LIBRARY

OF THE

University of California.

Gl FT OF

u^.S. ^:).-.-.Cu

Class

&

^'^^

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY - BULLETIN NO. 70.

H. W. WILEY, Chief of Btjreait

MANUFACTURE

OF

TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

1?Y

H. AV^. AVILEY.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1902.

'Vmi'mm

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY— BULLETIN NO. 70.

H. \V. WIl.KV, Chief OK Bureau.

MANUFACTURE

OB-

TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

BY

H. ^V. A\^ILE^S^,

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
19 0 2.

9

1^

\

\

X

<^

LIHTF.R OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Chemistry,
Washington, I). C, July 1, 1902.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript tor a
bnlletin on the mannfacture of sirnps from su^ar cane. Tliis bnlletin
has been prepared as a resnlt of my jjersonal inspection of the growtli
of sngar cane and the manufacture of sirui) tlierefrom in Georgia,
undertal\;en by your special direction.

I recommend tliat this manuscript be published as Bulletin No. 70
of the Bureau of Chemistry.

Respectfully, II. W. Wiley,

Chief.
lion, James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.
2

CONTENTS.

Page.

Inspection ( )f ( xeorgia sugar-cane fields and sirup factories 5

Address on " Cane and cassava culture in Florida," by H. W. Wiley __ 9

The soil ' 11

Notes on the soils 12

Collection of the samples 15

Analyses of soils 15

Notes on soil analyses 19

Analyses of sugar canes i 31

Alabama 23

Florida 23

Georgia 24

Soiith Carolina 36

Notes on the analyses . 27

Arrangement of a sirup factory 38

Problems which need further study 39

3

1G4332

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

Plate I. Fig. 1. Cane field of J. T. Wells, Giiyton, Ga.— Fig. 2. Evapora-
tor of J. T. Wells. Guyton, Ga

II. Fig. 1. Sirup factory of J. T. Wells, Guyton, Ga.— Fig. 2. Sirup
factory of E. E. Foy, Egypt. Ga

III. Fig. 1. Pigpens at E. E. Foy"s factory, Egypt. Ga. — Fig. 2. Cane

field of T. J. James, Adrian , Ga

IV. Fig. 1. Cane field of Will McRee. Kinderlou, Ga.— Fig. 2. Cane

from Will McRee "s field. Kinderlou, Ga

V. Fig. 1. Field of cassava on McRee "s plantation. Kinderlou, Ga. —

Fig. 2. J. B. Wight's cane-sirtip factory, Cairo. Ga

VI. Fig. 1. Georgia sugar canes at Waycross, Ga. — Fig. 2. Mr.

Hatcher's sirup mill near Waycross, Ga

VII. Fig. I. Method of feeding cane in Mr. Hatcher's mill. — Fig. 2.

Method of feeding cane in Mr. Hatcher's mill, second view. ___

VIII. Fig. 1. Evaporator in Mr. Hatcher's mill. — Fig. 2. Furnace in

Mr. Hatcher's mill

IX. Factory of E. A. Vanlandinghaiu, near Cairo, Ga

X. Factory of William Lomax, near Cairo. Ga

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1 . Siriip factory, ground floor, sketch plan

2. Sirup factory, second story, sketch plan. .

4

Page.

12

12

20

20
20
20

29
30

MANUFACTURE OF TABLE SIRUPS FII()3I SUGAR CANE.

INSPECTION OF GEORGIA SUGAR-CANE FIELDS AND SIRUP

FACTORIES.

Since the introclnction of sugar cane into the United States over a
hundred j'ears ago its cultivation for the purpose of manufacturing
table sirups has been extended until it is now practiced over large
areas of southern Texas, nearly the whole of the Slate of Louisiana,
poi-tions of southern Mississippi and Alabama, the southern part of
Georgia and South Carolina, and over the whole extent of Florida.

Nearly all of the methods which have been emijloyed for this pur-
pose have been of a crude nature and involve no accurate knowledge
of the character of the cane employed, the amount of sugar which it
contained, or the chemical composition of the product secured. Very
few manufacturers have measuicd the land on which the cane was
grown, weighed the cane pi-oduced, or determined tlie percentage of
extraction in the mills employed or the yield per ton and acre of the
sirup secured.

The quality of the product made has usually been of high character,
and the appreciation of its value for the breakfast tabhMind for cook-
ing pui-poses has gradually grown until it is now a recognized food
product throughout the whole of the region mentioned and in many
other parts of the Union to which it has l)een sent. So great has
become the demand for this wholesome, palatable, and nutritious
article of diet that in the past few years manufacturing establish-
ments have been erected on a much more elaborate scale and under
much more rigid control than heretofore. The old-fashioned mule
mill and iron kettle have given way to the steam mill and steam
evaporator. Imijroved methods of the treatment of the juice have
been practiced, and attempts have been made to secure an article of
standard quality and properties. Merchants desire to handle a uni-
form grade of sirup, so that when its value is once established thej^
can meet the demands of their customers for this particular kind.

One of the greatest difficulties, from a cominercuil point of view,
with which the table sirup industry in the South has to contend is
this lack of uniformity. This, coupled with the tendency of the sirup
to ferment in warm weather, has i-estricled its markets to a rather
limited area. An additional difficulty which these sirups find on the

5

6 MANUFACTURE OF TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUCIAR CANE.

market is the fact that our grocery stores are stocked with artificial
sirups; that is, those made of mixtures of various kinds in Avhich glu-
cose is one of the essential ingredients. There should, be no restric-
tion of the legitimate trade in mixed articles of wholesome food, but
when they are sold under names which are misleading, an injury of a
serious character is done to products which are truly representative
in name and character. There can be no valid objection to the sale
of mixed table sirups of any kind, provided they contain no injui'ious
ingi-edient, but theii- sale as maple, sugar-cane, or sorghum sirup
manifestly works an injury to a legitimate trade in the genuine
articles.

Cliiefly tlirough the representations of Capt. D. G. I*urse, president
of the Savannah Board of Trade, the U. S. Department of Agriculture
has become intere.sted. in tlie develoimient of the table-sirup industry in
the Soutli. In Noveml)er, 1901, the wi-iter made a visit to some of the
principal centers of this industry to study the conditions existing and
to confer with manufacturers in regard to the im^jrovements and tlie
investigations which the Department of Agriculture might undertake
to the advantage not only of tlie pi-oducers but of the consumers of
this important product as well. Starting from Savannah on Novem-
ber 18, visits were made to various points on the Central Railroad
of Georgia. Tlie morning was cold and frosty, and the cane Avhich
had been exposed was found frozen. Icicles Avere noticed in many
localities. The excursion was conducted by the land and industrial
agent of the Georgia Central Railroad.

'J'he first visit was made to the steam factory of Mr. J. G. Wells, of
Guj^ton, which was found well equipped and conveniently arranged
for economy in handling thc^ raw material and the finished product.
The character of the cane grown by Mr. Wells is shown in PI. I, fig. 1,
representing one of tlie fields near the factory. The arrangement of
the ev^aporating apjiaratus, which was a self-skimmer, is shown in PI.
I, fig. 2.

The ingenious arrangement of this skimming appliance secured a
very pure and bright finished article, and at the same time the scums
were i-emoved without an^^ notable loss of sirup. A general view of
the factory, from which can be seen the neatness and strength of the
structure, is shown in PL II, fig. 1.

The next locality visited was the factory of Mr. E. E. Foy, at
Egypt. A general view of Mr. Foy's factory is given in 1*1. II, fig. 2.
Mr. Foy makes a specialty of feeding the skimmings and other
waste j)roducts to pigs. The arrangement of his pigpens is shown
in PI. Ill, fig. 1. The well-known fattening properties of skimmings
was illustrated in a striking manner l)y the sleek and rot und condi-
tion of the pigs being fed.

The next factory visited was that of Capt. Thomas J. James, of
Adrian. Captain James had one of the most extensive cane fields

CANE FIELDS AND SIRUP FACTOEIES.

seen in Sontliern Georgia. A striking illustration of the luxuriant
growth of the cane is given in PI. Ill, fig. 2. Captain James has a
large factory operated by steam.

In addition to the cane fields the plantation of Mr. J. W. Olliff, at
Statesboro, was also inspected. At the time of the inspection of this
region the sirup canii)aign was not completed in many localities, and
largequantitiesof cane were still in the fields. An interesting question
was raised at once in regard to the effect of the severe cold then pre-
vailing on the cane itself. In most places tlie cane is either windrowed
or cut and piled in bulk and protected by the leaves and tojis. In
these instances the cane w^as not frozen, and there was no question in
regard to its preservation until the end of the manufacturing season.
The cutting of the cane in this way is not injurious to the i^roduct, as
would be the case if sugar making were practiced, since one difficulty
whicli attends the siruiJ industry in Georgia is the tendency of the
finished product to crystallize and thus decrease its value on the
market. Keeping the cane windrowed or in heaps for some time
after cutting will afford the opportunity for the inversion of a part of
the cane sugar, thus diminishing the tendency to crystallization in
the linished product without diminishing the amount of the product
oi- impairing its quality.

On the 19th of November an inspection of the caius lields and fac-
tories in the southern part of Georgia, near the Florida line, w-as accom-
plished. In addition to Captain Purse, the x>art3^ included Mr. James
Menzies, general freight agent of the Plant System, Mr. C. B. Rob-
erts, and Mr. D. F. Kirkland, superintendent of the third division of
the Plant System. At Waycross the train was met by Mr. W. AV.
Sharpe, Mr. G. R. Youmans, and Mr. J. W. Greer, who urged that a
visit be made to the cane fields near that cit}', but the itinerary
already arranged would not allow a stop-over at that time.

At Valdosta the inspecting party was welcomed by Mr. J. G. Craw-
ford; Mr. J. M. Wilkinson, president of the Valdosta Southern Rail-
road; Mr. Brantley, editor of the Valdosta Times; Mr. Will McRee,
Mr. William Roberts, Col. Ben Jones, and other citizens.

At Kindcrlou an inspection w^as made of the farm and factory of
Mr. McRee. Here some of the best illustrations of the intensive culture
of sugar cane were found. An excelh^nt idea of the luxuriant char-
acter of the cane grown at Kinderlou is shown in PI. IV, figs. 1 and 2.

A most interesting incident of the visit to Kinderlou was an inspec-
tion of one of the cassava fields on the plantation. The growth of the
cassava was of the most luxuriant kind, and although the leaves had
been frosted, it still presented a most attractive appearance, as is
shown in PI. V, fig. 1.

The purple variety of cane was the one chiefly grown on ]Mr,
McRee's plantation. Some of the cut stalks alread}' in the mill
measured over 8 feet in length and AVi^ighed from 4 to G pounds.

8 MANUFACTURE OF TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

Althong'h no weighings were made of measured portions, it was evi-
dent to all familiar with cane fields and the yields which they give
that the field of cane showii in PI. IV, fig. 1, would yield from 25 to
30 tons per acre. Mr. McRee estimated that his crop would yield an
average of 850 gallons of sirup per acre. lie had 5G acres in cane,
all of which was devoted to siruj) making. The fertilizer which he
used was a complete one, composed of potash, cotton-seed meal, and
acid phosphate, and of this mixture the amount usually applied is
from SOd to 1,000 pounds to the acre. On new land, however, the
quantity of this material is corresjiondingly diminished.

This part of Georgia appears to be practically the center of the
cane-sirup industry, and, judging by what has been accomplished by
Mr. McRee, there is no limit to the extent of the industry save the
capacity of the market to be supplied.

The Georgia Land and Improvement Company is said to have
options on over 400,000 acres of land in Clinch C/Ounty, which will be
utilized for the establishment of a cattle industr}^ and for raising cane.

At Quitman the party was taken in charge by Judge Joseph Till-
man and Mr. W. A. Davis. The board of trade was visited and a
large number of the citizens of Quitman were presented to the pai'ty.
W. A. Davis & Co., of Quitman, sell about 3,500 barrels of sirup a
3^ear. Until a few years ago the market was restricted to Georgia,
but it now extends from Massachusetts to Texas.

From Quitman the party i^roceeded to C-airo, where the mill of Mrs.
M. L. Wight was visited. This is th(^ largest sirup mill in this sec-
tion and is a type of tlie best modern construction. In most of the
factories visited no attempt was made to (chemically clarify the juices,
but dependence was placed altogether on the action of heat and skim-
ming. At the Wight mill, however, the juices were sulphured cold,
as is practiced with the cane juices used for sugar making in Louisi-
ana, and subse(j[uently lime was added nearly to neutrality, thus pro-
ducing a good clarification without darkening the color of the finished
product.

Cairo is the center of shipment for sirup iu southern Georgia.
About 2,500 acres are planted in cane within a radius of 15 miles from
the town, and the shipment from Cairo last year amounted to 10,000
barrels of sirup. A general view of the Wight mill is shown in
PI. V, fig. 2.

Particular attention is called to the contrivance at the Wight mill,
as shown in the figure, for handling the cane by machinerj'. In load-
ing a wagon ropes are first laid across the wagon body, on which the
canes are laid. These ropes are afterwards tied, and by means of a
crane the whole load is removed at once. The factory is built on the
side of a hill, so that all the handliug of the nuxtei-ials iu the factorj%
after the unloading of the cane b}" nunins of tht; crane, is by gravity,
thus securing the greatest economy iu manual labor.

Bui. 70, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Plate I.

I"

O

>

m

r

D
O

c
H

o
z

>

P
to

■l

m
<
>

-D

o

>

H
O
3J

m

r-
(p

O

c
-<

o

>

Bui. 70, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Plate II.

' >

I

31

C
TJ

>

O

H
O
3

-<

o

m

O
c

>

r%

I

k -L_-„^^„ .^

ro

■|

CO

c

>

O

H
O
X

-<

m

o

m
o

<

H

o
>

i

Bui. 70, Bureau of Chemistry, U S. Deot. Agr,

Plate III.

31

a

m

z

CO

m
m

o

<

■n
>

o

H
O
33
_-<

m

<

H

O
>

P

ro

■|

O

>

H

m
31

m

r-

D

O

-ri

-I

c_

>

S
m
_cn

>

O

>

_z

O
>

^';-.>r^, ,

Bui 70, Bureau of Chemistry. U S Dept. Agr.

Plate IV.

21

I
o

>

2

m

m
o

o

JO

m
m

D

n
:o

r-
O

c

O
>

9

ro

"l

O

>

z
m

2
o

n
m

CO

Tl

m

i—
p

D

m

X

r
o

c

o

>

CANE FIELt)S AND SIKUP FACTORIES.

9

From Cairo the party returned to Waycross and pi-oceeded to Jack-
sonville, Fla., where the Florida Agricultural Society was addressed
on the subject of cane and cassava culture in Florida. A synopsis
of the address is as follows :

CANE AND CASSAVA CULTURE IN FLORIDA.
ByH. W. Wir.KY.

The problems connected with the sngar und starch ])ro(hicts are four or five in
nnniher.

First of all. the soil is to be considered, and therefore agricnltnral interests
should pay some attention to staple crops — that is, crops that have a market the
year round, and can he preserved and marketed at any time. Sugar and starch
are types of such crops. These substun(tes take absolutely nothing from the soil;
they are fabricated by the plant from the atmosphere and water; hence the sale of
such products does not tend to impoverish the soil.

The soils of Florida are largely of a sandy nature — that is, they have been
deposited from water; they are typically different from the soils of the great
Northwest, wliich were produced by the grinding effect of moving icebergs, and
represent the richest soils, probably, in the world. Sandy soils are not suitable
for prodiTcing wheat, for instance, but they are well adapted to producing sugar
and starch. In Florida it is more a question of climate than of soil, since, with
a favorable climate, scientific agriciilture will produce a crop from almost any
kind of soil.

The second problem to be considered is that of fertilizers. Perhaps there is no
State more favorably situated than Florida in respect to fertilizers. You have
here inexhaustible deposits of phosphate. In the leguminous crops which grow
here, namely, peas, beans, alfalfa, and beggar-weed grass, you have a most valua-
ble means of assimilating nitrogen from the air. In cotton seed, fish scrap, and
other animal refuse you have access to large stores of nitrogen. Through your
seaports stores of fertilizing materials, snch as nitrate of soda and potash salts.
can be brought from Soiith America and Germany. It would be hard to find any
other portion of our country where fertilizers could be sold more cheaply than in
this State.

CHAEACTER OP THE MARKET.

The third problem is the character of the market. This country is the greatest
sugar and starch consumer in the world. We use more than 2,000,000 tons of
sugar annually. Of this quantity, before the Spanish war. we made only about
300,000 tons — about one-seventh of all.

Since the Spanish war we have acqiiired Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the Philip-
pines, all of which give iis large additional (paantities of sugar. This year we
will produce about 100,000 tons of beet siigar, so that at the present time it may
be said that we produce about one-third of all the sugar we consume; but still
there is a vast foreign market which we might supply with the home prodiict.
There is no danger, therefore, of overstocking our home market with increased
sugar production, nor is there danger of the beet sugar driving the cane sugar out
of the market. For many purposes, as, for instance, the manufacture of sinip,
beet sugar is unsuitable, and there will always be a demand for all the cane sugar
that can be made.

The sugar crop of the whole world for the present year is about 10,000,000 tons,
of which nearly 7,000,000 are made from the sugar beet.

10 MANUFACTURE OF TABLE SIKUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

THE SUGAR BEET.

The sugar beet can not, however, be grown in Florida profitably. Here you
must depend f)n the svigar cane for sngar and upon the cassava and potato for
starch. From starch ghicose can also be made, and it seems to me that in the
near fiTtnre the glncr)se industry will pass from the indian-corn belt to the cassava
and potato belt. In one particular industry Florida and the southern parts of
Georgia and Alabama stand i)reeminent. and that is the manufacture of table
sirup from sugar cane. It is important, however, to secure uniform grades to hold
the markets of the world, and this can only be accomplished by mixing together
the products of small farmers or by the establishment of central factories, where
the cane grown in the neighborhood can be manxifactured under standard condi-
tions.

By the development of these great industries, sugar and starch making, includ-
ing table sirups, xmtold wealth will in the near future flow into Florida. From,
by-products of the factories immense quantities of cattle food can be obtained,
both from sugar cane and the stai'ch-producing plants. Thus a dairy indiistry
can be established in connection with sugar and starch making, which will add
much to the wealth of the State.

From Jacksonville the party returned to Brunswick, Ga., where a
banquet was given by the board of trade at tlie Ogletliorpe Hotel,
after wliieh a reception was tendered at tlie Pluenix C-lul). Tlie ques-
tion of the development of the sugar-cane and cassava industries was
informally discussed at this reception by the leading business men of
Brunswick.

From IJi'unswick the party proceeded to Waycross, where it was
met by the board of trade of that city and where samples of canes,
gathered from different parts of the locality, were inspected. The
magnitude of these canes is best shown by the photograph taken at
Waycross, showing a number of gentlemen most intcn-ested in tlie
industry and the size of the canes typical of the gi-owth secured in
the immediate locality. (PI. VI, fig. 1.)

At Waycross one of the l)est of the small mills for making sirup
was insi)ected, viz, the mill of Mr. Hatcher, about 1 mile southwest of
the town. This mill is a small one, operated with a single mule as
power, and is best illustrated b}' referring to PI. VI, fig. 2.

The method of feeding th<^ cane to this mill is shown in PL VII,
figs. 1 and L*.

The evaporator, which is a single iron kettle set in masonry, is
shown in V\. VIII, fig. 1.

The structure of the furnace at Mr. Hatcher's mill, whi(;h is the
best type of this character of furnace, is seen in PL VIII, fig. 2.

One of the most interesting places visited near Cairo was the
tlioroughly primitive establishment of Capt. E. A. A^'anhmdingham.
It was already growing dark on our arrival, and thus an oppoi-tunity
t was alforded of seeing this (juaint factory in its most picturesque

I state, viz, illuminated by a tor(;h of "lightwood." This method of

! illumination is the one llni^•ersally practiced in the old-fashioned

I establishment represented in PL IX.

THE SOIL. 11

It must be admitted tluit some of the ])est sirup which has been
brought to our attention lias been manufactured in the simple way
illustrated in the figure. Of course, the quantities that can be made in
a single kettle are limited, and there can be but little commercial im-
portance attached to goods manufactured in this waj'. For the sup-
ply of the faj-mer himself and his neighbors, ho\ve\'er, it is more than
likely that this method of manufacture will continue to exist for a long
Avhilc, and, in fact, there seems to be no necessity or desire that it
sliould ever entirely pass away.

A similar establishment is also represented in PI. X, which is also
interesting in being the property of a colored man, William Loinax,
living near Cairo, Ga. The scene is thoroughly characteristic, and
represents at its best the rural life of this region when the s<>as()n for
siru]) making is at its height.

THE SOIL.

Geologically the soils in southeastern South Carolina on which
sugar cane is grown lie principally on the formations known as Lafay-
ette and Marine Pliocene and Miocene. Agricultui-ally they are
classed as sand soils, and the natural timber growth originally found
on them was almost exclusively longleaf pine. Tliese soils, as is well
known, have a low fertility and r(M[uire genei'ous fcrlili/.ation to pro-
duce paying ci'Ops.

The same soils prevail in southern and southwestern Georgia, while
in Florida, without any pronounced difference in the ai)pearance of
the soils, the geological formations are chiefly Marine Miocene in the
nortliern part of the iir^ninsula and Marine Pliocene in the southei-n
and interior central regions.

The Lafayette formation is composed of distinctive orange-colored
sands and clays, sometimes interbedded w ilh gi-avel or intei-spersed
with [)ebbles. The formation is overlaid by the alluvions of small
streams, by aH)lian sands, and in some places by wave- washed debi-is.
The overlaj^ is also often ccmiposed of the characteristic clays, sands,
and gravels of the Columbia formation, especially in proximitj' to large
streams. This area has also been described by the nanu's "orange
sand," "drift," "([uaternary," and "southern drift."

The Lafaja^tte formation in Georgia is ovei-laid loi- thousands of
squai-e miles with the sands of the Cobnubia fornuition, covered origi-
nally, and still to a great extent, with longleaf pines. A typical soil
on the Suwanee River, between Hamilton and Columbia counties, was
found to have the following formation :

Feet.

1. Gray soil, sand, and humus 3

2. White sand . 4

3. Clay with silicified corals and oyster shells 6 to 8

4. Indurated clayey rock ... 2

12 MANUFACTUEE OF TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

Throughout large areas in Florida and, to a less extent, in Georgia
and South Carolina, in low, swampy localities, the soil has become
overlaid with vegetable deposits of a humus nature. These vege-
table soils are deficient in mineral jjlant foods, but become very
fertile when properly drained and fertilized. For a more detailed
geological account of the soils of the localities referred to, liulletin
No. 83 of the U. S. Geological Survey may be consulted.

A valuable contril)ution to the study of the soil of Georgia is also
found in the Tenth Census liei^ort, vol. 0, on the cotton production
of the State of Georgia, by R. 11. Loughridge. This report contains
an agricultural map of Georgia, slKJwing the distribution of the
various kinds of soils in the State. A similar map for South Caro-
lina is found in the Report of the Tenth Census, vol. G, a report on
the cotton production of South Carolina, by Harry Hammond. A
similar map is also given in the same volume for the State of Florida,
being a report on the cotton production of Florida, by Eugene Allen
Smith. A study of these maps, with the remarks made thereon,
together with the analyses of tlie soils which follow, will give a fair
idea of the agricultural ijossibilities of the States mentioned.

NOTES ON THE SOILS.

In the table of analyses of soils which follows the localities in
which the samj)les were taken are also given. Some additional notes
have been furnished in i-egard to some of the samples, which will be
of interest. For these notes 1 am indebted to Capt. D. G. Purse, of
Savannah.

Duke Station. Fla.— Samples Nos. 22646-22647.

The top soil is in the top of the bag and the subsoil in the bottom of bag, with
a string in tlie center to keep them sejiarate. The water in this locality is soft,
and the land is what is classed as high flat woods, sloping to the north. The field
from which this sample was taken consists of abont 40 acres and has been under
cultivation for about fifteen or twenty years. No fertilizer was used until this
year, when a cheap manure, consisting of rock jihosphate, kainit, and cotton-seed
meal, thorouglily mixed together, was employed. Recently a little compost was
applied. The crops that have been raised in this field are corn, cotton, and sugar
cane. The railroad runs through this field and the cut is from 1 to 5 feet deep,
and there is quicksand in it in wet weather. No rocks or stones in land.

Griffing Station, Fla. — Samples Nos. 22048-22649.

Prepared in the same manner as samples Nos. 22646-22647. The land is high
flat woods, slightly rolling. Sample taken from land sloping north and south,
witli ditch between. Wells 8 to 10 feet deep; soft water. This sampk^ of soil is
frcim a virgin field, planted a])out two months ago in peaches. The land has l)een
plowed but once. Fertilizer has never been used. Land free from rocks and
stones.

Samples Nos. 22650-22651 are from Milejiost ;58 and taken from virgin soil.

Bui. 70, Bureau of Chemistry, U, S, Dept. Agr.

Plate V.

r
o

>

CO

CO

>
<

>

O

30

fn
m

"0
r
>

2
H
>

H
O

z

z
o

(Tl
X

l-

o

c

O
>

CD

O

I

o

>

z
n
I

33

C
Tl

■n
>

o

H
O
3]

o
>

33
P

o

>

Bui. 70 Bureau of Chemisify, U. S- Dept Agr,

Plate VI.

^''Wk^-

THE SOIL.

13

Samples Nos. 23653, 32653.

This sample is taken from George Britt's place at Milepost 41. Water soft.
Field has been under ctiltivation thirty years. High, flat woods. Fertilized
with a cheap manTire, 200 pounds to the acre. Crops raised m this field consist
of cotton, corn, and sugar cane. I would call your attention to the fact that in
this field there is a disease in the cotton called " " l)lack root. ' ' The root turns
Idack and the plant dies. Mr. Britt worild like to know if this is caused by the
soil; if so, what can be done to remedy it.

Samples Nos. 22654, 22655.

This sample is from Milepost 46. High, flat woods, and remarkably rich. The
sample was taken from \'irgin soil in the pine woods. Water soft. Well 10 to 12
feet deep.

The farms from which these samples have been taken have from 1 to 3 acres
in sugar cane, and they raise from 10 to 12 barrels of sirup to the acre.

It must be remembered that the section of the country throiigh which the
Jackson\nlle and Southwestern Railroad runs is entirely a new coimtry, nearly
all of the land being \nrgin , with here and there a few places which have been in
cultivation for years. This virgin soil with a little assistance should produce
from 10 to 15 barrels of sirup to the acre.

Egypt. Ga. — Samples Nos. 22658, 22659.

Land owned by Mr. E. E. Foy. This land has been in cultivation twentj^-eight
years. This year and last it was planted in cane. It was planted in rye in 1899,
on which no fertilizer was used. The fertilizer iised on cane crop both this year
and last was stable manure, about a ton per acre, supplemented with about 200
pounds each of cotton-seed meal and acid phosphate. Land level and sandy.

Adrian, Ga.— Samples Nos. 22660, 22661.

Land owned by Capt. T. J. James. Land at present planted in cane; also last
year. Formerly planted in corn and oats. Each crop fertilized with about 200
poimds of guano. Land level and sandy: free from stones; not very well
drained. This land has only been in cultivation about five years.

Americus, Ga. — Samples Nos. 22662, 22663.

Land owned by Mr. Tawson; rented by Stapleton for several years. Land has
been in cultivation twenty years or more. A small creek within 300 yards of the
edge of the field. Rather rolling, with a stiff clay subsoil. The field from wliicli
this sample is taken is typical of the land ujion which cane is usually grown,
rather than typical of the general soil of the locality. This land was in cane
last year, but this season is not idanted in anything. Fertilizer u.sed last year
and the year before consisted of 200 pounds of cotton-seed meal and 150 pounds
of acid phosphate.

Albany, Ga.— Samples Nos. 22664, 22665.

Land owned by Mr. Morris Wesloski. This sample is taken from land which
is at present in Irish potatoes and was in cane for two years preceding. Fertili-
zer used on the land this year was about 600 pounds of guano per acre. On the
cane the same fertilizer was used, about 400 jiounds per acre. Land is level, a
dark loam. Field from which sample was taken is typical of the whole locality.

Hartford, Ala. — Samples Nt)s. 22666. 22667.

Land owned by J. W. McKinney. Has been in cultivation about seven years.
At present is planted in cane; last year in sweet potatoes. Samples taken from a

14 MANUFACTURE OF TABLE SIEUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

field typical of the locality. Rather rolling, sandy, well drained. About 200
ponnds of giiano per acre was used on both the cane and sweet potatoes. This
was supplemented with a little stable manure.

The three samples sent were taken from along the Chattahoochee River, Init in
different localities, the samples differing considerably.

Columbia, Ala. — Samples Nos. 32668, 32669.

Land owned by J. F. Bowden. Samples taken from a field adjoining a creek,
about 3 miles from the river. This field is typical of what is called the " upland "'
bottoms, as distinguished from the first and second bottoms. This land is well
drained, rather sandy and level. A very stiff clay siTl)soil about 3 feet below sur-
face. Samples taken from an "oat field where corn was planted last year. One
hundred and fifty pounds of guano was used on oats: about the same on corn.
This land has been in cultivation for about fifteen years.

Georgetown, G-a. — Samples Nos. 32670, 22671.

Land owned by H. Lampley. These samples are from a field of •' second bottom "
land. Is subject to overflow from backwater in very high water. Is aboiit one-
fourth of a mile from the river. Land level, sandy. Has lieen in cultivation for
thirty years or more. At present is planted in cotton; formerly in corn. Ferti-
lizer used on ])oth crops was about 150 pounds of guano per acre.

Brickyard, Ala.— Samples Nos. 33673, 33673.

Land owned ])y Mr. G. M. Flournoy. Samples taken from "first bottom"
land, about 1 mile from the river. Sul)ject to overflow every year. Has been in
Johnson grass for seven years. A very ricli Idack soil. No fertilizer used. Cul-
tivated for fifty years or more. Level, poorly drained.

Fitzgerald. Ga. — Sample No. 33943.

Land planted l)y R. A. Wilson. This soil has been treated in the manner pre-
scribed in your letter. During the last three years I have grown on this tract
corn, potatoes, peas, watermelons, and various other crops, the most of which have
produced two or three crops each year. Of course, I fertilize each crop some,
the fertilizer used being phosphate and German kainit and barn maniTre.

Ambrose, Ga. — Sample No. 33944.

Land planted by C. H. Buttler. Field has been in cultivation for six years, and
the following crops have been grown: Cotton, corn, potatoes, and sugar cane.

Beach, Ga.— Sample No. 33945.

This soil was taken from a field now in cultivation for the third season. The
first season it was planted in sweet potatoes with poor success, it being too wet
for the crop. The second season it was planted in stigar cane, w^ith splendid
results. It is now planted for the third season in sugar cane and promises to do
well. Stable manure has been used freely each season.

Douglas, Ga.— Sample No. 23946.

This field has been in ctiltivation for thirty years. Corn, cotton, and cane have
been the principal crops raised almost every year on this land. Good crops have
been made almost every year. From 300 to 350 pounds of commercial fertilizer
has been used almost every year.

THE SOIL.

16

Samples Nos. 22949-22950.

Soil and subsoil of red clay land. Oak and hickory; in cultivation sixty or sev-
enty years.

Samples Nos. 22951-22952.
Soil and subsoil of poor sandy soil; in cultivation seventy years.
COLLECTION OF THE SAMPLES.

All the samples of soil were collected by Captain I*iii-se. Tlie fol-
loAving directions were sent from this Bureau for secui-ing the soils
and subsoils :"•

Samples of soil are to be taken in the following manner, and the locality should
be selected which is t^^'pical of the neighborhood. By means of a spade from 10
to 20 pounds of soil should be removed from at least half a dozen different ])oint.s
in the field. Select tlKnu so as to have them as nearly typical of the whole field
as possible. These samples should l)e put together on a hard, dry floor or oilcloth
spread upon the ground, and thoroughly mixed, removing all stones and pebbles,
sticks and roots. The residue should then be (luartered and one-quarter saved
and the other three-quarters rejected. This quarter should again Ije mixed thor-
oughly and again quartered, and this process continued until the sample weighs
4 pounds or less. This sample should be placed in a strong cloth bag, sewed up,
and the franks I send you securely tied thereto.

It is important to have also a sample of the subsoil in each localitj'. The sam-
ples of the soil are taken to the usual dejith of plowing or to where the change in
color of the soil is noticed — say. from 5 to 0 inches, according to circumstances.
After the soil is removed from this excavation carefully, a sample of the subsoil
should be taken to a depth of from 5 to 7 inches below the soil sample. The mix-
ing and quartering of the subsoil should be accomplished in the manner described
above.

In each case the previous history of the field, the character of the crops groA\ni
on it. and the kind of fertilization, if any, it has received are to be noted. There
should also be given any prominent geological features of the neighborhood, the
character of the stones and rocks, character of the water, contour of tlie land. etc.

ANALYSES OF SOILS.

Each sample was submitted to two chemical analyses. One, to deter-
mine the total quantity of substance soluble in liot concentrated
hydrochloric acid, was conducted according- to the methods prescribed
by the Association of Official Atjrlcultural Chemists (Bui. 46, pp. 71
et seq.). The number of parts of potash and ph()s])horic acid soluble
per million in N/200 hydrochloric acid was obtained according to the
method of Moore (Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 24,
No. 1, p. 70). These analyses were made by Mr. C. C. ]\[oore.

The mechanical analysis of the soils was made according to the
method of Osborne (Principles and PracticeofxVgricultural Analysis,
vol. 1, X3p. 196 et seq.), by Mr. F. M. Cockrell, under direction of Mr.
C. C. Moore

16

MANUFACTUEE OF TABLE SIRUPS EKOM SUGAR CANE.

I

u

o

. 1^^^' 1% 'P^l s^l

S . ^-« -S-l ig| :g|

g ^. q I i ^. ^ igg jgl 1^1 if^.i

gp cp ^PSP flp |Q^P^ S gQifi ^ §QS.S C ^Q 6 S c ^Q

I I t I 1 I I I I II II II I

! 1 ;'o I'o To ;'o ;'o I I ; 'Si 'Si 'Si 'o

a:a:crc/:cfi cc en en tn

oooSoPcCoSoPooo So f!o 30 :3

CD CCin -* 05 03 ?J "lO t^^ Oi 5D""-^"^3D r^ QOt- tH OS * tH<N ^rH

OCCrHOCOrHCC5^"^''^CC^"^:C^i OCC i-HO CCrH oi

GccxcccoQCi-H»^ir^;cx;t--*a3 oto »cc ccr-i o

rH r-i C: rH 'N CC r^ r^ ^> O; CD ;D ■* r- O CC i-! O »! i-< r-H rH

~OTi-T-iKico'Ni-iro^»(;"*'r!i-iOT ^^ T^T] ^J^* ec(M o

OC>i-!r-HCJi-;iNO.-H— i^Od^fH fnf-l fHr-i rHr-J r-i

^cD« ■* ar o >o >c I— I IN «c CD". • SQ i>- iM lii^ i-H CO mio o

d d d d r-H M d --< <N ^i u3 Eh d d d d d d d d d d

i-nd doi

«Dao CDO

*rirH T-i d

oc ;c wx i^ 5C tC' o".' rt i- Oi » o ic lO xo cct- oso os

t- d d »>} CO (N cc 1^ d d d d 51 d CO lO -* ^-^ d »<5 -*' ■^'

i-H 1-^ ^H ^H I— ^H i-^ rH I— I ^^OJi-^i-H ^H rH i— I 55 GSj 0^ 04

ojascDceoscoc-*!- oico ffi c o t-i " ~ISo com oco co

d ic d d CO CO i-^ 30 ri -HH d i^ 't cc' i-^ — h -*h* '^ co r-4 co oi

t-:DCOCOCOCO-f^'^CO'M(>i^-**'* i--* l^io iOZO CD

"CD ^"S d o i^ c: X -* t- X 'X i^ — f o! xd coi— i c-* oi

X x" d ^ d i^ m "<^ >-o d oi d d rH co' ^ -^ ^ rn i-< r-J ^

-* ''J^ CO CO Oi O^ OJ OJ ^H T-^ O^i Oi CO CO

-"fClOSr- li— ICOOJ05(J5COCO04COiC ^ CO i-l CO rt i-H S"

8
u

B

&)
S

CO

«
'«
•^

o

5

o

o

00

CO

o

03

o
p.

g

o
o

o

'S

cS
o

■not^iugt uo

•s.moq spi^og
XlJAi inao .I9J

■sanoq

niAl ^UrlD .la^j

•tntn
90U-- iU'&D -lad

•nini

io-*:di^'>j-*coco>0'MCOxcO'0:-i-

ddr-ir-icOCOMOJOJ'Nr-Ht-ioidi-i

lox
rnd

doi

rHt-

1— 1

•inm

CDCOC0CO-*COiN^-*XSQ-*CDiNCO

d d ^ -< oi CO oi ?i oi '^t^ oj ^' .-H u; ^

cox

oir-<

CDO

T-id

X
>f5

S0< ^nao -lad

•rata
01 •< cute.) .laj

cg-< ;iiao .18 J

•So S^

'SQ'-d

'O'S

*>! >C 05 ^ O CC 'M t- 3^ :c >J ^l t- ^?^ T— I
0^

sg

3

•smxi

(Nt— lr-(rMN(N,-li-l

■JS[ ^U9.) .I8d

OJ i- -f OJ lO « t-H lO 1- -* ^ CD lO I- -#

SJS

^OS "Jneo .i9d:

o oj CO CO >.o o X -# lO -* -* i~ o "C . •

OOOOOOOCCOOOOOfH

-•oi

5e<i

•-O'-d ^aa-* -lad •

C't-'^^lC-'^lCrH-^iOCOitli— ii5»<T— imcD
r- lr-(COMi-ICDC003!Ml-0!T-^CDXCO

C O O' O C' r-l C O' O C O' O iC -# o

5^1 .•

HH

6
w

l-H

.a

o
a:

'•0'-lVin9^-l9d

rH ^ i^l CO CD r^ '5;' T'i 'CD X ^-i X' CD 'O; Oi

OMCo5-*xS; scDxoo^xco

coco

HrHOiTl^SJS^OlCO

•f:fredcm9f).i9ci

SiO>CQO>0>OiOOiOOOOiOQ
t- t- O Q OJ 5* )>• lO i- Q lO O OJ iS

I— lOOrH^lC-^COlC'MCDlO'^CDO

8?2

i-lO

'O^W ^ueo .i9(j

2} JJ ^ rH ^ CO -* § t; 5 ?J 2 ij; -j;^ .^

5X
30

O'BO '^neo .i9d;

O-H ;n9-T -ifd

-nxosai'q.u90 a«>d

iniQOOOOQiNi-llNiNCNOQ
ljSOJ^iRt-^3rH»l^CCt^-*®iS
OOOOOCOOOOOOrHOO

HH

d

U U

Hei

^4 U

EH Eh

m

ow

cox

I— I l-H

oo

HH

•.KKiiiiiiu {■uiaoy

OOOOOiftiCmOiOiCif^ifflCOO

iO^t-^^cpt— OlQCDt-CplOOsas
Oii-asi— t-^^'^J^CDCDCDCO'35'MCD'M

go CD 1-^ d CO »c rH -+■ d CO d ^ oi d t-^
_Jra 05^ a:OiCiOiO:c:xX' r: J^ X 3^

I— lOJCO -fiO-CDl^ CO C5 C;r- Tl X^t CD
-^-+HTf.-t--t1M"'^-f''t^lO»'^l*lOl'T -t*

Of7;■^>??7!'^•-^^7•-^^T_'c•c'■^'■^•7!
(N SJ c^j oi Oi oi 7i ->! -M 5^; 7; ^ 1 t; •^^ rj

o<n
t-x
cot^

_05C

d

I

&H

«

THE SOIL.

17

■ '>?

? o

"a

h1

^ « o

3 *

'c a

e4

2^

r t/3

*"] re

•^t-

te O

;> P.

c&"-ddoSw6g = 6 33^

o a

0 04! 'E^a

C5 W

. o

0) ^ i^

•J tJ

a>

» S

.^

2-< -^

0 S

03

.WfS f^

x^

-d

W r =«

=^11

a

. -cs C5

Ocj

tf gtf ?«s«

oi

M Q

w

W

CO

^ 32 . . .

': +j n o o o

3 3 9qqq

CQXhJ

o

03

0 o
02 02

3 O
0202

o ; o I

« to
3 o 3 o

02 02 0202

o ;

05

3 O
0202

o ;

to
3 o

02 02

3 o

02 02

o

03

=1 o

02 02

o ; o ;

03 03

P! O 3 O

0202 0202

O
02

; o ;

03

C 0 0
02 0202

»0 1(5 :D 020 I'-CSCD'M O-* Oil— I CCM i-ir5 OiO CCiO ^ i— i CO "O 'MO

O 0'^i 'N'N r-io'O'-i OO -*'« »i'N COi-i i-h'cC I-i-H O in r-i le CO?5

^ ■ ODtH OSrH QDOO W rH M 0» »0 -* 05 ■* OJ CCO iOO '^ ^ 05 ^ rH O t-~

rA T-HCci rH(>i rHi-H(5icC rH -^ C^ iij C^l CO "«*< r-3 (>i;^ OCO CO O r-I ©j Osj -^*

NO So"

^3 *■

coo o

oo in

-*C0 T-H

CO CO

i-io 6*^

ad coco lOi- '---^SPS "''* '5'^ »-0 ^O* "50 Ogj 5^ S i-^ ■* «J5P

i-H ^r-l T-HNINCO m CO-* -^iH i-H i— ( « CO 85 CO lO 2555

« ?HCO CO-* SfSSoJsO iHt- i^HCO rHIN OUCO SToS i^H^i 55 « TO 05 (M t-4

c ; o

a; 03

a c =1
CK03O2

CO

0150

1-4 05
I— 1

rH-rJ<

NCO

rH

Ol C-- iC '30
rH O' N O!

rHCO

o' 0?

rH

OS CO

CO CO

NCO

-*rH
Nr-i

ION

co'oi

rH3i

xco

to

N

CO

oi

Ol

CO

rH-U<

NCO

l-iCCO

-*rHN

05

c5

CON

oso

lOrHl^-*

rHrHOr-i

■MX

l-r-i

rH

rt.30

o"m

NN

l-N

»0 rH

O rH
rH

CO

rH
©

O

CO

o'

00 CO

dio

OrHN

CCrHrH

o

r-i

CX)05

ot-:

IN-*
t-^rH

C0C0 5D-*
rHOir-ir-i

05 IM

COCO
rH

ON

rHr-<

t-OJ

ins-*

rHN

SON
SDlrf

ON

rH

00

■fS

O

d

I- 00

©as

N<Na»

CCrHO

i-ieo

rHrHN

CO«Ot-
OJNN

I-H

•OrH

-*50

OOCOOCO

COoiiON
rH r^

OON
NCO

OCO

aid

>nrH

OON
CON

4c>rH

CO-*

35

NO

4^

CO

oo'

OO

CO

rH

CO

co"

rH

-*

cs

NrH

XN

r-H

10.4

6.5

13.3

CON

-*"00

N>0

rHrH

CO uo ai i.~

COl-

COrH

XN

r-icO

o>o

COL-^

'I'N

rH 00
00 rH

coo
-*^

o

>n

■*■

r-l

N

r-i

00

NOO
«5>0

CONCO
-*JON

00

s

50 05

ait-

-*rH

COl-

00 05
rH-*

CD CO CON

-*iioIoro

NCO

CO 00

NCO

cooi

N^

00 CO

3^

NrH

OO

rH
CO

CO
5?

CO

OS

N

NOO

00 CO-*
NNN

!■(

O^

roo

OCOi-CO

^O

occ

cot-

00 05

-*rH

rH©

N

CO

-*

CO

coco

COXO-.

OCO ©©

lO t- I- CO

N

OS l- CO CD>5
rH I- CO Sira

SS5?

1—*

'cd

Oir-i

.51
-.40
1.00
1.34

COrH

N

83

I-H

I-H

COr-<

I-H

s

r-i

COCO
Ir-CO

o-*o

Oi 'rH

OS NOS

t-N NO

C'O So

NN «

t:^ i

ON N t^ -* g TO-*
5^ CD 1- OO « Mco

~o o o o o oo

^§s

CD

o

X ■* -<1? 5S N N N t-
rH IC CO N rAT^^ri

OO oo oooi

N lO lOf-^

8S S8

Sa oS

N

rH
O

>i

So^

.--* 1-7 -f lONOOO COrH 0O-* NiO X.-

^X -^^i OON-* NlO COrH -HCO rHM

fno o:5 5£i;o iO' oo oo ojn

rHt- N OS t-

®SS tf 2J i;

©oo

od'J

Nl^ rH ir*-* I-

rHCO XI- CO 71

COlQ t-l-
-* CO CO CO
CO rH CD rH

05N -*N

COCO COrH

N I- rH Ol N C

8S

>(5 0"^
NiC

OiC

S3

lo o »o o o © mo
Ni- N e 5 'T •-«5

OS lO 1- ^I ^ N N iO

SrH*}

ic>oc

N»-C

oococ

.'^H 'i\Oi iOOCD-*1 coo Ot— CC»0 NCO

f- 1- ^ N N S ^ !2 ^ '- — CD lO 1.0 CO -*

tnrH rH© OOOO -*0 OO' ^IH rHO

3S

Nin

CO CO

m

rH OS rH

rHOO

Si2 S3 SSSi
oo >— I-H ©oo©

3m ©©

SOS 3S

HrH oo

lON NU3

3©

><N

SS S 8 3 8

■*© rH CS N rH

©NN

S3S

f^rH ^f; HHHH

i3H &HH

.-lO

s^

7-i Co

S^ t: -; r;
I^^ H H B

.-N

»C O iC lO O iC »o c

t— OS 10 05 iC T-H t— ^

If? O »C5 iC

3§5

'Tj'OS

lOi-H

gi3

.-IX

^e 1

xc

X

^8

CDO X

3

CD

aS#

■*■ ■'..■ iC -.D ^ O

CD CO CD m 'a? x>

NN -^!'^iNT!

t^rt

e-3

7592— No. 70—02-

cBm'

N N
NN

coco -*
t--* ■*

NN N

*!

CO 1— xos

^y ^31 ^y ^^

S N NN

N N NN

18

MANUFACTURE UF TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

a

PI
o

p

t^

rO

P

o

^

o

5!s

t3
_o

03
o
o

o

02

O

a

o
o

•uoi'jiaSi uo
ssox i'ueo .le^j

•eanoqsx^^oU
niAi. ^ueo aej

•s.moq
IliA ^uao .I8J

■tnui
900' < '^neo aej;

a ®

.02

o

tc *' ^
c4

0)

? ce'Q s^ g ? o

pq

-c el
ts r

cS r

ai'2

so

o So

CO 0202

pi o
02 02

P! O
0202

-0:S
P( O
0202

, c , ;

CO

o s o o

02 020202

ccos
i-ico

(MM
(N«

COO

C0OSW5C
»irHt-CO

th aid

00

05 rH
r-<0

OrH

t-OCO-*

c3 -* Oi i-i

05 0C>O

^' 00

TO 10^ I-

O'r-i 00

54 ^r-<

r-icC

comccio
(jjcccoai

inui

1:0 QO »C
ij (MM

(MO

nira

•intn
<jO'' !;nao .idd:

I- Oi-

S (Mi-H

i-i-*

(TO .-I

<C(3i

ICTO

00 (N

•raui
01- < ;u80 .laj;

h°

raui
fig-< *U90 aed

.Sp (D~

■^W^ o

02 1?-'^

'^O^d

cs

SS

K^

bo

CO

w

a

.0

pi
I— I
o
02

■snai
-tiq %nQO jej;

•^ %uso .le^j

^

g ss

<-l<M

S8

M-*

00

sqs !;"9 J Jej

(M ^1-M

0(M

00

Is

■*0°d: f^uso -led

s ss

S 8^

"0(N"

'^onv *ii9-i -lad

'■O'9>fl:*u3o-i9d:

•qSm ^uao .lej

>-l TO-*

10 l-M

(Mt~

>CCD

MO'

<-(N

CO (ZOrH

10 TOt-

o 00

5 to

IS

iroq

SI

•OtJO ^ue.5 .i9d

o o w

O 0(M

CSE ^n9» -lad:

enpiea.! eiq

■jeqtnnu iBi.iog

^1 ;h

I— ( GCrH

t-O

1— ( lO
(M^

5iS

s:8

mm

ii

*5

p

(MM

SCO

05 5OO5-*
r-iMlriw

Oi-l®t-
(Mi-HtOf-H

i-HMOTO
i-CD(M'o'

-* TO I- 1-

OrHCOTO

CO-'J'MO

CC^TOw

' i-H ^i i-i

Si

J*l-..— If— <

00r-(0

O W *0 (M

ssss

025 '='33

S88S

3s 33 ^S SS3S

EhEhSeh

§(N i(5(NlCO

^H TO »— t -^ t^

CiOi C; OS CC 05

I-X05Q
1-1-t-CO

mm mm

THE SOIL.

19

NOTES ON SOIL ANALYSES.

The most striking feature exhibited by the above tabU' is found in
the fact tliat the soils represented are abnost pure sand. In one
instance more than 9!) per cent of the soil is insoluble in stronjr, hot
hydrochloric acid, while the number of soils containinji: inoi-e than
!»5 per cent of insoluble matter is very large. The only soils in the
list which are not decidedly of a sandy nature are Nos. 1^2450, 22-454,
2265G, 22657, 22(;63, 22665, 22671, 22672, 22673, 22950, 22957, and 23579.
Of these a few are distinctly vegetable or liuraus soils, viz, 22656,
22657, and 22663. All three of these soils contain large quantities of
humus and other organic matter.

The second characteristic of the soils, Avhicli is very prominently
shown in the lablc of analyses, is the absence of any large? (luanlity
of potasli soluble in hot hydrochloric acid. Only the following soils
contain notable quantities of soluble potash, viz, 22449, 22663, 22672,
and 22673.

Phosphoric acid is also deficient in most of the soils, but not to the
same extent as potash. One of the soils find the subsoil going with
it, viz, Nos. 22453 and 22454, have a very high quantity of phosphoi-ic
acid, and these samples, as will be seen, were from Florida, in the
vicinity of the heavy phosphate deposits of that State.

The other mineral constituents of soils are less important, viewed
as plant food. Two of these, however, are found constantly in j)lants,
viz, lime and magnesia. As is to be expected in soils of this charac-
ter, these two mineral constituents are deficient in cjuantity as com-
pared with the standard of soils of the usual textui-e. In a few of the
soils there is an abundant supi)ly of iron and alumina, and these could
be classed as clay soils in which the percentage of clay is not ver}^
large. Among the most prominent of this type are Nos. 22656, 22657,
22663, 22672, 22673, 22943, and 23579.

The percentage of nitrogen in all the soils, with the exception of
two or three of the vegetable soils, is quite low, and also, as would
be expected, the quantity of humus. In only tlii-ee instances does
the percentage of humus rise above 3. Evidently these are soils
which are not well suited to retain niti-ogen constituents foi- any
great length of time, in fact, one of the chief physical characteristics
of these soils is the ease with which water percolates through them
and the consequent rapidity with which soluble substances are leached
out during heavy rains.

In the estimation of i^otash and phosjihoric acid, by dilute hydro-
chloric acid, the purpose in view is to secure some idea, not of the
total quantity of these plant foods present in any given sample, but
of their relative availability. Pot experiments made by this IJureau
have shown that a reasonably good approximation to the availabh^
plant foodrin a soil maj^ be made by treating a sample of it with N/200

20 MANUFACTURE OF TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

hydrochloric acid at a constant temi^erature of 40° C, with con-
tinuous shaking-. I'his process applied to the soils in question show-
that the potash, although xu'esent in extremely minute quantities in
most of the soils, is very highly available; that is, practically all the
potash in the soil is at the disposition of the growing plant. On the
contrary, the phosphoric acid which exists in these soils, as a rule in
much larger quantities than potash, has a very much lower degree of
availability. Therefore, while a growing crop might take out all
of the potash in a soil, it would remove only a small quantity of the
phosphoric acid pi-esent. In other words, the phosphoric acid which
is present is so locked up in mineral combination as to be largely
insoluble in dilute, cold, or lukewarm hj'drochloric acid at the tem-
perature mentioned.

These figures show that the potash present in the soil is practically
all availal)le for the growing crop, and the crop therefore takes as
much of it as may l)e necessary to meet its demands. On the con-
trary, the growing crop is able to take only a small fraction of the
phosphoi-ic acid pi-esent. Hence it appeal's that the general rule to
be followed in the case of these soils is to give them largely the two
essential elements of plant food which are least available in the quan-
tities in which thej^ exist in the soil, viz, phosphoric acid and nitrogen.
Of course there are many of these soils in which potash is also defi-
cient, but it is evident that the quantity which is present, although
minute, is very highly available. Ah a rule, therefore, if any one of
the three essential elements of plant food is omitted in the fertilizer
applied it would be safer to leave out potash than either phosphoric
acid or nitrogen. At the same time it is evident that in many of the
cases the judicious application of i)otas]i would be highly advisable.

j In this connection, however, it must be remembered that, as a rule,

l)lants take a lai-ger quantity of potash from the soil than of phos-
phcn'ic acid, and hence the presence of available potash, as deter-

j mined by the dilute hydrochloric acid method in two or three times

the quantity of available i)hosphoric acid, would indicate that the soil
was in equal iiee(] of both phosphoi'ic acid and potash in case either
was necessary to nuike the crop.

Illustrations of what is meant l»y this can best be drawn from the
table of aiuilyses abo^e. Koi- instance, in No. i'2441 the potash solu-
ble in hydrochloi-ic acid is o-J pacts per million and the phosphoric
acid 14. 'I'liis soil needs potash ev(!ii more than phosphoric acid. In
the next number the proportions are as 85 to 20, respectively. This
is a soil in which phosphoric acid is probably needed more than potash.
In the next number the i)roportions are 20 to 5. Here both elements
are deficient, but phosphoric acid in a more marked degree than
potash. P^'or the next number the proi)ortions are 2!) to 20. This is
a soil which needs especially potash. In Uio next numbers the pro-
portions are as 50 to 1 and 51] to 1, and, in fact, in many of the numbers

Bui. 70, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr,

Plate VII.

m

H
I
O

o

m
m
o
z
o

O
>

z
m

X
>

H
O

I

m

.

Bui. 70, Bureau of Chemistry U S. Dept, Agr.

Plate VIIL

Bui, 70, Bureau of Chemistry. U. S. Dept, Agr

Plate IX.

>
o

H
O

3)
<

m

<

>

z
r-
>
z
g
z
o
I
>

z
m
>

X

O
>

JO

C

O
>

Bui. 70, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. of Agr.

Plate X.

■n
>

o

H
O
33

<

o

-n

r-
r

>

O

>

X

m
>

30

O

>

3J
p

>

....

ANALYSES OF SUGAR CANES.

21

down to 22450 the datM show that i)h<>s[)lioi-i(' acid is ui-geiitly iiccdod.
Ill fact, there are very few of these soils in whieh the avaihible phos-
phoric acid is as large as is i-eqiiired.

The mechauical composition of tlie soils gives valuable data in
regard to their physical texture and capabilities of sui)porting iilant
life. A soil must not only have i)lant food in an available form which
it can offer a growing crop, but it luustalso be of such a texture as to
liermit the rootlets of the jjlants to penetrate all parts of tlie surface
in which the available plant root is held. Sandy soils are easily per-
forated by the roots of plants, and for this reason, although as a rule
they are deficient in plant foods, by judicious treat iiiriil they may be
made to yield large and remunerative crops.

In the table of analyses the mechanical composition ol' Wxo soils
shows the relative proportion of particles of given diameters. The first
column shows the percentage of particles larger than 0.2.") mm, tlie
second those smaller than 0.25 mm but larger than U.IO mm, and so
on throughout the list. When the iiarticles become too small for con-
venient) measurement, they are separated by suspension in water.
Those that are smaller than O.ooi; mm. which will not float for cnghteen
hours, are given in one column and those smaller than O.ooi; mm. which
will float for eighteen hours in another. In the last two columns is
given the loss on ignition, which includes both water and organic mat-
ter, while in the last column is given the ])erceiitage of watei- in each
sanqile at the time of analysis, liy subtracting the percentage of
water from the total loss on ignition the relative quantity of organic
matter in each sample can be obtained.

ANALYSES OF SUGAR CANES.

Through Capt. I). (4. Purse, of Savannah, arrangements were made
to secure samples of sug.u- canes grown, not onh' in the localities
where the samples of soil w(;re secured, but also in many other places.
Instructions for securing and forwarding the samples wei"e ])r('])ared
as follows:

When the fane appear.s to be matured, or at the nsiial time of harvesting, select
a stalk from an inside row. Tlit> stalk selected should be from a jjart of the field
that represents average conditions.

Cnt the stalk, after removing the leaves, into several short pieces and. imme-
diately after, dip the ends of the jiieces into melted paraffin, or. preferably, into a
mixture of paraffin and beeswax. Wrap the pieces of cane carefully in strong
paper. Fill in the blanks on the l)ack of the shipping tag herewith and attach it
to the package and mail the latter to the United States Department of Agricul-
ture. No postage is required.

The packages should be mailed so as not to reach Washington on Saturday or
Sunday.

Numerous samples of cane, secured in accordance with these in-
structions, were forwarded for analysis, the first samples reaching

IP.miHi' '.'>.!

22 MANUFACTURE OF TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

the laboratory early in X()V(Miil)er, 1001, while the last .samples were
not reeeived until January, r.)()2. Samples were received from the
States of Alabama, Florida, (Georgia, and South Carolina. These
samples, on their reception at the laboratory, were immediately sub-
jected to analysis for the purpose of determinini^: the specific gravity,
sugar or sucrose, and reducing sugar or glucose, contained in the juices
thereof. From the data secured the coefficient of purity — that is, the
percentage of pure sucrose or sugar in the dry mattei- of the juice —
was calculated.

The juices of sugar canes may bn said to comprise about W) per
cent of the total weight of the canes. Therefore the percentage of
the ingredients given in llie canes themselves would be, in round
numbers, 10 per cent less than in the juice. For instance, if the
sucrose or pure sugar in the cane juices amounted to 13.2 per cent,
the corresponding percentage of sugar in the cane would be 11.!) per
cent.

The analytical data, w hich were determined chiefly l)y Mr. Arthur
Given, assisted by Mr. F. M. Cockrell, have been arranged al]3habet-
icalh'by States and counties, and are found in the table following.

ANALYSE.S OF SUGAR OANES.

23

01

o
p<

a

o
O

s o.is
PLhOo

« 5

:0'M<;d»ccc»0'M-*'»-*<:oo

O

o

J-

CO

3

s; i

83^:?

S

-ki'<**'*''**(MiOXCOOCOi— ti— 1^

i^OM'^'>iCOCO-»*<':DOil—S^

-*i o: rH o: r-^ »ri '^ :c :i c; c^i -*J re .-^' C * - X ,:c ti :c rH

SSfiSS?SSaS??S3SgS

s?

cc ^ cc" ^ i cc re re -^ tc' cc '>! c: c: '^i Ti ">! cc ^. c. 'M re

»ri -*3 CD :d :c lO It:: ;d 1- x -*"' cc -1- -1- ir: ic" t- -^* •^' i;^ :d

CO

o

so

S

S

P.

IS

o

X

o

o

o

s

£-0

a)

OS .

:■■■:>.'

• ■ ' ' ' n ' ' S ' ' "=

' ■ ; o ' o d 'a ; : fl

r o a fl ; C? o (C ;^ a

i-i d aj p^ <i cc i-i <i S w i-j 1^

53 '■'■'• ti ■■ o

<w o o -^ a o c o cs o o +j

So

P^

PI

P.

+-»

t/j o

W

o

o

;i-5

o o

rev

K :S : :c5

Pooohoooooccf
2'd'd'C p'O'^'d'O'C'C D

P.

>

o

a

D-

o

1 CB

4-*

■ >

o o . o o o o o

o o
•cd

o

i :^

oSoooooo

coctieoaooooooco

;So ;m

a

. 08

a

^CxOOOCOOOO O c o o o o o o o o
c/; '::; ^ ^ fd 'CO 'C 'vj 'r"CO qj'CO'O'C'O'd'O'u

.2~-^

K

: c8

o

O • • O O O . -

-c > t"0'd'0 t"C

■ O O . ■ 1 o

;o

• re

lO

• c -oo -zoo -00 • .o .ocoo .
'"T3 >'0'0 >'cw •"O'O i cc e'C'CC'd a

^ ;!z; ; ;!z; ; ; ;!z; ; iJziP i4 ; : •?

J9jSSr-lr-lr-l?l'N55c

23Sg5SSs52!::i-^SS':»SS??S

24

MANUFACTUEE OF TABLE SIEUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

+3

o

o

p! iocs

02

IS "^
Eh o

OQ

grH I-Hr

^rHrHi— I

i^ -C' Ci o; t- cc X' 1.^ o (M "-t^ -* o o 7-^ * ^ cc 3 c; cc ^ >c ici- 00 »^ If; o ^ o 'M -^
O'i ^ -ji CO vc cc o^ -^ ur: t^ i-^ c-i Gc' o 06 »c oi '^ t-- ci ^ cc I' >c -HH o cc »c CO »c ^ t-- cj

CO X 00 GC CC OC L— t' OD 00 I' 1^ O CC li- — l' CO t- l^ t- GO t- CO OC X t- JL- GO a5 00 L' t*

CO t- CO t^ oi OS c

Q0l0C0i-HT-<O5CC0O't<O>0C0XC0>C3Ji— l-*r-'t--#,-Hl.-5 0r-H-t<CC!N03XC<!i— I

GSO»eD00«5!Ne0t-t-0000lOT— lOi— IONCT>-*-*05C00St— l«D(M005>-l->i'0»C>0

^^t^t^cdl-'a5l-^l'ODo6:D-«*ix*col-^CD^t•^l-^cD'H^^-^cdQO^-•cDlri■^^--^-aD"^^

-(J

a

o

o

CO

o

CO

to
So

Si

rO

s
o'

CO

CO

CO
CO

515

-2
PI

ft

o

1;

ST

a

CO

w

01

a1

5 ?!t|

o 5

<C r- tC

c5^ O
0,3 o -

CO

B ai

WW

C f^ n «

.t: o

Mm 72

>iO O O O 5 0_C o^TrO

* : ; : ;5
J ; ; ; ;q

So
E Co

go_2 c o o o

r^ "^_'Cj t3 "O 'C

o
u

CI

ca 9?
P=^

T3

0)

O

H

o

D-

cS

O 'r-i

CK ' O

ft

g

p3
53

c«

pqpq

o s "

D-

D-

-M 1?'-'

i3 S q

OOOoOOOC'^OCyOCOrt.t^'ti.OOtaCOOOCOOO
•■'"■''■S''!tl''',iHUg''Xl

T-H 'C-t

o

.0

O !li O

UPP

;w

00 ' -t^QOrH ' '1— ( ■ ■ 1 'XO 'X 'O^^CO^HrH .XX
1-1 I '<Nr-HS* . .r-i I I ■ .t-iCO 1 rH . IM aa rl U rH

•00 • • -OO -OOOO • ■© 'O o • -ooo -ooo

000

o

o o

o

00000.00

o

ce .

02

tp*iMOco<n-*cc<-a5rH'NcD«Qi-<-*cCM(--0'— i'i<icicco-*"t5CDoro-^»3

J

ANALYSES OF SUaAR CANES.

25

^ »c Q -^ Q -^ o I- -^ tc o ^ cc o »c ^ I- »c ^ ^ cc »^ '^! X ^ -t X cc "-*' -^ o i- c* 1- '^" -* 3i "^t '^i cc ^i o? -ri c ci :r: c: x f- 1^ * -
I- 1- X X X t- 1- o I- is X I- 1- 1- 1- 5C i~ I- 1- X X X X X X X X I- 1- X 00 1- * 1- i - -i I- X X I- X X X Z I- X 1~ I- X X X

-*CCXt-t^90-*OS?Q0CSCCCCCPro»:-Cl?lN-i'

xmo5i-iCics5xcccxost-St-*»cio-jcelMs:c5:oS>.": — xi-

-W^-r-r-^ f— ( O^r

xO-^-^ifti'^c^Oi.^oT-f — c^O:c^:oc:^i-f'MC^i.-^?xi-x — f'r;~i-i-;c:^Oi-rT~'---t'^-»-~x:C-

1-H -ri cc -^ -^ i-*' — 31 T-H c; ic ri .-^ -yi T-i' j; ^-» ^i T-H -^" M- 1^ -^ ic 1^ >^ »':* r^ ^ ?t ri *>! c^' re ^ c; yi *^ ir — " •^" -t^ -^^ ■>» ^ -^ — ' '

\fi tfi :c ^* x' itt ic •* »c ■* oi to lO i-^ o »^ ^' »-^ :c j- j- x i-^ »— ao x' i-^ x h- ic ^ »tr t- 1-' i;^ -4* :c to i- ic iri i- 1^ lO :c i* ■*' — ' t - 1 - :i?

1-5

V

^1

.-cffi .

^i

Qi-i

a

g

3 rr. ;

Hi

O 3 ^ ,

o o = o oOQC c

o
O

Oti

9

« ; ; g Id

V, •^ Jj

a >* a

oj 2 ^

lis

o c c c o

'C "^ '^ "^ 'O

& ^ «? '

•^ D « ^

^^dSK^dS

t; g-'C'C'c-r'C'C'cis'e'C'a'C s fir's -c'^'C'C'^'C'^'d'r'rsE a ?-c
i^ : : ^-S : i ; ; : i i iS2* i^ i i |3 ;.S : li'S^q'S :

I c

a

OOOOOOOOOOflOO

H

>

X!

a -^ o o o

o

•^ C3

a) ; D
S3 a a ' ;h

o

ooooa.^-iess,coososoo ?--- csooodOooocoooooc
'C'C'CB a * sr; s-a-a-c ^-r S-c-r .-.^ S~'C'ot; ji'O'c-r'S'C'TS'c-c'a'aTS

OKW

PUCDEh

o
• CO

o o o

01

• 00

o • o o

d

. o o o

■ lOOO -O . > .ceo . 'COJO-. .© •

■J5

o o
•a -a

0 0 0

c o o o o

;xx.— isi.- cc?T«cc.*r-.xxx-*^ ■-->.•; Sois^^c^ — cScc;cc:3:c:

2(3 MANUFACTURE OF TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

o

OS

O

-to

lO

e

o

«

CO

s
1

tn

o
p.

a

o
O

3S-2

^COOiOCt^C<!CCt-iCt*CCQC<5<!0'

o

u
02

HO

a

a

0)

p.

01

u

SB

o
Ah

a

c

'2

cS

4^

ii rH cc CO cc H^' '^i CO ic CO cc -^ ir^ :r »^" '>i I co

O rH ^H ^H f-H .-H f-H T-^ r-H r— f— — — —'—- ^^ j^H

"!St-'i<<Nt-IOClL— t^i— iCOOCOOSrHt-

o
w

; o o o o

S/3

3^

. S 2 g g

^ i-i •-? i-j *-j

o o o

c8

O O O

0) o o o o

D-

i3
O
+j
SB
H

ooooSoooo
^ -ccc "S 'S 'C -cc

o : o

0)
SB

S

0/

m

o

K

a

H

o

o4

■ooo .ooo o-oooo
Oiiiai'''S'Oiiii

^ : : :q ; : ;^ ;;5 ; ; : :

050sSo»©5cQo5«Jocorociic§coro

S

IN

CO

a)

w

D-

S
o

4^

P.

a

W

O

ANALYSES OF SUGAR CANES.

27

NOTES ON THE AISTALYSES.

The most striking characteristic of the analyses is found in the
high average percentage of sucrose contained in these canes.
Although the growing season in niotst places where tliese canes were
produced is shorter than in Louisiana and the autumnal frosts come
at an earlier date, yet it is seen in almost every instance tliat the per-
centage of pure sugar or sucrose in the juice of the canes is higher
than the average percentage of the same substance in tlie canes of
Louisiana. This difference must be due largel}^ to the character of
the soil. The rich alluvial soils of Louisiana produce a more vigorous
growth, as a rule, with a tendency to slower maturity. At the time
of harvest, therefoi'e, the canes in Louisiana are greener and less
mature than in Georgia, Alabama, and Florida.

The quantity of reducing sugar, or glucose, as it is commonly
called — that is, sugars which do not crystallize readily and go to make
up the bulk of the molasses in sugar factories — is quite low in most
cases. Tlie purities are also comparatively high.

It is evident that cane juices of the composition given would insure
a fine yield of crystallized sugar if they wei'e manufactured for sugar
instead of sirup. Of coui'se, the great objection to the establishment
of a sugar industry in the region mentioned is the comparatively short
manufacturing season. The canes are not mature until early in
November, while killing frosts, except in Florida, are quite certain to
occui- before the end of November. These frosts may be at times of
excei)tional severity, as was the case in 1901, when the frost before the
middle of November throughout the cane regions of (Tcorgia was suf-
ficient not only to kill the canes, but also in manj' cases to freeze
them through and through. If in this region a season of three
months for sugar making could be assured, it is evident that, in so
far as the composition of the canes is concerned, there could ]»e no
doubt of the successful establishment of the sugar industry. In the
climatic conditions, however, wliich obtain it Avould be evidently
unwise to advise the estaldishment of such an industry, at least dur-
ing the i)resent low prices of sugar.

South Carolina, by reason of the small number of samples sent —
viz, only one — should be excluded from the comparison of the data
by States.

Of the other States, Georgia has sent hy far the largest number
of samples, and hence the average data from Georgia are more to be
relied upon to show the general characteristics of the cane g7-own in
that region than are the data from the other States.

In the 12 samples from Alabama it is seen that the average per-
centage of sucrose or pui-e sugar in the juice is 13.2, that of the
reducing sugar L30, and the j)urity coetiicient 78. 8. This is some-
what lower than is desirable, the aim being to have a purity above 80.

28 MANUFACTURE OF TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

Of the individual samples from Alabama several were of very liigli
quality, especially some of those received from Henry County, viz,
Nos. 13, 17, and It). In these sam])les l)oth the content of piire
sugar and the purity are very high. An excellent sample was also
received from (Tcneva County, viz, No. 22, in which the content of
sucrose was 1'T.4 and the purity 84.6.

From Florida 24 samples were received, in which it is shown that
the average content of sugar Avas 12.4, reducing sugar 1.26, and the
average pui-ity 79.7. As comiitired witli Alabama the samples from
Florida show a lower content of sugai", witli a sliglitly higher purity.
IVlany excellent individual samples were also re(;eived from Florida,
and it is oidy because of a few which were exceptionally poor that
the average of the State is so low.

Ninety-nine samples were received from the State of Georgia, repre-
senting iiractically every })ai-t of the State in which sugar cane is
grown. The average data for Georgia show i;3.o per cent of sugar,
1.3(1 per cent of reducing sugar, and a pui-ity of 70.3. A glance at
the analytical data will show lai-ge numbers of samples of exception-
ally line qualily, and the average is certainl}' suri)rising in the content
of sucrose which it reveals. The coefficient of i^urity does not quite
reach the desired standard of so. It (^omes, however, very near reach-
ing this standai'd, and falls below it by reason of the somewhat large
percentage of reducing sugar which the Georgia canes have shown.
Many of Ihese canes were forwarded for analysis after the hard freeze
referred to above, and hence the suci'ose nuiy, to some extent, have
been invertcMl by fermentative processes after the frost. Neverthe-
less, taken as a wliole, the data are entirely satisfactory. In so far as
sirup making is concerned, indeed, a high coutent of reducing sugars
is desirable, since these sugars tend to pi-event the crystallization of
the sucrose, which, when it occurs in commercial samples of sirups,
unfits th(Mn to a certain extent for th(^ market.

ARRANGEMENT OF A SIRUP FACTORY.

In the preceding pages it has been shown that the simplest appa-
ratus can be used effectively fen- making sirup from sugar cane. In
fact, some of the sirups of the finest flavor and most desirable quali-
ties are produced with a simple mill, operated b,y a mule or horse, and
with a single oi)en kettle for evaporation. When woi-king on a large
scale, however, more extensive apparatus and appliances are required.
It is evident that, in point of economy, the horse mill and open pan
can not compete su(;cessfully with the heavier mills, defecating i)ans,
steam evaporators, pumps for lifting sirups and juices, cranes For
loading and unloading cane, and other mechanical appliances to save
labor and facilitate rai)idity of work.

PKOBLEMS WHICH NEP:D FURTHER STUDY,

29

Tlie i^raetical sirup maker can easily devise a factory arranged
in a suitable way to secure his purpose. In order to make some suj^-
gestions which may be helj^ful in a case of this kind, I re(iuested Mr.
G. L. Spencer, of this Bureau, to prepare a brief outline sketch of a
factory for making sirup, and as a result of this request the plans in
figs. 1 and 2 have been j^repared. It must be understood that the
object of these sketches is not to furnish working details for building
a sirup factory, but only to give in general an outlined plan of
arrangement which will be suggestive to those who may be intending
to build a factory with all the modern api)liauces.

BlOWEB [gl PUMP

UNO ENGINE I I rj— ra

o

BOILER

BA6ASSE
BURNER

BOILER SHED

o

Ul

MILL

UJ

I/)
O

JOL

_□_

/!\

SCUM

TANKS

C.JT.

\

ra~ra J.P
HIE S.p

PACKING ROOM

F

:tqry.

GROUND FLOOR (SKETCH PLftN)

SCALE IN FEET,

(BUILDINO IN OUTLINE ONLY ;

C J T , CLEAN 3UICE TANK.
OP . OUICE PUMP
S P . SCUM PUMP

Flo. 1.— Sirup factory, ground floor; sketch jilan.

PROBLEMS WHICH NEED FURTHER STUDY.

(1) The first i)roblem encountered in tiu' discussion of the study
of table sirups is evidently a reexamination of the siinips now on the
market to learn their character and determine the extent of the adul-
teration i)racticed therein. A study similar to this was made several
years ago in this Bureau, and the results published in part i'> of Bulle-
tin No. 13. Since that time, however, numerous new forms of adul-
teration have been invented and practiced, ami the whole subject
needs another investigation. To this end it will be necessary to pur-
chase in the open market tyjies of table sirups which are in use in

30

MANUFACTUKE OF TABLE 8IRUPS FKOM SUGAR CANE.

different parts (jf the country and subject tlieni to careful chemical
stud3^

The first object to be attaijied in an economic chemical study of this
kind is to secure for the i^roduct of the sirup maker a fair and free
market, in which the price of the article shall be regulated by its
(juality and by the law of supply and demand. It would be useless to
study this problem from the chemical and technical side only, and in

MAIN BUILDING ROOF.
[SKtTCH plan].

— J

JUICE PIPE FROM MILL

MILL HOUSE ROOF

to

UJUJ

do-
ll.

O:

o;

•7 STEPS S
7} X 10" c

<

-tO-

-1 a:
I- z
I- <

c9

SPACE

FOR

ErVAPORATOR

DOWN ,22 STEPS.

ilRUF FACTORY.

SECONDSTORY(SKETCH PLAN).
SCALE IN FEET.

10

—4 — I— t-

20

I I I

25

30

1 i I

(building in outline: only]

Fig. 2.— Siimp factoi'y, second story; ski'tch plan.

the end to have a pure and wholesome product placed on the market
and ])i'()ui2;ht into ruinous competition with a cheaper and adulterated
article. There can be no legal nor technical objection to the manu-
facture and sale of any kind of a table sirup, not injurious to health,
made up of such ingredients as the manufacturer may desii'e to use

PKOBLEMS WHICH NEED FUKTHER STUDY. 31

and the puivliaser to consunic. In oilier words, a market should be
just as free to mixtures of glucose, melted sugar, and flavoring and
coloring extracts, as to a pure sirup made diiectl}' fi-om the cane or tlie
iiuiple tree. Tlie only poinl to be kept in view is that these manu-
factured articles should be sold under their <>\\ ii luimes and labels
and should not be allowed to imitate in name oi- bibel tlie qualities of
the i3ure article. The maker of a pure table sirup fi-om cane or other
source has no right to demand that the market be closed to ai'tificial
mixtures oi- ])roducts intended for a similar pui-pose. On the other
liand, the maker of these artificial products certainly has no right to
utilize the name and label of the genuine article. Every class of busi-
ness is perfectly legitimate if carried on in a legitimate mannei-, and
the market should be open and free to all. A complete study of Hie
character and extent of the adulteration of sirups is therefore tlie
first step toward placing upon the market and securing the sale of
the pure and unadulterated article.

(2) The agricultural problem, from llic agricuitund-chemieal ])oint
of view, is also important . This prolilem has been discussed to a cer-
tain extent in this bulletin, and an extensive study <»f Hie character
of the soil and the chemical properties of the product has been pre-
sented. It is evident from this examination that extensive fertiliza-
tion must be practiced on soils of the kind indicated in order 1o secure
large and remunerative crops. Only a thoi-ough experimental trial of
the fertilizers indicated by the analyses in various combinations and
mixtures and applied to various kinds of soil will secure results which
will enable the practical farmer to utilize tlie agricultural facilities
which are placed at his disposal in the most economic and effective
way. Numerous plot experiments in Avhich fertilizing materials of
diiferent kinds are applied in definite quantities and under controlled
conditions will be required to establish the genei-al princijiles which
will enable the farmer to use his fertilizers in the most advantageous
manner. These experiments all require analyses of the fertilizers
used, their measurement in definite quantities, and their api)lication
in a thoi'oughly scientific way.

(o) The thii-d problem in connection with a study of this kind is the
improvement of the milling ju-ocesses in order to secure the largest
possible expression of the juice of the canes. At llie i)reseiit time
single mills of three rollers each are almost universally emiiloyed.
There are no data which are sufficiently extensive to enable us to esti-
mate the quantity of juice secured. It is evident, liowever, that the
percentage of extraction is somewhat low, and probably accurate
measurement would show that in many cases not over 00 per cent of
the juice contained in the cane is expressed.

The bagasse coming from mills of this kind is entirely too wet to
burn effectively. In fact, in the whole country in wliich sirups from
sugar cane are manufactured fuel is so cheap there is little economie

32 MANUFACTURE OF TABLE SIRUPS FROM SUGAR CANE.

importance in burning tlie bagasse. Since, however, the bagasse
accumnlates and must be removed, it is evident that if it can be
burned and furnish the heat for manufacturing oi)erations it would be
the most economical way of disposing of it. The establishment, there-
fore, of milling processes which would leave the bagasse in a condi-
tion to be burned would not only increase the total output per ton of
cane, but also diminish the expense of manufacture.

(4) Tlie fourth problem which presents itself for investigation is
the determination of the best methods of clarifying and purifying the
juice j)revious to evaporation. This is a problem which has been
worked out pretty thoroughly, and there is little left to study except
mechanical and technical details. The principles of neutralizing the
free acids present in the cane juices for the purpose of facilitating
clarification must, however, be applied in a somewhat different man-
ner in sirup manufacture than in making sugar. It is desirable in
the case of sirups to leave the juice decidedly acid. This is necessary
for two reasons. In the first place, the acid juices make a light-
colored and more presentable looking sirup, and second, in the process
of evaporation the free acids of the juices tend to invert certain
({uantities of the sucrose and thus render the finished product less
liable to crystallization. To just what extent the neutralization of
the natural acids can l)e carried to secure satisfactory clarification
and yet leave sufficient acidity for the purposes mentioned above is
a j)roblem wliich demands careful study.

(5) The linal problem which demands consideration in these studies
is to secure a sirup of uniform character, both in coloi' and consistence,
and to put it in packages in such a way as to jjrevent fermentation
during warm weather. When these two conditions are secured the
marketable value of the sirup will be vastly increased. The first con-
sideration woul<l l)e probably to mix large (luantities of the finished
product and thus secure uniformit3% as it would be found difficult, if
not imi)ossil)le, to manufacture at different times small quantities of
sirup of a perfectly uniform color and cojisistence.

Not only should the sirup thus manufactured be ]3reserved as iudi-
cated, but it also should b(^ so treated as to prevent the possible crys-
tallization of the sucrose. This, as indicated above, can be secured
l)y imhunng a certain amount ol" invci-sion dui-ing evaporation. The
addition of antisei)tics to siru[) of this kind is to be in all cases dis-
courag('(l as ill advised and possibly injurious to the consnmer. Free-
dom Ci'om f(^rmentation should be secured by packing the finished
[)roduct in such a way as lo excbule germs, or if germs be admitted
during packing the final i)ackage should be sterilized before being
sent to the market. Just what the methods will be for securing these
desirable results can only be determined bj^ actual experience.

O

U. S. DKPARTMEN'r Ol- ArxRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY— BULLETIN NO. 71.

II. U. W II.KV, (HiKr .IK Kri'.KAi-.

A STUDY OF CIDER MAKING

i\

FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ENGLAND,

WITH

COMMENTS AND COMPARISONS ON AMERICAN WORK.

BY

Slnrlul Aijmt of the V. S. DejMdiiKtiit of Af/rlrulhtre fwd Mi/<t,l,.,jis!
of tilt' Viffjiiiiu A<ificultiiriil Exper'niind Sfiilitm.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1 ;»(»;;,

I

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY— BULLETIN NO. 71.
H. W. WILEY, Chief of Bureau.

A STUDY OF CIDER MAKING

IN

FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ENGLAND,

WITH

COMMENTS AND COMPARISONS ON AMERICAN WORK.

BY

AVILLIAM B. AL^\^OOT>,

Special Agent of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and Mycologist
of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1903.

LHTTER OF TRAXSMIT'rAL.

U. S. Depart3ient of Agriculture,

Bureau or Chemistry,

^Vash;»(/fo,t, I), r., j>iJ,j /;, 1002.

Sir: I have the honor to tninsmit herewith, for your examination
and approval, the manu.seript of a bulletin prepared by Mr. William
B. Alwood, special agent of the Department of Agricultun*, on cider
making: in France, Germanv. and Enoland.

I recommend that this manuscript be published as Bulletin No. 71
of the Bureau of Chemistry.

Respectfully, 11. AV. Wit.ky.

Chief.
Hon. James Wilson.

Secretary of Agriculture.

LETTER i)V SUBMITTAL

Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station,

BlaeMnirg, Vet., Jane 23, 1902.
Sir: Li pursuance of a commission from the Secretaiy of Agricul-
ture, dated September 13, 11)00, appointing- me a special agent in the
Division of Chemistry, and of your official instructions of the same
date, J ])eg to submit the accompanying report, comprising a partial
study of the cider industry in Europe, which has been prepared for
the LI. S. Department of Agriculture.

The present paper comprises only a part of the work authorized by
the commission issued to me. and carried on under conjoint direction.
The aim has been to present a practical and popular treatment of the
subject, so far as the time at m}' disposal permitted me to carry the
inquiry. Necessarily this report must be fragmentary and incom-
plete, as one person could not possibly coyer the entire ground in a
single season.

From the complex nature of the work undertaken, it has seemed
best to present two reports — the present one dealing with the economic
and practical data collected, and a second I'cport dealing witli the more
technical study of methods of fermentation and related matters, such
as a study of the organisms commonly found in apple juice, and the
importance of the isolation, culture, and employment of pure yeasts
in the manufacture of ciders and other fermented beyerages made
from fruit juices. A discussion of the organisms causing mal-fermen-
tations will also be attempted.

Very respectfully submitted.

WiV- B. Alwood,

Special Agent.
Dr. H. W. Wiley, Chief., Bureau of Chemistry,

U. S. Dejyartment of Agriculture.
4

PREFACE.

The manufacture of cider is an important adjunct to fruit growing
in the United States. A well-made cider is a beverage which is appre-
ciated by all and one which is within the reach of ever}- possessor of
an orchard. Cider is also a beverage which mav l)e manufactured
without the supervision of the excise officials. It is thus an industry
which can be widely extended and whose development will make the
growing of fruits more prohtable.

It is evident that the principles which underlie the conduct of the
fermentation of apple juice in order to secure a product of a definite
chemical composition also apply to the juices of other fruits, such as
pears and peaches, and thus a Inilletin of this description affects, in
general, the fruit interests of the country wherever the juices of fruits
are employed for potable purposes.

Up to the present time the manufacture of cider in the United States
has been conducted largely by empirical methods. Little has been done
toward the study of the chemical composition of the fruits, the fresh
juices, the fermenting musts, or the finished products. What is true
of wines is also true of ciders and other fermented fruit juices, viz,
that their excellence and healthful ness are dei)endent entirely upon
their chemical composition. The changes which take place in fruit
juices during fermentation are essentially chemical, and are produced
by ferments, which in these instances ma}" be regarded as chemical
reagents.

In order that the manufacture of cider maj^ be conducted in a more
systematic and scientific manner in this country, it was deemed desir-
able to study the best processes employed in foreign countries, espe-
ciall}^ in England, France, and Germany, which are the principal cider-
producing countries of the world. To this end, Mr. William R. Ahvood
was employed by the Secretary of Agriculture as a special agent to
act under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, and
was detailed to study the actual processes of manufacture in the coun-
tries named, as well as to conduct extensive experiments here. Mr.
Alwood, in addition to collecting valuable information of a practical
nature, has also ))rought together the scattered chemical data found
in difficultly accessible reports and papers, so as to make them available

for use.

5

6

It is evident that a careful study of the data thus collected will be
of great service to our own manufacturers in showing- them the methods
which experience and scientific studies in foreign countries have deter-
mined to be the best for the production of a wholesome and palatable
article.

This bulletin serves as an introduction to a more detailed study of
the best methods of fermentation, cellar treatment, and preservation
of cider products, together with a more detailed chemical study of the
fruits, the musts, and the finished beverages.

H. \V. Wiley,

Chief of Bureau.

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction 1 ]

Beginning of this investigation 11

Quantity of apples produced in the United States 12

Disposition of this fruit 1 :^

Acknowledgments 14

Classification of ciders 1 .5

In France 45

In (lermany 16

In England 18

Principal cider-producing countries of Europe 19

Relative importance of the cider industry in different countries 19

The chief cider-producing districts 20

The French cider districts 21

The German cider districts 24

The English cider districts 26

Cider apples 27

Important characteristics of cider apples 28

Comparison of cider apples 30

French standards 30

German standards 35

English standards 39

American standards 42

Harvesting, transportation, and storage of cider fruit 46

Cider-making establishments 50

Primitive methods and appliances 51

Modern methods and appliances 56

Factory systems 59

French factories 59

German factories 67

English factories 71

Production of the must • 74

Ripeness of the fruit 74

Mixing varieties of apples 75

Washing the fruit 76

Grinding or crushing the fruit 76

INlaceration of pulp 77

Expressing the must 78

Soaking the pomace - 78

Fermentation of cider 78

Room, vessels, and appliances used 79

Temperature of fermentation room i 79

Vessels used in fermentation 80

Filling the vessels 81

Controlling the exit and entrance of gases 82

Ventilating bungs and spigots for casks 84

^

8

Fermentation of cider — Continued. Page.

The character of the must 86

Use of densimeters 86

What is a standard must? 87

Fortifying the must 91

Sterilizing the must by heat 91

The use of special yeasts 92

Observation and control of fermentation 94

Definition and description of fermentation 94

First or tumultuous fermentation 95

Racking off 98

Avoidance of contact with air 98

Second fermentation 99

Second racking off 100

Lager fermentation 102

Germaii method of fermentation 102

Preserving cider in storage 103

Filtering or clarifying the cider 104

The chemical composition of cider 108

Works of reference 113

ILLISTRATIOXS.

PLATES.

I'age.
Plate I. Fig. 1. — Main building, Royal Poniological School, Geisenheiin,
Germany. Fig. 2. — Giant tree of Pifrm (Sorbnx) domestir<i,

Taunu.'i, ( »ennany 14

II. Fig. 1.— Cider ai)i)le trees by the roadside, Normamly, France.

Fig. 2. — Glimpse into an old pear orchard, Normandy 20-

II I. Types of cider apple trees in Normandy, France 22

IV. Homes of peasant cider makers in Normandy, France 24

V. Fig. 1. — Train loaded with cider apples in sacks, France. Fig. 2. —

Ox cart used for hauling apples in Germany 48

VI. Fig. 1. — Itinerant cider makers at work in streets; straw used in
building up cheese, Rennes, France. Fig. 2. — Similar outfit

mounted for travel, waiting for a job, Trouville, France 58

VII. Fig. 1. — Butleigh Court, Somersetshire, Englaml, seat of English
cider experiment station. Fig. 2. — The cider orchard at But-
leigh Court 74

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1. — Bin made of hurdles for outdoor storage of apples, used in England. 50

2. — The ' ' tour a auge ' ' apple crusher, Normandy, France 51

3. — Primitive apple grater in use in Germany 54

4. — Pri]nitive single-lever cider press in use in Germany 55

5. — Primitive double-lever cider press in use in Germany 55

6.— The "greif " apple crusher of Germany 56

7. — Slotted bottom of hopper used in "greif" machine 57

8. — "Greif" ai)ple crusher — sectional view of hojtper 58

9. — Crushing cylinders of the "greif" machine 59

10. — Fermentation and storage room, Noel system, France (iO

11. — Vertical section of factory of the "Union Agricole," St. ()nen-de-

Thouberville, near Rouen, France 63

12. — Ground plan of factory of the " Union Agricole " G4

13. — Vertical cross section of small German cider factory with arched

cellars , 70

14. — Vertical cross section of two-story German cider i-ellar 71

15. — Noel device for ventilating fermentation casks 82

16. — German earthenware ventilating funnel — vertical section 83

17. — Glycerin ventilating funnel , 84

18. — Bent ventilating tube 85

19. — Noel ventilating bung 85

20. — Device for maintaining covering layer of carbon dioxid as cider is

withdrawn 103

21. — Device for charging casks with carbon dioxid in storage cellar 104

22. — Device for burning sulphur match in casks 104

23. — Linen sack gravity filter 105

24. — Cellulose power filter used in Germany 106

25.— Asbestos sack filter—" Filtre Maignen " 107

26. — Asbestos gravity filter 108

9

A STUDY OF CIDER MAKlXfi IN FRANCE, CERMANY,

AND ENCLAND.

INTRODUCTION.

In the United States cider lui.s been in the past too oenerally
regarded as a product of very little importance from a conmiercial
standpoint, and it has been too often so made that most persons of cul-
tured taste have looked upon it with little approval when oflered as a
beveraee. Yet from the etvmoloov of the word it is certain that the
name is ver}^ ancient, and that cider was the wine or stront^ drink,
"shekar," of the Phoenicians, and was well known by the Aryan race
which populated northern Europe before the dawn of histoi'v. A
study of the words u.sed to denote the apple and the beverag-e made
from it shows that the fruit and the wine were known l)efore the I'aces
of northern Europe separated into Slavonians, Germans, and Celts,
and that the ancient Britons introduced the fruit into the British Isles
before the Koman conquest.* The word cidfr as used In' English-
speakino- people is the same as the Latin cicera^ Spanish sidrc Italian
sid/'o, and French cidre.

The German language, on the other hand, seems never to have con-
tained the Avord cider as a pure German word, l)ut the beverage made
from the fruit of the apple is classed as a wine {('J>f(f ice/n).

BEGINNING OF THIS INVESTIGATION.

The subject of working u}) the low-grade apples left as an unmer-
chantable residuum of the apple crops grown in the United States has
for some 3'ears attracted the attention of the writer, and experimental
work on this subject has been done in the horticultural dei)artment
of the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station for the past eight
years. Several preliminaiw reports of this work have been published*
from time to time, intended to encourage local etiorts to utilize the
large quantities of unmerchantable fruit produced every year when
there is a fruit crop.

These preliminary efforts served to awaken a strong interest in the
possibilities of making a pure sound cider from our apples, which

«Sir George Bird wood quoted by Cooke in "Cider and Perry," p. 3.
l> Bulletins 48, 57, and 71, Va. Agr. Expt. Station.

11

12

might serve as a light American wine so cheap and wholesome as to be
usable by everybody, and as a secondary product from such fermented
cider a tine apple vinegar to displace the enormous quantities of chem-
ical vinegars which find sale in those States where their manufacture
and sale are not restricted by statute.

The importance of utilizing our low-grade apples can only be appre-
ciated after realizing the proba])le ciuantity of this fruit produced in
the United States.

QUANTITY OF APPLES PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES.

It is impossible to present an accurate estimate of the apple crop, of
the United States. The Census Bureau has not in the past gathered
statistics concerning this crop which can be said to cover this subject
with any degree of completeness; nor has the Department of Agri-
culture been able up to the jDresent time to furnish the data desired.
The difficulties grow out of the nature of the crop itself. The apple
is a fruit grown almost over the entire cultivated area of the country,
but in many instances only in a haphazard maimer and as a crop of
secondary importance; hence any attempt to deal with it accurately
from a statistical standpoint must of necessity fail because of the
immense labor involved and the lack of definite information among
the farmers themselves as to the amount of their crops.

The growth, however, of commercial orcharding, along Avith the
practice of packing and handling the merchantable crop in barrels
and boxes, has made it possible to gather with some degree of accu-
racy statistics of the merchantable apples which enter into commerce.
These statistics have been collected by the Orange Judd Publishing
Compan}' with perhaps more care than by any other concern in the
country, and from their tables" the followino- data are taken:

The greatest crop ever recoixled in this countiy appears to have been
that of 1896, and comprised 69,070,000 barrels. It also appears that
the average merchantable crop of the countr}- is in round numbers
50,000,000 barrels, or about 110,000,000 bushels, annually.

If this quantity enters into commerce through avenues sufficiently
definite to give it a place in the statistics of trade, how shall one esti-
mate the millions of bushels which are unmerchantable, or which enter
commerce untraced and unrecorded^

It is, then, very evident that we have no means of estimating with
reasonable accuracy the grand total of our apple crop; but well-informed
persons will, I think, agree to the statement that, on the whole, not
more than about 60 per cent of the fruit actually grown in this country
finds its way into chaimels of commerce in such a manner as to appear
in general statistics. If this be a fair suj)position, then nearly
100,000,000 bushels of this fruit are either consumed without having

"American Agriculturist, October 27, 1900, p. .S9S.

18

passed through the channels of cominerce mentioned above or go to
waste on the farms wh(M-(^ grown.

DISPOSITION OF THIS FRUIT.

First of all, a largo part is consumod whore grown or in local markets.
Largo quantities ar(> consumod in the manufacture of evaporated fruit
and of cider, both for drinking purposes and for conversion into
vinegar. In certain districts largo (piantities of low-grade fruit are
used for canning and making marmalades, butters, jollies, etc. A
great quantity of this unmerchantalde fruit, especially in the South,
goes into the preparation of sun-dried fruit. In some years 200 tons
of this sun-dried fruit are shipped from the little station of Chris-
tiansburg, Va., S miles from the experiment station at lilackslnirg.

Perhaps the data" in regard to merchantable fruit produced have
been collected with as great accuracy in Virginia as in any other State.
These data show that our crop of 1897 reached about 281,SiS9 barrels.
These figures are not quite high enough for that year, as the total
merchantable crop was about 300,000 barrels. Supposing this to have
been 60 per cent of the total crop, about 1,400,000 bushels of apples
were produced in Virginia that year. Of this quantity about 000,000
■bushels were localh'^ consumed or went to waste. Formerlv the esti-
mates were much larger, being based on the Eleventh Census,'' but we
now know that the census tigures of 1890, so far as they relate to apple
production in Virginia, are inadequate.

Excepting the sun-dried, evaporated, and canned fruit, the apple
products just enumerated are generally adulterated in tho United
States, either bv the use of other than vogotal)le substances or bv the
mixture of diflerent fruit and vegetable substances, and the use of
various preservatives and substances which, if not preservative, serve
to mask defects in quality and cheapen methods of manufacture. This
adulteration has l)ecome so notorious as to groatlv injure a logitimato
trade which should be a most proper and natural outlet for this large
portion of our apple crop Avhich falls below merchantable grade.

Tho important practical l)oaring of these secondaiT industries upon
fruit growing in our country has led the w^'iter for a number of 3'ears
past to devote some attention to their study, with a view to determin-
ing the principles Avhich lie at the basis of the practical maiuifacture
of those products on the farms or in small cooperative factories placed
in tho midst of tho districts which furnish tho raw material.

To this work the authorities of tho Virginia Agricultural Ex})orimont
Station have given all the support possil)le with the funds available,
and the work has progressed sufficiently to enable us to give practical
instruction of a reliable character to our students, especially along the
lines of canning and making l)utters and marmalades. But on some

"Bulletin 101, Va. Expt. Sta. & Bulletin -18, Va. Expt. Sta.

14

lines we had up to the spring of 1900 made little or no progress, most
conspicuous among which were the practical methods of fermenting
ciders and vinegars, and the ])iology of the alcoholic and acetic ferments.
All questions relating to products from fruits received consideration
in m}' work abroad, but particular attention was given to a practi-
cal examination of the methods of manufacturing cider in France,
German}', and England, and a study of the biology of alcoholic and
acetic fermentation of fruit juices, either for the manufacture of
beverages or vinegar. This paper deals with the cider investigation
in its practical bearings, and other questions of interest are reserved
for a subsequent report.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS,

In the investigations made abroad I was almost without exception
received in the most cordial manner by both public officers and private
individuals whom 1 had occasion to call upon for assistance; and
while 1 can not mention by name all persons who gave assistance, I
wish to extend special thanks to the following:

Tiie diplomatic and consular officers of our Government at London,
Paris, Frankfort, and Berlin extended every courtesy, aiding me by
introductions and by furnishing special information, all of which
assisted very much in the accomplishment of Jthe work in hand.

In England I was received in a most courteous manner and, barring
some slight exceptions, was shown over the factories and given such
information as was desired. Among those who thus assisted I wish to
mention especially the following:

jNIajor Craigie, of the board of agriculture; Mr. F. H. Hall, of the agricultural col-
lege at Wye; Hon. C. W. Radcliff Cooke, of Hellens, near Dyuiock, Herefordshire;
Mr. Charles D. Wise, of W^inchcombe, Gloucestershire; Mr. F. J. Lloyd, London,
consulting chemist of the Bath and West Society; R. Neville Grenville, esq., But-
leigh Court, Somersetshire; Mr. Frederick George Farwell, Bath; Mr. A. E. Beach,
Winchcombe, Gloucestershire; Mr. T. W. Beach, Ealing Road, Brentford, London;
Mr. H. P. Buhner, Ryelands, Herefordshire; Mr. Henry Weston, Much ^larkle,
Herefordshire; Mr. John Watkins, Withington, Herefordshire.

In France I was very courteously received by Mr, Leon Vassilliere,
director of agriculture in the ministry of agriculture, and by him
introduced to others. Prof. A. Kayser, of the National School of
Agriculture, Paris, extended ever}^ courtesy' in his laboratory, and
permitted me to note the methods of his work and stud}' the litera-
ture of his department, Mr, A. Triielle, of Trouville, Calvados,
assisted me in securing information and special literature, Mr, A.
Power, director of the Grand Cidrerie at Saint Ouen-de-Thoul)erville,
permitted me to study the methods of the factory, and gave nuich
assistance, Mr, E, Herissant, director of the Practical Agricultural
School of Three Crosses, at Rennes, Brittany, in like manner explained

Bui 71 Bureau of CheiTiistry. U. S. Dupt. Agr.

Plate I.

FiQ. 1.— Main Building, Royal Pomological School,
Geisenheim, Germany.

Fig. 2.— Giant Tree of Pyrus iSorbus) domestica, Taunus,

Germany.

15

the methods of his work, l)oth in studying* varieties of cider apples
and making- cider, and secured special literature for me. Mi\ Isidore
Guibout, and his son, Mr. Joseph Guibout, peasant farmers of Danestal,
Calvados, gave me every opportunity to study the conditions and
technique of cider making on the peasant proprietors' places. ^Nlr.
J. M. Buisson, secretary of one of the horticultural syndicates of
France, extended many courtesies, and introduced me to manv men
from whom information could be o))tained.

In Germany I am first of all indebted to Director K. (ioethe, of the
Royal Pomological School, at Geisenheim (PI. I, iig. 1), for courtesies
extended at that institution. I am also especially indebted to Prof.
Dr. Julius Wortmann. director of the laboratory of plant piiysiologj''
at Geisenheim, for his assistance in regard to every part of my
inquiry and for instruction while working in his la))oratory. From
Prof. Dr. Richard Meissner, then assistant to Professor Wortmann,
I received much personal assistance and kindly counsel. Prof. Dr.
Paul Lindner, of Berlin, also extended courtesies at the Imperial
High School for Fermentation Work, for which lam deeply indebted.

Of the manufacturers in Germany I wish to especially remember
the Brothers Freyeisen, of Frankfort, for permitting an examination
of their work and factories in detail. Acknowledgments are also due
to Mr. Fritz Batz, Neuenhain, Taunus, and Mr. C. H. Schmidt, of
Schierstein, Rhinegau, for extending like courtesies at their factories,

CLASSIFICATION OF CIDERS.

Wines have long since become well recognized by specitic names
which, within limits, denote certain characteristics, more or less con-
stant; Init with the fermented juice of the ap})le in the past all has
been cider, whether good, bad, or indifferent; and even 3-et onl}" those
who are well informed on the question are aware that there arc ciders
and ciders.

To the fact that ciders have not in the past l)ecn developed on
special lines and classified, we owe much of the misunderstanding in
regard to the possibilit}^ of making a good beverage from apple juice;
but to the fact that so much vilely adulterated or chemically concocted
stuff is put on the market as a drink, we owe, in much greater degree,
the general misunderstanding in regard to this product in our country.

IX FRANCE.

The French attempt to classify ciders as "pure juice," '• marchand,"
and "boisson." To say that this classification is well observed is wide
of the truth. The first named is intended to be pure cider of a special
quality, made from the finest fruit. It should contain 0 or 7 per cent

16

of alcohol, and may be made as still cider — i. e., fermented '"dry"
(sec); as "mousseux," cider bottled before all the siio-ar is exhausted,
and so handled as to develop and retain a certain quantity of gas; or
as cider "champagnise," which has received more special treatment
than ordinary "'mousseux" and often is, in fact, dosed with sugar to
fortify it.

The cider "marchand," or simply cider, should contain from 4 to 5
per cent alcohol, and is made from fruits of medium quality; or, as
more often happens, if rich enough, it is diluted by mixture of the
second pressing with pure juice. This is the cider of commerce as it
ordinarily leaves the manufacturer, but after it pays the octroi or
tax and enters into consumption in the city, it may lie, and often is,
diluted and becomes quite a different article from that which leaves
the manufacturer.

The '"boisson," as applied to a cider, means the juice of second or
even third pressing of the pomace. It is fermented comparativ^ely
"dry," contains about 2 to H per cent of alcohol, and is the ordinary
cider of the common people, especially laborers in both country and
city, in the cider districts. It is often furnished in large quantities to
the farm laborers, and if so handled as to retain considerable gas, or
artiliciallv charged, it is an agreeable light drink. "Boisson" is also
very often called "petit cidre" (small cider).

A poor cider is made from the unpared chopped American dried
apples and from the dried cores and parings we sell to France, by
treating this stock as follows: About 10 kilos (22 pounds) of the dried
stock are macerated in a vat containing one hectoliter (about 26 gal-
lons) of water with addition of some raisins or sugar to suit the taste
of the manipulator, and this is then permitted to ferment slightly in
mass to extract the desired substances, and the liquid is expressed and
treated as in case of low-grade cider. The beverage made in this man-
ner is restricted by law to 3 per cent alcohol content and is a cheap
drink, used mostly at low-class restaurants and for laborers. This low-
grade apple stock sent to France is also used to macerate with hard
cider to restore in part its quality ]»y inducing new fermentation; but
not the slightest evidence was found to substantiate the supposition
heretofore frequently advanced, that this poor apple stock, or that
even good sun-dried apple stock is used to make French wines or to
adulterate them.

IN GERMANY.

Cider is classified in Germany into common cider, or "apfel wein,"
"export apfel wein," and "champagner apfcl wein." One also con-
stantly meets with such names as "Speierling aj^fel wein," "Boers-
dorfer apfcl wein," and others. These grades of cider do not
correspond closely with the classes or grades of French or English

17

ciders. These names are, in fact, more to l)e relied upon as having a
definite meaning so far as the strength and purity of the article is
concerned.

The common cider of Germany is made just as they make ordinar}'
light wines, and their cider is, in fact as well as in name, a wine. It
will show from 3.75 to 4.50 or nearly 5 per cent of alcohol, varying
with the character of the fruit, and the ordinar}- cider is a dry, light
wine of very insipid taste to the American palate when not charged
with carbon dioxid. These ciders are kept in casks and drawn as
wanted.

The "export apt'el wein'' is made practically in the same manner
from selected fruit, but is either bottled when there is still sugar
enough to saturate it with gas or is saturated artificially. It may
show 4.5 to 5 or 5.5 per cent of alcohol and is a still light wine.

The "champagner apfel wein'' or '"schaum apfel wein" is much
like champagne from grape wines. At a proper stage the cider is
clarified, sugared, and bottled, and carried through the processes
described hereafter.

The ''"Boersdorfer apfel wein" is simph' a name given to indicate a
product supposedh^ made from the Boersdorfer apple, but it was not
evident that this brand had any special qualities not found in a good
export grade.

The "Speierling apfel wein," however, is a cider made by using a
small proportion of the juice from the wild fruit known to botanists as
Pyrus {Sorhus) domestica. This tree was found growing to giant pro-
portions on the Taunus mountains about Soden. The fruit when fullv
ripe and touched by frost becomes very mellow and has an agreeable
flavor, but before ripening it is characterized by a pungent, acrid
juice so rich in tannin as to remind one of the unripe American per-
simmon in its effect on the mucous membrane of the mouth. The
juice of this wild fruit is added to apple juice in small quantity, not
over 5 per cent, and by reason of the tannin contained is thought to
produce a finer cider, which is more easily clarified, and to furjiish in
the finished product a superior flavor and bouquet. (PI. I, fig. '1.)

It can not be said that the German ciders appeal to the American
palate, 'with the exception of their champagne ciders and the very
finest of the other grades; but that the}' are well-made standard goods
is most certainly true.

In Germany great quantities of fresh, partly fermented cider are
offered at the restaurants in the fall season. This they call '' rauscher"
or "siiss apfel wein" (smoking or sweet cider). The brothers Freyei-
sen stated that they sold ordinarily about 5.000 hectoliters of such
cider each year in Frankfort during the making season. This would
be about 132,000 gallons.

17247— No. 71—03 2

18

IN ENGLAND.

In England a strong effort is being- made to bring about a better
understanding of the importance of grading ciders in accordance with
some standard. But it could not be learned that any generally accepted
classification had been adopted, further than that the Bath and West
Society, which holds the only fair at which any considerable exhibit
of ciders is made in England, recognizes two classes, i. e., those show-
ing 4 per cent of alcohol or more, and those Avhich show less than 4
per cent of alcohol. The latter are called small cider by their chemist,
but this word is not accepted in the English trade. From analyses
made by the United States Department of Agriculture of samples
selected at Bath, at the annual show in May, 1900, it appears that the
classification that year was not based on accurate chemical data, or else
the samples were confused in handling.

There were goods of both classes, bottled and in casks, and it appeared
that the classification was rather artificial, being often determined, not
by the quantity of alcohol a certain quality of juice will produce, but
by the stage at which f(n'mentation had been arrested. The analyses
of ciders from the Bath and West exhibit of 1900 show conclusively
that fermentation had not been normally carried t)ut. but that it had
been arrested by artificial means.

In fact the cider of commerce in England, except in some few cases,
has no recognized standard. There seems to be a very unwise effort
to cater to a demand for a sweet liquor showing only 3 to 4 per cent
of alcohol. If made from a good quality of fruit and unadulterated,
such cider must still contain considerable unfermented sugar, which
renders it very unstable and difiicult to handle in shipment, except as
sterilized bottled goods, unless treated sufficiently with preservatives
to check fermentation. There is another alternative equally bad,
namely, to ferment the juice dry, dilute with water, and dose with
saccharin to produce the sweet taste desired. It was said that this
was practiced, but no proof of it was seen.

In England, however, excellent grades of bottled ciders were found,
both still and gaseous. Some of these were made from special varie-
ties of apples, as Foxwhelp, a very old English cider apple, or Kings-
ton Black, but more often they were made from the mixed fruit of
the district. Eight examples of these ciders are shown under sample
numbers 32 to 39 (see p. 111). These were really fine ciders, some dry,
some bottled with a small percentage of unfermented sugar, and others
sugared in the process of champagnizing.

A sparkling cider is not necessarily a sugared article, but, if i)ure,
is best produced by bottling before fermentation is complete. It is
then a normal French " mousseux." This grade can, however, be
produced by charging with gas artiliciall}- when bottled. A cham-

19

pagne cider is not, propei-ly speaking, a jnire r-idor. ))iit is fortified hy
addition of sugar.

It appears that even in the best cider districts of Knghmd there are
no really accepted names for ciders which can be depended upon hy
purchasers. The name of the maker is practically the only mark
worthy of consideration. This state of affairs, however, is in fair way
to remedy itself, as the industry is rapidly developing on special lines,
and certain class designations, such as still ciders, sparkling ciders,
champagne ciders (both dry and sweet), of approximate alcoholic
strength, will soon come to be recognized in the ti'ade. The Buhners,
at Hereford, seem already to have reached a high degree of perfection
in the preparation of their goods, and Mr. Charles Dacres Wise, at
the estate of Lord Sudley, in Gloucestershire, was putting up a vevy
excellent grade of both still and sparkling ciders and perry, the latter
being made from the fruit of the pear. Nothing so interesting in the
way of a countr}' plant was found as that of Hon. C. W. Kadcli tte
Cook, at Hellens, near Dymock, Herefordshire. This country gentle-
man, an ex-member of Parliament, was personally devoting himself to
the manufacture of cider in a small way, with the most pi'imitive
machinery, and yet producing a good sound article. It was, however,
at Butleigh Court, the country seat of R. Neville Greenville, esq.,
that the best experimental work on cider manufacture found in Eng-
land was seen. These establishments will be mentioned more fully
under a subsequent head.

PRINCIPAL CIDER-PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF EUROPE.

When this inquiry in Europe was begun, the writer was somewhat
imbued with the notion, so prevalent in the United States, that cider
making- could onlv be regarded as a secondarv affair, a method of util-
izing inferior fruit in the manufacture of a product of some local
value, but not as an industrv of general importance. However im-
portant the saving of the low-grade or unmerchantable fruit might be
to our growers, it had not seemed as though cider making could be
ranked as a oreat industrv. Interest in the matter had been mainlv
aroused l)V what seemed to be a scientitic question of some moment,
with fairly promising economic possibilities.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE CIDER INDUSTRY IN DIFFERENT

COUNTRIES.

In England evidences were found of an industrv fairly well founded,
and in France and Germany there exists a great industry already well
developed and employing millions of capital in the aggregate, with
large areas of country devoted to growing cider fruits as an industry.

France, by reason of the extent of its manufacture, is easily the
leading cider country of the world, followed bv Germany, England,

20

Switzerland, United States, Canada, Austria, Grand Duch}- of Luxem-
burg, and Spain, in order of importance/'

The acreao-e of orchards in France can not be stated with any cer-
tainty, but from estimates'^ of the total apple trees in Brittany,
made by Frere Martial, of the Christian Brothers, of the Institute
of Ploermel, it appears that in this proyince alone there are about
24,500,000 trees, and as this proyince makes about one-third the cider
of France, a like ratio would carry the total number of trees up to
about 75,000,000 for the entire cider country.

After seyeral tours of the cider country of France the writer is pre-
pared to belieye that this g-rand total is not too high. In the Calyados
country, at some places, the face of the country is a forest of fruit trees,
and frequentl,y the highways are also planted on both sides (Plate II).

The product of cider yaries naturally with the quantity of fruit
ayailable from year to year, but the mean annual production of France
for twenty years (1879-1898) was 297,946,030* gallons, and the maxi-
mum product during this time reached 695,388,430 gallons in 1893.
From the French Goyernment reports it appears that 1,021,090
persons were entered as manufacturers of cider in 1898. The year
1900 saw one of the greatest haryests eyer known in France, and
without doubt the fruit product surpassed all preyious figures.
Consul-General Hertslet, of the British consular seryice,'" reporting in
May, 1901, says that the production of cider in the 68 departments of
France, in which apples are grown for this purpose, amounted to
647,000,000 gallons, in round numbers, from the apple haryest of 1900;
but this estimate is doubtless not based on the final reports.

The aboye figures as to production, except the last statement, are
taken from those published by the French juinistry of agriculture,
and are in no sense complete as to grand total. They represent the
quantity w hich finds its way into commerce, so as to be reported to
the Goyernment, but take no ac(?ount of the enormous quantity locally
consumed. Each family m the great cider proyinces of Picardy, Nor-
mandy, and Brittany, as a usual thing, makes its own cider or pro-
yides for the same in such a manner that it does not enter into the
figures reported to the Goyernment. It is probable that the ofticial
figures include yery nearly the total of pure ciders, but the ''boisson,"
or low-grade ciders, are practically not represented in these statements.

THE CHIEF CIDER-PRODUCING DISTRICTS.

There are many statements current in the diflerent countries of
Europe ab to the peculiar importance of certain districts as regards

« Truelle, address before International Congress on the Cider Industry, Paris, 1900.
'' International Congress on the Cider Industry, Paris, 1900, pp. 72 and 87.
<• British Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Miscellaneous Series, No. 552, May
6, 1901.

(

Bui. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S, Dept. Agr.

Plate II.

Fig. 1 .—Cider-apple Trees by the Roadside. Normandy, France.

4

Pt K

v_^

['"i* 'v^v ^-'t^^Xi

i

^4|

1

/

rjT^

sfl

■■

fi

^H

^^^^^^^E||ji^

«

* ^^^^^^^1

K'

^' wlKm

i ^^H

^r^^

'1^1

■

^^H^^^B

^^^^n

^^^^,,^^^11

B.

mH

Fig. 2.— Glimpse into an Old Pear Orchard, Normandy, France.

■ ;^,

AsN

21

the excellence of their ciders. These statements at once recall state-
ments of like nature in rej^ard to the quality of grape win(\s of certain
districts. In the case of wines it can not be questioned that experi-
ence has abundantly demonstrated the correctness of these chiims.
Soil and climate certainly play a very important role in the production
of all fine wines. Do they phi}' an ecjually important role in the pro-
duction of ciders? .The chemical data on varieties ofrowai in difierent
countries must in part answer this question.

It was not found that any investigator had really undertaken a
serious inquiry into this matter, and the manufacture of cider can by
no means be said to have reached a stage of perfection which warrants
definite conclusions of like value to those which o-ovorn wine makinw.
It is very evident, however, that in certain districts where grapes will
not grow to such perfection as to admit of their culture as a wine
fruit, apples have for ages taken their place. European peoples are
without exception consumers of wines in considerable quantity', some
nations much more so than others. Hence, wherever the grape wine
can not be successfully produced, there has been a more or less per-
sistent effort to supply the demand for wine by using a fruit which
will thrive under local conditions.

The Fkench Cider Districts.

In France the grape will not thrive in open culture to an}^ extent in
the northwestern and northern provinces. Hence the provinces of
Brittany, Normandy, and Picard}^, l3^ing in this part of France, are the
chief seat of the cider industrv. These lie along the Atlantic Ocean,
the English Channel, and the borders of Belgium.

Normandy is in fact the principal cider country of France, and it is
here that one finds the industry best developed in all its details. Also
in this province has been developed a large number of seedling varie-
ties of apples with the sole idea of cider making, and, though the face
of the country is often a forest of apple trees, one never finds dessert
or culinary varieties growing in these open plantations. The idea of
commercial apple growing, as developed in America, is wholly imknown
to these people. If a proprietor desires table fruit it is grown in his
garden on walls or trellises, or on the walls of his residence or out-
buildings, always in the form of cordons, espaliers, etc., never in open
field culture. In fact, the orchard culture proper is for cider making,
just as farther south in France the countrj" is in places occupied with
vinej^ards for wine making.

The varieties are seedlings from the apples grown here for centuries.
It is only during the last fortA^ 3' ears that a study has been made of
these various seedling varieties, and certain ones have been selected
for propagation because of vigor, productiveness, and qualities desired
in the processes of cider making. One finds certain varieties every-

22

where mentioned as the leading- sorts, and these are largely propa-
fifated in nurseries.

The orchards ev^ery where have the appearance so characteristic of
seedlings of Pyrus mains (Plate III), and do not take on the character-
istic appearance of American cultivated orchards. The trees are often
scrubby, rough, and thorny, and so o\era-rown with moss and mis-
tletoe that the}' seem to lit in well with the surroundings. The climate
is oceanic, moist, and often dull from cloudiness, but never subject to
great extremes of temperature. Much of the strictly orchard area
in Calvados is found on a moderately ele\'ated plateau, characterized
by low, undulating ranges of hills, with decidedly moist valleys.

In this connection some extracts are quoted from a work by M. de
Beaumont on Normandy, in which he speaks especially of Calvados,
the department in which, perhaps, better cider is made than in any
other of France:

CALVADOS.

General aspect. — Calvados lies with an exposure to the north and extends to the
hills of the Department of ()rne on the south, and comprises many valleys and
extensive jilateaus. These valleys, which are watered by six streams flowing from
south to north, are separated from each other by chains of slightly elevated hills
which decrease in height to the shore, where they are suddenly transformed into
high cliffs of 30 to 120 meters (100 to 400 feet). Thriving, fertile, rich in prairies,
this district offers many aspects of a charming country.

The hills, the geological composition of which is very far from uniform, and which
do not present the same characters in any two places, form three very distinct natural
regions — the cretaceous, the calcareous, and the granitic.

The first comprises the eastern part of the department. Chalky formations dom-
inate in the country known as "'le Pays d'Auge," situated 1;)etween the frontiers of
Eure and the valley ( )f the Dives. The arrondissements of Pont 1' Eve( jue and Lisieux,
almost entirely included in these limits, present vast chalky plateaus cut by deep
valleys, showing a clayey or argillaceous deposit overlying the rock.

The second region where the limestone (great oolite, inferior oolite, marls, and
sandstone) predominates, includes the arrondissement of Caen and a ]iortion of those
of Falaise and Bayeux.

All that portion of the Department of Calvados which comprises the division of
Vire, the southern part of Bayeux, the western part of Falaise, and the southern part
of Caen, under the name of Bocage, has a peculiar aspect. Its granites, gray and
reddish in color, its schists, its arid plateaus scarred with great l)locks of rocks, its
houses constructed of materials of somber color, all present a rather melancholy
aspect.

Climate. — Calvados, which is situated on the l)order of the sea and has no consid-
erable elevations, enjoys a nuich milder climate than its geographical situation would
warrant. It is part of the belt where the Seine or Parisian climate predominates,
thus named because it is peculiar to the basin of the Seine, and particularly to Paris.
In its general characteristics this climate is mild, but at the same time humid and
variable.

In sj)ite of its low elevation and the frequent rains (one hundred and thirty-five
(lays in a year) maintaining a chilly humid atmosphere, the climate of Calvados is
very healthy, this department occupying the first rank in the relative longevity in
France. The western part of the canton of Tsigny and the country situated at the
mouth of the Sougnes and the Dives are less favored than the rest of the department.

Bui. 71. Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Plate III.

Types of Cider-apple Trees in Normandy. France.

^/^

28

The spring here is cold and rainy, the fine season lasts for only a month and a half
from June into August.

The annual mean temperature of Caen is a little higher than that of Paris, which
is 10.6° C. The winter on an average is less cold than at Paris and the sunmier is
■not so warm. The predominating winds come from the west, north, and south.
Violent storms often desolate the fields at the time of the ei^uinoxes. It rains oftener
on the border than in the interior of the department. The rainfall is 74 cm. (29
inches) annually, being not quite etjual to the average in France, which is 77 cm.
(30 inches). «

A student of the geolog}^ of Nonnand}-, M. de Ctiumont, has pub-
lished a remarkable statement in regard to the influence of the soil
upon the quality of these ciders in which he sa3's:

The quality of the ciders produced upon different soils shows very great differences,
as those who use these ciders have been able to determine by comparing the prod-
ucts of several cantons. These ciders, like wines, are more or less strong, and one
is able to preserve them a greater or less time, according to the soil upon A\hich they
were produced.

If my observations have not deceived me, the presence of fragments of quartz and
silicious (flint) rocks in the earth, is very favorable to the production of a good cider,
that which above all has the most agreeable taste. Therefore, the Ijest cider prod-
ucts in the arrondissements of Bayeux and of Caen are produced upon the mottled
sandstone soils, earths covered very often with a great quantity of alluvium, with
nodules of quartz and flint, or upon the hard limestones and lower oolite soils of a
limestone and clayey character, which are covered up themselves with fragments of
quartz and flint, as near Cartigny and the environs of Tsigny, and several communes
of the cantons of Crevise, Littry, etc.

In the arrondissements of Lisieux and Pont I'Eveque the best productions are taken
from the chalk formations covered with an argillaceous formation carrying flint
nodules in quantity. * * *

These numerous observations lead us also to think that the apples harvested from
a soil where lime is in excess, as upon the great oolite plains of Caen and of Falai.se,
are less sugary than these others which grow upon an argillaceous soil. The cider
produced from fruits grown upon our limestone plains becomes acid at an earlier
stage, and it is very inferior in quality to that made at Bessin and the regions of the
chalk substrata like Lisieux and Pont I'Eveque. I have made these observations
not only in Calvados, but in the commune of Orne, where the regions vary equally
as much in their geologic characters as in Calvados. «

At Danestal, in Calvados, some daj^s were spent during November
observing- the work of the small landed proprietors or peasants (Plate
IV), and as this coimtr}- is t,ypical of the very best cider-producing
area of France, the soil was carefully examined and its agricultural
value ascertained.

The soil on warm southern and southeastern slopes was very rich in
the first reaches above the streams, but grew thinner very markedly
toward the summits of the low hills. The best soil was a rich brown
loam, showing abundant nodules of flint, and at a depth of 12 inches
or more a grayish sand became predominant. Along the upper slopes
a gray soft sandstone showed occasionally and seemed to dip down
into the hills as though erosion had carried away what was once the

« Translation from manuscript notes furnished by IM. Truelle.

24

hioher levels. The abundance of Hint nodules was everywhere a char-
acteristic of the best lands.

The best exposures were generallv planted in fruit trees and covered
with heavy sod, most of the orchards being used as pastures. There
was very little land under cultivation in crops.

The cold slopes were mostly thin lands and often seepy, and where
set in orchards were decidedly inferior to southern slopes. The uplands
varied in value from 5<)0 to 1,200 francs per hectare ($40 to $1100 per
acre), and the richest valley lands were held at 4,000 to 5,000 francs
per hectare (1300 to $400 per acre). These values lead one to wonder
how anyone could carry on such apparently careless culture and con-
tinue to hold lands of such value.

The German Cider Districts.

In Germany as in France most of my time was given to specific
investigations at those places which otfered the greatest opportunity
for practical and scientific work, viz, at centers where the bulk of the
cider is made; hence, the Wiirtemberg cider districts of Germany
were not inspected, but the related districts of Switzerland and a part
of southern and central Bavaria were ol)served. In these nothing
worthy of special mention was found. Everywhere, however, the
wonderful opportunities for development which would be seized upon
by a more versatile people were conspicuous.

At Frankfort-on-the-Main is found the center of the German cider
industry. Here two firms alone were making over 1,300,000 gallons
of cider annuall}^; and from Frankfort to Wiesbaden, along the slopes
of the Taunus Mountains, one finds a continuous apple country with
numerous small establishments for the manufacture of cider. The
industry here overlaps into the wine country, or Ilhinegau proper,
and extends even down to Schierstein, almost in sight of the world-
famous Johannisburg wine district. But nowhere in Germany was
found any area so peculiarly and distinctively a cider-producing coun-
try as in Calvados, France.

In German}^ the tendency seems to be away from the small peasant
proprietor, and toward a factory system founded upon the very best
and latest investigations of modern science, while in France this is not
nearly so much the case. Possibly this fact, coupled with the well-
known orderly and methodical habits of the German, may account for
the fact previously stated in this report, that in Germany standards of
quality are better recognized than in any other European country. As
already noted, the German considers his product a wine, calls it so. and
makes it by certain definite methods.

The only apple-growing districts of Germany Avhich were examined
were (1) the Taunus country in Prussia, stretching from Frankfort to
Wiesbaden, and (2) the Rhinegau, which extends from below Wiesba-
den to where the Rhine })reaks throuo-h the Niederwald below Riide-

Bui, 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U S. Dept. Agr.

Plate IV.

Homes of Peasant Cider Makers in Normandy. France.

25

sheini. The Rhinejiftiu is not, properly spoakiiiii:, an apjjlc-frrowing-
district, as here the g-rape overtops evervthino- in importance, but 1
found the cider industry well represented as far down the Rhine as
Schierstein.

The Taunus reoion is said by well-posted German students to be
the best apple district in German3\ This district is not large, and
comprises the western and southwestern slopes of the Taunus ^loun-
tains. The orchards occur occasionally even down on the more level
drift soils of the floor of the Rhine Valley; but usually the flat lands
along the Rhine are occupied t)v cultivated farm crops, or where spui's
of the foothills jut down into the Rhine plain they are oftencr occupied
by vineyards than by orchards.

The Taunus Moiuitains are not high, being about 1.300 or l^-lOO feet
at Cronberg, and nowhere in this district do they rise above 2,000
feet. They slope graduall}" to the foothills and alluvial lands of the
lower levels, presenting gentle grassy slopes and rolling uplands,
generally eas}" to till and presenting no difficulties whatever for
orcharding. The Rhine plain has here an elevation averaging about
300 feet above sea level.

The higher levels of the Taunus show some outcrops of shales, over-
h^ing igneous rocks of great variety, as gneiss, mica,- and feldspathic
schists. The slopes occupied ])y the great orchards show a clayey
soil, with much gravel intermingled, and, while not very rich, good
care has kept it well supplied with humus and in good condition.
The trees are of great size and vigor, and so far as observed, the
fruit crrowers do not have to contend with the numerous insect and
fungous troubles met in this country. The exposure is ideal for fruit
growing in a country so far north; and. in general characteristics,
this would be considered a tvpically fine orchard vsection.

The Taunus country has climatic and soil conditions strikingly dif-
ferent from those found in the French orchard country. This German
district has a continental climate more like that found in America
than that of France, and the whole environment is essentially like that
of many American orchard regions. The character of the apples
grown and their chemical composition are much closer to American
t3"pes than to French. Manj' varieties are grown for culinary and
dessert uses, and the low-grade fruit, along with some distinctly cider
apples, is employed for cider-making purposes.

In some places the orchards cover the hillsides, all types, ages, and
qualities intermingled without much system. And here was seen for
the first time the giant trees of P(/nis {Sorhi/.s) dnnitxtlca, whose fruits
are used to mix with ordinary apples to produce the highest grades of
cider. The lowland orchards did not have the vigorous appearance
of those on higher levels, and often those in flat fields were heavily
cropped under the trees, while the uplands were usually in grass.

26

That the quality of the German fruit is quite inferior for cider
makincr to that of the best French fruit seems to be evident from
chemical data g-iven in this report. It does not appear, however, that
the studies of the fruit and the ciders made therefrom in certain
districts have been carried out with as much care, from the labora-
torj^ point of view, in Germany as in France, thouo^h German factory
work seemed quite superior, as remarked above. There are certainly
some very important points awaiting- investigation in regard to the
effect of soil and climate upon the composition of apples and the result-
ant qualities of ciders made therefrom. A comparative study of this
sort on the German and French fruit would be interesting- and yield
data of much practical importance.

The English Cider Districts.

The wonderful variety of geological formations occurring in such a
small country as England confuses the stranger and renders observa-
tions somewhat difficult. However, after traveling twice over the
chief fruit sections of the country, the writer was able to discrim-
inate somewhat as to the character of the orchard lands.

The l)est development of orcharding observed was in Hereford-
shire, Worcestershire, and Gloucestershire. The second best was in
Somersetshire, though Devonshire which has a rather ])etter reputation
than Somersetshire, was not visited. The general statement current
in England is that the orchard counties are Herefordshire, Devon-
shire, and Somersetshire, in the order named, but certainl}^ portions
of Worcestershire and Gloucestershire should not be omitted from
this category.

In the excellent monograph of Dr. Henry Graves Bull, of Hereford-
shire, on the Vintage Fruits,'^' he points out that in the first two
counties named the good orchard lands are situated on like geological
formations, viz, the old red sandstone. In Herefordshire the great vigor
and f ruitfulness of the old orchards, on the fine rolling red lands, were
specially noticeable, and the ciders made, especially at Hereford and
at Hellens, near Dymock, were as tine as one often finds. Equal praise
can, however, be given to the fine cider and perry made on the estate
of Lord Sudley, near Winchecombe, Gloucestershire. But as soon as
one mounts the Cotswolds he is aware that he is off the fruit lands.

The apple growing seen in Somersetshire did not impress one favora-
bly, and the soil did not seem to produce anything like the fine trees
observed in the more northern counties mentioned. It was rare, indeed,
that the orchard plantings seemed to be placed with care, and the
impression made was that as an industry there was no modern devel-
opment perceptible. As to orchard growing in England, the best tech-

«A popular treatise based on Dr. Bull's great monograph, The Herefordshire
Pomona.

27

nical work seen was that of the Toddington Orchard Company at Lord
Sudley's place in Gloucestershire.

Though there is much small fruit g-rown in K<^ut, one of the famous
fruit counties of England, very few orchards of any note were found,
and cider making is almost unknown. . There are, however, in the
county good, strong, retentive loam soils, which carry abundance of
flint nodules and overlie chalk formations, as in the cider districts of
France.

In England, as in Germany, very little attention has been given to
the development of cider fruits as such, though in the former there
are numerous good varieties to start from. The ])ulk of the product
is made from the refuse of those varieties Avhich are grown for table
and culinary uses. Yet distinctly cider apples are constanth' met with,
and a few cider varieties have recently been imported from Normandy
and are gaining in favor.

No definite statistics are available as to the production of cidei- in
England, l)ut Hon. C. AV. Radcliffe Cooke, in a recent article in the
Nineteenth Century, draws the conclusion that the total annual prod-
uct is not less than 100.000,000 gallons, having a maximum value of
£3,000,000 sterling, (nearly $15,000,000)."

CIDER APPLES.

It is doubtless correct to say that there are few distinctly cider
fruits grown in the United States at the present time. Formerlv
this class of apples received more attention. Scions of European
cider apples have ])een distril)uted of late years by the L'. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, l)ut there are as j^et no orchards of apples or
pears grown .distinctly for the manufacture of cider and perry known
to the writer. In this regard the United States is at present in
pretty nuich the same category as Germany. England is somewhat
better oH', as one tinds there a few distinctly cider ap})les and i)erry
pears in cultivation. France has, however, made long strides in this
direction, as already noted.

It is of prime importance to consider heiv what constitutes a cider
fruit, and compare the products of several foreign countries w itli that
of our own in this regard.

There can be no question that the making of cider by the landed
proprietors and peasants of P^-ance for many centuries from the seed-
lino-s of Normandv. Brittanv. and Picardv mav be credited with tix-
ing the attention of the more critical students and cultivators of recent
years upon the best characteristics of the French cider fruits. In
these ancient seedling orchards and their descendants have been deter-
mined empirically the qualities which distinguish cider fruits (pommes
a cidre) from table fruits (pommes a couteau) in France.

(I Nineteenth Century, August, 1901, p. 276.

2S

The work of the past thirty j^ears in France has been directed to the
task of sifting- from these hundreds of seedlino-s (ponimes sauvage)
those which best embody the desirable chemical constituents and which
also show the other desirable characteristics of hardiness, vigor, pro-
ductiveness, proper season of blooming and maturity of fruit, adapt-
ability to certain soils, keeping qualities, etc.

Among those who have led in the critical studv of cider fruits of
France might be named Messrs. Hauchecorne, de Boutteville, Truelle,
Lechartier, Herissant, Power, Andouai'd, Hubert, Beaurepaire, Sequin,
and man}' others. A greater amount of work by far has been devoted
to a study of the chemical composition of varieties, their description,
classitication, etc., than to strictly experimental researches upon cider-
making problems proper. It seems that little is now to be desired, so
far as relates to analyses, classification of varieties, etc., but that much
is wanting in the French work relating to real studies of soil and cli-
matic influences and the practical problems of handling and working
up the crop. Much has, it is true, been written on these problems,
but there is a dearth of facts in such literature as is obtainable.

The French cultivators have now a great number of what appear to
be the best cider fruits in the world read}' at their hands, and they
owe a great debt of gratitude to the unselfish work of the gentlemen
named above for their often unremunerated critical studies, made at
the expense of much time and labor. In this regard M. Truelle, a
pharmacist, of Trouville, Calvados, is perhaps the most shining-
example.

There have been no such elaborate studies made of German cider
fruits, nor of the low grades of commercial fruits so largeh^ used in
cider making in that countrv. although chemical data on the German
fruits is not wanting. Professor Kulisch has made at the Ro^-al
School of Geisenheim somewhat extensive chemical examinations of
varieties of apples.

In England until quite recently no critical study of cider fruits was
known, but now, under the auspices of the Bath and West Societ}^
supplemented by a royal grant in aid, Mr. F. J. Lloyd, of London, is
making chemical studies which have already advanced to a stage
where they furnish very useful data for comparison.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CIDER APPLES.

The French students of this subject and also the French manufac-
turers of cider rank the value of varieties in accordance with their
content of (1) sugar, (2) tannin, (3) mucilage, and (4) acid. They also
insist upon the fruits being of fine flavor and fragrant. To a stranger
the most striking characteristic of man}' of the French varieties is
their delicate, bitter-sweet flavor, and the powerful and peculiar odor
which they exhale when lying in bulk ripening.

29

The writer can not refrain from observing tiiat apparently the
French attach entireh' too slight importance to the acid content of
cider fruits. French apple must sometimes turns black as ink in the
presence of air because of rapid oxidation of the tannin; yet it is easily
shown that a higher acid content will prevent this. From some state-
ments made it would appear that the}' consider i».l to <>.2 per cent of
acid sufficient.

The Germans rank the chemical constituents in importance as fol-
lows: (1) sugar. (2) acids, and (3) tannin. They pay practicallv no
attention to determining mucilaginous substances. Their ai)ples are
so difierent in character (as will be seen in later discussion) that these
constituent elements may not be strongly developed in them. They
also claim that nitrogenous and mineral compounds are important as
nourishment for the veast organisms. The acid content is considered
important in German}-, and at Geisenheim the i)ercentage of acid
demanded is 0.6 to 0.8 per cent. While they insist upon the import-
ance of tannin, thev do not rate it so highly as the French.

No English student of the subject appears to have discussed these
points from an original standpoint. However. Thomas Andrew
Knight was the first to call attention to the value of the densimeter as
an instrument to test the quality of must.

In the United States we have no technical literature of any moment
covering this subject. It appears that Americans have proceeded on
the idea that the sugars are the only substance of prime importance in
an apple must. Tannin appears to l)e regarded as ol)jectional»le. Acid
is apparently regarded as an element which it is necessary to eliminate
as far as possible. The character of our fruits may have had something
to do with this, but it is rare that our fruits show too nuu'h acid, and
it is more to be noted that they seldom or never show enough of the
ver}' important element, tannin.

Sugar content of the fruit.— Duv'xw^ the process of fermentation
cane sugar and possibly some of the pectose bodies are converted into
fermentable sugars, and practically the total sugar content of the apple
is thus rendered subject to the breaking down process called fermen-
tation. Pasteur's statement of the products resulting from the fer-
mentation of fruit sugars per 100 parts is as follows:

Per cent.

Carbon tlioxid gas (CO,) ■*t>- 67

Alcohol : - -t^- ■*<'

Glycerin ^--^

Succinic acid ^- • -^^

Matter consumed l)y ferment organisms 1- 03

While this statement is now disputed in some particulars, it is used
here to indicate the probable results which may be expected from
complete fermentation of the sugar content of any fruit juice. It is,
then, from the sugars that all the alcohol is derived, and also the car

.30

bon dioxid ^as, the first being that which gives the strength to the
beverage, the second that which renders it sparkling and piquant if
retained in the liquor. The glycerin helps to give body and flavor
to the liquor. It is derived partly from the alcohol and doubtless in
part from the organic acids present in the must.

Tannin, or tminic acid, in the f rait. — This is the substance so readily
recognized in unripe persimmons or in the bark tissues of oak trees.
In fruits it tends to give a bitter taste and to pucker the mucoUs mem-
branes of mouth and throat. It is undoulitedly the relatively large
amount of this constituent which gives to the bitter-sweet apples of
France their peculiar character. This element is of great importance
in the composition of any fruit for wine and cider making purposes,
because of its action in coagulating albuminous elements in the must,
thereby assisting to clarify the liquor, its wholesomeness to the system,
and its efl'ect in conserving a c'ertain portion of the sugar from too
rapid fermentation, thus adding very materially to the soundness and
keeping qualities of the beverage. The writer is inclined to agree with
the French that this element is more important than the acid. Three
to five parts per 1,000 of tannin (0.3 to 0.5 per cent) is a sufficient
quantit3% American fruits fall far below this standard.

Acids in the fruit. — These exist in the apple and pear chiefly as
malic acid, but possibly also as tartaric to a small extent. Their
importance in a cider fruit is very considerable. If acid is not present
in sufficient quantity, the oxidation of the tannin will be so rapid as to
turn the must black, or blackening may even occur in the finished cider.
Also the refreshing quality of a cider as a summer beverage is largely
due to its acid content. American apples usuall}' contain sufficient
acid.

Mucilage in fruit. — The practice of determining this substance as
mucilage in apple must seems only to be followed b}^ the French chem-
ists. Whether their determinations are comparable with the deter-
minations of pectin b}' other chemists can not ])e here stated. These
substances, give body to the cider and are important constituents of
good cider fruits.

COMPARISON OF CIDER APPLES.

FRENCH STANDARDS.

It is a matter of unquestionable importance to compare the fruits of
the three prominent European cider-producing countries with one
another and with our home fruits as to chemical composition. The
French students "of the subject have attempted to set standards by
which varieties should be selected. The following is quoted from M.
Hauchecorne (''Le Cidre" p. 9), in which he gives what he has deter-
mined to be an average composition based upon analyses of manj'^
French varieties:

31

Specific gravity 1 . 067 to 1. 080

Water per cent . . 80

Sugar ( fermentable ) do 17.8

Tannic acid do 5

Mucilage or pectoSe do 1. 2

Free acids (organic) calculated as sulphuric do. ... . 107

Earthy matters, etc '. df) 893

Total <lo 100. 000

The same author rontinues (p. 119):

Cider apples designed for making a beverage of superior quality, from the point of
view of its hygienic ([uality and of its conservation in a commercial condition, sliouM
be prepared from fruits which yield a must of 1.075 density in order to ol)tain a
sufficient percentage of alcohol.

One should search persistently for varieties which show at least 5 parts of tannin
per 1,000 and 12 to 15 parts of mucilage, this latter being desirable l)ecause of its
value to give smoothness and body to the beverage. The acidity should iKjt be less
than 1.071 parts per 1,000 in order to insure a good fermentation, and the fruits
should be fragrant.

At the International Conoress on Cider Fruits held at Paris October
11-13, 1900, M. de Messenge de Beaurepaire, in a paper entitled
"Principles which shoidd serve as a basis for determination of the best
varieties of cider fruits," enunciated the following general principles:

Varieties should be divided into four categories, according to the nature of the
beverage desired, as follows:

1. Varieties of apples or pears destined to make a delicate quality of cider or perry.

2. Varieties destined for the manufacture of champagne cider or perry.

8. Varieties destined to malte a full-bodied, strong alcoholic cider or perry.
4. Varieties for distillation of brandy.

To whatever use one intends to put the fruit, all good varieties should satisfy the
four following conditions:

(1) Good flavor of pulp and juice.

(2) A sufficient quantity of juice, falling not below 55 per centof weight of fruit.

(3) Good color of juice, above all with the apple, but not so important for the
pear, as the juice of the latter is often iiuite pale.

(4) Juice easy to extract from the pulp.

He proceeds to particularize as to the chemical (lualities of each
catee'orv of fruits as follows:

1. Cider apples and j>erry pears, for a fine and delicate beverage, should siiow a
medium density, i. e., ranging from 1.057 to 1.064, and not exceeding 1.069; sugar
content, medium, 12.5 to 14.5; tannin (maximum), 0.3 per cent; flavor, sweet,
slightly bitter. The distinctive qualities should be a clearly defined, delicate aroma
and a sugary flavor.

2. Varieties designed for ihampagne should be as above except that there should
be absolutely no bitter taste.

3. Varieties destined to make a strong alcoholic beverage should show density,
1.065 and above; sugar, 14.3 per cent and above; tannin (minimum), 0.2 per cent
and above, the more the better; flavor, unimportant, except that it must not be
acid; strong and penetrating aroma; the controlling qualities being richness in
sugar and tanniu.

82

4. Varieties destined for making distilled liquor should show a mininuini density
of 1.070 and 15.5 ]jer cent of sugar, the richer the better. The other characters noted
do not play an important role in this category. «

If the den.sity and sugar content given in the first category are only
medium for French fruits, in what ciitegory can one place German and
many xVmerican and English cider fruits? The French have adopted
a high standard in quality of fruit, and the chemical analyses reported
by the numerous investigators bear them out in this position. Do
these qualities result from peculiarities of soil, or have these century-
old seedling races of French ap^^les acquired certain characteristics
which can now be perpetuated in other land,- b}' ordinary j^ropagation?
Can their seedlings, when grown in other countries, become the founda-
tion stock of seedling races of apples which will show such wonderful
richness in saccharine matter and tannin as their parent stocks?

After thirty years of study along what these French investigators
seem to consider preliminary lines, but which has yielded already the
best technical literature in the world on the subject, the Association
Franyaise Pomologique appointed a commission, composed of its best
scholars and cultivators, to undertake a critical study of all the data,
and also to conduct an original investigation of all promising French
cider fruits with a view to correcting the nomenclature and establish-
ing a standard list with authentic information as to quality and char-
acter of fruit and character of plant, so that cultivators shall have a
definite guide to aid them in making plantings. The fruit of each
variety selected for the standard list is reproduced in color for the
bulletin of the association and uiodeled for the permanent collection.
After four years of study this commission has made considerable prog-
ress. On its organization at Mans in ISlKs, the commission adopted
the following outline of points on which the varieties of fruits should
be judged:

(1) Vigor of plant.

(2) Natural resistance of same t>> fungous and insect attack.

(3) Fertility (productiveness).

(4) Quality, based upon the richness of tlic fruits in useful substances, but,al>()ve
all, upon its known jiractical value as a cider fruit. ''

Out of the immense number of French cider fruits the commission
decided that only 40 or 50 varieties of apples should be admitted to the
permanent list, and 8 or 10 of pears, and that each subsequent year
not over 5 or 6 varieties might be added to the list, and that these
must be voted upon for three successive years before they could ])e
considered as finally accepted. Up to the present the records onl}^
show 86 varieties of apples definitely admitted, and of these but 12
have yet been voted for reproduction by colored plates and models.

« Condensed free translation from Proceedings of International Congress, Paris,
1900, pp. 48-50.

^Bul. de I'Ass. Fr. Pom., Hi: ;;5.

33

These 12 varieties represent perhaps the best known and most care-
fully studied French cider apples. The chemical data which appear
in the accompanying table have been collected from the t)ulletin of the
Association Franyaise Pomolog-ique.

For most of these varieties a very considerable number of analyses
are reported. Of these analyses the maximum and minimum deter-
mination for eacii sul)stance are g'iven, and then the mean of all the
determinations of each substance. A\'hile there are some very striking
differences between the determinations given in a number of instances,
yet it is perhaps fair to say that the mean results ought to be reliable
for the average composition of these varieties. Certainly no sm-li
elaborate data are at hand for the compilation of average composition
of cider fruits of any other country.

To one familiar only with our best Amerii-an varieties it is ciuite
startling to note specitic gravity determinations reading as high as
1.133 and total sugar 24.31, as shown by Saint-Laurent, and 1.134
specific gravity, sugar 20.35, as shown b\^ Bramtot. Rousse falls but
little below these. The above figures are, it is true, the maximum
given, bu,t the means for sugar of these varieties— K?. 51, 19.05, and
17.19 grams per 100 cc of must — are so far above the averages of
American or German fruits that the comparison is ecjually striking.

The mean acid content is very low, falling far below the German
theoretical mean desired. In tannin these varieties exceed by tar
those of other countries, but yet rarely show a quantity sensibly above
the theoretical minimum of 0.2 per cent demanded by the French stand-
ard, and only in one case, Bramtot, reaching a mean which approxi-
mates the theoretical maximum (luantity desired under the French
standard.

The varieties in the following table are arranged in accordance with
the French seasons for cider apples:

Table I. — Maximum, minimum., and mean comiwsition of 12 French cider apples,
specially selected as standard sorts by the Association Frani^aise Pomologique.

Variety.

Num-
ber of
analy-
ses.

Blnnc-Mollet

Reine des Hatives . .
Saint-Lanrent

Bramtot

13 i

Specific
grav-
ity.

Maximum.
Minimum .
Moan

Maximum.

1.0740
1.0550
1.0G37

1.0820

Grams per 100 cc of must.

10

21

58

(Maximum.

Minimum .

Mean

Maximum.
Minimum .
Mean

1.1330
1. OlilO
1.0800

1T24T— No. 71—03-

Total
sugar.

16.71

9.30

13.48

19.00
'.Minimum . 1.0510 i 9.30
Moan l.Otiia 13.00

24.31
12. 63
16. 51

1.1340 26.3.5

1.0.500 9.41

l.')S80 19.05

-3

Acid.

Tan-
nin.

.970
.071
.240

.830
.044
.288

.564
.065
.297

.415
.140
.254

.730 .699
.090 I .096
.276 .244

.960
. 0S5
.219

1.055
. 133
.529

Muci-
lage.

Season of maturity.

[•First season— Sept.
to Oct. 15.

Do.

2.10
.20 yPirst season— Sept. 20
.62

1.00
.25
.51

1.97
.04 !• Do.

.74 r

1.09 1

.01 '[-Second season — Oct
.35 ) 15 to Nov. 10.

34

Table I. — Maximum, minimum, and mean composition of 12 French cider 'apples,
specially selected as standard sorts by the Association Frangaise Pomologique — Cont'd.

Variety.

Num-
ber of
analy-
ses.'

Omont"

Doux-Normandie .

Rousse

Ambrette

10

Argile.
Bedan .

Doux-Geslin

Marabot.

Average of
means

31

33

13

(Maximum,

■{Minimum .

Mean

Maximum.
Minimum .
Mean

Specific

gray

ity.

I

[Maximum.
[Minimum .
I Mean

[Maximum.
I Minimum .
[Mean

Maximum.
Minimum .
Mean

Maximum.
Minimum .
Mean

(Maximum,

■,' Minimum .

Mean

(Maximum,
•{Minimum .
[Mean

1. 0690
1. 0630
1.0660

1.1010
1.0.^30
1.0739

1.1050
1. 0.580
1. 0808

1. 0860
1.0610
1. 0695

1.0880
1. 0600
1. 0725

1. 093G
1.0470
1.0686

1. 1070
1.0530
1. 0791

1.0870
1.0.570
1. 0670

1.0725

Grams per 100 cc of must.

Total
sugar.

14.92
12. 90
14.19

18.32
11. 27
14.80

24.00
10. 81
17.19

19.00
12. 34

15. 48

19. 45
12. 61
15. 76

21.94
10. 68
14. 89

21.60

10. 80
16.60

17. 85

10. 81
14.77

15. 98

Acid.

.370
..310
.330

.385
.080
.186

.810
.105
. 282

.520
.079
.177

.480
.064
.177

.397

.015
.140

.740
.079
. 233

.368
.082
.205

Tan-
nin.

.229

.300
. 245
.266

.210
.061
.119

.395
.045
.200

.302
.079
.165

. .524
.051
.176

. 825
.008
. 196

. 866
.091
.407

.630
.092
.287

. 262

Muci-
lage.

Season of maturity.

1.65

.62

1.04

1.12
.17
.51

1.45

.61

.68
.10
.31

1.71
.02
.85

1.71
.02
.62

1.60
.12
.46

1.28
.20

.67

.59

Is

Second season — Oct. 15
I to Nov. 10.

Third season — Nov. 10
to Dec. 1.

Do.

Fourth season — De-
cember and January.

Do.

Do.
Do.
Do.

n Taken from Power, Vol. II, " Be.st cider fruits."

In addition to the list of 12 varieties shown in this table there are
24 other varieties of apples alread}^ admitted to the standard list by
the commission of the Association Franyaise Pomoloo-iqne, and 7 cider
pears are provisionally admitted. Strange as it may seem, 2 of the
varieties of apples admitted to the list (Frequin-Lacaille and Muscadet
de la Sarthe) could not be identified in the present state of the nomen-
clature so as to g-ive the chemical composition of the must. Of the
pears admitted provisionally the anal3^sis of but 4 could be ascertained
with certainty from the literature examined.

The chemical composition of varieties given in the subjoined Table
II is largely taken from Volume II of Mr. G. Power's exhaustive
treatise on the "Best cider fruits."' In every case where more than
one analysis is noted the average is given from Mr. Power's work.
Where but one analysis is noted, the figures are in every case except
one quoted from Messrs. Sequin and Pailheret, of the National School
of Agriculture at liennes. One analysis — that of the variety Havar-
dais — is quoted from the work done by Mr. Pic at the Practical School
of Agriculture of the Three Crosses near Rennes. These two schools
just outside of Rennes are now doing an immense amount of work
on the investigation of cider fruits. When possible, the average of
analyses covering a period of years is quoted.

35

Table II. — Composition of French cider fruits admitted to the provisional list of the Asso-
ciation Francaise Pomologique .

Fruit and varietv.

Amere (petite)

Binet Blanc ou Dor6

Binet Kouge

Binet Violet

Chi^rubine

Doux-Amer-Gris

Doux-Coiireier

Doux (petit)

Fr(5quin-Audiovre

Frequin-Lajoye

Fr^quin-Laeaillen

Gilet-Rouge

Grise-Dieppois

Havardais

Hommet

Jambe-de-Li6 vre

Jolv-Rouge

MMaille-d'Or

Michelin

Moulin-!i-Vent

Muscadet ( petit )

Museadet-ou-Antoinette<" .

Precoce-David

Tardive de la Sarthe

Averages.

Billea

Carisiblanc . .
Cheuneviere .

Crapaud

Croixmarei..

Navet a

Souris

Num-
ber of
anal-
yses.

Specific
gravity.

1. 0860
1. 0750
1.0740
1.0770
1.0680
1.08.=)0
1. 0873
1.0572
1.0700
1.0600

1.0610
1.09-40
] . 050S
1.0847
1.0650
1.0670
1.0900
1.0710
1. 0730
1.0710

1. 0720
1.0710

1. 0732

Grams per 100 cc of mast.

Reducingi Acid, as
.sugar, I sulph- 1 Tannin.

total.

unc.

19.09
17.13
15.30
14.00
14. 60
18. 64
18.30
11.69
15. 10
12. 80

0.114
.220
.2.36
.303
. 227
.270
.123
.132
.230
.183

0.116
.188
.271
.276
.244
.419
.378
.110
.302
.376

12.29 1

20.24 '
11.76
15.74 ,
13.42 !
U.U I
18. 60
1.5.92
16. .57
1.5. 16

.395
.118
.079
.164
.254
.185
.216
.183
.293
.228 :

.140
.368
.111
.089
.193
.212
1.107
.432
.350
.210

16.28
15. 21

.137
.141

15. 55 i

.192

.259
.213

.289

Muci-
lage.

0.4.50
.596
.827

1.7.55
.621
.347

1.392
.364
.678
.317

.558
l.i:50
.604
1 364
. 690
.799
.524
.5.53
.7.58
.392

.804
.964

735

Averages.

I.a540
1. 0742
1.0577

12.48
13.91
11.00

.303
.205
.338

.256
.034
.027

1.06.50

15.00

,251

.665

1.0627

13. 09

.274

245

.283
.936
.246

Trace.

.366

a Analyses not found.

GEKMAN STANDARDS.

The GermaiLS do not appear to have attempted a study of varieties
of apples and pears for cider purposes in anything- like the compre-
hensive manner of the French students. It seems that the German
cultivators have worked on other lines than those of the French. To
an American it appears that ordinary orcharding in Germany i.>^ about
as far advanced as it wa.'^ in the United States twenty or thirty years
ago, before the wonderful development of commercial orcharding in
this country. There are many good varieties of grafted fruit, and
these are cultivated at times in considerable areas, but neither orchard-
ing for table fruits nor for cider fruits is well developed in Germany,
except where the dessert fruits are grown in what we would call gar-
den culture ou walls, trellises, etc.

The German cider fruits, so far as they can be ditierentiated from
dessert fruits, are occasional seedlings of no peculiar character or
special value. There are certainly no varieties to compare with the
special varieties recorded in the French literature and shown at the

36

French pomological congresses. In fact, the Germans use their chance
seedlings and the refuse of their table fruits for cider about as we do
in America. But the great manufacturing establishments draw sup-
plies by rail from Russia, Austria, and Switzerland in large quantities,
and much of this f i-uit ma}' l)e of a more special grade for cider than
that seen growing in the Taunus and Rhinegau regions of German^^
These establishments also draw supplies from western France when-
ever crop failures in nearer regions render this necessary.

The chemical data on German varieties a^e also meager, or at least
so scattered that nothing approaching full data could l)e collected dur-
ing the time of the visit. Later correspondence with very reliable
book dealers has failed to develop this information as fully as could
be desired.

There are 53 ditferent sorts or varieties of German-grown apples
mentioned by Dr. Cluss" in his recent work on cider making in Ger-
many. Of these 29 were anah'zed by Professor Kulisch at the Royal
School of Pomology at Geisenheim. Out of 17 varieties anal3'zed b}'
Professor Behrend at Hohenheiiu, Wiirtemberg, i;> seem to be sorts
not included among those examined at Geisenheim. These doubtless
fairly represent Wiirtemberg cider fruits. Dr. Kramer's anah'ses of
cider fruits at Steiermark, ([uoted by Dr. Chiss, give 11 out of 15
varieties reported upon, Avhicli are not included in either of the above-
cited lists. Thus we have 53 varieties represented in the following
tables, which, from the German literature consulted, seem fairly to
represent the range of German apples in the best cider districts.

Director Goethe, of the Lehranstalt fiir Obst-und Weinbau at Gei-
senheim, .says the Schafnase and Rhine Bohna])fel in Nassau, the
White and Red Treierischer wine apples in the Rhine pro\'inces, and
the Luiken and little Langsteil in Wiirtemberg are the best six Ger-
man cider apples.

Table III. — ^[uali/ses of German cider-apple mud made at (Jeisenheim, 1S8'J~90, by

Professor Kulisch. ''

Xauie of variety.

Kostliclier ,

Edelroter

Kasseler Reinette

Bobnapfel

Giisdouker Reinette. . .

Winter-Ramljour

Schiebel-Taubenapfel

Siisser Hoolart

Roter Kiseraj)f el

Dunchapfel

Graue Fr. Reinette

Sommer Zimtapfel

Kaiser Alexander

Burchardts Reinette. .

Batullenapfel

Scluaidl-Keiuclte

Grains per 100 ec of must.

Specific
gravity.

Grape

and fruit

sugars.

Cane
sugar.

Total re-
ducing
sugar.

Total

solids.

Acid, as

.sul-
phuric. <•

1. 0451

8.72

1.28

10.07

11.70

0.153

1. 0470

7.80

2. 12

10.04

12. 20

.241

1. 049ti

0. 82

3.71

10. 73

12.86

.270

1. 0532

7.19

3.29

10. 00

13. SO

.716

l.05;«

8.47

2.31

10. 90

13. 82

.541

1.0549

8. 09

3.72

12. 01

14.24

.087

l.O-Mtl

7.12

5. 40

12. 87

15. 33

.592

1.0005

8.30

4. 52

13.12

15. 69

.138

1.0042

8. 35

4. 04

13.23

16. 65

.526

l.OOSl

9. 94

3. 51

13.04

17.69

.665

l.OSOj

13. i2

4. 49

17.85

22. 61

.687

1 . 041)5

8.80

0. 75

9. 59

12.82

.592

1.0.5(i0

8.96

2.32

11.40

14.53

.482

1.0.5:«

8.20

2. 89

11.30

13.96

.351

1.0.540

7.85

2. 05

10. 64

14. 02

.424

1. 0492

9.03

1.75

10.87

12. 75

.409

« "Die Apfelweinbereitnnjr," Dr. Adolf CUls^, lUOl.
^ Ai)fel\veinbereitun<r. Dr. CIil-s, jip. 2-1-25.
c Calculated at Blaek8l)ur<r, \'a.

37

Table III.—.

LnalywK of German cider-npple must mndr <it Ceisenheim, 1889-90, by
rrofessor Kulii^ch — Continued.

Name of variotv.

Specific
gravity.

Gelber BellefliMir l.O.'ilO

Fette Goldreiiii'ttu : 1.04aS

Langcr Gv. ( iuhkTling 1 . 0,'):.!.")

Goldzeufiaiirt'l I.OCdU

JMuskat lU'iiu'tte 1. 0(i:','J

Ananas Ik'inot te 1. 0724

Griiner Fiirstenapfel ' 1.0.")19

■\Vinter Gold Parmiine ! 1. 0()o4

Uunkapfel i 1. 0015

Leichter Matai)fel j 1. 051(1

ChampasnkT Keinette ' 1.0510

Canada Reinette i 1. 0C>i;7

Baumanns lleinette I 1 . 0507

Averages.

1.05C9

Grape

and fruit

sugars.

7.38
7. 77
S.G2

10.32
7. OS

11.02
8 65
9.20
9.79
9.27
7.87
9.91
S.44

Grams per 100 cc of must.

Cane
sugar.

Total re-
ducing
sugar.

2.12
2.47
3.19 i
2.88 i
6.17
3.91 I
1.74 I
5.33 I
1.95 I
2.03
2. 85
4.96
2. 44

3.15

9.61
10.37
11.98
13. 35
13. .58
15.14
10.48
14.81
11.84
11.40
10.87
15. 16
11.01

12.04

Total
solids.

13.24
12. 66
13.87
15.58
16.58
18. 82
13.46
16.89
15.97
13.37
13.24
17.32
13.15

Acid, as

sul-
phuric.

14.78

.504
.2.55
.511
.482
.453
.372
.767
.402
.789
.4(V2
.tl3
.5.55
.329

.460

Table IV. — Analyses of German cider-apple must, Jsyo, liy Professor TJili,

1 Willi , 1 1 i'lrternherg. "

ii'l, Jlohen-

Name of varietv.

.Specific
gravity.

Rheini.sclie Schafnase. . .

Gold parmiine

Rheinisches Bohnapfol .
Gelber engl. Gulderling

.lane Hure

Berner Grauchenapft'l . .

PomeriUizenai)fel

Rotlier Eiseraiifel

Englisclie Spitalreinette

Kleiner Fleiner

Carpentinapfel

Kugelai)fel

Glanzreinette

Trierisebcr Weinapfel ..
Konigllelier Kurtzstiel .

Kleiner Lan.ystiel

Ca.sseler Reinette

Average

054
056
057
043
066
050
059
059
072
059
068
OM
063
0.59
082
056
055

Grams per 100 cc of must.

1.059

Grape

and fruit

sugars.

7.64
8.07
9.93
6.62

12.31
6.79
6.22
7.06
9.37
8.81
7.99
8.-40
9.63
8.66

13.04
8.97

10.73

8.89

Cane
sugar.

3.73
4. 82
3.49
2.63
2. 52
3.44
6. 51
4.37
4.89
2.48
5. .52
3.31
4.10
4.54
6.60
2.95
1.36

3.89

Total
sugars.

11.37
12. 89
13. 42
9. 25
14.83
10.2:3
12. 73
11.43
14.26
12. 29
13. .51
11.71
13.73
13.20
IM.tVl
11.92
12.09

13.38

1 Obstweinbereitung. Antonio dal. Piaz, p. 88.
Table V. — Analyses of German cider-apple must, 189^, by Dr. Kramer, ,'ileiermark."

Name of varietv.

Muskatellerapfel

Holzaple!, Spitz

Holzapfel, rnthgestrieft

Holzapfel, rothgeslrieft

Hanapfel

Steieri.'icher Masehauzker

Champaffncr Reinette

Canada Reinette

Weiser-Winter Tatt'etapfel

Engliscbe Winter Gold Parmiine

Rother Streifling

Heiderapfel

Damason Reinette

Edelborsdorfer

Gelber Weinapfel

Average

Grams \

er 100 cc

of must.

Specilic
gravity.

Total

.\cid.

1.047

sugars.

10.00

0.54

1.052

10.50

.75

1.053

10.70

.45

1.054

11.00

.36

1.067

13.60

.20

1. 0.50

10.10

..55

1.043

9.40

.81

i.aso

10.10

.64

■ 1.044

8.85

.72

1.0.55

11.10

.54

1.051

10. 20

.70

1.049

11.10

1.20

1.06.8

13.80

.80

1.0.55

11.10

.61

1.061

12.60

.72

1.053

10.94

.tU

a Obstweinbereitung. Antonio dal. Piaz, p. 89.

38

Pi/ru.'i{Sorhus) domestica. — Strange to say, no modern German writer
on cider making appears to notice this very important fruit, so largely
used to tone German ciders. It is known popularly as the Speierling,
Speierlingbaum, Speierling crab, etc., and is a native forest tree of
central Europe, but was not observed in France.

Whether it has been always intentionally planted in the orchards of
the Taunus or is partly wild is doubtful, for it is not usually seen in
the regular rows, l^ut in odd nooks here and th^re. On the borders of
mountain ravines it is a most beautiful and luxuriant tree 20 to 4() feet
high and loaded in the fall with small pyriform fruits aljout half the
size of Seckel pears. These become yellowish in color and fall to the
ground late in autumn, where, after some days, one can pick them up
and eat them with considerable relish; but if plucked from the tree or
eaten l)efore they become mellow, the result on the mucous mem-
branes is about the same as that of biting a green persimmon.

This fruit is gathered in quantity just at maturity and before ripen-
ing begins, and it is then used to fortify the best grades of ciders.
Either the fruits are crushed with the apples in certain proportions or
are ground separately and the must added to apple must in detinite
proportions. The latter is believed to be the better mode of l)lending,
and it is the one pursued in the large establishments of Freyeisen
Brothers at Frankfort. They had great casks of this must in reserve
in a very cool cellar more than 50 feet below the surface of the earth,
which they were using to blend with the finest apple juice to make
the high-grade '■■ Speierling apfel wein." As nearl}" as could be deter-
mined about 1 part in 20 of this must from Sorbus fruits was added to
the apple juice.

It seems astonishing, considering the great importance of this fruit,
that no recent writer should have treated it in the German literature
and that not a single analysis of the fruit or juice could be found.
About a century ago J. L. Grist wrote quite comprehensively of its
use in making wine and in blending with apple juice, but gave no
chemical data. It is supposedly used at present to tone up German
ciders in tannin, thus adding piquancy and flavor to the product. The
sugar content of the fruit could not ))e ascertained. Director Goethe,
of Geisenheim, kindly furnished an article written bv G. W. Eiche-
nauer, of Cronberg, Taunus, in which he discusses this fruit from a
gardener's standpoint, but does not give critical data on its composition.
He states that cider made by properly blending it with ordinary stock
is worth twice as much as it would have l)een otherwise and will keep
much longer. If it is the tannin principle alone which makes this
fruit so valuable, certainly it is time we in the United States looked
more to the selection of varieties rich in this substance or resorted to
wild fruits, such as the native persimmon, JJyoxpyrus inrginiana, to
obtain it.

39

ENGLISH SIASDARnS.

An}' attempt to stud}- the cider apples of England, or tal)le varieties
for that matter, is greatl}- complicated b}^ the endless maze of names
of similar orthography which have been given to apples. ))oth cider
and table varieties, and bv the fact that there is no reeoo-nized
authority on the nomenclature of orchard fruits in the entire countrv.
Every local connnunity appears to delight in applying names of its own
choosing to the fruits grown, and there seems to be no general dis-
position to reduce the nomenclature to a system under some comj)etent
authorit}', as for instance, a national committee on pomological nomen-
clature. Of recent writers on pomology in its broader sense, there
are very few, but the older works, as those of Knight. Marshall,
Evelyn, and others are classics of their time.

The best modern treatment of the subject of pomology, in a some-
what limited sense, which was secured is The Apple and Pear as Vin-
tage Fruits, by Robert Hogg, LL. D., and Henry Graves Bull, M. D.,
a charmingly prepared general dissertation upon the subject of cider
and perry making, with critical notes and cuts showing many varieties
of cider fruits. In the way of recent litei-atiire, the Bath and West
Society deserves great praise for the efforts it is making to develop a
reliable literature on modern cider making. In fact, it is putting forth
an effort to arouse the popular interest so necessarv to the future
progress in pomology as an art. and more specilically as it relates to
cider making as an important industry.

However, in this literature it does not appear that a successful
attempt has been made to establish a standard toward which the grow-
ers of cider fruits should direct their attention. The nearest approach
to a standard as to quality of cider fruits which was found in the
works mentioned is in tlu^ report of the committee of the AA'oolhope
Clul), which visited the congress of the pomological societies of France,
at Rouen, in October. ISS-t. ^^'hen this conunittee determined to
select a set of French varieties of apples for introduction into Here
fordshire thev laid down the following rules:"

(1) The fruit must possess the very best quality of juice.

(2) The trees must be hardy, vigorous, and fertile.

(3) They must bloom at varying intervals.

(4) The fruit must attain maturity in late autumn or winter.

(5) The varieties must have obtained the highest reputation in the Norman
orchards.

The fact that these gentlemen from Herefordshire recognized the
importance of securing some of the best Norman varieties of cider
apples for introduction into England indicates that some of the best
English growers are alive to the importance of producing fruit of
high qualit}' for the upbuilding of the cider industry. But such apples
are alreadv verv common in England. The oldest English writers tell

« Hogg and Bull, Vintage Fruits, p. 88.

40

us of fruits 3'ieldino- must of 1.001 specific gTavitv, which, if correct,
is hardly surpassed in our da}' in any countr}'.

There is a large group of varieties of apples cultivated in P^ngland
chietiy for cider, the names of which are made up of some P^nglish
word prefixed to the word Norman or Jersey, as C'herry Norman,
Broad-leaf Norman. Chisel Jersey, Red Jersey, etc. These apples all
possess the peculiar bitter-sweet taste which characterizes so distinctly
many of the most famous French cider apples. An interesting ques-
tion arises in this connection as to whether these apples are ancient
im])ortations from Normandy and the Channel Islands. In the work on
Vintage Fruits, quoted alcove, the opinion is given that they are not.
This is l)ased on comparisons made in 1884 at the congress of Rouen;
which really prove nothing further than that they are not recent
importations. It appears, after extensive comparisons, that this
peculiar race of apples so common in Normand}- has had a common
origin, either in England or in France, indications all pointing to the
latter countrv. Interchanges between England and the mainland have
been such for many centuries that the parent stocks of the present
race of bitter-sweet apples in England may very easily have been
derived from French sources. Then there is the other argument,
that all the historically old English cider apples, like Foxwhelp and
Red Streak, which go back some two centuries in the literature, give
no hint, either in chemical composition or quality, of common origin
with the bitter-sweet varieties of France.

From what was seen of these fruits in England it appears that if
seedlings had been fret^lv grown from them and well selected, as in
France, England would to-day have as good a race of cider apples as
France has.

But are the bitter-sweets so essential^ This question is not settled.
In Germany scarcely a trace of thiy peculiar qualitv was found in the
cider fruits, ,yet they make most excellent cider in Germany. Also
in Gloucestershire and Herefordshire, England, most excellent ciders
were sampled, in whose makmg no particular attention was paid to the
usmg of bitter-sweet fruit. The question is an important one, and,
with a view of giving- it ample study, the writer has procured and is
growing a collection of French and English cider apples representing
the l)itter-sweet and other old types.

It has been necessary to examine a consideral)le mass of data in the
attempt to select a representative list of English cider fruits. ]\Ir, F.
J. Lloyd has examined and reported upon such a large nuinl)er of
varieties in his work for the Bath lyid West Society that it is possible
to use ])ut a small fraction of his data. Hence an att«Miipt has been
made to select a set of varieties whidi shall re])rcsent the old renowned
cider fruits and the more recent sorts which are coming prominentl}^
into notice. Among the varieties selected, the Blenheim Orange,
which is an old popular variety grown for general purposes, and used

41

as a cider fruit also, has been selected for special presentation. Fox-
whelp is the oldest, historically, of famou.>< EnoHsh cidm- apples, and
King-ston Black is a very prominent recent variety. The other.>^ rep-
resent the English-grown bitter-sweet apples, and a number of them
are given because of their present prominence. However, no variety
known to be of recent French introduction IsuscmI in the table, though
several of these recent introductions are now becj-innincf to ti^'ure in
the English cider factories.

The chem-ical data are taken wholly from Mr. F. J. Lloyd's analj'ses,
published in the reports of the Bath and West Society. The writer
has compiled from his data analyses covering as manj- years as c(ndd
be obtained for each of those varieties selected to represent English
cider fruit.

T.\BLE \l. — Analyses of English cider apples by Mr. F. J. Lloyd.

Variety.

Blenheim Orange.

Average

Average . .

Foxwhelp

Kingston Black.

Average . .
New Cadburv . . .

Average
Red Jersey

Average

Year.

1897
1898

Broadleaf 1.S97

189S

Average . .
Cherry Xorman.
Chisel Jersey

Specific
gravity.

1897
1898
1899

1895

1897
1898
1899

1897
1898
1899

1897
1898
1899

White Jersey 1896

1897

1898

Average

Butleigh No. 14 1897

1898
1899

Average

General average .

1.0683
1.0674

1. 0678

Grams per 100 cc.

Total I Total i Fruit
solids. I susrars. sugars.

16. 64
15. 6G

14.35
14.04

16.15 I 14.19

10.00
10.64

10. 32

Cane
sugar.

Acid, as

I sul- Tanniu.
phuric.o

4.14
3.24

0. 577
. 424

3.69

1.0.578
1.0612

14.22 ] 12.50
14.62 I 13.25

10.64

1.0595 I 14.42 , 12.87

C*)

2.51

C*)

1898 1.0636 1 1.5.82 1 13.26 1 11.11 2.05

1.0542
1. 0682
1.0611

13. .50

17.06
15. 68

12. 90
15.96
14.84

11.11

14.08
11.90

1.71
1.79
2.80

1. 0581
1.0-519
1. 0642

14.68

13.25

('')

('') 1

12. 68

12. 26

8.65

3.43

15.74

14.00

11.62

2.26

..500

.172
.234

.203

.277

a Calculated at Blacksburg, Va.

&0nly total sugars given.

0.140

.078

.109

.300
.302

.301

.310

.226 I .2t^
.226 .370

.234 .174

1.0612

15.41

14.57

12.36

2.10

.228 1

.269

1. 0565

13.84

12. 98

C)

C)

.146 1

.230

1.0606
1. 0691
1.0667

14. 86
16. 90
16.64

14.06
15.37
14.84

10.64
10. 84
11.90

3.24
4.31
2.80

.3.51
. 416
.44ti

.126
.ivj
.110

1.0654

16.13

14. 75

11.12

3.45

.404 ,

.139

1.0539
1. 0642
1.0601

12. 68
15. 68
14.00

10. 82
14. 8]
12. 66

9.06

12. .50

8.76

1.68
2.20
3.74

.702
. 226
.174

.174
.232
. 122

1.0594

14. 12

12. 76

10.77

2.54

.367 1

.176

1.0596
1.0611
1.0667

14.50
14.98
16. 76

14.03
13. 94
13.46

10.87
12.04
12. 18

3.01
1.85
1.-22

.219
. 226
.204

.124
.314
.iiO

1.0625

15.41

13. 81

11.70

2.03

.216 1

.•223

AGO .1.50

.UK) .210

.307 , .114

1.0580 1

14. 36

13.17

10.13

2.84

.219

.158

1. 0790
1.0933
1.0925

20.24
23. 22
24.34

18.58
20. 51
23. 32

13. 18
18. 18

18.88

4.94

4:22

.153
.292
.3.51

.300
.3x0
.206

1.0883 1

22. 59

20.73

16.75

3.79

.205

.296

1.0642 1

15.82

14.30

11.65

2.77

.282

.221

42

AMERICAN STANDARDS.

Early in the nineteenth century much interest was manifested in the
United States in the culture of cider apples, and in the manufacture
of this Ijeverage at a few points. Perhaps Newark, N. J., was one of
the most noted centers of this infant industry. In New England, how-
ever, the cider fruits were cultivated, and the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural Society showed considerable interest in encouraging these effprts.
From scraps of information and brief references, it also appears that
Virginia planters were interested, and rated good cider highly.

William Coxe was one of the first to write on this subject, so far as
the early literature available shows. His treatise on Fruit Trees is
dated 1S17, and in it he speaks of the high (juality of Hewes Virginia
Crab and the Harrison apple for cider making. The latter is of New
Jersey origin, and helped to make the quality of New Jersey ciders
recognized in the early days of our histor}". Coxe also mentions the
Newtown Pippin and Winesap, both well recognized to-day as yielding
cide]* of high quality, but lacking in the element of tannin. The
Hagloe Crab, an old Englisli cider crab, is constantly mentioned in
the early literature, and the Vandevere is also spoken of as a cider
fruit. ■

In the change of habits which came over our people about the mid-
dle of the past century, cider gradually lost its place as a beverage,
used alike by the well-to-do and the laboring classes, and the'art of
making it seemed to fall into desuetude. The country people and a
number of large commercial establishments have continued to make a
beverage from apple must, but, in the main, it is very inferior in
quality. Even the varieties of fruit best suited for making this bev-
erage have almost been lost to our pomology, and later writers rarely
mention them. Yet it can scarcely be contended that our people use
less fermented beverages or less ardent spirits than formerlv.

The early American writers of consequence are Coxe and Thatcher,
and these gentlemen did little more than copy the best English and
French writers of their time, w^eaving in some local experience. Of
real technical studv there was none. The writings of Thomas Andrew
Knight, and articles in Willich's Domestick Encyclopedia, furnished
the basis of these early dissertations. Many of the principles laid
down 1)}' these old writers contain the germ of the best practice of the
present day. Strangely enough, the new encyclopedia of horticulture
(Bailey's) does not contain the word cider as a subject.

It has already been stated that we have not at present in the United
States a distinct industry in the groAving of cider fruits. Yet it is
true that some of our crab apples, and some varieties of apples also,
have been cultivated to a limited extent for cider and are considered
valuable for this purpose, but it is seldom that they are grown to any
laroe extent.

43

So far as the Avritor ha.s learned there is no teehnical literature deal-
ing- especially Avitli the chemistry of American api)les. cither for cider
production or the manufacture of other products. Hence, at present
it is not possible even to sugg-est a standard composition for American
fruits used in making cider. Even partial analyses of the old fruits
mentioned above could not be found, save of Hewes crab. Such anal-
3^ses as have been made, up to a very recent date, are fragmentary and
incompl(>te, and little attempt has been made to collect them. In 188G
Mr. Edgar Richards, then an assistant chemist of the United Stiites
Department of Agriculture, made analyses of the whok^ fruits of 16
varieties of apples, and the results of his analyses are given l)elow, so
far as they concern this inquiry. These results can not be incorpo-
rated in the tables of average composition of must from American
apples because the fruit and not the expressed juice was analyzed:

Table VIL-

- Analyses of nhole fruits of apples by Edgar Richards, Dlrlsioti if Chemistry,
U. >S. Department of Agnculiure, 1886.

Varietv.

Fall pippin

Smokehouse

Maiden Blush

Northern Spy

Ben Davis...'

King

Smith Cider

Rambo

Blush pippin

Paradise Sweet . . .
English Redstreak

Winesap

Nonesuch

Golden pippin

Lobster White

Virginia crab

Averages

Total
solids.

Total
sugar.

Reducing
sugar.

Sucrose.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

■ 12. 81

10.14

7.40

2.60

12. 26

10.72

10.30

.40

12. 00

9.79

8.80

.94

13.43

10.41

10.25

.15

14.14

10.63

8.00

2. .50

14.11

8. .55

7.55

.95

13.49

8.99

8.32

.64

15.40

11.75

9.67

1.98

13.17

8.66

8.43

.22

14. 6S

10.61

7.52

2.94

13.43

11.04

8.63

2.29

16. .55

11.90

9.40

2.38

14.68

12. 02

10.80

1.16

12. 95

10.03

7.69

2. 23

10.60

9.84

6.89

2. 81

13.65

12.90

10.24

2. .53

13.57

10.49

8.74

1.67

Acid as j

sul- I

phuric. I

Ash.

Per cent.
0. 577
. 468
.767
.395
. 395
.314
. 4.53
. 292
.863
.138
.395
.490

.'607'

. 2S5
. 409

Per cent.
0. 3.54
. 262
.245
.291
.283
. 231
.275
.295
.3.53
.2:«
. 325
.279
.228
.249
. 2-55
.240

. 457

.274

Recently, however, the Pennsjdvania Agricultural E.xperiment Sta-
tion has taken up this line of work, and during 1899 Mr. C. A. BroMne,
jr., made a fairly complete study of 25 varieties of apples grown mostly
upon the agricultural college farm. Center C^ounty. Pa.

His work wa.s tiiNt published as Bulletin No. 58. Pennsylvania
department of agriculture, December. 18'.»!K From this .-source are
quoted the data deri\'ed from Mr. Browne's analyses as to the average
composition of the whole fruit of these 25 varieties of apples:

Inorganic matter: Percent.

Water S3. 57

Ash 27

Organic matter:

Total solids 1 6. 43

Invert sugar (grape and fruit sugar) 7. 92

Cane sugar (sucrose ) 3. 99

Total reducing sugar (after inversion "l 12. 12

Acid, as malic (free) tjl

44

The points in the above which interest cider makers are the total
sugars, which, when the cane sugar is converted into reducing sugar,
show an average of 12.12 per cent of fermentable sugar. This is
undoubtedl}' a high average for American apples. The free acid, 0.61
grams per KM) grams of fruit, is also high, nearly reaching that of the
German apples and being 0.2 to 0.4 grams above that of the French.
The tannin was not determined. On page 29 of the same bulletin Mr.
Browne gives the analyses of the fresh must as expressed from the
fruit of 10 varieties of apples, including a number of the best-known
summer and winter sorts. This table is quoted in part below.

Table VIII. — Analyses of must of Amrrican apples hy C. A. Browne, jr., Pennsylvania

Agricultural Experiment Statio)i, 1S99.

Variety.

Red Astraehan

Early Harvest

Yell( iw Transparent

Early Strawberry

Sweet Boush

Baldwin

Ben Davis

Belleflower

Talpahocken 1 do

Unknown variety do . .

Season.

Specific
gravity. a

Summer.
....do...
....do...
....do...
....do...
Winter ..

do . . .

do . . .

1.05177
1.053S2
1.048SO
1. 04809
1.04839
1.07222
1.05249
1.00130
1.05587
1.05761

Per

cent

solids.

Grams in 100 ce of must.

Total
reduc-
ing
sugar.

12. 78

13. 29
11.71
11.81
11.87
16. 82

12. 77
14.90

13. 94
13. 75

10.69
11.67
10. 24
9.90
10. 85
15.39
11.16
13. 61
12. 95
12. 95

Averages | 1. 05523 ; 13. 36 i 11. 94

Invert

Cane

sugar.

sugar.

6.87

3.63

7. 49

3.97

8.03

2.10

6.47

4.21

7.01

3.08

7.97

7.05

7.11

3. 85

9. 06

4.32

9.68

3.11

10.52

2.31

7.78

3.76

Acid as
sul-
phu-
ric.?'

0.833
.658
.628
.570
.073
.487
.336
.424
.190
.321

.463

Per

cent of

ash.

0.37
.28
.27
.24

!26
.28
.28
.24
.26

n Corrected by author's request— factor, — 0.0014.

''Calculated at Blacksburg, Va.

The average sugar content in 100 cc of apple must for the 10 vari-
eties given, as shown l)v Browne's table, is 11.94 grams reducing
sugars, which for practical purposes may be read per cent. This is a
low sugar content e\'en compared with German averages. The average
acid, 0.62 grams in 100 cc of must, is high. From must of this aver-
age composition one might expect to produce a cider of 5 per cent
alcohol, with still a little sugar left unfermented. With such must
undiluted, there is no reason to say that a cider of proper strength
can not be produced.

In the department of horticulture of the Virginia Agricultural
Experiment Station the writer has for the past fourteen years been
bringing together a large collection of pome fruit trees, more espe-
cialh" of appks. This collection now contains 375 varieties of apples,
including cra})s, collected from various portions of America and
Europe. Many of these are now coming into full bearing, and Prof.
li. J. Davidson, chemist of the station, has begun an exhaustive
investigation of the chemical composition of the fruits. This inves-
tigation is not undertaken solely with a view to studying cider making,
but for the general purpose of accumulating scientitic data for our
studies of these fruits in all lines as commercial fruits and as raw

45

material for the nuinufucture of various products. The following
tabular statement furnished by Professor Davidson is useful here for
the further consideration of American standards and for comparison
of foreign and American v^arieties:

Table IX. — Atudyses of apple mmt bij li. J. Davidson, Vlrrjinia Afjricullural Experi-
ment Station, Blaclcshurfj , 1001.

CRAB APPLES.

Variety.

Engli.sh crab

Hyslop I

Kentucky Cider crab.

Maiden Blush

Montreal Beauty

Averages .

Specific
gravity.

1.053
1.0G.5
1.066
1.066
1.045

1.059

Grams per 100 cc of must.

Total Total
solid.s. sugar.

12.68
14.88
15.42
>16. 03
10.90

9.60
11.84
12. 25
12. 63

8.09

13.98 10.88

Redu-
cing
sugar.

6.31
6.80
8.75
7.85
5.31

Cane
sugar.

3.14
4.78
3.33
4.54
2.64

7.00

3.68

Acid, as

sul-
phuric

0.31
0,59
0..52
0.33
0:35

0.42

Tan-
nin.

0.018

0.098
0.023
0. 0h3
0.070

0. 060

APPLES.

Albemarle pippin

ArkiinsiKs (Black Twig).

Baltzby

Ben Davis

Bonum

Emperor Alexander

Eureka

Gano

Lawver

Loy

Mann

Nero

Northern Spy

Peck Pleasant

Ridge pippin

Rome IJeauty

Sharp

Smith Cider

Stark

Tolman Sweet

Walbridge

Willow TW'ig

Yates

York Imperial

Averages .

062
051
046
046
060
060
057
046
049
052
061
046
053
0.>i
051
048
051
062
058
055
051
053
052
050

1. 053

11.48
12. 05
10.76
10. 69
14. 23
13.78
13. 19
10.16
11.96
11.76
14.08
10.61
11.73
12.60
11.73
11.37
11.96
13. 31
15. 05
12. 42
11.. 57
12.11
12. 33
11.91

9.40

10.86

8.76

6.74

11 37

10. 52

10.00

8.61

9.91

7.08

10.3.5

8.58

8.82

10.23

8.66

8.70

10.00

9.93

13.31

9.76

9.18

9.12

10.00

10.12

12.19

9.68

6.14

3.10

7.00

3.67

5.23

3.35

5.06

1.60

7.72

3.47

9.24

1.22

7.10

2. 76

.5.53

2.93

8.05

1.76

6.43

1.57

7.43

2.77

6.77

1.72

5.36

3.29

5.32

4.66

4.69

3.77

6.24

2.17

8.09

1.81

8.63

1. 24

9.26

3.85

.5.98

3.59

7.94

1.18

6.87

2.14

6. 79

3.a5

7.08

2.89

6.78

2.66

0.30
0.30
0.47
0.32
0.27
0.46
0.61
0.30
0.34
0.37
0.42
0.26
0.50
0.35
0.32
0.27
0.50
0.48
0.42
0.15
0.44
0.63
0.34
0.22

0.36

0. 022
0.021
0.015
0. 022
0. 002
0. (130
0. 030
0. 026
0. 032
0.017
0.016
0. 030
0.026
0. 016
0. (130
0. U30
0. 018
0. 026
0.013
0.024
0.022
0.028
0.018
0.018

0.022

These analyses are the results of but one season's work, and hence
do not warrant extended discussion or comparisons with the analyses of
fruits from other sections of this country or from foreign countries.
It is distinctly noticeable that the crabs show a better analysis as cider
fruits than the apples. In this latter list, however, there are no dis-
tinctly cider varieties. While there are a large number of these special
sorts iu our plantations, none have yet fruited. A number of analyses
of fruits from the station orchard were made at the Bureau of
Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, and these are
here in.serted, forming Table X. The averages of specitic gravity
readings at the two places are remarkably close. l)ut in other points
there are diU'erences to be accounted for, partially at least, by the
fact that the varieties examined in the two laboratories were only in
part the same.

46

Table X. — Analyses of apple must by J. S. Burd, Bureau of Chemistry, United States

Department of Arirkidture, 1901.

Variety.

White Winter Pearmain.

World's Wonder

Yates

Specific
gravity.

Baldwin

Bonuni

Bullock's pippin ...
Emperor Alexander

Eureka

Gano •

Grimes Golden

Jonathan

Lankford

Missouri pippin

Nansemond Beauty

Nero

Northern Spy

Peck Pleasant

Roxbnrv Ryssett . . .

Smith Cider

Tolman Sweet

Via.

0514

0585
0534
0594
0561
0424
0704
0504
0500
0489
0510
0462
0519
0529
0574
0589
0527
0445
0527
0521
0519

Grams per 100 cc of must.

Total
solids.

13. 64
14.93
14.72
15. 27
14.35
10.97
18. 81
13.18
13. 42
12. 08
13.18
12. 00
13.77
14.05
12.87
13.08
14. CO
11.74
12. 75
12.37
12. 55

Total
suga r.

11.72

n.36

11. 35
11. 12
11. 61

8.12
14. 05

9. .52
10.10

9.77
10. 09

9. 09

9.77
10.18
10.84
10.73
10. 29

8.41
10. 86
10. 21
10.34

Averages ,

1. 0535

13.39 I 10.45

Redu-
cing
sugar.

5.40
9.46
6. 25
7. 22
7.16
5.72

33

76

93

57

15

7. 63

6.10

6.18

5. 15

7.77

6.33

7.14

6.91

7. 55

6.89

6. 84

Cane
sugar.

6.01
1.81
4.84
3.71
4.23
2.28
6.39
2.63
2.07
3.99
2.80
1.39
3. 50
3.80
5.41
2.82
3.77
1.21
3.76
2.53
3.28

3.48

Acid, as

sul-
phuric.

0.45
0.38
0.31
0.54
0.68
0.29
0.54
0.19
0.36
0.44
0.47
0.29
0.51
0.35
0.46
0.48
0.16
0.18
0. 28
0.44
0.33

Per

cent of

ash.

0.37

0.25
0.26
0.25
0.87
0.37
0.24
0.30
0.87
0. 25
0.31
0.33
0.24
0.32
0.24
0. 25
0.37
0.28
0.24
0.28
0.24
0.26-

0.33

HARVESTING, TRANSPORTATION, AND STORAGE OF CIDER FRUIT.

If quality in cider fruit is such a prime consideration, then any-
thing which acts either to enhance or to deteriorate the same must
receive attention. There is much discussion of this point going on in
foreign journals, and the standard literature of this subject contains
many notes thereon. The discussion hinges about certain principal
questions, as: (1) What is the proper season to gather the fruit? (2)
Shall it be hand picked or shaken? (8) Shall it be kept in piles out of
doors on the ground? or (4) shall it be kept on raised temporary struc-
tures, so as to protect the fruit entirel}^ from contact with the earth?
or (5) should it be removed at as early a date as possible into storage
buildings ?

Because of the fact that general culture of orchards for dessert
fruit has not reached that stage of development in Europe which it
has in the United States, they seem not to have worked out a sj^stem
of harvesting fruit at all comparable to ours, nor does it appear, that
the harvesting and handling of cider fruits reijuire such a sj^stem.
Yet there are some important considerations to be observed.

The early fruit which is turned into cider is generally treated with
very little consideration. It is allowed to fall to the ground from the
effect of natural ripening, and is either worked up from time to time
or allowed to lie until such a time as it is convenient to whip off that
which still hangs on the trees, and all is then worked together. This
gives an uneven condition of fruit, and produces a poor product, which
is fermented rapidly and used for a cheap trade. Such fruit appears

47

to be handled in most countries just as we ordinarily handle our iMitire
crop of cider apples in this country. The fruit lies in heaps on the
earth, quite regardless of unclean conditions, and is then ground with-
out regard to uniformity of ripeness or blending for quality.

The following discussion relates to observations made on the main
cider crop. The practice of diiferent countries varies much on some
points and will be noticed separately so far as there is ground for so
doing.

Consideral)le importance is attached to observing the maturity of the
fruit. The French especially argue that both the sugar content and
the quality of the product are affected thereby. The first will doubt-
less be readily admitted b}^ all, and the second in part, but further
investigation is needed before all that is claimed can be admitted.
While the fruit should certainl}^ be mature — that is, it should have
reached the perfection of its growth — it should not be allowed to ripen
and fall from the tree, as this will lead to ver}- irregular ripening and
yield at no time a satisfactory amount of evenly ripened fruit in proper
condition for grinding.

■ The French lay great stress upon gathering and ripening in bulk, as
they claim in this manner to secure the most perfect development of
the delicate aroma which is such a marked characteristic of the best
Normandy varieties. Their method is generally to dislodge the fruit
by shaking and by the use of poles at about the stage of maturity which
in America we recognize as right for gathering and barreling. In
many places this fruit is left in huge piles under the trees until late
in the season, though this is not considered the best practice. The
better method, which seems to be quite well observed by' larger
growers, and especially by those concerns which manufacture large
quantities of cider, is to bring the fruit quite promptly into the
lofts over the cider mills. This was the onlv house-storage method
observed in France.

It is well to explain here that the small cider apples grown in France
bear shaking and beating off far better than would the large apples in
our country, and further, the orchards are almost invariably set in
heavy sod, which is an advantage in this method of harvesting.
Their apples are often very firm at maturity, and some of them have
a tough texture which resists rough handling well. It was surprising
to see how little inclined the fruit is to decay from the effect of bruises
and other slight injuries.

The storage lofts in France were ordinarily fitted with bins or par-
titions for the separation of apples of various qualities, so that they
could be properly blended m grinding. Here were seen great struc-
tures 100 feet long or more and 30 or 40 feet wide piled with apples
to a depth of 4 to 6 feet, and such a loft in late November filled with
this ripening fruit is pervaded by an aroma sometimes quite oppres-

48

sive and not easily characterized. When the room is not too close the
odor is decidedly pleasant. Some makei's are very careful to store the
fruit only a foot or two deep, but this is the exception.

The invariable custom, so far as observed, was to run the fruit by
gravity from the loft storerooms into the grinders, whence the j)omace
falls into vats before going to the presses. The fruit is ground from
these upper-fioor storerooms as it ripens some \'arieties not coming to
their best untd Januar}^ or February, In the peculiar climate of Nor-
mandy and Brittan}^ there seems to be ver}^ little danger of the weather
becoming sufficiently severe to harm the fruit materially.

The growers of this fruit are very largely the small peasant pro-
prietors and small tenants, with here and there a large estate. The
small growers are referred to in French literature as "recoltants."
Often these peasant proprietors make up their own fruit and that of
neighbors; hence the cider houses of these small makers are very
common in some parts. But there is a tendency to commercialize, and
more and more the fruit goes to the large manufacturer. To these it
is hauled in carts (PI. V, lig. 2) loose or in sacks, the latter being the
most popular method. These sacks are hoisted to the upper floor of
the factories and distributed to the proper storerooms. There is also
in France anothei- class of cider makers, who buy the partly fermented
juice from the small growers and blend and work it up to suit the
trade they wish to supply. These are known as "commercants."
They often make an excellent article, but they are also charged with a
vast amount of trickery in the production of sophisticated goods.

There is, in the great crop years, an extensive railway commerce in
cider apples, both to local points and to the near or distant states. The
shipments are made loose in what we call box cars, and also loose or
in sacks on flat cars (PI, V, fig. 1). The method of ship])ing in sacks
seems to be preferred in France and might well be copied in this
country. The Germans appear to prefer handling the fruit loose.
No railway commerce in cider apples was seen in England. In 1900
such an immense crop was harvested m Normandy that the local rail-
ways were literally blocked with fruit, as is sometimes the case on
American roads when great quantities of coal are carried.

At the local factories visited in France great stress seems to be laid
upon gathering the late fruit when perfectly dry and storing at once
in the bins, where more or less of it lies luitil January and Februaiy.
There appears to be very little tendency to decay. The cider maker
judges the ripeness of the fruit, or its fitness for grinding, by pressing
with the thumb until the juice exudes or by breaking the fruit in half
and crushing one portion in his hand with a wringing motion. Great
stress is laid upon grinding at the best period of ripeni^ss in order to
secure all the juice possible by expressing. Cleanliness is the rule
in the handling of fruit in France, yet some dirty bad work was seen,

BliI, 71, Buipau of Chemistry, U. S. Dppt. Agr.

f^LATE V.

Fig. 1.— Train Loaded with Cider Apples in Sacks, France.

Fig. 2.— Ox Cart used for Hauling Apples in Germany.

- / ,o"=^

'.c/V^

V

'vi.v.

■'■^-. 1

49

the fruit being dumpod into tiltliy ivceptaclos. und o-round and ])r('ssed
in a very unsanitary condition.

In Germany there is, in the first place, much less specialization in
the growing and handling of cider fruits, and there appears to be much
less manufacturing of cider b}' small landed proprietors. Thci-c were,
however, small makers everywhere, but they ordinarily i)urchased
their fruit as miscellaneous stock from various sources, and paid no
attention to storing and matui'ing the same by a delinite sy.stem. but
ground it up as needed.

The large factories, as J'ai- as observed, also handled the fruit, less
carefully than in France. It was purchased in wagonloads and car-
loads and dumped into great bins on the ground, covered or uncovered.
While, on the whole, it w\as handled in a cleaidy manner, no attention
seemed to be paid to keeping it dry, or to the fine points of lipening
the fruit. At one large factory lOO.Ooo kilos (100 ton.s) of fruit
arrived daily, mostly l)v carloads, and was dumped into a great open
bin, where the fruit lay in the open from a few inches to several feet
deep until wanted for grinding.

As cider apples are an incidental and not a special croj) in (iermany.
it will be understood that harvesting is largely a matter of convenience
rather than system. The refuse of dessert fruit, together with the
inferior varieties and purely cider fruits, are collected as suits the
growers' convenience, and disposed of at the factories or manufactured
at home if the grower is also a cider maker, Cidei- making in (ier-
man}' shows a strong tendency toward the factory system, and the
makers have the techni(iue of fermentation well worked out. but that
they handle a fruit inferior to that of the French and with nuich less
care is certainly true.

In England the manufacture of cider is very largely in the hands of
the farmers, though the factory idea is developing. One sees chiefly
the same old customs of harvesting and handling the fruit that have
prevailed for centuries. There is in general no attempt at storage.
The low-grade fruit (refuse from what the English c-ill "pot fruit,"
i. e., dessert and cooking grades) is gathered in miscellaneous piles in
the orchard, and either ground from these piles or drawn away and
sold to the factories. At the best mills the fruit is graded somewhat,
so as to properly blend the same at grinding, but even at these the
fruit may be seen h'ing in heaps on the sod in the orchard or near-by
lots until late in Noveml)er. This practice gives to this fruit a very
decided earthy flavor and odor, and in some cases it is largely dam-
aged b}" decay. At Butleigh Court the fruit is stored in a loft over
the press-room, and is kept in clean, dry condition.

A method advocated by some in England is to make temporary bins
in the field by using hurdles for sides and bottom, the bottom piece
being deviated somewhat from the ground and all lashed together as

17247— No. 71—03 4

50

shown in the illnstration (lig. 1). This temporary rack is matted on
the bottom and sides with straw and the fruit is then poured in. Such
an arrangement permits of holding- the fruit quite clean, and it can be
covered with straw to protect from early freezes.

'"if

"n

Fig. 1.— Bin made of hurdles for outdoor storage of apples, used in England.

The English customs of handling fruit are in the main about the same
as those in the United States. There is little or no shipping of cider
fruit, such as there is in France. It may he proper to say here that
the French s3^stem of sacking this fruit in the orchard for transporta-
tion, either by wagon or rail, seems to be well worthy of adoption
by us.

CIDER-MAKING ESTABLISHMENTS.

The present manufacture of cider in Europe embraces establish-
ments ranging all the way from the most primitive farm affairs to the
most elaborate modern factory. Primitive methods of manufacture
play a very important part in the grand total of product, and the users
of primitive apparatus in many cases make an article equal to the best
product of modern factories.

Notwithstanding the tendency evervwhere manifest toward the
modern factory system, it seems that the cider industry is so peculiarlj'^
adapted to the farm that it .should be the effort of orchardists, or at
least of small communities, to conduct this work at home, and by
making superior cider, vinegar, etc., from unmerchantal)le fruits,
secure to themselves the very satisfactory profits which accrue to such
a business ritrhtlv conducted.

51

In starting- a cider -making- establishment there are several points of
importance which should he more or less observed. These are:
(1) Supply of fruit; (2) supph^ of pure water easily carried into the
factory under some pressure; (3) the la}^ of the gfround in regard to
drainage, and the l)uilding of cellars or basement rooms; {-t) conven-
ience for disposal of product, proximity to i-ailroad station, etc.

These conditions are of equal importance to the small maker and to
the large factory.

pri:mitive methods and ApruANrEs.

Persons employing very old methods of manufacture were oljserved
in each of the three countries visited, but particularly in France,
where there is in common use the old "tour Ti auge" mills; in fact, a

Fir;. 2. — The "tour a auge"' apple cnisher, Xonnandy, Fninoe.

modification of them is in use in some of the large factories driven by
steam power. This machine is also in use in England, but to a very
limited extent. In Germany, ancient hand devices were in use. l)ut
the '"tour" was not seen. This very ancient device for crushing* fruits
before expressing the must is shown in the accompan^Mng illustration
(fig. 2). It is constructed of stone or of wood or by putting on a
heav}' layer of cement over an iron form. Necessarily the trough
must be made of some materi-.d that will not be acted upon by the
fruit juices. The plan of construction and the opeiation are very
simple. The entire apparatus is ordinarily about 10 feet in diameter.
The outer and inner walls (fig. 2, a^ a') are about 30 inches high, and
inclose a circular trough (/>), in which the grinding or crushing is
done. This trough usually narrows toward the bottom, being about
20 inches wide at the top and 11 inches at the bottom. The inner

52

wall is almost perpendicular; but the outer slopes decidedly toward
the center of the trough, which varies in depth, luit 14 inches is the
usual depth. Within the inner circle, or cistern (r), rises a vertical
coUuun to a support above, and to this is attached the radial arms
which carry the crushers (d). This inner space or cistern is some-
times used as a receptacle for the fruit before grinding. The fruit
falls l)y means of a chute from the storage loft into this cistern as
desired, and from it is put into the grinding trough with a wooden
shovel.

The rollers or crushers are usually made of a lirm heavy wood with
a somewhat corrugated surface. Rollers are also made of granite, but
this makes them very heavy, and they are said to crush the seeds of
the fruit, which is not desired. These huge wheels are about 3 feet in
diameter, and about 6 inches to 9 inches on the faces. They are set so
that the}' do not trail, thus covering all the bottom surface of the
trough. A small device, not shown, follows after the crushers and
scrapes the pomace and uncrushed fruit down into the bottom of the
trough.

"Tours" were seen with only one large Inroad-faced crusher, and
with various other modifications, but the one tigured seems to be of
the typical form. Where used in steam mills, thev are rigged with
the crushers exactly opposite each other, on tixed radial Inars, and the
perpendicular shaft is turned l\v a pinion wheel. In this manner the}"
are driven at rather high speed, and are used principally to remix
pomace with water for the second and third pressings.

The "tour," as shown in the illustration, is typical of those used by
the small peasant proprietors in France. It is worked by a horse which
patiently plods around its limited circle, becoming so used to the work
as to require no attention. In fact, he soon learns to forage on the
fruit by twisting his neck so as to gather the pomace from the front
crusher as it revolves. Hence he is not removed for feeding until the
day's work is done.

The fruit is thrown into the trough 2 to 3 inches deep and the horse
is put in motion, and during the grinding, the attendant is bus}" with
other duties, as fitting up the "cheese," bearing away the cider, etc.
The fruit will be reduced to pulp ip twenty or thirty minutes, vary-
ing with its texture. The attendant then turns on a scraper, attached
at the rear of the rollers, which shoves the pomace into a heap at the
side adjacent to the press. From here it is lifted with a wooden shovel
to the press platform. The cheese is laid up very much as with us — •
viz, wrapped in special cloths — each section or lozenge 4 to 5 inches
deep. Instead of cloth, straw is often used to divide the mass of the
cheese into layers.

To put up a cheese with straw divisions, a bed of straight straw is
spread on the press platform, and a mass of pomace is evenly distrib-

58

uted over it to the depth of -t or o inches. This is then covered with
a second hiyer of stniw. and the operation is repeated. Tiie straw is
laid on very carefully, radiating outward, the butts projecting a hit
over the edge of the cheese. The workmen aic very adept in hiying
up the cheese in this fashion, and produce a reinarkal)ly true even
block of pomace. When completed, the edges are cut down .straight,
and the pomace and bits of straw are spread on top of the cheese, and
then all is ready for the application of pressure. The interposed beds
of straw serve exceUently to drain the cheese when under ]irossui'e.
Indeed, this method has strong features to conunend it.

After removing the pomace the trough is resupplied willi fruit, and
the operation is repeated. Thus one hand attends to the crushing, lays
up the cheese, presses out the must, and bears it away, in this way
working up about 2^ tons of fruit daily. The fruit is ground in
batches, as just described, and the results of four or ti\(' lots go to
make up one cheese. When this is completed, the horse is removed,
and the press is started on the cheese.

There are many styles of presses used, but one of very ancient type
is worthy of rather extended description. The particular one liere
described bore dates which indicated that it had l)een in use for two
hundred j^ears, and this style was formerly the only i)ow('r i)rcs> u>ed.

The essentials of this structure are two immense beams of oak.
These beams are 14 inches square and 20 feet long. One constitutes
the base and rests on a firm foundation to which it is securely attached.
On this a short distance from one end is made fast the platform which
supports the cheese. The other beam is freely movable. At the end
just to the rear of the cheese platform the free beam moves up and
down between two strong uprights, which are mortised through at
intervals to permit of heavy cross bars being inserted to suppoi-t the
beam at any desired height. The other end is unattached, save that a
large wood screw passes through it and enters a huge block on top of
it, which block is threaded and acts as a nut. This wooden screw is
attached to the lower beam, but works freely in a socket.

While the cheese is building, the upper beam is elevated, front and
rear, out of the wa}^ When read}' to apply pressure, the end nearest
the cheese is let down on the heav}' blocking which covers the latter,
and is then securely "blocked" by means of cross bars so it can not
rise. Then the other end is lowered until the beam rests fairly (»n the
blocking over the cheese. Its verv weioht causes the nuist to flow
freely at once, but power is now gradually applied by running doMii the
wooden nut until it rests on the beam, then turning the great wooden
screw slowh', by means of levers inserted in large augur holes through
the same, until this beam comes into a hori/iontal position. The pres-
sure is applied very slowly, the attendant bearing off the must, as
it flows, to the casks in the adjacent fermentation room. When the
flow of must becomes much reduced, the screw is loosened, the front

54

end of the pressure Ijeam is raised, and this causes the rear end to fall
lower, so that it can be again ])locked down, after which the pressure
is reapplied. This operation is repeated until the cheese is pressed
sufficient!}', when it i.s allowed to drain for some time, frequently over
night, after which the pomace is removed, remashed in the "tour,"
and repressed. When reworking this pomace, an amount of water is
added equal to about one-fifth of the juice which has been expressed
from it. In practice, the amount of must secured by the second
pressing- is alK)ut equal to the water added. This reworking- of the
pomace completes the usual routine, and a cheese of fresh fruit is now

Fig. 3. — Primitive apple grater in use in Germany.

ground, and laid up as before. By this system, about 400 gallons of
first and second pressings are obtained daily with the labor of practi-
cally l)ut one man and one horse. AVith this lever press the use of a
rack or frame of any kind to hold the pomace is impracticable.
Evidently- these latter appliances have come into use along with the
direct screw press.

A few illustrations (figs. 3, 4, and 5) showing pi'imitive methods in
use in Germany are reproduced from Johannes Bottner's recent liook
on cider making, but there is so little in these to commend that they
will not be discussed. They arc sufficiently self-explanatory.

55

It may not be known to many Americans that John Bartiam. the
pioneer American botanical collector, made and used a '-tour a aiige"
cider mill on the bank.s of the Schuvlkill in the earlvdavs of Pennsvl-

FiG. 4.— Primitive single-lever cider press in use in Germany.

vania. The circular trough, hewn in the great rock on the bank of the
river, yet remains; also the rock-hewn cistern — mute witnesses to his
ingenuity. From these portions one can in imagination easih' recon-

FiG. 5.— Primitive double-lever cider press iu use in Germany.

struct the rest of the mill. This svstera was very evidently in use in
the early dajs in New Jersey and elsewhere among the colonial
farmers for crushing their fruit, but no description or detailed account
of its use in America has been found.

56

MODERN METHODS AND ArPLIANCES.

There is a wide range of procedure in grinding and pressing cider
fruit hetween the distinctl}^ primitive appliances and methods and
those of the modern factory system. Machines of small and medium
capacity are numerous abroad, and range from the smallest liandmills
of the meanest construction, with wooden rollers for crushing the
fruit, to the tinest hand and power machines of the best scientitic
construction.

As a general thing the mills which employ a hopper into which the
fruit is thrown, whence it is fed (by gravity) onto a rotary grating or

crushing device, marks
the initial departure of
modern machines from
primitive ones. Of such
machines there is a great
variety in use in Europe,
l)ut there is very little to
commend in them with one
exception, to which atten-
tion will be called here-
after. Many of these mills
were either American
machines or modifications
of well-known American
types, which do not need
to l)e described here. But
there is one type of rotary
grinding or crushing ma-
chine found very com-
monly in Germany, l)ut
much less frequently in
France and England,
which a])pears to deserve
description and illustra-
tion. The origin of this mill is uncertain, but it is thought to be Ger-
niiin. It can readily be used for either hand or power work. This
mill is called in German the "greif " (grip) fruit mill, and it is probably
the best type for use in ordinary work. It is shown as used for hand
work in tigure ♦'). In principle' this mill goes back to that of the ancient
"tour a auge," viz, that of crushing the fruit instead of rasping or
grating it, but it appears to accomplish this with greater perfection.
The capacity, of course, depends on the size of the mill.

In general, experienced persons admit the desirability of preventing,
as far as possible, the contact of the pomace and must with metals such
as iron. With the mills known as graters, which arc now practically

Fig. 6. — The "greif " apple crusher <]f Germany.

57

the only important kind of mills on the Ameriran mark(>t. this end is
not secured, for the pulp is all brought into contact with metal sur-
faces. With the "oreif" machine this is not the case to the same
extent. A further disadvantag-e of the grater mill, of pci-haps luore
importance from a practical standpoint, is tliat the best grater mills
will not continue to prepare the pomace in the l)cst manner unless the
grater knives are frequenth' reground. This reiiuires time and skill,
and is a distinct drawback to their use in the ordinary country factory.
The "greif mill, on the other hand, can be adjusted foi- fine or coarse
pomace, as ma}^ be desired, in a minute, and it has the still moi'c impor-
tant advantage of reducing the fruit to pomace by bruising or crushing
the tissues.

The "greif "' mill in general
aspect appears not unlike many
American hand or small power
mills, but in the essentials it is
entirely ditierent. The fruit
when thrown into the hopper,
falls upon a slotted bottom
(fig. 7). This may be made of
hard wood or of metal. There
is also a board slotted to corre-
spond to the bottom at the back
side of the hopper, which de-
flects the fruit forward, so that
it only comes onto the slotted
bottom at the front side of the
hopper. The crank or driving-
wheel is attached to a shaft (d),
which rests just over the slot-
ted bottom of the hopper, and to this shaft are attached slightly
curved arms (r), 6 to 8 inches long, which, as the shaft revolves, catch
the fruit and crush it through the slots in the bottom of the hopper.
One of these arms can bo seen in the section of tht^ hoi)per shown in
figure 8. Thus the fruit is more or less broken before it comes in
contact with the crushers.

The two stone rollers which crush the fruit are shown in perspective
and cross section in figure 9, and in situation at '/. figure 8. Thev
are made of granite or of millstone grit, and mounted on shafts. The
surfaces are cut with a slight spiral corrugation. By use of a regulat-
ing screw (fig. 8, /"), one of these rollers can be made to approach the
other, so as to regulate the crushing of the fruit as may ])e desired.
The French and German operators wish to pulp the fruit as finely as
possible without crushing or grinding the seeds.

1 '1

®

0

|!l!li !^ ^

®

1 1

]lii:' e : 1

i

i

□

J

1

L

('

1

d

^

1

n

e

a

Fig. •

-Slotted bottom of hopper used in "greif"
machiiK'.

58

The feeding arms (iig. 7, e) are placed spirally around the shaft {d)^
so that onh' one is delivering fruit at the same moment, but this posi-
tion insures a constant feed, and the size of the slots is such that no
whole fruit can be delivered to the crushers. By means of the cog
gearing driven from the shaft to which is attached the crank or drive
wheel, the crushers are made to revolve inward at the desired rate of
speed. The spiral corrugations are so cut that they cross each other
at an angle which adds very materially to the crushing or pulping
effect of this mill.

So far as was observed, this apparatus seems well adapted either to
hand or power work, and gives good results. Its most important

Fig. 8. — "Greif ' apple crusher, sectional view of hopper.

advantages are, (1) the pomace is not brought so much in contact
with metal surfaces, as is the case with grating mills; (2) it can be
regulated to grind line or coarse very quickly and with certaintv, and
(3) the operator is entirely freed from the task of removing and grind-
ing knives.

It should be noted that the fruit must be carefully freed from stones,
sticks, and the like, or a breakdown of the working parts is sure to
occur. The grater mills, with spring adjusted concaves, are not
nearly so liable to such mishaps.

This German mill appears to be coming into favor in England. The
ordinary mills of other styles presented no points of special importance.

Bui. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S Dtpl. Agr,

Plate V!.

Fig. 1.— Itinerant Cider Makers at Work in Streets. Straw
Used in Building up Cheese, Rennes, France.

Fig. 2.— Similar Outfit Mounted for Travel, Waiting for a
Job. Trouville, France.

■N;--j../

'A y

59

American mills and presses are to be seen in use in dill'erent parts of
the country. The presses used ordinarily with medium-sized modern
machines are of the screw types, either with a descendinf^ screw or a
screw firmly set in the base of the press am) with fallinj^ head blocks.

In France most of the small mills are of the grate i- type, with adjust-
able concaves for pressing the fruit firmly against the giinding cylin-
der. These machines are scarcely worth}- of special illustration, but
the ver}" common custom of making cider in the streets of tiie small
towns and cities of the French cider districts is so uniijue ;i> to deserve
some notice.

It is a very connuon sight in
Rennes, Trouville, Nantes, and
other west coast towns to see
small outfits placed in the street
(Plate VI) or on the sidewalk
grinding and pressing snr.dl
quantities of fruit for the
householders or the small
shopkeepers. The mills pre-
sent crdinarily no features
that are unusual and are quite
uniformly graters operated by
hand. Sometimes the frame is
mounted on wheels or wooden
rollers so that it can be trun-
dled from place to place. The
presses likewise are at times
mounted on wheels, as shown
in the illustration. Practi-
cally all presses used for
street work are of the central
screw type, the power being
applied by means of a huge

nut which is turned down by means of levers. The iheese i> either
laid up in a crib frame or with straw divisions, as previously explained.

FACTORY SYSTE5IS.

In the three leading cider-producing countries of Europe are to he
found well-developed factory systems differing considoral)ly from
one another. Hence it is necessary to take up several types which
present certain characteristics and treat each separately.

FRENCH FACTORIES.

Althoufrh there is much to commend in the cider fruits, the facto-
ries, and ciders of the French, yet there was much one could not com-

FiG. 9 —Crushing cylinders of the "preif " machine.

60

mend in their systems of manufacture. It is proposed to notice,
lirst of all, one of these factories run on wliat seemed to be question-
able methods. There is a ver}^ modern school of French cider makers,
whose claims and pretentions deserve more than passing- notice,
especially since it is proposed to introduce their system into the United
States.

The system referred to is known in France as the Noel system, and
involves pretended secret processes which it is claimed perform
wonders in the handling' of cider fruit, the storag'e and keeping of
ciders, etc. The writer had several conferences with the promoters of
this scheme in Paris, and was offered full instruction in the methods
for a period of seventy or eighty da3^s for 30,000 francs, on condition
that the methods should never be divulged! During- these conferences

Fig. 10. — Fermentation and storage room, Noel system, France.

and later in visiting some of the factories it was ascertained that the
so-called system consisted of nothing peculiarly valuable. The pro-
cedure was much the same as in other factories. The fruit was ground
and pressed, then the pomace was exhausted by diffusion with warm
water, a method often used in France, and the resulting nuists were
united and sugared to a condition which would make a fair cider. A
great pretense was made of securing valuable principles lost to others
by exhausting the marc in warm water. By sugaring up the weak
must secured by exhausting the pomace with water, about double the
quantity of cider is made that can l)e usually obtained b}" using pure
juice. This is truly an old secret! However, the plan of one factory
which was twice visited is quite uni(|ue, and for that reason is pre-
sented somewhat fully. The building is a line new brick structure
in a suburb of Versailles. The surroundings are much like those of a

61

homo. The family lives in the front of the .structure, and here the
office is also located. Extendino- back from the front is a rectan^'-ular
structure two stories hiph and about -io feet wide l)v lijO feet loiiu'.
The lower story of this rear structure conij)ri.ses one large room with
very heavy brick walls without windows. This room is entered from
the front by large doors, and has a rear dooi- of smaller size. Along
the sides of this room, against the walls, ai'e ran<>-ed iri'cat tanks al)out
60 in number with total capacity reaching po.ssibly 2(M),(HI() gallons.

The illustration (tig. 10) shows a perspective view down the center
of the room. Each tank is furnished with a faucet near tlie bottom,
and a glass tube connmuiicating with the interior rises the full heiuht
of the tank, showing at a glance the height of the licjuor within. The
top is tightly closed, but a manhole for entering the tank and taps for
introducing the must arc provided. The center of this rotjm is occu-
pied b}' casks, pumps, and paraphernalia for racking and handling the
cider. Also great cart loads of fruit in sacks are brought from the
railwav station, driven to the center of this floor, and elevated to
the upper story by a power lift, worked V)y a gasoline (Migine in the
second story.

The second story is used to store fruit, and here is also located the
grinder, the gasoline engine which furnishes all the power for the
plant, and the tubs or tanks for exhausting the pomace. The fruit
for grinding is thrown into a tank of water in which rests the lower
end of an elevator screw which lifts it to the grinding cylinders. From
the grinder the pomace falls into the press, where it is m:ide up into
cheeses after the American fashion and pressed immediately. The
object of throwing the fruit into the tank of water is to wash it. whieii
is fairly well accomplished by the motion of the elevator screw.

The exhaustion of the pomace after pressing is accomplished by
diflusion with warm water, as already stated. The operations of
blending and sugaring were not shown, nor were the details of the
sj^stem of fermenting and racking explained other than in \ ague
terms. However, the must is both fermented and stored on the tir>t
floor and is run off into casks for market as desired.

The product, as sampled in several stages of manufacture, was very
inferior, and had little resemblance to that of standard Normandy
ciders. This factory is making about 200.000 gallons of cider annually.
The construction of the factory, arrangement of machinery, tanks,
etc., is quite unique, and apparently advantageous.

A characteristic of the French "cidreries" was the almost total
absence of cellars. Thus, in the factory just described the storage is
wholly above ground. This is the rule in Franco, while just the
opposite is true of Germany.

Za Cldrerie de T Zhvwn Agrtcolc.—Th^ best type of factory examined
in the French cider couutrv is that of an agricultural union at St.

62

Ouen-de-Thouberville, a short distance from Rouen. This establish-
ment, built and operated upon a cooperative plan, is a model in its
mechanical appointments, and the technique of its operations seemed
to leave little to be desired. The general manager is Monsieur Gus-
tave Power, the noted authority on pomology, whose books have been ^
oflScially adopted by the minister of agriculture for use in the schools
of France. The writer was most courteously received by this cultured
gentleman, and given every facility to examine and study the details
and methods of the establishment, which is, perhaps, representative of
the best type in France.

The ground plan of the main factory is shown in figure 12. In total
dimensions, the building is approximately 800 feet long by 100 feet
wide. A study of the vertical longitudinal section (fig. 11) will help
to give a clear idea of the plan and w^orkings of this factory. It will
be seen that to the rear of the main operating room of the ground floor
one can step up a few feet into the main fermenting room, or down a
few feet into a half-cellar used for the finishing processes of fermen-
tation and for storage. The surface of the ground slopes from the
front to the rear of the building, so that this lower room ends at ground
level. This gives an important advantage in the ease with which the
finished product can be loaded on trucks for transport.

The operation of this factory will be better understood b}^ following
the usual course of the fruit and must as the}^ pass through the sev-
eral processes to the finished product. The carts laden with apples in
sacks enter the shed in front of the factory, and ])y a hoist, operated
from the main shaft within, the fruit is lifted to the second floor,
where it is weighed and put in bins according to varieties and qualit3^
These bins cover nearly all of the second floor, and are only 18 inches
deep, strict rules as to methods of storage being observed. With the
fruit thus distributed, it is possible to observe critically its condition
and to grind as it comes to proper maturity; also the careful distribu-
tion in accordance with the quality makes it easy to blend the fruit so
as to "produce desired grades of must.

When ready to grind, the fruit is measured to the machine in proper
proportions. The grinder stands at the floor level of this storeroom.
Formerly the fruit was washed, but now this is only resorted to in
case of necessity. The fruit is, however, run over a slatted ''way" or
chute in its progress to the cylinders and much trash is screened out,
an attendant watching that foreign substances likely to damage the
grinders do not pass. From the grinders the pulp drops into a
chute, which delivers it at the pleasure of the operator into one or
another of the several pomace vats. The custom is to fill one after
another of the vats, the pulp being allowed to remain for some hours
before pressing. This maceration of the pulp in its own juice is
thought to aid in extracting the sugar content and to give better color
to the must throus-h certain chemical changes caused bv the action of

63

64

the ail- on the crushed tissues. The pulp is not, however, and never
should be, allowed to ferment before pressing.

The pulp vats at this factory were made of porcelain tiles carefully set
in cement. A drain pipe was arranged to carry the must, which always

65

flows from f reshh' crushed fruit, into a cistern at the left of these vats.
From here it was pumped into the laroe casks in the fermentation
room. The large vat (tig-. J 2, h) is provided for the maceration of
pomace after it has been through the press.

When the pulp is thought to ])e in condition for the press a small
car is run alongside and the pulp is laid up in cheeses on a form, using
coarsely woven press cloths just as is done in the ])est American fac-
tories. When this car is loaded it is run onto the press (/>', tigs. 11
and 12), and the hj'draulic pump is put in motion, the car and its load
of pulp l)eing lifted by the upward thrust of a hydraulic piston after
the manner so common in this countrv. In this factorv the hvdraulic
presses were rated at 200,000 pounds direct pressure.

While this load of pulp is under pressure another car is loaded
ready to take its place. On being released from the press the car is
run alongside the large vat and the pressed pomace is discharged into
it, carefully cut up with a shovel and wet with weak must or water,
the amount of liquor added ])eing a])out equal to the pure juice
expressed. This round of operations is repeated until the day's grind-
ing is exhausted, and the pomace from the tirst pressing then rests in
the large vat macerating in water or weak must until thought ready
for pressing a second time. The must from the fresh pulp in the vats
and cistern is united in the great casks of the fermentation room as
pure juice. This is destined for the highest grade cider.

After eight to ten or twelve hours maceration the pomace is again
subjected to pressure on a different press {D, tig. 11) from that used
for pure juice, and the must is received in another cistern near by
and pumped into another set of casks. This must is used to make a
second grade of cider, the "boisson" of the laborers. But this does
not complete the operation. Again the pomace undergoes maceration
with water or weak must, being then pressed a third time. The must
from this pressing is very weak, its specific gravity being l.olo to
1.016. This must is used to macerate the pomace after the tirst press-
ing, thus adding very material!}' to the quality of the must derived
from the second pressing.

The pomace is no longer of any value for cider purposes. It may,
therefore, l)e discharged bv running the car outside the factorv, or it
may be ground anew and washed to separate the seeds, which return
no small income, as they are in great demand by luirserymen for
growing stocks. These seeds are known in commerce in this country
as French "crab seed," but they are really seeds of the cultivated
apple and not of crabs.

A second method of extracting the juice from the apple pulp is also

employed in this factory, viz. diffusion. The diffusion battery ((r. tig.

12) is located at the extreme left of the main operating room. It

consists of 6 tanks, about 3i to 4 feet high, mounted on a turntable.

17247— No. 71—03 5

66

Immediately at one side and just above the level of the tanks is a res-
ervoir for water. This ma}^ be supplied warm or cold.

To put this apparatus in operation, 5 of the tanks are tilled with cut
or pulped fruit. These are so connected that the Huid will circulate
from one tank to another by means of a tube connected at the bottom
of the first and delivering the flow near the top of the second, and so
on around the circle. By the time the fluid flows out from the bottom
of the fifth tub it is well charged with the soluble matters contained
in the fruit, i. e., sugars, acid, tannin, mucilage, etc. But it can
never be made to equal in richness the product of the first pressing
from the same fruit.

As soon as the fruit in the first tank is exhausted by this washing
with water, the stream is turned into the second, and the sixth tank, now
freshl}^ filled with pulp, is put in service as the final member of the
battery. Then the first tank is emptied and refilled with fresh fruit
to take the last place in the series, when the third tank becomes the
first cell in the battery. Thus the operation proceeds indefinitely.
It should be said that the richness of the must delivered at the exit
from the fifth cell alwa3^s determines when a fresh tub or cell must be
""cut in," as the flow through the last tub of fresh fruit strengthens
the must very much. The strength or richness is taken by specific
gravity very readily.

The manufacture of cider by the difl'usion method is carried on in
France to a considerable extent, but its present importance does not
appear to warrant extended discussion here. It may l)e worthy of
study, but all the indications seem to point to its failure to produce a
genuine high-grade cider.

In the factory at St. Ouen-de-Thouberville two hand presses were
provided as a reserve to be used in case of accident to the hydraulic
presses.

The main operations prior to fermentation have now been outlined.
The must of the several grades has been delivered by pumps to the
large casks in the fermentation room (figs. 11 and 12). Through each
section of this part of the building runs a main brass pipe connecting
with the pumps. The flow is readily turned into the desired section
by valve cut-offs, and in each section the must is delivered to the
receptacles by rubber tubes which can be attached to the "main" at
convenient points. Each cask as filled is marked with the date and
such other data as are necessary to guide the operator in the details of
the fermentation. At the same time proper entries are made in the
factory journal for future reference.

The technique of fermentation is not discussed here, as it will be
treated further on in this report. It should be added, however, that
Mr. Power was using casks usually of 600 liters capacity or larger,
open vats made of slate, and great tanks ))y way of experiment during
the first fermentation; but his preference was for the casks.

J

G7

From the upper room, where the first fermentation occurs, the cider
runs by gravity at tirst racking to the room helow, which is a sort of
half cellar. Here it usually rests until it is tinished cider. The rail-
ways shown on the ground plan are in this lower room and serve to
carry the tinished cider in casks of proper size for transportation to a
platform at the lower side of the factory, from wliich they are rolled
onto the great carts without lifting, an advantage of considerable
importance.

The space shown in the illustration, however, is not sufficient for
the product of this factory, and five cisterns adjoining the lower store-
room augment the storage capacity by 60,000 gallons. These are
made of slate laid in cement, and the cider stored in them keeps per-
fectly. When it is necessary' to bring them into use, the cider flows
by gravity to them from the lower storeroom. They are carefulU'
closed as filled, and only opened as it becomes necessary to pump the
cider out for commerce. This factory has a total annual capacity of
about 350,000 gallons. The laboratory is of very great importance,
and here Mr. Power makes analyses of fruits and of the product at
various stages of manufacture so that all may be well governed.

GERMAN FACTORIES.

Among German cider makers of the Taunus and Rhinegau districts
to propose fermenting the must in other than good cellars would be
heretical. The cellar is here the first essential. Everywhere the
small proprietor and the great manufacturer work on essentially the
same principles. These cellars are most excellently built of good
masonry, the walls being finished in hard mortar and the floors iu
cement, as though they were intended to endure for ages. Drainage,
ventilation, hoists, and the like are carefully looked after.

Dr. Cluss, in his recent work on cider making, bemoans the careless-
ness and lack of method observed in some parts of German}', but in
the districts visited by the writer the people have the details well in
hand. Only a few types of factories which illustrate those seen can be
taken up in this report.

The mills most generall}" in use in Germany for grinding or crushing
the -fruit are either single-cylinder rasping or grating mills or two-
cylinder crushers ("greif '' mills.) The simple grater mill serves its
purpose very well, but the consensus of opinion seems to ))e decidedly
in favor of the stone cylinder crusher (figs. (5-9). This mill, in dif-
flerent sizes, was found in use. some being driven by small steam or
gasoline engines. In fact small factories with good appliances and
good cellars are quite common in the territory visited.

The German cider maker may have a building devoted entirely to
that purpose, as the large makers invariably do, or, as in the case of
farmers and other small makers, he may use only a portion of a build-
ing, the balance being used for other purposes. The grinding and

68

pressing rooms may be additions built onto another structure, the cellar
extending under the whole. In no ease Avas fruit seen stored in upper
rooms or lofts, but usually on the floor of the operating room or in bins
adjacent. The suiall makers seem to make little or no provision for
storage, and the g-rinding and pressing, so far as observed, were con-
ducted on the ground floor. In the small plants this requires onl}"
a moderate amount of floor space, the power plant and grinder being
near each other and the presses adjacent. The pulp was almost invari-
ably allowed to stand for some hours before pressing. The Germans
usually have large tubs, holding-, say, 10 hectoliters (264 gallons) of
fruit pulp, and into these the crushed fruit is at once placed as soon as
it falls from the mill. Even the largest factory visited, having an
annual output of over 500,000 gallons of cider, pursues this rather cum-
bersome method. In large factories this requires a great amount of
floor space and seems to necessitate an enormous waste of labor, liut it
is thought satisfactory by the proprietors. Small plants usuall}' grind
onl}^ enough fruit to make one or two cheeses at a time, and hence
proceed at a rate which, in this country, would be considered wasteful
of time.

The manner of laying up the cheese is in the main the same as in
our best appointed mills in which cribs n.re still used to hold the pulp
during pressing. The cheese cloth has not made headway in Germany.
The cribs, usually circular, are very well made.

After maceration for a period varying from twelve to twenty -four
hours, the pulp is brought to the press and submitted to as heavy
pressure as possible by hand power, the drop screw press being largel}'
used, but also those with the screw on a central stem. The pressure is
applied for a considerable period until the cheese is carefully drained;
then the pomace is thrown up and flnely Ijroken, and either macerated
with water, as in France, or allowed to rest for a period when it is
pressed a second time in a stronger press. The Germans do not use
much water in macerating pomace for repressing; in fact, a very
small amount was used where the operations were observed. The
best German factories inspected did not use water at all, but these
were equipped with hydraulic as well as hand presses, and the press-
ing was completed at a pressure of 250 atmospheres on the hydraulic
presses.

The difierences between French and German fruit in sugar content
have some bearing on the use of water in macerating. At no time
was must observed flowing from the press in German mills which
was above 50'-' Ochsle (1,050 specific gravity), and if, after watering
slighth^, a second pressing of -10- to 45 Ochsle (1.040-1.045 specific
gravity) could be obtained, the two runs were united and fermented
together. This was the practice in small factories.

The largest German factory visited, that of the Freveisen Brothers,
Frankfort, is possibly the largest in the world. Its annual output is

<)9

about 25,000 hectoliters (060.000 g-allons). Unfortunately plans of
this building were not to be had, and it was too extensive for the
writer to attempt making drawings. The working e<(uipment consists
of one grinder, a large imniber of mash tubs in which the pulp is
macerated, 22 presses (6 of these h3^draulic), teams, tools, etc. A force
of 160 laborers is eniplo3'ed. In this factory, and alsi) in most of the
smaller German factories visited, the fruit is washed before grinding,
usually in the manner already described, namely, by dumping it into
a great vat of water and elevating it from this to the grinder by a
screw rotating in a half cylinder.

The workmen carry the apples from the bins in wooden vessels resem-
bling tubs, holding about a bushel, and dump them into the washing vat.
The pulp is taken in like vessels as it falls from the grinder and carried
by the workmen to the macerating vats. From these, after maceration
for about twenty-four hours, it is again filled into the tubs and carried
to the presses. The pressure is applied slowly, jind the pulp is allowed
to drain a long time. Then the pomace is cut up fine, put into another
press, and re-pressed without addition of water. The third and last
pressing is accomplished at 250 atmospheres. No further use is made
of the pomace. The nuist averages about 1.050 specific gravity.

To an American the work of this factory seems to be conducted on
an exceedingly laborious plan. The impression obtained was that this
old firm, which had been in ])usiness about a century, had at various
times grafted on new ideas and appliances, without at any time really
reconstructing and modernizing the plant. In like manner, the cel-
lars appeared to have been added to until they honeycombed the earth,
and extended vault below vault to a depth of 17^ meters (56 feet) below
the surface of the factory yard. This bewildering maze of cellar
vaults, full of great casks, each holding 2,000 liters (528 gallons) or
more, over 900 in all, served to store the product; but a great quan-
tity of cider is sold while still in first fermentation for use in the res-
taurants of Frankfort as sweet or smoking cider.

The methods of handling the must are now to be considered. The
pressing of the pomace, as explained above, generally occurs on the
ground floor immediately over the cellar. To this first cellar the fresh
must is conducted through rubber pipes, either by gravity or l)y
pumping, and is put directlj' into the great casks in the fermentation
room.

It is the German custom not to fill the casks so full that there will be
any discharge of froth or top lees through the bunghole. 6 or 8 inches
of clear space being left in the top of each cask. As soon as a cask
in the fermentation room is filled, it is fitted with the ventih\ting
funnel (fig. 16). Nearly all good cider factories are provided with
cellars at least two stories in depth, so that the room for final fermen-
tation and storage is immediately below the first cellar.

70

The construction and arrangement of t3"pical German cellars are
shown in iigures 13 and 14, The most ordinary place visited had one
good cellar, and places of the next higher grade uniforml}^ had two-
stor}^ cellars. The great factories have still deeper cellars, as that of
the Freyeisen Brothers already mentioned.

The chief advantage of the cellar is the ease with which temperature
can be controlled. For instance, in the upper cellar, b}^ introducing
air through ventilating flues (fig. 13 //), it is possible to raise or lower
the temperature in accordance with the condition of the atmosphere,
and once the proper temperature is reached its maintenance is fairl}'

Fig. 13.— Vertical cross section of small German cider factory with arched cellars.

easy. However, in the cold season, if the temperature falls too low,
resort is had to a heating apparatus. The temperature which the Ger-
mans seem to prefer for the fermentation room (B, figs. 13 and 14)
is 15° to 18° C. (59° to 65° F.), the lower figure being preferred if
active fermentation starts promptly at this temperature. In the lower
cellar ( 61, tig. 14) or finishing room a temperature of 8° to 10° C. (45° to
50° F.) is preferred. Still lower temperatures are obtained in late
fall and winter.

The comparative ease with which the cider can ])e piped from one
cellar room to another under this German svstem is very apparent.

71

The liquor must, in the course of its progress to a finished product,
pass from a warmer to a colder temperature, and this is here accom-
plished I)}' g-ra\itation. The hoist (tig 14, >) at last lifts the finished
product from the lowest room to the ground Hoor. Naturally the
great casks are never disturbed except for purposes of repair or reno-
vation. The finished product is either l)ottled direct in the storage
room or transferred to smaller casks for transportation. Maidioles
are provided in the floors of each room to permit the passage of the
pipes, etc., used in handling the product.

v-i-r

Fig. 1-1.— Vertical cross section of two-story German cider cellar.

ENGLISH FACTORIES.

There is little that is distinctive about English cider factories. This
does not imply that there are not good factories in England; on the
contrary, some of the finest products observed anywhere were those
of English factories. But there is no definitely recognized standard
in regard to either apparatus or buildings and cellars for either small
or large factories in England. The best factories seen were copied
from those of the French champagne makers of Epernay; but as to
mechanical devices or details of arrangement, they show little that is
new or of peculiar importance. The cellar plays but a small part with

r^

the average English eider maker. Some important details, however,
in the handling of must and in fermentation processes were observed.

The English factories grind largely with graters and rasping cylin-
ders, though the German ''greif "■ machine (tigs. 6, 7, 8, and i)) is com-
ing into use.. As before mentioned, the ""tour a auge" was seen in
use in England.

The English rarely press the pomace but once, and almost no
maceration of the pomace with water was observed. The quantity of
juice extracted from the fruit varies, according to the statements made,
from 60 to 90 per cent of the weight of fruit, l)ut the latter tigure is
so high as to inspire grave doubt as to its correctness. The presses
used are mostly old-style hand and power screw presses. Not a
h3'draulic press was seen in use in the island. The system of handling
the fruit at the large factories seems particularly objectionable. It
was in most cases lying in great heaps in the yards or lots adjacent
to the mill, and in many cases a considerable percentage of it was far
gone with decay.

On a tenant farmer's place in Herefordshire was seen one of the
largest plants visited in England, and a few words of description
will give an idea of its management. The fruit lies in immense piles
in the orchard on a rise of ground which extends up to the factory
sheds. When needed, the fruit is shoveled into a long inclined chute
that carries it to the grinders below% which are of the stone-crusher
type. The pulp falls into a great vat, whence it is shoveled onto the
presses. Two sprocket-geared power presses are used, and the cheeses
are laid up in cloths as with us. In this factory the pomace is soaked
and re-pressed.

The must is pumped by power apparatus to an adjacent shed, where
it is received in great slate vats and wooden tanks, and in these it is
carried through the first fermentation. From there the cider is pumped
to a more permanent building for ripening and storage. The storage
tanks range in capacit}' from 100 to 4,500 gallons each. Fermenta-
tion is controlled by iiltering and racking, as is usual in England, and
a pasteurizer also is in use, but no opportunity offered to observe the
effects of its use.

When desired for market the cidel- is blended in large vats to suit the
demands of the trade and then pumped through the Invicta filter into
casks for shipment. Thousands of gallons of supposedly finished cider
were to be seen stored in 50-gallon casks in the open, merely covered
over with boughs and straw, and it was said to keep well under this
treatment.

The power used in operating this plant is a traction engine of about
15 horsepower, such as is in general use on English farms for thrash-
ing and doing various kinds of heavy work. The whole plant was
very badly placed as to detail pf structures and conditions for han-

73

dling the product properly. Practical duplicates of this factory were
observed elsewhere, and very fair cider was made on a larjre scale, but
no really tine products from such plants were observed.

The best larg-e factory visited was at Hereford City, but here admit-
tance to the operatino- rooms and cellars was refused, thoutrh an
extended interview on the methods was given. These operators are
patterning- wholly after the French champagne makers. They have
extensive cellars in which their product is finished at a temperature
of 47° to 50° F. They explained their system of blending the must
before fermentation, which, by the way. is one of the most important
operations in determining the grade of product pi-oduced.

On the estate of Lord Sudley, in AVorcestershire, some very inter-
esting and decidedly successful amateur work in cider making was
observed. Here the manager of the estate, Mr. Charles D. ^^'ise, has
for several years been studying and experimenting on the manufacture
of fine bottled cider and perry, and he has succeeded remarkably well
in some particulars. He has installed a small plant in a great circular
brick structure, formerly used as a riding school. Here he grinds the
fruit on a grater machine, using a portable farm engine. The pulp is
pressed bv a hand-power screw press, and the must is carried through
the first fermentation in great tubs or vats. As soon as the lees are
well separated, the cider is racked ofi' and then filtered by gravity
through wood pulp. This is accomplished by the use of a great tub
elevated about 10 feet above the floor. In it is fitted a false perfo-
rated bottom, a few inches above the real bottom, and between these is
placed the filtering medium. The tub is filled with cider, and the
clarified product is received below and placed in large casks about the
course of the riding school to mature.

The cider is permitted to remain in these casks from one year to
eighteen months before bottling. Apparently ver}- little techniijue is
employed, but some of the product is excellent. How much failed to
turn out well was not ascertained.

The experiments on cider making in England, conducted conjointly
bv the Board of Agriculture and the Bath and West Agricultural
Society, are carried on at Butleigh Court, the country seat of K. Neville
Grenville, esq., in Somersetshire, near Glastonbury (PI. VH). Mr.
Grenville is personally interested in this work, and has devoted con-
siderable time and money to it, and Mr. F. J. Lloyd, of London, a
consulting chemist, has supervised for the authorities the more techni-
cal aspects of the work. The reports on this work can be found in
full in the annual volumes of the Bath and West of England Society.

The cider house at this place is equipped in part on French models.
The fruit is stored in a loft, and is ground on a machine at the level of
the upper floor, whence the pulp falls to the press >>elow. The grinder
is of the German pattern with stone rollers. The pulp is pressed on a

74 .

hand-power screw press at about 40 tons pressure. The cheese is laid
up in cloths and well pressed, but onl}' once, the pomace being then
used to feed the cattle on the place.

The must is pumped ])ack into the upper story and placed in open
tanks (here called "keeves") of about 00 to 75 gallons capacit}". In
these the must is carefully watched, and the top lees are skinmied ofl'
until the cider reaches a state of limpidity wdiich warrants racking oli'<
At this stage the liquor is drawn otf in pipes to the lower room and
either placed direct!}' in casks for maturing or run through the Invicta
filter, according to circumstances; that is, if the cider can be drawn
clear, it is best run directly into casks, but, if "troubled," it is filtered
and then run into casks. The storage casks range in size from 100 to
250 gallons.

In this small factory all the critical data which should govern the
technique were observed, as, for instance, the chemical composition
of the fruit and the specific gravity of must at grinding and at each
stage of fermentation. A most elal)orate cellar record is kept of the
casks in the storage rooms and regarding the results of bottling at
various times. It is too soon to speak positively of the lessons to be
learned from these examinations and observations, but it is certainly
by such observations and studies that the knowledge of the subject is
to be advanced.

The product sampled at Butleigh Court was of fine quality but, as
elsewhere, there were "misses" in some cases. Accommodations for
accurate cellar work are needed.

PRODUCTION OF THE MUST.

The appliances used in reducing the apples to pulp and expressing
the juice therefrom have already been described. Yet several impor-
tant points in relation to the production of the must remain to be
discussed.

RIPENESS OF THE FRUIT.

The ripeness of the fruit, or its condition in relation to those obscure
processes which go on after maturity in the pome fruits and bring
them into their most favorable condition as to quantity of sugar and
quality of juice, is a very important consideration in this connection.
It was especially noted in the French factories that they did not grind
the fruit until it was in perfect condition as to ripeness, but com-
paratively little attention was paid to this matter u\ the German and
English factories visited.

The important fact that the sugars in fruits increase to a maximum
point, which is doubtless reached at or near the stage of perfect ripe-
ness, ought not to be lost sight of either in cider or vinegar work.
There are, however, very few valuable data concerning the composition

Bui. 71, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Plate VII.

Fig. 1.— Butleigh Court. Somersetshire, England, Seat of
English Cider Experiment Station.

Fig. 2.— The Cider-apple Orchard at Butleigh Court.

75

of apple.s during- the process of ripening. This is an important field
for critical stud}' which ought to give results of decided economic value.

MIXING VARIETIES OF APPLES.

Under the comparison of the composition of fruits, the great vari-
ability of diti'erent kinds of apples has been shown. But there are
other characteristics of apples which can not be expressed in terms of
chemical data, such as their taste and aroma, and these factors have to
do with making a good cider in only a lesser degree than sugars, acids,
and tannin. The blending of fruits at grinding appears to be an almost
universal practice in France. Every maker appears to exercise his own
judgment a])Out the proportions of the several varieties to ])e used,
sampling the fruits by taste and smell. There an', for instance, many
French varieties which have a very high content of tannin. These are
not used separately in cider making, but are mixed with sweet and
acid fruits to secure a proper average composition. The question of
blending or not resolves itself tinally to this: Can we hope to secure
by selection a perfectly proportioned fruit as to its chemical compo-
sition and other (|ualities, or not? This desideratum is certainly far
from being realized at present.

In German}" very little special attention is paid to the subject of
blending except in the use of So7'hus domestical as already noted. In
this they have a fruit of the greatest importance, a fact which did not
appear to be fully realized. The ordinary German varieties of apples
present few characteristics to lead one to a study of blending.

In England the best makers talk about blending, but handle their
really good varieties in such a l)ad manner, in many cases, as to leave
little chance of realizing the best results. At one of the best English
factories visited the manager explained that he ground the varieties
separately, expressed the must, tested it as rapidly as possible, and
blended as it was run into the fermentation casks. This is certainly
the most scientific method of l)lending.

Some French writers recommend for the best standard ciders to use
one-third sweet fruit to two-thirds bitter fruit, and for household u.se
two-thirds sweet and one-third l)itter fruit; but such attempts at exact
proportions are worthless. The whole question nnist be determined
on the spot for the particular fruits in hand. However important
this question may be in relation to standard products, no really impor-
tant data regarding it were obtained.

Unfortunately in the United States we have so few distinctively
cider fruits in cultivation and so few technical data in regard to our
common varieties that advice on this point must await further investi-
gation. Meanwhile, good judgment applied along the lines here indi-
cated will be a better guide than figures as to proportions of this or
that variety.

76

WASHING TUK FRUIT.

In many places in Germany and some places in France washing the
fruit before g-rinding was found to be largely practiced. Where the
fruit is actually soiled this operation is greatly to be commended, but
it was practiced in many places regardless of this point. To run all
fruit through a washing vat simpl}" as a part of a system seems to be
unwarranted on several grounds: (1) It is useless in case of fruits that
have been harvested in a proper condition; (2) if elevated directly
from the washing vat to the grinder the fruit carries with it consider-
able water, which reduces the specific gravity or richness of the must,
and (3) there is every probability that washing reduces considerably
the 3'easts present on the fruits. This under some conditions is of
critical importance, and needs to be considered in relation to the practice
of sowing the must with active yeast cultures.

There are heard in discussion and found in the literature of the subject
statements about diying the fruits after washing, but this does not
seem to be practiced, nor was a mill seen constructed with any idea of
permitting the fruits to dry before crushing. If the water is not fre-
quently changed in the tank it will soil rather than clean the apples.
Fruit carrying impurities should never be stored or ground with clean
fruit even after it has been washed, as to do so is simply to furnish to
the must the organisms of mal-fermentation and other substances, which
will most likely prove harmful. The international cider congress held
at Paris in October, 19<»0, expressed by vote the opinion that washing
fruits before grinding ought only to be practiced whtire cleanliness
made it necessar3\

GRINDIXG OR CRUSHING THE FRUIT.

The end in view in reducing the fruit to pulp is to make it possible
to extract the juice by pressure. Some fruits can be more or less per-
f ecth^ pressed without grinding, but this is not possible with the apple.
The cells of the apple hold their juices quite tenaciously, and must
be definitely ruptured. Hence the method which will most perfectly
rupture the constituent cells is probably the best to employ. As pre-
viously stated, perhaps the German "greif " mill accomplishes this
purpose better than those of an}^ other type. This view was advanced
by German and English cider makers, and indorsed to some extent by
the French.

It was everywhere stated by the best makers that the seeds must
neither be cut nor crushed to any extent, because their oily and nitrog-
enous constituents directly injure the ciders by contributing flavoring
matter of an unpleasant nature and nitrogenous substance in which the
organisms causing putrescence find a desirable medium for develop-
ment. This opinion was universally accepted in all the factories vis-
ited, although this view is contrary to that of the early English and

77

American writers. The chemical analj'.ses of seeds of pome fruits
indicate that the opinion is based on good orounds. The delicate
fruit aroma yields the Ijoucjuet desired in the cider. The oil\' principle
in the seeds tends to destroy this, and certainly nitroyfenous matter
is not desirable to any extent in must which is to be fermented into
a beverage. There is ordinarily plenty of nitrogenous matter in apple
must to support yeast growth. Howeyer. slightly contradictory as it
may seem, the French makers aim to crush the seeds for the prepara-
tion of ''boisson," claiming that, as the pomace is largely dcpiiycd of
its aromatic constituents when the pure juice is extracted, the oil in
the seeds adds to the (piality of this low-grade cider.

The fineness of grinding attects to some extent the facility with
which the juice can be expressed. If the pulp is too nmshy. it presses
badly, especially when the cheese is made up in cloths. In this matter
there is a proper mean, which no one seems to be able to define in an
entirely satisfactory manner. It is often expressed in this form, that
not over 2 per cent of the seeds should be cut or crushed in reducing
the fruit to pulp for first pressing-.

For preparing nuist by the diffusion process, mentioned elsewhere
in this report, the fruit is not ground or crushed as for pressing. l)ut
it is cut or shavsd into thin slices, as it is found that with these
extraction by diffusion goes on more perfectly than with pulped fruit.

MACERATION OF PULP.

The Germans are strong advocates of maceration, i. e,, allowing the
fruit to stand in its own juice, because b}" this process they believe the
sugar is more perfectly extracted. They claim that the juice acts upon
the unbroken cells and assists in liberating their liquid contents. This
would certainly be true if fermentation were fairly bt'gun before
pressing. The writer's experience is against permitting the pulp to
ferment before pressing, but these questions need to l)e approached
from the standpoint of scientifically conducted experiments before
much can be said that is definite.

MM. Seguin and Pailheret, at the National Agricultural College,
Rennes, France, have made a number of experiments in a small way
upon this question and they have found in every instance that macera-
tion increases the totals of sugar, acids, mucilage, and ash in the nnist,
but decreases the tannin, and leaves, finally, an almost colorless nuist.
This latter point is contrary to the German opinion. The French do
not generally practice maceration of the pulp before pressing. In the
writer's opinion maceration for more than eight or ten hours is liable
to stock the whole mass of pulp Ayith many undesirable organisms and
render control of the fermentation far more difiicult than it would
otherwise be unless the pulp is sown at once on grinding with pure
cultures of veast.

78

EXPRESSING THE MUST.

The older methods of laying up the pulp preparatory to pressing-
possess no particular merits to call for further remarks than those
already made.

The modern, double-acting, ratchet screw presses, so much used by
the French, and the hydraulic press, or some better form of machine,
must be the presses of the future. Hand hydraulic presses are in use
in France, and in all the medium-sized and large factories these mod-
ern machines must make headway against the obsolete and laborious
hand presses of the old style.

When the fruit is carefully pulped in the most correct manner, and
subjected to from SO to 1()0 tons direct pressure for a sufficient
length of time, the possibility of again manipulating this pomace so
as to derive sufficient must to warrant the effort is indeed slight.
This is especially true when the pulp is well laid in thin lozenges in
the coarsely woven seine-twine cloths used in the best American mills.
Hair cloths and various devices are used abroad, but none of these
compared well with our best American cheese cloths.

SOAKING THE POMACE.

One must distinguish clearly between the after maceration of the
pomace and the maceration of the pulp in its own juice. The later
operation is better named '"soaking."" If there is any method by
which the pomace can ever l)e handled with a view to more perfectly
exhausting it than is accomplished b}- direct pressing, it would seem
that soaking in warm water is by far the most promising one.

If American fruits were as rich in saccharine properties as the
French appear to be, it is possible that a considerable quantity of the
juice of second pressing or of the must extracted by diffusion could
be mixed with the rich juice of tirst pressings and still produce a must
sufficiently rich for good cider or vinegar. The imperfect methods
of expressing the juice employed in many places abroad give to this
question more importance than it has with us; but the question of its
utility or nonutility in large factories is yet to be settled after more
technical investigation.

FERMENTATION OF CIDER.

In the minds of some, fermentation is a very simple operation. Mr.
A. Hauchecorne says in his elementary treatise on cider:'* "The art of
making good cider is very simple, and includes the following four
conditions: Ripe fruits, clean water, a barrel free from taints and
odors, and later racking off."' On the other hand, Mr. G. Power'' says:
'•Of all the operations necessary in the manufacture of cider, the fer-

«Le Cidre, p. 7.

^Culture du Pommier et FaVjrication du Cidre, 1: 102.

79

mentation is certainly the most diffieult and the most important. This
is true of all beverages, but with cider on(> encounters difficulties of a
special nature." Dr. A. Cluss," writing of North German}-, nSLys:

We shall now speak of fermentation and the management of the cellar, those fac-
tors which have the greatest influence upon the resuhant product, and * * * in
which the greatest faults have been committed. One can say without exaggeration
that the misfortunes in making cider, about which so many moan, are due not to
the poor raw material nor to faults in the pressing, but ahnf)st without exception to
ignoi'ance of the foundation principles of fermentation, and especially to the bad
condition of the cellars and cellar utensils which universally prevails.

The above quotations illustrate the extremes of opinion on this sub-
ject. Everyone in the United States who has tried to make tine
sound cider will, I think, agree heartily with Power and indorse with-
out exception the views of Dr. Cluss.

ROOM, VESSELS, AND APPLIANCES USED.

The first object to be kept in view in the construction of a fermen-
tation room is the control of temperature conditions; the second, con-
venience of location to the general operating room and to the final
storage room; and the third, facilities for maintaining perfect cleaidi-
ness and ventilation.

As types of factories meeting these requirements to a considerable
extent, the factory at St. Ouen-de-Thouberville, France, and the Ger-
man factories having single and double cellars may be cited.

• On beginning the season's work the fermentation room should be
put in perfect order as to cleanliness, the walls and floors being newly
whitewashed. The casks or vats should be put in the most perfect
order, cleansed carefullv inside and out, and arranged with reference
to the convenience of tilling, racking ofl', and other operations.

TEMPERATURE OF FERMENTATION ROOM.

On this point the Germans are much more careful than the French
or English. The French structures arc largely exposed to the influ-
ence of daily fluctuations in atmospheric conditions, and whenever
there is a considerable daily variation in the temperature it is quite
impossible to carr}' on an even, well-ordered fermentation.

The alcoholic ferments (commonly called yeasts), like all other jilant
organisms, have an optimum temperature for growth, and it has been
determined that this temperature is about 18- to '24 C. (05- to 75^ F.).
But it is also true that, at this temperature, the growth of the yeast
plants is apt to be very rapid, producing a rather too violent fermen-
tation which disturbs the orderly management of the must. At a
lower temperature fermentation can be carried on in a more orderly
way, if once well started, hence, 18" to 18° C. (55'= to 65° F.) has been

«Apfelweinbereitung, p. 61 et seq.

80

found a more desirable temperature for the main fermentation room.
At a temperature reduced much below the minimum g-iven the must
will not start a proper fermentation, and when it is introduced into the
casks — especially if they are large ones — at a lower temperature,
some difficulty will be experienced unless the must is artificially
warmed. This can be accomplished by warming a portion and pour-
ing this into the casks, but this portion of the must should never be
heated to a temperature above 50^ or 00^ C. (120^ to UiP F.).

VESSELS USED IX FERMENTATION.

Many styles of casks or vats for the first fermentation are in use.
In England open vats were f requentl}^ seen. These were of wood and
slate, and held from 60 to several hundred gallons. They were placed
in the workrooms, or in rooms adjacent thereto, or out of doors under
a shed roof. Many English makers, however, carrv on the first fer-
mentation in casks both small and large. Some use inferior 50 to 60
gallon casks lying in a shed, or in the open, ])ut the best makers use
larger casks or vats holding 100 to 500 gallons, and even larger ones
for the tumultuous fernientation. Those who use the open vats quite
generally allude to this part of the process as "keeving" the cider,
plainly a corruption of the French word "cuvage."

French makers very largely ferment first in immense casks holding
from 500 to 1,200 gallons, but they also occasionally use great wooden
and slate vats open at the top.

In Germany only large casks are used, holding 500 to 2,000 liters
(132 to 528 gallons). In fact, the German system of fermentation
admits of nothing else but casks. ^ These are uniformly closed to
guard against the entrance of germ-laden air. Much has been said
in the literature of the subject concerning the various kinds and sizes
of vessels used for fermenting the cider. The size of the vessels is of
the very greatest importance. Every maker whose work is worth}^
of commendation was observed to be using large vessels for ferment-
ing the must. About 500 liters (132 gallons) was the smallest size
recommended, and above this they ran to 6,000 liters (1,585 gallons).

There are several reasons which have more or less weight in empha-
sizing the necessity of having large vessels. One of the first is that a
large ([uantity of must brought into a cask at proper temperature is
much less subject to atmospheric changes and, hence, a safe, even fer-
mentation can be carried on with greater certainty. There is also a
very persistently repeated statement that the fermentation of the must
in these large casks produces a marked effect upon (juality. It can be
readily understood that the use of these very large vessels will pro-
duce a considerable quantity of finished product of like character
which can not be so well accomplished in small vessels. There will
also be less dregs in proportion to the quantity of must if one employs

81

large vessels instead of small ones. The control of a large cask
requires no more attention, and often not so much as a small one.

FILLIXC; THE VESSELS.

A convenient method of filling- the vessels plavs a voiy important
part in handling the must. In many places this is accomplished by
power pumps, which deliver the must to the receptacles placed in
adjacent rooms or in another building. When the press room is over
the fermentation room, filling is accomplished by gravity. Hose pipes
are largely used for this work, but brass or copper must be used for
all metal fittings. The less the must comes in contact with the air
after it leaves the press the less liable it is to be contaminated with
various undesiral)le organisms. The pumps and pipes used must be
kept scrupulously clean.

The height to which the cask is filled Avith must bears upon the
method of fermentation to be employed. In England the old i)ractice
of running the barrels or casks full so that they would "work them-
selves clean" is still in use to some extent, as it is in this country, but
all progressive makers in England and elsewhere have al)andoned this
practice. Whatever modern sj'stem one may follow, the vessel is
never filled so full that it will run over during the tumultuous fermen-
tation. In the use of open vats the English almost invaria})ly fill within
several inches or a foot of the top and skim the lees which rise one or
more times, thus exposing the nuist to the air and also causing the lees
to be mixed more or less through the liquid. In P^ngland no attempt
was made, so far as observed by the writer, to control the exit of gas
or entrance of air further than to prevent the entrance of insects ])v
some sort of temporary covering.

The French ferment almost universally in large casks or closed
upright tanks, and it is rare indeed one sees an open vat. But when
such vats are used, they permit the top lees to rest unbroken, forming
a "head,'- the so-called "chapeau.'' over the liquor. In casks they
usually leave a space of 8 inches to 1 foot below the l)ung unfilled.
This permits the head to form without any overflow of lees.

In Germany they invariably leave a space of from s to 12 inches below
the bung unfilled, but with an entirely difl'erentend in view from that
of the Frenchman. The latter makes nuich of the proper appearance
of the "chapeau," or top lees, and it is an article of his faith that this
cover shall not be broken or permitted to fall bat-k into the liquor.
But the Germans, on the contrary, purposely preserve these lees from
overflow and desire them to fall l)ack through the liquor and rest at
the bottom of the cask. They argue that this secures inclusive fer-
mentation, and utilizes all alcoholic material in the top lees which
would be lost by skimming or by drawing the liquor away from the
lees.

17217— No. 71—03 0

82

CONTROLLING THE EXIT AND ENTRANCE OF GASES.

When fermentation occurs in the open vats, or ''keeves," natu-
rally one can not control the contact of air with the surface of the must.
But the French, by permitting- the top lees to rest, in a large measure
guard the liquor from contact with the air. The reasons for thus
guarding- the must do not appear to be recognized by English makers,
but are quite generally considered in France, and ver}^ strictly so in
Germany. If the must is fermented in closed vessels, it is a very
simple matter to guard the entrance from germ-laden air by the use
of simple devices such as are shown in the accompanying illustrations.

In fio'ure ] 5 is shown a device which was found in use to some extent

c5

Fig. 15. — Noel device for ventilating fermentation casks.

in France, the character of which will be quite readily understood from
the illustration. The metal base (a) screws into the cask and carries
two connected glass chambers {h and c). The metal cap (d) unscrews
to allow the entrance of liquid to the control chamber (c). When the
cask is tilled to the proper height, the bunghole is securely closed, and
this device is either screwed into a small central opening in the bung
or into a hole in the cask near the bung. The liquid desired for puri-
fying the air — either 8(» per cent alcohol or 10 per cent sulphuric acid —
is poured into the chamber {c) until both glass chambers are about
half full; then the apparatus is ready for operation. Should the pres-
sure decrease in the cask by reason of falling temperature air can only
enter by passing through this apparatus in a course contrary to the

83

arrows, and hence will be washed clear of oferms. On the increase of
pressure through fermentation activit}' the o-as passes out at low pres-
sure by depressing- the li(|uoi- in (/>) until it gains exit, as indicated by
the arrows. This is the Xocl air controller; but in the writer's work it
has proved entireh^ too complicated and too ditlicult to keep clean for
practical use. The principle of air control is undoubtedly correct,
but it is better accomplished b}' some of the following- devices:

The German ••fermentation funnel" (tig. 16) is a sini])lc and far
better device for controlling the air. This is a pottery or porcelain
device having- a central tapering- stem (a) with a l)asin-like vessel (^

Fig. 16.— German earthenware ventilating funnel— vertical section.

around its upper end. The central stem (r) rises nearly to the height
of the outer rim, and is hollow. Over this hollow stem rests a remova-
ble cap ((/). which extends to the bottom of the basin. The lower rim
of this cap where it rests under the liquid is notched for the pas.sage
of gases, as indicated by the arrows. This device is inserted in the
bung-hole of the cask, and by reason of the tapering- stem can be made
to tit quite tightly: but it is always better to use some parathn wax
around it. The control liquid is placed in the outer basin until it is
about one-third full: then the cap is put on and the device is ready for
operation. While this is an awkward looking- device, it is the best

84

known to the writer for practical work. The large central opening-
permits the operator to take the temperature of the must, or remove
samples for examination at pleasure without displacing- the entire
apparatus, and it can be quickly and perfectly cleaned.

A third device (tig. 17), also of German origin, answers a good pur-
pose, especialh" in laboratory work, but it is not recommended for
cellar work. This is called the g-lycerin control tul)e. It is made of
glass, and is operated by inserting- the stem through a ])ung {'/). Gh^-
cerin or one of the liquids mentioned above is introduced at the fun-
nel (h) until the bulb {d) is half
full. The principle is exactly
the same as with the previous
devices. Should the pressure
decrease in the vessel air can
enter through the liquid b}'
reason of the enlargements {d
and ('). The enlargement (e)
permits the escape of gas from
the vessel without driving out
the control liquid.

A very simple device is
shown in ligure 18. This con-
sists simply of a bent tube in-
serted in a perforated bung,
the outer end being so placed
that it rests below the surface
of the liquid in a basin. This
device is very faulty because
if, for any reason, pressure
decreases in the cask the liquor
from the basin will be drawn
into the must. In practice the
best devices are found to be
of the greatest assistance in
indicating the activity of the
fermentation. To the practiced operator they become at once the
barometer which warns him of danger or assures him of the proper
progress of fermentation.

Fig. 17.— Glycerin ventilating funnel.

VENTILATING BUNGS AND SPIGOTS FOR CASKS.

In connection with the yu])ject of fermentation funnels, the use of a
ventilating bung should be mentioned. After the first fermentation
has subsided and the liquor has been placed in casks for the second
fermentation, it is desirable to close the casks tightly — at least so as to
exclude as far as possible the entrance of air. Yet in so doing one

85

can not be certain but that a .sufficiently strong fermentation may set
in to spring- the staves or head of the cask. This misfortune is obvi-
ated by using some sort of a safet}^ vent.

The best simple vent for this purpose that was seen is the Noel
vent bung (tig. 19). A central opening of sufficient size is cut a])out
half way through this bung and then is continued at a diameter al>oiit
one-half as great the rest of the way. On the shoulder thus formed
a valve (a) is placed and held by the spiral spring seen in the cross

Fig. 18.— Bent ventilating tube.

section. The spring is supported above b\' a metal plate screwed
over the opening in the top of the bung. The spring should be of
sufficient strength to hold 2 to -i pounds of pressure, and the mech-
anism of the valve and its seat should be so perfect as to prevent
the ingress of air. If the bung is sterilized and driven tightly into
place, it will insure proper ventilation of the barrel or cask and pro-
tect the liquor ver}- well from the entrance of extraneous organisms.

One of the most important considerations
about the fermentation casks is the means of
drawing off the liquor readily when this T
becomes necessary". ]Many instances were
seen in England and German v where the
fermentation was carried on in barrels and
casks which had but one opening, namely,
the large bunghole; hence, in racking oti'. it
was necessary to introduce a pipe at this opening, lower it to what
was considered a proper position, and then siphon off the liquid.
This method is extremely faulty, however, because of the disturbance
of the top lees and the difficulty of determining the depth to which
the tube should be lowered into the vessel so as not to take up the
dregs.

Every vessel used for fermenting the must should be furnished with
a spigot so situated that it will draw off the liquor as near to the dregs

a.

Fig. 19.— Noel ventilating bung.

86

as can be safely accomplished without disturbing- them. If this spigot
can be furnished at the outer end with a hose connection of proper
size the liquor can be run directly to the cask designed for second fer-
mentation in those buildings where successive cellar stories are used.
In this case it is necessary to tit a glass Inilb into the hose so as to
watch the condition of the liquor as it flows. If the must is transfer-
red to vessels on the same level a pump is generallv used. The French
makers commonly place spigots in all vessels employed for fer-
mentation work. These enable them to note precisely the condition of
the must without disturbing the lees. The large casks should also be
uniformly fitted with manholes in order that they may be readily
cleaned after use.

THE CHARACTER OF THE MUST.

On brino-ino- the must into the casks or vats for fermentation, it is
of prime importance that the operator should know its composition as
nearly as may be. To determine this accurately is the, work of a
chemist, but at no factory visited was there evidence of the employ-
ment of a chemist for this purpose. True, a number of the proprie-
tors are themselves analysts.

USE OF DENSIMETERS.

Everywhere in Europe the makers use, with more or less care, some
foi'm of must spindle or densimeter for estimating the sugar content of
the juice. Those most commonly used are the ordinary specific gravity
spindle, the Oechsle spindle (which, in fact, is the same thing with the
first two figures on the left omitted), and the Beaume must spindle.
The last is not a convenient form of spindle, as may be seen from
Table XL Its degrees do not permit of ready comparison with other
standards.

It is the custom to take the density of the fresh must on one of these
spindles and mark the result on the casks. Some makers keep a record
of the casks by nuinber in a cellar book, and enter not only these data,
but notes on the fruit used, the character of the fermentation as it
progresses, and all subsequent readings of density and manipulations
of the cider. Also the records of temperature of the must and cellar
are kept. Without some such system intelligent control of the work
is impossible.

The following table gives a comparison of the readings of the three
spindles mentioned, the proximate percentages of sugar at the diflerent
densities, and the approximate percentage of alcohol which will result
from its fermentation at each reading of the densimeter:

87

Table XI.— Readings of (liferent densimeters and approinmrite solids and sugar content,
with the indicated percentage of alcohol after fermentatioit is coinj>leted.

Spcc-ific
gravity.

Oechsle.

Beaumi;.

Solids.

Sugar.

J't r CI lit.

Alcohol.

Degrees.

Degrees.

Per cent.

Per cent.

1.040

40

5.7

10.0

.H.OO

4.0 1

1.041

41

5.8

10.3

8.21

4. 105

1.042

42

5.9

10.5

8.42

4.21

1.043

43

6.1

10.7

8.63

4.315

1.044

44

6.2

11.0

8.84

4.42

1.045

45

6.3

11. -2

9.05

4.525

1.046

46

6.5

11.5

9.27

4.6*5

1.047

47

6.6

11.7

9." 49

4. 745

1.048

48

6.7

11.9

9.71

4.855

1.049

49

6.9

12.2

9.93

4.965

1.0.50

50

7.0

12. 4

10.15

6.075

l.O.il

51

7.1

12.6

10.38

5.19

1. 052

52

7.3

12.9

10.61

5. 305

1. 0.53

53

7.4

13.1

10. S4

.5.42

1.0.54

54

7.5

13.3

11.07

5.535

1.055

.55

7.7

13.6

11.30

5.65

1.056

56

7.8

13.8

11.54

5.77

1.057

.57

7.9

14.0

11. 7S

5.89

1. 0.5S

58

8.1

14.3

12.02

6.01

1.0.59

59

8.2

14.5

12. 26

6.13

1.050

60

8.3

14.7

12.50

6.25

1.061

61

8.5

15.0

12.75

6. 375

1. 062

62

8.55

15.2

13.00

6.50

1.063

63

8.7

15.4

13.25

6.625

1.064

64

8.9

15.7

13. .50

6.75

1.065

65

9.0

1.5.9

13. 75

6.875

1.066

66

9.1

16.1

14.01

7.005

1. 067

67

9.2

16.3

14.27

7.135

1.068

68

9.4

16.6

14.53

7.265

1.069

69

9.5

16.8

14.79

7.395

1.070

70

9.6

17.0

1.5. 05

7. .525

1.071

71

9.8

17.3

15. 32

7.66

1.072

72

9.9

17. 5

1.5.59

7.795

1.073

73

10.0

17.7

15.96

7.98

1.074

74

10.1

17.9

16. 23

8. 115

1.075

75

10.3

18.2

16.50

8.25

WHAT I.S A STAXD.\RI) .MrST?

To thi.s queiy the investig*atiou.s made have g-iven no answer, nor
does the literature materially aid one. There have l)een pre.sented in
some of the preceding- section.s man}- analy.se.s of apple mu.^^t made in
different countries, and hundreds more could be quoted. These analy-
ses differ wide!}- from the standards of the tables arranged bj' differ-
ent authors to show the saccharine content of a fruit juice in comparison
with specific gravit}'. Unfortunately, the methods and the instruments
used are far from uniform in the various laboratories where these
determinations have been made, and the chemists making them must
necessarily vary in skill and precision; hence a mere inspection and
comparison of these data do not lead to a true conclusion in regard to
the composition of apple must. But this is the best that can be done
at present, and the averages of the data previously presented are
assembled in Table XII to serve our purpose in discussing the prob-
able standard sugar content of a must:

88

Table XII. — Average composition of apple must for differ enf countries.

Countries.

Number
of varie-
ties.

Number

of
analyses.

Specific
gravity.

Total
sugar.

Average
total
sugar.

Acid.

Tannin.

French standard list

French provisional list

German (Kulisch)

12
24
29
17
15
10
10
24

21

292
79
29
17
15
24
10
24

21

1. 0725
1.0732
1.0509
1. 0.590
1.0530
1. 0tl,52
1. 0.5.52
1. 0.530

1. 0535

Per cent.
15.98
15. .55
12. 04
13. 3.S
10.94
14. .56
11.94
9. .58

10. 45

Per cent.
1 15. 76

12.12
14.30

■ 10. 66

Per cent.
) 0. 229
\ 0. 192
f 0. 460

Per cent.
0. 262
0.289

German ( Behrens)

German ( Kramer )

1 6.64
0. 303

f 0. 453
0. 35

0.37

English (Llovd )

0. 220

American ( Browne )

American ( Davids(tn )

0 022

American (Department of Ag-
riculture )

From a oonipari.son of the analyses given it is evident that the juice
of the apple varies in average sugar content in relation to specific
gravity in the diflerent countries and in different parts of the same
country. In fact a wide variation may be found in comparing differ-
ent varieties of apples from the same orchard. This is a matter not
3^et properly investigated, but the existence of such variation must be
conceded. Hence no strictly standard table of sugar contents in rela-
tion to specific gravity is possible.

Careful inspection of the published tables on specific gravitj" and
relative sugar content, and a study of the actual analyses of apple
must available, lead one to believe that the theoretical sugar content
usually given is too high. In Table No. XI, there is given for com-
parison the approximate sugar content which, in the writer's opinion,
is likely to be found in normal apple must at the different densities
indicated. True, the sugar percentages adopted in this table are empir-
ical, but they are such probable averages within a small percentage of
error that they are used to construct a table (No. XIII) to be used as
a cellar guide in fermenting cider. This table appears to serve a very
definite purpose, first, as a guide in the technique of fermentation, and,
second, to assist in some measure in elucidating the further discussion.
Table No. XI aids the manipulator of the must to estimate with con-
siderable accuracy the sugar in the fresh must, and Table No. XIII
assists him in watching intelligently the progress of fermentation.
Thus, by the latter table, he is able to ascertain quickly the approxi-
mate quantities of sugar and alcohol in a fermenting must of known
original density.

Attention was called to the presentation of these data in this form
by the work of Mr. F. J. Lloyd, consulting chemist on cider experi-
ments of the Bath and West of England Society. The work done
under his direction on cellar records and technique was observed care-
full}', and the ideas presented in his table and remarks in the journal
of the above societ}' for 1896 (pp. 139-164) are considered as very
important. The same may be said of his other papers. The writer was
^ot able, however, to adopt the figures of ]\Ir. Lloyd's table for deter-
mining the percentages of sugar and alcohol in fermenting must of a

89

o

id

t

S

a,

to

o

I

X

lO

a

so

to

■a

a

2
a

i

o

o
o

o

o
o

in

to
o

■loqooiv

i2a^2S?2P?2g2?iS?g3i=?ggS?.35SSi<3Sg

■loqooiv

SSgg§S2S§?S3gt?.82SiSS2S = gg5 = = = = g

ec CO CO CO CO "^ "T -^ V -^ *r "T* -T* -^ -^ ic ic ic lO iTi lit lO tC 1^ i.c *^ 'C 'C 'C 'C o

•JUSng

t£E;2'""''^^'^'^t^o-Tocc^!aoi5p>f;o 'it — 1» co » lO

>OOO^^rti-lClMClCOCO«-T-TZl220l-l--X3tS10JO

•Ioqoo[V

8 2 ^ g ^ g £ S 5 g g 2 r. S^? S S S"S g g 2 S"^ 2^ i"r;¥8 S

CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO -T^ -T -r -r -T -r ■^* -r -5" -r t-t' ic i^' tfi ifi tH ifi i-rf ic .rt -^

■JBSng

ooooooo^i-irt^c^MT)cococo-r-rioifi3'^i-i--xx3'. SiO
c^ ri M ?^ ci r4 c^ rj c^ 'N c^ c^* ci c-i c-i ri ri c^i ci c-i c^i c-i ci ci ri c-i ci c-J ?i ~i co

"lOqooiv

lO -o I- X o! P ^ c^i CO T u; -js i- X S £ rS ?i CO 5? S 2 fi X S 5 S fi s -T lis
c^c4ric4c^cococococococococo'co"-5--r'T'-r'T'T'T''^"r'T'ir:ir!iriir:iOin

•JBSng

p — cjco3>ioi-;C5i-'coi-CXrt-ri^p-rx?J-jpi?;pii7P'-';— t~-cos?in
p o p P P p p p ^ ^ " -H M C-) M CO CO CO -r -r iS u-i -3 ■■£ i~ i» X X S-. ft p

COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOC^'cOCOCOCOCOCO*!"

•loqooiv

pppppoppopoopppppppppppppppppp<5
o t-« n CO -^ iC'^ t^ X p p ■— c-1 CO -T i^ 3 1* X c^ 5 — CI CO T i^ p 1^ X ^ p

c^* c^' c^i rJ c-J c4 cJ c^' c^' C'i co" CO CO* CO re CO co' CO CO CO -r -r -T" -r -T -r --r -r 'T r« U3

•JBSns

Sr-'C^co-riCt>-ffir^coicxi-('^t^p'^XMPP»cpir;piC^i^cocsiO
ppppppPi-'»-'"^nojncococO'^-fl'io»OP»i^i^xxoPP

I PPPPPPPPOPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP
I iSpl^XCnP^MC0'^>C-iI^XmP-^01COTS-il-»XPP>-lMC0"T>C

[OqooiV I ^^^^*^c^c^c4 7^ic-icici?-ic^c^icococococo'cococococO'T"'^-r'^"r*T"

•JBSnS

■ in 1^ :c- — CO ..o X r- — 1~ p -T X M P P ic P >s p ic :- 1 w £• •a
> d o P — — — -- M ci M CO CO CO -r -r is o -3 -i i» 1- X X P P P

icicininicini-0»nt-0icinin»nininininintn»n»nininin»-0in»c>niwinp

•loqooiv

pppppppppppopppppppppppppppoppc?
p^Sco^SSF-xppi-ioico-Tm--=t^xPP — r»cOT>S3r-XPP

rHrHr-i»-*—^T-Hi-4r-Hr-^r-Jc^C^cic^C'ic^rirJC'l?^COC0C0C0C0COC0C0C0CO"?'

■jBgns

8*-^ M CO-T uO t^ P ^ CO in X ^ ^ t^ P -J* X; C^l '-C P i.O P uO P i-O r-i (^ CO P "^
p p p p p p p •-■ ^ .-" >- M 04 c-1 CO CO CO ir -^ in in P -i (^ 1^ X X p P es

p to P O P P ^ P ^ '^ P P P — " ^ '■^* ^ ^ ^ ^ '-^ ""^ '-^ *"^ '-^ '"^ '"^ ^ ^ ^ '^

•loqoDiv

•jvSng

o ■ * * ' r-* ,-H — n' r-* — ' <— * — '-" ^ -—" M ri t\ ri ri 71 ri ri ri ci cc r: r* ?o rf ?o

I -^ s ic o iJt s ic ^ I'- r: c* *r
■ -r i^ ic 'C '-S 1^ I- X -C n C5 o

r-^ r>r i>; t>; i^ i> i>" i-^; i^ t^ i> i> t^ t-^ i> S S i--- 1-^ t^ i> c>^ r^ ^- t^ t^ I'- i> !•* r^ X

o 1-H c^i CO -^ if; t-* S"- «— ?s »r: X '-- -r r* o "T X ^» "--. iqj "^ ■-^ li- — »i. " 1^ -v ^* »i^

•loqooiv

^ ^ ^' ,J ^" ^ ,—■,-;■-; -^ .-; oi ?i ri ri ri ri m' ci

n ri CO

•JBSng

p^oicOT>ni^osr-<coinx-^'^t- otxrippinpinpint-t^cspin
ppppoppP'-H^'-'^c^MOicococo-T'rainppi-t^xxppp

00 X X X' X X X CO X X «J X OC X OC » OC X' X' X X' X X CO X x' SC X X X P

•[oqooiY

■iBSng

•pqooiv

•iBSns

■loqooiv

•jBSns

•loqooiv

•iBSng

•loqoDiv

•iBSng

■loqooiv

iBSng

•r t. si

— pppppoppppPOPPPSPPPPPPPPP
Pr^^c^co^ic-^t^xc^P^o^co'^inPt^xrip^oico'^in

Q _;_'rt_4^"^^— "— ■ — ri ri ri oirici

i/^xr- (■^i'"^~"Xoi»PinpinPin^"i"*copin
^- * " ^ -■ = -0 ft •=T ^ li? in P --o P I- X X P ;» p

^ ^ -ci c^ n CO

oicicicipp'cicip^ftpft

1 p p =-. r-. p p p

2§g?gSS?8S2aS?SSSSgg

in X .-. ■* i~ o 3 X c^ p p in p in p lO — ■; « 2 !2
r^ »— -N c^ rJ CO CO CO -^ "^ in in — to 1^ i^ X X rs P p

c5 P p p P p p p p P o o p" p' p' p P P p' P -<

OPPOPPPOO

:p2S^§sgS?gg2?is^3
• p ''-' — " — — -"_

:S

•O^C^^'^SSr^X^So

. 25 iH 2 ^ 1^ i^ X X n ri ^
• ci rJ c^ rJ ri ri ri ri ri ri ^^

• c>

CO CO CO CO CO-?

X =• 2 rr .=a r: :r ^S S r: 5 g g

90

known original specific gravity. But b}" a study of the principle
involved in this table, and l)v comparison with standard tables on spe-
cific gravity and relative sugar content, and the actual analyses, Table
No. XIII has been constructed. By it an operator may determine
at any reading, between l.O-iO and 1.070 on a standard hydrometer,
the probable sugar content present, and the approximate alcoholic
strength of the liquor. Thus he is enabled to know how the fermen-
tation is progressing. As a cellar guide this will be a very important
help, and by reference to it the later discussion on the manipulation
of the must will be more intelligible.

As a basis for this table it was assumed that a must reading 1.040
specific gravity, contains 8 per cent of sugar. Kramer savs 9 per cent,
but this is surely too high for apples. Power says 8.9 per cent, which
is also too high, at least for American fruit. Kramer's table then allows
1 per cent increase in sugar for each 5 points (0.005) on the hydrom-
eter, but this if logically carried out requires that the nonsaccharine
solids increase proportionally more rapidly than the saccharine sub-
stances. Analytical data are against this theory; hence, it has been
estimated that the sugars increase 1,05 per cent for the first 5 points
above l.olO, and be3^ond that at an increasing ratio found b}^ adding
an additional 0.05 per cent of sugar for each subsequent 5 points
(0.005) on the hydrometer.

But turning to the subject of relative decrease in sugar content
below 1.040 it becomes necessary to allow a loss of 1 per cent for each
0.005 on the hydrometer in order to exhaust the 8 per cent of sugar at
unity — I.OOO on the hydrometer. Yet, as there are solids other than
sugar present, it is altogether improbable that this will show the true
percentages if the liquid is considered to be water; but it really con-
sists of a mixture of two liquids, water which constitutes much the
greater part, and alcohol which is lighter than water and which enters
into the mixture in a constantl}^ increasing proportion as fermentation
progresses. Hence, for a must originally showing 8 per cent of sugar,
it is probable that unit}' (1.000 on the hydrometer) will about In'ing it
to drj^ness;" but by the same reasoning richer musts will not come to
entire dryness at unity. This the table shows when carried out on the
principle that for each 1 per cent of sugar lost, 0.5 per cent of alcohol
is formed. This ratio of alcohol for fermentable sugars is onl}'
approximately correct.

In using this table as a cellar guide, one notes in the left hand col-
umn the hydrometer reading corresponding with the original density
recorded for the must, and then finds in the box heads the present
reading of the h^^drometer; the figures for sugar and alcohol percent-
ages at the intersection of the lines from these two readings will
show approximately the present condition of the nnist as to alcohol
and sugar content.

« In the technical phrase of fermentation work " dryness " means total absence of
sugar.

91

FORTIFYINC; THE MUST.

In this connection a few observations on the subject of fortifying
the must will be apposite. This practice was not ol)served either in
England or German}'. Doul)tless it may be done in these countries,
especially in case-of perry (pear cider), })ut it did not seem to bo a
part of the regular system of cider making. In France, on the con-
trary, sugaring up the weak must obtained from second pressing
seems to be an important ptirt of the business, and is so reguhuly
practiced that the government makes a special rebate of the sugar tax
on sugar so used. The government agents, however, verv carefully
see to it that all sugar withdrawn from bond for this purpose is
denaturalized by addition of must, so that it can not possibh' be resold
in the markets. For 1898 (the figures for that year being the latest
obtained) the government officers reported 188,760 pounds of sugar
withdrawn for cidK3r making, and 80,262,771 pounds withdrawn for
sugaring wines.

An apple must reading 1.010 on a standard hydrometer can. if prop-
erly handled, be made to prodmce a cider approximating -1 per cent
of alcohol, but it will ])e rare indeed that this result will actually be
reached in practice. Hence it appears that a nmst reading at that
figure is about the minimum in quality which can be properly emploved
for cider without fortifying, and this grade should be used only to
prepare a cider for local consumption. This is not because a high
percentage of alcohol is so desirable, but ])ecause it is not desirable to
push the fermentation of a cider to the limit where there is no sac-
charine substance left for the j^east to subsist upon, that is, until the
liquor is absolutely "dr3^"

If the cider is properly handled, the 5^east will not entirely cease to
be active for several years after bottling. This activity is of the
greatest value in preserving the bouquet of the cider and keeping it
sound. But if it is desired to produce a stronger cider from a low-
grade must, reading approximately 1.040. one can add about 3 ounces
of crystallized sugar per gallon for each 1 per cent of alcohol desired
in addition to the normal (juantity resulting from fermenting the
natural must. This, howev.er, denaturalizes the cider, and should not
be resorted to in excess of 1 per cent increase of alcohol.

The French say the sugar should be inverted before using, but this
seems doubtful, as the j^east will accomplish this itself, and probably
the sugar will be consumed more slowly.

STERILIZING THE MUST BY HEAT.

This process is mentioned only to condemn it so far as cider making
is concerned. Not a sino-le maker worthv of credence in the factories
visited abroad recommends or uses this method. It has been suggested
as a means of controlling the initial fermentation, because, after ster-

92

ilizing ]\v heat, one can sow yeasts into the must as desired, and thus
bring- about a fermentation at will, but the cooked taste contributed
to the must by heating- is difficult if not impossible to overcome.
Heating or pasteurizing to check fermentation or insure keeping of
cider is also just as faulty, and is never necessary in a properly man-
aged cellar, unless one desires to preserve a partially fermented cider.
For this purpose pasteurization at 60 to 70^ C. is practicable with goods
which have sufficiently fermented in bottles to become sparkling.

THE USE OF SPECIAL YEASTS.

Having brought the fresh must into the casks or vats for fermenta-
tion, the modern cider maker has to consider not only the temperature
of the must and of the room and the various other conditions already
discussed, but also another question of very great importance: Shall
the fermentation be left to the organisms normally present on the
fruit and those which may at the time of grinding and pressing enter
the must from contact with the air, the machinery, and the vessels?
Every cider maker knows that under proper temperature conditions
fermentation will quickly ensue after the juice has been placed in a
receptacle. But the operator untrained in the scientific phases of this
subject may not know how readily numerous undesirable organisms
gain access to the fruit juice. These objectionable organisms are sure
to be present upon the fruit, and especiall}^ so if unclean and unsound
fruit is used. Or they may be present in parts of the machinery,
especially if any parts have been left vmcleaned after previous usage;
and, what is perhaps still more important, these organisms may be
present in great number in unclean barrels, casks, or other vessels.

The numerous organisms (microscopic plants), both useful and harm-
ful, which grow readily in fruit must can not be discussed here.
Suffice it to sa}' that the quality of the resultant product de])ends ujpon
whether desirahle or undesirable or<jan!srn8 gain the mastery in the must
dwring in itial fermentation.

In order to insure the ascendency of the true yeasts in the early
stages, and thus giye them the control of the entire process of fer-
mentation, there has recently been developed the practice of sowing
the must with pure cultures of yeasts. Very often now special races
of yeasts are used in order to secure certain desired qualities of
bouquet, etc., in the finished product. This practice is based upon the
same principles as those which induce the good housewife to employ
a proper yeast culture to make bread for the table.

The discussion of this question in its various phases will not be
undertaken here, but it should ))e noted that the practice of using
pure and special cultures of yeast is becoming more and more common
in foreign countries. In Germany practically all the important fac-
tories visited employ these cultures, which are obtained in small flasks

93

from the Roval Pomoloofical School at Geisenhohn. TIr' French
makers are not ut all unanimous in regard to the importance of using-
pure yeasts, and. from the observations made, it appears that very
few use them intelligently. This is probably one of the important
reasons why French ciders lack that standard character so observable
in German ciders.

Below is given a free translation of the directions for using pure
yeast cultures sent out by Dr. Wortmann from Geisenhcim to all \niv-
chasers of the same:

DIRECTION'S FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OF PURE YEASTS IN THE FERMENTATION OF MCST.

The flask containing the pure yeast should not be opened until just before usin;.'.
Until then, in case it can not be used immediately, it should be kept standing in a
cool, dry place (preferably an ice chest) ; but it will not serve as a good starter if left
longer than two weeks, because the organisms decrease in vitality with time.

Some days before the beginning of the real vintage, jirepare about 10 gallons of
freshly pressed must and boil it about five minutes (but not in a copper vessel ),
then put this boiled must into a wooden vessel, preferably a keg, while it is yet hot,
and, after covering it with a clean linen cloth, let it cool off again to room temperature
(about 20° C. or 68° F. ). Just as soon as cool enough, the contents of the flask of
yeast should l)e poured into the must.

During transportation a fresh-growing culture will have developed a strong pres-
sure, and, therefore, in opening the flask the yeast may be jiartly lost through dis-
charge caused by the gas. To obviate this, first l)ore through tlie stopper with a
corkscrew, and let the flask stand some minutes until the carbon dioxid gas escapes,
when there will be no danger. Open the flask in such a way that it is held with the
mouth inclined over the vessel containing the cooled must. The flask sh<)uld be
rinsed out once with must; the keg or vessel should then be well covered and kept
at room temperature, free from dust, until the must shows violent fermentation,
which will be in two or three days.

The use of this 10 gallons of pure yeast culture will now l)e according to the quan-
tity of must which is to be fermented. With ordinary must — that is, must reading
1. 050 to 1. 060 si^ecific gravity— 1 gallon of the fermenting must is suflicient for from
250 to 300 gallons of fresh must, and will bring it into fermentation i>roniptly. AVith
larger quantities of must, one should take a proportionally larger quantity of the fer-
menting culture first made.

For large establishments, a culture of 50 or 100 gallons can be first made by boil-
ing the necessary must, putting it while hot into a perfectly clean but unsulphure<l
barrel or cask. Sow as soon as cool with the yeast culture and handle just as
directed above.

This large culture of must fermenting with the pure yeast can serve as a supply
from which the necessary quantity for starting the vats can be taken as needed. l)Ut
'fresh must should be boiled, cooled, and added to it as often as any of the culture is
removed for use.

In this manner one can draw from this supjily according to his needs. So long as
the fermentation is kept very active and the Imng or opening well guarded, the cul-
ture will remain pure enough for practical purposes.

As the pure yeast is only etticacious if it comes iu contact with fresh must, so one
can, in case the pulp is allowed to ferment before pressing, by the prompt addition
of the yeast to the pulp as ground, control the fermentation in the same. But in
this case the addition of the pure yeast in the proportional quantities must be made
to the pulp as ground. This operation is especially necessary in the preparation of
red wine.

94

As by the addition of pure yeast fermentation starts up sooner, and also runs its
course more quickly, the temperature of the fermenting rooms must not be too high,
or else too violent a fermentation will be induced. It is sufficient to Avarm the fer-
menting rooms or cellars to about 55° to 60° F. Also it is best to leave plenty of
space in the casks for foam and vegetable matter thrown up by fermentation.

With pure yeast cider will be finished earlier and clear itself sooner than when
fermented without the addition of pure yeast; therefore, with this method cider
must be racked off earlier than in case of spontaneous fermentation.

OBSERVATION AND CONTROL OF FERMENTATION.

The theoretic di.sciission of the physical phenomena involved in this
process is not to be attempted here, and the brief discussion given is
only warranted in such a report as this for the sake of rendsring com-
prehensible the operations and details described.

DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION OP FERMENTATION. «

There was a time when this word was used to indicate the entire
range of chemical changes which might occur in organic substances.
To-day, with more exact knowledge on the subject, fermentation is
limited to those changes which are induced by the growth of micro-
scopic plants in organic substances. In the case of fruit juices, these
organisms are bacteria and the true fungi, principally the latter. The
fungous organisms considered belong to the group known as the
Saccharomyces, or yeast fungi, to other closely related nonnwcelial
forms, and to the Mucorini and some few other true mycelial forms.

Fermentation as I'elates to the physical phenomena involved may be
defined as the breaking up of organic substance in solution as a result
of the chemical activities of certain substances secreted during the
growth of these microscopic plants; and alcoholic fermentation, as
the result of the breaking up of sugars into alcohol and carbonic acid,
caused by the action of zymase, a ferment secreted during the growth
of the yeast plants. Incidentally, sugar may be broken up into alcohol
and carbon dioxid by a few other fungous forms. The j^easts, or Sac-
charomyces proper, are, however, the true alcoholic ferments. Other
forms need be only incidentally considered. The normal substratum,
or place of growth of the yeasts proper, is the sugar solutions con-
tained in the juices of fruits, or sugary compounds, in whatever parts
of various plants they may occur. As a result of the growth of these
yeast fungi, alcohol and carbon dioxid are formed. The first remains
in the liquid and the second largely escapes as a gas. Theoretically,
about 51.11 parts of alcohol will be formed and al)out -18.89 parts car-
bon dioxid. Or we may say in general terms that the alcohol formed
by properly controlled fermentation will practically equal one-half the
sugar destroyed. The yeasts are said to consume a small percentage
of the alcohol.

« Adapted from a paper presented by the writer before the American Pomological
Society, September, 1901.

95

The following- is (juoted from Dr. Cluss:''

Under fermentation in its widest sense wa understand every chancre in a substance
that is brought about, either directly or indirectly, by the activity of low plant forms.
Under fermentation in a narrower sense, or alcoholic fermentation, we understand
every change in a substance by which certain kindn of sugar arc dccomjMised through
the activity of germs, so that, as the principal products of this decomposition, alcohol
and carbonic-acid gas appear.

In alcohol fermentation, as in every form of fermentation, we must consitler three
principal factors:

(1) The fermentation material, or the substance which is to be decomposed.

(2) The fermentation products; that is, those bodies that arise from the decompo-
sition of the sugars.

(3) The controlling organisms of the fermentation; i. e., those plant forms which
cause the decomposition.

The fermentation material for alcoholic fermentation is provided by certain kinds
of sugar, but not all kinds of sugar are capable of being fermented. Among those
that can be fermented are grape sugar, fruit sugar, rialt sugar, and cane sugar. But
while in the brew mash and in the wort of the breweries malt sugar predominates,
in fruit juice grape sugar and fruit sugar play the principal role as fermentation
material.

The jarincipal products of alcoholic fermentation are ethyl alcohol (badly named
alcohol) and carbon dioxid (CO.2); but there are also small quantities of sulphuric
acid, glycerin, and other by-products, among these being certain aromatic .sub-
stances of great importance in wine fermentation. If the sugar were separated
evenly into alcohol and carbon dioxid, then out of 100 parts of grape sugar there
would arise 51.11 parts of the former and 48.89 parts of the latter. But only about
94 or 95 per cent of the sugar is consumed in the pure alcoholic fermentation, and
the remaining part serves for the building up of these minor product.-^ and for the
nourishment of the yeast germs. Thus it must be concluded, according to Pa.steur,
that out of 100 parts of grape sugar arise 48.5 parts alcohol, 46.6 parts carbonic acid,
3.3 parts glycerin, and 0.6 part sulphuric acid, while about 1 per cent of the orig-
inal sugar is used for the buikling up of the yeast cells.

We have the yeasts in the widest sense of the word — that is, the different kinds of
fungi, as the sprouting fungi, mold fungi, and splitting fungi, which may form
alcohol; but above all the rest the sprouting fungi, as the yeast in a narrower sense
of the word, play the most important role.

While the stag-es of fermentation as thev should normal Iv ot-cur in
the casks or vats will now be dealt with, it shoidd ho noted that there
is alwa^'s a possibility that mal-org-anisms may at any time gain con-
trol of the must and produce results very dift'erent from those desired.
These accidents of the fermentation room are due to some of the fun-
gous plants and bacteria which are constantly associated with the true
alcoholic ferments under all ordinary conditions.

FIRST OR TCMULTUOrS KERMENT.ATION.

Given the proper temperature conditions, apple must at once takes
on a very active fermentation, which has been variously denominated
as '"timiultuous," '' stormy." etc. The activity is greater in weak,
acid juice than in rich must of good quality. Its progress is marked

' Free translation from Dr. A. Cluss, "Apfelweinbereitung. ' pp. 63-64, 1901.

96

b}^ the very rapid increase of the yeast plants, as a result of which a
sort of boiling- of the liquid is produced, much carbonic acid gas is
liberated, and the minute bubbles of this gas rise through the liquid
and escape with a hissing sound, often alluded to as the "singing- of
the cider." .This development of the yeast is likely to ])e altogether
too tumultuous if the temperature is hig'h; hence the importance of
reg'ulating the temperature. If the characteristic fermentation super-
venes within twentj'-four to fort}- -eight hours, it is a sign that proper
progress is being made. The liquid at once becomes turbid and much
disturbed, and small particles of vegetable matter rise to the surface,
accompanied hy more or less viscid mucilaginous material, all of
which is reall}" borne upward by the escaping gas. At first this sur-
face material is light and frothy, Imt should assume more and more
the character of a well-detined crust or covering, the "chapeair" so
often mentioned b}^ the French. This, however, is not considered
important by some. The English makers seem to be pleased if the
head forms well in their "keeves," because the}" can then skim it off
and be rid of so much of the lees, but if it does not form the}' make
no effort to secure its formation. On the other hand, the French
maker, if the head or "chapeau-' does not form, at once concludes
that his must is sick, and takes steps to set it right. It may be that
unfavorable temperature is the sole trouble, or at other times there
really is a lack of proper yeast organisms in the nuist.

No one appears to explain this matter of the formation of top lees or
"head" on the basis of observed facts, nor does it appear that any suffi-
ciently critical chemical study has been made of the subject. From
all the observations made this seems to be a very important feature of
the first fermentation, and it should be thoroughly studied. Some of
the remedies proposed by the manufacturers for application in case
the head does not form properly, appear not to deserve serious con-
sideration, namely, the addition of small quantities of ashes boiled in
cider, or of clay. The only result of such substances would be to
neutralize the acids, which, as a rule, would prove quite injurious to
the growth of the yeasts. In fact, the writer has fully proven that
neutralizing the acids checks the normal fermentation very decidedly.
It is also proposed by some makers to add a portion of the head from a
properly fermenting cask; and this has some element of sound sense in
it, because one would thus sow the must with vigorous yeasts, but he
would also sow it with many other organisms, probably some unde-
sirable ones.

The German makers care little or nothing about the formation of
the head or top lees, for reasons already explained, but they watch
carefully to see that the must comes into strong fermentation, and if
this does not occur at the proper time they sow strong yeast cultures
into the must, correct the temperature if necessary, and, as a yeast

97

stimulant, the}' .sometimes use ammonium cnlorid. AVhether this is
used to any extent in the factories was not ascertained, but it is used
in critical work. The quantity used ma}' vary, but ought to range
between one-half and 1 gram per liter (2 to 4 grams to the gallon).

Under proper conditions the tumultuous fermentation subsides in
ten days to two weeks. The time required may be even longer, Ijut it
should not exceed three weeks. The English makers in general seemed
not to have a ver}^ definite idea of the duration of this period. In fact,
their practice of skinmiing the head tends to defeat the completion of
this first stage, and constantly agitates the liquor and sets up sec-
ondary fermentation, so that the cider does not clear itself of lees,
and become limpid. The German cares not a fig about this, and permits
the head to fall back through the liquor to the bottom. He is thor-
oughly logical and practical in what he does. Init he makes a dificrent
product from English. French, or American cider. After a careful
study of all the points involved, the writer has adopted the French
views about observing the formation of the head and the subsequent
treatment of the cider.

The close of the first period of fermentation is marked by the prac-
tical cessation of the escape of gas; the cider ceases to '"sing;" the
head, if fermentation has been normal, loses its frothy character,
becoming brownish, and it may crack in places; the larger lees, which
were not upborne b}' the gas, and the 3'east cells subside and rest at
the bottom of the cask, and suddenly the cider becomes limpid and a
clear beautiful amber in color. The taste has improved and is some-
what piquant, but the liquor is yet sweet and very fruity in flavor.
The specific gravity will have fallen 20 or 30 points, the alcohol test
will show 2 to 2.5 per cent, and to many palates the cider is in fine
condition fo.- drink'ng.

To determine the condition of fermenting cider accurately is the
work of experience, and as an aid in examining the juice the spigot
previously mentioned becomes important. From this a small amount
of the cider can be drawn in a glass vessel as the indications point to
quiescence, and by carefully observing its f reeness from lees, the color,
absence of effervescence, specific gravity, etc.. one may judge its condi-
tion accurately and determine when it is ready to rack oti'. This is the
moment to draw the cider from between the lees. A few days' delay,
or an}^ disturbance of the cask, may throw down the head, and thus
the liquor at once becomes troubled and the after fermentation set^ in.
If this happens, recourse must be had to the filter, or the German
method, described hereafter, nuist be followed.

If the first fermentation is well accomplished, one is now on the high
road to success, but the after operations are so critical that only an
expert may properh- weigh them.
17247— No. 71—03 7

98

RACKING OFF.

The drawing of the limpid cider from between the top and bottom
lees is, to the Frenchman, the critical operation of cider making.
Its correct attainment has a value easil}^ realized by one who has gone
through the trou])les incident to the use of filters. If the vessel used
for first fermentation is properly furnished with a spigot, the cider
may l)e drawn into wooden vessels and poured through a wooden fun-
nel into a properly prepared cask near by. This is very connnonly
the practice among the small French farmers. Or it may be drawn
into a larger wooden vessel and pumped to the cask prepared for it in
the adjoining room or building for further fermentation. This is a
very common practice in factories in France and England.

In case the casks are unprovided with spigots, one nuist siphon the
liquor out or draw it off with a pump. Both of these methods are
objectionable, because one must in either case insert a hose at the bung
through the top lees, which operation more or less disturbs the cider,
and, if the cider runs directly into the cask provided for second fer-
mentation, it is impossible to observe the character of the liquor as
it passes, and therefore difficult to rack it off properly. The sole
object of racking off" is to free the liquor from lees and the super-
abundance of yeast cells so that the secondary fermentation may pro-
gress quietly. If a portion of the lees and the deposited yeast is
carried over, the operation has resulted in little good and a second
more or less violent fermenation ma}" supervene. In fact, this second
fermentation may. be v^ery dangerous if albuminous substances have
been carried over or if one allows the lees to enter the cask into which
the cidei' is drawn.

AVOIDANCE OF CONTACT WITH AIK.

An important precaution mentioned by several well-posted makers,
but which was scarcely observed at all, was that, in racking off, the
cider ought not to come in contact with the air any more than can pos-
sibly be avoided. The reason for this is that the liquor at this stage is
saturated with carbonic acid gas, which is the greatest safeguard against
the growth of mal -organisms; hence, if it can 1)e drawn directly into
the receptacle provided for second fermentation without loss of the
gas or direct contact with the air, much has ])een gained in regard to
the safety of the further processes. This can be readily accomplished
wherever the factory is constructed so that the fermentation room is
over the finishing or final storeroom. When one is ready to rack off',
a hose connection should ])C made with the spigot, or by siphon if casks
are not provided with spigots, and the hose should lun directly into
the receptacle in the room below. If this is done it will be necessary
to introduce near the spigot or siphon a section of glass tube, so that
the operator may constantly observe the character of the liquor as it

99

passes, and at once out off the flow if undesiral)lo particles are passing.
In siphoning-, a perfectly clean hose should })v carried almost to the
bottom of the receptacle, so the cider shall not fall or be agitated in
any manner. Tt is an excellent plan to till the clean vessel with car-
bon dioxid gas before racking into it, and then the cider will not
have an opportimity to absorl) oxygen in the least.

Racking off' by the method here described, viz, drawing the cider
from between the two lees, requires the most careful observation and
control. (It should be said here that we do not yet know whether a
head will always form on must from oui- ordinary American apples.
The experiments made by the writer thus far are not conclusive,
and a chemical and biological study of the subject is yet to be made.)
Working by this method it is possible that one will Hnd more refuse
or residuum remaining from each cask than he cares to lose, l)ut this
possible loss does not compare with the loss occasioned by the labor
and difficulties encountered in the use of filters, though these may
appear to use the stock a little more closel3\

If the fermentation casks are properly fitted, the cider is drawn
down until the top lees and bottom lees practically meet. This is
determined by observing when the particles begin to pass from the
spigot or siphon. One can draw quite closely bj^ putting the last few
gallons into a vessel for subsidence to take place l)eforc adding to the
clear liquor. The lees should be removed at once from the casks, and
instead of being thrown away the}^ may all l)e put together in a vat to
undergo further fermentation with a view to the production of vin-
egar. This material should not, however, remain in or adjacent to
the rooms where the cider is processed. The large fermentation casks
should all be provided with manholes so situated that the lees can be
quickl}^ removed, and the vessel cleansed when it is at once ready to
receive fresh must again.

If one does not follow the plan of separating the liquor from the
lees as above given, there are only two alternatives, viz, the German
method of inclusive fermentation or the use of the filter, largely
resorted to by English makers, and to some extent by French. The
latter is a very troublesome and laborious process.

SECOND FERMENTATION-.

Having delivered the liquor in a fairly bright limpid condition into
the casks in the room designed for second fermentation, which is
usually also the storeroom for the tinished product, a few precautions
should be observed:

1. The vessels should be tilled full and carefully l)unged to exclude
air and all manner of germs, so that the second or after fermentation
may still be wholly controlled by the yeast colonies carried over in the
liquor racked off. There will always be sufficient of these floating in

100

the liquor at this stage to control the fermentation if the liquor has
been properly g-uarded from contamination.

2. In bunging the vessels tightly, provision must still be made for
the escape of gas due to fermentation. There may for a few days be
a fairl^y active fermentation, especially if the liquor was much exposed
to the air, but this will soon subside under proper conditions. One
of the special funnels or air-control devices previously described may
be used, and will assist very much in warning the cellar man of what
is going on in the casks. A small apparatus such as the glycerin
funnel (lig. 17) will answer very well for this period of slow fermenta-
tion, but the crockery funnel (tig. 16) renders sampling the cider
much easier.

3. The temperature of the room must be watched and controlled,
and from this rule there is no exception if a sound product of line
quality is desired. Invariably the temperature should be lower dur-
ing the secondary fermentation than during the lirst period, A tem-
perature of 8'^ to 10- C. (10-' to 50^ F.), as shown by the observations
made in France and Germany, appears to be the most desirable for
this period. It requires a good cellar indeed to reach the minimum
here mentioned, )>ut 45- F, can be reached, and at this temperature
the yeasts work properly, and man}' disturbing organisms, as, for
example, the vinegar ferment Bacterium aceti^ are quite reduced to dor-
mancy. If the temperature can be gradually reduced to 40° F. as the
cider reaches maturity, its safety from mal-fermentation is thereby
well insured, because the organisms concerned in diseases of cider do
not thrive well at this low temperature.

SECOND RACKING OFF.

If the must has fermented in an orderly manner and l)een drawn off
as outlined above, no second racking is required until the fermenta-
tion is practically completed. But if a troubled fermentation follows
the first racking off', then the cider must be very carefuUj^ watched
and the temperature kept from rising above the limits mentioned. It
will be well to use under these circumstances some means of "fining"
or clarifying the cider so as to produce entire subsidence of the parti-
cles held in suspension in order that a second racking- off ma}' occur
as soon as possible. The cider must be freed from the lees and as
far as possible from all)uminous matters, or it can not progress
properly to the completion of its period of fermentation.

Much prejudice exists abroad against the use of animal substances,
as gelatin, white of Qgg^ and the like, for fining cider. The French
use quite freely preparations of the bark of certain species of oak.
But as the active principle in these is the tannin, it would seem better
to use the commercial tannin itself. Our American fruit is so weak
in tannin that the addition of this substanct^ will doubtless be found

101

advantag-eous, as it appears to steady the tendenc}" to too rapid fer-
mentation and total destruction of the sug-ar; and, V)est of all, it helps
to coagulate the allnmiinous matters, and thus to precipitate them,
carrying down at the same time other matter held in suspension.

The dose of tannin should be about one-half a gram per gallon accord-
ing to French standards, but our fruit may require more for the best
results. This may ver\' properly be added as soon as the must is inui
into the vessels for the first fermentation, but it is mentioned here
especially as a remedy when a second troubled fermentation sets in.
Stir the amount of tannin needed for a cask into a small (juantity c)f
cider and then add to the cask, and agitate by inserting a clean strip
of wood and stirring- the cider thoroughlv. After treat nig a cask in
this manner watch it carefully and rack ofi' just as scjon as the cider
becomes limpid. The cider will, during this period of disturbance,
have fallen in specific gravity. This should be carefully noted, and
the liquor should be transferred as quickly and quietly as possibly into
a cask suitable for the still fermentation.

The second racking off, when it occurs in normal process of fermen-
tation, is usually accomplished from three to five months after the first,
and the liquor should then have cleared out bright and fine, with l)eau-
tiful color, and have begun to form the bouquet of finished cider.
The specific g'ravity will vary from 1.001 to 1.008, and the cider is now
ready to go into the casks designed for transportation or into bottles.
The English bottle at much higher specific gravity, ))ut this would
undoubtedly be a wrong practice in our climate. The racking into
these final receptacles should be accomplished with the utmost care to
guard the liquor from contamination, and, if possible, the work should
be done in cool, bright weather with high ])ar()meter, l)ecaus(^ climatic
conditions affect the stillness of the liquor in the casks.

When ready the cider can be put in barrels or casks to suit the needs
of the trade, but these must be cleaned in the most careful manner; and,
in order to secure the cider from the effect of air, the outer surface of the
casks should be carefully scraped to expose the fresh grain of the wood
and then treated to a coat of hot tallow. This, if well applied, will
render them quite impervious to air, and thus practically seal up the
cider. The modern paraffin-coated barrels would answer well for this
purpose. The utmost care should be observed to use perfect bungs.
There must be no seepage, and cloths nuist not l)e used around the
bungs, for these will be constantly moist, and thus furnish a direct
conduit for vinegar germs to enter the cider. The bungs may be verj'
properly dipped in l)oiling tallow or paraffin before use.

If the cider is bottled, this should be accomplished with the utmost
care, taking pains to conserve the carbon dioxid in the cider, and not
to permit it to come in contact with the air. The corks used should
be the best champagne corks and may be dipped in 50 per cent alcohol
just as used. This will free them of germs. The}' should be inserted

102

with a reo-ular corking machine. The bottles should be left standing
upright for a few days until the liquor is quiet, and may then be laid
on the side.

LAGER FERMENTATION.

Whether in casks or bottles, the cider is now left in the storage room
to ripen. This is called b}" the Germans "lager fermentation." The
temperature should be kept as near -iO'^ F. as possible, and the vessels
(casks or bottles) should remain undisturbed. The cider will soon be-
come sparkling, and in two to four months will be in condition for use.

If racked into these final receptacles at the density mentioned, the
air being carefully excluded, the result will be a cider which will, in
a measure, chanipagnize itself, and retain some sugar for a long time;
but if left in casks with the wood pores open, the cider will eventually
become quite "dry" (free from sugar), the gas will gradually be lost,
and the product will be a still, hard cider. This sort of cider is little
relished l)v most people, and unless preserved by some chemical reagent
or charged with carbonic-acid gas at intervals, it will be turned to
vinegar whenever temperature conditions favor the growth of the

vinegar ferment.

GERMAN METHOD OF FERMENTATION.

As already stated, the German makers pay no attention to the forma-
tion of head or top lees, and make no effort to draw the cider from
between the lees. Their cider is, therefore, different in character from
English, French, or American cider. Their method of treating the
must doubtless accounts, at least in part, for this difference.

The fresh must is run into the fermentation cask until it comes
within about 12 inches of the bung, and then, if yeasts are used, these
are sown at once, using about one part of the strong culture, hereto-
fore mentioned, to 100 parts of must. A ventilating funnel is now
fitted tightly into the bunghole, a 5 per cent solution of sulphuric acid
being used in it to prevent the entrance of organisms from the air.

Fermentation progresses under the methods above discussed, but
nothing is done to the liquor until it has fermented out nearl}^ to dry-
ness and becomes still. The top lees are permitted to fall back through
the liquor and settle to the bottom along with the 3'easts. When the
liquor is quite still, some makers follow the practice of fflling the cask
to the bung with cider, so as to avoid having an air space, and then
closing the bunghole sufficiently tight to prevent access of air. Bung-
ing at this period is dangerous, unless a vent is provided for b}' means
of a ventilating bung.

There seems to l)e little uniformity of practice among the Germans
about racking off'. Some racked as early as December, and then again
about March, while others racked off' three or four months after put-
ting the must in casks, and then again the next autumn, if the liquor

103

was not bright at first racking. Many makers filtered at first racking-
and put the cider down in casks to await hottliijg or preparation for
transport in other vessels.

The writer invariably found the ordinary finished German ciders
poor in color and flat in taste to the American i)alate. They partake
of the character of very light still wines, devoid of the piquancy and
astringent character ordinarily expected in ciders. This does not alter
the statement heretofore made that German makers produce a standard
article of rather more definite character than those produced in the
other countries visited, and the}^ champagnize their ciders in a quite
perfect manner.

PRESERVING CIDER IN STORAGE.

In the German cellars great care is taken to sulphur and double sul-
phur the casks, esiDecially as the cider is drawn from one to another in

Fig. 20. — Device for maintaining- covering layer of carbon dloxid as cider is withdra\vn.

a nearly ''drj^" condition. They also resort largely to the employ-
ment of carbonic acid gas as a preservative. This is applied from
cylinders of carbon dioxid either to barrels to fill up the vacant space
as the cider is drawn (fig. 20), or to charge the cider in storage (fig. 21).
A cylinder of this kind may be attached to several casks at once so
that the overflow of gas from the first goes to the second, and so on.
As soon as the first cask is sulHcienth' charged, it is disconnected and
tightly bunged, and the operation is continued by adding other casks
to the circuit and dropping ofl' those charged until the work is com-
pleted. The bungs used while charging with gas are double per-

104

forated. as shown, and glass tubes, with small rul)ber hose connections,
are used to convey the gas from the cylinder to the casks. The device

4;^^-^^^^'^

-^^

Fig. 21.— Devise for charging casks with carbon dioxid m storage cellar.

at the bottom is a 4-way rubl)er cross which admits of using four
.short distributing pipes in the liquor. As this joint is
made with ruV)ber connections, it is j^erfectly flexible and
can easily be inserted and removed from the casks.

The device shown in flgure 22 is used to sulphur the
casks. This may be used when cleaning barrels to destroy
fungous organisms, but it is chiefly used abroad to sul-
phur the casks just before running the liquor into them,
botli at first and second fermentation. Thorough sul-
phuring will largely destroy the vegetable organisms
which ma}' be present in the casks. If they are not after-
wards rinsed carefully, too much sulphur may remain in
the casks so that the after fermentation will l)e hindered
and a taste of sulphur may even be contrilnited to the
cider. Perfectly clean water should be used for rinsing.
The sulphur match is placed in the cup, then lijfhted,
and is lowered burning into the cask until the tapering-
bung closes the opening. It will burn until the oxygen
is exhausted, when it should be removed. By this device
none of the sulphur is permitted to fall into the cask.

FILTERING OR CLARIFYING THE CIDER.

The l)est English and French makers agree in the
statement that filtering of ciders is a very laborious and
unsatisfactory process, resulting usually in loss of quality
to the product. The Germans, on the contrary, are more
favorable to the filter. Filtering cider appears to be a
process much more difficult, ordinarily, than filtering
wine made from grapes, and should be avoided if pos-
sible. The reason for this is the presence of mucilaginous substances
in the liquor. However, unless a cider can b(^ i-ack(Hl (putc free from

Fig. 22.— Device
for burning sul-
phur match in
casks.

105

the lees at the first racking-, or at most a second racking-, there is sure
to be difficulty in securing- a bright product unless the filter or some
other method of clarifying- is resorted to. The use of tannin to assist
in clarifying- ciders has already been mentioned.

Filters of various types are in conmion use in the different countries
visited, some being very primitive, while others are the best up-to-
date appliances seen.

The hag filter.— Oi primitive filters, the most simple was a device
in form much like the insect nets used by entomologists to catch but-
terflies (fig. 23). The cloth used was linen, of such a texture as to
thoroughly strain the finest particles out of the cider. It is sometimes
called forfar. These conical bags are about a foot in dianicter at the

Fin. 23.— Linen sack gra%'ity filter.

larger end and taper to a point, the length being about 18 to 30 inches.
They were used in considerable numbers, supported on a rack over a
vat, as indicated. The flow through these bags is slow, and the cider
is so much exposed to the air that if there is any tendency to mal-
fermentation this process must surely increase the troul)le. The cloths
need frequent washing to clear them of lees, but should not be treated
with hot water. This device was in use in both small and large factories
in England, sometimes with fresh must, but usually when racking the
first time. It is not commended for use in America.

Tuh filter. — The best simple device seen was a large tub or vat with
a finely perforated false bottom, supported several inches above the
true bottom, the space between l)oing packed with wood pulp which

106

served to strain or filter the cider almost perfectly. This was observed
ill an English factory where the must was fermented in open " keeves,"
the head being- skimmed oil' until active fermentation had sul)sided,
and the product being then run through this iilter and put into casks
for ripening. This apparatus does good work, hut the cider is much
exposed to the air.

Tlie cellvJoge pov^er filter. — Some of the English makers have come
to use the German filter shown in ligurc 21. This is made by Otto
Fromme at Frankfort, and is the liest device observed. It is, how-
ever, costly, and a force pump is required to di-ive the liquid
through the filter, or the liquid must be drawn from some height in
order to give the necessary pressure. This is also a wood pulp or
cellulose filter. The pulp is arranged between perforated disks, and
the machine permits of dismounting and washing the parts and the
pulp at will. In some English factories attempts were made to filter

Fig. 24. — Cellulose power filter used in Germany.

the fresh juice with this machine, but this generally resulted in fail-
ure, and besides was very wearing on the apparatus. Fresh apple
must is very difficult to filter because of the pectose or mucilaginous
substances it contains. The use of any of the above filters does not
appear to l^e practicable except when the must has been fairly well
fermented, and has freed itself in this manner of a large part of the
parench3'matous tissues and albuminous matters present therein.

Ashestos md' fiJter. — The French use a filter (fig. 25) which they
claim will remove all insoluble matters from the fresh must, and leave
it clear and limpid as it goes into the cask. No demonstration of this
was seen, ]>ut this filter (Filtre Maignen) is much used in France,
and appears to be a good, cheap filter. It is made from asbestos.
A fairly closely woven asbestos sack, 10 or 12 inches in diameter and
of anv desired length, is tied tightlv at one end; tluMi in tlie bottom of
this is placed an openwork disk, and a string is tied al)ove the same so
as to nearly draw the sides of the sack together; a))ove this is placed
a second disk; and so on until the filter sack is filled. The open end

107

of the sack is then tied tiohtlv amund a niotal tittiiii'- which connects
with a nil)])er pipe, and to tiiis pipe a pump is attached. The filter is
placed in the tul) or vat as shown (tig-. 25), and the suction of the pump
draws the must through the parts of the asbestos sack and disks,
largel}^ freeing- the same from floating- particles of whatever nature.
In some styles of this device a second asbestos sack of coarser weave
is drawn over this accordion-like device, and serves to still further
assist in straining- the li(iuor. Possibly when the cidci- is di-awn into
an open tul) at racking- ofl', and this filter is carefully used, the li(juor
can be filtered bright.

This stvle of filter is readilv cleansed, it onlv beino- necessarv to
untie the sack, remove the disks, and Avash all the pieces carefully.
Saltwater, used warm, is said to accomplish this nuich l>etter than
fresh water. Filters of this pattern may be connected up in sets on

Fig. 25. — Asbestos sack filter — "Filtre maignen."

a main pipe, or on a central disk of metal, and the capacity may be
thus g-reatly increased. It should be added that all metal part.s of
connections, pipes, pumps, etc., mu.st be of brass, or other material
which will not be attacked ])y acids.

German ashestos jilter. — The Germans use chiefly but two Alters,
viz, the one made by Fronnne (shown at flgure '2-^) and another small
aft'air (flg. 26). The latter is an as])estos Alter, but works solely bv
g-ravity , as indicated. A self-regulating (/>) valve governs the inflow at
the top, hence it can be set to work on a cask and left to itself until
the receptacle into which the filtrate runs is filled. This device is of
small capacity, but does good work. The cylinder is packed with
asbestos which can be removed, washed, and re-used.

Both of these German filters are constructed with the idea of pro-
tecting- the cider from the air, as it is in nowise exposed by their use
except when it is delivered into the cask. This is a point of much

108

importance, especially among the Germans, as their cider is fermented
nearly to dryness before tiltering-, and hence is less able to protect
itself by the regeneration of abundant carbonic acid gas. For this
reason the Germans advocate charging the casks with carbonic acid
gas before running th^ cider into them.

Fig. 26.— Asbestos gravity filter.

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CIDER.

It will doubtless be clear to every one who has manufactured ciders,
or followed the foregoing discussion, that it is not possil)le to iix upon
a certain chemical composition and sav this represents what should be
considered a standard cider. Chemical analyses, however, reveal what
it is exceedingly important to know, viz, the sugar, alcohol, and acid
contents, with other data of possibly less importance. Without these
data one is completely in the dark as to whether the product has been
properly or improperly fermented, and no technical progress in the
study of methods is possible. Chemical analyses rightly interpreted
will also aid the consumer in distinguishing pure from sophisticated
ciders.

109

The complete study of this subject is yet to be undertaken, but rep-
resentative samples of ciders were collected l)y the writer in the dif-
ent countries visited and forwarded to the Bureau of Chemistry,
United States Department of Agriculture, for analysis. To those
samples have been added a num])er of typical, sampk's of American
ciders collected during the 3'ear 19ol. The analyses of these ciders,
with explanatory remarks, are given in the tal)les which follow:

Table XIV. — Coinpoxition of ciderii: Anahj^en of Fvendi miiiple-'< hi/ Bureau of Chenrntry,
United States Department of Agriculture, 1901.

Name or brand.

>

0

s

r cent alcohol by
volume.

Grams per 100 cc.

6

a

s

'3

'3

a
'+3

3**

•4-^

^

Source and remark.s.

'3

o

3

_2

•d

i-i

■4^

.a

§

s.

<u

o

o

at -

X

U3

$

M

PU

^

e

>

X

W

<

13

Cirtre mousseux . .

1.0040

6.80

5.00

0.3234

0. 1824

0.4483

1
3. 2948,0. 2942

M. Gibout-Roux, Da-
ne.stal, Calvados.
Dry sparkliiiKcider, 1

yearold: not typical

mousseux of France.

14

Cidre marchand..

1.0111

3.72

2.95

.4303

.2868

1.8970

4.0650

.1950

Same source. An ordi-
nary cider in which
fi rstan<l second press-
ings have been
lui ted. 1 year old.

15

Boisson

1.0101

2.81

2.23

.4263

. 2952

1..5888

3.4692

.1838

Same sonn-c. Second

and third pressings

mixed. 1 year old.

40

Cidre mousseux..

1. 0101

6.05

4.80

. 4214

.2100

2.5100

4.9500

.2120

Patil Santier. Rouen.
A typical French
champagne cider, 1
year old.

41

Cidre marchand..

1. 0004

6. 45

5.12

. 4214

.1910

.0900

2.5100

.2710

Same source. Stand-
ard pure iuice, Nor-
mandy ciiicr.

47

Cidre ordinaire . .

1.0061

5.00

3.97

.2725

.1070

1.4300

3.3800

.1930

A. Power. St. Ouen-de-
Tliouberville-Kure.

Ordinary man'hand

cider, 4 months old.

48

Cidre supcrieur...
Averages . . .

.9998

5.90

4.68

.2882

.1240

.0990

2.0800

.1820

Same source. A tine
grade of marchand
cider, 4 months old.

1.0059

5.18

4.11

.3691

.1995

1. 1519

3. 3927

.2194

1

no

Table XV. — Composition of eiders: Analyses of German samples, Bureau of Chemistry,
United States Department of Agriculture, 1901.

■^

Grams per 100 cc.

6

Name or brand.

S

'J2

Source and remarks.

o

t: o

1>

o

'T- ci

*j

o

5^

o

OS

iiS

a

a

a

CJ

o

=3

OS

-c

Lri

a

3!

'J}

^

<

O

O

o

«

X

1

Common a p f e 1
wein.

1. 0023

.5.93

4.71

0. 2954

0.0864

0. 1286

2. 2140

0. 2636

C. A. Smith, Schier-
stein. Dry cider, 1
year old.

•)

Speierling apfel

1. 0002

7.15

5.68

. 2867

.0696

.1272

2. 3186

.2539

Same source. Said to
be made from Speier-

weiu.

ling and apple.

3

Common apfel
wein.

1.0032

4.94

3.92

.4018

.0552

.1234

2.4110

.2812

Fried rich Groll, Weis-
baden. Low grade
dry cider, 1 year old.

4

do

1.0027

.5.83

4.63

. 3553

.0108

.3062

2. 7722

.2305

Heinrich Merten, Er-
benheim. Standard
dry cider, new made.

5

rto

1.0003

5.97

4.74

.3224

.0564

. 0211

2. 2142

. 2834

Fritz Batz, Xeuenhain.
Standard dry cider,
1 vear old.

6

Export apfel wein

.9997

6. .30

5.00

. 2254

.0360

.0435

2.2333

.2544

Same source. Export
special stock, 1 year
old.

7

Schaume apfel
wein.

1.0221

10.67

8.47

.3773

. 1068 7. 9104

9. 2274

.2106

Same source. Cham-
pagne cider, heavily

sugared, 1 vear old.

9

Export apfel wein

.9997

5.70

4. 52

.2254

. 0576

. 0524

2. 0201

. 2236

Gebriider Freyeisen,
Frankfort. Select
drv cider, 1 year old.

10

Speierling apfel

1. 0004

.5.85

4.04

. 2631

.0396] .0187

1.9158

. 2352

Same source. Dry ci-

wem.

der from Sorbus do-
mrgtica and apples,
1 vear old.

11

Borsdorfer apfel
wein.

l.OOOO

5. 81

4.61

.2548

.0360

.1221

1. 9438

. 2346

Same source. From
German Borsdorfer
apple, 1 year old.

12

Champagner ap-
fel wein.

Averages . . .

1.0178

8.03

6.37

. 2573

.0420

5.6544

7.3464

. 1842

Same source. A su-
gared champagne ci-
der. 1 year old.

1.0044

6. .56

.5.21

.2968

.0.597

1.3189

3. 3288

. 2414

Table XVI. — Composition of ciders: Ancdyses of English samples by Bureau of Chemistry,

U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1901.

Name or Virand.

Spe-
cific
grav-
ity.

Per
cent
alco-
hol
by
vol-
ume.

Grams per 100 cc.

Source and remarks.

Sam-
ple
No.

Alco-
hol.

Total
acids.

Vola-
tile,
acids.

Re-
duc-
ing
su-
gar.

Ex-
tract.

Ash.

[Nos. 22 to 31 from Bath
and West Show, 1900;
Nos. 55 to 61 from
Bath and West Show,
1901. J

22

23

24
25

26
27

Devonshire cider,
first prize.

Devonshire small
cider, second
prize.

Devonshire small
cider, first prize.

Here ford shire
small cider, sec-
ond prize.

Herefordshire ci-
der, first prize.

Somersetshire ci-
der, second
prize.

1.0222

i.o::-

1.0312
1. 0304

1.0325
1.0266

4.16

3.14

2. 76
1.72

2.75
3.85

3.30

2.50

2.19
1.37

2.18
3.06

0.2548

.3822

.3283
.2377

.2989
.2107

0.0672

. 13.56

.0588
.0840

.0780
.0504

4. 7414

5. 1895

6. 5366
6. 1282

6. 3.584
.5.2148

7. 2136

7. 6.544

9. 2004
8. 5132

9. 3126
8. 1472

0. 2420

.3080

. 2500
. 2852

.2708
. 3152

Rated by official chem-
i.st of Bath and West
Society above 4 per
cent alcohol.

Rated below 4 per cent
alcohol.

Do.

Do.

Rated above 4 percent
alcohol. Champion
prizecider, 1900, Bath
and West Show.

Rated above 4 per cent
alcohol.

Ill

Table XVI. — Composition of ciders: Analyses of English samples b;/ Bureau of Chemistnj,
r. S. Department of Agriculture, 1901 — Continued.

Per Grams per 100 cc.
cent

Source anil remarks.

Sam-

Spe-
cific
grav-
ity.

alco-

Re-

[Xos. 22 to 31 from Bath

ple
Ko.

Name or brand.

hol
by

Alco- Total \9la-
hol. ffcids ".'^

*1"^' Ev-

ing tract
su- 1 "act.

Ash.

and West .'^how, 1900;
Nos. 5.1 to Cil from

vol-

acid.s.

Bath andWest Show,

ume.

1
1

gar. !

.3886

1901.]

28

Somersetshire ci-

1.0307

4.25

3.38

.3186

.1116

5.7760' 9.9912

Do.

der, first prize.

i

29

Some rset shire
small cider, first

1.03'71

2.86 2.27

.2597

.0768

7.46.5910.8164

.3116

Rated below 4 per cent
alcohol.

prize.

30

Somersetshire
small cider, sec-

1.0220

3.37

2.68

.2407

.0828

4.5548

6.9672

.3040

Do.

ond prize.

31

Som e rset shire

1. 0367

2.75

2.18

.3259; .0402

7.694610.5228

.2856

Do.

.small cider, re-

serve.

32

Standard still ci-
der from cask.

.9997

6.83

5.47

.2818

.1020

.0325

2.1458

.2666

H. P. Bulmer & Co.,
Hereford. A very

g<>f)d dry cider, 1

year old.

33

Cherr.v Pearmaiii
cider, sparkling.

1.0251

5.87

4.65

.2391 .0756

3.3121

5.9816

.2450

Same source. In grade
is fiiiial ti> best
Frenc 1 niousseux or
champagne cider; 1

year f)ld.

34

H o 1 m e r Perry,
sparkling.

1.0167

6.11

4.85

.2999

.1630

3.4064

6.4502

.2772

Same source. Very good
champagne Perr>-,
douljtless sugared, 1

year old.

35

Fox whelp and

1.0206

4.85

3.85

.2867

.0636

4.5392

6.9924

.2680

Same source. A special

Kingston Black

brand of sweet cider,

cider.

1 year old.

36

Standard spark-

1.0152

4.93

3.91

.5366 .3228

1.3488

6.0354

3.666

Toddington Orchard

ling cider.

Co., Winchecombe,
Gloucestershire.
Nearly d ry mous-'^eux
or chanipagni' cider,
verygfMMi.Syearsiild.

37

Standard dry cider

1.0065

4.93

3.91

.3112

.0768

.9200

3.2532

.3146

Same" source. Good
still, dry cider,2vears
old.

Same source. Fine

38

Champagne Perry

1.0129

6.01

4.77

.3577

.1296

.8768

4.8166

.3928

grade of champagne

Perry, probab v su-

gared, 2 years old.

39

Standard n e w

1.01S5

4.19

3.33

.3627

. 1218

3.2416

6.0570

.3238

Same .source. Newly

cider.

1

bottled cider, would

1

become sparkling.

55

Herefordshire

1. 0292

3.15

2.50

.2.568 .0610

5.500(1 ','.-:'■!>

.2230

Bath and West Show,

small cider, sec-

1901. Rated below 4

ond prize.

per cent alcohol.

56

Herefordshire
.small cider, re-
serve.

1.0304

1.60

1.27

.3567

.0640

4.4200

8.5500 .3050

1

1

Do.

57

Somersetshire ci-
der, first prize.

1.0380

4.55

3.62

.3862

.0530

7.1300

12.1200 .3250

Rated above 4 per cent
alcohol.

58

Somersetshire ci-

1.0244

3.80

3.02

. 2823

.09.50

3.5600

7.9S00 .2.580

Do.

der, second

prize.

59

Somersetshire ci-
der, reserve.

1.0304

4.15

3.30

.3371 .0480

4.4000

9.3f<00 .339tt

Do.

60

Somersetshire

1.0398

2.55

2.02

.4704 .0520

5.7800

11.4900 .1980

Rated below 4 percent

smallcider.first

alcohol.

61

prize.
Somersetshire

1.0172

3.60

2.86

.2803

.0620

2. 7700

6.1900

.2870

Do.

small cider, sec-

ond prize.

Average

1

1.0249

4. Hi 3.14 .3161| .0910

4.4375

7.7920 .2^0

112

Table XVII. — Composilion of ciders: Analyses of American samples by Bureau of
Chendstry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1001.

Per

Grams per 100 cc.

Spe-
cific
grav-
ity.

cent
alco-

Sam-

1

Re-

ple
No.

Name or brand.

hol

bv

vol-

Alco-
hol.

Total ^^tne"

duc-
ing
su-

Ex-
tract.

Ash.

Source and remarks.

ume.

gar.

49

Sparkling draft
cider, extra dry.

1.0053

5.87

4.66

.2979

.0890

1. 1500

3.3900

.2830

Genesee Fruit Co.,
Rochester. N. Y. A
fair, .slightly gaseous
cider, 1 vear old.

50

Sparkling draft...

1.0101

5. .57; 4.42

.3508 .1340

2. 110014. 6700

. 2880

Same .source. More

cider.

sparkling than
above; 1 year old.

51

Plain fermented
cider.

.9987

7.83

6.22

.3626

.0860

.0000

2. 3600

.2920

Same source. Perfect-
ly dry, still cider, 1
vear old.

52

Crab-apple eider..

1. 0178

5.51

4.37

.2372

.0490

3. 3400

6. 7000

.2770

Same source. A spark-
ling cider of mous-
seux or champagne
grade, 1 vear old.

53a

Paulding Pippin
cider, 1900.

1. 0289

2.16

1.71: .4567

. 0250

5. 9900 8. 2300

i

. 2410

H. Paulding, jr., Hun-
tington, L. I., N. Y.
A sweet mousseux
cider, 1 vear old.

53

Same, 1899

1.0292

3.92! 3.12

.0220;.5. 1700:9. 0300

. 2830

Same source. Almost

identical in charac-

ter, but greater al-

coholic strength; 2

Average

years old.

1.01.50

5.14

4.08i .3410

.0.590

2. 9600 5. 7300

.2770

Sauternes"

1.0040

5. 54

4.43: ..3.500

. 9800 2. 6000

Made with pure yeast
oilture bv Professor

Ahvood. A fine drv

champagne cider.

Vallee d'Augeo...

1.0030

6.51

5.20

.4800

.2000.2.2400

Made with pure yeast,
as above. A very
dry sparkling cider'

"Samples of cider made at Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station; analyses made by Professor
Davidson.

Discussion of these tables is hardly necessaiT further than to call
attention to salient facts relating to the specilic gravity, alcohol, and
sugar content. The French and German ciders are remarkably alike
in regard to specilic gravity and the indications are that these ciders
are fermented practically' dry. The analyses show this to be the case.
There are two German samples — Nos. T and 12 — with comparatively
high specific gravity, and these show a considerable percentage of
sugar still unfermented, in fact a very much larger percentage than is
necessary to produce the desired result, namely, to champagnize the
cider. The French cider, No, 4<). is a champagne cider with a much
smaller sugar content. It is a question of the taste of one's customers
whether such highly sugared champagne ciders as these two German
samples should be made. In the writer's opinion the French sample
is better; and it has been detinitely proved at Blacksburg that a tine
gaseous or champagne cider can be made without the addition of sugar.
The French samples are strikingly high in volatile acids, which would
indicate the presence of acetic acid. The cellar methods may account
for this.

The two analyses ofiven at the bottom of the table of American sam-
pies are ciders made at the experiment station at Blacksburg, Va,
Both were prepared from samples of the same must, handled side by

113

side, until tinished. Each was sown with a culture of pure yeast, the
one a yeast isolated from a French Sauterne wiiio. the other from u
Normandy cider of the Vallec d'Auoe district. Tiie first resulted in
a fine cider of beautiful color, o-aseous, and with flavor like cham-
pagne, the other in a very tine, dry cider, sparkling and gaseous.
Sugaring ciders for champagnizing is a doubtful practice, and the
best-posted makers abroad insist that the true future of cider making
lies along the line of fully fermented dr}' ciders.

The analyses of English ciders show wide variations in their compo-
sition. The samples Nos. 22 to 31 and 55 to (31, inclusive, were taken
at the Bath and West Show, the first set in lUOii and the second in
1901. Both sets of samples reveal similar characteristics — high specific
gravity and in the main low alcohol and high sugar content. These
are simply incompletel}^ fermented ciders, either filtered as clear as
possible of yeasts and held in highly sulphured casks, or treated with
chemicals to check fermentation. Nos. 82 to 39 are samples taken at
factories, as revealed by the notes, and are among the very best ciders
collected, and show the possibilities of English cider fruits.

WORKS OF REFERENCE.

As mentioned previously in the discussion, the Frencli literature on
cider making is very voluminous, but it can not be said that it is all
of great value. In fact there is an enormous literature on every
phase of the subject, expressing everjj^ shade of opinion, so that one is
at great loss what to commend. Consequently there is given in the
subjoined list only a few references, and these are to those sources
which were found to be most useful and reliable. The first work is
now out of print and can rarely be found. The others are mostly
easy to obtain.

Of the German literature it must be said that it is not al)andant nor
very rich in actual observations made on growing the fruit and making
the cider, nor in technical investigations of a diemical nature or other-
wise. The books pi'esented in the list are mostly compilations l)y
persons more or less familiar with the actual practice of cider or wine
making.

The recent English literature is practically all found in the Journal
of the Bath and West of England Society and the other two works
named. There is an older English literature on the sul)ject. which is
practicalh' inaccessible.

FRENCH WORKS.

L. de Boutteville ot A. Ilanchecorne. Le Cidre. A treatise based upon the papers
and discussions delivered before the Cider Congresses held at Rouen 1864 to 1875.
This is perhaps^ one of the most important papers in the French Hterature, com-
prising the most elaborate notes upon varieties and their chemical composition.

A. Truelle. Guide pratique des meilleurs fruits de pressoir, employes dans le pays
d'Auge. L'enseignement de la pomiculture et de I'industrie cidriere en France

17217— No. 71—03 8

114

et a I'etranger. (C'ongres international pour I'etude ties fruits de pressoir et de
I'industiie du cidre, Paris, 1900, pp. 127-326.) (In this treatise the author gives
the most elaborate bibliography extant of works in all languages on cider making
and related subjects.)

Dr. Dennis-Diimont. Proprietes medicales et hygieniques du cidre. Caen. With-
out date. (In this Dr. Dumont presents a considerable array of facts concerning the
healthfulness of cider as a common beverage. )

Bulletin de I'Association pomologique de I'ouest. (This is the publication of a
society organized in 1883 under above title, which continued up to 1897, during which
time it published annual volumes containing many papers of value.)

Bulletin de I'Association franc^aise pomologique pour I'etude des fruits de pres-
soir et I'industrie du cidre. (This is the proceedings of a society organized in
1897, which continues to meet annually and publishes a journal containing papers
by the best investigators, practitioners, and writers on this subject. )

G. Power. Traite de la culture du pommier et de la fabrication du cidre. Tome 1.
Monographic des meilleures varietes de pommes a cidre. Tome II. (These two vol-
umes constitute the ])est work on this subject in the French language, considered as a
text-book. )

G. Jacquemin. Les fermentations rationnelles. (In this large work M. Jacque-
min deals extensively with the employment of pure yeast in the manufacture of
wines and ciders, and summarizes much of the best literature on the subject.)

L. Seguin et F. Pailheret. Etudes sur le cidre. (This work gives an account of
the studies made by the authors on the manufacture of cider by diffusion, at the
national school of agriculture at Rennes, France, and as an appendix, the most com-
plete table of the analyses of cider fruits that the writer has yet seen. )

Bulletin du Ministere de I'Agriculture. (This publication is issued in serial num-
Ijers from the ministry and contains many important articles, among others all of
Professor Kayser's work.)

Le Cidre. (A monthly review devoted to the industry of cider making.)

Le Cidre et le Poire. (A monthly review similar to the last named. )

GERMAN WORKS.

Dr. A. Graeger. Die Obstweinkunde, oder Bereitung aller Arten Wein aus Beeren
Stein und Kernobst, als audi aus den Bliiten, Bliittern und Wurzeln einiger
Pflanzen.

Johannes B()ttner. Die Obstweinbereitung. Anleitung zum Keltern des Apfel-
weins und der andei-n Obst, etc. Sechste Auflage.

Prof. Dr. Behrend. Untersuchung von in Wiirttemberg produzirten Obstweinen.
(Mittheilungen aus Hohenheim.) Obstweine aus reinen Obst-Arten, ausgestellt
von dem Technologischen Institut der Koniglichen wiirttembergischen landwirth-
schaftlichen Akademie in Hohenhenn, etc.

Prof. Dr. Julius Wortmann. Anwendung und Wirkung reiner Hefen in der
Weinbereitung. (Studies from the Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Geisenheim.)

Dr. Adolf Cluss. Die Apfelweinbereitung. (A general treatise on cider making,
written in a plain style. )

Antoni() dal Piaz. Die Obstweinbereitung nebst Obst- und Beerenwein-Brennerei.
(A compilation.)

ENGLISH WORKS.

R. Hogg and H. Graves Bull. The Apple and Pear as Vintage Fruits. (The best
recent English work, which treats both of cider fruits and cider making.)

Journal of the Bath and West of England Society, cstal>lished 1777, and Southern
Counties Association. Vol. IV, 1894, and sulisequent numbers.

Cooke, C. W. Kadi'liffe. Lecture on Cider before the Society of Arts. A Book
about Cider und Perry. (A i)laiii, practical treatise by a country gentleman who
makes good cider. )

.-«- o .

&"^

OF THfc"

i

Ui

UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA
LIBRARY

Due two weeks after date.

30m-7,'l^

' u I o^^o

/ I fi4333