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MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
MARVELS
OF
POND-LIFE;
|
| OR, A
YEAR'S MICROSCOPIC RECREATIONS
AMONG THE
POLYPS, INFUSORIA, ROTIFERS, WATER-BEARS, AND
POLYZOA.
bye wih NYS J SLACK > 7iGus.,
AUTHOR OF ‘*THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROGRESS IN HUMAN APFAIRS,”’ ETC., ETC.
LLOEN YOUN §
GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS.
M DCCC LXI,
INTRODUCTION.
As this little book is intended to be no more
than an introduction to an agreeable branch of
microscopical study, it is to be hoped it will not
require a formal preface; but a few words may
be convenient to indicate its scope and purpose.
The common experience of all microscopists con-
firms the assertion made by Dr. Goring, that the
most fascinating objects are living creatures of
sufficient dimensions to be easily understood with
moderate magnification; and in no way can objects
of this description be so readily obtained, as by
devoting an occasional hour to the examination
of the little ponds which are accessible from
almost any situation. A complete volume of pond
lore would not only be a bulky book—much bigger
than the aldermanic tomes which it is the fashion
to call ‘‘Manuals,” although the. great stone fists
in the British Museum would be required to
grasp them comfortably,—but its composition would
overtask all the philosophers of our day. In good
truth, a tea-spoonful of water from a_ prolific
A
vi INTRODUCTION.
locality often contains a variety of living forms,
every one of which demands a profound and pa-
tient study, if we would know but a few things
concerning it.
To man, then, is a vast and a minute. Our
minds ache at the contemplation of astronomical
immensities, and we are apt to. see the boundless
only in prodigious masses, countless numbers, and
immeasurable spaces. The Creative Mind knows
no such limitations; and the microscope shews us
that, whether the field of nature’s operation be
what to our apprehension is great or small, there
is no limit to the exhibition of marvellous skill.
If the ‘‘undevout astronomer” be “mad,” the un-
devout microscopist must be still more so, for if
the matter be judged by human sense, the skill
is greater as the operation is more minute; and
not the sun itself, nor the central orb round which
he revolves, with all his attendant worlds, can
furnish sublimer objects of contemplation, than the
miraculous assemblage of forces which make up the
life of the smallest creature that the microscope
reveals.
There is an irresistible charm in the effort to
trace beginnings in nature. We know that we can
never succeed; that each discovery, which conducts
back towards some elementary law or principle,
only indicates how much still lies behind it: but
INTRODUCTION. vil
the geologist nevertheless loves to search out the
first or oldest traces of life upon our globe; and
so the microscopist delights to view the simplest
exhibitions of structures and faculties, which reach
their completion in the frame and mind of man.
That one great plan runs through the whole uni-
verse is now an universally accepted truth, and
when applied to physiology and natural history,
it leads to most important results.
The researches of recent philosophers have shewn
us that nature cannot be understood by studying
the parts of animals with reference merely to their
utility in the economy of the creature to which
they belong. We do, indeed, find an admirable
correspondence between structures and the services
they perform; but every object in creation, and
every part of it, is in harmonious relation to
some grand design, and exhibits a conformity to
some general mode of operation, or some general
disposition and direction of forces, which secures
the existence of the individual or the species, and
at the same time works out the most majestic
schemes. Microscopic researches, such as are within
the reach of millions, offer many of the most
beautiful illustrations of these truths; and although
the following pages are confined to such objects
as are easily obtainable from ponds, and relate
almost exclusively to the Infusoria, the Rotiters,
Vill INTRODUCTION,
the Polyps, and the Polyzoa, it is hoped that
they will assist in associating a few of the highly
suggestive reasonings of science, with one of the
most pleasurable recreations that human ingenuity
has devised.
After a preliminary chapter, which is intended
to assist the young microscopist in some technical
matters, that could not be conveniently introduced
into the text, the observations are distributed in
chapters, corresponding with the twelve calendar
months. This arrangement was suggested by the
author’s diary of operations for the year 1860,
and although it by no means follows that the
months im which particnlar creatures were then
discovered, will be those in which they will be
most readily found in other years, it was thought
advantageous to give a real account of an actual
period of microscopic work, and also that the plan
would facilitate a departure from the dry manner
of a technical treatise. The index will enable any
one to use the book for the purpose of reference,
and it will be observed that the first chapter in
which any member of a group of creatures is in-
troduced, is that in which a general description
of the class is given. The illustrations are taken
from drawings made by the wife of the anthor
from the actual objects, with the exception of a
few instances, in which the authority is acknowledged.
INTRODUCTION. 1x
The ponds-referred to are all either close to,
or within a moderate distance of, London; but
similar objects will in all probability be obtained
from any ponds similarly situated, and the des-
criptions and directions given for the capture of
the minute prey will be found generally applicable.
Care has been taken throughout to explain the
most convenient methods of examining the objects,
and although verbal descriptions are poor substitutes
for the teachings of experience, it is hoped that
those here given will remove some difficulties from
a pursuit that no intelligent person can enter upon
without pleasure, or consent to abandon when its
elementary difficulties have been mastered, and the
boundless fields of discovery are opened to view.
Let not the novice be startled at the word
“discovery.” It is true that few are likely to
arrive at new principles or facts which will inscribe
their names upon the roll of fame; but no one
of ordinary powers can look at living objects
with any considerable perseverance, without seeing
much that has never been recorded, and which is
nevertheless worthy of note; and when the mind,
by its own exertions, first arrives at a knowledge
of new truth, an emotion is felt akin to that
which more than recompenses the profoundest
philosopher for all his toil.
xf CONTENTS.
tion—Modes of producing it—The Nucleus of the Vorti-
cella— Methods of Reproduction—Cihated Protozoa—
Wheel-bearers or Rotifers—Their Structure—The Common
Rotifer—The young Rotifer seen inside the old one—An
Internal Nursery—‘‘Differentiation” and ‘Specialization’ —
Bisexuality of Rotifers—Their Zoological Position—Diver-
sities in their Appearance—Structure of their Gizzard—
Description of Rotifers.
CHAPTER “ai:
FEBRUARY.
Visit to Hampstead—Small Ponds—Water-Fleas—Water-
Beetle—Snails— Polyps — Hydra viridis—The Dipping-
tube—A Glass Cell—The Hydra and its Prey—Chydorus
Sphericus and Canthocamptus, or Friends and _ their
Escapes—Cothurnia—Polyp Buds—Catching Polyps—Mode
of Viewing Them—Structure of Polyps—Sarcode—Polyps
Stimulated by Light—Are they Conscious?—Tentacles and
Poison Threads — Paramecium —Trachelius — Motions of
Animaleules, whether Automatic or directed by a Will—
Their Restless Character.
CHAPTER “PV:
MARCH.
Paramecia—Effects of Sunlight—Pterodina patina—Curious
Tail—Use of a Compressorium—Internal Structure of
Pterodina—Metopidia—Trichodina pediculus—Cothurnia—
Salpina—Its Three-sided Box—Protrusion of its Gizzard
Mouth.
AL
CONTENTS. . x
PAGE
TEAR TT TR a:
APRIL.
The Beautiful Floscule—Mode of seeking for Tubicolar
Rotifers—Mode of Illuminating the Floscule—Difficulty of
seeing the Transparent Tube—Protrusion of Long Hairs
—Lobes—Gizzard—Hairy Lobes of Floscule not Rotatory
Organs-—Glass Troughs—Their Construction and Use—
Movement of Globules in Lobes of Floseule—Chetonotus
larus—Its Mode of Swimming—Coleps hirtus—Devourer
of Dead Entomostraca—Dead Rotifer and Vibriones—
Theories of Fermentation and Putrefaction—Euplotes and
Stylonichia—Fecundity of Stylonichia. ; : : eae
CTA PEE «VL.
MAY.
Floseularia cornuta—Euchlanis triquetra—Melicerta ringens
—Its Powers as Brick-maker, Architect, and -Mason—
Mode of Viewing the Melicerta—Use of Glass Cell—Habits
of Melicerta—Curious Attitudes—Leave their Tubes at
Death—Carchesium—Epistylis—Their Elegant Tree Forms
—A Parasitic Epistylis like the “Old Man of the Sea”—
Halteria and its Leaps—Aspidisca lynceus. ; : sc) ES
CERAPRTER® VIET.
JUNE AND JULY.
Lindia torulosa—(icistes crystallinus—A Professor of Deport-
ment on Stilts—Philodina—Changes of Form and Habits
—Structure of Gizzard in Philodina Family—Mr. Gosse’s
X1V CONTENTS.
PAGE
Description—Motions of Rotifers—Indications of a Will—
Remarks on the Motions of Lower Creatures—Various
Theories—Possibility of Reason—Reflex Actions—Brain of
Insects—Consensual Actions—Applications of Physiological
Reasoning to the Movements of Rotifers and Animalcules. 99
CHAP TE R.~ Vatr.
AUGUST.
Mud Coloured by Worms—Their Retreat at Alarm—A
Country Duck-Pond—Contents of its Seam—Cryptomonads
—Their Means of Locomotion—A Triarthra (Three-limbed
Rotifer)—The Brachion or Pitcher Rotifer—Its Striking
Form— Enormous Gizzard—Ciliary Motion inside this
Creature— Large Eye and Brain— Powerful Tail—Its
Functions—Eggs. : é ; : : : : . is
CHAPTER “ise
SEPTEMBER.
Microscopic Value of Little Pools—Curious Facts in Ap-
pearance and Disappearance of Animalcules and Rotifers—
Mode of Preserving them in a Glass Jar—Fragments of
Melicerta Tube—Peculiar Shape of Pellets—Amphileptus—
Scaridium longicandum—A Long-tailed Rotifer—Stephan-
oceros Eichornii—A Splendid Rotifer—Its Gelatinous
Bottle—Its Crown of Tentacles—Retreats on Alarm—
Tllumination Requisite to see its Beauties—Its Greediness
—Richly-coloured Food—Nervous Ganglia. ; ‘ » ee
CHAPTER. Xe
OCTOBER.
Stentors and Stephanoceri—Description of Stentors—Mode
of viewing them—Their Abundance—Social Habits—Soli-
tary Stentors living in Gelatinous Caves—Propagation by
CONTENTS. B.@) 4
PAGE
Divers Modes — Limnias ceratophylli— Another Tube-
dwelling Rotifer—Young and Old Specimens—A Group
of Vaginicole—Changes of Shape—A Bubble-blowing Vor-
ticella. . : : : . ‘ ; ; 5 ; . 141
CHAPTER XI.
NOVEMBER.
Characteristics of the Polyzoa—Details of Structure according
to Allman—Plumatella repens—Its Great Beauty under
proper Illumination—Its Tentacles and their Cilia—The
Mouth and its Guard or Epistome—Intestinal Tube—How
it swallowed a Rotifer, and what happened—Curiosities of
Digestion—Are the Tentacles capable of Stinging?—Rest-
ing Eggs, or “Statoblasts’—Tube of Plumatella — Its
Muscular Fibres —-Physiological § Importance of their
Structure. . : : : : : : : 158
CHAPTER, XII.
DECEMBER.
Microscopic Hunting in Winter—Water-Bears, or Tardigrada
Their Comical Behaviour—Mode of viewing them—Sin-
gular Gizzard—Wenham’s Compressorium — Achromatic
Condenser — Mouth of the }Water-Bear — Water-Bears’
Exposure to Heat—Soluble Albumen—Physiological and
Chemical Reasons why they are not killed by Heating or
Drying—The Trachelius ovum—Mode of Swimming—
Method of Viewing—By Dark-ground Illumination—Cu-
rious Digestive ‘Tube with Branches—Multiplication by
Division—Change of Form immediately following this
Process—Subsequent Appearances. . : : : »- -L69
CRAP EH. . XID.
ConcLusion.—Remarks on Classification, ete. 2 eartale so
1s
Cn ss
i Y wie ) a - ’
UR ee Pe
> i
oa
JANUARY.—Cuapter II.
EuGLENE
VoRTICELLE
RotriFER VULGARIS
GIZZARD OF RoTIFER
FEBRUARY.—CnHapter III.
Stinaina OrcGans or Potyp
ANGUILLULA STUNG BY PoLYP
PaRAMECIUM
MARCH.—Cuapter IV.
PTERODINA PATINA
GIZZARD OF PTERODINA
Tain oF PaTINA
MEeETOPIDIA
TRICHODINA PEDICULUS
CoTHURNIA IMBERBIS
SaALPINA REDUNCA
APRIL.—CuHapter V.
FLOSCULARIA ORNATA
CHETONOTUS LARUS .
CoLEPS HIRTUS
EUPLOTES PATELLA
STYLONICHIA
PAGE
: : 24
29, 30, 31, 32
3d
38
. 45, 47, 48
Xvill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
MAY.—Cuaprter VI.
MELICERTA RINGENS
EpIstTytis
CARCHESIUM
JUNE AND JULY.—Cuaprter VIL.
CEcISTES CRYSTALLINUS
PHILODINA
AUGUST.—Cuaprter VIII.
CRYPTOMONADS
TRIARTHRA
BRACHIONS
SEPTEMBER.—Cuapter IX.
ScaRIDIUM LONGICAUDUM.
STEPHANOCEROS EICHORNII .
OCTOBER.—CuHapter X.
STENTORS }
LIMNIAS CERATOPHYLLI
VAGINICOLA
NOVEMBER.—Cuaprer XI.
PLUMATELLA REPENS ; ‘ , 5 ;
> «© (Single Polypide enlarged) .
DECEMBER.—Cuapter XII.
W aTerR-BEar
TRACHELIUS OVUM
91
95
96
102
104-5
117-18
. 120
122
. 133
135
. 145
149
. 152
. is
. 163
173
. 180,13a
DESCRIPTION OF FRONTISPIECE.
THe large object in the middle is a Stentor poly-
morphus, magnified one hundred and five diameters;
hanging from the top are Vorticelle, magnified about
sixty diameters; on each side at the bottom are Polyps,
(Hydra viridis and vulgaris,) the latter having pro-
duced by budding a young one as large as_ herself.
These are shghtly magnified, the natural size of the
objects in fine specimens similarly extended, measures
about half an inch. ‘The border is composed of Ana-
charis alsinastrum, a weed often prolific in microscopic
forms.
MICROSCOPES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT.
POWERS THAT ARE MOST SERVICEABLE—ESTIMATED BY
FOCAL LENGTH—LENGTH OF BODY OF MICROSCOPE AND ITS
EFFECTS—POPULAR ERRORS ABOUT GREAT MAGNIFICATION
—MODES OF STATING MAGNIFYING POWER—USE. OF AN
“ ERECTOR”—POWER OF VARIOUS OBJECTIVES WITH DIF-
FERENT EYE-PIECES—EXAMINATION OF SURFACE MARKENGS
—METHODS OF ILLUMINATION—DIREC? AND OBLIQUE LIGHT
—STAGE APERTURE—DARK GROUND ILLUMINATION—MODE
OF SOFTENING LIGHT—MICROSCOPE LAMPS—CARE OF THE
EYES. |
MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
CHAPTER (+I.
PLAIN HINTS ON MICROSCOPES AND THEIR
MANAGEMENT.
THE microscope is rapidly becoming the com-
panion of every intelligent family that can afford
its purchase, and, thanks to the skill of our op-
ticlans, instruments which can be made to answer
the majority of purposes, may be purchased for three
or four guineas, while even those whose price is
counted in shillings are by no means to be despised.
The most eminent English makers stand unrivalled
throughout the world, while the average productions
of respectable houses exhibit so high a degree of
excellence, as to make comparisons invidious. We
shall not, therefore, indulge in the praises of par-
ticular firms, but simply recommend any reader
entering upon microscopic study, to procure an
‘achromatic instrument, if Jt can be afforded, and
4 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
having at least two powers, one with a focus of an
inch or two-thirds of an inch, and the other of
half or a quarter. Cheap microscopes have usually
only one eye-piece, those of «a better class have
two, and the best are furnished with three, or
even more.
The magnifying power of a compound microscope
depends upon the focal length of the object-glass,
(or glass nearest the object,) upon the length of
the tube, and the power of the eye-piece. With
regard to object-glasses, those of shortest fucal
length have the highest powers, and the longest
eye-pleces have the lowest powers. The body of a
microscope, or principal tube of which it is com-
posed, is, in the best instruments, about nine inches
long, and is furnished with a draw tube, capable of
being extended six inches more. From simple
optical principles, the longer the tube the higher
the power obtained with the same object-glass; but
only chject-glasses of very perfect construction will
bear the enlargement of their own imperfections,
which results from the use of long tubes; and con-
sequently for cheap instruments the opticians often
limit the length of the tube, to suit the capacity
of the object-glasses they can afford to give for
the money. Such microscopes may be good enough
for the generality of purposes, but they do not,
with glasses of given focal length, afford the same
POPULAR ERRORS ABOUT GREAT MAGNIFICATION. 5)
magnifying power «as is done by instruments of
better construction. The best and most expensive
elasses will not only bear long tubes, but also eye-
pieces of high power, without any practical diminu-
tion of the accuracy of their operation, and this is
a great convenience in natural history investiga-
tions. To obtain it, however, requires such perfec-
tion of workmanship, as to be incompatible with
cheapness. An experienced operator will not be
satisfied without having an object-glass at least as
high as a quarter, that will bear a second eye-
piece, but beginners are seldom successful with a
higher power than one of half-inch focus, or there-
ubouts, and before trying this, they should familiarize
themselves with the use of one with an inch focus.
It is a popular error to suppose that enormous
magnification is always an advantage, and that a
microscope is valuable because it makes a flea look
ais big as a cat or a camel. The writer has
often smiled at the exclamations of casual visitors,
who have been pleased with his microscopic efforts
to entertain them. ‘Dear me, what a wonderful
instrument; it must be immensely powerful;” and
so forth. These ejaculations have often followed
the use of a low power, and their authors have
beet astonished at receiving the explanation that
the best microscope is that which will shew the
most with the least magnification, and that ac-
6 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
curacy of definition, not increase of bulk, is the
great thing needful.
Scientific men always compute the apparent en-
largement of the object by one dimension only.
Thus, supposing an object one-hundredth of an inch
square were magnified so as to appear one inch
square, it would, in scientific parlance, be magnified
“one hundred diameters,” or one hundred linear; and
the figures 100 would be appended to any drawing
which might be made from it. It is, however,
obvious that the length is magnified as well as the
breadth; and hence the magnification of the whole
surface, in the instance specified, would be one
hundred times one hundred, or ten thousand; and
this is the way in which magnification is popularly
stated. A few moments’ consideration will shew
that the scientific method is that which most
readily affords information. Any one can instantly
comprehend the fact of an object being made to
look ten.times its real length; but if told that
it is magnified a hundred times, he does not know
what this really means,- until he has gone through
the process of finding the square root of a hnn-
dred, and learnt that a hundredfold ragnification
means a tenfold magnitication of each superficial
dimension. If told, for example, that a hair is
magnified six hundred diameters, the knowledge is
at once conveyed that it looks six hundred times
USE OF AN ERECTOR. 7
as broad as it is; but a statement that the same
hair is magnified three hundred and sixty thousand
times, only excites a- gasping sensation of wonder,
until it is ascertained by calculation that the big
figures only mean what the little figures instantly
express. In these pages the scientific plan will
always be followed.
If expense is not an object, it is well to be
provided with an object-glass as low as two or
three inches focus, which will allow the whole of
objects, having the diameter of half an inch or
more, to be seen at once. Such a low power is
exceedingly well-adapted for the examination of
living insects, or of the exquisite preparations of
entire insects, which can now be had of all op-
ticians. Microscopes which have a draw tube can
be furnished with an erector, an instrument so called
because it erects the images, which the microscope
has turned upside down, through the crossing of
the rays. This is very convenient for making dis-
sections under the instrument; but it also gives us
the means of reducing the magnifying power of an
object-glass, and thus obtaining a larger field. The
erector is affixed to the end of the draw tube,
and by pulliug it out, or thrusting it in, the rays
from the object-glass are intercepted at different
distances, and various degrees of power obtained.
As it is only the object of this preliminary chapter
s MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
to give a little general information, special pieces
of apparatus to use with a microscope will not be
described, but the most necessary will be introduced
in the following chapters, and the mode of using
them explained.
Beginners will be glad to know how to obtain
the magnifying power which different objects re-
quire, and it may be stated that with a full-sized
microscope, a two-inch object-glass magnifies about
twenty-five diameters with the lowest eye-piece; a
one-inch object-glass, or two-thirds, from fifty to
sixty diameters; a half-inch about one hundred; a
quarter-inch about two hundred. The use of higher
eve-pieces adds very considerably to the power, but
in proportions which differ with different makers.
The instrament used by the writer has three eye-
pieces, giving with a two-thirds object-glass, powers
of sixty, one hundred and five, and one hundred
and eighty respectively; and with a fifth two hnn-
dred and forty, four hundred and thirty, and seven
hundred and twenty, which can be augmented by
the use of the draw tube. When an_ instrument
is bought, the optician should be requested to give
a table of the action of its object-glasses and eye-
pieces, and there will then be no difficulty in
selecting the combination necessary to follow the
observations of others. When it is desired to
examine delicate surface markings of extreme mi-
METHODS OF ILLUMINATION. 9
nuteness, high powers should be obtained by the
employment of object-glasses of short focus, and
low eye-pieces; but for ordinary purposes an ob-
ject-glass may be used with any eye-piece with
which it will give a clear, well-lit, and distinct-
_ looking image.
It has been well observed that the illumination
of objects is quite as important as the glasses that
are employed, and the most experienced microscopists
have never done learning in this matter. Most
microscopes are furnished with two mirrors beneath
the stage, one plane and one concave. The first
will throw a few parallel rays through any trans-
purent object properly placed, and the latter causes
a number of rays to couverge, producing a more
powerful effect.. The first is usually used in day-
light, when the instrument is near a window, (one
with a north aspect, out of direct sunlight, being
the best;) and the second is commonly employed
when the source of illumination is a candle or a
lamp. By varying the angle of the mirror the
light is thrown through the object more or less
obliquely, and its quantity should never be sufficient
to pain the eye.. Few objects are seen to the best —
advantage with a perfectly direct light, and the
beginner should practise till the amount of ineli-
nation is obtained which produces the best effect.
It is advisable that the hole in the stage of
10 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
the microscope should be large—at least an inch
and a half each way—-so that the entrance of oblique
rays 1s not obstructed, and it is desirable that the
mirror, In addition to sliding up and down, should
have an arm by which it can be thrown completely
out of the perpendicular plane of the body of the
instrument. This enables such oblique rays to be
employed as to give a dark field, all the light
which reaches the eye, being refracted by the object
through which it is sent. The opticians sell special
pieces of apparatus for this purpose, but though
they are very useful, they do not render it less
desirable to have the mirror mounted as described.
Most microscopes are furnished with a revolving
diaphragm, with three holes, of different sizes, to
diminish the quantity of light that is admitted to
the object. This instrument is of some use, and
offers a ready means of obtaining a very soft agree-
able light for transparent objects, viewed with low
powers. For this purpose cut a circular disk of
India or tissue paper, rather larger than the biggest
aperture; scrape a few little pieces of spermaceti,
and place them upon it, then put the whole on a
piece of writing-paper, and hold- it a few inches
above the flame of a candle, moving it gently. If
this is dexterously done, the spermaceti will be
melted without singing the paper, and when it is
cold the disk will be found transparent. Place it
MICROSCOPE LAMPS. 11
over the hole in the diaphragm, send the light
through it, and the result will be a very soft
agreeable effect, well suited for many purposes, such
as viewing sections of wood, insects mounted whole,
after being rendered transparent, many small water
creatures, ete. Another mode of accomplishing this
purpose is to place a similarly prepared disk of
paper on the flat side of a bull’s-eye lens, and
transinit the light of a lamp through it. This
plan may be used with higher powers, and the
white opaque light it gives may be directed at
any angle by means of the mirror beneath the
stage.
An ordinary lamp may be made to answer for
Inieroscopic use, but one of the small paraffine
lamps, now sold everywhere for eighteen-pence, 1s
singularly convenient. It is high enough for
many purposes, and can easily be raised by one
er more books. That. used by the writer has a
small silvered reflector behind the flame, which is
serviceable when much light is required.
Many people fancy that the eyes are injured by
continual use of the microscope, but this is far
from being the case if reasonable precautions are
taken. The instrument should be inclined at a
proper angle, all excess of light avoided, and the
object brought into focus before it is steadily
looked at. Most people solemnly shut one eye
12 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
before commencing a microscopic examination; this
is a practical and physiological mistake. Nature
meant both eyes to be open, and usually resents a
prolonged violation of her intentions in this mat-
ter. It requires but a little practise to keep
hoth eyes open, and only pay attention to what
is seen by that devoted to the microscope. The
acquisition of this habit is facilitated, and other
advantages gained, by a screen to keep out extra-
neous light. For this purpose take a piece of thin
cardboard about nine inches square, and cut a
round hole in it, just big enongh to admit the
tube of the microscope, about two inches from the
bottom, and equidistant from the two sides. Next
cut off the two upper corners of the cardboard, and
give them a pleasant-looking curve. Then cover
the cardboard with black velvet, the commonest,
which is not glossy, answers best, and your screen
is made. Put the hole over the tube of the
microscope, and let the screen rest on the little
ledge or rim which forms an ornamental finish to
most instruments. A piece of cork may be gummed
at the back of the screen, so as to tilt it a little,
and diminish its chance of coming into contact
with that important organ the nose. This little
contrivance adds to the clearness and_ brilliancy
of objects, and is a great accommodation to the
eyes.
CARE OF THE EYES. ts
One more oculistic memorandum, and we have
done with this chapter. Do not stare at portions
of objects that are out of focus, and consequently
indistinct, as this injures the eyes more than any-
thing. Remember the proverb, ‘“‘Noue so deaf as
those that won’t hear,” which naturally suggests for
a companion, ‘None so blind as those that won’t
see.’ It is often impossible to get every object
in the field in focus at one time;—look only at
that which is in focus, and be blind to all the
rest. This is a habit easily acquired, and is one
for which our vatwral microscopes are exceedingly
grateful; and every judicious observer desires to
keep on the best terms with his eyes.
CHAPTER II.
JANUARY.
VISIT TO THE PONDS—CONFERVA—SPIROGYRA QUININA—
VORTICELLA—COMMON ROTIFER—THREE DIVISIONS OF IN-
FUSORIA-- PHYTOZOA — PROTOZOA— ROTIF ERA— TARDIGRADA
—MEANING OF THESE TERMS—EUGLENA—DISTINCTION BE-
TWEEN ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES—DESCRIPTION OF
VORTICELLZ—DARK GROUND ILLUMINATION—MODES OF
PRODUCING IT—THE NUCLEUS OF THE VORTICELLA—
METHODS OF REPRODUCTION--CILIATED PROTOZOA—WHEEL
BEARERS OR ROTIFERS—THEIR STRUCTURE—THE COMMON
ROTIFER—THE YOUNG ROTIFER SEEN INSIDE THE OLD ONE—
AN INTERNAL NURSERY-—“DIFFERENTIATION” AND “SPECIAL-
IZATION”’—BISEXUALITY OF ROTIFERS—THEIR ZOOLOGICAL
POSITION—DIVERSITIES IN THEIR APPEARANCE—STRUCTURK
OF THEIR GIZZARD—DESCRIPTION OF ROTIFERS,
CHAPTER... EL.
JANUARY.
THE winter months are on the whole less fa-
veurable to the collection of microscopic objects
from ponds and streams, than the warmer portions
of the year; but the difference is rather in abundance
than in variety, and with a very moderate amount
of trouble, representatives of the principal classes
can always be obtained.
On a clear January morning, when the air was
keen, but no ice had yet skinned over the surface
of the water, a visit to some small ponds in an
open field, not far from Kentish Town, provided
entertainment for several days. The ponds were
selected from their open airy situation, the general
clearness of their water, and the abundance of ve-
getation with which they were adorned. Near the
margin, confervee abounded, their tangled masses of
hair-like filaments often matted together, almost
with the closeness of a felted texture. At inter-
vals, minute bubbles of air, with occasionally a few
of greater size, indicated that the complex processes
G
18 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
of vegetable life were actively going on, that the
tiny plants were decomposing carbonic acid, dex-
terously combining the carbon—which we are most
familiar with in the black opaque form of charcoal
—to form the substance of their delicate translucent
tissues, and sending forth the oxygen as their
contribution to the purification of the adjacent
water, and the renovation of our atmospheric air.
This was a good sign, for healthy vegetation is
favourable to many of the most interesting forms
of infusorial life. Accordingly the end of a
walking-stick was inserted among the green threads,
and a skein of them drawn up, dank, dripping, and
clinging together in.a pasty-looking mass. To hold
up a morsel of this mess, and tell some one, not
in the secrets of pond-lore, that its dripping threads
were objects of beauty, surpassing human produc-
tions, in brilliant colour and elegant form, would
provoke laughter, and suggest the notion that you
were poking fun at them, when you poked out
your stick with the slimy treasure at its end. But
let us put the green stuff into a bottle, with some
water from its native haunt, cork it up tight, and
sarry it away for quiet examination under the mi-
croscope at home.
Here we are with the apparatus ready. We have
transferred a few threads of the conferva from the
bottle to the live box, spreading out the fine
¥
VORTICELLE. 19
fibres with a needle, and adding a drop of water.
The cover is then gently pressed down, and the
whole placed on the stage of the microscope, to
be examined with a power of about sixty. >
ew ¥
-
296 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
theory that has been propounded appears to meet
all cases. Some naturalists do not expect to find
«a broad line of demarkation between the two great
divisions of living things, but others characterize
such an idea as ‘‘unphilosophical,” in spite of which,
however, we incline towards it.
Mr. Gosse, whose opinion is entitled to great
respect, calls the Huglene “animals” in his “Evenings
with the Microscope;’ but from the aggregate of
recorded observations 1t seems that they evolve ox-
gen, are coloured with the colouring matter of
plants, reproduce their species in a manner analo-
gous to plants, and have in some cases been clearly
traced to the vegetable world. It is, however,
possible that some Huglene forms may be animal
and others vegetable, and while their place at
nature’s table is being decided, they must be con-
tent to be called Phytozoa, which, as we have
before explained, is merely Zoophyte turned upside
down.
Some authorities have thought their animality
proved by the high degree of contractility which
their tissues evince. This, however, cannot go for
much, as all physiologists admit contractility to
belong to the vegetable tissues of the sensitive plant,
or ‘Venus’ Fly-trap,’ and a little more or less
cannot mark the boundary between two orders of
being.
DESCRIPTION OF VORTICELLE. OL
We shall have occasion again to notice the Pro-
tophytes, and now pass to the Protozoa, of which
we have a good illustration in the Vorticella already
spoken of. In the group before us a number of
elegant bells or vases stand at the end of long
stalks, as shewn at the top of the frontispiece,
while round the tops of the bells, the vibrations
of a wreath of cilia produce little vortices or whirl-
pools, and hence comes the family name. ‘This
current brings particles of all sorts to the mouth
near the rim of the bells, and the creature seems
not entirely destitute of power to choose or reject
the morsels according to its taste. Every now
and then the stalk of some speciinen is suddenly
twisted into a spiral, and contracted, so as to bring
the bell almost to the ground. ‘Then the stem
gracefully elongates again, and the cilia repeat
their lively game. |
The general effect can be seen very well by a
power of about sixty linear, but one of from one
to two hundred is necessary to bring out the
details, and a practised observer will use still more
magnification with good effect. They should be
examined by a moderately oblique light, or most
of the cilia are apt to be rendered invisible, and
also by dark ground illumination. This may be
accomplished in a well-made microscope by turning
the mirror quite out of the plane of the axis of:
98 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
the instrument, that is to say on one side of the
space the body would occupy if it were prolonged.
By this means, and by placing the lamp at an angle
with the mirror, that must be learnt by experiment,
all the light that reaches the eye has first passed
through the object, and is refracted by it out of
the line it was taking, which would have carried
it entirely away. Or the object may be illuminated
by an apparatus called a spotted. lens, which is a
small bull’s-eye placed under the stage, and having
all the centre of its face covered with a_plaister
of black silk. In this method the central or
direct rays from the mirror are obstructed, but
those which strike the edge of the bull’s-eye are
bent towards the object, which they penetrate and
illuminate if it is sufficiently transparent and re-
fractive. Another mode of dark ground illumination
is by employing an expensive instrument called a
parabolic wluminator, which need not be described.
Different specimens and species of Vorticelle vary
in the length of their bells from one three or four-
thousandth to one-hundred and twentieth of an inch,
and when they are tolerably large, the dark ground
illumination produces a beautiful effect. The bells
shine with a pearly iridescent lustre, and their cilia
flash with brilliant prismatic colours.
The Vorticellina belong to the upper division of -
the Protozoa—the ciliata, or ciliated animalcules, and
INTESTINAL CANAL. _ ao
they have an intestinal canal with two orifices, one
for the entrance, and the other for the exit of their
food. Both these orifices are, to use the language
O Oo
of the “Micrographic Dictionary,” situated in the
“same grvove.” Here we have to notice two things,
Cc
_ Vorticella, with posterior circlet of cilia Vorticella in process of self-division. A
in process of separation, 300 linear.-- new frontal wreath in formation in each
Stein. of the semi-lunar spaces.
both of which indicate some elevation in the scale
of being. In the first place there is an intestinal
tube, or distinct channel; while in the lowest ani-
mals, such as the Ameeba or Protean animalcules
3 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
there is no distinction of organs or parts. In the
next place this tube has ¢wo orifices, one for re-
ception, another for excretion; while in animals like
the Polyp, (to be described in our next chapter, )
the digestive cavity has only one way in and out.
The bells or cups are not, as might be fancied
from a casual inspection, open like wine-glasses at
the top, but furnished with a retractile disk or cover,
Vorticella microstoma, shewing alimen- Vorticella microstomo, the eneysted
tary tube, ciliated mouth, and formation animal protruding through a supposed
of a vemma at the base, 300 linear. — Stein. rupture of the tunic.
on which the cilia are arranged. Their stalks are
not simple stems, but are hollow tubes, which in
the genus Vorticella are furnished with a muscular
hand, by whose agency the movements are principally
made.
Some of the Vorticellids will be observed to leave
their stalks, having developed cilia round their base,
and may be seen to swim about in the enjoyment of
THE NUCLEUS OF THE VORTICELLA. Bd |
individual life. They are also capable of becoming
encysted, that is, of secreting a gelatinous cover,
and likewise of assuming what Stein calls their
Acineta forms, which are usually pear or trumpet-
shaped bodies on short stalks, with stiff cilia or
bristles springing from their heads. Stein thought
that their Acineta forms never reproduced their own
likeness, but always gave rise to Vorticellids of
the original pattern. Other observers have, how-
ever, seen young Acinetans developed by old ones,
and therefore a part of Stein’s theory appears incor-
Encysted Vorticella, shewing the obliteration of special organs by the advancement
of the process.— Pritchard.
rect. These changes are exhibited in the annexed
cuts, which are copied from known authorities. By
careful observation of the bodies of Vorticellids, a
contractile vesicle may be observed, which appears
to cause a movement of fluids, that is probably
connected with respiration and the formation and
repair of the substance of the animal. It ‘‘is placed
against the upper part of the alimentary tube.”
Another piece of apparatus in this family, but
not confined to it, is the so-called nacleus, which
Bes MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
in this case is of a horse-shoe shape and granular
texture, and greater solidity than the surrounding
parts. The functions of this organ form the subject
of various conjectures, but it is generally held to
be connected with the process of reproduction.
In common with many of the lower animals, the
Vorticellids have three ways of multiplying their
race. One by fission, or division of their bodies;
another by buds, somewhat analagous to those of
Vorticella microstoma, in process of encystment, 300 linear; in the last the inclosing
tunie is plainly developed.— Séein.
plants; and another by reproductive germs. These
processes will come again under our notice, and we
shall leave the Vorticellids for the present by ob-
serving that if they are fed with a very small
quantity of indigo or carmine, the vacuoles or spaces,
into which their nutriment passes, will be clearly
observed. Ehrenberg thought in these and similar
creatures that every vacuole was a distinct stomach,
and that all the stomachs were connected by an
intestinal canal; hence his name Polygastrica, or
WHEEL-BEARERS OR ROTIFERS. oo
many-stomached. In these views he has not been
followed by later observers, and it is probable he
was misled, partly by pushing the process of rea-
soning from the analogies of higher animals much
too far, and partly by the imperfection of the
glasses lie employed.
Rotifer vulgaris.—A, mouth, or gizzard; B, contractile vesicle.—Mitcrographic Dic-
tionary.
N.B.—When the cilia and tail part are retracted, and the body shortened, the
creature assumes an obtuse oval form. j
Having thus briefly considered the Vorticellids,
we must turn to the wheel-bearer, who belongs to
a higher race than even the ciliated Protozoa. We
left her crawling about with her snout or proboscis
protruded, but now she has moored herself by her
tail-foot, pulled in her nose, and put out two groups
D
oa MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
of cilia, which look like revolving wheels, and a
little below them is seen a gizzard in a state of
active work. After a little while she swims away
with her wheels going, and her tail, forked at the
end, is found to be telescopic, or capable of being
pulled in and out. As the cilia play, the neigh-
bouring water is agitated, and multitudes of small
objects are brought by the whirlpool within her -
ravenous maw. But the strangest thing of all
is that inside her body is seen a young one; in
this case a large and fine infant, which, like “a.
chip of the old block,” imitates the parental mo-
tions, thrusts forth its cilia, and works its gizzard.*
In other genera the eggs are hatehed externally,
but this one is ovoviviparous, and carries its nursery
inside.
A very slight investigation is sufficient to shew
that in the wheel-bearer we have made a great
advance towards a higher organization than we
discovered in the preceding creatures. We witness
what the learned call a “differentiation” of parts
and tissues, and a “specialization” of organs. The
head is plainly distinguishable from the body, the
skin or integument is distinctly different from the
internal tissues, behind the eyes we can detect a
* This was met with in the summer, but is described here to
avoid repetition. I do not know whether the eggs are hatched
m very cold weather.
THE COMMON ROTIFER. 3D
nervous ganglion or miniature brain, the gizzard is
a complicated piece of vital mechanism, such as we
have not-met with before, and in various parts of
the transparent inside we see organs to which par-
ticular functions are assigned.
It was at one time thought that Rotifers were
hermaphrodite —uniting both sexes in-one body—but
that idea is now generally abandoned, for in many
species the males have been discovered, and the
fair sex may be gratified to hear that they are
without doubt the “inferior animals.” Their fune-
tion is simply to assist the female in producing young,
and as this can be quickly accomplished, their lives
are short, and they are not supplied with the gizzard
and digestive apparatus, which their lady-loves pos-
sess. Much discussion has taken place as to the
‘ank which the Rotifers hold in the animal kingdom,
some naturalists thinking them relations of the crabs,
and others believing them to belong to the family
of the worms. Professor Huxley, who adopts the
latter view, which has the most friends, groups
the lower Annulosa together under the name of
Annuloida, in which he includes Annelides, or worms
of various kinds, the Hehninodermata, (or “spine
skins,’ among which are the star-fish and sea
hedgehogs,) and some other families. He considers
the Rotifers to be “the permanent forms of Echino-
derm larve.” This does not mean that they were
30 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
ever produced by Echinoderms, and had their de-.
velopment checked, but that they resemble them in
organization, and illustrate a general law, observable
in animated beings, namely, that the lower creatures
are like the imperfect stages of higher animals, and
that all things are formed according to general
principles, and exhibit a uniformity of plan.
Mr. Gosse adopts a different view, and while
admitting a connection between the Rotifers aud the
worms, adduces important reasons for associating
them with the msects.
Leaving zoologists to settle their position, we may
remark that the Rotifers form a very numerous
family, presenting very great diversities of structure,
some of the most interesting of which we shall meet
with in the course of our rambles; but they all
possess a gizzard, which, though differing in com-
plexity, is throughout formed upon the same principle,
and that we must now explain.
We have called the masticatory apparatus of the
Rotifers a gizzard; but Mr. Gosse, who has done
most to elucidate its structure, contends that it is
a moutr,; and in some species it is frequently pro-
truded, and used like the mouths of higher animals.
Taking one of the most typical forms of this organ,
and drawing our illustrations from Mr. Gosse’s ad-
mirable paper in the ‘Transactions of the Royal
Society,” we may describe it, when completely de-
STRUCTURE OF THE GIZZARD. aT
veloped, as consisting of three lobes, having a more
or less rounded form. The eminent naturalist we
have named calls the whole organ, the mastax,
and states that it is composed. of dense muscular
fibre. The tube which leads down to it, he desig-
nates the ‘buccal (mouth) funnel,” and the tube
that issues from it, and conveys the food to the
digestive sac or stomach, he calls the wsophagus,
in conformity with the nomenclature applied to
creatures: whose mouths are in their usual place.
Inside the mouth-gizzard are placed two organs,
which work like hammers, and which Mr. Gosse
therefore names mallet. The hammers work against
a sort of anvil, which is called tncus, the Latin for
that implement. Each hammer consists of two por-
tions articulated by a hinge joint. The lower por-
tion, the manubrium, or handle, gives motion to the
upper portion, which from its shape is named the
uncus, or hook. The wnet are furnished with fin-
ger-like processes or teeth, which vary in number.
There are five or six in the best. developed speci-
mens. These hooks or teeth work against each
other, and against the zacus, or anvil, which consists
of distinct articulated portions, of which the principal
are two ramz, or branches, jointed so that they can
open and close like a pair of shears. These two rest
upon a third portion, which is called the fulcrum.
Some faint idea of the working of the toothed
38 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
hammers may be obtained by rubbing the knuckles
of both hands together, but the motion is more com-
plicated, and the ram play their part in the tri-.
turition of the food. Mr. Gosse states that when an
objectionable morsel has got as far as this mouth-
gizzard, ‘it is thrown back by a peculiar scoop-like
action of the wet, very curious to witness.” The
nppended diagram will help the reader to com-
prehend this description, but no opportunity should
Gizzard of Notomata.
be lost for viewing this remarkable organ busy at
work in the living animals.
The respiration of the Rotifers is supposed to be
eflected by the passage of water through vessels.
running round them, and ealled the “‘water vascular
system,” and in addition to their eyes, which often
disappear in adult specimens, the organ we described
as standing out lke a pig-tail, as our acquaintance
crawled along, is thought to act as an antenna,
ANTENNA OF ROTIFER. 39
or feeler, and brings its possessor in further relation
to the external world. It is also called the calcar,
or spur, and is furnished with cilia or bristles at
its extremity.
Sometimes the particles swallowed by the Common
Rotifer are large enough for their course to be traced,
but there is more frequently a great commotion
and grinding of the gizzard, without any appreciable
cause, although doubtless something is taken in, and
when the creature is tired, or hus had enough, we
see both head and tail retracted, and the body
assumes a globular form. In another chapter, when
viewing a Philodine, we shall see how in the family
to which the Common Rotifer belongs, the gizzard
departs from the perfect type.
eu” ee Oe
ae Wl,
«
ty
;
‘
Ls
m4
an x, tLe
Po ae) ee ee eo = * -.
CHAP PE Ty — LIT.
FEBRUARY.
VISIT TO HAMPSTEAD—SMALL PONDS—WATER-FLEAS—WATER-
BEETLE—SNAILS—POLYPS—HYDRA VIRIDIS—THE DIPPING-
TUBE—A GLASS CELL—THE HYDRA AND ITS PREY—CHYDORUS
SPHARICUS AND CANTHOCAMPTUS, OR FRIENDS AND THEIR
ESCAPES — COTHURNIA — POLYP BUDS —CATCHING POLY PS—
MODE OF VIEWING THEM—STRUCTURE OF POLYPS—SARCODE
—POLYPS STIMULATED BY LIGHT—ARE THEY CONSCIOUS ?—
TENTACLES AND POISON THREADS—PARAMECIUM—TRACHE-
LIUS—MOTIONS OF ANIMACULES, WHETHER AUTOMATIC OR
DIRECTED BY A WILL—THEIR RESTLESS CHARACTER.
CHAPTER III.
FEBRUARY.
It has been a bitterly cold night, and as the
sun shines on a clear keen morning, and _ glistens
in the hoar-frost which covers the trees, it might
seem an unpropitious time for visiting the ponds,
in search of microscopic prey. We will, however,
try our luck, and take a brisk trot to the top
of Hampstead Heath, where the air is still keener,
and the ice more thick. Arriving at the highest
point, London appears on one side enveloped in
its usual great coat of smoke, through which St.
Paul’s big dome, with a score or two of towers
and steeples can be dimly made out; while looking
towards Harrow-on-the-Hill, or Barnet, we see the
advantage of country air in the sharpness. with
which distant objects cut the blue sky. We leave
the large ponds for another time, and hunt out the
little hollows among the furze and fern. One looks
promising from the bright green vegetation to be
discovered under the sheet of ice, which is almost
firm enough to bear human weight.
44 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
Breaking a convenient hole we hook up some of
the water-plants, and place them in a wide-mouthed
vial, which we fill with water, and cursorily examine
with a pocket-lens. Some water-fleas briskly skip-
ping about, and a beautiful little beetle, with an
elegant dotted pattern on his brown back, and a
glistening film of air covering his belly, shew that
we have not been unsuccessful, although we must
wait till we get home to know the extent of our
findings, among which, however, we can also discern
the graceful spiral shell of a small water-snail, the
Planorbis.
Arriving at home the bottle was left undisturbed
for some hours in a warm light place, and then
on being examined several specimens of that beau-
tiful polyp, the Hydra viridis, were seen attached
to the glass, and spreading their delicate tentacles
in search of prey. One of the polyps is carefully
removed by the dipping-tube, a small glass tube,
open at both ends. The fore-finger is placed upon
the top, and when the other end is brought over
the object the finger is raised for an instant, and as
the water rushes in the little hydra comes too, and
is placed in a glass cell, about half an inch wide
and one-tenth of an inch deep. These cells are
obtained from the opticians, and cemented with var-
nish or marine glue to an ordinary glass. slide.
After an object. has been placed in one of them,
# GHASS CELE. 45
a little water is taken up in the dipping-tube, and
Hydra viridis with developed young one, and bud beginning to sprout.
the cell filled until the fluid’ stands in a convex
heap above its brim. We then select a round glass
46 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
cover, and press it gently on the walls of our cell.
A few drops of superfluous water escape, and we have
the cell quite full, and the cover held tight by force
of the capillary attraction between the water and
the glass.
The polyp deposited in one of these water cages
is then transferred to the stage of the microscope,
and its proceedings watched. At first it looks like
a shapeless mass of apple-green jelly. Soon, how-
ever, the tail end of the creature is fixed to the
glass, the body elongates, and the tentacles (in this
case eight) expand something after the manner of
the leaves of a graceful palm.
By accident two small Water Fleas were imprisoned
with the polyp, and one (a shrimp-like looking
creature, carrying behind her a great bag of eggs, )
came into contact with the tentacles, and seemed
paralysed for a time. The hydra made no attempt
to convey the captive to its mouth, but held it
tight until another Water Flea, a round merry little
fellow, (Chydorus sphwricus,) came to the rescue,
and assisted Canthocamptus to escape by tugging
at her tail. This friendly action may not have been
prompted by the intelligence which seemed to suggest
it, but those who have kept tame soldier-crabs and
prawns in an aquarium, will not be indisposed to
attribute to the crustaceans more brains than they
have usually credit for. It must, however, be con-
CANTHOCAMPTUS, CHYDORUS, ETC. 47:
fessed that the subsequent conduct of Mrs. Cantho-
camptus did not indicate the possession of much
prudence, for she learnt no lesson from experience,
but repeatedly swam against her enemy’s tentacles,
uliiee
IIT
A, Canthocamptus minutus; B, Chydorus sphericus; C and D, Capsules and
poison-thread ot polyp; E, Tricodina pediculus, side view and under view; F,
Kerona polyporum. —Microg. Dict.
suffered many captures, and only escaped being
devoured through the indifference, or want of ap-
petite, which the polyp evinced.
48 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
On the body of the Canthocamptus were some
small transparent vases or bottles, containing living
objects, which sprang up and down. These were
members of the Vorticella family, called Cothurnia
and will be hereafter described.
Watching the hydra it was curious to note the
changes of form which these creatures are able to
assume. Now, the tentacles were short and thick,
and the body squat; now the body was elongated,
Hydra viridis, in various shapes.
like the stem of a palm tree, and the tentacles
hung gracefully from the top. From some of the
polyps little round buds were growing, while other
buds were already developed into miniature copies
of the parent, and only attached by a slender stalk |
In a few days many of these left the maternal
side, fixed their own little tails to the glass, and
commenced housekeeping on their own account.
Polyps may be obtained at all times of the year
CATCHING POLYPS. 49
by bringing home duckweed, conferva, and other
water-plants from the ponds. Some hauls may be
unsuccessful, but if one pond is not propitious others
should be tried. The plants should be put in a
capacious vessel of water, and placed in the light,
where, if polyps be present, they will shew themselves
within twenty-four hours, either attached to the sides
of the glass, or hanging from the plants, or suspended
head downwards from the upper film of the water.
They are elegant objects, and may be kept without
difficulty for some weeks. After being confined in
a small quantity of water-for purposes of examina-
tion, they should be carefully replaced in the larger
vessel, and may thus be used again and again
without suffering any injury. A low power,—a three
or two-inch glass—or a one-inch, reduced by employ-
ing the erector,—is the most convenient for examining
the whole creature, but higher powers are necessary
to make out its minute structure. They should
be viewed with direct and oblique light, as trans-
parent and also as opaque objects. In the latter
ease the “Lieberkuhn,” or polished silver speculum,
is convenient, and if the microscope is not furnished
with Lister’s dark wells, a small piece of black paper
may be stuck behind the object, by simply wetting
it with the tongue.
Although the polyps are remarkable for the sim-
plicity of their organization, they do not the less
E
JO MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
exhibit the wonderful nature of animal life. Their
bodies are composed of a uniform substance, called
sarcode, in which is embedded a colouring matter
resembling that in the leaves of plants; every part
possesses irritability and contractility, and they are
very sensitive to the stimulus of light. They may be
cut and grafted like trees, and if turned inside out,
the new inside digests and assimilates as well as the
old. Whether any form of consciousness can belong
to creatures which have no distinct nervous system
is open to doubt, but it would seem probable from
their movements that food and light afford them
something like a pleasurable sensation in a very
humble degree. If we were sufficiently acquainted
with the secrets of molecular combination we might
discover that the various functions of these simple
organisms were discharged by different particles,
although it is only in higher creatures that muscular
particles are aggregated into muscles, or nerve par-
ticles into nerves.
Having examined the general appearance and
proceedings of the hydra, let us cut off a tentacle,
or take «a small specimen and gently crush it by
pressing down the cover of the live box, and place
the object so prepared under a power of about
three hundred linear. If we then illuminate it with
a moderate quantity of oblique light, we shall dis-
cover round the edge of the tentacle a number of
TENTACLES AND POISON THREADS. ol
small cells or capsules, from some of which a very
slender wire or thread will be emitted.* These are
the stinging organs of the polyp, and resemble those
which Mr. Gosse has so ably elucidated in the sea
anemones. Some writers have endeavoured to shew
that they are not stinging organs at all, but so
large an amount of evidence to the contrary is
accumulated in Mr. Gosse’s ‘‘Actinologia Britannica,”
that no reasonable doubt remains. The stinging
capsules of the polvp are shewn in the annexed
sketch, and also the way in which they are employed,
for it fortunately happened that on exposing one
of the hydras to pressure in the live box, a small
worm (Anguillula) escaped, which had been pierced
with the minute weapons which are supposed to
convey a poison into the wound. The authors of
the ‘“‘Micrographic Dictionary” think that the prongs
of the forks, which will be seen to point upwards
in the sketch,f are springs, and occupy a reversed
position in the capsule cells, and that their func-
tion is to throw out the threads. However this
may be, the polyps, and similarly endowed creatures,
have the power of darting out their poison-threads
with considerable force, and Mr. Gosse found that
the anemone was able to pierce a thick piece of
human skin.
The same excellent observer attributes the emis-
* See page 47, C and D. + See page 52.
52 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
sion of the anemone poison threads, which he considers
hollow, to the injection of a fluid. In their quiescent
Anguillula pierced by stinging organs of the Hydra viridis.
state, he thinks they are drawn in, like the finger
of a glove, and are forced out as the liquid enters
PARAMECIUM. 53
their slender tubes. Possibly the polyp stinging
organs may have the same structure.
Notwithstanding their dangerous weapons, polyps
are often infested with a parasite, the Zrichodina
pediculus, as shewn in Fig. E, page 47, and it must
happen that either this visitation is not disagreeable,
or that the Trichodina is not influenced by the
poison.
As the plants in the bottles decayed, some of the
animalcules died off and others appeared. In one
bottle, containing decaying chara, Paramecia
abounded. The Paramecia, of which there are
various species, have always been favourite objects
with microscopists. The Germans call them ‘slipper
animalcules,” and they vary in size from 1-96’ to
1-1150’’. They are flat rounded-oblong creatures,
with a distinct integument or skin, ‘‘through which
numerous vibratile cilia pass in regular rows.”
They are furnished with a distinct mouth, and adult
specimens exhibit star-shaped contractile vesicles in
great perfection.
The swarm of specimens before us belong to one
species, Paramecium aurelia, the Chrysalis animal-
cule, and they crowd every portion of the little
water-drop we have taken up, and examined with
* The usual mode of giving dimensions is by fractions thus
expressed,—1-96" means one-ninety-sixth of an inch.
+ Micrographic Dictionary.
54 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
a power of about one hundred linear. When they
are sufficently quiet a power of about four hundred
may be used with advantage, and Pritchard recom-
mends adding a little indigo and carmine to the
water, in order to see the cilia more clearly, or
rather to render their action more plain. The cilia
are disposed lengthwise, and Ehrenberg counted in
some rows sixty or seventy of them, making an
augeregate of three thousand six hundred and forty
organs of motion in one small animated speck.
This number seems large, but although we have
never performed the feat of counting them, we should
Paramecium aurelia.
A dried specimen shewing the vesicles.— Pritchard.
have expected it to prove much greater. Unlike
most animalcules they are susceptible of being pre-
served by drying upon glass, and we subjoin a figure
from Pritchard, of one thus treated, in which the
star-shaped vesicles are clearly seen. These curious
organs communicate with other vessels, and as we
have previously stated, are probably connected with
TRACHELIUS. 18)
respiration and circulation, although some naturalists
entertain a different opinion.
The genus Paramecium is now confined to those
creatures which exhibit rows of longitudinal cilia
of uniform length, which are destitute of hooks,
styles, or other organs of motion other than cilia,
which have a lateral mouth, and no eye-spots. Their
mode of increase is by division, which may be easily
observed.
Another of the treasures from the pond was a
species of Trachelius, or long-necked ciliated ani-
maleule, which kept darting in and out of a slimy
den, attached to the leaf of a water-plant. The
body was stout and fish-shaped, the tail blunt, and
the neck furnished with long conspicuous cilia,
which enabled the advancing and retreating move-
ments to be made with great rapidity. The motions
of this creature exhibit more appearance of purpose
and design than is common with animalcules, but
in proportion as these observations are prolonged,
the student will be impressed with the difficulty
of assuming that anything like a reasoning faculty
and volition, is proved by movements that bear some
resemblance to those of higher animals, whose cere-
bral capacities are beyond a doubt. It is, however,
almost impossible to witness motions which are
neither constant nor periodic, without fancying them
to be dictated by some sort of intelligence. We
56 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
must, nevertheless, be cautious, lest we allow our-
selves to be deceived by reasoning so seductive, as
the vital operations of the lowest organisms may
be merely illustrations of blind obedience to stimuli,
in which category we must reckon food, and until
we arrive at forms of being which clearly possess
a ganglionic system, we have no certainty that a
real will exists, even of the simplest kind; and
perhaps we must go still higher before we ought
to believe in its» presence.
Ehrenberg was much struck with the restless
character of many infusoria—whether he looked at
them by day or by night, they were never still.
In fact their motions are like the involuntary actions
which take place in the human frame; and if at-
tached to their bodies we observe cilia that never
sleep, the living membrane of some of our own
organs, the nose, for example, is similarly ciliated,
and keeps up a perpetual though unconscious work.
~ od *
CHAPTER IV.
MARCH.
PARAMECIA—EFFECTS OF SUNLIGHT—PTERODINA PATINA—
CURIOUS TAIL—USE OF A COMPRESSORIUM--INTERNAL STRUC-
TURE OF PTERODINA--METOPIDIA—TRICHODINA PEDICULUS
—COTHURNIA--SALPINA—ITS THREE-SIDED BOX—PROTRUSION
OF ITS GIZZARD MOUTH.
¥
CHAPTER IV.
MARCH.
THE Paramecia, noticed in the last chapter, have
increased and multiplied their kind without any fear,
lest the due adjustment between population and food
should fail to be preserved. A small drop of the
scum from the surface of the water in their bottle is
an astounding sight. They move hither and thither
in countless numbers, seldom jostling, although as
thick as herrings in a tub, and in many portions
of the field the process of self-fissure, or multipli-
cation by division, is going on without any symptoms
of discomfort on the part of the parent creature.
This is an interesting sight, but we will not linger
over it, for the sun is shining, and there is enough
warmth in the air to make it probable that the
ponds will be more prolific than in the cold winter
months. Sunshine is a great thing for the micro-
scopic hunter; it brings swarms of creatures to the
surface, and the Rotifers are especially fond of
its genial beams. Even if we imitate it by a bright
lamp, we shall attract crowds of live dancing specks
60 MARVELS OF PUND-LIFE.
to the illuminated side of a bottle, and may thus
easily effect their capture by the dipping-tube.
This year the March sunshine was not lost, for
on the 3rd. of that month I obtained a bottle full
of conferva from a pond about a mile from my
house, and lying at the foot of the Highgate hills.
Water-fleas were immediately discovered in abundance,
together with some minute worms, and a ferocious-
looking larva covered with scales; but what attracted
most attention was a Rotifer, like a transparent
= \Wit@Z
"AG SDIN
1 yy
—-¥
yi eat
Pterodina patina.
animated soup-plate, from near the middle of which
depended a tail, which swayed from side to side, as
the creature swam along. The head exhibited two
little red eyes; two tufts of cilia rowed the living
disk through the water, and the gizzard worked with
a rapid snapping motion, that left no doubt the
ciliary whirlpools had brought home no slender stores
of invisible food. Sometimes the end of the tail
acted as a sucker, and fixed the animal tightly to
PTERODINA PATINA. 61
the glass, when the wheels were protruded, and the
body swayed to and fro. Then the sucker action
ceased, and as the creature swam away, a tuft of
cilia was thrust out from the extremity of the tail.
A power of one hundred linear was sufficient to
enable the general nature of this beautiful object
to be observed, but to bring out the details, much
greater amplification was required, and this would
Pterodina patina—gizzard.
be useless if the little fidget could not be kept
still.
The size of the creature, whose name we may as
well mention was Pterodina patina, rendered this
practicable, but required some care. The longest
diameter of the body, which was not quite round,
was about 1-120”, so that it was visible to the naked
eye, and as a good many were swimming together,
one could be captured without much difficulty, and
62 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
transferred with a very small drop of water to the
live box. Then the cover. had to be put on so as
to squeeze the animal just enough to keep it still
without doing it any damage, or completely stopping
its motions. This was a. troublesome task, and
often a little over-pressure prevented its success.
Some observers ulways use in these cases an In-
strument called a compressorium, by which the
amount of pressure is regulated by a lever or a fine
screw; but whether the student posseses one or not,
Pterodina patina—tail-fcot.
he should learn to accomplish the same result by
dexterously manipulating a well-made live box. We
will suppose the Pterodina successfully caged, and a
power of about one hundred and fifty linear brought
to bear upon her, for our specimen is of the “female
persuasion.” This will suffice to demonstrate the
disposition and relation of the several parts, after
which one of from four hundred to five hundred linear
may be used with great advantage, though in this
case the illumination must be carefully adjusted, and
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PTERODINA. 63
its intensity and obliquity frequently changed, until
the best effect is obtained.
We find, on thus viewing the Pterodina, that it
is a complex, highly-organized creature, having its
body protected by a earapace, like the shell of a
tortoise, but as flexible as a sheet of white gelatine
paper, which it resembles in appearance. Round the
margin of this carapace are a number of little bosses
or dots, which vary in different individuals. The
cilia are not disposed, as at first appeared, in two
separate and distinct disks, but are continuous, as
in the annexed sketch. Down each side are two
long muscular bands, distinctly striated, and when
they contract, the ciliary apparatus is drawn in.
As this contraction takes place, two apparently elastic
bands, to which the ciliary lobes are attached, are
bent downwards, till they look like the C springs
behind a gentleman’s carriage; and they regain
their former position of slight curvature, when the
cilia are again thrust out.
The gizzard is three-lobed, and curiously grasped
by forked expansions of the handles of the hammers.
The tail, or tail-foot, can be withdrawn or thrust
out at the will of the creature; and when in a good
position for observation, a slight additional pressure
will keep it so for examination. Delicate muscular |
longitudinal bands, forked towards the end of their
course, supply the means of performing some of its
64 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
motions. and one, or perhaps two, spiral threads
extend through the upper half of its length, and
either act as muscles, or as elastic springs for its
extension. The intestines and other viscera -are
clearly exhibited, and a strong ciliary action con-
ducts the food to the gizzard-mouth.
To return .to the tail. One spiral fibre is easily
discovered; but I have often, and at an interval
of months, seen the appearance of two, and am in
some doubt whether this was a deception, arising
from the compression employed, or was a genuine
indication.
Where this Rotifer occurs I have usually found
it plentiful, but unfortunately could obtain no con-
stant supplies after I had determined to make a
special study of the remarkable tail, which is
much more complicated than I have described.
The Prterodina lived for some time in captivity,
and for a week or two I could obtain them from
my glass tank. They were likewise to be found
for some weeks in the same part of the pond,
but not all over it, until one day not a single
specimen could be discovered, notwithstanding a
persevering search, nor was I afterwards able to get
any from that pond during the remainder of the
year.
Several other Rotifers, with and without carapaces,
were among the same muss of confervee, among them
METOPIDIA ACUMINATA. 65
a Metopidia, with a firm shell, a forked jointed
tail, and a projection in front which worked like
a pick-axe among the decaying weed. There were
likewise specimens of the long-necked animalcules,
(Trachelii,) groups of Vorticella, some specimens
Sy
PQs
<< Wd
|
\
c \
A, Metopidia acuminata, as drawn by Mr. Gosse. B, Specimen as seen and
described in text; c, Mouth or gizzard.
of Volvox, and a small 7richodina pediculus, which,
when magnified two hundred and sixty linear, was
about the size of a sixpence, and equally round,
The edge was beautifully fringed with a circle of
cilia; in an inner circle was a row of locomotive
organs, and the centre exhibited vacuoles constantly
opening and shutting. This creature, as_ before
explained, is often found, as a parasite upon the
y
66 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
polyps. On one occasion a glimpse was caught
of a Rotifer similar in shape to the common
wheel animalcule, but with a yellow inside. Pos-
sibly it was the object so beautifully delineated by
Mr. Gosse, in his ‘‘Tenby,” and described as the
“Yellow Philodine,” but this must remain in doubt,
as it managed to escape before it could be secured.
260
Trichodina pediculus.
By the 18th. of the month the Vorticellids were
much more plentiful, and their changes easily
watched; many left their stalks while under the
microscope, after which some rushed about like
animated and demented hats, others twirled round
like tee-to-tums, while others took a rest before
commencing their wild career. But the common
Vorticelles were not the only or the most interesting
representations of their charming family, for upon
some threads of conferva were descried several
elegant crystal vases standing upon short foot-
stalks, and containing little creatures that jumped
up and down like “Jack in the box.” ‘These
were so minute, that a power of four hundred and
t ied
COTHURNIA.
‘UOTJBOYLUSVU “Haut? BUY DATS SsaINSY suJ,
4X9} UL paqliosap suouttoeds ay} ‘O pues gq (,,°30Iq “YdeiBO.LIW,,)—STIqtoquT vIUInqjog SY
68 MARVELS. OF POND-LIFE.
thirty linear was advantageously brought to bear
upon them. When elongated their bodies were
somewhat pear-shaped, but more slender, and
variegated with vacuoles and particles of food.
The mouths resembled those of Vorticelle, and
put forth circles of vibrating cilia. They were
easily alarmed, when the cilia were retracted, and
down they sank to the bottom of their vases,
quickly to rise again. In one bottle there were
two living in friendly juxtaposition. This was not
a cause of matrimonial felicity, nor of Siamese
twins, but of fisszon, or reproduction by division.
The original inhabitant of the tube finding himself
too fat, or impelled by causes we do not under-
stand, quietly divided himself in two, and as the
house was big enough, no enlargement was required.
How many stout puffy gentlemen must envy this
process; how convenieut to have two thin lively
specimens of humanity made out of one too obese
for locomotion. Man is, however, sometimes the
victim of his superior organization, and no process
of “fission” can make the lusty lean.
The bottles in which these creatures live, in
happy ignorance that they are called by so crack-
jaw a name as Cothurnia imberbis, were described
as Carapaces by Ehrenberg, but they bear no re-
semblance to the shell of a turtle or a crab. They
are thrown off by the animals who preserve no
MOTIONS OF ANIMALCULES. 69
other connection with them than the attachment
at the bottom. The Cothurnia are separated by
some writers from the Vorticellids, but while that
family is permitted to contain the Séentors, one of
which is often found in a_ gelatinous tube, the
Cothurnia and their allies may remain in it without
disadvantage.
Towards the end of the month a great number
of black pear-shaped bodies, visible to the naked
eye, were conspicuous in some water from the
Kentish Town ponds. Upon examination they
were found to be filled with granules that were red
by reflected, and purple by transmitted light.
Each one had a spiral wreath of cilia, with a
mouth situated like those of the Stentors, here-
after to be described, but none of them became
stationary, and in a few days they all disappeared.
In the same water were specimens of that singular
Rotifer, the Sal/pina, about 1-150” long, and
furnished with a Jlorica, or carapace, resembling a
three-sided glass box, closed below, and slightly open
along the back. At the top of this box were four,
and at the bottom three, points or horns, and the
creature had one eye and a forked tail. Keeping
him company was another little Rotifer, named after
its appearance, A/onocerca rattus, the ‘One-tailed
Rat.’ This little animal had green matter in its
stomach, which was in constant commotion. I
70 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
ought to have observed that the Salpina repeatedly
thrust out its gizzard, and used it as an external
mouth. In the annexed sketch the Salpina is
seen in a position that displays the dorsal open-
ing of the carapace. Its three-cornered shape is
only shewn by a side view.
Here we close a brief account of what March
winds brought in their train. The next chapter will
shew the good fortune that attended April showers.
Salpina”redunea.
CHAPTER YV.
APRIL.
THE BEAUTIFUL FLOSCULE--MODE OF SEEKING FOR TUBICOLOR
ROTIFERS—MODE OF ILLUMINATING THE FLOSCULE--DIFFI-
CULTY OF SEEING THE TRANSPARENT TUBE—PROTRUSION
OF LONG HAIRS--LOBES—GIZZARD—HAIRY LOBES OF FLOS-
CULE NOT ROTATORY ORGANS—GLASS TROUGHS —THEIR CON-
STRUCTION AND USE--MOVEMENT OF GLOBULES IN LOBES OF
FLOSCULE—CH ZTONOTUS LARUS—ITS MODE OF SWIMMING—
COLEPS HIRTUS—DEVOURER OF DEAD ENTOMOSTRACA—DEAD
ROTIFER AND VIBRIONES—THEORIES OF FERMENTATION AND
PUTREFACTION—EUPLOTES AND STYLONICHIA—FECUNDITY
OF STYLONICHIA,
CHAPTER V.
APRIL.
Few living creatures deserve so well the appel-
lation of “beautiful” as the /loscularia ornata,
or Beautiful Floscule, although to contemplate a
motionless and uncoloured portrait, one would
imagine that it exhibited no graces of either colour
or form. Mr. Gosse has, however, done it Justice,
and the drawing in his ‘‘Tenby” is executed with
that rare combination of scientific accuracy and
artistic skill, for which the productions of his
pencil are renowned.
Probably the sketches in several works of
authority, representing the long cilia as short
bristles, are merely copies from old drawings, from
objects imperfectly seen under indifferent micro-
scopes, and before the refinements of illumination
were understood. _Be this as it may, any reader
will be fortunate if on an April, or any other
morning, he or she effects the capture of one of
these exquisite objects, although the first impression
74 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
may not equal previous expectations, as the delicacy
of the organism is not disclosed by a mode of
using the light which answers well enough for the
common infusoria.
When the Floscules, or other tubicolor Rotifers
are specially sought for, the best way is to pro-
ceed to a pond where slender-leaved water-plants
grow, and to examine a few branches at a time
in a phial of water with a pocket-lens. They
are all large enough to be discerned, if present,
in this manner, and as soon as one is found,
others may be expected, either in the same or in
adjacent parts of the pond, for they are gregarious
in their habits. With many, however, the first
finding of a Floscule will be an accident, as was
the case last April, when a small piece of myrio-
phyllum was placed in the live-box, and looked
over to see what it might contain. The first
glimpse revealed an egg-shaped object, of a brownish
tint, stretching itself upon a stalk, and shewing
some symptoms of hairs or cilia at its head. This
was enough to indicate the nature of the creature,
and to shew the necessity for a careful management
of the light, which being adjusted obliquely, gave
quite a new character to the scene. The dirty
brown hue disappeared, and was replaced by brilliant —
colours; while the hairs, instead of appearing few
and short, were found to be extremely numerous,
THE BEAUTIFUL FLOSCULE. ris:
very long, and glistening like delicate threads of
spun glass.
Knowing that the Floscules live in transparent
gelatinous tubes, such an object was carefully looked
for, but in this instance, as is not uncommon, it
was perfectly free from extraneous matter, and _pos-
sessed nearly the same refractive power as_ the
water, so that displaying it to advantage required
some little trouble in the way of careful focusing,
and many experiments as to the best angle at
which the mirror should be turned to direct the
light. When all was accomplished, it was seen
that the Floscule had her abode in a clear transpa-
rent cylinder, like a thin confectioner’s jar, which
she did not touch except at the bottom, to which
her foot was attached. Lying beside her in the
bottle were three large eggs, and the slightest
shock given to the table, induced her to draw
back in evident alarm. Immediately afterwards she
slowly protruded a dense bunch of the fine long
hairs, which quivered in the light, and shone with
a delicate bluish green lustre, here and there varied
by opaline tints.
The hairs were thrust out in a mass, somewhat
after the mode in which the old-fashioned telescope
hearth-brooms were made to put forth their bristles.
As soon as they were completely everted, together
with the upper portion of the Floscule, six lobes
76 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
gradually separated, causing the hairs to fall on
all sides in a graceful shower, and when the
process was complete, they remained perfectly mo-
tionless, in six hollow fan-shaped tufts, one being
attached to each lobe. Some internal ciliary action,
quite distinct from the hairs, and which has never
been precisely understood, caused gentle currents to
flow towards the mouth in the middle of the lobes,
and from the motion of the gizzard, imperfectly
seen through the integument, and from the rapid
filling of the stomach with particles of all hues,
it was plain that captivity had not destroyed the
Floscule’s appetite, and that the drop of water in
the live box contained a good supply of food.
Sometimes the particles swallowed were too small
to be discerned, although their aggregate effect was
visible; but often a monad or larger object was
ingulfed, but without any ciliary action being
visible to account for the journey they were
evidently compelled to perform. The long hairs
took no part whatever in the foraging process, and
as they do not either provide victuals or minister
to locomotion, they are clearly not, as was supposed
by early ebservers, representatives of the “wheels,”
which the ordinary Rotifers present. Neither can
the cylindrical jar or bottle be justly deemed to
occupy the position of the lorica, or carapace
which we have before described. The general
ABSENCE OF ‘‘WHEELS.” hy,
structure of the creature and the nature of. its
gizzard, distinctly marked it out as a member of
the family we call ‘“‘Rotifers,” but the absence of
anything like ‘‘wheels” proves that those organs are
not essential characteristics of this class.
Noticeable currents are not always produced
when the mouth of this Floscule is fully expanded.
On one occasion, one having five lobes was discovered
standing at such an angle in a glass trough that
the aperture could be looked down into. The
position rendered it impossible to use a higher power
than about two hundred linear, but with this, and
the employment of carmine, nothing like a vortex
was seen during a whole evening, although a_ less
power was sufficient to shew the ciliary whirlpools
made by small specimens of Apzstylis and Vaginicola,
which were in the same vessel. The density of
the integument was unfavourable to viewing the
action of the gizzard, but it could be indistinctly
perceived. The contractions and subsequent expan-
sions of the cup, formed by the upper part of
the creature, may be one way in which its food
is drawn in, but there is no doubt it can produce
currents when it thinks proper. - Sometimes ani-
malcules in the vicinity of Floscules whirl about
as if under the influence of such currents. Some
may be seen to enter the space between the lobes,
swim about inside, and then get out again, while
78 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
every now and then one will be sucked in too -
far for retreat.
Above the gizzard in the Horned Floscule,* I
have seen an appearance as if « membrane or
curtain was waving to and fro, while another was
kept in a fixed perpendicular position. Mr. Gosse,
speaking of this genus, observes “‘that the whole
of the upper part of the body is lined with a sen-
sitive, contractile, partially opaque membrane, which
a little below the disk recedes from the walls of
the body, and forms a diaphragm, with a highly
contractile and versatile central orifice. At some
distance lower down another diaphragm occurs, and
the ample chamber thus enclosed forms a kind ot
crop, or receptacle for the captured prey.”
‘From the ventral side of the ample crop that
precedes the stomach, there springs in #. ornata a
perpendicular membrane or veil, partly extending
across the cavity. This is free, except at the
* The Horned Floscules (7. cornuta) which I have found, and
which bred in a glass jar, were not so large as those described
by Mr. Dobie, as quoted in “Pritchard’s Infusoria.” Mr. D.’s
specimens were 1-40” when extended; mine about half that size,
five-lobed, and with a long slender proboscis, standing in a wavy
line outside one lobe. Mr. Dobie also describes an F. campa-
nulata, with five flattened lobes. The ‘‘Micrographic Dictionary”
pronounces these two species ‘‘doubtfully distinct.” I have three
or four times met with a variety of F. ornafa, in which one
iobe was much enlarged and flattened, but they had no probos-
cis. In what I take for F. cornuta, the horn or proboscis has
sometimes been a conspicuous object, and at others so fine and
transparent as to be only visible in certain lights.
MOVEMENT OF GLOBULES IN LOBES OF FLOSCULE. 79
vertical edge, by which it is attached to the side
of the chamber, and being ample and of great
delicacy, it continually floats and waves from side
to side. At the bottom of this vez/, but on the
dorsal side, are placed the jaws, consisting of a
pair of curved, unjointed, but free mallei, with a
membranous process beneath each.”
The Beautiful Floscule could always be made to
repeat the process of retreating into her den, and
coming out again to spread her elegant plumes before
our eyes, by giving the table a smart knock, and
her colours and structure were well exhibited by
the dark-ground illumination, which has been ex-
plained in a previous page.
An object like this should be watched at in-
tervals for hours and even days, especially if the
eggs are nearly ready to give up their infantile
contents. This was the case with the specimen
described, and after a few hours a young Floscule
escaped, looking very much like a clumsy little grub.
After a few awkward wriggles the new-born baby
became more quiet, and on looking at it again
at the expiration of seventeen hours, it had developed
into the shape of a miniature plum-pudding, with
five or six tiny lobes expanding their tufts of slender
hair. Unfortunately its further proceedings were
not seen, or it would have been interesting to note
the growth of the foot, and the formation of the
80 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
gelatinous tube, which is probably thrown off in
rings.
To view the details of the structure of a>
Floscule, it must be placed in a_live-box or
compressorium, and if specimens are scarce, they
should not be allowed to remain in the limited
quantity of water those contrivances hold, after the
observations are concluded, but should be carefully
removed, and placed in a little vial, such as
homeopathists use for their medicine. By such
means an individual may be kept alive for many
days. It is also interesting to place a little branch
of the plant occupied by Floscules or similar crea-
tures, in a glass trough, where they may be made
quite at home, and their proceedings agreeably
watched by a one-inch or two-thirds power. These
troughs, which can be obtained of the optician,
should be of plate glass, about three inches. long,
nearly the same height, and about half an ineh
wide. If narrower, or much taller, they will not
stand, which is a great inconvenience. The preces
of glass are stuck together with marine glue, and
a very simple contrivance enables the plants or
other objects to be pressed near the front, and thus
brought into better view. A strip of glass, rather
narrower than the width of the trough, is dropped
into it, and allowed to fall to the bottom. Then
a piece of glass rather shorter than the trough,
LOBES OF FLOSCULE. ‘ 8]
and rather higher than its front side, is placed so
as to slope from the front of the bottom towards
the back at the top. The piece of glass first dropped
in keeps it in the right position, and the trough
is thus made into a V-shaped vessel, wide at the
top and gradually narrowing. Any object then
placed in it will fall till it fits some part of the V,
where it will remain for observation. A small wedge
of cork enables the moveable piece of glass to be
thrown forwards, until if assumes any angle, or is
brought parallel to the front of the trough.
A power of five or six hundred diameters generally
enables a movement of small globules to be seen at
the extremity of the lobes of the Floscule, and the
gizzard may be made plain by dissolving the rest
of the creature in a drop of solution of caustic
potash. It also becomes more visible as the supply
of food falls short. Mr. Gosse describes the body
as “lined with a yellowish vascular membrane,”
and young specimens exhibit two red eyes, which
may or may not be found in adults. When these
eves of Rotifers are not readily conspicuous, they
must be sought for by opaque illumination, or by
the dark-ground method which, especially with the
parabola, is successful in bringing them out.
Naturalists, and. possibly the specimens also, do
not always agree in the number of lobes assigned
to the ‘Beautiful Floscule,” and although it is easy
G
82 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
enough to count them in some positions, the observer
may have to exercise a good deal of patience before
he .is certain whether they are five or six. For a
long evening only five could be discerned in the
specimen now described, but the next night six were
apparent without difficulty or doubt. The hairs
also will not appear anything like their true length
or number, unless the object glass is good, and great
care is taken not to obscure them by a blaze of
ill-directed light.
After the Floscules had been sufficiently admired
and put aside, for observations to he repeated on
future occasions, a Rotifer attracted attention by his
inerry-andrew pranks, throwing himself in all direc-
tions by means of two long and extremely mobile
toes attached to his tail-foot. Then came a creature
swimming like an otter, thrusting his head about
on all sides, and looking much more intelligent than
most of his compeers of the pond. Looked at ver-.:
tically, he was somewhat slipper-shaped, the rounded
heel forming his head, then narrowing to a waist,
and expanding towards the other end, which pro-
jected in a fork. All round him were long cilia,
which were conspicuous near the head, and a fine
line indicated the passage from his mouth to the
stomach, which seemed full of granular matter.
Presently he took to crawling, or rather running,
over a thread of conferva, and then his back was
CH ETONOTUS LARUS. 83
elegantly arched, and his cilia stood erect like the
quills of a poreupine. This was the Chetonotus
larus.
In Pritchard’s ‘‘Infusoria,” the views of those
writers are followed who rank this animal amongst
the Rotifers, and place it in the family Lethidina.
To help out this theory, the cilia upon the ventral
surface are imagined to form a “band-like rotary
organ; but in truth they bear no resemblance
Cheetonotus larus, (swimming.)
ae
‘whatever to the so-called wheels of the ordinary
Rottfers, nor is there anything like the gizzard
which true Rotifers present. Ehrenberg treated 1t
as a Rotifer, and Dujardin placed it among the
Infusoria, in a particular class, comprehending sym-
metrical organisms. The ‘‘Microscopic Dictionary”’
remarks that its ‘structure requires further inves-
tigation,” and while the learned decide all the
intricate questions of its zoological rank, the ordinary
84 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
observer will be pleased to watch its singular aspect
and lively motions. Its size, according to the “Mi-
crographic Dictionary,’ varies from 1-710” to I-
220’, and while its general proceedings may be
watched with an inch or two-thirds object glass,
and the second eye-piece, a power of five hundred
linear (obtained by a quarter or a fifth) is required
to make out the details of its structure. If placed
in a live-box with threads of conferva, and a little
decayed vegetation, it may be observed to grope
Cheetonotus larus, (crawling.)
about among them, and shake them like a dog.
We have said that water-fleas were among the
inhabitants of a bottle filled at the pond, and as
they go the way of all flesh, it is common to
find some odd-looking animalcnles ready to devour
their mortal remains. These are creatures shaped
like beer-barrels, upon short legs, and which swim
with a tubby rolling gait. Looking at one of these
Jittle tubs lengthwise, a number of lines are seen,
as though the edge of each stave projected a little
DEAD ROTIFER AND VIBRIONES. 8)
above the general level, and transverse markings are
also apparent, which may be compared to hoops.
This is the Coleps hirtus, which differs from the
usual type of Infusoria, by being symmetrical, that
is, divisible into two equal and similar halves.
The dimensions of this species vary from 1-570
to 1-430, and its colour varies from white to brown.
It has been observed to increase by transverse self-
Coleps hirtus.
‘division, and has two orifices, one at each end, for
receiving food and ejecting the remains. It often
requires some little trouble to get a good view of
the cilia, which are arranged in transverse and
longitudinal rows. A power of one hundred and
fiftv linear is convenient for viewing it in motion,
but when quiet under pressure, one of five or six
hundred may be used with advantage.
Among the rubbish at the bottom of the bottle,
in which the coleps was found, was a minute dead
86 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
Rotifer, the flesh of which was fast disappearing,
but upon being examined with a power of nine
hundred and sixty diameters, it was observed to
swarm with extremely minute vibriones, the largest
only appearing under that immense magnification
like chains of bluish green globules, not bigger than
the heads of minikin pins, while the smallest were
known by a worm-like wriggling, although their
structure could not be defined. These vzbriones. are
probably members of the vegetable world, and they
always appear when animal matter undergoes pu-
trefaction.
M. Pasteur has recently brought forward elaborate
experiments to shew that the development of the
yeast plant is an act correlative to alcoholic fermen-
tation, and in like manner the growth of vzbriones
may stand in correlation to putrefactive decompo-
sition.
Ehrenberg considered them animals, and fancied
he detected in them a plurality of stomachs; but
the vegetable theory is the more probable, at any
rate of the species under our notice, which is often
seen, though not always so minute.
At this time two interesting animalcules were
very plentiful—the Huplotes patella, and Stylonichia,
both remarkable as exhibiting an advance in organ-
ization, which approximates them to the higher
animals. In addition to cilia they possess styles,
EUPLOTES AND STYLONICHIA. S87
which take the place of the limbs of more elaborately-
constructed creatures, and give a variety to their
means of locomotion. The Huplotes is furnished with
an oval carapace covering the upper surface, which
in different individuals, and probably at different
ages, exhibits slightly varied markings round _ its
margin, which in the specimen drawn below con-
sisted of dots. They can run, climb, or swim, and
exemplify a singular habit which several of the
Se
* .
\\
aig Sets
A, Euplotes (patella;) B, side view of ditto; C, Stylonichia.
infusoria possess, that of moving for a little time in
one direction, and then suddenly, and without any
apparent cause, reversing it. If the reader is fond
of learned appellations, he can call this dzastrophy,
but we do not know that he will be any the wiser
for it.
The Stylonichia are oval animalcules, surrounded
by cilia, and having morecver a collection of styles,
both straight and curved, the latter called wncini,
85 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
or little hooks. They swim steadily on, and then
dart back, but not so far as they have advanced,
and may be seen to keep up this fidgetty motion
by the hour together. Pritchard tells us Ehrenberg
found that a single animaleule lived nine days;
during the first twenty-four hours it was developed
by transverse self-division into three animals; these
in twenty-four hours formed two each in the same
manner, so that by self-division only, (without ova, )
these animalcules increased three or four-fold in
twenty-four hours, and may thus produce a million
from a single animalcule in ten days. Such are
the amazing powers of reproduction conferred upon
these humble creatures, powers which are fully
employed when the surrounding circumstances are
favourable, and which, in the aggregate, change
the condition of large masses of matter, and bring
within the circle of life milltons upon millions of
particles every minute of the day.
CHAPTER VI.
MAY.
FLOSCULARIA CORNUTA—EUCHLANIS TRIQUETRA—MELICER-
TA RINGENS—ITS POWERS AS BRICK-MAKER, ARCHITECT,
AND MASON—MODE OF VIEWING THE MELICERTA—USE OF
GLASS CELL—HABITS Of MELICERTA—CURIOUS ATTITUDES—
LEAVE THEIR TUBES AT DEATH—CARCHESIUM—EPISTYLIS—
THEIR ELEGANT TREE FORMS—A PARASITIC EPISTYLIS LIKE
THE “OLD MAN OF THE SEA”—HALTERIA AND ITS LEAPS—
ASPIDISCA LYNCEUS.
Mh
Roy S.9
okays”
MD ih
Melicerta ringens.
Cl AP. VE.
MAY.
May, the first of summer months, and of old
famous for floral games, which found their latest
patrons in the chimney-sweeps of London, is a good
time for the microscopist among the ponds, for the
increase of warmth and heat favours both animal
and vegetable life, and so we found as we carried
home some tops of myriophyllum, and soon discoy-
ered a colony of tubicolor rotifers among the tiny
branches. They proved to be Floscules, generally
resembling the /’. ornata, described in a_ previous
page, but having a long slender proboscis hanging
like a loose ringlet down one side. The cilia or
hairs were not so long as in the Beautiful Flos-
cules we had before obtained, nor was their manner
of opening so elegant; but they were, nevertheless,
objects of great interest, and were probably speci-
mens of the Floscularia cornuta. A swimming
rotifer in a carapace somewhat fiddle-shaped, with
one eye in its forehead, and a two-pronged tail
OY MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
sticking out behind, (the Luchlanis triquetra,) also
served to occupy attention; but a further search
among the myriophyllum revealed more treasures
of the tube-dwelling kind. These were specimens
of that highly curious Rotifer, the Melicerta ringens,
who, not content with dwelling, like the Floscules,
in a gelatinous bottle, is at once brick-maker,
mason, and architect, and fabricates as pretty a
tower as it is easy to conceive. The creature
itself stands upon a retractile foot-stalk, and thrusts
out above its battlements a large head, with four
leaf-like expansions surrounded by cilia. Between
the lower lobes, or leaves, the gizzard is seen
grinding away, and above it is an organ, not
always displayed, and of which Mr. Gosse was for-
tunate enough to discover the use. This eminent
naturalist likens it to the cirenlar ventilator some-
times inserted in windows, and he found it was
the machine for making the yellow ornamental bricks
of which the tower is composed. Pellet by pellet,
or brick by brick, does the Melicerta build her
house, which widens gradually from the foundation
to the summit, and every layer is placed with ad-
mirable regularity.
In order to obtain the materials for her brick-:
making the Melicerta must have the power of
modifying the direction of the ciliary currents, so
as to throw a stream of small particles into the
«igh Le
MELICERTA RINGENS. 935
mould, which is a muscular organ, and capable of
secreting a waterproof cement, by which they are
fastened together. The result is, not to produce
anything like the tubes made by the caddis-worms
out of grains of sand, but entirely to change the
appearance of the materials employed. All large
particles are rejected, and only those retained which
will form a homogeneous pulp with the viscid se-
cretion; and when the process is complete the head
of the creature is bent down, and the pellet de-
posited in its appropriate place. | Each pellet appears
originally to possess a more or less conical figure,
but when they are squeezed together to make a
compact wall they all tend to a hexagonal form,
by which they are able to touch at all points, and
any holes or interstices are avoided.
According to Professor Williamson the young
Melicerta commences her house by secreting “a thin .
hyaline cylinder,” and the first row of pellets are
deposited, not at the base as would be expected,
but in a ring about the middle of the tube. “At
first new additions are made to both extremities of
the enlarging ring; but the jerking constrictions of
the animal at length force the candal end of the
cylinder down upon the leaf, to which it becomes
securely cemented by the same viscous secretion as
causes the little spheres to cohere.”
Round the margins of the lobes or expansions
O4 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
may be seen delicate threads towards which others
radiate; these are thought by Mr. Gosse to be
portions of a nervous system, and two calcars or
feelers serve as organs of relation. The young
Melicertas are likewise furnished with a pair of
eyes, which are probably rudimentary, and disappear
as they grow up.
The Melicerta tubes, being large enough to be vis-
ible to the naked eye, are easily crushed in the live-
box, and to avoid this, they are conveniently viewed
in a shallow glass cell, covered up as before des-
cribed. By occasionally changing the water one
may be kept for days in the same cell, and will
reward the pains by frequently exposing its flower-
like head. Usually the horns or feelers come out
first, and then a lump of flesh. After this, if all
seems right, the wheels appear, and make a fine
whirlpool, as may be readily seen by the use of a
little indigo or carmine.
The Melicerta is, however, an awkward object
to undertake to shew to our friends, for as_ they
knock at the door she is apt to turn sulky, and
when once in this mood it is impossible to say when
her fair form will re-appear. At times the head
is wagged about in all directions with considerable
vehemence, playing singular antics, and distorting
her lobes so as to exhibit a Punch and Judy
profile. When these creatures die they leave their
EPISTYLIS. . 95,
tubes, which are often found empty in the ponds
they frequent. The Melicertas are conveniently
viewed with a power of from sixty to one hundred
linear, and a colony of them may be kept alive
for some weeks in a glass jar or tank.
Among the remainder of my tiny captives were
Epistylis.
two beautiful members of the Vorticella family,
Epistylis and Carchesium. The reader will remember
that in the Vorticella previously described, the bells
stood upon stalks that were very flexible, and_ re-
tractile by means of a muscle running down their
96 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
length. The Hpistylis is, as its name imports, the
dweller on a pillar. The stem is stiff, or only
slightly flexible, and has no apparatus by which it
can be drawn down. The specimen mentioned stood
like a palm-tree, and the large oval bells drooped
elegantly on all sides, as its portrait will shew. At
times they nodded with a rapid jerk.
The Carchesium differs from the common Vorti-
cella, by branching like a tree, but the stems are
all retractile, although the trunk seldom exercises
the power. A group of these creatures presents a
spectacle of extraordinary beauty—it looks like a
tree from fairy-land, in which every leaf has a
sentient life. In general structure the bells of the
Epistilis and the Carchesium resemble the common
Vorticella, and like them may be seen with a power
of about one hundred linear for general effect, and
with a higher one for the examination of special
points. - Pritchard notices three species of Car-
chesium, and eighteen of Epistylis ;* some of which
it is to be hoped will turn out to be only varieties.
Towards the end of this month rotifers abonnded,
and polyps were plentiful. Among the rotifers was
* An interesting Epistylis, called Digitalis, from its bells re-
sembling fox-glove flowers in shape, occurs as a parasite upon the
Cyclops quadricornis, a very common entomostracan in fresh-water
ponds. At this moment I have a beautiful specimen, branching
like a bushy tree. and attached to the tail of a Cylops, who can
scarcely move under his burden, which is like Sinbad’s “Old Man
of the Sea.”
Carchesium polypinui.
EGGS OF ROTIFERS. ; Q7
one about a two-hundredth of an inch long, pro-
tected by a carapace, and having a tail terminating
in a single style, hence called “Monostyle.” There
is perhaps no class of creatures that present so
many curious and unexpected forms as the rotifers;
and although we have noticed a good many, there
are far more that remain to be found and de-
scribed.
The water in which the preceding animals dwelt
was enlivened by the jumps of the Halteria, a little
globe surrounded by long fine cilia, with which its
movements were effected; and its companion was
the Aspidisca lynceus, an oval animalecule, having
a distinct cilia or /orica, and furnished, in addition
to cilia, with bristles, which enable it to walk and
climb as well as swim.
There were also some eggs of rotifers attached:
to the water-plants, in which motion could be de-
scried at intervals, and a little red eye observed.
These eggs are always large in proportion to the
creatures that lay them, and if they escape being
devoured by enemies, may be watched until their
contents step forth.
In this, as in other months, omission is made
of creatures that have already come under notice,
or our list would assume larger dimensions.
H
ip) ae
Hien ne Si a, a Resets :
A ee ee a me
CHAPTER. Vir.
JUNE AND JULY.
LINDIA TORULOSA—CECISTES CRYSTALLINUS—A PROFESSOR OF
DEPORTMENT ON STILTS—PHILODINA—CHANGES OF FORM
AND HABITS—STRUCTURE OF GIZZARD IN PHILODINA FAMILY
—MR. GOSSE’S DESCRIPTION—MOTIONS OF ROTIFERS—INDICA-
TIONS OF A WILL—REMARKS ON THE MOTIONS OF LOWER
CREATURES—VARIOUS THEORIES—POSSIBILITY OF REASON--
REFLEX ACTIONS—BRAIN OF INSECTS—CONSENSUAL ACTIONS
—APPLICATIONS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL REASONING TO THE
MOVEMENTS OF ROTIFERS AND ANIMALCULES. .
CHAPTER . VII.
JUNE AND JULY.
A PRESSURE of other occupations prevented full
use being made of June and July, nor was the
weather of 1860 at all propitious. For this reason
the microscopic doings of these two months are
recorded in one chapter.
As usual the Kentish Town ponds were productive
of objects, and among them were several rotifers
not found in the previous months. The first of
these was a very small worm-like thing, with one
eye, a tuft of cilia about the mouth, and two toes
at the tail end. Had it not been for the jaws,
which were working like fingers thrust against each
other, and which were unmistakably of the rotifer
pattern, the animal might have been supposed to
belong to some other class. According to the
“Micrographic Dictionary,” the Lindia torulosa is
1-75” long, but this specimen was only about
1-200’ It was possibly very young, and did not
102 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
thrust out its cilia in two distinct tufts, as Cohn
describes, although’ it may have had the power of —
doing so. At times it sprang quickly backwards and
forwards, bringing its head where its tail was before.
This object required for its comfortable elucidation
« power of about six hundred linear.
Qicistes crystallinus.
Among the common water-plants, which are worth
examining as the probable abodes of rotifers or
infusoria, is the pretty little thing called ‘“‘star-
weed,” some of which was obtained from the last-
mentioned ponds, and on examination yielded a
CECISTES. 105
specimen of a tube-dwelling rotifer, the (Mcistes
erystallinus, which, although less‘beautiful than the
Floscules or the Melicerta, is, nevertheless, a
pretty and interesting object. In this instance a
little rough dirty tube, about 1-70” long, was
observed to contain an animal capable of rising up
and expanding a round mouth garnished with a
wreath of cilia; while a little below, the indefati-
gable and characteristic gizzard of the tribe was in
full play. A power of two hundred and forty linear
sufficed to afford a good view, and it was seen that
a long, irregular, conical body was supported upon
a short wrinkled stalk. The usual drawings repre-
sent this creature with a short bell-shaped body
upon a very long slender pedicle. Possibly this one
might have been able to shew himself under this
guise, but he did not attempt it; his appearance
being always pretty much as described, which made
the foot shorter and the body longer than the
measurements which naturalists have given, and
according to which the whole creature is 1-36”
long, although the body is only 1-140”. The tube
Bf the @icistes is called a “lorica,”. or carapace;
but it has in truth no right whatever to the
appellation. 7
Another strange rotifer, of whose name I am
uncertain, had an ovalish oblong body, and a pair
of legs like compasses, twice as long as himself.
104 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
His antics were those of a posture-master, or *Pro-
fessor of Deportmént” on stilts. Sometimes he stood
bolt upright, bringing his legs close together; then
they were jauntily crossed, and the hody carried
horizontally; then the two legs would be slightly
opened, and the body thrown exactly at right-angles
to them. These antics were repeated all the while
the observation lasted, and had a very funny effect
in proving that drollery is practised, if not under-
stood, im the rotatorial world.
Philodina—swimming.
Another kind of rotifer was abundant — the
Philodina, which belongs to the same family as the
common wheel-bearer, namely, the Phzlodinea. The
Philodina is « good deal like the common wheel-
bearer, or Rotifer vulgaris, but is usually of a stouter
build, and carries his eyes in a different place. In
the common rotifer these organs are situated on the
proboscis, while those of the Philodina are lower,
PHILODINA. 105
mand said to be “cervical.” The changes of form
in this rotifer are still more remarkable than in
the common wheel-bearer. When resting it resem-
bles a pear-shaped purse, puckered in at the mouth.
Then it thrusts out its tail-foot, swells its body to
an oval globe, protrudes its feeler, and_ slightly
exposes a row of cilia. After this two distinet
wheels are everted, and as their cilia whirl and
spin, the animal is swiftly rowed along, until it
thinks proper to moor itself fast by the tail-foot,
Philodina— crawling.
aud. employ all its ciliary power in causing currents
to converge towards its throat. When it pleases
it can elongate the body, till it becomes vermiform,
and it walks like the common rofifer, by curving
its back, and bringing its nose and its tail in
contact with the ground.
The gizzard of this family (Philodincea) presents
a considerable deviation from the perfect form ex-
hibited by the Brachions. According to Mr. Gesse,
“The mal/er and the incus (terms already explained, )
105 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
are soldered together into two subquadrantic-globular
masses, which appear to be muscular, but invested
with a solid integument. The manubria (handles)
may still be recognised in a vertical aspect as three
loops, of which the central one is chiefly developed,
and in a vertical aspect as a translucent reniform
(kidney-shaped) globe.” These descriptions are not
easy to understand, not from any want of clearness
or precision in the words employed, but from the
complicated character of the organ, and its very
different appearance under different aspects. To
make the matter more intelligible, Mr. Gosse adds,
‘the structure and action of an apparatus of this
type may be made more clear by a homely illus-
tration. Suppose an apple to be divided longitu-
dinally, leaving the stalk attached to one half.
Let this now be split again longitudinally so far
as the stalk, but not actually separating either
portion from it. Draw the two portions slightly
apart, and lay them down on their rounded sur-
faces. They now represent the quadrantic masses
in repose, the ‘stalk being the fulcrum, and the
upper surfaces being crossed by the teeth. By the
contraction of the muscles, of which they are com-
posed, the two segments are made to turn upon
their long axis, until the points of the teeth are
brought into contact, and the toothed surfaces rise
and approach each other. The lower edges do not
MOVEMENTS OF ANIMALCULES. 107.
however separate as the upper edges approach, but
the form of the mass alters, becoming more lenti-
cular, so that when the toothed surfaces are brought
into their closest approximation, the outline has a
subeircular figure. It is on account of this change
of form that I presume the masses themselves to
be partially composed of muscle.”
These remarks, although specially made of the
Rotifer macrurus, are in the main applicable to
all the Philodinas, but the student must not expect
to understand any of the complicated gizzards of
the rotifers without repeated observations, and no
‘small exercise of patience. It is common to call
the portions of the Philodine-pattern gizzard ‘‘stirrup-
shaped;” but Mr. Gosse has shewn them to be
quadrantic, that is, shaped like the quadrature of
a sphere.
As we are not very well off with subjects for
description in these two months, we can afford a
little time to consider a question that continually
arises in the mind, on viewing the movements of
animalcules, and especially of any so highly devel-
oped as the rotifers, namely, to what extent motions
which appear intelligent, are really the result of
anything like a conscious purpose or will. When
any of the lower animals—a bee, for example—acts
in precisely the same way as all bees have acted
since their proceedings have been observed, we settle
108 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
the question by the use of the term zmsénct. Those
who take the lowest view of insect life, assume that
the bee flies because it has wings, but without
wishing to use them, and that the nerves exciting
them to action are in their turn excited, not by
volition, but by some physical stimulus.
The sight or the smell of flowers is thought by
the same reasoners to be capable of attracting the
insect, which is unconscious of the attraction, while
proximity of food stimulates the tongne to make the
movements needful for its acquisition, and so forth.
The cells, they tell us, are built according to a
pattern which the earliest bee was impelled to con-
struct by forces that bore no analogy to human reason
and human will, and so originate all the ordinary
processes of bee life. Sometimes, however, it hap-
pens that man or accident interposes particular
obstacles, and forthwith there appears a particular
modification of the orthodox plan, calculated to
meet the special difficulty. How is this? Does any
one of the difficulties which the bee or the ant is
able to get over, produce precisely that kind of
electrical disturbance, or polar arrangement of nerve
particles that is necessary to stimulate the jirsf step
of the action by which the difficulty is surmounted ;
and does the new condition thus established stimulate
the second step, and so forth, or can the bee, within
certain limits, really think, design, and contrive?
~
REFLEX ACTIONS. 109
No questions are more difficult of solution; but
while protesting against a tendency to undervalue
all life below that of man, we must remember we
have in our bodies processes going on which are
not the result of volition, as when the blood circu-
lates, and its particles arrange themselves in the
pattern required to form our tissues and organs,
and also that many of our actions belong to the
class termed by physiologists, “reflex,” that is,
he result of external impressions upon the nervous
system, in which the sentient brain takes no part.
Thus when a strong light stimulates the optic
nerve, the portion of brain with which it is connected
in its turn stimulates the iris to contract the pupil;
and it is supposed that after a man has begun to
walk, through the exercise of his will, he may continue
to walk, by a reflex action; as his feet press the
ground they transmit an impression to the spinal cord,
and the legs receive a fresh impulse to locomotion, al-
though the mind is completely occupied with other
business, and pays no attention to their proceedings.*
The ordinary movements of insects appear to be
of this character, and to be excited by the ganglia
belonging to the segment to which the moving limbs
are attached. Thus a centipede will run, after its
head has been cut off, and a water-beetle (Vytiscus)
swam energetically when thrown into water after
* See Carpenter’s ‘Manual of Physiology.”
110 MARVELS OF POND-LIFRE.
its brain had been removed.*
It must not, however, be assumed that the brain
of insects has nothing to do with their movements.
It is the means of co-ordinating or directing them
to a common end, and gives rise to what are called
consensual motions, that is, movements which are
accompanied or stimulated by a sensation, although
not controlled by a will, In man these actions
are frequently exhibited, ‘tas when laughter is pro-
voked by some ludicrous sight or sound, or by the
remembrance of such at an unseasonable time.’’}
Sneezing is another instance of a sensation leading
to certain motions, without any intervention of the
human will.
Speaking of these consensual actions, Dr. Car-
penter observes, “It is probable, from the strong
manifestations of emotion, exhibited by many of
the lower animals, that some of the actions which
we assemble under the general designation of in-
stinctive are to.be referred to this group.”
A special volume would be required for anything
like a complete ‘examination of the little which is
known on this subject, but these few remarks may
assist the microscopic beginner in examining the
movements of his subjects, and guard against the
error of referring to reason and volition those which —
are, probably, either the direct result of stimulants
* Carpenter’s Manual of Physiology, p.551. + Ibid, p. 543.
MOVEMENTS OF ROTIFERS. LT
applied to the surface, (as in nerveless creatures, )
or the indirect (reflex) result of such stimulants
in beings like the rotifers, who have a nervous
system; or the result of sensations, which excite
actions without previously referring the matter to
the decision of a will. It must not, however, be
too readily assumed that the behaviour of creatures
possessing distinct organs is entirely automatic; and
we must not forget that even the best physiologists
know very little concerning the range of functions
which the nervous ganglia of the invertebrata are
able to discharge.
GEA PAE VLE
AUGUST.
MUD COLOURED BY WORMS—THEIR RETREAT AT ALARM—A
COUNTRY DUCK-POND—CONTENTS OF ITS SCUM—CRYPTO-
MONADS—THEIR. MEANS OF LOCOMOTION—A TRIARTHRA
(THREE-LIMBED ROTIFER)—THE BRACHION OR PITCHER
ROTIFER—ITS STRIKING FORM—ENORMOUS-~ GIZZARD—
CILIARY MOTION INSIDE THIS CREATURE—LARGE EYE AND
BRAIN--POWERFUL TAIL—ITS FUNCTIONS—EGGS, |
CHAPTER VIII.
AUGUST.
In the beginning of this month a pond in the
Finchley Road, a little beyond the Highgate arch-
way, supplied some more specimens of the Plerodina
patina, described in a previous chapter; but towards
the middle of the month a visit to Chipstead, in
Surrey, enabled a new region to be explored.
It is always a treat to a Londoner to get down
to any of the picturesque parts of Surrey; the trees
exhibit a richness of foliage and variety of colour
not seen within the regions of metropolitan smoke;
the distance glows with the rich purples so much
admired in the pictures of Linnel, and the sun-sets
light up earth and sky with the golden tints he is
so well able to reproduce. Probably the warmth
of the soil, and the purity of the air, may make
Surrey ponds prolific in microscopic life; but of
this we do not know enough to make a fair com-
parison, although our own dips into them were
tolerably lucky.
116 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
Walking one day down a lane leading towards
Reigate, where the trees arched overhead, ferns grew
plentifully in the sandy banks, and the sunlight
flitted through the branches, and chequered the
path, we came to a shallow pond, or great puddle,
which crossed the way, and near the edge of the
water the eye was struck with patches of crimson
colour. On attempting to take up a portion of
one of these patches the whole disappeared, although
when the disturbance ceased, the rich colour again
clothed the dingy mud. The appearance was caused
by thousands of little worms, belonging. to the genus
Tubifex, not uncommon in such situations, who
thrust themselves out to enjoy the light and aur,
and retreat the moment an alarm is given. — Pro-
bably both actions belong to the class described. in
the last chapter, as ‘“‘reflex;” but it wonld be. in:
teresting to know whether ereatures so hnmble have
any sense of fear. These worms will repay obser-
vation, but in these pages we eschew all their tribe,
—-uniess the rotifers be assigned to them—and
take ourselves once more to our especial subjects.
Knowing that farm-ponds are usually well stocked:
with microscopic game, we made a dip into one
more especially assigned te ducks, and obtained
wondrons little for our pains. ..We were not, :how-
ever, discouraged, but made an examination. of the.
gircumstances, which determined a particular course
A COUNTRY DUCK-POND. 117
of action. . Our piece of water was simply a dirty
duck-pond, in which no large plants were growing,
and which did not even exhibit the little disks of
duckweed, that are common to such situations.
There was, however, on the surface, in. parts, an
exceedingly fine scum of pale yellow green, and
Cryptomonad — Euglena.
this, armed with a tea-spoon, we proceeded to attack.
By careful skimming, a small bottle was half-filled
with minute orgame particles, which were likely to
be interesting in themselves, and pretty sure to be
the food for something else. A small drop was placed
on a tablet of the live-box, flattened out by the
application of the cover, and viewed with a. power.
118 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
of two hundred linear, which disclosed swarms of
brilliant green globes, amongst which were a good
sprinkle of minute creatures, like the Euglene already
described, and whose little red eyes contrasted vividly
with the prevailing emerald hue.
One of the higher infusoria, whose species I could
not identify, was devouring them like a porpoise
among sprats. It did not, however, exhibit any
sense in its hungry career; it moved about in all
directions, gulping down what came in its way,
720
Cryptomonad.
but often permitting the escape of the little green
things that were almost in its mouth. The little
globes rolled and whirled about without the faintest
indication of a purpose, and without exhibiting any
instrument with which their locomotion was effected.
To find out how this was done, a higher power was
used, and from their extreme minuteness an ampli-
fication of seven hundred and twenty linear was
conveniently employed, although a lower one (three
or four hundred) disclosed the secret by shewing
CRYPTOMONADS. 119
that a little whip was flourished about through
the neck, which the lower power revealed. When
highly magnified, each little globe was seen to con-
sist of an outer case of a reddish orange colour,
which was noticeable on looking at the edges, al-
though in the centre it was transparent enough to
shew the brilliant green contents, that resembled
the chlorophyl, or green colouring matter of plants.
From a short neck proceeded the whip-like _fila-
ment, which was lashed and twisted about in all
directions. These little creatures belong to the
monad family, but whether they are to be called
Trachelomonads, or by some other hard name the
learned must decide.
The “Micrographic Dictionary” puts a note of
interrogation to the assertion of some writers that
Trachelomonads have no necks, and draws some
with such an appendage. |
Pritchard’s last edition is against necks, and
whether the necks or no necks are to win, is a
mighty question equal at least to the famous contro-
versy, which divided the world into “big and little
endians in the matter of breaking eggs.”
A discussion of more importance is, whether these
Cryptomonads—that name will do whatever comes
of the neck controversy—are animals or vegetables.
Lachmann and Mr. Carter affirm that they have
detected a contractile vesicle, which would assimulate
120 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
them to the animal series, but their general beha-
viour is vegetable; and the ‘‘Micrographic Dictionary”
is in favour of referring them to the Alge—that
great family of simple plants, of which the sea-weeds
are the most important representatives. |
When any of the monads swarm, there are sure
to be plenty of other creatures to eat them up,
and in this instance the predaceous animalcule,
alrendy described, was not the only enemy the little
Triarthra.
green globes had to suffer from, as two sorts of
rotifer were frequently met with. One of these was
a very handsome and singular creature, which in
some positions had the general contour of a cocka-
too, only that the legs were wanting, and the head
exhibited a monkey face. The “wheels” were re-
presented by ciliary tufts, and two bright red eyes
twinkled with a knowing look. From each shoulder
proceeded a long curved spine, and about two-thirds
CILIARY MOTION. | 4 |
down the body, and lying between the two long
spines, a shorter one was articulated, which followed
the same curve. t
{eal ee
. * Se
Ahlen. 4 —
CHAPTER “Xi.
NOVEMBER.
Durtne the fag end of last month I observed
sone fragments of a new creature among some bits
of Anacharis, from the Vale of Heath Pond, and
searched for complete and intelligible specimens
without effect. Luckily one evening a scientific
neighbour, to whom I had given some of the plant
for the sake of the beantiful Stephonocert which
inhabited it, came in with a glass trough containing
a little branch, to which adhered a dirty parchment-
like ramifying tube, dotted here and there with
brown oval masses, and having sundry open extrem-
ities, from which some polyp-shaped animals pnt
forth. long pearly tentacles margined with vibrating
cilia, and making a lively current. The creatures
presented an organization higher than that of polyps,
for there was an evident differentiation and com-
plication of parts. They, therefore, belonged to the
Polyzoa, or Bryozoa,* a very important division
* Polyzoa means “many animals,” in allusion to their habit of
living in association. Bryozoa, ‘‘moss-animals,” from some having
that appearance.
158 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
of the mollusca. The Folyzoa are chiefly ma-
rine, and the common “‘sea-mat,’’ often erroneously
treated as a sea-weed, is a well-known form. Another
species often picked up on our coasts is the Ser-
tularia, or Sea-Fir, composed of delicate branching
stems of a horny-lcoking substance, which, under
a pocket-lens, is found to contain an immense
number of small cells inhabited by the Polyzoa.
These animals were formerly associated with the
polyps, to which they bear a strong superficial re-
semblance; but they are of a much higher degree
of organization, as will be seen by comparing what
has been said in a former chapter on the Hydra,
with the description which we now proceed to
abridge from Dr. Allman’s splendid monograph on
the fresh-water kinds. In order to get a general
conception of a Polyzoon, the Professor tells us to
imagine an alimentary canal, consisting of ssopha-
gus, stomach, and intestine, to be furnished at its
origin with long ciliated tentacles, and to have a
single nervous ganglion on one side of the wsophagus.
We must then conceive the intestine bent back till
its anal orifice comes near the mouth; and this
curved digestive tube to be suspended in a bag con-
taining fluid, and having two openings, one for the
mouth and the other for the vent. A system of
muscles enables the alimentary tube to be retracted
or protruded, the former process pulling the bag
ERRATUM.
Iv page 158, the Sertularia, a compound polyp,
is inadvertently spoken of as a Polyzoa, vey which
it should have been contrasted.
These animals were formerly associated with the
polyps, to which they bear a strong superficial re-
semblance; but they are of a much higher degree
of organization, as will be seen by comparing what
has been said in a former chapter on the Hydra,
with the description which we now proceed to
abridge from Dr. Allman’s splendid monograph on
the fresh-water kinds. In order to get a general
conception of a Polyzoon, the Professor tells us to
imagine an alimentary canal, consisting of esopha-
gus, stomach, and intestine, to be furnished at its
origin with long ciliated tentacles, and to have a
single nervous ganglion on one side of the esophagus.
We must then conceive the intestine bent back till
its anal orifice comes near the mouth; and this
curved digestive tube to be suspended in a bag con-
taining fluid, and having two openings, one for the
mouth and the other for the vent. A system of
muscles enables the alimentary tube to be retracted
or protruded, the former process pulling the bag
IN :
BES
SSS
>
SS
SOE
w
or
4
iva
am.
matel
tell
lla
rer
epens
on
1 é
a |
eaf.
PLUMATELLA REPENS. 159 -
in, and the latter letting it out. The mouth of
the bag is, so to speak, tied round the creature’s
neck just below the tentacles, which are the only
portions of it that are left free. The investing
sack has in nearly every case the power of secreting
an external sheath, more or less solid, and which
branches forming numerous cells, in which the mem-
hers of the family live in a socialistic community,
having, as it were, two lives, one individual, and
the other shared in common with the rest.
The whole group of tubes and cells, whatever
may be the form in which they are aggregated, is
called the Polypary, or, as Dr. Allman prefers, the
Cenecium, (hollow house;) the creature he names
a Polypide, (polyp-like;) and the disk which bears
the tentacles Lophophore, (crest-bearer.) There
are some more hard words to be learnt before the
student can enjoy himself scientifically among the
Polyzoa, and we shall be compelled to employ some
of them before we have done; but will now endeavour
to describe what was presented to our view by the
specimen obtained from the Hampstead Ponda.
The general aspect of a branch of Plumatella
repens—the creature we have to describe—is given
in the drawing annexed. When all was quiet, the
mouths of the bags belonging to each cell were
slowly everted, and out came a numerous bundle
of tentacles, which were either spread like the corolla
160 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
of a flower, or permitted to hang dishevelled like
the snake-locks of Medusa. We will suppose these
organs symmetrically expanded, and that we are
looking down upon them with a magnifying power
of sixty diameters, the light having been carefully
adjusted by turning the reflecting mirror a little
on one side, to avoid a direct glare. The tentacles,
each of which curves with a living grace, and dis-
plays an opaline tint in its glassy structure, do
not form a complete circle, for at one place we
discern two slightly diverging arms of the disk, or
frame (Lophophore) from which they grow.
These arms support tentacles on each side, and
leave a gap between, so that the whole pattern is
crescentic, or crescent-shaped, and not circular.
Extenling as far as the points of the arms, and
carried all round the crescent, is an extremely
delicate membrane, like the finest gauze, which
unites all the tentacles by their basal portions, and
makes an elegant scallop or retreating curve between
every two. Each tentacle exhibits two rows of
cilia, which scintillate as their vibrations cause them
to catch the light. The motion of the cilia is in-
variably down one side, and wp the other, the
current or pattern being carried on from one tentacle
to the other, all through the series. This charac-
teristic, and the facility with which each cilium can
be distinguished, gives great interest and beauty
EPITOMES OF PLUMATELLA’ REPENS. 161
to the spectacle of this wonderful apparatus, by
which water-currents are made to bathe the ten-
tacles, and assist respiration, and also to carry food
towards the mouth, over which a sort of finger or
tongue is stretched to guard the way, and exercise
some choice as to what particles shall be permitted
to pass on. This organ is called the epistome,
from two Greek words, signifying ‘“‘upon the mouth.”’
[f the cell is an old one, it may be covered with
so much extraneous matter as to obscure the economy
within; but we are fortunate in having a transpa-
rent specimen before us, through which we can see
all that goes on. The alimentary tube, after forming
a capacious cavity, much longer than it is broad,
turns round and terminates in an orifice near the
mouth, and just below the integuments. When
refuse has to be discharged, this orifice is protruded;
and after the operation is over, it draws back as
before. Long muscles, composed of separate threads
or fibres, pull the creature in and out of its cell,
and at the part where the stomach ends, and the
Intestine turns round, is attached a long flexible
rope, called the funiculus, which goes to the bottom
of the cell. The passage of the food down to the
stomach, its digestion, and the eviction of the resi-
due, can all be watched; and when a large morsel
is swallowed, the spectacle is curious in the extreme.
One day a polypide caught a large rotifer, (7?.
M
162 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
vulgaris,) which, with several others of its tribe,
had been walking over the cenecium, and swimming
amongst the tentacles, as if unconscious of - danger.
All of a sudden it went down the whirlpool leading
to the mouth, was rolled up by a process that
could not be traced, and withont an instant’s loss of
time, was seen shooting down in rapid descent to
the gulf below, where it looked a potatoe-shaped
mass, utterly destitute of its characteristic living
form. Having been made into a bolus, the unhappy
rotifer, who never gave the faintest sign of vitality,
was tossed up and down from the top to the bottom
of the stomach, just as a billiard-ball might be
thrown from the top to the bottom of a stocking.
This process went on for hours, the ball gradually
diminishing in size, until at last it was lost in the
general brown mass with which the stomach was
filled. The bottom of the stomach seems well sup-
plied with muscular fibres, to cause the constrictions
by which this work is chiefly performed, and by
keeping a colony for a month or two, I had many
opportunities of seeing my Polyzoa at their meals.
When alarmed the tentacles were quickly retracted,
but although these creatures are said to dislike the
light, and usually keep away from it in their native
haunts, my specimens had no objection to come out
in a strong illumination, and seemed perfectly at
their ease. They were indeed most amiable crea-
one
ach aaa
iw .
Be bs ke
Plumatella repens. (Single Polypide enlarged.)
PROCESS OF GROWTH. 163
tures, and never failed to display their charms to
admiring visitors, who rewarded them by unmeasured
praise. Twice I had an opportunity of observing
an action I cannot explain, except by supposing
either that the tentacles of the Plumatella have
some poison-threads like the polyps, or that rotifers
are susceptible of fear. On these occasions the
common rotifer was the subject of the experiment.
First one, and then another got among the tentacles,
and on escaping seemed very poorly. One fellow
was, to borrow a phrase from Professor Thomas
Sayers, “completely doubled up,’’ and two or three
seconds—long periods in a_ rotifer’s life—elapsed
before he came to himself again.
By keeping a colony of the Plumatella for a few
weeks in a glass trough, and occasionally supplying
them with fresh water from an aquarium, containing
animalcules, they are easily preserved in good health,
and as they develop fresh cells, the process of
growth may be readily watched. This production of
fresh individuals enlarges the parent colony, but could
not be the means of founding a new one, which is
accomplished by two other modes. A little way
down the cells Professor Allman discovered an ovary
attached to the internal tube by a short peduncle,
or foot-stalk, while a testis or male generative
organ is attached to the funiculus, or “‘little
rope,’ we have already described.
164 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
July and August are the best times for observing
the ovaries, and they are most conspicuous in the
genera Alcyonella and Paludicella. True eggs are
developed in the ovaries in a manner resembling
this mode of multiplication in other animals; but
there is another kind of egg, or, perhaps to speak
more properly, a variety of bud, which is extremely
curious. In looking at our specimens we noticed
brown oval bodies in the cells; these, on careful
examination, presented the appearance of the sketch.
The centre is dark, covered with a net-work, which
is more conspicuous in the lighter coloured and
more transparent margins. These curious bodies
are produced from the funiculus, and act as reserves
of propagative force, as they are not hatched or
developed until they get out and find themselves
exposed to appropriate circumstances. Professor
Allman names them S/atoblasts, or stationary germs,
and they bear some resemblance to what are called
the “winter eggs” of some other creatures. The
Professor was never able to discover any mode by
which they were permitted to escape from the cells,
and in our colonies none were allowed to leave
their homes until the death of their parent, and
the decomposition of its cell had taken place; a
process which went on contemporaneously with the
growth of new cells, until the plant on which the
cenecium was situated, rotted away, and then
TUBES OF PLUMATELLA. 165
unfortunately the whole concern went to pieecs.
The tubes of the Plumatella, and of most other
Polyzoa, are composed of two coats, called respec-
tively endocyst and ectocyst, that is, ‘inner case”
and ‘‘outer case.” The first is vitally endowed,
and exhibits vessels and muscular fibres. The
second or outer case is thrown off by the first. It
is a parchment-like substance, strengthened by the
adhesion of dirt particles, and does not appear to
exercise any vital functions, but to be merely a
covering for protection. The inner layer terminates
in the neck of the bag before described, as exserted
when the polypide comes out, and inverted when
it goes in. This mode of making a case or sheath
by inversion of a bag, is technically called inra-
gination, and is readily seen in new and transparent
cells.
The movement of eversion, or coming out, is
chiefly produced by the contraction of the endocyst;
while the ¢nversion, or getting in again, is per-
formed by the long muscles, which, when the animal
mextended, aré seen attached to it like ropes.
Upon these muscles Professor Allman remarks that
they are “especially interesting in a physiological
point of view, as they seem to present us with an
example of true muscular tissue, reduced to its
simplest and essential form. A muscle may here
be viewed as a beautiful dissection far surpassing
166 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
the most refined preparation of the dissecting needle,
for it is composed of a bundle of elementary fibres,
totally “pone from one another through their
entire course.” He further adds, “The fibres of the
great retractor muscle are distinctly marked by
transverse strize;—a condition, however, which is
not at all times equally perceptible, and some of
our best observers have denied to the Polyzoon the
existence of striated fibre.”
We can confirm the fact of this sort of fibre being
present, but we fancy a reader not versed in the
mysteries of physiology, exclaiming, ‘What does it
matter whether his fibres are striped or not? It
does however matter a great deal; and if Pluma-
fella could hear Dr. Allman lecture upon its structure,
it would be proud to find its muscles of the most
aristocratic sort. Muscles in the highest animals
are composed of fasciculi, or little bundles of fibres,
separated into still smaller bundles, which are again
separable into single or ultimate fibres, which are
of two kinds. One exhibits transverse marks or
strie, and the other does not. The first is the
structure of muscles obedient to the will; the last
of muscles belonging to the purely organic life, over
which the will has no control. The first kind of
muscles are usually excited to action by nerves;
the last have their contractility, which is an inherent
property of muscular fibre, excited by stimuli, that
STRUCTURE OF PLUMATELLA. 167
act directly upon them,* and without the previous
or simultaneous production of sensation or con-
sciousness. 7 |
There are many other genera and species of fresh-
water polyzoa besides the Plumatella repens, and
they are found attached to sticks, stones, or leaves,
generally to the under surface of the latter.
They are all objects of great interest and beauty,
which, whatever their diversity, conform sufficiently
to one type that the student who has observed one,
will easily recognise the zoological position of another.
They should be viewed by transmitted and by re-
flected light, and by dark-ground illumination, which
produces very beautiful effects. To observe them in
the performance of their functions, they require
more room than the live-box can afford, but are
well shewn in the glass trough, whose moveable
diaphragm enables them to be brought near enough
to the object glass, for the use of a power of about
sixty linear for general purposes, and of from one
to two hundred for the examination of particular
parts. For a more detailed examination dissection
must be employed, but all that we have mentioned
can be seen without injury to the living animal,
if specimens are kept till new cells are formed in
water, which does not contain enough dirt to render
their integuments opaque.
* Carpenter’s Manuai of Physiology, p. 212.
Cag oe a4 ae,
Ae yee deur oe Pc
: ; : J % « a, ae
CHAPTER Xf.
DECEMBER.
MICROSCOPIC HUNTING IN WINTER—WATER-BEARS, OR TARDI-
GRADA—THEIR COMICAL BEHAVIOUR—MODE OF VIEWING
THEM—SINGULAR GIZZARD—WENHAM’S COMPRESSORIUM—.
ACHROMATIC CONDENSER—MOUTH OF THE WATER-BEAR—
WATER-BEARS’ EXPOSURE TO HEAT—SOLUBLE ALBUMEN—
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL REASONS WHY THEY ARE
NOT KILLED BY HEATING AND DRYING—THE TRACHELIUS
OVUM—MODE OF SWIMMING—METHOD OF VIEWING—BY DARK-
GROUND ILLUMINATION--CURIOUS DIGESTIVE TUBE WITH
BRANCHES—MULTIPLICATION BY DIVISION—CHANGE OF FORM
IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWING THIS PROCESS — SUBSEQUENT
APPEARANCES. é
CHAPTER XII.
DECEMBER.
THERE is always satisfaction in finding a work
accomplished; but the attempt to delineate some of
the marvels of minute creation has been a pleasant
one, and we approach the completion of our task
of recording a Microscopic Year with something like
regret. The dark, dirty December of the great
metropolis may not seem a promising time for field
excursions, but some ponds lie near enough to prac-
ticable roads and paths to render an occasional dip
in them—not of ourselves, but of our bottles —an
easy and not unpleasant performance; and if the
weather is unusually bad, we can fall back upon
our preserves in bottles and tanks, which seldom
fail to afford something new, as we have been pretty
sure to bring home some undeveloped germs with our
stock of pond-water and plants, and even creatures
of considerable size are very likely to have escaped
detection in our first efforts at examination.
When objects are not over abundant, as is apt
Ci MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
to be the case in the cold months, it is well to
fill a large vial with some water out of the aquarium
or other large vessel, and watch what living specks
may be moving about therein. These are readily
examined with a pocket-lens, and with a little dex-
terity any promising creature can be fished out
with the dipping-tube. It is also advisable to shake
a mass of vegetation in a white basin, as the larger
infusoria, etc., may be thrown down; and indeed
this method (as recommended by Pritchard) is
always convenient. Even so smail a quantity of
water as is contained in a glass cell, appropriated
to the continual examination of polyps or polyzoa,
should be frequently. hunted over with a low power,
as in the course of days and weeks one race of
small animals will disappear, and another take their
place. |
Following these various methods in December,
we obtained many specimens; but the most inter-
esting was found by taking up small branches of
the Anacharis with a pair of forceps, and putting
them into a glass trough to see what inhabitants
they might possess. One of these trials was rewarded
by the appearance of a little puppy-shaped animal
very busy pawing about with eight imperfect legs,
but not making much progress with all his efforts.
It was evident that we had obtained one of the
Tardigrada, (slow-steppers,) or Water-Bears, and a
WATER-BEAR. Eis
very comical amusing little fellow he was. The
figure was like that of a new-born puppy, or “un-
licked” bear cub; each of the eight legs were pro-
vided with four serviceable claws, there was no tail,
and the blunt head was susceptible of considerable
alteration of shape. He was grubbing about among
some bits of decayed vegetation, and from the mass
Water-Bear.
of green matter in his stomach, it was evident that
he was not one of that painfully numerous class in
Kngland —the starving poor.
A power of one hundred and five linear, obtained
with a two-thirds object-glass, and the second eye-
piece, enabled all his motions and general structure
to be exhibited, and shewed that he possessed a
sort of gizzard, whose details would require more
magnification to bring out. Accordingly the dipping-
174 MARVELS OF PUOND-LIFE.
tube was carefully held just over him, the finger re-
moved, and*luckily in went the little gentleman with
the ascending current. He was cautiously transferred
to Wenham’s Compressorium, an apparatus by which
the approach of two thin plates of glass can be
regulated by the action of a spring and a screw;
and just enough pressure was employed to keep
him from changing his place, although he was able to
move his tiny limbs. Thus arranged, he was placed
under « power of two hundred and forty linear, and
illuminated by an achromatic condenser,* to make the
fine structure of his gizzard as plain as possible. It
was then seen that this curious organ contains
several prominences or teeth, and is composed of
muscular fibres, radiating in every direction. From
the front of the gizzard proceed two rods, which
meet in a point, and are supposed to represent the
maxillee or jaws of insects, while between them is
a tube or channel, through which the food is
passed. The mouth is suctorial, and the two horny
rods, with their central piece or pieces, are pro-
trusile. They were frequently brought as far as the
outer lips, (if we may so call the margins of the
mouth, ) but we did not witness an actual protrusion,
except when the lips accompanied them, and formed
* The achromatic condenser is a frame capable of supporting
an object glass, lower than that employed for vision, through
which the light passes to the object. The appearances mentioned
can be seen without it, though not so well.
EXPOSURE TO HEAT. 175
a small round pouting orifice. The skin of the
animal was tough and somewhat loose, and wrinkled
during the contractions its proprietor made. The
interior of the body exhibited an immense multitude
of globular particles of various sizes in constant
motion, but not moving in any vessels, or performing
a distinct circulation.
My specimens had no visible eyes, and these
organs are, according to Pritchard’s book, ‘‘variable
and fugacious.”’ The same authority remarks, “In
most vital phenomena they very closely accord with
the rotatoria; thus like these they can be revived
after being put into hot water at 113° to 118,
but are destroyed by immersion in boiling water.
They may be gradually heated to 216°, 252°, and
even 261°. It is also by their capability of resus-
citation after being dried, that they are able to
sustain their vitality in such localities as the roofs
of houses, where at one time they are subjected to
great heat and excessive drought, and at another
are immersed in water.”’
When vital processes are not stopped by excess
of temperature, as is the case with the higher
animals, the power of resisting heat without de-
struction, depends upon the condition of the albumen.
Soluble albumen, or, as it should be called, A/bu-
minate of Soda, (for a small quantity of that alkali
is present and chemically united with it,) after
176 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
having been thoroughly dried, may be heated without
loss of its solubility; although if the same temper-
ature was applied before it was dry, that solubility
would be destroyed, and it would no longer be a
fit constituent of a living creature. As Dr. Car-
penter observes, this fact is of much interest in
explaining the tenacity of life in the Tardigrada.
The movements of the water-bears, although slow,
evince a decided purpose and ability to make all
parts work together for a common object; and as
might be expected from this fact, and also from
the repetition of distinct, although not articulated
limbs, they are provided with a nervous apparatus
of considerable development, in the shape of a chain
of a ganglia and a brain, with connecting filaments.
From these and other circumstances naturalists con-
sider the Tardigrada to belong to the great family
of Spiders, of which they are, physiologically
speaking, poor relations. Like the spiders they
east their skin; and, although I was not fortunate
enough to witness this operation—called in the
language of the learned ecdyszs, which means putting
its clothes off—I found an empty hide, which, making
allowance for the comparative size of the creatures,
looked tough and strong as that of a rhinoceros,
and shewed that the stripping process extended to
the tips of the claws. The ‘‘Micrographic Diction-
ary” states that the Tardigrada lay but few eggs
PLUMATELLA REPENS, 177
at a time, and these are ‘“‘usually deposited during
the ecdysis, the exuvie serving as a protection to
them during the process of hatching.” Thus Mrs.
Water-Bear makes a nursery out of her old skin, a
device as ingenious as unexpected. The water-bears
are said to be hermaphrodites, but this is doubtful.
The Plumatella repens, described in a former
chapter, was kept in a glass trough, to which some
fresh water was added every few days, taken from
a glass jar that had been standing many weeks
with growing anacharis in it. One day a singular
creature made its appearance in the trough; when
magnified sixty diameters it resembled an _ oval
bladder, with a sort of proboscis attached to it.
At one part it was longitudinally constricted, and
evidently possessed some branched and complicated
internal vessels. The surface was ciliated, and the
neck or proboscis acted as a rudder, and enabled
the creature to execute rapid turns. It swam up
and down, and round about, sometimes rotating on
its axis, and at others keeping the same side up-
permost, but did not exhibit the faintest sign of
intelligence in its movements, except an occasional
finger-like bend of the proboscis, upon which the
cilia seemed thicker than upon the body. It was
big enough to be observed as a moving white speck
by the naked eye, when the vessel containing it
was held to catch the light slantingly; but a power
N
173 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
of one hundred and five was conveniently employed
to enable its structure to be discerned. Under this
power, when the animal was resting or moving
slowly, a mouth was perceived on the left side
of the proboscis, which was usually, though not
always, curved to the right. The mouth was a
round or oval orifice, and when illuminated by the
parabola, its lips or margin looked thickened, and
of a pale blue, and ciliated, while the rest of the
body assumed a pinkish pearly tint.
Below the mouth came a funnel-shaped tube or
esophagus, having some folds or plaits on its sides,
and terminating in a broad digestive tube, distinct
from the nucleus, and ramifying like a tree. The
constriction before mentioned, which was always
seen in certain positions, although it varied very
considerably in depth and width, drew up the in-
tegument towards the main trunk of the digestive
tube, and thus the animal had a distinct ventral
and dorsal side. The branches of the tube stopped
somewhat abruptly just before reaching the surface,
and were often observed to end in small round
vacuoles or vesicles.
At the bottom of the bladder, opposite the mouth,
in some specimens were large round cavities or cells,
filled with smaller cells, or partially transparent
granules. These varied in number from one to
two or three, and were replaced in other specimens
TRACHELIUS OVUM. 179
by masses that did not present the same regular
form or rounded outline. In one instance an
amorphous structure of this kind gradually divided
itself, and seemed in the course of forming two
cells, but the end of the process was unfortunately
not seen. The annexed drawing will readily enable
the animal to be recognised. It shews the mouth
Trachelius ovum-— slightly flattened.
very plainly, and a current of small particles
moving towards it. The csophagus terminates in
a digestive tube, like the trunk of a tree, from
which numerous branches spring. This arrangement
is probably analagous to that of the phlebenterous
mollusks described by Quatrefages, in which the
180 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
ramifications of the stomach answer the purpose
of arteries, and convey the nutrient fluid to various
parts of the body. It is also likely that they
minister to the function of respiration.
The cilia on the surface, which are arranged in
parallel lines, are best observed when the animal
is slightly flattened in a live-box; but this process
produces a considerable derangement in the relative
position of the internal parts, and they can only
be well seen when it is immersed in plenty of water,
and is polite enough to stand still, and submit
his digestive economy to a steady gaze. The only
way to succeed in this undertaking is to have a
large stock of patience as well as a convenient
cell or trough. The table must be kept steady, and
the prisoner watched from time to time, and at last
he will be found ready for display.
Pritchard says this animal, whose name is Jra-
chelius ovum, is an inhabitant of stagnant bog
water, and has been found encysted. My specimens
could not be called plentiful, but for several weeks
I could generally find two or three, by filling a
fowr-ounce vial from the glass jar, and examining its
contents with a pocket-lens. If none were present,
another dip was made, and usually with success.
One evening I caught a good specimen by means
of the dipping-tube, and cautiously let it out, ac-
companied by a drop of water, on the glass floor
DIVISION OF TRACHELIUS OVUM. 181
of the live-box. A glance with the pocket-lens
shewed all was right, and the cover was very
gently put on, but it had scarcely touched the
creature when it became crumpled up and in con-
fusion. On one or two former occasions I had
been unfortunate enough to give my captives a
squeeze too much, with the usual result of a
rupture of their integuments and an escape of
globules and fluids from the regions within. Now,
however, there was no such rupture and no such
escape, but instead of a smooth, comely surface,
my ‘Trachelius had lost all title to his specific
designation, ovwm, for instead of bearing any resem-
blance to an egg, it was more like an Irishman’s hat
after having a bit of a ‘‘shindy” at Donnybrook Fair.
I was greatly puzzled with this aspect of things,
and still more so when my deranged . specimen
twirled and bumped about with considerable ve-
locity, and in all directions. Presently a decided
constriction appeared about half-way below the
mouth and proboscis, and in a transverse direction.
The ciliary motion became very violent in the
lower half just below the constriction, while the
proboscis worked hard to make its half go another
way. For some minutes there was a tug of war,
and at length away went proboscis with his por-
tion, still much crumpled by the fight, and left
the other bit to roam at will, gradually smooth
182 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
his puckers, and assume the appearance of a res-
pectable well-to-do animalcule.
Three hours after the ‘‘fission’ the proboscis
half was not unlike the former self of the late
“entire,” but with diminished body and larger
neck; while the remaining portion had assumed a
flask form, and would not have been known by
his dearest acquaintance. The portraits of the
dis- United States were quickly taken, and, as bed-
Trachelius ovum—three hours after division.
time had arrived, they were left to darkness and
themselves. The next morning a change had
come over the “spirit of their dream.” Both were
quiet, or sedately moving, and they were nearly
alike. The proboscis fellow had increased and
rounded his body, and diminished his nose; while
Mr. Flask had grown round also, and evinced an
intention of cultivating a proboscis himself. Twenty-
seven hours after the separation, both had made
considerable progress in arranging and developing
their insides, which had been thrown into great
A BAD CASE. 185
confusion by the way in which the original animal
had been wrenched in half, and in both a granular
mass was forming opposite the mouth end. The
proboscis portion, which may perhaps be termed
the mother, was more advanced than her progeny,
but both had a great deal to do if they meant
to exhibit the original figure, and develop a set of
bowels as elegantly branched. Whether they would
have succeeded or not under happier circumstances
I cannot tell, but unfortunately the Fate who
carries the scissors cut short their days.
In all other animalcules in which I had observed
the process of multiplication by self-division, it seemed
to go on smoothly, and with no discomfort to
either the dividend or the quotient, and it may
be that in the fission of the Zrachelius ovum I
witnessed what the doctors would call a bad case.
Indeed it may have been prematurely brought on,
and aggravated by the squeeze in the live-box. It
is, however, probable, from the stronger texture
and greater organic development of this animalcule,
that it does not divide so easily as the softer and
simpler kinds.
Frequent examination of this. animalcule has cre-
ated a strong doubt in my mind whether it is
rightly placed in our “‘systems.”
is that it belongs to a much higher class, and is
not a Trachelius at all.
My own impression
: x ; —) g ’ - med by 7
v253 Ee te HE Si CL RP,
CHAPTER: XUN.
CONCLUSION.
In the preceding pages some attention has been
paid to the general principles of classification, but
it may facilitate the consideration of the rank to
be assigned to the various objects that have passed
under notice, if we remember that the animal king-
dom is divided by naturalists into four sub-king-
doms, containing respectively the Vertebrata, the
Mollusca, the Articulata, and the Radiata. Nothing
need be said in this place about the vertebrata,
except that, notwithstanding the advantages of
other modes of classification, that proposed by Pro-
fessor Owen is the most suggestive of important
results, and also the most philosophical in char-
acter, as the cerebral system is the highest position
of animal organization, and, when developed, dom-
inates over the rest.
According to this method man stands at the
head of the organic world, as the creature pos-
186 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
sessing a “rnling brain,” the sole representative of
the class Archencephala. The next class possesses
a brain of less complexity and development, but
still elaborately constructed, and is named Gyren-
cephala, literally, ‘“‘wind-about brains.’ In _ these
the cerebral hemispheres are actually and relatively
large, and exhibit deep convolutions. The highest
members of this class are the chimpanzees and
gorillas. Below them come the ‘smooth brains,”
Lassencephala, of which the sloth is the highest
representative. Below this class we find the “loose
brains,” Lyencephala, in which the cerebral hemi-
spheres are loose, or comparatively disconnected.
Of this class the kangaroo may be taken as a
type.
Considered with reference to the humble creatures
under our consideration, the classification of the mam-
malia may appear a somewhat foreign subject, but
the highly-organized beings belonging to that great
division enable us to perceive in the most striking
manner the important consequences that flow from
the possession of a brain developed so as_ to
minister to a life of extensive relation to external
objects, and having its various parts so bound
and tied together as to render possible a powerful
and combined action of the various faculties with
which its several portions are endowed. If we
should ever arrive at a satisfactory classification
CONCLUSION. 187
of the whole range of animated nature, the com-
parative dignity of each group will be determined
by the extent and degree of perfection of the life
of relation possessed and enjoyed by the indi-
viduals belonging to it. In no way can we ever
make a linear arrangement to satisfy the facts with
which we have to deal. There is no simple ladder
of life, beginning with the lowest round, and_as-
cending step by step to the highest; nor does the
idea of a chain of succeeding links help us any
better to a just conception of creation’s plan. If
the chain be used at all for purposes of illustra-
tion, it should be in the condition of chain mati,
as suggested by Edward Forbes, because in a
structure of that description every link is a_por-
tion of a complicated pattern, or member of a
group connected on all sides with other groups
throughout the entire fabric. The higher animals
are connected with the lower not only by portions
of the structure which they exhibit in an adult
state, but also through their incipient forms. Dr.
Carpenter observes,* ‘The earliest part of the
history of embryonic development is nearly the
same in all animals, for it consists in the multi-
plication of the single cell, of which the original
germ is composed, until a cluster is formed, all
* Manual of Physiology, p. 498.
188 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
the cells of which appear to be in every respect
similar to one another.”
The same writer adds that comparatively few of
the lower animals ‘‘came forth from the egg under
their adult forms. The change is sometimes obvi-
ously gradual, as in the progressive advance of the
tadpole into the condition of the frog; but it is
sometimes apparently sudden, as when the chrysalis
skin is thrown off, and the perfect insect comes
forth. In the latter case, however, the change is
really just as gradual as in the former, since the
organs characteristic of the perfect insect are under-
going development during the whole of the chrysalis
period, to be displayed and brought into use at its
termination.”
Every subordinate form of animated being bears
some resemblance to the embryonic stage of a higher
animal, and we moreover observe that organs and
functions, which in the higher animals are insepar-
ably bound together as portions of one whole, are
divided in the lower ranks. Thus sponges scarcely
do more than absorb and assimilate; entrails and
scarcely anything else constitute the structure of
the elegant Physalia, or “Portuguese man-of-war ;*
and they may be regarded as organs for those purposes.
The male rotifer is not a complete animal, as we
* “Beautiful as the Physalia is, it is entirely a system of entrails
floating with the waves.”—Dr. Harvey’s “Sea-Side Book.”
CONCLUSION. 189
have before observed, but merely a fecundating
apparatus endowed with locomotion; and many
similar illustrations might be given.
The preceding remarks may facilitate a consider-
ation of the zoological position of the minute
beings which have been the subjects of our con-
templation, and it will not excite surprise that
there should be a disposition to regard the Infusoria,
or many of them, as rudimentary forms of higher
organisms. Be this as it may, they furnish us
with the earliest and simplest exhibition of struc-
tures and capacities that we subsequently meet with
in a completer state.
We want much more information as to the cycle
of changes which they are able to undergo, and the
precise conditions under which such changes take
place, before we can have an adequate conception
of the position in which they stand in relation to
the great system of animated nature, and the mode
in which they connect the organic and inorganic
worlds.
The members of the highest class described in
the preceding pages, the Polyzoa, belong to the
sub-kingdom of Mollusca, and in that division of
animated nature the nervous system varies very
much in degree of development. The lowest forms
possess a single ganglion, such as we observed in
the Plumatella; additional ganglia are added as
190 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
we advance, and in the highest members of the
sub-kingdom, the Cephalopoda, (cuttle-fish,) we dis-
cover numerous ganglia, co-ordinated and ruled by
a large brain, enclosed in whut may be termed a
tough fleshy skull.
The Rotifers must be attached to the Articulata,
though in what part of that sub-kingdom they should
stand is not yet clear. In creatures of this divi-
sion we notice some diversities of nervous develop-
ment. In crabs, lobsters, etc., there is nothing
very intellectual, but they have capacious stomachs,
and a large supply of nervous power directed to
digestion. In worms and centipedes, in which the
segments are extremely numerous, the ganglia are
multiplied, chiefly to give each segment its powers
as an organ of locomotion, and the relatively small
brain is in accordance with the feeble manifestations
of intelligence. It is probable that by a sufficiently
prolonged and pains-taking observation of such
rotifers as the Brachiones, which have large brains,
a higher degree of intelligence would be discovered
than is usual with the members of the sub-king-
dom to which they belong; and if their life of
relation should prove more extensive than is usually
supposed it would be both a curious and an inter-
esting fact.
Our comparative phrenology, if we may use such
a term, is in a very imperfect state: when we come
CONCLUSION. 191
to the lower animals we do not know what pecu-
liarities of the brain of an ant make it the re-
cipient of a higher instinct, or give its possessor
greater capacities for dealing with new and unex-
pected difficulties than are possessed by most other
insects, and if any reader has a marine aquarium,
and will make a few experiments in taming prawns,
and watching their proceedings, he will discover
symptoms of intelligence beyond what the structure
of the creature would have led him to expect.
Animals usually possess some one leading charac-
teristic to which their general structure is subor-
dinated. Man stands alone in having the whole of
his organization conformed to the demands of a
thinking, ruling brain. To pass at once to the
other extreme, we observe in the infusoria a restless
locomotion, probably subservient to respiration, but
utterly inconsistent with a well-developed life of
relation, or with manifestations of thought. Indi-
vidually, therefore, the life of an animalcule may
be summed up as a brief and restricted, but
vigorous organic energy, and if the amount of
change which a single creature can make in the
external world, is inconceivably small, the labours
of the entire race alter the conditions of a prodigi-
ous amount of matter. Microscopic vegetable life
is an important agent in purifying water from the
taint of decomposing organisms. By evolving oxygen
192 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
it brings putrescent particles under the influence of
a species of combustion, which, though slow, is as
effectual as that which a furnace could accomplish.
Microscopic animal life helps the regenerative
process, and restores to the zoological system myriads
of tons of matter, which death and decay would
have handed over to the inorganic world. In a
very small pond or tank the quantity of this
kind of work is soon appreciable, and if we reflect
on the amazing amount of water all over the globe,
including seas and oceans, which swarm with
infusoria, the tutal effect produced in a_ single
year must seem considerable, even when com-
pared with that portion of the earth’s crust that
is subject to alteration from all other causes put
together. If we add to the labour of the Infusoria
those of other creatures whose organization can
only be discovered by the microscope, and take in
the foramenifera polyps, polyzoa, etc., we shall have
to record still larger obligations to minute forms of
living things. The coral polyp builds reefs that
constitute the chief characteristic of certain regions
in the Pacific; foramenifera are forming or helping
to form strata of considerable extent, while diatoms
are making deposits many feet in thickness, com-
posed of myriads of their siliceous shells, or adding
their contributions of silex, very large in the ag-
gregate, to all sedimentary rocks. Testimony of
CONCLUSION. 195
this kind of work is found by the navigator who
examines the ice in arctic seas, and it comes up
with two miles soundings from ocean depths.
On the surface of the earth the amount of change
produced is equally remarkable, although it leaves
less permanent traces behind. As a rule no decom-
position of organized matter takes places, no death
of plants or animals, without infusorial life making
its appearance, and disposing of no small portion
of the spoil. ven in our climate the mass of
matter thus annually affected is very large; but
what must it not be in moist. tropical lands, where
every particle seems alive, and the race of life and
‘death goes on at a speed, and to an extent scarcely
conceivable by those who have not witnessed it.
Thus, if we look at the world of minute forms
which the microscope reveals, there opens before us
a spectacle of boundless extent. We see life mani-
fested by the simplest tissues, gradually ascending
in complexity of organization, and in creatures
whose habits and appearance seem most remote from
our own, we find the elementary developments of
the organs and powers that. constitute our glory,
and give us our power. Such studies assist us to
conceive of the universe as a Cosmos, or Beautifully
Organized Whole; and, although we cannot tell the
object for which a single portion received its pre-
cise form, we trace everywhere relations of structure
194 MARVELS OF POND-LIFE.
to means of existence and enjoyment, and are led
to the conviction that all the actions and arrange-
ments of the organic or inorganie worlds are due
to a definite direction and co-ordination of a few
simple forces, which implicitly and unerringly obey
the dictates of an Omniscient Mind.
EN Dax
A
Acineta a form of Vorticella ass
Animals and vegetables,
Distinction between 25
Animalcules, (see Infusoria)
Animalecule Tank , ; 2 13
Antenna of Rotifer 39
Aspidiscus lynceus : : 97
B
Bell-flower Animalcule, or
Vorticella . : LG
Brachionus urceolaris, or
Pitcher Rotifer . « 22
brain of 124
cilia of 23
eggs of . 125
eye of. . 124
gizzard of 123, 124
tail of : P ; . 125
Bryozoa, (see Polyzoa)
C
Canthocamptus, Adventure of
with a polyp. G 4,
Capsules of polyp 47
Carchesium . , ‘ beret)
Chretonotus larus : 82, 84
Chydorus sphericus : 47
Ciliata, a group of ciliated
animaleules 5 5 3 a 28
Coleps hirtus . , ; . 84, 85
Consensual motions : ;
Cothurnia imberbis . : . 66, 68
Cry ptomonads : “ pe 1 b7
locomotive organ of 119
D
Dipping-tube 44
E
| Embryonic development : . 188
Epistylis . ; : : 3 95
Euchlanis triquetra é ; 92
EKuglenz 23,114, BS
Euplotes patella . « 86
Eyes, care of . L122; 13
screen to protect. and assist
inicroscopic vision . : 12
F
Floscule, the Beautiful oie fick
jong hairs or cilia of ; 5)
observations on. . 76, 81
tube of : . ; ’ GO
Floscularia cornuta : : Apel
ornata . P : j 3 73
4
G
Gizzard of rotifers 37, 38
(For gizzard of particular
species, see that species)
Halteria : : : : 5 Oe
' Hydra viridis, (see polyps) 44
»
196 INDEX.
I L
Illumination of objects, Lindia torulosa . 101102
Directions for . 5 : . 9 | Limnias ceratophylli F . 148
advantages of oblique light 10 form of ciliary apparatus 149, 150
dark-ground ‘ : 27, 28 gizzard of Uh Ba
lamps . : 3 ll
modes of softening light ey atOy! M
Infusoria, Classification of ‘ 21 | Melicerta ringens . 3 ° 92
their motions and restlessness 59 brickmaking by. : 92, 93
rapid growth of : : 59 |’ mode of house building . 09S
Acineta . - - “i 31 peculiar tube of es
appearances and disappearances tube of «ee
of : ; F : . 150 | Metopidia acuminata : 65
circumstances affecting , 131 | Monocerca rattus . > . .- oo
great work done by ° . 191 | Mongstyla .
Aspidiscus lyneeus . es /i O
Carchesium : 96 |
Cheetonotus larus ; f 82 | CEcistes crystallinus . : ae RS
Coleps hirtus . - ; . 84 | Owen, Classification of mammalia 185
Cothurnia imberbis . : 66
Cryptomonads - 5 Sau, P
Epistylis . ; ‘ ‘ 95 | Paramecium .. ; : . 53, 54
Euglene . : Soe. MATa rapid increase of . ‘ Age)
Euplotes patella j : 86 star-shaped vesicles of —. d4
Halteria . : : i . 97 | Philodina . : : . . 104
Ophrydina . : ‘ «=~. LoL gizzard of . : ~ eee ABE
Paramecium : : 3) movements of : : . 105
Stentors . 5 x : . 143 | Phytozoa . : , * uv 22
ciliary wreath of . 144 | Plumatella repens 5 . 158
experiments with . . 148 | alimentary canal : se 108
in sheaths . 5 ~ A46 cenecium of 2 : . 159
modes of propagation . 147 ectocyst : : - «» 165
Mouth OL , 145 | eggs of . < ? , . 164
rapid multiplication of . 146 endocyst . : - . 165
sudden disappearance of 147 epistome ; : é . 161
their changes of form 144, 145 funiculus.. : , «POL
Trachelius . : ‘ : 55 generative system . A . 163
Trachelius ovum . ; E79 lophophore . 4 . ) Sig G0
Trachelomonads . > aa |W movements of intestine
Trichodina pediculus . 65, 66 during digestion . ot ees
Vaginifera . : ; ee eke muscles . : a S . 165
Vaginicola . : : . 152 peculiarities of ciliary motion 160
peculiar group of 152, 154 statoblasts 5 : : . 164
Vorticella : ~o MOP BQVNSL, B2 striated fibre : . . 265, 166
”
INDEX.
Plumatella repens, tentacles of . 150
Polyps ; ‘ : : F 44
Polyps, changes of form. . 48
Hydra viridis. : : 43
organization of polyps . . 49
piercing an anguillula : 52
poison threads f : . o2
Polyzoa, Character of 197, 158, 189
Protozoa & 2 : 3 Fume
_ Pterodina patina : . : 61
R
Rotifers, Zoological positions of 35
structure Of gizzard. 36, 39
sexes of ; 5 ‘ A 35
Brachionus urceolaris . ~ £22
(Ecistes crystallinus . 102
Euchlanis triquetra : oe
Floscularia ornata =. - 73
ss cornuta : a eill
Limnias ceratophylli . 148
Lindia torulosa OT LOe
Melicerta ringens “anes
Metopidia acuminata : 65
‘Monocerea rattus . 2 OU
Monostyla_ . 5 F ; 97
Philodina é eer . 104
Pterodina patina F : 61
Rotifer vulgaris. : Bac 3)
- Scaridium longicaundum ., 134
Stephanoceros Eichornii 135, 138
Triarthra : : : pa 4)
Reflex actions . : : egies IS,
S
Salpina . ; j ; : 100
protrusion of gizzard : 70
Scaridium longicaudum ; . 134
Stephanoceros Eichornii , Se at,
197
Stephanoceros Eichornii, cilia of
135, 136
crown of tentacles. . 135
eyes : : aerate . 138
nerves A é 5 eo. L388
ravenous character of . e137
respiration . : - Beret ts30)
fy
Tardigrada, or Water Bears 172
cast skin of used as a nursery 177
curious figure and habits. 173
effects of heat on . : 176
peculiar mouth of —. . ‘14
structure of gizzard : 174
zoological rank of . iG
Trachelius . Ses : sao
Trachelius ovum : cub p peu
branched digestive fate LAS
changes subsequent to Baten i 182
fission of 2 : 181
Trachelomonads , ‘ tigi Ledeen
Triarthra . - ee
curved spines of : 120, 121
gizzard of A : : 121
Trichodina pediculus . 65, 66
vi
Vegetables, nature of : : 29
Vibriones : ‘ : : «oD
their relation to decomposition
of animal matter : « i86
Vorticella . ? : : : 19
acineta form of, ‘ « lel
mode of propagation, and
encysting process . . 29, 32
W
Water Bear, (see Tardigrada)
Worms colouring mud : « ELG
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NEW PERIODICAL.
RECREATIVE SCIENCE:
A Record und Remembrancet of Srrtellectual Obserbation.
Writers of the highest eminence in the scientific world enrich its pagés with contri-
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Contents of the First Six Numbers :—
ANECDOTE HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY. By C. M. ArcueEr.
OUR FRIEND THE ROBIN. By Surrtey Hipserp.
THE PLANETS. By E. J. Lowe.
WAYSIDE WEEDS AND THEIR TEACHINGS. By Spencer Toomson, M.D.
HUMBOLDT. By Hatn FRISWELL.
NIGHT-FLYING MOTHS. By H. Nort Humpureys.
THE KEY TO A BIRD’S HEART. By Wiztiam Kipp.
WHAT IS A DIATOM? . By Turren West.
THE CHASELESS WORK OF THE SHA. ByS. J. Macgrrz.
A CATALOGUE OF ALL THE COMETS. By G. W. F. Cuampers.
A PLAYTHING OF THE TIDES. By W. C. L. Martin.
ELEMENTARY METEOROLOGY. By E. J. Lowe.
TALK ABOUT TREES. By O.S, Rounn
COLLECYING AND PRESERVING FUNGI. By F, Y. Brocas.
THE GREEN TREE-FROG. By Surritzry Hipperp.
PHRENOLOGY IN THE POULTRY-YARD. By W. B. TEGETMEIER.
REFLECTION FROM POLISHED SURFACES. By J. A. Davizs.
GEOLOGICAL SCENE IN THE ISLE OF WIGHT. ByS. J. Macxrre.
WINGLESS BIRDS. By W.C. L. Marri.
CLOCKWORK CHROMATYPES. By Tuomas Goopcurnp.
FLINTS OF THE UPPER CHALK FORMATION. By J. R. Lrercuitp.
HERBARIUM OF MOSSES. By F. Y. Brocas.
HARMONIES OF NATURE REFLECTED IN ART. By Picuarp Draxin, M.D,
COINS OF THE SELEUCIDZ KINGS OF SYRIA. By H. Nort Humpnreys.
SCIENCE ON 'tHE SEA SHORE. By SuirtEy HissEerp.
MICROSCOPIC GEOLOGY. ByS. J. Macxtiz.
WONDERS OF A STAGNANT POOL. By Turren West.
A LIFE AMONGST THE LIGHT-HOUSES. By Harn FRIswett.
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS. By Srprimvus Presse.
AQUARIA MANAGEMENT. By Surrtey HispeErp.
WINTER MANAGEMENT OF CAGE-BIRDS. By Wiitrast Kipp.
A TRAVELLING OYSTER-BED. By W.C. L. Martin.
WATER-GLASS IN PHOTOGRAPHY. By T. A. Matonz.
THE GYRASCCPE. By E.G. Woop.
EXPANSION OF METAL. By W.C. Berper.
BIRD PRESERVING. By O.S. Rovunp.
OPINIONS OF THE PREss.
*¢ An illustrated serial which, if con- ‘© Will be as acceptable for the drawing-
tinued with the same spirit and ability | room as for the sanctum of the student.”
displayed in the opening number, will | —City Press.
achieve a success.” —Standard. ‘Deserves the most cordial. encourage-
‘‘The parts before us contain more than | ment.”’— Weekly Mail.
fifty articles by well-known writers, pres) Fe Furnished with philosophical and sci-
senting features of general interest.’— | entific information of the utmost utility.”
English Churchman. | —Leader.
‘*You cannot but like the work, its ap- ‘* Written in that pleasant intelligible
pearance is so attractive. Out of aoe Sylow must Fon! scientific reading
scores or moré of articles we are unde- a real recreation,’”’—Bristol Times.
cided as to which is the best.’’—Christian | Ee a pala neat Science’ is full of excel-
Cabinet. ent scientific matter, communicated in
‘Full of interesting information in a | simple, popular language.”— Critic,
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