Fig. 96. Cuininia, Gray. Chilian-snail. Ex. C. pulchra, D’Orb. fig. 96. Syz. Dombeya, D’Orb. Shell oval, thin, ornamented with dark spots or wavy bands; columella thickened, with 1 or 2 strong prominent folds. Distr. 14 sp. S. America; in clear running streams. Fossul, 1 sp. Miocene, Rio Negro, Patagonia (D’Orb.) Puysa, Draparnaud. Type, P. fontinalis, Pl. XII. fig. 32. Etym. Physa, a pouch. Syn. Bulin, Adans. Rivicola, Fitz. Isidora, Ehr. Shell ovate, sinistrally spiral, thin, polished ; aperture rounded in front. Animal with long slender tentacles; the eyes at their bases; mantle margin expanded and fringed with long filaments. P. hypmorum (Aplexa, Fleming) has an elongated spire, and the mantle margin is plain. Physopsis, Krauss, S. Africa, has the base of the colu- mella truncated. Camptoceras (terebra), Benson, India, has the whirls dis- united, and the peristome continuous. ENT, Distr. 20 sp. N. America, Europe, S. Africa, India, Philippines. “~ ~“ Fossil, 14 sp. Wealden —. Brit. France. The largest living sp. (P. Maugere, California) is 15 lines in length. A fossil sp. found at Grignon — measures 26 lines, and another equally large occurs in India. Ancyrtus, Geoffroy. River-limpet. Etym. Ancylus (agkulos) a small round shield. 172 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ‘Type, A. fluviatilis, Mill. Pl. XII. fig. 33 (Patella lacustris, L.) Shell conical, limpet-shaped, thin; apex posterior, sinistral; interior with a sub-spiral muscular scar. Animal like Limnea; tentacles triangular, with eyes at their bases; lin- gual teeth 37.1.37, in 120 rows, centrals small, laterals with long recurved hooks. ; Distr. 14 sp. N. and S. America, Europe, Madeira. On stones and aquatic plants in running streams. Fossz/, 8 sp. Hocene, Belgium. Sub-genera, Velletia (oblonga, Lightf.) Gray. (Acroloxus, Beck) Shell and animal dextral; lingual teeth 40, in 75 rows. 3 sp. West Indies, Europe. Fossil, 2 sp. Eocene. Brit. France. Latia (neritoides) Gray; shell limpet-like, interior with a transverse plate, turned up and notched on one side. N. Zealand. PLANoRBIS, Miller. Syn. “Coret,” Adans. Type, P. corneus, Pl. XII. fig. 34. Sheli discoidal, dextral, many-whirled; aperture crescentic, peristome thin, incomplete, upper margin projecting. Animal with a short, round foot; head short, tentacles slender, the eyes at their inner bases; lingual teeth sub-quadrate, central and marginal bi- cuspid, laterals tricuspid; excretory orffices on left side of the neck. Some species of Planorbis have the sutures and spire deeply sunk, and the umbilicus flattened; specimens occur with the spire elevated (fig. 97*). P. contortus, a minute species, has above 6,000 teeth, (Cocken). PP. corneus secretes a purple fluid (Lister). P. dacustris (Segmentina, Fleming) has the whirls contracted, internally, by periodic septa, 3 in a whirl, with tri- radiate openings. Distr. 60 sp. N. America, Europe, India, China. Fossil, 60 sp. Wealden—. Brit. France. Fig. 97. FAMILY V, AvricuLipz. Shell spiral, covered with horny epidermis, spire short, body-whirl large ; aperture elongated, denticulated ; internal septum progressively absorbed. Animal with a broad and short muzzle, tentacles 2, cylindrical, the eyes sessile behind them; mantle-margin thickened ; orifices as in the snails; foot oblong; sexes united; mouth with a horny upper jaw; lingual teeth numer- ous, central series distinct, hooked, tricuspid. 4. Zivida has about 31 laterals * (Loven); another species examined by Mr. Wilton has 11 large laterals and about 100 smaller (weiz) on each side, gradually diminishing towards the edge, fig. 98, ec. central teeth, /, laterals. * P. marginatus, var. Rochdale, communicated by J. S. Gaskoin, Esq. GASTEROPODA. 173 Popp, AAASANTH Dy rt WEAR 2 ASSSQceda lilting ANN, Mig LIN AN ‘ NS N\ ea Nee FI) netninmannnn ; u Z e U uw 2 Fig. 98 The Awricule frequent salt-marshes, damp hollows, and places overflowed by the sea; they were long regarded as marine animals, and their shells con- fused with those of Tornatella and Ringicula. Avuricuta, Lamarck. Type. A. Jude. Pl. XIL. fig. 35. Htym. Auricula, a little ear. Syn. Cassidula, Fér (not Lam.) Marinula (pepita) King. Geovula, Sw. Shell oblong, with thick, dark epidermis; spire obtuse; aperture long, narrow, rounded in front, with 2 or 3 strong folds on the inner lip ; outer lip expanded and thickened. Distr. 50sp. Philippines, Celebes, Feejees, Australia, Peru. Fossil, 20 sp. | Neocomian —. France. Fig. 99. A. auris-felis. (From Eyd. and Soul). A, Jude has truncated tentacles; the typical species are met with in the brackish-water swamps of tropical islands, on the roots of mangroves, and by small streams within the influence of the tide. One species has been observed by Mr. Adams in nearly 2 fathoms water. Sub-genera, Polydonta, Fischer, P, scarabeus, Pl. XII. fig. 36. (Sca- rabus imbrium, Montf.) Shell oval, compressed; spire pointed many- whirled, with lateral varices; aperture toothed on both sides. Dzstr. 20 sp. India, Borneo, Celebes, Pacific Ids. Inhabits moist spots in woods near the sea, and is wholly terrestrial, feeding on decayed vegetables. (Adams.) Pedipes (afra) Adans. Shell ovate, spirally striated, aperture denticu- lated on both sides; the animal logps in walking, like ¢runcatella. Distr. W. Indies, Africa, Philippines, Pacific Ids. Under stones on the sea-shore, Fossil, 5 sp. Eocene —. Brit. France. Conoyuius, Lamarck. Type, C. coniformis, Brug. Pi. XII. fig. 837. (= Voluta coffea, L. ?) Syn. Melampus, Montf. Rhodostoma, Sw. Shell obtusely cone-shaped, smooth ; spire short, flat-whirled: aperture long, narrow; lip sharp, denticulated within ; columella twisted in front ; wall of the aperture with 1 or 2 spiral plaits. 174 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCa. Animal with short, tapering and rather compressed tentacles; foot di- vided transversely to two portions, advanced successively in walking. Distr. W. Indies, Europe. In salt-marshes and on the sea-shore. The British species have thin ovate shells, with the spire moderately produced, and the aperture oval. They form the sub-genus Alexia. (denticulata) Leach. Fossil. Eocene. Brit. France. Carycuium, Miller. Type, C. minimum, Pl. XII. fig. 39. Syn. Auricella, Hartm. Shell minute, oblong, finely striated transversely ; aperture oval, toothed, margins thickened, united by callus. Animal with 2 blunt, cylindrical tentacles; eyes black, sessile, near to- gether, behind the tentacles. Distr. 3 sp. Europe; N. America. At the roots of grass in damp places, especially near the sea. Fossil. Miocene —. Europe. The genus Siphonaria, described at p. 155, is supposed to be pulmoni- ferous, and to bear somewhat the same relation to Auricula that Ancylus does to Limnaea. The lingual dentition is similar to Auricula; the centre teeth are distinct, the laterals numerous and hooked. zs 2g, eo Ny d v aiiint " ‘ eS a gag MILD TREES ant ge | ODI RRR PRL TROT 4 Fig. 100.* SECTION B. OPpErcuLATA.* The Operculated land-snails are exceedingly like periwinkles (/:torine), and chiefly differ from them in the situations they inhabit, and the medium respired. They have a long truncated muzzle, 2 slender contractile tentacles, and the eyes are sessile on the sides Of the head.t{ The mantle-margin is simple, and the pulmonary eavity is situated on the back of the neck, and quite open in front. Lingual ribbon narrow; teeth 7-ranked. * Siphonaria sp. from the Cape; three rows of teeth, c central, 2 laterals, from a preparation by J. W. Wilton, Esq., of Gloucester. + Phanero-pneumona (open-lunged), Gray. The account of this group is chiefly taken from the Catalogue prepared by my friend Dr. Baird. { The tentacles of the helicide are retractile, by inversion (p. 25) those of the cyclostomid@ are contractile only. GASTEROPODA 175 Fig. 101. Lingual teeth of Cyclophorus.* The sexes are distinct; the shell is spiral, and closed by an operculum, presenting many beautiful modifications of structure, characteristic of the smaller groups, which are often peculiar to limited regions, as in the Helicide. The oldest fossil species are found in the Hocene Tertiary. FAMILY VI. Cyciostomip#. Shell spiral, rarely much elongated, often depressed, spirally striated ; aperture nearly circular; peristome simple. Opercudum distinctly spiral. Animal with the eyes on slight prominences at the outer bases of the tentacles; tentacles contractile only ; foot rather elongated. CycLostoma, Lamarck. Etym. Cyclos circle, stoma mouth. Type, C. elegans, Pl. XII. fig. 40. Syn. Leonia (mammillaris) and Lithidion, Gray. Shell turbinated, thin, axis perforated; aperture oval; peristome conti- nuous, simple, straight or expanded ; epidermis very thin. Operculum shelly, pauci-spiral. Animal with clavate tentacles; sole of the foot divided by a longitudinal groove, the sides moved alternately in walking; the end of the long muzzle is also frequently applied, as by the looping-snails (Truncatelle), and used to assist in climbing. Fig. 102. Cyclostoma elegans, from Charlton, Kent. Distr. Above 80 sp. S. Europe; Africa, Madagascar. The only British * C. aquilum, Sby. (original). From a specimen gathered by J. W. Laidlay, Esu. on the steps of the great idol-temple of Maulmein, Birmah. 176 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. sp. C. elegans, is found on calcarious soils; it ranges to the Canaries and Algeria, and occurs fossil in the newer Tertiaries. Nearly half the species have the whirls spirally keeled, and have been distinguished under the name Tropidophora, by Troschel. They are found in Madagascar and the adjacent islands and coast of Africa. Fossil, 20 sp. Eocene, Europe. Sub-genera. Otopoma (foliaceum), Gray. Shell sub-globose, umbili- cated ; peristome with an ear-like process covering part of the perforation. Distr. 15 sp. Arabia, Madagascar, China, New Ireland. Choanopoma (lincina) Pfr. Shelli often a little decollated; peristome usually double, the outer edge angularly expanded. zucina (labeo) Br. has the last whirl produced. Jamaicia (anomala) C. B. Adams, has the oper- culum convex. D¢str. 70 sp. W. Indies, and a few in Tropical America. Cistula (fascia), Gray. = Tudora (megacheila), Gray. Shell ovate or elongated, apex usually decollated, peristome free; operculum with a thin shelly outer coat. Chondropoma (semilabre) Pfr. differs in the operculum being “‘sub-cartilaginous.” Distr. About 70 sp. W. Indies; Tropical America, 8 sp. Realia (hieroglyphica), Gray. = Hydrocena (part) Parreyss, Ompha- lotropis, Pfr. Liarea (Egea), Gray. Bourciera (helicineeformis) Pfr. Shell turrited or turbinate, perforated; peristome simple, straight or expanded ; operculum pauci-spiral, horny. Déstr.17 sp. Canaries, ? Mauritius, Pacific. Ids. (Ecuador, Bourciera.) Pomatias (maculatum), Studer. Shell slender, transversely striated ; peristome reflected; operculum cartilaginous, concamerated within. Dzstr. 10 sp. S. Europe; Corfu. ? Ferussina, Grateloup. Etym. named in honour of Baron Ferussac. Type, F. anastomeformis, Gr. Syz. Strophostoma, Desh. Shell rounded, depressed, umbilicated ; whirls transversely striated above, spirally keeled below; aperture turned obliquely upwards, peristome simple, Operculum. ? Fossil, 1 sp. Miocene —. Dax; Turin. CyctopHorus, Montfort. Etym. Cyclos, circle, phoreus, bearer. Type, C. involutus, Pl. XII. fig. 41. Sheil depressed, openly umbilicated ; aperture circular; peristome con- tinuous, straight or expanded; epidermis thick; operculum horny, many- whirled. Animal with long, slender pointed tentacles; foot broadly expanded, not grooved. Distr. About 90 sp. India, Philippines, New Zealand, Pacific Ids. Tro- pical America. C. gibbus, Fér. (Alyeaeus, Gray) has the last whirl distorted. GASTEROPODA. 177 > C. cornu-venatorium, Sby. (Aulopoma, Troschel) Ceylon, has the peristome free when adult; the operculum is larger than the aperture, and reflected over it. Sub-genera. Pterocyclos (rupestris), Benson. Myxostoma and Steganos- toma, Troschel. Shei depressed, nearly discoidal, widely umbilicated; pe- ristome expanded, produced into a little wing at the suture; operc. sub-carti- laginous, spirally lamellated. Déstr. 16 sp. India, Ceylon, Birmah, Borneo? Cyclotus (fuscescens) Guilding (Aperostoma, Troschel). Sel7 depressed, widely umbilicated ; operculum shelly, whirls numerous, with raised margins. Distr. 44 sp. W. Indies, Tropical America, India, Asiatic Ids. Fossié. Eocene, I. Wight (F. Edwards). Leptopoma (perlucidum) Pfr. Shel/ turbinated, peristome simple, reflected ; operc. membranous. Distr. 29 sp. Philippines, India, New Guinea, N. Zealand, Pacific Ids. Megaloma* (cylindraceum) Guild. (Farcimen, Troschel.) ShelZ oblong _or pupa-shaped, scarcely perforated, aperture circular; operc. thin, horny, many-whirled, flat. Déstr.19sp. West Indies, Tropical America, Canaries, India, Mauritius. Fossid. Eocene —. Paris and I. of Wight (E. Forbes.) Craspedopoma (lucidum) Pfr. Shel/ turbinate, rimate, a little contracted near the aperture; operc. round, horny, many-whirled. Distr. 3 sp. Ma- deira, Palma. Fossil. Eocene —. I. Wight, Madeira. Cataulus (tortuosus) Pfr. Shel/ pupa-shaped, with the base keeled, pro- ducing a channel in the front of the aperture; operc. circular, horny, the whirls easily separable. Dzstr. 6 sp. Ceylon. Diplommatina (folliculus) Benson. She// minute, (1 sp. sinistral) conical, with costulated whirls; peristome double; operc. horny, multispiral. Dvesér. 3sp. India. Purina, Vignard. Type, P. bicanaliculata, Sby. Pl. XII. fig. 42. Australian Ids. Shell sub-cylindrical, usually polished; aperture circular, peristome thickened, notched in front and at the suture; operc. membranous, narrow- whirled. P. grandis, Forbes, has a dull epidermis. Distr. 8 sp. Philippines, New Guinea, New Ireland, Louisiades. Sub-genus, Rhegostoma (nunezii) Hasselt. Aperture with a narrow channel in the middle of the columellar side. 6 sp. Philippines. Nicobar. In R. lubricum (Callia, Gray) the sinus is obsolete. 2. pupznzforme (Pupi- nella, Gray) is perforated, and has a dull epidermis. Heicina, Lamarck. Type, H. Neritella, Lam. Syn. Oligyra, Say. Pachytoma, Sw. Ampullina, Bl. Pitonillus, Montf. * Abridged from Megaloma-stoma; Swainson, who judiciously curtailed several preposterously long names, allowed this to remain. \ 178 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Shell globose, depressed or keeled, callous beneath; aperture squarish or semi-lunar ; columella flattened; peristome simple, expanded; opere. shelly or membraneous, squarish or semi-ovate, lamellar. Animal like Cyclophorus ; lingual teeth 3.1.38. (Gray.) Distr. 150 sp. W. Indies, 50; Tropical America, 44; a Ids., 26 ; Australian Ids. 3; Philippines, 7. _ Sub-genera. Lucidella, (aureola) Gray. Peristome more or Jess toothed internally ; 8 sp. W. Indies, Tropical America. Trochatella (pulchella), Sw. Shel/ not callous beneath; peristome simple, expanded. W. Indies 16 sp. Venezuela 1. Alcadia, Gray. A. Brownei, Pl. XII. fig. 43. Jamaica. Shell helix- shaped, often velvety, callous beneath; columella flattened, straight; peris- tome slit in front; operc. shelly, semi-ovate, with a tooth-like process adapted to the slit in the peristome. Distr. 17 sp. Cuba, Jamaica and Haiti. Stoastoma, C. B. Adams. Ltym, Stoa pillared, stoma,month. Type, S. pisum, Ad. Shell minute, globose-conic or depressed, spirally striated; aperture semi-oval; peristome continuous; inner margin straight, forming a small spiral keel round the umbilicus ; opere. shelly, lamellar. Distr. 19 sp. Jamaica. S. succinewm (EHlectrina, Gray) has smooth whirls. I. Opara, Polynesia. FAMILY VII. Acicunm2. Shell elongated, cylindrical; operculum thin, sub-spiral. Animal with the muzzle rather produced, slender and truncated; eyes sessile on the upper part of the head, behind the base of the slender tentacles ; foot oblong, short, pointed behind. Actcunta, Hartmann. Type, A. fusca, Pl. XII. fig. 44. Syz. Acme and Acmaea, Hartm.* Shell minute. slender, nearly imperforate ; peristome slightly thickened, margins sub-parallel, jomed by a thin callus; operc. hyaline. Distr. 5 sp. Brit. Germany, France; Vanicoro (on leaves). 4. fusca is found in low, marshy situations, at the roots of grass; it occurs fossil in the Newer Pleiocene of Essex (J. Brown). GEOMELANIA. Pfeiffer. { Type. G, Jamaicensis. Pfr. tym. Ge, the ground (ie. terrestrial). Shell imperforate, turreted; aperture entire, effused; peristome simple, expanded; margins joined, basal produced into a tongue-shaped process ; opere. oval, pellucid, whirls few, rapidly enlarging. Distr, 21 sp. Jamaica. * All given in the same year, 1821; the name 4cmaea having been employed by Eschscholtz for a genus of limpets, Acicula has been retained by Pfeiffer and Gray for this land-shell. GASTEROPODA. 179 ORDER IIT, OpistHo-BRANCHIATA. Shell rudimentary or wanting. Branchie arborescent or fasciculated, not contained in a special cavity, but more or less completely exposed on the back and sides, towards the rear (opzsthen) of the body. Sexes united. (iM. Edwards). The molluscs of this order may be termed sea-slugs, since the shell, when it exists, is usually smal] and thin, and wholly or partially concealed by the animal. When alarmed or removed from their native element, they retract their gills and tentacles, and present such a questionable shape that the in- experienced naturalist will be likely enough to return them, with the refuse of the dredge, into the sea. Their internal structure presents many points of interest ; in some the gizzard is armed with horny spines, or large shelly plates; in others the stomach is extremely complicated, its ramifications and those of the liver being prolonged into the branches of the respiratory organ. The tongue is always armed, but the number and arrangement of the lingual teeth is exceedingly variable, even in the same family; usually the dental membrane is broad and short, with many similar teeth in each row. The alimentary canal terminates more in the rear of the body than in the other univalve shell-fish.* The gills are behind the heart, and the auricle behind the ventricle; conditions which characterize the embryonic state of the mollusca generally. Comparatively little is known of the geographical distribution of these animals; they have been found wherever the requisite search has been made, and are probably much more numerous than at present estimated. The shell-bearing genera flourished in the period when the secondary strata were deposited. The living species are chiefly animal-feeders, preying on other shell-fish and on zoophytes. SECTION A. ‘TTEcTI-BRANCHIATA.T Animal usually provided with a shell, both in the larval and adult state; branchize ‘covered by the shell or mantle; sexes united. FAMILY I. TorNnate.ipz. Shell external, solid, spiral or convoluted, sub-cylindrical; aperture long and narrow; columella plaited; sometimes operculated. Animal with a flattened, disk-like head, and broad obtuse tentacles; foot ample, furnished with lateral and operculigerous lobes. * In the cuttle-fishes and pteropods it is bent upon itself ventrally, in the sea- snails dorsally, terminating in front, near its origin; the vascular system partakes of this flexure, and the gills are in advance of the heart. (Hualey.) + Mono-pleuro-branchiata. Bl. Pomato-branchia, (from poma, a lid). Wiegm. The orderZecti-branchiata of Cuvier included only the family Bullide; it is here made to comprise the Infero-branches also; no object being gained by the multipli- eation of descriptive epithets. 180 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. The shells of this family are chiefly extinct, ranging from the period of the coal strata, and attaining their greatest development in the cretaceous age. Tornatella is essentially related to Bulla, but presents some resem- blance to the Pyramidellide in its plaited and operculated aperture; in Tornatina the nucleus, or apex, is sinistral. The spiral striae which orna- ment many of the species, are punctate, as in the Bullide; and the outer lip often remarkably thickened, as in Auricula. TORNATELLA, Lamarck. Type. T. tornatilis, Pl. XIV. fig. 1. Sy. Acteeon, Montf. (not Oken), Dactylus (solidulus) Schum. ? Monoptygma (elegans) Lea. Shell solid, ovate, with a conical, many-whirled spire; spirally grooved or punctate-striate; aperture long, narrow, rounded in front; outer lip sharp , columella with a strong, tortuous fold; operculum horny, elliptical, lamellar. Animal white ; head truncated and slightly notched in front, furnished posteriorly with recumbent tentacular lobes, and small eyes behind them, neat their inner bases; foot oblong, lateral lobes slightly reflected on the shell. Lingual teeth 12.12, similar, with long simple hooks. Fig. 103. Distr. 16 sp. U. States, Brit. Senegal, Red Sea, Philippines, Japan, Peru. ‘T. tornatilis inhabits deep water, (—60 fms. fordes). Fossil, 70 sp. Trias — Lias —. N. America, Europe, S. India. Sub-genera, Cylindrites (Lihwyd) Lycett. C. acutus, Sby. Pl. XIV. fig. 2. (A.) Shell smooth, slender, sub-cylindrical, spire small, aperture long and narrow, columella rounded, twisted, and directed slightly outwards. (B.) Shell oval, spire sunk, whirls with acute margins. Bath Oolite, Brit. Acteonina, D’Orb. Tornatellee “without columella plaits,’ 30 sp. Carb.—Portlandian, (including Cylindrites). Acteonella, D’Orb. A. Renauxiana, Pl. XIV. fig. 3. Shell thick, cone- like or convoluted, spire short or concealed, aperture long and narrow, colu- mella with 8 strong and regular spiral plaits in front. Déstr. 11 sp. Chalk; Brit. France. Acteon Cabanetiana, D’Orb. (Itierta, Matheron, 1842) Coral-rag, France, belongs to the genus Nerineu (D’Orb.) p. 129. Cinutia. Gray. Type, C. avellana, Pl. XIV. fig. 4. Sy. Avellana and Ringinella, D’Orb. Shell globular, thick, spirally groved and punctate, spire small; aperture GASTEROPODA. 181 narrow, rounded and sinuated in front; outer lip thickened and reflected ; crenulated inside, columella with several tooth-like folds. Fossil, 20 sp. Neocomian —Chalk. Brit. France. RINGICULA, v. p. 112, Pl. V. fig. 21. GuLogiconcHa, D’Orbigny. Type, G. rotundata, D’Orb. Fossi/, 6 sp. Chalk. France. Shell ventricose, smooth, aperture crescent-shaped, simple, not toothed or thickened on the columellar side. Varicera, D’Orbigny. 1850.* Type, V. Guerangeri, D’Orb. Fossil, 8 sp. Neoc:—. Chalk. France. Shell like Globiconcha, but with lateral varices. TyxLostoma, Sharp. 1849. Type, T. Torrubie, Sh. Etym. Tulos, a callosity, stoma, mouth. Shell ventricose, smooth or punctate-striate, spire moderate, aperture ovate-lunate, pointed above, rounded in front; outer lip periodically (once or twice in a whirl) thickened inside and expanded, rising slightly; inner lip callous, spread over body-whirl. Distr. 4 sp. L. Cretaceous rocks, Portugal. | ? Preroponta, D’Orbigny. Type, P. inflata, D’Orb. Fossi/,8 sp. Chalk. France. * Shell oblong, ventricose, spire elongated; aperture oval, lip slightly ex- panded, notched in front, and with a tooth-like ridge internally, remote from the margin. ? Tornatina, A, Adams. Type, T. voluta, Pl. XIV. fig. 5. Shell cylindrical or fusiform, spire conspicuous, apex sinistral, suture channelled, columella callous, 1-plaited. Animal with a broad, trigonal head, rounded in front; tentacular lobes triangular, with eyes at their outer bases; foot short, truncated in front. Distr. 15 sp. W. Indies, U. States, Medit. Philippines, China, Australia. On sandy bottoms, ranging to 35 fms. (Adams). Volwula, Adams (Bulla acuminata, Brug.) is a small convoluted shell, with the spire concealed, and the columella obsoletely folded; it is referred to Cylichna by Lovén, to Ovulum by Forbes. Distr. Brit. Medit. Fossi#. Miocene —. Suffolk. FAMILY JI. Butuipz. Shell globular or cylindrical, convoluted, thin, often punctate-striated ; * The dates of M. D’Orbigny’s genera, given in the Prodrome de Paleontologic, are dates of énvention ; the names were not published, in many instances, until-years afterwards. : 182 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. spire small or concealed; aperture long, rounded and sinuated in front; lip sharp. No operculum. Animal more or less investing the shell; head a flattened disk,* with tentacular lobes, often united; eyes immersed in the centre of the disk, or wanting ; foot oblong, furnished with a posterior lobe (meta-podiwm), and side-lobes (epipodia); gill single on the right side of the back, covered by the shell; mantle-margin simple or expanded, and enveloping the shell. Jingual dentition very various; central teeth often wanting, laterals single or numerous. Gizzard armed with calcarious plates. Sexes united. The Buliide are animal-feeders ; they are said to use their lateral lobes for swimming. About 150 recent species have been described by Mr. A. Adams in Sowerby’s Thesaurus Conchyliorum. Fossil species date from the lower Oolites; one is found in the Aralo-Caspian formation. a Buta, Lamarck. Bubble-shell. Type, B. ampulla, Pl. XIV. fig. 6. Syz. Haminea (hydatis) Leach. Shell oval, ventricose, convoluted, external or only partially invested by the animal; apex perforated; aperture longer than the shell, rounded at each end; lip sharp. Animal with a large cephalic disk, truncated in front, bilobed behind, the lobes laminated beneath; eyes sub-central, immersed or wanting; lateral lobes very large, reflected on the sides of the shell, posterior lobe covering the spire; foot quadrate; gizzard furnished with 3 chiton-like plates; teeth. ? Bulla naueum (4tys, Montf. Alicula, Ehr. Roxania, Leach). Pl. XIV. fig. 7; has the columella twisted, and the spire entirely concealed. Distr. 50 sp. In all temperate and tropical seas, especially on sandy bottoms, ranging from low water to 25 or 30 fms. Fossil, 70 sp. Ool.—. S. America, U.S. Europe. Sub-genera >? Crypt-opthalmus (smaragdinus) Ehr. Red sea. Shell scarcely convolute, fragile, oval, convex, without spire or columella. Animal semi-cylindrical, head with short tentacular lobes, eyes small, concealed under the lateral margins of the head, mantle and lateral lobes enveloping the shell. Phaneropthalmus, A. Adams. (Xanthonella, Gray) B. lutea, Quoy, New Guinea. Shell oval, convex, pointed behind, columella margin with a curved process. Animal long, cylindrical, head with short tentacular lobes, eyes in middle of disk, lateral lobes enveloping. Linteria, A. Adams (Glauconella, Gray), Bulla viridis, Rang. Pl. XIV. fig. 7. Sheli oval, widely open, showing the rudimentary internal spire. * The cephalic expansion of the Bullidz is formed by the fusion of the dorsal and oral tentacles. (Cuvier.) The tentacular lobes, or posterior part of the disk is sup- plied with nerves from the olfactory ganglia; the anterior portion of the disk re- ceives branches from the labial nerve, which comes from the front margin of the eerebroid. (Hancock.) GASTEROPODA. 183 Animal with a squarish, disk-like head, eyes sessile in the centre; mantle not investing; a posterior lobe; lateral lobes enveloping. (PI.XIV. fig. 8, not 7). AcerA, Miiller. Type, A. bullata, Pl. XIV. fig. 9. Etym. Akeros, hornless. Shell thin, flexible, globosely-cylindrical, spire truncated, whirls chan- nelled ; aperture long, expanded and deeply sinuated in front, outer margin disunited at the suture; columella open, exposing the whirls. Animal with a short and simple head-lobe, truncated in front and eyeless ; lateral lobes nearly concealing the shell; lingual teeth hooked and serrulate, laterals about 40, narrow, claw-shaped; gizzard armed with horny teeth. _ Distr. 7 sp. Greenland, Brit. Medit. Zanzibar, India, New Zealand. A. bullata is found amongst weed, in 1—15 fms. water (Fordes). Cynicuna, Lovén. Type, C. cylindracea, Pl. XIV. fig. 10. Syn. Bullina, Risso. Shell strong, cylindrical, smooth or punctate-striate; spire minute or truncated; aperture narrow, rounded in front; columella callous, with one plait. Animal short and broad, not investing the shell; head flattened, truncated in front, with sub-centrally immersed eyes, tentacular lobes more or less united ; foot oblong, posterior and lateral lobes not much developed ; gizzard armed; lingual teeth squarish, recurved and serrated, with 1 large and 5 or 6 small hooked laterals. Distr. 20 sp. U. States, Greenland, Brit. Red Sea, Australia. Fossil. Miocene —. Brit. AMPHISPHYRA, Lovén. Type. A. pellucida, Johnst. (Amphi-sphyra, double hammer.) Syn. Utriculus (part) Brown. Rhizorus, Montf. Diaphana, Brown. Shell small, thin, ovate, truncated, spire minute papillary, aperture long. Animal entirely retractile into its shell; head wide, short, with lateral triangular tentacles; the eyes behind them minute, immersed; muzzle bi-lobed in front; foot oblong, truncated in front, notched behind; teeth 1.1.1, central quadrate, serrulate ; laterals broad, hooked. Distr. 5 sp. U. States, Norway, Brit. Borneo, Mexico. ‘APLUSTRUM, Schumacher. Type, Bulla aplustre, Pl. XIV. fig. 11. Etym. Aplustre, a ship’s flag. Syn. Bullina, Fér. Hydatina (physis) Schum. Bullinula (scabra) Beck. Shell oval, ventricose, highly coloured; spire wide, depressed ; aperture truncated in front; outer lip sharp. Animal, with a very large foot, extending beyond the shell all round, and eapable of enveloping it; a posterior lobe reflected on the spire; mantle not investing ; tentacular lobes large, oval, ear-shaped ; labial tentacles four ; eyes K 184 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. small, black, sessile at the inner bases of the tentacles; lingual teeth (B. physts) 13.0.13, serrated. Distr. 10 sp. U. States, W. Indies, Mauritius, Ceylon, China, Australia. ScaAPHANDER, Montfort. Type, S. lignarius, Pl. XIV. fig. 12. Etym. Scaphe boat, aner, man. Shell oblong, convolute; spirally striated; aperture much expanded in front; spire concealed; epidermis thick ; lingual teeth 1.0.1. crested. Animal with a large oblong head, destitute of eyes; foot short and broad; lateral lobes reflected, but not enveloping the shell; gizzard of two large trigonal plates and a small narrow trausverse plate (fig. 17). Distr. 5 sp. U. States, Norway, Brit. Medit. on sandy ground; 50 fms. Fossil, 8 sp. Eocene —. Brit. France. Fig. 104. Bullea aperta.* Buiima, Lamarck.+ Type, B. aperta, Pl. XIV. fig. 13. Shell internal, white, translucent, oval, slightly convoluted, spire rudi- mentary. Animal pale, slug-like; mantle investing the shell; head oblong; eye- less ; foot broad; lateral lobes large, but not enveloping ; tongue with 2 or 4 series of sickle-shaped wzeznz ; gizzard with 3 longitudinal shelly plates. Egg capsules ovate, in single series ona long spiral thread ; fry with a ciliated head-veil and an operculated, spiral shell, (Lovéz). Distr. 10 sp. W. Indies, Greenland, Norway, Britain, Medit. Corea, Borneo. Fossil, Eocene —. France. . Sub-genus, Chelidonura, A. Adams, (Hirundella, Gray) B. hirundinaria, Quoy, Mauritius. S/el/ concealed; outer lip produced posteriorly into a spur; columellar border inflected. Animal with enveloping side lobes; mantle with two appendages behind, like the lateral processes of Hyalaea. Doripium, Meckel. Etym. diminutive of Doris. Syn. Acera, Cuv. Eidothea, Risso. * From a specimen dredged at Folkstone; 0, mouth, c, head, or cephalic disk, 1, side-lobes of the foot, m, mantle, The shell s, and gizzard g, are indistinctly seen through the translucent integuments. + Gray adopts the pre-Linnean name Philine (Ascanius, 1762), and D’Orbigny the still older ZLobaria, (Miiller, 1741), names given to particular species, and not to genera as now understood. GASTEROPODA. 185 Type, D. membranaceum, Meck. Medit. Animal oblong, truncated behind, the angles produced and dilated or filiform ; head ovate-oblong, retuse in front; side-lobes expanded, wing-like ; mantle investing a rudimentary, membranous shell. GASTROPTERON, Meckel. Type, G. Meckelii, Bl. (Clio amate, Chiaje) Medit. Animal shell-less, oval, with side-lobes developed into wing-like expan- sions meeting and uniting behind; cephalic disk triangular, obtuse in front, pointed behind, eyes centrally immersed; lingual teeth 5.1.5.; mantle ? branchial plume exposed on the right side; reproductive orifice in front of the gill, excretory opening behind it. Lon. 1, lat. 2 inches. Sormetus Adansonii, Bl. is described as semi-cylindrical, with sides grooved, head indistinct ; shell unguiform, thin, and transparent. Atlas (Peronii, Bl.) Lesueur. Head with 2 small tentacular lobes; body con- tracted in the middle; foot dilated circularly, and fringed at the margin. FAMILY III. Apzystapa. Shell wanting, or rudimentary and covered by the mantle, oblong, tri- gonal, or slightly convoluted. Animal slug-like, with distinct head, tentacles and eyes; foot long, drawn out into atail behind; sides with extensive lobes, reflected over the back and shell; branchial plume concealed. Sexes united. ApztystA, Gmelin. Sea Hare. Type. A. depilans, Pl. XIV. fig. 14. Syz. Siphonotus (geographicus) Ad. Shell oblong, convex, flexible and translucent, with a posterior slightly incurved apex. Animal oval, with a long neck and prominent back; head with 4 ten- tacles, dorsal pair ear-like with eyes at anterior lateral bases ; mouth probos- cidiform, with horny jaws, lingual teeth 13.1.13, hooked and serrated, about 30 rows; gizzard armed with horny spines; sides with ample lobes folding over the back, and capable of being used for swimming ; gill in the middle of the back, covered by the shell, and by a lobe of the mantle which is folded posteriorly to form an excretory siphon. Distr. 40 sp. W. Indies, Norway, Brit. Medit. Mauritius, China. The Sea-hares are mixed feeders, living chiefly on sea-weed, but also de- vouring animal substances; they inhabit the laminarian zone, and oviposit amongst the weed in spring, at which time they are frequently gregarious (Forbes). They are perfectly harmless animals and may be handled with im- punity. When molested they discharge a violet fluid from the edge of the internal surface of the mantle, which does not injure the skin, has but a faint smell, and changes to wine-red (Goodsir). In oid times they were K 2 186 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. objects of superstitious dread, on account of their grotesque forms, and the imaginary properties of their fluid, which was held to be poisonous and to produce indelible stains.* Fossil: one or two shells of the newest tertiary in Sicily have been doubt- fully referred to this genus. Sub-genus, Aclesia (dolabrifera) Rang. Shell trapeziform. Side-lobes closely enveloping the body, leaving only a small dorsal respiratory opening, surface ornamented with filaments. W. Indies. DoLaBELLA, Lamarck. Type. D. Rumphii, Pl. XIV. fig. 15. Etym. Dolabella, a small hatchet. Shell hard, calcarious, trigonal, with a curved and callous apex. Animal like Aplysia, with gill near posterior extremity of the body and lateral crests closely appressed, leaving only a narrow opening ; ornamented with branching filaments. Distr. 12 sp. Medit. Mauritius, Ceylon, Society Ids. Sandwich Ids. NorarcuHus, Cuvier. Type. N. Cuvieri, Bl. tym. Notos, the back, archos vent. Syn. Busiris (griseus) Risso, ? Bursatella (Leachii) BI. Animal shell-less, ornamented with filaments, sometimes dendritic, foot narrow, linear, lateral crests united, leaving only a narrow branchial slit ; gills not covered by an opercular mantle lobe. Distr. 4 sp. Medit. Red Sea. Icarus, Forbes, 1843. Type. I. Gravesii, F. Syn. Lophocercus (Sieboldtii) Krohn, 1847. Shell like Bulleea; convoluted, thin, ovate, covered with epidermis, outer lip separated at the suture, posterior angle inflected and rounded. Animal slender, papillose ; tentacles 2, ear-shaped ; eyes sessile on sides of head; side-lobes reflected and partly covering the shell, united behind ; tail long and pointed. LosBicEerR, Krohn. Type, L. Philippii, Pl. XIV. fig. 16. Sicily. Shell oval, transparent, flexible,” slightly convoluted ; covered with epidermis. Animal slender, papillose, with 2 flattened, oval tentacles, and minute sessile eyes on the sides of the head; shell exposed on the middle of the back, covering the plume-like gill; sides with two pairs of rounded, dilated lobes, or natatory appendages, foot linear, tail long and slender. * Aplysia, (from a and pluo) un-washable ; the Aplysia of the Greek Fishermen wvere sponges unfit for washing! GASTEROPODA. 187 FAMILY IV. PiLevroprancuips#. Shell limpet-like or concealed, rarely wanting ; mantle or shell covering the back of the animal; gill lateral, between the mantle-margin and foot; food vegetable, foancl extremely complicated. PLEUROBRANCHUS, Cuvier. Ex. P. membranaceus, Pl. XIV. fig. 17. tym. Pleura side, branchia gill. Syn. Berthella (plumula) Bl. Oscanius (membr.) Gray. Shell internal, large, oblong, flexible, slightly convex, lamellar, with a posterior, subspiral nucleus. Animal oblong, convex; mantle covering the back aud sides, papillated, containing spicula; foot large, separated from the mantle by a groove; gill single, free at the end, placed on the right side between the mantle and foot; orifices near the base of the gill; head with 2 grooved tentacles, eyes at their outer bases ; mouth armed with horny jaws and covered by a broad veil with tentacular lobes. Distr. 20 sp. S. America, Norway, Brit. Medit. Red Sea. Sub-genus ? Pleurobranchea Meckel; P. Meckelii, Leve, Medit. Syz. Pleurobranchidium (maculatum), Quoy, S. Australia. Mantle-margin very narrow, not concealing the gill; dorsal tentacles ear-like, oral veil tentaculi- form. PosTEROBRANCH&A, D’Orbigny. Type, P. maculata, D’Orb. Coast of Chile. Animal shell-less ; oval, depressed, covered by a mantle broader than the foot; foot oblong, bi-lobed behind; branchial plume on the left side, pro- jecting posteriorly ; reproductive ete in front of gill, excretory behind; ‘proboscis covered by a broad bi-lobed veil; no dorsal tentacles. Runoina, (Forbes) Hancock. Type, R. Hancocki, Forbes. Syn. ? Pelta, Quatr. (not Beck.) Animal minute, slug-like, with a distinct mantle; eyes sessile on the front part of the mantle; no tentacles; gills 3, slightly plumose, placed with the vent on the right side, at the hinder part of the back, beneath the mantle; gizzard armed ; reproductive organs on the right side. Distr. on Conferve near high-water mark, Torbay. UmBRELLA, Chemnitz. Chinese-umbrella shell. Type, U. umbellata, Pl. XIV. fig. 18. Synz.Acardo, Lam. Gastroplax, Bl. Shell limpet-like, orbicular, depressed, marked by concentric lines of growth; apex sub-central, oblique, scarcely raised; margins acute; inner surface with acentral coloured and striated disk, ended bya continuons irregular muscular impression. Animal with a very large tuberculated foot, deeply notched in front ; mouth small, proboscidiform, retractile into the pedal notch, covered by a 188 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. small lobed veil; dorsal tentacles ear-shaped, with large plicated cavities at their bases; eyes small, sessile between the tentacles ; mantle not extending beyond the shell; gill forming a series of plumes beneath the shell in front and on the right side; reproductive organ in front of the dorsal tentacles; excretory orifice posterior, tubular. Distr. 3 sp. Canaries, Medit. India, China, Sandwich Ids. Fossil 2 sp. EHocene—. U. States, Sicily. Tytopina, Rafinesque. Type, T. punctulata, Raf. (= citrina, Joannis) 3 sp. Medit. Norway. Shell limpet-like, depressed, apex sub-ceutral, with a minute spiral nucleus. Animal oblong, foot truncated in front, rather pointed behind; dorsal tentacles ear-like, with eyes sessile at their inner bases ; oral tentacles broad ; branchial plume projecting posteriorly on the right side. FAMILY VY. PuHy.imiap2. Animal shell-less, covered by a mantle, branchial lamine arranged in series on both sides of the body, between the foot and mantle. Sexes united. PHYLLIDIA, Cuvier. Type, P. pustulosa, Cuv. tym. Diminutive of Phyllon, a leaf. Animal oblong, covered with a coriaceous tuberculated mantle; dorsal tentacles clavate, retractile into cavities near the front of the mantle; mouth with two tentacles ; foot broadly oval; gills forming a series of laminee ex- tending the entire length of both sides ; excretory orifice in the middle line, near the posterior eud of the back, or between the mantle and foot; repro- ductive organs on the right side; stomach simple, membranous. Distr. 4 sp. Medit. Red Sea, India. ¥ DIPHYLLIDIA, Cuvier. Type, D. Brugmansii, Cuv. Syn. Pleurophyllidia, Chiaje. Linguella, Bl. Animal oblong, fleshy; mantle ample; gills limited to the hinder two- thirds of the body; head with minute tentacles and a lobe-like veil; vent at the right side, behind the reproductive orifices ; lingual teeth 30.1.80. Distr. 4 sp. Norway, Brit. (D. lineata, Otto) Medit. SECTION B. NvupDIBRANCHIATA. Animal destitute of a shell except im the embryo state; branchiee always external, on the back or sides of the body; sexes united. The Nudibranchiate sea-slugs are found on all coasts where the bottom is firm or rocky, from between tide-marks to a depth of 50 fathoms; a few species are pelagic, crawling on the stems and fronds of floating sea-weed. They have been found by Middendorff, in the Icy Sea, at Sitka, and in the sea of Ochotsk ; in the tropical and southern seas they are abundant. No GASTEROPODA. 189 satisfactory account, however, has been published of any except the European, and especially the British species, which form the subject of an admirable monograph by Messrs. Alder and Hancock, in the transactions of the Ray Society. They require to be watched and drawn whilst living and active, since after immersion in spirits they lose both their form and colour. In some the back is covered with a cloak or mantle (?,) which contains calcari- ous spicula of various forms, sometimes so abundant as to form a hard shield- like crust.* The dorsal tentacles and gills pass through holes in the cloak somewhat like the “ key-hole” in F%sswrel/a. In others there is no trace of a mantle whatever. The eyes appear as minute black dots, immersed in the skin, behind the tentacles; they are well organized, and conspicuous in the young, but often invisible in the adult. The dorsal tentacles are laminated, like the antenne of many insects (fig. 11, p. 23); they are never used as organs of touch, and are supplied with nerves from the olfactory ganglia. The nervous centres are often conspicuous by their bright orange colour; they are concentrated above the cesophagus ; three pairs are larger than the rest, the cerebroid in front, the branchial behind, and the pedal ganglia at the sides. ‘The cerebroid supplies nerves to the tentacles, mouth, and lips. The o/factory ganglia are sessile on the front of the cerebroid (in Dovzs) or situated at the base of the tentacles (in olis). The optic ganglia are placed on the posterior border of the cerebroid; the auditory capsules are sessile on the cerebroid, immediately behind the eyes, they contain an ag- glomeration of minute otolites which are continually oscillating. The dzc- cal ganglia are below the cesophagus, united to the cerebroid by commissures, forming aring; anterior to this a small ring is sometimes formed by the union of the 5th pair of nerves. The pedal ganglia (properly infra-cesopha- geal) are united laterally to the cerebroid and rarely meet below, but are united by commissures which form (together with those of the branchial centres) the 3rd ring, or great nervous collar. The branchial ganglia are united behind to the cerebroid, and sometimes blend with them; they supply the skin of the back, the rudimentary mantle, and the gills; beneath, and sessile on their front border is the single visceral ganglion. Besides this excito-motory system, (which includes the great centres, or brain, and the nerves of sensation and voluntary motion), the nudibranches possess a sym- pathetic system, consisting of innumerable minute ganglia, dotted over all the viscera, united by nerves forming plexuses, and connected in front with the buccal and branchial centres.¢ * According to Mr. Huxley, the ‘‘ cloak” of the Dorids is not the equivalent of the mantie, but ‘‘ has more relation to the epipodium.” + The auditory capsules of other Mollusca (excepting the Nucleobranches) are attached to the posterior side of the pedal (sub-cesophageal) ganglia. t The sympathetic system supplies nerves to the heart and other organs which are independent of the will, and not ordinarily susceptible of pain; they are called “ or- ganic” nerves, as all the vegetative functions depend onthem. Its existence in the 190 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. The digestive organs of the Nudibranches present two remarkable modi- fications : in Doris and Tritonza the liver is compact and the stomach a sim- ple membranous sac; whilst in Mo/zs the liver is disintegrated, and its canals so large that the process of digestion must be chiefly carried on in them, and they are regarded as cecal prolongations of the stomach; the ceca extend into a series of gill-like processes, arranged upon the back of the ani- mal, which also contain part or the whole of the true liver; the gastric rami- fications vary exceedingly in amount of complexity. The vascular system and circulation of the nudibranchiate molluscs is in- complete. In Doris veins can be traced only in the liver and skin; the greater part of the blood from the arteries escapes into the visceral sinus and into a net-work of sinuses in the skin, from which it returns to the auricle by two lateral veins, without having circulated through the gills. The heart is contained ina pericardium to which is attached asmall ventricle, or portal heart, for impelling blood to the liver ; the hepatic veins run side by side with the arteries and open into a circular vein, surrounding the vent, and supplying the gills. Only hepatic blood, therefore, circulates through the gills. In olis there are no special gills, but the gastro-hepatic papille are accompanied by veins which transmit blood to the auricle. The skin acts as an accessory breathing-organ; it performs the function entirely in the Elysiade, and in the other families when by accident the branchie are des- troyed. The water on the gills is renewed by ciliary action. The fry is provided with a transparent, nautiloid shell, closed by an operculum, and swims with a lobed head-vei! fringed with cilia, like the young of most other gasteropods.—Hazcock and Embleton, Phil. Trans. 1852. An. Nat. Hist. 1843. FAMILY VI. Dorip#.* Sea-lemons. Animal oblong; gills plume-like, placed in a circle on the middle of the back; tentacles two; eye-specks immersed, behind the tentacles, not always visible in the adult; lingual membrane with usually numerous lateral teeth, rachis often edentulous; stomach simple; liver compact; skin strengthened with spicula, more or less definitely arranged. Doris, L. Etym. Doris, a sea-nymph. x. D. Johnstoni, Pl. XIII. fig. 1. Animal oval, depressed; mantle large, simple, covering the head and foot; dorsal tentacles 2, clavate or conical, lamellated, retractile within Mollusca was first clearly demonstrated by M.M. Hancock and Embleton. The excito-motory system of the Mollusca corresponds with the cerebro-spinal system of the vertebrata. . * Contracted from Doridid@; as the Greeks used Deucalides for Deucaliontiades. Ehrenberg divided the genus Doris into sections, by the number and form of the gills, characters of only specific importance. GASTEROPODA. 191 cavities ; gills surrounding the vent on the posterior part of the back, retrac- tile into a cavity; head with an oral veil, sometimes produced into labial tentacles ; mouth with a lower mandible, consisting of two horny plates, united near the front, and having 2 projecting points; lingual teeth numer- ous, central small, laterals similar, hooked and sometimes serrated (24-68 rows; 37-141 in a row; nidamental ribbon rather wide, forming a spiral coil of few volutions (p. 50, fig. 29.) Sub-genus, Oncidoris (Bl. 2). D. bilamellata, Johnst. Back elevated, tuberculose; gills non-retractile; oral tentacles fused into a veil; buccal mass with a gizzard-like appendage ; lingual teeth 2 in each row. (A. and H.) D. scutigera (Villiersiaz) D’Orb. Rochelle; has the mantle more than usually strengthened with calcarious spicula. The Dorids vary in length from 3 lines to more than 3 inches; they feed on zoophytes and sponges, and are most plentiful on rocky coasts, near low-water, but range as low as 25 fms. They occur in all seas, from Nor- way to the Pacific. Gontoporis, Forbes. Etym. Gonia, an angle. Type, G. nodosa, Pl. XIII. fig. 2. Animal oblong; tentacles clavate, laminated, non-retractile; mantle small, simple, exposing the head and foot. Spawn coiled irregularly. Distr. Norway, Brit. (2 sp.) Medit. China. Between tide-marks. Triopa, Johnston. Type, T. clavigera, Pl. XIII. fig, 3. Syn. Psiloceros, Menke. Animal oblong; tentacles clavate, retractile within sheaths; mantle margined with filaments; gills few, pinnate, around or in front of the dorsal vent. (A.and H.) Lingual teeth 8.1.8, or 8.0.8. Distr. Norway, Brit. Low-water — 20 fms. Aierrvus, Lovén. Type, A. punctilucens, Pl. XIII. fig. 4. Etym. ? Aix (aigos) a goat. Animal oblong or elongated, covered with very large tubercles; no dis- tinct mantle; tentacles linear, retractile within prominent lobed sheaths ; gilis dendritic, placed around the dorsal vent. (A. and H.) Lingual teeth £7.0.17. ’ Distr. Norway, Brit. (2 sp.) France. Litoral zone. THECACERA, Fleming. Etym. Theke a sheath, ceras a horn. Type, T. pennigerum, Mont. Animal oblong, smooth ; tentacles clavate, laminated, retractile within sheaths; head with a simple frontal veil; gills pinnate, placed round the dorsal vent, and surrounded by a row of tubercles. (A. and H.) Distr. Brit. 2 sp. Lon. 4—% inch. Found at low-water. Potycera, Cuvier. Etym. Polycera, many horns. Type, P. quadrilineata, Pl. XIII. fig. 5. K 3 192 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Animal oblong or elongated; tentacles laminated, non-retractile, sheath- less; head-veil bordered with tubercles or tentacular processes ; gills with 2 or more lateral appendages. (A. and H.) Distr. Norway, 5 sp. Brit. Red Sea. Within tide-marks and in deep water on corallines. The spawn is strap-shaped, and coiled on stones, in July and August. P. ocellata (Plocamophorus, Rippell) has the cephalic tentacles branched. Inara, Leuckart. Etym. Idalia, Venus, from Mt. Idalium in Cyprus. Syn. Euplocamus, Phil. Peplidium (Maderee) Lowe. * Fx, I. aspersa, Pl. XIII. fig. 6. Coralline zone. Animal broadly oblong, nearly smooth, tentacles clavate or linear, with filaments at their base; head slightly lobed at the sides; mantle very small, margined with filaments; lingual teeth 2.0.2. Distr. Norway, Brit. (4 sp.) Medit. Madeira. Ancuta, Lovén. Syn. Miranda, A.and H. Type, A. cristata, Alder. Animal slender, elongated; mantle entirely adnate, ornamented with simple filaments; tentacles clavate, laminated; with filiform appendages at their base; labial veil produced on each side. Distr. Norway, Brit. Lon. 2 inch. Crratosoma (Gray), A. Adams. Ltym. Ceratois, horned, soma, body. Type, C. cornigerum, Ad. Animal oblong, narrow, with two large and prominent horn-like pro- cesses on the posterior part of the back, behind the gills; gills 5, bipinnate ; dorsal tentacles clavate, laminated, rising from rounded tubercles, non- retractile; head with short lateral processes: foot narrow. Distr. Sooloo sea. (A. Adams.) FAMILY VII. Tritonrap2. Animai with laminated, plumose, or papillose gills, arranged along the sides of the back; tentacles retractile into sheaths; lingual membrane with 1 central and numerous lateral teeth; orifices on the right side. TriTonia, Cuvier. Lx. T. plebeia, Pl. XIII. fig. 7. Animal elongated ; tentacles with branched filaments; veil tuberculated or digitated; gills in single series on a ridge down each side of the back; mouth armed with horny jaws; stomach simple; liver compact. Distr. Norway, Brit. Under stones at low-water, — +5 fm. F. Hom- bergii, Cuv. found on the scallop-banks, attains a length exceeding 6 inches. GASTEROPODA. 193 Scytima, L. Type, 8. pelagica, Pl. XIII. fig. 8. tym. Seyllaea, a sea-nymph. Animal elongated, compressed; foot long, narrow and channelled, adapted for clasping sea-weed ; back with 2 pairs of wing-like lateral lobes, bearing small tufted branchie on their inner surfaces; tentacles dorsal, slender, with lamellated tips, retractile into long sheaths; lingual teeth 94.1.24, denticulated ; gizzard armed with horny, knife-like plates ; orifices on the right side. Distr. Atlantic, S. Brit. Medit. On floating sea-weed. Nerea (punctata) Lesson, New Guinea; 10 lines long, with ear-shaped tentacles, and 3 pairs of dorsal lobes. Tretuys, L. Etym. Tethys, the sea (personified.) Syz, Fimbria, Bohadsch. Type, T. fimbriata, L. Pl. XIII. fig. 9. Animal elliptical, depressed; head covered by a broadly expanded, fringed disk, with 2 conical tentacles, retractile into foliaceous sheaths; gills slightly branched, a single row down each side of the back; reproductive orifices be- hind first gills, vent on right side, behind second gill; stomach simple. Distr. 1 sp. Medit. Attains a foot in length, and feeds on other mol- luses and crustaceans. (Cuvier.) ? BornELLA (Gray), A. Adams. Type, A. Adamsii, Gray. Lon. 4 inches. Animal elongated; dorsal tentacles retractile into branched sheaths ; head with stellate processes; back with two rows of cylindrical, branched, gastric processes, to which small dendritic gills are attached;* foot very narrow. Distr. 2 sp. Straits of Sunda, on floating weed; Borneo. ®? Denpronotus, A. and H.+ Etym. Dendron, a tree, notos, the back. Type, D. arborescens, Pl. XIII. fig. 10. Animal elongated ; tentacies laminated ; front of the head with branched appendages ; gills arborescent, in single series down each side of the back ; foot narrow ; lingual teeth 10.1.10; stomach and liver ramified. Distr. Icy sea; Norway, Brit. On sea-weed and corallines ; low-water —coralline zone. ? Doro, Oker. Etym. Doto, a sea-nymph. x, D. coronata, Pl. XIII. fig, 11. * This observation deserves further enquiry. + This and the following genera are placed by Alder and Hancock in the family JEolide ; they have a ramified stomach, but their external (zoological) characters agree better with Tritonia than olis. 194 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Animal slender, elongated; tentacles linear, retractile into trumpet- shaped sheaths; veil small, simple; gills ovate, muricated, in single series down each side of the back; lingual membrane slender, with above 100 recurved, denticulated teeth, in single series; foot very narrow. The stomach is ramified, and the liver is entirely contained in the dorsal processes, which fall off readily wher?the animal is handled, and are soon renewed. Distr. Norway, Brit. On corallines in deep water — 50 fms. ? Merisa@a, Rang. Type, M. rosea, Rang; on floating weed, off the Cape. Animal elongated, with a narrow, channelled foot and long slender tail ; sides of the back with 6 pairs of tuberculated lobes, easily deciduous; tenta- cles cylindrical, retractile into long trumpet-shaped sheaths ; head covered by a lobe-like veil; sexual orifices behind right tentacle, excretory behind first gill on the right side. ? Lomanotus, Verany. Ex. L. marmoratus, Pl. XIII. fig. 12. Synz. Humenis, A. and H. Animal elongated, smooth; head covered with a veil; tentacles clavate, laminated, retractile into sheaths; gills filamentose, arranged along the sides of the back, on the wavy margins of the mantle; foot narrow, with tenta- cular processes in front; stomach ramified. Distr. Brit. Medit. On corallines. FAMILY VIII. Moris. Animal with papillose gills, arranged along the sides of the back ; ten- tacles sheath-less, non-retractile ; lingual teeth 0.1.0.; ramifications of the stomach and liver extending into the dorsal papillee; excretory orifices on the right side; skin smooth, without spicula; no distinct mantle. Louis, Cuvier. Syn. Psiloceros, Menke. Eubranchus, Forbes. Amphorina, Quatref. Type, 7. papillosa, L. Etym. Holis, daughter of Molns. Animal ovate; dorsal tentacles smooth, oval, slender; gills simple, cylindrical, numerous, depressed and imbricated ; mouth with a horny upper jaw, consisting of two lateral plates, united above by a ligament; foot narrow; tongue with a single series of curved, pectinated teeth; spawn of numerous waved coils. Sub-genera. Flabellina, Cuv. (Phyllodesmium, Ehr.) Body slender; dorsal tentacles laminated, buccal long; papille clustered; spawn multi- spiral. Ex. E. coronata, Pl. XIII. fig. 18. (also fig. 11, p. 28.) Cavolina, Brug. (Montagua, Flem.) C. peregrina, Body lanceolate; ten- tacles smooth or wrinkled ; papillee in transverse, rather distant rows; spawn of 1 or 2 coils. GASTEROPODA. 195 Tergipes, Cuv. T. lacinulata. Body linear; tentacles smooth; papille in a single row on each side ; spawn kidney-shaped. Distr. Norway, Brit. (83 sp.) U. States, Medit. S. Atlantic, Pacific. Found amongst rocks, at low-water; they are active animals, moving their tentacles continually, and extending and contracting their papille; they swim readily at the surface, inverted. They feed chiefly on sertularian zoophytes, and if kept fasting will devour each other ; when irritated they discharge a milky fluid from their papillee, which are very liable to fall off. Giaucus, Forster. Etym. Glaucus, asea-deity. Syn. Laniogerus, Bl. Pleuropus, Raf. Hx. G. Atlanticus, Pl. XIII. fig. 14. Animal elongated, slender : foot linear, channelled; tentacles 4, conical ; jaws horny; teeth in single series, arched and pectinated; gills slender, eylindrical, supported on 3 pairs of lateral lobes; stomach giving off large coeca to the tail and side lobes; liver contained in the branchial papille ; sexual orifice beneath first dextral gill, vent behind second gill; spawn in a close spiral coil. Distr. 6 sp. Atlantic, Pacific. Found on floating sea-weed; devours small sea-jellies, Porpite and Velellz. (Beunet.) Fiona, Alder and Hancock. Type, F. nobilis, A. and H. Syn. Oithona, A. and H. (not Baird). Animal elongated; oral and dorsal tentacles linear; mouth armed with horny jaws ; gills papillary, clothing irregularly a sub-pallial expansion on the sides of the back, each with a membranous fringe running down its inner side. Distr. Falmouth. Under stones at low-water. (Dr. Cocks.) Empieronia, A. and H. Etym. Dedicated to Dr. Embleton, of Newcastle. Syn. Pterochilus, A. and H. ? Clelia (formosa) Loven. Type, H. pulchra, Pl. XIII. fig. 15. Animal slender ; tentacles 2, simple; head produced into a flat lobe on each side; papille simple, subcylindrical, in a single row down each side of the back. Distr. Scotland (2 sp.) In the litoral and laminarian zones. Calliopea (bellula) D’Orb. Brest; has 2 rows of papillee down each side of the back; cephalic lobes subulate; vent dextral. Lon. 3 lines. Proctonotus, A. and H. Type, P. mucroniferus, Pl. XIII. fig. 16. Dublin, shallow water. Syn. Venilia, A. and H. Zephrina, Quatref. Animal oblong, depressed, pointed behind; dorsal tentacles 2, linear, simple, with eyes at their base, behind; oral tentacles short; head covered 196 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. by a small semilunar veil ; mouth with horny jaws; gills papillose, on ridges down the sides of the back, and round the head in front; vent dorsal. AnTiopa, A. and H. Type, A. splendida, A. and H. Syz. Janus, Verany. Animal ovate-oblong, pointed behind ; dorsal tentacles lamellated, united at the base by an arched crest; head with a small veil and two labial tenta- cles; gills ovate, placed along the lateral ridges of the back and continuous above the head; vent central, posterior, sexual orifice at the right side; lin- gual teeth numerous. ? Distr. Brit. Medit. Herma, Lovén. Type, H. bifida, Pl. XIII. fig. 17- Norway, Brit. Animal elongated, tentacles folded longitudinally ; gills numerous, papil- lose, arranged down the sides of the back; sexual orifice below right tenta- cles; vent dorsal, or sub-lateral, anterior. Atperta, Allman. Etym,. Named after Joshua Alder, one of the authors of the Monograph on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca. Type, A. modesta, Pl. XIII. fig. 18. Norway, S. Ireland and S. Wales. Animal oblong, without tentacles; head lobed at the sides; gills papil- lose, arranged down the sides of the back; vent dorsal, posterior. ? Stiliger (ornatus) Ehrenberg; Red Sea. Vent dorsal, anterior. FAMILY IX. P#HyYLLIRHOIDA. Animal pelagic, foot-less (apodal), compressed, swimming freely with a fin-like tail; tentacles 2, dorsal; no branchie; lingual teeth in a single series ; stomach furnished with elongated cceca; orifices on the right side; sexes united. PHYLLIRHOE, Péron and Lesueur. Etym. Phylion, a leaf, rhoé, the wave. Syn. Eurydice, Esch. Type, P. bucephala, Péron. Dzstr. 6 sp. Medit. Moluccas, Pacific. Animal translucent, fusiform, with a lobed tail; muzzle round, truncated ; jaws horny; lingual teeth 3.0.3.; tentacles long and slender, with short sheaths ; intromittent organ long, bifid. FAMILY X. Etystaps. Animal shell-less, limaciform, with no distinct mantle or breathing organ ; respiration performed by the ciliated surface of the body ; mouth armed with a single series of lingual teeth; stomach central, vent median, sub-central ; hepatic organs branched, extending the length of the body and opening into the sides of the stomach; sexes united; male and ovarian orifices below the GASTEROPODA. | 197 right eye; female orifice in the middle of the right side; heart with an auricle behind, and traces of an arterial and venous system, eyes sessile on the sides of the head, tentacles simple or obsolete.* Enysta, Risso. Type, KH. viridis, Pl. XIII. fig. 19. Syn. Acteeon, Oken. Animal elliptical, depressed, with wing-like lateral expansions; tentacles simple, with sessile eyes behind them ; foot narrow. Distr. Brit. Medit. On Zostera and sea-weed, in the laminarian zone. Placo-branchus (ocellatus, Rang.) Hasselt, Java; described as 2 inches long, with four small tentacles; the lateral expansions much developed and meeting behind, the upper surface longitudinally plaited, and forming, when the side-lobes are rolled together, a sort of branchial chamber. AcTEONIA, Quatrefages, Hx. A. corrugata, Pl. XIII. fig. 20. British channel. Animal minute, leach-like; head obtuse, with lateral crests proceeding from two short conical tentacles, behind which are the eyes. Crenta, Alder and Hancock. Type, C. Cocksii, Pl. XIII. fig. 21. Htym. Cenia, Falmouth. Syn. >? Fucola (rubra) (Quoy). Animal limaciform, back elevated, head slightly angulated, bearing two linear dorsal tentacles, with eyes at their outer bases behind, Lirwapontia, Johnston. Type, L. nigra, Pl, XIII. fig. 22. Syn. Chalidis, Qu. Pontolimax, Cr. Animal minute, leach-like ; head truncated in front, with arched lateral ridges on which are the eyes; foot linear. Distr. Norway, England and France, between half-tide and high-water, feeding on Conferve, iy the spring and summer ; spawn in small pear-shaped masses, each with 50-150 eggs; fry with a transparent nautiloid shell, closed by an operculum. ORDER IV. Nucteosprancuiata, BI.+ The present order consists entirely of pelagic animals, which swim at the surface, instead of creeping on the bed of the sea. ‘Their rank and affi- * Order Dermi-branchiata, Quatref. (Pelli-branchiata, A.and H.) M. Quatre- fages erroneously described the Llysiade as wanting both heart and blood vessels, like the Ascidian zoophytes ; with them he associated the family olid@, which he described as having a heart and arteries, but no veins, their office being performed by lacunee of the areolar tissue. In both families the product of digestion (chyle) was supposed to be aérated in the gastric ramifications, by the direct influence of the sur- rounding water. To this group, which has been since abandoned, he applied the name Phlebenterata, (phiebs, avein, entera, theintestines). t So called because the respiratory and digestive organs form a sort of nucleus on the posterior part of the back. See fig. 105, s. b., and Pl. XIV. fig. 24. 198 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. nities entitle them to the first place in the class; but their extremely aber- rant form, and unusual mode of progression, have caused us to postpone their description till after that of the ordinary and typical gasteropoda. There are two families of nucleobranchiate mollusks; the jirolas and carinarias, with large bodies and small or no shells, and the ? Cliodita (fusiformis), Quoy and Gaimard. Head supported on a narrow neck ; tentacles indistinct. 3 sp. Cape, Amboina. PNEUMODERMON, Cuvier. Etym. Pneumon, lung (or gill), derma, skin. Type, P. violaceum, Pl. XIV. fig. 46. Body fusiform; head furnished with ocular tentacles; lingual teeth 4.0.4; mouth covered by a large hood supporting two small, simple, and two large acetabuliferous tentacles, suckers numerous, pedicillate, neck rather contracted ; fins rounded; foot oval, with a pointed posterior lobe ; excretory orifice situated near the posterior extremity of the body, which has small branchial processes and a minute, rudimentary shell. * This name was employed by Linnzus for all the Pteropoda then known; his definition is most suited to the ‘‘northern clio,” probably the only species with which he was personally acquainted. The first species enumerated in the Syst. Nat. is C. caudata, and reference is made to an indeterminable figure in Brown’s Jamaica, and to Marten’s account of the Spitzbergen mollusk (C. borealis.) In cases like this the rule is to adopt the practice of the next succeeding naturalist who defines the Ilmits of the group more exactly. ° BRACHIOPODA. 209 In the fry of Pueumodermon the end of the body is encircled with ciliated bands. (Miiller.) Distr. 4sp. Atlantic, India, Pacific Ocean. Sub-genus ? Spongiobranchea, D’Orbigny. S. Australis, Pl. XIV. fig. 47. Gill (?) forming a spongy ring at the end.of the body; tentacles each with 6 rather large suckers. Dvstr. 2 sp. S. Atlantic (Fry of Pueuwmodermon °). Trichocyclus, Eschscholtz, T. Dumerilii, Pl. XIV. fig. 48. Anzmal without acetabuliferous tentacles ? mouth proboscidiform; front of the head surrounded with a circle of cilia, and two others round the body. ? Petacta, Quoy and Gaimard. Etym. Pelagus, the deep sea: (not = Pelagia, Peron and Les.) Type, P. alba, Pl. XIV. fig. 49. Amboina. Animal fusiform, truncated in front, rough; neck slightly contracted ; fins small, fan-shaped. Cymopocra, D’Orbigny. Ltym. Kumodoke, a Nereid. Type, C. diaphana, Pl. XIV. fig. 50. Animal fusiform, truncated in front, pointed behind; neck slightly con- tracted; fins 2 on each side, first pair large and rounded, lower pair ligulate ; foot elongated; mouth proboscidiform. Dzstr.1 sp. Atlantic. ‘ CLASS IV. BRACHIOPODA, Cuvier, 1805, (= Order Pallio-branchiata, Blainville, Prodr. 1814.) The Brachiopoda are bivalve shell-fish which differ from the ordinary mussels, cockles, &c. in being always equal-sided, and never quite equivalve. Their forms are symmetrical, and so commonly resemble antique lamps, that they were called dampades, or “‘lamp-shells,’? by the old naturalists (Meuschen, 1787, Humphreys, 1797); the hole which in a lamp admits the wick, serves in the lampshellfor the passage of the pedicle by which it is attached to submarine objects.* The valves of the Brachiopoda are respectively dorsal and ventral ; the ventral valve is usually largest, and has a prominent beak, by which it is attached, or through which the organ of adhesion passes. The dorsal, or smaller valve, is always free and imperforate. The valves are articulated by two curved teeth, developed from the margin of the ventral valve, and re- ceived by sockets in the other; this hinge is so complete that the valves cannot be separated without injury. A few, abnormal genera, have no * The principal modifications of external form presented by these shells, are given in plate 15; the internal structure of each genus is illustrated in the woodcuts, which are the same with those in Mr. Davidson’s Introduction, and in the British Museum Catalogue. They are from original studies by the author, unless otherwise stated. + The largest recent Zerebratula cannot be opened more than 3 of an inch, except by applying force. L 2 210 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. hinge; in Craniaand Discina the lower valve is flat, the upper like a limpet; the valves of Lingula are nearly equal, and have been compared to a duck’s bill, (Petiver), Ventral valve. Dorsal valve. Fig. 109. Muscular system of Terebratula,* a. a. adductor-muscles; r. cardinal-muscles; x. accessory cardinals; p. ventral pedicle-muscles; p. dorsal pedicle-muscles; z. capsular-muscle$; o.mouth; v. vent; 1. loop; ¢. dental socket. " The valves are both opened and closed by muscles; those which open the shell (cardinales) originate on each side the centre of the ventral valve, and converge towards the hinge-margin of the free valve, behind the dental sockets, where there is usually a prominent cardinal process.t 'The teeth form the fulcrum on which the dorsal valve turns. The adductor muscles are four in number, and quite distinct in Crania and Discina; in Lingula the posterior pair are combined, and in Terebratuda the four muscles are separate at their dorsal terminations, but united at their insertion in the centre of the larger valve. The pedicle is fixed by a pair of muscles (each doubly-attached) to the dorsal hinge-plate, and by another pair to the ventral valve, outside the cardinal muscles.t In the hinge-less genera the contrac- tion of the cardinal muscles must tend to slide the free valve forwards, and in Crania and Discina these muscles are attached to a prominent ventral * Waidheimia Australis, Quoy. 2, From a drawing by Albany Hancock, Esq. + The term ‘‘retractors’ used at p. 8 is relinquished for the more appropriate term “ cardinal muscles,” given by Prof. King. They are particularly interesting from their function, as antagonists of the adductor muscles, like the ligament of ordinary bivalves. t The muscular system of Terebratula presents a considerable amount of resem- blance to that of Modiola (fig. 177); the anterior and posterior pedal muscles may be compared to the dorsal and ventral pedicle muscles. BRACHIOPODA. It process, which renders them less oblique; the upper valve is restored to its place by two pairs of retractor sliding-muscles, which are perhaps the equi- valents of the dorsal pedicle muscles of Zeredratula.* The muscles are remarkably glistening and tendinous, except at their expanded ends, which are soft and fleshy; their impressions are often deep, and always character- istic; but difficnlt of interpretation from their complexity, their change of position, and the occasional suppression of some and combination of others.+ On separating the valves of a recent Terebratula, the digestive organs and muscles are seen to occupy only a very small space near the beak of the shell, partitioned off from the general cavity by a strong membrane, in the centre of which is placed the animal’s mouth. The large cavity is occu- pied by the fringed arms, which have been already alluded to (page 8) as the characteristic organs of the class. Their nature will be better understood by comparing them with the lips and labial tentacles of the ordinary bivalves (pp. 24, 27, fig. 171, p.p.); they are in fact lateral prolongations of the lips supported on muscular stalks, and are so long as to require being folded or coiled up. In Rhynchonella and Lingula the arms are spiral aud separate ; in Terebratula and Discina they are only spiral at the tips, and are united together by a membrane, so as to form a lobed disk, It has been conjec- tured that the living animals have the power of protruding their arms in search of food; but this supposition is rendered less probable by the fact that in many genera they are supported by a brittle skeleton of shell. The internal skeleton consists of two spiral processes in the Spiriferide (fig. 182), whilst in Zerebratula and Thecidium it takes the form of a loop, which sup- ports the brachial membrane, but does not strictly follow the course of the arms, The mode in which the arms are folded is highly characteristic of the genera of Brachiopoda; the extent to which they are supported by a calea- rious skeleton is of less importance, and liable to be modified by age. That margin of the oral arms which answers to the lower lip of an ordinary bivalve, is fringed with long filaments (e777), as may be seen even in dry specimens of recent Zerebratule. In some fossil examples the cirri them- selves were supported by slender processes of shell;§ they cannot therefore be vibratile organs, but are probably themselves covered with microscopic cilia, like the oral tentacles of the ascidian polypes (cz/io-brachiata of Farre). The anterior lip and inner margin of the oral arms is plain, and forms a . * In Discina one pair of the retractor muscles seems to be actually insertedin the pedicle. Mr. Hancock compares the pedicle muscles with the retractors of the Bryozoa; he objects to the hypothesis of the sliding movement of the valves. + Prof. King has shown that the compound nature of a muscular impression is often indicated by the mode in which the vascular markings proceed from it (as in figs. 140, 145.) t Called cilia at p. 8, but this term should be restricted to the microscopic organs which clothe the cirri. § Spirifera rostrata and Terebratula pectunculoides, in the British Museum, 912 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. narrow gutter along which the particles collected by the ciliary currents may be conveyed to the mouth. The object of the folding of the arms is obyi- ously to give increased surface for the disposition of the czr7z. The mouth conducts by a narrow csophagus to a simple stomach, which is surrounded by the large and granulated liver; the intestine of Lzngula is reflected dorsally, slightly convoluted, and terminates between the mantle lobes on the right side (fig. 165). In Ordicula it is reflected ventrally, and passes straight to the right, ending as in Lengula. In Terebratula, Rhyncho- nella, and probably all the xorma/ Brachiopoda, the intestme is simple and reflected ventrally, passing through a notch or foramen in the hinge-plate, and ending behind the ventral insertion of the adductor muscle (fig. 109, v.)* The interior of the valves is lined by the two lobes of the mantle, which are often fringed with fine horny bristles (set); these are quite straight, brittle, and deeply implanted between the laminz of the mantle; they serve to guard the opening of the valves. The mantle-lobes of the Brachiopoda are not only organs by which the shell is formed, they are also provided with large veins by which respiration is effected; in the Zerebratulide there are two great venous trunks in the dorsal mantle-lobe, four in the ventral; in Rhynchonella and Discina the lobes are similar, and the Orthid@ have four large veins in the dorsal lobe and only two in the ventral. The first indica- tion of a special breathing organ is presented by Lingua, in which the veins develope parallel rows of small vascular processes. (Cuvier.) The veins open into the visceral cavity,+ which is itself a great vascular sinus. There are two organs which Prof. Owen regards as hearts, each consisting of an auricle and a ventricle, situated near the sides of the mouth in Terebratula ; but in Lingula (fig. 165, 4.) they are more posterior, and quite at the sides. The ventricles propel the blood into the visceral and pallial arteries, and are therefore both branchial aud systemic. The pallial arteries are very slender, and accompany the veins on their outer surfaces, forming linear impressions along the centre of the vascular markings in some fossil shells (fig. 141). The ova of Terebratula are developed within the large veins, which they accompany as far as the secondary branches. In the Rhynchonellide, and probably in the extinct Orthid@, the ovaria do not extend into the venous trunks, but occupy large sinuses on each side of the body; and in Discina and Lingula they (or the testes) fill the interstices of all the viscera, but do not appear to extend mto the mantle. The ova are supposed to escape by two orifices, situated at the sides of the mouth in J'’erebratula. (Hancock.) * The position at which the intestine terminates in the Terebratule and Rhyn- chonelle, seems to necessitate the escape of the feces by the umbonal opening; in those extinct genera which have the foramen closed at an early age, there is still an opening between the valves (e. g. in Uncites) which has been mistaken for a byssal notch. 7 The veins do not terminate in hearts as.formerly supposed; the statement at p. 30, line 27, should be erased. . BRACHIOPODA. 213 Recent Discine often have minute fry attached to their valves, and Mr. Suess, of Vienna, has noticed a specimen of the fossil Stringocephalus, which contained numerous embryo shells. Nothing is yet known respecting the development of the Brachzopoda, but there can be no doubt that in their first stage they are free and able to swim about, until they meet with a suitable position. 1t is probable that in the second stage they all adhere by a byssus, which in most instances becomes consolidated, and forms a permanent organ of attachment. Some of the extinct genera (e.g. Spirifera and Strophomena) appear to have become free when adult, or to have fixed themselves by some other means. Four genera, belonging to very distinct families, cement themselves to foreign objects by the substance of the ventral valve. The Lamp-shells are all natives of the sea. They are found hanging from the branches of corals, the under sides of shelving rocks, and the cavities of other shells. Specimens obtained from rocky situations are frequently distorted, and those from stony and gravelly beds, where there is motion in the waters, have the beak worn, the foramen large, and the ornamental sculpturing of the valves less sharply finished. On clay beds, as in the deep clay strata, they are seldom found; but where the bottom con- sists of calcarious mud they appear to be very abundant, mooring themselves to every hard substance on the sea-bed, and clustering one upon the other. Some of the Brachiopoda appear to attain their full growth in a single season, and all, probably, live many years after becoming adult. The growth of the valves takes place chiefly at the margin; adult shells are more globular than the young, and aged specimens still more so. ‘The shell is also thickened by the deposit of internal layers, which sometimes entirely fill the beak, and every portion of the cavity of the interior which is not oc- cupied by the animal, suggesting the notion that the creature must have died from the plethoric exercise of the calcifying function, converting its shell into a mausoleum, like many of the ascidian zoophytes. The intimate structure of the shell of the Brachiopoda has been investigated by Mr. Morris, Prof. King, and more recently by Dr. Carpenter ; according to the last observer, it consists of flat- tened prisms of considerable length, arranged parallel to each other with great regularity, and obliquely to the surfaces of the shell, the interior of which is imbricated by their out-crop (fig. 110.) This struc- tructure only is found in the Rhyuchonellide; but in most—perhaps all the other Brachiopoda*— the shell is traversed by canals, from one surface * The fossil shells of the older rocks are so generally pseudomorphous, or par- take of the metamorphic character of the rock itself, that it is difficult to obtain speci \ NNN YS Wen Fig. 110. Terebratula. . Mens in a state fit for microscopic examination. 214 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. to the other, nearly vertically, and regularly, the distance and size of the perforations varying with the species. Their external orifices are trumpet-shaped, the inner often very small; sometimes they bifurcate towards the exterior, and in Cranza they become arborescent. The canals are occupied by ccecal processes of the outer mantle-layer,* and are covered ex- ternally by a thickening of the epidermis. Mr. Huxley has suggested that these ceca are analogous to the vascular processes by which in many asci- dians the ¢zmzzc adheres to the fest; the extent of which adhesion varies in closely allied genera. The large tubular spines of the Productide must have been also lined by prolongations of the mantle; but their development was more probably related to the maintenance of the shell in a fixed position, than to the internal economy of the animal. (Kzzg.) Dr. Carpenter states that the shell of the Brachiopoda generally contains less animal matter than — other bivalves ; but that Disczma'and Lingula consist almost entirely of a horny animal substance, which is laminar, and penetrated by oblique tubuli of ex- treme minuteness. He has also shown that there is not in these shells that distinction between the outer and inner layers, either in structure or mode of growth, which prevails among the ordinary bivalves; the inner layers only differ in the minute size of the perforations, and the whole thickness corres- ponds with the outer layer only in the Lamellibranchiata. The loop, or brachial processes, are always impunctate. Of all shell-fish the Brachiopoda enjoy the greatest range both of climate, and depth, and time; they are found in tropical and polar sees; in pools left by the ebbing tide, and at the greatest depths hitherto explored by the dredge. At present only 70 recent species are known; but many more will probably be found in the deep-sea, which these shells mostly inhabit. The number of living species is already greater than has been discovered in any secondary stratum, but the vast abundance of fossil specimens has made them seem more important than the living types, which are still rare in the cabinets of collectors, though far from being so in the sea. Above 1,000 extinct species of Brachiopoda have been described, of which more than half are found in England. They are distributed throughout all the sedimentary rocks of marine origin from the Cambrian strata upwards, and appear to have attained their maximum, both of generic and specific development, in the Devonian age.* The oldest form of organic life at present known, both in the old and new world, is a Lingula. Some species (like Atrypa reticularis) * Called the ‘‘ lining membrane of the shell,” by Dr. Carpenter. (Davidson Intr. Mon. Brach.) Mr. Quekett states that the perforations are closed externally by disks, surrounded by radiating lines, supposed to indicate the existence of vibratile cilia in the living specimens. + The number of Devonian species amounts to 300; but these were not all living at one time, they are obtained from a whole series of deposits, representing a succession of periods. BRACHIOPODA. 215 extend through a whole “system” of rocks, and abound equally in both hemispheres ; others (like Sprrifera striata) range from the Cordillera to the Ural mountains. One recent Terebratula (caput-serpentis) made its appear- ance in the Miocene Tertiary ; whilst others, scarcely distinguishable from it, are found in the Upper Oolite, and throughout the Chalk series and London Clay.* FAMILY I. TEREBRATULIDA. Shell minutely punctate; usually round or oval, smooth or striated ; ventral valve with a prominent beak, and two curved hinge-teeth; dorsai valve with a depressed umbo, a prominent cardinal process between the dental sockets, aud a slender shelly loop. Animal attached by a pedicle, or by the ventral valve: oral arms united to each other by a membrane, variously folded ; sometimes spiral at their extremities. VY Y jy oat AA i Ww Sat Y] UUINIi SY ATH ] \ WX S 5) aes Zz B. Fig. 111. Yerebratula vitrea, Born. TerEeBratuna, (Lihwyd.) Brug. Lamp-shell. Etym. Diminutive of terebratus, perforated. Syn. Lampas, Humph. Gryphus, Muhlfeldt. Epithyris, Phil. Types, 'T. maxillata, Pl. XV. fig. 1, (= Ter. minor-subrubra, Llhwyd. Anomia terebratula, L.) TT. vitrea, fig. 3. Shell smooth, convex; beak truncated and perforated; foramen circular ; deltidium of two pieces, frequently blended; loop very short, simple, attached by its crura to the hinge-plate. (Fig. 111, A.) . Animal attached by a pedicle; brachial disk tri-lobed, centre lobe elon- gated and spirally convoluted. (Fig. 111, B.) The young of 7. diphya (Pygope of Link) has bi-lobed valves, (Pl. XV. fig. 2.); when adult the lobes unite, leaving a round hole through the centre of the shell. Distr. 1 sp. Medit. 90—250 fathoms on nullipore mud. (Forées.) Fossil, 100 sp. Devonian —. World-wide, * The author has to ackowledge his obligation to Mr. Davidson for the use of the notes, drawings and specimens, assembled during the preparation of his great work on the British Fossil Brachiopoda, printed for the Palzontographieal Society; te which work the student is referred for more copious descriptions and illustrations. L 3 216 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Sub-genera. Terebratulina (caput-serpentis) D’Orb. Pl. XV. fig. 3. Fig. 112. Shed/ finely striated, auriculate, deltidium usually rudimental ; i ( yl Uff or Mh YW, Fig. 112. Dorsal valve: Animal. 2 foramen incomplete; loop short, rendered annular in the adult by the union of the oral processes. Dist. 7 sp. U. States, Norway, Cape, Japan. 10-—~ 120 fms. Fossil,20 sp. Oxfordian —. U.S. Europe. Waldheimia (australis) King. Pl. XV. fig. 4 (p. 8, figs. 4, 5.) figs. 109, 113, 114. Fig. 113. Dorsal vaive. Fig. 114. Ventral valve. Fig. 113. 7, cardinal process; ¢’, dental sockets; y, hinge-plate; s, septum; c, crura of the loop; /, reflected portion of the loop; m, quadruple adductor-impression. Fig. 114. f, foramen; d, deltidium; ¢, teeth; a; single adductor-impression; f, cardinal muscles; a, accessory muscles; p, pedicle muscles; v, position of the vent; x, attachment of ‘pedicle-sheath. Shell smooth or plaited, dorsal valve frequently impressed ; foramen com- plete; loop elongated and reflected; septum (s) of smaller valve elongated. Distr. 9 sp. Norway, Java, Australia, California, Cape Horn. Low-water— 100 fms. Fossil, 60 sp. Trias —. S. America, Europe. Hudesia (car- dium) King, includes 1 recent, and 6 fossil species which are sharply plaited. T. impressa (Pl. XV. fig. 5) is the type of a group which has the external shape of Terebratella. BRACHIOPODA. TBS | TEREBRATELLA, D’Orbigny. Type, T. dorsata, Gmel. (= Magellanica, Chemn.) Pl. XV. fig. 7. Fig. 115. Shell smooth or radiately plaited; dorsal valve longitudinally impressed; hinge-line straight, or not much curved ; beak witha flattened area on each side of the deltidium; foramen large; deltidium incomplete ; loop attached to the septum (5). Animal like Terebratula; the spiral lobe of the brachial disk becomes very diminutive in some species, and is obsolete in Morrisia and J’. Cumingii. Distr. excluding sub- genera, 16 sp. Cape Horn, Valparaiso (90 fms.), New Zealand, Japan, Ochotsk, Spitz- bergen, Labrador. Fossi/, 16 sp. Lias —, U.S. Europe. In 7. crenulata and Evansii Fig. 116. Ter: Evansvi. Dav. (fig. 116) the dorsal septum sometimes projects so far as to touch the oppo- site valve, but in other examples it remains undeveloped. (Davidson.) Sub-genera. Trigonosemus (elegans) Kénig. Sym Delthyridaza (pecti- niformis) M‘Coy. Fissirostra, D’Orb. Ex. T. Palissii, Pl. XV. fig. 8. Shell finely plaited, beak prominent, curved, with a narrow apical foramen ; cardinal area large, triangular; deltidium solid, flat; cardinal process very prominent. Dzstr.5 sp. Chalk, Europe. Lyra (Meadi), Cumberland, Min. Con. 1816. Pl. XV. fig. 6. Syz. Te- rebrirostra, D’?Orb. Rhynchora, Dalman.* She// ornamented with rounded ribs; beak very long, divided lengthwise internally, by the dental plates; loop doubly attached ? Distr. 4 sp. cretaceous: Hurope. Three species of similar form are found in the Trias of St. Cassian. Magas (pumila) Shy. Fig. 117. Shell smooth, conspicuously punctate, dorsal valve impressed, foramen angular, deltidium ru- dimentary; internal septum (s) promi- nent, touching the ventral valve; re- flected portions. of the loop disunited (7). 2 sp. U. Green-sand — Chalk. Europe. The recent Ter. Cumingii, of New Zealand, Fig. 117. M. pumila. * The name Rhynchora was given by Dalman to the Ter. eostata. Wahl. (= T. pectinata, L.) on the supposition that it was identical with Sowerby’s. 7. Lyra; and as no specimen could be found with a.long beak, an artificial one was manufactured for it, of which there is a cast inthe Brit. M. The second species of.‘ Rhynchora,” Ter. spatulata, Wahl. has no beak whatever: in shape it is like an Argéope, but measures an inch each way. The ventral valve is a simple bent plate with the teeth at the angles; the dorsal valve is flat, with a very wide hinge-plate, and sockets at, the angles, whilst a single septum projects from the centre, with portions of. a loop attached, 218 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. resembles Bouchardia externally, but has the diverging processes of the loop as In Magas. Fig. 118. B. tulipa, Bil.* Bouchardia (tualipa) Davidson, fig. 118. Beak prominent, with a minute apical foramen (/) deltidium blended with the shell (@) apophysis anchor- shaped, the septum (s) being furnished with two short lamelle. Brazil, 13 fms. eae, (Ee GA GV, OF iS Gm) A Cys Ly, yyy : Ne uN vy Fig. 119. Animal. a Dorsal vaive.t Morrista (anomioides, Seacchi) Davidson. Fig. 119. Shel? minute, conspicuously punctate ; foramen large, encroaching equally on both valves ; hinge area small, straight; loop not reflected, attached to a small forked process in the centre of the valve. Azimal with sigmoid arms, destitute of spiral terminations; cirri in pairs. Distr. 2 sp. Medit. 95 fms. (Forbes.) ? Fossil. 1 sp. Pliocene, Palermo. Ms Fig. 120. Dorsal valve with animal. = Fig. 121. Dorsal valve. * The muscular fimpressions in Bouehardia have been compared with those of Ter. Cumingié, of which the animal is known. The large impressions (r)in the disk of the ventral valve appearto be formed by the cardinal muscles; a. by the adductor ; p. by the pedicle muscles. ¢ Fig. 119. c. loop; f. pedicle notch; o. the ovaries. From the originals in Mr. Davidson’s collection; magnified ten diameters. BRACHIOPODA. 219 Kraussia (rubra) Dav. Cape. Fig. 121. K. Lamarckiana, Dav. Aus- tralia. Fig. 120. Shell transversely oblong; hinge-line nearly straight ; beak truncated, laterally keeled; area flat; foramen large, deltidtum radi- mentary ; dorsal valve longitudinally impressed, furnished inside with a forked process rising nearly centrally from the septum; interior often strongly tuberculated. The apophysis is sometimes a little branched, indi- eating a tendency towards the form it attains in fig. 122. Animal with rather small oral arms, the spiral lobe very diminutive. Dzstr.6 sp. S. Africa, Sydney, N. Zealand; low-water to 120 fms. Fig. 122. Animal. Dorsal vaive. ? Megerlia (irmneata) King, 1850. Pl. XV. fig. 9. Fig. 122. Loop trebly attached; to the hinge-plate by its erura, and to the septum by pro- cesses from the diverging and reflected portions of the loop. Dvstr. 2 sp. Medit. Philippines. These species belong to the same natural group with Kraussia. ? Kingena (lima) Dav. Cretaceous, Europe, Guadaloupe. Valves spinu- lose; loop trebly attached. Fig. 123. Ter. (Kingena) lima; (after Davidson.) t. dental sockets; j. cardinal process, c. crura; d. diverging processes of loop ; r, reflected portion; e. third attachment of loop; s. dorsal septum. 220 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ? Ismenia (pectunculus) King. Coral rag, Europe. Valves ornamented with corresponding ribs; loop trebly attached. ? Waltonia (Valenciennei) Dav. New Zealand. Perhaps the fry of Ter. rubicunda, with the reflected part of the loop wanting. Fig. 124. Argiope decollata. + Fig. 125. A. Neapolitana, Se.* ARGIOPE, Eudes Deslongchamps. Etym. Argiope,anymph. Syn. Megathyris, D’Orb. Type, A. decollata, Pl. XV. fig. 10. Fig. 124—126. Shell minute, transversely oblong or semi-ovate, smooth or with corre- sponding ribs; hinge line wide and straight, with a narrow area to each valve ; foramen large, deltidium rudimentary ; interior of dorsal valve with one or more prominent, sub-marginal septa; loop two or four-lobed, adhering to the septa, and more or less confluent with the valve. jy eS \ Jk Cm ow {\ On f Ne NN » LINN \\\ \ A\S AN \ \ \ \ <\ i De Fig. 126. A. decollata, 4°; dorsal valve with the animal, from a specimen dredged by Prof. Forbes in the eigenn. The oral aperture is seen in the centre of the disk. Animal with oral arms folded into two or four lobes, united by mem- brane, forming a brachial disk fringed with long cirri: mantle extending to the margins of the valves, closely adherent. Distr, 4 sp. N. Brit. Madeira, Canaries, Medit. 40—105 fathoms. Fossil. 5 sp. U. Greensand —. Europe. * Interiors of dorsal valves magnified, from the originals in Coll. Davidson. BRACHIOPODA. 221 Fig. 127. 7. radians. Fig. 128. 7. Mediterraneum.* 4 TuHEcrpium, Defrance. Etym. Thekidion, a small pouch. Type, T. radians, Pl. XV. fig. 11. Sheli small, thick, punctate, attached by the beak; hinge-area (A) flat ; deltidium (d@) triangular, indistinct: dorsal valve (fig. 127) rounded, de- pressed ; interior with a broad granulated margin; cardinal process promi- nent, between the dental sockets; oral processes united, forming a bridge over the small and deep visceral cavity; disk grooved for the reception of the loop, the grooves separated by branches from a central septum; loop often unsym- metrical, lobed, and united more or less intimately with the sides of the grooves: ventral valve (fig. 129) deeply excavated , hinge-teeth prominent; cavities for the adductor (a) and pedicle muscles (p) small; disk occupied by two large smooth impressions of the cardinal muscles, bor- dered by a vascular line. Animal (fig. 128) with elongated oral arms, folded on them- selves and fringed with long cirri; mantle extending to the margin of the valves and closely adherent ; epidermis distinct. 7. radians is the only un-attached spe- cies, it is supposed to be fixed by a pedicle when young (D’Orb.) 7. hieroglyphicum, Pi. XV. fig. 12, has a very complicated interior; whilst in seve- _ ral others there are but two brachial lobes. The Liassic species form the subject of a monograph by M. Eugene Deslong- champs; they are often minute, and attached in numbers to sea-urchins, corals, and terebratule. Distr. 1 sp. Medit. Fossil, 27 sp. Trias —. Europe. Fig. 129. 7. radians, +, * Dorsal valve with the animal, megnified. Coll. Davidson. 293 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Fig. 130. Dorsal valve. Projile.* a, adductor; c, crura; J, loop; j, cardinal process; p, hinge-plate; s, dorsal septum ; v. 5. ventral septum; #, dental sockets. ? STRINGOCEPHALUS, Defrance. Etym. Strinz (stringos) an owl, cephale the head.+ S. Burtini, Pl. XV. fig. 138. Fig. 130, 131. Devonian, Europe. Shell punctate; sub-orbicular, with a prominent beak: ventral valve with a longitudinal septum (v.s.) in the middle; hinge-area distinct ; foramen large and angular in the young shell, gradually surrounded by the deltidium and rendered small and oval in the adult; deltidium composed of three elements; teeth prominent; dorsal valve depressed, cardinal process (7) very prominent, some- times touching the opposite valve, its extremity forked to receive the ventral septum (v.s.); hinge-plate (p) sup- “CG Wok porting a shelly loop, after the manner of drgzope. Fig. 131.4 FAMILY II. Spreirerips. Sheli furnished internally with two calcarious spiral processes (apophyses) directed outwards, towards the sides of the shell, and destined for the support of the oral arms ; which must have been fixed immoveably; the spiral lamelle * The loop (which was discovered by Prof. King) has a distinet suture in the middle; the dotted lines proceeding from its inner edge are added from a drawing by Mr. Suess, and represent what he regards as shelly processes for supporting a mem- branous disk. They may be portions of spirals, whose outer whirls are confluent. ¢ Internal casts of Products gigantea are called ‘‘ owl-heads” by quarrymen in the North of England. (Sowerby). t Fig. 131. Young shell, magnified 4 diameters; &, hinge area; 6, deltidium: p, pseudo-deltidium. BRACHIOPODA. 323 are sometimes spinulose, indicating the existence of rigid cirri, especially on the front of the whirls; valves articulated by teeth and sockets. A \\\ \\ \ \Y 1\ \\ Fig. 132. Dorsal; Ventral valve.4 SPIRIFERA, Sowerby. Type, S. striata, Sby. fig. 132. Syn. Trigonotreta, Konig. Choristites. Fischer. Delthyris, Dalman. Martinia &c. M‘Coy. Shell impunctate,* transversely oval or elongated, tri-lobed, beaked, bi- convex, with a dorsal ridge and ventral furrow; hinge-line wide and straight ; area moderate, striated across; foramen angular, open in the: young, after- wards progressively closed ; ventral valve with prominent hinge-teeth, and a central muscular scar, consisting of the single adductor flanked by two cardi- nal impressions : dorsa/ valve with a small cardinal process, a divided hinge- plate, and two conical spires directed outwards and nearly filling the cavity of the shell; crura united by an oral loop. The shell and spires are some- times silicified, in limestone, and may be developed by means of acid. In S. mosquensis the dental plates are prolonged nearly to the front of the ventral valve. Distr. 200 sp. L. Sil. — Trias. Arctic America — Chile, Falkland Ids. Europe; China; Thibet; Australia; Tasmania. In China these and other fossils are used as medicine. Sub-genera. Spiriferina, D’Orb. S. Walcotti, Pl. 15, f.14. Shel7 punc- tate, external surface spinulose; foramen covered by a pseudo-deltidium ; in- terior of ventral valve with a prominent septum, rising from the adductor sear. Distr. 6 sp. Trias — L. Oolites. Brit. France, Germany, S. America. Cyrtia, Dalman. C. exporrecta, Pl. XV. fig. 15. She// impunctate, pyra- midal, beak prominent, area equiangular, deltidium with a small tubular foramen. Fossi/, 7 sp. Silur.— Trias. Europe. In C. Buchit, heteroclyta, calceola, &c. the shell is punctate. Atuyris, M‘Coy. Etym. A, without, thuris,a door.t (i.e. deltidium). Syn. Spirigera, D’Orb. Cleiothyris, King (not Phil.) * Prof. King attributes this to metamorphism; S. Demarilii. Bouch. from the Devonian limestone, is punctate. (Carpenter). + Sometimes employed, incorrectly, in the sense of a door-way or foramen. 224 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Types, A. concentrica, Buch. A. Roissyi, fig. 133, 134. A, lamellosa, Pl. XV. fig. 16. Shell impunctate, transversely oval, or sub-orbicular, bi-convex, smooth, or ornamented with squamose lines of growth, sometimes developed into wing-like expansions, (fig. 134*); hinge-line curved, area obsolete, foramen Fig. 133. Interior of dorsal valve. Fig. 134. Specimen with fringe. round, truncating the beak, deltidium obsolete; hinge-plate of dorsal valve with four muscular cavities, perforated by a small round foramen, and supporting a small complicated loop (?) between the spires; spires directed outwards, crura united by a prominent oral loop. The foramen in the hinge-plate occupies the situation of the notch through which the intestine passes in the recent Rhynchonelle ; im A. con- centrica a slender curved tube is sometimes attached to the foramen, beneath the hinge-plate. .4. twmida has the hinge-plate merely grooved, and the byssal foramen is angular. Fossil, about 20 sp. Silurian — Lias. N. and S. America; Europe. Sub-genus? Merista, Suess. Ter. scalprum, Reemer, (A. cassidea, Quenst. Sp. plebeia. Ph.) Silurian — Devonian; Europe. Shel/ impunctate, dental plates (v) and dorsal septum (d) supported by arched plates (“ shoe-lifter” processes, of King) which readily det- ach, leaving cavities (as in fig. 135) ; spiral arms have been observed m all the species. Fig. 135. Merista. Rerzia, King. Dedicated to the distinguished Swedish naturalist, Retzius. Type, Ter. Adrieni, Vern. Ez. R. serpentina, Carb. L. Belgium. Fig. 136 Shell punctate, terebratula-shaped ; beak truncated by a round foramen rendered complete by a distinct deltidium: hinge-area small, triangular, sharply defined ; interior with diverging shelly spires. Fossil, about 20 species. Silurian — Trias. S. America. U.S. Europe: * The spurious genus Actinoconchus (M‘Coy) was founded on this character; similar expansions are formed by species of Atrypa, Camarophoria, and Producta. BRACHIOPODA. 225 Prof. King first pointed out the existence of calcarious spires in several Tere- bratule of the older rocks, and others have been discovered by MM. Quen- stedt, De Koninck, and Barrande. In form they resemble Terebratulina, Endesia, and Lyra. Fig 136. Retzia serpentina, D. K. Fig, 137, Unecites gryphus. Uncites, Defrance. Type, U. gryphus, Pl. XV. fig.17. Fig 187. Fossil, Devonian. Europe. Sheil impunctate ; oval, bi-convex, with a long incurved beak; foramen apical, closed at an early age; deltidium, large, concave; spiral processes directed outwards; no hinge-area. The large, concave deltidium of Uncites so much resembles the channel formed by the dental plates of Pentamerus, that Dalman mistook the shell for a member of that genus. The discovery of internal spires, by Prof. Bey- rich, shows that it only differs from Refzia in being impunctate and destitute of hinge-area. Some of the specimens have corresponding depressions in the sides of the valves (fig. 137, p) forming pouches which do not communicate with the interior. FAMILY Tl. RxeYNCHONELLIDE. Shell impunetate, oblong, or trigonal, beaked; hinge-line curved ; no area; yalves articulated, convex, often sharply plaited; foramen beneath the beak, usually completed by a deltidium, sometimes concealed; hinge-teeth supported wt ~_...-- Fig. 138. R. nigricans. Fig. 139. Ventral: Dorsal. Fig. 138. Dorsal valve with the animal; a, adductor muscles: i, intestine. Fig. 139. R. psittaeea, interiors. s, septum; f, foramen; d, deltidium; #, teeth ; -¢, sockets’; c, oral lamellae; a, adductor impressions; x, cardinal; p, pedicle muscles ; 0, Ovarian spaces. 226 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. by dental plates; hinge-plate deeply divided, supporting oral lamelle, rarely provided with spiral processes; muscular impressions grouped as in Terebra- tuda ; vascular impressions consisting of two principal trunks in each valve, narrow, dichotomising, angular, the principal posterior branches inclosing ovarian spaces. Animal (of Rhynchonella) with elongated spiral arms, directed inwards, towards the concavity of the dorsal valve; alimentary canal terminating behind the insertion of the adductor in the ventral valve; mantle not adhering, its margin fringed with a few short setze. Ventral aspect. Umbonal aspect. Fig. 140. Rh. acuminata, internal casts. Fig. 149. Umbonal aspect, with the dorsal valve above (Coll. Prof. King). Ven- tral aspect (Coll. Prof. Morris). A, adductor; R, cardinal; P, pedicle; V, vascular; O, ovarian impressions. RHYNCHONELLA. Fischer. Syn, Wypothyris, Phil. Hemithyris (psittacea) D’Orb, Acanthothyris (spinosa) D’Orb. Cyclothyris Galicia) M‘Coy. Trigonella (part) Fischer (not L. nor Da Costa). Types, R. acuta, Pl. XV. fig. 18 : furcillata, fig. 19: spinosa, fig. 20: acu- minata, fig. 140: nigricans, fig. 188; psittacea, fig. 139 (p. 8, fig. 3). Shell trigonal, acutely beaked, usually plaited; dorsal valve elevated in front, depressed at the sides ; ventral valve flattened, or hollowed along the centre, hinge plates supporting two slender curved lamellz ; dental plates diverging. The foramen is at first only an angular notch in the hinge-line of the ven- tral valve, but the growth of tbe deltidium usually renders it complete in the adult shell; in the cretaceous species it is tubular. In R&R. acuminata and many other paleeozoic examples, the beak is so closely incurved as to allow no space for a pedicle. Both the recent Rhynchonelle are black ; R. octo- plicata of the Chalk sometimes retains six dark spots. BRACHIOPODA. 227 Distr. 2 sp. . psittacea, Labrador (low water?) Hudson’s Bay, 100 fms.: Melville Id. Sitka; Icy Sea. &. nagricans, New Zealand, 19 fms. Fossil, 250 sp. L, Silurian —. N. and S. America, Europe, Thibet, China. Sub-genera. > Porambonites, Pander. P. equirostris, Schl. ShelZ im- punctate ; surface minutely pitted ; each valve with a minute hinge-area and indications of two septa; foramen angular, usually concealed. Destr. 4 sp. L. Silurian. Russia, Portugal. Camarophoria, King. T. Schlotheimi, Buch. Figs. 141, 142. Ventral valve with converging dental plates (¢) supported on a low septal ridge (s) ; dorsal valve with a prominent septum (s) supporting a spoon-shaped central process (v); oral lamelle long and slender (0). Foramen angular, cardinal process distinct (7). FossiZ, 9 sp. ? Carb. — Permian (Magnesian limestone). Germany; England. Fig. 141, Internal cast.* Fig. 142. Section. PENTAMERUS, Sowerby, Etym. Pentameres, 5-partite. Syn. Gypidia (conchydium) Dalman. Type, P. Knightii, Pl. XV. fig. 22. Fig, 143. Shell impunctate, ovate, ventricose, with a large incurved beak; valves usually plaited; foramen angular; no area or deltidium ; dental plates (d) converging, trough-like, supported on a prominent septum (s); dorsal valve with two contiguous longitudinal septa (s s) opposed to the plates of the other valve. Oral lamelle have been detected by Mr. Salter in P. Miratus ; in P. ? bre- virostris (Devonian, Newton) the dorsal valve has a long trough-like process supported by a siugle low septum. Fossil, 20 sp. Arctic America, U.S. Europe. * Ventral side of cast, showing the V shaped cavity of the dental plates, and the impressions of branchial veins, accompanied by arteries; (after King.) 228 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSGA. Fig. 143. Longitudinal ; Transverse section. The relations of the animal to the shell, in such a species as P. Knight can only be inferred by comparison with other species in which the internal plates are less developed, and with other genera, such as Cyréza and Camaro- phoria. Yn fig. 143, the small central chamber (v) must have been occupied by the digestive organs. the large lateral spaces (d s) by the spiral arms: it is doubtful whether any muscles were attached to these plates ; in Porambo- nites the adductor impression is situated beyond the point to which the dental plates converge, and in Camarophoria the muscular impressions occupy the same position a3 in Rhynchonella. Arrypa, Dalman. Syn. Cleiothyris, Phillips. Spirigerina, D’Orb.* Hipparionyx, Vanuxem. Type, A. reticularis, Pl. XV. fig. 17. Figs. 144, 145. Fig. 145, Ventral valve; interiors. p, hinge-plate; a, impressions of adductor muscle; c, cardinal muscle , pedicle muscle ; 0, ovarian sinus; d, deltidium. Shell impuncetate: oval, usually plaited and ornamented with squamose lines of growth; dorsal valve gibbose; ventral depressed in front; beak * The term Airypa (a, without, trupa, foramen) is objectionable, like all Dalman’s names; but M. D’Orbigny has made no improvement by proposing Spirigerina, in addition to Spirifera, Spirigera, and Spiriferina! BRACHIOPODA. 229 small, often closely incurved: foramen round, sometimes completed by a deltidium, often concealed: dorsal valve with a divided hinge-plate, support- ing two broad spirally coiled lamelle ; spires vertical, closely appressed, and directed towards the centre of the valve; teeth and impressions like Rhyn- chonella. The shells of this genus differ from Rhynchonella chiefly in the calcifi- cation of the oral supports, a character of uncertain value. Fossil, 15 sp. LL. Silurian — Trias. America (Wellington Channel ! Falkland Ids.), Europe, Thibet. FAMILY IV. Orraips.* Shell transversely oblong, depressed, rarely foraminated; hinge-line wide and straight; beaks inconspicuous; valves plano-convex, or concavo- convex, each with a hinge-area (/) notched in the centre; ventral valve with prominent teeth (¢) ; muscular impressions occupying a saucer-shaped cavity with a raised margin; adductor (a) central; cardinal and pedicle impressions (r) conjoined, lateral, fan-like: dorsal valve with a tooth-like cardinal-pro- cess between two curved brachial processes (¢); adductor impression (a) quadruple: vascular impressions consisting of six principal trunks in the dorsal valve, two in the ventral, the external branches turned outwards and backwards inclosing wide ovarian spaces (0). Indications have been observed, in several genera, of horizontally-coiled spiral arms; the space between the valves is often very small. The shell-structure is punctate, except in a few instances, where the original texture is probably obliterated. Dorsal valve.+ . Ventral valve. Fig. 147. Orthis, striatula. Devonian, Eifel. Orruis, Dalman. Etym. Orthos, straight. Type, O. rustica, Pl. XV. fig. 238. Syn. Dicelosia (biloba) King. Platystrophia (biforata) King. Gonam- bonites (inflexa) Pander. Orthambonites (calligramma) Pander. * The names of the Families are formed from those of the typical genera, by sub- stituting id@ for the last syllable of the genitive case. + From a specimen presented by M. De Koninck to the British Museum ; internal casts of this fossil were called hysterolites by old authors. 230 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Shell transversely oblong, radiately striated or plaited, bi-convex, hinge- line narrower than the shell, cardinal process simple, brachial processes tooth-like, prominent and curved. Fossil, 100 sp. UL. Silurian — Carb. Arctic America, U.S, S. America, Falkland Ids. Europe, Thibet. ? Sub-genera, Orthisina, D’Orb. O. anomala, Schl. Fig. 148. Syn. Pronites (ascendens) and Hemipronites, Pander. Shedd impunctate ? widest at the hinge-line; cardinal notch closed, byssal notch (j/isswre) covered by a convex pseudo- deltidium, sometimes perforated by a small round foramen. Fossi/. L, Silurian, Europe. O. pelargonatus (Streptorhynchus, King) from the Magnesian limestone, O. sexilis, Carb limestone, and some Devonian species, have the CL, yf Y]} LW : ware MANES beak twisted, as it if had been attached; there a 3 Fig. 148, Orthisina. is no foramen. STROPHOMENA, Blainville.* tym. Strophos bent, mene crescent. zr, 8. rhomboidalis, Pl. XV. fig. 24. (= Lepteena depressa, Sby.) Syz. Lepteena (depressa) Dalman. Leptagonia, M‘Coy. Enteletes, Fischer. Shell semi-circular, widest at the hinge-line, concavo-convex, depressed, radiately striated; area double; ventral valve with an angular notch, pro- gressively covered by a convex pseudo-deltidium ; umbo depressed, rarely (?) perforated, in young shells, by a minute foramen (fig. 149, e); muscular depressions 4, central pair narrow, formed by the adductor: external pair (m) fan-like, left by the cardinal and pedicle muscles; dorsal valve with a bi-lobed cardinal process, between the dental sockets, and four depressions for the adductor muscle. Fig. 149. Ventral vaive. Dorsal valve. Interior of S. analoga, Carb. limestone (after King). e, foramen ; ¢, teeth; 0, ovarian spaces; 6, brachial pits? * The name Strophomena (rugosa) was originally given by Rafinesque to some unknown or imaginary fossil; it has, however, been adopted both in America and Europe for the group typified by S. alternata and planumbona. BRACHIOPODA. 931 There are no apparent brachial processes in the dorsal valve of Stro- phomena, and it is possible that the spiral arms may have been supported at some point near the centre of the shell (4) asin Producta; S. rhomboidalis occasionally exhibits traces of spiral arms, in the ventral valve. 8. latissima Bouch. has plain areas, like Calceola. The valves of the Strophomenas are nearly flat until they approach their full growth, they then bend abruptly to one side; the dorsal valve becomes concave in S. alternata and rhomboidalis, whilst in S. planumbona and euglypha it be. comes convex; these distinctions are not even sub-generic. . N. America, Europe, Thies. nge Fify200 Benton. 8 5 2 ? : A, hinge areas; y, ventral, B, interior S, demissa, Conr. (Stropheodonta, of dorsal valve. Hall). §. Dutertrii, and several other species have a denticulated hinge-line. Sub-genera ? Leptena (part) Dalman. LL. transversalis, fig. 150. (Plec- tambonites, Pander.) Valves regularly curved; dorsal concave, thickened, rauscular impressions elongated. Fossil, L, Silurian —Lias. N. America, Europe. The lias Leptenas resemble Thecidia internally; they are free shells, with sometimes a minute foramen at the apex of the triangular delti- dium; LZ. liassina, Pl. XV. fig. 25. A i's “ 6 lj; \ =) Wo ANY, ue A) \\ A / _ \ Fig, 145. Producta ? Leonhardi, = Koninckia, Suess. Producta Leonhardi, Wissm, (P, a/pina, Schl.) fig, 145. Trias, St. Cassian, Shel? orbicular, concavo-convex, smooth; valves articu- lated ? closely appressed; ventral valve convex, dorsal concave; beak in- curved, no hinge-area nor foramen ? interior of each valve furrowed by two spiral lines of four volutions, directed inwards, and crossing the vascular impressions ; umbo with 8 diverging ridges. The small spiral eavities, once occupied by the arms, and now filled with spar, may be seen in specimens with both valves, by holding them to the light. Mr, Suess of Vienna states * A, Translucent specimen; B, interior of darsal valve. M 232 é MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. that he has found traces of very slender spiral lamellze occupying the furrows. This curious little shell most resembles the Triassic Leptena, dubia (Pro- ducta) Minster (= Crania Murchisoni, Klipst. !) Davipsonia, Bouchard. Dedicated tothe author of the Monograph of British Fossil Brachiopoda. Type, D. Verneuili, Bouch. Fig. 151. Devonian, Eifel. Fig. 151. Dorsal valve. Ventral valve, 2. Shell solid, attached by outer surface of the ventral valve to rocks, shells, and corals; valves plain, articulated; ventral valve with a wide area (A) ; foramen angular, covered by a convex deltidium (d): disk occupied by two co- nical elevations, obscurely grooved by a spiral furrow of 5-6 volutions ; dorsal valve with two shallow lateral cavities; vascular impressions consisting of two principal sub-marginal trunks, in each valve, with diverging branches ; cardinal and adductor impressions distinct. The furrowed cones undoubtedly indicate the existence of spiral arms, similar to those of 4érypa (fig. 144), but destitute of calcified supports. The mantle-lobes seem to have conti- nued depositing shell until the internal cavity was reduced to the smallest possible limit. Fig. 152. Dorsal valve. Ventral valve. 2 Catceona, Lamarck. Etym. Catceola, a slipper. Type, C. sandalina, PI. XV. fig. 26. Fig. 152. Shell thick, triangular; valves plain, not articulated: ventral valve pyra- midal; area large, flat, triangular, with an obscure central line; hinge-line straight, crenulated, /orsal valve flat, semi-circular, with a narrow area (A), a small cardinal process (j), and two lateral groups of small apophysary (?) ridges (4); internal surface punctate-striate. Fossz/, Devonian, Eifel, Brit. BRACHIOPODA. 233 The supposed Carboniferous species (Hypodema, D.K.) is, perhaps, related to Pileopsis. Calceola is shaped like Cyrtia, and its hinge-area resembles that. of some Strophomenas. FAMILY V. Propuctipa. Shell concavo-convex, with a straight hinge-line; valves rarely articu- lated by teeth; closely appressed, furnished with tubular spines; ventral valve convex; dorsal concave; internal surface dotted with conspicuous, funnel-shaped punctures; dorsal valve with a prominent cardinal process ; brachial processes (?) sub-central; vascular markings lateral, broad and simple; adductor impressions dendritic, separated by a narrow central ridge ; ventral valve with a slightly notched hinge-line; adductor scar central, near the umbo; cardinal impressions lateral, striated. iy ? Ul my HALA Ei RAIA Fig. 153. Producta gigantea, 4 Curb. limestone. A, interior of dorsal valve; B, interior of ventral valve, with the umbo removed; C, ideal section of both valves; D, hinge-line of A; j, cardinal process; a, adductor; r, cardinal muscles; 6, oral processes?; s, hollows occupied by the spiralarms; v, vascular impressions; /, hinge-area. Propucta, Sowerby. Type, P. gigantea, Sby, = Anomia producta, Martin. Ex. P. horrida, Pl. XV. fig. 27. P. proboscidea, Pl. XV. fig. 28. Shell free, auriculate, beak large and rounded; spines scattered; hinge ~ area in each valve linear, indistinct; no hinge-teeth ; cardinal process lobed, striated; vascular impressions simple, curved; ventral valve deep, with two rounded or sub-spiral cavities in front. These shells may have been attached M 2 234 MANUAL. OF THE MOLLUSCA. by a pedicle when young, the impressions of the pedicle-muscle blending with those of the hinge-muscles (c) in the ventral valve. A few species appear to have been permanently tixed. P. strzatais irregular in its growth, elongated and tapering towards the beak, and occurs in numbers packed closely to- gether. P. proboscidea seems to have lived habitually in cavities, or -half- buried in mud, as suggested by M. D’Orbigny; its ventral valve is prolonged several inches beyond the other, and has its edges rolled together and united, forming a large permanently open tube for the brachial currents, The large spines are most usually situated on the ears of the ventral valve, and may have served to moor the shell; being tubular they were permanently suscep- tible of growth and repair. Although edentulous, the dorsal valve must have turned on its long hinge-line with as much precision as in those genera which are regularly articulated by teeth. Fossil, 60 sp. Devonian — Permian. N. and S. America, Europe, Spitzbergen, Thibet, Australia. Fig. 154. Exterior. Interior. Sub-genus, Aulosteges, Helmersen, A. Wangenheimii, Vern. fig. 154. Permian, Russia. Shed/ like Producta; ventral valve with alarge flat trian- gular hinge-area (2), with a narrow convex pseudo-deltidium (¢@) in the centre: beak a little distorted, as if attached when young; dorsal valve slightly convex near the umbo ; interior as in Producta (longt-spina.) STROPHALOSIA, King. Ex. S. Morrisii, King. fig. 155, Syn. Orthothrix, Geinitz. Shell attached by the umbo of the ventral valve; sub-quadrate; covered with long slen- der spines; valves articulated, dorsal mode- 4 rately concave, ventral convex, each with a ih small area; fissure covered; vascular impres- t sions conjoined, reniform. Fossil, 8 sp. Devonian — Trias. Europe; Himalaya (Gerard), Fig. 155. S. Morrisiz. BRACHIOPODA. f 935 CHonetes, Fischer. Ex. C. striatella, Pl. XV. fig. 29. Etym. Chone, a cup. Shell transversely oblong, with a wide and straight hinge-line; area double; valves radiately striated, articulated; hinge-margin of ventral valve ‘with a series of tubular spines; fissure covered; interior punctate-striate ; vascular impressions (v) very small. (Davidson). Fossil, 24 sp. Silurian — Carboniferous. Europe, N. America, Falk- ‘land Ids. Fig. 156. Dorsal valve. Ventral valve.* FAMILY VI. Crantapz. Shell orbicular, calcarious, hinge-less; attached by the umbo, or whole breadth of the ventral valve, rarely free; dorsal valve limpet-like ; interior of each valve with a broad granulated border; disk with four large muscular impressions, and digitated vascular impressions ; structure punctate. Animal with free spiral arms, directed towards the concavity of the dorsal valve, and supported by a nose-like prominence in the middle of the lower valve; mantle extending to the edges of the valves, and closely adhering, its margins plain. (Fig. 159.) Fig. 157. Ventral valve. Fig. 158. Dorsal valve. Crania anomala, Muller. 2 Zetland. a, anterior adductors; a’, posterior adductors; c, protractor sliding muscles; c’, cardi- nal muscle, 7, 0, retractor sliding muscles. * Interiors of two sp. of Chonetes from Nehou and the Eifel, after Davidson; a, adductor: c, cardinals. . 236 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Crania, Retzius. Etym. Kranea, capitate. Type, Anomia craniolaris, L. x, C. Ignabergensis, Pl. XV. fig. 30. C. anomala, figs. 157—159. Syn. Criopus, Poli. Orbicula (anomala) Cuvier, = O. Norvegica, Lam. Shelli smooth or radiately striated; umbo of dorsal valve sub-central: of ventral valve sub-central, marginal, or prominent and cap-like, with an ob- scure triangular area traversed by a central line. The large muscular impressions of the attached valve are sometimes convex, in other species deeply excavated; those of the upper valve are usually convex, but in C. Parisiensis the anterior (central) pair are deve- loped as prominent diverging apophyses. In C. ¢ripartita, Mister, the nasal process divides the fixed valve into three cells.* C. Ignabergensis is equivalve, and either quite free or very slightly attached. (. anomada is gregarious on rocks and stones in deep water, both in the North Sea and Mediterranean (40—90 fathoms, diving ; 150 fms. dead ; Forbes): the animal is orange-coloured, and its labial arms are thick, fringed with cirri, and disposed in a few horizontal gyrations (fig. 159.) Distr. 5 sp. Spitzbergen, Brit. Medit. India, New S. Wales. — 150 fms. Fossil, 28 sp. L. Silurian —. Europe. C. antiquissima, Kichw. (Pseudo-crania M‘Coy) is free, and has the inter- nal border of the valves smooth; the branchial impressions blend in front. Spondylobolus craniolaris, M‘Coy, is a small and obscure fossil, from the L. Silurian shale of Builth. The upper valve appears to have been like Crania, the lower to have had a small grooved beak, with blunt, tooth-like processes at the hinge-line. 2 Ue Ti GTI | Fig. 159. Crania.t+ Fig. 160. Discina.t * M. Quenstedt has placed the Oolitic Cranias in Siphonaria! + Dorsal valve with the animal, seen by removing the mantle. {t The animal as seen on the removal of part of the lower mantle-lobe, the ex- tremities of the labial arms are displaced forwards, in order to show their spiral terminations: p, is the expanded surface of the pedicle; the mouth is concealed by the overhanging cirri. The mantle-fringe is not represented. BRACHIOPODA. 25 1 | FAMILY VII. Discrnip£. Shell attached by a pedicle, passing through a foramen in the ventral valve; valves not articulated; minutely punctate. Animal with a highly vascular mantle, fringed with long horny setze : oral arms curved backwards, returning upon themselves, and ending in small spires directed downwards, towards the ventral valve. \ \ \ " HH} Myf, A eg M/ . WX pee Y My \\\\\\\\) \ \ \ \ \) AN Ss RAN Fig. 161. Dorsal. Fig. 162. Ventral lobe. Discina lamellosa, Brod. 2, uv, umbo; f, foramen; d, disk; a, anterior adductors; a’, posterior adductors ; c,c’, protractor sliding muscles; r, retractor muscles. The mantle-fringe is not represented in fig. 162. Discina, Lamarck. Syn. Orbicula, Sby (not Cuvier*). Orbiculoidea (elliptica) D’Orb. Type, D. lamellosa, Pl. XV. fig. 31. (= D. ostreoides, Lam.) Shell orbicular, horny ; upper valve limpet-like, smooth or concentrically lamellose, apex behind the centre; lower valve flat or conical, with a sunk and perforated disk on the posterior side; interior polished; lower valve with a central prominence in front of the foramen. . Animal transparent ; mantle lobes distinct all round ; labial folds united, not extensile; alimentary canal simple, bent upon itself ventrally, and termi- nating between the mantle-lobes on the right side. There are four distinct adductor muscles, as in Crania ; and the same number of sliding muscles, viz. two pairs for the protraction and two for the retraction of the dorsal valve, but some of these are probably inserted in the pedicle. The oral cirri are extremely tender and flexible, contrasting with the stiff and brittle sete of the mantle, which are themselves more like the bristles of certain anne- * The Orbicula of Cuvier was the Patella anomala, Miill (= Crania) as pointed out by Dr. Fleming, in the “ History of British Animals,” 1828. 238 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. lides (e. g. the sea-mouse, Aphrodite). The relation of the animal to the perforate and imperforate valves is shown to be the same as in Terebratula, by the labial fringe; but the only process which can possibly have afforded support to the oral arms, is developed from the centre of the ventral valve, as in Crania. Baron Ryckholt has represented a Devonian fossil from Bel- gium, with a fringed border; but if this shell is the Crania obsoleta of Goldfuss, the fringe must belong to the shell, and not to the mantle. Distr. 7 sp. W. Africa, Malacca, Peru, Panama. Fossii, 29 sp. Silurian —. Europe, U. States, Falkland Ids. The (27) Paleozoic and secondary species constitute the genus Orbeculoidea, D’Orb. (Schizotreta, Kutorga.) In some species the valves are equally convex, and the foramen occupies the end of a narrow groove. Swh-genus, Trematis, Sharpe. (= Orbicella, D’Orb.) TZ. terminalis, Emmons. Valves convex, superficially punctate; dorsal valve with a thick- ened hinge-margin (and three diverging plates, indicated on easts; Sharpe.) Fossil, }4 sp. L. and U. Silurian. N. America, Europe. Fig. 163. Fig. 164, Exterior. Fig. 163, a, Interior. SIPHONOTRETA, Verneuil. Etym, Siphon a tube, tretos perforated. Types, 8. unguiculata, Kichw. fig. 163, 168, a. S. verrucosa, fig. 164. Shell oval, bi-convex, slightly beaked, conspicuously punctate, or spiny ; beak perforated by a tubular foramen; hinge-margins thickened; ventral valve with four close adductor sears surrounding the foramen. The spines are tubular, and open into the interior of the shell by prominent orifices. (Carpenter.) S. anglica, Morris, has moniliform spines: Fossil, 6 sp. L.and U. Silurian. Brit. Bohemia, Russia. 2 Acrotreta (sub-conica) Kutorga, L. Silurian, Russia. Shaped like Cyrtia, with an apical foramen; no hinge. FAMILY VIII. Linevunrp2. Sheil oblong or orbicular, sub-equivalve, attached by a pedicle passing out between the valves; texture horny, minutely tubular, BRACHIOPODA. 239 Animal with a highly vascular mantle, fringed with horny sete ; oral arms thick, fleshy, spiral, the spires directed inwards, towards each other ; valves opened and closed by sliding muscles. y ‘. » SS S ER § AGRARIAN SNS SCLIN yee Zi) CU lO ry a MUNIN M RSE SSSAG ASN : tees LS a WS ir < GSS - : \\ LY “4 }} } paue My y) een S=UEF, - ares TAA RN eV Ne LTH ; oat { +) ! teas A NN D Yon remanyspatec 4. ae ey XY f + tat iaraee * PA CER Ry Y ES SA nt? fassteny See RADU are ESTO a ei ORES MIRC ony oi iB TYREE TOY K Fig. 123, Part of the rim of Radiolites Mortoni, Mantell, * These have been compared to the vascular impressions of Crania. (figs. 157, 8) and constitute the only argument for supposing the Rudistes to have been palliobranchiate ; but they occur on the rim of the shell, and not on the disk, as in Crania.+ The chief peculiarity of the Hippuritide is the dissimi- larity in the structure of the valves, but even this is deprived of much signi- ficance by its inconstancy.t The free valve of Hippurites is perforated by radiating canals which open round its inner margin, and communicate with * Traced from the original specimen in the Museum of the School of Mines. 4, is the inner edge: a, the outer edge; v,v, the dichotomous impressions; the hori- zontal lamine are seen on the shaded side. Lower Chalk; Sussex. + M. D’Orbigny considers they were produced by peculiar appendages to the mantle-margin, which, in Hippurites, were prolonged into the canals of the upper valve. { The lower valves of some Spondyli are squamous or spiny, the upper plain; those of many oysters Pectens and some Tellens are diversely sculptured; but in no instance is the internal structure of the two valves different? The inconstancy of the shell-structure in the Rudista has a parallel in Rhynchonella and Terebratula (p. 213), and in the condition of the hepatic organ in Tritonia and Dendronotus. O 2 282 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. the upper surface by numerous pores, as if to supply the interior with filtered water; possibly, they were closed by the epidermis.* In the closely allied genus Radiolites there is no trace of such canals, nor ia Caprotina. Those which exist in the upper valve of Caprina, and in both valves of Caprinella, have no communication with the outer surface of the shell ; they appear to be only of the same character with the tubular ribs of Cardium costatum (P\. XIX. fig. 1), and it is highly improbable that they were permanently occupied by processes from the margin of the mantle. The teeth of the left, or upper valve, are so prominent and straight, that its movement must have been nearly verticai, for which purpose the internal ligament appears to have been exactly suited by its position and magnitude ; but it is probable that, like other bi-valves, they opened to a very small extent. Fig. 194. Interior of lower valve, }. Fig. 195. Upper valve (restored). Hippurites radiosus, Desm. Lower Chalk, St. Mamest, Dordogne.t a, a, adductor impressions and processes; ¢, c, cartilage pits; ¢,?, teeth and dental sockets; wz, umbonal cavity; p, orifices of canals ; 2, ligamental inflection ; m, mus- cular; 7, siphonal inflection. Hrrrvurites, Lamarck. Name, adopted from old writers, “ fossil Hippuris” or Horse-tail. Types, H. bi-oculatus, Lam. and ZH. cornu-vaccinum, fig. 198. Shell very inequivalye, inversely conical, or elongated and cylindrical ; fixed valve striated or smooth, with three parallel furrows (/, m, 2,) on the cardinal side, indicating duplicatures of the outer shell layer: internal margin slightly plaited; pallial line continuous; umbonal cavity moderately deep, ligamental inflection (7) with a small cartilage-pit on each side (¢, ¢); dental sockets sub-central, divided by an obsolete tooth; anterior muscular impression (a) elongated, double; posterior (@’) small, very deep, bounded by the second duplicature (m); third duplicature (x) projecting into the um- * The valves of Crania are perforated by branching tubuti, but in that case they pass vertically through every part of the shell, and allits layers (p. 214.) + From the original in the Brit. M. The inner layer of shell in this species has — an irregularly cellular structure, to which its preservation is due. CONCHIFERA. 283 bonal cavity: free valve depressed, with a central umbo, and two grooves or pits corresponding to the posterior ridges‘in the lower valve; surface porous, the pores leading to canals in the outer shell-layer, which open round the pallial line upon the inner margin; anterior cartilage-pit deep and conical, Fig. 196. H. Toucasianus, upper valve, 3.* Fig. 197. Lower valve, with mould, Z. 3, ligamental; m, muscular; 2, siphonal inflections; z, fracture, showing canals; e, cartilage: uw, left umbo; the arrows indicate the probable direction of thebranchial currents. posterior shallow; umbonal cavity turned to the front (~); teeth 2, straight, sub-central, the auterior largest, each supporting a crooked muscular apo- physis, the first broad, the hinder prominent, tooth-like; inflections (m, x) surrounded by deep channels. HT. cornu-vaccinum attains a length of more than a foot, and is curved -like a cow’s-horn; the outer layer separates readily from the core, which is furrowed longitudinally, The ligamental inflection (7) is very deep and narrow, and the anterior tooth further removed from the side than in H. 1-oculatus and radiosus (figs. 194, 5); the posterior apophysis (a) does not nearly fill the corresponding cavity in the lower valve. In HA. bi-oculatus and some other species there is no ligamental ridge inside; these, when they have lost their inner layer, present a cylindrical cavity with two parallel ridges, extending down one side. ‘The third inflection (z) is possibly a siphonal fold, such as exists in the tube of Zzvredo, and sometimes in the valves of Pholas, Clavagella, and the caudate species of Trigonia. The development of processes from the upper valve, for the attachment of the adductor muscles harmonizes with the other peculiarities of the Hip- purite. The equal growth of the margins of the valves produces central umbones, and necessitates an internal cartilage; this again causes the removal * This internal mould, representing the form of the animal, was obtained by re- moving the upper valve s:piecemeal with the chisel; a plaster-cast taken from it represents the interior of the upper valve, with the bases of the teeth and apophyses. See originals in Brit. Mus. 284 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA,. i Lig Vs v EY LA 5 ZA i \\ We tes Fig. 198. Longitudinal section; upper half,3. Fig. 199. Transverse section, = Hippurites cornu-vaccinum, Bronn. Salzburg, Z,m, n, duplicatures; uw, umbonal cavity of left valve; 7, of right valve; e, c’, car- tilage-pits; ¢#, 7, teeth; a, a’, muscular apophyses; d, outer shell-layer, Fig. 198 is taken in the line d, 6, of fig. 199, cutting only the base of the posterior tooth (?)- Fig. 199, is from a larger specimen, at about the level d, 6 of fig. 198, cutting the point of the posterior apophysis (a’), and shewing the peculiar shell-texture deposited by the anterior adductor (@). of the teeth and adductors further from the hinge-margin, to a position in which the muscles must have been unusually long, unless supported in the manner described. Supposing the animal to have had a small foot,* like eZ Fig. 200. Hippurites cornu-vaccinum. Fig. 201. Radiolites cylindraceus, 3. Longitudinal sections taken through the teeth (¢, ¢’) and apophyses (a, a’). d, outer, r, inner shell-layer; 7, dental plate of lower valve; w, umbonal cavity of upper valves; iz, intestinal channel. Originals in Brit. M. * This is extremely doubtful; since p. 253 was printed, we have examined an ; authentic specimen of Aetheria, and find that Rang and Cailliaud’s account is incor- rect: it has no foot. CONCHIFERA. 985 Chama, the mantle-opening for that organ would have been completely ob- structed by the adductor, but that the muscular support was hook-shaped (fig. 200, a). The posterior adductor-process is similarly under-cut for the passage of the rectum, which in all bivalves emerges between the hinge and posterior adductor, winds round outside that muscle and terminates in the line of the exhalent current. There is a groove (sometimes an inch deep) round the second and third duplicatures in the upper valve, which seems in- tended to facilitate the passage of the alimentary canal, and the flow of water from the gills into the exhalent channel. The smaliness of the space for the branchiee may have been compensated by deep plication of those organs, as in Chama and \Tridacna. Fossil, 16 sp. Chalk. Bohemia, Tyrol, France, Spain, Turkey, Syria Algeria, Egypt. Fig. 202. Interior of lower valve. Fig. 203. Interior of upper valve. Radiolitesmammillaris, Math.4 L. Chalk. S. Mamest, Dordogne. 2, ligamental inflection ; m, pallial line; c,c, cartilage pits; a, a, adductor impressions and processes; #¢, teeth and dental sockets. RapiouireEs, Lamarck, 1801. Hiym. Radius, a ray. Syn. Spherulites, De la Metherie, 1805. Wh iii il P) \ \ ne \ \\ Fig. 204. Side views of the upper valve of 2. mammililaris;' 1, ligamental inflection zt, teeth ; a, a’, muscular processes. Shell inversely conical, bi-conic, or cylindrical; valves dissimilar in 286 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. structure ; internal margins smooth or finely striated, simple, continuous; » ligamental inflection very narrow, dividing the deep and rugose cartilage pits: ower valve with a thick outer layer, often foliaceous ; its cavity deep and straight, with two dental sockets and lateral muscular impressions; wpper valve flat or conical, with a central umbo; outer layer thin, radiated; um- bonal cavity inclined towards the ligament; teeth angular, striated, supporting eurved and sub-equal muscular processes. The upper valve of R. fleuriausus has an oblique umbo, with a distinct ligamental groove. The foliations of the lower valve are frequently undu- lated ; they are sometimes as thin as paper and several inches wide. The umbonal cavity of the lower valve is partitioned off by very delicate funnel-shaped laminze. Specimens frequently occur in which the outer shell layer is preserved, whilst the inner is wanting, and the mould (“birostrites”) remains loose in the centre. The interior of the outer shell layer is deeply grooved with lines of growth, and exhibits a distinct ligamental ridge in each valve. Fig. 205. Upper view. Fig. 206. Side view. Internal mould of R. Heninghausii, Desm.3. Chalk. u, umbo of left valve; 7, right umbo; J, ligamental groove; c,c, cartilage; a, anterior adductor muscle; a’, posterior. In aged examples of R. calceoloides the ligamental inflection is concealed, the cartilage pits partially filled up and smoothed, and the teeth and apophyses so firmly wedged into their respective cavities, as to suggest the notion that the valves had become fixed about 4 inch apart, and ceased to open and close at the will of the animal. Fossil, 42 sp. Neocomian — Chalk. Texas; Brit. France, Bohemia, Saxony, Portugal, Algeria, Egypt. Sub-genus ? Bi-radiolites, D’Orb. R. canaliculatus, (Fig. 186, upper valve). Ligamental groove visible in one or both valves, sometimes occupy- ing the crest of a ridge, and bordered by two similar areas, (a, a.) Fossil, 5 sp. Chalk, France. CONCHIFERA. 287 Fig, 207. Caprinelia triangularis, Desm. U. Green-sand, Rochelle. 2 A, portion of the left valve, after D’Orbigny,* the shell-wall is removed byweather- ing, exposing the camerated interior. B, mould of five of the water-chambers. C, mould of the body-chamber; uw, umbo of right valve; s, of left valve; ¢, dental grovve: a, surface from which the posterior lobe has been detached. From the originals in the Brit. M. presented by S. P. Pratt, Esq. CaPRINELLA, D’Orbigny. Type, C. triangularis, Desm. (Fig 207). Syn. Caprinula (Boissii) D’Orb. Shell fixed by the apex of the right valve, or free; composed of a thick layer of open tubes, with a thin compact superficial lamina ; cartilage inter- nal, contained in several deep pits; umbones more or less camerated; right Fig. 208. Straight valve. Fig. 209. Spiral valve. Transverse sections of C. Boissii, L. Chalk, Lisbon (Mr. Sharpe). 1, position of ligamental inflection; ¢, teeth; c, cartilage pits; «w, umbonal cavity. Fig. 209 is from a weathered specimen, which has lost the outer layer. The tubes of the shell-wall are filled with limestone containing small shells. * In M. D’Orbigny’s figure the smaller valve has been added from another speci- men, and is turned towards the spire of the large valve, (Pal. Franc. pl. 542, fig. 1.) In Mr, Pratt’s specimens, and those collected by M. Sharpe in Portugal, the umbo of the smaller valve is turned away with a sigmoid flexure. (Geol. Journ. VI. pl. 18.) 03 288 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSGA. valve conical or elongated, with a ligamental furrow on its convex side, and furnished with one strong hinge-tooth supported by an oblique plate: left valve oblique or spiral, with 2 hinge-teeth, the anterior supported by a plate which divides the umbonal cavity lengthwise. In C. triangularis the umbonal cavity of the spiral valve is partitioned off at regular intervals (Fig. 207, A); the length of the water chambers is sometimes 33 inches, and of the body-chamber from 2 to 7 diameters; speci- mens measuring a yard across may be seen on the cavernous shores of the islets near Rochelle.* (Pratt.) fossil, 6 sp. Neocomian —L. Chalk. France, Portugal, Texas. Fig. 210. C. Aguilloni, left valve. Fig 211. C. adversa (after D’Orb.) a. a, position of adductors; 2, ligament; w, umbonal cavity; ¢, tooth of fixed valve, broken off and remaining in its socket; c, original point of attachment. Caprina, ©. D’Orb. Etym. Caprina, pertaining to a goat. Syz. Plagioptychus, Matheron. Type, C. Aguilloni, C. D’Orb. LL. Chalk, Tyrol, (= C. Partschii, Hauer.) Sell with dissimilar valves, cartilage internal; fixed valve conical, marked only by lines of growth anda ligamental groove; hinge-margin with several deep cartilage-pits; and one large and prominent tooth on the posterior side; free valve oblique or spiral, thick, perforated by one or more rows of flattened canals, radiating from the umbo and opening around the inner margin; anterior tooth supported by a plate which divides the umbonal cavity lengthwise, posterior tooth obscure; hinge-margin much thickened, grooved for the cartilage. In C. adversa (fig. 211) the free valve is (4) sinistrally spiral; its cavity is partitioned off by numerous septa, and divided longitudinally by the dental plate. When young it is attached by the apex of the straight valve (c), but afterwards becomes detached, as the large specimens are found imbedded with * These singular fossils were called ichthyosarcolites by Desmarest, from their resemblance te the flaky muscles cf fishes. CONCHIFERA. 289 the spire downwards. (Saemann). The lower valve of C. Coguandiana is sub-spiral. Fossil, 5 sp. U. Green-sand and L. Chalk. Bohemia, France, Texas. MH, Ny Fig. 212. Internal mould of Caprotina quadripartita, D’Orb. 3. u, left umbo; 7, right umbo; J, ligamental inflection; c, cartilage; ¢, t’, dental sockets; a, a’, position of adductors; at e, a portion of the third lobe is broken away.* From aspecimen collected by Mr. Pratt. Caprotina, D’Orbigny. Type, C. semistriata, Pl. XIX. fig. 13,14. Le Mans, Sarthe. Shell composed of two distinct layers; valves alike in structure, dis- similar in sculpturing; ligamental groove slight; cartilage internal ; 7igh¢ valve fixed, striated, or ribbed, with one narrow tooth between two deep pits, cartilage pits several on each side of the ligamental inflection, posterior adductor supported by a plate: free valve flat or convex, with a marginal umbo ; teeth 2, very prominent, supported by ridges (apophyses) of the adductor muscles (a, a’), the anterior tooth connected with a third plate (x), which divides the umbonal cavity. The smaller Caprotine occur in groups, attached to oyster-shells ; their muscular ridges are much less developed than in the large species (fig. 212). C. costata is like a litile Radiolite. Fossil, 4 sp. U. Green-sand, France. (The rest are Chamas, &c.) FAMILY IX. Tripacnip2. Shell regular, equivalve, truncated in front; ligament external; valves strongly ribbed, margins toothed; muscular impressions blended, sub-central, obscure. Animal attached by a byssus, or free; mantle-lobe extensively united ; * The first and fourth lobes, those on each side of the ligamental inflection, appear to be the two divisions of a great internal cartilage, like that of the Radiolite, (Fig. 205, 206, c, c.) 390 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. pedal opening, large, anterior; siphonal orifices surrounded by a thickened pallial border; branchial plain; anal remote, with a tubular valve: shell- muscle single, large and round, with a smaller pedal muscle close to it behind ; foot finger-like, with a byssal groove; gills 2 on each side, narrow, strongly plaited, the outer pair composed of a single lamina, the inner thick, with margins conspicuously grooved ; palpi very slender, pointed. The shell of Trcdacna is extremely hard, being calcified until almost every trace of organic structure is obliterated. (Carpenter.) Tripacna, Bruguiére. Clam-shell. Etym. Tri- three, dakno, to bite; a kind of oyster. (Pliny.) Lx. T. squamosa, Pl. XVIII. fig. 15. Shell massive, trigonal, ornamented with radiating ribs and imbricating foliations ; margins deeply indented; byssal sinus in each valve large, close to the umbo in front; hinge teeth 1.1, posterior laterals 2.1. A pair of valves of 7. gigas, weighing upwards of 500 bs. and measuring above 2 feet across, are used as Jenitiers in the Church of St. Sulpice, Paris. (Dillwyn.) Capt. Cook states that the animal of this species sometimes weighs 20 lbs. and is good eating.* Distr. 6 sp. Indian Ocean, China Seas, Pacific. Fossil, T. media. Miocene, Poland (Pusch). Tiridacna and Hippopus are found in the raised coral-reefs of Torres Straits. (Macgillivray.) Sub-genus. Hippopus, Lamarck. H. maculatus, Pl. XVIII. fig. 16. The “‘bear’s-paw clam” has close valves with 2 hinge-teeth in each. It is found on the reefs in the Coral Sea. The animal spins a small dyssus. FAMILY X. Carpiap2. Shell regular, equivalve, free, cordate, ornamented with radiating ribs; posterior slope sculptured differently from the front and sides; cardinal teeth 2, laterals 1.1 in each valve ; ligament external, short and prominent; pallial line simple or slightly sinuated behind; muscular impressions sub-quadrate. Animal with mantle open in front ; siphons usually very short, cirrated externally ; gills 2 on each side, thick, united posteriorly ; palpi narrow and pointed; foot large, sickle-shaped. Carvium, L. Cockle. Etym. Kardia, the heart. Syn. Papyridea, Sw. Types, C. costatum; Pl. XIX. fig. 1. C.lyratum, fig. 2. Shell ventricose, close or gaping posteriorly ; umbones prominent, sub- central; margins crenulated ; pallial line more or less sinuated. * “We staid a long time in the lagoon (of Keeling Id.), examining the fields of coral and the gigantic clam-shells, into which if aman were to put his hand, he would not, as long as the animal lived, be able to withdraw it.”—Darwin’s Journal, p. 460. CONCHIFERA. © 291 Animal with the mantle-margins plaited ; siphons clothed with tentacular filaments, anal orifice with a tubular valve: branchial fringed; foot long, cylin rical, sickle-shaped, heeled. The cockle (C. edule) frequents sandy bays, near low-water; a small variety lives in the brackish waters of the R. Thames, as high as Graves- end; it ranges to the Baltic, and is found in the Black Sea and Caspian. C. rusticum extends from the Icy Sea to the Medit. Black Sea, Caspian, and Aral. On the coast of Devon the large prickly cockle (C. aculeatum) is eaten. Sub-genera. Hemicardium (Cardissa) Cuvier. C. hemicardium, Pl. XIX. fig. 3. Shell depressed, posterior slope flat, valves prominently keeled. Inthocurdium aviculare, P). XVIII. fig. 17. Shell triangular, keeled ; ante- rior side very short ; hinge-teeth 1.2, directed backwards; posterior laterals 2.1; anterior muscular pit minute, posterior impression large, remote from the hinge. L. cymbulare, Lam. exhibits slight indications of a byssal sinus in the front margins of the valves. Fossil, Eocene, France. These shells preseut considerable resemblance to Tridacna. Serripes (greenlandicus) Beck. Hinge edentulous. Arctic Seas, from C. Parry to Sea of Kara; fossil in the Norwich Crag. Fig. 213. C. leviusculum, Eichw. (after Middendorff.) Adacna, Eichwald. C. edentulum, Pl. XIX. fig. 4. (Acardo, Sw. not Brug. Pholadomya, Ag. and Mid. not Sby.) Shed7 compressed, gaping behind, thin, nearly edentulous; pallial line sinuated. dximal with the foot ( J) com- pressed ; siphons (s) elongated, united nearly to the end, plain. Distr, 8 sp. Aral, Caspian, Azof, Black Sea, and the embouchures of the Wolga, Dnjestr, Dnjepr, and Don; burrowing in mud. C. Caspicum (Monodacna, Hichw.) has a single hinge-tooth, and C. trigonoides (Didacna, BE.) rudiments of two teeth. The siphonal inflection varies in amount. Distr. 200 sp: World-wide; from the sea-shore to 140 fathoms. Gre- garious on sands and sandy mud. Fig. 214. Conocardium aliforme, Sby. Carb: Ireland. (Mus. Tennant.) 292 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Fossil, 270 sp. U. Silurian —. Patagonia — S. India. C. Hillanum, Sby. (Protocardium, Beyr.) is the type of a small group in which the sides are concentrically furrowed, the posterior slope radiately striated ; the pallial line is slightly sinuated. Jura— Chalk; Europe; India. ConocarDium, Bronn. Syn. Lychas, Stem. Pleurorhynchus, Ph. Lunulo-cardium, Minster. Type, C. Hibernicum, Pl. XIX. fig. 5. C. aliforme, fig. 214. Shell, equivalve trigonal, conical and gaping in front, truncated behind, with a long siphonal tube near the umbones; anterior slope radiately, pos- terior obliquely striated; margins strongly crenulated within; hinge with anterior and posterior laminar teeth: ligament external. The truncated end has usually been considered anterior, a conclusion which seems incompatible with the vertical position and burrowing habits of most free and equivalve shells: if compared with Adaena (fig. 218) the large gape (a) will be for the foot, and the long tube (s) .siphonal. C. Hiber- nicum has an expanded keel, like Hemicardium inversum. The shell-struc- ture is prismatic-cellular, as first pointed out by Sowerby; but the cells are cubical, and much larger than in any of the Aviculade. In Cardium the outer layer is only corrugated or obscurely prismatic-cellular. Fossil, 30 sp. U. Silurian — Carb. N. America, Europe. FAMILY X. Lucinipa. Shell orbicular, free, closed; hinge-teeth 1 or 2, laterals 1—1 or obso- lete; interior dull, obliquely furrowed; pallial line simple; muscular im- pressions 2, elongated, rugose; ligament inconspicuous or sub-internal.| Animal with mantle-lobes open below, and having one or two siphonal orifices behind; foot elongated, cylindrical, or strap-shaped (zgulate), pro- truded at the base of the shell; gills one (or two) on each side, large and thick, oval ; mouth and palpi usually minute. The Lucinide are distributed chiefly in the tropical and temperate seas, upon sandy and muddy bottoms, from the sea-shore to the greatest habitable depths. The shell consists of two distinct layers. Lucina, Bruguieére. Etym,. Lucina, a name of Juno. Type, L. Pennsylvanica, Pl. XIX. fig. 6. Shell orbicular, white; umbones depressed; lunule distinct; margins smooth or minutely crenulated; ligament oblique, semi-internal; hinge-teeth 2.2, laterals 1—1 and 2—2, or obsolete; muscular impressions rugose, anterior elongated within the pallial line, posterior oblong; umbonal area with an oblique furrow. Animal with the mantle freely open below; siphonal orifices simple ; CONCHIFERA. 293 mouth minute, lips thin; gills single on each side, very large and thick; foot cylindrical, pointed, slightly heeled at the base. The foot of Lwcina is often twice as long as the animal, but is usually folded back on itself and concealed between the gills; it is hollow throughout. ZL. lactea (Loripes, Poli.) has a long, contractile anal tube. L. tegrina (Codakia, Scop.) has the ligament concealed between the valves, its lateral teeth are obsolete. Distr. 70 sp. W. Indies, Norway, Black Sea, N. Zealand ;—120 fms. Fossil, 200 sp. U. Silurian —. U. States — T. del. Fuego; Europe — S. India. Sub-genus, Cryptodon, Turton. IL. flexuosa, Pl. XIX. fig. 7. Syz. Ptychina, Phil, Thyatira, Leach. Clausina (ferruginosa) Jeffr. Shell thin, edentulous; ligament quite internal, oblique, -dzimal with a long anal tube. Distr. Norway — N. Zealand. Fossi/, Hocene —. U.S. Europe. Corsis, Cuvier. Etym. Corbis, a basket. Type, C. elegans. Pl. XIX. fig. 8. Syn. Fimbria, Muhl. not Bohadsch. “ Idotea,” Schum. Shell oval, ventricose, sub-equilateral, concentrically sculptured; margins denticulated within; hinge-teeth 2, laterals 2, im each valve; pallial line simple; umbonal area with an oblique furrow, muscular impressions round and polished; pedal scars close to adductors. Animal with the mantle open below, doubly fringed; foot long pointed ; siphonal opening single, with a long retractile tubular valve; lips narrow ; palpi rudimentary; gills single on each side, thick, quadrangular, plaited, united behind. Distr. 2 sp. India, China, N. Australia, Pacific. fossil, 80 sp. (including sub-genera). Lias—. U. States, Europe. In C. dubia (Semi-corbis) Desh. ocene, Paris, the lateral teeth are obsolete. Sub-genera. Sphera (corrugata) Sby. Shell globular, concentrically furrowed and obscurely radiated ; ligament prominent; margins crenulated ; hinge-teeth 2.2, obscure; laterals obsolete. Fosse/, Trias — Chalk. Europe. ? Unicardium, D’Orb. (Mactromya, Ag. part) = Corbula cardi- cides, Sby. Shed/ thin, oval, ventricose, concentrically striated; ligamental plates elongated; pallial line simple ; hinge with an obscure tooth, or eden- tulous Fossil, 40 sp.? Lias — Portlandian. Europe. P TancrEDIA, Lycett, 1850. ‘ Dedicated to Sir Thos. Tancred, Bt. founder of the Cotteswolde Natu- ralists Club. Ex. T. extensa, L. Pl. XXI. fig. 22. Syn. Hettangia, Turquem. Sheil trigonal, smooth; anterior side usually longest; cardinal teeth 294 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. 2.2, one of them small; a posterior lateral tooth in each valve; ligament external; muscular impressions oval; pallial line simple. Fossil, 11 sp. Lias — Bath Oolite. Brit. France. Diptoponta. Bronn. Etym. Diplos, twin, odonta, teeth. Syn. Spheerella, Conrad. Type, D. lupinus ( Venus) Brocchi. PI. XIX. fig. 9. Shell sub-orbicular, smooth ; ligament double, rather long, sub-marginal ; hinge-teeth 2.2, of which the anterior in the left valve, and posterior in the right, are bifid; muscular impressions polished, anterior elongated. Animal with the mantle-margins nearly plain, united; pedal opening large, ventral; foot pointed, hollow; palpi large, free; gills 2 on each side, distinct, the outer oval, inner broadest in front, united behind; branchial orifice small, simple; anal larger, with a plain valve. Distr. 12 sp. W. Indies, Rio, Brit. Medit. Red Sea, W. Africa, India, Corea, Australia, California. D. diaphana (Felania Recluz) burrows in sand. Fossil, Eocene —. U. States, Europe. ? Scacchia, Philippi, 1844; Tellina elliptica, Sc. ShelZ minute, ovate, posterior side shortest; hinge-teeth 1 or 2, laterals obsolete; ligament mi- nute; cartilage internal, in an oblong pit. Aximal with mantle widely open; siphonal orifice single; foot compressed, linguiform; palpi moderate, oblong. Distr.2 sp. Medit. Fossil, 1 sp. Pliocene, Sicily. ? Cyamium, Philippi, 1845, C. antarcticum, Pl. XIX. fig. 16. Shell oblong, hinge-teeth 2.2; ligament double; cartilage in a triangular groove behind the teeth in each valve. Distr. Patagonia. Uneutina, Daudin. Etym. Ungulina, like a hoof. Type, U. oblonga. Pl. XIX. fig. 10. Shell sub-orbicular ; ligament very short; epidermis thick, wrinkled, sometimes black; hinge-teeth 2.2 ; muscular impressions long, rugose. Animal with the mantle open below, fringed; siphonal orifice single; foot vermi-form, thickened at the end and perforated, projecting from the base of the shell or folded up between the gills ; palpi pointed; gills 2 on each side, unequal, the external narrower, with a free dorsal border, inner widest in front. Distr. 4 sp. Senegal, Philippines, excavating winding galleries in coral. Ket1ia, Turton, 1822. Etym. Named after Mr. O’Kelly of Dublin. Syn. Lasea (Leach) Br. 1827. Cycladina (Adansonii) Cantr. Bornia (sub-orbitularis) P/27. Poronia (rubra) Recluz (not Willd.) Erycina (cycla- diformis) Desh. (not Lam.) Types, K. sub-orbicularis. Mont. K. rubra. Pl. XIX. fig. 12. Shell small, thin, sub-orbicular, closed; beaks small; margins smooth ; ligament internal, interrupting the margin (in K. sudorbicularis), or on CONCHIFERA. 295 the thickened margins (in K. rwbra); cardinal teeth 1 or 2, laterals 1—1 in each valve. _ Animal with the mantle prolonged in front into a respiratory canal, either complete (in K. suborbicularis) or opening into the pedal slit (Gn K. rubra) ; foot strap-shaped, grooved ; gills large, two on each side, united posteriorly, the external pair narrower and prolonged dorsally; palpi triangular ; pos- terior siphonal orifice single, exhalent. The hinges of these little shells are subject to variations, which are not constantly associated with the modifications of the mantle-openings. They creep about freely, and fix themselves by a dyssus at pleasure. K. rubra is found in crevices of rocks at high-water mark, and often in situations only reached by the spray, except at spring-tides; other species range as deep as 200 fms. K. Laperousii (Chironia) Desh. Pl. XIX. fig. 11, was obtained, burrowing in sandstone, from deep-water, at Monterey, Cali- fornia. Distr. 20 sp. Norway — New Zealaud — California. Fossil, 20 sp. Eocene —. U. States, Europe. Sub-genera. Turtonia (minuta) Hanley. ShelZ oblong, inequilateral, anterior side very short ; ligament concealed between the valves; hinge-teeth 2.2. Animal with the mantle open in front; foot large, heeled; siphon single, slender, elongated, protruded from the long end of the shell. Distr. Greenland, Norway, Brit. In pools and crevices of rocks between tide-marks, and in the roots of sea-weeds and corallines. Mr. Thompson obtained them from the stemachs of mullets taken on the N.E. coast of Ireland. Pythine (Deshayesiana) Hinds. (Myllita, D’Orb. and Recl.) Shell tri- gonal, divaricately sculptured ; ;ligament internal; right valve with 2 lateral teeth, left with 1 cardinal and 2 laterals. Dzstr. 2 sp. New Ireland, Australia, Philippines. Fossil, Eocene —. France. Montacuta, Turton. Dedicated to Col. George Montagu, the most distinguished of the earlier English malacologists. , Type, M. substriata. Pl. XIX. fig. 13. Shell minute, thin, oblong, anterior side longest; hinge-line notched; ligament internal, between 2 laminar, diverging teeth (with a minute ossicle. Lovén). Animal with the mantle open in front; margins simple; siphonal orifice single ; foot large and broad, grooved. The Montacute moor themselves by a byssus, or walk freely; M. sud- striata has only been found attached to the spines of the purple heart-urchin (Spatangus purpureus) in 5—90 fms. WH. bidentata burrows in the valves of dead oyster-shells. Distr.3 sp. U. S. Norway, Brit. Hgean. Fossz/, 2 sp. Miocene —. Brit. 296 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Lepron, Turton. Ltym. Lepton, a minute piece of money (from Zeptos, thin). Syn. ? Solecardia (eburnea) Conrad, L. California. Lype, L. sqaamosum. Pl. XIX. fig. 14, Fig. 215. Shell sub-orbicular, compressed, smooth, or shagreened, a little opened at the ends and longest behind; hinge-teeth 0.1 or 1.1. in front of an angular cartilage notch; lateral teeth 2.2 and 1.1. Animal with the mantle () open in front, extending beyond the shell, and bearing a fringe of filaments, of which one in front (¢) is very large; siphon (s) single; gills 2 on each side, separate; foot (f) thick, tapering, heeled and grooved, forming a sole or creeping disk. Zz (Alder.) Fig. 215. Lepton. Distr. 3 sp. U. S. Brit. Spain. Laminarian and Coralline Zones. Fossil, Miocene —. U. S. Brit. ; GALEOMMA, Turton. Syn. Hiatella, Costa (not Daud.) ; Parthenopea, Scacchi (not Fabr.) Type, G. Turtoni, Pl. XIX. fig. 15. (Galee, weasel, omma, eye.) Shell thin, oval, equilateral, gaping widely below; invested with a thick, fibrous epidermis ; beaks minute; ligament internal; teeth 0.1. Animal with the mantle-lobes united behind and pierced with 1 siphonal orifice, margins double, the inner with a row of eye-like tubercles; gills large, sub-equal, united behind; lips large, palpi lanceolate, plaited ; foot long compressed, with a narrow flat sole. The Galeomma spins a byssus, but breaks from its mooring at will and creeps about like a snail, spreading out its valves nearly flat. (Clarke.) Distr. 3 sp. Brit. Medit. Mauritius, Pacific. Fossil, Pliocene —. Sicily. FAMILY XI. Cyctapipa. Shell sub-orbicular, closed; ligament external; epidermis thick, horny ; umbones of aged shells eroded; hinge with cardinal and lateral teeth; pallial line simple, or with a very small inflection. Animal with mantle open in front, margins plain; siphons (1 or 2) more or less united, orifices usually plain; gills 2 on each side, large unequal, united posteriorly ; palpi lanceolate: foot large, tongue-shaped. All the shells of this family were formerly included in the genus Cyc/as, a name now retained for the small species inhabiting the rivers of the north temperate zone; the Cyrene are found in warmer regions, on the shores of creeks and in brackish water, where they are gregarious, burying vertically in the mud, and often associated with members of marine genera. CONCHIFERA. 297 _ Cyrcras, Bruguiére. Etym. Kuklas, orbicular. Type, C. Cornea. PI. XIX. fig. 17. Syn. Spherium, Scop. Pisum, Muhlf. (not L.) Musculium, Link. Shell thin, ventricose, nearly equilateral; cardinal teeth 2.1, minute, laterals 1—1:2—2, elongated, compressed. Animal ovo-viviparous; siphons partly united, anal shortest, orifices plain; gills very large, the outer smallest, with a dorsal flap; palpi small and pointed. The fry of Cyclas are hatched in the internal branchie, they are few in number and very unequal in size; a full-grown C. cornea has about 6 in each gill; the largest being 3 to 4 the length of the parent. The young Cyclades and Pisidia aye very active, climbing about submerged plants and often suspending themselves by byssal threads; the striated gills and pulsat- ing heart are easily seen through the shell. Fig 216. Pisidium amnicum, ®. with its foot protruded. Sub-genus, Pisidium, Pfr. P. amnicum, Pl. XIX. fig. 18. Shell ine- quilateral, anterior side longest; teeth stronger than in Cyclas. Animal with a single, small, excurrent siphon; branchial and pedal orifices confluent, Distr. 30 sp. U. States, S. America, Greenland, Norway, Sicily, Algeria, Cape, India, Caspian. Fossil, 35 sp. Wealden —. Europe. CyrEena, Lamarck. Litym. Cyrene, anymph. Type, C. cyprinoides, Pl. XIX. fig. 20. Shell oval, strong, covered with thick, rough epidermis; ligament thick and prominent; hinge-teeth 3.3, laterals 1—1 in each valve; pallial line slightly sinuated. Animal (of type) with the mantle open in front and below, margins plain; siphons short, orifices fringed; gills unequal, square in front, plaited, inner lamina free at base; palpi lanceolate ; foot strong, tongue-shaped. Section, Corbicula, Muhlf. C. consobrina, Pl. XIX. fig. 21. Shell orbicular, concentrically furrowed, epidermis polished; lateral teeth elon- gated, striated across. Distr. 25 sp. Tropical America (eastern) ; Egypt, India, China, Australia, 298 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Pacific Ids. In the mud of rivers, and in mangrove swamps, usually near the coast. C. consobrina ranges from Egypt to Cashmere and China, and is found fossil in the Pliocene formations of England,* Belgium and Sicily. Fossil, 70 sp. Wealden —. Europe, U. States. ? CYRENOIDES, Joannis. Syn. Cyrenella, Desh. Zype, C. Dupontii, Pl. XIX. fig. 19. Shell orbicular, ventricose, thin, eroded at the beaks; epidermis dark olive; ligament external, prominent, elongated; cardinal teeth 3:2, the central tooth of the right valve bifid; muscular impressions long, narrow; pallial line simple. Animal with the mantle open in front and below, margin simple, siphons short, united; palpi moderate, narrow; gills very unequal, narrow, united behind ; foot cylindrical elongated. Distr. 1 sp. R. Senegal. The marine sp. are Diplodonte. FAMILY XII. Cyprinipz. Shell regular, equivalve, oval or elongated; valves close, solid; epider- mis thick and dark; ligament external, conspicuous; cardinal teeth 1—3 in each valve, and usually a posterior lateral tooth; pedal scars close to, or confluent with the adductors ; pallial line simple. Animal with the mantle-lobes united posteriorly by a curtain, pierced with two siphonal orifices; foot thick, tongue-shaped ; gills 2 on each side, large, unequal, united behind, forming a complete partition; palpi moderate, lanceolate. One half the genera of this family are extinct, and the rest (excepting Circe) were more abundant in former periods than at the present time. Cyprina and Astarte are boreal forms; Circe and Cardita abound in the Southern seas. Cyprina, Lamarck. Etym. Kuprinos (from Kupris) related to Venus. Type, C. Islandica, Pl. XIX. fig. 22. Syn. Arctica, Schum. Shell oval, large and strong, with usually an oblique line or angle on the posterior side of each valve; epidermis thick and dark; ligament pro- minent ; umbones oblique; no lunule; cardinal teeth 2:2, laterals O—1, 1—0; muscular impressions oval, polished ; pallial sinus obsolete. Animal with the mantle open in front and below, margins plain; siphonal orifices close together, fringed, slightly projecting; outer gills semilunar, inner truncated in front. The principal hinge-tooth in the right valve of Cyprina represents the * Associated with the bones of Elephas meridionalis, Rhinoceros leptorkinus, Mastodon Arvernensis, Hippopotamus major, &c. CONCHIFERA. 299 secoud and third in Venus and Cytherea; the second tooth of the left valve is consequently obsolete. Distr. C. Islandica ranges from Greenland and the U. S. to the Icy Sea, Norway, and England; in 5—80 fm. water. It occurs fossil in Sicily and Piedmont, but not alive in the Medit. Fossil, 90 sp. (D’Orb.) Muschelkalk —. Europe, Circe, Schumacher. Hiym. In Greek myth. a celebrated enchantress. Ez. C. corrugata, Pl. XX. fig. 2. Syn. Paphia (undulata) Lam.* Shell sub-orbicular, compressed, thick, often sculptured with diverging striz ; umbones flat; lunule distinct; ligament nearly concealed; margins smooth; hinge-teeth 3:3; laterals obscure; pallial line entire. teinad (of C. ah) with the mantle open, margins denticulate, siphonal orifices close together, scarcely projecting, fringed; foot large, heeled; palpi long and narrow. Ranges from 8—50 fms. (Forbes.) Distr. 37 sp. Australia, India, Red Sea, Canaries, Brit. AstTarTE, Sowerby, 1816. Syn. Crassina, Lam. Tridonta, Schum. Goodallia, Turton. Ez. A. sulcata, Pl. XX. fig. 1. (Astarte, the Syrian Venus.) Shell sub-orbicular, compressed, thick, smooth or concentrically fur- rowed; lunule impressed; hgament external; epidermis dark: hinge-teeth 2:2, the anterior tooth of the right valve large and thick; anterior pedal scar distinct; pallial line simple. Animal with mantle open; margins plain or slightly fringed; siphonal orifices simple; foot moderate, tongue-shaped; lips large, palpi lanceolate ; gills nearly equal, united behind, and attached to the siphonal band. Distr. 14 sp. Behrings Sea, Wellington Channel, Kara Sea, Ochotsk, U.S. Norway, Brit. Canaries, Agean (30—112 fms.) Fossil, 200 sp. (D’Orb.) Lias —. N. and S. America, Europe, Thibet. ® Digitaria, Wood; Tellina digitaria, L. Medit. Fossil, Crag, Brit. CRASSATELLA, Lamarck. Syn. Ptychomya, Ag. Paphia (Lam. part) Roissy. Type, C. ponderosa, Pl. XXI. fig. 4. Etym. Crassus thick. Shell solid, ventricose, attenuated behind, smooth or concentrically fur- rowed ; lunule distinct; ligament internal; margin smooth or denticulated ; * This name was employed by Bolten, in 1798, for sp. of Veneride, and by Lamarck, in 1801, for Venus divaricata, Chemn. (= Circe divaricata and Crassatella contraria) and Mesodesma glabratum. In 1808, Fabricius adopted the name fora group of butterflies, in which sense it is now widely employed, having been aban- doned by Lamarck in his later works, and by all succeeding malacologists. 300 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. pallial line simple ; hinge-teeth 1:2, striated, in front of cartilage pit; lateral teeth O—1, 1—0; adductor impressions deep, rounded; pedal small, distinct. Animal with mantle-lobes united only by the branchial septum ; inhalent margins cirrated; foot moderate, compressed, triangular grooved; gills smooth, unequal, outer semi-lunar, inner widest in front; palpi triangular. Distr. 30 sp. Australia, N. Zealand, Philippines, India, W. Africa, Canaries, Brazil. Fossil, 50 sp. Neocomian —. Patagonia, U. S. Europe. TIsocarpIA, Lam. Heart-cockle. Etym. Isos, like, cardia, the heart. Type, I. cor. Pl. XX. fig. 3. Syn. Glossus, Poli; Bucardium, Muhlfeldt; Pecchiolia, Meneghini. Shell cordate, ventricose; umbones distant, sub-spiral; ligament exter- nal; hinge-teeth 2:2; laterals 1—1 in each valve, the anterior sometimes obsolete. Animal with the mantle open in front; foot triangular, pointed, com- pressed ; siphonal orifices close together, fringed; palpi long and narrow; gills very large, nearly equal. Fig. 217. Isocardia cor. The heart-cockle burrows in sand, by means of its foot (/), leaving only the siphonal openings exposed. (Bu/wer.) Distr. 5 sp. Brit. Medit. China, Japan. Fossil, 70 sp. Trias —. U.S. Europe, S. India. The Isocardia-shaped fossils of the old rocks belong to the genera Car- diomorpha and Iso-arca; many of those in the Oolites to Ceromya. Casts of true Isocardie have only two transverse dental folds between the beaks, and no longitudinal furrows. Cypricagpia, Lam. Ex, C. obesa, Pl. XX. fig.4. Syn. Trapezium, Humph. Libitina, Sch. CONCHIFERA. 301 Shell oblong, with an oblique posterior ridge; umbones anterior de- pressed; ligament external, in deep and narrow grooves; cardinal teeth 2:2, laterals 1—1 in each valve, sometimes obscure; muscular impressions oval, (of two elements) ; pallial line simple. Animal (of C. solenoides) with mantle-lobes united, cirrated behind ; pedal opening moderate; foot small, compressed, with a large byssal pore near the heel; siphons short, conical, unequal, cirrated externally ; orifices fringed; palpi small; gills unequal, the outer narrower and shorter, deeply lamellated, united posteriorly, the inner prolonged between the palpi. Distr. 13 sp. Red Sea, India, Australia. In crevices of rock and coral. Fossil, 60 sp. L. Silurian —. N. America, Europe. ? Sub-genera. Coralliophaga, Bl. C. coralliophaga, Lam. Shed/ long, cylindrical, thin, slightly gaping behind; hinge-teeth 2:2, and a laminar posterior tooth; pallial line with a wide and shallow sinus. Dzstr. 2 sp. Medit. in the burrows of the Zithodomus ; sometimes two or three dead shells are found one within the other, besides the original owner of the cell. ? Cypricardites, Conrad (part). An. Geol. Rep. 1841. (Sanguinolites, M‘Coy). Employed for Cypricardia-shaped shells of the paleeozoic rocks; some of them are more nearly related to Modiola (v. Modiolopsis, p. 266) but they bear no resemblance to Sanguinolaria. PrEevrorHorus, King, 1848. Type, P. costatus, Brown. Permian, England, (Pal. Trans. 1850. Pl. XV. fig. 13—20.) Syn. ? Cleidophorus, Hall (cast only). Unionites, Wissm. ? Meeonia, Dana. Shell oblong; dorsal area defined by a line, or keel; umbones anterior, depressed ; hinge-teeth 2.2; laterals 1.1; elongated posterior; anterior ad- ductor impression deep, with a small pedal scar close to it, and bounded pos- teriorly by a strong rib from the hinge; pallial line simple. Fossil, L. Silurian — Trias. U. States; Europe, N. S. Wales, Tasmania. 2 CarpiLta, Deshayes. Type, C. semisulcata, Pl. XVIII. fig. 18. Syn. Hemicyclonosta, Desh. Shell oblong, ventricose, cordate ; beaks prominent, sub-spiral; hinge with a small tooth and dental pit in each valve; ligament partly internal con- tained in a spoon-shaped inflection; anterior muscular scar long, with a pedal scar ahove ; posterior adductor impression on a prominent sub-spiral plate; pallial line simple. Distr. 2 sp. Chinese Sea; Moluccas. Fossil, 2 sp. Hocene —. France, Piedmont. Mecatopon, J. Sowerby. Type, M. cucullatus, Pl. XIX. fig. 19. (Megas, large, odous, tooth.) Shell oblong, smooth or keeled ; ligament external ; hinge-teeth 1:2, thick ; 302 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. laterals 1.1, posterior; anterior adductor impression deep, with a raised margin; and a small pedal scar behind it. In the typical species the beaks are sub-spiral, the lateral teeth obscure, and the posterior adductors bounded by prominent ridges. Fossil, 14 sp. U. Silurian — Devonian; U. States, Europe. Sub-genera. ? Goldfussia (nautiloides) Castlenan. Umbones spiral; anterior side concentrically furrowed ; posterior side with two oblique ridges, Fossil, Silurian, U. States. Megaloma (Canadensis) Hall, 1852. U. Silurian, Canada. Umbones very thick, hinge-teeth rugged, almost obliterated with age; posterior lateral teeth 1.1; no muscular ridges. Pacuypomus (Morris) J. Sowerby. Etym. Pachus, thick, domos, house. Syn. Astartila, Dana. ? Cleobis (grandis) Dana. ? Pyramus (ellipticus) D. = Notomya, M‘Coy. Type, P. globosus (Megadesmus) J. Sby. in Mitchell’s Australia. Shell oval, ventricose, very thick; ligament large, external; lunette more or less distinct; hinge-line sunk; teeth 1 or 2 (?) im each valve; adductor impressions deep; anterior pedal scar distinct; pallial line broad and simple, or with a very shallow sinus. Fossil, 5 sp. Devonian ? N.S. Wales, Tasmania. PacuyrismMa, Morris and Lycett. Etym. Pachus, thick, ereisma, support. Type, P. grande, M.and L. Great Oolite (Bathonian) AMinchtnmamneens Shell cordate, with large sub-spiral beaks; valves very thick near the umbones, obliquely keeled; hinge with one thick conical tooth (behind the dental pit, in the right valve), a small lateral tooth close to the deep and oval anterior adductor, and a posterior lateral-tooth (or muscular lamina ?) ; liga- mental plates short and deep. Opis, Defrance. Ex. O. lunulata, Pl. XIX. fig. 24. (Opis, a name of Artemis.) Shell strong, ventricose, cordiform, obliquely keeled; beaks prominent, incurved or sub-spiral; cardinal teeth 1.1; lunule distinct. Fossil, 42 sp. Trias— Chalk. Europe. CaRDINIA, Agassiz. Etym. Cardo-inis, ahinge. Type, C. Listeri, Pl. XIX. fig. 23. Syn. Thalassides, Berger 1833 (no descr.) Sinemuria, Christol. Pachy- odon, Stutch. (not Meyer nor Schum.) Pronoe, Ag. Shell oval or oblong, attenuated posteriorly, compressed, strong, not pearly, marked by lines of growth; ligament external; cardinal teeth ob- CONCHIFERA. 303 scure, laterals 1—0, 0—1, remote, prominent ; adductor impressions deep pallial line simple. Fossil, 20 sp. Lias —. Inf. Oolite, Europe; along with marine shells. Sub-genus ? Anthracosia, King, 1844; Unio sub-constrictus. Sby. U. Sil. — Carb. 40sp. They occur in the valuable layers of clay-ironstone called ‘‘ mussel-bands,”’ associated with Nautili, Discine, &c. In Derbyshire the mussel-band is wrought, like marble, into vases. 2 Myoconcua, J. Sowerby. Type, M. crassa, Pl. XIX. tig. 25. (Mya, mussel, concha, shell.) Shell oblong, thick, with nearly terminal depressed umbones; ligament external, supported by long narrow appressed plates; hinge thick, with an oblique tooth in the right valve; anterior muscular impression round and deep, with a small pedal scar behind it; posterior impression large, single ; pallial line simple. This shell, which is not nacreous inside, is distinguished from any of the Mytilide by the form of its ligamental plates and muscular impressions ; the hinge-tooth is usually overgrown and nearly obliterated by the hinge-margin as in aged examples of Cardita orbicularis and Cypricardia vellicata. Fossil, 26 sp. Permian — Miocene. (D’Orb.) -Hurope. Sub-genus.? Hippopodium (ponderosum, Sby.) Coneybeare. Lias, Europe. Shell oblong, thick, ventricose; umbones large; ligament external; ventral margin sinuated; hinge with one thick, oblique tooth in each valve, some- times nearly obsolete; pallial line simple; anterior muscular scar deep. This shell appears to be a ponderous form of Cypricardia or Cardita ; itis a characteristic fossil of the English Lias, but only very aged examples have been found. Carpita, Bruguiere. Syn. Mytilicardia and Cardiocardita, (ajar) Bl. Arcinella, Oken. Type, C. calyculata, Pl. XX. fig. 5. Htym. Cardia, the heart. Shell oblong, radiately ribbed; ligament external; margins toothed ; hinge-teeth 1:2, and an elongated posterior tooth; pallial line simple ; anterior pedal scar close to adductor. Y Animal with the mantle lobes free, except between the siphonal orifices ; branchial margin with conspicuous cirri; foot rounded and grooved, spinning a byssus; labial palpi short, triangular, plaited ; gills rounded in front, taper- ing behind and united together, the outer pair narrowest. C. pectunculus, Brug. (Mytilicardia, Bl.) has an anterior tooth: C. con- camerata, Brug. found at the Cape, has a remarkable cup-like inflection of the ventral margin of each valve. Sub-genus. Venericardia, Lam. V. ajar, Pl. XX. fig. 6. Shedd cordate, ventricose; hinge without lateral teeth. Animal locomotive, with a sickle- shaped foot like the cockles. P 304 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Distr. 50 sp. Chiefly in tropical seas, on rocky bottoms and in shallow water; the Venericardie on coarse sand and sandy mud. W. Indies, U. S. W. Africa, Medit. Red Sea, India, China, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific, W. America. C. borealis, Conrad, inhabits the sea of Ochotsk; C. abyssicole, Hinds, ranges to 100 fms.; C. squamosa, to 150 fms. Fossil, 100 sp. Trias —. U.S. Patagonia, Europe, S. India. ? VerticorpIa, Searles Wood, 1844. Syn. Hippagus, Philippi, not Lea. (Verticordia, a name of Venus.) Type, V. cardiiformis (Wood, in Sby. Min. Con.) Pl. XVII. fig. 26. Shell sub-orbicular, with radiating ribs; beaks sub-spiral; margins den- ticulated; interior brilliantly pearly; right valve with 1 prominent cardinal tooth; adductor scars 2, faint; pallial line simple; ligament internal, ob- lique ; epidermis dark brown. Distr. 2 sp. China Sea (Adams). Medit. 2 (Forbes.) Fossil, 2 sp. Miocene —. Brit. Sicily. Hippagus isocardioides, Lea, 1833, Eocene, Alabama: is edentulous. SECTION 6. SInu-PALLIALIA. Respiratory siphons long; palhal line sinuated. FAMILY XIV. VENERID&. Shell regular, closed, sub-orbicular or oblong; ligament external; hinge with usually 3 diverging teeth in each valve; muscular impressions oval, polished; pallial line sinuated. Animal free, locomotive, rarely byssiferous or burrowing; mantle with a rather large anterior opening; siphons unequal, united more or less; foot linguiform, compressed, sometimes grooved; palpi moderate, triangular, pointed; branchize large, sub-quadrate, united posteriorly. The shells of this tribe are remarkable for the elegance of their forms and colours; they are frequently ornamented with chevron-shaped lines. Their texture is very hard, all traces of structure being usually obliterated. The Veneride appeared first in the Oolitie period, and have attained their greatest development at the present time; they are found im all seas, but most abundantly in the tropics, Venus, L. Syn. Merceneria, Antigone and Anomalocardia (flexuosa) Schum. Chione, Megerle (not Scop,) Erycina (cardioides) Lam. 1818. Type, V. paphia, L. Pl. XX. fig. 7. Shell thick, ovate, smooth, sulcated or cancellated; margins minutely crenulated; cardinal teeth 3—3; pallial sinus small, angular; ligament prominent ; lunule distinct. * Gel CONCHIFERA. 305 Animal with mantle-margins fringed; siphons unequal, more or less separate ; branchial. orifice sometimes doubly fringed, the outer pinnate ; anal orifice with a simple fringe and tubular valve ; foot tongue-shaped ; palpi small, lanceolate. V. textilis, and other elongated species, have a deep pallial sinus; V’. gemma (Totten) has a very deep angular sinus, like Artemis; V. reticulata has bifid teeth, like Tapes; V. tridacnoides, a fossil of the U. States, has massive valves, ribbed like the clam-shell. The N. American Indians used to make coinage (wampum) of the sea-worn fragments of Venus mercenaria, by perforating and stringing them on leather thongs. Distr. 176 sp. World-wide. Low-water — 140 fathoms. V. astar- toides, Behrings’ Sea. JV. verrucosa, Brit. Medit. Senegal, Cape, Red Sea; Australia ? Fossil, 160 sp. Oolites —. Patagonia, U. S. Europe, India. ? Volupia rugosa, (Defrance, 1829.) Shell minute, Isocardia-shaped, concentrically ribbed, with a large lunule. Zocene, Hauteville. Saxidomus (Nuttalli) Conrad. ‘Oval, solid, with tumid umbones ; lunule, 0; teeth 3—4, unequal, the central bifid; pallial sinus large. Dvstr. 8 sp. India, Australia, W. America. CyTHEREA, Lam. Etym. Cytherea, from Cythera, an Aegean Island. Syn. Meretrix, Gray. Dione, Megerle. Examples, C. dione, Pl. XX. fig. 8. C. chione, fig. 14, p. 26. Shell like Venus; margins simple; hinge with 3 cardinal teeth and an anterior tooth beneath the lunule; pallial sinus moderate, angular. Animal with plain mantle-margins; siphons united half-way. Distr. Same as Venus. Recent 113 sp. Fossi/, 80 sp. Merogr, Schum. Etym. Meroé, an island of the Nile. Syn. Cuneus (part) Megerle (not Da Costa). Sunetta, Link. Type, M. picta (= Venus Meroé, L. Donax, Desh.) PI. XX. fig. 9. Shell oval, compressed ; anterior side rather longest; hinge with 3 car- dinal teeth, and a long narrow anterior tooth; lunule lanceolate; ligament in a deep escutcheon. Distr. 10 sp. Senegal, India, Japan, Australia. Tricona, Miihlfeldt. Etym. Trigonos, theee-cornered. Type, T. tripla, Pl. XX. fig. 10. Shell trigonal, wedge-shaped, sub-equilateral ; ligament short, prominent ; cardinal teeth 83—4, anterior 2 remote; pallial sinus rounded, horizontal. Distr. 28 sp. W. Indies, Medit, Senegal, Cape, India, W. America. Fossil, Miocene —. Bordeaux. T. crassatelloides attains a diameter of 5 inches and is very ponderous. P 2 306 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Sub-genus, Grateloupia, Desm. G. irregularis, Pl. XX. fig. 11. Shell sub-equilateral, rounded in front, attenuated behind; hinge with 1 anterior tooth, 8 cardinal teeth and several small posterior teeth; pallial sinus deep, oblique. Fossil, 4sp. Eocene— Miocene. U. States, France. ARTEMIS, Poli. Etym. Artemis, in Greek myth. Diana. Type, A. exoleta, Pl. XX. fig. 12. (Sy. Dosinia, Scopoli.) Shell orbicular, compressed, concentrically striated, pale; ligament sunk ; lunule deep; hinge like Cytherea; margins even; pallial sinus deep, angular, ascending. Animal with a large hatchet-shaped foot, projecting from the ventral margin of the shell; mantle-margins slightly plaited; siphons united to their ends; orifices simple; palpi narrow. Distr. 85 sp. Boreal — Tropical seas; low-water—80 fms. Fossil, 8 sp. Miocene —. U. States, Europe, S. India. Sub-genera. Cyclina, Desh. VY. Sinensis, Chemn. Orbicular, ventricose, margins crenulated, no lunule, sinus deep and angular. Dzstr. 10 sp. Senegal, India, China, Japan. W. America. Fossi/, 1 sp. Miocene, Bor- deaux. Clementia (papyracea) Gray. Thin, oval, white; ligament semi-internal; posterior teeth bifid, sinus deep and angular. Animal with long, united siphons, and a large crescentic foot, similar to Artemis. Distr. 3 sp. Australia, Philippines. Luctnopsis, Forbes. ~ Syn. Dosinia, Gray, 1847 (not Scop.) Mysia, Gray, 1851 (not Leach). Cyclina, Gray, 1853 (not Desh.) Type, Venus undata, Pennant, Pl. XX. fig. 13. (Luca, and opsis, like.) Shel lenticular, rather thin; right valve with 2 laminar, diverging teeth, leff with 3 teeth, the central bifid: muscular impressions oval, polished ; pallial sinus very deep, ascending. Animal with mantle-margins plain; pedal opening contracted; foot pointed, basal; siphons longer than the shell, separate, divergent, with fringed orifices. (Clark.) Distr. 1 sp. Norway, Brit. Fossi/, 3 sp. Miocene. Brit. Belgium. Tapers, Mihlfeldt. Syn. Paphia, Bolten, 1798. Pullastra, G. Sby. Example, T. pullastra, Pl. XX. fig. 14. (Zapes, tapestry.) Shell oblong, umbones anterior, margins smooth; teeth 3 in each valve, more or less bifid; pallial sinus deep, rounded. Animal spinning a byssus; foot thick, lanceolate, grooved; mantle plain CONCHIFERA. 307 or finely fringed; freely open in front; siphons moderate, separate half-way or throughout, orifices fringed, anal cirri simple, branchial ramose; palpi long, triangular. Distr. 78 sp. Norway, Brit. Black Sea, Senegal, Brazil, India, China, New Zealand. Low-water—100 fms. (Beechey). Fossil, Miocene —. Brit. France, Belgium, Italy. The animal is eateu on the continental coasts; it buries in the sand at low-water or hides in thé crevices of rocks, and roots of sea-weed. VreNnERvPIS, Lamarck. i Etym. Venus, and rupes, arock. Syn. Gastrana, Schum. Example, V. exotica, Pl. XX. fig. 15. Shell oblong, a little gaping posteriorly, radiately striated and ornamented with concentric lamelle ; three small teeth in each valve, one of them bifid ; pallial sinus moderately deep, angular. Animal with the mantle closed in front, pedal opening moderate ; siphons united half-way, anal with a simple fringe and tubular valve, branchial siphon doubly fringed, inner cirri branching ;. palpi small and pointed. Distr. 19 sp. Brit. — Crimea; Canaries; India, Tasmania; Kamts- chatka. Behring’s Sea — Peru. In crevices of rocks. Fossil, Miocene —. U. States, Europe. PrtTricota, Lamarck. Eitym. Petra, stone, colo, to inhabit. . Syn. Rupellaria, Bellevue; Choristodon, Jonas; Naranio, Gray. Type, P. lithophaga, Pl, XX. fig. 16. P. pholadiformis, Pl. XX. fig. 17. Shell oval or elongated, thin, tumid, anterior side short; hinge with 3 teeth in each valve, the external often obsolete; pallial sinus deep. Animal with the mantle closed in front, much thickened and recurved over the edges of the shell; pedal opening small; foot small, pointed, lanceo- late; siphons partially separate, orifices fringed, aval with a valve and simple cirri, branchial cirri pinnate; palpi small, triangular. Distr. 30 sp. U.S. France, Red Sea, India, New Zealand, Pacific, W. America (Sitka—Peru). Burrows in limestone and mud. Fossil, 12 sp. Eocene —. U.S. Europe. Guiaucomya, (Bronn) Gray. Syn. Glauconome, Gray 1829 (not Goldfuss 1826). Type, G. Sinensis, Pl. XX. fig. 18. (G@laucos sea-green, mya mussel.) Shell oblong, thin; epidermis dark, greenish; ligament external; hinge with 3 teeth in each valve, one of them bifid; pallial sinus very deep and angular. Animal with a rather small, linguiform foot; pedal opening moderate ; 308 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. siphons very long, united, projecting far into the branchial cavity when retracted, their ends separate and diverging; palpi large, sickle-shaped ; gills long, rounded in front, the outer shortest. Distr. 11 sp. Embouchures of rivers; China, Philippines, Borneo, India. FAMILY XV. Mactripz. Sheli equivalve, trigonal, close, or slightly gaping; ligament (cartilage) internal, contained in a deep triangular pit; epidermis thick; hinge with 2 diverging cardinal teeth, and usually with anterior and posterior laterals ; pallial sinus short, rounded. Animal with the mantle more or less open in front; siphonal tubes united, orifices fringed; foot compressed; gills not prolonged into the branchial siphon. Sections of the shell exhibit an indistinct cellular layer on the external surface and a distinct inner layer of elongated cells. (Carpenter.) Mactra, L. Ltym. Mactra, a kneading trough. Syz. Trigonella, Da Costa (not L.) Schizodesma (Spengleri), Spisula (solida), Mulinia (lateralis) Gray. Type, M. stultorum, Pl. XXI. fig. 1. Shell nearly equilateral; anterior hinge tooth A-shaped, with sometimes a small laminar tooth close to it; lateral teeth doubled in the right valve. Animal with the mantle open as far as the siphons, its margins fringed ; siphons united, fringed with simple cirri, anal orifice with a tubular valve ; foot large, linguiform, heeled; palpi triangular, long and pointed; outer gills shortest. The Mactras inhabit sandy coasts, where they bury just bencath the sur- face; the foot can be stretched out considerably, and moved about like a finger, it is also used for leaping. They are eaten by the star-fishes and whelks, and in the I. of Arran JL. subtruncata is collected at low-water to feed pigs. (Alder.) Distr. 60 sp. All seas, especially within the tropics; — 35 fms. Fossil, 30 sp. Tias —. U. States, Europe, India. ? Sub-genus. Sowerbya, D’Orb. S. crassa, Oxfordian, France. Carti- lage-pit simply grooved ; lateral teeth very large. GNnaTHODON, Gray. Etym. Gnathos a jaw-bone, odous a tooth. Syn. Rangia, Desm. Type, G. cuneatus, Pl. XXI. fig. 2. Shell oval, ventricose; valves thick, smooth, eroded; epidermis olive ; cartilage-pit central; hinge teeth 2; laterals doubled in the right valve, elongated, striated transversely ; pallial sinus moderate. Animal with the mantle freely open in front; margins plain; siphons CONCHIFERA. 309 short, partly united; foot very thick, tongue-shaped, pointed; gills unequal, the outer short and narrow; palpi large, triangular, pointed. Distr. 1 sp. N. Orleans (8 other sp. ? Mazatlan, California; Moreton B. Australia. Petit.) Fossil, 1 sp. Miocene —. Petersburg, Virginia. G. cuneatus was formerly eaten by the Indians. At Mobile, on the Gulf of Mexico, it is found in colonies along with Cyrena Curolinensis, buryiug 2 inches deep in banks of mud; the water is only brackish, though there is a tide of 3 feet. Banks of dead shells, 3 or 4 feet thick, are found 20 miles © inland: Mobile is built on one of these shell-banks. The road from New Orleans to Lake Pont-chartrain (6 miles) is made of Gnathodon shells pro- cured from the east end of the lake, where there is a mound of them a mile long, 15 feet high, and 20—60 yards wide; in some places it is 20 feet above the level of the lake. (Lyeli.) Lurraria, Lamarck. Otter's-shell. Type, L. oblonga, Gmel. Pl. XXI. fig. 3. (= L. solenoides, Lam.) Shell oblong, gaping at both ends; cartilage-plate prominent, with 1 or 2 small teeth in front of it, in each valve; pallial sinus deep, horizontal. Animal with closed mantle-lobes; pedal opening moderate; foct rather large, compressed ; siphons united, elongated, invested with epidermis ; palpi rather narrow, their margins plain ; gills tapering to the mouth. Distr. 18 sp. U. States, Brazil, Brit. Medit. Senegal, Cape, India, N. Zealand, Sitka. Fossil, 10 sp. Miocene — U. States, Europe. ; Resembles Mya; burying vertically in sand or mud, especially of estu- aries ; low-water, 12 fms. JZ. rugosa is found living on the coasts of Por- tugal and Mogador, fossil on the coast of Sussex. (Dixon.) ANATINELLA, G. Sowerby. Type, A. candida, (Mya) Chemn. Pl XXIII. fig. 6.. Shell ovate, rounded in front, attenuated and truncated behind; cartilage in a prominent spoon-shaped process, with 2 small teeth in front; muscular impressions irregular, the anterior elongated; pallial line slightly truncated behind. Distr. 3 sp. Ceylon, Philippines; sands at low-water. FAMILY XVI. TELLiInipz. Shell free, compressed, usually closed and equivalve; cardinal teeth 2 at most, laterals 1—1, sometimes obsolete; muscular impressions rounded. polished ; pallial sinus very large; ligament on shortest side of the shell, sometimes internal. Structure obscurely prismatic-cellwlar; prisms fusi- form, nearly parallel with surface, radiating from the hinge in the outer layer, transverse in the inner. 310 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Animal with the mantle widely open in front, its margins fringed ; foot tongue-shaped, compressed ; siphons separate, very long and slender; palpi large, triangular; gills united posteriorly, unequal, the outer pair sometimes directed dorsally. The Tellens are found in all seas, chiefly in the littoral and Jaminarian zones ; they frequent sandy bottoms, or sandy mud, burying beneath the sur- face ; afew species inhabit estuaries and rivers. Their valves are often richly coloured and ornamented with finely sculptured lines. TELLINA, L. Tellen. Etym. Telline, the Greek name for a kind of mussel. Syn. Peronsea (part) Poli. Phylloda (foliacea), Omala (planata) Schum. Psammotea (solidula) Turt. Arcopagia (crassa) Leach. Examples, T. lingua-felis, Pl. XXI. fig. 5. , T. carnaria, fig. 6. Shell slightly inequivalve, compressed, rounded in front, angular and slightly folded posteriorly, umbones sub-central; teeth 2.2, laterals 1—1, most distinct in the right valve; pallial sinus very wide and deep ; ligament external, prominent. Animal with slender, diverging siphons, twice as long as the shell, their orifices plain; foot broad, pointed, compressed; palpi very large, triangular ; gills small, soft and very minutely striated, the outer rudimehtal and directed dorsally. Tellinides, Lam. 'T. planissima, Pl. XXI. fig. 7. Valves with no pos- terior fold; lateral teeth wanting. T. carnaria (S¢rigedZa, Turt.) has the valves obliquely sculptured T. fa- bula, Gron. has the right valve striated, the other plain. 7. Burnett, Cali- fornia, has the right valve flat; 7. /unulata, Pliocene, S. Carolina, much resembling it in shape, has the left valve flat. Distr. above 200 sp. In all seas, especially the Indian Ocean; most abundant and highly coloured in the tropics. Low-water — Coral zone, 50 fms. Wellington Channel; Kara Sea; Behrings’ Sea; Baltic; Black Sea. Fossil, 180 sp. Oolites —. U. States, S. America (Chiloe) Europe. Dioponta, Schumacher. Etym. Di- two, odonta teeth. Syn. Fragilia, Desh. Type, Tellina fragilis, L. Pl. XXI. fig. 8. Shell equivalve, convex, with squamose lines of growth; cardinal teeth 2 in right valve, 1 bifid tooth in left; pallial sinus deep and rounded; um- bonal area punctate; ligament external. Animal with the mantle open in front, its margins fringed; siphons elongated, slender, separate, unequal, orifices with cirri; foot small, com- pressed, linguiform ; palpi large, triangular ; gills unequal, soft, finely striated. Diodonta inhabits shallow water, boring in mud and clay, and not travel- ling about like the Je/ens. CONGHIFERA. Sia Distr. 3 sp. Greenland, Brit. Medit. Black Sea, Senegal, Cape. Fossil, Miocene —. Brit. France, Belgium. CapsuLa, Schumacher. Etym. Dimin. of capsa, a box. Syn. Capsa (part) Brug. 1791. Sanguinolaria Lam. 1818, not 1801. Type. C. rugosa, Pl. XX. fig. 19. (= Venus deflorata, Gmel.) Shell oblong, veutricose, slightly gaping at each end; radiately striated ; cardinal teeth 2 in each valve, one of them bifid; ligament external, large, prominent; siphonal inflection short. Animal like Psammobia ; foot moderate; gills deeply plaited, attenuated in front, outer small, dorsal border wide, fixed; siphons moderate, Distr. W. Indies, Red Sea, India, China, Australia. Fossil 4 sp. U.Green-sand —. U. States, Europe. (D’Orb.) Fig. 218. Psammobia vespertina, Chemn, 3, Brit. PsamMmosia, Lamarek. Sunset-shell. Etym. Psammos sand, bio to live. Syn. Psammotea (zonalis) Lam. Psammocola, Bl. Gari, Schum. Ex, P. Ferroénsis, Pl. XXI. fig. 9. P.squamosa, Pl. XXI. fig. 10. Shell oblong, compressed, slightly gaping at both ends; hinge-teeth 2; ligament external, prominent; siphonal inflection deep, in contact with the pallial line ; epidermis often dark. Animal: mantle open, fringed ; siphons very long, slender, nearly equal, longitudinally ciliated, orifices with 6—8 cirri; foot large, tongue-shaped ; palpi long, tapering ; gills unequal, recumbent, few plaited. Distr. 40 sp. Norway, Brit. India, New Zealand, Pacific. Littoral — coralline zone, 100 fms. P. garz is eaten in India. Fossil, 24 sp. Oolite? Eocene —. U. States, Europe. SANGUINOLARIA, Lamarck. Name, from the type, Solen sanguinolentus, Chemn. Syn. Soletellina dzphos) Bl. Lobaria, Schum. Aulus, Oken. _ Hx. §. livida, Pl. XXII. fig. 1. S. diphos, fig. 2, S. orbiculata, fig. 3. Shell oval, compressed, rounded in front, attenuated and slightly gaping behind ; hinge-teeth 3, small; siphonal inflection very deep, connected with the pallial line; ligament external, on very prominent fulcra. Animal: mantle open, fringed; siphons very long, branchial largest P3 312 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. orifices fringed ; foot large, broadly tongue-shaped, compressed; palpi long pointed; gills recumbent, inner lamine free, dorsal border wide. Distr. 20 sp. W. Indies, Red Sea, India, Madagascar, Japan; Aus- tralia, Tasmania, Peru. Fossil, 30 sp. Eocene —. U. States, Europe. S&£MELE, Schumacher, 1817. Etym. Semele, in Greek myth. the mother of Bacchus. Syn. Amphidesma, Lam. 1818.* Type, S. reticulata, Pl. XXI. fig. 11. Shell rounded, sub-equilateral, beaks turned forwards; posterior side slightly folded; hinge-teeth 2.2, laterals elongated, distinct in the right valve; external ligament short, cartilage internal, long, oblique; pallial sinus deep, rounded. Distr. 40 sp. W. Indies, Brazil, India, China, Australia, Peru. Fossil, 10 sp. Eocene —. U. States, Europe. Sub-genera. Cumingia, G. Sowerby. C. lamellosa, Pl. XXI. fig. 12. Shell slightly attenuated and gaping behind, lamellated concentrically; car- tilage-process prominent; pallial sinus very wide. Dvzstr. 10 sp. Insponges, sand, and the fissures of rocks, — 7 fathoms. W. Indies, India, Australia, W. America. Jossi/, Miocene —. Wilmington, N. Carolina. Syndosmya, Recluz. Syn. Abra, Leach MS. Erycina (part) Lam. 1805.+ Type, S. alba, Pl. XXI. fig. 18. Shell small, oval, white and shining; posterior side shortest; umbones directed backwards; cartilage- process oblique; hinge-teeth minute or obsolete, laterals distinct; pallial sinus wide and shallow. Axzimal with the mantle open, fringed; siphons long, slender, diverging, anal shortest, orifices plain; foot large, tongue- shaped, pointed; palpi triangular, nearly as large as the gills; branchie un- equal, triangular. Distr. Norway, Brit. Medit. Black Sea, India. The sp. are few, and mostly boreal, ranging from the laminarian zone to 180 fms. (Forbes.) They live buried in sand and mud, but when confined are able to creep up the sides of the vessel with their foot. (Bouchard.) Fossil, 6 sp. Eocene —. Brit. France. Scrobicularia, Schumacher. Syn. Trigonella (part) Da Costa (not L.) Ligula (part). Mont. “Le Lavignon” (Reaumur) Cuv. Listera, Turt. (not R. Brown.) Lutricola, Bl. Mactromya, D’Orb. (not Ag.) Type, S. piperata (Belon) Gmelin, Pl. XXT. fig. 14. (See p. 60.) ShedZ oval, com- pressed, thin; sub-equi-lateral; ligament external, slight; cartilage-pit shal- * The name Amphi-desma, as employed by Lamarck, included species of Semele, Loripes, Syndosmya, Mesodesma, Thracia, Lyonsia, and Kellia; in addition to which it has since been applied to some Oolitic Myacites. + The name Erycina was originally appplied by Lamarck to a number of minute fossil shells, including sp. of Syndosmya, Venus, Lucina, Tellina, Astarte, and Kellia. In 1808 Fabricius employed it for a well-known group of insects. CONCHIFERA. 313 low, triangular; hinge-teeth small, 1 or 2 in each valve, laterals obsolete ; pallial sinus wide and deep. Animal with the mantle open, margins denticulated; siphons very long, slender, separate, orifices plain ; foot large, tongue-shaped, compressed ; palpi very large, triangular, gills minutely striated, the outer pair directed dorsally. Lives buried, vertically, in the mud of tidal estuaries, 5 or 6 inches deep. (Montagu.) The siphons can be extended to 5 or 6 times the length of the shell. (Deshayes). The animal has a peppery taste, but is sometimes eaten on the coasts of the Mediterranean. Distr. Norway, Brit. Medit. Senegal. Fossil, Pliocene, Brit. MersoprEsMa, Deshayes. Etym. Meso- middle, desma ligament. Syn. Eryx, Sw. (not Daud.) Paphia (part) Lam. 1799 (see p. 299, note). Erycina (part) Lam. 1818 (not Lam. 1805, nor Fabr. 1808). ‘‘ Donacille,”’ Lam. 1812 (not characterized). Examples, M. glabratum, Pl. XXI. fig. 15. M. donacium. fig. 16. Shell trigonal, thick, compressed, closed; ligament internal, in a deep central pit; a minute anterior hinge-tooth, and 1—1 lateral teeth in each valve; muscular scars deep, pallial sinus small. Animal with mantle-margins plain ; siphons short, thick, and separate, orifices cirrated, branchial cirri dendritic; foot compressed, broadly lanceo- late: gills large, unequal; palpi small. Sub-genus. Anapa, Gray. A. Smithii, Pl. XXI. fig. 17. Umbones anterior, siphonal inflection obsolete. Distr. 20 sp. W. Indies, Medit. Crimea, India, New Zealand, Chili; sands at low-water. Fossil, 7 sp. Neocomian —. U. 8. Europe (Donacilla, D’Orb.) Ervitta, Turton. Lentil-shell. Ltym. Ervilia, diminutive of ervum, the bitter-vetch. Type, HK. nitens, P. XXI. fig. 18. Shell minute, oval, close; cartilage in a central pit; right valve with a single prominent tooth in front and an obscure tooth behind ; left valve with 2 obscure teeth; no lateral teeth; pallial sinus deep. Distr. W. Indies, Brit. Canaries, Medit. Red Sea. — 50 fms. Donax, L. Wedge-shell. Ex. D. denticulatus, Pl. XXI. fig. 19. Etym. Donaz, a sea-fish, Pliny. Syn. Chione, Scop. Cuneus, Da Costa. Capisterium, Meusch.* Latona and Hecuba, Schum. LHgeria, Lea (not Roissy). Shell trigonal, wedge-like, closed; front produced, rounded; posterior side short, straight; margins usually crenulated; hinge-teeth 2.2; laterals * Meuschen was a Dutch auctioneer; the names occur in his ‘ sale catalogues.” Idiote imposuere nomina absurda. Linneus. 314 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. 1—] in each valve ; ligament external, prominent; pallial sinus deep, hori- zontal. Animai with the mantle fringed; siphons short and thick, diverging, anal orifice denticulated, branchial with pinnate cirri; foot very large, pointed, sharp-edged, projected quite in front ; gills ample, recumbent, outer shortest ; palpi small, pointed. Distr. 45 sp. Norway, Baltic, — Black Sea, all tropical seas. In sands near low-water mark (— 8 fms.) buried an inch or two beneath the surface. ' Fossil, 30 sp. Eocene —. U. States, Europe. Sub-genera. ° Amphichena, Phil. A. Kindermanni, California. Shel/ oblong, nearly equilateral, gaping at each end; teeth 3; ligament external, pallial line sinuated. Iphigenia, Schum. (Capsa, Lam. 1818, not 1801. Donacina, Fér.) I. Brasiliensis, Pl. XXI. fig. 20. Sheld nearly equilateral, smooth; hinge- teeth 2.2, one bifid, the other minute; laterals remote, obsolete in the left valve; margins smooth. Distr. 4 sp. W. Indies, Brazil, W. Africa, Pacific, Central America. Inhabits estuaries; J. ventricosa, Desh. is rayed like Galatea, and has its beaks eroded. ? Isodonta (Deshayesii) Buv. Bull. Soc. Geol. Oxf. France. GaLaTEA, Bruguiére. Syn. Egeria, Roissy. Potamophila, Sby. Megadesma, Bowdich. Type, G. reclusa, Pl. XXI. fig. 21. Shell very thick, trigonal, wedge-shaped; epidermis smooth, olive; um- bones eroded; hinge thick, teeth 1.2, laterals indistinct ; ligament external, prominent ; pallial sinus distinct. ; Animal with the mantle open in front; siphons moderate, with 6—8 lines of cilia, orifices fringed ; foot large, compressed ; palpi long, triangular; gills unequal, united to the base of the siphons, the external pair divided into 2 nearly equal areas by a longitudinal furrow, indicating their line of attachment. Distr. 2 or 7 sp.? Nile, and rivers of W. Africa. FAMILY XVII. Sotenw.. Shell elongated, gaping at the ends; ligament external; hinge-teeth usually 2.3, compressed, the posterior bifid. External shell layer with defi- nite cell-structure, consisting of long prisms, very oblique to the surface, and exhibiting nuclei; inner layer nearly homogeneous. Animal with a very large and powerful foot, more or less cylindrical : siphons short and united (in the typical Solens, with long shells) or longer and partly separate (in the shorter and more compressed genera); gills narrow, prolonged into the branchial siphon. CONCHIFERA. o15 Fig. B19. Solen siliqua, L. 4; the valves forcibly opened, and mantle divided as far as the ventral foramen, to show the foot. SoLEN (Aristotle) L. Razor-fish. Type, 8. siliqua, Pl. XXII. fig. 4. Syn. Hypogzea, Poli. Vagina, Megerle. Ensis, Schum. Ensatella, Sw. Shell very long, sub-cylindrical, straight, or slightly recurved, pee parallel, ends gaping: beaks terminal, or sub-central; hinge-teeth 2; liga- ment long, external; anterior muscular impression elongated ; teria oblong; pallial line extending beyond the adductors; sinus short and square. Animal with the mantle closed except at the front end, and a minute ventral opening; siphons short, united, fringed; palpi broadly triangular ; foot cylindrical, obtuse. Distr. 25 sp. World-wide, except Arctic seas :—100 fms. Fossil, 10 sp. Hocene —. U. States, Europe. The Razor-fishes live buried vertically in the sand, at extreme low-water, their position being only indicated by an orifice like a key-hole; when the tide goes out they sink deeper, often penetrating to a depth of 1 or 2 feet. They never voluntarily leave their burrows, but if taken out soon bury them- selves again. They may be caught with a bent wire, and are excellent articles of food, when cooked, (Fordes.) CULTELLUS, Schumacher. Type, C. lactens, Pl. XXII. fig. 5. Htym. Cultellus a knife. Shell elongated, compressed, rounded and gaping at the ends; hinge- teeth 2.3; beaks in front of the centre, supported internally by ax oblique rib; pedal impression behind the umbonal rib; posterior adductor trigonal ; pallial kine not prolonged behind the posterior adductor; sinus short and square. Animal (of C. Javanicus) with short, fringed siphons ; gills narrow, half as long as the shell, transversely plaited; palpi large, angular, broadly at- tached; foot large, abruptly truncated. Distr. 4. sp. Africa, India, Nicobar. Sub-genera. Ceratisolen, Forbes. (Polia, D’Orb. Pharus, Leach, MS, Solecurtoides, Desm.) C. legumen, Pl. XXII. fig. 6. Sheld narrow, sub- equilateral, anterior adductor impressions elongated, a second pedal scar near = mt, c a 316 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. the pallial sinus. 4xzimal with along, truncated foot; siphons separate, diverging, fringed. Distr. 1 sp. Brit. Medit. Senegal, Red Sea. Fossil, 1 sp. Pliocene —. Italy. Machera, Gould. (Siliqua, Megerle. Leguminaria, Schum.) M. polita, “Pl, XXII. fig. 7. ShelZ smooth, oblong; epidermis polished; umbonal rib extending across the interior of the valve; pallial sinus short. The animal, figured hy Middendorff, is similar to Solecurtus. Distr. India, China, Ochotsk, Oregon, Sitka, Behring’s Sea, Newfoundland. M. costata, Say, is often obtained from the maw of the cod-fish. Fossil, 4 sp. U. Green- sand —. Brit. France. SoLecurtus, Blainville. Etym. Solen and curtus, short. Syn. Psammosolen Risso. Macha, Oken. Siliquaria, Schum. Fr. S. strigilatus, Pl. XXII. fig. 8. S. Caribeeus, Pl. XXII. fig. 9. Shell elongated, rather ventricose, with sub-central beaks; margins sub- parallel; ends truncated, gaping; ligament prominent; hinge-teeth 2; pal- lial sinus very deep, rounded; posterior adductor rounded. Animal very large and thick, not entirely retractile within the sheil; mantle closed below; pedal orifice and foot large; palpi triangular, narrow, lamellated inside; gills long and narrow, outer much shortest; siphons separate at the ends, united and forming a thick mass at their bases; anal orifices plain, branchial fringed. The Solecurti bury deeply in sand or mud, usually beyond low-water, and are difficult to obtain alive. P. Carzbeus occurs in countless myriads in the bars of American rivers, and on the coast of New Jersey in sand exposed at low-water; by removing 3 or 4 inches of sand its burrows may be dis- covered ; they are vertical cylindrical cavities, 13 inches in diameter and 12 or more deep, the animal holds fast by the expanded end of its foot. Distr. 25 sp. U. States, Brit. Medit. W. Africa, Madeira. Fossil, 30 sp. Neocomian —. U.S. Europe. Sub-genus, Novaculina, Benson. N. gangetica, Pl. XXII. fig. 10. Shel?, oblong, plain; epidermis thick and dull; pallial sinus rather small; anterior pedal scar linear. Distr. India, China. In the mud of river-estuaries. FAMILY XVIII. Myacipa. Shell thick, strong and opaque; gapiug posteriorly ; pallial line sinuated ; epidermis wrinkled. Structure more or less distinctly cellular, with dark nuclei near outer surface ; cartilage process composed of radiated cells. Animal with the mantle almost entirely closed ; pedal aperture and foot small; siphons united, partly or wholly retractile; branchie 2 on each side, elongated. CONCHIFERA. aa Fig. 220. Mya truncata, L. 3. Brit. (after Forbes.) Mya, L. Gaper. Etym. Myaz (-acis) a mussel, Pliny. Syz. Platyodon, Conrad. Types, M. truncata, Pl. XXIII. fig. 1. M. Arenaria, fig. 170, p. 244. Sheil oblong, inequivalve, gaping at the ends; left valve smallest, with a large flattened cartilage process ; pallial sinus large. Animal with a small straight linguiform foot ; siphons combined, covered with epidermis, partially retractile ; orifices fringed, the branchial opening with an inner series of large tentacular filaments; gills not prolonged into the siphon; palpi elongated, free. M. anatina, Chemn. (Tugonia, Gray) W. coast of Africa; posterior side extremely truncated; similar cartilage-processes in each valve. Fossil, Miocene, Dax, and the Morea. Distr. 10 sp. Northern Seas, W. Africa, Philippines, Australia, Cali- fornia. The Myas frequent soft bottoms, especially the sandy and gravelly mud of river-mouths; they range from low-water to 25 fathoms, rarely to 100 or 145 fms. UM. arenaria burrows a foot deep; this species and M. truncata are found throughout the northern and Arctic seas, from Ochotsk and Sitka to the Russian Ice-meer, the Baltic, and British coast; in the Mediterranean they are only found fossil. They are eaten in Zetland and N. America, and are excellent articles of food. In Greenland they are sought after by the walrus, the Arctic fox, and birds. (0. Fabricius.) Fossil, Miocene —. U. States, Brit. Sicily. Most of the fossil *“Myas” have an external ligament, and are related either to Panopea or Pholadomya. CorBuxa, Bruguiére. Etym. Corbula, a little basket. Type, C. sulcata, Pl. XXIIT. fig. 2. Syn. Erodona, Daud. (= Pacyodon, Beck.) Agina, Turt. Shell thick, inequivalve, gibbose, closed, produced posteriorly; right valve with a prominent tooth in front of the cartilage pit ; left valve smaller, with a projecting cartilage process; pallial sinus slight: pedal scars distinct from the adductor impressions. Animal with very short, united siphons; orifices fringed; anal valve tubular; foot thick and pointed; palpi moderate; giils 2 on each side, ob- scurely striated. 318 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCGA. Disir. 50 sp. U.S. Norway, Brit. Medit. W. Africa, China. Inhabits sandy bottoms; Lower laminarian zone—80 fms. Fossil. 90 sp. Inf. Oolite—. U. States, Europe, India. The external Shell-layer consists of fusiform cells; the inner is homogeneous and adheres so slightly to the outer layer, that it is very frequently detached in fossil specimens. Corbulomya, Nyst (C. complanata, Sby.) Crag. Brit. Sub-genera. Potamomya, J. Sby. P. gregaria, Eocene, I. Wight. Car- tilage process broad and spatulate, received between two obscure teeth in the right valve. The estuary Cordui@ differ very little from the marine species. P. labiata (Azara, D’Orb.) Pl. XXIII. fig. 3, lives buried in the mud of the R. Plata, but not above Buenos Ayres, and consequently in water which is little influenced by the superficial ebb of the river. The same species is found in banks widely dispersed over the Pampas near S. Pedro, and many places in the Argentine Republic, 5 yards above the R. Parana. (Darwin.) Sphenia, Turt. S. Binghami, Pl. XXIII. fig. 4. Shell oblong; right valve with a curved, conic tooth in front of the oblique, sub-trigonal car- tilage-pit. Animal with thick united siphons, fringed at the end, anal valve conspicuous ; foot finger-like, with a byssal groove. Dzstr. Brit. France. Burrowing in oyster-shells and limestone, in 10—25 fms. Fossil, Miocene —. Brit. Nera, Gray. Htym. Neera,a Roman lady’s name, Type, N. cuspidata, Pl. XXIII. fig. 5. Syz. Cuspidaria, Nardo. Shell globular, attenuated and gaping behind; right valve a little the smallest ; umbones strengthened internally by a rib on the posterior side ; eartilage process spatulate, in each valve, (furnish.d with a moveable ossicle, Deshayes) with an obsolete tooth in front, and a posterior lateral tooth; pallial sinus very shallow. Animal with the mantle closed; foot lanceolate; siphons short, united, bran- chial largest, anal with a membranous valve, both with a few long, lateral cirri. Distr. 20 sp. Norway, Brit. Medit, Canaries, Madeira, China, Moluccas, New Guinea, Chile. From 12—200 fms. Fossil,6 sp. Oolite—. Brit. Belgium, Italy. Fig. 221. Thetis, minor, Sby. Neocomian, I. Wight. CONCHIFERA. 319 TueEtis, Sowerby. Eiym. Tietis, in Greek myth. a sea-nymph. Syn. Poromya (anatinoides) Forbes. Embla (Korenii) Lovén ?. Inoce- ramus (impressus) D’Orb. ? Corbula (gigantea) Sby. Type, T. minor, fig. 221. T. hyalina, Pl. XXII. fig. 11. Shell sub-orbicular, ventricose, thin, translucent, surface regularly granu- lated, interior slightly nacreous ; ligament (/) external; hinge-teeth 1 or 2; umbones strengthened inside by a posterior lamina; adductor (a, a’) and pedal impressions (p) separate, slightly impressed, posterior adductor bordered by a ridge; pallial line nearly simple, sub-marginal. Animal with short siphons, the branchial largest, surrounded at their base by 18—20 tentacles, generally reflected on the shell; mantle open in front; foot long, narrow and slender. (M‘Andrew.) Distr. 5 sp. Norway, Brit. Medit. Madeira, Borneo, China. 40—150 fms. Fossil, 7 sp. Neocomian —. Brit. Belgium, France, S. India. Sub-genus ? Eucharis, Recluz; Corbula quadrata, Hinds, Guadaloupe. Sheil equivalve, obliquely keeled, gaping; beaks anterior; hinge-teeth 1—1; ligament external ; pallial line simple ; surface granulated. Panopma, Menard de la Groye. Eiym. Panopée,aNereid. Ex. P. Americana, Pl. XXTI. fig. 12. Syn. ? Pachymya (gigas) Sby. U. Greensand. Brit. France. Shell equivalve, thick, oblong, gaping at each end; ligament external, on prominent ridges; 1 prominent tooth in each valve; pallial sinus deep. Animal with very long, united siphons, invested with thick, wrinkled epidermis; pedal orifice small, foot short, thick and grooved below; gills long and narrow, extending far into the branchial siphon, the outer pair much narrower, faintly pectinated; palpi long, pointed and striated. In P. Norvegica the pallial line is broken up into a few scattered spots, as in Saxicava; the animal itself is like a gigantic Saxicava. (Haneock.) This species ranges from Ochotsk to the White Sea, Norway and N. Britain ; it was formerly an inhabitant of the Medit. where it now occurs fossil. (= P. Bivona, Phil.) The British specimens have been caught, accidentally, by the deep-water fishing-hooks. P. australis is found at Port Natal, buried in the sand at low-water; the projecting siphons first attracted attention (doubtless by the strong jets of water they sent up when molested) but the shells were only obtained by digging to the depth of several feet. The Medit. sp. P. g/ycemeris attains a length of 6 or 8 inches. Distr. 6 sp. Northern Seas, Medit. Cape, Australia, New Zealand, Pata- gonia. Low-water—90 fms. Fossil, 140 sp. Inf. Oolite —. U. States, Europe, India. 320 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Saxicava, Bellevue. tym. Sarum, stone, cavo, to excavate. S. rugosa, Pl. XXII; fig. 13. Syn. Byssomya, Cuv. Rhomboides, Bl. Hiatella (minuta) Daud. Biapholius, Leach. Arcinella (carinata) Phil. Shell vhen young symmetrical, with 2 minute teeth in each valve; adult rugose, toothless; oblong, equivalve, gaping, ligament external; pallial line sinuated, not continuous. Animal with mantle-lobes united and thickened in front; siphons large, united nearly to their ends, orifices fringed; pedal opening small, foot finger- like, with a byssal groove; palpi small, free; gills narrow, unequal, united behind and prolonged into the branchial siphon. Five genera and 15 species have been manufactured out of varieties and conditions of this Protean shell. It is found in crevices of rocks and corals, and amongst the roots of sea-weed, or burrowing in limestone and shells; at Harwich it bores in the cement stone (clay iron-stone), at Folkestone in the Kentish-rag, and the Portland stone employed in the Plymouth Breakwater has been much wasted by it. Its crypts are sometimes 6 inches deep (Couch) ; they are not quite symmetrical, and like those of the Lithodomus are in- clined at various angles, so as to invade one another, the last comers cutting quite through their neighbours; they are usually fixed by the byssus to a small projection from the side of the cell. The Saxicava ranges from low- water to 140 fathoms; it is found in the Arctic Seas, where it attains its largest size; in the Medit, at the Canaries, and the Cape. Jt occurs fossil in the Miocene tertiary of Europe and in the U. States, and in all the Glacial deposits. GiycimeERis, Lamarck. Etym. Glukus, sweet, meris, bit. Type, G. siliqua, Pl. XXII. fig. 14. Syz. Cyrtodaria, Daud. Shell oblong, gaping at each end ; posterior side shortest ; ligament large and prominent; epidermis black, extending beyond the margins; anterior muscular scar long, pallial impression irregular, slightly sinuated. Animal larger than its shell, sub-cylindrical; mantle closed, siphons united, protected by a thick envelope; orifices small; pedal opening small anterior ; foot conical; palpi large, striated inside, the posterior border plain ; gills large, extending into branchial siphon. Distr. Arctic Seas, Cape Parry, N. W. America, Newfoundland. Fossil, Miocene —. Brit. Belgium. FAMILY XIX. ANatTINIDz. Shell often inequivalve, thin ; interior nacreous ; surface granular ; liga- ment external, thin; cartilage internal, placed in corresponding pits and CONCHIFERA. 321 furnished with a free ossicle ; muscular impressions faint, the anterior elon- gated; pallial line usually sinuated. Animal with mantle margins united ; siphons long, more or less united, fringed ; gills single on each side, the outer lamina prolonged dorsally beyond the line of attachment. Pholadomya and its fossil allies have an external ligament only; Coch- lodesma and Pandora have no ossicle. The external surface of these shells is often rough with large calcarious cells, sometimes ranged in lines, and covered by the epidermis; the outer layer consists of polygonal cells, more or less sharply defined; the inner layer is nacreous. Awnatina, Lamarck. Lantern-shell. Type, A. rostrata, Pl. XXIII. fig. 7. (Anatinus, pertaining to a duck.) Syn. Laternula, Bolten M.S. Auriscalpium, Muhlf. Osteodesma, Bl. Cyathodonta (undulata) Conrad ? W. America. Shell oblong, ventricose, sub-equivalve, thin and translucent, posterior side attenuated and gaping; umbones fissured, directed backwards, supported internally by an oblique plate ; hinge with a spoon-shaped cartilage-process in each valve, furnished in front with a transverse ossicle ; pallial sinus wide and shallow. Animal with a closed mantle aud long united siphons, clothed with wrinkled epidermis; gills one on each side, thick, deeply plaited ; palpi very long and narrow; pedal opening minute, foot very small, compressed. Distr. 20 sp. India, Philippimes, New Zealand, W. America. Fossil, 50 sp. Devonian ? — Oolite —. U. States, Europe. Sub-genera. Periploma (inequivalvis) Schum. “‘ Spoon-hinge” of Petiver ; oval, inequivalve, left valve deepest ; posterior side very short and contracted. Distr. W. Indies, S. America. Cochlodesma, Couthouy, C. pretenue, Pl. XXIII. fig. 8. (Bontia, Leach MS. Ligula, Mont. part.) Oblong, compressed, thin, slightly imequi- valve; umbones fissured; cartilage processes prominent, without an ossicle ; pallial sinus deep. Animal with a broad, compressed foot ; siphons long, slender, divided throughout ; gills one on each side, deeply plaited, divided by an oblique furrow into two parts, the dorsal portion being narrower, com- posed of a single lamina only, and attached by its whole inner surface. (Han- cock.) Distr. 2 sp. U. States, Brit. Medit. Fossi/, Pliocene, Sicily. Cercomya, Agassiz. C. undulata, Sby. (= Rhynchomya, Ag.) Shelt very thin, elongated, compressed, attenuated posteriorly ; sides concentrically furrowed, umbones fissured, posterior (cardinal) area more or less defined. Fossil, 12 sp. Oolite — Neocomian; Europe. TuHRAcIA (Leach) Bl. Syn. Odoncinetus, Costa. Corimya, Ag. Rupicola (concentrica) Bellevue, 822 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Type, T. pubescens, Pl. XXIII. fig. 9. Shell oblong, nearly equivalve, slightly compressed, attenuated and gaping posteriorly, smooth or minutely scabrous ; cartilage processes thick, not pro- minent, with a crescentic ossicle; pallial sinus shallow. Outer shell layer composed of distinct, nucleated cells. Animal with the mantle closed; foot linguiform ; siphons rather long, separate, with fringed orifices; gills single, thick, plaited; palpi narrow, pointed. T. concentrica and T. distorta, Mont. are found in the crevices of rocks, and burrows of Saaicava ; they have been mistaken for boring-shells. Distr. 10 sp. Greenland, U. States, Norway, Brit. Medit. Canaries, China, Sooloo: 4—110 fms. fossil, 30 sp. (Trias ®) L. Oolite—. U. States, Europe. PuHoapomya, G. Sowerby. Recent Type, P. candida. Pl. XXII. fig. 15. I. Tortola. Shell oblong, equivalve, ventricose, gaping behind ; thin and translucent, ornamented with radiating ribs on the sides; ligament external ; hinge with one obscure tooth in each valve; pallial sinus large. Animal with a single gill on each side, thick, finely plaited, grooved along its free border, the outer lamina prolonged dorsally ; mantle with a fourth (ventral) orifice. (Owen.) . Fossil, 150 sp. Lias—. U.S. Europe, Algeria, Thibet. Homomya (hortulana) Ag. Shell thick, concentrically furrowed, without radiating ribs; 6 sp. Oolites, Europe. Myacrres (Schlotheim) Bronn. Syn. Myopsis (Jurassi) Ag. Pleuromya, Ag. Arcomya (Helvetica) Ag. Mactromya (mactroides) Ag. Anoplomya (lutraria) Krauss. Lz. M. sulcatus, Flem. (Allorisma, King, Pal. Tr. 1850, Pl. XX. fig. 5.) Shell oblong, ventricose, gaping, thin, often concentrically furrowed ; umbones anterior; surface granulated; ligament external; hinge with an obscure tooth or edentulous; muscular impressions faint ; pallial line deeply sinuated. Fossil, 50 sp. L. Silurian — L, Chalk. U.S. Europe, S. Africa. Sub-genera ? Goniomya,Ag. Mya literata, Pl. XXII. fig. 16. (Lysia- nassa, Miinster, not M. Edw.) ShelZ equivalve, thin, granulated ; ligament external, short, prominent. Fossil, 30 sp. U. Lias — Chalk. Europe. Tellinomya (nasuta) Hall; Silurian, U. S. Europe. Not characterised. ? Grammysia, Verneuil. Nucula cingulata, His. U. Silurian, Europe. Valves with a strong transverse fold extending from the umbones to the middle of the ventral margin, ? Sedgwickia (corrugata) M‘Coy. = ? Leptodomus (senilis) M‘Coy. CONCHIFERA. 823 Shell thin, ventricose, concentrically furrowed in front; escutcheon long and flat. Silurian — Carb. Europe. Crromya, Agassiz. Etym. Keraos horned, mya, mussel. Type, C. concentrica (Isocardia) Sowerby, Min. Con. 491, fig. 1. Shell Isocardia-shaped, slightly inequivalve ? very thin, granulated, often eccentrically furrowed; ligament external; hinge edentulous; right valve with an internal lamina behind the umbo; pallial line scarcely sinuated ? Fossil, 14 sp. Inf. Oolite —. Green-sand ? Europe. Sub-genus ? Gresslya (sulcosa) Ag. (Amphidesma and Unio. sp. Phil.) Shell oval, rather compressed; umbones anterior, incurved, not prominent ; valves thin, close, smooth or concentrically furrowed; pallial sinus deep. fossil, 17 sp. Lias — Portlandian. Europe. The lamina within the pos- terior hinge-margin o the right valve produces a furrow in the casts, which are more common than specimens retaining the shell. ? CanpiomorPHA, Koninck. , Type, C. oblonga (Isocardia) Sby. (not Kon.) Carb. lime. Shell Isocardia-shaped, smooth or concentrically furrowed, umbones pro- minent, hinge edentulous; hinge-margin with a narrow ligamental furrow, and an obscure internal cartilage-groove. Fossil, 38 sp. L. Silurian — Carb. N. America, Europe. Epmonpta, Koninck. Ex, KE. suleata, Ph. (T. Pal. Soc. 1850, Pl. XX. fig. 5.) Carb. Brit. Syz. Allorisma, King (part). Sanguinolites, M‘Coy (part). Shell oblong, equivalve, thin, concentrically striated, close; wmbones an- terior; ligamental grooves narrow, external; hinge-line thin, edentulous, furnished with large oblique cartilage-plates, placed beneath the umbones, and leaving space for an ossicle ? pallial line simple ? Fossil, 4sp. Carb. — Permian. Europe. Lyonsta, Turton, 1822 (not R. Brown). Syn. Magdala, Leach, 1827. Myatella, Brown. Pandorina, Scacchi. Type, L. Norvegica, Pl, XXIII. fig. 10. Shell nearly equivalve, left valve largest, thin, sub-nacreous, close, trua- cated posteriorly; cartilage plates oblique, covered by an oblong ossicle ; pallial sinus obscure, angular. Structure intermediate between Pandora and Anatina ; outer layer composed of definite polygonal cells. Animal with the mantle closed ; foot tongue-shaped, grooved, byssiferous ; siphons very short, united nearly throughout, fringed; lips large, palpi narrow, triangular. Distr. 9 sp. Greenland, N. Sea, Norway, W. Indies, Madeira, India, Borneo, Philippines, Peru. 243 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. L. Norvegica ranges from Norway to the sea of Ochotsk; in 15—80 fms. Fossil ? Miocene —. Europe. (100 sp. L. Sil. —. D’Orb.) ? Entodesma (Chilensis) Phil. Shel/ thin, saxicava-shaped, slightly in- equivalve and gaping, covered with thick epidermis; hinge edentulous; each valve with a semi-circular process containing the cartilage. Panpora (Solander) Brug. Type, P. rostrata, Pl. XXIII. fig. 11. (Pandora, the Grecian Eve.) Shell inequivalve, thin, pearly inside; valves close, attenuated behind ; right valve flat, with a diverging ridge and cartilage furrows; left valve convex, with two diverging grooves at the hinge ; pallial line slightly sinuated. Outer layer of regular, vertical, prismatic cells,-250 times smaller than those of Pinna (fig. 260). (Carpenter.) Animal with mantle closed, except a small opening for the narrow, tongue-shaped foot; siphons very short, united nearly throughout, ends diverging, fringed; palpi triangular, narrow; gills plaited, one on each side, with a narrow dorsal border. Distr. 13 sp. U. States, Spitzbergen, Jersey, Canaries, India, N. Zealand, Panama: 4—110 fms. burrowing in sand and mud. Fossil, 4 sp. Eocene —. U. States, Brit. Myapora, Gray. Type, M. brevis, Pl. XXIII, fig. 12. Shell trigonal. rounded in front, attenuated and truncated behind; riglit valve convex, left flat; imterior pearly; cartilage narrow, triangular, between 2 tooth-like ridges in the left valve, with a free sickle-shaped ossicle; pallial line sinnated: structure like Avatina; outer cells large, rather prismatic. Distr. 10 sp. N. Zealand, N. S. Wales, Philippines. Myocuama, Stutchbury. Type, M. anomioides, P]. XXIII. fig. 13. Shell inequivalve, attached by the dextral valve and modified by form of surface of attachment; posterior side attenuated; left valve gibbose; carti- lage internal, between 2 tooth-like projections in each valve, and furnished with a moveable ossicle; anterior muscular impression eurved, posterior rounded, pallial sinus small. Animal with mantle-lobes united; pedal opening and siphons surrounded by separate areas; siphons distinct, unequal, small, slightly fringed; a minute fourth orifice close to the base of the branchial siphon; visceral mass large, foot small and conical; mouth rather large, upper lip hood-like; palpi tapering, few-plaited; gills one on each side, triangular, plaited, divided by an oblique line into two portions; excurrent channels 4, 2 at the base of the gills and two below the dorsal lamine. (Hancock, An. Nat. Hist. 1853.) - , ‘ 4 5 CONCHIFERA. 325 Distr. 3 sp. New South Wales; attached to Crassatella and Trigonia, in 8 fm. water; the fry (as indicated by the umbones) is free, regular, and Myadora-shaped. CuamostTREA, Roissy. Type, C. albida, Pl. XXIII. fig. 14. Sym. Cleidothzrus, Stutch. Shell inequivalve, chama-shaped, solid, attached by the anterior side of the deep and strongly-keeled dextral valve; umbones anterior, sub-spiral ; left valve flat, with a conical tooth in front of the cartilage ; cartilage internal, with an oblong, curved ossicle; muscular impressions large and rugose, the anterior very long-and narrow; pallial line simple. Animal with mantle-lobes united by their extreme edge between the pedal orifice and siphons ; pedal opening small, with a minute ventral orifice behind it; siphons a little apart, very short, denticulated ; body oval, terminating in a small, compressed foot; lips bilobed, palpi disunited, rather long and ob- tusely pointed; gills one on each side, large, oval, deeply plaited, prolonged in front between the palpi, united posteriorly; each gill traversed by an oblique furrow, the dorsal portion consisting of a single lamina with a free margin. (Hancock, An. Nat. Hist. Feb. 1853.) Distr. 1 sp. New South Wales. FAMILY XX. GastrrRocHANID#. Shell equivalve, gaping; valves thin, edentulous, united by a ligament, sometimes cemented toa shelly tube when adult; adductor impressions 2, pallial line sinuated. Animal elongated, truncated in front, produced behind into two very long, united, contractile siphons, with cirrated orifices; mantle-inargins very thick in front, united, leaving a small opening for the finger-like foot; gills narrow, prolonged into the branchial siphon. The shell-fish of this family, the ¢adicolide of Lamarck, are burrowersin mud or stone. They are often gregarious, living in myriads near low-water line, but are extracted from their abodes with difficulty. GaASTROCHENA, Spengler, 17£3. Type, G. modiolina, Pl. XXITI. fig. 15. (Gaster, ventral, chena, gape.) Shell regular, wedge-shaped, umbones anterior ; gaping widely in front, close behind ; ligament narrow, external; pallial sinus deep. Animal with mantle closed, and thickened in front; foot finger-like, grooved, sometimes byssiferous, siphons long, separate only at their extre- mities; lips simple, palpi sickle-shaped, gills unequal, prolonged freely into the branchial siphon. G. modiolina perforates shells and limestone ; its holes are regular, about 326 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. 2 inches deep and 3 inch diameter; the external orifice is hour-glass shaped, and lined with a shelly layer which projects slightly. When burrowing in oyster-shells it often passes quite through into the ground below, and then completes its abode by cementing such loose material as it finds into a flask-shaped case, having its neck fixed in the oyster-shell; in some fossil species the siphons were more separated, and the flasks have two diverging necks. The siphonal orifices are rarely 4-lobed ; Pl. XXIII. fig. 15 a. Distr. 10 sp. W. Indies, Brit. Canaries, Medit. Red Sea, India, Mauri- tius, Pacific Ids. Gallapagos, Panama :—30 fms. Fossil, 20 sp. Inf. Oolite —. U. States, Europe. Sub-genus. Chena, Retz. 1788. C. mumia. Pl. XXIII. fig. 16. (= Fistulana clava, Lam.) Shedd elongated, contained within a shelly tube ; posterior adductor nearly central, with a pedal scar in front; siphonal inflec- tion angular, with its apex joining the pallial line. Tube round, straight; tapering upwards, transversely striated, closed at the lower end when com- plete, and furnished with a perforated diaphragm behind the valves. Disér. Madagascar, India, Philippines, Australia; burrowing in sand or mud. Fossil, Inf. Oolite —. U.S. Europe, S. India. CLAVAGELLA, Lamarck. Ex. C, bacillaris, Pl. XXIII. fig. 17. Shell oblong, valves flat, often irregular or rudimentary, the left cemented to the side of the burrow, when adult, the right always free; anterior mus- cular impression small, posterior large, pallial line deeply sinuated. Tube cylindrical, more or less elongated, sometimes divided by a longitudinal par- tition; often furnished with a succession of siphonal fringes above, and terminating below in a disk, with a minute central fissure, and bordered with branching tubuli, Animal with the mautle closed in front, except a minute slit for the foot, and furnished with tentacular processes; palpi long and slender; gills 2 on each side, elongated, narrow (floating freely in the branchial siphon ?) Some specimens of the recent C. aperta have 3 frills to their tubes, and C. bacillaris has twice that number occasionally. They are formed by the siphonal orifices when the animal continues elongating, after having fixed its valve and ceased to burrow ; or perhaps, in some instances, when it is com- pelled to lengthen its tubes upwards by the accumulation of sediment. Brocchi mentions that on breaking the tube of the fossil C. echinata, he sometimes found the shell of a Saxicava or Petricola beside the loose valve of the Clavagella, into whose tube they must have entered after its death. C. elongata is found in coral; C. australis lives at low tide, and spirts out water when alarmed. Distr. 6 sp. Medit. Australia, Pacific:—11 fms. Fossil, 138 sp. U. Green-sand —. Brit. Sicily, S. India, rae) CONCHIFERA. 327 ASPERGILLUM, Lam. Watering-pot shell. Type, A. vaginiferum, Pl. XXIII. fig. 18. Syz. Clepsydra, Schum. Shell small, equilateral, cemented to the lower end of a shelly tube, the umbones alone visible externally ; tube elongated, closed below by a perfo- rated disk with a minute central fissure; siphonal end plain or ornamented with (1—8) ruffles. Animal elongated; mantle closed, thickened and fringed with filaments in front ; foot conical, anterior, opposed to a minute slit in the mantle; palpi lanceolate ; gills long, narrow, united posteriorly, continued into and attached to the branchial siphon. Distr. 4 sp. Red Sea, Java, Australia, N. Zealand; in sand. Fossil, 1 sp. (A? Leognanum, Hening. JMzocene, Bordeaux.) FAMILY XXI, PuHorapipsz. Shell gaping at both ends; thin, white, brittle and exceedingly hard ; armed in front with rasp-like imbrications; without hinge or ligament, but often strengthened externally by accessory valves ; hinge-plate reflected over the umbones, and a long curved muscular process beneath each; anterior muscular impression on the hinge-plate; pallial sinus very deep. Animal club-shaped, or worm-like; foot short and truncated; mantle closed in front, except the pedal orifice; siphons large, elongated, united nearly to their ends; orifices fringed; gills narrow, prolonged into the ex- halent siphon, attached throughout, closing the branchial chamber; palpi long; anterior shell-muscle acting as substitute for a ligament. The Pholadide perforate all substances that are softer than their own valves (p. 242);* the burrows of Pholas are vertical, quite symmetrical, and seldom in contact. The ship-worms (Zeredines) also make symmetrical per- forations, and however tortuous and crowded never invade each other, guided either by the sense of hearing or by the yielding of the wood. The burrow * M. Cailliaud has proved that these valves are quite equal to the work of boring in limestone, by imitating the natural conditions as nearly as possible, and making such a hole with them. Mr. Robertson also, has kept the living Pholades in blocks of chalk, by the sea-side at Brighton, and has watched the progress of the work. They turn from side to side never going more than half-round in their burrow, and cease to work as soon as the hole is deep enough to shelter them; the chalk powder is ejected at intervals by spasmodic contractions from the branchial siphon, the space between the shell and burrow being filled with this mud. (Journ. Conch. 1853, p. 31].; Itis to be remarked that the condition of the Pholades is always related to the nature of the material in which they are found burrowing; in soft sea beds they attain the largest size and greatest perfection, whilst in hard, and especially gritty rock, they are dwarfed in size and all prominent points and ridges appear worn by friction. No notice has been taken of the hypothesis which ascribes the perforation of rocks, &c., to ciliary action, because, in fact, there is no current between the shell or siphons and the wall of the tube. 328 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. has frequently a calcarious lining, within which the shell remains free; Teredina cements its valves to this tube when full-grown... The, opening of the burrow, at first very minute, may become enlarged progressively by the friction of the siphons, whieh are furnished with a rough epithelium; but it usually widens with much more rapidity by the wasting of the surface. As the timber decomposes the shelly tubes of the Teredo project, and as the beach wears away the phodas burrows deeper. Puotas, L. Piddock. Etym. Pholas, a burrowing shell-fish, from pholeo, to bore. Type, P. dactylus, fig. 222... Ex. P. Bakeri, Pl. XXIII. fig. 19. Shell elongated, cylindrical; dorsal margin protected by accessory valves ; pallial sinus reaching the centre of the shell. Animal with a large truncated foot, filling the pedal opening; body with a fin-like termination; combined siphons large, cylindrical, with fringed orifices. eR The common piddock is used for bait on the Devon coast; its foot is white and translucent when fresh, like a piece of ice; the hyaline stylet (p. 29) lodged in it, is large and curious. P. costata is sold in the market of Havannah, where it is aw article of food. Fig 22. Pholas dactylus. Chalk, Sussex Coast. u, umbonal valves; p, post-umbonal valve; d, dorsal valve. P. dactylus has two accessory valyes to protect the umbonal muscle, with a small transverse plate behind; a long unsymmetrical plate fills up the space between the valves in the dorsal region. P. candida and parva have a single umbonal shield, and no dorsal plate; these differences are only of © specific value. In P. crispata, L. (Zizfea, Leach) the umbonal shield is not distinctly calcified, but there is a small posterior plate; the surface of the valves is divided into two areas by a transverse furrow. Distr. 25 sp. U. S. Norway, Brit. W. Africa, Medit. Crimea, India, Australia, N. Zealand, W. America :—25 fms. Fossil, 25 sp. (U. Lias —) Eocene —. U. States, Europe. The secondary species belong to the next group. Re CONCHIFERA. 329 PHOLADIDEA, Turton, 1819. Type, P. papyracea, Pl. XXIII. fig. 20. Shell globose-oblong, with a transverse furrow; anterior gape large, closed in the adult by a callous plate; 2 minute accessory valves in front of the beaks. Animal with a fringed disk at the end of the combined siphons, and a horny cup at their base. Distr. 6 sp. Brit. N. Zealand, Ecuador. Low-tides—10 fms. Sub-genera. Martesia (Leach) Bl. 1825. M. striata, Pl. XXIII. fig. 21 Valves lengthened behind, when full grown, by a plain border; umbonal valves 1 or 2; dorsal and ventral margins often with narrow accessory valves. 10 sp. W. Indies, Africa, India. JZ. s¢rzata burrows in hard timber. MM. terediniformis was found in cakes of floating wax on the coast of Cuba. (G. B. Sby.) MM. australis in (fossil ?) resin, on the coast of Australia. MM, rivicola in timber 12 miles from the sea, in Borneo. M. scutata, Eocene, Paris, lines its burrow with shell. Jouannetia (semicaudata) Desm. (Pholadopsis, Conrad; Triomphalia, Sby.) ShelZ very short, sub-globose; right valve longest behind: anterior opening closed by a callous plate developed from the left valve overlapping the margin of the right valve, and fixed to the single tnsymmetrical umbonal plate. Distr. 3 sp. Philippines, W. America. ossz/, Miocene —. France, Parapholas, Conrad, P. bisuleata, Pl. XXIII. fig. 22. Valves with 2 radiating furrows. Distr. 4sp. California, Panama, Torres Strts. XybLopHaGa, Turton, Etym. Xulon, wood, phago, to eat. Types, X. dorsalis, Pl. XXIII. fig. 23; X. globosa, Sby. Valparaiso. Shell globular, with a transverse furrow; gaping in front. closed behind ; pedal processes short and curved; anterior margins reflected, covered by 2 small accessory valves; burrow oval, lined with shell. Animal included within the valves, except the slender contractile siphons, which are furnished with pectinated ridges, and divided at the end; foot thick, very extensile. Distr. 2 sp. Norway, Brit.S. America. ores an inch deep, and across the grain, in floating wood, and timbers which are always covered by the sea. TEREDO (Pliny) Adanson. Type, T. Norvegica, Pl. XXIII. figs. 26, 27. Syz. Septaria, Lam. Shell globular, open in front and behind, lodged at the inner extremity of a burrow partly or entirely lined with shell; valves 3 lobed, concentrically striated, and with one transverse furrow; hinge-margins reflected in front marked by the anterior muscular impressions; umbonal cavity with a long curved muscular process, 330 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. PR ay te LOM) yy Ley hy ‘ LAT PPT Fig, 223. Ship-worm, Teredo Norvegica, removed from its burrow. Animal worm-like; mantle-lobes united, thickened in front, with a minute pedal opening; foot sucker-like, with a foliaceous border; viscera in- cluded in the valves, heart not pierced by the intestine; mouth with palpi; gills long, cord-like, extending into the siphonal tube; siphons very long, united nearly to the end, attached at the bifurcation and furnished with 2 shelly pallets or styles; orifices fringed. T. navalis is ordinarily a foot long, sometimes 23 feet; it destroys soft wood rapidly, and teak and oak do not escape; it always bores in the direc- tion of the grain unless it meets the tube of another Yeredo, or a knot in the timber.* In 1731-2 it did great damage to the piles in Holland, and caused still more alarm ; metal sheathing, and broad-headed iron nails have been found most effectual in protecting piers and ship-timbers. The Teredo was first recognised as a bivalve mollusc by Sellius, who wrote an elaborate treatise on the subject, in 1733. (Forbes.) T. corniformis, Lam. is found burrowing in the husks of cocoa-nuts and other woody fruits floating in the tropical seas; its tubes are extremely crooked and contorted, for want of space. The fossil wood and palm-fruits (Nipadites) of Sheppy and Brabant are mined in the same way. ‘The tube of the giant Teredo (Z. arenaria, Rumph. Furcella, Lam.) is often a yard long and 2 inches in its greatest diameter; when broken across it presents a radi- ating prismatic structure. The siphonal end is divided lengthwise, and some- times prolonged into two diverging tubes. TZ. Norvegica and T. denticulata are divided longitudinally and also concamerated by numerous, incomplete transverse partitions, at the posterior extremity. T. bipalmulata (Xylotrya, Leach) has the siphonal pallets elongated and penniform (Pl. XX1IT. fig. 28); a species with similar styles occurs in the fossil wood of the Green-sand of Blackdown. Distr. 14 sp. Norway, Brit. Black Sea; Tropics:—119 fms. Fossil, 24 sp. Lias —. U. States, Europe. Sub-genus, Teredina, Lam. T. personata, Pl. XXIII. figs. 24, 25. Eocene, Brit. France. Valves with an accessory plate in front of the um- bones; free when young, united by their margins to the shelly tube when adult. The tube is sometimes concamerated; its siphonal end is often trun- cated; and the opening contracted by a lining which makes it hour-glass shaped, or six-lobed (fig. 25a.). * The operations of the Teredo suggested to Mr. Brunel his method of tunneing the Thames. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA; RUDIMENTARY TREATISE OF RECENT AND FOSSIL SHELLS. BY 5S. P. WOODWARD, F-.G:S, ASSOCIATE OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY ; ASSISTANT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM; AND MEMBER OF THE COTTESWOLDE NATURALISTS’ CLUB. ! ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND WOODCUTS. Aged cy Mae 2 CONTAINING THE TUNICATA; GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, ETC.; SUPPLEMENT, AND INDEX. LONDON: JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBORN. MDCCCLYVI; LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM OSTELL, HART STREET, BLOOMSBURY. A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. PART IT. CLASS VI. TUNICATA, Lamarck. (Order Hetero-branchiata, Bainville. ) The lowest order of Acephalous Mollusca are called Twzicaries, being protected by an elastic tunic in place of a shell. They are extremely unlike shell-fish in appearance, and are denied a place in most works on conchology ; having no hard skeleton they neither furnish objects for the cabinet of the collector, nor materials for the speculations of the geologist.* Many of the Tunicaries are curious objects when seen fresh from the sea ; or still better when living in those miniature aquaria, which—thanks to Mr. Gossz—are now so popular.+ The transparent sorts are beautiful even when preserved in spirits. To the naturalist they present many points of in- ferest unknown amongst the other mollusca, for here he meets with com- pound animals, and the phenomenon of alternate generation; they afford excellent illustrations of the structure of the breathing-organ and mechanism of aquatic respiration; and they also exhibit the simplest form and condition of the vascular system, in which the blood no longer circulates in one un- varying direction, but ebbs and flows like the tides.t (pp. 31, 49.) The principal forms of tunicated mollusca are given in plate 24, and the woodcut (fig. 224) represents one of the largest and simplest kind, which is drawn as if it were transparent, so as to shew the whole of its internal structure. These large solitary tunicaries are termed Ascidians, from their * Konig supposed the Sphaeronites to be tunicaries allied to Bollenia; they are globular bodies, with a tessellated surface and two orifices, found in the Silurian strata, and belong to the order Cystideae amongst the Echinodermaia. ‘The genus Eschadites of Kénig was also supposed to be a fossil tunicary ; its nature is still pro- _blematical. See Murchison’s ‘ Siluria.” + At the gardens of the London Zoological Society there are examples of Ascidiwm and Cynthia, the compound and starlike Bofry/lus (pl. 24. fig. 8) and a delicate little pearly Clavel/ina, whose presence was first detected by Mr. Tennent the intelligent and obliging keeper of the aquarium. { In Appendicularia Mr. Huxley finds no reversal of the current. Q 332 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. resemblance to a water-skin, or small leather bottle (ascidium). They attain a length of several inches, and are fixed to rocks or shingle, or sea- weed, but sometimes so slightly that they are brought up detached, and yet uninjured, by the dredge. Their appearance is sufliciently unpromising ; their surface often rugged or concealed by adhering sand and fragments of shell ; sea-weeds grow upon them, and small bivalves (crezedla) burrow in their tunic. They are hollow and elastic, and have two orifices, from which (especially the terminal opening), they squirt water, as the bivalve shell-fish do when molested. If the soft outer shell (¢’) is opened there will be found inside a second tunic (#) which is compared to the mantle of the bivalves; it is extremely muscular, the fibres circling round it closely, espe- cially near the orifices, whilst some others are oblique and longitudinal. The mantle lines the tunic, but is only slightly at- tached to it at the two orifices, and at those points where the blood-vessels pass through.* During life the outer tunic follows the contractions of the muscular mantle; and when the latter relaxes, the tunic returns to its original shape by virtue of its elasticity. But when preserved in spirit the mantle contracts to such an extent as to tear itself away from the tunic, and if such a specimen is opened the muscular sac looks like a little tunicary quite loose within the large one. Within this a () having only one external orifice by which it is suspended, a little within the terminal (or exhalent) opening of the outer tunics ; as its texture is porous the water passes through it readily into the mantle cavity, and thence by the second * In the thick pellucid test of Ascidium mamillatum the eye can discern an exten- sive network of vascular ramifications. The blood- vessels enter the test near the base. In the closely allied genus Cynthia there is no such vascular connexion, but the mantle is more strongly united to the test at the orifices ; in Chelysoma the tunics are extensively united by muscular fibres. (Rupert Jones ) The relation between the Ascidian test and mantle is that of the epidermis to the cutis vera, precisely as in the lameliibranchiate bivalves; the union of the two in the majority of Ascidians is ex- ceedingly intimate in the fresh state. (Hualey.) + Fig. 224, Ascidium monachus; ‘in, incurrent; ez. excurrent orifice; f’. outer unic; ¢. muscular tunic; 6. branchial sac; 0. tentacular fringe; g. nervous ganglion ; TUNICATA, 333 outlet (ex.) At the bottom of the Jranchial sac is the animal’s mouth (m) or commencement of the digestive canal, which ends (at a), near the second external orifice. This digestive system is accompanied by other organs: forming the body of the animal, but it appears only like a thickening of one side of the muscular tunic. If the animai presenting this organization be compared with the mussel (represented in fig. 30* p. 53,) or the mya (fig. 170, p. 244), it will be seen that each has a test lined by a mantle and furnished with an inhalent and an exhalent orifice; in each the respiratory cavity is separated from the channel of the out-going current by a sieve-like breathing organ, and in each the currents are produced and food brought to the mouth by*microscopie cilia fringing the pores of the gill. The inhalent orifice of each is guarded by tentacles developed from the mantle,* and the exhalent opening is often furnished with a valve to prevent a reversal of the current when the animal expands after one of its occasional spasmodic contractions. These points of analogy are so obvious and striking, as to have induced many naturalists to believe in a very close relationship between the Ascidians and bivalve shell-fish. We must, however, hesitate before we assume that the organs which perform identical functions, are themselves identical, (“homo- logous.”) Mr. Hancock has pointed out (in the excellent memoir just referred to,) that the branchial sac of the Ascidian is not the anatomical equivalent of the gills of mya, but a portion of the alimentary canal ;+ and that the peculiarities of their circulation and mode of reproduction are more in harmony with what obtains amongst the higher zoophytes (Jryoxoa). A similar view is expressed by M. Milne Edwards in his memoir on the Composite Ascidians.¢ These statements are referred to more particularly, since of late years an . v’. referring to the space between the mantle and the branchial sac, indicate the dorsal and ventral sinuses of Milne-Edwards; m. mouth, at the bottom of the branchial Sac ; s. stomach, plaited lengthways; 7, intestine, lying between the brachial sac and muscular tunic, on the further side; a, termination of the intestine; r, reproductive organ, ending in the cloaca. * These tentacular filaments are not anatomically connected with the branchial sac as supposed by Farre and Owen. See Hancock on the Anatomy of the Freshwater Bryozoa. An. Nat. Hist. vol. V. p. 196. + Dr. Farre compared the Ascidian gill to the pharynx of the bryozoa; but M, Van Beneden and Mr. Hancock consider it homologous with the circle of oral ten- tacles in the retracted or undeveloped bryozoon. T The Ascidians have less intimate analogies with the Mollusca, properly so called than is usually believed. They resemble, itis true, these animals in the arrangement of their digestive apparatus, and in some peculiarities of the respiratory system; but they depart from the Molluscan type in mode of circulation, in the metamorphosis Which the fry undergo, and above all, in the singular power which most of them possess, of multiplying by gemmation. In these iatter characters, so very important in a physiological point of view, they closely approach the polypes. (Milne-Edwards, Mem. Inst., France, 1842.) Q2 334 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. opinion has been gaining ground with anatomists that not only the tunicaries, but the Jryoxoa, (or Ascidian Zoophytes of Dr. Johnston) should be regarded as mollusce; this view was recommended by Prof. Forbes, though not adopted by him, and is advocated by Prof. Allman and Mr. Huxley. Those who have only seen the horn-coloured sea-weeds such as Plustra and Notamia, drifted by the wind on the sea-beach, may have admired their minute lace-work or chain-like cells, without ouce dreaming they were ex- amining compound animals—shell-fish, anatomically considered. But the minute polypes which studded these zoophytes when alive, were undoubtedly as active, and in some respects as highly organized as the lower mollusca. The question is Whether their organization is of the same kind, or fype, as the molluscan, and in this respect their claims are nearly on a parallel with these of the Tunicata. The relation of the dryozoa is to the Terebratulae, as shown in their oral apparatus and muscular system (Hancock), but they have neither heart, arteries or veins, and the nutrient fluid is contained in the com- mon visceral cavity. The ciliated gemmules of the bryozoa are not, however, more unlike molluscan larvee* than are the tadpole-shaped fry of the tunicaries. efore proceeding further with the description of the tunicaries, we are glad to avail ourselves of a diagram by Mr. Huxley, which will make it more intelligible. S Ys W/m \ Gis. Uff > \\ We iif A= Wee UMMM 225, Longitudinal, 226, Transverse section. in. inhalent orifice; ex. exhalent oriflee; 6. branchial sac; ¢. atrium (‘ thoracic chamber” of Milne Edwards) ; 0, tentacular filaments; gy, nerve ganglion and auditory vesicle; d, thoracic vessel, (hypo-pharyngeal band); v v’, great vascular sinuses ; 7’, test; muscular mantle; e, endostyle; s, stomach; a, intestine; 2, position of heart. The shading is accidently omitted on asmall portion of the test by the letter g; the branchial sac (b) is connected with the wall of the atrium by (branchio-parietal) vessels crossing the cavity c, ¢. * The embryo of antiopa (p. 196) is bell-shaped at first, with a fringe of long cilia round therim which afterwards becomes the two-lobed velum. - TUNICATA. 335 In these figures the outer circle represents the test (¢’) lined by the muscular mantle (¢). The branchial sac in the centre (4) is perforated by a few large openings which are fringed with ci/ia ; the arrows mark the direc- tion of the respiratory currents which enter at the dral opening, passs through the branchial sac into the atrium or “thoracic chamber” (c ¢) and escape by the anal orifice (ez). The alriwm does not exist in the embryo; it is formed by an inflection of the tunics, and its ultimate extent varies in different genera. At first the whole space between the mantle and viscera is a common vascular sizws, as in the dryozoa, but the formation of the atrium divides it into two portions, one lining the mantle, the other investing the alimentary canal. The outer portion, or parictal sinus, is further subdivided by the union of its walls at definite points, leaving spaces and channels of various sizes and degrees of regularity. Of these, the principal are the dorsal and ventral sinuses (v v’) communicating by transverse channels.* The lower part of the alimentary canal continues surrounded by a vascular space termed the peri-intestinal sinus, whilst the pharyngeal portion with its vascular envelope becomes perforated to form the branchial sac.t It has been mentioned that the branchial openings are microscopic and innumerable in the solitary ascid- ians, whilst they are comparatively few and large in the social and compound species. In Sa/pa the branchial sac is so much reduced that the respiratory process must be exercised chiefly by the vascular lining of the mantle itself. The heart is near the posterior or fixed end of the body; it is elongated, and slightly muscular, open at each end, and contracts progressively like the dorsal vessel of the anellides, the direction of its contractions being periodically reversed. The nervous system consists of filaments connected with a single ganglion placed in the sinus between the external orifices.; The organs of special sense are an auditory capsule sometimes containing an otolithe, (fig. 225. g) and coloured spots, supposed to be rudimentary eyes, placed between the segments of the outer openings. The zeural side, or that on which the nerve-ganglion is placed, should be considered ventral in these as in other invertebrate animals; and the haemal side, where the heart is situated, ought to be regarded as dorsal.§ ‘The * See the figure of Salpa, Pl. 24, fig. 22. The thick black lines represent the sinuses; the heart is near the lower end of the figure, outside the virceral nucleus. The sinuses have no visible lining membrane but resemble those already referred to (pp. 31, 198) as existing in all classes of mollusea. + The resemblance of the pharyngeal sac of the tunicaries to the gills of fishes was pointed out by Mr. Goodsir in his memoir on the Lancelet (amphioxus). t In Plate 24, the position of the nervous ganglion is indicated in several instances bya small star. § Milne-Edwards has employed these terms in an opposite sense, apparently 836 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. first flexure of the intestinal canal in the tunicaries is always to the haemal side, but it is usually turned again in the opposite direction. The food of the ascidiaus, judging by the contents of their stomachs, consists chiefly of minute particles of the articulated sea-weeds and diato- macee; and it is a remarkable eircumstance that the outer tunic of these animals contains ce//wlose, a ternary organic substance formerly sup- posed to be peculiar to vegetables.* They also contain radiated concretions, sometimes silicious, but more frequently calearious, like the bodies found in alcyonium and gorgonia. All the Tunicata appear to possess the power of reproduetion by buds—or gemmation; but in one group the individuals, however produced, become entirely distict, in another they remain connected by a vaseular eanal, and in a third they become blended into a common mass. These three groups are the “solitary,” “social,” and ‘‘ compound ascidians ” of Milne- Edwards; these are all fixed in their adult state, whilst the two remaining families swim freely in the open sea, Pyrosoma being compound, and Sa/pa alternately aggregated and solitary. The separate individuals of these com- posite masses are termed Zoids. The sexes are united in all the Tunicata but Doliolum and Appendi- cularia. ‘The young produced from eggs undergoa metamorphosis, which has been observed in many genera. The larvae are shaped like the tadpole of the frog; the body is oval and furnished with black eye specks, short tentacular processes, and a long tail by the vibrations of which they swim (Pl. 24, fig. 18). Ultimately they fix themselves, the tail is absorbed, and the young ascidian, or first zoid of a compound tunicary, is developed. The ¢unicata are found in all seas, from low-water to a considerable depth. Four genera are pelagic, and several belong to the Arctic province viz., Boltenia, Chelyosoma, Syneecium and Cystingia. Mr. Huxley divides the 'Tunicaries into three groups— 1. Ascidia Branchiales. Branchial sac occupying the whole, or nearly the whole, length of the body; intestine lying on one side of it. (Asezdiadae —Perophora—Botryllus—Pyrosomt.) 2. Ascidia Intestinales. Alimentary canal completely behind the bran- chial sac, which is comparatively small. (Other genera.) 3. Ascidia Larvales. Permament larval form. (Appendicularia.)t guided by the analogy of the ganglionic side of the tunicata to the dorsal region of the lamellibranchiata. Still more confusion exists in the employment of the terms anterior and posterior; the inhalent orifice is anterior if compared with the mouth of a polype, but Milne-Edwards makes it posterior. * Discovered by Dr. Schmidt, in 1845. The observation has been confirmed by M. M. Léwig and Kolliker, and by M. Payen, who gives the followiug as the chemical composition of the ascidian tunic;—Cellulose 60.34, azotised matter 27.00, inorganic 12.66. The cellulose portion is not acted upon by soda or hydrochloric acid. + See Knight’s ‘ English Cyclopedia,” article MoLLusca. TUNICATA. 337 FAMILY I. Ascrprapar.- Simple Ascidians. Animal simple, fixed; solitary or gregarious; oviparous ; sexes united ; branchial sac simple or disposed in (8—18) deep and regular folds. The simple ascidians were called ¢e¢hya and well described in Aristotle’s History of Animals.* Many of them are esteemed as articles of food in Brazil, China and the Mediterranean; at Cette they are regularly taken to market ; and Cynthia microcosmus; furnishes a-delicate morsel, much sought after. Ascrip1um, Baster 1764. Sea-squirt. Htym. Diminutive of ashos, a skin-bottle. Syn, Alina, Risso: Phallusia, Pirena, Ciona, Savigny. Hx. A monachus, Cuv. fig. 224, Tenby. Body sessile, covered with a coriaceous or gelatinous tunic; branchial orifice 8-lobed, furnished inside with a circle of simple tentacular filaments ; anal 6-lobed ; branchial sac not plaited, its meshes papillated. The ascidia vary in length from 1 inch to 5 or 6 inches. The test is pale and semitransparent, the inner tunic orange or crimson, or sometimes marbled with crimson and white ; the ocelli are red, or yellow with a central red spot. The surface of 4. echinatum is studded with conical papillae, each with 4—7 radiating bristles. The ascidia range from low-water to 20 fathoms, attached to rocks, shells, and fuci. Distr. Greenland, Spitzbergen, U. States, Europe, (especially in the north), Brit. 19 sp. Medit. New Zealand. Mo.ueuta, Forbes. Hiym. Diminutive of molgos, a bag of skin. Ez. M. arenosa, A. and H. (not M. tubulosa Rathke), Pl. 24, fig. 1. Body more or less globular, attached or free ; test membranous, usually invested with extraneous matter; orifices on very contractile, naked tubes ; oral opening 6-lobed, anal 4-lobed. M. arenosa is found in the muddy lochs and bays of the west of Scot- land; it comes up in the dredge like a little ball of sand. At Tenby it occurs between tide-marks, and in the laminarian zone. M. oculata was dredged, adhering to a scallop, in 25 fathoms, off Plymouth ; its orifices are like dark eyes ina spectacle-formed frame. (Forbes). Distr. 3 sp. Denmark, Brit. * Linnaeus used the name Jethyum for the Tunicaries in the earlier editions of his ‘‘ Systema Naturae,” and recognising their resemblence to the bivalves, called the animal of the latter ‘‘a tethys.” Afterwards he adopted Baster’s name Ascidium, and used Tethys for a nudibranche; Yethya (Lam.) is now e ployed ior a genus of globular sponges. t So called from the little world of parasites that ofter grow upon it. 338 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Cynrui, Savigny, 1816. Jityn. A name of Diana, from Mt. Cynthos, Delos. Syn. Stycla (pomaria) Sav. Caesira (quadridentata) Sav. Hx, C. papillosa, Pl. 24, fig 2. a Body coriaceous, sessile, orifices 4-lobed, branchial sac plaited longitu- dinally, surmounted by a circle of tentacular filaments; ovaries two. Sub-genera. Dendrodoa (glandaria) Mc Leay. Sub-cylindrical, smooth; orifices terminal, minute ; ovary single, on left side. Pandocia (mytiligera) Sav. Right ovary only developed. Distr. Norway—Medit. Sometimes on sand and very slightly attached ; or on oysters, stones and sea-weed, from low-water to 30 fathoms. Occa- sionally gregarious in vast numbers, forming large bunches in consequence of the interlacing of their root-fibres. The test is often orange-coloured or crimson. The branchial sac, in this and the following genera, is thrown into deep folds to increase its extent of surface. Greenland, Brit. 14 sp. PELON#A, Forbes and Goodsir. tym. Pelos, mud, naio to inhabit. Ex. P. glabra, Pl. 24, fig. 3. Rothesay bay; 7 fms. Body elongated, cylindrical, smooth or wrinkled; orifices terminal 4-cleft, on two small conical eminences ; posterior end blunt pointed, villose with fine rootlets; mantle adherent to the test; no tentacles; ovaries 2» symmetrical. Distr. 2 sp. N. Brit. Norway (Me Andrew and Barrett). Pelonea resembles Stpunculus, one of the worm-like Echinoderms, ix appearance. It is not free, but rooted in mud and quite as apathetic as the other ascidians.* ' CuEtyosoma, Broderip and Sby. Ltym. Chelyon tortoise-shell, soma body. Type, C. Macleayanum, Pl. 24, fig. 4. Greenland. Body depressed, oblong; test coriaceous, its upper surface composed of § polygonal plates; orifices small, prominent, 6-valved ; gills plaited; ten- tacles simple. Bo rent, Sav. Named after Dr. Bolten, a Hamburgh naturalist. Syn. ? Bi-papillaria, Lam. 1816. Australia. fz. B. pedunculata, Pl. 24, fig. 5. Body globular, pedunculated ; test coriaceous, orifices lateral, 4-cleft ; branchial sac longitudinally plaited ; tentacles compound. * Pelonza is not so extraordinary as at first supposed. The very erroneous statement at p. 32, lines 27, 28, should be erased. TUNICATA. 339 The young Bolteniae sometimes grow on the stem of the parent. The branchial orifice is nearest the stalk, but as the body is pendulous it becomes higher than the other opening, as usual amongst the ascidians. (Rupert Jones.) B. reniformis, Mc L. lives attached to stones in deep water; it is sometimes brought up by the fishing hooks. (Gould.) Elizabeth harbour, 70 fms. (Ross.) Distr, N. Zealand; Greenland, (B. ovifera—Vorticella, L.) Mass. U. S. Sub-genus ? Cystingia (Griffithi) Mc Leay, 1824. Arctic seas, Felix harbour aud Fox’s channel. Zest sub-coriaceous, anal orifice irregular, terminal. FAMILY II. Cuavetztnimar. Social Ascidians. Animal compound, fixed ; individuals connected by creeping tubular pro- longations of the common tunic, through which the blood circulates, (or by a common gelatinous base). These small or microscopic creatures are found on stones, shells and sea- weed, adhering by numerous root-like projections of their outer tunic. They are so transparent and colourless that they may be examined without dissec- tion (Pl. 24, figs. 6, 7). The position of the stomach is indicated by an orange-coloured spot; the csophagus is long, and the intestine returns parallel to it. The heart and ovary are near the stomach. The gill, perfo- rated by rows of holes, completely separates the branchial cavity from the cloaca ; a series of membranous processes (/anguettes) project from its neural side. The creeping tube contains two channels through which the blood circulates in opposite directions. Reproduction is effected by ova and by buds produced on filaments given off by the creeping tube. These off-shoots are hollow, and lined by a mem- brane continuous with the inner tunic of the ascidian; the circulation passes into them and they grow and branch and form buds containing little organized masses from which the internal, organs are gradually developed. The bran- chial sac is perfectly outlined before it communicates with the interior, and the curved digestive tube is seen before the oral opening is formed. The new individual may continue united with the parent, or become completely free by the rupture of the connecting tube. (Jilne-Edwards.) CLAVELLINA, Sav. Litym. Clavelia, a small staff, Syn. ? Rhopalaea, Phi. Type, C. lepadiformis, Pl. 24, fig. 6. Body elongated, erect, more or less pedunculated; test smooth and transparent ; orifices without rays; thoracic region usually marked with coloured lines. Distr. Greenland, Brit. Medit. On rocks and stones at low-water. Q 3 340 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. PrropHora, (Wiegm.) Lister, 1834. Etym. Pera, a sac, and phoros bearing. Tyne, P. Listeri, Wiegman, Pl. 24, fig. 7. Body pedunculated, suborbicular, compressed ; thoracic region plain. This curious little species was discovered by Mr. J. Lister at Brighton, growing on Conferva elongata. 1t occurs in groups consisting of several individuals, each having its own heart, respiration, and system of nutrition, but fixed on a peduncle that branches from a common creeping stem, and all being connected by a circulation that extends throughout. (Lister). Mr. Forbes has dredged it adhering to weed on the coast of Anglesey; he remarks “it is beautifully transparent, appearing on the weed like little specks of jelly detted with orange and brown. When dried, as it may often be met with on sea-weed cast on shore, these bodies appear like the minute ova of some mollusk.” According to Mr. Huxley’s view this genus differs widely from the last, being a “branchial ascidian” whilst Clavellina is an “abdominal” one. SyntEtHys, Forbes and Goodsir. Type, S. Hebridicus, F and G. Croulin Id. near Appleeross. Animals compound, gelatinous, orbicular, sessile ; zzdzveduals very pro- minent, arranged sub-concentrically in the common mass; branchial and anal orifices simple, not cut into rays. Syntethys is a Clavellina with the habit of a Diazona. The only known species forms compact greenish translucent gelatinous masses of half a foot in diameter, and nearly equal height, affixed to rocks or stones by a short base. The individual ascidians are when full grown 2 inches in length. Their inner tunics are remarkably irritable, withdrawing themselves into the com- mon mass when pinched. (Hordes, Brit. Moll. iv., 244), FAMILY III. Borryiipasr, Compound Ascidians. Animals compound, fixed, their tests fused, forming a common mass in which they are imbedded in one or more groups; individuals not connected by any internal union; oviparous and gemmiparous, Milne-Edwards divides the compound ascidians into three tribes :— 1. Botryllina. Individuals united in systems around common excretory cavities (cloacae). Thorax and abdomen not distinct. 2. Didemnina. Thorax and abdomen distinct. 3. Polyclinina. Body divided into three distinct portions—1, thorax, with the branchial apparatus;—2, superior abdomen with the digestive organs ; —3, post-abdomen, containing the heart and reproductive organs. TUNICATA. 341 Tribe 1, Botryllina—Botryllians. Botryiuus, Gaertner, 1774. Etym. Botrys, a cluster of grapes. Syn. ? Pyura, Bl. Polycyclus, Lam. Fz. B. violaceus, Pl. 24, fig. 8, two stars from a group. Test gelatinous or cartilaginous, incrusting; systems numerous, promi- nent, round or star-shaped, with central cavities ; individuals 6—20 in each system, lying horizontally, with the vent far from the simple branchial orifice, Distr. 10 sp. U. States, Europe. Brit. 6 sp. On stones and sea-weed near low-water mark. B. violaceus is greenish grey, with dark blue stars, yellow in the centre round the common orifice. B. racemosus, N. Zealand. BotryLioiweEs, M. Edw., 1841. Ex. B. rotifera, Pl. 24, fig 9, a zoid detached, with a cluster of repro- ductive germs. Animals nearly vertical, in star-lke groups irregular and ramifying ; cloacae prolonged into the common mass, forming irregular channels, along each side of which the individuals are placed in linear series; orifices closely approximate. ; Distr. European coasts, on roots of sea-weed and under sides of stones between tide marks. Brit. 4 sp. Tribe 2, Didemnina. ‘‘ Didemnians.” Division a, unistellate, (oral orifice rayed.) DIDEMNIUM, Sav. Etym. Di-demnium double-couch (or cavity). fx. D. gelatinosum, Pl. 24, fig. 10, zoid detached. Test coriaceous, polymorphous, incrusting; systems numerous, com- pressed, without central cavities or distinct circumscription ; individuals. scattered ; abdomen pedunculate; ovary by the intestinal loop, increasing in length when the ova are fully developed. Distr. Europe. Kuc@.iun, Sav. Etym. Eu-hkowlios much excavated. Fz. KE. hospitiolum, Pl. 24, fig. 11. Test gelatinous, inerusting; systems numerous, without central cavities or distinct circumscription : animals scattered or arranged quincuncially branchial orifice circular ; anal minute; abdominal viscera beside the thorax. Distr. Europe. Lreptociinum, M. Edw. Etym. Leptos thin, cline tunic. 342 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSGA. Type, L. maculosum Edw. (L. gelatinosum, F. and H. Pl. A, B. fig. 5.) Test coriaceous or gelatinous, thin, incrusting; systems few; individuals grouped irregularly round common cloacal cavities; abdomen pedunculate, short, smaller than the thorax. Distr. Brit. 6 sp. On roots of daminariae ; in colour white, yellowish, or variegated with blue. Division 6. Bi-stellate Didemnians. Distomus, Gaertner. Etyim. Distomos two-mouthed. Syn. Polyzona, Flem. Ex. D. fuscus Pl. 24, fig. 12, a detached zoid. Test semi-cartilaginous, polymorphous, sessile: systems numerous, usually circular ; individuals 1 or 2 ranked at unequal distances from their common centre; both crifices 6-rayed. Distr. Europe, §. Africa, Australia. Brit. 2 sp. Drtazona, Sav. Etym. Dia-zonai in circles. Ex. D, violacea, Pl. 24, fig. 13 Medit. Test gelatinous, orbicular, sessile or somewhat pedunculate; tunicaries very prominent, arranged in concentric circles on an expanded disk, form- ing a single flower-like system; orifices 6-rayed; abdomen pedunculate; ovary inclosed in the intestinal loop. Tribe 3. Polyclinina. Division a, wnistellate Polyclinians. POLYCLINUM, Sav. Etym. Polys many, kline cavities. Er. P. constellatum, Pl. 24, fig. 15. Test gelatinous or cartilaginous, polymorphous, sessile or slightly pedun- culate; systems numerous, convex, somewhat stellate, with central cloacal cavities; tunicaries 10—150, at very unequal distances from centres ; abdo- men much smaller than thorax, post-abdomen pedunculate. Distr. 6 sp. Brit., Medit., Red Sea, India. ApLypium, Sav. Sea-fig. Etym. Aploos simple. Ex. A. lobatum, Pl. 24, fig. 14. Test gelatinous or cartilaginous, sessile; systems very numerous, slightly prominent, annular or sub-elliptical, without central cavities; tunicaries (8—25) in single rows, equidistant from centres; branchial orifice 6-rayed ; division of thorax and abdomen not always distinctly marked. Distr. 6 sp. Europe, Red Sea. Attached to shells, &c., in deep water. TUNICATA. 343 SrpnyvuM, Sav. Type, S. turbinatum, Sav. British coast. (F. and H. Pl. A, B. fig. 2.) Test gelatinous, incrusting ; systems numerous, conical, truncated and starred at the summit; tunicaries 5 or 6 to 10 or 12, forming a margin round a depressed centre; branchial orifice $-toothed; vent simple, tubular ; ovary pedunculate. Found on the under surfaces of shelving rocks, at low-water spring tides, forming translucent amber-coloured masses. Amororcrum, M. Edw. Etym. Amoiros incomplete, otkos house. Ex. A. argus, Pl. 24, fig. 17. A proliferum, (larva) fig. 18. Test fleshy or coriaceous, polymorphous, incrusting or, slightly peduncu- Jate; systems numerous; tunicaries grouped round common apertures ; abdominal divisions indistinct. Distr. 4 sp. British Channel, Medit., Aegean. / Sub-genus Parascidium, M. Edw. P. flavum, 24, fig. 16. Oral openings 8-lobed, each accompanied by 2 oculiform points. Synorcium, Phipps, 1773. Etym. Synoikos wnited house. Type, S. turgens, Pl. 24, fig. 19. Test semicartilaginous, cylindrical, pedunculate, isolated or gregarious ; systems single, circular, terminal, tunicaries 6—9 ; branchial orifice 6-rayed, anal of 6 unequal rays; post-abdomen sessile. Division 6. Bistellate Polyclinians. SIGILLINA, Sav. Etym. Sigillum,aseal, Ex. 8. Australis, Pl. 24, fig. 20. Test gelatinous, solid, conical, elongated, pedunculate, solitary or grega- rious; systems single, of many individuals, in irregular circles one above another ; orifices both 6-rayed ; abdomen larger than thorax ; post-abdomen long and slender. FAMILY IV. Pyrosomip. Animal compound, free, pelagic. Pyrosoma, Péron, 1804. Etym. Pyr (pyros) fire, soma body. Ex. P. giganteum, Pl. 24, fig. 21. Body cartilaginous, non-coutractile, cylindrical, hollow, open at one end only; exterior covered by the numerous pointed zoids, grouped in whirls interior mamillated and pierced by the exhalent orifices of the tunicaries. 34.4 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSGA. The Pyrosomes are 2—14 inches long and }—3 inches in circumference ; they are composed of innumerable tunicaries united side by side, with their orifices so arranged that the inhalent openings are external, the exhalent inside the tube, and the result of so many little currents discharged into the cavity is to produce one general outflow, which impels the floating cylinder with its closed end foremost. The ganglionic side of each zoid is turned towards the open end of the tube; the respiratory cavity is large, and completely inclosed by a quad- rangular net-work ; the test and mantle are united and lined by a vascular sinus-system. ‘There is an “endostyle” on the haemal side, as long as the branchial sac. The ventral column (hypo-pharyngeal band) supports a series of languet The sexes are combined; reproduction takes place by buds developed amongst the adult zoids, and by solitary ova connected with the inner tunic by a pedicle near the posterior termination of the endostyle; 2 or 8 ova are perceptible in the young zoid at a very early period. The Pyrosomes are often gregarious in vast numbers; in the Mediterranean they sometimes abound to such an extent as to clog the nets of the fishermen. They are phosphorescent at night. The light of P. atlanticum is very vivid and of a greenish blue colour; when touched the light appears in very minute sparks, issuing from each of the separate individuals, it first appears at the part touched, and gradually spreads over the body ; it disappears after death. (Miller). Placed in a vessel of salt-water, and at rest, they emit no light, and the light excited by touching them gradually fades after the removal of irritation ; but immersed in fresh-water they continue glowing with their brightest refulgence for several hours—as long as life remains. Péron first noticed them as “a phosphorescent band, stretched across the waves and occupying an immense tract in advance of the ship. Those most distinctly seen resembled incandescent cylinders of iron.” Humboldt speaks of the Pyrosome as forming a light 1} feet in diameter, by which the fishes were visible ! FAMILY V. Satprpan. Animals free, oceanic ; alternately solitary and aggregated. Saupa, Forskahl, 1775. Etym. Salpe a ominous fish. Syn. Dagysa, Banks and Solander. Thalia, Brown. Biphora, Brug. Pegea and Jasis, Sav. Er. 8. maxima, Pl. 24, fig. 22, solitary form. Anim@! oblong, sub-cylindrical, truncated in front by the oral orifice, pointed posteriorly ; anal orifice sub-terminal ; ¢es¢ thin, transparent; muscu- lar mantle incomplete, forming a set of transverse or oblique bands; mantle cavity lined by a system of vascular sinuses; gill rudimentary, forming an TUNICATA. 345 oblique: band across the interior; visceral nucleus posterior. Sexes come bined ; young produced by gemmation in chains, consisting of individuals unlike the parent and becoming oviparous, the alternate generations only being alike. Distr. North sea, Brit. Medit. Australia, N. Zealand. The individual Salpians are from 4 an inch to 10 inches in length; the chains vary from a few inches to many feet, but are often broken up, indeed the adults appear to be always separate. They swim with either end foremost, although the pointed end would seem the normal one, as the motion is pro- duced by the forcibly expulsion of the water from the mantle. Each orifice is furnished with a valve, aud there is no division between the atrium and respiratory cavity except the rudimentary gill, or “ hypopharyngeal band.” The Salpa-chains also swim, with a regular serpentine movement. The solitary and aggregate forms differ so much that they were always named and described as distinct species before the remarkable discovery made by Chamisso,* that each form always produced the other. The free form of S. democratica, Forsk. is afour-sided prism, with arough surface, and 8 pro- minent spines at the posterior end; it has 7 muscular bands which completely encircle the body. The aggregate form (S. mucronata, Forsk.) is ovoid, pointed behind, smooth, and has only 5 muscular bands, whose dorsal ends are separate. (Hualey.)+ The solitary Salpae always contain a chain of embryos winding spirally round the visceral nucleus; the embryos are attached in pairs to a double tube (or “ proliferous stolon””) connected with the sinus to the right of the heart. Sometimes they increase in size gradually from the heart outwards to the free end of the stolon, but usually the embryos are developed in groups, and each portion of the series when it is detached consists of young Salpas of the same size. hese portions are liberated in succession through an aperture produced in the tunic opposite the extremity of the stolon. The aggregate Salpae produce a single ovum at a time, which is attached by a pedicle to the posterior part of the respiratory cavity. It remains there until it has attained a considerable size, and exhibits the proliferous stolon already partly developed, and those external characters which permanently distinguish it from its parent. It was in Sa/pa that Hasselt first observed the periodic change in the direction of the circulating currents. The heart itself is a muscular membrane not forming a complete tube, but open on one side. The dorsal sinus con- tains the long tubular filament (fig. 225, e) called the endostyle. In the ventral sinus is the ganglion, and the auditory vesicle containing 4 otolithes. The gill is a hollow column, or band, representing only the thoracic vessel (‘‘ hypo-pharyngeal band’) of the Ascidians (fig. 226, d) and the respi- * Chiefly known in England as the author of PETER SCHLEMIHE. + Phil. Trans, 1851, Part II. p. 567. 346 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ratory function is performed by the entire pailial cavity. The muscles of the Salpae consist of single layers of tranversely striped fibre. - DoxioLuM, Quoy and Gaimard. tym. Diminutive of dolium a cask. Syn. ? Anchinaea, Esch. Type, D. denticulatum, Pl. 24, fig. 23. Body transparent, cask-shaped, open at the ends, 2—10 lines in length; oral extremity a little prominent, with about 12 rounded denticulations; posterior end fringed; muscular bands 6, equidistant, besides the sphincters of the orifices ; branchiae consisting of two bands stretched across the interior, one above (epz) and one below (hypopharyngeal), connected by transverse bars with one another and the parietes ; mouth on the dorsal side, in front of the fourth band; heart above and in front of the mouth. (Hwe/ey.) Distr. 2 sp. Amboina, Vanicoro, N. Zealand. APPENDICULARIA, Chamisso. Etym. Appendiculus, a small appendage. Syn. Vexillaria, Mill. 1846. Oikopleura, Mertens, 1831. Type, A. flabellum, Pl. 24, fig. 24. Body ovoid, %—% inch long, with a long curved tail or swimming- organ ; smaller end perforated, leading into a large cavity lined by a sinus- system; gill represented by the ciliated pharynx, which communicates with the exterior by two funnel-shaped canals opening on the heemal surface beside the rectum ; cesophagus short, slightly curved, leading into a wide stomach ; intestine turned forwards, ending on dorsal side in front of appendage ; heart between lobes of the stomach; tail lanceolate, horizontally compressed. All the examples hitherto observed have been males. (Hualey.) These minute creatures appear to be the lowest forms of the Tunicata ; typifying in their adult age the larval state of the higher ascidians. Distr. Behring’s Straits, N. Brit. Tenby, Cape, New Guinea, 8. Pacific. Prof. Forbes relates that “when cruising off the north coast of Scotland in 1845, with Mr. Mc Andrew, their attention was attracted by the appear- ance of cloudy patches of red colouring matter in the water, and on procuring some and submitting it to microscopic examination, it was found to consist entirely of the curious and anomalous creatures called Appendicularie,”* * The most complete and accurate history of the class Tunieata is contained in the Article Tunicata of Todd’s Cyclopedia of Anatomy, by Mr. T. Rupert Jones. NUMERICAL ESTIMATE. 347 CONCLUSION. CHAPTER I. NUMERICAL ESTIMATE. The number of living and fossil species of each genus of mollusca has beeu stated in the preceding pages, so far as they could be ascertained. With some modifications derived from recent data, these numbers give the following totals, by which the relative numerical development of the orders and families will be seen. Recent. Fossil. Recent. Fossil CEPHALOPODA. Dibranchiata. Pulmonifera. Argonautide ...... 4 1 Felictd Xs 4 snccte ee 3,900 280 Octopodidae........ 58 ~ Timacia mae sil ee: ah, tee 4 PR TINTOLS pas. sic'e, 62 91 31 Limneide ........ 160 155 Belemnitide ...... — 67 (Marine) oi. oss. .3 86 28 PIODIBG EE oes cence 30 il (Ditto, shell-less) .. 16 0 “> Joyt PUG bes ae 3 a == === ise "ae 4,234 467 ia Kita. Operculated. Pulmonifera. eo 4 174 Cyclosto dab eee 700 23 Orthoceratide.... — 981 Aciculidee...2 acces 26 1 Ammonitide .... wis 904 726 24 4 1,359 Tecti-branchiata. GASTEROFODA. Prosobianchiata. Tornatellidee ........ 50 152 Strombidw* ...... 83 195 Bulli ip... dxes 4492. 158 78 MWraticidae. 42.00 .:.'. 870 697 Aplysiade .......-.. 79 4 IFUCCINLA ES 55/56 15-0/ pellucidus. D. is glaciale. Kara. O. C.Parry. » Kroyeri. G. Spitz. G. Spitzbergen. » decemcostatus. B. Newf. * Index Molluscorum Greenlandie. Hafn. 1842. + Hancock, An. Nat. Hist. vol. 18, p. 323, pl. 5. 356 *Fusus Berniciensis. R. B. » Spitzbergensis. Spitz. * on, elslandicus. F, Samemeoraciig, oF. Re Gro Bs *Trophon clathratus. R. G. B. 7 scalariformis. Spitz. Newf. B. es 55 Gunneri. F. G. ‘es = craticulatus. R, I. G. x » Barvicensis. F. Me harpularius. F. U.S. *Purpura lapillus. R. G. B. Mangelia,9 sp. G. 5 decussata. D. *Bela turricula. F. G. rata. BALG: **Mitra Greenlandica. G. **Admete viridula. R. Spitz. G. B. *Trichotropis borealis. F. G. B. P. Regent Inlet. ay conica. G. ey insignis, B. - bicarinata. B. *Natica helicoides R. G. B. at.) ‘clause, BON. Zemila, /G:, JMel- villeId. P. Regent Inlet. B. » pallida. R. O. » flava. N. Zemla. B. Newf. * 5 pusilla (grcenlandica). G. Norway. Spitz. Se pnana. (Ge *Velutinalevigata. R. B. es eet} flexilis. F. os zonata. R. G. . lanigera. G. Lamellaria prodita. F. 3 Greenlandica. G. B. **Scalaria Groenlandica. F. G. B. » borealis, (Eschrichti). G. Amaura candida. G. Chemnitziaalbula. G. Mesalia lactea. G. Turritella polaris. G. Aporrhais occidentalis. Labrador. *Litorina obtusata. R. ai ies tenebrosa. N. Zemla. D. i Greenlandica. G. F. 23 » palliata (arctica). G. 2 limata. F. *Tacuna vincta. R. Newf. G. 53 labiosa. F. P. Refuge. rr. crassior. R. - glacialis. G. * y £«pallidula. G. Rg puteolus. F. Newf. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Lacuna frigida. F. Ae solidula. F. Hydrobia castanea. R. G. Rissoa scrobiculata. G. » globulus. G, » saxatilis. G. *Skenea planorbis. G. F. Margarita cinerea, F. U.S. > Ab undulata. R. G. * - alabastrum. F, * a helicina. Spitz. Pe sordida. R. Spitz. » umbilicalis. D. B. ; Harrisoni. D. a glauca. G. 4, ) Wahl x 5 costulata. G. *Puncturella Noachina. F. G. *Acmeza testudinalis. R. Iceland. G. *Lepetaceca. G. F. Spitz. C.Eden. Pilidium rubellum, F. G. D. *Chiton ruber. F. G. Spitz. >. bus. ob Ge Dentalium,entale. Spitz. G. White Sea. G.* B. Bulla Reinhardi. G. » Subangulata. G. *Cylichna alba. G. F. Spitz. Fe turrita. G. *Philine scabra. Norway. G. » punctata(MOol.) G. Doris liturata. G > acutiuscula. G. » Obvelata, G. *Dendronotus arborescens. folis bodocensis. G. Tergipes rupium. G. Euplocamus Holbéllii. G. PieiGe *Terebratulina caput-serpentis. Spitz. F. Mass. Medit. *Waldheimia cranium. F. septigera. F. Terebratella Spitzbergensis. Sp. = Labradorensis. Labr. **Rhynchonella psittacea. R. Baffin’s Bay, 76 deg. N. Melville, I. B. *Crania anomala. Spitz. *Anomia squamula. R. * , aculeata. R. ARCTIC SHELL-FISH. **Pecten Islandicus. F. N. Zemla. Spitz. G. B. St. Lawrence. 8 vitreus. F. Arctic America. 3 Greenlandicus. R. Spitz. Limatula suleata. G. F. *Mytilus edulis. R. G. B. *Modiola modiolus. R. B. *Crenella discors (levigata). N. Zemla. ad “fi decussata. R. G. > i nigra. N. Zemla. R. G. D. if faba. G. = vitrea G. Arca glacialis. P. Regent Inlet. Nucula corticata. G. Pe iniata, G2): Leda buceata. G. » macilenta. G. rostrata (pernula). Arctic America. minuta(Fabr.) F. Spitz. G. D. GD: ee F. Spitz. ” a » ” * |, pygmea. G. F. Siberia. **Yoldia arctica Gr. (myalis). G. U-S. ; Spitzbergen. ** ,, lanceclata (arctica B. & S.) Icy Cape. » limatula. F. U.S. Kamts. » lhyperborea. Spitz. thracieformis (angularis). G. Mass. truncata, Br. (Portlandica, Hit.) P. Refuge. Arctic America. **Astarte borealis (arctica). F. Ice- land. G. ee semisulcata (corrugata). Kara Sea. N. Zemla. Spitz, P. Regent Inlet. C. Parry. Icy Cape. ene: elliptica. F. G. Spitz. Pours; sulcata. R. N. Zemla. O. Baal eis crebricosta. F. Spitz. Newf. crenata. P. Regen nilet. II. D. lucida. F. (=navicularis? Spitz.) | Saxicava rugosa (arctica). 357 Astarte Warhami, Davis Str. fe globosa. G. uy BRS compressa. N. Zemla. G. 3 Banksii. Spitz. Baffin's B. *Cardium edule var. rusticum. R. rf Islandicum. N. Zemla. G. 7 IP E Grenlandicum. Kara. Spitz. C, Parry. St. Lawrence. FP elegantulum. G. *Cryptodon flexuosus. G. F. *Turtonia minuta. G. F. *Cyprina Islandica. R. Labrador. **Cardita borealis. Mass. O. *Tellina calcaria. F. G. B. ** 4, Grcenlandica. (=Balthica, L.) N. Zemla. Spitz. F. G. B. Ta edentula. B. *Mya truncata. R. Spitz. G. C. Parry. B ** ., Uddevallensis. St. Lawrence. D. P. Regent Inlet. MelvilleI. » arenaria. N. Zemla. G., O. N. Zemla. Spitz. GiMiGyPanrvw te * a (Panopea) Norvegica. White Sea. O. Machera costata. Labrador. O. Glycimeris siliqua. C. Parry. Newf. *Lyonsia Norvegica. F. O. 37 arenosa:. (Gir: Thracia myopsis. G. Pandoraglacialis. Spitz. Baff. (Leach. P. Refug Chelyosoma Macleayanum. G. Cynthia glutinosa. G. Ascidium, 9 sp. including: ss echinatum. G. * 5 conchilegum. G. 5 rusticum. G. Spitz. Clavellina crystallina G. Boltenia reniformis. G. i, ciliata. G. Synoecium turgens. Cystingia Griffithi. Spitz. Felix H. BOREAL PROVINCE. The Boreal Province extends across the Atlantic from Nova Scotia and Massachusetts to Iceland, the Faeroe and Shetland Islands, and along the coast of Norway from North Cape to the Naze. Of the 289 Scandinavian shells catalogued by Dr. Lovén,* 217, or 75 per * Index Molluscorum Scandinavie; extracted from the ‘‘ Ofversigt af K. Vet. Akad. Forh.” 1846. The climate of Finmark is much less severe than Russian Lap- land; Hammerfest has an open harbour all the year. R.2 »358 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. cent. are common to Britain, and 1387 range as far as the North coast of Spain. The boreal shells of America are described by Dr. Gould.* From these lists it appears that out of 140 sea-shells found on the coast of Massachusetts north of Cape Cod, more than half are common to Northern Europe. Many of the species, it is believed, could only have extended their range so distantly, by means of continuous lines of connecting coast, now no longer in existence.} Boreal Shells common to Europe and North America. * British species. *Teredo navalis. *Nucula tenuis. *Pholas crispata. *Mytilus edulis. *Solen ensis. * Modiola modiolus. * (Panopza) Norvegica. *Crenella nigra. *Mya arenaria. * » discors, L. * ,, truncata. * 4, + decussata, (glandula, Tot.) *Thracia phaseolina (Conradi, Couth). Pecten Islandicus. Mactra ponderosa (ovalis, G.) ? Ostrea edulis (borealis, Lam. ?) ? Montacuta bidentata. *Anomia ephippium. *Turtonia minuta, * 4, aculeata. ? Kellia rubra. » squamula? ? Lepton nitidum (fabagella, Conr. ?) allan *Saxicava rugosa (arctica). *Terebratulina caput-serpentis. Tellina solidula, var. (fusca, Say). *Rhynchonella psittacea. * y» Calearia (sordida, Couth). a *Lucina borealis. *Dendronotus arborescens. bes eivarieata, Polycera Lessonii ? *Cryptodon flexuosus. ? Amphisphyra hyalina (debilis ?) *Astarte borealis. Cylichna alba (triticea, C.) * , triangularis? (quadrans, G.)} ‘2 es obtusa (pertenuis). *Cyprina Islandica. *Philine quadrata (formosa, St.) ?(Cardium Islandicum, U.S.—N. Zemla.) Sa Yoldia limatula. *Chiton cinereus. » arctica, Gr. (=myalis). * 4, mMmarmoreus. ' *Leda pygmea. 59) her. * ,, caudata. 2) | lee vase 2 ,, navicularis (lucida, Lovén?) * 4, asellus. * Report on the Inyertebrata of Massachusetts. 1841. + Forbes, Memoirs of the Geol. Survey, I. p. 379. Sir John Richardson, when speaking of the cod-tribe and turbot-tribe, says: ‘‘ Most of the fish of this order feed on or near the bottom, and a very considerable number of the species are common to both sides of the Atlantic, particularly in the higher latitudes where they abound. It does not appear that their general diffusion ought to be attributed to migration from their native haunts, but rather that in this respect they are analogous to the owls, which, though mostly stationary birds, yet include a greater proportion of species common to the old and new worlds than even the most migratory families. Several of the Scomberoidee (Mackerel-tribe) which feed on the surface, have been previous}y noted as traversing many degrees of longitude in the Atlantic: but the existence of the ground-feeding Gadoidee in very distant localities must be attributed to a different cause, as it is not probable that any of them wander out of soundings or ever approach the mid-seas.”—Report Zool. N. America, p. 218. BOREAL *Chiton albus. . *Dentalium (entale, L.?) ? Lepeta ceca (candida, C.) *Acmea testudinalis (amoena, 8S.) *Puncturella Noachina. *Adeorbis divisus (= Skenea serpu-- loides). Margarita cinerea. » costulata? (Skenea). » helicina. » undulata. » alabastrum (= occidentalis ?) Litorina greenlandica. ie tenebrosa (vestita). + palliata ? *Lacuna vincta (divaricata). ee puteolus (Montagui). *Skenea planorbis. *Velutina levigata. 4 zonata. *Lamellaria perspicua. *Natica helicoides. * * K PROVINCE. 359 Natica clausa. i) Dusilla. *Scalaria greenlandica. (Ianthina communis). Odostomia producta. Cancellaria (admete) viridula. *Trichotropis borealis. *Fusus antiquus (tornatus). * ,, islandicus. * 4, propinquus. » ?rosaceus. *Trophon muricatus. * a clathratus, » scalariformis. S: harpularius. *Purpura lapillus. *Buccinum undatum. ae (Cominella) Dalei. *Bela turricula. * ,, Trevelyana. * 4, rufa (Vahlii)? *Ommastrephes sagittatus and * Cynthia microcosmus are also common to both sides of the North Atlantic. Machera, Solemya, The genera, Glycime7is, Mesodesma (deauratum),. Cardita, and Crepidula, are peculiar to the American side of the Boreal Province. Several other species now living on the coast of the U. States occur fossil in England: e.g. Trophon cinereus, Say., is believed to be the Fusus Forbesz, Strickland, of the Isle of Man; others are marked in the Arctic list. Il. CELTIC PROVINCE. The Celtic province, as described by Prof, E. Forbes, includes the British island coasts, Denmark, Southern Sweden, and the Baltic.* The fauna of this region (which includes the principal herring-fisheries) is essentially Atlantic ; many of the species are of ancient origin, being known fossil in the Pliocene Tertiaries. The British mollusca described by Forbes and Hanley amount to 682, Wiz. :-— 14 Cephalopoda. 220 Marine Univalves. 91 Nudibranchiata. Of this number two-thirds of the Nudibranches, 55 marine univalves, and 100 Pulmonifera. 4 Pteropoda. 5 Brachiopoda. 175 Acephala. 73 ‘Tunicata. * The great work of Messrs. Forbes and Hanley contains all that is known respecting British Testacea up to the present time. The Nudibranchiata alone have been more fully described, in the publications of the Ray Society, by Messrs. Alder and Hancock. For the marine zoology of the coasts of Denmark the “ Zuologia Danica” of O.F. Miiller is still the most important work. 360 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ‘ ‘ 7 bivalve shell-fish, are, at present only known in British seas; but as most of these are minute or “critical” species it is considered they will yet be met with elsewhere. A few of the species belong to the Lusitanian province, whose northern limits include the Channel Islands, and just impinge upon our coast. Phasianella pullus. Murex corallinus. Cytherea chione. Haliotis tuberculata, Avicula Tarentina. Petricola lithophaga. Truncatella Montagui. Galeomma Turtoni. Venerupis irus. Oncidium celticum. Pandora rostrata. Cardium rusticum, L. (tu- Bulla hydatis Ervilia castanea. berculatum). Volva patula. Mactra heivacea. Of the Gasteropoda 54 are common to the seas both north and south of Britain; 52 range further south, but are not found northward of these islands; and 84 which find here their southern limit oceur not only in Northern Europe, but most of them in Boreal America. Nearly half of the bivalves range both north and south of Britain; 40 extend southward only, and about as many more are found in Scandinavia, 27 of them being common to N. America. (fordes.) In the lists of Arctic and Boreal shells the British species are distinguished by an asterisk. According to Mr. M‘Andrew’s estimate there are 406 British shell- bearing mollusca, of which 217. or 53 percent. are common to Scandinavia. 246 or 61 a 5 North of Spain. 227 or 56 55 se S. Spain and Medit. 97 or 24 =A 3 Canary Islands. The following are at present peculiar to Britain :— Assiminea,_ sp. Odostomia, 19 sp.? Montacuta ferruginosa. Jeffreysia, sp. Buccinum fusiforme. Argiope cistellula. Otina otis. Fusus Berniciensis. Pecten niveus. Rissoa, sp. >) Lurtonik Syndosmya tenuis. Stylifer turtoni. Natica Kingii. Thracia villosiuscula. The most common edible species are :— Ostrea edulis. Mytilus edulis. Fusus antiquus. Pecten maximus. Cardium edule. Litorina litorea. » opercularis. Buccinum undatum. Amongst the species characteristic of the Celtic province—or most abua- dant in it—are the following :— Trophon muricatus. Litorina litoralis. Venus striatula. Nassa reticulata. Trochus Montagui. » casina. Natica Montagui. A millegranus. Donax anatinus. » monilifera. Me cunkias, Solen ensis. » nitida. Patella vulgata. Pholas candida. Velutina levigata. » pellucida. Mactra elliptica. Turritella communis. Acmea virginea. » solida. Aporrhais pes-pelecani. Chiton cinereus. Periploma pretenuis. Rissoa cingillus. Scaphander lignarius. Thracia distorta. Scalaria Trevelyana. Tellina crassa, Syndosmya prismatica, CELTIC PROVINCE. 361 The wide expanse of the Baltic affords no shell-fish unknown to the coasts of Britainand Sweden. The water is brackish, becoming less salt northward, till only estuary shells are met with, and the Litorine and Limneans are found living together, as in many of our own marshes. This scanty list is taken from the Memoirs of Dr. Middendorff and M. Boll. Buccinum undatum. Neritina fluviatilis. Tellina Balthica. Purpura lapillus. Limnza auricularia. » tenuis. Nassa reticulata. Ss ovata. Scrobicularia piperata. Litorina litorea. Mytilus edulis. Mya arenaria. Patella (tarentina). Donax (trunculus). », truncata. Hydrobia muriatica. Cardium edule var. IV. Lustvanran Province. The shores of the Bay of Biscay, Portugal, the Mediterranean, and N. W. Africa, as far as Cape Juby, form one important province, extending westward in the Atlantic as far as the Gulf weed bank, so as to include Madeira, the Azores, and Canary Islands.* In the Atlantic portion of the province occur the following genera, not met with in the Celtic and Boreal seas, although two ef them, Mitra and Mesalia, occur on the coast of Greenland. Argonauta. Pisania. Litiopa. Umbrella. Philonexis. Dolium. Truncatella. Glaucus. Chiroteuthis. Cassis. Solarium. os Triton. Bifrontia. Carinaria. res Ranella. Turbo. Firola. Conus. Cancellaria. Monodonta. Atlanta. Pleurotoma. Sigaretus. Haliotis. Oxygyrus. Marginella. Crepidula. Gadinia. —— Cymba. Mesalia. Siphonaria. Cleodora. Mitra. Vermetus. Auricula. Cuvieria. Terebra. Fossarus. Pedipes Creseis. Columbella. Planaxis. Ringicula — *« Jn the northern part of the Lusitanian province are the Pilchard fisheries; in the Mediterranean, the Tunny, Coral, and Sponge fisheries. The Gulf-weed banks (represented in the map) extend from 19° to 47° in the middle of the North Atlantic, covering a space almost seven times greater than the area of France. Columbus, who first met with the sargasso about one hundred miles west of the Azores, was apprehensive that his ships would run upon a shoal. (Humboldt.) The banks are supposed by Prof. E. Forbes to indicate an ancient coast- line of the Lusitanian land-province, on which the weed originated. Dr. Harvey states that species of Sargassum abound along the shores of tropical countries, but none exactly correspond with the Gulf-weed (S. bacciferum). It never produces fructification—the ‘‘berries”’ being air-vesicles, not fruit—but yet continues to grow and flourish in its present situation, being propagated by breakage. It may be an abnormal condition of S. vulgare, similar to the varieties of Fucus nodosus (Mackayi) and F, vesiculosus which often occur in immense strata; the one on muddy sea-shores, the other in salt marshes, in which situations they have never been found in fructi- fication. (Manual of British Algae, Intr. 16, 17.) 362 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. \ Megerlia. Chama. Cardita. Ervilia-. —~ Crassatella. Cytherea. Panopea.- Spondylus. Lithodomus. Petricola. Avicula. Ungulina. Venerupis. Solemya. Galeomma. Mesodesma. Spain and Portugal. The coast of Spain and Portugal is less known than any other part of the province, but the facilities for exploration are in some respects greater than in the Mediterranean, on account of the tides. Shell-fish are more in demand as an article of food here than with us, and the Lisbon market afforded to Mr. M‘Andrew the first indication that the genus Cyméa ranged so far north. On the coasts of the Asturias and Gallicia, especially in Vigo Bay, Mr. M‘Andrew obtained, by dredging, 212 species, of a somewhat northern cha- racter, 50 per cent. of them being common to Norway, and 86 per cent. common to the south of Spain. On the southern coast of the Peninsula 353 species were obtained, of which only 28 per cent. are common to Norway and 51 per cent. to Britain. The identical species are chiefly amongst the shells dredged from a con- siderable depth (85—50 fathoms) ; the litoral species have a much more distinct aspect. : The shells of the coast of Mogador are generally identical with those of the Mediterranean and Southern Peninsula. Canary Islands. The shells of the Canaries collected by MM. Webb and Berthelot,* and described by M. D’Orbigny, amount to 124, to which © Mr. M‘Andrew has added above 170. Of the 300 species 17 per cent. are common to Norway, 32 per cent. to Britain, and 63 per cent. to the coasts of Spain and the Mediterranean. Two only are W. Indian shells, Neritina viridis and Columbella cribaria. Of the African shells found here, and not met with in more northern localities, the most remarkable are :— Crassatella divaricata. Ranella levigata. Cymba proboscidalis. Cardium costatum. Cassis flammea. Conus betulinus. Lucina Adansoni. » testiculus. » Prometheus. Cerithium nodulosum. Cymba Neptuni. ,, Guinaicus. Murex saxatilis. » porcina. » papilionaceus. i Madeira. Mr. M‘Andrew obtained 156 species at Madeira, of which 44 per cent. are British, 70 per cent. common to the Mediterranean, and 83 to the Canaries. Amongst the latter are the two W. Indian shells before mentioned, and the following African shells :— Pedipes. Mitra fusca. Patella crenata. Litorina striata. » zebrina. » guttata. Solarium. Marginella guancha. » Lowel. Scalaria cochlea. Cancellaria. >» Candei. Natica porcellana. Monodonta Bertheloti. Pecten corallinoides. * Hist. Naturelle des Iles Canaries ; the list of shellsis reprinted with the additions made by Mr. M‘Andrew, as one of the Catalogues of the British Museum. LUSITANIAN PROVINCE. 363 . Azores. Amongst the litoral shells which range to the Azores, are Pedi- pes, Litorina striata, Mitra fusca, and Ervilia castanea; the other species obtained there are Lusitanian. (M*Andrew.) The Mediterranean fauwka is known by the researches of Poli, Delle Chiaje, Philippi, Verany, Milne-Edwards, Prof. B. Forbes, and Deshayes. Tn its western part it is identical with that of the adjacent Atlantic coasts ; the number of species diminishes eastward, although reinforced by a consider- able number of new forms as yet only known in the Mediterranean; and a few accessions (about 30) of a different character from the Red Sea. The total number of shell-bearing species is estimated at 600, viz. :— Cephalopoda ........ 1 Nucleobranchiata .. 6 Lamellibranchiata ...200 Wieropoda..:;........ 13 Gasteropoda ...... 370 Brachiopoda ....... - 10 _ On the coast of Sicily, M. Philippi has found altogether 619 marine mollusea, viz.:— VE li 188 Pteropoda. ...'.. 2.1: 13 Gasteropoda ........ 319 Brachiopoda ........ 10 Nudibranches...... 54 Cephalopoda ........ 15 Of the 522 which are provided with shells, 162 have not been found fossil, and are presumed to be of post-tertiary origin, so far as concerns their presence in the Medit. The remaining 360 occur fossil in the newer tertiary strata, along with nearly 200 others which are either extinct or not known living on those coasts; a few of them are living in the warmer regions of Senegal, the Red Sea, and the West Indies :— Senegal. Antilles. Red Sea. Lucina columbella. Lucina pennsylvanica. Argonauta hians. Cardium hians. _ Vermetus intortus. Dentalium elephantinum. Terebra fusca. Terebra duplicata. Morocco. Phorus agglutinans. Trochus strigosus. Niso terebellum. Pecten medius. Diplodonta apicalis. Most of them, however, are of northern origin, such as :— Saxicava rugosa. Tellina crassa. Rhynchonella psittacea. (Panopza) Norvegica. Cyprina Islandica. Patella vulgata. Mya truncata. Leda pygmeza. Eulimella Scille. Periploma pretenuis. Limopsis pygmea. Buccinum undatum Lutraria solenoides. Ostrea edulis. Fusus contrarius. Of the 522 Sicilian testacea about 35 (including 10 oceanic species) are common to the West Indies—if the species have been correctly determined ; 28 are stated, with more probability, to be common to West Africa, including Murex Brandaris and other common species; 74, includmg Murex trun- culus, are common to the Red Sea; Crania ringens cannot be distinguished from the species found in New South Wales (Davidson); and Columéecila corniculum ranges from the north coast of Spain to Australia, the specimens from these distant localities being only distinguishable as geographical R38 364 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. varieties. (Gaskoin.) Six other species are included in Menke’s Australian Catalogue, but require verification. The following genera, nine of which are naked molluscs, are supposed to be now peculiar to the Mediterranean ; the small number of species show they are aberrant or expiring forms. Cuassidaria, Terebratula, and Thecidium are ancient, widely-distributed genera, and the Mediterranean Zhecidium occurs fossil in Brittany and the Canaries. Histioteuthis, 2 sp. Lobiger, 1. Pedicularia, 1. Verania, l. Pleurobrancheza, 1. Terebratula, 1. Gastropteron, 1. Tethys, 1. Morrisia, 2. Doridium, 1. Tiedemannia, l. Thecidium, 1. Tearus, 1. Cassidaria, 4? Scacchia, 2. The genera Fusciolaria, Siliquaria, Tylodina, Notarchus, Verticordia ? Clavagella, and Crania, occur only in this portion of the Lusitanian province, Amongst the peculiar species are :— Nassa semistriata. Argiope cuneata. Artemis lupinus. Fusus crispus. Clavigella angulata. Trigona nitidula. Tylodina Rafinesquii. Spondylus Gussonii. Lucinopsis decussata. Crania rostrata. Astarte bipartita. Aigean Sea. Prof. B. Forbes obtained 450 species of mollusca in the gean, belonging to the following orders :— Cephalopoda........ + Nudibranches...... 15) ‘Brachiopadd i a5-seee 8 Pteropoda 2f 2% 5.2. 8 Opisthobranches .. 28 Lamellibranches ....143 Nucleobranches...... a. Prosobranches ....217 Tunicata-.. Wik aevoaee 22 Of these 71 were new species, bat several have since been found in the Atlantic, and even in Scotland.* The only marine air-breather met with was Auricula myosotis. Black Sea. 1n the northern part a few Aralo-Caspian shells are found, otherwise the Black Sea only differs from the Mediterranean in the paucity of its species; Dr. Middendorff enumerates 68 ouly. The water is less salt, and there is no tide, but a current flows constantly through the Dardanelles to the Mediterranean.+ V. ARALO-CASPIAN PROVINCE. The only inland salt-seas that contain peculiar shell-fish are the Aral and Caspian. The shells chiefly consist of a remarkable group of Cockles which burrow in the mud (see fig. 213, p. 291). No explorations have been made with the dredge, but other species, probably still existing in these seas, have been found in the beds of horizontal limestone which form their banks and extend in all directions far over the steppes. This limestone is of brackish- * Trans. Brit. Assoc. (for 1843) 1844, p, 130. + A current from the Atlantic sets in perpetually through the Straits of Gibraltar, and there is scarcely any tide; it only amounts to 1 foot at Naples and the Euripus, 2 feet at Messina, and 5 at Venice and the Bay of Tunis. ARALO-CASPIAN PROVINCE. 365 water origin, being sometimes composed of myriads of Cyclades, or the shells of Dreissena and Cardium, as in the islets near Astrakhan. It is believed to indicate the former existence of a great inland sea, of which the Aral and Caspian are remnants, but which was larger than the present Mediterranean at an age previous to that of the Mammoth and Siberian Rhinoceros. The present level of the Caspian is $3 feet below that of the Black Sea; that of the Aral has been stated to be 117 feet higher than the Caspian, but is probably not very different; their waters are only brackish, and in some parts drinkable. The steppe limestone rises to a level of 200—300 feet above the Caspian; it spreads eastward to the mountains of the Hindoo Kush and Chinese Tartary, southward over Daghestan and the low region E. of Tiflis, and westward to the northern shores of the Black Sea. The extent to which it has been traced is represented by oblique lines on the map.* Some of the Caspian shells still exist in the Sea of Azof and the estuaries of the Dnieper and Duiester. Our information upon this seldom-visited region is derived from the works of Pallas, Eichwald,+ Krynicki,t Middendorff, and Sir Roderick Murchison. Aralo-Caspian Shells. A, Aral; ©, Caspian; 3B, Black Sea. The Species marked * are found also in the steppe limestone. *Cardium edule, L. C.(very small) B. Baltic. » edule, var.(rusticum, Chemn.) A.C. B. Icy Sea. *Didacna trigonoides, Pal. C (Azof. M. Hommaire), » Hickhwaldi, Kryn. (crassa, Eich.) C. B. (Nikolaieff). Monodacna Caspia, Eich. C. » pseudo-cardium, Desh. (pontica, Eich.) B. Adacna leviuscula, Eich. C. » vitrea, Eich. C. A. * ,, edentula, Pallas. C. » Plicata, Eich. C. B. (Dniester, Akerman, Odessa). » colorata, Eich. C. B.(Azof, Dnieper). «Mytilus edulis, L. C. B. (not in Middendorff’s list.) » latus, Chemn. B. *Dreissena polymorpha, Pal. C.B. Paludinella stagnalis, L. (pusilla Eich.) C. B. (Odessa). Ochotsk. * ,,. vVariabilis, Eich. C. *Neritina liturata, Eich. C.on sea weed. *Rissoa Caspia, Eich. C. » oblonga, Desm. B. ; cylindracea, Kryn. B.é * From a sketch kindly prepared by Professor Ramsay. + Geogr. des Kaspischen Meeres, des Kaukasus und des Stidlichen Russlands Berlin, 1838. Fauna Caspio-Caucasica, 1841. + Bull. des Nat. Moscow, 1837. ¢ The Velutina (Limneria) Caspiensis, A. Ad. was founded on a specimen of Limnea Gebleri, Midd. (1851) from Bernaoul, Siberia. 366 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. The following species are described by Eichwald, from the steppe lime- stone. (Murchison, Russia, p. 297.) “Paludina” Triton. Donax priscus. » ©exigua. Mactra Caspia. Monodacna propinqua. Rissoa conus. >» Karagana. » intermedia. » dimidiatus. Cyclas Ustuertensis. » Catillus. Bullina Ustuertensis. Mytilus rostriformis. Adacna prostrata. No other inland bodies of salt water are known to have peculiar marine shells; those of the modern deposits, in Mesopotamia (at Sinkra and Warka), collected by Mr. W. K. Loftus, are species still abounding in the Persian Gulf. * VI. West AFRICAN PROVINCE. The tropical coast of Western Africa is rich in conchological treasures, and far from being wholly explored. The researches of Adanson,+ Cranch (the naturalist to the Congo expeditiont), and the officers of the Niger Dunker has described 149 expedition, have left much to be done. Dr. species in his Index Moll. Guinee, coll. Tams. Cassel, 1853. At St. Helena, Mr. Cuming colleeted 16 species of sea-shells, 7 of them new. and Nerita Ascensionis, at Ascension. Onychoteuthis, 3 sp. Cranchia, 2 sp. Strombus rosaceus. Triton ficoides. Ranella quercina. Dolium tessellatum. Harpa rosea. Oliva hiatula. Pusionella. Nassa Pfeifferi. Desmoulinsia. Purpura nodosa. Rapana bezoar. Murex vitulinus. » angularis. »,» megaceros. » rosarius. », duplex. » cornutus. Clavella ? filosa. EER. West African Shelts. Lagena nassa. Terebra striatula. » tferruginea. ? Halia priamus. Mitra nigra. Cymba. Marginella. Persicula. Pleurotoma mitriformis. Tomella lineata. Clavatula mitra. coronata. bimarginata. » virginea. Conus papilionaceus. » genuinus. », testudinarius. » achatinus. s monachus. Natica fulminea. Cyprea stercoraria. ”? > LIitorina Helene is found on the shore of St. Helena, and L. miliaris Cyprea picta. Vermetus lumbricalis. Cerithium Adansonii. Turritella torulosa. Mesalia. Litorina punctata. Collonia. Clanculus villanus. Haliotis virginea. », coccinea, Nerita Senegalensis. », Ascensionis. Pecten gibbus. Arca ventricosa. » senilis. Cardium ringens. », costatum. Lucina columbella. Ungulina rubra. Diplodonta rosea. Cardita ajar. b 7 ¢ * A species of coral (Porites elongata, Lam.) now living at the Seychelles has been * said to be found in the Dead Sea. (v. Humboldt’s Views of Nature, Bohn, ed. p.260.) — + Hist. Nat. de Senegal, 4to. Paris, 1757. This able but eccentric naturalist © destroyed the utility of his own writings by refusing to adopt the bi-nomial nomen-~ clature of LINNzvs, and employing instead the most barbarous chance-combinations _ of letters he could invent. { Appendix to Capt. Tuckey’s Narrative (1818), by Dr. Leach. WEST-AFRICAN PROVINCE, 367 Artemis africana. Cytherea africana, Mactra rugosa. ,, torrida. Venus plicata. >, nitida. Cyclina Adansonii. Tellina. Pholas clausa. Trigona bicolor. Strigilla Senegalensis. Tugonia anatina. », tripla. Gastrana polygona. — Cytherea tumens. Mactra depressa. Discina radiosa. VII. SoutH AFrRicaAN PROVINCE. The fauna of South Africa, beyond the tropic, possesses few characters in common with that of the western coast, and is more like the Indian Ocean fauna, as might be expected from the direction of the currents. But, together with these it has a large assemblage of marine animals found nowhere else, and the “Cape of Storms” forms a barrier between the populations of the two great oceans, scarcely less complete than the far- projecting promontory of South America. The coast is generally rocky, and there are no coral-reefs; accumulations of sand are frequent, and sometimes very extensive, like the Agulhas Bank. The few deep sea-shells which have been obtained off these banks possess considerable interest, but explorations in boats are said to be difficult, and often impossible on account of the surf. Shells from the Cape are too frequently dead and water-worn speci- mens picked upon the beach. The shell-fish of South Africa have been collected and described by Owen Stanley, Hinds, A. Adams, and, especially, by Dr Krauss, who has published a very complete monograph.* Of 400 sea- shells recorded in this work, above 200 are peculiar, and most of these belong to a few litoral genera. Only 11 species are common to the coast of Senegal, whilst 18 are found in the Red Sea. South African Shells. 7 Panopea natalensis. Chiton, 16 sp. Pleurotoma, 6 sp. Solen marginatus. Patella, 20 sp. Clionella (sinuata). Mactra spengleri. ,, cochlea. Typhis arcuatus. Gastrana ventricosa. » compressa. Triton dolarius Nucula pulchra, Hinds. »» apicina. », fictilis, 50-60 fm. (L'Agulhas bank, 70 fm.) ,, longicosta, &c. Harpa crassa. Pectunculus Belcheri, 120 Helcion pectinata. Cominella ligata. fm. Siphonaria, 5 sp. » lagenaria. Modiola Capensis. Pupillia (aperta). » limbosa. » pelagica, Forbes. Fissurella, 10 sp. » tigrina. Septifer Kraussi. Crepidula, 4 sp. ' Bullia levissima. ; Haliotis sanguinea. ,, achatina. Terebratulina abyssicola, Delphinula granulosa. » natalensis. 132 fm. ,, cancellata. Nassa plicosa. Terebratella (Kraussia), Trochus, 22 sp. >, capensis. » rubra. Turbo sarmaticus. Cyclonassa Kraussi. » cognata. Litorina Africana(7 sp.) Eburna papillaris. > pisum. Phasianella, 6 sp. Columbella, 5 sp. » Deshayesii,120fm. Bankivia varians. Ancillaria obtusa. Turritella, 4 sp. Mitra, 5 sp. * Die Siidafrikanischen Mollusken, 4to. Stutt. 1848. 368 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ~ Imbricaria carbonacea. Trivia ovulata. Voluta armata. Cyprea, 22 sp, Octopus argus. » scapha. Luponia algoénsis. Sepia, 4 sp. » abyssicola, 132 fm. Cyprovulum (capense). Marginella rosea. Conus, 8 sp, The following are stated to be common to the Cape and European seas.* Saxicava (arctica?) Greenland, Medit. Chama gryphoides, Medit. Red Sea. , Tellina fabula, Brit. Medit. Pecten pusio, Brit. Lucina lactea, Medit. Red Sea. » fragilis, Medit. Diphyllidia (lineata?) N. Brit. Medit. Venus verrucosa, W. Indies? Brit. Se- Eulima nitida, Medit. negal, Canaries, Red Sea, Australia? Purpura lapillus ?? (not in Medit.). Tapes pullastra, North Sea. Nassa marginulata. » geographica, Medit. Octopus vulgaris? Brit. Arca lactea, Medit. Argonauta argo, Medit. VIII. Inpo-PactFric PROVINCE. This is by far the most extensive area over which similar shell-fish and other marine animals are distributed. It extends from Australia to Japan, and from the Red Sea and east coast of Africa to Easter Island in the Pacific, embracing three-fifths of the circumference of the globe and 45° of latitude. This great region might indeed be subdivided into a number of smaller pro- vinces, each having a particular association of species, and some peculiar shells; such as the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, Madagascar, &c.; but a con- siderable number of species are found throughout the province, and their general character is the same.t Mr. Cuming obtained more than 100 species of shells from the eastern coast of Africa, identical with those collected by him- self at the Philippines, and in the eastern coral islands of the Pacific.¢ This is pre-eminently the region of coral reefs, aud of such shell-fish as affect their shelter. The number of species inhabiting it must amount to several thousands. The Philippine Islands have afforded the greatest variety, but their apparent superiority is due, in a measure, to the researches of Mr. Cuming ; no other portion of the province has been so thoroughly explored. § Amongst the genera most characteristic of the Indo-Pacific, those marked (*) are wholly wanting on the coasts of the Atlantic, but half of them occur fossil in the older tertiaries of Europe. Those iz ztalies are also found on the west coast of America. * Marks of doubt are added to some of the species, and other are quite omitted. + See Mrs. Somerville’s Physical Geography, II. p. 233. + Journal Geol. Soc. 1846, vol. II. p. 268. 2 Mr. Cuming collected 2500 species of sea-shells at the Philippines, and estimates the total number at athousand more. The genera most developed are Conus 120 sp., Pleurotoma 100, Mitra 250, Columbella 40, Cyprea 50, Natica 50, Chiton 30, Tellina 50. 2 INDO-PACIFIC PROVINCE. 369 > *Nautilus. *Magilus. Stomatella. Hemicardium. *Pterocera *Melo. Gena. *Cypricardia. *Rimella Mitra. *Broderipia. *Cardilia. *Rostellaria. *Cylindra. *Rimula. * Verticordia. *Seraphs, *Imbricaria. *Neritopsis. *Pythina. Conus. Ovulum. *Scutellina. Circe. Pleurotoma. *Pyrula (type). *Linteria. *Clementia. *Cithara. *Monoptygma. * Dolabella. *Glaucomya. *Clavella. Phorus, *Hemipecten. *Meroe. *Turbinella (typ.) Siliquaria. *Placuna, Anatinella. Cyllene. *Quoyia. *Malleus. Cultellus. Eburna. *Tectaria. *Vulsella. * Anatina. Phos. Imperator. *Pedum. * Chena. Dolium. Monodonta. *Septifer. * Aspergillum. Harpa. Delphinula. *Cucullea, *Jouannetia. *Ancillaria. Liotia. *Hippopus. *Lingula. *Ricinula. *Stomatia. *Tridacna. Discina. The strictly litoral species vary on each great line of coast: for example, Iitorina intermedia and Tectaria pagodus occur on the east coast of Africa; Intorina conica and melanostoma, in the Bay of Bengal; Litorina sinensis and castanea, and Haliotis venusta, on the coast of China; Litoriva scabra and H. squamata, in N. Australia; H. asinina, New Guinea; and L. picta. at the Sandwich Islands. Red Sea (Hirythreean). Of the 408 mollusca of the Red Sea, collected by Ehrenberg and Hemprich, 74 are common to the Medit. from which it would seem that _ these seas have communicated since the first appearance of some existing shells. Of the species common to the two seas 40 are Atlantic shells which have migrated into the Red Sea by way of the Medit. probably during the newer pliocene period; the others are Indo-Pacific shells which extended their range to the Mediterranean at an earlier age. The genera wanting in the Medit. but existing in the Red Sea, show most strikingly their diversity of character, and the affinity of the latter to the Indian fauna. Pterocera. Ancillaria. Siphonaria. Limopsis. Strombus, 8 sp. Harpa. Placuna. Tridacna Rostellaria. Ricinula. Plicatula. Crassatella. Turbinella. Magilus. Pedum. Trigona. Terebra. Pyramidella. Malleus. Sanguinolaria. Eburna. Parmophorus. Vulsella. Anatina. Oliva. Nerita. Perna. Aspergillum. Other genera become abundant, such as Conus, of which there are 19 species in the Red Sea, Cyprea 16, Mitra 10, Cerithium 17, Pinna 10, Chama 5, Circe 10. 370 : Persian Gulf. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. The marine zoology of the Persian Gulf and adjoining coast has not been yet explored, although the E. India Company maintains a squadron of five or six ships constantly cruising in the Gulf.* The following shells were picked up on the beach at Kurachee by Major Baker, with many others evidently new, but not in a satisfactory state for description. (1850.) Rostellaria curta. Murex tenuispina var. Pisania spiralis. ‘Ranella tuberculata. he spinosa. Pa crumena. Triton lampas. Bullia, n. sp. Eburna spirata. Purpura persica. - carinifera. Columbella blanda. Oliva subulata. » Indusica. » ancillaroides. Cyprea Lamarckii. » ocellata. Natica pellis-tigrina, Sigaretus sp. Odostomia sp. Phorus corrugatus. Planaxis sulcata. Imperator Saulie. Monodonta sp, Haliotis sp. Stomatella imbricata. Ss sulcifera. Fissurella Ruppellii. - Indusica. at salebrosa. - dactylosa. Fissurella funiculata. Pileopsis tricarinatus. Nerita ustulata. Dentalium octangulatum. Ringicula sp. Bulla ampulla. Anomia achzus. a enigmatica. Pecten sp. Spondylus sp. Plicatula depressa. Mytilus canaliculatus. Arca obliquata. » sculptilis, &c. Chama sp. Lucina sp. Cardium fimbriatum. 95 latum: 55 impolitum. BS pallidum. 5 assimile, Venus pinguis. sep > AElie- » Purpurata. Meroé Solandri. » effossa. Trigona trigonella ? Artemis angulosa. | ey exasperata. y subrosea ? Venerupis sp. Petricola sp. Tapes sulcosa. » Malabarica. Cypricardia vellicata. Cardita crassicostata ? s calyculata. By Tankervyillii. Mactra Zegyptica, &c. Tellina angulata. 33 capsoides. Mesodesma Horsfieldii. Psammobia sp. Syndosmya sp. Semele sp. Solen sp. Solecurtus politus. Donax scortum. 33 scalpellum: Sanguinolaria diphos. $4 violacea. _ sinuata. Corbula sp. Diplodonta sp. Anatina rostrata. Pandora sp. Martesia sp. Pholas australis. », Bakeri, Desh. » orientalis. (Meleagrina v. p. 261.) At the Cargados or St. Brandon shoals, north of Mauritius, Volute costata, Conus verrucosus, Pleurotoma virgo, and Turbinella Belcheri have been obtained by dredging. IX. AvustRaLo-ZELANDIC PRovINcE. Most remote from the Celtic seas, this province is also most unlike them in its fauna, containing many genera wholly unknown in Europe, either living or fossil, and some which occur fossil in rocks of a remote period. The province includes New Zealand, Tasmania, and extra-tropical Australia, from * The ‘‘ Brindled Cowry,” (Cyprea princeps) from the Persian Gulf, was valued at £50; the only known specimen is in the British Museum. AUSTRALO-ZELANDIC PROVINCE. Bi Sandy Cape on the east, to the Swan River. The shells, which are nearly all peculiar, have been catalogued by Gray,* Menke,t and Forbes. Of the following genera some are peculiar (*), others attain here their greatest development :— *Pinnoctopus. *Macgillivraia. Cypricardia. Imperator. *Struthiolaria. *Amphibola. Mesodesma. Monoptygma. Phasianella *Trigonia. Terebratella. Siphonaria. Elenchus. *Chamostrea. Spirula. Pandora. Bankivia. *Myadora. Oliva. Anatinella: Rotella. *Myochama. Conus. Clavagella. *Macroschisma. Crassatella. Voluta. Placunomia. Parmophorus. Cardita. Terebra. Waldheimia. Risella. Circe. Fasciolaria. Crania. Some of the genera of this province are only met with elsewhere at a considerable distance :— Solenella—Chile. Bankivia—Cape. Rhynchonella— Arctic seas, Panopza—Japan. Kraussia— Cape. Trophon—Fuegia; ,, Monoceros—Patagonia. Solemya—Medit. Assiminea—India; Brit. Amongst the litoral shells of South Australia are Haliotis elegans, H. ru- bicunda, and Litorina rugosa. Haliotis iris and Litorina squalida are found on the shores of N. Zealand; and Cyprovula umbilicata in Tasmania. Mr. Gray’s New Zealand list amounts to 104 marine species, among which are three volutes, including V. magnifica, the largest of its genus; Strom- bus troglodytes, Ranella argus, the great Triton variegatus; 6 Cones, (all doubtful), Oliva erythrostoma, Cyprea caput-serpentis, Ancillaria australis, Imperator heliotropium, Chiton monticularis, &e. Venus Stutchburyi and Modiolarca trapezina have heen found at Ker- guelen’s Id. and Pated/a illuminata at the Auckland Ids. X. JAPONIC PROVINCE. The Japanese Islands and Corea represent the Lusitanian province. A few shells were collected here by Mr. A. Adams, but they are chiefly known through the Dutch dealers.§ Zhe Astarte Japonica of the Catalogues is nothing more than J. dorealis, and is stated to have come from Lapland by Jay and Cuming. Puanopea Japonica belongs to the same type with P. intermedia of the London Clay. * Travels in New Zealand, by Dr. E. Dieffenbach. 8vo, London, 1843. + Moll. Nov. Hollandiz, 1843. ¢ Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, 1846-50, by J. Macgillivray. Supplement by Prof. E. Forbes. # For many years the Dutch have been allowed to send one ship annually to Japan for trade, whilst all other nations have been excluded; astate of things which the Americans will perhaps alter. The work of Siebold, on the Natural History of Japan, does not contain any account of the shells. 372 Octopus areolatus. Sepia chrysopthalma. Sepiola Japonica. Conus Sieboldi. Pleurotoma Coreanica. Terebra serotina. 4 stylata. Eburna Japonica. Cassis Japonica. Murex eurypterus. » rorifluus. » plorator. » Burneti. Cancellaria nodulifera. Mitra. Strombus corrugatus. Cyprea fimbriata. XI. Cyprea miliaris. Radius birostris. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Tsocardia Moltkiana. Venus Japonica. Cerithium longicaudatum. Cyclina orientalis. Imperator Guilfordiz. Haliotis Japonica. 5 discus. Pr gigantea. Bulla Coreanica. Siphonaria Coreanica. Pecten asperulatus » Japonicus. Spondylus Cumingii. Nucula mirabilis. 53 Japonica. Cardium Bechei. Crassatella compressa. Diplodonta alata. a3 Coreanica. Cytherea petechialis. Artemis sericea. a bilunata. Hs Sieboldi. » Japonica. Circe Stutzeri. Tapes Japonica. Petricola radiata. Solen albidus. Panopza Japonica. Terebratulina Japonica. YH angusta. Waldheimia Grayi. Terebratella Coreanica. * rubella. ALEUTIAN PROVINCE. The Boreal province is represented on the northern coasts of the Pacific, where, according to Dr. Middendorff, the same genera and many identical species are found. In addition to those indicated in the Arctic list (p. 355), the following species occur at the Shantar Ids. in the Sea of Ochotsk (QO), Saghalien, the Kuriles (K), Aleutians and Sitka (S). Patella (scurra). S, Acmza,3sp. S. Fusus (Chrysodomus) Sitchensis. » decemcostatus. A. Pilidium commodum. O. » Schantaricus.. Paludinella,3 sp. O. » Behringii. Litorina,6sp. O.K.S. > fpder. At Turritella Eschrichtii. 8S. 5» lunidus Ss: Margarita sulcata. A. Buccinum undatum yar. Schantaricum. Trochus, 6sp. S. 39 simplex. O. Scalaria Ochotensis. Pr Ochotense. Crepidula Sitchana. 3 cancellatum. A an minuta. S. a ovoides. O. 3 grandis. A. Pisania scabra. A. Fissurella violacea. S, Bullia ampullacea. O. aspera. S. Onychoteuthis Kamtschatica. Haliotis Kamtschatica, x aquatilis. K. Velutina coriacea. K. Terebratelia frontalis. O. Placunomia macroschisma, O. > cryptospira. O. Pecten rubidus. S. Trichotropis inermis. S. Crenella vernicosa. O. Purpura decemcostata. (Mid.) S. PA cultellus. Kamts. A Freycineti. O.S. Nucula castrensis. S. ¥ septentrionalis. S. Pectunculus septentrionalis. A Pleurotoma Schantarica. Cardita borealis. O. 35 simplex. O. Cardium Nuttalli. S. Murex monodon. S. sy Californicum. 8. )) lactuca, S; Saxidomus Petiti. S. ALEUTIAN PROVINCE. 313 Saxidomus giganteus. S. Tellina lutea. A. nasuta. S. Petricola cylindracea. S. » edentula. A. Rs gibba. S. Lutraria maxima. S. The influence of the Asiatic coast-current is shewn in the presence of two species of Ha/iotis, whilst affinity with the fanna of W. America is strongly indicated by the occurrence of Patella (scurra), three species of Crepidula, two of Fisswrelia, and species of Bullia, Placunomia, Cardita, Saxidomus, and Petricola, which are more abundant, and range farther north than their allies in the Atlantic. Provinces on the Western coast of America. The mollusca of the Western coast of America are equally distinct from those of the Atlantic and those inhabiting the central parts of the Pacific. Mr. Darwin states in his Journal (p. 391) that “ not one single sea-shell is known to becommon to the Islands of the Pacific and to the west coast of America,” and he adds that “after the comparison by Messrs. Cuming and Hinds of about 2000 shells from the Eastern and Western coasts of America, only one single shell was found in common, namely the Purpura patula, which inhahits the West Indies, the coast of Panama, and the Gallapagos.” Even this single identification has since been doubted. Mr. Cuming, who resided many years at Valparaiso, did not discover any West India species on that coast, and M. D’Orbigny makes the same observation. On the other hand M. Morch of Copenhagen says he has received Tellina operculata and Mactra alata from the west coast and also from Brazil; and M. Deshayes gives the following extraordinary ranges in his ‘“‘ Catalogue of Venerid@ in the British Museum :” Artemis angulosa, Philippines—Chile. Cytherea umbonella, Red Sea— Brazil. » maculata, W. Indies—Philippines, Sandwich. » circinata, West Indies—West coast America. In these instances there is doubtless some mistake, either about the locality or the shell. As regards the last, Mr. Carrick Moore has shown that the error has arisen from confounding the Cytherea alternata of Broderip with C. circinata of Born. M. D’Orbigny collected 628 species on the coast of S. America,—180 from the eastern side, and 447 from the Pacific coast, besides the Siphonaria Lessonii which ranges from Valparaiso in Chile to Maldonado on the coast of Uruguay.* These shells belong to 110 genera, of which 55 are common to both coasts, while 34 are peculiar to the Pacific, and 21 to the Atlantic side of S. America; an extraordinary amount of diversity, attributable partly to the different character of the two coasts—the * The dispersion of this coast shell may perhaps have taken place at the time when the channel of the river S. Cruz formed a strait, joining the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, like that of Magellan. (Darwin, p. 181.) Mr. Couthouy makes 3 sp. S. Lessonii, nearly smooth, Atlantic coast; S. antarctica, ribbed. Pacific coast; and S. lateralis, thin, oblique, Fuegia. 374 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSGCA. eastern low, sandy or muddy, the western rocky, with deep water near the shore.* The comparison of the shells of Eastern and Western America is of con- siderable interest to geologists; for if is true that any number of living species are common to the Pacific and Atlantic shores, it becomes probable that some portion of the Isthmus of Darien has been submerged stmce the Eocene Tertiary period. Any opening in this barrier would allow the Equa- torial current to pass through into the Pacific—there would be no more Gulf Stream—and the climate of Britain might from this cause alone, become like that of Newfoundland at the present day. XII. CaLtFoRNIAN PROVINCE. The shells of Oregon and California have been collected and described by Mr. Hinds,+ Mr. Nuttallt, and Mr. Couthouy, naturalist of the American Exploring Expedition.§ Shells common to U. California and Sitka. (Middendorff.) Tritonium scabrum. Fissurella aspera. Trochus euryomphalus. Litorina modesta. Trochus ater. Petricola cylindracea. os aspera. > mestus. Lutraria maxima. Fissurelia violacea. Fokkesii. Scarcely any species are common to this province (extending from Puget Sound to the peninsula) and the Bay of California, which belongs to the Panamic province. The following list probably contains some shells which should be referred to the latter. Fusus Oregonensis. Dentalium politum. Cardita ventricosa. Murex Nuttalli. Patella, 15 sp. Cardium, 4. Lucina, 3. Monoceros unicarinatus. Acmeea scabra. Cypricardia Californica. “6 punctatus. >» Pintadina. Chironia Laperousii. Cancellaria urceolata. Chiton Mertensii. Solecardia eburnea. Trivia Californica. » scrobiculatus, &c. Venus Californiensis. Natica herculea. Cleodora exacuta. » callosa, » Lewisii. — Artemis ponderosa Calyptrea fastigiata. Waldheimia Californica. Saxidomus Petiti. Crepidula exuviata. Discina Evansii. 3“ Nuttalli. FS navicelloides. a os giganteus. 93 solida, &c. Anomia pernoides. Venerupis cordieri. Imperator Buschii. Placunomia cepa. Petricola mirabilis. Haliotis Cracherodii. Hinnites giganteus. Mactra,2. Donax, 1. 33 fulgens. Perna,1. Pinna, 2. Tellina Bodegensis. 55 corrugata. Mytilus, 1, Pecten 2. >, ,, Becta, See: Fissurella crenulata. Mytilimeria Nuttalli, Semele decisa. 3 cucullata. Modiola capax. Cumingia californica. Puncturella, 2 sp. Chama exogyra. ‘Sanguinolaria Nuttalli. * Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale. 1847, t. v. p. v. + Voyge of H. M.S. Sulphur; Zoology by R. B. Hinds, 4to. 1844, t Described by T. A. Conrad, Journ. Acad. N.S. Philadelphia, 1834. § Gould in Bost. Nat. Hist. Soc. Proceedings, 1846; and U.S. Exploring Exped. (Commander Wilkes) vol. xii. Mollusca, with Atlas. 4to. Philad. 1852. CALIFORNIAN. PROVINCE. 375 Lutraria Nuttalli. Cyathodonta undulata. Machaera maxima. Platyodon cancellatus. Sphenia californica. Mya precisa. AmphichznaKindermanni. Periploma argentaria. Panopea generosa. Lyonsia,l. Thyracia, 1. Solecurtus subteres. Pholas Californica. Pandora, 1. Saxicava,2. Machaera lucida. », concamerata. XIII. Panamic PROVINCE. The Western coast of America, from the Gulf of California to Payta in Peru, forms one of the largest and most distinct provinces. The shells of Mazatlan and the Gulf have been imperfectly catalogued by Menke and are now under examination by Mr. P. Carpenter, who states that they amount to about 500 species, of which perhaps half are common to Panama and Peru 3 a very few are common to the west coast of the Promontory and very few (including Purpura patula and Mactra similis) to the West Indies; still fewer to the Pacific coasts and islands, and one or two identical or closely analogous with Senegambian and British species, (e. g. Kellia suborbicularis.) The late Prof. C. B. Adams of Amherst published, in 1852, a very valuable work on the shells of Panama, in which the total number of species found in the province is estimated at 1500, of which “perhaps none exist beyond— all of the few examples which are supposed to have a wider range, are more or less doubtful.”” He remarks that “in general there is a great dissimilarity between the shells of this and the. Caribbean Province” in which he had him- self collected extensively; the number of large species was much greater in Panama.* The river-openings of this coast are bordered by mangroves, amongst which are found Potamides, Arcas, Cyrenas, Potamomyas, Auriculas and Purpuras, whilst Lctorzne climb the trees and are found upon their leaves. The ordinary tide at Panama amounts to 16 or 20 feet, the extreme to 28 feet, so that once a fortnight a lower zone of beach may be examined and other shells collected; the beach is of fine sand, with reefs of rocks in the bay. Gallapagos Islands.—Out of 90 sea-shells collected here by Mr. Cuming 47 are unknown elsewhere; 25 inhabit Western America, and of these 8 are distinguishable as varieties; the remaining 18 (including one variety) were found by Mr. Cuming in the Low Archipelago, and some of them also at the Philippines. (Darwin, p. 391.) Literal shells common to Panama and the Gallapagos (C. B. Adams.) Cyprea rubescens Columbella atramentaria. Ricinula reeviana. Mitra tristis. 5 bicanalifera. Cassis coarctata. Planaxis planicostatus. » bemastoma. Oniscia tuberculosa, Purpura carolinensis. Columbella nigricans. Conus brunneus. * Mr. Adams found but one shell common to the two sides of the Isthmus— Crepidula unguiformis—wich is said to be found throughout the warmer latitudes, but is really an abnormal form of many distinct species of Crepidula, caused by _ growing in the interior-of other shells. 376 Conus nux. Strombus granulatus. Turbinella cerata. Strombus gracilior. Murex erythrostomus. » regius. imperialis. radix. » brassica. » monoceros, &e. Rapana muricata. » Kiosquiformis. Myristica patula. Ricinula clathrata. Purpura, many sp. Monoceros, many sp. » brevidentatus. se cingulatus. Clavella ? distorta. Oliva porphyria. », splendidula, &c. Northia pristis. Harpa crenata. Malea ringens. Mitra Inca, &e. Terebra luctuosa, &c. Conus regularis, &c. Pleurotoma, many sp. Cancellaria goniostoma. = cassidiformis. 3 chrysostoma. Columbella, many sp. Pleurotoma eccentrica. Hipponyx radiata. Fissurella macrotrema. Panama shells. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Fissurella nigro-punctata. Siphonaria gigas. Columbella strombiformis. Spondylus princeps. Marginella curta. Cyprza nigro-punctata, Trivia. Pyrula ventricosa. Natica glauca. Pileopsis hungaricoides. Crucibulum auriculatum, &e. Trochita mamillaris. Crepidula arcuata &e. Litorina pulchra. Turritella Californica. Truncatella, 2 sp. Ceecum, 8 sp. Imperator unguis, &e. Trochus pellis serpentis. Vitrinella, 12 sp. Nerita ornata. Patella maxima. Discina strigata. >, Cumingii. Lingula semen. 4s albida. 35 audebardi. Placunomia foliacea. Ostrea zequatorialis. Pecten magnificus. Arca lithodomus, &c. Pectunculus tessellatus, &c. Nucula exigua. Leda, 5 sp. Cardium senticosum, Pe maculosum. Cardita laticosta. Gouldia Pacifica. Cytherea, many sp. Venus gnidia. » histrionica. Artemis Dunkeri. Trigona crassatelloides. Cyclina subquadrata,} Venerupis foliacea. Petricola californica, &c. Tellina Burneti. Cumingia coarctata. Semele, 7 sp. Saxicava purpurascens. Gastrochena. Solecurtus lucidus. Lyonsia brevifrons. Pandora arcuata, &c. Pholas melanura, &c. Parapholas. Jouannetia pectinata. XIV. Peruvian PROVINCE. The coast of Peru and Chile, from Callao to Valparaiso, affords a large and characteristic assemblage of shells, of which only a small part have been catalogued, although the district has been well explored, especially by D’Or- bigny, Cuming and Philippi. M. D’Orbigny collected 160 species, one half of which are common to Peru and Chile, whilst only one species found at Callao was also met with at Payta, a little beyond the boundary of the region. Mr. Cuming obtained 222 species on the coast of Peru, and 172 in Chile. The Island of Juan Fernandez is included within this province. Only a few of the Peruvian shell-fish can be here enumerated. Onychoteuthis peratop- Posterobranchea. Crucibulum lignarium. tera. /ELolis Inca. Doris Peruviana. Diphyllidia Cuvieri. Aplysia Inca. Tornatella yenusta. Chiton, many species. Patella scurra. Acmea scutum. Trochita radians. Crepidula dilatata. Fissurella, many sp. Liotia Cobijensis. Gadinia Peruyiana. PERUVIAN PROVINCE. 377 Mesodesma Chilensis. Cumingia lamellosa. Semele rosea, &c. Petricola, many sp. Saxidomus opacus, &c. Cyclina Kroyeri. Monoceros acuminatus. Purpura chocolata, Concholepas. Mitra maura. a Terebratella Fontainei. Litorina Peruviana. » araucana. Rissoina Inca. Cancellaria buccinoides. Sigaretus cymba. Fusus Fontainei. Murex horridus. ,, Chilensis. Venus thaca. Ranella ventricosa. Discina lamellosa. Crassatella gibbosa. Triton scaber. » levis. Nucula, many sp. Leda, many sp. Solenella Norrisii. Lithodomus Peruvianus. Saxicava solida. Nassa dentifera. Columbella sordida. Oliva Peruviana. Rapana labiosa. Monoceros giganteus. » eYrassilabris. Pholas subtruncata, &c. Lyonsia cuneata. Solen gladiolus. Solecurtus Dombeyi. Mactra Byronensis. XV. Macetianic Province. This region includes the coasts of Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Ids. (Malvinas) and the Mainland of South America, from P. Melo, on the east coast, to Concepcion, on the west. It is described by M. D’Orbigny and Mr. Darwin (Journal, p- 177 et seq.). The southern and western coasts are amongst the wildest and stormiest in the world; glaciers in many places descend into the sea, and the passage round Cape Horn has often to be made amidst icebergs floating from the south polar continent.* The greatest tides in the straits amount to 50 feet. “In T. del Fuego the giant sea-weed (Macro- cystis pyrifera), grows on every rock from low-water mark to 45 fathoms, both on the outer coast and within the channels; it not only reaches up to the surface, but spreads over many fathoms and shelters multitudes of marine animals, including beautiful compound Ascidians, various patelliform. shells, Trochi, naked mollusca, cuttle-fish and attached bivalves. The rocks, at low- water, also abound with shell-fish, which are very different in their character from those of corresponding northern latitudes, and even when the genera are identical the species are of much larger size and more vigorous growth.” + Shells of the Magellanic province (* Falkland Islands). Buccinnum antarcticum. Natica limbata. *Scissurella conica. », Donovani? Bullia cochlidium. Monoceros imbricatus. » glabratus. » calear. Trophon Magellanicus. Voluta Magelianiea. ancilla. ” Lamellaria antarctica. Litorina caliginosa. Chemnitzia Americana. *Scalaria brevis. *Trochita pileolus. Crepidula Patagonica, Trochus Patagonicus. *Margarita Malvine. *Fissurella radiosa. Puncturella conica. Nacella cymbularia. *Patella deaurata. * ,, barbara. » zebrina. Siphonaria lateralis. Chiton setiger. * Familiar to the admirers of Coleridge’s “ Ancient Mariner,” and graphically described in Dana’s ‘‘ Two Years before the Mast.” + Shell-fish are here the chief support of the natives as well as of the wild animals. At Low’s harbour a sea-otter was killed in the act of carrying to its hole a large Volute, and, in T. del Fuego, one was seen eating acuttle-fish. (Darwin.) 378 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Doris luteola. Waldheimia dilatata. *Venus exalbida. Afolis Patagonica. Pecten Patagonicus. *Cyamium antarcticum. *Spongiobranchea. > corneus. Mactra edulis. Spirialis? cucullata, 66°S. Mytilus Magellanicus. *Lyonsia Malvinensis. — \ *Modiolarea trapezina. Pandora cistula. Terebratella crenulata. Leda sulculata. Saxicava antarctica. * |, Magellanica, many *Cardita Thouarsii. Boltenia coacta. varieties. *Astarte longirostris. Octopus megalocyathus. XVI. PaTAGOoNIAN PROVINCE. From S. Catharina, south of the Tropic, to P. Melo. This coast-line has shifted considerably since the era of its present fauna. M. D’Orbigny and Mr. Darwin observed banks of recent shells, especially Potamomya labiata, in the valley of the La Plata and the Pampas around Bahia Blanca. Mr. Cuming also met with Voluta Brasiliana, and other living shells, in banks 50 miles inland. Of 79 shells obtained by M. D’Orbigny on the coast of N. Patagonia, 51 were peculiar, 1 common to the Falkland Ids. and 27 to Maldonado and Brazil. At Maldonado 37 species were found, 8 being special, 10 common to N. Patagonia, 2 to Rio, and 17 to Brazil. Of the latter 8 range as far as the Antilles; viz. : Crepidula aculeata. Mactra fragilis. Modiola viator. >; protea. Venus fiexuosa*. Plicatula Barbadensis. Pholas costata. Lucina semi-reticulata. At Bahia Blanea, in lat. 39° S., the most abundant shells observed by Mr. Darwin (p. 243) were Oliva auricularia. Oliva tehuelchana. Voluta angulata. puelchana. Voluta Brasiliana. Terebra Patagonica. 2 M. D’Orbigny’s list also includes the following genera and species: Octopus tehuelchus Af olis. Leda. Columbella sertularium. Paludestrina. Cytherea. Bullia globulosa. Scalaria. Petricola. Pleurotema Patagonica. Natica. Corbula. Fissurellidza megatrema. Chiton. Pinna. Panopea abbreviata. Solen. Mytilus. Periploma compressa. Lutraria. Lithodomus. Lyonsia Patagonica. Donacilla. Pecten. Solecurtus Platensis. Nucula. Ostrea. XVil. CARIBBEAN PROVINCE. The Gulf of Mexico, the West Indian Islands, and the eastern coast of South America, as far as Rio, form the fourth great tropical region of marine life. The number of shells is estimated by Prof. C. B. Adams at not less than 1500 species. Of these 500 are described by M. D’Orbigny in Ramon de la Sagra’s History of Cuba, and a small number of the Brazilian species in the same author’s Travels in South America. * The variety of Venus flexuosa found at Rio, can be distinguished from the West Indian shell, which is the Venus punctifera of Gray. CARIBBEAN PROVINCE. 379 The coasts of the Antilles, Bermuda, and Brazil, are fringed with coral reefs, and there are considerable banks of gulf-weed at some distance from the coast of the Antilles. Argonauta. Ommastrephes. Cleodora. Octopus. Sepioteuthis. Creseis. Philonexis. Sepia. Cuvieria. Loligo. Spirula. Atlanta. Cranchia. Hyalea. Oxygyrus. Onychoteuthis Strombus gigas. rh pugilis. Murex calcitrapa. Pisania articulata. Enzina turbinella. Triton pilearis. » Ccutaceus. Fusus morio. Fasciolaria tulipa. Lagena ocellata. Cancellaria reticulata. Fulgur aruanum. Terebra acicularis. Myristica melongena. Purpura patula. - deltoidea. Oniscia oniscus. Cassis tuberosa. ,, Uammea. » Madagascariensis. Columbella mercatoria. yes nitida, &c. Voluta vespertilio. i MUSICS. Oliva, brasiliensis. » angulata. » Jjaspidea. » oryza, &c. Ancillaria glabrata. Conus varius, &c. Clavatula zebra. Marginella. Erato Maugeriez. Cyprza mus. » exanthema. » spurca, &c. Trivia pediculus. Ovulum gibbosum. XVIII. West India Shetts. Natica canrena. Pyramidella dolabrata. Planaxis nucleus. Litorina zic-zac. 3 flava. a lineolata. Tectaria muricata. Modulus lenticularis. Fossarus Truncatella caribbza. Torinia cylindracea. Turritella exoleta. 3 imbricata. Trochus pica. Imperator tuber. 3 calcar. Fissurella Listeri. zi nodosa. Cy Barbadensis. Nerita. Neritina. Hemitoma 8 radiata. Hipponyx mitrula. Pileopsis militaris. Calyptrea equestris. Crepidula aculeata. Patella leucopleura. Chiton squamosus. Hydatina physis. Bouchardia tulipa. Discina antillarum. Placunomia foliata, Plicatula cristata. Lima scabra. Mytilus exustus. Lithodomus dactyius. Cheletropis. ianthina. Glaucus. Notarchus Plei. Aplysia. Arca Americana. Yoldia tellinoides, Chama arcinella. » macrophylla. Cardium lzvigatum. Lucina tigrina. » Pennsylvanica. >», vamaicensis. Corbis fimbriata, Coralliophaga. Crassatella. Gouldia‘ parva. Venus paphia. » adysera. » crenulata, » cancellata. » violacea. Cytherea dione. circinata. maculata. gigantea. sta flexuosa. Artemis concentrica. A lucinalis. Cyclina saccata. Trigona mactroides. Petricola lapicida. Capsula coccinea. Tellina Braziliana. » bimaculata. Strigilia carnaria. Semele reticulata. » variegata. Cumingia. Iphigenia Brasiliensis. Lutraria lineata. Periploma ineguivalvis. Pholadomya candida. TRANS-ATLANTIC PROVINCE. The Atlantic coast of the United States was supposed by Prof. EH. Forbes to consist of two provinces, 1. the Virginian, from C. Cod to C. Hatteras, S 380 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. ‘and 2. the Carolinian, extending to Florida; but no data were supplied for such a division. The total number of mollusca is only 230, and 60 of these range further north, 15 being moreover common to Europe. Dr. Gould describes 110 shells from the coast of Massachusetts south of Cape Cod, of which 50 are not found to the northward, but form the com- mencement of the proper American type. The shells of New York and the southern Atlantic States are described by De Kay, in the State Natural His- tory of New York; this list supplies 120 additional species, of which at least afew are stragglers from the Caribbean province; e.g. Chama arcinella, Iphigenia levigata, Capsula deflorata.* M. Massachusetts. Y. New York. SC. South Carolina. F. Florida. Conus mus. F. Ostrea equestris. SC. F. Fusus cinereus. M. SC. Pecten irradians (scallop). Nassa obsoleta. M. F. (Mex.) Avicula Atlantica. F. , trivittata. M. SC. Mytilus leucophantus. SC. » vVibex. M. F. (Mexico). Modiola Carolinensis. Purpura Floridana. (Mex.) 5 plicatula. M. Y. Terebra dislocata. V.SC. ; Pinna muricata. SC. Pyrula? papyracea. F. Arca ponderosa. SC. Fulgur carica. M. SC. » pexata. M.F. >», canaliculatum. M. SC. » incongrua, SC. Oliva literata. SC. - ; transversa. M. Y. Marginella carnea. F. Solemya velum. M. Y. Fasciolaria distans. SC. (Mex.) th borealis. M. Columbella avara. M. Y. Cardium ventricosum. SC, Ranella caudata. M. Y. as Mortoni. M. Y. Natica duplicata. Y. SC. Lucinva contracta. Y. Sigaretus perspectivus. Y.SC. Astarte Mortoni. Y. Scalaria lineata. M.SC. » bilunulata. F. x multistriata. M. Y. Cardita incrassata. F. - turbinata. NC. Venus mercenaria. M.SC. Cerithium ferrugineum. F. » Mortoni. SC. F. pe 4sp. M. » gemma. M. Y. Triforis nigro-cinctus. M. Artemis discus. SC. Odostomia, 6sp. M. Y. Petricola dactylus. M. SC. Turritellainterrupta. M. Y. ee pholadiformis. Y " concava. SC. Mactra similis. SC. M. (Vermetus lumbricalis. M. ?) » Ssolidissima. M. Y. Calyptrea striata. Y. » lateralis. M. Y. Crepidula convexa. M. Y. Lutraria lineata. F. a4 fornicata. M. F.(Mex.) s canaliculata. V. F. Litorina irrorata. Y. Mesodesma arctata. M. Y. Fissurella alternata. (Say) ? Tellina tenta. M. SC. Chiton apiculatus. M. SC. sigue OES Dent Ce Tornatella puncto-striata. M. Y. Semele zqualis. SC. Bulla insculpta. M., Y. Cumingia tellinoides. M. So Donax fossar. Y. * The sea-shells of the United States have also been collected and described by Say, Le Sueur, Conrad, and Couthouy. TRANS-ATLANTIC PROVINCE. 381 Donax variabilis. G. F. Periploma papyracea. M. Y. Solecurtus fragilis. M.SC. Lyousia hyalina. Y. = caribbeus. M. F. Pandors trilineata. M. F. Corbula contracta. M. F. Pholas costata SC. F. Periploma Leana. M. Y. » semicostata. SC. LAND REGIONS. Distribution of Land and Fresh-water Shells. The boundaries of the Natural-history land-regions are more distinctly marked, and have been more fully investigated, than their counterparts in the sea. Almost every large island has its own fauna and flora ; almost every river- system its peculiar fresh-water fish and shells; and mountain-chains like the Andes appear te present impassable barriers to the “ nations” of animals and plants of either side. Exceptions, however, occur which shew that beyond ~ this first generalisation there exists a higher law. The British Channel is not a barrier between two provinces, nor is the Mediterranean ; and the desert of Sahara separates only two portions of the same zoological region. In these and other similar instances the “ barrier.’ is of later date than the sur- ee oe ee rounding fauna and flora. It has been often remarked that the northern part of the map of the world presents the appearance of vastly-extended, continental plains, much of which is, geologically speaking, new land. In the southern hemisphere the continents taper off into promontories and peninsulas, or have long since broken up into islands. Connected with this is the remarkable fact that only around the shores of the Arctic Sea are the same animals. and_plants.found— throvgh every meridian; and that~in passing southward, along the three principal lines of land, specific identities give way to mere identity of genera, these are replaced by family resemblances, and at last even the families of animals and plants become in great measure distinct—not only on the great continents, but on the islands—till every little rock in the ocean has its peculiar inhabitants—the_ survivors, seemingly, of tribes which the sea has swallowed up.( Waterhouse.) The two largest genera, or principal types of the land and fresh-water shells, Heliz and Unio, have an almost universal range, but admit of many geographical subdivisions.* Amongst the land-snails are several species to which a nearly world-wide range has been assigned, sometimes erroneously as when Helix cicatricosa is attributed to Senegal and China, or Helix simi- laris Ver. to Brazil and India; and often correctly, but only because they have been carried to distant localities by human agency. Land-snails are in * Incataloguing Unionide the river and country of each species should be stated. American authors are too often contented with recording such localities as ‘‘ Nash- ville” and “Smithville,” which are quite unintelligible. Almost as uncertain in their meaning are S. Vincent, S. Cruz, S. Thomas, Prince’s Id.; whilst the latinized names of places often defy all attempts at re-translation, —— it 382 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. favour with Portuguese sailors, as “live sea-stock;” and they have natu- yalized the common garden-snail of Europe (Helix aspersa) in Algeria, the Azores, and Brazil; and Helix lactea at Teneriffe and Mte. Video. Achatina fulica has been taken from Africa to the Mauritius, and thence to Calcutta, where it has been established by a living naturalist; and Heli hortensis has been carried from the old country to America, and naturalized on the coast of New England and the banks of the St. Lawrence. Bulimus Goodalii, indigenous to the West Indies and_S. America, has been introduced into English pineries and to Mauritius. Helix pulchella, one of the small species found in moss and decayed leaves, inhabits Hurope, the Caucasus, Madeira, the Cape (introduced), and N. America as far as the Missouri. Helix cellaria inhabits Europe and the Northern States of America, and has been carried abroad with the roots of plants, or attached to water-casks, and naturalized at the Cape and New Zealand. ; The fresh-water Pulmonifera—Limnea, Physa, Planorbis, Ancylus— and the amphibious Succinea, have a nearly world-wide range; and like aquatic plants and insects often re-appear, even at the antipodes, under familiar forms. The range of the gill-breathing fresh-water shells 1s more restricted. The Old World and America may be regarded as provinces of paramount importance, having no species in common (except a few in the extreme north), and each possessing many characteristic genera. America. Old World. America. Old World. Anastoma. Zonites. Choanopoma. Pomatias. Tridopsis. Nanina. Chondropoma. Otopoma. Sagda. Vitrina. Cistula. Craspedopoma. Stenopus. Helicolimax. Trochatella. Diplommatina. Proserpina. Daudebardia. Alcadia Aulopoma. Bulimus. Achatina. Stoastoma. Pupina. Odontostomus. Achatinella. Geomelania Acicula. Liguus. Clausilia. — — Glandina. Paxillus, Hemisinus. Vibex. Cylindrella. Pupa. Melafusus. Pirena. Megaspira. = Ceriphasia. Melanopsis. Simpulopsis. Testacella. Anculotus. Paludomus. Amphibulima. Parmacella. Melatoma. Lithoglyphus. Omalonys. Limax. Amnicola. Navicella. — Arion. — — Philomycus. Phosphorax. Miilleria. 7Etheria. Peltella. Incilaria. Mycetopus. Tridina. —_— Oncidium. Castalia. Galatea. Chilinia. —: Monocondylea. Cyrenoides. Gundlachia. Latia. Gnathodon. Glaucomya. The Land Provinces represented on the map are the principal Botanical Regions of Prof. Schouw, as given in the Physical Atlas of Berghaus; and it is proposed to inquire how far these divisions are confirmed by the land and fresh-water shells, more especially by the land-snails, (Helicide, Limacide, LAND REGIONS. 383 and Cyclostomide), which have been so elaborately catalogued by Dr. L. Pfeiffer.* The first Botanical region—that of Saxifrages and Mosses—has not been numbered on the map, although its boundary is given by the line of northern limit of trees. his line nearly coincides with the Isotherm of 32°, or per- manent ground-frost; but in Siberia the pine-forests extend 15° further, owing to the absence of winter rains and the bright clear air. In this region shells are very rare; Dr. Middendorff found Physa hypuo- rum in Arctic Siberia, and Limnea geisericola (Beck) inhabits the warm springs of Iceland. The few species discovered by Moller in Greenland are supposed to be peculiar :— Helix Fabricii. Succinea Greenlandica. Limnza Holbdllii. Pupa Hoppii. Limnea Vablii. Planorbis arcticus. Vitrina angelica, xs Pingelii. Cyclas Steenbuchit. 1. GeERMANIC REGION. The whole of Northern Europe and Asia, bounded by the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, and Altai, constitutes but one province, with a fauna by no means proportioned in richness to its extent. The land-snails amount to more than 200, but nearly all (or at least five- sixths) are common to the Lusitanian region. }t BOVIS. seve Se UE 90 PUB Acai vatacie cyajecd 44 Cyclostoma ........ 1 Bolimnlus .... 0. 10 Clamsuliaiesra. sacle 52 ACICUIAN acces tre solar I AGN ve cy sleravei sye;eis'0« SVaUTN LE cpa erateltiew olsrere 5 Wanaxeeccranre siaerarethict PALA GE Biaiersiaiats sie d's.0'6 } 5 SCORN GA pias. tcteta stoi 5 ; ATION) s 455i geuertae 4 Cionella ........ aS AL Gaiaclete ie:sins/ oie) © , agrestis. ;, pulchella. » ventrosus, Fer. » gagates. » Jlenticula. Balea perversa (p. 166). Testacella Maugei. ( ,, lapicida, fossil). Limnea truncatula , haliotidea. Cionella acicula. Ancylus fluviatilis. Great quantities of dead shel/s of the land-snails are found in ancient sand-dunes near Canical, at the eastern extremity of Madeira, and in Porto Santo, including 64 of the living species and 13 which have not been found alive. As the fossil examples of several species are larger than their living descendants, it is possible that some of those reputed to be extinct have only degenerated. It is a remarkable fact that some of the commonest living species are not found fossil, whilst others, now extremely scarce, occur abun- dantly as fossils.* Extinct land-snails of Madeira. Helix delphinula, Lowe. M. arcinella, Lowe, P. coronula, Lowe, S. Deserta. vermetiformis, Lowe, P. Lowei, Fer. (porto-sanctana, var.?). P. fluctuosa, Lowe (=chrysomela, Lowe). P. psammophora, Lowe (phlebophora var. ?). P. » Bowdichiana, Fer. (punctulata, major?). M. P Glandina cylichna, Lowe. P. Santo. Cionella eulima, Lowe, P. Pupa linearis, Lowe. M. (= minutissima, Hartm ?) abbreviata, Lowe. M. +P] The problem of the colonization of these islands receives additional light from the circumstances noticed at other oceanic islands, especially the Canaries and St. Helena. There is evidence that this mountain group has not arisen newly from the sea, and great probability that it has become insulated by the subsidence of the surrounding Jand.+ The character and arrangement of its fanna is probably nearly the same now as when it formed part of a continent, and the diminution of its land-shells in variety and size * Helix tiarella, W. and B. was supposed to be extinct, but in the last summer, (1855) Mr. Wollaston detected it alive in two almost inaccessible spots on the north coast of Madeira: it is not a native of the Canaries. + See the Observations of Mr. James Smith, and of Sir C. Lyell and Mr. Hartung (Geol. Journ. 1854). 8 3 388 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. may be the result of a modern change of physical conditions brought about by human agency, as at St. Helena. The annual fall of rain is now 29.82 inches, whereas it was remarked by Columbus, 350 years ago, “ that, formerly, the quantity of rain was as great in Madeira, the Canaries and the Azores, as in Jamaica, but since the trees, which shaded the ground, had been cut down, razz had become much more rare.’ * The Azores are a group of 9 volcanic islands, 800 miles W. of Lisbon, the loftiest being Pico, 7,613 ft: Only 13 Jand-shells have been found, of which 3 are common to the Canaries, 1 to the Canaries and Madeira, 3 to Madeira, 1 to the Canaries and C. de Verdes, and 2 are peculiar, viz. : Helix Azorica and Bulimus cyaneus. Helix barbula is also found in Por- tugal, H. pisana and cellaria are common to Madeira and Europe, and H. aspersa has been introduced recently. The Canary islands are 60 miles W. of Africa, with a temperature of 60°— 66° in the coolest half-year, and 78°—87° in the hottest. The landsnails are about 80 in number, including Helix 50, Nanina 1, Vitrina 3, Bulimus 16, Achatina 3, Pupa 5, Limax 1, Phosphorax 1, Testacella 2, Cryptella 1, and 4 Cyclostomide. Of these, 60 are peculiar, 12 are common to S. Europe, and 4 to the West Indies? 1 to Morocco, 1 to Algeria (also Euro- pean), and 1 to Egypt. The fresh-water shells are Physa 2, Aneylus 1. Helix ustulata and McAndrei are peculiar to the rocky islets known as the “Salvages” north of the Canaries. The absence of W. African land-sheils and the presence of W. Indian species may be explained by the currents, which come from the Autilles, as shown on the map. Some of the European species may have been intro- duced (ce. g. Helix lactea, pisana; cellaria); but the preseuce of 20 Lusita- nian species, in a total of 80; is too remarkable to be acetdental. The Cape de Verde Islands, although much further to the south, are also much farther from the continent, being 320 miles West of C. de Verde; the mean temperature is 65°—70°, and the vegetation, as Dr. Christian Smith remarked, is more like that of the Mediterranean coast than W. Africa. Of the 12 land-shells, two are common to the Canaries and Azores. Lusitanian species of wide distribution. Helix amanda, Sicily — Palma. » Planata, Morocco —- Canaries. , Jenticula, S. Europe — Madeira —- Canaries. » rozeti, Sicily, Morea — Algeria — C. de Verde — Canaries. , lanuginosa, Majorca — Algeria — Palma. * Cosmos, II. 660, Bohn ed. It séems likely that Jamaica itself has since undergone a similar change; the fall of rain is stated to be 49.12. whilst in the neigh- bouring islands it exceeds 100 inches. + Long before the discovery of Amerita it was observed that the westerly gales washed ashore stems of bamboos, trunks of pines, and even living men in canoes. =Humboldt, II. p. 462. LUSITANIAN REGION, 389 Helix simulata, Syria — Egypt — Lancerotte. Michaudi, summit of Porto Santo — Teneriffe ? cyclodon, Azores — Canaries — C. de Verdes. advena, (= erubescens Lowe,) Madeira—Azores — St. Vincent. » Pplicaria and planorbella, Canaries—Porto Rico ? Bulimus subdiaphanus, Canaries — Azores — C, de Verdes. beeticatus and badiosus, Canaries—St. Thomas? 22 ” ” Ascension. This barren volcanic island, in the midst of the Atlantic Ocean, is not known to possess any terrestrial Pulmonifera beside a slug, the Limaz Ascensionis. Mr. Benson thinks that some Helicrde might pos- sibly be found on the Green Mountain, 2840 feet high, where the garrison have their garcens. Mr. Darwin remarks “we may feel sure that at some former epoch, the climate and productions of Ascension were very different from what they now are.” St. Helena. (No. 28 of Map). The Island of St. Helena is 800 miles S. K. of Ascension, and 1200 from the nearest African coast of Benguela. It is entirely volcanic. The indigenous plants are all peculiar, and not more related to those of Western Africa than to Brazil.* The land shells are also peculiar; 13 species have been described ; viz:—Helix, 3 sp. Bulimus5, Achatina 2, Pupa 1, Succinea ( Helisiga), 2. As many more have been met with only in the condition of dead shells, rarely retaining their colour and translucency. They are found beneath the surface- soil in the sides of ravines worn by the heavy rains, at a height of 1200 toe 1700 feet ; ‘‘ their extinction has probably been caused by the entire destruc- tion of the woods, and the consequent loss of food and shelter, which occurred during the early part of last century.’”-—(Darwin’s Journal, p. 488). A living Bulimus, related to the extinct B. Blofieldi, is found feeding on the cabbage- trees, only on the highest points of the Island. Extinct land-shells of St. Helena.t Bulimus auris vulpinus. Bulimus relegatus. » Darwini. Helix bilamellata. » Blofieldi. »» polyodon. » sealei. » spureca. » subplicatus. », biplicata. », terebellum. , Alexandri. fossilis. Succinea Bensoni. The large Bulimus, (fig. 91, p. 164) has no living analogue in Africa, * “Tt might perhaps have been expected that the examination of the vicinity of the Congo would have thrown some light on the origin, if I may so express myself, of the Flora of St. Helena. This, however, has not proved to be the case; for neither has a single indigenous species, nor have any of the principal genera characterising the vegetation of that Island, been found either on the banks of the Congo, or on any other part of this coast of Africa.”—R. Brown, Appendix to Captain Tuckey’s Narra- tive of the Congo Expedition, (p, 476.) 1818. + G. Sowerby in Darwin’s ‘‘ Volcanic Islands,” p. 73. Forbes, Journ. Geol. Soc’ 1852, p. 197.—Benson, An. Nat. Hist. 1851, VII. 263. 390 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. but is a member of of a group characteristic of tropical America (to which the names Plecochilus, Pachyotis and Caprella have been given) including B. signatus, B. bilahiatus, B. goniostomus, and especially B. sulcatus (Chilo- nopsis, Fischer) of St. Iago.* The four next species belong to the same type, but are smaller and slenderer. “The marine mollusks of the coast of St. Helena would lead us to infer the very ancient isolation of that island, whilst | at the same time a pre-existing closer geographical relationship between the African and the American continents than now maintains is dimly indicated. The information we have obtained respecting the extinct and existing terres- trial mollusks would seem to point in the same direction, and assuredly to indicate a closer geographical alliance between St. Helena and the east coast of S. America than now holds.” —(Forbes). Tristan @ Acunha. (No. 29 of Map). T'wo peculiar species of Balea (Tristensis and ventricosus) are found on this remote and lofty island, which attains an elevation of 8,236 feet. 3. AFRICAN REGION. Tropical Western Africa, with its hot and swampy coasts and river.valleys is the region of the great 4chating and Achatina-like Bulimi, the largest of all living land-snails. Dr. Pfeiffer enumerates—Vitrina 3 sp. Streptazis 7, Helix 8, Pupa 5, Bulimus 35, Achatina 39, Succinea, 3. Streptaxis Reclu- ztana inhabits the Guinea Islands. Helix Folini, Bulimus numidicus and Fastigiatus, Pipa crystallum and sorghum, Achatina columna, striatella and lotophaga are found ou Princes Island. Ppa putilla on Goree Island. Bulimus (Pseudachatina) Downesi, Achatina iostoma and Glandina cerea at Fernando Po. The reversed river-snail (Zanistes) is generally diffused in the fresh waters of Africa; several species of Potamides and Vibex are found in the embouchures of the western rivers and Pedipes on the sea-shore. The freshwater bivalves of Senegal are similar to those of the Nile; — Pisidium parasiticum, Egypt. Tridina exotica, Senegal. Cyrenoides Duponti, Senegal. » rubens, tp Corbicula, 4 sp. Egypt. Pleiodon ovatus _ Jridina nilotica 7 /Etheria semilunata ,, Nile. . aegyptiaca _ Galatea radiata Pith ts 4, CAPE REGION. Dr. Krauss describes 41 species of land-snail from South Africa, and Mr. Benson has furnished a list containing 22 others; these are all peculiar, except a Succinea which appears to be only a variety of the European * As Dr. Pfeiffer includesthis (with a sign of doubt) amongst the synonymes of B. auris-vulpinus he must have suspected that the specimens came from St. Helena and not from St. lago. The only other group of Bulimi resembling the St. Helena shells occurs in the Pacific Islands :—Bulimus Caledonicus at Mulgrave 1.—B. auris zovine at the Solomons, and B. shongi in New Zealand. CAPE REGION. 391 S. putris, and two European Helices (H. cellaria and pulchella) probably imported to the environs of the Cape. There are also 3 slugs, 9 freshwater Pulmonifera, 7 marine Pulmonifera, 5 freshwater bivalves and 5 univalves. The species found at the Cape, Algoa Bay, Natal, &c., are for the most part different—Potamides decollatus, Clionella sinuata and an Assiminea inhabit brackish waters. int. 2a ae 1 — a ENERO iyate cet t's sss es ] Rimingee 22.850 cee se = i Paludinatays. 2.22. 3 a EMS aay ac) \-teetaie see atte 4) » (Nerina weniacctys= oe 1 OU TUTINTIES 8 GS ie ee ge 4 PAYVSOPSIS eas mee ce oe 1 a IG A apa 90) Ane ylog) lene cee essa I* . Corbiculattycee eae ] ROHCLINGR o 0 cc cecceces 4 Planorbis -47 2 see ee 3? “Cyclas ssceoucetecee a. 1 PMNS PS ses. oe, 9 —— Pisidium sf eases 1 12701 NE aeiceoee asec asis 6 Wacimilus), 22's) aocs 1! WO! sarees eternal ts ] CITE WE Ber HiGaCOOK Dis 5 Oncidimm s.22e. a5 I Tridinays seers ©. ] iWyclostoma s.....-... 6 Auriculal Mies. ts he «- 6 5. YEMEN—MADAGASCAR. The S. W. Highlands of Arabia (Yemen) form a distinct Botanical pro- vince isolated by rainless deserts to the north. The land snails consist of a few species of Helix and Bulimus, Cyclostoma lithidion, and 8 species of the section Ofopoma, a group also found in Madagascar. ‘Two species are com- mon to the island of Socotra, (No. 30) which also has a species (of Pupa) common to Madagascar. Bulimus guillaini, Cyclostoma gratum, modestum and Souleyeti are found on the island of Abd-el-Gouri. Very few land shells have been collected on the mainland of Hastern Africa, although it is a rainy region, and well wooded in the southern part; 5 species only are recorded from Mogadoxa and Ibu, belonging to the genera Helix, Bulimulus, Achatina, Pupa, and Otopoma. On the Island of Zan- zibar are found, Achatina Rodatzi, and allisa, Cyclostoma Creplini, and Zanguebarica ; Pupa cerea is common to Zanzibar and Madagascar. Madagascar itself is rich in land shells; Dr. Pfeiffer enumerates— Helix 28 sp., Bulimus 6, Succinea 14, Pupa 1, Achatina 4, (one of which, eximia, is allied to 4. Columna, of W. Africa), and 32 Cyclostomide, chiefly of the section with spiral ridges (Zropidophora), 3 of the division Ofopoma. Cyclostoma cariniferum and Cuvieri are found on the Island of Nosse Be; Helix guillaini on S. MariaI. Amongst the fresh-water shells are Melania amarula, Melaratria fluminea and Neritina corona. The land shells of the Mascarene Islands are all peculiar; weare indebted to Mr. W. H. Benson for most of the information existing in respect to them. Comoro Islands. Heliz russeola and Achatina simpularia are found in Mayotte; Cyclostoma pyrostoma in Mayotte and Madagascar. 392 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Seychelles, (No. 81 of Map). Parmacella Dussumieri Bulimus ornatus Helix unidentata » fulvicans » Sstuderi Cyclostoma insulare », souleyeti » pulchrum », Tranquebarica Cyclotus conoideus Streptaxis Souleyeti Mauritius, (82). Parmacella perlucida Helix Barclayi Pupa Largillierti » Rangii », odontina Cyclostoma Barclayi », mauritii Vitrina angularis » Michaudi Helix philyrina Tornatellina cernica », carinatum » inversicolor Gibbus Antoni », undulatum 3 stylodon ;, Lyonneti », insulare? » mauritiana Succinea sp. Cyclotus conoideus ? 5, Mauritianella Bulimus clavulinus Otopoma Listeri + Yrawsoni » Mauritianus » hemastoma » semicerina Pupa pagoda Realia rubens 5 mucronata », fusus 5, aurantiaca », nitella », Ssulcata », multilirata rote », clayulata 5 expansilabris 5» Similaris » modiclus » globosa » suffulta » funicuia Megalomastoma croceum », albidens 5, versipolis Two large species of dchatina (fulica and panthera) abounding in the coffee plantations, are believed to have been introduced. The fall of rain in Mauritius is 35.25 Bourbon, (No. 33). Helix celatura Helix tortula », detecta », Brandiana », delibata ? Pupa Largillierti—Mauritius. Rodriguez. Cyclostoma articulatum Madagascar? Streptaxis—pyriformis. No. 34. Kerguelen’s Land. Helix Hookeri was collected at this island when visited by the Antarctic Expedition. §. INDIAN REGION. Proceeding eastward, in Asia, the species of Achatina, Pupa, Clausilia, Physa, Limaz, and Cyclostoma rapidly diminish or quite disappear. Helices of the section Nanina become plentiful, amounting to 150 species, and Budz- mulus and Cyclophorus attain their maximum. Leptopoma and Pupina are peculiar to the Asiatic islands. Our catalogue of Indian land shells must be very imperfect, including only about 180 Helicide and 50 Cyclostomide. A very few of the Indian species are common to China and the Asiatic Islands, or even to Ceylon. ‘The shells of northern India resemble those of the Lusitanian region: in the south they _ INDIAN REGION, 893 approximate more to the large and vividly coloured species of the Asiatic Islands. In the Himalaya land shells are numerous, and ascend as high as the region of Junipers and Rhododendrons, 4,000—10,000 feet above the sea. PECLEX 2. 'ciai0 Bi ciate faye —- TABLE OF CHARACTERISTIC GENERA. 413 Il. TABLE OF CHARACTERISTIC GENERA. SYSTEMS. GENERA AND SUB-GENERA. Camaroceras, Endoceras, Gonioceras. Pterotheca. 1. CAMBRIAN, or Maclurea, Raphistoma, Holopea, Platyceras. Lower Silurian. Orthisina, Platystrophia, Porambonites, Pseudo-crania. Ambonychia, Modiolopsis, Lyrodesma. f Actinoceras, Phragmoceras, Trochoceras, Ascoceras. 2. SILURIAN. Theca, Holopella, Murchisonia, Atrypa, Retzia. ( Cardiola, Clidophorus, Goniophorus, Grammysia. 3. DEVONIAN. Spirifera, Uncites, Merista, Davidsonia, Calceola, Bactrites, Gyroceras, Clymenia, Apioceras, Serpuiaria. Stringocephalus, Megalodon, Orthonota, Pterinea, Naticopsis, Platyschisma, Metoptoma, Producta. Aviculo-pecten, Anthracosia, Conocardium, Sedgwickia. Nautiloceras, Discites, Goniatites, Porcellia. 4, CARBONIFEROUS. | Camarophoria, Aulosteges, Strophalosia. 5. PERMIAN. Myalina, Bakewellia, Axinus, Edmondia. Ceratites, Naticella, Platystoma, Koninckia, Cyrtia. 6. Trias. Monotis, Myophoria, Pleurophorus, Opis. Belemnites, Beloteuthis, Geoteuthis, Ammonites. Alaria, Trochotoma, Rimula, Pileolus, Cylindrites. Waldheimia, Thecidium, Spiriferina, Ceromya.. Grypheza, Hippopodium, Cardinia, Myoconcha. 7. L. JURASSIC. Coccoteuthis, Acanthoteuthis, Leptoteuthis, Nautilus. Spinigera, Purpurina, Nerinza, Neritoma. Pteroperna, Trichites, Hypotrema, Diceras. Trigonia, Pachyrisma, Sowerbia, Tancredia. 8. U. JuRAssic. Crioceras, Toxoceras, Hamulina, Baculina. er eo Requienia, Caprinella, Sphera, Thetis. Belemnitella, Conoteuthis, Turrilites, Ptychoceras. Hamites, Scaphites, Pterodonta, Cinulia, Tylostoma. Acteonella, Globiconcha, Trigonosemus, Magas, Lyra. Neithea, Inoceramus, Hippurites, Caprina, Caprotina 10. U. CRETACEOUS. Beloptera, Lychnus, Megaspira. Glandina, Typhis. Volutilithes, Clavella, Pseudoliva, Seraphs, Rimella. Conorbis, Strepsidura, Globulus, Phorus, Velates. Chilostoma, Volvaria, Lithocardium, Teredina. 1]. Eocene. Spirulirostra, Aturia, Vaginella, Ferussina, Halia, Proto, Deshayesia, Niso, Cassidaria, Carolia. Grateloupia, Artemis, Tapes, Jouannetia. 12. MIocENE. a CS SS ESS Argonauta, Strombus, Purpura, Trophon. 13. PLIOCENE. meee ; é ; : ; Yoldia, Tridacna, Circe, Verticordia. 414 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. HI. RANGE OF GENERA IN TIME. Genera, arranged in their Order of Appearance. Lituites, Raphistoma, Obolus Camaroceras, Atrypa, Pterinea . : Gomphoceras, Bellerophon, epithe Orthis, Conularia, Murchisonia Spirifera, Athyris, Posidonomya BAG ECE ote? is, Conocardium, Mepalodon, Ghoncies Cardiomorpha.. - res Orthoceras, Loxonema, tie pit Pleurotomariay. 1". sutk 4 Producta, Ree wih, Pie piachymalans Goniatites, Porcellia, Pleurophorus Hdmongdia, Myalina ocr cs, c0 6s ses Acteonina.. .. Bite ii Terebratule, ree eye ina ERIN Sei: gic 2 Beit id Se vale Gervillia, Sigs ; Ammonites, Naticella, Opis.. Trigonia, Isocardia, Thecidium Cerithium, Plicatula, Cardita Trochotoma, Tancredia, Gryphaea .. Ancyloceras, Inoceramus, Unicardium .. Astarte; Pholadomya, Corbis Nerinaea, Goniomya, Exogyra.. .. .. Terebratella, Limopsis, Newra seul Baculites, Cinulia, Radiolites Physa, Paludina, Unio, Cyrena.. Aporrhais, Tornatella, Pyrula .. .. Pectunculus, Thetis, Crassatella Crenella, Chama, Argiope . Voluta; Conus, Mitra, &c. &e. Aturia ail ps ~! Helix, Merearala Cyattistaais Papudoliva, Rostellaria,Seraphs .. .. Purpura, Strombus, Haliotis Argonauta, Tridacna . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cambrian. Devonian, Carbonif. Permian. Silurian. 223 2 ote ss SHHOOUle S98 eer. a et at HHPAP |e aR i The genera of the o/der rocks are believed to be nearly all extinct; for although the names of many recent forms appear in the catalogues of Paleo- zoic fossils, it must be understood that they are only employed in default of more exact information. Buccinum, Melania, and Mya, have been long since-expunged ; and Modiola, Nucula, and Natica, are only retained until the characters which distinguish them are better understood. RANGE OF FAMILIES IN TIME. IV. RANGE OF FAMILIES IN TIME. Systems of Strata. Argonautide Teuthide—Sepiade Belemnitide Nautilide .. : Ammonitide .. .. Orthoceratide PP esoh isle Atlantide—Hyaleide Strombide—Buccinide Conide—Volutide.. Naticide—Calyptreide Pyramidellide.. .. .. «. Cerithiade—Litorinide Turbinide—lanthinide Fissurellide—Chitonida& Neritide—Patellide DMenitaliadd: "© sc seis Tornatellide Bullide ards. Helicida—Limacide Limneide—Melaniade Auriculide—Cyclostomide Morepratulidw@.. 2. (66 8 Rhynchonellide Spiriferide—Orthide .. Productidee Craniade—Lingulide .. Pectinide . AES ite Aviculidee— Mytil mes Arcadee—Trigoniadée Unionide . , Beiniidie-Myades Hippuritide Tridacnide : Cardiad#—Lucinide Cycladide!.. .. . Sieg Rpenide—Anatinide.. Astartide .. te Veneridze—-Tellinidz Mactride . Solenide .. Gastrochenid 1 —Pholadida ze Bh cy ona. Sqaenue Sia eS ‘Seiko WE SSI = — = ord Sin DV SD QO, 2.3) Trias. 415 Pliocene, Eocene. Miocene. Recent. | | | 416 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Distribution of Families of Shells in Time. Employing the term “ fami- lies” for natural groups of genera, and adopting the smallest possible number of them, we find that sixteen, or nearly one-fifth, range through all the geolo- gical systems. Only seven have become extinct, viz.— Belemnitide. Spiriferide. Hippuritide. Ammonitide. Orthide. . Orthoceratide. Productide. Three others are nearly extinct :— Nautilide. Rhynchonellide. Trigoniad2. And several have passed their maximum, and become less —— and abundant than formerly, e.g.— Tornatellide. Cyprinide. Anatinidz, The extinct families and genera appear to have attained their mazima more rapidly than their minima ; continuing to exist, under obscure forms, and in remote localities, long after the period in which they flourished. The introduction of new forms, also, is more rapid than the process of extinction. If four Paleozoic families disappear, twenty-six others replace them in the Secondary series ; and three of the latter are succeeded by fifteen shell-bearing families in the Tertiaries and existing seas. In consequence of this circumstance, the number of types is three times greater in the newer tertiary than it was at the Silurian period; and since there is no evidence or indication that the earth was ever destitute of life, either wholly or in part, it follows almost as a matter of necessity that the early types must have been more widely distributed and individually deve- loped, than those of the present day. ‘ From the following Table it will be seen that the number of Genera and Families increases with an amount of regularity, which cannot be accidental. Moreover the relation of these numbers is not liable to be much altered by the progress of discovery, or the caprice of opinion. The discovery of new types, is not likely to be frequent ; the imposition of new names, in place of the old, will not increase the number of Paleozoic genera; and the establishment of fresh and arbitrary distinctions will affect all the groups in due proportion. If the number of groups called ‘‘ Systems ” were reduced to seven, (viz. three Paleozoic, three Secondary, and one Tertiary, as shewn in the following table,) then the average duration of a genus of shells would be equal to a System of Formations. The duration of the smallest well-defined Families of shells is ahout eqnal to one of the three great Geological Divisions, or Ages. “DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA IN TIME. 417 DEVELOPMENT OF FAMILIES, GENERA, AND SPECIES, IN TIME. 3 eis y ee 3 s : elel es Total | 8 GEOLOGICAL Total | 3 | 28,2) % | Number of | SYSTEMS of Se) gies Is Species. 5 7 Genera.) 6 | 56 |] o5 | ('Orbigny). | & 3 1 { Cambrian 49 1) Wo TS Wa 362 18 6 Silurian Bs ag (ale) Wert 317 20 = 2 Devonian 77 | 14 | 20 | 23 | 20 1035 |-24 [ 32 a Carboniferous 79 11 | 26 | 19 },23 835 30 A Permian* 66 6 | 24 | 16 | 20 74 30 3 4 ~~ Trias 81 9| 25 | 16] 31 713 35 r L. Jurassic 107. | 12 | 35 | 12 | 48 1502 42 2 9 v Uv. Jurassic 108 | 13] 36] 9150 1266 49 \,57 °o 2 { L. Cretaceous 123 20 | 41 9} 53 784 52 n © \ U. Cretaceous 148 | 16] 59 | 14] 59 2147 56 ; RRs as hic sAach*h. \ivatcdaiiths alll co) Real ee B { Eocene Ly 4) 855) PE 72 2636 60 = 7 | Miocene 187 8197} 11 | 76 9249 60 { & 1.» kprocene 192 | 1 {100 | 12 | 79 437, | 62 eB Recent 400 | 21 [251 | 13 |115 16,000 78 Recent & Fossil | 520 | 56 |280 | 34 |150 30,000 85 Order of appearance of the groups of Shells. The first and most important point shewn in the preceding Tables, is the co-existence of the four principal classes of ¢estacea from the earliest period. The highest and the lowest groups were most abundant in the paleeozoic age ; the ordinary bivalves and univalves attain their climax in existing seas. If there be any meaning in this order of appearance it is connected with the general scheme of creation, and cannot’ be inquired into separately; but it may be observed that the last-developed groups are also the most typical, or characteristic of their class. (p.61.) The Cephalopoda exhibit amongst themselves unmistakable evidence of order in their appearance and succession. ‘The tetrabranchiate group comes earliest, and culminates about the period of the first appearance of the more highly-organized cuttle-fishes.+ The families of each division which are least unlike (Orthoceratide and Belemnitide) were respectively the first deve- loped. * Those genera are estimated as belonging to each System which occur in the strata both above and below, as well as those actually found in it. + The Paleoteuthis of Bronn (not D’Orb.) appears to be a jfish-bone, from the equi- valent of the Old-red sandstone in the Eifel. 418 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA, Amongst the Brachiopoda the hinge-less genera attained their maximum in the paleeozoic age, and only three now survive, (Lingula, Discina, Crania,) —the representatives of as many distinct families. Of the genera with arti- culated valves, those provided with spiral arms appeared first and attained their maximum while the Terebratulide were still few in number. The sub- division with calcarious spires disappeared with the Liassic period, whereas the genus Rhynchonella still exists. Lastly, the typical group, Zerebratu- fide, attained its maximum in the chalk period, and is scarcely yet on the decline. The nimber of sub-genera (as well as genera,) in each system; is stated in the preceding table, becanse this group shews a tendency to “ polarity,” or excessive development at the ends of the series.* The genera of ordinary bivalves (Conchifera) are seven times more nu- merous in the newer tertiary than in the oldest geological system. The palzeozoic formations contain numerous genera of all the families with an open mantle ; Cyprinidae, Anatinide; and the anomalous genus Conocardium. The mass of siphonated bivalves do not appear till the middle of the second- ary age, and aré only now at their maximum. The Gasteropoda are represented in the paleozoie strata by several genera closely allied to the diminutive At/anta and Scissurella, aud by others perhaps related to Zanthina. The Naticida, and Ca/yptreide are plentiful, and there are several genera of elongated spiral shells referred to the Pyra- midellide. In the secondary strata; holostomatous shells become plentiful ; and in a few peculiar localities (especially Southern India) the genera of siphonated univalves make their appearance in strata of Cretaceous age. Fresh-water Pulmonifera of the recent genus Physa occur in the Purbeck strata; but the marine air-breathers and land-snails have uot certainly been found in strata older than the Eocene tertiary. Order of Succession of Groups of Shells.—It has been already pointed out that animals which are closely allied in structure and habits, rarely live together, but occupy disti:.ct aveas, and are termed “representative species.” The same thing has been observed in the distribution of fossils; the species of successive strata are mostly representative. At wider intervals of time and space, the representation is only generic, and the relative proportions of the larger groups are also changed. The succession of forms is often so regular as to mislead a superficial observer; whilst it affords, if properly investigated, a valuable clue to the affinities of problematic fossils. * See the anniversary address of Prof. E. Forbes to the Géological Society of Lon- don, Feb. 1854, p. 63. ‘Yhe hypothesis seems to have arisen out of an exclusive regard to the poverty of the Permian and ‘Triassic strata in England, where they separate, like a desert, the paleeozoic from the ‘‘ neozoic ” formations. The “‘ Permian” should never have been esteemed more than a division of the Carboniferous system, and is_ poor in species, rather than in types. ‘The Trias must be studied in Germany, or in the collection of Dr. Klipstein (in the Brit. Museum) to be properly appreciated. DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA 1N TIME. 419 It is now generally admitted that the earlier forms of life, strange as many of them seem to us, were really less metamorphosed—or departed less widely from their ideal archetypes—than those of later pericds and of the present day.* The types first developed are most like the embryonic forms of their respective groups, and the progression observed is from these general types to forms more highly specialized. (Owen.) Migration of Species and diffusion of Genera in Former Times.— Having ailopted the doctrine of the continuity of specific and generic areas, it remains to be shewn that such groups as are now widely scattered caw have been diffused from common centres, and that the barriers which now divide them have not always existed. In the first place it will be noticed that the mass of the stratified rocks dre of marine brigin, a circumstance not to be wondered at, since the area of the sea is twice as great as the land, and probably has always been so; for the average depth of the sea is much greater than the general elevation of the land.+ The mineral changes in the strata may sometimes be accounted for by changes in the depth of the sea, or an altered direction of the currents. But in many instances the sea-bed has been elevated so as to become dry land, in the interval between the formation of two distinct marine strata; aud these alterations are believed to occur (at least) once in each formation. If every part of what is now dry land has (on the average) been thirty times submerged, aud has formed part of the sea-bed during two-thirds of all the past geological time ;—there will be no difficulty in accounting for the migration of sea-shells, or the diffusion of marine genera. On the other hand it may be inferred that every part of the present sea has been dry land many different times ;—on an average not less than thirty times,—amounting to one-third of the whole interval sinee the Cambrian epoch. 4 The average duration of the marine species has been assumed at only one- third the length of a geological period, and this harmonises with the fact that so few (either living or extinct) have a world-wide distribution. The life of the land-snails and of the fresh-water shells has been of longer * Mr Darwin has pointed out that the sessile Cirripedes, which are more highly metamorphosed than the Lepadidaz, were the last to appear. The fossil mammalia afford, however, the most remarkable examples of this law. At the present day such an animal as the three-toed horse (Hippotherium) of the Miocene Tertiary would be deemed a Jusus na/ur@, but in truth the ordinary horse is far more wonderful. Un- fortunately, anew “‘ vulgar error” has arisen from the terms in which extinct animals have sometimes been described—as if they had been constructed upon several distinct types, and combined the character of several classes! + The enormous thickness of the older rocks in all parts of the world, has been held to indicate the prevalence of deep water in the primeval seas. 420 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. average extent, enabling them to acquire a wide range, notwithstanding their tardy migrations. But when we compare the estimated rate of change in physical geogra- phy with the duration of genera and families of shells, we not only find ample time for their diffusion by land or sea over large portions of the world, but we may perceive that such transferences of the scene of creation must have become inevitable. Method of Geological Investigation.—In whatever way geological history is written, its original investigators have only one method of proceeding— from the known to the unknown—or backwards in the course of time. The newest and most superficial deposits contain the remains of man and his works, and the animals he has introduced. Those of pre-historic date, but still very modern, contain shells, &e., of recent species, bet in proportions different from those which now prevail. (p. 384, 387). Some of the species may be extinct in the immediate neigh- bourhood of the deposits, but still living at a distance. In the harbour of New Bedford are colonies of dead shells of the Pholas costata, a species living on the coast of the Southern States. At Brackle- sham, Sussex, there is a raised sea-bed con‘xining 35 species of sea-shells living on the same coast, and 2 no longer living there, viz.—Pecten polymor- phus, a Mediterranean shell; and Lwétraria rugosa, still found on the coasts. of Portugal and Mogador. Tertiary Age.—If any distinction is to be made between “Tertiary ” and “ Post-tertiary” strata, the former term should be restricted to those deposits which contain some extinct species. And the newest of these, in Britain, contain an assemblage of Northern shells. Prof. Forbes has published a list of 124 species of shells from these “ Glacial beds,” nearly all of which are now existing in British seas.* In most of the localities for glacial shells, the species are all recent; but at Bridlington, Yorkshire, and in the Norwich Crag, a few extinet species are found. (e. g. Nucula Cobboldie, Pl. 17, f. 18.) At Chillesford, Suffolk, Yoldia arctica and myalis occur of large size and in excellent preservation, with numerous specimens of Mya truncata, erect as they lived, in the muddy sea-bed. TZrophon scalariforme, Admete viridula, Scalarvia grenlandica, and Natica grenlandica, also occur in the Norwich Crag; and Astarte bore- alis, with several arctic forms of Tel/ina, are amongst the commonest shells, and frequently occur in pairs, or with their /igament preserved; the deposit is extensively quarried for shell-sand. , Raised sea-beds with Arctic shells at Uddevalla in Sweden, have been repeatedly noticed ever since the time of Linnzeus. Captain Bayfield disco- * The species which have retired further north are marked (**) in the preceding Arctic List, p. 355. DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA IN TIME. 42] vered similar beds near Quebec, 50—200 feet above the River St. Lawrence, containing an assemblage of shells entirely arctic in character; whereas in the present gulf he obtained an admixture of the American representatives of Lusitanian types, Mesodesma, Periploma, Petricola, Crepidula. The glacial deposits of the northern hemisphere extend about 15° south of the line of “northern limit of trees ;”’ but this comparatively recent exten- sion of the Arctic ocean does not appear to have much influenced, if it ever invaded, the inland basin of the Aralo-Caspian, which contains only one species copmmon to the White Sea, Cardiwm edule, var. rusticum.™ The older pliocene period is represented in England by the Coradiine Crag, a deposit containing 840 species of shells. Of these 73 are living British species, but (with two or three exceptions) they are such as range south of Britain. (Forbes) The remainder are extinct; or living only to the south, especially in the Lusitanian province; e.g. Fossarus sulcatus, Luct- nopsis Lajonkairii, Chama gryphoides, and species of Cassidaria, Cleodora, Sigaretus, Terebra, Columbella and Pyramidelta. It also contains a few forms belonging to an earlier age,—a Pholadomya, a true Pyrula, a Lingula, and a large Voluta, resembling the Magellanic species. The shells of the newer tertiaries are always identical, at least generically, with those of the nearest coasts. Thus, in Patagonia, are found species of Trophon, Crepidula, Monoceros, Pseudoliva, Voluta, Oliva, Crassatella, and Solenella. The tertiaries of the United States contain species of Pulgur, Mercenaria and Gnathodon. The miocene shells of St. Domingo appear at first sight to be all of recent species, but on comparison prove to be mostly distinct. The proportion of extinct species in the Plvocene tertiary, varies from -1—50 per cent. Ifa deposit contains more than 50 per cent. of extinct species it is referred to the Miocene period; and this test is particularly valuable since the modern deposits are often isolated, and frequently no assist- ance can be derived from superposition, or even from identity of species. Tn the Zocene tertiaries we perceive the “dawn” of the present order of things. All, or very nearly all, the species are different, but a large propor- tion of the genera are still existing, though not always in the seas nearest to the localities where they occur fossil. Thus in the London clay are found—Rostellaria, Oliva, Ancillaria, and Vulsella, genera still living in the Red Sea; and many species of Nautilus, Rimella, Seraphs, Conus, Mitra, Pyrula, Phorus, Liotia, Cardilia,—genera characteristic of the Indian Ocean; Cyprovula, Typhis and Volutilithes, now * Mr. Wm. Hopkins of Cambridge has investigated the causes which may have produced a temporary extension of the Arctic phenomena in Europe; and considers the most efficient and probable cause would be a diversion of the Gulf-stream, which he supposes to have flowed up what is now the valley of the Mississippi.—(Geo/. Journal.) 422 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA: living at the Cape; Clavel/a, at the Marquesas, and Pseudoliva, Trochita, and species of Murex, whose recent analogues are found on the Western shores of S. America. The freshwater shells of this period are Old-World forms; MMelanopsis; Potamides, Lampania, Melanatria and Nematura: whilst the land-shells form a group quite American in character; large species of Glandina and — Butimus (with reflected lip) Megalomastoma (mumia), a Cyclotus (with its operculum) like C. Jamaicensis, and the little He/ix labyrinthieus. Secondary Age.—In none of the older strata do we find indications of a warmer Climate having prevailed, in the latitude of England, than that which marks the period of the London clay. And this is not more than can be accounted for by such a cause as the flow of an equatorial current from the direction of the Red Sea, until arrested by a continent to the south-west, as supposed by Mr. Prestwich, in the region of the Azores. Some indications exist of a more moderate climate having obtained in the north polar regions; for remains of the Jchthyosaurus were found at Exmouth Id. the furthest point reached by Sir E. Belcher’s expedition. The peculiar physical conditions of the Chalk period are represented at the present day, not so much by the Coral-sea, as by the A.gean, where cal- careous mud, derived from the waste of the scag/ia regions, is being rapidly deposited in deep water. (Forbes). The Weaiden period was styled the “ Age of Reptiles” by Dr. Mantell, who compared the state of England at that time with the present condition of the Galapagos Islands. , The Oolitic period finds its parallel in Australia, as long since pointed out by Prof. Phillips, and the comparison holds good to some extent, both for the Marine and Terrestrial Faunas. The Zrias, with its foot-prints of gigantic wingless birds, has been com- pared with the state of the Mascarene Islands only a few centuries ago, and with the New Zealand Fauna, where birds are still the highest aboriginal inhabitants.* Paleozoic Age.—It has lately been suggested by Prof. Ramsay that signs of glacial action may be traced in some of the trappean conglomerates of the Permian Period; and Mr. Page bas endeavoured to apply the same interpretation to phenomena of a much earlier date, in the old red sand-stone of Scotland.y Geologists generally have abandoned the notion, once very pre- valent, of a universal high temperature in the earliest periods; anotion which * In a paper read before the British Association, on the subject of the great extinct wingless birds of New Zealand, Prof. Owen suggested the notion of land having been propagated like a wave throughout the vast interval between Connecticut and New Zealand, since the Triassic period. t See also the Rey. J. G. Cumming’s Isle of Man,” (1849), p. 89. DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA IN TIME. 4238 they had derived from the occurrence of certain fossil plants, corals, and shells, in high latitudes. ¥ The absence of remains of mammalia in the paleozoic formations, is at present a remarkable fact, but it is completely paralleled in the great modern zoological province of the Pacific Islands. Baron Humboldt has speculated on the possibility of some land being yet discovered, where gigantic lichens and arborescent mosses may be the princes of the vegetable kingdom*. If such exist, to shadow the Paleozoic age, its appropriate inhabitants would be like the cavern-haunting Proteus, and the Stlures which find an asylum even in the craters of the Andes, What then is it which has chiefly determined the character of the present Zoological provinces? What law, more powerful than climate, more influen- tial than soil, and food, and shelter; nay, often seemingly producing results opposed to a priori probability, and at variance with the suitableness of con- ditions ? + The answer is, that each fauna bears, above all things, the impress of the age to which it belongs. Each has undergone a series of vicissitudes up to the time when its barriers became fixed, and after its isolation it has known no further change, but decline. As regards the great types of terrestrial organization, their point of com- mon origin seems to have been the centre of the Old World. Here they appear to have been formed in succession, and diffused outwards in all possible directions, to the ends of the earth; each wave of life developing in its pro- gress special forms adapted to the circumstances of the times, and exempli- fying the modifications of which each type was capable.t CHAPTER IV. ON COLLECTING SHELLS. The circumstances under which shells are found is a subject so intimately connected with the methods of collecting them, as to make it undesirable to treat of them separately. Naturalists distinguish between the Aadctats, or geographical localities of species, and the stations or circumstances in which they are found: to the latter subject only slight allusion has been hitherto made. (p. 11). Land-shells are most abundant on calcareous soils, (p, 837) and in warm and moist climates. The British species are collected with advantage in autumn, when full-grown, andshowing themselves freclyin the dews of morning and evening. Some species, like dudzmus acutus, are found only near the sea; * Views of Nature, p. 221. Bohn’s ed. + Burchell, in Darwin’s Journal, p. 87. t “The Tipe oF VEGETATION has, in the interiropical Pacific Islands, set in a direction contrary to the prevailing winds; namely, from the Asiatic, and not from the American shores.” (Hooker, ].e. p. 211, note.) 424 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Bulimus Lackhamensis ascends beech-trees on the Chalk downs and Cottes- woldes ; Pupa Juniperi and Helix umbilicata occur chiefly on rocks and stone walls. ‘The moss-frequenting Clawsilie may be obtained even in mild winter weather at the roots of trees; the small species of Pupa (or Vertigo) are sometimes taken abundantly when sweeping wet grass with an insect net ; Acicula fusca lives at the roots of grass; Cronella acieula is found in old bones, (such as occur in Danish burial grounds !) and occasionally in moving garden-bulbs; Heléx aculeata has been met with on the under sides of leaves (e. g. the sycamore), a few feet from the earth. In tropical countries a large number of the land snails are arboreal in -their habits. The West Indian Palms (such as Oreodoxa regia) are the chosen abode of many species of Helicide. Mr. Couthouy found Bulimus auris leporis on the orange and myrtle-trees near Rio, and Partule and Helicine, on the Draceenas and Bananas of the. Polynesian Islands; and the sailors of H.M.S. Rattlesnake, in Captain Owen Stanley’s expedition, became expert in collecting Geotrochi in the trees of the Australian islands. The great tropical Bulimi and Achatine will sometimes lay their eggs in captivity.* : / The following are examples of the elevations at which land-snails have been found. (pp. 162, 166.) Helix pomatia, 5000 feet—Alps. (Jeffreys.) — rupestris, 1200—5000 ft. — bursatella, Gould, 2000—5000 ft. Taheiti. Bulimus vibex 7000 ft. India. (Benson.) — nivicola, and ornatus, 14,000 ft. ,, “= Lamarckianus, 8000 ft. New Granada. Achatina latebricola, 4—7000 ft. Landour. Pupa Halleriana, 1200—2500 ft. Alps. — tantilla, 2,000 ft. Taheiti. Clausilia Idea, 5500 ft. Mr. Ida. Vitrina glacialis, Forbes, 8000 ft. Mte. Rosa. — annularis, 2000—3000 ft. Burgos. (M’ Andrew.) — Teneriffe, 2000—6210ft. Madeira. Helicina occidentalis, Guilding, 2000 ft. St. Vincents. (Limnza Hookeri, 18000 ft. Thibet.) The land-snails of warm and dry regions remain dormant for long periods (p. 19), and require no attention for many months after being collected.+ Freshwater shells are collected with an insect-net or “landing-net” of strength suited to the work of raising masses of weed. ‘The strongly-rooted * Such giants require to be collected in a basket, while the small land shells of open and rocky countries may be put in a cotton bag, hung on a coat button. + Land and freshwater snails may be killed instantaneously with boiling water, if afew are done at atime; and cooled by removal tocold water. Every collector finds expefients for removing the animals more or less completely from their shells; those which, like Clausilia, retire beyond the reach of a bent pin may be drowned in tepid water. ON COLLECTING SHELLS. 425 flags and rushes may be pulled up with a boat-hook; and Cyclades as well as univalves, may be obtained by shaking aquatic plants over the net. For getting up the Pearl-mussels, the most efficient instrument is a tin bowl, perfo- rated like a sieve, and fitted on the end of a staff, or jointed rod. (Pickering.) In some sittiations the freshwater shells are all much eroded, (p. 41, 273,) or coated with a ferruginous deposit. It may be desirable to find out the localities where the specimens are in best condition before collecting exten- sively. The opercula should always be preserved with the shells to which they belong; those of the Cyclostomide, and Melaniade are particularly in- teresting. The Auriculide are especially met with in damp places by the sea; in mangrove-swamps, and creeks and river-banks where the water becomes brackish. Amphibola and Assiminea are found in salt-marshes, Siphonaria and Peronia on the shore, between tide-marks. Collecting Sea-shells—The following remarks are from the pen of an experienced conchologist, Mr. W. J. Broderip.—“ When the tide is at the lowest, the collector should wade among the rocks and pools near the shore, and search under overhanging ledges of rock as far as his arms can reach. An iron rake, with long close-set teeth, will be a useful implement on such occasions. He should turn over all lcose stones and growing sea-weeds, taking care to protect his hands with gloves, and his feet with shoes and stockings agaiust the sharp spines of echznz, the back-fins of sting-fishes, and the stings of meduse. In detaching chitons and limpets which are all to be sought for on rocky coasts, the spatula or case knife will prove a valuable assistant. Those who have paid particular attention to preserving chitons have found it necessary to suffer them to die under pressure between two boards. Ormers (Haliotides) may be removed from the rocks to which they adhere by throwing a little warm water over them, and then giving them a sharp push with the foot sideways, when mere violence would be of no avail without injuring the shell. Rolled madrepores and loose fragments of rock should be turned over; Cowries and other shell-fish frequently harbour under them. Numbers of shell-fish are generally to be found about coral-reefs.” Tn coral-regions the services of zatives, should be obtained, as they may ren- der much assistance by diving or wading. Advantage may be taken of spring-tides, especially at the equinoxes, to examine lower tracts of sea-shore than are ordinarily accessible. Many bivalves bury in sand and mud at extreme low-water, and may be obtained alive by digging with a spade or fork ; others may be found boring in piles and rocks and require the hammer and chisel for their extraction.* . Bivaives may be boiled, and their soft parts removed when the shells gape. Care should be taken not to injure the ligament, or hinge, especially in the genera like the Anatinid) provided with an ossicle. ~ 426 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Mr. Joshua Alder remarks that, “in collecting among rocks the principal thing is to look close, particularly in crevices and under stones. Minute species inhabiting sea-weed are best obtained by gathering the weed and immersing it for some time in a basin of sea-water, when the little mollusks will generally creep out. If the shells only are wanted, the surer and more ready way is to plunge the weed into fresh-water, when the animals immediately fall to the bottom.” The floating mollusca of the open sea, especially in tropical latitudes, are comparatively little known. Gvod drawings, and descriptions made from the life, are most valuable. ‘‘ Of the animal of the Spzrw/a, entire specimens are greatly wanted. If captured alive, its movements should be watched in a vessel of sea-water, to see whether it has the power of rising and sinking at will; its mode of swimming, aud position during these movements, and when at rest. The chambered shell should be opened under water, to ascertain if it contain a gas, the nature of which should if, possible, be made out. The pearly nautilus requires the same observations, which would be attended with more precision and facility from its larger size.” (Owen.)* The fowing-net used by Mr. Mc Gillivray “consisted of a bag of bunting (used for flags) two feet deep, the mouth of which was sewn round a wooden hoop 14 inches in diameter ; three pieces of cord, a foot and a half long, were secured to the hoop at equal intervals and had their ends tied together. When in use the net was towed astern, clear of the ship’s wake, by a stout cord secured to one of the quarter boats, or held in the hand. The scope of the line required was regulated by the speed of the vessel at the time, and the amount of strain caused by the partially submerged net.”’+ Trawling.—My. John W. Woodall, of Scarbro’, has kindly furnished the following sketches and particulars ;—“ Fig. 227, is intended to represent a trawl-net, at work on the bottom of the sea. The side frames are of iron, the upper beam of wood, and the lower edge of the net is kept down to the ground by means of a chain, whichis wolded or wrapped round with old rope. The beam is generally from 40 to 50 feet in length, and about 8 inches square. The net is about 30 yards in depth, and has a couple of pockets inside. The end is untied when the net is hauled on board for the purpose of taking the fish out. These nets can only be worked where the bottom of the sea is free from rocks. They are used by boats of 35 to 60 tons, manned by crews of from 4 to 6 men, and 2 to 3 or four boys. In the vicinity of Scarbro’ they fish between the shore-reefs and the off rock which is 4—10 miles from land; the bottom is sand or clay, with 4—15 fathom water on the land-side, and 17— 25 fathoms on the off side.” Immense quantities of Crustacea and shell-fish are taken with the trawl, as well as ground-fish. * Admiralty, Manual of Scientific Inquiry. Svo. Lond. 1849. + Voyage of H. M.S. Rattlesnake, vol. I. p. 27. ON COLLECTING SHELLS. 427 Fig. 227. A Trawl-net. A. Side view; €. Plan; B. Net in operation. —— Kettle-nets.—On the flat, sandy coast of Kent and Sussex, the mackerel- fishery is pursued by setting up stakes 10 or 15 feet high, at distances of 10 feet apart, in lines running outwards from the shore at high-water, to low- water neap tides, where they are turned in the direction of the tide. To these stakes, nets are attached and leaded, which remain as long as the fish are on the coast. Cuttle-fish are frequently taken in these nets. Deep-sea Fishery.—\n North Britain an extensive ground-fishery is con- ducted by means of long lines,—often a mile in length—with hooks and baits every few yards. These lines are laid out at night, near the coast, and taken up the next morning. When used out at sea, the boats lay by for a few hours, and then take up the lines. The carnivorous whelks adhere to the baits (which have not been seized by fishes), and sometimes a bushel of them are taken in this way from a single line. Rhynchonella psittacea, Panopea Norvegica, Velutine, and some of the scarce Fusi, have been obtained from these lines, the bivalves having been entangled accidentally by the hooks. For trapping whelks on rocky ground anet may be made, such as is used for crabs and lobsters, by attaching a loose bag to an iron ring of a yard across. This is fastened to a rope by three equal strings, baited with dead fish, and let down from a vessel at anchor, or still better from a buoy. It is put down over-night, and hauled up gently in the morning. Mr. D’Urban informs us that Natica Aldert and monilifera are fre- U 428 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. quently found in the lobster-pots at Bognor, Sussex, which they enter to feed upon the bait. Dredging.—The Dredges used in the Oyster and Whelk-fisheries are so rudely made as to injure the more delicate marine animals, and suffer all the minute things to escape. It is therefore necessary to have instruments specially adapted for the naturalist’s work. A \rr e- Fig. 228. Plan of the Framework of a Dredge, reduced to 4. Fig. 228 is a plan, and Fig. 229 a side-view, of a small dredge, belonging to Mr. J. S. Bower- bank, and suited for such work as a private col- lector might do on the English coast. It is made of wrought iron, with moveable joints, so as to fold up and carry in the hand. The bag attached to the dredge is formed of two pieces of raw hide (4, 4), connected at the ends and bottom by net (z) made of cod-line, to allow the water to escape; and is fastened to the frame with copper-wire, through the eyelet holes. The towing rope is attached to the rings (7, 7), and when thrown overboard it scrapes with one or other of the cutting edges (e,e’). The opening is made narrow to prevent the admission of large and heavy stones. Dredging should not be attempted in a rowing- boat, unless near shore, in smooth water, and with a depth not exceeding 5 or 10 fathoms. It may be managed in a light boat by two persons; oné rowing, the other holding the rope of the dredge which is passed overboard near the stern.* * ““Wrymouru is pre-eminently the best place on the British coast for dredging. I can reckon 195 marine species of shells that I have collected within a range of five miles, and ten more species may safely be added. The dredging is also easy and safe. The cost of a suit- able boat and man is about 7s.6d. a day, #. e. from 10 or ON COLLECTING SHELLS. 429 The whelk and oyster-dredgers employ a decked sailing-vessel, and work several dredges simultaneously, each requiring a person to manage it. The dredges are put overboard on the weather-side, and the ropes made fast to a bulwark or thwart; each dredger holds the rope in his hand, after giving it a single turn round a thwart or “ belaying-pin,” to regulate the strain by means of the spare line. When a sufficient distance has been traversed, or the ropes strain with the weight of mud and stones, the vessel is brought to, and the dredges hauled up and emptied.* The length of line required is about double the depth of the water. If the line is too short the dredge will only skim the bottom ; if too long it will be in danger of getting fast. When the bottom is loose sand or soft mad, the line must be shortened, or the vessel have more way, or else the dredge will be apt to get buried. The strength of the line ought to be sufficient to anchor the vessel in smooth water,—though not, of course, when there is much way on her,—so that if the dredge gets foul it is necessary to let out the spare line and relieve the strain, while the vessel is brought round. The dredge will then usually capsize, and may be hauled up. Tf the bottom is at all rocky, a small strong dredge is best. The line must be shortened, and some additional precautions may be taken, such as fastening the rope to one ring of the dredge, and tieing the other with spun yarn, which will break under a sudden and dangerous strain, and release one end of the dredge. In dredging on Coral-ground, Mr. Cuming employed a 3 inch hawser, and hada patent buoy attached to the dredge by a 14 inch rope. More than once the hawser parted, and the dredge was left down all night, but recovered the next aay, Mr. Me Andrew’s researches on the coast of Norway, were conducted in the “ Naiad,’’ a Yacht of 70 tons, and extended from the shore to 250 fathom water. The dredge employed was at least twice as strong and heavy as the one we have represented, and all forged in one piece, instead of folding up. The bag was fastened on the frame with thongs cut from the hide. Before using, it requires to be towed astern for a couple of hours to soften it. In three months work, only two cow-hides were used, and one of those was torn by accident on sharp rocks. Several spare dredges were on board (in case of - emergency), but not used. 7 Dredging in deep water (50—300 fms.) can only be done in calm Il,a.m., to4or5, p.m. Dredging can be carried on in Weymouth in almost any weather, the bay is so protected.” (R. Damon.) * The collector may go out with the fishermen, and superintend his own dredge, almost any time of the year, although oyster catching is illegal in the summer. The scallop- banks off Brighton are in 15 fms. water, and nearly out of sight of land. It is not always possible to work over them and return the same night. U 2 430 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. weather, with a light breeze. The Yacht is brought to the wind (by putting up the helm), the foresheet hauled to windward, mainsail hauled up, and mizen taken in; the gaff topsail also hauled up; she then drifts to leeward, and the dredge is thrown overboard to windward, with the line made fast amidships; the spare line being coiled up so as to be given out readily. When the dredge is to be hauled in, the rope is passed through a moveable block, fixed to the shrouds, and the whole strength of the erew (15 hands) called into requisition if necessary. When the depth does not exceed 50 fathoms, the boat, with three men and the two dredgers, is used. If the dredge gets fouled, the rvpe is passed into the boat, brought over the dredge, and hauled up. In very deep water (150 fm.) the hne is carried forward and made fast to the bows, and the yacht itself hauled up till right over the dredge, which is then recovered without difliculty. The contents of the dredge are washed, and sifted with two sieves, one “1 inch,” the other very fine. They are made of copper wire, and one fits into the other. The dredge is emptied into the coarse sieve and washed in the sea from the boat, or if in the yacht, they are placed in an iron frame, over the side of the vessel, and buckets of water poured on. The sediment retained in the fine sieve may be dried and examined at leisure, for minute shells. The following “ dredging-papers,” kept on the plan recommended by Prof. E. Forbes, have been selected by Mr. Barrett, to illustrate the kind of shells found at various zones of depth. Note.—The shell-fish obtained by dredging should be at ouce boiled, and the animals removed, unless wanted for examination (p.441). The bivalves gape, and require to be tied with cotton; the opercula of the univalves should be secured in their apertures with wool. The small univalves may be put up in spirit, or glycerine, to save time. In warm climates the flies and ants assist in removing any remains of the animals left in spiral-shells, and eh/o- ride of lime may be necessary to deodorize them. M. PETIT DE LA SAussAYE has given very full instruetions for collecting and preserving shells, in the Jowrnal de Uonchyliologie for 1850, p. 215, and 1851, pp. 102, 226. It is stated that both the form and colour of molluscous animals may be preserved in a saturated solution of hydro-chlorate of ammonia (10 parts) and corrosive sublimate (1 part—first dissolved in alcohol), but the prepara- tion is expensive and dangerous. Dredges and other apparatus, glazed boxes, and glass tubes for specimens, may be obtained of G. SowErBy, 70, Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury ; and of R. Damon, Weymouth. DISTRIBUTION IN DEPTH. A431 DREDGING PAPERS, AND RECORDS OF RESEARCHES ON THE COAST OF NORWAY. By R. Mc AnpreEw, Esq. anp Lucas Barrett, Esq. F.G.S. hf BELG 255) 0.0 oie je.ahs sks J Stes .~...dUly Ist, 1855. Tico Min abr RopeaSnob. oc coe Tromsoé (Nordland). MP OULU stele omeinieleisis sis ee A OSE Between tide marks. GOL s eo ccraanec tie! el sts . Rock and sand. Number Number Species. of living of dead Observations. specimens. specimens Iv aEFORCAUR eb ee ed 6 Many. In sand. Tellinaincarnrata .. .. .«. Many. Many. In sand. Astarte compress@ .. .. .. 1 0 Qn sand. BOLGRMBE 6 vas 8 Sou! 3 Many.’ /’# Qn sand. Cardiumedule .. .. .. .. Many. Many. In sand. Crenella discors.. .. .. .- Many. 0 Covering the under sides of stones. Acm@atestudinalis .. .. .. Many. 0 On rock. Margarita undulata .. .. .. 6 0 On weed. elteima: 5° 5). 8 ct) On weed. Ditorinalitorea .. .. .. .. Many. 0 On rock. = (710 Ne a Many. 0 On rock. PEQCHORWIICHA, 5. 22 1+) es 2 0 On weed. aE OS 1) | 2 a) On sand. GETS OR ee Many. 9 On rock. Purpura lapilluas.. .. .. «4 Many. Many. On rock. Buccinum undatum.. .. .. Many. 0 On rock and sand. See cyaneum .. .. .. Many. 0 On reck. PC LAEEVICTA 65s ah tS 10 0 On rock. Doris Johmstoni.. .. .. .. 8 0 (Notr.) No specimens ef Trochus, or Patella vulgata occurred. iT: MAO is a hela at ae o'aje cic bias . July 5th, 1855. TGCALItY +. do.c0' 6 my acetiaisnate Near Hammerfest (Finmarken). Depth <...de vee Pisiaeresiaster/ LOCO MASONS, Distance from shore ....Close to shore Ground..................Nullipore and sand. makicave arctica i. 0 6.0 82 we 4 0 Young. Mya truncata We Aes debe f{ 3 Young, ‘Brace CONVEXA.. .. 1.) .. 4 @ In sand. elhing proxima .. 9... 8) ss 6 4/ Mactra clliptica .. 0 6. sls ii is j 6 PIGHEAS OWA care e, sleiilidld 3 0 Serrawmea sleds Many. 0 * The accented numbers in the column of ‘dead specimens” refer to disunited valves of Conchifera aud Brachiopoda. 432 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Number Number Species, of living of dead Observations. specimens. specimens. Cyprina Islandiea ~ 2. °°... Many Many.’ Astarte compressa .. ., «-. Many. 0 Cardium fasciatum .. .. .. ; 6 0 Modiolamodiolus .. .. .. 1 4/ phaseolina ts. "24 "Ss 3 0 Medajcaudata “feos. = ee: 2 I Pecten Islandicus ..' 2.0 0 a) Whrhon.asellug (ios -s.) Foeee. 2 0 FRANINOLCUS edits 2) es Z 0 ACINESE VIECINER,.. cs epe2ns mae 3 2 besiudanaria oo fa) ae 0 i Batellampelbmeidals® f2 shh 6 0 Dentalium entale .. .. .. 4 2 Trochus tumidus a o4 isk Des Many. Many. - — EINGHATIUS .. OSeeres 1 0 Margarita helicina .. .. .. 12 0 —-———- undulata .. .. .. Many. Many. — cinerea. 6 i Velutinaleyigata .. 0 I Buccinum undatum .. xe 0 3 Trophon clathratus .. .. .. 1 0 Gunneri 1 0 Bela rufa i SO es i 6 SSS 0 + Manecliamana .. °.. 2. f.. 2 G HT. IDG Vie) Baggue woddeeoseodat July 3rd, 1855. Bocalitiy” ot <<. csciss ss «ck Island of Arnée (Finmarken), Mepihe gos eis i ones 7 to 22 fathoms. Distance from shore ....Halfa mile. GLOURO cote cece ke aCe Laminaria and red weed. Saxicava arctica .. : 3 Many.’ Thraciea Conwexa x. Y \.\eckad fect 1 0 Menus ovata...) 2. atioekiy a 3” Cyprina Islandica 2 Many.’ Astarte crebricostata.. .. .. Many. Many. CHAPTER 5.20 ee Mi vines 12 Many. compressa .. .. .. Many. Many. Cardium fasciatum .. .. .. Many. Many. Cryptodon flexuosus.. .. .. 1 6/ Modiolamodiolus .. .. .. 1 Many.’ Crenella decussata .. .. .. Many. Many. Theda\pernulas’ o2 tse... ee Many. Many. Pecten Islandicus °°.) 3.0: 3 Fragments. Young: Anomia Ephippiam .. .. .. Many. 0 ACUIGADAS. ce Lose lon Many. 0 Chiton marmoreus .. .. -: 4 9 DISTRIBUTION IN DEPTH. Vigten Island (N. Drontheim), 435 Observations. Number Number Species. of living of dead specimens. specimens. Dae rms aha a pe SS ee ae ee Dentalium entale .. + Many. Trochustumidus .. .. .. Many. Many. cinerariuS .. «- Many. Many. Margarita cinerea .. Many. Many. — undulata .. Many. Many. — helicina.. Many. Many. Lacuna vincta.. .. .. Many. Many. Litorina litoralis .. .. 3 0 Rissoa parva .. .. -- Many. 0 Natica clausa .. .. .. 4 0 Se TISTLLE |. s- << 0 1 Velutina levigata .. 3 0 fiexilis 1 0 Trichotropis borealis .. 3 0 Nassa incrassata 1 0 Mangelianana.. .. .. «- 8 0 Belaturricula.. .. .. Many. 0 Trophon Gunneri .. 12 0 clathratus 3 0 IV. LS Serer ec . e July , 1855. Macality “ashen ci «oo oto Distance from shore ....Quarter of a mile. VEAL Yes cferotstate eieiere = tere ...30 fathoms. GORI Oar cress ove \ele osteo Coral-bank. Arca nodulosa.. .. 3 5 Leda caudata .. .. 2 0 Yoldia lucida . 3 0 Astarte su cata Sa oe 3 4 Pecten Islandicus .. 0 py Lima excavata.. .. 0 V Lucina Sarsii .. 0 1 Cryptodon flexuosus 2 0 Modiola phaseolina 10 0 Anomia ephippium Many 0 Wenusiovata <> ». .. . 0 4 Terebratulina caput-serpentis .. 20 Many. hiton asellus.. .. s. 4 0 Puncturella noachina 2 0 Emarginula fissura 1 2 —_— —crassa.. 0 1 Margarita cinerea .. 1 0 — ai bastrum .. 1 0 Trophon barvicensis i 0 434 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Ve Date. .esevas rete ee SoFae June 23rd, 1855. Ricaltuy! teres. shnnaeaye Omnaesce (Nordland). DPapth hsb Pees tileie oie echt 30 to 50 fathoms. Distance from shore ....-.-Halfa mile. Ground ssn ek oe a eerie Stones and sand. Nos of hawleann ee cc. eel Number Number Species. of living of dead Observations. specimens. specimens. Saxicava arctica ».. .. 6 2 Pelinapromimra. 22) se 28 0 1 Venus ovata .. .. 2 0 Small. Cyprina Islandica .. 4 Many. Astarte elliptica 4 0 COMIPLESIA.6 ss os | oe 6 0 Cardium fasciatum 2g 0 ——_—— suecicum 5 A Modiola phaseolina .. .. .. 200° Many. Large. Crenella nigra .. 0 Y Large. Nucula nucleus .. .. -. 0 S HOMUIS oe 22. One, ee 4 Many. Leda caudata 2 0 Arca pectunculoides .. .. .. 12 10/ Large. Pecten striatus 2 0 tigrinus 3 6 ——— similis .. I 0 ——islandicus .. .. -. .. 0 Vv Large and Recent. Terebratulacranium .. -. .. 80 10 Terebratulina caput-serpentis .. 1 0 Craniaanomala .. .. .. -- 12 0 Many stones had on them the attached valve, OHiTOM TANS FE Ves) heh hee ° 216 3 0 MepetarcGosca! 268 Pe ee a's 4 0 Acmea virpmea = e309 .h 2.55. 1? 6 Pilidium fulvum Many. 4 Puncturella noachina .. .. .. 2 I Trochus millegranus .. 2 9) BNTMMOA WOME Sees Sela, Re I 0 Natica nitida : 3 2 —helicoides . .. 2. .. 0 ] uO an te oer, ses oO } Velutina levigata .. .. .. .. 1 0 Trichotropis borealis .. 2. .. BY 3 Large. Nassalinerassata 22° 30. ee ] 0 Pususentianus: (208s. ee G 2 Carinated Var ‘Erophon/clathratus’ <<) os 0 1 Mangeliaturricula.. .. .. .. 1 0 Tornatella fasciata.. .. ..-.. 0 2 Buccinum undatum .. .. .. 6 0 Young. Pleurotoma nivalis eh area dats 1) 15 DISTRIBUTION IN DEPTH. 435 VI. Date avin dewenes atanereese July 20th, 1855. Sho calatiye cco ket North of Relphsee (Finmarken). WEDS otkewcats ix ta lave 130 to 180 fathoms. Distance from shore ......Halfa mile. RAVOITNGS Sais wigs ole mrs he ee Sand No. of hauis .........- heeled WO Nuraber Number Species. of living ef dead Observations. specimens. specimens. Wyprma isiandica.; 25 ase. 0 3 Nesracuspidata .. 0 .. 2. +s 0 a Snereamdata 8 eas 0 3’ PovdnaMUerda NS) 520 ox a) as i 2 , Pecten Islandicus .. .. .. .. 6 Many. Small. SUMSpee es OR ess ) | Arca pectunculoides .. .. .. 1 8 Syndostnya prismatica.. .. .. 0 1 Cryptodon flexuosus .. .. .. 0 1 Mactraelliptica .. .. .. .. 6 2/6/ Cardium fasciatum .. .. .. Q 2 suecicum..\ .. .. |. 0 3 Mistarto giledta yi. osc) 1 Ss “2 I 0 Anomiaephippium .... .. Many. 0 Crenella decussata.. .. .. .. 2 Many. Breen noe SS Si seg AEE 0 2 Terebratulacranium .. .. .. 3 6 Rhynchonella psittacea .. .. i 2 Dentalium entale .. .. ../ .. Many. Many. Puncturellanoachina .. .. .. Many. 0 omni cod .) 0 ee 2 0 Picurotoma ivalig .. 2. (.. 1 2 LS UIRZ CCIE. ellie an en 0 Fry. Bueccinum Humphreysianum 0 1 Bela turricula .. PP Caeiad te 2 0 Marparitacinerea).. ... <., «- 3 4 undulata 0 2 —— alabastrum .. 6 j VII. Mate .fsccs% Hee Pe ernie July 25th, 1855. MUO CALUGY(oai ata vice ci saree Off the Island of Arnée (Finmarke;). MDE ys \tere rs Spaleisyato, Seayererane 200 fathoms. Distance from shore ..Four miles. Grounds sei fesiss Geeiie ets: Mud. BCGEMNSIMILTS 7) ) fee ss) Veoh” se 0 2? Cryptodon flexuosus .. .. .. 4 ; 0 Nema cuspidata ... .. vss i. 0 1 Arca pectunculoides .. .. .. 1 = U 3 436 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Number Number Species. of living of dead Observations. specimens, specimens. Nucula tenuis .. 2 i) Yoldialucida . ; 4 6 Modiola phaseolina .. .. .. 2 tv) Cardium suecicum.. Ss 2 0 : Crenella decussata.. 20 Sr ws L (0) Astarte crebricostata .. 0 4/ Terebratula cranium 0 2 Dentalium entale 1 2 SMe CAIN ocvenen bees w (tae 1 $ —— quinquangulare (Forbes). 1 1) Eulima bilineata 2 2 2 Eulimella Scille 0 o Mangelia trevelliana 0 I Bela rufa .. 0 1 Philine quadrata i) 1 DREDGING PAPERS, OR RECORDS OF RESEARCHES IN THE AAGEAN SHA. By Proressor E. Forses FF IDEM Gee top aereee OCC Anae May 29th, 1841. LIGYEGIIMN, Pal Shes opoooa ae ooudS oe Nousa Bay, Paros. Distance from) SHOre \. opercnlaris.. .. «. -+ 0 1 Small. Nucula margaritacea .. .. .- 0 2" Cytherea apicalis .. .. -- -- 0 Iv Cardita squamosa .. .. 1 1s Cardium papillosum .. 0 2 Fusus fasciolaroides .. 1 0 New Murex brandaris 0 3 Vermetus gigas .. .. 0 1 corneus.. .. 3 0 New Trochus exiguus 8 2 MinebO FUGOSUS..) se) <5 48s sl 0 Pleurobranchus sordidus .. 1 0 New 438 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. Number Number Species. of living of dead Observations. specimens. specimens. Doris tenetrina 2 New: ——— gracilis .. 2 —eoccinea .. .. is i Ascidium, four species Aplidium, two species ing MVE or cic cla Stas Mens 6 wieiere Sept. 16th, 1841. MROCAIIEY fxs J Soetoro oie Off Ananas Rocks. MD SUAS 3k Sates 5 Messed os 105 fathoms. LET (015s Me ae SI Nullipore. Distance from shore ..From Rocks three miles, from Milo ten miles: Terebratula vitrea.. .. 1.0 = 0 of Dead and worn: Megerlia truncata... .. .. .. 30 100-20 Of all ages. Argiope decollata .. ....: .. 106 400-67 Of all ages. seminulum 3; 5 .. 18 10-87 Morrisiaanomioides .: .. .. I 0 Adhering to T. vitres: New. Crania ringens SLE Ss Lies 0 6/ inme dlongata,......6. eaeqases (ee ) 5! ice Pecten concentricus .. .. :: 9 im New. +—— fenestratus.. .. .. .. 0 2/ New. Spondylus Gussoni .. .. ..: 1 Vv Arca lactea ha * Leh Bye ries Be EY say Cs MAM A SS scale) Sie aS 0 es Nexera cuspidata’, :°, .. 24 << 0 4 BROCO HAIG TFs sc). wd a 0 lv New. Musumechinatus 4:3. 2 ..4 ers 0 2 Pleurotomacrispata .. .. .. 0 2 Hitherto known only fossil. ——_——-——-maravigne .. .. 0 2 New. -abyssicola.. .. .. 0 4 New. Mitra philippiana .. .. .. .. 0 4 New. Cerjthiumlima .. .. .. .. 0 8 Wrpebas tei 22 sj: ie. ws; 0 6 2 A ee J 9 Turbo sanguineus.. .. :: .. Ob 24 Hitherto known only fossil in the Medi- terranean basin. Rissoa reticulata .. nee 4 1] Emarginula elongata .. .: .. 0 8 Pileopsis Hungaricus .. .. .. 9) Ut Small. Acm@aunicdlor .: .. i. .; 1 24 New. Atlanta Percnii.. ... 2c. si sn 0 2 Incrusted with nul- lipore, and thus rendered solid. Hiyalen giubdsa 6 ws ww Kk. 9) 1 Cleodora pyramidata ee 3 erapis Bleva sc} ss 5c zc. (.: 0 7 = SDINITOEA: seo ae) | 9) 30 DISTRIBUTION IN DEPTH. 439 V. PPG ea ele it arctan oe inte Novy. 25th, 1841. locality: $i. ab silk Sioraporate S. extremity of Gulf of Macri. LOSS 0) | ee eR eee Se Na ee 230 fathoms. Distance from shore ........ One mile (shore steep). CRTOUMG! fea es act shee eh ees Fine yellowish mud. Number Number Species. of living of dead Observations. Specimens. specimens. Terebratula vitrea .. ing cae 0 a Syndosmya profundissima.. .. 0 of PPECHOUMPDTICAGA ss) 3,00) ai. “eat | os ] Vv Dentalium quinquangulare.. .. 1 0 Hyalea gibbosa ea UGE Rare 0 1 Cleodora pyramidéta .. .. .. 0 8 mriseis spinifera |... 6. ye es 0 5) The Distribution of the Mollusca in Depth has been investigated by MM. Audouin and Milie-Edwards, M. Sars, and Prof. E. Forbes. By these observers the sea-bed is divided into four principal regions :—- 1. The Litoral zone, or tract between tide marks. 2. The Laminarian zone, from low-water to 15 fms. 3. The Coralline zone, from 15—50 fms. 4. The deep-sea coral zone, 50—100 fms. or more. 1. The Iitoral zore depends for its depth on the rise and fall of the tide, and for its extent on the form of the shore. The shells of this zone are more limited in their range than those which are protected from the vicissitudes of climate by living at some depth in the sea.* In Europe the characteristic genera of rocky shores are Litorina, Patella and Purpura ; of sandy beaches, Cardium, Tellina, Solen; gravelly shores, Mytilus; and on muddy shores Lutravia and Pullastra. On rocky coasts are also found many species of Haliotis, Siphonaria, Fissurella, and Trochus; they occur at various levels, some only at the high-water line, others in a middle zone, or at the verge of low-water. Cyprea and Conus shelter under coral-blocks, and Cerithium, Terebra, Natica, and Pyramidella bury in sand at low water, but may be found by tracing the marks of their long burrows. (Macgillivray). 2. Laminarian zone.—In this region, when rocky, the tangle (Laminaria) and other sea-weeds form miniature forests, the résort of the vegetable feed- ing mollusks—Lacuna, Rissoa, Nacella, Trochus, Aplysia, and various Nudi- branchiata. On soft sea-beds bivalves abound and form the prey of Bucev- * Some of the litofal shells, like Purpura lapillus and Litorina rudis, have no free- swimming larval condition, but commence life as crawlers, with a well-developed shell. Their habits are sluggish, and their diffusion by ordinary means must be exceedingly slow. 440 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. num, Nassa, and Natica. From low-water to the depth of one or two fathoms on muddy and sandy shores, there are often great meadows of grass-wrack (Zostera) which afford shelter to numerous shell-fish, and are the haunt of the cuttle-fish and calamary. In tropical seas, the reef-building corals often take the place of sea-weeds, and extend their operations to a depth of about 25 fathoms. They cover the bottom with living verdure, on which many of the carnivorous mollusks feed, while some, like Ovu/wm and Pui ‘pura, browse on the flexible Gorgonie. To this zone belong the oyster- -banks of our seas, and the pearl-fisheries of the south ; it is richer than any other in animal life, and affords the most highly coloured shells. 3. Coralline zone. Yn northern seas the belt of sea-weed that fringes the coast is succeeded by a zone where horny zoophytes abound, and the chief vegetable growth consists of Nul/ipore which covers rocks and shells with its stony-looking incrustations. This zone extends from 15 or 25, to 35 or 50 fathoms, and is inhabited by many of the predacious genera—Buccinum, Fusus, Pleurotoma, Natica, Aporrhais, Philine, Velutina; and by vegetable feeders, such as Fissurella, Emarginula, Pileopsis, Hulima, and Chemnitzia. The great banks of scallops belong to the shallower part of this region, and many bivalves of the genera Lima, Arca, Nucula, Astarte, Venus, Artemis, and Corbula. . 4. Deep-sea Coral-zone. From 50 to 100 fathoms the Nudlpore still abounds, and small branching corals to which the Zerebratule adhere. In northern seas the largest corals (Oculina and Primnoa) are found in this zone, and shells are relatively more abundant, owing to the uniformity of temperature at these depths. These deep-water shells are mostly small and destitute of bright colours; but interesting from the circumstances under which they are found, their wide range, and high antiquity. Amongst the characteristic genera are Crania, Thetis, Neera, Cryptodon, Yoldia, Denta- lium, and Scissurella. In the mud brought up from deep water may be often found the shells of Pteropoda, and other mollusca which live at the surface of the sea. In the Hgean Sea there is deep-water within one or two miles of the coast; but in the British Channel the depth seldom amounts to more than 20—40 fathoms. When registering the results of dredging-operations, it is important to distinguish between dead and living shells, as in the preceding Tables; for almost every species is met with, in the condition of dead shells, at depths far greater than those in which it actually lives. On precipitous coasts the litoral shells fall into deep water, and are mingled with the inhabitants of other zones; currents also may transport dead shells to some distance over the bed of the sea. But the principal agents by which so many decayed and broken shells are scattered over the bed of the deep sea, must be the mollusk- eating fishes. Of 140 species of boreal shells described by Dr. Gould (p. 858) DISTRIBUTION IN DEPTH. 441 more than half were obtained from the maws of fishes, in Boston market. Cod-fish do not swallow the large whelk-shells, but some idea of the number they consume may be derived from the fact that Mr. Warington has obtained the muscular foot and operculum of above 100 whelks, of large size, besides quantities of crustacea, from the maws of three cod-fish procured in the ‘London market. Bivalve shells, like the Solens, and the rare Panopea Nor- veyica are swallowed, and ejected again with eroded surfaces. The haddock swallows shells still more indiscriminately, and Mr. Mc Andrew has found great numbers of rare Pectens in them, but generally spoiled. The cat-fish and skate break up the strongest shell-lish with their teeth—accounting for the many angular fragments met with in the dredge, and in recent deposits. The following are examples of shells obtained from great depths. Norway. (Mc Andrew ) #yean. (Forbes.) Living shells. Living. Dead. Fathoms. Murex vaginatus ........ 150 Cerithium metula ............ 20—150 Fusus muricatus .... 80—95 150 Margarita cinerea ............10—130 Nassa intermedia........ 45—185 Dentalium entale.............. 200 Cerithium lima........ 3—80 140 ee 120 Chemnitzia fasciata .. 110—150 Medapygmina ...i.....0.....05 200 Eulima distorta ........ 69—140 Woldialimatalat sf. si.j.05 6. dav 120 Sealaria hellenica ...... 110 MOGI KOTEMI. atss/o ae Tei Fig, 248. Pirena aira. (Wilton.) 456 SUPPLEMENT. Fam. 18. Paludinide : lingual teeth 8. 1. 3. (p. 138). Paludina. Paludomus? Ampullaria. Valvata. Fig. 249. Ampuliaria globosa. (Wilton.) The lingual uncini of Paludina and Valvata are denticulated; in 4m- pullaria the first and second uncini are tricuspid. Fam. 14. Letorinide : teeth 3. 1. 3. (p. 134). Litorina. Tectaria. Modulus, Risella. Fossarus. Narica. Solarium ? Phorus? Lacuna. Litiopa. Rissoa. Truncatella. The teeth of Phorus are like those of Atlanta. (Morch.) Fig. 250. Litorina litorea. (Warington.) The lingual canal of the periwinkle passes from the pack of the mouth under the esophagus for a short distance, then turns up on the right side and terminates in a coil (like spare rope) resting on the plaited portion of the gullet. It is 23 inches long, and contains about 600 rows of teeth ; the part in use, arming the tongue, comprises about 24 rows, * The * The opposite figure shows the manner in whicha gasteropod may be laid out for examination, under water; the body requires to be fixed, and the cut edges of the mantle to be kept open with needle points. A convenient trough may be made of a plain earthenware soap-dish, by cutting a piece of sheet-cork (such as bootmakers use) to fit the bottom, and fixing it to a piece of sheet-lead of the same size with a couple of india rubber bands. The instruments required for dissecting are simply a pair of fine pointed scissors, a few broken needles, a penknife, or scalpel, and a pair of forceps with fine curved points. GASTEROPODA. 457 dental ribbon of Risel/a is above 2 inches long, and coiled as in Lito- rina. (Wilton). vr, rostrum or muzzle. k, buccal mass. g, nervous ganglia (reproductive orifice, on the right side). s, salivary gland. @, esophagus. 1, lingual coil. m, shell-muscle. 6, branchia or gill. c, heart. n, aorta. e, stomach. f, liver. A, biliary canal. i, intestine. ad, anus. 0, Ovary. d, oviduct. u, nidament. o’, ovarian orifice. «, renal organ. y, mucus gland. Fig. 251. Litorina litoralis 2: (after Souleyet.) Animal removed from its shell ; branchial cavity and back laid open. Fig. 252. Operculum and teeth of Risella, (Wilton.) Fam. 15. Calyptreide: teeth 3. 1. 3. (p. 151.) Calyptrea. Pileopsis. Hipponyx. Metoptoma. 458 SUPPLEMENT. The rostrum is prominent and split, but non-retractile; the median tooth hooked and den- tate; the first, or first and second lateralsserrated, the third claw- shaped and sim- ple. Loven places this family next to the Veluti- ede. Fig. 253. Crepidula. (Wilton.) : (Section C. Scuripranoutata, Cuv. Rhipidoglossa, Troschel.) Fam. 16. Turbinide: lingual teeth 00. 5, 1, 5. 00 (pp. 28 and 142). Fam. 17. Haliotide, p. 146. Fam. 18. Lissureilide, p. 149. oe i Fig. 254. Fissurella. (Wilton.) Parmophorus differs from Fissurella in having a broad median tooth. Fam. 19. Neritide: teeth 00. 8,1, 3.00 (p. 140). Nerita, Neritopsis. Neritina. Naviceila. Pileolus. pyre Wo ™" Fig. 255. Navicella. (Wilton). Median tooth small; laterals 3,— lst- large, trapeziform, 2, 3, minute ; uncini numerous,—Ist large, strong and opaque, the rest slender, translu- cent, with denticulate hooks. Sy (Cyclobranchiata. Cuv.) Fam. 20. Patellide: p. 153. Fam. 21. Dentaliade: p. 156. Fam. 22. Chitonide. Patella. Nacella. Acmza. Gadinia. = A) RN N\A SAR ONS - NN ty Fig. 257. Chitonellus. Tasmania. (Wilton.) GASTEROPODA. 459 The Cape limpets (e.g. P. denticulata) have a minute central tooth, which is wanting in any other species hitherto examined. (Wz/ton.) ORDER Ill. PULMONIFERA. Section A. In-operculata. Lingual teeth nume- rous, similar. (p. 160.) Section B. Operculata. Lingual teeth 3.1. 3. (p. 175.) Glandina (Algira) has teeth like the Testacelle Pig. 256. Patellavulgata. (y, 169, Raymond, Journ. Conch. 1853). ieee: Wilton.) The anomalous genera Siphonaria and Amphibola have a dentition like the inoperculate land-snails. (Wilton). Otina (Velutina) otis has teeth similar to Conovulus. (Clark.) The many points of agreement between the Litorinide and Oyclostomide have been already pointed out (pp. 32, 174). ORDER IV. OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. The lingual dentition is ex- tremely varied in the Bullide. In Philine aperta there is no cen- tral tooth; and the laterals, which increase rapidly in size backwards, have a finely denticulated mem- branous inner edge. In Yornatella and Bulla (phy- sis) the rachis is unarmed, and the Jateral teeth are numerous and similar ; in Acera, Cylichna, and Amphisphyra, there is a minute central tooth. Fig. 258. Philine aperta. (Wilton.) ORDER V. NUDIBRANCHIATA. The Doridide are distinguished by { \ having a short and wide lingual mem- \ ' brane with numerous similar teeth ; the Molids have a narow ribbon with a single series of larger teeth. In Den- Fig. 259. Dendronotus arborescens dronotus a large central tooth is flanked by a few small denticulated teeth. (Alder and Hancock, Pl. II. fig. 8.) The only Nudibranche with a solid upper jaw, is Ayirus punctilucens (A. and H. Pl, XVII. fig. 15). In other instances the two halves are arti- X3 460 SUPPLEMENT. culated and act as lateral jaws. In Zyirus the mouth is also furnished with membranous fringes (A. and H. Pl. XVII. fig. 14). Ancula cristata has a formidable spinous collar (Pl. XVII. fig. 7). Fig. 260, a. Mouth of #girus punctilucens. b. Horny upper mandible detached. e. Prehensile collar of Ancula. a, mandible; 2x, dental sac; b, insertion-plate of mandible; c, passage of mouth. Note on the preparation of the Lingual Teeth as microscopic objects ; by J. W. Wilton, Esq. The mollusk when taken from its shell must be pinned down in the dissecting trough, with needle-points passed through the sides of the muscular foot (fig. 251, and note). Water is then to be poured in till the animal is covered, and should be ehanged as often as the condition of the object renders it turbid. It is convenient to make these examinations under a simple lens, attached to an upright rod with a rack and screw, so that both hands may be free. A good light is necessary, and with lamp- light a bull’s-eye condenser is useful. The lower point of the scissors should be passed iuto the mouth of the animal, and kept close to the upper side, which is to be cut open so as to expose the floor of the mouth, or tongue, with its teeth. When the ent edges have been pinned back, the whole length of the dental sack or canal may be carefully worked out with a lancet or other suitable instrument. Experience in this process may be gained by examining the periwinkle and whelk, or any others of which a number may be easily procured. The lingual ribbon, when detached, should be placed in a watch- glass of distilled water, and cleaned by repeated washings with a camel’s-hair brush, and then placed in pure alcohol till wauted for mounting. If there is much difficulty in getting the membrane clean, it may be put for a time in hquor potasse, care being taken to wash it in frequent change of water after- wards. Before mounting in balsam the preparation requires to be saturated with spirits of turpentine, which will more readily enter its structure if it be first soaked in chloroform. The slide is prepared by dropping a little Canada balsam on its centre, the quantity varying with the size and thickness of the object. The dental membrane is placed on the balsam with the side from Which the teeth project upwards, and guided into the desired position; it is GASTEROPODA. 461 then covered with thin glass previously warmed over the flame of a spirit lamp. Mr. Warington and Mr. Fisher Cocken recommend glycerine (which may be obtained at Price’s, of Vauxhall) as the best medium for microscopic objects; the glass covers are cemented on with hatter’s-varnish (shell-lac dissolved in spirits of \vine), and painted over afterwards with asphalt dis- solved in turpentine, such as the varnish-makers supply. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON THE GENERA. Disaruvs, Phi. 1847. Conohelix edentulus, Sw. (Strombide? p. 104.) Subcylindrical, spire acute; aperture narrow, linear, edentulous, excised at the base; lip thickened, rectilinear, rounded and abbreviated below. Ruocuitus (antipathum) Stp. 1850. Founded on a sp. of Purpura? which lives on the antipathes ericoides. When adult they attach themselves, singly or in groups, to the branches of the coral, or to each other, by a solid extension of the lips of the shell. The aperture becomes closed, with the exception of the respiratory canal. Planazis, p. 114 (Cerithiade ?), This genus was placed with the Buc- cinide on the statement of Mr. Gray, that the animal was hke Purpura. Borsonia (prima) Bellardi, 1838. Is a Pleurotoma with the columella plaited like Mitra. Miocene, Turin. Hocene, Brit. PacHyBATHRON (cassidiforme) Gaskoin. Shei/ small, oblong, striated with lines of growth; spire small, depressed, with channelled suture; aper- ture with callous, denticulated lips, like Cyprea. Distr. 3 sp. Calpurnus, Montf. (name) = Ovulum verrucosum. p. 122. Volva (Fleming) = Ovulum patulum, (Ca/purna, Leach.) Radius (Montf.) Schum. = Ovulum volva. Desuavesia (Parisiensis), Raulin, 1844, (p. 123). Miocene, France. Some additional species have been found with a similar oblique aperture and corrugated inner lip. Baron Ry ckholt has described a species (D. Rausinc), from the Devonian, Belgium. The relation of the genus is uncertain. NaticeLia (Munsteri, D’Orb.) Minster, 1841. This genus, abounding in the ‘Trias of St. Cassian, has been referred to Natica by D’Orbigny. A characteristic species occurs in the Green-sand of Blackdown, and has been named Natica carinata, J. Sby. (Narica, D’Orb.) It is exactly intermediate between Narica (p. 124) and Fossarus (p. 135) and appears to form with them a little group nearly related to Lacuna (p. 136.) i Velutina inhabits the laminarian Zone, and ranges to 40 fms. V. leviyatu is sometimes brought in on the fishermen’s lines, (off Northumberland), generally adhering to Aleyonium digitatum (Alder). Dr. Gould obtained it from the stomach of fishes. 4.62 SUPPLEMENT. Monoptiema (melanioides) Lea = M. striata, Gray (name only.) Shell like Chemmttzia, rather fusiform, spirally grooved; columella slightly folded, with a sinus at the base. Dastr. 12 sp. Indo-Pacific, (p. 126). Menestho, Miller, (Turbo albulus, Fabr. Greenland) vy. Chemnitzia. Aelis (p. 132) asearis, Turt. (= A. supra-nitida, Wood) has the apex sinistral, like the Pyramidellidae. Vicarya (Verneuili) D’Arch, 1854. Eocene. Scinde. Shell like Potamides ; aperture with a broad callosity spreading over the body whirl, outer lip with a deep narrow sinus like Clionella. Holopella, Mec Coy, Turritella obsoleta, Sby. U. Silurian. Brit. Peristome — entire, not produced in front. Scoliostoma (Dannenbergii) Max. Braun, 1838. Sy. Coehlearia, F. Braun, 1841. Shell turreted, sometimes sinistral, whirls keeled or rounded, aperture more or less twisted, trumpet shaped, sometimes with a widely expanded outer peristome. Fossi/. Devonian—Trias. Europe. Amwyicota, Gould and Haldemann, 1841 (p. 131) = Paludina porata, Say, inhabits the fresh waters of New England, gregarious on stones and submerged plants. The species are numerous. Patupomus, Sw. Shell turbinated, smooth or coronated; outer lip crenulated ; olivaceous, with dark brown spiral lines. Destr. 24 sp. Hima- laya, Bombay, Ceylon, Seychelles. This genus was founded on Melania conica and two other Indian species, having a concentric operculum, like Paludina. In Reeve’s monograph it was made to include, primarily, a group of Cingalese shells for which Mr. Edgar Layard has revived Gray’s MS. name Tanatta. The description at p. 131. applies to this latter group. PEraLoconcuus (sculpturatus) Lea, 1843. Sub-genus of Vermetus, p. 133. Miocene, U.S., St. Domingo, S. Europe. Shel with two internal ridges, running spirally along the columella, becoming obsolete near the apex and aperture. Discohelix (caleuliformis) Dunker, 1851, Inas, Gottingen. This name was proposed for the depressed Huomphali of the Lower Oolites, of which there are several species in Normandy and England. Shell usually sinistral, flat or concave above, aperture quadrangular. Platystoma (Suessi) Hornes, 1855. Trias, Hallstadt. Shell discoidal, sinistral? sculptured; peristome suddenly expanded, plain; aperture with an inner rim, circular, and deflected (upwards,) at right angles to the plane of the shell. Several examples have occurred. Brrrontia, Desh. p. 135. B. Zanclea, Phi. has been dredged alive off Madeira, by Mr. Me Andrew, the operculum is like Torinta (fig. 82) from which the shell differs only in being more depressed. PH:LIPPIA (lutea) Gray, has a multi-spiral operculum, and the animal is like Trochus. ( Philippi.) PaLuDESTRINA (lapidum) D’Orb. part. Fresh-waters of S. America. a GASTEROPODA. 463 Shell conic, .few-whirled, epidermis green; aperture oblique, peristome abruptly reflected; operculum claw-like. The typical species appear to be Melaniade, but some small shells like Hydrobia have been included in the genus. VirrNELLA (valvatoides). C. B. Adams, 1850. Shel/ minute, hyaline, turbiniform, umbilicated ; aperture large, orbicular. Déstr. 18 sp. W. In- dies (5), Panama. ScissurELLA (crispata). Animal like Margarita; tentacles long, pectinated, with the eyes at their base; foot with two pointed lappets and two long slender pectinated cirri on each side; operculum ovate, very thin, with an obscure sub-spiral nucleus. No part of the animal was external to the shell. The only living example occurred at Hammerfest, in 40-80 fm. water; when placed in a glass of sea-water it crawled up the side and scraped the glass with its tongue. It was pale and translucent when living, but turned inky black after immer- sion in alcohol. (Barrett, An. N. H. 17, Fig.261. Scissurella, &. p- 206.) Mr. Jeffreys found S. elegans, D’Orb. plentifully alive in sea-weed on the coast of Piedmont. It has a multispiral operculum, like Margarita. In this species, as noticed by Mr. G. Sowerby, the s/z¢ in the peristome of the young shell is converted into a foramen in the adult, as in the Jurassic Trochotoma. Catantostoma (clathratum) Sandberger, 1842. Shed/ like Pleurotomaria; last whirl deflected, peristome incomplete, slightly varicose, irregular. Fossil. Devonian, Eifel. Rapuisroma (angulata). Hall, (p. 147). L. Silurian. U. States. Canada. Shell depressed, out lip sinuated. In R. compacta (Salter) the spire is sunk and basin-shaped, the umbilical side flat, and the last whirl a little disunited. Holopea (symmetrica). Hall. 1847. (Ianthinide?) Outer lip smu- ated near the base. LZ. Stlurian, New York. Brownta (Candei) D’Orb. 1853. (Atlantide ?) A minute discoidal shell, associated with Helicophiegma in the first instance, but distinguished by the serrated keels on its whirls, and lateral notches 1o the aperture. Cuba. CALCARELLA (spinosa) Souleyet. 1850. (Atlantide?) Shell sub-globose, dextrally spiral, horny, pellucid, with three acutely serrated keels; aperture thickened, entire. Lat. 3 lines. South Seas. (= Echinospira, Krohn.) Rectuzia, Petit, 1853. R. Jehennei, Red Sea. R. Rollandiana, Atlan- tic, and Mazatlan. Animal pelagic, resembling Ianthina; one inch long. Shell paludiniform, thin, with a brown epidermis; whirls ventricose ; aper- 464 SUPPLEMENT. ture ovate-oblique, slightly effused at the base, margins dis-united; inner lip oblique, rather sinuated in the middle; outer lip acute, entire. PatELia, p. 154. The common limpet makes oval pits in timber as well as in chalk. Small individuals sometimes roost, habitually, on larger Specimens, and make an oval furrow on the shell. The surface on which limpets roost, and some space around it, is often covered with radiating strice not parallel like those produced by their teeth on nuilipore. Mr. Gaskoin has a limpet-shell incrusted with nullipore, which other limpets have rasped allover. In M. D’Orbigny’s collection of Cuban shells there is a group of oysters (O. cornucopia), with a colony of the Hipponyx mitrula sheltered in their interstices; these limpets have not only fed on the nullipore with which the oysters are incrusted, but have extensively eroded the epidermal layer of sheli beneath.* As to the Calyptreide generally, although furnished with lingual teeth (fig. 248) like those of the animal-feeding Velutina, and themselves mani- festing carnivorous propensities (p. 151), it is difficult to understand how they can travel in quest of food. The shape of some species of limpet is believed to vary with the nature of the surface on which they habitually live. ‘Thus the British Nacedla pel- lucida is found on the fronds of the tangle, and assumes the form called NV. levis, when it lives on their stalks. (Forbes.) The demea testudinalis becomes laterally compressed and is called 4. alvea when it grows on the blades of the Zostera (Gould); and Patella miniata of the Cape becomes a new “genus” (Cyméa, Adams, not Broderip) when it roosts on the round stems of sea-weed, and takes the form called P. compressa. (Gray.) TaNysToma (tubiferum) Benson, 1856. Helicide. Shell like Anastoma, minute, umbilicated; aperture disengaged, trumpet-like, toothed. Banks of the Irawadi, above Prome. PFEIFFERIA (micans) Gray. Helicide. A Nanina without the mucus- pore at the tail. Philippines. Spiraxis, C. B. Adams, 1850. ype, Achatina anomala, Pfr. Shell ovate-oblong, fusiform, or cylindrical; last whirl attenuated ; aperture nar- row, right margin usually inflected, columella more or less contorted, base scarcely truncated, furnished with a deeply-entering callous lamina. Distr. 30 sp. W. Indies, Mexico, Juan Fernandez. JANELLA, Gray, 1850 (uot Grat. 1826). Syn. Athoracophorus (!) Gould. Type. Limax bitentaculatus, Quoy. Elongate, limaciform, covered by a man- tle with free margins ; back grooved; tentacles 2, retractile, rising within the edge of the mantle; respiratory orifice to the right ot the dorsal groove, * A similar circumstance has been noticed in the fresh-water Paluding and Am- pullaria, by Dr. Bland and Mr. R. Swift; in the absence of other food they devour the green vegetable matter incrusting one another’s shells, and in doing this remove the epidermis, or even make holes in the shell. GASTEROPODA. 465 reproductive orifice below it and beneath the mantle. Distr. New Zealand, on leaves. . TESTACELLA, p. 168. During winter and dry weather the Testacella forms a sort of cocoon in the ground by the exu- dation of its mucus. If this cell is broken, the animal may be seen completely shrouded in its thin opaque white mantle, which rapidly contracts © until it extends but a little way beyond the margin of the shell. Fig. 262 represents 7. Mauger (lately found by Mr. Cunnington, in fields uear Devizes), just disturbed from its sleep; s, the shell; m, the contracted mantle. Limnzipm. Mr. R. Warington has observed that the fresh-water snails (and also Neritina) can lower themselves from aquatic plants by a mucous thread, and reascend by the same ; a Physa could be lifted out of the water ' by its thread. ~ Pranorgpura, Haldemann, 1841. Planorbis armigerus, Say; aperture with 5 teeth, nearly closing the passage. GuNDLACHIA (ancyliformis) Pfeiffer, 1850. Fresh-waters, Cuba. Shell thin, obliquely conic; apex inclived posteriorly; base closed for two-thirds by a flat, horizontal plate; aperture semicircular. ADAMSIELLA (mirabilis) Pfeiffer, 1851—Choanopoma, Pfr. (part) 1847. “Operculum thin, rather cartilaginous.” Dvstr, 12 sp. Jamaica, Dema- rara. Named after the late Prof. C. B. Adams, of Amherst, Mass. OristHoporus, Benson, 1855. O. biciliatus, Mouss. Shell like Ptero- cyclus ; operculum double, margin grooved, interior concamerated. Distr. 4 sp. Singapore, Borneo, Java. Aplysia (like Loligo, p. 69) has several shells when old. Umbrella, p. 187, has a minute sinistral nucleus, like Tylodina. SrytocHinus, Gould. Exped. shells. Aplysia longicauda Q. and G. Animal limaciform, cirrigerous, dilated at the sides, attenuated behind; neck distinct ; tentacles 4, long, linear, papillose, far apart ; lips dilated laterally into tentacular processes. Distr. 3 sp. New Guinea, on Puce. Cu1or#Ra (leonina) Gould. Puget Sound. Appears to be a nudi- branche resembling Glaucus, with oral cirri. Ruopore (Veranii) Kélliker, 1847. Animal minute, similar to Lima- pontia ? worm-shaped, rather convex above, flat beneath ; without mantle, gills, or tentacles. Upon algz, Messina. BRACHIOPODA. In the summer of 1855, Messrs. M‘Andrew and Barrett obtained, on the coast of Norway, living examples of Rhynchonella psittacea, Waldheimia cranium, Terebratulina caput-serpentis, and Crania anomala. The two last projected their cirri beyond the margins of the opened valves, and moved Fig. 262. Testacella. 466 SUPPLEMENT. them, as the Bryozoa move their oral tentacles; but in no instance were the arms extended. When the Crania opened, the upper valve turned upon its hinge-line. (Barrett, An. Nat. Hist.) The anatomy of Zeredratula and Rhynchonella has been further investi- gated by Dr. Gratiolet, Mr. Huxley, and Mr. A. Hancock. The pallial arteries (mentioned p. 212, and figured p. 227, fig. 141) are regarded as “narrow bands from which the ovaria or testes are developed.” The nature of the organs previously described as hearts is rendered doubt- ful, as they appear to open externally, forming the “ovarian orifices” of Hancock; the plaited organs (A, A, fig. 165), described as auricles, are com- pared with nidamental glands. Ehynchonella has two additional “hearts” above the others, one on each side of the liver. ‘The peculiarity of the ovarian spaces in Rhynchonella and Orthzs (described at p. 212, and represented in figs. 189, 140, 145, 147, letter 0) is explained by the structure of the ovarian sinuses in the recent Rhynchonella ; “the floor of this great sinus is marked out into meshes by the reticulated genital band, and from the centre of each mesh a flat band passes, uniting the two walls of the sinus, and breaking it up into irre- gular partial channels.” The insertion of these dands produces the pune- tures in the shells represented in the figures above referred to. The membranes which support the alimentary canal are described, and explain the origin and nature of the septa in Stringocephalus and Penrtamerus. The mode of termination of the alimentary canal is not yet satisfactorily made out. Prof. Oscar Schmidt has observed the existence of flattened and radiated calcarious particles in the mantle, arms, and cirri of Terebratulina caput- serpentis ; their occurrence appears to be very general in the Brachiopoda, and accounts for the frequent preservation of internal structures in fossil specimens. Dr. Gratiolet has pointed out that the true function of the eardinal mus- eles of Terebratula was known to Prof. Quenstedt, and published by him in 1835. (Wiegm. Archiv. II. 220.) Suxssta (imbricata) Eugéne Deslongchamps, 1855. (Dedicated to M. Suess.) Shell like Sprtfera ; texture fibrous ; hinge area wide as the shell ; foramen deltoid ; large valve with two cardinal septa, and a prominent cen- tral septum, supporting a little plate; small valve with a tri-lobed cardinal process, and a broad 4-partite hinge plate, with processes from the outer angles of the dental sockets; crura of the spires united by a transverse band supporting a small process. Fossil. 2sp. U. Lias, Normandy. Davidsonia, p. 232. The upper valve sometimes exhibits markings derived from the surface on which the shell has grown. ZELLANIA (Davidsoni) Moore, 1855. (Etym. Zella, a lady’s name ®) Shell minute, orthi-form ; texture fibrous ; hinge area short, foramen angu- BRACHIOPODA. 467 lar, encroaching on both valves; interior of dorsal valve as in Thecidium, with a single central septum and broad margin. ossz/. Lias—G. Oolite, 3 sp. Brit. ANOPLOTHECA, (lamellosa) Fr. Sandberger, 1856. Dev. Rhine. = Atrypa. Meeanteris, Suess, 1856. Terebratula Archiaci, Vern. Devoxzan, Asturias. Shell with a long, reflected, internal oop. CONCHIFERA. Development.—The observations of Dr. Loven on the development of Cardium pygmeum and Crenella marmorata (referrred to at p. 51, note) have been confirmed by M. M. Keber and Webb, who observed similar phe- nomena in the ova of the river-mussel (4Azodon). The body described by Lovén as the nucleus of the germinal vesicle is regarded by these later observers as a tubular orifice, analogous to the micropyle in the vegetable ovum, by which the spermatozoa penetrate the yolk. In Anodon the embryouic mass divides, partially, into two halves, each having its own mouth and intestine; and its own distinct though simple heart ; and it is by the approximation and ultimate fusion of the two ventricles that the common rectum of the originally distinct intestines is intercepted. (Quatrefages.—Lovéen.) OstTREID®#, p. 253. The union of the Ostreide and Pectinida, as proposed by the authors of the “ History of British Mollusca,” has not proved satis- factory. The genus Ostrea stands quite alone, and distinct from all the Pectinide in the structure of its gills, which are like those of Avicu/a, and by resting on its /eft valve. The shell also is more nacreous than that of the scallops. Dimya (Deshayesana) Rouault, 1859. Mém. Soc. Géol. b. IT. 471. t. 15. fig. 3. LZ. Eocene, Paris. The figure is most like an oyster, and the ‘second adductor impression,” on account of which it is named Dzmya, is rather like the small anterior scar in Pecten (fig. 173, p. 249). Placuna* is essentially like Anomia, having the generative system attached to the right mantle-lobe, and the ventricle exposed. The mantle-margin is cirrated, and furnished with a curtain, as in Pecten; the foot is tubular and extensile, but has no distinct muscles except the small one, whose existence in P. placenta (Pl. XVI. fig.6) we had predicated from examination of the shell (p. 256). The small muscular impressions before and in the rear of the adductor are produced by suspensors of the gills. Anomia, The description given at p. 255 requires correction; the lips * Original figures and descriptions will be found in the An. Nat. Hist. 1855, p. 22. + This organ appears to represent the byssal-sheath of Anomia, rather than the foot, as there is no other opening for the passage of a byssus, 468 SUPPLEMENT. are extremely elongated and plain, the striated portion (or palpz) almost obso- lete, whereas in P/acuna the plicated surface is sufficiently extensive. The outer gill-laminee, in both genera, are furnished witha broad reflected margin. Plheatula, p. 259. The animal is like Spoxdylus in every essential re- spect, and only resembles Os¢rea in the foot being nearly obsolete. Streblo-pteria (levigata) Me Coy, 1856. Card. Brit. (Aviculide). Mytilide. Modiola pelagica (Myrina, Adams), p. 266, has the mantle open; the shell is peculiar from the large size of the anterior muscular im- pression ; and the subcentral umbones distinguish it from Modiolarea. Hoplomytilus (crassus) Sdbgr. Devonian, Nassau. Shel/ with a mus- eular plate in the umbo, like Septifer (p. 265). The Mytilus squamosus, Sby. Magnesian limestone, Brit. has a similar plate. ‘ Arcade. Scaphula (celox) Benson, the fresh-water Ark, p. 268. A second species has been found in the R. Tenasserim, Birmah. The hinge is edentulous in the centre, and the posterior teeth are laminar and branched; the elements of the posterior muscular impression are distinct. Limopsis, p. 268. Syn. Pectunculina, D’Orb. Mr. M‘Andrew has dredged L. pygmea, living, on the coast of Finmark; it is a fossil of the Pliocene of England, Belgium and Sicily. Nuculide, p.270. The Yoldia limatu- Oe \eo £3 lu has heen dredged, oes Ve PS Z alive, by Mr. M‘An- 3 drew, on the coast 3 of Finmark, It is also found in Port- Fig. 263. Yoldia limatula (after Barrett). land Harbour, Mass. The animal is very active, and leaps to an astonishing height, exceeding in this faculty the scollop-shells. (Dr. Mighels.) Unionidae, p. 276. Miilleria; Fig. 246 represents the left, or attached valve, showing the single muscular impression, aud projecting spur with the nucleus, consisting of doth valves of the fry, united, and filled up with shell.* — Hippuritide, p. 279. The structure of these shells has been more fully described in the Quarterly Journal of the Geol. Soc. London. In all the genera the shell consists of three layers, but the outermost, which is thin and compact, is often destroyed by the weathering of the specimens. The principal layer in the lower valve of the Hippurite is not really very difierent from the upper valve in structure; the laminz are corrugated, leaving irre- gular pores, or tubes, parallel with the long axis of the shell, and often visible on the rim. The umbo of the upper-valve of the Radvolite is marginal in the young shell. (Geol. Journ. vol. xi. p. 40.) * M. D’Orbigny very liberally placed his suite of specimens of this remarkable genus in the British Museum. Oct. 1854, 469 CONCHIFERA. Fig. 245. Mulleria lobata, Fér. (Original.) Tridacnide, p. 289. Animal of Tridacna, as seen on removing the left valve and part of the mantle within the pallial line. A aT ATI Sy 6 A ASR Aes \ Tn Fig. 265. Tridacna crocea, Lam. (Original). a, the single adductor muscle; p, pedal muscle, and pedal opening in mantle; f, the small grooved foot; 0, byssus; ¢, labial tentacles; g, gills; J, the broad pallial muscle; between g and / is the renal organ; m, the double mantle-mar- gin; s, the siphonal border; i, inhalent orifice. e, valvular excurrent orifice. An. Nat. Hist. 1855, p. 190. 470 SUPPLEMENT. sents the animal of a species of Diplo- donta, from the Philippines, as seen on removing the left valve, and part of the mantle within the pallial line; -c, the large pedal opening; the arrows indicate the small plain incur- rent orifice, and the valvular excurrent orifice ; f, the foot, contracted in spirit; p, p, the large striated palpi; 7, the liver; the outer gill has a simplemargin, the inner is grooved and conducts to Fig. 266. Diplodonta. the mouth. This genus has higher claims than Ke/lia to be regarded as the type of a family. Scint1nLa (Cumingi) Desh. 1856. Small shells resembling Leptoz, p- 296; minutely punctate; ligament internal, oblique; hinge-teeth 1. 2; posterior laterals 1.2. Distr. 37 sp. (?) Philippines, N. Australia, Panama. Family 12a. Astartide. Astarte. Opis. Crassatella. Circe? Cardita. Astarte (borealis); mantle-margins free, plain, slightly cirrated in the branchial region, united posteriorly by the branchial septum, forming a single, excurrent orifice; pedal muscles (p. p’), distinct from adductors; gills flat, finely striated, destitute of internal partitions; outer gill narrow, elliptical, with a simple margin; imner gill grooved, conducting to the mouth. Fig. 267. Astarte borealis, var. semi-sulcata, Leach. 3 Wellington Channel. Goutpra (Pacifica) C. B. Adams. ShelZ minute, triangular, furrowed ; hinge like Astarte, with lateral teeth; pallial line simple. Dist. 4 sp. Panama, W. Indies. CONCHIFERA. 471 WS S = / yl Ak SS N S AA J Tice \ il¥ . \\ } \ \\ RY AN \\ WZ inten =e Fig. 268. Crassatella pulchra. Sandy Cape, J. B. Jukes. Animal as seen on the removal of the right valve, and portion of the mantle. | Crassatella (pulchra) animal like Astarte; foot linguiform, slightly grooved ; palpi short and broad, few-plaited ; outer gill narrower in front. Cypricardia rostrata, Lam. Philip- pines (p. 300). Animal with mantle- lobes united, and covered with wrinkled epidermis; siphonal orifices fringed; gills deeply plicated, anterior part of the outer gill united to the muner ; dorsal border narrow, plaited; ad- ductor muscles of two elements. Goniophora, Phillips, 1848. Cypricardia cymbeeformis, Sby. U. Stlurean, Brit. (Mytilide ?) - Redonia, Rouault, Bull Soc. Geol. 8, 362. (= Pleurophorus? p. 301.) Shell oval, tumid; hinge with cardinal and posterior teeth ; anterior adductor bounded by aridge. Fossi/, L. Silurian, Brittany, Portugal. (Sharpe.) Carbonicola, Me Coy, 1856 = Anthracosia, p. 303. Omalia, Ryck. 1856 = Pullastra bistriata, Portl. Carb. Belgium. Verticordia, p. 304. Syn. Trigonulina (ornata) D’Orb. J amaica. Hinge- teeth 2. 2; right valve with a long posterior tooth. Epidermis of large nucleated cells, as in Trigoniade, to which family it undoubtedly belongs. (Pl. XVII. f. 26.) Lucinopsis, p. 306. The type of this genus having been erroneously placed in Cyclina by M. Deshayes, he has proposed a new genus (Lajonkairia) for the second species, Z. decussata, Phi. a fossil of the English Pliocene, but still living in the Medit. Fig. 269. Cypricardia. 472 SUPPLEMENT. Glaucomya, p. 307. See An. Nat. Hist. 1855, p. 23. renting, p. 308. (Syn. Isodonta, Buv, p. 314). The eavity described asa “cartilage-pit” receives a tooth of the opposite valve. Lellinide, p. 311. Psammobia. Fig. 270. Psammobia pallida, Desh. Red Sea. Left valve, part of the mantle, and retractor of the siphons removed. Siphons much contracted; a,a, adductors ; P,P, pedal muscles. Solenide, Glycimeris, p. 320. An. Nat. Hist. 1855, p. 99. Fig. 271. Glycimeris siliqua,Caemn. Newfoundland. a,a, adductor muscle; p, pedal muscle; s, siphonal muscle; /f, foot ; t, labial tentacles ; g, gills, much contracted and crumpled. Rrsereia (pholadiformis) Sharpe, 1853. Ged. Journ. Shell gaping at both ends; sub-ovate, rounded in front, elongated and rather attenuated behind; punctate-striate; casts of interior with a large umbonal impression (caused by a cartilage-plate, as in Lyonsia ?) and a notch in front of it. Fossil. 1. Silurian, Portugal. (Anatinide, p. 320.) Scaldia, Ryckholt, 1856. Carb. Tournay. Shell like Hdmondia (p. 323, ) with a single cardinal tooth in each valve. CONCHIFERA. 473 Myad@. The description of the animal of Panopea, at p. 319, was taken from the British species, P. Nor- vegica, which agrees both in the cha- racter of the shell and soft parts with Saxicava, and belongs to the Gastro- chenide. Fig. 272 represents the animal of the typical species of Panopea, as seen on the removal of the left valve and thin part of the mantle. It was ob- tained on the coast of Sicily, and pre- sented to the Gloucester Museum by Capt. Guise. Mantle and siphons covered with thick, dark, wrinkled epidermis; si- phons united, thick, contractile; pedal orifice small, in the middle of the ante- rior gape; foot small (f), body oval (4), with a prominent heel; pallial muscle (m) continuous, with a deep siphonal inflection (s); lips broad and plain, palpi triangular, deeply plaited (¢); gills unequal, (much contracted in spirit), reaching the commencement of the siphons; inner gills prolonged be- tween the palpi, plaits in pairs, each lamina being composed of vascular loops arranged side by side; margin grooved, dorsal border of inner lamina unattached; outer gills shorter and narrower, formed of a single series of branchial loops placed one behind the other, dorsal border wide and fixed. Fig. 272. Panopea glycimeris. 7 The size ofthe original. a,a’,adductor muscles; p, posterior pedal muscle; 7, renal organ. TIsoleda, Ryck. 1856 = Leda solenoides and Cucullella sp. p. 269. Anomianella, (proteus) Ryck. Carb. Tournay = Crania? Crenella (decussata) T. Br. 1827. p. 266 = Nuculocardia (divaricata) D’Orb. Cuba. = Myoparo, Lea (p. 269.) Brachydontes, Sw. p. 265, is more elongated ; Lanistes (discors) Sw. nearly wants the crenulations. 474 Cc. B. Ad. H. A. Ad. Adans. Ag. Ant. A. & H. Bar. Bl. Broc. Brod. Bron. Br. Br: Buy. Charp. Chemn. Chen. ABBREVIATIONS OF AUTHOR’S NAMES. ABBREVIATIONS OF AUTHOR’S NAMES. C. B. Adams, p. 375. H. and A. Adams. Adanson, p. 366. Agassiz, p. 251. Anton, 1839. Alder and Hancock. Barrande, 1852. De Blainville, 1825. Brocchi, 1814. Broderip, W. J. Brongniart, 1835. Bronn, 1831— T. Brown, 1827. Buvignier, 1852. Charpentier, 1837. Chemnitz, 1780-95. Chenu, 1848— Conrad, 1832— Cuvier, 1799-1817. D’Archiac. Defrance, 1816-29. Deshayes, 1825— D Orbigny, 1835— Donovan, 1824-7. Draparnaud, 1805. Eichwald, 1828-30. F. Edwards, 1850— Eydoux and Sonleyet. O. Fabricius, 1780. Férussac, 1819. Fleming, 1828. Forbes and Hanley. Gmelin, 1788. Gould, 184i— Goldfuss, 1826-44. Hartmann, 1840. Hisinger, 1837. Johnston, G. Kiener, 1834— Koch and Dunker. Koninck, 1837— Kuster, 1837— Lamarck, 1799-1818, Linnzus, 1787- Lesson, 1829. Mantell, 182254. Martin, 1793. Martini, 1769-74. Martyn, 1784. Mc Coy, 1845— Menke, 1828. Middendorff, p. 354. Moller, p. 355. Montagu, 1803-8. Montfort, 1799-1820. Morris and Lycett. Muhlfeldt, 1811. Miller, O.F., 1773-6. Miinster, 1826-43. Nilsson, 1822-7. Quenstedt, 1852. Quoy and Gaimard. Parkinson, 1804-11. Pennant, 1776-7. Pfeiffer, 1848— Philippi, 1836— Phillips, 1829— Portlock, 1843— Potiez and Michaud. Risso, 1826. ° Roissy, 1805. Romer, F, A., 1836— Sandberger, G. and F. Savigny, 1816. Schlotheim, 1813-23. Schumacher, 1816. Solander, 1765. Sowerby, 1812-30. J. Sowerby, 1830— Geo. Sowerby. G. B. Sowerby, 18438. Steenstrup. Swainson, 1820-40. Turton, 1822. Verneuil, 1845. Wahlenberg, 1821. 475 ™ INDEX OF GENERA AND TECHNICAL TERMS. The names of Genera commence with a capital letter, those in italics are Synonymes. abbreviations, 61. Abralia, 72. Acanthina, 113. Acanthochites, 157. Acanthopleura, 157. Acanthoteuthis, 75. _Acanthothyris, 226. Acardo, 187, 291. Acavus, 162. acephala, 7. Acera, 183, 184. acetabula, 63. Achatina, 160, 165. Achatinella, 165. Acicula, 178. Aclesia, 186. Aclis, 132, 462. Acmea, 155, 178, 464. Acme, 178. acceli, 74, Acostea, 276. Acroculia, 153. Acroloxus, 172. Acrotreta, 238. Acteéon, 180, 197. Acteonella, 180. Acteonia, 197. Acteonina, 180. Actinocamax, 74. Actinoceras, 88. Actinoconchus, 224. Actinodonta, 273. Acus, 111. Adacna, 291. Adamsielia, 401, 465. adaptive, 56. adductor, 26, 210, 248. adelopneumona, 159. Adeorbis, 145. Admete, 108. AEgirus, 191, 460. Enigma, 255. ZEolis, 17, 23, 194. ewstivation, 49. 7Etheria, 275. affinity, 55. Aganides, 484. Agaronia, 117. Agina, 317. Alasmodon, 274. Alcadia, 178. Alderia, 196. Alexia, 174. Alicula, 182. Alina, 237, Allorisma, 322, 323. alternate gen. 49. Alvania, 132. Alyceus, 176. Amalthea, 153. Amathina, 153. Amaura, 126, 356. Ambonychia, 261. Amicula, 157. Ammonites, 17, 93. Amnicola, 131, 462. Amorecium, 343. Amphibola, 139, 160. Amphibulima, 164. Amphichena, 314. Amphidesma, 312. Amphidonta, 254. Amphipeplea, 171. Amphiperas, 122. Amphisphyra, 183. Amphorina, 194. Ampullacea, 139. Ampullaria, 18, 138, 456. Ampullina, 123, 177. Amusium, 256. analogy, 47, 56. Anapa, 313. Anatina, 321. Anatomus, 147. Anchinea, 346. Ancillaria, 117. Ancistrochirus, 72. Ancistroteuthis, 72. Ancula, 192, 460. Anculotus, 131. Ancyloceras, 95. Ancylus, 171. Anodon, 245, 275. Anodontopsis, 273. Anolax, 111. Anomalocardia, 304. Anomia, 25, 255, 467. Anomianella, 473. Anoplomya, 322. Anoplotheca, 467. Anops, 199. Anthracosia, 303. Antigone, 304. Antiopa, 196, 334. aquiferous, 31. Aperostoma, 177. Apioceras, 90, 449. Aplexa, 171. Aploceras, 91. Aplustrum, 183. Aplydium, 342. Aplysia, 15, 29, 185, 465. Apollon, 107. apophyses, 222. Aporrhais, 129, 452. Appendicularia, 346. Aptychus, 81. Arca, 267. Architectonica, 135. Arcinella, 276, 303, 320. Arcomya, 322. Arcopagia, 310. Arctica, 298. arctic shells, 40, 353. areas, 349, Argiope, 220. Argonauta,'13, 66,447. Argus, 22, 256. Arion, 168. Ariophanta, 163. Artemis, 306. Ascidium, 9, 15, 337, Ascoceras, 91, 450. asiphonida, 253. Aspergillum, 43. Asolene, 139. Astarte, 299, 470. Astartila, 302. Assiminea, 137. Athoracophorus, 464. Athyris, 223. Atlanta, 200. Atrium, 335. Atrypa, 228. Aturia, 86. Atys, 182. Aucella, 261. auditory, 21. Aulonotreta, 240. Aulopoma, 177. Aulosteges, 234. Aulus, 311. Auricella, 174. auricle, 30. Auricula, 173. Auriscalpium, 321. Avellana, 180. Ayicula, 260. Aviculopecten, 262. Axinus, 272. zara, 318. Azeca, 164, Bactrites, 93. Baculites, 97. Bakewellia, 262. Balantium, 205. Balea, 166. Bankivia, 144. Batillaria, 129. Batillus, 142. Bela, 118. Belemnitella, 74. Belemnites, 73, 449. Belemnosepia, 70. Belemnosis, 77. Belemnoteuthis, 75. Bellerophon, 201. Bellerophina, 201. Belopeltis, 70. Beloptera, 76. Belosepia, 76. Beloteuthis, 70. Berthella, 187. Bezoardica, 114. Biapholius, 320. Bifrontia, 135, 462. Bipapillaria, 338. Biphora, 344. Bi-radiolites, 286. Birostrites, 286. Bithynia, 41, 138. Bittium, 127. bivalves, 8, 12, 36. body-whirl, 100. Boltenia, 338, 378. Bonellia, 126. bonnet-limpet, 152. Bontia, 321. borers, 11, 25, 39, 241. ¥ 978, 476 Bornella, 193. Bornia, 294. Borsonia, 461. Bostrychoteuthis, 449. Botrylloides, 341. Botryllus, 341. Bouchardia, 218. Bourciera, 176. brachiopoda, 7, 209, 465, Brachypus, 166. branchial, 30, 243. branchifera, 98. Brocchia, 152. Brochus, 133. Broderipia, 146. Brownia, 463. bryozoa, 354. Bucania, 201. Bucardium, 300. buccal membrane, 6. Buccinanops, 111. Buccinum, 28, 110. Buchanania, 170. Bulimulus, 164. Bulimus, 19, 54, 164. Bulin, 171. Bulla, 29, 182. Bullea, 184. Builia, 111. Bullina, 183, 366. Bullinula, 183 burrowers, 11, 25, 241. Bursatella, 186. Busiris, 186. byssal muscles, 249. Bysso-anodonta, 275. Bysso-area, 267, Byssomya, 320. byssus, 25. Cesira, 338. Calamary, 23, 69. Calear, 143. Calcarella, 463. Callicochlias, 594. Calliopza, 195. Callochiton, 157. Callopoma, 142. Calpurna, 122, 461. Calypeopsis, 152. Calyptrza, 151, Camaroceras, 88. Camarophoria, 227. INDEX. Camptoceras, 171, Campulites, 91. Campulote, 114. Campyloceras, 91. Cancellaria, 108. Canthiridus, 144. Capisterium, 313. Caprella, 164- Caprina, 288. Caprinella, 287. Caprinula, 287. Caprotina, 289. Capsa, 311, 314. Capsula, 311. capsular, 210. Capulus, 152. Carbonicola, 471. Cardiapoda, 200. Cardilia, 301. cardinal-muscles, 210. Cardinal teeth, 248. Cardinalia, 143. Cardio-cardita, 303. Cardiola, 261. Cardiomorpha, 323. Cardita, 303. Cardium, 290. Carinaria, 200, 451. Carinaroides, 200. Carocolla, 163. Carolia, 256. carrier-trochus, 15. cartilage, 247. Carychium, 174. Cassidaria, 115. Cassidula, 109, 173. Cassis, 46, 114, 452. Castalia, 275. Catantostoma, 463. Cataulus, 177. Catillus, 263. Cavolina, 194, 204. cellar-snail, 12. cellulose, 336. Cemoria, 150, Cenia, 197. centres, 350. Cepa, 255. Cepatia, 123. cephalopoda, 6, 62. cephalo-thorax, 198. Ceratisolen, 315. Ceratites, 93. Ceratodes, 139. Ceratosoma, 192. Cercomya, 321. Ceriphasia, 131. Cerithidium, 128. Cerithiopsis, 128. Cerithium, 127. Cernina, 123. Ceromya, 323. Cerophora, 199. Chena, 326. Chalidis, 197. Chama, 276. Chamostrea, 325. Cheletropis, 207. Chelidonura, 184. Cheiroteuthis, 71. Chelyosoma, 338. Chemnitzia, 126. Chenopus, 130. Chilinia, 171. Chilonopsis, 390. Chione, 304, 313. Chiorera, 465. Chironia, 295. Chiton, 31, 156. Chitonellus, 157, 458. Chlorostoma, 143. Choanopoma, 176. Chondropoma, 176. - Chondrosepia, 449. Chonetes, 235. Choristites, 223. Choristodon, 307. Chorus, 113. Chrysodomus, 109,’ chyle, 30. cilia, 32, 51, 211. Cingula, 136. Cinulia, 180. Ciona, 337. Cionella, 165. Circe, 299, circulation, 30, 198. cirri, 211. cirripeda, 5, 36. Cirroteuthis, 68. Cirrus, 148. Cistula, 176. Cistopus, 67, Cithara, 115. clam, 18. Clanculus, 144. classification, 55. Clausilia, 166. Clausina, 293. Clavagella, 326, Clavatula, 118. Clavella, 109. Clavellina, 339. Cleidophorus, 301. Cleidotherus, 325. Cleiothyris, 228. Clementia, 306. Cleobis, 302. Cleodora, 205. Clio, 208. Cliodita, 208. cliona, 42, 254. Clione, 208. Clionella, 118. cloaca, 244. Clelia, 195. Clymenia, 87. Coccoteuthis, 486. Cochlidium, 109. Cochlitoma, 165. Cochlodesma, 321. Cochlodina, 166. Cochlohydra, 164. Cockle, 12. id Codakia, 293. 2 Coleoprion, 206. Collonia, 145. colours, 46. Columbella, 116. Columbellina, 116. Columella, 27, 100. Columna, 165. Colus, 109. Cominella, 111. conchifera, 8, 240. conchioline, 451. Concholepas, 26, 113 Conchorhynchus, 81. Congeria, 266. Conoceras, 449. | Conohelix, 461. | Conorbis, 117. | Conoteuthis, 76, | Conovulus, 173. | Conularia, 206. Conus, 42, 117. | Coralliophaga, 301. Corbicula, 297. Corbis, 293. Corbula, 317. Corbulomya, 318. 4 : 477 Eledone, 35, 68. Elenchus, 16, 144. INDEX. Corephium, 157. Coret, 172. Cylindra, 120. Cylindrella, 165. Diacria, 204. Diadora, 150. Corimya, 321. Cylindrites, 180. Dianchora, 259. Elysia, 197. Coriocella, 124. Cyllene, 112. Diaphana, 183. Emarginula, 150. cornea, 22. Cymba, 37. Diazona, 342. Embila, 319. Corniculina, 133. Cymbiola, 119. Dibaphus, 461. Embletonia, 195. cowry, 4. Cymbulia, 206. dibranchiata, 62, encephala, 6. Cranchia, 70. Cymodoce, 209. Diceras, 278. endemic, 350. Crania, 236. Cynodonta, 108. Dicelosia, 229. Endoceras, 89, 90. Craspedopoma, 177. Cynthia, 338. Didacna, 291. Endosiphonites, 87. Crassatella, 299,471. Cyprea, 121. Didemnium, 341. endostyle, 334. Crassina, 299. Cyprecassis, 114, digestive, 27. Enoplochiton, 157. Enoploteuthis, 72. Crenatula, 263. Cypricardia, 300, 471. Digitaria, 299. Crenella, 52, 266,473. Cypricardites, 266, Dimya, 467. Ensatella, 315. Crepidula, 152, 458. 301. dimyaria, 26, 249. Ensis, 315. Creseis, 205. Cyprina, 14, 298. Diodonta, 310, 367. Enteletes, 230. Entodesma, 324. Enzina, 107. Eolis v. Holis. epidermis, 40. dicecious, 50. Dione, 305. Diphyllidia, 188. Dipilidia, 277. Cyprovula, 121. Cyrena, 297. Cyrenella, 298. Cyrenoides, 298. Crioceras, 95. Criopus, 236. Crucibulum, 152, ‘crura, 216. Crypta, 152. Cyrtia, 223. Diplodonta, 294, 470. epiphragm, 162. Cryptella, 168. Cyrtoceras, 91. Diplommatina, 177. epipodium, 182, 2(3. Cryptina, 272. Cyrtodaria, 320. Dipsas, 274. Epithyris, 215. Cryptoceras, 86. Cyrtolites, 201. Discina, 237. Erato, 122. Cryptochiton, 157. Cyrtulus, 109. Discites, 86, 256,450. Hrodona, 317. Cryptoconchus, 157. Cystingia, 539. Discohelix, 462. Ervilia, 313. Cryptodon, 293. Cytherea, 26,305. Discosorus, 449. Erycina, 294,304,312, Cryptopthalmus, 182. Dispotea, 152. 313. Cryptostoma, 124. Dactylus, 180. Distomus, 342. Erye, 313. crystalline stylet, 29. Dagysa, 344. dithyra, 241. Eschadites, 331. Ctenoconcha, 270. Ctenodonta, 269. Daphnella, 118. Daudebardia, 163. Ditremaria, 148. Dolabella, 186. escutcheon , 247. Etheria, v. 4. Cucullza, 268. Davidsonia, 232,466. Dolabra, 273. Eubranchus, 194. Cucullella, 269. decapoda, 68. Doliolum, 346. Eucharis, 319. Cultellus, 315. decollated, 44. Dolium, 115, 453. Eucelium, 341. Cuma, 108. Defrancia, 118. Dombeya, 171. Eudesia, 216. Cumingia, 312. Delphinoidea, 137. Donaciila, 313. Eulima, 126. Cuneus, 305, 313. Delphinula, 144. Donacina, 314. Eulimella, 126. Cuspidaria, 318. Delthyridea, 217. Donax, 313. Eumenis, 194. cuttles, 6, 11, 62. Delthyris, 223. Doridium, 184. Euomphalus, 44, 145. Cuvieria, 205. deltidium, 216. Doris, 17, 19,190. Euphemus, 201. Cyamium, 294. Dendrodoa, 338. Dorsanum, 111. °~ Euplocamus, 192. Cyathodonta, 321. Dendronotus, 193, Dosinia, 306. Eurybia, 206. Cycladina, 294. 459. Doto, 193. Eurydesma, 262. Cyclus, 20. Dendostrea, 254. Dreissena, 25, 266. Eurydice, 196. Cyclina, 306. dental formula, 248. Drillia, 118. Euthria, 107. Cycloceras, 88. Dentalium, 156. Eutropia, 143. Cyclonassa, 112. Deridobranchus, 146. Ecculiomphalus 201. Exogyra, 255. Cyclophorus,175, dermi-branch.197._ Echinospira, 463. Cyclostoma, 144, 175, desert-snail, 19. Edmondia, 323. Cyclostrema, 145. Deshayesia, 123, 461. Egeria, 313, 314. Cyclothyris, 226. Deslongchampsia486 Eglisia, 132. Cyclotus, 177. Desmoulinsia, 112. Hidothea, 184. Cylichna, 183. development, 51,161. Elasmatina, 166. falciform, 250. families, 57. Farcimen, 177. Fasciolaria, 107, 454. Fastigiella, 129. 478 Faunus, 132. | Felania, 294. Fenestrella, 255. Ferussina, 176. fibrous shells, 39. Ficula, 109. Fimbria, 193, 293- Fiona, 195. Firola, 199. Firoloides, 199. Fissirostra, 217. Fissurella, 149, 458, Fissurellidza, 150. Fistulana, 43. Flabellina, 194. foraminifera, 2. Fossarus, 135. fosset, 279. fossil bivalves, 251. Fragilia, 310. Fucola, 197. fulcrum, 210. Fulgur, 109. Fusulus, 166. Fusus, 105. Gadinia, 155, Galatea, 314. Galeomma, 296. Galerus, 152. ganglia, 21. Gari, 311. garlic-snail, 30. Gastrana, 367. Gastridium, 111. Gastrochena, 325. gastroceeli, 74. Gastroplax, 187. Gastropteron, 185. gemmation, 49. Gena, 146. genera, 57. genetic, 56. Geomalacus, 167. Geomelania, 178. Geoteuthis, 70. Geotrochus, 162. Geovula, 173. germinal vesicle, 51. Gervillia, 262. Gibbula, 144. Gibbus, 164. gizzard, 29. Glandina, 160, 459. INDEX. Glaucomya, 307. Glauconella, 182. Glauconome, 307. Glaucus, 195. Globiconcha, 181. Globulus, 123. Glossus, 300. Glottella, 131. Glycimeris, 321, 472. glycerine, 441. Gnathodon, 308. Goldfussia, 302. Gomphoceras, 80,89. Gonanbonites, 229. Gonatus, 69. Goniatites, 93. Gonioceras, 88. Goniodoris, 191. Goniomya, 322. Goniophora, 471. Goniostomus, 404. Goodallia, 299. Gouldia, 470. Grammysia, 322. Grateloupia, 306. Gressiya, 323. Gryphea, 255. Gryphochiton, 158. Gryphus, 215. guard, 73. Gundlachia, 465. gustatory, 21. gymnoglossa, 450. gymnosomata, 208. Gypidia, 227. Gyroceras, 91, 450. hemal, 335. Halia, 111. Haliotis, 146. Halobia, 262. hamiglossa, 450. Haminea, 182. Hamites, 96. Hamulina, 96. Harpa, 116. Harpula, 119. Hectocotyle, 65, 447. Hecuba, 313. Helicarion, 163. Helicella, 163. Helicerus, 449. Helicina, 144, 177. Helcion, 154. Helicoceras, 95. Heliconoides, 207. Helicocryptus, 135. Helicolimazx, 163. Helicophanta, 163. Helicophlegma, 201. FHelicostyla, 394. Helicteres, 165. Helisiga, 164. Helix, 7, 19,162. Helminthochiton, 158. Hemicardium, 291. Hemicyclonosta, 301. Hemimitra, 131. Hemipecten, 258. Hemiplacuna, 256. Hemipronites, 230. Hemisinus, 131. Hemithyris, 226. Hemitoma, 151. hepatic, 190. Hermea, 196. Heteroceras, 96. Heterofusus, 207. Hiatella, 296, 320. hinge, 248. Hinnites, 258. Hippagus, 304. Hipparionyx, 229. Hipponyx, 153, 464. Hippopodium, 303. Hippopus, 290. Hippurites, 282, 468. Hirundelia, 184. Histioteuthis, 71. histological, 56. Holopea, 463. Holopella, 462. holostomata, 34. homologies, 47. Homomya, 322. Hoplompytilus, 468. Hormoceras, 88. Hortolus, 87. Huronia, 88. Hyalea, 204. Hyalina, 120. hybernation, 48. hybrids, 56. Hydatina, 183. Hydrobia, 137. Hydrocena, 176. Hyolites, 88, Hypodema, 232. Hypogea, 315. hypo-pharyngeal, 334. Hypostoma, 163. Hypothyris, 226. Hypotrema, 263. Hyria, 274. Hyridella, 396. Tanthina, 148. Iberus, 394. Icarus, 186, Ichthyosarcolites, 288. Idalia, 192. Idotea, 293. Imbricaria, 120. Imperator, 143. Incilaria, 167. inferobranchiata 179. Infundibulum, 143, 152. Inoceramus, 263. inoperculata, 159. To, 131. Iphigenia, 314. Tridina, 275. Ischnochiton, 157. Tsidora, 171. Ismenia, 220. Tsoarca, 269. Tsocardia, 300. Isodonta, 313. Isognomon, 263. Isoleda, 473. Ttieria, 180. Jamaicia, 176. Jaminea, 126. Janella, 296. Janira, 256. Janus, 196. Jasis, 344. Jeffreysia, 137. Katharina, 157. Keleno, 75, Kellia, 294, key-hole limpet, 149. Kingena, 219. Koninekia, 231. Kraussia, 219. Labio, 144. Lachesis, 118. Lacuna, 136. Ladas, 201. Tagena, 108. Lajonkairia, 471. Lamellaria, 124. lamellibranchiata, 240. J.ampania, 128. Lampas, 215. lamp-shells, 209. land-snails, 17, 159. languettes, 339. _ Laniogerus, 195 Lanistes, 139, 266. Lasea, 294. Latona, 313. Laternula, 321. Latia, 172. Latirus, 108. Latruncuins, 111. Lavignon, 312. Leachia, 449. Leda, 269. Leguminaria, 316. Leiodomus, 111. Leiostomus, 109, Lembulus, 269. Leonia, 175. INDEX. Limapontia, 197. Macha, 316. Limatula, 258. Machera, 316. Limax, 167. Macgillivrayia, 207. Limnea, 170, 465. Maclurea, 202. Limneria, 365. Macrochilus, 127. Limopsis, 268, 468. Macrodon, 268. limpet, 15. Lincina, 176. lingual teeth, 27, 160. Linguella, 188. Lingula, 239. Linteria, 182. Liotia, 145. Listera, 312. Lithedaphus, 151. Lithidion, 175. Lithocardium, 291. Lithodomus. 42, 265. Lithoglyphus, 138. Litiopa, 136. Litorina, 134, 456. Lituites, 87. liver, 29, 190. Livona, 143. Lobaria, 184, 311. Lobiger, 186. Loligo, 6, 69, 446. Loligosepia, 70. Loligopsis, 71. Macroschisma, 150. Mactra, 308. Mactromya, 293, 312, 322, Meonia, 301. Magas, 217. Magdaila, 323. Magilus, 114. malacology, 3. Malea, 116. Malletia, 270. Malleus, 261. Mamilla, 125. Mangelia, 114. mantle, 6. Marinula, 173, Marisa, 139. Margarita, 144. Margaritana, 274. Marginella, 120. Marmerostoma, 142. Marsenia, 124. marsupium, 245. 479 Menestho, 462. Mercenaria, 304. Meretrix, 305. Merista, 224. Meroé, 305. Merria, 124. Mesalia, 132. Mesodesma, 313. mesopodium, 198. metamorphic, 40. metapodium, 193. Metoptoma, 155. metropolis, 351. mimetic, 56. Miranda, 192. Mitra,119,351. Mitrella, 120. Modiola, 265. Modiolarca, 266. Modiolaria, 266. Modiolopsis, 266. Modulus, 135. Molgula, 337. money-cowry, 121. Monilea, 143. Monocondylea, 274. Monodacna, 291. Monodonta, 144. moncecious, 90. Lepeta, 155. Lomanotus, 194, Martinia, 223. mono-myaria, 26, 249. Leptachatina, 398. loop, 210. measurements, 246. Monopleura, 277. Leptena, 231. Lophocercus, 186. Medoria, 136. Monoptygma,180, 462. Leptagonia, 230. Lophurus, 157. Megadesma, 314. mono-thalamous, 64. Leptinaria, 393. Loripes, 293. Megalodon, 301. Monotis, 262. Lepto-chiton, 157. Leptoclinum, 341. Leptoconchus, 114. Leptodomus, 322. Lepton, 24, 296. Leptopoma, 177. Leptoteuthis, 70. Leucostoma, 114. Leucotis, 124. Levenia, 114. Liarea, 176. Libitina, 300. ligament, 247. Ligula, 312, 321. Liguus, 165. Lima, 15, 258. Limacelia, 168. Limacina, 207. Limza, 258. Limanomia, 256, Lottia, 155. Loxonema, 127. Lucapina, 150. Lucidella, 178: Lucina, 292. Lucinopsis, 306, 471. Lunatia, 123. lunule, 247. Lunulo-cardium, 292. Luponia, 121. Lutraria, 309. Lutricola, 312. Lychas, 292. Lychnus, 163. Lyonsia, 323. Lyra, 217. Lyriodon, 271. Lyrodesma, 273. Lystanassa, 322. Megaloma, 177. Megalomastoma,302, Meganteris, 467. Megasiphonia, 86. Megaspira, 166. Megathyris, 220. Megerlia, 219. Meghimatium, 167. Meladomus, 139. Melafusus, 131. Melampus, 173. Melanatria, 131. Melania, 131. Melanopsis, 132. Melatoma, 131. Meleagrina, 260. Melia, 88. Melibea, 194, Melina, 263. Melo, 119. monstrosities, 40. Montacuta, 295. Montagua, 194. Mopalia, 157. Morio, 114. Morrisia, 218. Morum, 114. mother-of-pearl, 58. Mouretia. 155. Mulinia, 308. Miilleria, 276, 468. multivalves, 36. Murchisonia, 147. Murex, 106, 453. Musculium, 297. Mutela, 275. Mya, 244, 317. Myacites, 322. Myalina, 265. Myatelia, 323. Y 2 480 Mycetopus, 275, Myllita, 295. Myochama, 324. Myoconcha, 303. Myodora, 324. Myoparo, 269, 473. Myophoria, 272. Myopsis, 322. Myrina, 468. Myristica, 109. Mysia, 306. Mytilicardia, 303. Mytilimeria, 266. Mytilomya, 266. Mytilus, 53, 264. Myzxostoma, 177. Nacella, 155. nacreous, 38. naides, 273. Nanina, 163. Naranio, 307. Narica, 124. Nassa, 112. Natica, 123. Naticella, 123, 461. Naticopsis, 123. Nautiloceras, 91, 450. Nautilus, 83, 449, Navicella, 142, 458. Neera, 318. Neilo, 270. Neithea, 258. Nematura, 137. Nerea, 193. Nerinella, 129. Nerinzéa, 125. Nerita, 141. Neritina, 141. Neritoma, 141. Neritopsis, 141. nerves, 21. neural, 335. Neverita, 123. nidamental, 50. Nina, 135. Niso, 126. nomenclature, 59. Northia, 112,376. Noitarchus, 186. notoceeli, 74. Notomya, 302. Novaculina, 316. Nucinella, 269. INDEX. nucleobranchiata, 97, optic, 21. 197. orange-cowry, 16. nucleus, 36. Orbicella, 238. Nucula, 269. Orbicula, 236, 7. Nuculicardia, 473. Nuculina, 269. Nucunella, 269. nudibranches 23,188. numerical dey., 58. Obeliscus, 125, 404. Obolus, 240. oceanic-snail, 12. ocelli, 22. Odoncinetus, 321. Odontidium, 133. octopoda, 23, 64. Octopodoteuthis, 72. Octopus, 67, 448. Ocythoé, 66. Odontostomus, 164. Odostomia, 125. csophagus, 21. Oikopleura, 346, Oithona, 195. Oleacina, 165. olfactory, 21. Oligyra, 177. Oliva, 116. Olivella, 117. Olivia, 144. Omala, 310. Omalazxis, 135. Omalia, 471. Omalonyx, 164. Ommastrephes, 72. ommatophora, 22. Omphatlotropis, 176. Onchis, 169. Oncidropsis, 455. Oncidium, 169. Oncidoris, 191. Oncoceras, 90. Oniscia, 114. Onychia, 72. Onustus, 135. Onychochiton, 157. Onychoteuthis, 72. operculata, 174. operculum, 47, 102. Ophileta, 145. Opis, 302. opisthobranch, 179. Opisthoporus, 465, Orbiculoidea, 238. Orbis, 135. Orbulites, 94. Ormoceras, v. H. Orthalicus, 402. Orthambonites, 229. Orthis, 229, Orthisina, 230. Orthoceras, 88, 449. Orthonotus, 266. Orthostylus, 394. Orthothriz, 234. Oscanius, 187. Osteodesma, 321. Ostrea, 254, 281, 467. Otavia, v. Olivia. Otina, 125, 459. otolithe, 23. Otopoma, 176, 391. Otostomus, 403. oviparous, rep. 50. Owenia, 449. Oxygyrus, 201. Pachybathron, 461. Pachydomus, 302. Pachylabra, 138. Pachymya, 319. Pachyodon, 274, 302. Pachyotis, 164, 403. Pachyrisma, 302. Pachystoma, 131. Pachytes, 259. Pachytoma, 177. Pacyodon, 317. Pagodella, 134. Paleéoteuthis, 81, 417. palatal, 165. pallial, 26, 251. palliobranchiata, 209. Pallium, 258. palpi, 27. Paludestrina, 462. Paludina, 98, 138. Paludinella, 137,365. Paludomus, 131, 462. pancreas, 30. Pandocia, 338. Pandora, 324. Pandorina, 323. Panopea, 319, 351, 473. paper-sailor, 66. Paphia, 299, 306, 313. Papyridea, 290. Parascidium, 343. parietal, 165. Parmacella, 168. Parmophorus, 151. Parthenia, 126. Parthenopea, 296. Partula, 164. Pasithea, 126. Patella, 154, 459, 464. Patelloida, 155. Patina, 155. Paxillus, 166. pearls, 38. Pecchiolia, 300. Pecten, 249, 256. Pectunculina, 468. Pectunculus, 268. pedal, 249, 250. Pedalion, 263. pedicle, 209. Pedicularia, 113. Pedipes, 173. Pedum, 259. Pegea, 344, Pelagia 209. pelli-branchiata, 197. Pelonza, 338. Peloris, 254. Pelia, 164, 187. Peltella, 168, 404. Pentamerus, 227. Peplidium, 192. Peracle, 207. pericardium, 190. periostracum, 40. Periploma, 321. _ peristome, 101. periwinkle, 11. Perna, 262. Peronea, 310. Peronia, 169. Perophora, 340. Perotis, 449. Perrona v. Tomella. Persicula, 120. Persona, 107. Petaloconchus, 462. Petricola, 307. Pfeifferia, 464, Phallusia, 337. phanero-pneumona, 174. Phaneropthalmus, 182. Phanerotinus, 145. Phasianella, 143. Phasianema, 135. Pharus, 315. Philine, 184, 459. Philippia, 135, 462. Philomycus, 168. Philonexis, 68. phlebenterata, 197. Pholadomya, 322. Pholas, 328. Phorus, 135. Phos, 112. Phosphoraz, 167. phosphorescence,30. Phragmoceras, 80,90. phragmocone, 73. Phyllidia, 188. Phyllirhoa, 196. Phylloda, 310. Phyllodesmium, 194. Physa, 171. Physopsis, 171. phytophaga, 455. Pileolus, 141. Pileopsis, 152. Pinna, 38, 263. pinnigene, 264. Pinnoctopus, 67. Pirena, 132, 455. Pireneilla, 128. Pisania, 107. Pisum, 297. Pisidium, 297. Pitonillus, 177. Placobranchus, 197. Placuna, 256, 467. Placunomia, 255. Placunopsis, 256. Plagioptychus, 288, Plagiostoma, 258. Planaxis, 114. Planorbis, 41, 45. Planorbula, 465. Planulites, 94. Platyceras, 153. Platyodon, 317, 375. Platyschisma, 145. Platystoma, 462. INDEX. Platystrophia, 229. poulpe, 67. Plaxiphora, 157. Priamus, 111. Plectostylus, 405. Prisodon, 274. Plectrophorus, 168. Producta, 233. pleure, 27. Pronites, 230. Pleurobranchza, 187. Pronoé, 302. Pleurobranchidium, 187. propodium, 198. Proserpina, 160. Pleurobranchus, 187. prosobranchiata, 103. Pleurodon, 269. Pleuromya, 322. Pleurophyllidia, 188. Pleuropus, 195, 205. Pleurorhynchus, 292. Pleurotoma, 118. Pleurotomaria, 147. Plicatula, 259, 468. Plocamophorus, 192. Proto, 132. Protocardium, 292. Psammobia, 311, 472. Psammocola, 311. Psammosolen, 316. Psammotea, 310, 311. Pseud-achatina, 390. Pseudo-crania, 236. Pseudoliva, 111. Pneumodermon, 208. pseudomorphous, 40. pneumo-skeleton,35. Pstloceras, 191. Pododesmus, 255. Podopsis, 259. Polia, 315. Polinices, 123. Pollia, 107. Polycera, 191. Polyclinum, 342. Polycyclus, 341. Polydonta, 173. Polygyra, 162. Polyphemus, 165. poly-thalamous, 77. Polytremaria, 147. Polyzona, 342. Pomatias, 176. pomato-branch. 179. Pomus, 139. pond-snail, 11, 170. Pontolimazx, 197. Porambonites, 227. Porcellana, 120. porcellanous, 39. Porcellia, 201. Poromya, 319. Poronia, 294. portal-heart, 190. Posidonia, 262. Posidonomya, 262. Posterobranchza, 187. Potamides, 128. Potamomya, 318. Potamophila, 314. Poterioceras, 90. Psyche, 206. Pterinea, 262. Pteroceras, 105. Pierochilus, 195. Pterocyclus, 177. Pteronites, 262. Pteroperna, 261. pteropoda, 7, 202. Pterotrachea, 199. Ptychina, 293. Ptychoceras, 96. Ptychomya, 299. Ptygmatis, 129. Pugiunculus, 205. pulmonifera, 32, 159. Pullastra, 306. Pulvinites, 263. Punctureila, 150. Pupa, 165. Pupillia, 150. Pupina, 177. Pupinelia, 177. Purpura, 113. Purpurina, 113. Pusionella, 109. Pycnodonta, 254. Pygope, 215. Pyramidella, 125. Pyramis, 126,144,302. Pyrazus, 128. Pyrella, 109. Pyrgula, 131. Pyrosoma, 343. Pyrula, 109. 481 Pythina, 295. Pyura, 341. quinary, 58. Quoyia, 114, races, 57. rachiglossa, 450. rachis, 27. Radiolites, 285. Radsia, 157. Ranella, 107. Rangia, 308. Rapana, 109, 366. Raphistoma, 147,463. Razor-fish, 15, 316. Realta, 176. Recluzia, 463. Redonia, 471. renal, 29. Reniella, 261. representation, 56, reproduction, 49. Requienia, 279. Resania, 486. respiration,-31. retina, 22, retractor, 26, 211. Retzia, 224. reversed shells, 46. Rhegostoma, 177. Rhinodomus, 112. Rhizochilus, 461. Rhizorus, 183. Rhodope, 465. Rhodostoma, 173. Rhomboides, 320. Rhopalea, 339. rhyncholites, 81. Rhynchomya, 321. Rhynchonella, 8, 226. Rhynchora, 217. Rhynchoteuthis, 81. Ribeiria, 472. Ricinula, 114. Rimula, 150. Rimularia, 151. Ringicula, 112, 181 Ringinella, 180. ripidoglossa, 458. Risella, 135, 457. Rissoa, 136. Rissoélla, 137. Rissoina, 137. 482 river mussel, 18, 34, Sedgwickia, 322. Segmentina, 172. 274. Rivicola, 171. Roman-snail, 15. Rossia, 71. Rostellaria, 105. rostrifera, 455. Rotella, 144. Roxania, 182. Runcina, 187. Rupellaria, 307. * Rupicola, 321. Sagda, 163. Sagitta, 199. Salivary, 30 Salpa, 31, 49, 344. Sanguinolaria, 311. Sanguinolites, 266, 301, 323. sargasso sea, 361. Saxicava, 320, 354. Saxidomus, 305. Scea, 207. Scalaria, 133. Scaldia, 472. Scalites, 147. scallop, 256. Scapha, 119. Scaphander, 184. Scaphella, 119, Scaphites, 95. Scaphula, 117. Scaphula, 268, 468. Scarabus, 173. Schizochiton, 157. Schizodesma, 308. Schizodus, 272. Schizostoma, 145. Schizotreta, 238. Sciadephorus, 449. Scintilla, 470. Scissurella, 147, 463. Sclerotic, 22. Scoliostoma, 462. Sconsia, 115. Scacchia, 294. Scrobicularia, 312. Scurria, 155. Scutellina, 155. Scutus, 151. Scylleza, 12, 193. sea-hare, 15. sea-snail, 12. Semi-corbis, 293. Sepia, 76, 446, 448. Sepioteuthis, 70. Septifer, 265. Seraphs, 106. Serpulorbis, 133. Serripes, 291. shell cameos, 46. shell-opal, 16. shell-sand, 16. Sidnyum, 343. Sigaretus, 124. Sigillina, 343. Siliquaria, 133, 316. Simpulopsis, 163. Sinemuria, 302. sinupallialia, 252. Sinusigera, 207. siphonal line, 251. Siphonaria, 155, 174. Siphonium, 133. Sitphonostoma, 166. siphonostomata, 34, Siphonotreta, 238. Siphonotus, 185. Siphopatella, 152. siphuncle, 78. Solarium, 135. Solecurtoides, 315. Solecurtus, 316. Solemya, 271. Solenella, 270. Solenomya, 271. Solenopsis, 266. Soleteilina, 311. Sowerbya, 308, 472. specific, gr. 39, 73. specific names, 60. spermatozoa, 50. INDEX. Sphera, 293. Spherella, 294. Spherium, 297. Spheronites, 331. Spherulites, 285. Sphenia, 318. sphincter, 25. spicula, 25. Spinigera, 105. Spiratella, 207. Spiraxis, 464. Spirialis, 207. Spirifera, 223. Spiriferina, 223. Spirigera, 223. Spirigerina, 228. Spiroglyphus, 133. Spirula, 13, 77. Spirulirostra, 76. Spisula, 308. splanchno-skeleton, 48. Spondylobolus, 236. Spondylus, 43, 259. Spongarium, 79. Spongiobranchea, 209. sporadic, 350. squid, 69. Stalagmium, 269. Steganostoma, 177. Stenoceras, 93. Stenopus, 163. Stoastoma, 178. Stomatella, 145. Stomatia, 124, Stomatia, 147. Struparollus, 145. Streblopteria, 468. Strephona, 116. Streptaxis, 163. Streptorhynchus, 230. Strigilla, 310. Stringocephalus, 222. Strobilus, 166. Strombidia, 105. Strombus, 104; 452. Strophalosia, 234. Stropheodonta, 231, Strophomena, 230. Strophostoma, 176. Strepsidura,.109. Struthiolaria, 130, 452. Stycla, 338. Stylifer, 126. Stylina, 23, 126. Styliola, 205. Stylochilus, 465. Sub-clymenia, 87. Subula, 111. Subulina, 165, 402. Succinea, 164. Suessia, 466. Sulco-buccinum, 111. Sunetta, 305, sutures, 78, 100. Sycotypus, 109. Symphynota, 274. Syncera, 137. Syndosmya, 312. Synecium, 343. synonyms, 59. Syntethys, 340. systemic, 30. tenioglossa, 450. Tanalia, 131, 462. Tancredia, 293. Tanystoma, 464. Tapes, 306. Tebennophorus, 168. Tectaria, 134. tectibranchiata, 179. Tegula, 143. teleological, 56. Tellina, 310. Tellinides, 310. Tellinomya, 322. Temnochitus, 86. Tentaculites, 88, 205. Terebellum, 106, 132. Terebralia, 128. Terebra, 111. Terebratella, 217. Terebratula, 8, 215. Terabratulina, 216. Terebrirostra, 217. Teredo, 43. Tergipes, 195. test, 332. testacea, 36. Testacella, 13, 465. tethya, 337. tethyum, 337. Tethys, 193, 337. INDEX. 483 tetra-branchiata, 77. Triforis, 128. Tylodina, 188. Vibex, 131. Tetraplodon, 275. Trigona, 305. Typhis, 106. vibracula, 24. Teudopsis; 69. Trigonella, 226,308, Tympanostomus, 128. Vicarya, 462. Teuthis, 69. 312. Villiersia, 191. Thalassides, 302. trigonellites, 80. umbo, 37. violet-snail, 148. Thalia, 344. Trigonia, 271. umbones, 245. vitellus, 51. Thaliicera, 139. Trigonoceras, 450. Umbrella, 187,465. Vitrina, 30, 163. Theca, 205. Trigonocelia, 268. uncini, 28. Vitrinella, 463. Thecacera, 191. Trigonosemus, 217. Uncites, 225. viviparous repr. 49. Thecidium, 221. Trigonotreta , 223. Ungula, 240. Viviparus, 138. thecosomata, 204. Trigonulina, 471. Ungulina, 294. Volupia, 305. Thetis, 319. Triopa, 191. Unicardium, 293. Voluta, 119, 454. Thiara, 131. Triptera, 205. Unio, 246, 274. Volutella, 119. Thoracoceras, 449. Triton, 107, 453. Unionites, 301. Volutilithes, 119. Thyreus, 113. Tritonia, 23, 192, univalves, 36. Volva, 122. Tiara, 119. Trochalia, 129. Utriculus, 183. Volvaria, 120. Tichogonia, 266. Trochatella, 152, 178. Vulsella, 261, Tiedemannia, 206. Trochiscus, 143. Vagina, 315. Tomelia, 118. ‘Trochoceras, 87. Vaginella, 205 Waldheimia, 210, 16. Tomigerus, 163. Tonicia, 157. Torcula, 132. Torinia, 135. Tornatella, 180. Tornatellina, 166. Tornatina, 181. Torquilla, 165. Trocholites, 87. Trochotoma, 148, Trochus, 28, 143. Trophon, 109. tropical, 353. Tropidophora, 176. Tropeum, 95. Truncatella, 137, Vaginulus, 170. Valvata, 140. Vanganella, 486. Vanicoro, 124. varices, 17, 43. varieties, 57. Varigera, 181. Velates, 141. Waltonia, 220. wentle-trap, 16, 133. whelk, 13, 28, 110. worm-shell, 133, Xanthonelia, 182. Xenophorus, 135. toxiglossa, 450. Tuba, 137. Velletia, 172. Vetus, 119. Toxoceras, 95. Tudora, 176. Velutina, 124, 454, 61. Yoldia, 270, 468. Trapezium, 300, Tugonia, 317, 367. Venericardia, 303. Trematis, 238. Tunicata, 8, 331. Venerupis, 307. Zaria, 132. Tremoctopus, 65, 68. Turbinella, 108. Venilia, 195. Zellania, 466. Trichites, 264. Turbonilla, 126. ventricle, 30. Zephrina, 195, Trichocyclus, 209. Turbo, 142. Venus, 304, Zierliana, 119. Trichotropis, 108, Turrilites, 96. Verania, 72, 364. Zirfaa, 328, 455. Turritella, 132. Vermetus, 133. zoid, 336. Tricolea, 143, Turvis, 118. Veronicella, 170. Zoniies, 163. Tridacna, 290,469. Turtonia, 295. Verticordia, 304, 471. zoophaga, 452. Tridonta, 299. types, 61. Vertigo, 165. Zua, 164. Tridopsis, 163. Tylostoma, 181. Vexillaria, 346. Atractodon, Charl. v. Chrysodomus. Chilotrema, Leach, v. Carocolla. Coleoceras, Portl. v. Orthoceras. Cordieria, Roault, v. Borsonia. Cryptodon, Cony. v. Lutraria. Cypricia, Gray, v. Lutraria. Ellipsolithes, Sby. v. Goniatites. Gaimarda, Gould, v. Modiolarca. Gladius, “ Klein,” v. Rostellaria. Harpago, “‘ Klein,” v. Pteroceras. Macoma, Leach, v. Psammotea, Masza, “ Klein,” v. Turbinella. Neptunea, ‘‘ Bolten,” v. Chrysodomus. Orthostoma, Buv. v. Acteonina. Phascolicama, Val. v. Modiolarca. Polyphemopsis, Portl. v. Macrochilus, Ptychomphalus, Ag. v. Rotella. Separatista, (helicina), Gray MS. =? Sidemina, Casteln. v. Apioceras ? Spiricella, Rang, v. Pileopsis? Thyatira, Leach, v. Cryptodon. Tugali, Gr. v. Hemitoma. Vasum, “ Link,” v, Cynodonta. Xancus, “ Link,” v. Turbinella. 484, ERRATA AND ADDENDA. ERRATA AND ADDENDA. It is earnestly recommended that the corrections be made with pen and ink at the place Page s indicated. 5 The foot-prints referred to in the note, are now ascribed, by Prof. Owen to some unknown Crustaceous animal. 23 second line from bottom add “ but is more probably the seat of the olfactory sense.” 29 line 7 for “‘ communicating” read “ comminuting.” 32 lines 8 and 9 from bottom erase “in one family of tunicaries (pelo- neide).” 93 line 3 Avanides, D’Orb. (not Montf, = Aturia zie zac.) 97 Carinaria cymbium, Desh. = C. cristata, L. sp. The same correc- tion may be made at p. 200, and Pl. XIV., f. 19. 108 line 4 from below for “‘Strombus” read “ Velutina.” 109 line 20 for “ Leiotomus”’ read “ Leiostoma (bulbiformis),” 115 line 5 add “ U. States, S. Domingo.” 117 line 3 Scaphula, Sw. = Olivancillaria, D’Orb.. 121 erase lines 28—30. 125 erase line 2, see p. 461. »» line 5 erase “like Velutina;”’ see p. 459. 126 ,, 6 for “ Gray” read “ Lea, part,” see p. 462. 127 ,, 10 add “ Type L. sinuata, U. Devonian, Petherwin.” >, 9» 15 add “ Syn. Polyphemopsis, Portlock.” 128 ,, 16 for “old world only?” read “ California.” s 18 for “ Vulsella,” read “‘ Ostrea.” 131 ,, 10 for “ Eocene” read “ Wealden.” » > 28for “ Anthony” read “G. & H.,”’ see p. 462. 137 ,, 10 erase “‘ Paludestrina, D’Orb.,” see p. 462. 144 ,, 32 for “ Otavia” read “ Olivia.” 145 ,, 19 for “Eocene, Paris” read “ Type, Euomphalus Serpula, Kon. Carb. Belgium.” 153 ,, 8 from bottom, for “jaws” read “ upper jaw.” 154 ,, 16 for “tongue” read “ dental canal.” » 9 31 for “ nocturnal” read “ between tides.” 156 ,, 7 add “ France.” 228 ,, 13 for “fig. 17” read “fig. 21.” 184 ,, 15 for “Burnma, Lam.” read “Purine, Ascanius. 1772” and erase the foot-note. 237 last line for “‘ more like” read “ setose, like.” 280 line 17 erase ‘‘ Hippurite and.” ivy v v7 ERRATA AND ADDENDA. 485 Page 310 for “Dioponta” read “Gastrana,” and add “‘ Syn. Diodonta, F. & H. xzot Schum.” 311 line 1 for “ Greenland ” read “‘ Norway.” 319 ,, 8 from below, for “ Australis” read “ Natalensis.” 320 Saxicava belongs to the Gastrochenide. 321 line 6 erase “‘ Cochlodesma.”’ » 9», 80 for “ without an’’ read “ ossicle minute.” 363 Senegal; add “ Tellina lacunosa’”’ and ‘‘ Cymba olla.” 364 line 13 add “ Typhis.” 383 ,, 9 from below for ‘‘ Holsace” read “ Holstein.” 391 ,, 6 from below for “all” read “ nearly all.” 419 ,, 21 for “alterations” read “ alternations.” 450 lines 12 and 13 the terms dorsal and ventral are transposed. 457 in the figure of Rzse//a the central tooth is worn round, it should be pointed as in Litorina. Plate II. f. 14 O Ludense, Sby. 4 Ludlow-rock. Ill. f. 5 A. spinosus, Sby (ornatus, Schl. part.) V. f. 12 for “ W. America” read “ Cape.” VI. f. 4 for “ China” read “ Cuba” D’Orb. VIII. f. 23 for “Gray” read “ Lam.” XI. f. 22 for “W. Indies” read “ Cape.” XIV. f. 15 for “ verrucosa, Gmel.”’ read “ scapula, Martyn.” » 1. 82 for “tridentata, Forsk.” read “ telemus, L.”’ », transpose the numbers 46 and 47. XIX. f. 1 for “China” read “ W. Africa.” » £. 22 for “Gray” read “ Cailliaud.” XXI. f. 8 for “ Diodonta” read “ Gastrana.” » 4. 12 for “ Bahamas” read “ Peru.” » £16 for “donacium, Lam.” read “ Chilensis, D’Orb.’’ XXIJ. f. 3 for “S. America”’ read “ Penang.”’ XXIV. for “ Bortyiide” read “ Botryllide.” » 1. 1 for “tubulosa, Rathke’’ read “ arenosa, A. & H.” Alaria, Morris and Lycett, 1851. Hz. Rostellaria trifida, Ph. Shell like Aporrhais (p. 129) but having no channelled process of the lip extending up the spire. In most species the expanded lip is repeated, as in Cerithium, or produced periodically, as in Ranella and Spinigera. Fossil in the Oolites ; the species are very numerous. Amberlya (nodosa) M. & L. 1851. Gt. Oolite, Minchinhampton. Re- sembling Yectaria (p. 134) but slightly notched in front like Purpurina. Anaulus (bombycinus) Pfr, 1855, Sarawak, Borneo, Shell like Mega- 486 ERRATA AND ADDENDA. | lomastoma, with a small tubular orifice at the suture leading into the body- — whirl at a little distance from the aperture. 4. Lorraini is found at Penang. Brachytrema (Buvignieri) M. & L. 1854. Gt. Oolite, Minchinhampton. Shell turbinated, whirls ornamented, columella twisted, canal short and oblique. Fossz/, 10 sp. Oolites. Ceritella (acuta) M. & L. 2851. Gt. Oolite, Minchinhampton. Shell turreted, acute, last whirl large, canal short. (= Rissoina, D’Orb. part.) Fossil 9 sp. Coccoteuthis, (latipinnis) Owen, 1855, Geol. Journ. XI., pl. VIL., p. 124 = Geoteuthis, part. Pen rather calcarious, rounded in front, lateral wings small. Kim. Clay and Oxford Clay, S. of England. Corbicella (Bathonica) M. & L. 1855. Gt. Oolite, Minchinhampton, oval, smooth, posterior side elongated ; anterior lateral teeth wanting. Fossz/ 6 sp. Oolites. Crossostoma (Prattii) M. & L. 1851. Gt. Oolite, Minchinhampton. v. Liotia. Columella toothed when young, concealed by callus in the adult. Deslongcnampsia (Eugenei) Me Coy, MS. in M. & L. 1851, Great Oolite, Minchinhampton — Hemitoma, p. 151. Diastoma, Desh. 1849 = Melania costellata, Lam. Luspira, Ag. 1837. A subgenus of Natica, with angular whirls, Fosse Oolites. Quenstedtia (oblita) M, & L. 1855. Gt. Oolite, Minchinhampton. Like Psammobia; pallial sinus small; ligament in a narrow groove; cardinal teeth 0. 1. Resania (lanceolata) Gray 1853, An. N. H. p. 43, (same shell as Vanga- nella Taylort, Gray, An. N. H. 1853, p. 475). New Zealand = Lutraria, subgenus, p. 309. . Fossil land-shells of Madeira, p.387. Of the eleven species now common to Madeira and P. Santo, only two (Helix paupercula, and H. compacta) occur fossi/ in both islands. And of the species now peculiar to oue island, two occur fossil in both, viz. Helix spherula of P. Santo, and Cyclostoma lucidum of Madeira. (Wollaston). LONDON: PRINTED BY W. OSTELL, HART STREET, BLOOMSBURY. 5 ~ ae mel ae | eee ee ye ie : |. =) \ddmete Gy, Nuala J Y IL) Aleutian | Maden ! Bere ie es —— oy bs saa ; ~ “40 /// jaacidorrus > Ih y Y/ ee (PPR. ele TS i 2 Hahotis { ‘ 4 me 12 Californian antic Feria’. / (Sigar dus = \ Coras Ohi | Gerais Ges os ‘SPhoras Trochita Dispotea Fy 14 Peruvian Ganingrax MOLLUSCAN PROVINCES 1 to 27 Land Frovinces \ to 18 Marine Provinces — Oceanic Garants——-Mountains ~ alo E alo 8 \ es TU Lown te. Londom John Te Tho thorn 1856. a | a i re | € Pa as Woodward. o mA : he Ait Wty a Mj 1 y ‘i ——— | |) ew Londow, Toh Weale 1851. SPWocvdward. . London, John Weale 1851 . | ee ivi I —~ rea iwien ae J.WLowrv fe. mat | ‘e Fi I Anyi { i \, a nn i na! ; Hau \ Le X S.P.Wo Woodward. : : Londen, Jcehn Weale 18. Z. TWihowry 4é JW. Lowry S S us| S NS Ss L 3 LS = a ane 2, Li € eal, Tin Wt S & AS S S 7. fi SLWood. wal e 95 j SN, Low7n' fe. W- Woodward. fs Bud Be SPMoodw ard. Zondon, Joh Weale, JB8l. TWLOUTY. 1é SP Woodward London, John Weale, 1841. JH ‘Lowry Je. Lendow, John Weale 1851 | ‘SP Woodward 7 WLlowry fi SSS IWLowry fc BY 4 Woedward. Tr. i dwar 1, Lendon.,Joha Weale 1651. of WLeowrs ’ fu. SP Woodward SP Woodward. — London, John Weale 18.54. TU Lowry 70. Zz it i} | i Sill LUN, bo ~ ays a nena EARNED pops NAD Mane aD) AR \ \ 3 Zs = Z z 5A AAA MA (litt eb GSX Hype i it ii | | SP.Woodwarad , L854. , f } ks : J.WLo wry fo. r ty Be { a \ a ai iat Scesestemants tam | Ht} il | i hy | SP Woodward. London, John Weatle, 1554. TW. Lowry fe. SPL. Woodward. Londo, Soha Weale 1854. SP. Woodward. Londow, Jota Weate 1354. TW. Lowry Je. if iH ati Hi, » To. Lowry | ° 3 G54. Tol Weale, 18 Lonidow, SPWocdward. ak Sy AS 7 ————— RSS = =, Tan’ PES 1 HN | “TN London,Johi Weale 1654. SW Lonryv "ind A tN iN ae tye.) Ap 4% a ate. ffi iil = London, John Weale IB54» ~ JI Whowry fe- te I aa > Londow, Jolav Weale, 154. IW. Lowry Ze. Ss SP. Woedward hendon, Johw Weale, 1854. TW Lowry fe. TT C(t) 3 fy ~ } ‘ y | ee London, Johw Weale, 1854. IW Lowry fe ; f LWoodward. : MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. T EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. The principal specimens figured were kindly communicated by Mrs. J. E. Gray, Mr. Hugh Cuming, Major W. EH. Baker, Mr. Laidlay of Cal- “cutta, Mr. Pickering, Sir Chas. Lyell, Mr. Sylvanus Hanley, Mr. James Tennant, and Mr. Lovell Reeve. The fractions shew the number of times (or diameters) the figures are reduced, or magnified. PLATE I. Octopodide. pice 1. Octopus tuberculatus, Bl. 2. Mediterranean .................0.cceee nee 67 Fo. PR MPAIGIES) «0s urns taeca onde wvasece mindon ca denen aaah eant atte 62 8. Tremoctopus violaceus, 6. Chiaje. Messina ..........06....00+.,65, 68 Teuthide. 4. Sepiola oceanica, Orb. Atlantic iss a DUID kl «ih jie 6. Loligo vulgaris, Lam. (gladius). 3. Britain ......cccereereeeeeee 69 7. Onychoteuthis Bartlingii, Le Sueur. 4. Indian Ocean............... 72 8. Se ( QURMIR TE os east wis syado sohipivek enue Dey aveciavaes 72 Sepiade. Remeeereiperiatis, Ly, 2. RII... cicsecssscsesceesesersuees ets conecainnn 76 Spirulide. Se Spirula levis, Gray. 3. New Zealand ...........ccsseesseeseresneerees 17 ie 7) Or fC Seto 14. . Argonauta hians, Solander, 3. China _ Beloteuthis subcostata, Miinst. 2. U. Lias, Wurtemberg _ Belemnitella mucronata, Sby. 3. U. Chalk, Norwich . Sepia Orbigniana, Fér. 3. Mediterranean 4 4. 7. Beloptera belemnitoides, Bl. Z. Eocene, Sussex MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. « PLATE II. Argonautida. cece etceemeccn see ces ab su ts «res e10 eae Teuthide. Belemunitide. . Belemnites Puzosianus, Orb. 2. Oxford Clay, Chippenham Pe Conoteuthis Dupiniana, Orb. Neocomian, France Seprade. reer We en a _ —— (Belosepia) sepioides, Bl. 3. Eocene, Sussex ............--- +++ . Spirulirostra Bellardii, Orb. Miocene, Turin... ,2.2.- sme Pare a Oe Nautihde. . Nautilus radiatus, Sby. 3. Neocomian, Kent .........seeseeeeeeee ees bidorsatus, Schl. (upper mandible = Rhyncholites hirundo, F. Biguet.) 2. Muschelkalk, Bavaria............---...++ (Aturia) zic-zac, Sby. Eocene, Highgate ................: . Clymenia striata, Miinst. Devonian, S. Petherwin ... :/..a.eautees Orthoceratide. Orthoceras gigantum, Sby. (section.) gy. Carb. limestone, Britain . Phragmoceras ventricosum, Stein. 3. L. Ludlow-rock, Salop ...... 13. Gyroceras eifeliense, Arch. (section.) 4. Devonian, Eifel............ SO gta oR oo PO MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. [2 PLATE III. Ammonitide. PAGE . Goniatites Henslowi, Sby. 4. Carb. limestone, Isle of Man ...... 93 . Ceratites nodosus, Brug. 2. Muschel-kalk, Wurtemburg ......... 93 . Ammonites planulatus, Sby. 3. Chalk-marl, Sussex ... ........... 94 rhotomagensis, Brongn. 3. Chalk-marl, Sussex ...... 94 — Jason, Reinecke. 3. Oxford clay, Chippenham......... 94 bifrons, Brug. , 4.,/laas;. Whitby, | cas iomsaewdewascumnons « 94 — bisulcatus, Brug. 4. lias, Lyme Regis..............0006 94. . Crioceras cristatum, Orb. 2. Gault, Sie Wirainice ass Siamcancueenean 95 . Scaphites zqualis, Sby. 2. Chalk-marl, Sussex ........ Le re 95 . Ancyloceras spinigerum, Sby. 2. Gault, Folkstone .................. 95 . Helicoceras rotundum, Sby. Gault, Folkestone ...........0....00008 95 . Toxoceras annulare, Orb. 4. Neocomian, S. France ............... 95 | Bacalites.anceps, Lam... 3.' Chalk, Brance? ..4...c..dsecescsvsae credles 97 . Ptychoceras Emericianum, Orb. 2. Neocomian, S. France ...... 96 . Hamites attenuatus, Sby. 3. Gault, Folkstone ..........c...ssee0e 96 . Turrilites costatus, Lam. 3. Chalk-marl, Sussex ..... ide haa 96 PLATE IV. Strombide. 1, Strombus pugilis, L. 3. W. ENGIES ©. oe)nv acd ice eee eee 2. —— Bartonensis, Sby. Hocene, Hants...............:..000 3, Pteroceras lambis, L. 3. Chima..........ce-e seer eee eens eens 4. Rostellaria curta, Sby. Karachee: crsaehevce sean 208 46, Pueumodermon violaceum, D’Orb.. 2. S. Atlagiie, .oo2.sepeeee 208 47. Spongio-branchiea australis, D’Orb. 2. S. Atlantic, Falkland Ids. 209 48. ‘Trichocyclus Dumerilii, Esch. 49. South Seas ...........ccsecer ees 209 49. Velaziavalba, Q. and)G. -Amboina |>....2.02;/...aas\¢aenene eee 209 50. Cyimodocea diaphana, D’Orb. Atlantic... 0.00.0... ce seeeeeseneee peewee 209 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA, MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. PLATE XV. All, except those marked *, are dorsal views. Terebratulide. . Terebratula maxillata, Sby. 4. Bath Oolite, England ............ grays, FoOol" s. Alpenkalk) Tyrol’ ...i..00:.-s¢aee . Terebratulina cuput-serpentis, L. Norway — Medit ............... . Waldheimia australis, Quoy. 2. Port Jackson ..................0.. ———_ impressa, Buch. Oxford clay, England.................. . Lyra Meadi, Cumb. 1816. 4%. U. Green-sand, England............ . Terebratella Magellanica, Chemn. 2. Cape Horn.................. . Trigonosemus Palissii, Woodw. Chalk, Belgium ..................... peemrererin truncata, Lam. 2. Medit. i... sosnsscish yencemaniec ons sum anime 70) Argiope decollata. Chemn. 2. Medit ..2.....,.26cccccesevecssenceeegy 11. Thecidium radians, Brongn. Chalk, Belgium .-...................65 12.*———_ hieroglyphicum, Defr. (interior.) Chalk, Belgium ...... 13. Stringocephalus Burtini, Defr. var. 3. Devonian, Europe......... Spiriferide. ie opituera Walcotti, Sby. 3.. Taas Bath... sij.es.3- action apie 15. Cyrtia exporrecta, Wahl. U. Silurian, Hurope..... ............-.000 16. Athyris lamellosa, Lév. 4. Carb. limestone, N. Amer. — Europe 17. Uncites gryphus, Schl. 4%. Devonian, Belgium ..................005 Rhynchonellida, 18.*Rhynchonella acuta, Sby. 2 Lias, Hurope ...........ccccese cerns 19. jarciata, Buch.) Lias, Murope')\:..0)028 42.205 coca 20. spinosa, Schl. 2. Inf. Oolite, Hurope ............... 21. Atrypa reticularis, L. sp. 4. Sil.-Devon. N. Amer. — Europe ... 22. Pentamerus Knightii, Sby. 3. °U.Silurian..........0.02¢.0cecacabaes ' Orthide. 23. Orthis rustica, J. Sby. 2. U. Silurian, Europe ...............0:.04. 24.*Strophomena rhomboidalis, Wahl. 2. U. Silurian, N. Amer. — 2 Rr iC Oh BOO er a a SC Beariariepey a Ae br eR reins 23. Lepteena liassina, Bouch. 2. Lias, Hurope...............s.seeeeee ees 26. Calceola sandalina, Lam. 4%. Devonian, Hurope................:00+ Productide. 27. Producta horrida, J.Sby. 4. Magn. limestone, Europe............ 28.* proboscidea, Vern. 4}. Carb. limestone, Belgium......... 29. Chonetes striatella, Dalm. U. Silurian, Hurope ......... sees ‘sisi Craniade. 80. Crania Ignabergensis, Retz, Chalk, Sweden ~........0 cc seeeerees es Discinide. 31. Discina lamellosa, Brod. 3. Peru ..........006 AGN. «elite Leite Lingulide. wo eH COs & OC BR CO 32. Lingula anatina, Lam. 4. Philippines ..........seeeeeeeeeeseeew eens : PAGE 215 215 216 216 216 217 217 217 219 220 221 221 222 223 223 224 225 226 226 226 227 235 16 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA, PLATE XVI. Ostreide. PAGE 1. Ostrea diluviana, Gmelin. 3. Chalk-mar], Brit.................0.05 254 2. (£xogyra) conica, Sby. 2. U. Green-sand, Wilts ......... 255 3. Anomia Acheeus, Gray. 2. Kurachee, Scinde ...........:ccecceees 255 4 Placunomia macroschisma, Desh. 3. California............-c0.se00e 255 ®: Placuna-sella;-Gm.‘sp:-2. China) .i0..0.01.d..c0es esse 256 6. placenta, fi. (young.):N. Australia... )..'... .s. CHINA) 5 5. 25 0:0..6..0is> aonmegee an eanks sean 258 9. —— (Hemi-pecten) Forbesianus, Ad. 2. Sooloo Sea, 14 fms.... 258 10° —— (Hinuites) pusio, Pen.» Bag Grit... ..c......00enae eee teen 258 1. Lima squamosa, Lam:--4. “Clima... s.0..20..c.0ds. nes sone en 258 12 (Plagiostoma) cardiiformis, Sby. Bath Oolite, Brit. ......... 258 13. —— (Limatula) sub-auriculata, Mont. Brit. 0.0... 0.0... ceeeeeeee ees 258 14. —— (Limea) strigilata, Brocchi sp. Pliocene, Italy ............... 258 15. Spondylus princeps, Gmel. §. Sookoo Sea .......ccssesceceeeeeeceees 259 16. (Pedum) spondyloides, Gml. 2. Red Sea ............... 259 wy? Plicatulaccristata;Zam.\\2.) W. Indies 20.660) 08 are ee 259 Aviculide. 18. Avienla hirundo, L. 3. ;Medit. ....:....cc0-+-.:ss-d-ancestaeeeee anneal 19 (Meleagrina) margaritifera, L. sp. 4. Ceylon ............ 260 20 (Maileus) vulgaris, Lam. +4. China ..........2.sseeceseeces 261 21 (Vulselia) lingulata, Lam, 3. Red Sea...... ......ceccseee 261 22. Posidonomya Becheri, Bronn. Carb. Hesse, Brit. ..............0008 262 23. Pinna squamosa, Lam. “34;. Medit.... <....csn0+qooscas + ssseseeeeeeene 263 24, Crenatula viridis, Lam. 3. Chinese Seas ...........cscecssencessees 263 a,a adductor impressions. p, pedal muscles. g, suspensors of the gills. 6, byssal foramen or notch. MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. 14 PLATE XVII. * The figutes marked are left valves ; (interiors). Aviculide. PAGE i; Gervyillia anceps, Desh. 2. Neocomian; Brit. .............0+.0se0 262 Peencraepiippitttiels, $. Windies. ))...;...00vcnnnasavaneeesesensan 263 Seetnoceramus sulcatus, Park. #%. Gault; Brit..........ccqsscer:ascmeeas 263 Uytilide. apes smaracdinus; Chemn. 4., India. ......scpscsncendasnsqene 264: 5. Modiola tulipa, Lam. 4%. Brit....... Hisense san th = ig: Neca team 265 6. pelasica, Worbes.'\%. S. Atlantic. .....0.ssnedpeasnaaiel 266 iP Boropieare Bi Wed yh... sien. cote onne semanas aigeeeene 265 8. Crenella discors, L. Brit. Ror oat ay eS, 266 9. Drewsena polymorpha, Pallas. 3. Brit. .......sccccescssesnsewees 266 Arcade. Memes standges Va 30°" AtStralia. Jace ceceacedas seen: evedeved so awemmnd 267 ar. Pe OMY. ee Os CAP OUMN, sah cu tay ceups uses dale 267 fee (gesb-dred) Now, DL. 2.. Medi.” 0.61. .cecssscates case sed 267 ey nebed. Swe s. TAmstralia. ..o.aiccccesn dicks 267 i Cueulles coneamerata, Martini. *“>: ° India j...0.......ccceseseeces 268 15. Macrodon Hirsonensis, D’Arch. sp. 4. . Bath Oolite, Brit. ...... 268 16.* Pectunculus pectiniformis, Lam... 3.°) Enda.” .i2155..2d0isds +e reer'ee 268 17.*lamopsis aurita, Broc. sp. Crag, Suffolk ....0........cseceraneneeee 268 18. Nucula Cobboldie, Sby. #4. Crag, Norwich .........cecscseccess 269 19.*Nuculina miliaris, Desh. 4. Hocene, Paris .........scescecsseoeees 269 oon Leda Caudata; Donmove:: Brits 1. ri. cGiececey caccce ccesccaccectecoseccus 260 21.* (Yoldia) myalis, Couthouy. 3. Crag, Norwich ............ 270 22.*Solenella Norrisii, G. Sby. 2. Valparaiso. .........seescerecoegess 200 23. —ornata, G. Sby. sp. 2. Miocene, Patagonia ....... — 270 Trigoniade. | oa eeremmia, cstata, Park. $7" Oolite, Brvb. ...i....scaevsansssingeactss 271 25. Myophoria decussata, Miinst. sp. ‘Prtasy S yrols lc. cssncets tee 272 26. Verticordia cardiiformis, Wood. 3.. Crag, Suffolk 1.0... 0.0.0... 304. 1s MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. PLATE XVIII. * The figures marked are /e/¢ valves. Unionide. 1. Unio litoralis, Drap. 4%. Auvergne 2, 3. Castalia ambigua, Lam. $. R. Amazon 4. Hyria syrmatophora, Gronov. %. 8S. Americat Cee eer eer ert seeresseteeseee oes (Monocondylea) Paraguayanus, D’Orb. 3. S. America... 2. Lridina exotica, Lam, }. Adriea; R.. Nale\....cccgshja ces Cee 6. Mycetopus soleniformis, D’Orb. 3. 8S. America, R. Parana 7. Aitheria semilunata, Lam. 34. Senegal Chamide, §. Chama macrophylla, Chemn. 3. Antilles .........:cccseeeeeee 9 Le fl VALUE ore canvas scaecegescouesnsapacetamnnenee 10. Diceras arietinum, Lam. 4. Coral-Oolite, France ............ at. BOF OUNBE sn insintnians nats .2 50.0280. finensstesees soe 304 S. Gyrnerea dione, beg. W.. Indies <..s22. s.ceegesancqeu cee 305 9. ———- (Werée) picta, Schum. §. China ............ cece eeeens 305 10. ———- (Zrigona) tripla, L. 3. W. Afriea........0000.0000.8 305 11. ——~-— (Grateloupia) irregularis, Baster. 3. Miocene, Bordeaux 326 i? cArtemis-exoleta. Ts. - $s WBrilie., 5... ccebh sae devine x 0aeeee ee 396 13, Imemopsis undata, Pennant sp. Brit... .catp. .55.-..3.. aceon ele 326 Ta: *Fapes:pullastra; Woods 3. Brit. 3280s sateeress. ss chee 326 15 Venernpis exotica, Lam. N. Australia ..52.:.cqscocsenss00 see een 327 16, Petricola lithophaga; Retz.) Medits © ...i0.cscsewasfodeese ites coal 327 17: — pholadiformis, Lam. °2.. New York «.::....2.{s.a0-2eem 327 18) “Glgncomya.Chinensis, Gray, .: China? ./.....0. sais cit eeieene 327 19. Capsula rugosa, Lam. sp. 3. N. Australia ...............ccceee eee 311 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. PILATE XX. (All the zzteriors are right valves.) MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA. 21 5 PLATE XXI. (All the interiors are right valves.) Mactride. PAGE Seemeaeira cinitoriye, Ly $2. Bit. ico.i. cece. soc es oeecsee een 308 2. Gnathodon cuneatus, Gray. %. New Orleans «....2............000 308 Bee lmrana: oblonga; Giiel** 4.- Brit.. 5202.02 309 4, Crassatella ponderosa, Gmel. sp. Bec CA MSt alia.