YASH UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA.

PROVINCE OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

NE AUIRS I INGE
BIOLOGICAL, KEPOK.

No. II.

For the Year ening fot June, 1914.
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THE PROVINCIAL SECRETARY,

SIR,—I have the honour to submit the following Reports
dealing chiefly with certain marine biological questions which
have arisen during the year in connection with fishing matters
in the Cape Province. They include a review of the develop-
ment of the fishing industry and recommendations as to the
continuation of the marine biological survey with a view to
further development, and an inquiry into the causes of the
fluctuations in the fish supply, a question which has recently
been much discussed. The alleged destruction of fish and
fish spawn in the Berg River and at Knysna has been investi-
gated in some detail. The investigations into the Crawfish
question are continued and further information has been
obtained. Observation on the habits of some South African
fishes are recorded and the Snoek and allied fishes are dealt
with in aspecial section. Lastly, some new species of South
African fishes are described. In this I have been assisted
by Mr. Wardlaw Thompson, F.Z.S., who also has contri-
buted the first part of a useful catalogue of fish of the Cape
Province. The original drawings have been done by Mr. I.
Birbel, who, along with Mr. Cripps, has also assisted in the
collection of townettings and other material.

I have the honour to be,
SI,
Your obedient Servant,

j--De bP] GikGHkist:

Cape Town,
30th June, 1914.

[C.P. 6—’14.]

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CONTENTS.

I.—THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY IN S. AFRICA..

IIl.—AN ENQUIRY INTO THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE FISH SUPPLY
ON THE SOUTH AFRICAN COAST On s6

IIJ.—TuHE Care CRAWFISH AND CRAWFISH INDUSTRY (continued)

IV.—DESTRUCTION OF FISH AND FISH SPAWN BY NETTING IN THE
BERG RIVER AND AT KNYSNA Sue oe

V.—OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF SOME SOUTH AFRICAN FISHES
VI.—THE SNOEK AND ALLIED FISHES of ae as Ou

VII.—DEScRIPTION OF NEW SouTH AFRICAN FISHES aia

VIII.—CaTALoGUE OF FISHES OF THE CAPE PROVINCE (Part I.)

[C.P. 6—’14.]

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2

UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL REPORT.

I—THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FISHING
INDUSTRY IN SOUTH: CAPRICA:

The history of the fishing industry in South Africa dates
from a comparatively recent period. The aboriginal fishermen
were, it jis stated (Kolben), expert in their own particular
methods. They used lines and hooks, with which they fished
from the rocks; nets also were employed, and spearing, as
well as the most primitive of all methods, “ groping or tick-
ling.” Whistling or shouting during fishing operations was
believed to be an improvement on these methods, as it ensured
better results. Another development of this early fishing
industry was brought about when the more adventurous and
enterprising fishers swam out to the rocks situated at some
distance from the shore, where they procured a more abundant
supply, which they “‘ take in their karosses or tie up in leathern
bags and swim with the burthen on their heads.” (Kolben.)
The necessity for improved methods and extension of fishing
operations to deeper waters was thus felt even in those early
days, and was the beginning of subsequent enterprises which
have led to steam trawlers making voyages of over 100 miles
to distant fishing grounds.

With the settlement of Europeans in South Africa came
improved methods, chiefly more effective and larger nets,
better hooks, lines and boats. The interests of agriculture
were, however, held to be of greater importance than those
of the fishing industry, chiefly because the demand for agricul-
tural produce was greater. Certain restrictions even were
imposed by the East India Company on fishing operations.

With a growing farming population at the Cape, however,
a market gradually arose for fish. The chief demand was for
Harders (Mullet), and quantities of this were salted, dried
and carried by wagon or cart to the various inland places.
Seines or “‘ trek-nets ” were the chief fishing implements used

[C.P. 6—’14.]

a
=<

for the capture of the fish, and they have gradually increased
in size and effectiveness since the time van Riebeck first
imported them from Holland. It has also been found neces-
sary to go further and further to sea in these fishing operations.

About thirty years ago a new and large market was opened
up in Mauritius, where there was a great request on the part
of the Indian population for fish ; the native African is not a
fish-eater. It was found that salted and dried Snoek was
admirably adapted for export, and gradually a large trade
arose in this article.

The increasing white population and the opening up of the
country by railways brought about an increased demand for
fish. To meet this demand, there were several attempts to
discover new fishing grounds and employ more modern and
effective methods of fishing. In place of the open boats, seine
nets and hand lines, which had proved inadequate, decked
boats, long lines, drift nets, trawling, purse seines were tried.
About the year 1892 an enterprising private firm fitted out a
well-equipped vessel, the Harry Mundahi, for the exploitation
of possible grounds further afield, but, unfortunately, the
enterprise did not prove successful. Again, at Port Elizabeth,
another attempt was made to introduce new methods by the
importation of skilled fishermen from the North Sea ports,
but for some reason this led to no practical result. Trawling
experiments were also carried out by various private individuals
and firms. Table Bay and False Bay were tried, as also
Mossel Bay and Algoa Bay, with varying results. A small
area was found in Table Bay suitable for trawling, and for
many years the tugs in their spare time visited this ground with
trawl nets. They occasionally caught afew soles, but the area
proved to be so limited that trawling was ultimately abandoned.
In False Bay and Mossel Bay the trawling experiments were
unsuccessful. At Port Elizabeth (Algoa Bay) better results
were obtained, but not sufficient to justify the employment
of regular trawlers, and here also trawling was carried on by
tugs in their spare time. Purse-seine netting was tried in and
near Table Bay by an enterprising American firm, and this
method of fishing proved very effective. Mackerel especially
was caught in great abundance and exported to America.
Partly on account of the opposition of the native fishermen
and their representations to Government, and partly as the
enterprise was not, on the whole, a financial success, it was not
continued.

It was under these circumstances that in 1895 the matter
was taken up by the Cape Government, and arrangements
were made to carry out a general marine biological survey,

3]

with a view to procuring further information as to the resources
of the Cape Seas, the possibility of discovering new fishing
ground and applying new methods. A vessel, the Pzeter Faure,
was specially designed and built for the purpose, and certain
parts of the coast were carefully examined. The chief practical
result was the discovery of certain new areas, in which large
quantities of fish, including soles, could be procured by trawling.
These regions were, however, at a distance of about 150 miles
from the nearest port with railway communications, and this
at first presented some difficulties, but, by the use of ice, it
was demonstrated that the fish could be landed in Cape Town
at a clear profit. Reports of the experiment were published,
in order to induce private companies to take up the work.
This was only too successful, and at first some of these enter-
prises came to grief. This in time righted itself, and there are
at present eight steam trawlers, fitted with refrigerating
apparatus, regularly engaged in the development of these new
fishing grounds. The result is that the fish supply to South
Africa has been about doubled, a special feature being that
soles, formerly a rarity, are now supplied in abundance.

It is difficult, in the absence of full and reliable statistics,
to trace the actual state and progress of the fishing industry,
but some figures are available, from various sources, which
may throw some light on the subject.

The figures of imports of fish into Cape Colony show some
striking features. The countries from which the imported
fish come are chiefly the United Kingdom, next in order being
the United States, Germany, Holland, Belgium, Portugal, and
other places, among which are Bombay and Hong-Kong. The
maximum amount imported into Cape Colony was in the year
1902, when the total value was £327,413. In 1909 it was
£77,605 for the Cape Province, and £170,583 for the Union of
South Africa. The fish are chiefly tinned salmon, sardines,
etc., a much lesser quantity of dried or cured fish, such as
salted cod and ling, or fish fresh, partly cured and preserved
in ice, such as Salmon, smoked Haddock, etc.

These quantities seem to be excessive and to indicate the
necessity for further development of the South African Fishing
Industry. It is true we may place over against them the
quantities of canned and cured fish exported (chiefly Crawfish
and Snoek), which in 1909 amounted to over £33,000 in value ;
there is also a growing but somewhat erratic oversea export
of fresh and frozen fish. It is practically, however, a negligible
quantity, being at most only £716.

It may be many years before the balance between exports
and imports in fish is reached, but there is no reason to believe

[C.P. 6—’14.]

4

that some day this may not occur, or even that there may be
a considerable export to Europe. It may be mentioned in
this connection that some trial consignments of soles were sent
by one of the trawling companies to London and Melbourne,
where they were sold at a payable price. Difficulties in
devising a suitable method for conveying these fish such long
distances without their losing their delicate flavour, and the
fact that good prices were obtainable in South Africa, pre-
vented anything beyond the experimental stage.

A more pleasing feature of figures given under exports are
those of increasing quantities of fresh or frozen fish sent inland
from the Cape ports. They first appear for the year 1904,
and show a gradual rise from £5,194 in that year to £81,684
in Ig09.

Further statistical information is afforded by the return,
procured by the Cape Government from 1897 to 1904, when
unfortunately, owing to financial depression, they were dis-
continued. Summarised, the total catches for the Colony
alone being given, they are as follows :—

Year. Cwts. Value.
T897 WoL: ai 3% {22 O75 £44,674
16010 game e: Sa oa) Serg622 55,269
ESQQ ~ 24 aie nh: a 99,547 52,624
TGOO MM Ke a a By 90,525 62,197
OOM, Pe; es be ee 90,921 60,744
TOGZ Pa ee: ay or es 92,398 59,058
TOO. (ae os bes xe 90,232 67,985
19045 9x3 Oe a. ie GQ ALE 103,893
Average a ‘i <5.) rOo;007. 63,318

Difficulties were encountered in initiating and carrying
out these records, and the quantities can only be regarded
as approximate. A fairly accurate estimate of the quantity
of fish landed in the Colony may, however, be obtained from
the average for these years, namely, about 100,000 cwts.,
valued at about £63,000.

The Census returns for 1911 afforded the next information
concerning the fish supply. They are given for Cape Town,
East London, Mossel Bay, and Port Elizabeth. The total
amounts to 6,970,000 fish, valued at £89,166. It is unfortunate
that the quantity is not given in weight of fish, but, from
calculations from the Government statistics, it would appear
that there are on an average about 60 Cape fish to a cwt.
Calculated accordingly, the total quantity would be about
116,166 cwts.

5

It may be of interest to note here the return of fish landed
in Natal, which has procured quantities and values since the
year 1908. Summarised, they are as follows :—

Year. Cwts. Value.
MOOG, te be is 26,779 £28,513
TOOGG "a, ae ba SS 23837 24,143
HOMOM 25 ay es 20,961 23,194
TOTS ys i ue ee 22,527 25,426
HOUZ ET ws e he 23,389 26,206
1913 : we Mm # 24,333 26,764
Aver age am ae : 23,637 25,706

It would have been of great interest to have obtained the
quantities of fish landed by trawlers since their arrival in Igor.
An idea of the quantity which it was shown could be procured,
may be obtained from the fact that in 1899 the Preter Faure,
fishing for three months on a purely commercial basis, in order
to demonstrate practically the value of the new fishing Ss
procured 46,817 large fish (Kabeljauws, Stockfish, etc.), 83,32
small fish (Silverfish, Pangas, etc.), and 28,270 pairs of ee.
or nearly 4,000 cwts. in all.

The Customs Department at Cape Town, since July, 1912, has
procured returns of fish caught by the three trawlers, Star of the
South, Richard Irvine, and The Bluff, working from Table Bay.
These returns show that, during the year 1913, the three
vessels landed at Cape Town 47,380 cwts. of fish, including
Soles. If the fish landed by the other five trawlers now at
work be calculated on this basis, the total annual catch of the
regular trawlers now working will be about 125,116 cwts.,
reckoning the catch of one of those at half that of the others,
as it is a small vessel. These figures may be considered as
fairly reliable, as, on the return of the Cape trawler after each
voyage, the amount of the catch is reported to the Customs
Department. The fish procured by the trawler is shipped
directly from the vessel to refrigerating cars and sent up
country, only a small quantity passing through the local
market, so that the catch of the trawlers is practically not
included in the Government returns for 1897-1904, nor in the
Census returns for Ig11, which may, therefore, be taken as the
approximate catches of Cape fishermen as distinguished from
those of trawlers.

The following is a synopsis of the figures (in thousands) of
fish caught in the Cape Province :—

Average catch of Cape fishermen for the years
1897-1904 (from Cape Government statis-
LCS) cA; ae a ave - . 100,000 cwts.

[C.P. 6—’14.]

6)

Catch of Cape fishermen for the year 1g11—
Cape Town, East London, Mossel Bay,

Port Elizabeth (from Census return) .. 116,000 cwts.
Catch of Cape trawlers for the year 1913—
(from Customs return) .. : 35, 1252000) 5;

The above considerations seem to wahoo that the direction
in which any further substantial development of the fishing
industry of the Cape Province may be looked for is in the
opening up of new though distant fishing areas, which have long
been suspected to exist in the Cape seas. There is scope
enough for improvement in the older established fisheries
closer at hand, and this is receiving attention by Government,
chiefly in the construction of new or impioved fishing harbours
and stations. For any rapid and serious advance, however,
attention must be turned to the exploiting of the larger re-
sources of the Cape seas. Certain areas have been explored,
and have yielded the results indicated, but a great deal still
remains to be done. This is indicated in the accompanying
charts (p. 167), which shows the area surveyed on the part of
the coast, where the chief trawling ground was found. The
east and west coasts did not prove so promising as this region
on the south coast, and there still remains here large tracts
to the south and east of it, which are as yet unknown, and on
which further good results will probably be found.

It has been said that enough has now been done on the part
of the Government for the fishing industry in the opening up
of these new fishing areas, and efforts at further progress may
now be relaxed, leaving it to private enterprise to continue
and develop the work. This argument was brought forward
at the very beginning of the work of the Pieter Faure, and
threatened at one time to bring it to a premature close, even
before it bad begun. The apparent reasonableness of this
view has in many other instances proved a serious bar to
progress. The facts of the case are, however, against it, and
it is to be remembered that the object of private enterprise is
to increase private prosperity, there being no desire to jeopar-
dise this by showing the way to other private enterprises.
Trawlers have no more desire to open up new fishing grounds
for the benefit of the community than a diamond company has
to exploit the mineral, in which they are interested, for the
good of the whole.

The continuation of the Marine Biological Survey is also
desirable for reasons other than the discovery of new fishing
grounds. A knowledge of additional facts with regard to the
habits and life history of fish and marine animals generally
is urgently required in connection with purely practical, as

———

V

well as scientific matters. A few examples will illustrate this
better than any general statement. Thus, it has been pro-
posed to prohibit fishing in certain areas, thereby depriving
fishermen of their only means of livelihood, it being alleged
that their methods of fishing destroy the young and “ spawn”
of fish. The most contradictory statements are made by
fishermen as to the facts of the case. The same is alleged
concerning the “disturbance of the fecding ground ” of fish.
Certain small fish, including Crawfish, protected by law, are
alleged to be different species from the larger forms which it is
intended to protect. Again, it has been alleged that at certain
times fish migrate along a definite course, and are
driven off by fishing operations in those areas. The de-
crease, or alleged decrease in the supply of fish is attributed to
certain methods of fishing, which, it is therefore urged, should
be abolished, and not to natural causes, which there is reason
to believe further investigation into the currents, temperature,
etc., of the sea will prove to be the real factors at work. Some
of these difficulties have already been solved by scientific
investigation, but frequently the Government of the country
when appealed to, is put in the position of merely weighing
the unfounded statements of one interested party against those
of another, for lack of such information.

[C.P. 6—’14.]

II—AN ENQUIRY INTO FLUCTUATIONS IN FISH
SUPPLY ON THE SOUTH AFRICAN COAST.

Most of the difficulties and problems which arise in dealing
with fishery matters are in connection with fluctuations or
supposed fluctuations in the supply of fish. Very often there
is considerable doubt as to whether there has been a real
fluctuation or not, and hence the basis of all fishery regulations
is a system of reliable statistics, whereby it may be ascertained
if there has been an increase or decrease, and to what extent.
In cases where conflicting interests are concerned, it is nearly
always possible to get as many conflicting statements on such
points, in the absence of such statistics. The fisherman is also
always inclined to take a pessimistic view of the prospects of
his calling, and his lamentations as to the scarcity of fish are
as frequent as those of the farmer as to the vicissitudes of the
weather ; both are doubtless to be discounted to a large
extent as attributable to the precarious nature of the harvest
of sea and land. Again, there is a natural tendency to look on
the past in a more favourable light than the present, the “ good
old days” that are gone being to a large extent created in the
present.

With all allowances, however, for these considerations there
has been at times an undoubted and marked diminution or even
partial disappearance of fish. In European seas, for instance, the
herring fisheries may at certain times and places prove a com-
plete failure. Sardines may practically disappear, causing
immense loss, and even destitution among the fishing popula-
tion dependent on the Sardine industry. These instances may
be classed in one group and referred to more or less migratory
fish. Another kind of scarcity or disappearance is connected
with the more stationary species of fish, and is not of so sudden
a nature, being rather an increased diminution throughout
a number of years. Such, for instance, is the alleged diminu-
tion of flat fish in the North Sea.

Both of these have been experienced in South Africa. Thus
the Snoek, which about 25 years ago occurred in vast numbers
on the West Coast and was shipped in large quantities to
Mauritius, more or less suddenly fell off in quantity to such an
extent that the export trade in these fish almost ceased, and of re-
cent years there have been numerous complaints of the increased
scarcity of various kinds of fish found more inshore, particu-

9

larly those frequenting the tidal rivers. Unfortunately no con-
tinuous and reliable statistics are available, but there can be
little doubt that this has occurred in the case of the Snoek, and
the balance of evidence at least indicates that it has happened
also in the case of other and more stationary fish.

The procuring of reliable statistics or other evidence of
fluctuation is a primary requisite, but of not less importance,
though less easily procured, is a knowledge of the true cause
of such fluctuation. Very great damage may be, and, in some
cases, probably has been done to the development of the fishing
industry by dealing with the wrong source of the trouble. In
countries such as South Africa, where primitive methods of
fishing are giving place to more modern methods, the latter
are, naturally enough, first condemned by the native fishers as
the cause of the decreased supply. Whether, therefore, the
cause is one which can be removed by legislation, or whether
it lies in some uncontrollable physical or biological phenomena,
it is of the utmost importance to ascertain its true nature as
far as possible.

The object of this enquiry is: (1) to review the various
causes alleged to be responsible for a diminished fish supply
in South Africa, and to endeavour to estimate to what extent
they are valid ; (2) to direct attention to a possible cause of
general and extensive diminution of the fish supply, peculiar
to certain conditions in South African seas.

These alleged causes have been many and varied. They
are as follows :—

1. Running of trains.

2. Firing of guns.

3. Use of dynamite.

4. Increase of shipping.

5. Netting in tidal rivers and lagoons.

6. Sea birds, particularly “ Duikers.”

7. Seals, Porpoises and Sharks.

8. Escape of injurious matter from wrecks.
g. Fresh water in tidal rivers.

10. Use of American purse-net.

11. Trawling.

12. Capture of immature fish.

3. Red water.

14. Obscure causes, such as earthquakes, cold currents, etc.

1. The fishing stations in False Bay (Gordon’s Bay, Somerset
Strand, Muizenberg, Kalk Bay, Fish Hoek and Simon’s Town)
are among the oldest and most important centres of the Fishing

Industry in the Cape Province. Some thirty years ago the
[C.P. 6—’14.]

Io

fishermen in False Bay experienced a falling-off in the supply
of fish, and it was suggested that the vzbration and noise made
by trains on the line, which runs practically on the sea shore
from Muizenberg to Simon’s Town, had the effect of scaring
off the fish. It appears at first sight that the contention is
hardly justifiable, and, indeed, was received with a good deal
of incredubility if not ridicule by the public generally. It
seems not improbable, however, that there may be some truth
in the allegation of the fishermen, with reference at least to
one kind of fish ; this is the Harder or Mullet, which is one of
the most important to fishermen on the stretch of coast line
referred to. Its habits are well known to fishermen, and the
presence of a shoal of these fish can be detected at a distance
of some miles by the man stationed at the look-out, generally
some elevated position on the mountain side. The shoal
usually travel from the Cape Point side of the Bay northwards,
passing Simon’s Town, Fish Hoek, Muizenberg, and from there
along the north side of the bay by Somerset Strand. When on
the move along the shore, it has been observed that the fish
are very readily alarmed, and make off to the open sea, in fact,
as will be noted later, they can be driven off by the splashing
of oars, and it is said that they can even detect the putting
out of the trek boat, if incautiously done. It is not surprising,
therefore, that, as has been observed by the fishermen, a shoal,
for which they are waiting, is driven off by the vibration of a
heavy train, only a few hundred yards distance.

There seems no reason to believe, however, that any permanent
injury is done. It is true that it is just along this shore—
Simon’s Town to Muizenberg—that anglers also state that fish,
such as Galjoen, Hottentot and other such species have, of
recent years, been much scarcer, but, in judging of the value
of this evidence, it is to be remembered that it is this locality
that is chiefly visited by anglers, and the same complaint of
scarcity of fish is heard from anglers at other localities, where
no trains run, as will be seen later on.

2. It is also stated by fishermen that the firing of heavy guns
from forts and warships, particularly at the naval station at
Simon’s Town, has a bad effect on fishing, but this does not
seem to have been substantiated by any very definite evidence,
and in any case is on a footing with the alleged damage done
by train, in so far as it is a purely local occurrence. The
explosion of a shell in the water might be supposed to have the
same effect as dynamiting, but this does not seem to have been
observed.

3. The use of dynamite for the capture of fish is an obvious
cause of very serious destruction of fish life, and is universally

II

condemned. It need not, however, be dealt with in this
enquiry, as it has long ago (in 1890) been prohibited by law,
and there is no reason to believe such a wasteful method of
procuring fish is indulged in to any extent, though now and
again it may be employed in some of the up-country rivers
and pools near mining operations.

_ 4. The fish supply is said to have been affected in nearly all
countries by the increase of shipping, especially of steamers,
at the large ports, and South Africa is not an exception in
this respect. In Table Bay more particularly, where the
increase of shipping has chiefly occurred, the alleged diminution
of fish has been associated with the increased traffic. This,
like the running of trains and firing of guns, is of local occur-
rence, and, if fish are scared away, it is probably only to some
other part of the coast.

5. Differing from these is the allegation that netting, especi-
ally at certain times and places, is responsible for such diminu-
tion. The consideration of this is of more importance than
any of the above, as not only does it occur on a larger scale,
but it can be more or less remedied. Objections to netting in
South Africa were first put forward at Port Elizabeth in
connection with fishing in the Zwartkops River, which opens
into Algoa Bay near that town. The river is tidal for several
miles inland, and is a favourite resort for anglers as well as
netters. Netting was not carried on on an extensive scale,
only one or two fishers catching fish for sale. It was alleged
by the anglers that, in netting operations, quantities of fish
spawn and young were destroyed, that the fish came into the
river to breed, and were unduly disturbed by the netters, and
that as a consequence fish were becoming scarcer in the river.
The netters, on the other hand, stated that their operations
were an actual benefit to the fish supply, as they frequently
caught large sharks, one of which could cause more damage
than all the netters together. They stated, furthermore, that
there was no evidence of the diminution of fish and that the
fish came out and in with every tide. (For further discussion
of this question vide p. 75.)

6. The destruction of fish by sea birds must be enormous.
Malagas, Duikers and Penguins live on fish, and, on the West
coast of South Afiica, where these birds breed without disturb-
ance on the small islands off the coast, they occur in large
numbers. They are protected from their enemies by being
able to resort in the breeding season to these barren islands,
on which no natural enemies, such as jackals or other carnivora
of the mainland, can exist. They are now further protected
by legislation, as they are most valuable guano producers.
The chief offender amongst these birds is the ‘‘ Cormorant,”

[C.P. 6—’14.] €

12

called the ‘‘ Duiker” in South Africa. It is a well-known
enemy of fish everywhere and, in some countries, rewards are
offered for the destruction of these pests of the fishermen.
Unfortunately, in South Africa, it is the best producer of guano,
and thus arises the conflict between the interests of the fisher-
men and the farmers, who obtain from Government this
valuable fertilizer at a rate less than the open market value.
These birds are rigorously protected by law, landing on the
islands being prohibited, especially during the breeding season.
The fishermen seem to have, therefore good cause for their
complaints, as this protection of the chief enemies of fish will
naturally be detrimental to the fishing industry.

That the Duiker is a very expert. fisher was very clearly
demonstrated on one occasion at the Marine Laboratory at
St. James. At times the bird seems to be affected by some
illness, which causes it to seek the shore, and isolated indi-
viduals may be seen perched on some rock where they can be
readily approached. On one occasion a Duiker was observed
so affected that it could be picked up with hardly any attempt
to escape. To discover the nature of its illness if possible, it
was brought into the tank-room. Here it remained quite motion-
less and seemed to be in a dying condition. As it was thought
that it might be revived in its natural element, it was placed in
one of the larger tanks, which contained a number of fish, chiefly
Dasjes, Harders and Sardines. Immediately the bird seemed
to recover, and, to our astonishment, attacked the fish with
the greatest vigour. By means of its webbed feet it was able
to swim at a rapid rate, turning and changing its course with
the greatest facility, apparently by the aid of its wings. The
long neck was evidently of great utility in seizing the fish when
within striking distance. It managed to capture several before
it could be removed, which was done before much damage
could be effected. It may be that such birds are in reality
suffering from hunger. (See observation on Duikers dying off,
p. 13).

The Duikers seem capable of concerted action in their
fishing operations, and I am informed by Mr. Daneel, a member
of the Fishery Board, that he has seen them surrounding a
shoal of fish, rounding them up like a flock of sheep, in which
crowded condition they could be more easily captured. They
certainly seem to endeavour to drive the fish into shallow
water, where they can be more easily secured. Thus at Knysna it
has been observed (Henkel) that the birds form into wide
circles, drive the fish into shallow water, and cause great
damage. This is also stated by the fishermen, and has been
observed on several occasions near the Marine Laboratory at

13

St. James. A typical case, of which the following notes were
taken at the time, may be quoted :—On the 4th August, 1905,
an unusually large number of Harders (Mugil capito), together
with Bamboo-fish (Box salpa), were found in the rock-pools.
Though small Harders are frequently found in such pools,
those that appeared at this time were larger and more numerous
than usual, andthe Bamboo-fish, which are fairly large (about 12
inches), are never found normally in these places. There had
been little or no change of temperature either before or after
the occurrence. A very large number of sea birds, however,
were fishing in crowds close inshore, and it seemed probable
that the fish were driven ashore in their endeavour to escape
from their pursuers. These birds were exclusively the common
Duiker, which, particularly in a strong N.W. wind, as in this
instance, come close inshore, perhaps to find shelter under the
lee of the mountain. On another occasion a number of large
Sardines (Clupea sagax) were found in the rock-pools, where
they never normally occur. Some of the Bamboo-fish and
Sardines were caught and placed in the tank at the Marine
Laboratory. They showed no signs of injury or illness and
lived for many months afterwards in the tanks.

There are, however, certain other considerations which may
have some value in deciding to what an extent this destruction
of fish-life takes place. It has been observed at various times
by those in charge of the guano islands that there has been an
unaccountable mortality amongst sea birds. Some time ago
I was fortunate enough to have the opportunity of observing
such an occurrence on ‘‘ Seal Island,’ one of the islands
situated off the coast of German S.W. Africa. I was informed
by Mr. Muller, British Consul, stationed at Luderitzbucht,
that the Duikers were dying off in large numbers on this island,
and we visited it with the purpose of ascertaining the cause
of such an occurrence. In the crevices of the rocks were
numbers of dead birds, chiefly young, and here and there were
others in a dying condition. The bodies of both dead and
dying were in an emaciated condition, but there was no
evidence of any disease. At a later date I was informed by
Mr. Muller that it had been found that the cause of the mor-
tality was the great scarcity of fish, which was known to have
occurred at this time. It is not unlikely that similar occur-
rences observed on other islands on the West coast are due to
this cause. While the scarcity of fish may not have been due
to the excessive increase of these sea birds, it is obvious that
such an increase, which could bring about a marked decrease
of fish, would react in such a way as to bring the number of

sea birds back to their normal numbers. In other words, the
[C.P. 6—’14.]

14

increase of sea birds cannot by any system of protection
exceed by a certain proportion the number of fish in the sea.
We will adduce evidence later on to show that the scarcity
of fish in this case was probably not due to the increase of the
sea birds, but the occurrence seems to indicate that scarcity
of fish would be as fatal to the existence of the sea birds as to
the fishing industry and would result in their own destruction.

The following statement on the subject from Captain
Jackson, late Superintendent of the Guano Islands, may be ot
interest :—‘‘ Mortality among fish, birds and seals occurs at
certain periods on these coasts, but it is difficult to say in many
instances what is the cause. Amongst birds, penguins appear
to be more prone to disease than any other kind. We have
had considerable mortality among these birds from time to
time, the last of which occurred between two and three years
ago (1902-1903), when the penguins came out of the water and
dropped dead in large numbers.”

7. The excessive increase of Seals is another alleged cause
of a diminishing fish supply, and fishermen complain of this,
even more than of the protection and increase of sea birds.
Like the guano-producing sea birds, the seals are strictly
protected by Government. A few years ago, when the seals
had been protected for a number of years for a “‘ knock down,”
they had increased to enormous proportions and, even yet,
with a modified protection, they are very abundant (some
zealous, but ill-informed, people in England, who advocate
the protection of wild animals, state that the Cape seal is
nearly extinct). Under this system of protection, these in-
telligent animals become so bold as to avail themselves of the
fishing operations of the fishermen for a supply of fish. They
are especially troublesome at the Snoek season. Snoek are
powerful and rapid swimmers, and are probably not easily
captured by the unaided effort of the seal. When caught on
the fishing line, however, they are more or less hampered, and
the seals soon learn to know this and avail themselves of the
opportunity to seize and devour them. The fishermen were
prohibited by law from killing the seal, and the only way to
get rid of it legally was to come alongside of another boat, to
which it might then transfer its attention. Frequently
the fishermen had to come home in despair of getting rid of
the unwelcome company.

At Seal Island, in Mossel Bay, the fishermen state that the
fish is so scarce in the vicinity of this seal-frequented rock that
it is useless to attempt any fishing in its neighbourhood.

As in the case of sea birds, it is doubtful if increase in the
number of seals would be adequate to account for any grave

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15

diminution in the fish supply, as these animals, even more than
the fishermen are dependent for their livelihood on an adequate
supply of fish.

Porpoises on the east coast cause considerable damage to
the fish supply, and sharks everywhere do the same. Por-
poises are troublesome, particularly at Durban, and it has been
found that if a few are shot and wounded they make for the
open sea, taking all the others with them and there is no more
trouble for some days.

8. The escape of zmjurious matter from wrecks is known to
have caused more or less extensive destruction of fish. The
best example of this is an occurrence which took place at
Knysna. The Knysna harbour, or lagoon, is a large sheet of
water, much smaller than Saldanha Bay, but, like it, shut off
from the sea except for a comparatively narrow opening. On
one occasion a ship, containing creosote for the sleeper factory
there, was wrecked, and the oily substance escaped, spreading
out on the surface of the lagoon. The effect was very marked,
nearly all the living animals in the water being killed off.

g. An undoubted cause of the destruction of fish is the
presence of fresh water in tidal rivers and lagoons. For in-
stance, in October, 1904, a sudden and great fall of rain oc-
curred after a period of drought in the Eastern Province and
the whole of the sea water in the Zwartkops River, from the
ebb and flow to the mouth (a distance of about six miles) was
driven out to sea. After the subsidence of the water, many
dead sea fish were found, and a large number of Cuttlefish,
which live in the grassy salt-water pools of the river. Such an
occurrence is said to be not uncommon in this region, and has
been even more marked in the case of great floods in the other
rivers of the east coast. At Knysna the fishermen expect an
influx of sea fish after such an occurrence as Kabeljauw and
other fish come in to devour the dead Cuttlefish. Cases of
destruction of sea fish by fresh water are not unknown in other
parts of the world.

A curious method of stating the same fact is the apparently
anomalous allegation that the decrease of fish in South Africa
is due to the increase of jackals, and that in the following way.
Increase in the number of jackals necessitates the protection
of sheep in a kraal during the night. The constant passing of
the sheep to and from the kraal causes the gradual formation
of more or less well-trodden paths ; by these paths the surface
water flows off more quickly, deepening them, so that deep
sluits are ultimately formed ; by these, the water, instead of
soaking down into the surface of the ground, flows away

quickly into the rivers, which are thus, in heavy rains, flooded
[C.P. 6—’14.]

16

with fresh water, driving out the estuarine sea water and
killing off the fish. The argument reminds one of the more
familiar story of old maids and clover crops: Increase of old
maids means increase of cats, which brings about decrease of
mice ; decrease of mice means increase of bees, on which they
feed, and increased number of bees ensures better fertilisation
of the clover plant.

Such great floods, however, are not very frequent occur-
rences, and cannot be the cause of any great diminution in the
fish supply generally.

10. Some 25 years ago an American schooner, the Alice,
visited the Cape especially equipped with Purse-seine nets
for the capture chiefly of Mackerel, for which there was a great
demand in America. The nets proved very effective, not only
Mackerel but many kinds of fish being caught in very large
numbers. As Mackerel only were wanted, the other fish were
practically given away. The catching of such numbers of
fish, by means of this kind of net, which was entirely new to
the native fishermen, aroused suspicion that the method
adopted was injurious to the fishing industry, and the fisher-
men made representations to the Government that the fish
supply was being seriously affected. There being no inde-
pendent evidence available that the fish supply was not
diminishing, nor that the operation of the American nets were
not the cause of the alleged diminution, a law was passed in
18909 (repealed in 1892) restricting the size of nets in such a
way as to render it impossible to use the new net.

11. The development of the trawling industry was at one
time jeopardised by allegations that diminution of the fish
supply had followed the introduction of this method
of fishing. As a result of the survey of the Government
trawler the Pieter Faure large areas were found suitable
for trawling. At the outset of this experiment the
results did not seem promising, and no opposition was
aroused. One native fisherman, indeed, undertook to
“eat all the fish the Petey Faure could catch.” When,
however, the Government trawler began to land fish in large
quantities, objections cropped up on various sides to such a
method of fishing. The supply of fish, it was stated, was
falling off as a result of the trawling, and serious damage was
being done to the ‘‘ spawn ”’ of the fish, which lay on the sea
bottom, over which the trawl net was dragged. Representa-
tions were made to Parliament, and so serious did the matter
seem that a Select Committee was appointed to enquire into
the allegations. Fortunately a system of fishery statistics
had been instituted, and investigations into the spawning

17

habits of the fish had been carried out at the Government
Marine Laboratory. On reference to the statistics, no diminu-
tion in the supply was observed, and the work at the Marine
Station clearly showed that the fish, whose spawn was said to
be destroyed, had eggs and larve, which floated at the surface
of the sea. The decision of the Committee was that the
allegations were not substantiated, and they recommended
the continuation of the exploratory work.

12 The continued capture of immature sea fish has been
suspected to be the possible cause of diminution of the supply
in South Africa as in other parts of the world, and about 20
years ago the mesh of the nets was regulated, being fixed as a
minimum of 14 inches measured diagonally. This regulation
had in view chiefly the protection of the Harder (Mullet)
caught by means of seine nets. From recent investigation it
would appear that this mesh is still too small to allow the
escape of the immature fish. The capture of small fish by lines
as well as by net is also suspected to be a source of danger to
the fish supply. The matter is dealt with more fully in another
part of this report (vzde p. 75).

13. Red water is a phenomenon observed not infrequently
in South African seas, It consists of masses of red-coloured
water sometimes a mile or two in extent, at other times
occurring only in small patches. In False Bay it may be seen,
usually several times during the summer months, and presents
a very remarkable appearance, being frequently of an almost
blood-red colour. It consists of multitudes of Noctiluca,
normally present in sea water nearly everywhere. At certain
times, however, they increase enormously in numbers, when
they can be seen to consist of the minute egg-like bodies, which
in mass present the conspicuous red colour referred to. Such
crowding together of these minute organisms appears to pollute
the water, for when examined microscopically most were found
to be dead. They are believed by some fishermen to be spawn
of fish (vide p. 124), and have been described as “little round
things like eggs, and they smell very nasty, like rotten pump-
kin.” (Vide report of Select Committee on the Fishing Industry
1898.) It has been observed that fish seem to avoid the red
water, and fishermen do not care to fish in its vicinity. It is
said that Mullet caught in it, decay very quickly, becoming
quite decomposed if left ungutted overnight. One or two
instances are known in which fish and other marine animals
have been killed apparently by such polluting of the water. I
am indebted to an old resident in Saldanha Bay for some
particulars of such an occurrence at that place. He stated

that on one occasion, the only one in his experience, about the
[C.P. 6—’14.]

18

year 1907, the bay, which is almost land-locked, became filled
with red water, known locally as “‘ flower water.” At the time
there had been a north-west wind for some days previously.
The fish in the bay were seen floating belly upwards in a
disabled condition. Some of them were cast on shore in
quantities at the end of the bay, in such numbers that they
were “‘ taken away in cartloads.”” Even the shell-fish, such as
Mussels (Donax serra probably), Klip-Koes (Haliotis) were
killed off in large numbers, apparently on account of the pre-
sence of large quantities of decaying organic matter.

Mr. McLachlan, at Stumpnose Bay, an open bay some dis-
tance to the north of Saldanha Bay, writing on 23rd February,
1904, supplied the following information: ‘“‘ About 35 years
ago I saw a boat loaded with Geelbek fish landed here by one,
Ian Solomon and crew, which they picked up at sea in the bay.
The fish were found swimming, head above water, apparently
in a stupefied condition. They filled their boat. These fish
were found in dark red water.”

Captain Jackson, writing 15th March, 1905, states that
“about I5 or 20 years ago, the water of Table Bay, after dark-
ness had set in, appeared like a sea of phosphorus. Many
persons were taken ill, and I believe some died after eating
fish, especially shell fish. I myself saw several baboons lying
dead on the beach near Simon’s Town with clam shells in their
paws.” The occurrence of such luminous water was doubtless
due to the presence of large numbers of Nocteluca to which
the “ phosphorescence ” of the sea is largely due. The last
observation is, however, probably quite apart from the occur-
rence of “phosphorus” in Table Bay. The baboons may
have been poisoned by eating the ‘“‘ white mussel”? (Donax
serra), which at certain seasons appears to be poisonous.

Another somewhat analogous occurrence is frequently
observed on the West coast. This is the presence of what is
known among the fishermen there as “ dark water.” On one
or two occasions in the survey work of the Preter Faure such
water was observed, and proved on examination to contain
diatoms in such number as to give a dark tinge to the sea, and
this may be the explanation of the fishermen’s “‘dark water.”
Unlike the “red water,” it is not avoided by fish and, when
it occurs the seine-net fishermen immediately put out their
nets with confidence that they have a good chance of procuring
a catch. At other times they seldom do so without some
visible signs of the fish, though they occasionally make such
‘blind treks ” at night when fish are scarce. The presence of
these minute forms of vegetable life in the open seas, as is
well known. tends to keep the water pure and favourable for

19

animal Jife, on account of the oxygen which is given off ; they
are indeed probably the basis of the food supply for fish and all
other animals in the ocean. Their presence in quantity,
therefore would have the effect of attracting the fish, especially
such fish as Mullet and Sardine, which again would be followed
by the larger fish, which prey upon them.

It would seem, however, that in some circumstances, the
presence of large quantities of vegetable matter in the sea
may lead to organic decay and the suffocation of fish, as in
the case of “red water.” The following incident for which
I am indebted to Mr. M’Lachlan, a resident of many years’
experience in the fishing industry at Stumpnose Bay, seems to
bear on this point. After narrating the case in which fish
were found in “‘ red water,” he continues: ‘“‘ At another time
I saw hundreds of large Steenbras fish, floating with their heads
above water in a similar manner. The fishermen landed lots
of them. I went afloat with a small boat, and to my surprise
saw numerous Klip-fish and Hottentot-fish floating about in a
stupefied condition. At the same time our fishermen picked
up large quantities of Galjoen-fish on the.beach at Schell Bay.
In this instance, the water where the fish were found looked
a thick greenish colour, with small particles of matter resem-
bling a kind of mica. The night previous there had
been a thunderstorm. My opinion was that very probably a
thunderbolt had burst into the sea during the night, thus
causing the fish to be stunned.”

The “thick greenish water with small particles of matter
resembling a kind of mica” is an accurate enough descrip-
tion of the appearance presented by the masses of diatoms in
the sea, found in the survey of the Pieter Faure on the west
coast on several occasions, and it looks as if the fish found were
in a state of suffocation.

That masses of diatoms do decay in such a manner on the
West coast willappear very probable from the incident related
as occurring at Walfish Bay.

14. Under this last heading are included a number of very
striking cases of destruction of fish attributed often to sub-
marine disturbances, cold currents, etc. They seem to indicate
a possible explanation of cases of general decrease in the fish
supply in South Africa and are dealt with in detail. The most
striking instances of this are recorded from the west coast, in
and near Walfish Bay. The first case on record is an occurrence
which took place at Swakopmund, a comparatively exposed
seaport in German territory, a little to the north of the
excellent and sheltered harbour of Walfish Bay. The following

[C.P. 6—’14.]

20

is a translation of parts of a letter narrating the occurrences.
It was from Mr. and Mrs. Koch to Mr. Bam, and was kindly
handed to me by Prof. Schwartz. ‘In the year 1880, a few
months before the flood (apparently from the river flowing
into the bay), a species of large mussel, of the size and shape of
a Caffir bean, white, blue grey and yellow in colour, was cast
up alive on the beach. These Mussels had not been seen before
nor were they ever found subsequently. On the evening of the
20th December, 1880, some native fishermen procured eels,
which were unknown. On the following morning these were
again found, and other fish were seen, the natives, however,
fearing to make use of them on account of the peculiar colour
of the water. At nine o’clock of the same day, it being spring
tide, Mrs. Koch, along with the wife of Mr. Bauman, the
missionary, visited the beach and saw hundreds of living and
struggling (‘‘ zappelende ’’) fish cast up on the sand by each
wave. They were of all sizes and kinds, and included large
Dog-fish. This continued for three days ; the fish lay as far up
as the sand dunes, a half to three quarters of an hour’s walk
behind the houses (there is a wide stretch of level ground,
occasionally inundated by high tide, between the houses at
Walfish Bay and the sand dunes, situated some distance
further inland), and were heaped to a height of one or two feet.
On Christmas eve it was almost impossible to proceed to the
church on account of the odour, and it was scarcely possible
to walk about without stepping on the dead fish, which lay
between the houses close up to the doors. The Lewis Alfred
was in the bay at the time, but the water was so blood-red
(“ bliitig’?) *and smelt so badly that she left for Sandwich
Harbour, where fewer fish had been cast up. The stench
became so great that it would undoubtedly have caused illness
had it not been for the South-west wind, which springs up
almost every afternoon. It was useless to think of attempting
to bury those millions of fish. Some English and Swedes
attempted this in the case of the larger fish, but the fish,
specially Harders, continued to be cast up anew. Everything
of a white colour became black, even the deck houses of the
Lewis Alfred, which had returned after three weeks to dis-
charge her cargo. The odour of the dead fish had been felt on
board at Usapf. After a few months the skeletons on the shore
in the neighbourhood of the lagoon formed a pile five to six
feet in height. Then began a plague of flies. It was only
possible to drink a cup of coffee by keeping the hand in constant

* Mr. Bam remarks with reference to the colour of the water: ‘‘ When I saw
it it was inky, and must have been much darker in hue {previous to my visit,
which was several months after the occurrence.’

21

movement ; they flew even into the cooking pots and, at mid-
day dinner, a spoonful of sugar was placed before each plate
to draw them off. We felt ill the whole day on account of the
smell, and it is surprising that it could have been endured for
six months. It was only in September that it became bearable.

“Shortly after Christmas of 1887 the second flood came,
and about the beginning of 1883 the third. In 1887 the fish
lay 20 to 30 minutes’ walk behind the houses as far as the
spring tides usually rise, and in 1883 only to just behind the
houses.”’

Mr. Koch adds to his wife’s narrative that no explanation
of this occurrence was found till a few months previous to his
time of writing (23rd September, 1900), when there appeared,
near Pelican Point, a small island, about nine feet above the
surface of the water. He describes it as a shapeless (“ un-
fertige ”’) mass smelling strongly of sulphuretted hydrogen.
There was at the time, he adds, a specially strong outburst of
gas which killed off the fish far round about. The occurrence
referred to is described in some detail by Mr. Waldron (Tr.
Pyal: Soc. 'S. ‘Africa, vol sxi:; p::185):

Another instance is recorded from Table Bay by a writer
in the Cape Illustrated Monthly in an article entitled “ Fifty
Years’ Recollections of the Cape Colony.” He states that
“somewhere in the year 1837 millions of fish—Snoek, Mackerel,
Stockfish and other kinds commonly found in Table Bay—
were, Owing, it was at the time believed, to the effects of a
submarine earthquake, driven into the Bay, and, making for
the shore, cast themselves upon the beach, where they lay
inches deep all along the shore. This casting up of the terrified
and dying fish continued for about three days, and the stench
arising from the decaying mass was terrible. I was told that
some of the poor blacks ate of the dead fish, and many died
with excruciating agonies therefrom.

‘“‘T was told at the time that at this period large numbers of
whales died from some unknown cause, and were cast ashore
all round the Cape Point coast, and that the carcases were no
good for the purpose of boiling for oil extraction. Perhaps
the wholesale casting up of dead whales may account for the
great number of whale bones to be seen so frequently on the
littoral of Table and False Bays, used as gate posts, fences or
beacons. I throw out this suggestion for the consideration
of the curious in such matters.”

On the 16th December, 1886, a case of mortality amongst
sea fish occurred at Cape Receife. A number were observed by
the lighthouse-keeper in the water in a “‘ sick ” condition. They
seemed helpless and many of them were washed ashore. This

[C.P. 6—’14.]

22

continued day after day for about a week, and various persons,
hearing of the occurrence, came from Port Elizabeth to procure
the fish for food. Nothing particularly striking as to the state
of the weather or sea was observed at the time. The occurrence
took place in 1886 and, speaking from memory (in 1904), the
lighthouse-keeper states that the kind of fish affected were
Kaapenaars (Dentex argyrozona), Dik-bekjes (Pagrus laniarius),
a shark of about ten feet in length and, what struck him most,
a large number of Papagaai-fish (Hoplegnathus conwayt).

On further enquiry at Port Elizabeth, confirmation of the
occurrence was procured, and the lighthouse-keeper then
stationed at Cape Receife was good enough to furnish the
following entry from the log kept there: “‘ 16th December,
1886. Large quantity of fish and sharks washed up on the
beach, mostly alive when washed up, but soon die. The fish
are of various kinds, but mostly Barbers and a fish with a
peculiar beak like a parrot.” The two fish specially mentioned
are shallow-water forms, viz., Hoplegnathus and Galeichthys.
Dentex argyrozona is not a shallow-water form, but as it is
mentioned only from memory and after an interval of 18 years,
there may have been an error here.

Another case is recorded from East London. On the 26th
September, 1903, a paragraph appeared in the Peninsula
Herald stating that ‘“‘ tons upon tons of dead fish have lately
been cast up upon the East London beach, varying in weight
from 3 to 60 lbs. each. The coast was strewn with them from
Christmas Vale to the Keiskama Mouth.”

Enquiries were at once sent to fishery offices, temperature
observers and others who might be in a position to confirm or
augment this report.

Mr. Smith, Secretary of the Harbour Board, Durban, wrote :
“We heard of the strange occurrence to which you refer, but
as far as I am able to learn (and I have caused special enquiries
to be made), nothing of a like nature has been seen on our
coast. We have occasionally large numbers of Shad and
Salmon thrown up, but that is the work of the porpoises and
instead of being dead and limp and starved, they are very
much alive and make an acceptable addition to the fishmonger’s
slab.” The “Shad” of Durban is the “ Elft ” of Cape: Town
(Temnodon saltator) and the ‘Salmon ”’ is the “‘ Geelbek ”’ of
Cape Town (Otolithus aequidens).

Mr. L. A. Munn, Harbour Master at East London, reported :
‘““The lowest surface temperatures recorded here during Sep-
tember were on the roth and 11th respectively 50° and 51°;
at about these dates a number of fish were noticed (by the men
in fishing boats outside) dazedly swimming about at the sur-

23

face ; these were easily caught by hand. One such instance
occurred in the river (Nahoon), when a Kafir boy simply took
the fish out of the river from off the bank. Upon cleaning
it the intestines were found quite empty. It was, however,
cooked and eaten by a family near by. Unfortunately, I have
not any reliable information as to the species of fish seen on
the beach, mostly to the westward of Cove Rock, simply a
general statement saying ‘all sorts of fish.? On one or two
occasions during the past 25 years quantities of fish have
been seen on the beach as on the present occasion, and local
fishermen are of the opinion that they have perished from
want of food and abnormally low temperature of water. Such
fish when examined have been invariably found to have empty
stomachs. I do not think that the fish thrown away by the
trawlers, as some allege, would account for such large quan-
tities as those on the beach, and when similar occurrences
took place earlier in the 25 years period there were no trawlers.”
Mr. Wood, of East London, took some pains to ascertain
the facts of the case. He writes: “I have met a Keiskama
North resident, who saw the fish on the beach—those which
were those probably alluded to in the newspaper paragraph you
quote. As well as I can gather, the report first appeared in
the Dazly Despatch here, and came from a correspondent out
Keiskama way. I am told it did not state fish had been cast
up on the East London beach, and as far as I have learned
nothing of the kind was noticed here. According to my
Keiskama informant, sometime about the middle of September,
hearing from a Kafir that there was a lot of fish lying about the
beach, he took a few sacks and set out to collect the gifts the
gods had sent. He found them by the score, a few hundreds
altogether upon the mile or so of beach and, with the exception
of a few here and there, they were more or less alive. Upon
the sand washed by the surf they were lying about in a limp
exhausted sort of condition, whilst in the rock pools they
moved about as if dazed. There had been a heavy swell on
for some days, but the water was warm. His young brother,
who did the wading, said that it was quite nice and warm.
This condition would correspond with what is stated in en-
closed letter from one of the skippers of our local trawlers.
The fish were chiefly Romans, Eels, Cape Salmon, Kabeljaauw,
Dogfish, Ostracion, Blasops and a compressed fish of chaetodon
outline, the latter being most numerous. He went back to
get his sacks refilled, but the tide had come up in the interval
and they were never seen again. Soles were not observed.”
The enclosed letter referred to is as follows : ‘‘ On September
8th, 9th, roth and 11th, when trawling 18 miles east of East
[(C.P. 6—’14.]

24

London the water was quite warm to the hands ; the net and
boards were also warm to the touch. My crew drew my
attention to it. The depth of the water was 24 to 32 fathoms.
I may mention that the fishing on these dates was very poor.”

The Civil Commissioner at East London obtained reports
from Field Cornets Willows and Holdstock. Mr. Willows
reports : ‘“‘ The report in the Peninsula Herald is correct ; the
sea, in which the dead and living fish were found in abundance,
also extended east of Christmas Vale to the mouth of the
Igoda River. Several days prior to the washing up of the fish
strong south-east winds prevailed, and the general opinion is
that they were the direct cause. However, this is an open
question, owing mainly to the fact that some of the varieties
washed up are known as “ deep sea fish,” and, therefore, not
likely to be incapacitated by rough seas and, in addition, I
noticed several eels. For several days live fish were caught
in pools at low water, after the winds had abated, and the
condition of the sea was fairly smooth. This gave rise to the
supposition on my part that there was a possibility ot the fish
and eels having eaten a variety of sea weed, that at this
particular time had a paralysing effect, thus causing them to
lose control and be washed up by the force of the waves. The
fish were eaten by natives and others without any ill effects
About two and a-half years ago a similar occurence took place
along the beach in the vicinity of the Igulu River mouth.”

Mr. Holdstock reports : ‘‘ The fish were alive when washed
up on the beach, as some were caught alive in shallow water.
My opinion is that the fish were blinded with sand, which had
been dispatched (?) off the harbour at East London, as there
had been a heavy South-east wind blowing for four days, and
these fish came ashore on the last day of the gale. I have not
heard of any ashore to the east of East London.”

Mr. H. H. van Breda, of Struis Bay, Bredasdorp, reported
that after making enquiries he found that no such occurrence
had been observed near Struis Bay within the last few months.

Mr. Regnart, of Jeffrey’s Bay, writes : “‘ Up to the present
(23rd October, 1903) there have been no signs of fish being
dead or paralysed on this coast. For the last three months a
very strong current has been running to the west; fish are
plentiful, but will not feed. I believe I notified to your office
in December last of a number of Kantonkel being washed out,
some dead and others numbed with the cold. The water had
been so cold for some days previously that it was impossible
to bathe. On the 23rd most of the fish were washed ashore ;
they were of large size, but only of the one kind. I go myself
occasionally with the boats and should have noticed and
reported anything exceptional.”

25

Mr. William Jones, acting Port Officer at Plettenberg Bay,
writes : “‘ After diligent enquiry and search along the sea coast
of the bay I have come to the conclusion that the mortality
among the fish has not reached this bay. May not the marine
eruption reported for the week ended 26th ultimo have some
connection with the death of so many fish. Whilst the up-
heaval of the sea lasted it was awfully grand and those looking
at it were relieved when it subsided as a boiling crater.” The
note referred to in the “remarks column” of the fishery
returns is as follows :—‘“‘ On the 23rd September, 1903, about
three miles S.S.E. of Seal Cape across the bay towards Salt
River, an upheaval of great height was seen about 4.30 p.m.
It subsided exactly in the same place, showing great commo-
tion in the sea, similar to volcanic eruption.”

Mr. Donald Ben at Knysna Heads reported that ‘“ there
were a few dead fish washed up on the beach in the early part
of last month (September, 1903), but not sufficient to send a
report on. The names of the fish washed up were Pruns-
kopp of 60 to 80 lbs ; Dageraad, 3 to 10 lbs. ; Hottentot, 2 to
3 lbs. I have known these kinds of fish to die more or less
every year from cold water, which is caused by a cold southerly
current setting inshore with south-east winds. This cold
current has no effect on deep-sea fish, only on rock fish.”

Mr. McNaughton, Conservator of Forests, Knysna, reports :
“ It is no uncommon occurrence for fish to be washed up along
the coast in an apparently dead condition. To a greater or
lesser extent it happens annually. To my knowledge it has
occurred periodically for the last fourteen years . iy
The fish if uninjured on the rocks are apparently quite healthy
and recover their vitality in warm sheltered pools. The usual
time of the year for the occurrence is late autumn (February-
March) after heavy south-east gales. Some years ago the
mortality was excessive, and this was accounted for by the fact
that the south-east gales may have driven an iceberg to within
a comparatively short distance from these shores, with the
result that the water temperature was abnormal. The area
affected, to my knowledge, is from Cape St. Francis to Cape
St. Blaize.”

At Mossel Bay on the 20th September, 1903, the captain of
the trawler Undine reported to Mr. Wadner, manager of the
fishing company there, that “last week the bottom of the sea
was covered with dead and rotten fish, and at times the net
was quite full of these. When the bag was opened and the fish
fell on deck, the stench was abominable, and the skipper and

the men handling the net felt so sick that they had to throw up
[C.P. 6—’14.]

26

their food. In some instances only some of the big fish were
found in the net. Dead fish are also floating about in the sea
and the bay.”

Mr. Wadner adds that “the cause of this extraordinary
occurrence is difficult to tell. A cold mist has enveloped the
bay and extended far out to sea on several occasions lately. I
am told that that indicates icebergs not far away, and I should
not wonder if a cold current originating from these has killed
off a number of fish and driven the remainder to find warmer
waters. Strange enough, the soles do not seem to suffer, but
it may be that the current has swept above them.”

Mr. McFarlane, at Hermanus, reported that “no dead fish
have ever been cast up on our shores, nor have we seen dead
fish floating about here at any time.”

Mr. Avenell, of Somerset Strand, reported that no such
occurrence was known at that place.

No fish was reported to have been cast up on the beach
either at False Bay or Table Bay at this time.

Mr. Anderson, at Hoetjes Bay, writes : ““ No dead fish were
cast up on our shore during September, but such a thing has
happened previously, and I think the cause must have been at
that time phosphorus water, a red thick water.” (This refers
apparently to the occurrence already described on page 18.)

The Fishery Officer at Steenberg’s Cove states that “no
dead fish were cast up on this part of the coast during September
nor has there been since” (18th February, 1904).

The Fishery Officer at Paternoster also states that nothing
was known of such an occurrence, and adds “ this is a thing
quite new tous. Long ago some few hundred Harders (Mullet)
washed up on our beach ; since then nothing of the kind has
occurred.”

Mr. M’Lachlan, at Stumpnose Bay, also states (23rd Febru-
ary, 1914) that nothing of the kind occurred there lately.
After giving the two instances already mentioned he proceeds
to state :—‘“‘ Another instance was brought to my notice on
the 20th March, 1gor, by the local fishermen. While out
snoeking about four miles off Schell Bay reef, they came across
tons of dead Sardines floating in the sea, and hundreds of dead
Sea Duikers were seen floating about at the same time. There
were two currents that met together extending north and
south. On the western side the water was blue, and on the
eastern side the water was of a thick muddy colour, in which
the dead Sardines were drifting, and my opinion is that when
the sea water at some places becomes in such a morbid state,

ih

it will cause the above results to all fish at the time confined to
such waters.”

Mr. H. A. Stigling, of Lambert’s Bay, reported that “no
dead fish of any description has been washed up here.”

With regard to the occurrence at Knysna, I had recently
(February, 1914) an opportunity of witnessing a phenomenon
such as is described above as a normal yearly occurrence at this
place. On the morning of the 7th, I was informed by Mr.
Henkel that, while fishing the previous night, he noticed when
renewing his bait that it felt very cold, and that the water had
turned suddenly cold. His companions also noticed the strik-
ing fact. The fish ceased to bite, and only one Dogfish was
caught subsequently. In the morning they were informed that
a large fish (a “ Blauer ’—Chrysophrys sp.) had been found
dead on the beach, and on further search a large Hottentot
(Cantharus blochit) was discovered. These fish were respec-
tively about 3 feet and 14 feet in length. In the rock pools
several Streepjes (Box salpa) were found dead. A series of
temperature observations were taken on the same morning
from near the village of Knysna to the “heads,” where the
lagoon opens by a somewhat narrow channel to the sea. The
series was begun at the head of a side channel, the temperature
of the air being 86°F. In this channel the temperature varied
from 76 -2° to 75° as follows : 76 -2°, 76°, 75 8°, 75 -5°, 75°, 75°,
755°, 75°5°, 75°. On entering the main channel little differ-
ence was at first observed, the temperature being as follows :
74°, 70 °5°, 69°, 66°, 69°. At this point it was then observed
that the lagoon was occupied with bodies of water of strikingly
different appearance, and sharply marked off from each other.
One was of dark blue, the other of slightly pale muddy, greenish
colour. The fisherman in charge of the boat said that the
former was warm water and the latter was cold, and was quite
familiar with the condition. This was found to be the case.
The boat was moved to the dividing line and the blue water
was found to be 72°, while a few feet away the green water was
63 -5°, a difference of 85°. This mixed water was then passed
and thereafter, up to the sea, it was a constant temperature
of 60° in the three observations taken at intervals of about
half a mile. A number of seagulls were observed at one place
and the fishermen said we would probably find some dead or
dying fish here. One was at last seen floating belly upwards
in the water and moving its fins slowly as if in astupefied condi-
tion. On being touched it struggled and dived into the water
only, however, to come up again shortly. The return journey
was made by the main channel sometime after the tide had
turned, setting in strongly into the lagoon, and the following

[(C.P. 6—’14.] D

; 28
temperatures were observed from the Heads to the jetty at
konystna<6072°,.60--2°; 00r2*.bo-2° 61 Gr 2 On e127 bine
On; Gn Or,

For some four or five days previous to the occurrence there
was a fairly strong south-east wind and, on the day immediately
preceding (Friday), it blew very strongly. On the day suc-
ceeding the above observation a north-west wind sprang up,
and it was then found that the water in the lagoon (at high
tide) was quite normal (72°), though at sea beyond the Heads
the temperature was still 60°. From the signal-station at the
Heads the cold water (recognised by its colour) could be seen,
stretching along the shore in both directions as far as the eye
could reach, while, at about a distance of two or three miles
out to sea, the warm water (blue) could be seen with the same
sharp line of distinction between them as observed in the lagoon.
The signalman had noted the occurrence of the cold water and,
on visiting the beach on Saturday, had observed “ thousands
of dead fish.” On Sunday I could find only a few (about half-
a-dozen) of these, the rest having been washed out by the tide,
or eaten by sea-birds. The signalman further stated that
such occurrences were frequent in January and February, and
the dead fish could easily be seen at sea from his look-out, and
that the cold water appeared as a muddy-looking band, stretch-
ing along the shore, as in the present instance. It appeared
generally after a continuous or strong south-east wind, which
he states blows along the shore, but is more associated with
the direction of the inshore current ; this, he says, is usually
from west to east, but, with cold water, it is reversed and flows
to the west. This westerly current is usually associated with
south-east winds, but not always, as he has observed occasion-
ally a strong westerly current of cold water with no accom-
panying south-east wind. This easterly current is always
warm.

The species of fish affected by this cold current is of signifi-
cance in this enquiry being mostly shore-frequenting forms,
such as Poeskop, Hottentot, Roman, Dasje, Dageraad, Michael
or Red Stumpnose, and the Kraai-bek (Chrysophrys sp.,
Cantharus blochit, Chrysophrys cristiceps, Sargus capensis,
Chrysophrys gibbiceps, Hoplegnathus conway). The species not
affected include Kabeljaauw, Bontrok, Seventy-four (here
called silver fish), Galjoen, Harder, etc. (Sctaena hololepidota,
Sargus cervinus, Dentex undulatus, Dipterodon capensis,
Mugil spp.)

Whatever the origin of the cold water may be, it
apparently comes up from the lower or deeper regions of
the sea, and would thus cut off the rock and shore-frequenting

—

29

forms, which are mostly bottom feeders, while the surface-
frequenting forms would be able to resort to the warmer
surface water. The presence of patches of warm (blue) water
in the river is apparently due to some of this normal sea water
being cut off by the upwelling of the colder water along the
shore. It has been observed further that, to escape the cold
water, the shore forms come crowding into the lagoon, and seek
out the warmer and shallow waters. That this is of frequent
occurrence is shown by the fact that the fishermen find the
best catches in these places during the presence of the cold
water. The continuance of the cold inset would, of course,
thus lead to a still greater mortality in the lagoon and, a few
years ago, many fish were washed ashore dead and heaped
up in great numbers on the banks of the lagoon.

The following notes on a case of extensive destruction of
fish at the ‘“ Kommetije,” a small basin to the south of Hout
Bay, were taken at the time of the occurrence. ‘“ On Thurs-
day, 3rd May, 1905, a telegram was sent from Mr. Runciman,
M.L.A., Simon’s Town, stating that great quantities of fish
were being found on the beach between Hout Bay and Slang-
kop. One of the fish found, a large Galjoen (Dipterodon
capensis), was forwarded at the same time. It showed no signs
of disease and was in excellent condition. On visiting the locality,
undoubted evidence was found that there had been extensive
mortality among the fish. The report of the occurrence had
reached neighbouring farms and villages, and the beach was
being diligently searched by coloured people for further
spoils. One farmer testified that he had seen some dead
though fresh fish on Tuesday night, others being alive and
floundering in the water in a dazed condition; one large
Galjoen he caught with difficulty swimming about in the
water. He stated that many more fish were found on the
following day, a few at a wreck but most on the “ long beach ”’
near Klein Slangkop, a mile or so from the wreck. All the
witnesses were of opinion that the death of fish was due to the
escape of some injurious matter from this wreck. The ship
had come ashore immediately before the occurrence and was
laden with general merchandise, including dynamite, cyanide,
gun-cotton, soap, etc. All the dynamite was safely taken off,
and there had been no explosion, which might have accounted
for the dead fish. The beach in the neighbourhood of the
wreck was strewn to some extent with pieces of soap and
gun-cotton. One fisherman was certain that the injury to the
fish had been caused by their eating the soap, the effects of
which he alleged were to stupefy them temporarily. He said
he had found pieces of soap and gun-cotton inside the dead

[C.P. 6—’14.]

30

fish he had opened, and had also found the marks of the teeth
of the Galjoen in pieces of soap. The stomach of a Galjoen I
examined contained no soap or gun-cotton, and the pieces
of soap seen had no marks on them which might not have been
caused by dashing against the rocks. This same fisherman,
who lives near the beach, had first seen some dead fish on
Monday afternoon, but most on Wednesday, when three or
four cartloads (each of about 300 to 400 fish) were taken from
the beach, there being about a thousand fish in all. They
were mostly bought by Jewish fishmongers and sold in Cape
Town, and no injurious effects were reported from the con-
sumers. The fisherman himself had eaten them without any
ill effect.”

The fish were mostly Galjoen, many of them exceptionally
large, and Hottentots (Cantharus blochit). Klip-fish (Clinus
spp.) also occurred among them, and large white Steenbras
(Pagellus lithognathus) and a few Dogfish. One beach-searcher
also stated that there were some large Kabeljaauws (Sciaena
hololepidota).

The temperature of the water on Friday was 57° F., but one
witness stated that on Monday he noticed that the water was
particularly cold. No great change had been observed in the
temperature of the sea at.St. James in False Bay,
at or near this time in observations taken three times a day.

In attempting to co-ordinate these various observations
and to discover some cause or causes of such occurrences
many difficulties arise. Some narratives are set down from
memory several years after the event, and many may be
influenced by preconceived ideas as to the causes of the pheno-
mena. On the whole, however, they are so circumstantial,
and deal with such well-marked incidents, that they them-
selves are well worthy of permanent record, and, maybe, are
of more value in this enquiry than any deductions which may
at this stage be drawn from them. They point to certain
biological and physical characteristics of the South African
seas which require further investigation on account of their
practical as well as their purely scientffic importance.

We may in the first place eliminate most of the alleged
causes of the diminutions of the fish supply mentioned in the
previous sections (I-13) as insufficient at least to account for
any such sudden and wholesale destruction of marine life as
is described in the preceding instances.

We may further narrow the enquiry by considering first
those cases in which “red water” appears. This phenomenon
is of such a striking nature that it can scarcely fail to be ob-
served. The most definite instance of this is that occurring

31

in Saldanha Bay about the year 1907 and near Stumpnose Bay
about 1869. To this category may also be added the case of
the “ phosphorus” in Table Bay about 1888. In the occur-
rence at Swakopmund in 1880 the peculiar red (‘‘ bliitig”’) colour
of the sea would seem to indicate that there was at least some
element of this nature present here, though it is to be noted
that the colour of the water was described by another observer
some months after the occurrence as “inky.” This, together
with the fact that at the somewhat similar occurrence in the
neighbourhood (Walfish Bay) there is no mention of red water,
seems to indicate that, if present, it was not the main factor
in the disturbance at Swakopmund.

There seems, however, to be no doubt that in some instance
decaying masses of Noctiluca (“‘ red water’) is the immediate
cause of the death of fish by suffccation, though there re-
mains to be accounted for the cause of the accumulation and
dying-off of these animals.

The second apparent cause of such phenomena is the pre-
sence of vegetable matter (diatoms) in masses, leading to
decomposition and consequent suffocation of sea animals.
This appears to have happened in the occurrence at Schell Bay.

The main factor in the occurrences at Walfish Bay also seems
to have been the decay of diatomaceous matter in the bottom
of the bay in enormous quantities, a sample of the mud at
the bottom of the bay having been found on microscopic
examination to consist almost exclusively of diatoms.

The occurrence at Knysna will not, however, admit of any
such explanations. There is no record of the presence of
Noctiluca in large quantities either in the sea or the lagoon.
Here their absence in quantity may be accounted for by the
fact that there is here no chance of the water remaining in an
undisturbed state, as the currents in the sea are strong and the
entrance to the lagoon is very narrow. Special enquiries
were made as to whether ‘“‘ red water ”’ was ever found in the
lagoon, and it appears to be unknown.

The explanation generally accepted at Knysna is that the
death of fish is due to cold water, as it is always associated
with the presence of such water. The occurrence is annual,
and in a more or less marked degree, so that it may be accepted
as a statement of fact that the fish die off when the cold water
appears—whether from the actual cold or not is a different
question. Further, it is observed on such occasions that the
cold water is of a distinctly different colour from that of th
normal sea water, so marked that ordinary fishermen recognis
it readily and expect to find dying or dead fish in it. The
fishermen describe the cold water as of a muddy colour.*and

*It is not associated with heavy rainfalls which often produce large areas of
muddy water in the sea.

[ew 6-714]

32

the normal sea water blue, and that is an accurate enough
description for recognition purposes. The actual colour of
the cold water is a pale muddy or sandy colour with a tinge of
green, though, when dipped up in a vessel, it is seen to be much
more transparent than the blue water. The muddy and blue
water, described by Mr. M’Lachlan at Stumpnose Bay, on the
west coast, agrees with the condition at Knysna, and here
also dead fish (Sardines) “in tons’ were found in the muddy
water. It is not mentioned, however, that the muddy water
was particularly cold, and the presence of hundreds of dead
sea Duikers is a puzzling element. It cannot be readily sup-
posed that these birds died of cold, nor can it be imagined that
they died of hunger in the presence of so many dead fish. The
only explanation that would seem to fit in with the other
factors, is that they died in some way from eating the dead
fish, for which however there is no evidence.

Other cases in which the coldness of the water seems to have
played a part are those near East London, 26th September,
1903, and at Mossel Bay at about the same time (shortly before
the 20th). In the former the temperature of the water as
observed at East London fell somewhat abruptly from 62° F.
on the 7th to 50° F. on the roth (the minimum for the year),
and thereafter gradually became normal. The actual tempera-
tures from the 7th to the 12th were 62°, 57°, 56°, 50°, 51°, 560°.
On the other hand, we have the evidence of the trawler that,
on the 8th to the 11th, while trawling 18 miles east of East
London, the water was so warm that it attracted special
attention. This would, of course, be at some distance from the
shore, so that, while the cold water was inshore, the water
further to sea was warm. The presence of warm water in the
pools at Keiskama may have been due to the shallowness of
the water and its heating up after the occurrence. Tempera-
tures were also observed at Port St. John’s further to the
North, and these showed a variation of 1° only during the
same period, so that the cold water was rather local. In the
occurrence at Mossel Bay the presence of a “ cold mist envelop-
ing the Bay ” was adduced as evidence of the existence of cold
water, ‘‘ perhaps due to an iceberg.”’ Icebergs are not known
to navigators to occur within such a distance of the South
African shore as would have this effect.

In the Table Bay case (1837) and Cape Receife (1886) there
is no mention of cold water, nor of any peculiarity in the colour
of the water.

The coastline affected is of particular interest. Such
occurrences do not seem to be known in Natal, and are con-
fined, so far as records go, to the coast extending from East

33

London on the east coast round the south coast to Walfish
Bay (or Swakopmund) on the west coast.

It is of special interest also to note that, while at all other
places the occurrence seems to be more or less intermittent,
at Knysna and at Walfish Bay it is well recognised as an annual
one. At both of these places it occurs also at a definite time
of the year—the mid and late summer months.

It is just on this coast that the cold Antarctic current going
from west to east strikes the continent of Africa, and meets
the warm Mozambique current coming southwards along the
east coast, and it may be supposed that Knysna is a point at
which forms of animal life, accustomed more or less to warmer
water than is found further west, would suffer more from the
inset of the cold water. (Compare the effects of cold on the
Frost-fish, p. 125.)

The dying off of the fish at Walfish Bay seems more attribut-
able to the pollution of the water by decaying vegetable matter
accumulating in the bay from the sea. The dying off of the
diatoms may be due to the change of temperature which the
west coast division of the Antarctic current undergoes here,
just as the south coast division of the current does at Knysna
It may be of significance that Soles are frequently cast up at
Walfish Bay, but not at Knysna. They were notably absent
from the other occurrences.

It is to be noted also that it is mainly the waters of the
immediate coast that are affected, pointing to an upswelling
of cold waters (Antarctic current?) from under the warmer
waters (Mozambique stream ?).

These physical features are reflected in the forms of animal
life in the sea, the fauna of the east coast being markedly different
from that of the west. The Snoek, for instance, is a charac-
teristic west coast form, and occurs, at certain seasons, 1n
great abundance from Cape Point northwards. It is found
occasionally at Mossel Bay and Plettenberg Bay, but very
rarely at Port Elizabeth, and has not been recorded from the
east coast north of that town. It is a fish of the high seas and
only at times comes close inshore. It has never been men-
tioned as among the fish affected in the above cases, but it
may be accepted as established that its occurrence is largely
influenced directly or indirectly by the temperature of the
water. It is essentially a migratory fish, and doubtless its
abundance or scarcity on the coast of South Africa is dependent
to some extent at least on the temperature condition of the sea
at the season in which it approaches the shore. (Vide p. 116).

The Red Stumpnose (Chrysophrys gibbiceps) may be taken
as a typical example of a warm-water fish. It extends from

the east coast along the south coast as far as False Bay. It is
[(C.P. 6—’14.]

34

seldom found in Table Bay or to the north of Table Bay.
Unlike the Snoek, it is a shore-frequenting form, and it is of
significance that at Knysna, when cases of mortality among
fish occur, it is the species most seriously affected.

These two cases illustrate the influence of the cold stream
in its extent along the coast. Other cases illustrate the up-
swelling of the cold water on the shores from under the warm
water, as it is the shore forms which are mostly affected.

There seems little doubt, therefore, not only that the present
distribution of fish and marine fauna generally on the South
African Coast is determined by the cold Antarctic water meet-
ing the warm Agulhas current, but that the relative abundance
at different times may be due to the relative strength of the
opposing currents, the effect of the cold current being in
severe cases an extensive mortality in marine life, the
extension of the cold water for instance to the east, permitting
the presence of Snoek as far east as Port Elizabeth, and the
extension of the warm water permitting the presence of the
Red Stumpnose towards the west even occasionally to Table
Bay. If a pelagic rather than a rock-frequenting fish be
desired as an example comparable with the Snoek, Elops
saurus (the “ springer ” of Natal and “ Cape Salmon ” of Port
Elizabeth) may be cited, as it is common on the east coast
and only occasionally found as far west as Knysna. The
“Seventy-four ” (Dentex undulatus) is another example of a
warm water fish.

The cause of the warm Mozambique current on the east
coast, and its continuation as the Agulhas current on the south
coast, is the trade winds of the Indian ocean, which drive the
water from a south-easterly direction towards the Equator,
where it becomes heated up, and, as the Equatorial current,
impinges on the African continent, and is diverted along its
eastern shore. It is, therefore, on the east coast of South
Africa, turned southwards and encounters the south-east
trade winds in the modified form of the Cape south-easters.
These have a tendency to drive it back, or, at least, keep it in
check, so that the Antarctic current will extend further to the
east. It seems to be due to this that we have the apparently
anomalous fact that an on-shore wind (S.E.) is followed by
the appearance of cold water.

There are, however, many obscure points regarding the
currents of the South African coast, which can only be cleared
up by a series of systematic observations. A good deal might
be done by observation of surface temperatures at stations
on the coast line, but it is essential that observations of tem-

35

perature, salinity, etc., be taken at various depths at sea in
order to throw further light on the question.

It need hardly be pointed out that the fuller information
and investigation of the various factors which influence the
fish supply are of urgent necessity from a purely practical point
of view. Even should it prove that some or all of these are
beyond control, to which indeed some of the evidence seems
to point, yet their elucidation will be of the utmost importance,
if only to prevent legislation in futile or injurious directions,
and may prove of a more direct use in indicating in what
regions fish may or may not be expected to be found. Thus,
to take a concrete example, strong and continued south-east
winds may be found to be associated with the presence of the
colder waters and their characteristic fish, such as the Snoek.
On the other hand, in the absence of such winds, the fish
characteristic of warmer waters may more profitably be looked
for.

The proper control of injurious methods of fishing if proved
to be injurious, the imposition of close seasons, size limits, or
even protection in certain areas are therefore obviously bound
up with an accurate knowledge of the physical conditions of
life in the sea.

Finally, it must be recognised also that whatever the cause
may be, the history of nearly all fisheries is that the fishermen
have to resort to more effective methods of fishing, and that
the small open boats at first in use become no longer adequate
to meet requirements. Fishermen are often of a conservative
disposition, and as often are unable to provide the means for
such improvements. In many countries the State has come
to their assistance, and by a system of judicious loans has
considerably advanced the industry. The South African
native fishermen are, in these respects, no exception to fisher-
men in general, and some such system may also prove of great
advantage in the development of this section of the industry
in this country. The improved harbour accommodation about
to be provided by Government at Table Bay and Kalk Bay
will render it possible for the fishermen to use larger and
better equipped boats, in place of the small open boats, which
have to be carried ashore out of reach of the sea on their
return from fishing operations. The present time, therefore,
is suitable for the initiation of some such system. The greatest
advance in the industry is of course to be looked for from
independent companies, such as the trawling companies, in
no need of such assistance, but there will always remain plenty
of scope for the native fishermen, whose field of operation lies

closer inshore.
[C.P. 6—’14.]|

36

III—THE CAPE CRAWFISH AND CRAWFISH
INDUSTRY (continued).

Since the last account of this subject (Marine Biological
Report No. 1), the Fishery Board, at the request of the Ad-
ministrator, have taken the matter up and have examined a
number of witnesses representing both the interests of the
canners and of the native fishermen. In the course of the
enquiry, additional information has been obtained, some of
which it is desirable to put on record. All the evidence pointed
to the immediate necessity of adequate legislative measures
for the safeguarding of the industry, and the size limit is now
raised from three to four inches, four months’ close season is
imposed, and females in berry are protected—the only excep-
tion to the size limit being a concession to the native fishermen
in the case of crawfish taken solely for the purposes of bait. It
became apparent during the course of the enquiry that a good
deal of information was still desirable with regard to the times
of spawning, the possible migration of the fish from one part
of the coast to another, the alleged difference in the spawning
season at different parts of the coast, the size at which crawfish
become mature, at what times and in what places the males
and females were to be found, etc.

The experimental hauls of crawfish have been continued,
and we have now a record of such hauls for a complete year,
made in Table Bay off the Woodstock Beach. These additional
observations are given here, and a summary for the whole
year prepared, so that it is seen at a glance how the crawfish
vary in number and kind (young or old, male or female) at
this locality. They throw some light on the above questions.

A series of tow-nettings has also been completed for the year,
and the larve (Phyllosomas) of the crawfish have been noted
in each.

A later stage, the “ puerulus”’ or “‘ natant” stage of the
crawfish, has been found and some preliminary notes on this
are added.

The experimental rearing of crawfish has been continued at
the Marine Station at St. James. In this connection, it is of
interest to learn that the Japanese, who have a valuable
crawfish industry of their own, have for some time been
experimenting in the same direction.

‘

37

The following notes may therefore be arranged under the
headings :—

1. Information from canners and fishermen.

2. Experimental hauls of Crawfish.

3. Tow-nettings and larve of Crawfish.

4. The “ puerulus,” or natant stage of the Crawfish.

1. INFORMATION ON CRAWFISH OBTAINED FROM CANNING
COMPANIES AND FISHERMEN.

Representatives of the following canning companies gave
evidence at the enquiry held by the Fishery Board. Native
and Italian fishermen were also represented.

(a) Saldanha and St. Helena Bay (Stephan Bros.).

(b) Hoetjes Bay and Steenbergs Cove (Hinchliffe and
Holland).

) Hout Bay (Plessis).

) Cape Town Canning Co. (Van Zweiberg).

) Scotia Works, Woodstock (Ovenstone).

) Woodstock (Hickson and Sons).

) Saldanha Bay Company (Schermberg).

) Native fishermen.

(z) Italian fishermen.

(a) At Saldanha Bay and St. Helena Bay no diminution in
the supply is noted, except near the coast. There are two
seasons for Crawfish—October to November, when large males
are caught, and April to June, when mostly females are caught.
A female of 34 inches has spawned once at least. Males cast
shell from about December 15th to March 1st, and will not
take bait then. They hide in their holes, so that their enemies
cannot get them. - The female fish lie in the shallows until their
eggs are nearly mature, when the males come inshore and
“milk” the eggs and then go back again (this appears to be
incorrect). The females, when depositing their eggs, lie
among the rocks at low water. They have been caught 40 or
50 yards from the shore. When the females are spawning,
the boats do not go after them, but have to go into deeper
water for their catches. They very rarely catch a female
(compare the statements of Table Bay fishermen on this point.)
With regard to evidence of migration, about the beginning of
October, 1912, the boats had to go to a place right south to the
other side of North Bay, and by the middle of October the
boats had got to the middle of North Bay (showing a movement

northwards in October).
(CoP <6——"14.|

ac

(b) In Steenbergs Cove and district north of Jacobs Rock
about go per cent. of the fish are females, from the middle of
December to the first week of February, and 99 per cent. of
these are in berry (compare experimental hauls at Table Bay).
From about the middle of February to early in July about
80 per cent. are mature males, the rest being small males
of 3 to 4inches. The mature males are more than 4 inches.
From the middle of July to early in September, females and
small males are found. This appears to be the season when
females and the small fish are casting their shell, large quan-
tities of empty shells being cast up on the beach there. From
the middle of September to early in December, the fish are all
large males. Thus in one week, of 192,000 fish, 90 per cent.
were more than 5 inches in length. They may grow to 8
inches. This is the best season north of Jacobs Rock. In
December, as the males cast their shell, they go off into deeper
water, and return in February. In tabular form, these facts
may be stated as follows :

Middle of December to early in Females, 99 per cent. in berry.
February. (Males casting shell in
deeper water.)
Middle of February to early in Males, 80 per cent. mature

July. (over 4 inches).

Middle of July to early in Females and small males
September. (casting shell).

Middle of September to early Males, go per cent. over 5
in December. inches.

Over two million fish were used in two factories last year.
If the size limit proposed, of 44 inches, is imposed, no females
at all would be caught. In deeper water you get only large
fish, in shallow water you are more likely to get small fish. At
St. Martin’s Point, fish measuring 8 inches are got, not five per
cent. being less than 5 inches.

(c) Four inches would protect females, at 3} inches you
protect females without eggs. ‘‘ Your close season protects the
Crawfish. If you come with the best bait they will not bite.
We believe the close seasons, as now arranged, are very good
indeed. The fish protect themselves.” Hout Bay is at least
one month in advance of Cape Town. Crawfish are not on a
limited bank ; there are pockets of them. When the north-
west wind blew at an unusual time, you would see the beach at
Mouille Point covered with crawfish knocked against the rocks,
because they are sick and are changing their shell. When the
south-easters blow, they take shelter round Robben Island.
The fish have not become scarcer. Formerly they fished with

39

two men in a boat, and had seven nets. To-day they go out
with a motor-boat, and when fish are biting well, 6,000 crawfish
can be caught in three or four hours. This has been experienced
in Table Bay, Robben Island and Kommetje. They do not
fish between Mouille Point and Oude Kraal. Perhaps the
sewer has something to do with the disappearance of fish there.

(d) There is no objection to a close season in May and June ;
the fish are scarce. There are other fishing grounds that have
not been touched in deeper water. The males are in deeper
water at this time, in about 20 to 25 fathoms, nearer Dassen
Island. In the beginning of October, males come into shallow
water. Crawfish are found in False Bay, but one does not
know where the bank is.

(ec) There seems to be no diminution in the supply. In
Ig10 two boats landed 83,300 or 41,650 per boat. In
r9g1r four boats landed 580,000, or 145,000 per boat.
In r912 seven boats landed 1,247,400, or 178,200 per boat.
In 1913 nine boats landed 1,834,760, or 203,862 per boat.
This last was for one month less in the year. From May 2oth
to about June 15th, there are a great many small or female
fish, and this should be a close season. The total catch of
Crawfish in the Colony is about 12 million for the season.
Between May 15th and June 15th, when the small fish are
caught, ought to be a close season. Good fish could be caught
further out in deeper water, say, of 20 fathoms, but fishing
here is difficult if there is any current.

({) Crawfish seem to have diminished in size in recent years.
It is seldom that very large crawfish are now caught unless we
go further afield. Robben Island is the breeding ground fo1
small fish. In the month of May I calculate that 1,600,000
small fish are caught. Fishing in Table Bay is not so good
as it was.

Mr. Hickson furnished the following abstract from his
diary :—

February.—Fish from Hout Bay on 17th February: 6
rotten and diseased fish; some small fish with inside roe.
Yellow fish and no class.

March.—Large male fish ; on 31st March noticed small fish
and 5 per cent. females.

AprilSome days very large fish, and others mixed lots-
about 5 per cent. females.

May ist to 5th.—Very large fish; males.

May 6th.—Medium ; females.

May 14th to 31st.—Small fish ; females predominate.

June 23rd.—Fairly large fish ; females less.

[C.P. 6—’14.]

40

June 25th.—Large fish.

June 26th.—Good size fish.

July.—Mixed lot ; mediums; male and female.

August 14th.—95 per cent. large male fish noted; female
very little berry or roe ; noticed it was diminishing in fish.

August 15th.—97 per cent. males, large and small, noticed
roe in fish nearly exhausted.

August 18th to end of month.—All male fish ; large and small.

September 8th.—All male fish and rather small size. The
small males a better red than usual.

September 26th.—Inspected boats unloading. About 30
females with outside berry thrown into sea ; the rest males

October.—All males ; large size.

October 26th.—Fish not up to mark unless caught outside
Robben Island.

(g) In 1910 we made 850 cases ; in IQII, I,750 Cases ; in IQI2,
2,300 cases; and 1913, 3,200 cases, there being from 105
to 110 Crawfish in each case. No Crawfish are caught at
Saldanha Bay between the middle of May and the end of
August owing to rough weather.

(kh) Crawfish were a hundred times more plentiful formerly
than at the present time. There are now practically no
Crawfish in Table Bay. About 25 years ago they were very
plentiful. They are now further away. In early days you
could catch Crawfish by simply wading into the water near
the present explosives jetty, or at the sewage pipes in Table
Bay.

At certain seasons the only bait that can be got for Hottentot
fish or Maasbankers is Crawfish in berry. At this time the
male Crawfish are sick and cannot be caught, as they will not
take the bait. It is necessary to get Maasbankers, as this is
used for bait for the larger fish, such as Stockfish. The only
place where you can catch Crawfish now (November, 1913) is
at the sewer (off Woodstock Beach). At Camps Bay and all
round, there are no Crawfish, nor at Robben Island. All
these are females in berry. Only five or six hundred Crawfish
are used per day by fishermen, while the Italians catch three
or four thousand per boat in the season.

(¢) Italian fishermen state that in May over go per cent. of
fish caught are very small females, and suggest a close season
of four or five weeks at this time, say, from 15th May to 15th
June. Very few males are caught during that period ; they
are believed to have gone into deeper water. The females
are full of eggs inside. After June there are not such quantities
of females. In July we catch more males and less females.

a aise ne —_— —— ne -

41

In August we catch very few females. Females are in berry
from 2 to 44 inches. Females 44 inches are seldom seen.
The majority of fish we catch are between 34 and 5 inches,
and from 5 to 7 inches 15 per cent. Males and females are
about the same in quantity. If we start fishing in March at
Green Point we catch mostly males ; later on, males and females.
The smallest Crawfish we have seen is 14 inches. The smaller
we never see; they run away and stay in their nests. There
has been no diminution in the supply, but more boats are now
engaged—t1o more than last year. We used to catch a good
deal of fish behind the Breakwater. We have not tried fishing
there for a long time. At Robben Island we fish in about 10
fathoms of water. In the middle of Table Bay we get none.
We do not know where the males go when females are so
abundant, perhaps to Melk Bosch. About five per cent. only
of the fish caught about February 15th are soft.

2. EXPERIMENTAL HAULS OF CRAWFISH IN AND AROUND
TABLE BAY (continued),

The following is a continuation of the records of Crawfish
caught in the series of experimental hauls begun in November,
1912, and published in the Marine Biological Report, No. 1,
ey

Noz23.

Date: 2/5/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Opposite the Milnerton Hotel, a mile off shore.

Condition of sea : Calm and smooth ; slight westerly swell.

Depth: 8 fathoms. Temperature : 58° F.

Male Crawfish.
Size mmanNGhes, Tl 4, 2 34 4y 5-4 Oy 7 SF
Hard old shell .. : ne A Be ae
Hard newshell .. .. 4 rf re I 4
Soft old shell , site
Soft new shell et id Fe

Total of males: 5.
Average size: 5.8.
Female Crawfish.
Size in inches he OES 5, G3, ary Geyer Ge.
Hard old shell 2
Hard new shell ..
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry

In eyed berry
[C.P. 6—’14.;

Average number per haul : 0 -367.

42

Total of females: 2. Average number per haul: 0-142.
Average size: 4.

Total number of males and females: 8.

Average size: 5°25. Average number per haul: 0°507.

No. 24.
Date :9/5/13. Number of hauls: 14.
Locality : Near Milnerton Beach, 4 mile off shore.
Condition of sea: Calm and smooth.
Depth: 7 fathoms. Temperature: 60°.

Male Crawfish.

Size in inches I+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 64+, 7+
Hard old shell .. tae: Z 4 20) 2g
Hard new shell .. : :

Soft old shell

Soft new shell Sailer wie ote) ate
Total of males: 29. Average number per haul: 2-071.
Average size: 4°378.

Female Crawfish.

Size in inches I+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, O+, 74,

iardvold shell |... a red era ot 24

Hard new shell Gol a0 9 les ta ea

Soft old shell

Soft new shell

In berry

In eyed berry es Ee ee: SNS As
Total of females: 6. Average number per haul: 0-428.
Average size: 4°333.
Total number of males and females: 35.
Average size: 4°371. Average number per haul: 2°55.

Nov 25:

Date: 20/5/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Near Milnerton Beach, about $ mile off shore.
Condition of sea: Calm.

Depth: 7 fathoms. Temperature: 58°.

Male Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell eee 0) a Ste 6 it
Hard new shell aie
Soft old shell
Soft new shell ‘ ae se oa we
i Total of males: 18. Average number per haul: 285.
| Average size: 5 -464.

Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+ 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell peels cee I 2
Hard new shell
Soft old sheli
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry

Total of females: 14. Average number per haul: 1.
Average size: 3 -83.

Total of males and females: 3
Average number per haul: 2-2

2. Averapersize > 5 5343:
85.

No. 26.

Date : 30/5/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Near Milnerton, about 4 mile off shore.

Conditions of sea: Choppy from S.E.

Depth: 7 fathoms. Temperature: 57°.
bottom: Rocky.

Condition of

Male Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5
Hard old shell at a Es I 6 22 Io
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

Total of males: 39. Average number per haul: 2 -785.
Average size: 6-326.

Female Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5
Hard old shell be Lee a fee ERS
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry

Total of females: 8. Average number per haul: 0°+571.
Average size: 5 :093.

Total number of males and females: 47.

Average size: 6-117.

Average number per haul: 3.35.

[C.P. 6—’14.] E

44

No. 27.

Date: 12/6/13.

Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Opposite the mouth of the sewer near Woodstock
Beach.

Condition of sea: Very rough and choppy.

Depth: 3 fathoms. Temperature: 55°.

Condition of bottom: Sandy and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell 39 7) I I
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell : a asi ess ou ia
Total of males: 58. Average number per haul: 4-142.
Average size: I :232.

Female Crawfish.
Sizeininches1+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 74
Hard old shell 5 ne
Hard new shell 24 15
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry si ie Se Sc A -
Total of females: 39. Average number per haul: 2-785.
Average size: 1*705-
Total number of males and females: 97. Average size : 1.458
N.B.—The small crawfish in sizes shown above swarm
around the mouth of the sewer in thousands, and it was only
on account of the large meshes of the nets used that at least
twenty times more were not caught.

No. 28.

Date: 26/6/48. (Number of hauls? 22.

Locality : Near Milnerton Beach, about 4 mile off shore.
Condition of sea: Very smooth and calm.

Depth: 7 fathoms. Temperature : 56 °.

Bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell - Sch. tHE 8 22 44 17,
Hard new shell Ae i i iad :
Soft old shel! wy he se id
Soft new shell aie aa oe Si ate

45

Total number of males: 92. Average number per haul:
6-571.
Average size: 6-005.
Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 44,
Hard old shell I
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry oF on
In eyed berry = a oe se By: :
Total of females: 23. Average number per haul: 1 -642.
Average size: 4-608.
Total of males and females: 115. Average size: 5 -726.
Average number per haul: 8-214.

No: 29:

Dates /f/13, Number of hauls: 14:

Locality : Opposite Milnerton Hotel, 4 mile off the shore.
Condition of sea: Calm.

Depth: 7 fathoms. Temperature: 56°.

Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
Size im MCches: To, 245° 3-F, ay) 5a, C4
Hard old shell ay sf al 9 2m 24
Hard new shell ae 33 ie pe
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

Total number of males : 61. Average number per haul : 4.357.
Average size: 5-790.

Female Crawfish.
Size I IMChes Ties 126s) 3 aS SO aa

Hard old shell ar ae JARG 5
Hard new shell é as ae of
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry ae Sc ae eis oe as

Total number of females: 44. Average number per haul :
3 143.

Average size: 4°5.

Total number of males and females: 105. Average size:
5:25. Average number per haul: 7°5.

[C.P. 6—’14.]

46

No. 30
Date : 8/7/13. Number of hauls: 14.
Locality : Opposite Milnerton Hotel, 4 mile off shore.
Condition of sea: Smooth, with heavy swell.
Temperature : 56°.
Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell <2 EE I q
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell : ot = a Ae:
Total number of males: 61. Average number per haul:
4 °357-
Average size: 5 ‘737.

Female Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell 8 Ae ad 19 9
Hard new shell ... me 2 a
Soft old shell =* af Som gir 2
Soft new shell '
In berry

In eyed berry

Total number of Phirck 36. Average number per haul:
2-571.

Average size: 4-583.

Total number of males and females: 97. Average size:
D509:

Average number per haul: 6-928.

No. 31.

Date: 15/7/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite Milnerton Hotel, $ mile
from the shore.

Condition of sea: Westerly swell.

Depth : 12 fathoms. Temperature: 52°.

Condition of bottom : Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5
Hard old shell os Ai ie 4 14 5
Hard new shell ne & ag ;
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

= ms hil

47

Total number of males: 24. Average number per haul :

U7i4
Average size: 6-229.

Female Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+,
Hard old shell ae eh ao de:
Hard new shell :
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry

Total number of females: 5. Average number per haul:

0 *357-
Average size: 4-6.

Total number of males and females: 29. Average size:

3 °949-
Average number per haul: 2-071.

Nov 32:
Date : 18/7/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Off Milnerton Beach opposite the hotel, about 4

_ mile from the shore.

Condition of sea: East wind; slight westerly swell.

Depth: 12 fathom. Temperature : 53°.

Male Crawfish. :

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 44,
Hard old shell Ms a Maho
Hard new shell , en uk
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

5+,

3636

6 +,

I3

ate

18

Total number of males: 47. Average number per haul:

397
Average size: 6-244.

Female Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+,
Hard old shell ae we Ls 20
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
iesberty
In eyed berry

[C.P. 6—’14.]

Diane
68

6 +,

I2

oat

48

Total number of females: 90. Average number per hau! :
6 +429.

Average size: 5 -3II.

Total number of males and females : 137.

Average size: 5 ‘631.

Average number per haul: 9-785.

No. 33.

Date : 25/7/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality: Off Milnerton Beach, about 4 mile off the shore,
opposite the Milnerton Hotel.

Condition of sea: Calm. Slight north breeze.

Depth: 11 fathoms. Temperature: 53°.

Bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+,2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 64+, 7+,
Hard old shell .. be PP ee oY eee
Hard new shell oe a ee Ae ae ae
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

Total number of males: 161. Average number per haul:
II -5.
Average size: 6 -894.

Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell ae “s hs Tee 95 4I
Hard new shell : ay oe et <f
Soft old sheli
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry

Total number of females: 150. Average number per haul] :
10-713.

Average size: 5 -534.

Total number of males and females: 311.

Average size: 6-238.

Average number per haul: 22-214.

No. 34.

Date : 29/7/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Opposite Somerset Hospital, about 250 yards off
shore.

Condition of sea: Choppy ; westerly swell ; S.E. wind ; rain.

49

Depth: 5 fathoms. Temperature: 55°.
Bottom: Rocky.
Males: Nil. Females: Nil.

No. 35.

Date: 31/7/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about 4 mile
off shore.

Condition of sea: Calm, slight E. wind.

Depth: 11 fathoms. Temperature: 59°.

Bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.

Sizeininches I+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+, 8+
Hard old shell I Ow sa, 28 is 2
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

Total number of males: 66. Average number per haul:
4 °714.
Average size: 6-378.
Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI +, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+

Hard old shell ae Pop Te 27, Ex 27
Hard new shell : a x se ss Sy
Soft old shell i Se Wh 6 1 3 2
Soft new shell ah ge ;

In berry

In eyed berry

Total number of females: 177. Average number per haul :
12 -642.

Average size: 5 °395.

Total number of males and females : 243. Average number

per haul : 17 -357.
Average size: 5 ‘886.

No. 36.

Date: 5/8/13. Number of hauls: 14.
Locality : Off Woodstock pipe.
Condition of sea.: Calm N. breeze.
Depth: 3 fathoms. Temperature: 53°.

Bottom : Sand, stones, and weed-grown.
[C.P. 6—’14.]

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+,

Hard old shell rk

Hard new shell

Soft old shell

Soft new shell

Total number of males: 6. Average number per haul:

O -429.
Average size: 5 -g16.

Female Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+
Hard old shell I 2
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry a a zh
In eyed berry = ee =. - oy - oe

Total number of females: 7. Awerage number per haul: 0°5.

Average size: 4-892.

Total number of males and females: 13. Average size:
5 365.

Average number per haul: 0-925.

N.B.—About 575 crawfish, ranging in size from I inch to 2?
inches were also caught. The fishermen remarked on the
splendid condition of the large crawfish.

No. 37.

Date : 14/8/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about 3 mile
off the shore.

Condition of sea : Slightly choppy, E. wind ; very muddy.

Depth: 12 fathoms. Temperature : 53°.

Bottom: Rocky.

Male Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+
Hard old shell ae bsg ee eS 19 40 IO
Hard new shell a = = at F
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

Total number of males: 74. Average number per hanl:

5 285.
Average size: 6-057.

Female Crawfish.
sizeminchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 64, 7+
Hard old Shell Se me ae I I
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry

Total number of eae ee 2. Average number per haul:
0 °142.

Average size: 4°75.

Total number of males and females: 76. Average number
per haul: 5-428. Average size : 6 -023.

N.B.—Fishermen say that the females are now sick, and are
in hiding.

No. 38.

Date : 16/8/13. Number of hauls: r4.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about + mile
off shore.

Condition of sea: Calm, very slight swell ; slightly muddy.

Depth: tofathoms. Temperature: 54°.

Bottom: Rocky.

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell re me tr, ep IS 2
Hard new shell ee ae ae
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

Total number of males : 7. ee erage auntie per isch: O°5.
Average size: 5 °543.

Female Crawfish: Nil.
No. 309.

Date : 19/8/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Mouille Point Light House, about } mile off shore.

Condition of sea at first: Calm, with slight swell’; then
choppy, with N.E. wind.

Temperature : 54°. Bottom: Rocky bamboos.

Sizeiminches tT 4, -2-b,. 3
Hard old shell BAS Cs) 5
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

[C.P. 6—’14.]

+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7H

52
Total number of males: 23. Average number per haul:
I -642.
Average size: 2-467.

Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell avs.) NIE 2 ne
Hard new shell :
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry

Total number of females: 16. Average number per haul :
E142.

Average size: 2.5.

Total number of males and females: 39. Average size:
2-483.

Average number per haul: 2-785.

N.B.—A good many crawfish below the sizes indicated
escaped through the meshes of the nets.

No. 40.

Date: 23/8/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Opposite the Milnerton Hotel, about 4 mile from
the shore.

Condition of sea: Very rough ; E. wind ; heavy swell.

Temperature: 54°. Bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish : Nil.
Female Crawfish : Nil.
No. 4I.

Date: 26/8/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Opposite Milnerton Hotel, about 4 mile off shore.

Bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Condition of sea: At first calm; then choppy with N.N.E.
wind. Temperature: 53°.

Male Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell im 2 2 12 31 36 8
Hard new shell re oe _ ay Ke
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

Total number of males: 91. Average number per haul : 6°5.
Average size: 5-714.

Female Crawfish.
SIZeimanehes Tey Ae Sy. AE, CSE, Os 7
Hard old shell A ee Sip it
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry

Total number of females: 1. Average number per haul:
0-339.

Average size: 4°75.

Total number of males and females: 92. Average size:
5 °793-

Average number per haul: 6-571.

In catches of crawfish made by local fishermen and estimated
by them to be above 4,000, were only 20 to 30 females, some
of them in berry.

No. 42.

Date: 5/9/13. Number of hauls: 8.

Locality : Milnerton, opposite the hotel, about 4 mile off
shore.

Condition of sea: At first calm, with slight E. wind ; then
heavy rain and strong S.E. wind.

Depths 7 fathoms: ‘Temperature = 53°:

Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
Sizeimimchesi +, 24, 3+, 44, 5) OF,°0 74

Hard old sheli ey iG) I 5 ut

Hard new shell ‘

Soft old shell

Soft new shell

Total number of males: 29. Average number per haul:
3 625.
Average size: 3-232.

Female Crawfish.
Sizeininches1+, 2

Hard old shell Be 6

Hard new shell

Soft old shel!

Soft new shell

In berry

In eyed berry
[C.P. 6—’14.]

ap 33 pas Bras 6 +, go
a A‘ Sc

54

Total number of females: 7. Average number per haul :
0 875.

Average size: 2 -607.

Total number of males and females: 36. Average size:
Sica e

Average number per haul: 4°5.

Local fishermen bring in great catches of male crawfish ;
the females are very scarce, and some of those that are caught
are in berry.

No. 43.
Date : 9/9/13. Number of hauls: 14.
Locality : Opposite Milnerton Hotel, about 4 mile off shore.
Condition of sea : Choppy ; slight swell ; N. E. wind.
Depth : about 5 fathoms. Temperature. 5a0
Bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2

Hard old shell a os

Hard new shell

Sott old shell

Soft new shell

Total number of males: 4. Average number per aul 0.285.
Average size: 3 -375.

Female Crawfish.
Sizeiminches:I +, 256; 3-4) 4Sky “Sb, eee Ga
Hard old shell oy I
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry

+, 3p “45 545 Ga
I

Total number of ere 1. Average number per haul:
0-071.

Average size: 2°5.

Total number of males and females: 5. Average size : 0 +357.

Average number per haul: 3.2

N.B.—Fishermen say that fish are

* travelling.”
No. 44.

Date : 13/9/13. Number of hauls: 14.
Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about 4 mile
from the shore.

o1
on

Condition of sea : Slightly choppy ; E. wind.
Depth: About 6 fathoms. Temperature: 54°.
Bottom : Rocky. and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+
Hard old shell 1 54 eZ
Hard new shell é
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

NN
+

Total number of males : 105. Average number per haul: 7.5.
Average size: 3-545.

Female Crawfish.
Sizemmches 1 4,— 2+, 34, 94.4, 54, , 64, 95

Hard old shell a 20 I bea
Hard new shell
Soft new shell
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry ve oA of o iy ea

Total number of females: 27. Average number per haul:
I-26:

Average SIZE? 2-24.

Total number of males and females: 132. Average number
per haul: g -428.

Average size: 3 ‘279.

No. 45.
Date : 23/9/13. Number of hauls: 14.
Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about 4 mile
from the shore.
Condition of sea: Calm, slight swell.
Depth: 7 fathoms. Temperature: 54°.
Bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.

Size in inches I +,
Hard old shell 1
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell : oe bys am Es He

Total number of males: 29. Average number per haul :
2-071.

Average size: 2°56.

[(C.P. 6—’14.]

do Odo
+
1 fs
+
do Un
+
on
+
Ny
+

2+,
23

Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell 2 20 I 2
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell oe
In berry xt og dead
In eyed berry

LS)

Total number of females: 28. Average number per haul : 2.

Average size: 2-589.

Total number of males and females: 57. Average size:
2.574-

Average number per haul: 4-07.

N.B.—A good many small crawfish escaped through the
meshes of the net, and therefore could not be registered. The
fisherman says that all big crawfish, especially females in berry,
are to be found in Camps Bay.

No. 46.

Date: 26/9/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, + mile from
the shore.

Condition of sea: Choppy ; slight north breeze ; misty.

Depth: 7 fathoms. Temperature: 54°.

Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesI +, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+

Hard old shell 14 82 3

Hard new shell

Soft old shell

Soft new shell

Total number of males: 109. Average number per haul :
7 785.
Average size: 2-206.
Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+,
Hard old shell ‘120
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell i - - 5%
In berry (soft old 1 7 I 2
shell).
In eyed berry

WN Oo

+5 4+, SY Ose oo

57

Total number of females: 33. Average number per haul :
2 °357-

Average size: 2-778.

Total number of males and females: 142. Average size:
2 :260.

Average number per haul: 10-142.

N.B.—A good many smal] crawfish escaped through the
meshes of the nets and, therefore, could not be registered or
measured.

No. 47.

Date : 30/9/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about 4 mile
from the shore.

Condition of sea: Slight S.E. wind.

Depth: 6 fathoms. Temperature: 52°.

Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.

Sizeiminches i+; 2+; 34. 44+, 5+, O+.. 7+
Hard old shell 17 18 I if I I
Hard new shell ue ;

Soft old shel!
Soft new shell : aM AA are a as
Total number of males: 39. Average number per haul:
2-785.
Average size: 2 °52I.
Female Crawfish.

SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell 14 oi Bt: Re ss
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell nS ne a a
In berry (softold .. Se ia | r2

shell).

In eyed berry ie +

Total number of females: 51. Average number per haul:
3 642.

Average size: 2.26.

Total number of males and females: 90. Average size: 2.

Average number per haul: 6 -427.

N.B.—A good many small crawfish must have escaped
through the meshes of the nets and, therefore, could not be
registered.

[(C.P. 6—’14.]

58

No. 48.

Date: 7/10/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about 4 mile
off shore.

Condition of sea: Choppy, S.E. wind.

Depth: 9 fathoms. Temperature: 53°.

Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3

Soft new shell ao eet 3

Hard new shell

Soft old shell

Soft new shell : a sf i " os
Total number of males: 25 average number per haul:

1-785. Average size: 4 -82.

Female Crawfish.
Sizeimninches I+, 24+; 34, 44, 54,2504) ee
Hard old shell Bree ns: a
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell ye Ee ba ae
In berry (soft,old .. a 20
shell).
In eyed berry of Ke

Total number of females: 32. Average number per haul:
2-285.

Average size: 3 °8.

Total number of males and females: 57. Average size:
6 -004.

Average number per haul: 4-07.

+, 4+,
4

Ui On
ae
o>)
+
“SI
+

is)

No. 49.

Date : 13/10/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about 4
mile off shore.

Condition of sea : Choppy ; very strong S.E. wind.

Depth: 8 fathoms. Temperature: 53°.

Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesiI+, 24, 34, 44 99%hj0 GAS
Hard old shell 2 62 I 4
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

59

Total number of males: 69. Average number per haul:
4-928.
Myerage size: 2-717.

Female Crawfish.
bi SizeininchesI +, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+; O64; 7+
Hard old shell oT -
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell ; :
In berry abe so. 5 9 ri
In eyed berry
Total number of females: 36. Average number per haul :
2-571.
Average size: 3.
Total number of males and females: 105. Average size:
2 814.
Average number per haul: 7°5.

N.B.—Peter Sangiorgio, a fisherman, says that the females
at Camps Bay are already losing the eggs, which are white
and eyed.

A good many small crawfish escaped through the meshes
of the nets.

No. 50.

Date : 18/10/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel about 4 mile
from the shore.

Depth: 8 fathoms. Temperature: 52°.
Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 64+, 7+

Hard old shell os I : bbe we
Hard new shell .. ae ee aS SG es 5A
Soft old shell a ap ae ore a aa se
Soft new shell a e ae aA ae ‘ie o3

—~ Total number of males: 1. Average number per haul : 0 -16.
Average size: 2°25.
[C.P. 6—’14.] F

Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell ae: a oe
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell
In berry
In eyed berry

Total number of females: 1. Average number per haul:
o-16.

Average size: 2°5.

Total number of males and females: 2. Average size : 2 375.

Average number per haul: 0-142.

N.B.—A few small crawfish must have escaped through the
meshes of the nets.

No, 51-

Date: 21/10/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite Milnerton Hotel, about
4 mile off the shore.

Condition of sea: Choppy ; N.W. wind and slight swell

Depth: 8 fathoms. Temperature: 51°.

Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawjtsh.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+

Hard old shell Be 6) ae I
Hard new shell :
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

Total number of males: 21. Average number per haul: 1-5.

Average size: 2.238.

Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell 1 20 ak
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell : Lae ae
In berry ne Aes 6
In eyed berry ~~ ..

Total number of females: 32. Average number per haul :
3 Pp

2 +285.
Average size: 2-694.

by reps. Sey ee

61

Total number of males and females: 53. Average size:
2 *514.

Average number per haul: 3.785.

N.B.—A few small crawfish escaped through the meshes of
the nets and could, therefore, not be registered. The fisher-
men say that during the next week or so the male crawfish
will begin to be sick. They point out that if an antenne of a
healthy crawfish is broken, the break is clean, right through
the shell and the meat, whereas, with a crawfish that is begin-
ing to be sick, the break is only through the shell, the meat
inside being torn.

No; 52:

Date : 25/10/13. Number of hauls: 4.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about 4 mile
from shore.

Condition of sea: Rough; S.W. wind.

Depth: 8 fathoms. Temperature: 52°.

Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell 1 i ee ie
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

Total number of males: 2. Average number of haul: 0°5.
Average size: 2.

Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 74
Hard old shell ee I
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell a8 af a
fhajberry (softald |... x 2
shell).
In eyed berry

Total of females: 4. Average number per haul: 1.

Average size : 3.041.

Total number of males and females : 6.

Average size: 3 041.

Average number per haul: 1.5.

N.B.—Some small crawfish escaped through the meshes of
the nets and, therefore, could not be registered. Very pro-

[C.P. 6—’14.|

62

bably, owing to the state of the weather and the roughness
of the sea, the anchor rope broke and fishing operations had
to be stopped before the full 14 hauls were made.

No. 53

Date: 28-10-13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about 4 mile
from the shore.

Condition of sea: Smooth ; slight N.W. breeze.

Temperature : 53°.

Condition of bottom: Rocky and weed-grown.

Male Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell 1 20 vd se
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell

Total number of males: 21. Average number per haul : 1.5.
Average size: 2-238.

Female Crawfish.
SizeininchesI+, 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+, 7+
Hard old shell way 15 tie a ve
Hard new shell
Soft old shell
Soft new shell ks whe we ve
In berry (softold .. Soy 4
shell).
In eyed berry

Total number of females: 23. Average number per haul:
I 642.

Average size: 2.717.

Total number of males and females: 44. Average size:
2 +488.

Average number per haul: 3.142.

N B.—Some crawfish escaped through the meshes of the
nets and, therefore, could not be registered. At Camps Bay
the fishermen are now sometimes catching a few large (6 inches
to 7 inches) male crawfish, which they describe as being in a
new soft shell and as not suitable for sale. All the females
caught this trip at Milnerton were in hard old shells, but some
had a distinctly new shell forming under the old one.

63
No. 54.

Date: 1/11/13. Number of hauls: 14.

Locality : Milnerton Beach, opposite the hotel, about 4 mile
from the shore.

Condition of sea: N.W. swell, choppy, N. breeze.

Depth: 9 fathoms. Temperature: 54°.

Condition of bottom: Rocky, weed-grown.

Male Crawfish. Nil.
Female Crawfish. Nil.

N.B.—The fishermen say that there will not be any crawfish
at Milnerton Beach for some time to come.

These data are put in the form of the following table, from
which some general conclusions bearing on practical questions
may more readily be drawn :—

[C.P. 6—’14.]

64

Synopsis of Number and Description of Crawfish caught in Experimental

MALES.
DATE. { |
Hard | Hard | Soft Soft | Total | Average |
| Old | New | Old New | Num- | per | Average
Shell Shell. | Shell. | Shell. ber. | Haul. SIZex
| } |
1 |
2 November, 1912 3 273 ae I 16 290 | 12.08; 5.65
6 a ik 19 as =H 2 61 2.54 2a
12 “5 ere Se II a 4¢ Mot TL) “ean 1.18
13 ” 6 3 9} 0.56 |" Sage
28 “0 ae 18 18 2.25 | | tee
5 December, 1912 on + ee i os Fie: Ee / :
12 > oe aa 16 Ae ay ee oY 16). Tighe] ee
17 * ie 4 19 sis at A, a ol 19 leas L.7o
30 5 eae Be 10 age BAY || sve pte) 0.71 5.6
7 January, 1913 sid 9 Gf Le hwal da ete git 16| 1.14 | 45am
ae) > ac 18 6 24 | ely fil 4-45
14 p : fx :
21 “
28 es ok 2 ae ead} Seen 2 o.14| 6
4 February, 1913 * we: 6 | ae 6| o,42)| “Sem
6 3 Aue Sic 53 ie a: ae 53 3-78 | 4-71
12 ” ie a0 ite Als 2 | Be eae ors an
14 4p oN ie Se ane | 31 31 peerart 4.67
18 3 ee ee oe e- oe | oe o- | 2 oe
24 > Se ote a 10 Ae 17 29. \\ roe 5.48
11 April, 1913 mf Es 2 an ate ae 2 0.16
23 >” 50 ate ae ee aoe | I2 I Sige
2 May, 1913 ae Pe I 5 ae ae 6 0.42 6
9 ” ale 56 29 sic - ah 29 QEOF 4-37
20 ” 6 Ae 18 Ns os aie 18 1.28 5.40
30 ” oe 3a 39 oe Se Ac 39 2078 6.32
I2 June, 1913 4% Sc 58 ot ere a 58 4.14 T.23
.26 35 50 sie 92 oe 36 one 92 6.57 6
4 July, 1913 a Sts 62 A. sha ay 62 4.35 5-79
8 a ate 20 61 at, ae 50 61 4.35 5-73
15 oS 24 24 LOG A 6.22
18 » 47 47 3-35 0.24
25 a 161 161 LEG 6.89
29 ss ove BS an
31 » oe oe 66 as 20 Ae 66 4.71 6.37
5 August, 1913 a 6 te oe 2 6 0.42 5-91
14 6 a3 50 74 oe oe Se 74 5.28 6.05
16 s Na as 7. ae a a 7 O25 5.64
19 ” oe ee 23 ove oe wile 23 1.64 2.46
23 ”° oe on .- Ain aD fe So ais oe
26 2 aye 58 gI ae eke os gI 6.5 5.75
5 September, 1913 49 29 ae ac ays 29 3R02 3.23
9 a5 4c 4 ans nr =o 4 0.28 3-37
13 os 105 105 7.5 3-54
23 2 eee ase 29 =e a0 29 2.07 2.56
20 s se oe 109 ae a¢ at 109 Fao Dee
30 » .- 39 39 2.78 2.52
7 October, 1913 .. 25 25 1.78 4.85 9
13 as 62 69 4.92 2afe
18 53 I I 0.16 2.25
ar “ S 21 21 Te5 2.23
25 9 2 2 0.5 2.
28 “5 a6 21 21 TS 2.230
1 November, 1913 < A :

65

Hauls in Table Bay from 2nd November, 1912, to 11th November, 1913.

FEMALES. | Maes & FEMALES.
Hard | Hard | Soft | Soft Total | Average a Average
Old | New | Old | New In | Num- per Average | Num- per Average
Shell. | Shell. | Shell. | Shell. bony) ber. | Haul. Size: ber. | Haul. | Size.
ge ca | | |
is | | 581) (S200 | 0208 5.65
ss)! al “5 | eon 254 Zed,
Ta) 2 I4 385 1.78 25 6.25 1.48
4 | | 4 0.25 3-77 Ba | (0-812)| 4-55
ae | ,) te ae) T25 Bagel BEZOoueesieS 2.54
4 5 9 $A | 2 sah aati mn 78 soe
16 6 22 57. 2 AT 2 O2, 1.89
Xi ii .O7 4 Wee QTD .78 4.8
20h 2k T.5 Se 37 | 2.46 3-7
| 3 3 OnZ 3403 2 .89 1.92
| q 0.55 De Gil File Dr) eoge
54 | 2 o.14 6
ae | : 6 0.42 5 +33
27 |. 27 BFOZ 1h S2Sy We LSOnl 5 6
; 28 28 st iP a(S) “59 4.21 3.13
ae 73 ne 7s 5.21 | 3.24 | Too | 7.14 4.36
Z| | 7 0.58 3-9 OF). O75 4-95
ae | eee a bc D2) ase 3-75
2 | 2 0.14 4 io) |) a5} 5.25
6 | 6 0.42 4.33 35 2.5 4.37
14 14 I esino5 Ba | sz 5-34
8 8 0.57 5.09 47 3-35 6.11
39 39 25:78; |) 1079 97 | 6.92 1.45
23 23 1.64 4.0 II5 Sear 5-72
44 a 44 3-14 4-5 105 LoD WW OSes
32 4 30 2.57 4.58 97 | 6.92 | 5.3
By : 5 0.35 4.6 29 207) sled ie O4.
90 90 6.42 Gest 137 9.78 5.63
150 | | 150 LOZ 5-53 Ql) | 22) 2eAT Ones
re Ieee ; St “ie : | 6
171 | 6 : | £77, 12.64 Sr SOn 24e ally S5; 5.88
7 | 7 0.5 4.89 113} 0.92 5.36
2 ag | 2 0.14 Aes 76 5.42 6.02
3 : 7 0.5 5.64
16 : } ans 1.14 2.5 39 2S 2.48
I I 0.33 4-75 92 | 6.57 5-7
7 Fi 0.87 240 36 4.5 Bt
I I 0.07 2.5 5 Rok 0.35
27 27 1.92 2.24 132 9.42 3-27
25 3 28 2 2.58 507 4k07 2.57
Ze II 33 2.635 2eiT 142 | 10.14 2.26
35 16 52 Biat7iit Pd Ato) gl 6.5 2.57
5 Dy 32 2.28 3.8 52 4.07 6.004
21 115 36 2.57 3 105 7.5 2.81
I O65 I 0.16 2.5 2 QO, 0.142
27 32 II 2.28 2.69) 53 Bags: 2.51
c 3) 4 I 3-04 | 6 1.5 3-04
15 8 23 1.64 Beat) le Wail oe ae 3.48

[C.P. 6—'14.]

66

From these observations the follow ng general conclusions
among others may be deduced.

Males are never entirely absent throughout the year and,
contrary to what has been generally accepted, are fairly
abundant in the months October to February. The months
December to April are those in which they are fewest. There
is a sudden increase in June, and a gradual falling off with
fluctuations up to November. Males with soft new shell are
found in November, December and January up to the 24th
February, but only one (in November) with soft old shell,
which is preparatory to moulting. Moulting is generally
stated to take place in deep water, but it would appear from
this that it also occurs, to some extent, in shallow water.
Males in hard new shell, indicating a stage later than that of
the soft new shell, were found in January, February, April and
May. With regard to size there is an increase in larger forms
in the winter months April-September.

The most striking feature in the variation in number of
females is the sudden increase in June and July, and this is
quite in keeping with the statement of fishermen that females
are very abundant in this month. They reach their maximum
in July, whereas the maximum number of males is in June.
There is a decided falling off in August both in males and
females. The largest females occur in May to August. The
period at which mature males and females occur together is in
June and July, and copulation probably takes place at this
time. This is confirmed by the observation made on the craw-
fish kept at the Marine Laboratory at St James, when it was
found that copulation followed shortly after moulting, and
spawning occurred chiefly in these months. We may, there-
fore, be justified in concluding that in June and July males
and females come together in the shallow water (about 6
fathoms) for reproduction.

The first females in berry were caught on the 23rd Septem-
ber, and they continued to be procured throughout the sunimer
months till the 21st January.

3. In making the foregoing experimental haul, the oppor-
tunity was taken to carry out a series of townettings with a
view to procuring further information as to the occurrence
and habits of the young stages of the crawfish. These results,
arranged in tabulated form, are as follows :—

67

TOWNETTINGS IN TABLE BAY FROM JANUARY, 1913, TO JUNE,
1914, SHOWING THE OCCURRENCE OF -LARVAL CRAWFISH

Date.

Io Jan., 1913 |

14 Jan., 13

21 Jan., 13

tr Mar., ’13

2 May, Ste}
9 May, Ti
20 May, ‘13

>

30 May, "103}

9°

99
20 June, ’13

”°

25 June, 713)
26 June, ’13

4 July, ’13

10 July, 78g)

(phyllosomas ).
Num-
Tem- | Quan- | ber of
Locality. Depth.| pera- | tities Phyl-
ture. | in c.c. | loso-
| | mas.
Between Pier and Blaauwberg Wiser 58 TiO
Along the Blaauwberg shore tow ards WwW ood- S 58 38.9 2
stock. | |
Table Bay S) 58 Wasa |e
> ote ie 36.4 | 20
” e. alte Bee he oe AD oe 69.1 | 3
Between Milnerton shore and Woodstock | 5S 52 TO
sewer. | |
” ” ” | M ” 19 | [
Near Milnerton : Heras 52 14.49,
Near Milnerton and Woodstock beach M 52 24.8 |
Near Milnerton beach M 58 72.9 |
| Across the Bay towards Milnerton M 99 69.6
| ) 5 25.6 |
From “Milnerton "towards Woodstock M » 37-2
Across Table Bay S EEGs)
” | S . COySIE ||
” |; M Be 7+4 |
Near Milnerton aS 58 10.5 |
50 | M as 16.5 |
” * eo. ° B °° 9. I |
Near Milnerton, along the shore . S 60 3.6 |
cry °° ” M 99 2.7
” ” ” B ” 4.1 |
Near Milnerton ( 3S 58 Tage
” M ” 4-5 |
” o¢ be B ” Sosy |
| Near Milnerton, close inshore M 57 5h. 3
55 5 ‘5 B 5 65.4
4 mile off shore near Milnerton S . 35.6 |
Near Milnerton fa acs) - 4.9
” | M “5 0.9 |
” ee B; 9 G7 |
Near Woodstock sewer lS ‘ Gf.
Near Milnerton beach ys 56 7.62 |
*9 | M x SiGe |
” ee ee ain |} B ary 38.4 |
Between “ America’’ wreck and Milnerton 5S 50 13.0 |
Hotel, 4 Mile off shore.
’? - i) ”° 99 M ” Gf - I |
” ” ” ” . | B ” 5-7
Near Woodstock sewer : : 0.3
a } oe ¥ 1.6
” } 9 3° I a 6
” . | ” ” 2.3 |
| |

(S, M and B indicate Surface, Mid-water and Bottom nets respectively.
Temperatures are given in degrees Fahrenheit.
is given in cubic centimetres.)

[C.P. 6—’14.]

The total quantity of plankton

68

Date.

15 July,’

”

18 July.’

39

25 July, ’

29 July, 2

99

31 July,’

29

5 Aug., ;

99

13 Aug.,
14 Aug.,

33

16 Aug., i

>

°°
19 Aug., ’

bo]

23 Aug., :

”°

26 Aug.,

97

5 Sept.,

fits:
"13

"13

73 |

Peis}

| Woodstock pipe.

Locality.

Off Milnerton beach, about 5 fur. from shore
°° 39 + 39

Off Milnerton shore .
Milnerton beach and Woodstock pipe

2°

Off the Breakwater

a

Milnerton beach

9

Woodstock pipe

cr)

99 .
| Along the foreshore

99

| Behind the Woodstock pipe

99 39

Mouille Point Lighthouse

Woodstock pipe
Woodstock pipe & Mouille Point Lighthouse

9° > 9° ”

Mouille Point Lighthouse & Robben Island

99 > 39 ”

Mouille Point Lighthouse to Robben Tsland
and back.

cr | 99 99 99
99 3° 39 39 hal
Somerset Hospital to Mouille Point Light-
house.

9° 9 ” J

9 9 9° ”° oO
Woodstock pipe to the wreck of ‘‘ America ”’

” 9 99 9

>

” 29 >
Mouille Point Lighthouse

9 ”

+) 9
Round the two wrecks

9

99 of *
Across the Bay towards Woodstock
2° 99 99

” 3 29

!
Tem- | Quan-

Depth. pera- | tities

BHEMNnD enn enensnwwen

OWE NNEZnWsw: Deu sunsw:

Henn sunsudsuys

ture. | IDCs.

52 Dives
a 10.4
” 4-0
53 24.8
” 7-
a Ban
53 9.
ey 9.
55 6.
¥ 8.
aA 3
59 6
” 6
4)S} 10.7
it TOR
fe bs Yee |
53 I4.0
oe 18.2
39 43.0
54 20.7
a 19.0
39 43-0
54 | 15-3
” | 10.3
a 14.0
site Q.r
54 39.2
” 14 9
” | 47-2
54) Ny hikes
| | BRO
| § Loko
53 | 2-9
mA 27.0
5 11.6
” 9.9
o° 45.2
29.6
53 LEO
” 2.9
> S|

” ee

3 16.0
Pe 22/23
54 | 3-6
” byns)
” 7.90
” j 9.3
eal 730)
” 4.0

MAR NNOAKHHND

Iz

Date.

Ii Oct., aie)

:°

Da Oct., “£3

yo

18 Oct., a3

2”

3°
2x Oct.; 13
25 ”

28 Oct., fins)

9
99

I Nov., ’13
99
99

4 Nov., 13
99
9

8 Nov., 713
39

11 Nov., ’13
3°
99

15 Nov., ’13
7°

19 Nov., ’13

33

99

69

Locality.

| Across the Bay towards Milnerton

99 29 +h

_ Off Mouille Point Lighthouse

{

9 3

be) ” ee
Across the Bay to Milnerton

9 99

| Along the Milnerton shore

9

Across the Bay from Milnerton

> ”

Off Milnerton Shore

” se

Oft Milnerton shore

Pa

Mouille Point Lighthouse -

| Past Mouille Point Lighthouse

> 29

Off Mouille Point

”

| Mouille Point Lighthouse to Robben Island

9 39 99

Between Mouille Point Lighthouse and

Robben Island.

9 39 99

Off Robben Island, about : mile from shore

29 > 29

Off Robben Island, about ? mile from shore

Gm Ropheaisend: see).

9

From Somerset Hospital to Mouille Point

Lighthouse.

°° 9° 39

Woodstock pipe

29

nn sunn sub sunseunnsudtsnyZuysZnrsunnsunnsnwsn

nHeunwWs ndsunsn suns

Quan-
tities
bemenen

_ Ll
BU DADADOARARUIR D

Ny 1)
Ke) nN
PCWHN OWN DOH MDM BHACAHAANN WOO WOO MWNOOWDODODAWOMDAWACNH NBO O

16.

NOW

he hs 6=-7]

Num-
ber of
Phyl-
loso-
mas.

70

Date.

5 Dec., "13

9

9 Dec., 13

99

9

22 Dec.,, 13
2?
99

30 Dec., 13
9°

9°
to Jan., 14

9°

14 Jan., 14
16 Jan., 14

99
99
20, Jan., 14
99
28}Jan., ’14
”>

30’ Jan., "14

9°

3 Feb., "14

”

7 Feb., 13

”?

10 Feb., "E4

1

12 Feb., "14

20 Feb., "14
24 Feb., "14
27 Feb., "14

3 Mar., "14

9

Locality.

Green Point ..

”

Breakwater ta Robben Island

99 9

Robben Island
Breakwater to Woodstock pipe

Green Point to Breakwater

9 °°

9 °°
Breakwater to wreck
Pier to wreck

9

Robben Island

9
”

9

39 of
Breakwater to wreck

>

3° ee ee ee
Green Point to Breakwater

9 29

39 ””
Breakwater to wreck

9

Robben Island

9

‘Woodstock pipe to Breakwater

”? 39

Breakwater towards Robben Island

> > >

Robben Island

>

Robben Island and "Breakwater to wreck

99 > bd

Robben Island ”

”

99

”

Depth.

HSnW evn sun sun sun sun sunsurseunwsuyZuynZyseuvuvwszurseuwsunwseuvwsew

Tem-
pera-
ture.

Quan-
tities
in'Cics

HOAH DON ANROHUN OU HUI

D ODAAVUADBOKVUO © OCADAWMHNNHADBHAD

Num-
ber of
Phyl-
loso-
mas.

71

Date.

Io Mar., 714

21 Mar. ’14

26 Mar., ’14

9

1 April, ’14

| ”° oe s(ouy oe
Breakwater towards Green Point

3° 9° 99 99 2) |
From Robben Island towards the Breakwater

| ” 2” ”
From the Breakwater to wreck

Locality.

Se ne oe ne eal

3°

99 Le) ” oe ee
Across the Bay towards the Breakwater
99 29 99 EP]

99 39

Robbea isiand *

33 ee

From the middle of the Bay towards the
Breakwater.

29 9 99 9 ==

9 9 99 99
ce)

99 9 3°

From the Breakwater fowaide Robben Isl’a

29 2”? 29 39

From Robben Island towards the Breaks

water.
99 9 39 29
39 7° 39° 99
9 99 99 99

From the middle of the Bay towards the
Breakwater.

From Robben Island towards Mouille Point
Lighthouse.

”° ” 9 9

From the Mouille Point Lighthouse towards
the Breakwater.

99 ”° 29 93

99 > 3 3° ee
Robben Island towards the Breakwater..

29 39 99 os ae)

From the middle of the Bay towards the
Breakwater.

> 9 29 2? ~O

From Robben Island towards the Break-
water.

29 ” 29 9 sre

9 ”° :° 3° ee
From Breakwater towards Robben Island

> Ee] 29 be

[C.P. 6—’14.]

Depth. pera-

Sonne nd snnsunnsunwWs nt snn svn snen

ons ww

dhZnnds nn wnWeuWs

| Tem- |

etliTess|

Quan-
tities
in €.c.

Oe.

#
BR WN Ou oO

Io.

HAH
DWkOnPWNUH DO

Hee
nwo hr

by 00 O MO NH ONNN OF

DWN ARDOOH ROD UP HO

Dw un

wm of

oO-
ee)

NN DOR AWA De NH

CON HWA

Num-
ber of
Phyl-
loso-
mas.

72

Date.

2z April, 14
99

”

25 April, "14.

26 May, '14

”>

9?

| From the middle of the Bay towards the |

Locality. |

From the Middle of the Bay towards the |
Breakwater. |

39 7 > >

From Robben Island towards the Break-

water.
9° ’? 7 3;°
3’? ” 9° ”°
9 > 99 93 |
9° ”° .;° °°

From the Breakwater towards Robben |
Island.

9 ” 9 99

From Robben Island towards the Breakwater!
|

99 99 99 ” ae |

From the middle of the Bay towards the |
Breakwater. |

” ”° 3° 3 Cee
|

” ” °° s aiiet at
From Robben Island towards the Breakwater

9 ” bb 3

” ” ” ” ee |
From the Breakwater towards Robben Isla’d |

” ° ” ” oe

Between the Breakwater and Robben Island

9 9 99 9°

From the middle of the Bay towards the
Breakwater.

”° 99 2). 9°

From the Breakwater towards Robben Tsla’dj

2° +} 99 33

From Robben Island towards the Breakwater

99 99 39 >

9 9° 9° 9° ee
From the middle of the Bay towards the
Breakwater.

99 ” 9° >

From Robben Island towards the Breakwater

” 3 o° 9

Breakwater.
99 39° %° 3°
9° 99 ’ >

OWEZNWS YDpevns wnws

nOWsunnsnn evs

nundsuns wd sunsuws

poly

pera-
ture. || in cies

60

Tem- | Quan-

tities

Lea!

Lal
BRO OCINAU,R ORIYA HR BAP AAU NHAHUHP FAH LL

OR OOUYONIODS

BR H

HOO O

Fig: Slnbeeun

OHALONOROOO ONROAHY

oa

nN AL WO

a3

Num-
| | Tem- | Quan- | ber of
Date, | Locality. \Dep’h.) pera-| tities | Phyl-
| | fares | nC.G- | OSo-
| mas.
9 June, ’14 From the Breakwater towards Robben Island : 56 9.9
” ” ” ” . | ay a W256 4
” | ” °° 7” ory oc B ” 9 4 9
on | From Robben Island towards the Breakwater S ne 16 5
” | ” ” ” M ” Tl. O
”° | 9 ”? bed 9° Lt B Le) 6 C 6
20 June, ’14 | From the middle of the Bay towards the | S 54 9.1
| Breakwater.
” | ” ” ” ” M ” 9.1
” | ” ” ” °° creur'| B no 6.6
39 | From Robben Island towards the Breakwater! S < 14.0
” | ” ” ” M ” 2.3
” | ” ” ” ’ | B ” (8 5

4. THE “PUERULUS” OR “NATANT” STAGE OF
THE CAPE CRAWFISH.

This may be recognised by its very transparent, glassy body,
though otherwise superficially resembling a miniature crawfish.
The following is a preliminary note of this stage, details of which
will be published later. The body is not entirely colourless,
but has patches of the bright red colour seen in the earlier
stages (phyllosoma). These are very conspicuous on the
ventral side of the animal near the base of the legs, and on the
under side of the thorax. This colouring matter completely
disappears very soon after the animal is dead, and preserved
specimens retain it only for a few hours if exposed to light.
There are fewer spines on the shield, and the ‘“‘ swimmerets ”’
of the tail are well developed, each consisting of a relatively
large expodite and endopodite, the latter provided with a
coupling mechanism. These serve as swimming organs in
place of the outer branches of the walking legs, which have
now disappeared, leaving only rudiments or stumps in their
place. In the adults the “swimmerets” have never been
observed to function as swimming organs, being very much
reduced in the male, and converted into egg-bearing organs
in the female. The gills in the puerulus have become greatly
developed, and are now covered by the enlarged shield. The
change in the position of the gills is of interest. In the phyl-
losoma there are two on the upper side of the thorax (pleuro-
branchs), and one on the joint between the thorax and leg
(arthrobranch). In the adult there is one pleurobranch and

[C.P. 6—’14.]

74

two arthrobranchs, just the reverse of the condition shown 1n
the phyllosoma. In the puerulus there are three, which may
be said to occur on the side of the body, and later stages show
that a new and enlarged joint is found, on which the two lower
gills are situated, while the third becomes surrounded by the
calcareous material, which is deposited on the side of the
thorax and separates it well from the other two. The puerulus is
quite devoid of calcareous deposits. The dimensions and
proportions of the body are of interest. The smallest puerulus
is very much smaller than the largest phyllosoma, and the
largest is larger than the smallest stage at which the adult
colouring and calcareous deposits occur—for convenience, this
might be called the calcareous stage. The length of the
carapace, in proportion to the total length of the animal,
becomes greater throughout the various stages, and this is
continued even through successive calcareous stages.

The stages through which the Cape crawfish passes after
hatching are, therefore, as follows :—

1. The naupliosoma, in which the antenne are biramous
locomotory appendages, provided with long swimming
sete, the other appendages being relatively short
and devoid of swimming setae.

2. The phyllosoma, in which the antenne become unira-
mous and lose their swimming setae, the other
appendages becoming suddenly relatively elongated,
and the outer branch of the walking legs develop-
ing swimming setae.

3. The puerulus, in which the antennules are relatively
smaller the antenne large and wuniramous. The
pleopods are biramous and act as swimming organs.
There are only a few spines on the carapace.

4. The calcareous stage, in which deposits of carbonate of
lime appear in the cuticle. The pleopods become
reduced, and lose their swimming functions.

The complete life history of the Cape crawfish is not, how-
ever, yet known, there being several gaps in the series of
specimens procured. Thus, no stages have been found between
the phyllosoma of 3-8 mm. in length and those of 24 mm.
From this the series is fairly complete up to 37 mm.

The largest gap, however, is between the oldest phyllosoma
and the puerulus. Whether or not the puerulus with its
much-shortened body and legs, its curved shield, etc., at a
single moult assumes these characteristics. is as yet unknown.

joyd woig ‘sow Fi F pu € ‘azis [eanjeu sau] g oe z pur I vs Sn[nisandg sy} ‘Pv f veUOsO[[AY, padt 2 s10ul v SE
‘ (ewlosoy[AYg) a8v}s puooss oy} ‘cz { (vutosordneN) Suryo} Ide ISvYS SIG 9y} ‘I : (4puvyy] snsvy) ‘YsyArerg advo ay} Jo sasvys AT.

a
ves
ae
Se ST ga
+
——
*

NI
on

IV.—DESTRUCTION OF FISH AND FISH SPAWN BY
NETTING IN THE BERG RIVER AND AT KNYSNA.

A. BERG RIVER.

The question of the alleged destruction of young fish and
fish eggs in the Berg River has recently become an important
one in the fishing industry of that locality, and has called for
a good deal of investigation and enquiry on the part of the
Administration. The statements of the interested parties have
been so varied and contradictory that independent evidence
has been necessary. An enquiry by the Magistrates of the
districts directly concerned was held, and a good deal of
information was obtained from the various witnesses examined.
An independent investigation of the alleged facts of the case
was also made by the Department, and some other points
in dispute cleared up in a report on the subject. The object
of the present note is to record in more detail than was possible
in this report the facts of the case and the result of this in-
vestigation.

The Berg River is, next to the Orange River, the chief
watercourse on the west coast of South Africa. It is charac-
terised by the large extent of its tidal part, sea-water having
on occasion been found as far as fifteen miles inland. In this
part there are extensive flat areas or “ plaaten ”’ over which
the water extends, and these, with the main channels of the
river, form the feeding and (some allege) the breeding grounds
for multitudes of salt water fish. The sea-water does not
usually extend so far inland, and sometimes fresh water is
found at the mouth of the river in heavy floods. Sea-water
is, however, usually found four or five miles from the sea.

This extensive estuarine section of the river has from time
immemorial been the fishing ground of a number of fishermen,
who capture the fish by seine and set nets. There are, it is
stated, at the present time 27 boats working in the river and
about I,000 persons dependent on them for a living. Some
of the boats on the river go to sea, especially in the Snoek
season, but the 27 boats are not sea-going boats. The fishing
in the river all the year round is, according to this evidence,
therefore, fairly extensive.

Naturally enough, some conflict of interests was lable to
arise between the river fishermen and the sea fishermen,
especially on any indication of the falling-off of the supply
from the sea, and in the year 1897 representations were made
to Government by those interested in sea fishing that the

netting was doing damage to the fishing industry generally,
[C >. 6—'14.] G

76

more especially by the placing of set nets across the main
channels of the river, thus preventing the fish having access
to their feeding and spawning grounds. A Proclamation was
accordingly issued forbidding the placing of such nets in the
main channels of the Berg River, on the ground that whether
or not the river is the feeding and spawning ground of the fish,
it was undesirable that it should be blocked to their ingress.
Under the Fisheries Ordinance of 1912 this regulation
lapsed, but on representations from the fishermen, was
re-enacted under a somewhat different form, as follows :—
“Within the limits of the fishing area defined in Procla-
mation No. 115 of 1912 (the Berg River from its
mouth to the ebb and flow drift, known as Wilgen-
boschdrift, in the Division of Malmesbury, including
all tidal creeks between the mouth and the said drift)
no person shall fish in the main channels of the Berg
River with any kind of net other than seine or trek
net ; but staked or drift nets may be used in such
waters of the so-called flats, plaaten or backwaters of
the said river as are not parts of the main channels.”
At a later date, representation was made to the Adminis-
trator that the fish supply in St. Helena Bay and its neigh-
bourhood was falling off considerably, and this was believed
to be due to netting operations in the Berg River. It was
stated that in the opinion of the “ best fishermen,” Harders
come into the river to spawn, and these spawning fish, as well
as young fish, are disturbed and destroyed to such an extent
that the general fish supply is affected. On the other hand,
this was controverted by the river fishermen, who state that
sea fish seldom visit the river, and that they never find any
salt water fish in the river in roe. The scarcity of fish is due,
they say, to the scaring methods employed by the Italians,
and also to the explosion of the bombs used by the whalers.
That there has been a falling-off in the supply is admitted by
most fishermen, and seems to be established by statistics of the
catches of Harders and ‘‘ Bokkoms.”’ Some, however, main-
tain not only that there has been no falling-off, but that there
has been an increase at some places.
For the sake of clearness, the various points at issue may
be set forth :—
(x) Is there a marked decrease in the supply ?
(2) Are sea fish found in the Berg River ?
(3) Are sea fish in roe found °
(4) Do they deposit their eggs in the river ?
(5) If so, are these destroyed by netting ?
(6) Are their young destroyed by netting °
(7) Are immature fish destroyed by netting ?

77

With regard to the decrease in the supply, the only evidence
available is verbal statements, and the more valuable evidence
afforded by figures of catches of Harders and Bokkoms from
the year 1880 to 1913, supplied by Messrs. Stephan. These
figures are as follows :-—

St. HELENA BAY (FROM PATERNOSTER TO BERG RIVER Mouts).
QUANTITIES OF FisH NETTED BY MEsSRS. STEPHAN

Bros.

Year. Harders. Bokkoms.
1880 a 3s a 164,720 427,975
1881 a a Ass 256,765 558,000
1882 a Yes aie 186,340 649,750
1883 eo = pee 64,905 1,944,600
1884 a ae ne 44,125 1,558,575
1885 a oe 2 84,280 880,825
1886 ah Ae oh: 84,430 933,300
1887 Se - Ls 40,425 981,875
1888 i. Ss a 60,475 745,700
1889 ae + = 140,330 680,850
1890 ae . < 94,820 364,725
1891 bi sis Be 81,599 574,625
1892 ae si ha 108,902 914,350
1893 e ve sh 155,203 811,125
1894 1 -: -: 159,177 539,575
1895 - .. - 32,534 230,475
1896 as +? hs | 47,465 464,125
1897 - - - 56,552 75,975
1808 c ee oll 86,402 57,075
1899 ft ae We 118,546 120,725
1900 - - a 91,882 141,235
IQOL ~~ Ae a3 55934 152,285
1902 ie os a TOSS || 16,470
1903 i ae oe II,199 62,025
1904 C5 ar ue 9,542 104,575
1905 53 a se 16,149 78,990
1906 a ne | 50,368 | 60,775
1907 ay os eal 54,896 36,344
1908 ses i BM 60,831 210,989
1909 eae Ss ava sl 46,242 191,842
IgIoO os “te ital 12,125 70,855
IQII ba se ei 31,400 61,975
LOLZ = = oes | 17,263 54,200
1913 a ne ae 8,436 18,725

[C.P. 6—’14.]

78

One of the most striking features of these figures is the
erratic nature of the fluctuation in the supply. In four years
—188o0 to 1883—there was a steady increase in the supply of
‘** Bokkoms ”—from about 400,000 to nearly 2 millions. The
following year the quantity was less, but still relatively very
large. Thereafter nothing like this quantity was obtained.
There is no apparent cause for this sudden increase and equally
sudden decrease, but it would seem that it could not have been
due to any particular methods of fishing, and was entirely
beyond control.

The figures fall more or less steadily towards the year
1890 and increase suddenly in 1892. From this date there
is a more or less gradual falling-off. From 1897 to 1912 there
cannot, however, be said to be a falling-off, indeed, the supply
is greater in 1908 than in any year since 1890, and the figures
for 1902 are the lowest on record.

With regard to the adult fish or ““ Harder,” it is to be noted,
in the first place, that they are caught in much fewer numbers
and, secondly, that they do not show the same marked falling-
off in numbers as the young forms. Again, their years of
maxima and minima, as a rule, do not correspond with those
of the “ Bokkom,” though in 1895 and 1902 the minima of
both occurred in the same year, and in 1908 the maxima.

An interesting feature of these data is that there is a certain
periodicity in the occurrence of the good years. Thus, for
‘“ Harders ” and ‘* Bokkoms,” taken together, the relatively
best years were 1883, 1887, 1892, 1896, 1900, 1904, 1908, or
intervals of 4, 5, 4, 4, 4, 4 years respectively, though it is to be
noted that no outstanding good year has occurred subsequent
to 1908. According to this, 1912 or 1913 should have been
good years. These facts, which may prove to be of importance,
may be represented by the accompanying curves, the periodicity
being more clearly indicated in the “‘ smoothed ”’ curve. .

With regard to the figures as a whole, there is undoubtedly
a marked falling-off in the supply indicated, assuming their
relative accuracy and an approximately equal or at least not
diminishing number of men employed. The falling-off, how-
ever, may have been local in its occurrence and some of the
witnesses examined stated that the supply had increased at
other places, such as Hoetjes Bay.

With regard to the occurrence of sea fish in the Berg River,
statements are conflicting, but the experimental hauls made
by the Government may be taken as reliable evidence on this
point. In one of these latter, near the mouth of the river,
12 Gurnards (Trigla kumu), 2 White Steenbras (Pagellus
lithognathus), 2 White Stumpnose (Chrysophrys globiceps)—

79

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SI

not to be confused with the White Stumpnose of Knysna and
the Zwartkops River which is Sargus holubi—and two Baggers
(Galeichthys feliceps) were found. These are characteristic sea
fish. Another haul taken in the river five miles from the mouth
included 200 Elft (Temnodon saltator) ; one taken nine miles
from the mouth, in fresh water, included none of these fish,
and consisted of **Bokkoms,” which are young Harders (Mugzl
capito) and ‘* Assous”’ (Spratteloides aestuarius). The occur-
rence of Harders in the fresh water is of interest, as this is one
of the points in dispute. It may, therefore, be concluded that
sea fish are fairly abundant in the river, at least at this particu-
lar season (January).

It is stated by some that Kabeljaauw (Sctaena aquila) were
formerly abundant in the river ; Hottentot (Cantharus blochit)
and “ Rock Fish ” are said to be absent.

The Josef (Callorhynchus antarcticus) does not seem to be
found in the river, though so abundant on the coast here that
occasionally large haul are made by seine nets. Their capture
is unintentional, as they are useless as a food fish.

It is disputed that sea fish are ever found in roe in the river,
and none of the sea fish in the hauls made were in this condition,
except the Baggers, of which some were found with eggs.
From experimental hauls made in the Zwartkops River, it
seems that these fish, whose spawning habits are peculiar,
sometimes, at least, ascend well up into the tidal river at spawn-
ing times. From the data procured from the hauls, one might
conclude that, with the exception of the Bagger, sea fish are
not in roe in the river, but from investigation into the next
question, it is indicated that not only do they occur in roe, but
the eggs are actually deposited in the river.

These eggs were found in a series of tow-nettings 1n the river.
About two miles up the river, at ebb tide, 12 fish eggs were
procured in about four hauls of the net, lasting in all about
half-an-hour, and further up the river fish eggs were again found
in about the same numbers. The net was only about a frot
wide at its open end, and it is therefore evident that fish orgs
must be abundant in the river at this season.

The eggs procured were of two kinds, one with a diameter
of -85 to -g0 mm. and with a single oil globule of -21 mm. ;
a second measured -80 to -82 mm. in diameter and had from
5 to 7 small oil globules of -o8 to -12 mm. From previous
investigation at the Marine Laboratory, St. James, the first
kind would appear to be the eggs of the Kabeljaauw (Sctaena
aquila), which were found to measure from -g1 to -82 mm.
with a single oil globule (about 10 per cent. had two) of -2 to

‘Ig mm. (Vide Marine Investigations in South Africa, Vol.
[(C.P. 6—'14.]

82

III, p. 150.) The second kind resembles the eggs of the Sole
(Synaptura pectoralis), which measure -81 to -72 mm. in
diameter and have several oil globules from 1 (rare) to 12 in
number, and varying in diameter from -15 to -o4 mm. The
number of oil globules, however, is much less than is usual in
the egg of this Sole.

The condition of the eggs showed that they had recently
been shed, the germinal disc having only a few divisions, and
as they were taken at ebb tide, it may be concluded that they
were shed from the parent fish in the river.

These floating fish eggs are very small and transparent and
can with difficulty be seen by the naked eye, even when held
up to the light in a glass tube with water, and it is therefore
not to be expected that fishermen would be aware of their
presence in the river.

Another kind of fish egg is, however, well known to the
fishermen, being of a large size, about } inch in diameter. This
is the egg of the “ Bagger ” (Galeichthys feliceps), a fish which
has a quite unique method of reproduction. The eggs are
frequently found in hauls of the net, and in the boats, in which
the fish have been placed. They are even got in bucketfuls
occasionally in the boat, and make excellent food for the fisher-
men’s poultry. The fact that the eggs are found in the mouth
of the fish is a striking feature and a good deal of discussion
has taken place locally as to how they get there. The facts of
the case are that the eggs, when laid, are taken by the male
into his large mouth and kept there till they hatch out ; they
may be found there in all stages, from the simple egg to the
larve with yolk sack still attached, and even well-developed
young fish, without yolk sac, find shelter for a time in this
paternal brood chamber. This being the only case of fish eggs
being found in the river by fishermen, it has been concluded
that other fish ““spawn ”’ may be of the same nature, but this
inference is incorrect.

With regard to the next question, as to whether the eggs
of fish in the river are destroyed by netting, there does not seem
to be any possibility of this in the case of the minute eggs
described, and in the exceptional case of the Bagger, though
damage may be done, it is not of serious consequence, as the
fish is of little commercial value,

The same holds good of the larve or young hatched from
these eggs.

A more serious question is the alleged destruction of the
older but still immature fish. Here again the testimony of
fishermen is conflicting, and the experimental hauls already
referred to may be taken as the only trustworthy evidence.

83

The most important fish in this respect is the “ Harder” and
the “* Bokkom Harder.” It has been alleged by some fisher-
men that the Bokkom is a small but distinct kind of Harder,
and is not merely the young of the ordinary Harder. A
Bokkom of seven inches in length is considered a fair size, and
one of g} or 10 inches a large one. MHarders are from 12 to 17
inches in length. After careful examination of both kinds, it
appears certain that they are the same fish (Mugil capito),
and not different species, or even varieties. In the haul in
the river not far from its mouth, 1,000 Bokkoms were caught
of 7 to 9 inches in length ; five miles from the mouth 120 Bok-
koms were procured of 7 to 94 inches in length, and nine miles
from the mouth, in fresh water, 40 were procured of 7 to 9
inches. Ina haul from the seashore, outside of the river, 4,000
Harders were procured of 12 to 17 inches in length ; most of
these were mature fish, chiefly spent females, the rest being
males and a few Bokkoms. One female of 17 inches was in
full roe. It will be seen from the figures already given of the
catches of Bokkoms and Harders from Paternoster to Berg
River mouth that the proportion of the first to the second in
sea fishing is usually very unequal—the number of Bokkoms
being, on an average about seven times the number of Harders.

Undoubtedly, the Harders caught in the river are mostly
Bokkoms, that is, immature Harders, but the total number
of these is very much less than that of those caught in the sea
at the various fishing stations on the coast. If, therefore,
there is any serious diminution in the supply of the Harder
generally, due to the catching of immature forms, it is to be
attributed more to the operations of the sea fishermen than the
river fishermen. It may be said that the latter cause greater
damage, as they capture smaller Bokkoms than the sea fisher-
men. If, however, the fish has not spawned once at least,
equal damage is caused by the capture of a large and of a
small form.

The question of the scaring of fish has been raised by some
of the fishermen at the Berg River. It is stated that the use
of seine nets scares the fish in the river, disturbing them in
their feeding or spawning ground. More definite information
as to the possibility of scaring fish is afforded in the dispute
between the native and the Italian fishermen. On the west
coast the latter are said to drive the fish into the nets by
various devices, such as splashing of oars and rattling of tins
placed in the water. The effect of this, the native fishermen
allege, is not only to drive the fish into the nets, but to frighten
them off to sea, so that they will not readily approach the shore,

where they can be procured by the ordinary shore nets used
[C.P. 6—’14.]

v2)

4

by the native fishermen. The Harder fishermen in False Bay
also state that this fish can readily be alarmed and driven off
into the open sea. Whether or not this may occur on the
firing of heavy guns or the running of trains may be disputed,
but that the fish may be easily driven off is not open to ques-
tion, as it had become a practice, until forbidden by law, to
scare off fish from particular trek (seining) grounds by ‘the
splashing of oars or by other commotion in the water. Thus,
if the fish passed the Simon’s Town trekking ground too far off
to be captured, the fishermen then put off in a boat and drove
the fish out to sea by those methods, so that they were pre-
vented from coming into the Fish Hoek and other trekking
grounds. This operation is locally known as “ keering,” or
turning the fish out of their course. The Harder is not only
a timid fish, but exhibits an amount of intelligence which can
only be appreciated by the practical fisherman, who has to
pit his wits against those of his prey. Experienced fishermen
in False Bay, where this class of fishing is extensively carried
on, state that they have to use the greatest caution in the
capture of a school of Harders. A boat incautiously put off,
or other mistake, will drive the fish off to a rocky bottom, where,
as they seem to be well aware, the net cannot be used. It is
said also that it is becoming increasingly difficult to capture
the fish inshore though they are known to be in abundance
out in deeper water, where the present nets cannot be used.
It has been the experience of the seine netters that they have,
in course of time, to put their nets farther out tosea. In fact,
the evidence seems to indicate that the apparent decrease in
this case is not due to the lessening of the number of fish,
but to greater difficulty in catching them on account of their
increasing wariness.

B. KNYSNA.

The conditions as regards fishing, both with reference to:
locality and kinds of fish, at Knysna are different from those
at the Berg River. The extent of the fishing operations is also:
much smaller, being limited to a few fishermen, who also find
employment in other directions. These fishermen sometimes,
though rarely, cross the rather dangerous bar at the mouth
of the river, and do some fishing by hook and line in the sea.
The fishing operations are thus chiefly confined to seine-netting
in the river, there being, however, only four or five nets. The
limited extent of fishing operations is no doubt due to there
being no means of conveying the fish inland, and they are:
disposed of chiefly in the village of Knysna.

85

There is no river here comparable to the Berg River, but
rather a long broad lagoon or harbour of a very considerable
extent, usually filled with sea-water, the fresh water part of the
river being relatively of a very limited extent. The Harder
is not the fish of chief importance here, but the White Stump-
nose (Sargus holubt), and the White Steenbras (Pagellus
lithognathus), the former especially. Next in the order of
importance are the Harder, the Kabeljaauw, Streepje (Box
salpa), Elit (Temnodon saltator), etc.

The same complaints of increasing scarcity of fish are raised
here by a certain section of the community, and the cause is
said to be the operations of the netters, as they catch large
quantities of immature fish. It is of special interest as bearing
directly on the Berg River difficulty, that no complaints are
made of the capture of immature Harders, and that the nets
in use are well over the present legal size by about half an inch,
the mesh being about 1? inches, measured from knot to knot
diagonally across the square, instead of the legal 14 inches.
The absence of any complaints with regard to this fish is not
due to its less abundance, but to the small forms not being
captured, as was proved by a series of experimental hauls. If
it be found desirable to check the capture of small Harders,
this would seem to indicate that the most effective method
of doing so is by increasing the legal size of mesh of net.

There seems to be a greater variety of Harders here than at
the Berg River, where only the Springer (Mugil constantia)
and the ordinary Harder (M. capito) were found. The fisher-
men distinguished them by various names, but much reliance
cannot be placed on their distinctions, especially as they did
not agree among themselves. From their description, the fish
they know as the Springer is not the Springer of the Berg River,
as they describe it as having a sharp snout. They state that
the several kinds of Springers and Harders are as follows :—

(1) Dikkop-Springers, Dikkop-Harders, or Springer-Har-
ders, characterised by their flat heads. They remain
in the river, chiefly in the fresh-water portion, and
seldom appear near the mouth except in a freshet.

(2) The Streep-Springer, characterised by a series of black
stripes along the sides. Some fishermen say there are
two kinds, a larger and a smaller. The Springer (both
1 and 2) are seldom caught in the seine nets, as they leap
over them when surrounded. In summer, however,
when they become fatter, they are not so active, and
a few may be caught. On one occasion 120 Dikkop-
Springers were caught in one cast of the net, and this

was considered a record.
[C.P. 6—’14.]

86

(3) The Sea-Harder or Greenback-Harder, characterised by
its bluish colour, firmer flesh, and harder, whiter belly,
is a sea fish, and comes into the rivers about October
and leaves about December. In January it is very
scarce in the river. It is the ordinary Harder of the sea
coast (M. capito).

(4) The Streep-Harder or Kol-Harder, also called by some
the Springer, is also a sea fish that comes up the river
at times.

(5) The Mud-Harder, distinguished by its soft, large abdo-
men, remains in the river throughout the year.

(6) The Freshwater or River-Harder is thicker and larger
than the Mud-Harder. The abdomen is harder, the
eyes larger, and the head broader. It is of a light brown
colour above and white below.

Harders are said, by the Knysna fishermen, “ to go against
the wind ” in a South-Easter, and are found on the east bank
of the river. A north-west wind brings them up the river.
Most of the fish pass out and in from the sea, and, after a con-
tinuous and strong south-east wind, the river is full of fish
and even Hottentots and Blauers, which are outside ‘‘ rock
fish ’’ come into the river. The best time to catch fish in the
lagoon is after a freshet and several days south-east wind.

Although the fish come into the river from the sea and pass
out again, this is not true of all kinds, and there are many which
never or seldom appear in the river. The following is a list
of them as given by the fishermen :—

Geelbek (Otolithus aequidens).—Only one is known to have

been found in the river.

Hottentot (Cartharus blochii ).—Seldom in the river.

Blauer, Poenskop or Poeskop (Sargus Sp.)

Dageraad (Chrysophrys laniarius).

Roman (Chrysophrys cristiceps).

Silver-fish, or Seventy-four (Dentex lineatus).—Never found
in the river. The “ Silver-fish” of Knysna is not the
fish of the same name at Kalk Bay and Table Bay, which
is Dentex argyrozona.

Sandfish.—These are of two kinds, one red and one bluish.
One is in the river and one in the sea. This seems to
be the “ Panga”? (Pagrus laniarius), of Kalk Bay.

Red-stumpnose.—Apparently not the fish so-called at Cape
Town.

Roottje or Kaapenaar (Dentex argyrozona).—The silver fish
of Kalk Bay. F

87

Michael (Chrysophrys gibbiceps).—Called the Red-stumpnose

at Kalk Bay.

Klip-fish, or King-klip-fish" (Genypterus capensis).

Galjoen (Dipterodon capensis).

Baartman (Umbrina capensts).—Seldom caught in river.

The following fish are found both in the sea and the
river :—

The White-stumpnose (Sargus holubt), a fish different from,
though somewhat resembling the White Stumpnose (Chrysophrys
globiceps) of Kalk Bay. It may be readily distinguished by
its colour, being silvery without vertical dark bands, but with
a yellow longitudinal band running along each side of the body,
the ventrals and anals being of a bright yellow. These colours,
however, soon fade, and are not so marked in the adult.
Sargus can, however, readily be distinguished by its teeth from
Chrysophrys. Chrysophrys globiceps also appears in the sea
at Knysna, but apparently never in the river. Sargus holubt
also occurs in the sea among the rocks, but is not caught by the
fishermen there. It is a fish, therefore, for practical purposes
confined to the river, and any damage which may be done to it
by netting, cannot affect the sea-fishing. Some fishermen say,
however, that they have seen all the other fish in the river with
roe, but never the White-stumpnose. A specimen 17 inches
in length caught near the mouth of the lagoon proved on
dissection to be a mature male.

The White-steenbras (Pagellus lithognathus) is one of the most
important fish found in the river. The full-grown fish is over
three feet in length and, although very large ones are caught
in the river, they are nearly all immature.

The Sand-steenbras (Pagellus mormyrus) 1s not so abundant
as the White-steenbras, and does not grow to such a large size.

The Elft (Temnodon saltator) is fairly abundant.

The Leer-fish (Lichia ana) is frequently caught, but both
this fish and the Elft are looked upon by the seine fishermen
as pests, as they do considerable damage to the other fish.

The Bontrok (Sargus servinus) is found in the river. This
fish is called the Wilde-paard or Zebra-fish at Kalk Bay.

The Dasje (Sargus rondelettit) is fairly common, both in the
river and in the sea.

The Kabeljaauw (Scie@na aquila) is often caught in consider-
able numbers in the river and very large specimens, called the
“ Riet-bull ” or ‘‘ Boer-kabeljaauw,” are occasionally caught,
some being over 5 ft. in length.

[C.P. 6—’14.]

88

The Knorhaan or Grunter (Pristipoma operculare) is common
in the river and grows to a large size, but is never as large as
the Steenbras.

The Varkyje (Pristipoma bennettit), called “ Grunter ” at Kalk
Bay, is mostly a sea fish, being seldom found in the river.

The Black-barger (Galeichthys ater) is found in the river.

The Red-barger or White-barger (Galeichthys feliceps) is found
both in the sea and the river. The fishermen have observed
that the Red-barger sheds its eggs when placed in the boat,
but have never observed this of the Black-barger.

The Needle-fish (Hemiramphus sp.) is at times abundant in
the river, and it is said to be very good eating.

It may be concluded from these lists that destruction ot
fish in the Knysna lagoon cannot affect a large number of
sea fish, which do not, or rarely enter the river.

With regard to the capture of immature fish, a series of
hauls were carefully examined, and the fish measured (from
end of snout to tip of tail) with the following results :—

Name of Fish. Measurement.
White-steenbras.. ms .. 12-36 inches.
White-stumpnose .. + 22° CaO
Harders ie a poe .. TO=25
Sprngers es os ne 7, a or
Streep-harder ae he i 20ers
Leer-fish fs s a ost MULSSO
Bontrok a site Ae ae 6 ef
Sand-steenbras - sis fee (GSO Mg,
Simeepjes 9. a bts be a,
Dasjes Bs: ae ae af Obes
Elft 4. se A ts age 13 a5 le
Kabeljaauws a sl adlladiaie a BO. ae

All of these, with the exception of the Harders, Springers
and Streepjes were immature fish, and this proves that at this
particular season (January), a considerable destruction of
young fish does take place in netting operations. It can
hardly, however, be looked upon as justifying a total prohibi-
tion of netting, though it seems advisable to discourage the
taking of very small fish, which are of little or no value to the
fishermen, and the following size limits are recommended :—

White-stumpnose AY ve? 96! ineltes:
Steenbras .. oe ’h a MGES Cae
Eltt oe aa + de, Fee ee

89

Very small Harders and Streepjes are not commonly cap-
tured, and the other fish are, as a rule, not sufficiently abundant
to justify any restrictions as to size.

An examination of the fish did not afford any evidence that
any were actually in spawn at the time, but a series of tow-
nettings proved that eggs and young of different kinds were
fairly common in the water.

The most abundant were eggs of a diameter of -71 to -72 mm.
with a large perivitelline space of about -o8 mm. No oil
globules were seen in the yolk. Embryos of various stages, all
showing a well-developed tail, free from the yolk, were con-
tained in the eggs.

Along with these eggs, larvee were procured, which seemed
to belong to the same species of fish. They measured 1-5 to
1-8 mm. in total length. The rectum was close to the end of
the elongated tail. The anterior end of the yolk sac was
slightly behind that of the head. The length of the yolk is
contained 2-7 times in total length, and much less than its
distance from the end of the tail,which was 1 -7 in total length.
The distance between the rectum and the end of the tail was
eight times in the total, so that the former was decidedly
posterior. No oil globules were present, and the yolk showed
slight traces of vesiculation. A few scattered black pigment
spots occurred along the tail.

The nearest approach to this in size is species No. 28 (vide

Mar. Inv. S. Africa, Vol. III, p. 140), which was the smallest
egg found up to that date, being -72 to -76 mm. in diameter.
It differs, however, from this egg in having a large perivitelline
space. The larva of species 28 also has an anterior rectum.
It differs from other known South African fish-eggs with a
large perivitelline spawn, such as species 3, which has a
diameter of 1-2 mm. and a single oil globule of -2 mm. and
species 10, which is 2-97 to 2-64 in diameter. As it seems to
be well characterised it may be designated species 22 in con-
tinuation of the list of South African fish-eggs, the adults of
which are unknown.
An egg I-02 mm. in diameter with an oil globule of -25 mm.
approaches nearest to that of the Panga (Pagrus lanzarius),
which is recorded as from 1-1 to -93 mm., oil globule -2 to -19.
* Others, -82 mm. in diameter, with 9 to 12 small oil globules,
resemble most closely that of the Sole (Synaptura pectoralis),
as} also do others measuring respectively -76 mm. with g
oil globules from -16 to -o4 mm., and -76 with one oil globule
-17 mm. in diameter.

[C.P. 6—’14.]

V. OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS'OF SOME'SOUTH
AFRICAN FISHES.

So little is known of the habits and behaviour of marine
animals generally that any trustworthy observations, even of
an apparently trivial nature, may prove the solution of many
practical and scientific problems, For instance, such ques-
tions as how and where fish spawn, feeding habits, rate of
growth, etc., are at the basis of most of the difficulties that
arise in fishery matters.

The facilities afforded at the Government Marine Biological
Laboratory at St. James have rendered it possible to obtain
some information on the habits of Cape fishes, which has
already proved of practical service, and the following observa-
tions are a further contribution to this subject.

Many of the South African fishes are particularly well
adapted for observation in captivity, owing to the fact that
shore-frequenting species are well represented here, as, for
instance, the family of the Sparide, which include forms with
cutting teeth for the nibbling and seizing of food found on rocky
ground, and molar teeth, for the crushing of shell fish and other
salt-water animals with hard-protecting shells. While the
Sparide are specially prominent in South Africa, less specialised
forms, such as the Cod family (Gadid@) are poorly represented,
and this fact may perhaps be regarded as evidence of the greater
specialisation and differentiation of fish life in South Africa.
Their names need only be mentioned to show how many of the
common fishes belong to this family : White-stumpnose, Red-
stumpnose, Dageraad, Wildepaard, Steenbras, Hottentot,
Dasje, Steenje, Bamboo-fish, Panga, Galjoen, John Brown, etc.
These are essentially shallow water fishes, mostly frequenting
the rocks, weeds, or sandy shores, and feeding on seaweed, small
crustacea and molluscs, etc. It is chiefly owing to the abund-
ance of such forms that amateur sea-fishing from the shore is.
so much more attractive in South Africa than in many other
countries.

The two forms last mentioned may be taken first, as they
represent genera peculiar to South Africa.

THE GALJOEN (Dipterodon capensis, C. & V.).

‘This fish is abundant in shallow water close inshore, especially
in the summer season and, in spite of its being of a com-
paratively large size, about a foot or a foot and a-half in length,

gI

and about half this in depth, it is often found actually in the
breaking surf, and the curious spectacle may often be seen of
an angler with rod and line procuring these large fish from the
breakers among the rocks or even along a sandy beach. Its
structure and habits, as observed in the aquarium, show how
admirably adapted it is to this habitat. In shape it is laterally
compressed and comparatively short, in contrast to its marked
elevation of body, a feature which doubtless suggested its
resemblance to the old high and stately Spanish galleon. It
usually moves about the tank in a deliberate fashion, and the
facility with which it can turn sharply round is very striking.
The significance of the short high body becomes apparent
when the fish is alarmed or rushes about after food; then,
apparently with one or two undulations of its flat and powerful
body, it passes like a flash across the tank, turning sharply
with hardly any evident checking of its speed. It has been
suggested that the flattening of the body from side to side as
shown typically in the “ John Dory ” (Zeus), is an adaptation
to escape observation, as, when looked at from in front, the
body is rendered less conspicuous. Though two species of
Dory occur in South Africa (Z. capensis and Z. japonicus), no
opportunity has been obtained of observing this effect in these
forms. In the case of the Galjoen, however, any advantage
that may be derived by an apparent diminution of the real size
of the body by this means seems to be more than counter-
balanced by a side view. It appears rather that the flattening
of the body from side to side is an adaptation by means of which
the fish can make a sudden and rapid movement, which can
also be as quickly checked and changed, a matter of the greatest
importance in large fish of the littoral zone, and this may be
in part at least an explanation of the general flattening of the
body in most cases where, as in large shore forms particularly,
a rapid and changing rather than a sustained flight is an
advantage.

A further adaptation to its particular mode of life is observed
in its ability to change its colour. It is usually of a dark
colour when caught, but, if placed in a shallow, sandy pool,
it quickly assumes a very light shade. Specimens, which have
been transferred to a well-lighted tank with white enamelled
tiles, quickly change from their original dark to a white silvery
colour. Mr. Brooking, of East London, writes me that he has
observed a very marked and rapid change of colour in the
Galjoen, which, after being caught, he put into a pool with a
white sandy bottom, and then into one with a dark bottom,
the fish rapidly assuming the ground colour when placed in the

one or the other.
[C.P. 6—’14.] H

Q2

The Galjoen becomes sometimes quite dark, almost black,
in the tank, but, if suddenly startled or alarmed, it may be-
come almost silvery white in less than half a minute. Like
most fish, it also occasionally shows the dark pigment in broad
vertical bands across the body. These are sometimes very
marked, but exactly under what conditions they appear is not
quite certain.

I may mention here another striking change in the colour
and behaviour of the Galjoen at times, an almost exactly
similar phenomenon to that observed in the case of several
other members of this family, such as the Dasje, the Hottentot,
the Wildepaard, and Steenje. It is observed almost always
when the fish are in pairs. Two Galjoen may be seen swim-
ming close to the bottom of the tank, often circling round each
other, keeping to a restricted area, and displaying more
interest in each other than usual. At such times the colour
of both deepens, and becomes blacker. The relation be-
tween the two seems to be an amicable one, and may be
concerned with reproduction, though in the case of the Steenje,
noted below, this would not seem to be always the case.

The Galjoen is one of the South African fishes which is
widely distributed throughout the South African coasts, and I
have received specimens from Walfish Bay, East London and
Natal. It is most abundant near the Cape.

JouNn Brown (Gymnocrotaphus curvidens).

This is one of the most interesting of the family of the
Sparide. Like the Galjoen, it is a genus peculiar to South
Africa, and is generally found in the same localities. Its
behaviour seems to indicate a greater degree of intelligence
than appears in the others. Thus, it is one of the few fish in
the aquarium that display any particular interest in their
fellow creatures on the other side of the glass ; while other fish
are on the hunt for food or swimming aimlessly about in the
tank, this fish often comes to the observer and gazes with what
seems a certain amount of intelligence and curiosity. Nor is
it usually alarmed by any sudden movement ; most of the fish
in the tank can be scared by the sudden flicking of a white
cloth in front of them, when they crowd towards the observer
for food ; the John Brown, however, will remain when all of
the others have made off and, if the annoyance be continued,
will frequently resent it, shaking his head and opening his
mouth in a threatening manner.

Its colour is a bright yellowish brown, becoming darker with
a tinge of purple on the head region. The eyes are of a bright

O3

blue, which adds to the general intelligent look of the fish.
The head region occasionally assumes a darker hue. Its
generic name Gymnocrotaphus refers to the fact that the head
and cheeks are devoid of scales.

It is well provided with a row of sharp, curved (hence specific
name), closely-set cutting teeth, and it does not hesitate to use
these effective weapons on any of its fellow fish who. chance
to incur its displeasure. It is, however, of a very social dis-
position towards fish of its own kind, and becomes greatly
excited when another is introduced into the tank. On one
occasion a single specimen was kept for a considerable time in
a tank along with other fish, and showed every sign of pleasure
when another of its kind was introduced, circling around it
and assuming a peculiar attitude—the body held almost verti-
cally with the head downwards, the tail fin and posterior part
of the dorsal and anal fin keeping up a trembling motion.
(Compare the same action observed in the Harder.) It also
had previously shown exactly the same phenomenon when a
painting of the fish itself was held up in front of the tank.

The only instance of a psychological state resembling
amusement or hilarity in a fish was observed in the case of the
John Brown. The interpretation of the observation may be
erroneous, but the fact of the occurrence was as follows :—On
one occasion a small Barbel, or Barger as it is sometimes
called (Galeichthys feliceps) was put into the tank. Unlike the
adults, small forms move about actively in the day time. Six
long feelers project from the chin of this fish, and these seem
to be its chief sensory organs in searching for food. This little
fish, which moves busily about the tank, sweeping the ground
with the long feelers, was on one occasion observed to be
passing backwards and forwards over the John Brown lightly
touching the surface of his sides and back with the points of
the long feelers. The John Brown occasionally lay over on his
side to facilitate this operation, and frequently became greatly
excited, opening the mouth widely and extending the gill-
covers on each side to their utmost, the whole body and fins
occasionally quivering with excitement under the apparently
tickling process. This sometimes became too much for him,
and he would suddenly break away, still with shaking body
and widely-expanded mouth and gill-covers. After a pause
he would again seek out the Barbel, and the process was re-
peated till finally the Barbel left him, apparently after having
removed the Copepods which occurred on his body.

These Copepods were not parasitic, but moved about freely

on the skin of the fish, and could not have caused any serious
[(C.P. 6—’14.]

94

inconvenience. There is, however, a Crustacean (Meinertia
imbricata which often brings about fatal results, not only in
this fish, but in many others. The John Brown, on which
the above observation was made, became subsequently
duller in colour, less lively and seemed in distress. When
taken out of the tank and examined, the cause was found
to be the presence of this parasite. A simple operation was
sufficient to remove it and the fish immediately recovered.

The eggs of this fish are of the usual pelagic type, small,
transparent and floating.

It is usually ready to take any sort of food offered it, though
it seems particularly fond of “red bait.”

THE HotTTentot (Cantharus blochi C.V.).

This fish, like the Galjoen and John Brown, is provided with
sharp, cutting teeth. It is of a dark sometimes bronze colour,
to which it doubtless owes its local name. It is one of the most
common-place fishes both in appearance and behaviour. It
usually becomes a very light colour in the white-tiled tank,
though, like the Galjoen, it occasionally becomes very dark.

In the case of this fish and also of another (the Bamboo-fish)
a diseased condition was occasionally observed, caused appar-
ently by a Protozoon. The fish got in low condition and small
specks appeared over the body and fins. These could be
readily examined microscopically by transmitted light in the
fin. The largest were easily visible to the naked eye and con-
sisted of a ciliated body much laden with granules, of a spheroid
shape, but provided with a protrusible mouth part, which, as
the animal revolved in the cavity in which it was contained,
was applied to the surrounding tissue. The affected fish often
recovered, but occasionally died apparently from the parasites
affecting the gills. This parasite seemed different from any
of the described Protozoan parasites of fishes.

THE STEENJE (Cantharus emarginatus).

This is a lively little fish, and lives well in the aquarium.
It is somewhat of the same colour as the Hottentot. It is:
mentioned especially on account of certain observations which
may have some bearing on change of colour. It is more:
gregarious than the Hottentot, and a group of about half a
dozen in the tank usually kept together. Sometimes, how-
ever, two fish were found, not far from each other, remaining
almost stationary, but with the tips of the fins keeping up an
active movement, while the colour of the body became abnor-

95

mally dark. They were always within sight of each other,
and generally in some sheltered place. On other occasions
what appeared to be a combat was witnessed between two fish,
which had assumed this same dark shape, but this always
happened out in the open on the floor of the tank. The two
fish circled round, finally settling down in a_ position
facing each other, about a foot or a foot and a half apart.
The affair seemed to consist more of threatened than actual
infliction of injury. Their action resembled that of two cocks
fighting, and consisted of a repeated dipping down of the head,
and the general assumption of a threatening attitude. They,
however, seldom came into actual conflict and, even when they
made a rush at each other, generally sheared off, apparently
before the contact. The end of such a contest, if contest it
was, was never witnessed, and a few days afterwards they were
seen swimming about amicably with the rest of the group as
before, having lost their dark hues.

Another observation made on these fish is of interest as the
only recorded instance, so far as J am aware, of fish eating
Alcyonarians. On one occasion an Alcyonarian (Cavernularia)
was introduced into the tank. It is a large fleshy form about
a foot long, with a basal part, with which it slowly dug into the
sand. After it had thus assumed an erect position, the polyps
expanded fully to about half an inch. One of the Steenjes,
after a careful survey, made a sudden dart at an extended
polyp, seized it and, with a lateral jerk, tore it off. The fish,
after a prolonged munching of its prey, swallowed it and came
back for another polyp. Curiously enough this rough usage
had no effect on the other polyps, which remained expanded
as before. The whole of the polyps were ultimately removed
in this way. This occurrence does not prove, however, that
this fish is in the habit of eating Alcyonarians, and it is to be
noted (1) that only one fish of the group acted in this manner,
and this particular fish was one which was less able to hold
its own, often swimming by itself, and generally did not get
a fair share of the usual food ; (2) the fish, after seizing the
polyp, apparently had some difficulty and hesitation in swal-
lowing it, probably owing to the presence of the spicules ; (3)
the colony of polyps made no attempt to protect themselves
by retracting though they readily did so when disturbed other-
wise ; (4) the Cavernularia was from deeper water than that
frequented by this species of fish, which did not attempt to
attack any of the other Alcyonarians in the tank, e.g., Gorgonia.
The observation is, perhaps, not of so much importance as
proving that fish will eat Alcyonarians, but as indicating the

reason why they do not habitually do so, in spite of the ap-
[C.P. 6—’14.]

96

parently tempting morsel of a fully-expanded polyp. (Com-
pare with this the eating of sponges by the Dasje, noted on p. 97.)

BAMBOO-FISH (box salpa).

Among the fish with cutting teeth is the Bamboo-fish,
specially adapted for feeding on the finer sea weeds. Its teeth
are sharp and lobed on their cutting edges for the tearing up
of vegetable matter. They have a long intestine, like most
vegetable feeders, and are thus much modified for this parti-
cular mode of life. It was remarkable, however, to note how
quickly they adopted the habit of the carnivorous fish, when
supplied with animal food. Some fish will starve before they
discover that food, other than what they were accustomed to,
is good. (See observation on Horse-fish.).

The Bamboo-fish is a rather pretty little fish (“‘ Mooinoitje ”
is one of its names), with bright yellow stripes along its sides
(hence another local name “‘ Streepje’’). The significance of
this colouring was not apparent from any observations made.

DASJE (Sargus capensis).

This fish is one which, in its natural habitat, is found in
shoals. It is short and high with a somewhat rounded body,
so as to suggest in general appearance that of a rabbit or a
hyrax (Dasje). Nearly all are distinguished by a large dark
patch over the tail, which would appear to be a recognition
mark, by which individuals can recognise their own kind, and
follow readily the rapid movements of the shoal. An indi-
vidual may now and then be seen without this mark, and in
some it is rather faint.

How sensitive each individual is to the movements of the
shoal was repeatedly demonstrated in one of the fish which
happened to be blind of one eye. All these fish can be easily
attracted to the glass of the tank, and if a sudden movement is
made they scatter rapidly in various directions. The fish with
the blind eye sometimes happened to be so placed that it could
not see the cause of the disturbance, and yet it was observed
to dash off almost simultaneously with the others.

Individually, these fish seem rather feeble and harmless
creatures, but owing to their persistent nibbling at any likely
food, they are factors to be reckoned with in the strenuous life
in the sea. More than once it has been observed that even
large fish fall a prey to their attacks. They have sharp, cutting
teeth, which project well in front of their somewhat acutely-
shaped head. Should they discover some wound or weak point

97

in a fish, they take an occasional nibble in passing, always
returning until the victim, which may be a much larger fish,
is done to death.

This is the only fish which has been observed eating sponges,
and only on one occasion. A large piece of “red bait,’ in-
crusted with a white sponge, was put in the tank, and one of
the Dasjes began nibbling at it. It tore off a small piece with
a sharp jerk, and swam off a little way chewing it. It then
ejected the remains from its mouth, and came back for more.
It repeated this until little of the sponge was left. That this
was not a mere idle or wanton nibbling, which fish in general
sometimes indulge in, was evident from the systematic and
sustained way in which the operation was carried on. The
living tissue was apparently crushed out and swallowed, while
the residual horny and silicious skeleton of the sponge was
rejected.

Shoals of Dasjes may occasionally be seen among the rocks
or out in the open. Their normal food is apparently floating
Crustacea, etc., of open water, but chiefly the smaller forms
of life growing on the rocks ; it is quite possible, however, that
they may make combined attacks on disabled or injured fish
in the open sea in the manner described above.

The fish is a typical gregarious fish living in shoals. It has
small floating eggs and fertilisation is probably effected, if the
generally accepted statement on this point be correct, by the
more or less accidental mixing of eggs and spermatozoa shed
promiscuously in the water. The same phenomenon observed
in other fish was, however, found to occur here, viz., two fish
were occasionally seen together, stationary or slowly moving
about in a restricted area, darkly coloured, and close to the
bottom. Such cases seem to indicate that the process of
fertilisation of many pelagic fish eggs may not be such a for-
tuitous occurrence as is generally supposed.

THE RED-STUMPNOSE (Chrysophrys gibbiceps).

While the Dasjes find the food, which they crush between
their molars, in very varying localities and circumstances,
some of this family of fish specialise in particular directions, and
adopt special methods. Of these, one of the most interesting
is that adopted by the Red-stumpnose. Like the Dasje and
most other fish, they will of course take other kinds of food,
which come in their way, but their usual source of food seems
to be the molluscs and crustacea which occur in sand. When
undisturbed, these fish may frequently be seen in a peculiar

attitude. The head is directed downwards and is close to the
[C.P. 6—’14.]

98

sand, while the tail is directed upwards, the axis of the body
being thus nearly perpendicular. In this position the mouth
and gill cavity are opened rather widely and filled with water ;
then, by a sudden closure, the water is forced out in a jet on to
the sand below, with such force as to cause it to fly about and
expose any animal life which may be immediately under the
surface. (Compare Dumahel’s statement that the “ Daurade,”
Chrysophrys aurata, stirs up the sand with its tail in its search
for molluscs, etc.) A considerable depression may be made
in this way. The fish then examines the results closely,
occasionally finding something edible. After a time it moves
off to another place where it repeats the process till sometimes
the whole floor of the tank may be covered with the ringlike
depressions so caused. The position of its eyes and shape of
its forehead are specially suited for a close scrutiny of the region
laid bare by this blowing process ; the forehead is high, the
eyes being not far behind the vertical of the mouth and close
together, allowing of simultaneous concentration on any object
immediately in front. The high forehead and closely-set eyes
is characteristic of another fish (noted below), which searches
for its prey at close quarters, and the habit may perhaps be
associated with such modifications generally.

The Red-stumpnose is of a quiet and retiring disposition,
in keeping with this humble and industrious method of obtain-
ing its livelihood, yet it is remarkable for its very vivid colours.
These consist of broad bands of bright red colours passing
vertically across the body. The bands of alternating red and
pale whitish colour may have something to do with the protec-
tion of the fish as seen at a distance. In the feeding attitude
these appear, of course, as horizontal bands.

So far the habits of the Red-stumpnose had a very
obvious meaning, but another phase of its behaviour was some-
what puzzling. On repeated occasions one of these fish, some-
times two together, was observed apparently closely examining
Klip-fish(Clinus). The Klip-fish were usually lying unconcernedly
in a corner or nook in which they were fond of resting. The
Red-stumpnose was repeatedly observed intently gazing at a
Klip-fish from a distance of about six inches or so. It was
apparent from the persistence of this action, the following of
the Klip-fish when it moved off, and the twisting about to
secure a better view that this behaviour was not accidental.
It was at first thought that it was for the purpose of procuring
any parasites that might be on the Klip-fish, but none were
observed and, although the Stumpnose often approached to
within an inch or so of the Klip-fish, it never attempted to
seize it or any parasites that might have been present. This

99

behaviour was very striking, especially when two Stumpnose
with their large staring eyes under a high forehead were thus
occupied. The Klip-fish apparently were not put out by this
attention, but lay perfectly still.

Occasionally a Red-stumpnose was procured in the trawl
with an abnormally-protruding forehead, projecting far beyond
the eyes. It has been shown in the case of some fresh water
fishes that this is due to an accumulation of reserve fatty
matter, and this is so in the Red-stumpnose, as shown in the
accompanying figure. The fish is known amongst Cape fisher-
men as the Red-stumpnose, or Rooi Stumpneus. At Knysna

Red Stumpnose (Chirysophrys gibbicebs, C. & V.).

it appears to be called the Michael or Michiel for a reason
that is not quite obvious. The eggs are small ( -88— -82 mm.)
and floating.

THE WHITE STEENBRAS (Pagellus lithognathus, C. & V.)

This is a fish provided also with crushing teeth, and it appears
to find its food in a similar locality to that of the Red-stump-
nose, but in a different way, and in mud instead of sand. They
have been observed in the same attitude as the Red-stumpnose,
the tail directed upwards and the head downwards. In this
position they grub round in the mud for what they find, a habit
for which the shape of the head region is admirably adapted ;
they have long pig-like snouts (at Mossel Bay the fish is called
the “‘ Vark-bek,” or Pig-mouth), the lips are somewhat pro-
truding and may act as sensory organs. I am told that
near Port Elizabeth they are sometimes shot in this position on
shallow mud banks. In the aquarium the fish does not ex-
hibit any specially interesting habits, and its main object in
life seems to be to procure food. It lives well in captivity
though its rate of growth did not appear to be rapid, fish about

7 inches in length increasing to about a foot in three years.
[C.P. 6—’14.]

100

THE RoMAN (Chrysophrys cristiceps C. & V.).

The Dasje may be described as a nibbler, the Red-stumpnose
as a blower, and the Steenbras as a grubber. Like these fish,
the Roman is also provided with rounded molars behind for
crushing its food, but its method of procuring it is entirely
different. It has a very capacious mouth, well provided with
sharp canine teeth in front, and is of an aggressive disposition.
Most of the other fish keep out of its way, and frequently, while
they are nibbling or tearing at a rather large piece of food, the
Roman will swoop down and carry off the whole in its mouth.
It then makes off with haste, followed by the other fish and,
although it cannot swallow the large mass of food, will keep it
in its mouth till it gets into a quiet corner. It then ejects it
and tears it up. The Roman is the only fish which has been
observed in the tanks to tackle successfully the hard test of the
‘“* Red-bait,” and only when some injury, often a small one,
has afforded a slight beginning ; it diligently tears at it until the
opening is large enough to extract the reddish and soft body
of the Ascidian. Most fish, except Dog-fish and a few others,
eagerly eat this red-bait when the test is broken.

The Roman is a conspicuously coloured fish with large areas
of the body of a bright red, and with a blue thin streak over the
forehead between the eyes. No very marked changes were
noticed in their tints, and the various regions of the body where
they occur are sharply defined and constant. On one occasion
some Malay fishermen brought to the aquarium a fish which,
while similar to the Roman in every other respect, had the
normally red areas of a bright blue colour. The streak between
the eyes was as usual. The fish was kept alive in the tanks
for about a year and seemed to behave quite normally, except
that it did not associate with the other Romans quite as much
as usual. The Romans are not, however, very gregarious
and there is hardly sufficient evidence to warrant a definite
statement on this point which is of interest as bearing on a
possible factor in the swamping of such discontinuous varia-
tions. No other Roman of a blue or bluish colour has come
under observation, and the fishermen said that they had never
seen one of this colour before.

The name “‘ Roman ” is in all probability an English corrup-
tion of the Dutch “‘ Rooi-man ”’ in reference to its red colour.
The redundancy ‘“‘ Red Roman” is often heard.

THE WHITE-STUMPNOSE (Chrysophrys globiceps C. & V.).

In contrast to its near relative, the Red-stumpnose, this fish
is of a sober colour, dark gray or black occurring in vertical

IOI

stripes across the body. It is a very common fish in False
Bay, and is frequently kept in the tanks of the aquarium,
where it thrives well.

It has been noticed that the males are distinguished by the
part under the chin being whiter than in the females, a fact
which is pretty well established from observation of many
hundreds of specimens procured in the trawl.

Vertical striping seems to be a primitive form of colouring,
and is very common in the Sparidae. The young of other fish
often have it and occasionally it appears for a time in fish
which are normally of a uniform colour.

The eggs are pelagic, -8g— -85 mm. in diameter.

THE DAGERAAD (Chrysophrys (pagrus) laticeps, C. & V.).

This fish is occasionally procured in False Bay, seldom or
never in Table Bay, though it is abundant a few miles further
eastwards, and on the east coast to Natal. It is a gorgeously
coloured fish when adult. “* Dageraad’’ means dawn of day,
or the Aurora, not Dagger-head, into which it is often trans-
lated or corrupted. I have elsewhere suggested that the name
is ‘“ Dageraad,”’ and credited the donors with a certain amount
of poetic imagination, but on further consideration a derivation
from “* dagge,”’ a dagger, and “ graat,” a fish-bone, seems more
probable, as the fish has a dagger-like first spine in its dorsal
fin. In this case the name would be “ Dagge-graat,” con-
tracted into “ Dagraat.”’

Young specimens were occasionally kept alive in the tanks.
The significance of their colouring was not apparent.

THE Rock Cop (Acanthistius sebastoides, Cast).

The perciform fishes are not so well represented on the west
and south coast as on the east. They are not at all common
in False Bay, but one, called the ‘‘ Rock Cod,” is occasionally
got and has been kept alive. It illustrates some interesting
features of sea life. It has a rugged spiny head and is generally
of a reddish colour. It apparently relies for its safety on its
general resemblance to its surroundings and its power of keep-
ing absolutely still. In the tank, when it once takes up a
position, usually in a corner, it cannot be induced to budge
except by physical contact. No sudden movement or un-
expected display, which would alarm, or at least attract the
attention of any other fish, will betray it into the slightest
movement, even of the eyes. The ordinary food, dropped
alongside of it, apparently receives no attention. At first it was
difficult to know what to make of this fish, and it was tried

[C.P. 6—’14.]

102

with several kinds of food. It was not till some small crabs
were put into the tank that it suddenly awoke to activity. It
instantly seized these animals in its capacious mouth, swallowed
them rapidly, and almost at once resumed its sphynx-like
attitude. Almost all fish, whatever their natural or usual food
may be, will after a time take the food offered them, but this
fish was never observed to take anything but crabs. It is an
example of specialisation in a group of fishes, which usually
lead a free life, are powerful swimmers, and are ready to take
almost any food. Other kinds of “ Rock Cod” (Epinephalus,
Serranus, etc.) are readily caught by hook and line with
ordinary bait, but this kind seldom.

PAARDE-VISCH OR HORSE-FISH (Agriopus, 3 species).

The genus Agviopus is peculiar to the Southern Hemisphere.
At the Cape it is represented by three species—A. torvus,
A. spimifer and A. verrucosus. The first is much larger than
the others, and is one of the most striking inhabitants of the
aquarium. It has a very fierce and forbidding aspect, which
the original describer indicates by the specific name “ torvus,”
savage or fierce. It has this same aspect in the tanks and visit-
tors frequently express concern for the safety of smaller fish
in its company. Its name and appearance are, however, a
libel on its true character. It is one of the quietest and most
harmless of fish, as well as the laziest. It swims slowly to and
fro in the tank, occasionally resting, sometimes almost on its
side, or leaning against a rock. The Klip-fish on occasions
find it a soft and convenient resting place, for it is devoid of
scales. It sometimes yawns, when its appearance is truly
terrifying, the large mane-like dorsal fin with its strong spine
being stiffly erected, and its protruding mouth widely opened.
It has large, closely-set eyes and a high forehead. Its colour
is dark brown, usually with a few longitudinal lateral white
bands which sometimes disappear. At other times faint
vertical stripes may be seen.

It is not easily startled and takes no interest in other fish,
quietly moving off when interfered with. It, however, takes
a great interest in small moving things, especially small crabs.
If one of these is introduced into the tank it swims up to it
with a sort of clumsy haste and proceeds to scrutinise it closely,
often twisting its body and head as if making a calculation,
all being done very deliberately and with no attempt at con-
cealment or strategy. The next thing observed is the absence
of the crab, which has been seized by a sudden protrusion of
the mouth of the Horse-fish at a distance of about an inch.

103

This action is so quick as to be scarcely perceptble. It is
accompanied by a rather loud sound, like the drawing of a
cork or a rap, which can be heard through the inch-thick glass
at any place in the tank-room. This sound is not produced by
the teeth of the fish, which are very minute and can scarcely
be felt by the finger.

An incident which throws a significant side-light on the
habits of the Horse-fish was observed on the introduction of a
rather large hermit crab, which a fisherman had found without
its shell and brought to the aquarium as an “ English Lobster.’’
When placed in the tank the Horse-fish made for it at once;
the crab at the same time recognised an enemy ; it bent its
exposed abdominal part quite under the harder carapace and
faced the fish, which endeavoured to get behind it. The
action of both fish and crab was so prompt and purposeful that
it could not but be concluded that they were both familiar with
the results of being caught without a shell.

The Horse-fish made no attempt to catch the small fish,
which were often around and near it in numbers, but on one
occasion it was observed to seize a small cuttle-fish (Sepia
VeYVUCOSA).

Though the Horse-fish will not at first take anything but
crabs, like most other fish it soon learns to take the usual food
supplied in the tanks—pieces of fish flesh. It was never
observed to take “red bait,” so greedily seized by most other
fish.

Another and smaller species of Horse-fish (A. spinifer) is
sometimes procured for the tanks. It is, in general shape and
appearance, somewhat like the larger form, but has a spine
just below and in front of the eyes. The fish, when first pro-
cured, was healthy and more lively than A. torvvus, but gradu-
ally fell off, refusing to eat the food offered it. A large piece
of “red bait ” was put into the tank and it immediately began
to show a keen interest in this, peering into the cavities and
examining the whole in the same close way as the large Horse-
fish. Shortly afterwards it was observed picking out small
crustacea and worms and, a few days afterwards, being supplied
with this food, it quite recovered its normal appearance and
lived for about two years in the tank.

After a time this fish also learned to take pieces of fish flesh,
and soon began to watch the keeper for food, as the other
fish did.

It is the only fish which has been observed to cast its skin.
This occurred in the winter time in July. The process is
rather rapid ; thus, in one case, in about three days from the

time the shedding began, the skin was observed to be hanging
[C.P. 6—’14.]

104

in pieces from the fish, some of it lying detached on the floor
of the tank. The whole of the epidermis of the head, fins, and
body was detached ; the new epidermis was of a much brighter
colour than the old, a large patch of yellow between the eyes
and the beginning of the lateral line being especially conspicu-
ous; white dots became more conspicuous along the lateral
line, and four or five transverse bars of white appeared over
the lateral line. The shed skin was examined microscopically,
and the epidermal nature was apparent. The scales in this
fish are in the form of short needle-like spines firmly embedded
in the skin.

The third species (A. verrucosus) has never yet been kept
alive.

THE BARBEL (Galeichthys, 2 spectes)

These fish, called locally Barbels, Bargers, Baggers, or
Barbers, are fairly abundant and live well in captivity. There
are two species, G. feliceps, the white Barbel, and G. ater, the
black Barbel. Both have the peculiar habit of carrying their
large eggs in their mouths, where they are hatched out and
where for a time the young find shelter. As yet no fish with
eggs have been observed in the aquarium ; a black Barbel was
on one occasion brought to the aquarium with the eggs, which
it had ejected from its mouth, but it would not again take
them. The white Barbel (it is really of a light brown colour)
go up the tidal rivers near their junction with the fresh water
and on one occasion, when about 2,000 of these fish were caught
in a net at the Zwartkops River near the fresh water part (it
-is tidal for several miles), all were observed to have irom
twenty to thirty eggs in their capacious mouths. Of the
specimens dissected (about twenty), all were males. Some
had young fish, others eggs in their mouths. The anglers
stated that they sometimes caught these fish by hook and bait
with eggs and young fish in their mouths, so that the habit
would not seem to interfere seriously with feeding.

The adults invariably kept in dark nooks and corners gently
swaying their bodies and fins, but towards evening and at
night they were very active, roaming over the whole of the
tank. The young, however, were equally busy during the
daytime. They do not appear to use their eyes at all, although
these organs are fairly large. Their sense of smell, however,
is keen and, when food is put near them, they become greatly
agitated and search diligently about, their long feelers touching
the ground. They often pass within a few inches of the food,
apparently without seeing it, but, if the tips of one of their
feelers touch it, they turn on it eagerly.

105

They are provided with strong spines in their dorsal and
pectoral fins, and an interesting illustration of the advantage
of such weapons was observed in the tanks. The ‘“‘ Dik-kops ”
(Gobius of various species) are abundant, and several are gener-
ally present in the tanks of the aquarium, where they thrive
very well. They are little fish with rather wide mouths, always
on the alert and ready to seize anything likely to be edible.
On one occasion a young Barbel, about three inches long, was
put into the tank, and immediately began investigating its
new surroundings, trailing its long feelers over the bottom ;
the new arrival attracted the attention of a large Dik-kop (G.
nudiceps), which, after a somewhat prolonged consideration,
suddenly made a dash at the stranger and succeeded in seizing
it bodily in its large mouth. It as quickly ejected it, however,
and rushed about the tank shaking its head violently, evidently
much upset, while the small Barbel proceeded unconcernedly
with its investigations as if nothing had happened, its strong
spines, which can be stiffly erected, no doubt having served
it in good stead in this emergency. It was not again inter-
fered with.

Fishermen sometimes get painful wounds by the incautious
handling of the fish. Though there does not appear to be any
definite poison secreted, the wounded part often becomes
inflamed and causes great pain.

THE HARDER OR MULLET (Mugil capzito).

This fish is well known. Unlike the previous fish, it is more
of a pelagic habit. Its laterally placed eyes and elongate form
are probably adaptions for such a life. Fishermen observe
that it has some peculiar habits especially with regard to its
movement in shoals

One peculiarity observed in the case of young Harders in
the tanks may be mentioned. They are usually timid fish,
and are easily startled by any unusual occurrence or the
presence of a Klip-fish. Towards evening, however, in the
tank they sometimes showed a rather playful behaviour, and
indulged in what appears like a sort of game. After some
gambols, or at least rapid spasmodic movements of the shoal,
one fish may be observed in an almost vertical position in mid
water with head down and tail almost vertical. It keeps up
a peculiar quivering of the fins, especially of the caudal. It
is soon followed by the others one by one till the whole shoal
is grouped together in a small space, each fish behaving in this
peculiar manner. Suddenly the fish, as if at some given
signal, disperse wildly in various directions, afterwards re-

suming their gambols in a shoal. The vertical position is
[C.P. 6—-’14.]

106

again taken up and the whole process is repeated several
times. This was the only evidence of playfulness observed
in any of the fish.

Healthy fish generally keep the surface of their body scrupu-
lously clean and sometimes effect this by rubbing on rocks or
on the sand. Klip-fish, for instance, may be frequently seen
progressing along the bottom of the tanks by what appears a
series of somersaults, evidently for this purpose. The Harders
in the tank seldom came to the bottom, and they found rubbing
posts on the spines of the dorsal fins of their fellows. Thus one
of a group of Harders was occasionally seen dashing about in
the shoal skimming over the backs of the other fish to their
evident discomfort. As it passed over their broad dorsal
spines it turned on its side, which was then dragged quickly
over their hard edges. A peculiar habit of the South African
mullets (Mugil constantic, the ‘‘ springer”) may be mentioned
here. It is found chiefly in the rivers, and, in many parts
of Cape Colony and Natal, it is the custom to catch this
fish by going out at night with a light in the boat. The
fish jump into the boat of their own accord—one of the
simplest and easiest methods of fishing known.

THE MAASBANKER (Tvachurus trachurus, Lacep).

These fish, apparently identical with the ‘‘ Horse-mackerel ””
of Europe, were occasionally kept alive in the tanks. Small
specimens, about three or four inches in length, did fair ly well
in captivity. They are lively little fish and generally get their
fair share of food, and that by a peculiar device. As is well
known, they have a row of large scales along each side of the
tail, and these are provided with sharp spines so as to form a
rasp-like organ. The Dasjes also are always in evidence when
there is any food about, and the curious spectacle was some-
times seen of these small fish driving off the larger Dasjes by a
very quick movement, somewhat similar to that noted above
in the case of the Harders, the sharp spiny scales being drawn
rapidly over the side of the Dasje, which at once fled and,
although it made several cautious attempts to approach the
food, was as often driven off. Ultimately it made off promptly
whenever the Maasbanker approached the neighbourhood.

The young of this fish are said to seek shelter under the
tentacles of Medusae.

KLIP-ZUIGER OR SUCKER-FISH (Chorisochismus dentex, Pall.).

The habits of this fish are peculiar and recall those of the
Remora. Its one object seems to be to fasten on to some:

107

more or less flat surface by means of a very large sucker on
its ventral surface. This sucker is formed of the very much
modified ventral fins, and is a most effective means of attach-
ment, as it is about as broad as the fish itself. The fish was
never seen to eat, and very rarely moved from the one spot.
It could not be startled by any sudden motion, not even
moving its eyes. When forcibly removed from the rock it
swam off a short distance with a somewhat clumsy haste and
fixed itself again not far off. Its behaviour in rock pools is
somewhat different. If suddenly surprised it scurries off a
few feet, generally hiding under a stone, from which it can,
however easily be taken by hand.

The most of the observations on this fish were thus of purely
negative character, but on one occasion a specimen, which
was found making its way up into very shallow water, was
put into the tank, and seemed to throw some light on this
peculiar habit. About two days after its introduction into the
tank it deposited a number of eggs in a single layer over a flat
stone, and apparently kept guard over them by covering or
partly covering them with the large sucker, the lower part of
the broad and rounded ventral fin often keeping up a baling-
like movement. The eggs were small, circular, and contained
a number of oil globules. They were examined from time to
time, but no development took place, apparently not having
been fertilised. The fish did not take any special care of the
eggs, except to cover them in this way, and soon seemed to
lose all interest in them. Other fish, chiefly the Dasjes and
Klip-fish, began to pick them off one by one, and a large Star-
fish endeavoured to reach them. They were then protected
by a piece of wire netting, but no development took place,
and they soon disappeared. It may be that the development
of the enormous sucker is connected with the protection of
the eggs.

LOOTSMAN, SUCKER (Echenets remora, Linn.).

This, as is well known, is also a sucker fish, the dorsal fin
being modified into a large sucking disk over its head. On
one occasion a fisherman brought three specimens of
this fish, which he had found firmly attached to a shark
caught in a seine net. They adhered firmly to the bucket
of water in which they were brought, and could only be dis-
lodged by inserting something under the edge of the sucker,
thus admitting the water. They then suddenly relaxed their
hold, but immediately attached themselves close by to another

part of the bucket. Eventually, however, they came out of
[C.P. 6—’14.] I

108

the bucket, which was held in the water, and became attached
to the sides or to the glass front of the tank. The two largest
were, respectively, 74 and 9 inches in length, coloured black
or dark grey dorsally, and lighter ventrally. The third
specimen was much smaller, being about 4 inches in length and
much lighter in colour. It was found attached to the roof of
the mouth, while the other two were attached externally to the
ventral surface of the shark. Their hold is very secure, and
they could not be pushed away without risk of injury. If,
however, the finger nail be inserted under the edge of the sucker,
they suddenly release their hold, and in an apparently indis-
criminate way at once attach themselves to the nearest object.
One of them happened to attach itself to the glass of the tank
so that its mouth projected above the surface of the water. It
remained in this position, though apparently in distress, until
it was forcibly removed. It was noted that they never, like
other fish when first put into the tank, unintentionally knocked
their heads against the transparent glass, but attached them-
selves toit at once. The turning movement, which is necessary
to attach the sucker, which is on the top of their head, to an
object in front of the fish, was performed so rapidly that the
details could not be followed by the eye of the observer.
The other fish in the tank took very little notice of the
suckers, though they usually make a thorough inspection of
every stranger. One large Klip-fish, however, hovered around
one of the attached fish, and finally made a snap at its tail,
but immediately went off and paid no further attention to it.
When first put into the tank, the sucker-fish remained in the
same position for about half an hour, when one went off and
attached itself to another part of the glass. Shortly afterwards
the largest left the glass, and swam about rather rapidly at the
surface of the water. Its method of swimming is worthy of
note. It progressed by a continuous undulating motion of
the whole body, occasionally making sudden darts as if at
objects on the surface of the water. During the whole time
it was swimming, the mouth was carried along the surface or
slightly under it, the posterior end of the body being rather
deeply submerged in the water. This position was maintained
by the use of the pectoral fins, which were constantly held in a
rigid position, and at such an angle as to raise the anterior part
of the body when in motion. The dorsal, anal and caudal fins
were used as organs of locomotion, undulating with the whole
body. The ventrals, however, were used in a totally different
way. When the fish moved forward they were closely
appressed to the body. Progress could however be quickly
arrested by the sudden erection of both of those fins, or a

109

change in direction of motion to one side could be effected by
the sudden erection of the fin on that side while the other was
kept close to the body. A sudden change in direction is of
course in ordinary fishes more usually brought about by a
flexure of the tail or the whole body. The probable meaning
of the habitual use of this peculiar method of steering was made
apparent when the fish was swimming in circles, which it often
did. The tail was then used only for propulsion, while the
ventral fin on the one side kept the course to a circle, being
held continuously erected. This habit may be connected with
its peculiar mode of life in association with the shark, for there
is some danger of its being left behind, should it wander too
far off.

These fish often attach themselves to ships and large fish,
like sharks and whales, and sometimes to turtles. Natives on
the east coast of Africa, as is well known, catch the last-named
animal by the curious fishing tackle of a live Remora on a
string. The fish will fasten on and keep its hold with the
unreasoning obstinacy of this peculiar instinct

THE Briaasop (Tetrodon honckeni, B1.).

The general behaviour of this fish differs markediy from
that of any other observed ; in this respect and in its rather
bizarre appearance, it offers a striking contrast to the other
inhabitants of the tank. It usually swims about quite un-
concernedly, apparently without fear of attack. Fish usually
owe their power of locomotion to the use of the powerful
muscles of the tail, and by a single powerful stroke are able to
project the body through the water at a very rapid rate. Even
fish which usually move comparatively slowly can in this way
escape danger. The Blaasop, however, except on rare occa-
sions, was observed to use only its fins, the dorsal, ventral and
pectoral for locomotion, in a sort of sculling or paddling
manner. The fish can therefore by these same means preserve
its balance, and the absence of pelvic fins, which are generally
used for this purpose in other fishes may thus be accounted
for. The muscles of the tail are not well developed, and this
organ with the rather elongate caudal fin is used as a steering
organ, seldom as a locomotory organ. When it occasionally
hurries along at an increased speed for food, the fins used in
progression merely flicker to and fro more rapidly. It rarely
darts about, but proceeds at a more or less uniform rate in a
deliberate manner. Nor is it protected by colour, being, on
the contrary, rendered rather conspicuous by large yellow

spots scattered over the surface of the body. The head is large
[€-P. 6—'14.]

IIo

and the eyes, which are of a peculiar reddish colour, as if blood-
shot, are situated high in the head, giving the animal a sort of
resemblance to a toad—it is indeed often called the Toad-fish.
The mouth is provided with hard fused beak-like teeth and
is placed at the upper anterior corner of the head, the lower
jaw forming a very large chin. It lives on barnacles and shell
fish, which it nibbles from the rocks.

Many fish of the family (Tetrvodontide), to which it belongs,
are well provided with defensive organs in the shape of numer-
ous strong spines, which can be erected by taking in water
into a large sac on the digestive tract, when the'fish becomes
inflated into a round ball. This fish can also do this, but the
spines are comparatively feeble, and apparently quite in-
adequate as defensive organs. Nor is the animal protected
by its ferocity ; it was never observed to attack any other
fish or large animal in the tank, and its slow paddling system
of locomotion and its general structure of mouth, teeth, etc.,
are not at all adapted to such purposes.

The secret of its immunity from attack, and perhaps its
conspicuous colouring, is at once evident if pieces of the flesh
of this fish be offered to fish and other animals in the tanks.
As when the flesh of ordinary fish, crustacea, etc., is thrown
into the tanks, there is a rush of all the fish to secure a piece ;.
the food is torn up and scattered about, individual fish making
off to quiet corners to devour what they have happened to:
secure. No fish, however, in this case eats what it has been so:
anxious to procure. One by one they drop the pieces, often
apparently with reluctance, as they continue for a while to
return to them ; finally, however, they take no further interest
in the proffered food, even avoiding its proximity.

The flesh of the Blaasop is therefore distasteful to other fish
and it is to this fact that the fish probably owes its immunity.
The conspicuous colouring of the body is, doubtless, a case of
warning colours or danger signals, useful both to the fish and
its would-be enemies.

It is a well-known fact that the flesh of the Blaasop when
eaten by land animals has proved to be poisonous, the liver
being especially so. Fatal cases of poisoning have occurred
by the eating of this fish by seamen on ships visiting Simon’s.
Town, where it is abundant, and the native fishermen are well
aware of the serious results which follow the eating of its flesh.
They say that even if the liver touches food, it renders it
poisonous. Many of these fish are caught in the seines, and
their dead bodies may be always seen lying about on the beach,
and fishermen say that if any of these decaying fish be handled
the skin of the hand begins to itch and breaks out in red spots.

III

This was not confirmed on experiment, but a small piece of
liver given to a guinea pig caused death in a few minutes.
Undesirable cats are often got rid of by offering them this
fish, which they take readily.

It is to be noted that not only do the fish instinctively avoid
the Blaasop as it swims about, but even the taste of the flesh
seems to give sufficient warning of its dangerous character.
All the animals in the tank did not however behave in the
same way in this respect. Thus when a dead Blaasop was
thrown into the Octopus tank, this animal took it at once,
enveloping it quickly in its arms, but shortly afterwards
rejected it. On another occasion, however, a live Blaasop
was seized by an Octopus and retained. The fish became
much distended till it was almost spherical, but still the
Octopus did not relax its hold. It was kept under observation
from about four in the afternoon till late at night, but the fish
was still retained, and next day the Blaasop or what remained
of it, was found on the bottom of the tank. The Octopus had
apparently eaten all the fish except the skin, but, on further
search in the tank, the whole of the liver was found floating
on the surface of the water. The Octopus seemed none the
worse for its meal, and readily took crabs offered to it im-
mediately afterwards. The liver was offered to some very
small and presumably inexperienced Harders (2 to 3 inches
long) ; they eagerly crowded round it, then hurriedly went off ;
only one out of the thirty ventured to nibble at it, but it
also immediately left, and subsequently none approached it.
Perhaps in this case the smell was sufficient warning.

The liver was then given to a large sea anemone, and this
animal not only took it as readily as any other food, but very
soon enveloped the whole of the relatively large mass in its
interior, closing its mouth over it particularly firmly. The
liver was retained all day, but on the following morning a white
mass was found on the surface of the water, and this, on
examination, proved to be the liver enveloped in a white
emulsion as if the process of digestion had commenced. The
anemone apparently suffered no ill effects from the experiment.

A number of Dog-fish (Scyllium africanum, Gm.) are usually
kept in the tank. They thrive very well and many have been
kept alive for several years. During the daytime they lie
about quietly with their eyes closed, waking up at night, when
they swim about freely with open eyes. If a piece of fish or
an injured fish be put into the tank they, however, arouse
themselves, and go hunting about, guided by smell alone. On
one occasion an injured Blaasop, put into the tank, was caught
by one of the Dogfish in this way. Whether this would have

[C.P. 6—’14.]

112

happened in the dusk or semi-darkness when the Dogfish had
its eyes open is uncertain, but on this occasion it swallowed
the Blaasop whole, without any hesitation, and then returned
to a quiet corner, as Dogfish do after a heavy meal. After a
considerable time it seemed uneasy, and finally became very
sick, ejecting half-digested fragments of Blaasop from time
to time. No serious results followed, however, and next day
the Dogfish was quite normal. On one occasion a large Star-
fish (Asterias) got hold of a piece of Blaasop liver, and took it
quite readily, folding it in its arms, and enveloping it in the
fine membranes of its stomach. It held it thus from an after-
noon till the following morning, when most of the liver had
disappeared. The remainder was taken possession of by
another Starfish, and finally none was left. The Starfish
seemed none the worse for their meal. It cannot be concluded
from this single instance, however, that the Starfish actually
took the poison into their system, as much of the brown sub-
stance of the liver became somewhat flocculent and floated
away. The connective and some other tissues, however, were
apparently digested.*

With regard to the peculiar habit of distending the body
(hence the name Blaasop), this may be defensive, as shown in
the case above mentioned. When drawn up on shore with
the seine net, the fish inflate themselves with air, especially if
irritated. No artificial irritation was found to produce the
inflation in the water and, only on one other occasion, was a
Blaasop observed to become distended in this way. It had
been several months in the tank, and once it was found to be
so distended that the body was about spherical. A few
minutes after this was observed, it suddenly assumed its
normal size. No air bubbles were seen escaping. The
accepted explanation of the inflation of these fishes is that
when alarmed it distends itself with air taken in at the surface
of the water. It then floats, belly upwards, and is thus pro-
tected from its enemies. This may be true of other species of
globe-fish, but in the case of the Blaasop the distension with
air seems to occur only when the fish is removed from the
water.

A species closely allied to the Cape torm occurs in Durban
Harbour. It makes off rapidly when surprised and if chased
for a short distance in the shallow water, in which it usually
occurs, it buries itself in the sand, and when lifted up becomes
greatly distended.

* For a detailed account of the poison found in the tissue (chiefly the genital
organs) of the Tetrodontidz, see “ Uber die giftigen Bestandteile des Tetrodon,”
Zeitsch. d. med. Ges. in Tokio 8, Heft 14.

rig

Still another possible significance of the blowing-up process
may be indicated by an occurrence, the facts of which I obtained
from the observer. The “ Leguaan,” a large crocodile-like
lizard, is abundant in the rivers of the east coast, and on one
occasion one of these was found recently dead, having been
apparently choked in endeavouring to swallow a Blaasop,
which was found in an inflated condition, completely stopping
up the throat. Various species of Blaasop are specially abun-
dant in the lagoons and tidal rivers, in which the Leguaan
also occurs.

A peculiar action was observed in nearly all specimens of
this fish when first introduced into the tank. One tank is
lined with white tiles and the fish persisted in pressing their
prominent chin against this surface, paddling meanwhile
energetically with their fins as if to force their way through
the tiles. This action was kept up for days until the skin of
their chin was rubbed through producing a large open wound.
They occasionally rubbed in the same way against the glass
front of the tank. No explanation of this was apparent.
Their behaviour otherwise was quite normal and they took
food readily.

ZEE-SLANG (Heptatretus hexatrema, Miill.).

This fish occurs abundantly in Table Bay and False Bay,
and many specimens have been kept alive. Usually they do
not thrive very well in the tanks. One specimen, however,

“Sea Snakes” (Heptatretus hexatrema, Mill.)

which found a hole in the rockwork of the tank, lived and
throve well for over two years, till it grew too big for the hole.
During this time an opportunity was afforded of observing its
habits to some extent. It, however, only came out at night,
and usually lay with only the tip of its snout or tail projecting
from the hole during the day. It is well known among fisher-
men that other fish avoid the Zee-slang, and even the mucus

which is freely given off‘from the surface of its body, so that a
[C.P. 6—’14.]

II4

hook and line, on which it has been caught, cannot be used
with success to catch other fish. It was, therefore of special
interest to note its habits in captivity. Only one fish was
observed to attack it—a Klip-fish, which snapped once and
only once at its protruding tail.

Sometimes during the day, if a piece of fish flesh was placed
before the head of the fish, its method of feeding might be
observed. It occasionally drew the food into the hole, but
often consumed it without scarcely moving it from the place on
which it lay, a fact which may explain the mysterious disappear-
ance of bait on a hook without any indication to the fisherman
OL al bites”

It is well known that when the fish is irritated or startled
it gives off large quantities of a mucus-like substance con-
sisting of very fine long threads, which normally lie coiled up
in the skin of the fish. This was readily observed, though the
only occasion on which it was seen to do so naturally, was
when it accidentally touched the tentacles of a sea anemone
with its projecting feelers.

The secretion of this mucus would thus seem to be a method
of defence, but there is reason to believe that it may serve
another purpose. On examining the tank in the morning,
pieces of the mucus were often seen on the rockwork or on
small stones. Some of these might have been occasioned by
the irritation of contact with an anemone as above noted, but
many pieces were found, where this could not have been
possible, for instance, on the branches of a large “red coral ”
(Gorgonia flammea), which was suspended in the tank, and
among the branches of which the mucus sometimes appeared
like the web of a spider. When examined microscopically, it
was found that many minute forms of animal life had become
entangled in the coils of its innumerable threads. These were
chiefly small Crustacea, Protozoa, etc., and several Trematodes
were observed securely caught by a loop of the fine thread
round their sucker. Once or twice some of the fishes (Klip-fish
and Dasjes) were seen endeavouring to tear up this mass, and
though they dragged it about a little, it seemed to cause great
inconvenience by adhering to their teeth so that they had some
difficulty in shaking it off. In no case were they observed to
devour it. The only animals that were seen to eat this no
doubt nutricious mass were the Anemones and occasionally
one of these animals was observed with its gullet widely pro-
truded and closely applied to one end of the substance, which
was gradually drawn into the Anemone’s stomach.

Many of the pieces were, however, in such a position that they
could not be secured by the Anemones, and these invariably

115

disappeared before the following day or at most two days
afterwards. This may be a method by which the animal
procures food by the special device of this mass of thread-like
mucus, which, after spreading over various places, it after-
wards devours with whatever may be captured in its meshes.
The fish was watched carefully, but it was never seen to take
this or any other food during the night time, though it appar-
ently must have done so, as it came out then and searched
diligently through the tank. The little that it got in the above
instances during the day could hardly have kept it alive for
over two years.

[C.P. 0—’14.|

116

VI—THE SNOEK AND ALLIED FISHES IN
SOUTH AFRICA:

In Europe the fish of chief commercial value belong to the
families of the Gadidae, Clupeidae, Scombridae, Pleuronectidae
(Cod, Herring, Mackerel and Flat-fish). At the Cape of Good
Hope the Trichiuridae, Pristipomatidae, and Sparidae (Snoek,
Silver-fish, Stumpnose) are among the most important, and
to these may be now added, since the introduction of trawlers,
the Pleuronectidae (Soles). The Snoek family is of little or no
importance in the Northern Hemisphere, but in the Southern
—in South America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and
Tasmania—one of its members, called the “‘Snoek” at the
Cape, ‘‘ Barracouta ” in Australia, and “Sierra ”’ in Chile, is
one of the chief mainstays of the fishing industry. This is
specially the case in South African fisheries, in which the fish
forms the greater part of the export trade.

THE SNOEK (Thyrsites atun, Euphr.).

Difficulties have from time to time arisen with regard to the
Snoek fishery, such as the diminution of the supply, the desir-
ability of a close season and of a size limit. Doubts have even
been raised as to whether the small Snoek protected by legisla-
tion is not a different species from the large Snoek, and many
of these small forms have been captured on the supposition or
under the pretext that this isso. Again the diminution of the
supply has been alleged to be due to the destruction of the
‘spawn ”’ of the fish, which at some places (St. Helena Bay)
is said to occur as sheets of gelatinous matter on the surface
of the sea, and others (Kalk Bay, etc.) as minute particles of a
reddish colour. The following notes will throw light on some
of these difficulties.

Among the early entries in Van Riebeek’s Journals we find
one—*“‘ caught a sea-pike,” or in his own words a “* Zee-snoek,”’
Snoek being the word used in Holland to designate the fresh-
water fish the Pike (Esox lucius), which is so abundant in that
country. It was not a Pike nor did it resemble it closely, not
even belonging to the same family ; one obvious difference,
apart from more fundamental divergencies, being its very long
dorsal fin, extending along the whole length of the body,
whereas in the Pike this fin is confined to the tail region. It

——

117

did not, however, resemble any other well-known fish in Hol-
land, and its rather long, flat body, its pointed snout, and the
fact that the long spiny dorsal fin usually hes concealed in a
a groove, doubtless suggested the name given it by the early
Dutch sailors ; a name which in the mind of South Africans
has become so identified with the Cape fish that they are
somewhat puzzled when visiting Holland to find fish laid
out on the market slabs as “‘ Snoek,” so totally different from
the one they know under that name. Even in some Cape
official volumes van Riebeek’s “‘ Zee-snoek”’ is translated
‘“*Sea-snoek.”” Kolben at a later date mentions the occurrence
of the “‘ Pike ’’ at the Cape, and states that it is here not a tresh
water but a sea fish. Otherwise he says it is identical with the
European fish.

Specimens of the fish were subsequently (about 1791) sent
to Holland for examination, and were declared by Euphrasen,
a distinguished Dutch zoologist, to be a species of Mackere!
(Scomber), which he named Scomber atun.

a4 ae X :
Rw \ S

The Snoek (Thyrsites atun, Euphr.).

The Snoek was afterwards re-discovered (1802) and named
by the naturalist Bory Saint Vincent in his ‘“ Voyage aux
quatre files des mers d’Afrique”’ “‘ Acinacé batarde,” as he
thought it showed relationship both with the Mackerels and
Swordfishes.

With the expansion of geographical knowledge it was found
that the same fish occurred in New Zealand, and as far from
this region as the coast of Chile.

Specimens were afterwards sent to France from the Cape,
and a further examination (1831) proved that it belonged to a
distinct genus, and was to be classified along with a rather rare
European fish, the Scabbard-fish (Lepidopus), and not with the
Mackerels. This family of fishes (the Trichiuride) are inhabi-
tants of the great oceans, and are strong swimmers, as might
be expected from their long flat body with few or no scales.
They are among the pirates of the high seas, and most of them
are armed with a formidable array of large sharp teeth. The
dorsal fin is very long and behind it, as in the Snoek. there are
often finlets or small detached fins which may act as accessory

[C.P. 6—’14.]

118

steering organs. The head and teeth resemble those of the
Barracoutas (Sphyraenide), from which, however, they may
at once be distinguished by the continuous dorsal fin, which
in the Barracouta is divided into two small fins far apart from
each other. The elongate body, however, though more com-
pressed, is a point of resemblance to the Barracouta, and the
early settlers in New Zealand gave it this name, by which it is
still known there, as well as in Tasmania and Australia, where
it was subsequently found. It is interesting to note, as throw-
ing a sidelight on prehistoric conditions, that, whilst the
aboriginals of South Africa do not seem to have caught the
fish, nor even to have had a name for it, the Maoris of New
Zealand—who called it the Manga or Maka—used it extensively.
It provided the sole fish supply of the early Otago settlers.

The Snoek is so familiar to South Africans that a description
may seem superfluous ; but such are the vagaries of popular
nomenclature that at Natal, where the fish does not occur,
another and entirely different fish is known under this name,
viz.. Cybium commersoni belonging to the Mackerel family and
known in Australia as the Giant Mackerel or King-fish.

The body of the Snoek is long (about 8 times its height) and
of a dark metallic colour. Its dorsal fin consists of 20 sharp
spines, which can be folded in a groove so that they are not
seen ; this is continued into a rather short non-spinous part
which is not depressible. Behind this soft dorsal there are
small separate finlets, six in number. The tail fin is distinct
and separate from the dorsal. Not only are the jaws provided
with strong teeth, but the palate also. The scales are minute

The Snoek, as might be supposed from its general appearance,
is capable of rapid and sustained motion, and is a migratory
fish, appearing and disappearing at more or less definite
intervals during the year. In former years, when Snoek were
very abundant, the fishermen were “ signed on ” for 8 months
from the 17th of September in each year, for the ‘“‘ poor Snoek ”
season. The “poor” or lean Snoek were so called because
they had little or no fat, though the ovaries were well developed
only in these kinds; this “ poor Snoek”’ season lasted until
December, when a few fat Snoek began to be caught among
them. The fat Snoek season lasted from January to June,
during which period they were caught in immense numbers ;
about the beginning of July the difference in condition and
abundance became very marked. This annual movement of
the Snoek is generally supposed to be connected with that of
the “Sardine” (Clupea sagax), on which they largely feed ;
the appearance of these small fish on the coast is regarded
as a sign that Snoek will soon turn up, and the latter are usually

119

in good condition as long as the Sardines remain. The worst
time of the year for Snoek is from about the middle of July to
the middle of September, and during this period very little
fishing is done.

Besides seasonal variations, Snoek seem very sensitive to
changes of physical conditions. Thus it is stated that on a
heavy wind springing up they disappear ; they lie at the bottom
and will not rise until it is calm again. In stormy weather
they have been seen at some depth, with head pointed steadily
downwards and tail gently waving ; but it is also averred that
should strong N.W. winds blow while they are in False Bay
they leave that locality and re-appear in Table Bay. The
day after an unusually successful catch in False Bay, a strong
wind sprang up from the N.W. (off-shore), and although all
the boats went out, not a single Snoek was to be found. There
are, therefore, seasonal variations in the appearing of Snoek,
connected probably with the movements of the ‘“ Sardine.”
which in its turn probably moves inshore at certain seasons
for spawning or other purposes ; there are also variations from
day to day connected apparently with wind and weather.

But there are in addition certain peculiar appearances and
disappearances extending over much longer intervals. Un-
fortunately, no statistics are available for an accurate enquiry
into this matter, and all sorts of explanations are given for the
“disappearance of the Snoek”’—the increased number of
steamers calling at the Cape, the unchecked increase of seals,
the running of trains, the operations of the Government
experimental trawler and of the North Sea trawlers that fol-
lowed in its wake, and so on. The scarcity of the fish was
accomapnied by its irregular appearances, the fat Snoek
appearing more or less late in the season ; and the fish appeared
to be restricted more to the colder water of the west coast,
never being found to the same extent as formerly on the south
coast. At Mossel Bay, for instance, the Snoek were in former
times caught in quantities, but since the “ disappearance ”
they have not been at all abundant. The cause of the falling-
off of the supply was much discussed, and so serious was the
matter considered to be that a regulation was issued by Govern-
ment forbidding the capture of any Snoek under 24 inches
in length. After 15 years of falling-off, the Snoek again
suddenly appeared in great numbers in 1907 and 1908, and in
the former year they were got even so far to the east as Port
Elizabeth. It appeared as if the early years of plenty were
again returning for the Snoek fishery, when these fish were
sold, it is said, at a penny each. On some occasions they were
actually sold at this price during these two years. During the

[C.P. 6—’14.]

120

year 1908 the fish seem to have been off Cape Point the
whole year.

For some years previous to 1902 the Snoek had been very
scarce, and in that year (the worst on record) enquiries were
made by the Cape Government in order to ascertain if the
falling off was of local occurrence. Information was received
from Australia (Melbourne) that during the year in question
“the fish had been exceptionally plentiful, a good supply being
on the market about daily from January or February last up
to the present time and are still plentiful (3rd November, 1902) ;
nor had any falling-off been observed in Tasmania or on the
Chilian coast of South America, where the fish also occur.

The following tables are drawn up from the statistics formerly
procured from various fishing stations by the Cape Govern-
ment and indicate the fluctuations throughout the years

1897-1904 :—

NUMBER OF SNOEK caught at various Fishing Stations for the
various Months of the Years 1897-1904.

1897.
| | |
Locality. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | april May. | Fue. | suny.| Aug. | Sept. ] Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total.
|
Lambert’s Bay.. 3,212] 6,436) 2,851] 9, Pa 10,624, 0 Av 2,807 12 30} 35,348
Steenberg Cove 4,240| I,100| 7,072|15, 1754 | 26,754 1,811) 1,668) I,190) .. 29! 59,618
Stompneus and | |
Britannia Bay | 11,693) 3,101 28,566) 40,695, 69,261 9, 479) ¥,TOG|. T5706) » ae 179| 165,653
Paternoster 2,568| 1,642) 8,425|/19,526| 48,379 8,084 13, 279 11,945 208) ‘ss -. | 104,066
Langebaan ake all Weexeve ate aa 3 2,367| I 1733] Amy ese A ae 3,500
Kalk Bay an 930 245| 2,643| 2 | Hilo 5 04 3,887
Simon’s Town... | .. IIo 106 36 lh erell 2 sal ai 200 468
Somerset West.. ae te ae 55 I} “eal 703 | 158 23 75 je 397
Hermanuspetrus- { Pa |
fontein om 58 291 12) 18 314) 18,867) 2 249 117, 228 3 39 aoe 4; 61,565
Mossel Bay .. oe te a: cio nilp cer hal ales |2,000) 140, | Js |), See
Knysna Heads.. ee a a yan I} 7| me Be i I 18
Buffalo Kay .. ss Si a sh ey ee nl PAN eeren | Tere | 2
Plettenberg Bay Ee 3c es Sore Were 12) 562) es, || I | 75
Total 21,771| 13,610| 47,287 88,016| 157,723, 39,440] 4,425) 3, 696! 14, soae 5,858 39,676] 242| 436,733
| | | | |
1898.
Locality. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.) May.| June. | July. Aug.) Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total
| | | |
Lambert’s Bay.. | 1,457, 572, 2,354/10,677, 3,548 75 | 1,036) 12,704| 4,229) 5,153| 41,805
Steenberg Cove 300] 1,754| 18,631, 16,630 6,283 641 , | 353 846) 1,556 14,309] 61,303
Stompneus and |
Britannia Bay | 1,011) 5,513 44,458) 30,505, 11,728) 3,384 | 402) 1,773] 5,568 20,918] 25,360
Paternoster 684) 17,433, 9,757| 20,293 12,626) 8,997 2 1044 2 #208 498/513) 18,772) 95,513
Langebaan ate Oe | ioe 144 485 307 a Spe |) © ec. 936
Simon’s Town.. | .. Be san | MSG = aoun| 3| 3
Kalk Bay | Os] ce 50 cal | 93
ey Strand 6 8 180 29 19 4 I 247
Hermanuspetrus- | |
fontein 18} go 73 13) 19} 214 719 509) 59) 122) 28 3| 1,867
Mossel Bay . ~ | Pa 6 36 34 14) aA 84
Knysna Heads I : I 2 6I, 130 7 | 250] 202
Buffalo Bay IOI | | 80 233) Try. I eh | 782
Plettenberg Bay 5 Se II =a | a rr
Algoa Bay ae : | *230 230
Total 3,572! 25,368) 751273) 28,443 34,870, 13,649 1,060, 31453, 4,175 76,944) 12,144) 59.485 328,436
| | | | |

* There is some doubt as to the accuracy of this return.

an <

1899.

Locality

Lambert’s Bay..

Steenberg Cove
Stompneus and

Britannia Bay

Paternoster
Langebaan

Simon’s Town..
Somerset Strand
Hermanuspetrus-

fentein

Struis*Bay : :

Mossel Bay
Kysna Heads
Buffalo Bay

Plettenberg Bay

Total ac 21,012

Feb. | Mar.

2,643; 7,726

35427, 11,216

8,028 22,489
13,337, 27,105
177; 1,668

Bi tueters
I I

|
|
.-

|
|
|

27,616 70,205

3,820] 1,464
12| 1,538
420

Pos

I

ot yl 3
7| 19

120,365 |122,393 | 24,831

I2I

1900.

NOHO W

Io

-

67) "2 31!

Sept.| Oct.
54| 252)
2,454) 623}

547| 1,627,

sl

3,194) 2,573)

Dec. Total.
|

795; 38,067

1,886! 83,600

4,083 177,377

1,313| 93,827

.- 9,796

8

1,582

545

S

ae 8r

98) 114

ate 6

128

———

8,175] 405,135

Locality.

Lambert’s Bay..

Steenberg Cove
Stompneus and

Britannia Bay

Paternoster
Hoetjes Bay
Langebaan 56
Cape Town
Simon’s Town .
Kalk Bay
Somerset Stran
Hermanuspetrus- |
fontein we

Mossel Bay

Knysna Heads..

Buffalo Bay

Plettenberg B ay

Jeffrey‘s Bay

Feb. | Mar.

|
1,763, 3,978

431/155
1,880 767
292| 416
176; 1,103
34 22

Noo | A

oe 3

May. | June. July.) Aug.

|
477

4,361 654] «.
11,335, 1,775

T;402| <i

6,311) 847
414) 443

| 30,380] 350

nun

20 .

295394 36,455 575

Sept. | Oct
4) 5
(ace
. 3
“gro|
rallies
12
6 2
437| 75
alee

883 85] 11,010

813) 17,055
a0 5,684

Ofc-O ae
A -O*D ec

816} 101,004

Total ne 4576 i! 9 683

Igol.

Locality. Feb. | Mar.
Lambert’s Bay.. 3,619
Steenberg Cove 10 136

Stompneus and

Britannia Bay

Paternoster

Hoetjes & North

Bays
Langebaan
Cape Town
Simon’s Bay
Kalk Bay

Somerset Strand |
Hermanuspetrus- |

fontein
Mossel Bay .
Knysna Heads

Buffalo Bay ..
Plettenberg Bay

Total eral

274| 119

|

1,300)

|
|

372 51637) 2,723

May. June. July.

13
1,256

2,322 21

3,870

75544
594

,610 34,860

3
75} 92!
palate
9

12}

67,208 50,540, 125

Sept. Oct
Pe
2
|
es
he
Ane 3
6oo| ..
|
25|
6
38 51
2) .
671. 81

[C.P. 6—’14.]

nd
ive)
-
“N

°

cal

1,812] 129,747

1902.
Locality. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. | May. | June. | July.| Aug.| Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Total.
| | |
Lambert’s Bay.. a- 8 534 100 SSM eoy | Pa Ral sun ere 3 732
Steenberg Cove I III} 163) 473. 1,068 76 175 43) ae 2,115
Stompneus and
Britannia Bay 339 583, 1,505 1,992 490 : 89 I2I | S jxme
Paternoster ae | 272 173} 1,100 2,981 58} Io| 1,434 437 6,470:
Hoetjes & North | |
Bays oe ee 12 14; 618 4,109) 2 ee er 5 | 4,805
Langebaan = s/s 39| 22 ie ‘ : 61
Cape Town 5 5,010 20 TO} ue 300) : 5340
Simon’s Town ZA) "Ga . Ae See eh ews ‘ 3
Kalk Bay ~ : 18 358 , | ° 376
Hermanus e : 400 “ Seen ere 1 : 400
Knysna Heads.. | oer : 1| 1 : -<
Total 6| 542) 1,467) 3,799) 15,238] 1,118 38] 2,058) 980) 5 3| 24,425.
' |
1903.
} | }
Locality. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May June. | July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct Nov. | Dec. | Total.
|
Lambert’s Bay.. 14! : 105 88 904 AN kc we ¥,563] . ae 2,678
Steenberg Cove 440! 5,000) 4,394] 36,129) 4,156| 1,504] 215 555| 52,393
Stompneus and
Britannia Bay ate 829) 7,313| 6,476] 48,477/| 10,876) 16; 1,18/2 238 26) 2,763| 78,196
Paternoster Bc 173) 350| 3,322) 3,856] 15,937/19,114 1,487) 6,976 : == 51,215
Hoetjes & North
Bays 50 oe - | 705] 2,997] 2,500| 2,0x1] 3,210] 1,014 83] 1,490! .. I7| 13,027
Langebaan 5a A Abe RSE 34) 21 ee ae ri a 58 sz 55
Cape Town 2,900 300, 70} 59,870| 1,450 70 go} . 9,000 7,800] 22,100) 103,650
Kalk Bay ote ey le is E bc E ate ie ae Ss Fe I I
Somerset Strand : | oe 12 I4 |) as I 38) asi || tere as 8x
Hermanus cee oe allie sis é 4); 173} 105 Woe 282
Knysna Heads.. C4 Se 252 |Past 5 | thy oe 284
Plattenberg Bay 4c 3 3 Io Nie 55 13
Jefirey’s Bay oe I sia I
Totals “+ | 3,100) 1,933 16,447) 16,881 164,117) 37,636) 3,472| 2,729] 9,783 12,506| 7,826) 25,436] 301,876
| | | |
1904.
Locality. Jan. Feb. May. | April. May. | June. | July.| Aug.| Sept. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Total.
| | |
Lambert’s Bay es Bo ES 2,644. 288| 3,557) 924) ..| . : a ee 7;413
Steenberg Cove 5,284] 18,381] 21,511) 4,964; 24,959] 3,971| .- Nahe a o 1,317} 958] 81,345.
Stompneus and
Britannia Bay | 10,140] 39,612] 24,538! 9,540 54,979/23,252| .. co ic 1,349} 329| 163,739
Paternoster . 45333] 17,146| 6,756|14,337| 46,558|11,039| 660] .. | Ad -- | 100,829
Hoetjes & North
Bays 6 I61 665| 1,223) 14,731| 5,813}1.522) .. | 99 906] a. 456) 25,582
Langebaan .. oc 50 a se 25302|| 25438| 2. ae me ac ne aia 4,740
Cape Town .. | 142,500/ 110,800] 16,200 14,740 53,400| 14,160! 1,000] 4,900} 1,020 130} .. | 6,078] 364,928
Simon’s Town ae oa 1,523 320| 1,769) .. 24) .. | 608) * =. ae 8 3,644
Kalk Bay 50 - 8,000 362 ml 899 69| 447] 428) 25,867| 22,550 6\ ee 58,628
Somerset Strand oe ae ai ae Al agers Ae ae 227) .. I 232
Hermanus ae ae . c ° . 500 75 300;II,000] .. . 11,875
Knysna Heads Ad ‘ : se I 8 cate 5 < ae II
Buffalo Bay oe : we aie ‘ ° . ° Bo T5OUT) Weare 1,011
Plettenberg Bay ae 35 ‘ C ae 56 ; : EE etek ate ae I
Jefirey‘s Bay .. ee ° 5 oe. | - Z| =. . © ad a me +I
Total .. | 162,263) 194,100] 71,555 47,768 199,285 | 64,305] 5,085] 5,405) 27,895 34,813) 3,683) 7,822} 823,979

TOTAL NUMBER OF SNOEK caught at various Fishing Stations

123

for the Years 1897-1904.

1897. 1808. 1899. 1900. Igor

Lambert’s Bay | 35,348 | 41,805 38,067 | 17,055 3294
Steenberg Cove ye 59,618 61,303 83,600 5,681 6,312
Stompneus and Britannia Bay 165,653 25,360 | 177,377 | 16,617 | 14,931
Paternoster : 104,066 973513 | 93,327 6,830 9,701
Hoetjes Bay Bio ae ie 10,518 | 28,208
Langebaan .. 3,500 936 9,796 965 2,285
Cape Town ae Se a6 41,670 | 60,400
Simon’s Town 468 3 8 I2 233
Kalk Bay . We “3 as 3,887 93 oe 19 1,627
Somerset Strand .. ae veal 397 247 1,582 16 18
Hermanus .. 61,561 1,867 545 882 467
Struis Bay .. A - | 3 C ae
Mossel Bay 2,140 84 | 81 600 57
Knysna Heads 18 202 | I14 106 48
Buffalo Bay | 2 782 | 6 I 138
Plettenberg Bay 75 cr. | 128 12 18
Jeftrey’s Bay : a€ - 20
Algoa Bay .. | 230

Total me | 436.733 328,436 | 405,135 101,004 | 129,747

The returns of “salted or cured ”’ fish
Cape afford further information regarding variation in the

1902. 1903.
732 2,678
2,115 | 52,393
5,119 | 78,196
6,470 | 51,215
4,805 | 13,027
61 55
5,340 | 103,650
3 *
376 I
5 81
400 282
cin) ;
3
234
oe
I
245425 301876

exported from the

Snoek supply, as the fish exported are chiefly Snoek.

823.979

EXPORTS (OVERSEA) OF COLONIAL SALTED OR CURED FISH FOR

1891-1912.

Year Weight (Ibs.). Value (f).
1891 2,243,646 17,086
1892 2,689,321 16,722
1893 1,354,503 10,474
1894 963,363 9,835
1895 1,089,408 10,650
1896 624,021 6,379
1897 1,209,351 12,966
1898 803,048 7,800
1899 : 984,100 12,835
1900 105,550 1,419
IQOI 73,680 986
1902 as 10 I
1903 371,526 6,521
1904 610,072 10,789
1905 § 74,006 1,148
1906 73,692 1,476
1907 - 779.794 7,005
1908 : 2,381,637 16,794
1909 1,317,695 13,293
IgI0 oe 1,033,188 9,263
IQII 1,462,763 15,724
Ig12 1,412,805 13,839
[C.P. 6—’14.] K

124

The nature of the “spawn ” or eggs and fry of the Snoek is
of great practical importance, as it has been stated that it may
be destroyed by trawling operations. The opinion of some
fishermen is that the reddish water (cf., p. 17), which is occa-
sionally seen in False Bay is the eggs of the Snoek, and it is
looked on as a sure sign that Snoek are about. When this
water is observed the Kalk Bay fishermen put out towards
Cape Point for the fish, and it is stated they almost invariably
find them. The usual set of the current is from Cape Point
towards Simon’s Town and Muizenberg, and this would of
course bring the eggs into False Bay. On the other hand, at
St. Helena Bay, Stumpnose, and Britannia Bay, and fishing
villages in that neighbourhood, floating masses of a gelatinous
consistency, in which the eggs and young, it is alleged, may be
seen by the naked eye are considered to be the spawn of the
fish. There can be little doubt that neither of these are in
reality the eggs and fry of the Snoek, as on examination of
mature Snoek, the ripe eggs were found to be colourless spheres
about -95 of a millimeter in diameter and containing an oil
globule about -23 mm. The egg of the Snoek is thus not very
different from that of the most of S. African sea-fish. The
relatively large size of the oil globule is a characteristic feature
and will serve to distinguish it from many other fish eggs,
which are otherwise similar. Of the known S. African fish-eggs
it is nearest those of the Panga (Pagrus laniarius), which
measure from I -I to ‘93 mm. and have an oil globule of -2
to -1gmm. They float at the surface of the water, and were
found in the months of August and September. They cannot
be destroyed by any method of fishing at present practised
anywhere.

Some time ago some thousands of small Snoek under the
legal size were caught at Hermanus and other fishing centres.
This infringement of the regulations was pointed out, and the
responsible parties called to account. They, however, stated
that these small Snoek were of a different species from the ordin-
ary Snoek and never grew any larger. For lack of any definite
evidence to the contrary no prosecutions were possible, and the
capture of these fish continued. On scientific examination of
the specimens, however, it was shown that these were certainly
immature Snoek, though differing in some respects from the
adult. These differences were, for instance, the relatively
larger eye, which, however, is a characteristic feature of many
young forms of fish. The reproductive organs in all of these
small forms were undeveloped.

The food of the Snoek is whatever it may come across in its
pelagic life; this is generally shoals of smaller fish. “ Sar-

125

dines ’’ at certain seasons appear close inshore, and the Snoek
then eat nothing else ; again, when Mackerel congregated in
shoals, the Snoek will prey on them in the absence of the
“Sardines.” If, however, these do not make their appearance
at their usual time, the Snoek have to content themselves
with what they can pick up. A few years ago (April, 1909), for
instance, it was observed that Sardines, Maasbankers, Mackerel,
Mullet, and small fish generally, had unaccountably forsaken
False Bay for about three months. The Snoek were then
found in great numbers near Cape Point at the entrance to the
bay ; those caught generally had empty stomachs, but some
had eaten various rock-fish and not a few had devoured their
own species.

During the height of the season (April and May) the average
catch for a boat has been from 1,000 to 2,000 Snoek, and as
many as 2,400 have, it is stated, been caught by one boat, with
four men.

THe Kak Fisu (Lepidopus caudatiis).

This is the fish already referred to as being the nearest ally
of the Snoek ; it is known in Europe as the Scabbard Fish, and
in South Africa as the Kalk-fish, or Kalk-visch. In New
Zealand it is called the Frost-fish, as it is usually cast up on

The Kalk-fish (Lepidopus caudatus, Euphr.).

(From Jordan & Everman.)

the beach in frosty weather, even deliberately leaving the
water and becoming stranded on the shore. The fish has the
same long flat body and long dorsal fin as the Snoek, but with
these characteristics much exaggerated. The body is band-like
and may be 5 or 6 feet in length ; the dorsal fin extends the
whole length of the body, but does not run into the tail fin,
as in the next genus. The teeth are not unlike those of the
Snoek, being fang-like, and occur on the roof of the mouth,
as wellasin the jaws. Ithasnoscales. It might be described
[C.P. 6—’14.]

126

therefore, as like a Snoek, but with greater modifications for
a deep-sea or pelagic life. It does not approach the coast in
shoals like Snoek, and its usual habitat seems to be the surface
waters of the open sea, where the higher speed, indicated by
its flat powerful body, reduced ventral fins, etc., is necessary,
seeing that it cannot, like its ally the Snoek, occasionally prey
upon shoals of Herring and Mackerel inshore.

As might be expected, this fish of the high seas is very widely
distributed. It has been recorded from American waters ; it
is common in Europe, South Africa, South-East coast of Aus-
tralia and Tasmania, but seems to occur in greatest abundance
in New Zealand, where it is esteemed as “ the most delicious
fish ’? (Sherrin), none the less so as it has the accommodating,
though fatal, habit of swimming ashore.

THE SNAKE MACKEREL (Gempylus serpens).

This is a fish closely allied to the Kalk Fish, having a long
flat body, pointed head, with projecting lower jaw, and power-
ful canine-like teeth. The dorsal spines are not so numerous
(about 30), however, and there are separate finlets, as in the
Snoek.

It is a rare fish, and is believed to be an inhabitant of very
deep waters, though little is known of its mode of life. It is

The Snake Mackerel (Gempylus serpens).
(From photo by Mr, Brooking, East London.)

widely distributed, having been found both in the northern
and southern hemispheres. A specimen has been found in
South Africa by Mr. Brooking, at East London. It was found
alive in a school of Mullet caught in a seine net—a fact not
quite in keeping with its supposed deep-sea habits. It has
no local name here, as might be expected from its rarity, and
we have adopted the American popular name of Snake Mackerel.

THE Hatr-TaAIL (Trichiurus haumela).

In its general features this fish is similar to the preceding
members of the family, but instead of having a normal caudal
fin, the body tapers away to a fine hair-like point, and this
striking difference has led some icthyologists to separate it from
the others. This hair-like tail cannot very well function as a

ee

127

steering organ, and it may well have some sensory functions ;
perhaps in correlation with this, we find that the habits of the
fish are different, for it mostly frequents the warm shallow
waters of the tropics, sometimes even entering rivers.

It is rather rare in South Africa, being, like the Snake
Mackerel, recorded here for the first time as a South African
fish. Several specimens have been found by the Pveter Faure

7

X

The Hair-tail (Trichiurus haumela, Euphr.).
(After Day.)

in trawling in shallow waters ; one was forwarded from East
London by Mr. J. Wood, and one by Mr. Brooking, who notes
that he has seen them in the Buffalo River.

All the Trichiuride are flat, elongate fish, with canine-like
teeth, indicating that they are powerful swimmers, capable of
sustained effort, and of a rapacious habit, in strong contrast
to the rounded shorter body and undifferentiated teeth of the
Mackerels (Scombrid@).

err 624.)

VII.—DESCRIPTION OF THREE NEW SOUTH AFRICAN
BRISHES.

DENTEX ALBUS, n. sp. (Watte-visch).

Canines moderately strong, 4 in upper jaw, 6 in lower.
Depth of body, 2% times in total length; length of head,
3} times. Snout more than twice diameter of eye, which
is £ interorbital width and 43% times in length of head;
preorbital width a little greater than height, which is 12 times
diameter of eye, scaleless; 8 series of scales between
preorbital and margin of preoperculum ; some small irregular
scales on preoperculum, the outer margin of which is scaleless ;
angle rounded, vertical limb, about twice as long as the hori-
zontal ; interorbital space boldly convex, protruding ; maxil-
lary reaches to vertical of anterior third of eye and almost
entirely concealed by preorbital ; opercle with a blunt incon-
spicuous spine. Upper profile of head strongly convex, form-
ing a quadrant of a circle from origin of dorsal fin to snout.

Dentex albus, 1. sp.

Dorsal xii 10, spines weak and flexible ; first 2 spines very
short, 3rd and 4th about equal and ? length of head, the
succeeding spines gradually shortening, the last being slightly
lower than the soft rays. Pectoral nearly as long as head,
reaching to anal rays. Ventrals 2 length of head, not
reaching vent. Anal iii 8, 2nd spine a little stronger but
shorter than 3rd. Caudal forked, 4%) Jength of head.

re

129

Scales on body large, each with slightly radiating strize down
the centre ; scales on head and throat below pectorals much
smaller ; the scales on the head extend to the level of the upper
margin of the eye. Lat. 1. 60, lat. tr. 8/15.

Colour (of preserved specimen), silvery ; when fresh caught
it is reddish with pale blue longitudinal streaks, which, however,
disappear very quickly ; tip of spinous dorsal and of caudal
blackish. The specific name given refers to the local name
(Witte-visch),; the fish, however, is not white, but is of a paler
red than other red fish, such as Silver-fish and the colour fades
rather quickly.

I specimen, 394 mm. in length, from Table Bay.

SCYLLIORHINUS PUNCTATUS, n.sp.

Head broad, depressed ; snout obtuse, rounded, its length
more than $its greatest breadth and r4 times the space between
the nasal valves, which are not confluent, without cirri and

are separated from each other by a space equal to 3 of the
distance between end of snout and mouth; length of nasal
cavity equals 2 longitudinal diameter of eye, which is 14
times in length of snout. No labial folds. Distance between
posterior angles of the mouth equals twice the length of the
space between end of snout and mouth. Gill-openings about
4 longitudinal diameter of eye in length, distance from first to
last a little more than 14 times in length of snout. Teeth with
a long setose central cusp and two small cusps at the base on
each side. Scales of body trispinate, unequal; larger ones
occurring at intervals among the smaller on the body.

Dorsal fins equal, the length of their bases 22 times in
the distance between them, which is ,9, the distance
between base of 2nd dorsal and caudal. The Ist dorsal
originates over or slightly in front of posterior end of base of
ventrals ; the 2nd dorsal originates over posterior end of base
of anal. Posterior margin of pectorals reaches to about mid-
way between posterior end of its base and anterior end of

ventrals. Distance of origin of ventrals from snout is 54+ times
[C.P. 6—’14.]

130

the length of snout ; posterior end of fin pointed. Anal fin
ends below anterior end, or base of 2nd dorsal, the length of
its base is 14 times in its distance from base of caudal fin.

Colour (of preserved specimen): body covered with numerous
small round dark spots, which become larger laterally on sides
of head, body and fins ; a few white spots occur on head, body
and pectoral fins. Two faint brown narrow bands occur bet-
ween gill-openings, one below base of pectorals, two across
body about midway between pectorals and ist dorsal, a faint
one in front and another at base of Ist dorsal, two between
the dorsal fins.

One specimen, 245 mm. in length including caudal, off Cape
Point.

SELENE GIBBICEPS, Nn.sp.
‘leeth minute on upper jaw, a single row of larger ones on

lower, a band on vomer and on tongue. Depth of body a
little more than r# times in total length excluding caudal,

Selene gibbiceps, n. sp.

length of head 3 times. Snout 2} times in length of head and
twice diameter of eye, which is 44 times in length of head and
1} times interorbital width; distance of upper margin of
eye from top of head slightly greater than length of snout ;
greatest height of preorbital 12 times diameter of eye;
cleft of mouth oblique, the chin protruding beyond upper lip
when mouth is closed; maxillary broad and reaching to
vertical of nostrils. Body much elevated and compressed ;
upper profile of head nearly vertical, descending in a slight
concave curve to point of snout.

131

Dorsal ix, i 24; the first 2 spines of anterior dorsal are
detached and rudimentary, the 3rd spine is highest and is
connected by a membrane to the 4th and 5th, which succes-
sively decrease in height and are followed by 4 small detached
spines ; anterior soft rays highest, not produced, the Ist ray
being a little more than 4 length of head ; outer margin of soft
dorsal concave anteriorly, the remaining rays about equal in
height. Pectorals slightly longer than head, reaching to above
middle of anal, scythe-like in shape. Ventrals very short.
Anal i 20, similar to soft dorsal, but not as high, with 3 bony
scutes on the abdominal margin between Ist spine of anal and
ventrals. Caudal deeply forked, * length of head; caudal
peduncle 3 times as long as deep. Lat. 1. 140 (circa.). Scales
absent on the body, except on the lateral line, which has a
strong upward bend anteriorly becoming straight below the
8th or gth soft ray of the dorsal fin.

Colour (of preserved specimen), silvery, darkish on the back,
with a greenish tint posteriorly ; lobes of caudal greenish with
a dark outer edge ; an indistinct dark patch on opercle and
passing from eye to point of snout and tip of lower jaw.

The single specimen, 163 mm. in length, was procured in the
Government net at Walfish Bay and was forwarded by the
Resident Magistrate through Mr. G. Gale, Superintendent of
Works at that place. It does not appear to be the same
species_as S. vomer in any of its various stages.

[C.P. 6—’14.]

VIII.—CATALOGUE OF FISHES OF THE CAPE
PROVINCE.

By W. WARDLAW THOMPSON, F.Z.S.

The latest catalogue of Cape Fishes was drawn up by Dr.
J. D. F. Gilchrist in 1902. Since that date there have been
additions and alterations and I have, at his suggestion, com-
piled the following revised list with the necessary additions
and a fuller bibliography. It is hoped that this will prove
useful from a practical as well as a scientific point of view.
The lack of complete references and of access to types has
been a difficulty in the work and may have led to certain
defects, but it is hoped that these are as few as possible under
the circumstances.

The present paper deals with the Sub-Class Elasmobranchit
(Dog-fish, Sharks, Rays, etc.), but the local representatives of
Branchiostomatide (Lancelets) and Cyclostomata (Hag-fish or
Zee-slang) have also been included, although they do not fall
under the Class Pisces.

I have to thank Dr. Gilchrist for his advice and assistance
in the compilation of this catalogue.

CEPHALOCHORDATA.

FAMILY BRANCHIOSTOMATIDAE.
(Lancelets or Amphioxus).

Branchiostoma, Costa.

Branchiostoma, Costa, Cenni Zoologici Napol. 1834, p. 49;
Gunth. Cat: Bish. will, 1670, p.. 513.

Amphioxus, Yarrell, British Fish. 1836, p. 468.

Branchiostoma capense, Gilchr.

Gilchr. Marine Invest. S. Africa, ii, 1894, p. 111 (False Bay,
Mossel Bay, Algoa Bay).

133
CRANIATA.

Crass CYCLOSTOMATA.
Orver MYXINOIDES.

FamiIty MYXINE, Linn.
Myxine, Linn.

Mysxine; Linn. Syst:gNat: ed. x91; :p..650,.7758:3) Gunth;, Cat.
Fish. viii, p. 510, 1870 ; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid.
America, p. 7, 1896; Regan, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., ser.
8, vol. xi., 1913, p. 395.

Gastrobranchus, Bloch, Ausl. Fische, xii, p. 66, 1795.

Myxine capensis, Regan.

Myxine capensts, Regan, Ann & Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, vol.
X1., 1913, p. 398 (Cape of Good Hope, r10 fms.)

FAMILY BDELLOSTOMATIDAE.
Heptatretus, Duméril.
Eptatretus (Dumeéril) Cloquet, Dict. Sci. Nat. xv, p. 134, 1819 ;
Regan, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) ix, 1912, p. 534.
Homea, Fleming, Philos. of Zool. ii, p. 375, 1822.
Heptatrema, Voigt, Thierr. ii, p. 529, 1832 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish.
Vili, p. 397, 1870.
Bdellostoma, Mill. Abhandl. Akad. Berlin, 1834, p. 79.
Polistotrema, Gill, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 1880, p. 30.

Heptatretus hexatrema, Miill.
(Sea-snake, Zee-slang.)

Bdellostoma heptatrema, Mill. Abhandl. Akad. Berlin, 1834, p. 79.

Bdellostoma heterostrema, Mull. l.c.

Bdellostoma cirrhatuwm (part.) Giinth. Cat. Fish. vill, p. 511,
1870, and in “Challenger” Shore Fishes, p. 14, Name
only, 1880 (Simon’s Bay) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 169
(South Africa). :

Heptatretus hexatrema, Regan, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) ix,
1912, p. 536 (Simon’s Bay, False Bay, Table Bay).

[C.P. 6—’14.]

134
Crass PISCES.

Sus-Crass ELASMOBRANCHII.
Orvper PLAGIOSTOMI.

SuB-ORDER Selachii.

Famity HEXANCHIDAE.

Heptranchias, Rafinesque.

Notidanus, Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. i, 1817.
Notidanus (Heptanchus), Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 398, 1870.

Heptranchias, Rafinesque, Caratteri di Alcuni Nuovi Generi,
p- a4, 1810.

Notorhynchus, Ayres, Proc. Calif. Ac. Sc. 1856, 1, p. 72.

Heptranchias indicus, Cuv.

Notidanus indicus, Cuv. Regne Anim. 1817; Agassiz, Poiss.
foss. iii, pp. 92, 217, pl. E, fig. 1 (teeth) 1836 ; Giinth. Cat.
Fish. viii, p. 398, 1870 (Cape of Good Hope to California) ;
Day, Fish. India, p. 723, pl. clxxxix, fig. 4, 1878 (Madras) ;
Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 165 (South Africa).

Heptanchus indicus, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 82, pl. xxxii (teeth)
1841 ; Temm. & Schleg. Faun. Japon. Poiss. p. 303, 1850 ;
Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only, 1860 (South
Africa) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. 1, p. 434, 1865 ; Macdonald
& Barron, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1868, p. 371, pl. xxxill.

Heptranchias maculatus, Girard, U.S. Pacific R.R. Exp. Fish.
p. 367, 1858 ; Jord. & Gilb. Synops. p. 62, 1883 ; Jord. Tan.
& Snyd. Cat. Fish. Japan, p. 7, 1913 (Sagami Sea, Japan ;
Pacific coast of North America).

Notorhynchus maculatus, Ayres, Proc. Calif. Ac. Nat. Sc. 1856,
i, p. 72 (San Francisco) ; Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad.
1862, p. 495, and 1864, p. 149; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and
Mid. Amer. p. 17, 1896 (Pacific coast of N. America from
Monterey north to Washington; common northwards,
especially in Humboldt Bay).

Notorhynchus borealis, Gill t.c.p. 150, 1864.

135
FAMILY SCYLLIIDAE.
Chiloscyllium, Giinth.

Hemiscyllium et Chiloscyllium, Miiller,& Henle, Plagiost, 1841.
Chiloscyllium, Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 410, 1870.

Chiloscyllium indicum, Gmel.

Squalus sp., Gronov. Mus. Ichth. i, p. 61, No. 133 (India), and
Zoophyl. No. 150, 1763.

Squalus indicus, Gmel. Linn. Syst. Nat. 1, p. 1503, 1735; BI.
schn. Syst. Ichth..p. 137, 1801.

Squale dentelé, Lacép. Hist. Poiss. 1, p. 281, pl. ii, fig. 1, 1798.

Squalus gronovianus, Lacép. t.c.p. 280, pl. x1, fig. 1 (Indian
seas).

Squalus tuberculatus, Bl. Schn. Syst. Ichth., p. 137, 1801.

Squalus, Russell, Fish. Vizag. p. 10, Bokee Sorrah or Ra Sorrah,
pl. xvi, 1803 (Coromandel coast).

Scyluum plagiosum, Benn. Life of Raffles, p. 694, 1830 (Suma-
tra).

Scyllium ornatum, Gray & Hardw. Ill. Ind. Zool. pl. c, fig. 1.
1834 (India).

Chiloscyluum plagiosum, Mill. & Henle, Plagiost. p. 17, 1841 ;
Cantor, Malay. Fish. p. 392, 1849 ; Jerdon, Madras Journ.
Lit. - Sci 1855) p- 148 3 Blkr Verh: ‘Bat. Gen. xoay, Place:
p- 17, 1852 (Indian Archipelago), and Visch. v.d. Kaap,
p- 57, Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ; Duméril, Elasmobr.
p. 328, 1865; Day, Fish. Malabar, p. 267, 1865.

Chiloscyluum gnseum, Mill. & Henle, t.c.p. 19, pl. 4 (not
good).

Chaloscyllium tuberculatum, Mill. & Henle, t.c., p.19; Blkr. Verh.
Bat. Gen. xxiv, Plag. p. 20, 1852 (Indian Archipelago), and
Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 57, Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ;
Dumeéril, t.c.p. 331 ; Kner, Novara, Fische, pp. 412, 413.
1865.

Squalus caudatus, Gronor. Syst. ed. Gray, p. 8, 1854 (Indian
Ocean).

Scyllium hasseltit, Blkr. Verh. Bat. Gen. xxiv., Plag. p. 19, 1852.

Scyllium phymatodes, Blkr. l.c. p. 21; Duméril, Elasmobr.
P- 331, 1865.

Hemiscyllium malayanum, Blkr. Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind. vii, p.
376, 1854 (not Lesson), (Batjan).

Chiloscylhum magaritiferum, Blkr. Ned. Tijds. Dierck. i, p. 243,
1863 (Obi) ; Dumeéril, l.c.p. 329 (young).

[C.P. 6—’14.]

136

Synchismus tuberculatus, Gill, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York,
1861, p. 408, name only, and p. 413, pl. vii.

Chiloscyllium indicum, Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 411, 1870
(Java, Moluccas, Japan, China, Ceylon, India, Cape seas) ;
Day, Fish. India, p. 726, pl. clxxxviii, fig. 3, 1878 (seas of
India to Malay Archipelago and beyond); Gilchr. Cat.
Fish. 1902, p. 165 (S. Africa) ; Jord. & Everm. Proc. U.S.
Nat. Mus, 1902 (Formosa); Jord & Fowler, Elasmobr.
Fish. Japan, p. 604, 1903 (Formosa) ; Jord. Snyd. & Tan.
Cat. Fish. Japan, p. 9, fig. 3, 1913 (coasts of China and
Formosa ; Nagasaki).

Scylliorhinus, Blainville.

Scylliorhinus, Blainville, Journ. de Phys. 1816, p. 263 ; Regan,
Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 1, 1908, p. 453.

Scyllium, Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. i, 1817, p. 124; Giinth. Cat.
Fish. viii, p. 400, 1870.

Catulus, A. Smith, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 85.

Poroderma, A. Smith, l.c.

Halaelurus, Gill, Ann. Lyc. New York, vii, 1861, p. 467.

Cephaloscyllium, Gill, l.c.

Scylliorhinus africanus, Gmel.
(Striped Dog-fish, Lui-haat, Bank-haat.)

Squalus africanus, Gmel. Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 1494, 1793.

Scyllium africanum, Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. 2, ii, p. 386, 1829 ;
Miill. & Henle, Plag. p. 12, pl. vii, 1841 ; Smith, Ill. Zool.
S. Afr. Pisc. pl. xxv, fig. 1, 1849 (South African seas) ;
Gray, Chondropt., p. 31, 1851 (Indian Ocean, Cape seas) ;
Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 321, 1865 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii,
p- 405, 1870 (South Africa) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 164
(South Africa) ?

Scyllium var. africana, sp. striata, Giinth. l.c. p. 406 (Cape seas).

Scylliorhinus africanus, Regan, Ann & Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 1,
p- 454 and 456, 1908 (South Africa), and Col. Fish. 1908,
p. 241 (Bird Islands).

Scylliorhinus bivius, M. & H.

Scyllium bivium (Smith) Mull & Henle, Plag. p. 8, 1841 ; Blkr.
Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 57, Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ;
Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 321, 1865 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii,
p- 405, 1870 (Cape of Good Hope) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902,
p. 165 (South Africa). | -

137

Scyllium brevicolle, Philippi, An. Univ. Chile, Ixxi, p. 558, pl.
7 ie 5, LOO.

Scyllium gayi, Philippi, Zool. Garten, 1887, p. 86 (South
America).

Scyllium chilense (non Guichen), Vaill. Miss. Sci. Cap Horn,
Piss: p: 10) pl. 1.fig. 1, 1608.

Scylliorhinus bivius, Regan, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) i, p.
461, 1908 (Chile and Patagonia).

Scylliorhinus brevicollis, Delfin, Cat. Peces de Chile, p. 15, Igot.

Scyllium livium, Gray, Chondropt. p. 31, 1851 (Cape of Good
Hope).

Note.—There is some doubt as to the occurrence of this

species in South Africa.

Scylliorhinus capensis, Smith.

Scyluum capense, Smith. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837; Mill. &
Henle; Plasiost. p.. 11,1841 5 “Gray, Chondropt. p. 31;
1851 (Indian Ocean ; Cape Seas) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap,
PP: 55, 79, 1860 (Simon’s Bay); Duméril, Elasmobr. p.
320, 1865 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish, vili, p. 404, 1870 (Cape seas ;
Indian Ocean); Day, Fish. India, p. 724, pl. cxc, fig. 1,
1878 (Indian seas) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 165 (South
Africa).

Scylliorhinus capensis, Regan, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) i,
p- 458, 1908 (South Africa).

Scylliorhinus edwardsi, Cuv.
(Pofadder-haai, Schaam-oog.)

Squalus catulus (non Linn), Edwards, Glean. Nat. Hist. iii, pl.
icelxxxix, 1704.

Scylliium edwards, Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. 2, p. 386, 1829; Miill.
& Henle, Plagiost. p. 4, pl. i, 1841 ; Gray, Chondropt, p. 28,
1851 (South Africa) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 57, Name
only, 1860 (South Africa); Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 319,
1865 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. vill, p. 401, 1870 (Cape of Good
Hope) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 164 (South Africa).

Catulus edwardstt, Smith, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 85.

Scyllium pictum, Mill. & Henle, t.c. pp 4 and 189; Blkr. t.c.
p- 57, Name only (South Africa).

Scylliorhinus edwards, Regan, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) i,
1908, p. 463 (South Africa), and Ann. Natal Govt. Mus. i,
pt. 3, 1908, p. 241 (Bird Islands).

[C.P. 6—’14.]

138

Scylliorhinus natalensis, Regan.
Scyllium natalense, Regan, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) xiv, 1904,
p.. £20.
Scylliorhinus natalensis, Regan, t.c. (8) i, 1908, p. 461 (Natal
and Cape Colony), and Col. Fish. 1908, p. 241 (Bird
Islands).

Scylliorhinus natalensis, Gilchr. & Thomp. Ann. S. Afr. Mus.
xi, pt. 2, IQII, p. 55 (Natal).

Scylliorhinus pantherinus, M. & H.

Scyllium pantherinum (Smith) Mull. & Henle, Plagiost. p. 13,
1841 ; Smith, Ill. Zool. S. Afr. Pisc. pl. xxv, fig. 2, 1849
(Algoa Bay) ; Gray, Chondropt. p. 31, 1851 (Indian Ocean ;
Cape seas); Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 57, Name only,
1860 (South Africa) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 322, 1865.

Scyllium variegatum (Smith), Mull. & Henle, t.c.p. 14 ; Smith,
t.c. pl. xxv, fig. 3 (Algoa Bay) ; Dumeéril, l-c.

Scyllium africanum, vars. variegata et pantherina, Ginth. Cat.
Fish. viii, p. 406, 1870 (Algoa Bay).

Scylliorhinus variegatus, Regan, Col. Fish. 1908, p. 241 (Bird
Islands).

Scylliorhinus pantherinus, Regan, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) i,
1908, p. 456 (South Africa).

Scylliorhinus punctatus, Gilchr.

Gilchr. Mar. Biol. Rep. 1, 1914, p. 129 fig.

FamMity CARCHARIIDAE.
Carcharias, Cuv.

Carcharias, Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. i, 1817; Mill & Henle,
Plagiost. 1841; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 357, 1870;
Day, Fish. India, p. 710, 1878.

Scoliodon, Aprion or Aprinodon, Physodon, Hypoprion, Priono-
don, Mill. & Henle, Wiegmann’s Archiv. 1837, and Plagiost.
1841.

Prionace, Cantor, Malay. Fish. p. 399, 1849.

Eulamia, Isogomphodon, Lamiopsis, Platypodon, Hypoprionodon
Isoplagiodon, et Cynocephalus, Gill, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist.
New York, 186r.

139
Carcharias acutus, Riipp.

Carcharias acutus, Riipp. N. W. Fische, p. 65, pl. 18, fig. 4,
1838 (Red Sea) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 358, 1870 (Cape
Seas, East Indian Archipelago, Singapore, Penang, Java) ;
Day, Fish. India, p. 712, pl. clxxxviii, fig. 2 (Madras) 1878 ;
Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 162 (South Africa).

Squalus russellit, Gray, Ul. Indian Zool. 1834.

Carcharias (Scoliodon) acutus, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 29, 1841 ;
Richards. Ichth. China, p. 194, 1846; Cantor, Malay.
Fish. p. 399, 1849 ; Gray, Chondropt. p. 41, 1851 (Indian
Ocean ; China); Blkr. Verh. Bat. Gen. xxiv, Plag. p. 30,
1852 (Indian Archipelago) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 345,
1865 (East Indies ; China); Kner, Novara Fische, p. 414,
1865 ; Klunz. Fisch. des rothen Meers. p. 655, 1870 (Red
Sea).

Scoliodon acutus, Jord. & Fowler, Elasmobr. Fish. Japan, p.
616, 1903 (East Indies).

Carcharias melanopterus, Quoy & Gaim.

Carcharias melanopterus, Quoy & Gaim. Voy. Uran. Zool.
p: 104, pl. 43; figs. 1 sc 2; 1824°; Rupp. N. W. Fische; p: 63;
1838 ; Giinth. Fish. Zanz. p. 142, 1866 (Red Sea), and
Cat. Fish. viii, p. 369, 1870 (Indian Ocean and Archipelago ;
Amboyna) ; Klunz. Fisch. R. Meers. p. 658, 1870; Day,
Fish. India p. 715, pl. clxxxv, fig. 3, 1878 (Andamans) ;
Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 163 (South Africa); Jord. &
Seale, Fish. Samoa, 1906, p. 182 (Hawaii, Samoa, etc.).

Carcharias (Prionodon) melanopterus, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 43,
pl. 19, fig. 5, 1841; Richards. Ichth. China, pp. 194 and
er7, 1840; Bila. Vern. Bat.Gen: xxv. Plas: p.. 33) 1852
(East Indian Archipelago) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 365,
1865 ; Kner, Novara Fische, p. 415, 1865 ; Steindr. Fische
Siidarab. Sokotra, p. 38, 1902 (Sokotra).

Carcharias (Prionace) melanopterus, Cantor, Malay. Fish.
p- 400, 1849.

Carcharias (Prionodon) henlet, Blkr. Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind. iv,
507, 1853 (Batavia).

Carcharias (Prionodon) brachyrhynchus, Blkr. Act. Soc. Sc.
Indo-Neerl. vi, p. 206, 1859 (East Indian Archipelago) ;
Dumeéril, t.c.p. 364, 1865.

Squalus (Carcharinus) melanopterus, Gray, Chondropt. p. 46,
1851 (Cape seas, Red Sea, Australia, Moluccas, China).

[C.P. 6—’14.] L

140

Galeorhinus, Blainville.

Galeorhinus, Blainv. Bull. Soc. Philom. 1816, p. 121; Jord. &
Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. Amer. p. 31, 1896.

Galeus, Rafinesque, Caratteri, p. 13, 1810 (in part, without
mention of species) ; Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. i, 1817, p. 127 ;
Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 379, 1870.

Eugaleus, Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1864, p. 148.

Galeorhinus canis, Bonap.
(The Tope, Dog-fish, Darwen Salmon.)

Galeus canis, Rondel. De Pisc., p. 377, 1554; Bonap. Faun.
Ital. Pesc. iii, tab. 132, fig. 3,-1840 ; Mill. & Henle, Plag.,
p- 57, 1841 ; Gaimard, Voy. Isl. et Groenl. Poiss. pl. 21,
1851 ; Gray, Chondropt., p. 52, 1851 (Atlantic and Indian
Oceans, Antarctic, Cape, British coast) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d.
Kaap, p. 58, Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ; Duméril,
Elasmobr., p. 390, 1865 ; Bocage & Capello, Peix. Plagiost.,
p. 18, 1866 (Portugal) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. vii, p. 379, 1870
(British coast, Mediterranean, Cape seas, Indian Ocean,
Antarctica, Tasmania, San Francisco) ; Wright & Ekstr.
Skand. Fisk., p. 185, pl. 45, 1893 ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902,
p- 163 (South Africa).

Canis galeus, Salvian. p. 130, fig. 41, 1554 (Italy) ; Willughby,
Hist. Pise., p. 51, pl: Bb, fig. 1 7666,

Squalus sp. Artedi, Gen. p. 68, No. 9 ; Synon. p. 97, 1738.

Squalus galeus, Linn. Syst Nat. ed. x, 1, p. 399, 1758; Brinn.
Pisc. Massil. p. 9, 1768 ; Bl. Ichth., p. 118, 1797 ; Bl. Schn.
Syst. Ichth. p. 128, 1801 ; Turton, British Faun. p. 112,
1807 ; Risso, Ichth. Nice, p. 32, 1810; Jenyns, Man. p.
501, 1835; Nilss. Skand. Faun. Fisk. p. 714, 1836; Couch.,
Fish. British Isl. 1, p. 45, pl. 9, 1861.
Milaudre, Duhamel, Pesch. u, p. 20, figs. 1 and 2, 1777 ; Lacép.
Hist. Poiss. i, p. 237, 1798 (Mediterranean ; Atlantic).
Tope, Pennant, British Zool. ili, p. 98, 1769, or ed. 1812, iil,
p- 146 (not pl. 18).

Carcharias galeus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 121, 1827.

Galeus vulgaris, Fleming, British Fish. p. 165, 1828 ; Kroyer,
Danm. Fisk. p. 834, 1838 ; Yarrell, British Fish. 2nd ed.
ii, p. 509, 1841, or 3rd ed. ui, p. 491, 1859; Parn. Werner.
Mem. vii, p. 414; Herdm. & Daw. Fish. Irish Sea, p. 63,
1902 (British Seas).

Galeorhinus canis, Smitt, Scand. Fish. p. 1132, pl. 4, fig. 2, 1895.

Galeus commums, Owen, Osteol. Cat. i, p. 92, 1853.

141
Leptocarcharias, Giinth.

Leptocarias, Smith, M.S.
Leptocarcharias, Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 384, 1870.
Triaenodon, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 56, 1841 (part).

Leptocarcharias smithii, M. & H.

Triaenodon smith, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 56, pl. 21, 1841;
Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 57, Name only, 1860 (South
Africa).

Leptocarcharias smith, Gray, Chondropt. p. 51, 1851 (Southern
Ocean) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 384, 1870 (South Africa,
Cabenda Bay); Gilchr. Fat. Fish. 1902, p. 163 (South
Africa).

Mustelus, Cuv.

Mustelus, Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. i, p. 128, 1817 ; Gill. Proc. Ac.
Nat. Sc. Philad. 1864, p. 148; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii,
p- 385, 1870; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. America,
p- 28,) 1896.

Mustelus Canis, Mitchell.
(Smooth Hound.)

Galeus astertas, Rondel. p. 377, 1554.

Smooth Hound, Penn., British Zool. ili, p. 102, pl. 16, 1769, or
ed. 1812), 11, p. 151 5 Couch, Fish. Brit. Isl 1, p. 47, pl xo;
1861 (British Coasts).

Squalus émissole, Lacép. Hist. Poiss. 1, p. 242, 1798 (Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans).

? Squalus mustelus, Bl. Schn. Syst. Ichth. p. 128, 1801 ; Risso,
Nolitin INIce) 334 £080;

Squalus cams, Mitch. Trans. Lit. Phil. Soc. New York, 2855;
i, p. 486 (New York).

Mustelus asterias, Cloquet, Dict. p. 407, 1820 (Europe).

Mustelus stellatus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iti, p. 126, 1827 (Nice).

Squalus hinnulus, Blainv. Faun. Franc. p. 83, pl. 20, fig. 2, 1828
(Mediterranean).

Galeorhinus hinnulus, Blainv. t.c., p. 83, pl. 20, fig. 2 ; Thomp-
son; ,Ann.Nat. Dist) 1830, 1; p.,.272, and, Nat. Hast.
Ireland, iv, p. 252, 1856.

[C.P. 6—’14.]

142

Galeus mustelus, Leach, Wern. Mem. ii, p. 63, pl. 2, fig. 3.

Mustelus plebejus, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. vin, p. 43, pl. 132,
1834 (Italy).

Mustelus vulgaris (part), Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 64, 1841.

Mustelus vulgaris, Mill. Abhandl. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1840, p.
187, pl. 3, fig. 2; Miill. & Henle, Plag. p. 190, pl. 27, fig. 1,
1841 (Europe); Gray, Chondropt, p. 56, 1851 (English
coast, Mediterranean, Cape Seas, Antarctic, New Zealand);
Yarrell, British Fish. 3rd ed. ii. p. 495, 1859; Blkr. Visch
v.d. Kaap, p. 57, Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ;
Dumeéril, Elasmobr. p. 400, pl. 3, figs. 1-3, 1865 (teeth) ;
Bocage & Capello, Peix. Plagiost. p. 16, 1866 (Portugal) :
Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 386, 1870 (British Isles, Guern-
sey) ; Herdm. & Daw. Fish. Irish Sea, p. 64, 1902 ; Gilchr.
Cat. Fish, 1902, p. 163 (South Africa) ; Regan, Col. Fish.
1908, p. 241 (Bird Islands).

Mustelus canis, Storer, Fish. Massachusetts, p. 227, pl. 37, fig.
2, 1867; Jord. & Gilbert, Snyops. 1883, p. 870; Jord. &
Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. Amer., p. 29, 1896 (Cape Cod
to Cuba and Southern Europe, abundant on Atlantic
coasts of both continents especially off New York and in
the Mediterranean).

Mustelus laevis, Risso.

Tadedc Asoc, Aristotle, Hist. anim. vi, c. 10, edit. Gazae, 1503.

Galeus hinnulus, Bellon. De Aquat. p. 71, 1553 (Mediterranean).

Galeus laevis, Rondel. p. 375, 1554.

Squalus mustelus (part), Linn. Syst. Nat. 1, p. 400, ed. x, 1758.

Mustelus laevis, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 127, 1827: Mil.
Abhandl. Ak. Wiss. Berlin, 1840, p. 187, pl. 3, fig. r ; Miill.
& Henle, Plag. p. 190, pl. 27, fig. 2, 1841; Gray, Chondropt.
p- 57, 1851 (locality unknown) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 401,
1865, pl. 3, figs. 4-6 (teeth) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 385,
1870 (Lisbon, Madeira, Cape seas, New York); Gilchr.
Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 163 (South Africa).

Mustelus punctulatus, Risso, t.c. p. 128.

Squalus mustelus, Blainv. Faun. Franc. Poiss. p. 81, pl. 20, fig.
I, 1828:

Mustelus equestris, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. 1840.

Mustelus megalopterus, Smith, Ill. Zool. S. Afr. Pisces, pl. 2,

1849 (Cape of Good Hope) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 57,
Name only, 1860 (South Africa).

143

Mustelus vulgaris (part), Mill. & Henle, t.c. p. 64.

Pleuracromylon laevis, Gill. Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1864, p.
148.

Mustelus natalensis, Steindr.

Steindr., Sitzgsber. Ak. Wiss. Wien, 1866, lili, p. AG2, tats E
(Port Natal).

Famity SPHYRNIDAE.
Sphyrna, Rafinesque.

Sphyrna, Rafinesque, Indice d’ Ittiol. Siciliana, p. 60, 1810 and
in Mill. & Henle, Plagiost. 1841 ; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N.
and Mid. Amer. p. 43, 1896.

Cestrorhinus, Blainville, Journ. Phys. p. 364, 1816.

Zygaena, Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. I, p. 127, 1817 ; Giinth. Cat.
Fish. viii, p. 380, 1870.

Cestracion, Klein, Pisc. Miss. iii, p. 12, 1749; Gill, Ann. Lyc.
Nat. Hist. New York, viii, 1861, p. 412.

Platysqualus, Swains. Classn. Anim. ii, p. 318, 1839.

Eusphyra et Reniceps, Gill, t.c.p. 412.

Sphyrna malleus, Risso.
(Hammer-headed Shark).

Libella, Bellon. De Aquat. p. 61, 1553 (Mediterranean) ; Salvian.
p. 128, tab. 40, 1554 (Italy); Aldrov. p. 408, 1638;
Jonston, tab. 7, fig. 8, 1657 ; Willughby, pl. D1, 1686 ;

Zygaena, Rondel. p. 389, 1554 ; Gesner, De Aquat. p. 1050.

Squalus sp. Artedi, Gen. p. 44, No. 7, 1738 ; Synon. p. 96, No. 7,
1738 ; Gronov. Mus. Ichth. i, pp. 63, 139, 1754 and Zoo-
phyl. p. 146, 1763.

Zygéne, Dutertre, Hist. Nat. ii, p. 207. 1667 ; Duhamel, Pesches
ii, sect. ix, pl. 21, figs. 3-8, 1769-1777.

Squalus zygaena, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 399, 1758 (Europe,
America) » Bl. tab: 127,-1707 Bl. Schnp. 131, 1801;
Lacép. i, p. 257, 1798; Briinn. Pisc. Massil. p. 4, 1768
(Marseilles) ; Forsk. Descr. anim. p. xviii, 1844; Mitch.
Trans. Lit. & Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 284, 1815 ; Gronov.
Syst. ed. Gray p. 6, 1854 (North Sea.)

Cestracion sp. No. 1, Klein, Pisc. Miss. 11, p. 13, 1749.

Corunda, Parra, lam. 32, 1787 (Havana).

Koma sorra, Russell, Fish. Vizag. p. 12, 1803 (India).

[C.P. 6—’14.]

144

Squalus malleus, Risso, Ichth. Nice, p. 34, 1810 (Nice).

Zygaena malleus, Shaw, Nat. Misc. pl. 267; Val. Mém. Mus.
ix, 1832, p. 223, pl. u, fig. x ; Risso; Eur, Mend. mgip. 225)
1827 ; Cantor, Quart. Med. Journ. Calcutta 1837, fig. 1 ;
Schleg. Faun. Japon. Poiss. p. 306, pl. 138, 1850 (Japan) ;
Jenyns, Man. p. 507, 1835 (British Isles) ; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. 2nd ed. ii, p. 504, 1841 or 3rd ed. ii, p. 486 ; Dekay,
New York Faun. Fish., p. 362, pl. 62, fig. 204, 1842 ; Blkr.
Verhdl. Bat. Gen. xxiv, 1852, Plag. p. 42, pl. 3, fig. 8
(Indian Archipelago) ; Couch, Fish. Brit. Isl. 1, p. 70, pl. 16,
1861 ; Storer, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. i, p. 36; Mem.
Amer. Acad. ix, 1867, p. 229, pl. xxxvul, fig. 2 ; and Fish.
Massachusetts p. 238, 1867; Giinth. Fish. Zanz. p. 142,
1866 (Aden, Zanzibar, Seychelles), and Cat. Fish. vii, p.
381, 1870 (Mediterranean, Madeira, W. Africa, British
Guiana, Zanzibar, Seychelles, Penang, Moluccas, Formosa,
Amoy, Japan, S. Australia, Feejee Islands) ; Klunz. Fisch.
Roth. Meer, p. 666, 1871 (Red Sea) ; Day, Fish. Ind. p. 719,
pl. clxxxvi, fig. 4 (Indian seas) 1878; Giinth, “* Challenger,”
Shore Fish. pp. 58, 59 (Name only), 1880 (Tongatabu,
Honolulu) ; McCoy, Prodr. Zool. Vict. vi, 1881, pl. lvi,
fig. r (Australia) ; Nystrom, Kong. Svensk. Vet. Ak. 1887,
p- 49 (Nagasaki).

Zygaena lewim, Lord, in Griff. An. Kingd. x, p. 640, pl. 50,
1834 (New Holland).

Sphyrna zygaena, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 51, 1841; Bonap.
Faun. Ital. Pesc. 1840 ; Richards. Ichth. China, p. 194,
1846 ; Cantor, Malay. Fish. p. 401, 1849; Blkr. Bengal.
p. 80, 1853; Bocage & Capello. Peix. Plag. p. 17, 1866
(Portugal); Jord. & Gilbert, Synops. p. 25, 1883; Jord. &
Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. America, p. 45, 1896 (Cape Cod,
Point Conception) ; Jord. & Seale, Fish. Samoa, p. 163,
1896 (Samoa, Hawaii, etc.), and Fish. Luzon & Panay,
p- 3, 1907 (Cavite) ; Jord & Fowler, Elasmobr. Fish. Japan,
p. 618, 1903 (Nagasaki, etc.); Jord Tan. & Snyd. Cat.
Fish. Japan, p. 14, 1913 (as far as North as Tokyo).

Zygaena subarcuata, Storer, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 1848,
p. 70 (Cape Cod).

Sphyrnias zygaena, Gray, Chondropt, p. 48, 1851 (Mediter-
ranean, Demerara, Sumatra).

Cestracion zygaena, Gill, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, vii,
1861, p. 403 ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 382, 1865 ; Day, Fish.
Malabar, p. 270, 1865.

estracion leeuwentt, Duméril, t.c.p. 383.

145

Sphyrna lewini, Waite, Mem. Austr. Mus. iv, 1899, pt. I, p. 34
(Australian Seas) ; McCulloch, Fish. “‘ Endeavour” p. 9,
1911 (Bass Strait).

Note.—The Hammer-headed Shark is plentiful at Algoa Bay

and Mossel Bay, and is reported from Muizenberg, False
Bay.

FAamMity LAMNIDAE.
Lamna, Cuv.

Lamna, Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. 1, p. 126, 1817; Giinth. Cat.
Fish. viii, p. 389, 1870 ; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid.
America, p. 49, 1896.

Lamia, Risso, Eur. Mérid. ui, p. 123, 1826.

Selanonius, Fleming, British Fish. p. 169, 1828.

Oxyrhina, Agassiz, Poissons fossiles, ili, 1836.

Lamna et Oxyrhina, Mull. & Henle, Plagiost. 1841.

Lamna glauca, M. & H.

Lamna glauca, Mill & Henle, Plag. p. 69, pl. 29, 1841 (Naga-
saki) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 391, 1870 (Japan, Cape
seas, St. Helena); Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 163 (South
Africa).

Oxyrhina glauca, Mill. & Henle, t.c.p. 69, pl. 29; Schleg. Faun.
Japon, Poiss. p. 303, 1850 (Nagasaki) ; Duméril, Elasmobr.
p- 409, 1865.

Isuropsis glauca, Jord. & Fowler, Elasmobr. Fish. Japan, p.
623, 1903 (Japan) ; Jord. & Snyder, Col. Fish. Japan, p.
234, 1904 (Japan).

Carcharodon, Smith.

Carcharodon, A. Smith, Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 1837, p. 86;
Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 70, 1841 ; Gitinth. Cat. Fish. viii,
p- 391, 1870 ; Jord & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. America,
p. 50, 1896.

Carcharodon rondeleti, M. & H.
(Man-eater Shark, Great White- or Great Blue-Shark.)

Lamia, Rondel, p. 305, 1558 (Nice; Marseilles) ; Gesner, De
Aquat, p. 173, 1560, Aldrov. p. 383, 1638.
Squalus carcharvas, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, 1758, p. 235 (Europe).
Carcharias verus, Agass. Poiss. foss. ili, p. 91, tab. F, fig. 3
(teeth), 1836.
[C.P. 6—’14.]

146

Carcharias smithti, Bonap. Selach. Tab. Anal. p. 9, 1839,
after Smith.

Carcharodon lamia, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. 1840.

Carcharodon rondeletit, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 70, 1841 (Mediter-
ranean ; Atlantic Ocean); Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap. p. 57,
Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p.
411, 1865; Bocage & Capello, Peix. Plag. p. 13, 1866
(Portugal) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 392, 1870 (From
Mediterranean to Australia) ; Phil. An. Univ. Chile, 1xxi,
p- 50, pl. iv, fig. 4 (teeth), 1887 ; Delfin, Cat. Peces Chile,
p. 20, 1901 (Talcahuano) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 164
(Cape Seas).

Carcharias atwoodi, Storer, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 11,
1848, p. 71 (Province Town, Massachusetts), and Mem.
Amer. Acad. ix, 1867, p. 222, pl. 36, fig. 4.

Carcharodon capensis, Smith, Ill. Zool. S. Afr. Pisces, pl. 4, 1849
(Cape Seas) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only,
1860 (South Africa).

Carcharodon carcharias, Jord. & Gilbert, Synops. p. 875, 1883 ;
Jord. & Fowler, Elasmobr. Fish. Japan, p. 625, 1903
(Japan); Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. America, p. 50,
1906 (Northern seas); Jord. & Seale, Fish. Samoa, p. 183,
1906 (Hawaii); Jord. Tan. & Snyd. Cat. Fish. Japan, p. 16,
1913.

Odontaspis, Agassiz.

Odontaspis, Agass. Poiss. foss. iii, p. 87, 1836 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish.
villi, p. 392, 1870.

Triglochis, Mill. & Henle, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1838, ii, p. 88.

Carcharias, Jord. & Everm. Fish N. and Mid. America, p. 46,
1896.

Odontaspis americanus, Mitch.

Squalus americanus, Mitch. Phil. & Lit. Trans. New York, 1,
1815, p. 483 (New York) ; Dekay, New York Faun. Fish.
p. 366, 1842; Storer, Boston Journ. Nat. Hist. iv, 1844,
p. 188.

Squalus littoralis, Le Sueur, Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. i, 1817,
p. 224 ; Mitch. Amer. Month. Mag. u1, 1818, p. 328 ; Dekay,
CC.p. oot

Squalus macrodus, Mitch, t.c.p. 328 (New York).

Odontaspis taurus (Rafinesque) Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 73, pl.
30, 1841 ; Gray, Chondropt. p. 63, 1851 (Mediterranean ;
Cape seas); Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only,
1860 (South Africa) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 417, 1865.

147

Odontaspis americanus, Abbott, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad.
1861, p. 399 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 392, 1870 (Atlantic,
South Pacific, Australia, Tasmania, Cape seas); Gilchr.
Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 164 (South Africa).

Engomphodus littoralis, Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1864,
p:/ 200:

Carcharias americanus, Jord. & Gilbert, Synops. p. 27, 1883.

Carcharias littoralis, Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. America,
p. 46, 1896 (Atlantic coast of North America—Cape Cod
to Cape Hatteras especially).

Alopias, Rafinesque.

Alopias, Rafinesque, Caratteri di Alcuni Nuovi Generi, p. 12,
LOTO:

Alopias (Alopecias), Miill. & Henle, Plag. p. 74, 1841 ; Giinth.
Cat, Bish... vill, p: 303; 1670:

Alopias vulpes, Gmel.
(Thresher- or Thrasher-Shark.)

Sima, Bellon. De Aquat. p. 65, 1553 (Mediterranean).

Vulpes, Rondel. p. 387, 1554 (Europe) ; Gesner, De Aquat. p.
1043, 1560.

Vulpecula, Salvian. p. 134, pl. 42, 1554; Aldrovand. p. 396,
1638 ; Jonston, De Pisc. tab. 7, fig, 3, 1649; Willughby,
tab. B6, fig. 2, 1686.

Singe de mer, Belon, Nat. et Divers. des Poiss. p. 88, 1555.

Renard marin, Perrault, Mem. Ac. Sc. ili, pls. 15, 16, 1699 ;
Dithamel, Pesch: i, sect. 1x), p: 903; pl..21, fiessa &o,0777.:
Lacép. Hist. Poiss. 1, p. 267, 1798 (Mediterranean ; English
and Scottish coasts ; The ocean).

Squalus No. 8, Artedi, Gen. p. 68, Synon. p. 96, 1738.

Galeus cauda longa, Klein, Pisc. Miss. 111, p. 10, 1749.

Sea-fox, Thresher or Thrasher, Borlase, Cornw. p. 265, 1758
(Cornwall); Couch, Fish: Brat. Islip. 37) pl.47, 1865
(British coast).

Long-tailed Shark, Penn. British Zool. iii, p. 97, pl. 14, 1769 or
eds KOULZ, 1 pe 45s plek 7-

Squalus vulpes, Gmel. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, i, p. 1496, 1788
(Mediterranean); Lacep: 1.4:p.1207., Bl: Scim: Syst. ichth:
Dp. 127, 1801 ; Turton, Butish, Baum. p. 102, 1807 ; Mitch.
Phil it. Trans. New York, 1815, 1, p.462; Blainy. Kaun:
Pranc:p.(04, pl. 14, fig. 1, 1828.

Squalus vulpinus, Bonnat. Tab. Encycl. Ichth. p. 9, 1788
(Mediterranean).

[C.P. 6—’14.]

148

Carcharias vulpes, Cuv. Regne Anim. 1817 ; Risso, Ichth. Nice,
p- 36, 1810, and Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 120, 1827 (Europe) ;
Dekay, New York Faun. Fish. p. 348, pl. 61, fig. 199, 1842 ;
Guichen. in Gay’s Chile, Zool. ii, p. 363, 1848, and Explor.
Algér. p. 124, 1850.

Alopias vulpes, Kréy. Danm. Fisk. iii, pp. 929 and 937, 1838 ;
Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. iii, p. 66, 1840 (Italy) ; Yarrell,
British Fish. 2nd ed. ii, p. 522, 1841, or 3rd ed. ii, p. 512,
1859 ; Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 74, tab. 35, fig. 1 (teeth),
1841; Storer, Mem. Amer. Acad. ii, p. 505; Gray,
Chondropt. p. 64, 1851 (Mediterranean ; Cape seas; the
ocean); Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only, 1860,
(South Africa) ; Duméril. Elasmobr. p. 421, 1865 ; Bocage
& Capello, Peix. Plag. p. 14, 1866 (Portugal); Jord. &
Gilbert, Synops. p. 27, 1883 ; Day, Fish. Grt. Britain and
Ireland, ii, p. 300, 1884, and Fish. India, p. 810, 1888
(Atlantic Ocean, both shores; Ceylon; Cape of Good
Hope ; New Zealand ; Mediterranean ; San Francisco Bay ;
California) ; Vaill. Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris, 1885 ; Jord &
Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. America, p. 45, 1896 (Mediter-
ranean; Atlantic; Pacific coast of North America) ;
Delfin, Cat. Peces Chile, p. 18, 1g0r (Valparaiso, Con-
cepcion, etc.) ; Herdm. & Daw. Fish. Irish Sea, p. 64, 1902
(Dublin Bay, etc.); Jord. & Fowler, Elasmobr. Fish.
Japan, p. 619, 1903 (Japan coasts); Jord. & Seale, Fish.
Samoa, p. 183, 1906 (Hawaii, etc.).

Alopias macrourus, Rafinesque, Caratteri di Alc Nuovi Gen.
p. 12, 1840 (Sicily).

Alopecias vulpes, Yarrell, British Fish. ed. 3, li, p. 512, 1859;
Ginth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 393, 1870 (English coast ; Mediter-
ranean ; Atlantic ; Cape seas); Perez, Escualos de Chile,
p. 5, 1886 ; Phil. An. Univ. Chile, Ixxi,' 1887, p. 551, pr
v, figs. ta, 1b ; Navar. Man. Ictiol. Mar. Espana i Baleares,
p--53, 1899 (Spanish coasts) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p.
164 (South Africa).

Squalus alopecias, Gronoy. Syst. ed. Gray, p. 7, 1854 (French
seas ; Mediterranean).

FamMiILy RHINODONTIDAE.
Rhinodon, Smith.

Rhinodon, A. Smith, Ill. Zool. S. Afr. Pisces, pl. 26, 1849 ;
Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 396, 1870.

Rhineodon, Jord. & Fowler, Elasmobr. Fish. Japan, p. 626, 1903.

149

Rhinodon typicus, Smith.

Rhinodon typicus, Smith, Ill. Zool. S. Afr. Pisces, pl. 26, 1849
(Cape of Good Hope) ; Miill. & Henle, Plag. p. 77, tab. 35,
fig. 2 (teeth), 1841 ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name
only, 1860 (S. Africa) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 428, 1865 ;
Giinth. Cat. Fish. vii, p. 396, 1870 (Cape of Good Hope ;
Seychelles) ; Haly, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. (5) xi, p. 48 ;
Day, Fish. Ind. p. 811, 1888 (West coast Ceylon) ; Gilchr.
Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 165 (South Africa).

Rhinodon pentalineatus, Kishinouye, Zool. Anz. 1891, p. 694
(Cape Inubo, Japan).

Rhineodon typicus, Jord. & Fowler, Elasmobr. Fish. Japan,
p- 626, 1903 (Cape Inubo) ; Jord. Tan. & Snyd. Cat. Fish.
Japan, 1913, p. 17 (Cape of Good Hope; Seychelles; Japan).

FamiLy SQUALIDAE.

Acanthias, Risso.

Acanthias sp., Risso, Eur. Mérid. ii, p. 131, 1827.

Acanthias, Miill. & Henle, Plag. 1841 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. vii,
p..417, 1870:

Squalus et Eutoxychirus, Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1862,
p- 496.

Acanthias blainvillei, Risso.

Acanthias blainvillet, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iti, p. 133, pl. 3, fig. 6,
1827 (Europe) ; Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 84, 1841 ; Bonap.
Cat. Met. Pisc. Eur. p. 15, 1850; Gray, Chondropt. p. 70.
1851 (Mediterranean ; Cape seas) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap,
p- 57, Name only, 1860 (South Africa); Duméril, Elasmobr.
p. 438, 1865 ; Bocage & Capello, Peix. Plag. p. 21, 1866
(Portugal) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 419, 1870 (Lisbon ;
Adriatic; Cape of Good Hope; New Holland). and
‘‘ Challenger,” Shore Fishes, p. 23, 1880 (Juan Fernandez) ;
Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 166 (South Africa).

Spinax blainvillei, Agass. Poiss. foss. 11, p. 62). tab. Bb, 1636 :
Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. 1840.

Squalus blainvillei, Delfin, Cat. Peces Chile, p. 22, Igor (Juan
Fernandez).

Acanthias vulgaris, Risso.
(Dog-fish.)

Axaviac yadeoc, Aristotle, vi, c. 10 & ix, c. 37, ed. Gazae,
1503 (4Zgean Sea) ; Athenaeus, De Pisc. vii, p. 294, A.D.
150.

[€.P. 6—"14.]

150

Mustelus spinax, Bellon. De Aquat. pp. 69 & 70, 1553 (Mediter-
ranean).

Galeus acanthias, Rondel. p. 373, 1554; Gesner, De Aquat. p.
607, 1560 ; Aldrov. p. 399, 1638 ; Jonston, i, tab. 8, fig. 5,
1649 ; Willughby, p. 56, tab. B5, fig. 1, 1686 ; Klein, Pisc.
Miss. iii, p. 8, tab. 1, figs. 5 and 6, 1749.

Squalus sp., Artedi, Gen. p. 66, No. 3, Synon. p. 94, No. 3,
Spec. p. 102, No. 1, 1738 ; Gronov. Zoophyl. No. 149, 1763
and Mus. Ichth. i, p. 61, No. 139, 1754.

Squalus acanthias, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, 1758, i, p. 233, and
ed. xii, 1766, p. 397 (Coast of Europe); Bl. Ichth. taf. 85,
1797 ; Bl. Schn. Syst. Ichth. p. 135, 1801 ; Turton, British
Faun. p. 114, 1807 ; Donovan, British Fish. iv, p. 82, 1808 ;
Risso, Ichth. Nice, p. 40, 1810 (Mediterranean) ; Faber,
Fisch. Isl. p. 129, 1829; Blainv. Faun, Franc. p. 57, 1828 ;
Jenyns, Man. p. 505, 1835; Fries och Ekstr. Skand. Fisk.
p. 187, tab. 46, 1836; Gronov. Syst. ed. Gray, p. 8, 1854
(European seas); Jord. & Gilbert, Synops. p. 16, 1883 ;
Berg, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Ayres, iv, 1895, p. 5 ; Jord. &
Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. Amer. p. 54, 1896 (Atlantic
coast of North and Middle America and to Cuba) ; Delfin,
Cat. Peces Chile, p. 21, rgo1 (Straits of Magellan ; Atlantic,
Mediterranean to coasts of U.S. America); Regan, Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) ii, 1908, p. 46 (Atlantic coasts of
Europe and North America, and southwards to Mediter-
ranean and to Cuba).

Picked Dog-fish, Pennant, British Zool. i, p. 88, 1769, or ed.
1812, ill, p. 183.

Spinax, Duhamel, Pesch. iii, p. 299, pl. 20, fig. 5, 1777.

Squalus fernandinus, Molina, Hist. Chile, p. 194, 1788.

‘Aiguillat, Lacép. Hist. Poiss. i, p. 270, pl. 10, fig. 2,°1798
(Mediterranean).

Squalus acanthias, Cuv. Regne Anim. ii, p. 130, 1817 ; Richards.
Faun. Bor. Amer. p. 291, 1836; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc.
ili, tab. 57; 184x; Parnell, Werner. Mem. vii, p. 420;
Dekay, New York Faun. Fish. p. 359, pl. 64. fig. 210, 1842 ;
Ayres, Boston Journ. Nat. Hist. iv., p. 288, 1844.

Acanthias vulgaris, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 131, 1826 (Nice) ;
Nilss. Skandinav. Faun. Fisk. p. 371, 1836 ; Kroy. Danm.
Fisk. ili, p. 868, 1838 ; Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 83, 1841 ;
Yarrell, British Fish. 2nd ed. ii, p. 524, 1841, or 3rd ed. u1,
p- 518, 1859 ; Schleg. Faun. Japon. Poiss. p. 304, pl. 135,
1850 (Japan) ; Gray, Chondropt. p. 70, 1851 (British coast ;
Mediterranean ; Cape seas) ; Kessler, Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc.

151

1859, ii, p. 473 ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only,
1860 (S. Africa) ; Couch, Fish. British Isl. i, p. 49, pl. xi,
1861 ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 437, 1865 ; Bocage & Capello,
Peix. Plag. p. 21, 1866 (Portugal) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii,
p- 418, 1870 (Holland ; British coast ; Dalmatia ; Mediter-
ranean ; Cape seas ; New Holland ; Australia) ; Vaill. Miss.
Scient. Cap Horn, p. 5, 1888; Perugia, An. Mus. Civ.
Génova, x, 1891, p. 608 (S. America); Herdm. & Daw.
Fish. Irish Sea, p. 65, 1902 (British coasts).

Acanthias sp., Richards. Voy. Evebus & Terror, Fish. p. 44, pl.
28, figs. 1 and 2, 1846.

Acanthias americanus, Storer, Mem. Amer. Acad. 1, 1846, p. 506
(Massachusetts), Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. i, 1848,
p. 270, and Fish. Massachusetts, p. 232, pl. 38, fig. 1, 1867.

Spinax fernandezianus, Guichen in Gay’s Chile, Zool. u, p.
365, 1848.

Acanthias sucklu, Girard, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1854, p.
196 (Washington), and U.S. Pacific R.R. Exped. Fish.
p. 368, 1858; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. Amer.
p- 54, 1896 (Aleutian Islands to Santa Barbara).

Squalus sucklit, Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1862, p. 499;
Everm. & Golds. Fish. Alaska, p. 228, 1907 (south-east
Alaska).

Brain, Sander, Sitzsber. Ges. ntrf. Freund., Berlin, 1868, p. 26.

Echinorhinus, Blainville.

Echinorhinus, Blainville, Bull. Soc. Philom. 1816, p. 121;
Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 428, 1870.
Gontodus, Agassiz, Poiss. foss. i11, p. 183, 1836.

Echinorhinus spinosus, Gmel.

Le Bouclé, Brouss. Mem. Ac. Sc. 1780, p. 672; Lacép. Hist.
Poiss: 1; p2283) pl! 3) ie. 251708.

Squalus spinosus, Gmel. Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 1500, 1788 (The
Ocean) ; Bl. Schn. Syst. Ichth. p. 136, 1801 ; Risso, Ichth.
Nice, p. 42, 1810.

Squalus brucus, Bonnat. Encycl. 1788, p. 11 (The Ocean).

Scymnus spinosus, Cuv. Regne Anim. 1817 ; Cloquet, Dict. Sc.
Nat. xxv, 1820, p. 434, pl. 28, fig. 2; Risso, Eur. Mérid.
i, p: 136; 1827.

Echinorhinus spinosus, Blainv. Bull. Soc. Philom. 1816, p. 121,
and Faun. Franc. p. 66, 1828; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc.
1840 ; Strickland, Ann. Nat. Hist. iv, 1840, p. 315; Miill.
& Henle, Plag. p. 96, pl. 60 (skin), 1841 ; Yarrell, British
Fish. 2nd ed. ii, p. 532, 1841, or 3rd ed. ii, p. 529, 1859 ;

[C.P. 6—’14.]

152

Cocks, Ann & Mag. Nat. Hist. v, 1850, p. 71 ; Costa, Faun.
Napol. Chondrott. tav. 16, 1850 ; Gray, Chondropt. p. 78,
1851 (Mediterranean ; Cape seas ; the ocean) ; Blkr. Visch.
v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ; Duméril,
Elasmobr. p. 459, 1865; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 428,
1870 (Mediterranean ; English coast ; Cape of Good Hope) ;
Jord. & Gilbert, Synops. p. 14, 1883 ; Parker, Trans. New
Zealand Inst. xvi, 1884, p. 280 ; McCoy, Prodr. Zool. Vict.
pl. cxliv, 1888 ; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. Amer.
p- 58, 1896 (Atlantic coasts of Europe and Africa ; a stray
individual taken on Cape Cod); Regan, Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist. (8) ii, 1898, p. 42 (From North Atlantic and
Mediterranean to South Africa, Australia and New Zea-
land); Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 166 (South Africa) ;
Herdm. & Daw. Fish. Irish Sea, p. 65, 1902 (British coasts) ;
Jord. Tan. and Snyd. Cat. Fish. Japan, p. 23, 1913 (Atlantic
coasts of Europe and Africa ; Cape Cod ; Japan).

Goniodus spinosus, Agass. Poiss. foss. ili, tab. E., fig. 13, 1836.

Echinorhinus obesus, Smith, Ill. Zool. S. Afr. Pisces, pl. 1, 1849
(Cape of Good Hope). Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58,
Name only, 1860 (South Africa).

Spinous shark, Couch, Fish. British Isl. i, p. 54, pl. 12, 1861.

Squalus, Linn.

Squalus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, 1758, p. 233 ; Regan, Ann. Nat.
Govt. Mus. i, 1906, p. I.
Acanthias (part), Mill & Henle, Plag. 1841.

Squalus acutipinnis, Regan.

Acanthias blainvillet (part.), Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 419, 1870
(Cape of Good Hope).

Squalus acutipinnis, Regan, Ann. Nat. Govt. Mus. i, 1908, pt.
3, ‘p. 248, pl. xxxvil, and Col. Fish. Ibid p: 245 9(5md
Islands); Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) ii, 1908, p. 47
(South Africa ; Mauritius).

Pliotrema, Regan.

Pliotrema, Regan, Ann. Nat. Govt. Mus. 1, 1906, pt. 1, p. I, pl. I.

Pliotrema warreni, Regan.

Regan, Ann. Nat. Govt. Mus. 1, 1906, pt. 1, p. 1, pl. 1 (Natal ;
False Bay); Col. Fish. 1908, p. 241, and Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist. (8) ii, 1908, p. 57 (South Africa).

E53
FAMILY PRISTIOPHORIDAE.
Pristiophorus, Mill. & Henle.

Mill. & Henle, Plagiostomen, 1841; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii,
Dp: 431, 1870.

Pristiophorus cirratus, Latham.

Pristis cirratus, Latham, Trans. Linn. Soc. ii, 1794, p. 281, tab.
20, cies. Suands27.-y bl. Schnapps 351,.pls 70, fis. 2, 180T
(cop. Latham).

Squalus anisodon, Lacép. Hist. Poiss. iv, p. 680, 1802 (New
Holland).

Squalus tentaculatus, Shaw, Gen. Zool. v, 2, p. 359, 1803, and
Nat. Misc. p. 630.

Pristiophorus cirratus, Mill & Henle, Plag. p. 98, 1841; ?
Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 461, 1865; Waite, Mem. Ausir.
Mus. iv, 1899, p. 37 (common on coast of New South
Wales); McCulloch, F.I.S. “‘ Endeavour,” Rep. Comm.
Australia, pt. 1, 1911, p.g (New South Wales 15-45 fms. ;
N. of Goose Isld., Bass Strait).

A specimen has been identified by Dr. Boulenger from False
Bay.

SuB-orDER Batoidel.

FamILy PRISTIDAE.
Pristis, Latham.

Pristis, Latham, Trans. Linn. Soc. li, 1794, p. 276 ; Giinth. Cat.
Fish. viii, p. 436, 1870.

Pristobatus, Blainville, Journ. de Physique, 1816, p. 262

Mynwosteon, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1864.

Pristis pectinatus, Latham.
(Saw-jish.)

Pristis pectinatus, Latham, Trans. Linn. Soc. 1794, ii, p. 278,
pl. 26, fig. 2, rostrum (The ocean) ; Bl. Schn. Syst. Ichth.
p- 351, pl. 70, fig. 1, 1801 (Havana) ; Risso, Ichth. Nice,
p. 22, 1810, and Eur. Mérid. 11, p. 141, 1827 ; Blainv. Faun.
Branes p51, 1628); Mull: ic Benle, Plas: p: 109; x841 ;
Owen, Odontogr. pl. 8, fig. 1, 1845; Gray, Chondropt.
p- 90, 1851 (Atlantic ; West Indies ; Mexico’; Cape Seas ;
Calcutta) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only, 1860
[C.P. 6—’14.]

154

(South Africa); Blyth, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, xxix,
1860, p. 36 ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 476, pl. 9, fig. 4, 1865 ;
Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 437, 1870 (West Indies ; Mexico ;
Calcutta ; Cape of Good Hope); Klunz. Synops. Fisch.
Roth. Meer. p. 673, 1871 (Red Sea); Jord. & Gilbert,
Synops. p. 875, 1883 ; Day, Fish. Ind. p. 811, 1888 (Red
Sea, and through Indian Ocean); Jord. & Everm. Fish.
N. and Mid. Amer. p. 60, 1896 (tropical seas, north to
West Indies and Florida ; abundant in Gulf of Mexico ;
ascending Lower Mississippi); Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902,
p- 166 (South Africa).

Squalus scie, Lacép. Hist. Poiss. i, p. 286, pl. 8, 1798 (North
Sea; coasts of Africa).

Pristis granulosa, Bl. Schn. Syst. Ichth. p. 352, 1801 (Havana).

Pristis mississippiensis, Rafinesque, Ichth. Ohio, p. 80, 1820
(Lower Mississippi).

Pristis megalodon, Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 476, pl. 9, fig. 4, 1865
(Cayenne).

Pristis acutirostris, Dumeéril, t.c.p. 479 (Martinique).

Pristis occa, Duméril, t.c.p. 479.

Pristis lepbtodon, Duméril, t.c.p. 480.

Pyistis brevirostris, Duméril, t.c.p. 480.

FAMILY RHINOBATIDAE.
Rhinobatus, Bl. Schn.

Rhinobatus, Bl. Schn. Syst. Ichth. p. 353, 1801 ; Giinth. Cat.
Fish. viii, p. 441. 1870; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid.
Amer. p. 61, 1896.

Letobatus, Rafinesque, Caratteri di Alcuni Nuovi Generi, p. 16,
1810.

Syrrhina et Rhinobatus, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 113, 1841.

Glaucostegus, Bonap. Catalogo Métodico, p. 14, 1846.

Rhinobatus blochii, M. & H.

Rhinobatus (Syrrhina) blochit, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 115, pl.
37, fig. 1, 1841 ; Gray, Chondropt. p. 94, 1851 (Cape of
Good Hope) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 488, 1865.

Rhinobatus blochtt, Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only,
1860 (South Africa) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. vi, p. 447, 1870
(Cape of Good Hope); Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 167
(South Africa); Regan, Col. Fish. 1908, p. 242 (Bird
Islands ; Durban Bay); Gilchr. & Thomp. Ann. S. Afr.
Mus. xi, 1911, pt. il, p. 55 (Natal).

155
Rhinobatus columnae, M. & H.
(Zand-krutper.)

Rhinobatus s. Squatinoraja, Colonna, Phytobosanos, tab. 27 ;
Willughby, p. 79, tab. D5, fig. 1, 1686.

Rhinobatus (Syrrhina) columne, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 113,
1841 ; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. 1841 (Italy) ; Costa, Faun.
Regn. Nap. Chondrott. pl. 10, 1850 (Mediterranean) ;
Gray, Chondropt. p. 94, 1851 (Mediterranean ; Sicily) ;
Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 486, 1865.

Rhinobatus (Syrrhina) annulatus, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 116,
1841 ; Smith, Ill. Zool. S. Afr. Pisces, pl. 16, 1849 (Kowie ;
Algoa Bay ; not found west of Cape Point) ; Gray, Chon-
dropt. p. 94, 1851 (Cape seas) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p.
58, Name only, 1860 (South Africa), Duméril, t.c.p. 487 ;
Kner, Novara Fische, p. 416, 1865 ; Pappe, Synops. p. 22,
1866 (rather scarce in Table Bay).

Raja rhinobatus, Gronov. Syst. ed. Gray, p. 10, 1854 (Mediter-
ranean).

Rhinobatus (Syrrhina) polyophthalmus, Blkr. Verh. Bat. Gen.
xxvil, N. Nalez. Japan, p. 129, 1854 (Nagasaki); Nat.
Tijds. Ned. Indo, p:.423, 1654 (japan); Act. Scesse
Indo-Neerl. ii, Japan iv, tab. 4, 1858 (Japan).

Rhinobatus columne, Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 446, 1870 (Cape
of Good Hope; Port Natal; Zanzibar); Steindr. Reise
Aurora, p. 225, 1898 (Kobe) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 167
(South Africa); Day, Fish. India, p. 811, 1888; Regan,
Col. Fish. 1908, p. 242 (Bird Islands).

Rhinobatus polyophthalmus, Jord. & Fowler, Elasmobr. Fish.
Fish. Japan, p. 646, 1903 (coasts of Japan); Jord. Tan.
and Snyd. Cat. Fish. Japan, p. 24, 1913 (Tokyo to Naga-
saki).

Rhinobatus obtusus, M. & H.

Rhinobatus obtusus, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 122, pl. 37, fig. 2,
1841 ; Gray, Chondropt. p. 97, 1851 (Cape seas ; India) ;
Blyth, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, xxix, 1860, p. 37;
Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only, 1860 (South
Africa) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 493, 1865; Giinth. Cat.
Fish. vili, p. 443, 1870 (East Indies) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish.
1902, p. 166 (South Africa).

? Rhinobatus halavi, Day, Fish. India, p. 731, pl. cxcili, fig. 4,
1888 (Mangalore).
[C.P. 6—’14.] M

156
Famity RAIIDAE.
Raja (Artedi), Linn.

Raja (Artedi), Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, 1758, p. 231; Ginth.
Cat. Fish. viii, p. 455, 1870; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and
Mid. Amer. p. 66, 1896.

Dipturus, Rafinesque, Caratteri di Alcuni Nuovi Generi, p. 16,
1810.

Platopterus, Rafinesque, Analyse de la Nature, p. 93, 1815.

Dasybatus, Blainville, Journ. de Physique, 1816, p. 260.

Propterygia, Otto, Nova acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol. Nat.
curios, 1824, p. III (monstrous example, fins not adnate
to head).

Laeviraja, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. xxv, p. 130, 1839.

Uraptera, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 155, 1841 (Species without
caudal fin).

Batis, Bonap. Cat. Métodico, p. 12, 1846 (no description).

Malacorhinus, Garman, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. xi, 1881, p. 236
(species with imperfect rostral cartilage).

Raia, various authors, change of spelling.

Raia batis, Linn.
(The Common Skate.)

Raja, sp. No. 9, Artedi, Gen. p. 73, Synon. p. 102, 1738.

Raja batis, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, i, p. 395, 1758; Bl. Ichth.
taf. 79, 1797 ; Bl. Schn. Syst. Ichth. p. 369, 1801 ; Turton,
Brit. Faun. p. 110, 1807 ; Risso. Ichth. Nice, p. 3, 1810 ;
Holberg, Got. Vet. N. Handl. 1822, p. 21; Fleming,
British An. p. 171, 1828 ; Faber, Fische Islds. p. 33, 1829 ;
Jenyns, Man. p. 510, 1835; Nilss. Skandinav, Faun. Fisk.
p- 738, 1836; Fries, Vet. Ak. Handl. 1838, p. 158, pl. 3,
fig. 6; Kréy. Danmarke Fisk. ili, p. 978, 1838; Mull. &
Henle, Plagiost. p. 146, 1841 ; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. 2nd ed.
1841, 3rd ed. 1859, ii, p. 561; Malm, Oefvers. Vet. Ak.
Férh. 1857, p. 193; Gimnth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 463, 1870
(German Ocean ; Firth of Forth ; English coast ; Holland) ;
Herdm. & Daw. Fish. Irish Sea, p. 66, 1902 (common all
round British Islands).

Skate, Pennant, British Zool. iii, p. 72, pl. 9, 1769 and ed. 1812,
Hips Tia pl, wy

Raja intermedia, Parnell, Proc. Royal Soc. Edinb. 1837, p. 166
and Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 1839, xiv, p. 429, pl. 6, and
Werner. Mem. vii, p. 429, pl. 40; Yarrell, British Fish.
lc. p. 558; McCoy, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1841, vi,
p- 406 (not Couch).

Bo7

Raja levobatos, Gronov. Syst. ed. Gray, p. 10, 1854 (North Sea).

Laeviraja macrorhynchus, Couch, Fish. British Isl. i, p. 561,
1863.

Development : Wynan, Mem. Amer. Ac. 1864, ix, p. 31, or Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1864, xiv, p. 399.

Note.—Raja batis has also been identified by Dr. Boulenger,
from Buffels Bay, off Cape Point Lighthouse, 34 fms.

Raja capensis, M. & H.

Raja capensis, Mull. & Henle, Plag. p. 151, 1841; Gray,
Chondropt. p. 112, 1851 (Cape) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap,
p- 58, name only, 1860 (South Africa) ; Duméril, Elasmobr.
p- 540, 1865 ; Kner, Novara, Fische, p. 419, 1865 (Cape of
Good Hope); Capello, Jorn. Ac. Sci. Lisbon, 1869, p. 151 ;
Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 455, 1870 (Cape of Good Hope) ;
Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 168 (South Africa).

Raja maculata, Montagu.
(Spotted Ray ; Skate; Rog.)

Fuller Ray, Pennant, British Zool, iii, p. 86, 1769, or ed. 1812,
lit, p- 116.

Raja vubus, Turton, British Faun. p. 111, 1807; Donovan,
British Fish. 1, pl. 20, 1808.

Raja miraletus, Turton l.c. ; Donovan t.c. v, pl. 103 ; Jenyns,
Man. p. 518. 1835 ; Yarrell, British Fish. 2nd ed. 1841, 3rd
ed. 1859, ll, p. 570.

Raja maculatus, Montagu, Wern. Mem. ii, p. 426; Jenyns,
Man. p. 514, 1835; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 434,
tab. 42: Thompson, (Nat. Hast. Ireland; ui, (p--260;
£856" (Irish: *eoast); “Bike “Visch. v.d: “Kaap, ) p:758:
Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ; Pappe, Synops. p. 23,
2nd ed. 1866 (Cape of Good Hope) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii,
p. 458, 1870 (British coast ; Guernsey ; Madeira) ; Day,
British Fish. 1, p. 345, pl. clxxii, 1884 ; Herdm. & Daw.
Fish, Irish Sea, p. 67, 1902 (Dee ; Mersey ; Menai Straits,
etc.) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 168 (South Africa).

Raja microcellata, Montagu, Werner. Mem. ii, p. 430;
Fleming, British Anim. p. 171, 1828 ; Jenyns, Man. p. 515,
1835 (British coasts) ; McCoy, Ann. Nat. Hist. vi, 1841,
p- 407 ; Yarrell, t.c._p. 567 ; Gray, Chondropt. p. 109, 1851
(English coast).

Spotted Ray, Couch, Fish. British Isl. i, p. 104, pl. 24, 1867.

Painted Ray, Couch, t.c.p. 107, pl. 25.

Homelyn Ray, Giinth. Cat. Fish. Vili, p- 458, mie

[GP 6 ArAe]

158

Raja marginata, Lacép.

Raja marginata, Lacép. Hist. Poiss. v, p. 663, pl. 20, fig. 2, 1803
(Dieppe ; Liverpool; Brighton); Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii,
p. 148, 1827 (Europe) ; Blainv. Faun. Franc. p. 19, pl. 3,
fig. 2, 1828; Fleming, British An. p. 172, 1828; Jenyns,
Man. p. 512, 1835; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. fasc. vi, 19,
t. 3, fig. 2, 1840 (Italy) ; Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 140, 1841 ;
Yarrell, British Fish. 2nd ed. 1841, or 3rd ed. 1859, ii,
p. 564 ; Gray, Chondropt. p. 108, 1851 (North Sea) ; Couch,
Fish. British Isl. i, p. 110, pl. 26, 1861 ; Duméril, Elasmobr.
p. 568, 1865 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. vill, p. 465, 1870 (Coasts
of Europe; English coast); Regan, Col. Fish. 1908, p.
242 (Bird Islands).

Raja rostrata, Lacep. t.c. iv, p. 672, 1802 (Rouen).

Raja rostellata, Risso, Ichth. Nice, p. 8, pls. 1 and 2, 1810 (Nice),
and Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 148, 1827 (Europe).

Raja oxyrhynchus (Burton Skate), Couch, t.c.p. 97, pl. 21 (adult
male. Not synon.)

Raja miraletus, Linn.

Raja miraletus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, 1, p. 396, 1758; Brunn.
Ichth. Massil. p. 2, 1768 (Mediterranean) ; Lacép. Hist.
Poiss. i, p. 75, 1798; Risso, Ichth. Nice, p. 4, 1810, and
Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 149, 1827; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesce.
1841 ; Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 141, 1841 ; Couch, Fish.
British Isl. i, p. 112, pl. xxvii, 1862 ; Dumeéril, Elasmobr.
p. 548, 1865 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. vill, p. 460, 1870 (coasts
of southern Europe); Herdm. & Daw. Fish. Irish Sea,
p- 66, 1902.

Raja biocularis, Geoffr. St.-Hil. Descr. Egypte, Poiss. pl. 27,
eae Bai cones

Raja oculata, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 149, 1827.

? Raja quadrimaculata, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesce. 1841.

Note.—This species has also been identified by Dr. Boulenger,
from off Cape St. Blaize, 36 fms.
Raja ocellifera, Regan.
Regan, Ann. Natal Govt. Mus. i, pt. I, p. 2, pl. ii, 1906 (Algoa
Bay ; Natal), and Col. Fish. 1908, p. 242 (Bird Islands).
Raja rhizacanthus, Regan.

Regan, Ann. Natal Govt. Mus. i, pt. 1, p. 3, pl. ui, 1906 (Natal
coast), and Col. Fish. 1908, p. 242 (Bird Islands).

159
Raja smithi, M. & H.

Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 150, pl. 48, fig.1, 1841; Gray, Chondropt.
p. 112, 1851 (South Africa) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58,
Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p.
553, 1865; Gimth. Cat. Fish. vii, p. 467, 1870 (South
Africa ; Bosphorous ?); Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 168
(South Africa).

FAMILY TORPEDINIDAE.
Torpedo, Duméril.

Torpedo, Duméril, Zool. Analyt. 1806, p. 102; Giinth. Cat.
Fish. viii, p. 448, 1870.
Narcobatis, Blainville, Journ. Phys. 1816, p. 262.

Tetronarce, Gill, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, 1861, viii,
p- 387; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. America, p. 77,
1896.

Torpedo hebetans, Lowe.

Torpedo hebetans, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, 1841, p. 195 ;
Giinth. Cat. Fish. vili, p. 449, 1870 (Plymouth ; Madeira ;
Mediterranean ; Atlantic).

Torpedo nobiliana, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. 1841; Mill. &
Henle, Plag. p. 128, 1841; Yarrell, British Fish. 2nd ed
ii. p. 546, 1841, or 3rd ed. u, p. 544, 1859; Duméril,
Elasmobr. p. 512, 1865.

Torpedo walsh, Thompson, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1840, v, p. 292,
or Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 256, 1856.

? Torpedo emarginata, McCoy, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1841, vi, p. 407.

Torpedo migra, Guichen. Explor. Algérie, Poiss. p. 131, pl. 8,
1850.

Torpedo, Couch, Fish. British Isl. i, pl. 30, 1862.

Note.—This species has also been identified by Dr. Boulenger
from of Cape St. Blaize, 3x fms.

Torpedo marmorata, Risso.

Narce or Torpedo, Bellon. De Aquat. i, p. 90, 1553 (Mediter-
ranean).

Torpedo tertia et quarta, Rondel, p. 363, 1555.

Torpille, Réaumur, Mem. Ac. Sc. Paris, 1714, p. 344, tab. 12,
fig. 1, and tab. 13, fig. 2; Duhamel, Pesches, ii, p. 286,
tabecn3, 1777.

Narcacion, Klein, Pisc. Miss. i, p. 32, Nos. 3 and 4, 1749.

[(C.P. 6—’14.]

160

Raia torpedo, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, 1758, 1, p. 395; Briinn.
Ichth. Massil. 1768 (Marseilles); Turton, British Faun.
p. 10, 1807; Donovan, British Fish. iii, p. 53, 1808.

Electric Ray, Pennant, British Zool. ii, p. 78, pl. 10, 1769, or
ed i802; mip. 116; ply ra.

Torpedo, Walsh,. Phil. Trans. 1773, p. 461, tab. 19 ; Hunter,
ibid, p. 481, tab. 20; Pringle, ibid, 1774 ; Cavendish, ibid,
1776, p. 106.

Torpedo marmorata, Risso, Ichth. Nice, p. 20, pl. 3, fig. 4, 1810,
and Eur. Mérid. i, p. 143, fig. 9, 1827 (Mediterranean) ;
Olfers, Torped. p. 14, 1831 (Brazil) ; Henle, Narcine, p. 30,
1834 ; Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 128, 1841 ; Yarrell, British
Fish. 2nd ed. 11, p. 542, 1841, or 3rd..ed: 11, p. 550, 18508
Gray, Chondropt. p. roo, 1851 (Mediterranean) ; Duméril,
Rev. Zool. 1852, p. 236, or Elasmobr. p. 508, 1865 : Gtinth.
Cat. Fish. vin,’ p. 45%, 1670 (Nice; Mediterranera
Madeira; Port Natal); Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 167
(South Africa) ; Regan, Col. Fish. 1908, p. 242 (Algoa Bay ;
Bird Islands ; Congella).

Torpedo galvant, Risso, Ichth. Nice, p. 21, pl. 3, fig. 5, 1810, or
Eur. Mérid. ili, p. 144, 1827 ; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. 1840.

Torpedo vulgaris, Fleming, British Anim. p. 169, 1828.

Torpedo diversicolor, Davy, Phil. Trans. 1834, ii, p. 550.

Torpedo trepidans, Val. in Webb & Berth. Iles Canar. Poiss.
p- ror, 1836 (Canary Islands) ; Duméril, Rev. Zool. 1852,
p- 238, or Elasmobr. p. 511, 1865.

Torpedo hebetans, Valenc. l.c.p. 23 (not Lowe).

Torpedo picta, Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 93.

Narcacion pollent, Blkr. Ned. Tijds. Dierk. 11, p. 171, 1866
(Ile de la Réunion).

Torpedo smithii, Giinth.

Ginth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 451, 1870 (South Africa) ; Gilch. Cat.
Fish. 1902, p. 167 (South Africa).

Narcine, Henle.

Narcine, Henle, Ueber Narcine, p. 31, 1834; Giinth. viii, p.
452, 1870.

Cyclonarce, Gill, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, 1861, p. 387.

Gontonarce, Gill, l.c.

Narcine brasiliensis, Olfers.

Raja sp., Gronov. Zoophyl. No. 358, tab. 9, fig. 3, 1763.
? Torpedo ocellata, Quoy & Gaim. Voy. Uran. Poiss. p. 199, 1824.

161

Torpedo brasiliensis, Olfers, Torped. p. 19, tab. 2, fig. 4, 1831
(Brazil).

Torpedo bancroftit, Griffith, Anim. Kingd. x, p. 649, pl. 34, 1834
(Jamaica).

Narcine brasiliensis, Henle, Narcine, p. 31, tab. I, figs. 1 and 2,
1834 ; Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 129, 1841 ; Gray, Chondropt.
p- 102, 1851 (West Indies; Para); Duméril, Rev. Zool.
1852, p. 272, or Elasmobr. p. 514, 1865 ; Blkr. Visch. v.d.
Kaap, p. 58, Name only, 1860 (South Africa); Kner,
Novara, Fische, p. 418, 1865; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii,
p. 453, 1870 (Atlantic coasts of tropical America, entering
fresh waters; Para; Caribbean Sea; Cuba; Jamaica;
Cape of Good Hope); Jord. & Everm. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.
1886, p. 472, and Fish. N. and Mid. Amer. p. 78, 1896
(West Indies and Brazil, occasionally northwards to Key
West and Pensacola); Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 167
(South Africa).

Narcine nigra, Duméril, Rev. Zool. 1852, p. 272 (Brazil).

Torpedo pictus, Gronov. Syst. ed. Gray, p. 13, 1854 (Antilles).

Narcine brasiliensis corallina, Garman, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.
xi, 1881, p. 234 (Florida) ; Jord. & Gilbert, Synops. p. 877,
1883.

Narcine umbrosa, Jordan, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 1884, p. 105
(Key West).

Astrape, Miill. & Henle.

Astrape, Miill. & Henle, Plag. p. 130, 1841 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish.
vill, p. 454, 1870.

Astrape capensis, Gmel.

Raja sp. Gronov. Zoophyl. No. 152, 1763.

Raja capensis, Gmel. Linn. Syst. Nat. 1, p. 1512, 1793; BL.
Schn. Syst. Ichth. p. 360, 1801.

Torpedo capensis, Olfers, Torped. p. 23, 1831; Gronov. Syst. ed.
Gray, p. 13, 1854 (Cape of Good Hope).

Narcine capensis, Henle, Narcine, p. 36, pl. 3, fig. 1, 1834.

Astrape capensis, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 130, 1841; Gray,
Chondropt. p. 103, 1851 (Cape of Good Hope) ; Duméril,
Rev. Zool. 1852, p. 280, and Elasmobr. p. 522, 1865 ;
Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only, 1860 (South
Africa) ; Kner, Novara, Fische, p. 419, 1865 (Cape of Good
Hope) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 454, 1870 (Cape of Good
Hope ; Madagascar) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 168 (South
Africa) ; Regan, Col. Fish. 1908, p. 242 (Bird Islands).

[C.P. 6—’14.]|

162

FamMILy DASYATIDAE.
Dasyatis, Rafinesque.

Dasybatus, Klein, 1742 (pre-Linnaean).

Dasyatis, Rafinesque, Caratteri di Alcuni Nuovi Generi, p. 16,
1810 ; Jord. & Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. America, p. 82,
1806.

Uroxis, Rafinesque, Indice d’Ittiol. Siciliana, p. 61, 1810.

Trigonobatus, Blainville, Journ. Phys. 1816. p. 261.

Trygon (Adanson) Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. i, p. 136, 1817;
Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 472, 1870.

Hemutrygon, Mill. & Henle, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837, p. go.

Himantura, Mill. & Henle, Wiegm. Archiv. 1837, p. 400.

Pastinaca, Swainson, Classn. Anim. p. 319, 1839 ; Dekay, New
York Faun. Fish. “p. 373; 1642.

Anacanthus, Ehrenberg, in Swainson, l.c.

Dasybatis, Garman, in Jord. & Gilbert, Synopsis, p. 65, 1883.

Dasyatis pastinaca, Linn.
(Sting-Ray ; Pul-staart.)

Pastinaca marina, Bellon. De Aquat. p. 94, 1553 (Mediterran-
ean); Rondel. De Pisc. p. 331, 1554; Salvian. p. 144,
tab. 49, 1554 (Italy) ; Willughby, p. 67, tab. C3, 1686.

Raja sp. Nos. 3 and 4, Artedi, Gen. p. 71, Synon. p. 100, 1738 ;
Gronov. Mus. Ichth. i, p. 64, No. 141, 1756.

Raja pastinaca, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, 1, p. 396, 1758; BI.
Ichth. taf. 82, 1797 ; Bl. Schn. Syst. Ichth. p. 360, 180 ;
Turton, British Faun. p. 112, 1807; Donovan, British
Fish. v., pl. 99, 1808 ; Risso, Ichth. Nice, p. 10, 1810.

The Sting-Ray, Pennant, British Zool. ii, p. 83, 1769, or ed.
1812, iil, p.225:

Raja sayi, Lesueur, Journ. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1817, i, p.42.

Trygon pastinaca, Cuv. Regne Anim. 1817; Fleming, British
An. p. 170, 1828; Jenyns, Man: p. ‘518, 18355 Nile:
Skandinav. Faun. Fisk. p. 741, 1836; Kroy. Danm. Fisk.
ili, p. 1018, 1838; Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 161, 1841;
Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. fasc.. vi, 1841; Yarrell, British
Fish. 2nd ed. ii, p. 588, 1841, or 3rd ed. ii, p. 591, 1859;
Gray, Chondropt. p. 118, 1851 (European Seas) ; Kessler,
Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou, 1859, ii, p. 474; Parnell, Werner.
Mem. vii, p. 440, pl. 43; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap,
p- 58, Name only, 1860 (South Africa); Couch, Fish.
British Isl. i, p. 130, pl. 31, 1865; Duméril, Elasmobr.
p. 600, 1865 ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. vii, p. 478, 1870 (Ply-
mouth; North America; Lanzarote; Jamaica; West

163

Indies; New Orleans, British Guiana; Bahia; Amoy;
Japan), and “Challenger” Shore Fishes, pp. 37 and 63, 1880
(Arapura Sea ; Yokohama) ; Day, British Fish. 1, p. 350,
pl. clxxv, 1884; Smitt, Scandinavian Fish. p. 1098, pls.
313 and 314, 1895 (Cape of Good Hope) ; Herdmn. & Daw.
Fish. Irish Sea, p. 68, 1902 (coast of Ireland) ; Gilchr. Cat.
Fish. 1902, p. 168 (South Africa).

Trygon vulgaris, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 160, 1827 (Mediter-
ranean).

Trygon lymna, Geoff. St. Hil., Desc. Egypt. Poiss. p. 219, pl.
Dee. EI LOZG.

Trygonobatus pastinaca, Blain. Faun. Franc. p. 35, pl. 6, figs.
Tr and. 2. X¥620.

Trygon akajet, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 165, taf. 53, 1841
(Nagasaki) ; Schleg. Faun. Japon, Poiss. p. 308, 1850
(Nagasaki) ; Blkr. Act. Soc. Sc. Indo-Neerl. 11, Japan iv,
p. 44, 1858 ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 604, 1865 (Nagasaki).

Trygon sayt, Mill. & Henle, t.c.p. 166, 1841 ; Duméril, t.c.p.
603.

Pastinaca laevis, Gronov. Syst. ed. Gray, p, 11, 1854 (Europe ;
America).

Myliobatis sayi, Storer, Mem. Amer. Acad. ui, p. 514.

Dasyatis akajei, Jord. & Fowler, Elasmobr. Fish. Japan, p. 659,
1903 (coasts of Japan, common southwards in sandy bays) ;
Jord. Tan. & Snyd. Cat. Fish. Japan, p. 28, 1913 (coasts of
Japan, very common).

Dasyatis purpurea, M. & H.

Dasyatis purpurea, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 160, taf. 51, 1841
(South Africa ; known from a drawing) ; Gray, Chondropt.
Pp. 117, 1851 (Cape seas) ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58.
Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ; Giinth. Cat. Fish. vu,
p- 472, 1870 (South Africa ; from a drawing).

Dasyatis schreineri, Gilchr.

Trygon schretnert, Gilchr. Trans. Royal Soc. S. Afr. 11, 1913,
pt.1; p. 33 and figure, (St. james, False: Bay.)

Dasyatis uarnak, Forsk.

Raja uarnak, Forsk. Descr. anim. p. 18, 1775. (Red Sea.)
Trygon russell, Gray & Hardw. Ill. Ind. Zool. c. fig., 1834.

Pastinacus uarnak, Ripp. N.W. Fische, p. 69, pl. 19, figs. 2a
and 2b, 1838. (Red Sea.)

[CP 6

164

Trygon uarnak, Mill. & Henle, Plag. p. 158, 1841 ; Richards.
Ichth. China, p. 197, 1846; Cantor, Malay. Fish. p. 423,
1849; Gray, Chondropt. p. 116, 1851 (Indian and Red
Seas) ; Blkr. Verh. Bat. Gen. xxiv, Plag. p. 69, 1852 (Indian
Archipelago), and Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 58, Name only,
1860 (South Africa); Blyth, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal,
1860, p. 42 ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 585, 1865 ; Day, Fish.
Malabar, p. 277, 1865, and Fish. Ind. p. 737, pl. cxciv,
fig. 1, 1878 (Red Sea ; seas and estuaries of India to Malay
Archipelago and China; Cape of Good Hope); Giinth.
Fish. Zanz. p. 143, 1866 (Zanzibar), and Cat. Fish. viii,
P- 473, 1870 (Red Sea; Zanzibar ; Seychelles ; Madras ;
Penang ; East Indian Archipelago) ; Klunz. Fisch. Roth.
Meer. p. 679, 1871 (Red Sea) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p.
169 (South Africa) ; Steindr. Fisch. Siid-arab. Sok. p. 38,
1902 (Sok6tra).

Trygon variegatus, McClell. Calc. Journ. Nat. Hist. 1841, i, p.
60, pl. 2, fig. 2 ; Blyth, Journ. Asi. Soc. Bengal, 1860, p. 43.

Trygon gerrardt, Gray, Chondropt. p. 116, 1851 (Indian Ocean) ;
Giinth. Cat. Fish. vill, p. 474 (young) 1870; Jord. & Fowler,
Elasmobr. Fish. Japan, p. 661, 1903 (India ; East Indies).

Trygon uarnacoides, Blkr. Verh. Bat. Gen. xxiv, Plag. p. 72,
1852 (Indian Archipelago), or Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind. ii,
p. 738, 1852 (Banka) ; Duméril. Elasmobr. p. 586, 1865.

Trygon undulatus, Blkr. Verh. Bat. Gen. xxiv, Plag. p. 70, 1852
(Indian Archipelago) ; Duméril, t.c.p. 586.

Trygon pareh, Blkr. l.c.p. 72 (Indian Archipelago), or Nat.
Tijds. Ned. Ind. v, 1853, p. 461 (Borneo) ; Duméril, t.c.p.
590.

Trygon macrurus, Blkr. Verh. Bat. Gen. xxiv, Plag. p. 74 (Java ;
Sumatra); Duméril, t.c.p. 588.

Trygon pastinacotdes, Blkr. |.c.p. 75 (Indian Archipelago).
Trygon elliott, Blyth, Journ. Asi. Soc. Bengal, 1860, p. 41.
Dasybatis uarnak, Regan, Col. Fish. 1908, p. 242 (Durban Bay).

Famity MYLIOBATIDAE.
Myliobatis, Duméril.

Mylobatis, Duméril in Cuv. Regne Anim. ed. I, ii, p. 137, 1817 ;
Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 488, 1870 ; Jord. & Everm. Fish.
N. and Mid. America, p. 89, 1896.

Holorhynus, Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1862, p. 331.

165

Myliobatis aquila, Linn

Aquila marina, Bellon. De Aquat. pp. 96 and 97, 1553 (Mediter-
ranean) ; Salvian. p. 146, 1554 (Italy) ; Jonston, De Pisc.
pl. 9, fig. 9, 1657 ; Willughby, p. 64, tab. C2, 1686.

Pastinacee species 2da, Rondel. p. 338, 1555

Aquilone, Columna, Aquat. et Terrestr. anim. obs. pp. i, il.

Raja, sp. No. 5, Artedi, Gen. p. 72, Synon. p. 100, 1738.

Raja aquila, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, i, p. 396, 1758 - Briinn. Pisc.
Massil. p. 3, 1768 (Marseilles) ; Duhamel, Pesch. ii, sect.
incap: 263, pl. tO, 1777 > Dlsichtihe tat Or, 7704 > Bl. Schn:
Syst. Ichth. p. 360, 1801 ; Risso, Ichth. Nice, p. 9, 1810.

Whip-Ray, Pennant, British Zool. ii, p. 88, 1769, and ed. 1812,
li, p. 128 (British coast) ; Jenyns, Man. p. 519, 1835.

Mylobatis aquila, Cuv. Regne anim. 1817; Risso, Eur. Mérid.
lil, p. L602, 1827; Mull. & Henle, Plag..p. 176, 1841; Yarrell,
British Fish. 2nd ed. li, p. 591, 1841, and 3rd ed. ui, p. 595,
1859; Gray, Chondropt. p. 128, 1851 (Madeira); Bikr.
Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 59, Name only, 1860 (South Africa) ;
Couch, Fish. British: Isl. 1, p..135,, pl. 32, 1865 ;. Dumenil;
Elasmobr. p. 634, 1865; Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 489,
1870 (English and Scottish coasts; Madeira; Sydney),
and “* Challenger ” Shore Fishes, p. 63, 1880 (Yokohama) ;
Day, British Fish. p. 353, pl. clxxvi, 1884 ; Smith, Scandi-
navian Fish. p. 1095, pl. 311, 1895 ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902,
p. 169 (South Africa); Regan, Col. Fish. 1908, p. 242,
(Bird Islands).

Pastinaca aquila, Gronov. Syst. ed. Gray, p. 12, 1854 (Mediter-
ranean).

Orver HOLOCEPHALI.
Famity CHIMAERIDAE.

Chimaera, Linn.

Chimaera sp. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, p. 236, 1758.
Chimaera, Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 349, 1870.

Chimaera monstrosa, Linn.
Simia marina, Gesner, De Aquat. p. 877, 1560 ; Aldrov. p. 405,
1638 ; Jonston, p. 16, tab. 7, fig. 6, 1649.
Centrina, Aldrov. pp. 402 and 403, 1638.
[C.P. 6—’14.]

166

Galeus acanthias, Clusii exot. (copied by Jonston, tab. 45, fig. 2,
1649, and Willughby, p. 57, tab. Bo, fig. 6, 1686).

Chimaera monstrosa, Linn. Ad. Fried. i, p. 53, pl. 25, 1754, and
Syst. Nat. ed. x, p. 236, 1758 (Atlantic Ocean) ; Gunner.,
Drondhj. Selsk. Skr: 0, 1763, p. 270, pls..5 aud Go} Bi
Ichth. iv, p: 69, tab: 124, 1707; Lacép. Mist. Poissea mn:
392, pl. 19, fig. 1, 1798 (Northern Ocean, in deep water) ;
Bl. Schn. Syst. Ichth. p. 349, 1801 ; Turton, British Faun.
p- 114, 1807 ; Donovan, British Fish. vy, pl. ii, 1808 ; Faber,
Fische Isl. p. 41, 1829 ; Fleming, British An. p. 172, 1828 ;
Jenyns, Man. p. 494, 1835 ; Kroy. Danm. Fisk. ii, p. 783,
1838 ; Benn. in Beechey’s Voy. Fish. p. 72, pl. 23, fig. 3,
1839; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. 1841; Yarrell, British
Fish. 2nd ed. ii, p. 483, 1841, and 3rd ed. ui, p. 464, 1859;
Costa, Faun. Napol. Chondr. Chim. pp. 1-47, pl. 1-7
(anatomy) 1850; Schleg. Faun. Japon. Poiss. p. 300, pl.
132, 1850; Gray, Chondropt. p. 21, 1851 (North Sea) ;
Gaimard, Voy. Isl. et Groenl. Zool. pl. 20, 1851 ; Blkr. Nat.
Tijds. Ned. Ind. iii, p. 309, 1852 (Amboina & Ceram) ;
Dumeéril, Elasmobr. p. 686, pl. 13, figs. 3 and 4, and pl. 14,
fig. 1, 1865 (Cape of Good Hope) ; Poey, Synops. p. 445,
1868 (Matanzas, Cuba); Giinth. Cat. Fish. viii, p. 349,
1870 (Jutland ; N. coast Norway ; Shetland Isles ; Lisbon ;
Nice), and Deep-sea Fishes “‘ Challenger,” Zool. xxii, p. 12,
1887 (Faeroe Channel, 505-550 fms.); Smitt, Scandi-
navian Fish. p. 1079, pl. xlvi, figs. 2 and 3, 1895; Jord.
& Everm. Fish. N. and Mid. Amer. p. 95, 1896 (Deep
waters off coast of Europe) ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 162
(South Africa).

Chimaera argentea, Ascanius, Icones, pl. xv, 1775.

Chimaera borealis, Shaw, Gen. Zool. v, 2, p. 365, pl. 157, 1804
(after Linnaeus).

Northern chimaera, Pennant, British Zool. ed. 1812, 1, p. 159;
Couch, Fish. British Isl. i, p. 145, pl. 34, 1865.

Chimaera mediterranea, Risso, Eur. Mérid. ili, p. 168, 1827
(Nice).

Chimaera cristata, Faber, Fische Isl. p. 45, 1829 (Iceland).

Callorhynchus centrina, Gronoy. Syst. ed. Gray, p. 15, 1854
(Atlantic).

Callorhynchus atlanticus, Gronoy. t.c.p. 16 (Atlantic).

Callorhynchus, Gronovy.

Callorhynchus, Gronov. Mus. Ichth. i, p. 59, 1754; Gitnth. Cat.
Fish. vill, p. 351, 1870.

167

Callorhynchus antarcticus, Lacép.
(Josep ; Dodskop ; Southern Chimaera.)

Accipenser No. 10, Klein, Pisc. Miss. iii, p. 16, 1749.

Callorhynchus sp., Gronov. Mus. Ichth. i, p. 59, No. 130, 1754,
and Zoophyl. No. 141, tab. 4, figs. 1 and 2, 1763.

Chimaera callorhynchus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, i, p. 402, 1758 ;
Bonnat. Tab. Encycl. Mét. Ichthyol. p. 14, 1799.

Chimaera antarctica, Lacép. Hist. Poiss. i, p. 400, pl. 12, fig. 2,
1798 (coasts of Chili and New Holland).

Chimaera australis, Shaw, Gen. Zool. v. 2, p. 368, pls. 158 and
158*, 1804.

Callorhynchus antarcticus, Cuv. Regne anim. 1817 ; Gay, Chile,
Zool. ii, p. 358, 1848 ; Blkr. Visch. v.d. Kaap, p. 57, Name
only, 1860 (South Africa) ; Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 693, pl.
13 (head) 1865 (Cape of Good Hope); Giinth. Cat. Fish.
vili, p. 351, 1870 (Cape of Good Hope ; Australia ; New
Zealand; Chili); Vaill. Miss. Scient. Cap Horn, Poiss.
p. 16, 1888 ; Phil. An Mus. Nac. Chile, p. g, tab. iv, 1892 ;
Steindr. & Spengel, Zool. Jahrb. Supp. iv, 2nd Heft, p. 331,
1898 (Chili) ; Smitt, Poiss. Nordensk. Exped. Scient. Terre
de Fue, p. 128, pl. xi, 1898 ; Gilchr. Cat. Fish. 1902, p. 162
(South Africa); Regan, Col. Fish. 1908, p. 242 (Bird
Islands).

Callorhynchus milit, Bory St. Vincent, Dict. Class. Nat. Hist:
MinpsO2, pl. 5.1623.

Callorhynchus smythit, Benn. in Beechey’s Voy. Fish. p. 75, pl.
22, fig. 3 (young ; bad), 1839.

Callorhynchus tasmanius, Richards. Trans. Zool. Soc. iii, p. 696,
1841.

Callorhynchus antarctica, Gray, Chondropt. p. 22, 1851 (Aus-
tralia).

Callorhynchus australis, Owen, Osteol. Cat. i, p. 89, 1853.

Callorhynchus elephantinus, Gronov. Syst. ed. Gray, p. 15, 1854
(Chilian waters ; Pacific).

Callorhynchus peronit, Duméril, Elasmobr. p. 694, pl. 14, fig. 4
(young), 1865.

Callorhynchus capensis, Duméril, t.c.p. 695, pl. 13, figs. 5 and

» | 5a (Cape of Good Hope) ; Goode & Bean, Oceanic Ichth.

B30; fig. 32,. 1896.

Callorhynchus callorhynchus, Berg, An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires,
iv, p. 18, 1895 ; Delfin, Cat. Peces Chile, p. 27, 1901 (tem-
perate coasts of the Southern hemisphere) ; Waite, Rec.
Canterbury Mus. i, No. 2, 1909, p. 23, pl. XVis, fie. 20
McCulloch, F.I.S. ‘‘ Endeavour’”’ p. 16, 1911 (Flinders
Island, Bass Strait and Victorian coast).

[C.P. 6—’14.]

NE X.

Acanthistius sebastoides, Ior.
Agriopus, 102.

Agulhas Current, 34.
Alcyonarian, 95.

Assous, 81.

Asterias, 112.

Bamboo-fish, 13, 96.
Barbel, 104.
Barracouta. 118.
Berg River, 75.
Blaasop, 100.

Bluff, the 5.
Bokkoms, 97.
Box-salpa, 96.
Bredasdorp, 24.

Callorhynchus antarcticus, &T.

Cantharus blochii, 27, 94.

Cantharus emarginatus, 94.

Cape Recife, 21.

Catalogue of fishes of the Cape Pro-
WINce a2

Cavernularia, 95.

Chorisochismus dentex, 106.

Chrysophrys (pagrus) laticeps, Ior.

Chrysophrys globiceps, 100.

Clupea sagax, 13.

Chrysophrys gibbiceps, 97.

Cod, rock, Iot.

Currents, 19.

Cold water, 27, 28.

Crawfish, 36.

Crawfish experimental hauls, 41.

Dageraad, ior

Dasje, 96.

Dentex albus, 128.
Dentex argyrozona, 22.
Dikkop Harders, 85.
Dikkop Springers, 85.
Dipterodon capensis, 9o.
Donax serra, 18.
Duikers, 11.

Dynamite, 10.

East London, 23.
Echeneis remora, 107.
Bells. 23°

Eggs of snoek, 124.
Exports, 123.

False Bay, 9.

Fluctuations in fish supply, &.
Fresh water, I5.

Fry of Snoek, 124.

[C.P. 6—’14.]

Galeichthys, 22, 104.
Galeichthys feliceps, 93.
Galjoen, I9, 29, 30, 90.
Gempylus serpens, 126.
Greenback Harder, 86.
Gymnocrotaphus curvidens, 92.

Haliotis, 18.

Hair-tail, 126.

Hardens, i) LOw 0377. 105.

Harry Mundahl, 2.

Hauls of Crawfish (experimental), 4r.
Heptatretus hexatrema, I13.

Horse fish, 102.

Hoplegnathus conwayi, 22.
Hottentots, 30, 94.

Hout Bay, 38.

Imports of fish, 3.

Jeffery’s Bay, 24.
John Brown, 92.

Kalk fish, 125.
Kabeljaauw, 30.
Keiskama, 23.
Klip fish, 30.
Klip-zuiger, 106.
Knysna, I5, 84.
Knysna Heads, 25.
Kol-harder, 25.
Kommetje, 29.

Lepidopus caudatus, 125.
Lootsman, 107.
Luderitzbucht, 13.

Maasbanker, 100.

Maka, 118.

Mackerel, snake, 126.
Malagas, II.

Manga, I18.

Marine Biological Laboratory, 9o.
Marine Biological Survey, 6.
Mauritius, 2.

Melbourne, 4.

Mossel Bay, 14, 25, 32.
Mozambique current, 34.
Mullet, 105.

Mugil capito, 105.

Mud Harder, 86.

Natal, 5.

Natant stage, 73.
Naupliosoma, 74.
Needle fish, 88.
Netting, II, 75.
Nets, purse-seine, 10.
Noctiluca, 17, 31.

Otolithus aequidens, 22.

Paarde-visch, 102.

Pagellus lithognathus, 99.

Pagrus laniarius, 22.
Pelican Point, 21.
Penguins, II.

Phyllosoma, 36, 67, 73, 74.

Plettenberg Bay, 25.
Pieter Faure, 3, 5, 16, 18.
Pike, 116:

Puerulus, 73, 74.
Purse-seine nets, 16.

Recife, Cape, 21.
Red water, 17, 30.
Richard Irvine, 5.
River-harder, 86.
Rock-cod, 101.

Saldanha Bay, 37.
Sargus capensis, 96.
Sardines, 13, 26.
Scaring of fish, 83.

Scylliorhinus punctatus, 129.

Seals, 14.

Seal Island, 13, 14.
Sea-harder, 86.
Selene gibbiceps, 130.
Snake Mackerel, 126.
Snoek, 8, 116.

Snoek eggs, 124.
Soles, 23.

Spratteloides aestuarius, 81.

Springer-dikkop, 85.

ii

Springer-harder, 85.
Spawn, 17.

Star of the South, 5.
St. Helena’s Bay, 37.
Steenje, 94

Steenbras (white), 99.
Steenbras fish, 10.
Steenberg’s Cove, 38.
Streep-springer, 85.
Stumpnose Bay, 26.
Stumpnose, red, 33, 97.
Stumpnose, white, 100.
Sucker-fish, 06.
Swakopmund, 19.

Temnodon saltator, 22.
Tetrodon honckenii, 109.
The Bluff, 5.

Thyrsites atun, 116.
Townetting, 67.
Trachurus trachurus, 106.
Trawling, 16.

Trichiurus haumela, 126.

Undine, 25.
Vark bek, 99.

Walfish Bay, 19, 131.
Water, cold, 28.
Water, red, 17, 39.
Witte-visch, 128.

Zee-slang, 113.
Zee-snoek.
Zwartkop River, II.

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