Se eS beh cele Thee Ware weewaeuvsseu Ye Nee \ Ss ZI } weer Ser. es - ws ZS Ag — fh j SS ie Ses NS) ! NS Ay Nd) es SS \ | | |=) ‘ HA Ne eros pee [thet S wr = | | f | {\ [ee , L } } | | bated A wes A Red} j q wi =| / Vea =) A i | i} \ \ { | \ h—) R \ i TILE | | SS | . | A) Sy | AADADAS Aj OOOS Wr eveaveses wy =, WSF FSS SSS SSS SSS ~ = Ss Actress wis ‘< a eeeeae — oavovee oes ESS AWA ASASAPSOSSG SIE } , dey | wy | ee | SS | woe SAS eddy STE eee FOSS cee = sue SAGA : SEEK N\A beta \ ed Nae | | Seer | | | ae, \_)\ aes ee . saoeuvessenceresrwes : ee cogseeeeeee FUSES SSS ; Ned \ poe wiry SNS = = Soe) NS A Ap—). SS — | Ses Say Sq_———. —S =| SS) SS Bee SS BSS SSS Seren tubal iat J aA ISS ps ee eI vveevecerae of IN | | | \a Net ea Na Ned } | | | 3 | Ss Pesevs ddvivsvsvvvouebeer oo ‘Ad tad os Sate jo Saeesocoeeeeeee geet} =) t Ss SIDA Socee Sve w eer ove Nea ee | Wisi eS PIES <>} we WAShe= ij SiS |S S ead) SIS Pete awww weal Soeeecucee NY aad ‘ae ge Se ~~ | ee Ne, vopeeww IAAI ITI pada KRIAAS MAAS SHS FI is e ha ah ee LATS BESSSSSES ceee } weed Swe Wace ce Ow es Near Ve as ay er Neer er et et Ne \ if - 2 TAI SS ne eeesesesess =} Se | ws A LT ptpSGGISSSSS ppt SSIS GS OSS “ porn Mig, the hy baherd row Jae ‘ op tere diit Ga le eS | “er ' TWh 4d an me Semmes Ps re a | oA ar Se ee el Ca nae ps ae my ma ° erin 7 AD oe Tr ee ple eeo\'S mes 7 a bt ate es a a Om s Ht says , ny, : 7 al me 4 e@ ae = bas a Pig nie Tye t ~ Vee - mi att ni a Inetap Se oe 5p3 + r - ae 4 7 aL B Prete: a ¢ yf > "ti Pan RA \” 1 fee SEs 7 a 7 \ ms I =F 7 O77 it ‘-¢' MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE. » Le - } H V: No. Page. ADAMS, Lionel B.NM Big SnasiGes eckec seees caeeeeesckaets VIII, 358- IX, 361. ADAMS, Lionel E. The Life Story of the Mole........... JII, 130-131. African Jacana or Leaf-Walker. By Sir Harry Johnston.... XIV, 577-578. Agave, or American Aloe. See: Wine Plant... .ccccscccces Vy 198-200. Agriculturel Ant of Texas. By H. St.J. K. Donisthorpe... XXVIII, Air Currents and Waves. By W. Henkel......cceccerveceeee XVIII, PPtasane. by Wa lM EV CEES te « o\s.cc cealsicieleinie e eeiemine sais ele clot OKs 812-815. Ancient Relation of the Rhinoceros. By W. P. Pucraft.... XXIV, fneient Ugliness. By W. P. Pycraft.ccccc cscs ccserceces NAKED, Anemones of Southern Seas. By Edward Step.....ssceeoeeee XXVIII, papel —roke BY We Ps PYCTOL bs «0 clcjsciscicice ciaisisesisiaicicie cisis set Muli. Animals Which Grow Backwards. By W. P. Pycraft.......... V; Animated Aeroplane. By W. P. Pycraft..ccccccccccovececns IVy Animated Oat. By Edward Step... ccccccccsccccccnccccccceses NAVI yg Bit -BAberS. by Rey Ly GeKKCI << o sicie cscs ole ol cleisele sielele ce/elsielareneonl ili STG) IGS GRD Ro eciSUOCUIO”U OO UOOCUOOGUOODUOD Cad OUOndadoucdacs Mail, Ant—Lion and Its Trap. By John.d. Ward... ccescccccccccce Ly fnts end the Bull'’s-Horn Acacia. By Edward Step......... XIX, fnts As Honey—Pots. By H. St.J. K. Donisthorpe...csccace XXIII, Archaeopteryx. By Sir Harry Johnston......ccccccccccoees Villy Brener—Paish. By Wo Peo PYiCTAl be. ccs clcceceicice clee cin cioilcle sic is Artificer In The Hive. By Tickner Edwerdes....cccecsccse XAVy Bons edward ©. BSCberidesccceccencies cis cinco eeicicelcicinielainte: Vins furore Borealis, or Northern Lights. By Mex Reebel...... VI, BUS Prnesu Hs TSCtSC—PIMCS. 256s ccc cc cc clclclacieiecialeeie, hints fustrelien Spiny Lizard. By R. Lydekker.....scccccccsces Iky AVEBURY, Lord PNETOGUCTSOM« 515100 210 ole oo clelelelelejalelatelelelsiorerert ills BACLCIdte by EOWATG Os) ASH s/clcle ols oie os ovsie cleleisleleleienatereiniarete navi l ili, Bark-Gecko. By R. LydekKer...ccsccsccccccccccccacevccsce XVy Barnaeles. “By* Bernard Cs WHIGe.s « <.c cisicc cic ois «icicle crels\sicieiniow as MOL L's BASTIN, BASTIN, BASTIN, BASTIN, BASTIN, BASTIN, BASTIN, BASTIN, BASTIN, BASTIN, Beerded Harold The Cochineal Insect.......cccccvsccsesis Wig Harold The Common Diving Beetle.....cccsccceees IV, Harold The Intelligence of Roots....ccscccccoes KiVy Harold "7A Marvel Of WmistinCte.s.1\ slelclaelstaissisiateen ON VEL Til. Herold The Oak—Apple and Its Meker............. XXVI, Harold The Pea Seed Pest..cccccrcccccevcccscces Kl, Harold Scale InsectsS...ccccccsccccsecsscccceses XVIII, Harold White Ants. ccccccccccccccscccssvcecovces XVII, S. Leonard Plants Which Seek and Avoid the |... LUN Gis 50 sists esc c vale ce dlale aalaima acielsieisl ac Ral iy S. Leonerd The Sensitive Plant.....seccccosesees RIV, Lizerd. By Re. Lydekker..ccsccecsccssccscsceceese XVily 1159-1162. 748-752. 970-971. 935-936. 1135-1138, 1068-1070. 201-203. 166-169. 1075-1076. 530-634. 317. 45-48. 710-774, 940-943 328-329. 409-410. 1020-1027. 329-332 250-256. 815-819. 377-380. l-viii. 329-332 « 613. 552-558. 278-279. 180-188. 1004-1007. 1150-1152. 1047-1052. 855-858. 734-738. 691-696. 502-508. 593-596. 1094-1096. Beautiful Pheesents. By sir Harry DOHISLOMs oleleisiels lcci clelele XX, 841-XXI, SLA. Beautiful Schrimp. By E. d. Splittasccrevccscesccccvccees XI, 441-4420 ayn . 8A-€ sav -OVS : 0 48) RE avis haired Si attest Bp, a) Pe er (OOL8 ap td Sik te ieEaT RIE s 9 gio a OO: eatot Thee Mo | 6h) cake o> Sn go RF, oth: An ae streets sees sere aeterese rebtune iinet, setol ETeiy Zo! gt pe OTE ad 6, eee’ alee heels oo XG stot LAH Doad TO | f Sa diathle Hiatt lh ea: «ftveat SA eoo LsoLla mao: , sqtopsetood 2 ede .H yd -caxeT to dim LT ei), eke Wl Wa sovew brea ee NM ee ee) iS SMe Sa ef RRO 4 ¥ : send teou? TN YG) seorecontat sdt to mot >be PAs tS NBII ea eet apy: < L i g oisn! pul SRE «L + waaeenweseev ee ailtl ds Anerd va a8 » OT } LENE ek ween enact renters cneeeaee crane nee caress nt ge . ‘eSBR Ne | ~UG), cit eo ee ee > Ii Ww 2082 aaa etes dale eibitre 6 Valse awn's ROAR Vee 28 -setbarst to 4 POM CO LIKE: cowie denies 44.0 clas ais kiewie,« +i «OS een Onn : aioe EELIV , wcleslainces semews . s he ae : 38% eae ew awe eaeers | ORR: ON Be ses essod easter eres Ree pe IYI er ee TROL. ge hVXX ania Ce ele Het > Daddy—Long—Legs, or Crane Fly. By E. J. Spitta......ee, Dairying Ants. By H. St.J. K. Donisthorpe...ccecsccsece Deep-Sea Fish. By Frank T. Bullen... ..ccvercescscnccccs BeEVE TOUS MONG GEM eislalolalss cielele/cluicle ale's/ale/e/ainicislelaisisiciale|elcjaielels Devil's Coach-Horse Beetle. By John J. Warde.sseeseceee Diatoms: What Are They? By E. J. Spitta....ccsscvscccee Bamerpnodon. By Wa P. Pychatiie ssa... cc sicisc ais cite se» 6 cine Dinotherium. By Rev. H. N. Hutchinson. ...cccecsrscccces Diplodocus; See: Giant Reptile of Wyoming.....csccsccecs PRMIC OTs wclelaluinleie!e\clc\cjalelalelslele els/a\a) 0/010/4)e) 01 s'e\0) lajelelclovelelaiciaislerele/« DONISTHORPE, H. ST.J. K:-The Agricultural Ant of Texas. DONISTHORPE, St.J. K:—"Ants As Honey—Pots."...sscee. DONISTHORPE, Stedieu Ks Dairying ANGS ccs ee siec ccc oss DONISTHORPE, St.eJ. K:—-A Messmate of AntsS...cecrccece DONISTHORPE, Sted. K:-The Sacred Scarab...secersecce DONISTHORPE, Stede Ki—The Wood Ant. ccccccccenscscece DONISTHORPE, Horace:-A Fly That is Born in Ant's Nests. DONISTHORPE, Horace:—Mites That Live in Ants’ Nests.... Dor—Beetle's Mite. By John J. Ward. .cecccescscccccccces Mave OWOT olsis'a!olals\s\uiel «/elnie)siajolele/s\c/clelels\o/s\ stele) eleieiesiclereislevelelere PAV ANG. DY OUTS Ub «BOWLES 6 cco clccicicicsivicisleleicis|siciciclels Dry Hot Eungus. By Edward Step... .cccccccrccecestece coe Puck—Si led) Dragon. By, We be PYCVATb.. csclccciciciclc cls so cleis Duck-Billed Platypus. By R. Lydekker.....cccscosscceses MAILAN OEM et BDV Kelli.) at In| 9 siclele)s slelc sis s)s/clo\sisic ce s/ejelsielel siete els Earwigs: How They Open end Close Their Wings. By Fred Enock.... Busia asl te MOMMA DCT Sis isl ajpleiole|eiclecisie eleieietsie/sicieeietersiote Tickner:-—The Artificer In The Hive.........e. EDWARDES, Tickner:-The Making of a Bee—City....cccccoee EDWARDES, Tickner:—The Queen Bee. .cccccsccccccccsccccce Fgg—Eating Snake. By R. Lydekker....cccccccccccccscccsecs Eggs of Snails and Their Egg—-Baskets. By Bernard C. Whites... sce Seblepnaty—Pisnt. By Wel Pe. PYCLAL Ges cos sins s slale ole sie cles iccie ENOCK, Fred:-The British Trap—Door Spider. .cccscssesene ENOCK, Fred:-Earwigs: How they open and close their WEtTI Sin iicleleluiels' o0/s\a\oie/ietaielertielciels\ sieistc Preis — Mie iy, WA OS" ss sisiesisivice/se(e/elcleisinlaielelctelotelslelele PNGEK gE red=—-SAW-l 1 1CS so 'sicieje.s/olsle visisivieis + sivisiete sioisicisie/sieisis ele POCCUCEMOUS GCL ste uieio oisic/ela/o\slelsislelels) s)elele)s «10 lelareletetersioiclsiaieietsie Eristalis: Fly of the Rat-Tailed Maggot; See: Rat— bated. MALL Ouse sclsisiels’s\e/sleia(e\eleloiolsteicieieteisicls © esc EOS Meyers uli OHSMDCIS cles luisis}sis'e\s\6'sle/oleicisieineisicinic(e esis 'e ole EXVORS epee. VANCICHL, UPTINCSS cic es oc cisic a eicicisisiviccivic cis «csc Evolution of Legless Lizards. By W. P. Pycraftececesece Evolution of the Crocodile. By W. P. Pycraft....scesees , Evolution of the Horse. By Rev. H. N. Hutchinson....... Eclipses. EDWARDES, ENOCK, No. XXVIII, Page 1126-1128. 804-806. 380-384. 951-952. 464-466. 391-395 » 956-959. 884~886. 53-55 e 442-444. 1159-1162. 940-943. 804-806. 220-222. 98-102. 1099-1103. 764-767. 778-780. 196-198. 388. 420-424 823-824. 767-770. 516-519. 385-386. 1104-1108. 847-851. 1020-1027. 20. 678-682. TLA—T46. 775-778. 839-841. 1027-1031. 1104-1108. 836-839. 947-951. 1072-1074. 952-9556 1032-1035. 835-936. 894-896. 890-872. 960-XXIV, 963. *COLL-000L » To¥~\aT 08-877 -8eOL-0eL ~88E sASA-OS) - +» AaB-ES8 sOVN-TOT -OLe-512 s8E-288 + 188-18 »VSOL-060L eLEOLI-TSOL ee > igi 18-O8S i .£08 VEXK088 e EVX 4 rN ended & NA. eRe ee : ae ia SE CR PR SEAR DT we : cede sane e ee eene e¥eihwise sa aime a 40M eae nee meen aen ee vate) * ele 7 an oe. we -_ 4 Lar 5 ie 5a RR ERT Py Si Beal sha x! ok wins 006) hin bmn. ssa ech sp AS cd wAn sn oe ROTE oly utol va eltes& Viaseduenvasenas tie bge ob a “a et Ora. Soni ‘> to he hn Doe eee» vs ie MORRLDOSIA ali oH oval ya soul wessageascans -BOEMOWW To elitqall ¢raty: 1998 | AMER AD RA os 60 shige nis adipiaia 5\6 0d migid Vee k beeen a eae eeexet to tnd Lsteticolrgs edf-i4 .LsT2 .B i da adamewe” sS009—-VSTOH @a eda". Wate wht oe Amie a eee hala e 1A ON grigrisd-i2 reise 3 Ae We Violas TTS. to adsemeneM h-: 2% .t.38 oH * sees eiess une e-d31806 LeT9ss SAt-te .GtG oH @ es kab Sis #a dee Jae EE. DN Sut—=: 8. isda: shy -sdeoll Bind al otc at ted? Eft A=: sono asesG0Bol ‘atoA mi oid dadT aoc i tessiol . WOR basis Slaw. Vk are ah ake ota Mlaced SEROUS Aeilag. SEEMS va soc ie ates 2 PTRRTECTLL ELT ECE ERC ee eee LT ee) nid pip tiie weeabeh ie Sate ino minis Nath soe “ei etuod val dim jst ale hola; sa SGRURONET Ao: Mt (URLs 9 dae eet ato eveecsensacseners ee teooml of Ya -Ragydstt Beat tes cig’ aba Seale eae ie Maid ON ela < cae ott a * bert ya .esniW tied? seold bns msq0 war woH 228. ane «BOOSH ven dnnpsedawk ple asdecnas cuceGtOduadl sta amma oseveenens OE. SMT OL “TOREThITA odTHigsetoeT. veoseeeeesesYetoreed 6 Yo patdali adT-ineeoet ve aba wie a ele See DAR ee ee 42 HED airt=s yomlott ie ai via 6 oun igh iROmLN ES aT OR DLS) 6 oe OL ait val isha 3 +0 oxvented 14 sasadest-ned wien? pas aliane: Sissi aig) s.ci.9 Chen ae ihe s. tied lal 'e'p 0 9 poe a heta Tee BUR ete ate RRR wee | Wand a de Bd sevscssceseesstopiqd tood-gait dettiat: adi-whers tiedt sacio bas, aeqe yeds wol ica | w Gin pieaie ou 09-8 ae ORIEL Ie ed ann a Fe eee cwreewnesrneaen et eaenn sess ae teek lt ertattt tbo ~tak :6e8 .doggell SoLisTotsHh aug. an yitresrns ne enaaelnns Ss ae a 2 sadedhedccsssucueseueeneeeReegsigiianme logs ‘tea: chaleteaene wd 5 Titsyd «fh wi. ye ~ebtar hd @eelyed to c svaswnnace st TBTOVE oh Mh Ba ce DEbonee) ene Bove a), «iehaaainie MoH, Wet Ya. +9a°t0H. ond be No. Fairy Flies. By Fred Enock...csseccscececeeccescccecees XX, Feiry Rings. By Edward Step...cccesccccccccccccsccccess KIVy Fairy ScHrimp...csceccccsccccccccccccccccevcccccscccsese Vy False ScorpionsS..ccccscccccscscvccccccccvccscccescccces Vily Fen-Corals. By Edward A. Martin.scccccccccccccrecnsvcce Xy Peru euMC citi cl aiclalalatalelale cfalelelsielelelele’ sie! e/e ofcleheleletalclshalchelalsleyeleravevey lelale. FINN, Frenk:-Birds As Bower—Builders...cssccecssseseoee Illy FINN, Frenk:-Some Wonderful Birds' NestsS......ssesesese TI, miee—pelijed Loads by He ly GekKers .s <0 s\clclaiceicleleie|s/elcloiejels | Niall, eeee—-Hil diss cleielelelelela/eleleierel ciel aiele alelelelaleielexcloteleteielolelciereierelsleislele XXV, Fish See:— Deep-Sea Fishe.ccccccscccvccsccccccssvesscs Iky Fish-Louse, or Argulus. By Fred Noad Clark......2+...-- XVy Hash fhat Fishes. By Edward! Step. .c.ecccsseiccciviceiecces Lili, Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone. By R. 1. Pocock....... XVIII, Flames of the Sun. By E. Walter Meunder.....ccccccccsee Ty FYamingoes. By Six Harry Johnston. .c.cccccnccccccconices XVig Page. 836-839. 590-593. 200-201. 285-288. 414-417. 18-120. 105-108. 38-43. 481-484. 1019-1020. 379-384. 614-619. 9193. 738-7L4 » 1-4. 619-622. FLAMMARION, Camille:-—The Luner WO de catcleletonetelateleletcievetelats Teles 139-IV, 150. Flexible Sandstone. By Russ@l1 F. Gwinnell............. III, Fly Thet Is Born In Ant's Nests. By Horace Donisthorpe. XIX, Migr PEACONss by He WyGeKkers «oc <.o «clclclelcialsiev ele « cicjelsleiel Lili, Ppysirip sha shese BY RemisVOCKKEI ss ces oc oe) clelelaeicielsieleieicicicie/sse lily HegemoL NUP CS. By Wate) EViCres: Gels eis «iss c\aleveialelolelels)eisiey ele) oUF Lys Foreminifera. By Richard Kerr... Fossil Sea-Lily. By Frederick Chapman..cecccccccccccsee XXVIII, Fossil Sea-Serpents. By W. P. Pycraft..ccccccsccsseceee X1Vy Fossil Weather. By Russell F. Gwinnell.......ccccscseee Vy Four—Kyed Fish. By W. P. Pycraft.cccccccccccccccccccces AXVII1, Four-Footec Nest Builders. By R. Lydekker....ccccccccese XiXy Fresh-Water Hydra. By K. G. Blair.ssccccccccccccccccsoe Vig Beeeled i 2erd.s BY; Ia WV GEKKCT si0js cleles eo 0 1s « averelelejsiele ec) ool TRON Frogbit. By John J. Wardeccceccvccccscceccscsvesccscecce AXlVy Frost Crystals. By Richard Kerrececceescccccccsccesvvese Villy Gakis of Wild Roses. By E. W. Swanton. ..ccccccccccensee XXVIII, Garden Spider. By E. J. Spitta..cccccccccccccecccccvece Vly Giant Armourec Tortoise. By W. P. Pycraft...scecccceee XXVIII, Gient Clam. By Sir H. H. Johnston....ccccccececcecceces Vig Gient Crab of Japan. By Sir H. H. Johnston......ecceeee V1, Giatt PIs. by EdWard SGC Duss tamnem eit See eGb renee ces se \ 9B taDbUd~L3HOE eh ob tt al Nak cercvecanes+ +) -Acnen “Shane Lttonnow eoce t2l3 QUI bebe kee ee aren ney eta ME -baoT Be. VER Be <4 tN bw s Sones 6 8 heen aoe sa ght Vabeveceker coe netyeaa eens can esti 250-1900 ~ CUR caiisen ss ee noth Dod bat vi .aglugth To ¢ Pes See ys lewiamemie’s. Rametiatee. RALANmINE. Ate seed tt -TIEVE) +s..,s-d0000T ol eh .dnodebnee bat BLO edd * Ub clikveceurn ress AODOUeM TOsLeN ya sme exit 4 «hw acpi bE ni tase; bpdonessa ss UNS Eee bt t odtath | a a hk aur’. weal Roeehiee + MRO eer: mt. Ba a “aig arte ial hw cane cotatatursa aie @ ONS ia § Bette ty) cunvececsea ebtbitnd teat betool- wWol- sf rc eh oa ta eae peLlt-s¥ ofT=i8 Ets’ p wiwio olga ava oprolaia hie mate @Rnnehe i> tus tds ae Bebiés ye O66 Neel an Do a s8e%eno aft 3H ! a Capea adbrevbedthss se DROD SERRDEM oFft-oe secpoveuces CotoREL dnaiy to .axsod ino ih cee Dehes pada s ROIELED to giitest edtT—28 sseseves@tadedinl thedT Gnas semiggotot- 28 ces sak vab aves casvaMt 70 ,2iadern ont ik Labinip kee eekeenidehioems COBO) MAR Met OLE Sel shale 5 Ae Ns aaa Ale ag eR ouit— “Hi 3 i yee anageeeeu Jonge gakdnul-talliqtetsd h~t aiguil. : | cok sees sup eves sige agnenitOW @bmiou: onl—iisuree wae wa aie me Fb muh 9 Wslaisig SNOMED: @) DOR Reman Be ‘sgl saedarensvaneSldsevene Oae 8 sane adT~:fayH bascaseuwe@abtanba ‘renmlot? yo .yihl-eed' s te ware +28 Yi sedmadge ld tontsxd pas oak i alstdi a anes SEE ORO : ceossccceeagvane soho oTAwhd YO stedte) tae ca veca stobiteam totLaW 12 yi .nekl tof enol s veccoewerspenen see QHOd@ Q02 fae Tao) gtk od cgee eee eee ee ee 5 hilb-el ipiale! weed een ae pyvewod aE) sacpeseess oilttat oft 2o geek ooT-vh drew ie veeswccesahpovesee BLIGTOO=IOE OSTA Drape gle wesev est vGOttbores bea asthroecall-.k-otawod Pa en sev euagee Leto, eqed-megt0" tA Degen om 7 Sy 20 — 8 sennpeaiea ses 2 Bia B38 ant tA. ‘vais ds pe aga S fetal hattlew va swone ade sevesecencss@taN Yo Telenso™ oat =: tod Let vesvavecsessse aft OAt to domaulieyned lay of) shvovene sf TOW a00H 3 2A atame east . Ladle oc platy a6 ha edt mo Ode aadidcat2? yd, Imemege ld ‘peoG~sit wtteeeeees sean s@Qouting tid bas Pae MAXWELL, Sir Herbert:—Vegetable Grapnels and BHOOGET See ccecc clnceecececees MAXWELL, Sir Herbert:—Winged SeedsS...ccccecesececcs Messmete of Ants. By H. St.J. K. Donisthorpe...... Meteorites and Aerolites. By Edward A. Martin..... Midgé afid Ifs Curious Eye. By E. J. Spitte........ Macni rhe Sun. phy) fen Wer Henkel... ices e ess seinicisin es oe Midwife Toad. By R. Lydekker...ccccccccaccncencecs Millipede's Nest. By Haigh Mein.cccccccccccccsccece Mamaery Inj Spaderse ByiR. pl. PPOCORK ssc)... s aisic ase cals Pee OT) aig uw wiini wiel « @ wile viele vieleleie «c's, o Mimleieieluieiese\« Minute Details of Butterflies and Moths. By John Je Viera onadcagiecd Minute Marvels In The Pond. By Williem West....... SS 4 Tahir tiqueiel nls An Onmnonodooaaddedas Mirere. By F.-Ws cHenkcell 5 oc. cic ae cinis 6 eis iate oleinjels\eleiclee Mistletoe. By Edward Stepeccccsecccccsesscccscvece Mites That Live in Ant's Nests. By Horace Donis-— Mirage: GHOPE sisietelers sie PEC Pa T CEC harelclaia «lelnia’e ole iels}a's)s\0) si s)n 0/0 o/s\0/6 sie\e\e/«\s/s sls \n Monitors, or Giant Lizerds. By R. Lydekker........ Mctevaes HET LO 5 natalia iy a talsolainsie «1s she s\c/ale aisle, siolaleies ayers «in aie See: Fossil Sea—Serpents...ccecccscsene MUSH GOMNPATESILC sc nice cle delclesacsecssccccesenccess Mystery of Fish Life. By W. P. Pycraft.....scccose Naoseur — The Record Breaker. By W. P. Pycraft.... Natural Case of Lock—Jew. By W. P. Pycraft.......- Nesting of Caimans. By R. Lydekker....csccccccccece eect Es-Ciciaia a ebala aie) « alale'e) clelal cle «90 ¢ Ra ee geese dBOM msilify ¥@ «brood ad? al slovishh eee een) eo a stst 7998) ks‘ are($.nie 9: c aiigealehlene daa: aah mieieae © ate a ane Te rrr rr brawba “a aK -gtcod 9o3n0H YG «eteal e'tan ont avid oa sews we ee SQHORG eee Ota Nel aaa dhs acs aan aa veeveenetolebyd: 2.18 -ehvas hb gaate koi +: aca ee a4 wee oe Owe ee im whet ae We ay ee Ore Sheree pansavedounees Qoneutogesse Léagod t99G ok wats walees 4g UaMes Cebu anaes enna ae ede cecesneneveed IStONT -% of YE vB ted dest 2o, a 0 savetIstoyd .o-.W Ya, -tedleeth Stover edt ~ z veeveseedtatoyd so .W ya »wab-wood to,seas0 | sia hin 6 oa. wees eine RMA Oab Pa; | el semabad to:.3 Sabah tagger ata we oe o:sclenlnie a ed & wly alae wii oe 6's alee ae ont to. § BGR A Si ele LP Kavich weeds they + GhEOBe: BRASS . bee ges game aQuo bt emtotantst) weed case vreeeser eae seb hiotoll stork. {9@8) sdighi- weeceseeetidead biotel 14: .todelatl bas 2. Se ae) dep T tosvd ys cscs ne ots slat kim as nie Om a SRPSAU 8 caeiRe oat eee eedtatoud oo «Wo Yd -otttsll RE) Naewe® B «cocoa ed wdc Be Gal ccna’ kan ene senenenss ange Ie Dmmnmmarern EST TEL OK {mech DS SES asides | Ya) aadaky od “amo ~MoQ00% «Lf «tk ey aeons dae Te eR elie x dnt a. ese e eee poe hee Pea Seed Pest. By Harold Fee Ea Se Pearls and Pearl Oysters. By Charles De aotenetson fo ase! Pelorus Jeck. By Be T.. Bullen. occ ces ccccesccecess Pelycosaur. By Sir Harry Johnston......ccccccsecoce PHILLIPS, T. E. R:-The Planet Jupiter....cccecceee PHILLIPS, T. E. R:-Saturn —- The Ringed Planet..... BPenen Jupiter. By 2. Be Re Paallps i ee. cocscieenc PFW! CI“Vro ais cin cielaisielels aisleieisisc clas ¢ 0/616 sisleicioie slejaiois Plant or Animal — Which? By Edward Step.....secsee Plent That Sets Water Traps. By John J. Ward...... Plants Which Seek end Avoid The Light. By S. Leonard Bastin.....ce.ccss Plesiosaur. By Sir Harry Johnstoneccecrecccccsccces POCOCK, R. I:—Bird—Fating Spiders.....ccccccccccess POCOCK, R. I:-Fishes of the Old Red Sand-Stone.... POCOCK, R. I:-Gient Ground Sloths....ccccccccccvee POCOCK, R. I:-Gient Reptile of Wyoming....seccoeee POGCGGK, H. Ts—The Teuanodone sc. cccc cc cciascccie cies Poeeen. He. Lo—The King Crapeiecccacccesice sisisicciccicic POCOCK, R. I:-Mimicry in SpiderS....csesvscsecccce POCOCK, R. 1:—Pariesaurus, An Ancient Reptile..... POCOCK, R. I:-The Sabre—Toothed Tiger. .ccccccsece POCOCK, R. I:—Trap—Door SpiderS...ccccccccccvessee POCOCK, H. I:—The Water Spider... scccsccsccssccee Peete tee) lsh Loy SP1CeI sis s)c\sioloic.cie.e © © sielajaleialsieiciene Pollen. By Edward Stepecccccccccceccvecccccsesves Polycystins. By Richard Kerr...cccccccccvevcsceces Porcupines and Their Imitators. By R. Lydekker.... Portuguese Man-0'-War. By Frenk T. Bullen......... POULTON, E. B:-Warning Colours. .ccccccccvccccccccs Praying Mantis and Its Reletives. By John J. Ward. Proteus, or Olm. By R. Lydekker...ccccsccsccvesevice Protozoa See: PolycysStinsS.cecscccccscccccsccccccece Pterodactyls. By Sir Harry Johnston...eccccccaccee PYOHSET W. bse AVVOSAUT <\<\cisic\ +c 6,0. s/0/0/s\s slaleisicle PYCRAFT, W. P:-An Ancient Reletion of the Rhino- CELOSiais|« clsicle ie sic/p oldie oo\o\s alelele oleleleletele PYCRAFT, W. Pt—-Ancient Ugliness...sccccccccccccces ENO RUE Wa b> —Aieel lt Slis «\s)srslcle|e)e)e/s) el e1eleisiersieterstalerele PYCRAFT, W. P:—Animels Which Grow Backwards....... PYCRAFT, W. P:-An Animeted Aeroplane... ssccccccee PYCRAFT, W. P:—The Archer—Fish....csccccscscsccccece PYCRAFT, W. P:-The Becoming of & Chicken....cscace PYCRAFT, W. P:—The Bird With Hands....ccscccccccce Vil, Xue 15 320-VIll, Page 855-858. 280-VI1, 285 121-122. 450-452 « 300-304. 209-213. 300-304. 875-876. 375-376. 502-508. 405-408. 32h. Tae 662-664. 53-55. 528-530. 292-294. 1G 119. 1000-1002 eae, 460-462. 72-19 « 851-855. 153-1546 687-691. 156-160. 562-564. 12-19 Bhe-B43 812-815. 970-971 « 935-936. 1068-1070. 201-203. 166-169. 409-410. 991-994. 177-178. a ae aRAV=SET » 8B-Gd0 > ae-Fe sOFS-8EE . AOS 5.0’ S VLE-OLL -ecB—Lee sho l-Set ~123-T8d sOdL-deL OTR SCRE AAC ~2L8-Si8 20) < wr TV-OSE ; at hie tia ane cere a aaltaio PPR Fy to a: pcs 6to0d2-basd: bal 510 etft' to eenali-1 oil Ry wevasevecsvan ves ve@tOGk@@ Gh) (roRmEM-sT |. ogmaiam ~...e8Lt¢god taetomk md ,aniupaalsst—- .veldaees sBMORA2G [360 DHA BOn70M poms 4 a VX iis Raa, tes adtine-24 wll .LIVE .noldsmtrotenerl saws To afewratt smo8-i9. a.’ vx sues rohvonoood fety ey wily Denes | amoe~ ; ¥ eIVEX 5. eedekt Sas tal sl(dakranoh saod- 24 LEEPER Voss selvaie e's eOohrene eldeaitton emoe-- 24 ae Wehr slates s SQRadS Luther aalote 6. Livy 2... Ledwes edd to rasqu Laxtye eat 2% Wy oe TO Ne ere iO de a cop cops as mad eno mR adT—<.5 ‘ AGS 4 AS at hy ARENA ec oY edt: a “WX tbe ee aa aia a ele elaieie Win OE ee sda lankit~ 24 ke, , < VEX “lye ae ae ei ainpia'e «pci 2 ARLE SOT kiaet Duchess 9 | abe q WW cLIV -.04o5 ee HOPRMHOL Yrs Tee YS, Yotd scl pos vibe RSI VAD RY O-SR ARO IRIN SFC) I oro LY aKa) oka See Te aA erie a ea brads th ya eRe aeddvow vo gatisercd ston sdl-.xebl eh¥ Bae ee sf VT coh ee see eLLTVEX UPR TERY rE eh. Pe 4 Sabet dee Ub hae oh Liye Bee ye ty ee ae eee eke Set a anata atti eat Sabre-Toothed Tiger. By R. I. Pocock... seorcce Sacred Scarab. By H. St.J. K. Donisthorpe.......... =o. Elmo's Bares.) By braniks Tie, Bullen. «cc \cileeloioioierejeie Sand-Waves and Sand—-Ripples. By Edward A. Martin... Saturn = The Ringed Pianet. By T. E. R. Phillips... Saw-Flies. By Fred Bn0ck. .cccccesccccvccvcccssccces seale Insects. By Harold: Basbine.c.ecccesseveecsciic Scallop, The.. By Bernard C. White .ccccsccccvevses Scorpion At Home. By K. G. Blair. wccgecseccccccecs Sea Cucumbers. By Joseph Sinel....cccecececvecvecee pea Dragons. See: Sea Horses. sercccccccccsvcevccsiees eh By OWI 19.6 Pietenci oieisints}oie/eisieis\eis/ oie) olereseheloieleis Sea—Gooseberries. By J. Sinelerssecsccsccsecsvcvece Seas GUS Sones sbyn Ri Chard NCI sss < sialelesessiareieieleuslercleieiors Sea Horses and Sea Dragons..By W. P. Pycraft...ss0 sea—Lilies. By Bernard C. White. .ccccccccvsvcceses Sea Mats. By Edward Step. .svecccccsvecvevecsscsecs pea—mouse. By JOHN dic Wald ss cies cscicescle cle sleiesineciecic pea—Pens. By Edward A. Martin. cccscccscsccescvcseee Sea-Scorpions. By Rev. H. N. Hutchinson......secece Sea-Spiders. By John J. Warde ccssvvcvesscccvenves Bee GEE ES el DYidic) GILMOLcjciciciaistoleyelelcveieieis\ oie) sielelevayeiereiohe Seaweed That Makes Limestone. By F. Chapman.......+. SELIG Sata aleial cialale atel o diuteletel ete) elelala)elel eloleleccialensictetakeseielets Seed Dispersal by Perachutes and Life-Buoys. By Sir Herbert Mascwe lls Siisteveteteverckouckeieie: mie Self-Liminant Fishes of the Deep. By Frank T. 2 Bid coined eee Sensitive Plant. By S. Leonard Bastin... cccccceece BetEto ror A Living. By We Po Py.cratit cic cis\sicnjecivicime Ship—-Worm. By Bernard C. White. .rccccccvcesscvsvcese SINEL, Joseph:—Sea Cucumbers. csersscorveverccveposes SINEL, J:—Sea-GooSebderriesS..crcccccecccrcrssconcece SPN SCF [OOILT IES slelaie'iel wialnte ous e/ei sie. o.0 s\els) shalsieialeieisls snails Teeth. By J. Ee Cooper ec cecceccccncciseccnenae Snake's Head Chrysalis. By Hugh Main.....ssecveses SOAR, Charles D:— Water Mites...cccsvccncncccecsoce Some Curious Shrimps. By Edward Step...sescesescvee Some Marvels of Beak Transformation. By W. P. ByiGVetatie sieieicic Marvels of Fish Locomotion. By W. P. Pycraft.. Plants That Feed on Insects. By Jonn J. Ward.. Remarkable Infent Fishes. By W. P. Pycrsft... Remarkable Sharks. By We. P. Pycraft.-.ccovoenrs Sea Anemones. By Edward Step.cssrcccccsssccce Wonderful Birds' Nests. By Frank Finn.....o. Some Some Some Some Some Some Page. Pia, PRE he TT, 98-102. i, 64. XVIII, 730-734. Win 209-213. SOIT, 947-951. XVIII, 734-738. RMI, LOOZ=xxvieG 1004. ik 274-277. V, 213-220. 1 82-85. KOT, 537-542. Ore 824-828. XI, AA44-L48. Tit, 82-85. AWE 643-648. 0.0. 807-810. ROVE TVA XIV, 564-570. xT, 844-847. SOC, 892-394. XV, LOL) XT) 1047. XXVII, 1103-1104. XXIII, 955-956. IV, 190-V, 196. Al 5) 5-12 ° ane 593-596. XVI 656-659. XXIV, 994-997. We 213-220. 70, a 824-828. MEV, LOAL ona 1.047. XIV, 570-573. XI, 457-458. mei 798-800. POVIT, libeexmvars, 1124. XVI, ie 720 XV, 623-627. Ty Ze, 9.00 1078-1079. YOGANee QLA-947 « X, 425-429. I, 38-43. eAatinehif =|. LLLVRX sOVRHAde «VIX aT S808 ¢EKX 2 OB-REB tix * ToL elAVEX-LA0L a VEX WOLI-COLL iared +9RO-2e0 eh eLAX ret VOL Lia Si-2 en eOES-COE eV 226-020 _ VK THE = AOC VERE sOSS-EL5 eV o8S8—A86 é oak SMAOL eAVARH AOL § RX rey erOV'e a Vix BEQ~-TEh ein -008-GeV erik ROSEL QLELVAX-BLLC .1LVKX .... ckahinne save sundlooodd yo ‘ Oeddyer ss -SQTORIGENOD: 2 . sous Wea mt: o's ofthat ah ivoewhd ye eoeBG tlic Ha gk ye SS ee ee ea we bom cde os anid web ale elena Bb. North aides aliael sce. Steves Ohh Suan nan 20 Et Pietsch ose aah «te aia See ile Sibi kinked a Re ge a ogee , ia Died win p tion's bale ou 40a cea 368 7288 dia mega) os SiciN Wade Wie hela aid cn eke dea cra’s Ol a9 hack Wes e Wie.e 9) WIR 8 Olek h lw eee My, o8 ORE Pe ea ayn ee ace exe We at) REG 7 . * . * . » » - + peeve eOTIOMNIMD Bae 998 aynke ~uacomend Bits adaio ssec dist Saad Rb dinlpy a bie we aatant © Vala ik als am in eaten ebee. Svedsnram oo Coat ee eet acess ee Sadt Heit suT 1998 aor Beers to a ahaa aie rale hed beeeko vb weep bs nab sense es SOCOM H aeemme dokaw & cw Rain wshoaiy ae & sl Rk 8 6 pani en = UU Re AU oS et er OP ere re TR el hal agua ¢aeQ do aoosenT afatiedt to oe ss nate Bra Bok ltra sds Sige aliases? tase. ATOM a) Bims astltratd pe owt to 3: ad¢ol @ avtlivadtud Yo alisiad adtotM oa cry lSe Ree eM wince dl ete pa CNS a ack) ea a . ek Ws a Wimwt okie love ret cole Se epuar ioe a eh ae Slip. phan! GAR ema wa MLD (pc a ee eee ee ee ee is re i ae ee sa killa onal nee ana AMES acc cccccccccwevcccccccccscccnceerceceereuse Ants end the Bulll"s-Horn Acacia. ccjccccceacavece NAnts As Honey—Pots™..ccscccsccsasccccedccesene Aphices of the Dairying AntSe.cccccacccccescvce Apparition See: Spectre.ceccscccsscscvccecccce AQUSEAS Pas ry Ply Se cwcdcccceceeveccecclicclelsis Arborescent Grass—ILees \cicialalelelolale}elsiclelslelcieloleleie/skexsveherelehe Chinquis Peacock Pheasant, The....cesssssseccos Chrysalis of Hover—Ply..ccccccsvccveccececscene PTCHAA« aiclelels ciclvlsicloicle!s\c:s)e « slelale e}s\c)sieislvieisisissie\e/eisjvie Circular Diatom See: DiatomsS....ccccccsseccee Cirro-—Cumulus Cloud See: Clouds.......sescceee Piavelting | Sees, S€a SQUUGES <.<,cjcjcicisieie)eseie)oisie,e.cjeke Claws of a Spider See: Introduction.....sse.e, PaPMMSATI SUPT Cl alctololsisieleloislelelelsl ssele)eleloiaioiokeyeieielaieisierete GEoud—FoOrms sins Marsis . ciwiteicc clcleiclelclelesele siecle esses CLOUdS oo ccccsrevceveccsceccvecescscccccsssscces ERD MOSSES atels! o civic eleiers elclaie’s 0) 6.clesoieie cieisicivjeleisisiecioxe PERSE) GUAT Silns o10wle.c/c\cie wieie'vie.o/0) 010) 0\0/e)eje10) 0) 0.0) oinlslele Clythre See: Ant—Nest Beetle....scsesecccvrvece BGAN BUGS. SLOT ic. Janene ,Ove Vix coUobetcasnddee Soa Wiehe * 3s Pi’ f peveseserteeevenneseeense sac aet eee OmOn Sm eBOE-SA8 Po $0.4 ss Gao '& Wika Pae see ates ive ad weet ta OS . rhed? ina atiomett .9ee Diya ae sOES N. owksnngise se a ROReRRe ome GEARGRay.) GEEITK |» a00ceiuienenenuaaie oennnine ~OoY i 4 Peewee te eee ye WOES ak sh sn vase Maia epee cs fe "= ane si Py a..4 «nena as aapeinaie glee Xie fis tin Anema ado dD eVIXX eeeerrr tree een Pye) RIVE sone sa Qrebvbdh a tot eo Thea 6ilad Pat 2 wae seep en sewea kesh weainen eee ms ‘ BG MISO PUTS ole tal clelelelelaiolelelele/oieleleluislaisllsielsvatelsiele/eiors Curious Hailstones...cwccccrcscccscccconccecere GETTOUS LOFECUPINE Seicielele cieicisleleleie sie cies erelsisieiaiaeiers « CurioOUS SHTIMPS. .cevceccsescecvesssecvccsccvcece Gurious Termite NeSt..ccccccseccccccensvccences Gurl—Cresbed WOUCaz ci cme icivlelere 010 cole vcieleieisjaielsieiejele Cushion-Shaped Diatom.. See: Diatoms...e.cesecee Cyanthus, Comets and Lesbia See: Humming— BirdSisesiee jee Cyclone In Australia... See: Wind... ..ccrscscceee Cyclops See: Water Fleas... ccccsvvcccccsccsces Cyprid Limestones..ccccccecerecevescesececsevere Deddy—Long—Legs, or Crane-FLy...ccccsssccsecacs Dahlia Wartlet See: Sea AnemoneS....rrcccccene DURE PORE QUEL hep tan loln'o}uivieisiniuicieieiovojeisic ajo icieieisinisicisinse Dandelion Puff See: Seed Dispersal. .ccscccccce Daphvar (Sees, Water, FLCAS cocic ciccisie.eicje:niejeioisioysjaiejs Dawson River Salmon See: Queensland Barramuinda. Payer eh, COM Gs) LO ate sior LOss isis © eicislelosclelelcicieie as Bese CAMHS s siclelolsiolelelsloielelelele's s/olaln/e'seleietelsisforoleroie Delpesous Monster, THe <:6ciciciciccicic.c civ cieirisiwiciiciccce Demon's—Face Crab, The... ..ccrccccccccccccvesces Depositing The Eggs in the Brood-Comb See: Making of a Bee—City..wcecccccsccees Development of a Wasp See: WaspS..sccccccccccce Development of the Frog's Hggs..cecccccccccsccs Deval Fish “SECs: OCbOPusies ciccrcrcicisiccieicinieieisisieiess Devil's Coach—Horse Beetle... ccccccvccecccens Devil's Horns, The..See:.Vegetable Grapnels & SHOOLETSlereheic) sven! svotelavehes PEALE OMS 2 sini ols!slale) of elelsi cis! el el! 0} o\si0)e! «)'e]0(0! 0) 610) 6) sisielejelnioliohe DAMOTPNOdon, The. ..ccccccvccccccccsccsvivvvvvees PAMOSAUL s's1s olvie elsia'elelelele « ois) e\ eis cloic\e/e\e\s\0 0/010 sis ele sieivle DINOCHCTAUM. ccccescvdsecevencivcvccevccvcessviesic Diplodocus See: Giant Reptile of Wyoming...... BOGACH s sis voces cc cvcvcce ccivivee sicccciceciccisicisisvices Dodo, The. See: .Wingless.Birds...cceccccccccess Pobttotum "Seer Sa SOUTES Ss «.<:clcs onic slcicleieielsisiclclele Deneee lS) COMCL sD Gelso a\riv/satelereie) clei) selelelaiaietelal sats DOE BCCELC 4 THC a c'c10\v10 cloieie «1 sis\s' sls 0's s\eisloleleisizie’s\ o/s) s\0 Dor Beetile's Messmate... s.cic.eec so 6'e\s/sclelejsiaiels\sis/e Dotted Border Moth See: Protective Colouring OL PINSECES/s) clersieeieiersiciors POMC PE PONS SLT IIC alah el slicls! sel c}eiols) s/ols)eie) jofiaia)cvefelelelels\ chore Downy Hermit and Its Auger-—Shell House....s.e0. Page. 1092-1093. TOL, 853. 1255.5 694. 450. 394 1063. 902. 500. DD). 1127-1129. 425-6 804-806. 191. 498. 1038. 369. 379-384. 953-954. 981. 24. 405. 1080. 31. 464-467. 938. 390-397. Bite iis 260. 885. 54-55 ° 443-LL A» 636. 1045. 366. 196. 197. 3556 387. 23h. cee £OLLSSKL te .808-208 LOL B04 Bed ry ede «ABE-OTE speO=EeO +180 oa seOs -O80L ook pVEA—A0\ sBE0O - VOE=0RE md Wiad . OasS Breas) -ee-Ae saan Ean oles, Pan Or E 1dE. oe TOL de eV Oe oSES er ee : wn sling) as id SS aca tale ‘ «OBE—EBE FOF reer ye Pere ee. ya aes OSE—-LBE } oe 9 eer Dn Ne Cs eee , sSLLs-B8Orl. 1ESE9RE Tp suL divin heaven pera : -u9te% 1998 . tedad-tal mine. iar oO yar abtB Pa, 4 anes ReN HG : »teb-o38 ee 04 Sse esr avnne end ene eee a sae ee #2 8b wes aa 9 Oe 3 *Os Bes EPA S RENE MER Pane Mia Sem: WnE ato adesi .8@. «CWOKK Sw va svea vpntadilyhl coed gebniigtd Yo « vey ETE. yvuis di sanene elvan copes sSoPsOeEe Beam sony Ry ht er eeu u ay ocr | sic ic seive WELE-SILE «=, TEVA ete uc soe Gee : weave sAt sLETR cae dae tascia a Veinluh Ge lo ie Waker) nia erate ee et as Se art 4 308 CLE. atawpemeni a cnnnh chin lech waeb 6 Oi meee aBEG «VE: sbesstbttd eeadgedy ien8... aiertoed ont; «L@OL eIVEX , cewccnwsusea seiqQa-we0 i988 ceeded 3o f Ft Eee ogo! 9 An 6, Alns ls a Sach cha Os, A pe SVS=Ory | Ay Ae sie dvesse eBdONBSE-Bad Shoat Dem) piesa Py aa &x PReEhRNI or Sie ‘ eve UES aoe Lore VIX serasnsonnsaraiecs oon Rh anki-enia Sat tx too Le neivini ‘Bae, mail ae inet PS is. MEE: 4 iccnaieie gE oan XIX ..aciwstied pingoe tt paired eae hed olay LELVi. . ..eobtaddall otutoe ld etived sone att obsivelt antvidd 4686" ase < at eEIIVx 3 «» » se Dtedindl we ~Os8 Pee. 6 EIS Be Ga wee Ses alee oRTE (EL. +. snwessnee Berl bas Jae «fEEL -LDEVEX dig ahate aches ees aie een eee sa ee : a heh Y _LELVE ee oe ee er | S24 a) 21) lb Emperor William's Bird of Paradise....secesees Encke's WomeEaa d dco cic cia creieielC cee cco cl cilomisieleeteieree English Queen Beers ctateieicielslsiclcievels/clsleisleletaleisrsharel sicia English River Mussel See: Pearls and Pearl OY:SCELS\oc oie cloiclelciovers i520 55 SOU ODORDODDOOU OU DUDUDOUODOURDOLOOOUDOCO Eryops See: Ancient Ugliness......cscccssccce Eicalyptus See: Plants Which Seek and Avoid MBS UAH Gite claleie cere ielelclejercioterste EUTOpPeEa|n POTCUPINE. eeceescecccncccccccccccsces Evening Primrose See: Pollen... ..cccccecccace Evolution of Legless Lizards... .cccscccccssccee Evolution of the Crocodile... cccccccencccccnvce EvGrutwon O1 LHe HOPS cs. cle ce\clcs ss elec cee cicisicls Evolution of the Horse's Hoof... .ccccccccc wee Extinct Giant Reptile of Wyoming......c..ceees Haaames Grant TOrbCOTSC cisivie cicie's cc cle aicisle’s ele s\ecleie PRCM OLE GH ATPL Slecjeve steletelelclele vlalots!cleletelolalstevatalels Factory Chimmey See: Figs -ccssesesscccscvcece Mera yarweL dd CSM si. c'clc'c ose wlels)s ele vis love''o's/siolalele/vielalelers PASAAVASEITSeleiwin's'wle a's vlais'e'« vie o\e vislelelelolele/elovelelevetelatats Faaxy Ring Mushrooms « .-.:c0'e oje's cle'e'c'e'e 60/0 else eiviele PSFGae SYEHECTIN S55 BOG0 Oo COO0 OD OCOUOOCDOOCODOCOOOL ESE SCOT D2 ONS elele'e\elelelslele/afalelaleloletelolelolclolaleleYelctotele HEEE-GOTAUS otolelalotel'elyslelelelsln cle) ofaleisieisiolelclele/elsloletetetelele Fan—Tailed Humming—Bird....cccccccscscesccccns Beanies Ore GHEs OPICCIic\e loin clpio'sio'e cleleleleleyolvlcloleleloleverete Fanning Army See: Making of a Bee—-City....ee.~ Fat—Rumped SHeep.. .cccsccccccccccccesccoccccse Hat—leet LCG SHCCHP le ctels’stv'ele's|c'ele ele's'e'elololelolcleleloleletatate PAGE MOPLana's)s'e'cie'v'e'e's cole le wlsicle\e'elvle's e's's eclelele'cielole BEtEe MOLE AT Hiss’ \w/o7s ole aleloleisis)a\c\c\s\0,0 a's’ nlasololele(olatetere "Father of a Shoe" See: Whale-Headed Stork... Feather-Grass Seed See: Seed DispoSal..eceseces Female Gall-Wasp See: Oak—Apples.....sescccece Female: GLOW-WOris .. c's «\s «cv c's 0 ele e'e'cs ele clele’s sialele Fern—Like Horny Coral See: Fan-Corals........ Berd Fike SCA—F Cris sls» . = « =< s.s/aid stale ade CeAGe ObETE USHI<| een Bogtdes aiclha SS a4 eae RO ic ao au see eee eee a8 ape eee soe ee Cts vip ek oe epee C8 Ws) es ered ae bd as bale 4 WO TLCDARIER Ree Be] awe eera eee an cane ht we da A wie oe 8 om om Sa ih w/e eae wae a nat aR Raw ~| wea sy sen sea wee rage cetiadal: Te dem i state, ele, a) 0:5h wxaia; Sm wha teat aaMna ern a Ae ae : 1 hla ete in Chee te eee esate o piw MelWeit oo city SSE Rae ee ere a ~ cud 'willav sie He'd tek daw DeRT eROM ALO mE ee ee ewe ese ees Blears Seamer civ naeaaay tee diva spins tiles MEET Piged baa aliesd geass epee aint) caw vw ecttsoed ghee ae aenEn scccibialiod dip Gack donde tledael tag Ae anaes walwin’as taal -n «i xiwlaliy whee A eae Reaaa ped ed sats cen ihe One te am per dae, antag Bona ene isk 3a ea hn Bs 2otankl edslaet tan. See eens as Ran aie ee ovr eve es Vee revevras evra ee duet deals tah shes writes se Reena a ee eee eee a ee itteaers sed tg Suh Win rw a warmly Caner ere ere ey ee 8 eee EWS Oe © wir Fe AM 248 2 ee ee OR vawwale a uphera Pee ee ee ee ee en ee rrr ae ots No. Page Gold Nuggets See: Growing Gold................ XXVII, 1098. Golden Helmet See: Sea Gossamer....esecceeeess XI, 448. Redlieth TeSEEe ,| {His QR RALEr Rein eres A eae PO Pecarertirsn ANG Oy ATIC ier ct 2) Sontisli to otte se daa a dah ba ola tahanes Nee adoesorl etutall well 16ae ‘ndadt-2 J eves ebebia bohallaan tobe SSRI é adestert sxsdelh wor section Ase: shes etla yc antecvanct eg ohare eck cas fan ‘ By ea Wael gh digs Aik nll SNE ORGA RD rer vet hes aie Diy aa alia ae eae ee ee * . Powe yy Gee ee Oe ee ae ERAGON Meer rea Nein te ete * 4 nbclesidin Www Gaol ao ning ioe elo SABLA TEA, ene Sih hss fyigha Ohba At aaa gl la We hist a enn cube SL pew GS she pip elbblanayd ais a aN ee db chiki d alelbetecdinliie le du/seG ORAM (NE Rais amy sas ws Alda Lala SRGR ee aha SS mR ose QoeSeh Bore ould wg din elegant alan a'g Winn! 9 SE OE wane ea nse n wenn ene 6 ele eal, ah | ca tle bis car eje piaveusl ae aly xume #9 ee lae ahi aooes et! ‘yaee pinch Wile wee oe TOMES IAA, Ser He SOMA ee Te er a tr ee ee Me) a CCN os gsctaemel aedlan dandd eK, sel . . - * . * . . . . . . * - * « . . vasco.ni 8 Uden putea ta Gel we ah a ie Raina it eT ai nsshihin; dusk LR une halt peo ‘ en ee hr EINE HHL OLNE NES 5 . soneaiifenal dead: ole \ oy ole Wee COU, RO Head Head Head Head Head Heed No. Page. of a Butterfly See: Minute Details of ButtertlacspenduMoths:....cccccmaemes (IkADTI, 926% of a Moth See: Minute Details of Butter- flies and Moths... ..cecec. XXI]], 929. GiP &. CHEHAS WI aysoccadacaoGaundoenonoaccoconod!) SORIA S| aah oP (VAS oc Shon scaoccoontaoouoodooMcococs | AAAI, 729.6 Ob the Sitar Charkccas scjeis.s oc os lactamase a Out, O46). ete ite NG Crvaialalelsalatelalelalelele) «<0! cleie) e's) oie/svehelelenmmaereNl fis 1071. Hearing Organs of a Grasshopper See: Grass— HOPPER S\sjcieeisi ate XIil, 510-511. Heart—Urchin: /Seez*Sea-Urchinse...sscciscceecels Rly “IB Hedgehog Cactus See: Vegetable Hedgeho#s...... XVIII, T5L Helmet Hornbill's Useful Beak See: Beak TrLANSLOPMabwOns ae < m ee vee PIGREPOMIG UTES « Sects See cueiae lee nlc ia rote «avetabaCalateve Hyginus See: View on the Mooneceeerccccscscocs Ice Crystals See: Frost Crystals...ceccccccece BES BLOWERS e clelele s ciclevele'c slclalcialele/clelaieivlolcieicicicisivicieicie PERERY OSAUR Sai aieleiclelciele'c clsiciclelslelorclereiciwieiecisisleiejeieice Ideal Landscape on Mars According to. Prof. Lowell.... PEEUANGHON Jereiclcicle o's vlclcic co cicleiere siclsiele’e cleleicisjeicjeieqeeis "Ikan Sumpit" See: Archer—Fisheecccccccccccecs Illumineted Angler See: Deep-Sea Fish......... Imperiel Woodpecker See: Largest Woodpecker in THE WOGUG sc cjeleieiciejviercseie Indien Leaf Butterfly See: Butterfly Dis — GUISES..... HOSTS EMCI LHSEC bie clorsietalels\eleisvelelevelel ele elclelaieicle eveie Indris See: Tailless Lemur.....ccccccccccccecs Infant Ribbon-Fish See: Some Remarkable Infaht Fishes......... PHISCSE HAGAN “PLANCS cece cislele clelviaic|e ciclels eicicieisis orele Insect IMPOSterecssccescccccscccssccccceseccccs PH SCEUSmcvaleld luiale’c viulaleie aisielclutal cleld c\etcleleleiaiaieicreicieieicie FNCFOGUCTION. cc cccces ceded scccssccecccneccces Inverted Angler See: Deep-Sea Fish.........00. Jaws of the Port Jackson Shark See: Some Remarkable Sharks.......00. Jelily-Fish See: Sea-GooSeberricseccccccccveces Jelly-Fish See: Portuguese Man Of Wer......... Jelly—-Fish end Horse—Mackerel..ccccccccccccccce SEMIS Bor PUNEUS owue ec cie'e dein d dele do scie ddd ainsi cee Jonnston"s Chamelcons cccccccccccsceccsccoscedce Joints of the Sea-Lilysciscccccsessccsccvcsccece Jumping Apparatus of the Grasshopper....ccceceee DUPAGE ccs ccccccccccccsccscscccccscvesesccccece Keyhole Limpets and the Ormer Shell See: Structure end Ornament of Shells...... EPS OLA wale c clelvid a\uicio'e ¢ viele e.e\s cle bie 6 See's clnieia-ciele King of Sexony's Bird of PEredise..cesceccccces Kiwi, or Apteryx, The See: Wingless Birds..... Baee—Bark Tree ss cc cccccccacvoccccovcscwccceccee Lace—Wing Fly ecccccccccccccvccccvcccsccccsevces Lend GRARISS lo odiec odes ce 6 6 aiulse oo o\c.0)eisislvlararcrerotelere Landscape See: An Ideal Landscape on liars According to Prof. Lowell...... Landscape on the Moon.ccccccccccccccccccccccces BENTCTH=FLICS. 6.2 cc vc scsc cece ee vesiosieweecice cies Page. T2T-T29 « 143. 346. 624-629. 298-300. 1S ac 527-530. All. 380. 699. 861 @ 433. 349- 1079. Pl. U1. 1067. BDB=959 « I-VIil. 381. 943 829. PBST © 1099. 715. 587-588. 6444 512. 301-304. 831. 292-2946 518. 641. 109-112. 579-584. 1058-1059. Pat ° I ° Pl.JI. 188 EEX ONE sOVOL ike 39 A oie VOOL -fLLV-1 « EBE ae «O58 ee | /QROL pee -3BG-V8e «hd0 wake »hQE~L0E 588 «hOo~ Bes -BL8 Sit-eod sABE-OTS PRO L-8A0L »tstd i «Ka LF + Es Aasc wa Debaatatee tsha coe ; mab id arlene ead Gap AED ONE pairs | 2» 3:ason snl ahah ne . ave eae Tar «eLadays) feott : TON ea a eee eee Ok eg Bi a m era Pe Centre ene e meee e nee eannentas -toti of gatbrosoA eral. sn: siae'e LWORL errr eer er eee ee ee er ee ee oe dnleeiaie eww esate a ge Cee OTR, :a66 5 Katecare gibt aR ass-qseal $asc 13am ak todpegqbdoW Jaapital).o98 teNoaghoes 9 Wag 8 Rane alot Rar TOM Ree ~ atl. glitadtu® teed i dela a2 3 SOR bie ee OT ee ee tee ARO NaI RE regs ie - gidatranst gio 1398 | datt—road coneeenee HOhe LT sista4l ; : $ xa te wigen ae bead Ua ow lee ea see ah ott : ga. lgjsm loess ose! cit hen te sm hen ea Wg ee iC i oe a ee a ere ee reer er rer or ie east wecesenesaeelek aoe-qaad 2688) telgnk t amos 2992. Atad@ soatost dio odd 4 cukeneccnctaceno Sid eshtaner sess cansea ne sa dSlrtedeaogunaem) saee: sedsseuesTaW tO mal s3ausodtot) taea rer: palin mals aidaie see 0 vO TOMS a ey eemaineeues eae See iil issdaeesssec er aa) ad m6. Clay Wi gl nS mito wn in A Lie see cepem rane nere rene ress eta Bee SAF ho | seeseceeees TaQgongast) odd to eutpteqgh a eee et ee s9ec Liade tearrO sae Ome! adegnid ¢ «sees Qtlod@ to tuementO bas snesorise canennne aie tte di aa) 9 Xin ape eR Lee eh yrextaa 4 sees eBOTEE BRalentW iced. ait eR EROTaA He eee Perr rr te i * ee es i r «=, a:nnvndesdiije: speed aba Abas atid 5 atah mo. agdoabnad Leet! Lap tical $ vee ce LLowOd «LOSS, Od gatomoook: O. in enna ne - ~Lappet Moth See: How Nature Protects Insects., Eergest: Flower in the World... cscccccescccecece Largest Woodpecker in the World... ..cccccccccces Larva Maple—Leaf Cutter. ..cccccccccccccccccecce Bethel COP GUN LU Cis a\nle/s'nle\a ele min oaisieivieiaisie ¢ o(e'e e\eieie/s/ale Lettice Fungus end Orange Elf-—Cup.............- Lattice Leaf Plant See: Living Skeleton Leaf. Layard's Beaked Whale See: Lock—Jaw.......00. BEE eGOTAU Sos slain cinta sialcle ucla \slalsisic o\clcls c/a'e/e cele siete Heese G Lt TC Colieieistalele/alels alsiolele/sleislejeie'c. ole eisveiere PSE Olle tA oPATl Gs etalsislalalaiciaieiecratsieles eje'eieia ¢ wis sien Beat INSCCES « «ccc sccccwpciaminamececececnccccces Leaf-—Rolling Beetle See: Marvel of Instinct.. Leg—Joints of the Crane Fly... .ccccccccccsccce Leg ef a Moth See: Minute Deteils of Butter- FIPesWandyMoths.. cece cess Legs and Feet of the Spidericcccccccncscccccce Reeser! s bho pDAviIng eBECELC ca cieaie ce aiaisieldes cc cecce Lenticular Form of Alto-Cumulus See: Clouds.. Lenticuler Form of Cirro-Cumulus See: Clouds. Lesser Superb’ Bird: of PareGise.scrcecccccseves Lianas or Bush—RopeS. ceccccccccccccccccccccce Late History of the Frog. cccccccccccccccdccce Life-History of the Golden Fairy Fly.......... [Ln Gin te bien BAAR AO OUO COUR DOOUOOODOOCDDDCUDOOOUOCUC Bip eLe PBLICKMAKET belo « aldlere.c slelslo siclelsleleie ea'elaje)eiaiels Little Eolis Seer, Sea-Slugs...cccccccccscccce Eabebe Hermits NeStecc.cccccccccecccesccaccce Little Ship See: Diatoms....csccrcccccccccees Living Chain See: Making of e Bee-City....... PAGAN COLA ss clelele e/6 4 eletele/eles) 0) 0\e;0\<\0)e/e\e.0/s\\s.s\e\e)s VAT AGO L S a, 4a) 0% Woe « dorkjent to Severs seas) siteot ¢ a Rm ee es 2 rhs. 6 a) eit to eyotind Yo aListead sduaiNiiee? scopy weve dente GUOR:, Bre taped 1 Ee a .«Bhueld. 399% aviv d-oF A Re wrol tae abyolo 2938. eulumpO-ontkd to bh bauvcdei cogent (oa ‘to fertd *c ney teat ost A ee as cig oR Be ait pile tae tA ie lea ant ‘to LOE, vecceeanss¥lt Urts® nedlddiads Qo yt0d oer ee CRRA TS SS Se ee ee oa ig“ co ib tebe meses dal volta seeespebhiehess a sb RU Lowivat qmemen EL aa «ea Sis eck kunnen sete al sia xa atin TUL oe is os cha at a 19988, glia ed decoxevtno-ae8. 3 ‘lo gatielt 2088 mtadd ge «ss wie: Age abtD ASR, 8 wk lb te a Re a 2 ee Pee aie ee ee eee eh tate ahve plie ipl oll iho) aie «aa geen piste J git icvecones sSatOW-s08 399% POmmereTcOy shesageedesegen tes a0 49 ane ee sidataygey ra08 ita. dvainewdmleimelaes de skate unas akon 1h hal ia a Wt he i din ace IGRI ERG aes sis eeee ey eek aan tt IOHOLM: Som noice mips: Soyo ee aa age se tense « EO RMME Yo ante <5 pie 0x cb. 6idwiwl a om mac AARC OMe NEARED to « new age o ae oeL es RE corse SQMitig evolu smog | RG OTe eeTTyy ty eee ~orl sutall woH. 908 ‘diol tenetod & eee eee DpeRT atIoT etostord sastsd eci! :oe8) aie eee : 1» adpeand Hasala * Se er ee ay Se rerenehererrencnn shes ae THEO WEN sy eee ya lbtosgs ‘eral co sjsoghmad Laabt nA Soi Chall! SEL - csavsgawedvoanens ou.UiewOanameeae a4 eLil¥ReSat LIVvx Seat Keeane vanes eae R44 oy Oe we Oe ae ee ele eee . f +09 elt cose, -SoTONGR bmel. orodd Ow BRS AreesOR | ehestS—-Or LE eLLEYX ; sseesonenecsseaennw eds dyes SG aah Meo ak ex scecencae s fOkTOMDOMIEL eer) TF »808--406 “ev PepeprenennimanaN A Law ESE eVIXX 0 42a nasa naisdn dials’ y «6ee tp apainall “NOY el ivx sea eam icine «SN ae hal'se «Openings. 2 «4s 000 08 cass se i, Al. MeMeranPOMORES OLS sewers ccadedecetsecseceeeas ANTAL 130. BeCRereOLMLASl ua cwewecwieWievedvessecctaccsss Ds PHP Nests of the Social Weaver—Bird.......... SO0 al 39. New Noses For Old See: Evolution of the GEOCODILC |: a.ovcre syeie oie) KO 869. New Zealand Veronica See: Plants Which Seek end Avoid the Light....... OE 502 & 504. Me MEOW Se BOWEI—D br Cais od eae ees te ee i ee ear Ligh gt eclesa chi Sida Ges Keir 8 (os eC ehenwam ying nica inn tc a vane a fed: OY brown. Bie pr sorry BOOM E oE Orr, EN oeate iy ees cst stared toe Le piel pivaddahacit adel Warman Gs bw sue wht aren ee . Ee en 2) alg herd Sid onal baton gt, oe ge Po ae Hung pre WG 29 eye) : sertvid a toast ule soem) eat ¢ a ee es tix & a an oii ial toiglidh Rs Sioa dh erabace wis, key Noa von Bal | dgasdiegesices TAHOR BOL bis De kmemos niacin Sei dla bisiscw!ors RAPTOR LOSE eee Ra pie ei bNe rena een enennens ss cmeee gw OUOLE) Bit sali Ashes kat tilly 4155 hte lig ca ae a esa ‘ 1 eS ca Ont siete ok ae ae eon ‘ose aaod Ledosaand esi a does Bato tame tenat? Leek saad ladon i settee Bee pial 4) aaa ei al wera iy Qa Og a slvin halen eScalaie 04 Oe AR) ON eal seas 8 '¥ BORODIN ee aval ode apo ree ese) wean eae y sBeon Fo V af pelt tO, >| : shane a eee neeeaaens ane adans Pee Pe er ee) i Root-Galls See: Oak—Apples...ccsssscccccces HOGGSists « olaleleic alwlclelcivisialcnis «aie laivlvlcinieisicis soe icieleie. Rordame—Quenisset Comet, 1893...ccssecssccee Rose of Sharon Ses: Plants Which Seek and Avoid the Light........ Rosy Feather-Star, The See: Sea-—Lily..... Roxbareh Ss) Paig—l ree: scm vines clu ewivleweels ce eicieie BoyalA Cel 1, THE. s/c cc veel eiicivie'sisawiiceiccccici Rubber Lianas of the Uganda Forest See: Lianes of Bush—-Ropes....ccccccscece Sabella, See: Tube Worm. ceseccsecseveevecs Sebine's Pine See: Winged SeedS..cseccecoes Sabre—Tootned Tiger, The..cccsccosecccscccces Seck-Throated Whip-Tail See: Deep-Sea Fish. HACTed SCarab. wecoccvsecseccvescvvecvcccvesese Sail-Bearer See: Mystery of Fish Life...... SS EMON Se TIC Sint lee ee sclc'vle lo ele slojelcle ele «bes ole Salamander See: Proteus of Olm. Se DUNC Siew Givlw urs \ve'v eve winlu imine eie'e oles ieee e000 Sand-Saucer See: Eggs of Snails....cseseenee SAME SLATE EUS nls olcisiclals wicls/eislvie le (e000 0 ee elses pandstorm.. See: The Windeccccccccccscccceees Sand-Waves and Sand—-Ripples..ccssreevevevers SECU. cece se sccccreersceseevessescessvssees SEERA OSoicininicinclcin\e s\00's » 4/010 jc wlolewleeie's ee's 6ia0i0'8 BSam "OL CHE! SawW=llyicisic\clelsiels c\slelelcis's.s\s olelele\s » saw of the Pine Saw-Bly.ccccccccccessccseces BEALCPANSCEE Sala ws 00000106 wis «ole elajeieia\o-.etje ooo Scales From a Butterfly's Wing See: Minute Details of Butterflies and Moths..... DIEHL LOPSinisisls slv alsiels viele vis olnlelsioe oleiaio 010.0 0/0 016 eles Seselons tm FLACK Esl cise ccleis clcleisiccess cress ecle DEAby CAN OCUCUMDCI%sis « sinlv sinlelele|sicle siciple cleleielelslels Scissor-Bill See: Beak Transformations..... DEOL PIOUS eisicislelois/viv ole sls.» 0/00 she nioie'e e's ese slelate Scots Pine, Thrift, or Sea Pink and White Dead-Nettle Sees. Pollen ciciicrer eI MAMEMOMECE stelclaleinis « oscleiere. oldie) slslo lols eie/ein's\ 0 wisjolole Sea Anemones of the Northern Seas.....eeeeee Sea Cane See: (an=C ora Ss stew evel ie low wisleltolnieietae Sea Comet See: Sea Gossamer..cccescecccccee Sea Cucumber That Resembles a Sea Slug...... BEd CUCUMDETS. io clés ccccccocvccccecccoeesvese DCAn DEALOM's vlslsc 010 0's oa 00s 00 se e'0\e sce ele oes scleles SCE—DPEZONS eseeesesseeesesecsssessvescsvenns Page. 1052. 1006-1008. 366. 505. 647-648. 363. 695. 560. 153. 632. 123. 382 & 384. 97-102. 7197. 63. 562-564. 732 & 734. 776. 607. 898. 731-734. 209-213. 947-952- 949 - 9526 (EESTI EH(S 925. 1003-1005. 1005. 217. 719. 274-277. 878. 424-426. Pied. 417. 449. 216. 213-220. 84-85. PL / iis +002 sal ho abe «ABE B SBE 2S0L-7e Ver »Ed epO2-SO8 ott & SEV “Ory Pi Oo) 88 »peyedey sO TE+PO8 oSOCrT AO “Par sack TEC ase »2005-€00.5 ee Out ives Mae ts “TT S-ANS raw s) 20Sa~ASA re) » BA «Gh2 aOkGek LS 0B 38 By Hs eee S| ite Free etre ees ew ae ens fe eee Sea Rs BNE WP che eRe ae bits GL nSets 008 139, pets : ‘aid Stowk ‘ ecnesXihieos@-~ sage) snk. re he COG Ata ee abt Bae a Wc A A RRR | tfad jong dnotoT sbnagl! sd¢ Qo aanakie Ge une elcid 8 hy eto yt Saha Ae /ea eal ale oa 5 ae edu? :9e8 Kiet : ve bie ds see eEDOOR seit 8 eae pes ha cid tik an ala ik i ok oe etegiT bes HeiD eet-good :098, Dneh-gidw beteous ras vseas trate hie eae sesess Sahl Melt to viet seee: ten bu ce wie ale ¥'p ie s'n 094 a 5 se Oana Ga ale lg ristpence ese MLO Bo, arotot wage tek seesenngreasscouseas sane Sea e ame peep vie begs BhbOOR LO Bae eee. See St ee Lr) aie ioite cg Lala nt ; wi gtcapslitey adabel ate hid Shy WS otla ORD ant jae : eetvcsviapeveass -2OL0G CORSE futecmeNal Fun we ne ne merase wet ean nus siNRaN #8 gia BaP REPT ERAT ET HRD RK TED eee RD we MOK < hieveie a'pinieieg knew aan ban er to | rosa na sep amnes gen cess «ACLU Wales aan eee Soe ee atnnil :as@ aniW eyliasttd 6 mop ee. sae s BOOM, Oris, 09 tltrss cod) Te attadert: i ee ee ee a 0 ¥ Aiailin: u's bwin on ail. sc orwigiaibitea’ 4% KALA Gara /al'e ae &S: oes. Q00L¢aIriOlanaet asad) reee, iitenta Shea S eres ed eak eer aes «es aoe 8 Riel wae ettaW Dred anrd, see wo! a 2ogee wrreeeef@Lio% isee , oidto- bared Deepen ney ae eans ee eala ee pan nae sae esos amas BBB ULAR MOM «gin eke sa n'c cup eudice b Oc do) @eaGOeenEn ae + a) oe hlaihighioecs Bhs METEOR 4o8 tage i oavey QilO 898.8, soldwogen Fak? a a. 0 du 6k ng ao aD kaa TD Peace eNO en Ese eee eae seer Ces gee ene eRe pea Bagle Fishing s cccccscecccsccecescccesee Sea—Fan See: Fan—Corals.s..ccc cscs ccscucces sea Feathers See! Sea FirSoc.cccccccccsccce Siete ella alelalictel alel ialalciatatelalctaletelletelclelsielelelelelelelelcte).© Piet — It Sol ninta olelaictclelalalatelvlaielelatclslercjolele « elsialcleleiesele Sot CHOSE DELTA C Sic cis) eloicicieiclatotei ciel eleloie's\e sielersrol steus BCMEGUSSAMCITe cis clelc cle alu'sialclolelelelal s c/clevel eielevere o6) « NCARUGr SC PAG HOME «clslsle alalelelela clelslule s\vleielecj/cis\eieie SES TIE pa oonoooeeckh cocobcoce ee ccoeoe ene Sie ULERRE SB CRAP pos cdo soocor conostoptooouEceaee Bet MGUSC nino clea eal vial blelelslelsicla eiaic) cicielsislels slelcis\sie\e Sea of Serenity See: View on the Moon...... Seed Oo Sean alan ntetalatetaialclelal ols) e) ckelelelniclsvelalalete) el a) ee! ole SEA-SCOTPIONS -crccccrcsscvcccecesavcccssccce eee NTs intel cisteie afar aleiniolel elelclelaisiel cfeiais) ©! a)/sjle, el sie SEG SSIES 5 asso seco s- Cok Shree cocerooroonoee BEA GEES << niciciuicicicleinje cleissiclnenaccieccneacecie ae EY lintnla ate ofa eloialalelals) ol eistatsis eiuralsicle ee 0 «16 Se —-TT-CH AT Siclalainisielc olcivle le) clelaielsintdiete crete ereleiaiels) eis) « Some AMC SLONE o/eiclelulclsicle cisleseltre) cle) sieieleie)e-e cis)e Seaweed That Makes Limestone... cccerceeroce Sa CRIES etetata! o/ajaloieral sialic alelcletateisicl asia) ele/ele\elvie! si SeGEten Of 6d Wil) Ow—Gal loci). Sins clste'nib clei ce wissciniese SECELON PGCE TCCHS LONE s 1 clcicicle cisisicjeie ciciclsicie ci cicie SSCS S POR SOT ciel oie ste alaln) sie) wien oll oloici oie) / sisi 4) eve! 910: Seed Grapnels See: Vegetable Grapnels and Shooters... BEC EMEA ACHUTLCS aie sicis isle siels/elalslsteheletsl efole.e,.):e\ > e/ ers) Seed—Pod Anemone See: Anemones of Southern SCAS..eee Seen Through a Beetle's Hye....scessene Self—Luminant Fishes of the Deep.......5+:.5. Selma Meteorite See: evoes lites.. EMAC MEL AN bidiais) of delels vl sidialel =, o/stole sieie»(\oleis\stele Separated Disc See: Maple—-Leaf—Cutter...... DHEL CAP CHAE CEUIC 6.0.6.6: 00:5. 60.00.0100) s)0: 010 eveleieielsivie Shell-Boring Sponge See: Sponges..ccceevecs Shell off a Hunger Snail. .scccccccces BHOUE OWEN TOELOUSE states cle clelois clcle siete ckaleie! clalel ele SES Pia eLUGEILEC 5 sisisicla sielais s/s]s\e\ clo cle: oe) «/olelotsisl dele DMC LSUA WAT CUS . cisleiclel e's) vlalale elo a}o/0\016) s19\e; s1o\e/ s\aislere SHALLS For aA LIVING cisiccccvicccnvccavcccicicvcsic SHIP BALGACLEE . sisisie.s,0\s, 0/0)a)s|2 u.0,0,0:¢,0)0,0,0\s s)e)s/0)e,0,6 Soe EW Oil dial dio'o sistats Iisfalo shee s\elsie, dteleleleieoialsiale\e)sals eseveee808 Meteorites and Aero+i~ Page Paysite 415. 5346 536. 536 & 538. 828-829. 444-449. 83. 642-XV1, 648. 807-811. 1141-1143. 1042-XXV1, 468-174. 1107. 1106-1107. 957-958. 950. 1057. 190-V, 195. 937. 190-192. 1136. 187. 6-11. A5he 596-597. 1041. 833. 903. 361. 664-667. 832. 608. 658-659. 553-556. 995-997 « 1047. "e re Pr yer ee ek | Fi oe god NRA NE TY DINRAAE 05 ne Pe SN marge! ds gy | tesa) j ea eee ‘cal igh ad a ult y's es nip“ Wide sleek ach pla andy Byale < twa ket ahaa Pra eee ek ee en ’ Lays Lis LA sacl ink lesen asin Oe adh i Weudke aca aces a ad Abe Tine tema aE tA 8 iy oh 0g) Rm weal Lae ea ee ‘ ainsi hogy cmaia wins Ailes Bm etiicelb: A! waa ia se sakcdise pada Mise Sees apices Sans eRe a ns eee 76 seoae OOM ait no well. s99c vine Pre ee re SL rh ep ere eo eh eS PU ee PE eee dR thal Ate PT eee oe kk kl ae = % ‘ asin’ spon sJa onto Gassing A ee eo ae eV XOL LIVEX-SN0L Pen p.0.4 bic oe suai caliw cave Ee via Die: APRS RNR ORE AP SR6OS EX ai ese hich ety cen ie (ae nail Pegi EVR er Rr Tete ee NOME ARLL ~ , LEVAS wees snags seston Oe Git eel Boch i OeeaVee ,LTTX Salk scan aka clon nak peda 3) 01s ie reac paral koe mtn ae soee .LELKX nage. nim ia ail a lava ae wn AD See Ls SIN a8 4 NOT On it) 0.04 me uke it aipmep aR mS 7 SO ~eeL yv0ri 9 1,41 1 aetna hog Ab gt colar Wrst pee ons elangewd aldategeV seed elengaai see . ELIAS iweb « SSTOORE ‘veo »SRE-OPL VE cance cio didiae Apia eas aieysoicdaae nea nrentroS To ganomenk tss@ shoamesth Ge Oe oT DUVAX oa nee SBS “Vor ora See 1K. gtaliesd s = pislelioioiele Cheistokeisielsirininisioieteicloieisiols eet lee ete lates totale ici lo\siei ete istela isle layelnielelaisintelisiialivieyejioveis Sod ieePn a PTS a ion wal nine fn lnalallake ema olen} ns /a lols (ulolele DIE Sree CE clsieleksiviels cislsicteteielsis elersveleleloicletelelelete Snake-—Like Beche De Mer See: Sea Cucumbers. Snake's Head Chrysalis. cccsccccccccccscvvee Snake's Head Coralline See: Sea Mets....... DUARE Snap Letsisar se cisicilelo\eislelele\(s/s\6 0 e/0ibie\o\/s (lalate SHOW CrySbalS.sccccceovcccvcccvcvcecsececveeece BOCA DCA ICEL Sisteleleletelolels loleles «\sicie!sie is aie leleiels Solas Halo Sees + COLOURS s wluiore «s/s « 010) cle o/s slelerels Solitaire, The....See; Wingless Birds....ee. Solitary Salps See: Sea Squirts...ssecccees Some Beautiful Jelly-Bishes....ceccccccvccce BOMCEDCANEILIUIL (PHCASANUSicjc/c. 10 01s 00 6146 610 eletose le’ SOME. Best tOL She LUSE ci, ceicle'e sisisicie oleiate cletolere’s come Curious DeepsSea Fishes Which Heve High- ly Developed Organs of Touch. See: Intro-— GUGEAONs/ ess 6 Page. 996. 716. 705.6 L121-XXVIII, 1125. L124. 8. 52k. 538. BY2I0 762. 962. 714. 610. 662. 663. 656. 894. 1134. 687. 681. 895. 360-I1X, 362. 603-604. 361. 569-574. 219. L517. 810. 660. 204-208. Pied. 135. 636. 1045. PMA TI PAT: Piso ¢ I. +E “¥ ae XI-Ode a fO--€.08 Pate | «kU 2-Q08 OES eV@A -Of8 ,OOS—AOS PY ah -0&d GAOL "OEY 308 LE De af Ace ees eee gasdaed sess et) Cree eee ee ee es ten dan eM EOhes CAE Nea fe Buia saie ob igiw setae aie ie nee EE: s : . PPP Pre tC a eee ee cc ser ; ise ocia'lg oy Boa aon eet SIGSIS scouts debe sx LU : Peeve eeoeesrerreme easter senee nil secesees OAT (OB RemOd, to. Dr ke & ong ae tba cs os eee SCE saeale 5 sveeseassew COO? RORSBBTOT To 7REROm weeoes ceottaited Sbahoola gaivid * Pre sec tie be tt : eee arto hin cir sare Sapir nk base «)s\ Sica: le oie Agha a Ee a nO adeleeseue se esis wi OL Anco Gia Seer o scin's oie alba # cit acd) aaa fnakO aid Saath eared * GANS) Sed gast® i608 etaslotl a' cew ‘to ae 2 /BGLOEIOT GatvoBTA eee weencsvaeeeQtneLoo ShbetaW (Sse od? ¢fotaW.— Lane se taeis ise exgmr’ ee area agelsed :e9@. aol week wens BBLGHh to: boa. eee , gobhomes 9 2/cd)s Aine, sie ple douieunticiec sng) 4 SOC OD e a ikon teva eleiaai aed bal aes IVy WV mo) evil TLE er PLEX PEER Oy 5 VO eLLLY Ais dis noes hte EctantezacetT 496 0. «woas weg Alba alle orag- 4 een idles a esi x 6 + alee eal es ee ay eae oe a PR a ea Cie ee) oa eae wait vleleleis mie ORE mo boat. RPP TAP A ee Beets) vai’ tros teel sid wom w Snead iniasal ie Wl a6, news SRR EP Cite ie ees i eer ey were Pots ap GRR ASLUANR GIG NLS OO

tant « antctita pels o Be eee ee Aen Bee ee Wactims ofve Pitcher—Plant. sels coe. c ee as View On The Moone.cecccccesecscccccecccscccce Wobkutes, Gees (Snails WTCebhciyeic/atiwelecicicleie cle ss Von Der Decken"s Lobeladaeecccccweccccccece.e Wallachian Sheep, The... ccccscacescccccsccece Warning Attitude. The Cobre. See; Warning Coloursickyelelals's« Mets PO GOLOUISicinlalalelela]e clelelalelelelatelalevajeletalevelslclevele Werning Merkings See: Warning Colours....... Wasp Peper See: WaspSecccsceccssseesecscces Wasp-Sting and Needle...cccgeccccccccccccecce Wet Piiaiclelclote wl clelclaiclals ciclslvle olelcielslelelaiels oie cialelc' alee! ale WESDS ccccscccceccceeccccccccssesccesssveceses SPE SEE Can feleivlelelelalalolelalelaieieloieleleleiaicicfarerelaleiecele\e Wasps' Nests See: WaspS.cccsccccscccccccccece ANS thc calalals) oiaiclate! oie intelaletetal=ialelalatslalale\cie! cicia'e Wether d- SEEECS ols] oletalelsielalelotelulalelclfelalslolalalalsjelelclolaleielcieieis Water CISUCKCC cletele olclelciole elaletoicie)/ stare teleleleleraiciclelereisie : Ubi IMLEeS 55545555555 55455 555555505050 555ad 46006 eae Salted mlotalahaintstalolalatalelolslelololetalalelelay eve ela D2bSe UBaRES 45555 s55cg55da5s55g00des 550000000 War SCOMPION «ccc ccccccccicceccoceeccecesese MGT — OPT AOI sialon a's wleloleieialalele\e/e\s/clelele/eiclele/sisiclaieva'e Water Spider and Its Diving Bell............. MAGET POUL le llshelale (0 aluivlelc/eicicleidic lelelelelele)eiejn\cieicieiclsie | EGER TWA A IE ROD DOD OOO OOLODODOCOOOOC OG Resuerm AUS bral tan PCAPI sic cic elaleielcicieiciele)clevelslclcte _Ealiiaisecerel Siverd -sooqccooccocoGOOOCOOUCCOSC PAU GS a ainin(enlvinlolaisiviclsislele slelole\uleloie'a/s)ols/sleieje cie'e alcte Wheel-Urchin See: Sea Urchin..........ese0- Ve VNU Slain ol) al nlolelaxs(o] o/oinlclelelaic|s olels) o/eiels/elevaielelatsye JIE SeeeeG! Sel ala-sanec oacaspgcconecHoocesodc White Helvellea See: Curious Fungus.......... UES Mieco sash cdesodccacadbogooodcogespaues WHete, Lonp—lait cd —KOWliss cise « os\s/s clcisisiciesjarcievereie (Jig? ie Teese Pelee oagedocandancngeanancescac “Wicker—Turban" Radioleriaen...ssccccccccceccs MaePPranct be WMCLCOT | slc.cicicle\cleleleleleleleloloislsieialaieiatelcic "Willi-Willis" (Australian Cyclone) See: Wind.... Del om, SaW—LLy 5) LHC. s clelss/s]a/s)eialeinle cine\clelsieveirie.s MELE LUC di o\slaloialo|e!o(e1e1s'o)0\slaiaialaiaiel aisle) a/a/e/oleieicielelel +) HAO MaAL cI) |ON ONOW s\sleleleleloieleielele/ ele sielsleleieieiere.s Page. 15. 143-144. Dea. 1016-1017. 909. 687. PL. 686. 402. 126. 399-X, 406. 124-128. 127. 403. V2 725-730. 727.6 498-500. Pats 799-800. 725-726. 64. P1.IV. Ake 39. 283. 746. 323-325. 473. 689-696. 835. 1092-1093. 1126. 336 462-464. 675. Le 902. 947-948 « 898-902. 899. 7OOR , K-POE ARIE AS ST tk Od Or rye soeteass o¥S «COREA #42148 OSTH8ST . Nt] weatt Pa #12 2 Sxe-7 ie 2 hOR-BOCB «RRB eu eae & L ry i: aA iv et el EXX eh bEX DEX ‘idea ek ao spivgrevodin Geta tates and wT ras goon? @ «sec satailebelocg Na teuelatie Sali eRAL EARS Un Cre ts atohh. care aca stories « te ae ic oi) keds a ot ic aan CIES ET aiLisse s Lp We stew Wie ital a hie ee CR OO ake et giutmssW 7968 .aided edt . ohid 5 dic ise aa RO LEO of i'd: Cao w Kin cere SAO Cdk nae hese ae ee MOL aturoled aakatall fos8 eRhiy Fo ootite Lucile Muse sanene 1e9G re c widveea Sack Wane we lelwgse wit als ROUSE: SRR cL nivtianwina ind GA 1484 aalkin py sleate tl nmaae Perr aie eww inset Sele wis Seer wilted toe he ae Lusi iie Slak Neila sao Uae aa hn eee era Sete eee eee ee ae pes RUB RH foen . ateelt ayo schist BLBeBis ar GAGS walle Abs Gu pe Glu ior atl em ide itn We pook Gus 5B a wep em Bae tek wea a vas aie lnibsenieler'® «£4 alpen mae Sha ari ee # okie dpb p oe wield oie) eaece a) eee Slerai et re) oe eee wise pnb, wy ha kt a oe aw gt hep oe Wael ee eee ee ee ee ea ae ssid a AEA Gs mame Pah aa Oh hg saa em A . 5 Ms) Dist ae ew th desis Seok ook Ag omer rans Yo) seis ath agis en ere ee rea ea Ne te c - a MSR ay een Deere es kts ¢ Se ore eietale ee heheh ee ae asiLesdeua,. & 5 ids ttn SE ee Siesta Se “ds ec pews seisenes OEE AOE Tee PPA eee Ce ee eee Le er ec ee ke Je sa d-wis Racha alegre cia ko ees cee = r ele te ewe we COD BOLE, pai -ellev lea Ie ee ee a a tlpvye cos eldest Aaa aca ee re elon batt wu-tang is 0 ie VG iat ab paces ned Ce elt o pissalle Sack Gi Kulak shale i elnino 1998 | (enoioy? suet Lamseashh) Pads

- - Percy White. ALREADY PUBLISHED. BEYOND THESE VOICES By M. E. Braddon. THE FILIBUSTERS > - = - = By Cutclitfe Hyne. THE ROYAL END - - - - - By Henry Harland. A EONELY (LICTLEE “LADY, - - = = By Dolf Wyllarde. PRISONERS > - = - - - By Mary Cholmondeley. MY LADY FRIVOL - = = = S By Rosa N. Carey. INTO THE HIGHWAYS AND HEDGES = = By F. F. Montresor. A RISING STAR - . = = By David Christie Murray. THE MAN WHO WON - = . By Mrs. Bailie Reynolds. THE UNDER SECRETARY = = - = By William Le Queux. TOMMY & CO. - = - - = = By Jerome K. Jerome. THE ONE WHO LOOKED ON - = = By F. F. Montrésor. THALASSA = - - = - © By Mrs. Baillie Reynolds. THE GAMBLERS - = > = - By William Le Queux. LADY ELVERTON’S EMERALDS = - = By Dorothea Conyers. LITANY LANE = - 2 = = - By Mrs. Baillie Saunders. AT THE CROSS ROADS = = = = By F. F. Montrésor. BY ORDER OF THE CZAR (ast edition) - - By Joseph Hatton. For PIE CRUST, CAKES, PUDDINGS, MINCEMEAT, COOKING & FRYING, DELICIOUS The leading professional Cooks now use and R E D recommend the use of >A i ORA WHI : E COFFEE (HUCON’S REFINED BEEF SUET) , Prepared solely from Frash & U E Eng‘ish BEEF SUET. Sold in Blocks and For Breakfast « after Dinner. READY SHREDDED. In making, use less quantity, it being so much stronger than ordinary COFFEE. Sold by Grocers and Dealers in 1-lb. and 4-Ib. Boxes, HUGON & Go., Ltd., Pendleton, MANCHESTER. Imperial Conferences and visits of kith and kin from remoter Britains across the Seas alike testify to the extent of the Empire and its trade. Prominent amongst firms whose products are found in practically every clime is the Bristol House of Fry, In the colder regions of the Territories beyond the Seas, as in the varying climate of the Motherland, Fry’s Cocoa and Chocolates are in universal demand. > PURE FIYS Cocoa FOR ALL CLIMES AND SEASONS. MAKERS TO H.M. THE KING, H.M. THE QUEEN, H.M. QUEEN ALEXANDRA, AND TO OTHER ROYAL COURTS OF EUROPE. omy t FART (ti. fd. net. A Popular Work on the Marvels of _ The HEAVENS The EARTH PLANT LIFE ANIMAL LIFE _THE MIGHTY DEEP prize competitions. EMINENT SPECIALISTS including 2D VALUE —— Pictures ON ART PAPER and Coloured Plates 1000 FINE ILLUSTRATIONS so AND NUMEROUS t*” COLOURED PLATES. The Ideal Smoking Mixture Skilfully blended from the choicest tobaccos grown. It has a subtle, In three celicate 1lavour, which appeals criminating tobacco lover. | strengths immediately to the dis- Mild—Medium —Full. 1 oz. Packets, 6)d. 2 oz. 3 1/1. 1 Ib. Tins - - 2/2. ° \— From all good tobacconists, or send stamps for desired amount to SOLE MANUFACTURERS: THOMSON & PORTEOUS, EDINBURGH. Hutchinson's 6d. Novels. A RECORD. OVER Two Million Copies OF Allen Raine’s Novels HAVE BEEN ISSUED. UNDER THE THATCH - Where Billows Roll - Allin a Month - = Neither Storehouse nor Queen of the Rushes - Hearts of Wales - A Welsh Singer - - Torn Sails - - - By Berwen Banks - Garthowen - - - A Welsh Witch - - On the Wings of the Wind - - = = Just Ready 88,000 58,000 134,600 184,000 243,000 378,000 287,000 242,500 254,000 281,000 254,000 The above figures do 7zo¢ include the American Sales London: HUTCHINSON ®& CO., Paternoster Row. NEW VOLUMES OF Hurst ¢ Blackett’s Popular 74: Novel Series Each Foolscap 8vo, cloth gilt, coloured wrapper, with frontispiece and designed title page on art paper. WELL PRINTED from NEW TYPE on GOOD PAPER. MOONLIGHT By Mary E. Mann { MARIAN SAX By Madame Albanesi THE INFINITE CAPACITY By IT WAS A LOVER AND HIS LASS THE GOD OF LOVE KITTY HOLDEN Volumes already issued A Question of Quality The White House Janet The House of Intrigue The Seventh Dream Bequeathed Cosmo Hamilton By By By Mrs. Oliphant J. Huntly McCarthy Adeline Sergeant in this Series. By Madame Albanesi By M. E. Braddon By Mrs. Oliphant By Percy White By “ Rita” By Beatrice Whitby THE BEST VALUE A Soul Apart Needles and Pins Drusilla’s Point of View The Cuckoo in the Nest A March in the Ranks Colonel Daveron The Illustrious O'Hagan The Strongest of all Things The Youngest Miss Mowbray The Ides of March A Young Man from the Country The Turnstile of Night Her Own People EVER OFFERED. By Adeline Sergeant By J. Huntly McCarthy By Madame Albanesi By Mrs. Oliphant By Jessie Fothergill 3y Percy White By J. Huntly McCarthy By Madame Albanesi By Mrs. B. M. Croker By Mrs. Baillie Reynolds By Madame Albanesi By Mrs. C. N. V/illiamson By Mrs. B. M. Croker HURST & BLACKETT, LTD., PATERNOSTER HOUSE, PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. A Great Success FOR The Marvels of the Universe was perhaps to be expected after the great interest shown in “The Wonders of the World,” but not only do all the tens of thousands of subscribers to that work seem to have welcomed the appearance of its natural successor, but many thousands of new readers have been attracted with the result that the First Part of “Marvels of the Universe” has met with A Reception beyond the Publishers’ most sanguine expectations. Every copy of the first large printing was ordered long before the day of publication, and the Publishers have had the greatest difficulty in providing the further big numbers required to meet the demand. No one can form more than a vague idea from an examination of the First Part what the whole work will be like, but that it has given general satisfaction as a first instalment is proved by the fact that The Demand for Part II. has been just as great. This Part is now before the Reader, and he will see for himself that it is quite as interesting as Part I. It will also be a further indication of what good things are in store. Already the Publishers have gathered an abundance of excellent material, and the field is so wide that they have every confidence in being able to keep the work up to a high level until its completion. The fact that it is being written by specialists who are also skilled writers should of itself be an ample guarantee for the future. The Publishers would like to again call special attention to the unusually large number of coloured plates which are being included in the work, and to the wealth of Indeed the utmost limit is being reached in the value given beastifully printed pictures. As for the work itself— for the small charge made. As the Daily Telegraph says: “Marvels of the Universe is a subject which should go straight to the heart of the inquisitive public.” Part III. is now in the Printer’s hands, and a reference to its contents will be interesting, as showing the varied nature of the work, in which so many fascinating subjects will be dealt with and so many arresting pictures given that it may truly be said every page will be a delight. With Part III. there will be given 4 MORE EXQUISITE COLOURED PLATES, picturing The Fata Morgana, perhaps the most marvellous of all the atmospheric phenomena: veritable topsy-turveydom of fantastic reflections. a Extraordinary Barrier Fish, beautiful in colour and marking, but most curious in appearance. A Wonderful Landscape on the Moon, as described by the celebrated astronomer, Camille Flammarion, in his brilliant contribution. A Bower-Bird’s Arbour, undoubtedly the most interesting piece of constructive work in all wild-life: not a nest, but a home with a garden which takes years to complete. In the following List of Articles to appear in Part Ill. it would be hard to find one that is not of the greatest interest, written, as they all are, by Experts and Illustrated with Delightful Pictures SI GR FH&R The Lace Bark Tree of Jamaica Of such curious growth that the stem contains a whole series of veil-like layers, each as thin as tissue and resembling so closely manufactured lace that the natives use it for nets, ruffles, and caps. The Sacred Scarab The beetle of historical interest, but whose ingenious habits, such as kneading its food and his ways of collecting, moving and storing it, are little known. The Candle Tree Of which whole forests are to be seen, the trees bearing candles or fruit of a yellow wax colour from 2 to 4 feet in length with 60 per cent. of fat. Spider Mimicry To avoid attacks from their natural enemies they will make themselves look like lady birds or ants. The Sabre Tooth Tiger An extinct animal once found in England with canine teeth 6 inches long, sharp- edged and blade like. The Moon A brilliant and fascinating contribution by the celebrated astronomer Camille Flammarion with exceptionally fine photo- graphs. Bower-Building Birds The cleverest of all birds in the art of construction—some though quite small building houses yards high of quite sub- stantial twigs. The Fata Morgana A most bewildering spectacle but rarely seen—the greatest marvel in atmospheric effects. Flexible Sandstone A rock of which a slab will bend with its own weight. The Beef Steak Fungus which is edible and when cut in slices exudes a rich juice from its red flesh. The Gigantic Silkworm Moth of N. America With a most interesting series of illus- trations. The Mole and its Fortress The Wasp and its Construction Luminous Fungi The Night Light of the Sea WITH OTHER ARTICLES. Gr The whole Part, containing 48 Pages, is printed on Fine Art Paper The “ MARVELS of the UNIVERSE ” Prize Competitions. As the Publishers would like to have the views of Readers on the merits of the subjects in “MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE” they have decided to offer Three Prizes for the three best Lists sent in of the twelve most interesting articles in the first eight parts of the work. The twelve articles selected by the competitor must be placed in what he considers their order of merit, regard being paid to the combined interest of article and illustration, the one thought most interesting of all being placed first, the next best second, and soon. What are the twelve most interesting will be determined by the general vote of all the com- petitors, and the Prizzs will go to the competitors whose Lists most nearly correspond with this general vote. For the Best List - - A Prize of FIVE GUINEAS For the Second Best List - A Prize of THREE GUINEAS For the Third Best List - A Prize of ONE GUINEA CONDITIONS. A Competitor must send in his or her list by post within a week from the publication of Part VIII. in a stamped envelope addressed to Messrs. HUTCHINSON & CO., 34, Paternoster Row, London, E.C., and marked on the outside ‘‘ MARVELS ARTICLES PRIZE.’”’ This list must describe the twelve articles selected by the same titles as are given in the work itself, and must show against each description the number of the page of the work on which the article commences. The List must be signed by the Competitor with his or her full name and address legibly written and must have attached thereto the seven coupons, Nos. I. to VII. which are given with Parts II. to VIII. inclusive of the work. Coupon No. I. given herewith MARVELS of the UNIVERSE. PRIZE COUPON I. = Part II. => This coupon to be retained and mot sent in until after the publication of Part VIII. should be cut out and preserved until sent in with the other Coupons. Any Competitor not strictly adhezing to these conditions will be disqualified. The decision of Messrs. Hutchinson and Co., the Publishers of the work, as to the merit of the Lists and the award of the Prizes and on any question arising out of the Com- petition to be accepted as decisive and final. The Publishers, being desirous of ob- taining the co-operation of Subscribers in the compilation of ““MARVEES OF THE UNIVERSE,” have decided to offer three prizes for the three most fascinating illustrations or sets of illus- trations of a marvel of Nature, sub- mitted to them for inclusion in ““MAR- VELS OF THE UNIVERSE.” o The Ist Prize will be £5: 5 The 2nd Prize will be £2 The 3rd Prize will be £1 mm NO So © CONDITIONS. I.—All photographs or drawings must have been made by the Competitor himself from Nature, and must not on any account be a copy of any illustration which has been published in any book, magazine or other publication. 2.—No subject which has already appeared in ‘‘ Marvels of the Universe ’’ will be considered. 3'—One Subscriber may send in as many subjects as he pleases provided each subject or set of subjects be enclosed in a separate envelope and marked with the title of the subject. 4.—Every envelope or parcel sentin to the Publishers must be clearly marked on the outside “‘ MARVELS ILLUSTRATION PRIZE.” 5.—The latest date for submitting illustrations is January 3Ist, 1912, but as there is a. possibility of the subject being already included in one of the Parts given out to the printers before that date, Com- petitors are advised in their own interests to send as soon as possible. 6.—The Publishers must have the right to publish at any time any illustration sent in for this competition, whether gaining a prize or not, on paying a fee of 5/-. 7.—The Publishers with the aid of Mr. Edward Step, F.L.S., will decide which they consider to be the most fascinating illustrations, or sets of illustrations, submitted, and their decision in the award of prizes and on any question arising out of this competition is to be accepted as decisive and final. The result of these Competitions will be announced ia Part XI of this Work. ies * AN IDEAL LANDSCAPE ON MARS ACCORDING TO PROF, LOWELL. y In this picture an attempt is made to visualize Professor Lowell's ideas as to the condition of the planet. The general desert character of the surface is shown, with the dust storms that frequently arise The canals are filled by the melting of the snow at the poles, which is followed by the growth of vegetation in their vicinity. The canals are here shown filled, with the vegetation in vigorous growth. i i This flower grows in the forests and the central cavi ould hold about THE LARGEST FLOWER IN THE WORLD. of Sumatra, where it is a parasite upon the roots of climbing plants. It weighs about fifteen pounds, a gallon and a half. The plant possesses no leaves, and may be said to consist of the flower alone, Sraansot I Painted by Seppinus Wright. SER AND ITS DIVING BELL. Spiders are shown a ious stage their diving operatio are moored silke reads to water-weeds, and serve for the yc Marvels of the Universe 49 head, like the hart that Baron Munchausen shot with cherry-stones and met years later with a cherry-tree growing from its head. As a matter of fact, the caterpillar does not walk about with this encumbrance, for by the time the plant has developed the caterpillar is dead. Everybody knows the rather large pale moth, called Ghost-moth, that flits about our gardens and fields at dusk, and whose caterpillar spends its days underground feeding on the roots of grass and other plants. There is in New Zealand an allied moth, whose caterpillar falls a prey to a species of fungus known as Cordiceps. The probability is that it eats the microscopic spore of the fungus whilst taking its usual food and the spore germinates inside it. Its growth fills up the whole of the caterpillar, upon whose organs 1t draws for nourishment, and whilst retaining the caterpillar form, converts a soft, juicy creature into a hard, wooden corpse. Then a shoot emerges just behind the head and rises into the air, the shoot attaining a length of six inches, of which the upper third con- sists of a thickened mass of spores which fly off into the air to destroy other caterpillars. It is L — a Photo bu} [R. Thiele. THE VEGETABLE CATERPILLAR. As shown in this photograph the insect hae been misunderstood by many, who have supposed that it walks about with this encumbrance attached to it. this New Zealand species that is shown in our photographs: that on the present page showing it as though walking, but the correct position is given on page 48, where it is seen below ground with the fungus reaching up into the air. A similar species occurs in China, where it is known by the poetical name of “ the summer grass of the winter-worm.’’ The Chinese attribute medicinal virtues to it, and no Chinese drug- store is without a stock of it tied up in little bundles. Other species are found in different parts of the globe, three of them in Britain. The last are much smaller than the New Zealand species ; but one, often found springing from underground chrysalids, makes up for its smallness by its bright red colour. At Guadeloupe a similar fungus attacks the wasp, and the wasp is said to have been found actually living with the encumbrance attached, though evidently in the last stage of existence. Others attack beetles, crickets and cicadas. Our common house-fly falls a victim in large numbers to a fungus of quite another sort. In autumn the flies may be seen on windows or walls, apparently only resting; but when an effort is made to dislodge them they are found to be fixed to their support by a fine feltwork of silky threads, with which also the fly’s body is filled. 50 Marvels of the Universe THE LEAF-CUTTING ANT BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S In tropical America there dwells an ant about the same size as the Red Ant of British .pinewoods. It is known in different localities as Sauba-ant and Coushie-ant. Most naturalists who have travelled in that part of the world have told us of their admiration at the sight of long processions of these ants streaming down the trunks of trees and along definite tracts through the forest to their great nest-heaps, every ant holding in his jaws a circular piece of leaf. The ants are almost hidden by these umbrellas, and the procession looks more like a stream on whose surface the leaves are floating. It was for long a puzzle what the ants did with these leaves, and it was variously suggested that they were used for food and for lining or roofing the galleries of their nests. The facts of the case, as usual where Nature is concerned, are far more wonderful than the theories. The ant packs these leaves into its cellars, where they rot and form a soil for the cultivation of a fungus which serves as food for the ant-grubs. When the fungus has drawn all the nutriment from this leaf- mould, it is carefully cleared out of the nursery galleries , # into spare-chambers, where it lov t.varreus, iS eaten up by the grubs of THE COUSHIE OR LEAF-CUTTING ANT. certain beetles, such as ants A single ant is here shown on its downward passage along a branch with the portion of leaf it has just cut. The nearer insect is a membracid that in colour and always encourage, or at least shape closely resembles the leaf-laden ant tolerate, in their nests. Shafts lead from the galleries where these fungi are grown to the outer air, and the temperature and humidity of the gallery is regulated by opening or stopping up the shafts as circumstances may require. An unprotected plant-sucking insect, known as a membracid, that occurs in the same region, has developed a green hood, which covers its back in such a way as to closely resemble a Coushie-ant with its cut leaf, as shown in the illustration above. It has been suggested that this is a case of protective mimicry, and that the ants pass the membracid under the impression that it is one of themselves, and similarly engaged. The underground galleries of this ant are very extensive. Bates tells that they had infested the Botanic Gardens at Para so much as to arouse the indignation of a French gardener there, who set to work to try to exterminate them, or at least to reduce their numbers. His plan was to discover the main entrances to and exits from their nests, and over these to burn sulphur, and blow the heavy fumes into them by means of bellows. In this he was so successful that the destructive vapour entering at one point was seen to be coming out of other holes far away from the burning sulphur Bates measured the distance between the entrance of the vapour and one of its exits, and found it to be no less than twe hundred and ten feet. And all the intervening space was tunnelled by a net- work of the ants’ galleries. Truly a prodigious piece of engineering for creatures so small. [Ly Theo. Carveras. THE COUSHIE OR LEAF-CUTTING ANT. These ants, which are here shown of the natural size, swarm in the forests of Tropical America, building large nest-hills in which cultivate a species of fungus for the food of their young. To make a suitakle soil for the fungus they cut leaves from the forest trees and carry them home in their jaws as shown. 52 Marvels of the Universe SRARS) OF Gib SARE BY, EDWARD STEPPE. L:S: Tue Earth-stars are a group of fungi allied to the puff-balls ; but whereas the puff-balls are tolerably common and, therefore, well-known, the COMMON EARTH-STAR. The outer coat splits into triangular lobes, which give the starry appearance to it when they have turned outward. Photos by] [Es COMMON EARTH-STAR. The round body in the centre of the star con- tains a powder like snuff, which consists of millions of microscopic spores. Earth-stars are comparatively rare and consequently little-known. In their earlier condition they might easily be mistaken for little puff-balls if they happened to be seen, but in this stage they are usually buried just under the surface of the soil. Getting to their full size, they push the soil aside and come into view. Then the outer layer splits from the apex into several pointed segments which turn away from the centre and give the whole plant a star-like ap- pearance. In the centre of the star there stands a more or less globular body which, if cut through early, will be found to be of the consistence of crumb of bread, but later it breaks up into soft cobwebby threads, and amidst these are millions of the micro- scopic spores by which the plant is propagated. To set these free an opening appears at the summit of the globular body, or spore sac, and imperceptible changes of temperature will so affect the walls of the sac that many of the spores will issue from time to time in the form of a tiny puff of thin smoke. Even the temperature of the hand when examining one of these Earth-stars is sufficient to cause a de- monstration of this. When the atmosphere is charged with moisture, the segments of the star rapidly absorb it, and by their expansion turn outwards and downwards, their tips often pressing upon the earth with such power that they force up the centre, and detach its con- nection with the soil. In consequence of this action the plant is often caught by the wind and _ sent bowling along for some distance, scattering its spores as it goes. There are a number of different species of Earth- stars, of which no fewer than a dozen are found from time to time in this country, but they are all very similar in character to those of which we give illustrations. One of these, however, will be seen to differ from our description in the fact that the spore-sac is smaller and is borne upon a. stalk. This particular species is known as Bryant’s Earth- star, and there are several others that share this possession of a stalked spore-sac. The opening of the spore-sac in Bryant’s Earth-star is developed into a distinct fluted nozzle, whilst beneath the sac Marvels of the Universe Re there is a sharp rim. Altogether the general form and graceful curves of this species are such as to fit it eminently for the purposes of the decorative artist. As already indicated, in their earlier underground condition there is little to distinguish them from Puff-balls. As a matter of fact, they were all at one time reckoned as Puff-balls, the Earth-stars being distinguished as Starry Pufi-balls: but it will be seen that the outer jacket constitutes a real distinction. Photo by] ; LE. Step, PLS. BRYANT’S EARTH-STAR. A rarer form, in which the spore-receptacle is seen to be stalked, and to have a distinct nozzle. The specimen in the background has distributed its spores and is now drying out of shape. THE GIANT REPTILE OF WYOMING BY R. I. POCOCK, F.R.S. It is a common supposition, true in some cases, but not in all, that animals of past times greatly exceeded their modern representatives in size; but no one whose acquaintance with reptiles was limited to crocodiles, tortoises, snakes and lizards could dream of the extent to which some reptiles of the Mesozoic period, well termed “‘ the Age of Reptiles,’’ surpassed in bulk the living representatives of the class. These animals were not closely related to any existing species, except the crocodiles, but belonged to a special division—the Dinosauria; and strange as it may seem, it is none the less true that this group, containing species colossal alike in size and stupidity, is the stock whence birds took their origin. One of the most wonderful, if not quite the largest, of these huge dragons was Diplodocus, skele- tons of which have been found in Wyoming in the United States. Even at the shoulder this animal was as high as the largest living elephant, while the height at the hind-quarters was not many inches short of thirteen feet. To support a body over twelve feet long and of huge bulk the limbs were massive and upright, and the broad, five-toed feet were armed with three strong, curved claws, the two outer toes of each foot being bluntly rounded. The neck was long, like that of a swan, but more robust and less flexible, and supported a comparatively small head, measuring not more than about two feet in length. The eyes were set high up, the nostrils were apparently just in front of them, as in most birds, and the jaws were armed in front with slender teeth set close together, 54 Marvels of the Universe like those ofacomb. The head and neck measured nearly twice the length of the body : but the tail, which tapered away to a slender point and must have been as flexible almost as a whip-lash, was close upon fifty feet long. It is difficult to imagine what purpose this tail can have served, unless, like that of the modern monitor lizard, it was used to slash such enemies as Diplodocus may have had amongst contemporary predacious Dinosaurs. It is supposed that this reptile was amphibious in habits, and fed upon plants it uprooted from the bottom of the water. Perhaps the claws were used for this purpose, and the formation of the teeth suggests that they may have played the part of a sieve, allowing the water to escape from the mouth in front and retaining at the same time the food within it. It may be that Diplodocus took refuge from its enemies in lakes; and since no RESTORATION OF THE DIPLODOCUS This photograph is taken from one of the remarkable restorations of prehistoric animals in Carl Hagenbeck’s Park, near Hamburg. It gives a good idea of the size and proportions of the animal contrasted with modern vegetation. reptiles can breathe under water, it has been suggested that one of the uses of the extraordinarily long neck of this species was to enable it to raise its head to the surface, keeping the body deeply submerged. Even with all four feet resting on the ground, the animal could have thrust its eyes and nostrils into the air in water five or more fathoms in depth, while if it stood up like a kangaroo, supported on the hind legs and the muscular portion of the base of the tail, some six or nine feet would have been added to its stature. It is impossible to know the causes which led to the extermination of Diplodocus and other Dinosaurs. Perhaps, however, some climatic changes dried up the swamps and lakes and destroyed the vegetation upon which they depended. With the close of the epoch which saw their disappearance, the carnivorous Dinosaurs, which probably preyed upon them, disappeared also. THE EXTINCT GIANT REPTILE OF WYOMING. This huge reptile—known as Carnezie’s Diplodocus—stood nearly thirteen feet high at the hind quarters, its body proper was twelve feet, the head and neck nearly twice that length, and the tail not far short of fifty feet long. Sun 56 Marvels of the Universe MARS AS A HOME FOR MEN BY E. WALTER MAUNDER, F.R.A.S. “WHEN the earth had to be prepared for the habitation of man, a veil, as it were, of intermediate being was spread between him and its darkness, in which were joined, in a subdued measure, the stability and insensibility of the earth, and the passion and perishing of mankind. “ But the heavens, also, had to be prepared for his habitation. “ Between their burning light,—their deep vacuity, and man, as between the earth’s gloom of iron substance and man,a veil had to be spread of intermediate being ;—which should appease the unendurable glory to the level of human feebleness, and sign the changeless motion of the heavens with the semblance of human vicissitude. - ‘Between the earth and man arose the leaf. Between the heaven and man came the cloud. His life being partly as the falling leaf, and partly as the flying vapour.’’* : This is a poetic definition of the conditions of habitability for a planet. But the scientific definition, though expressed in very different language and making use of different terms, in essence corresponds to it closely. The falling leaf and the flying vapour are the tokens of a habitable world; habitable, that is to say, in the only sense in which we can properly use the term, by beings resembling men in their capacities of body and of mind. A world in which the bare rock stands naked to the sunlight, with only dry air between, can be no fit home for organic life in any highly-developed form. * Ruskin, ‘‘ Modern Painters.” Mercury | | = Mars | { if \ Moon Earth te | i { Fs t Venus A rough idea of the relative sizes of the planets nearest the Sun and—on, necessarily, a different scale—their relative distances from it. The comparative sizes of Mars and our satellite, the Moon, should be noticed, so greatly do they differ from the appearance of these bodies in the heavens Marvels of the Universe 57 THE FIRST FROST OF THE SEASON. Drawings of Mars made at the Lowell Observatory, Arizona, U.S.A.; that on the left by Professor Lowell, on 1910 November 18, and that on the right by Mr. E. C. Slipher, on 1910 November 22. The essential quality of life is the power which the organic body possesses of taking dead matter into itself; of assimilating it and breaking up its structure, and using it either for its own growth or for the maintenance of its energy. The difference between the life of the plant and of the animal lies in the greater directness with which the plant can lay hold on inorganic matter ; while the animal requires for its sustenance matter that has already undergone organic change. Animal life, therefore, presupposes plant life, and plant life the presence of water, the one great neutral solvent ; and of water as a liquid. Abundance of water, abundance of vegetation, are necessary if the higher, more developed forms of life are to flourish. But water exists in the liquid form only within comparatively narrow limits of temperature. On the earth water freezes at 32°, and boils at 212°, but as the mean temperature of the earth as a whole is about 60°, and for the equatorial regions about 80°, there is a wide margin of safety on either side, and over the greater part of the earth’s surface, water is normally in the liquid state. In the two frigid zones the mean temperature is 32° or lower. Here, therefore, water is normally found in the solid state as ice or snow. Life exists, indeed, in these two zones, but it exists because for half the year the temperature is above freezing-point, and because there is a continual influx of forms of life from the warmer zones. The first question, therefore, to be asked with regard to the habitability of Mars is ‘‘ What is the temperature of the planet ?’’ We know from its position in the solar system that it receives from the sun, surface for surface, only three-sevenths of the light and heat that falls upon the earth. We can judge roughly of the effect of this by noticing that a zone on the earth slightly outside the Arctic Circle will, from the effect of its foreshortened presentation to the sun, receive for the unit of surface about three-sevenths of the light and heat falling on the Equator. But the mean temperature of such a zone will be fully 50° lower than that of the Equator. We may reasonably suppose, therefore, that the mean temperature of Mars is 50° lower than that of the earth, or, in other words, that it is about 10° instead of 60°. But a mean temperature of I0° is 22° below freezing-point ; in other words, water on Mars is normally in the solid condition; it exists chiefly as irost, snow or Ice. 58 Marvels of the Universe But a world eternally covered in frost, snow or ice should sparkle under the sun’s rays like a diamond, and Mars is the “ ruddy” planet and has as poor a power of reflection as the Moon. Is it possible, then, that Mars is destitute of water, and is simply, like the Moon, naked rock ? No, for as the accompanying illustrations show, a white cap crowns each of the poles of Mars; a cap so brilliant that it has been seen in the telescope to shine like a star of the first magnitude when a mist or fog has entirely hidden the body of the planet. And this cap, like snow upon the earth, increases in area as winter draws on, and diminishes with the approach of summer. Such changes are impossible to bare rock; it is but reasonable to ascribe them to ice or snow. For as the white cap that is feeling the summer sun shrinks, so the region round it becomes dark, as if the snow had indeed been melted and become turbid water. But the ice-caps of Mars are not relatively more extended than those of the earth, even in winter- MERIDIES - ‘80 130) "200-210, 220-230 9-240. 250, 260° 270 280 290 300 S10 320 330 440 380 QO 10 20 30 40 50 G0 70 60 8) 100 110 $70 150 SO 180 160 170 160 ORIENS © orc f a an ty aa: 1. / Tee oi 4 } fi =) eof xe 1 3) s c oa Ne Le Be Uchronia Rusia eae : sae fas {3 lanes G Se iy 4 i cidapen) og i, Se eee bpd be t ; Pacabscobe io emseray OWI Rion Clon isd eaabaeasober coma ai 90 110° 120° 950. 2440 i80 0160 170 180 - SEPTENTRIO CAE THE MOST COMPLETE CHART OF THE PLANET MARS. This map was drawn by M. Antoniadi, and is based upon most recent discoveries. It is supposed that the dark parts of the planet formed the seas in ages gone by, as their names signify (vide, Mare Sirenum Mare Acidalum, etc.). The narrow lines connecting the darker spots are the much-discussed canals, accepted as such by some astronomers and rejected by others. The former suggest that the darkness of the lines is caused by vegetation which clusters round the darker spots, or “Luci,” as they are technically called. time, and in the summer they shrink and shrink, until in some years one of them has been known to disappear entirely. Is not this evidence that Mars is warmer, not colder, than the earth ? This might be so, if we saw every part of the planet to the same advantage. But the Mars that we examine in the telescope is not the average Mars. The little planet, true to his warrior reputation, puts the best face on things ; we see him only under his happiest conditions ; he presents to us most fully the summer noonday of his tropics, and hides from us “ the winter of his discontent.” The mean temperature of the earth is taken as 60°, but the mean noontide temperature of our tropics in summer-time will probably turn 100°. A similar difference would, therefore, give us 50° as the average temperature of the centre of the disc of Mars as we see it. We need to know not only the mean temperature of the planet, but the range of temperature, the range from midday to midnight, the range from midsummer to midwinter, the range from equator to the poles. And this must be very great—greater than we experience under similar conditions here. We infer this from what has been ascertained as to the force of gravity at the surface of Mars. This we know to be about three-eighths that of the earth ; so that whilst a body falls sixteen feet in a second Marvels of the Universe 59 It follows from this that On the earth, at a1 " 34 miles at the surface of the earth, it will only fall six feet at the surface of Mars the atmosphere of Mars is arranged in a different manner from that of the earth. a height of 34 miles, half the atmosphere 1s left beneath us, and by an ascent of another half the remaining atmosphere will be passed through, and so on. On Mars we should have to ascend MIDSUMMER ON MARS. 20—the day of the summer solstice of the Southern Drawing of Mars, made by M. Antoniadi, on 1909 September Hemisphere—with the 33-inch refractor of the Meudon Observatory. The great bright region in the lower part of the disc is “ Aeria,”” one of :the red lands that whiten under a low sun. The black marking, in the form of a cornucopia, that borders Aeria is the Syrtis Major, and midway between Aeria and the polar cap is the large round island *‘ Hellas’’ that also grows white when near the edge of the disc. 82 miles to reach the level of half pressure, and 17} miles to reach that of quarter pressure. If the pressure at the surface of Mars was as great as it is on the earth, we should be looking down through nearly three times the amount of atmosphere that we possess, and in all probability we could not discern his surface at all. . As it is, the surface markings on Mars are almost as distinct on the Moon, a clear proof that we are looking through a thin and shallow medium. We as thos2 60 Marvels of the Universe THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE OF MARS, As observed at the Lowell Observatory in 1905, showing the extended area of the South Polar cap during the Southern winter. If it be objected that the snow-caps of Mars are actually of the summer sun, a twofold answer is at hand. The THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE OF MARS. As observed at the Lowell Observatory in 1905, showing the diminished area of the North Polar cap during the Northern summer. cannot suppose the atmospheric pres- sure on Mars to be more than a seventh that upon the earth, probably itis much lower. But it follows from the rarity of the air on Mars that the vicissitudes of temperature there are far greater than upon the earth. The atmospheric circulation of Mars must be very languid. This follows as a consequence of the small amount of heat received from the sun and of the feeble force of gravity. Just as a stone on Mars will onlv fall six feet in the second, instead of six- teen as with us, so a mass cf heated air will rise with proportionate slowness. Some writers have indeed spoken of Mars as a “ wind-swept planet,” and have referred to its “ hurricanes,” “ tornadoes’ and “ dust-storms.”” No such tumults can ever disturb its calm, clear, thin atmosphere. They are the creatures only of an unscientific use of the imagination. seen to melt away under the influence rapidity with which the polar caps melt is the clearest possible proof that the sun’s rays are not working upon great masses of ice. There is, indeed, no sufficient evidence that any con- siderable fall of snow ever takes place on Mars, or could take place. In the extreme temperature of the Martian winter “at a temperature vastly below any ever felt in Siberia, the smallest particles of moisture will be condensed into what we call hoar frost, and will glisten with as much white- ness as actual snow.’’ And, on the other hand, though the mean tempera- ture of the planet is low, it is not impossible, nor even improbable, since the extreme daily and annual range must be greater than anything we can experience here, that in mid-day of the tropics under a vertical sun—that is to say, in the region of the planet most favourably presented to our scrutiny—the, temperature may rise Marvels for an hour or two in’ each. day almost to the same height as in similar regions here. And as on Mars, owing to the low pressure of the atmosphere, water will boil between 100° and 125°, instead of at 212° as with us, there need be no surprise that the thin films of hoar frost are not only melted, but probably evaporated as well. This view of the condition of the planet is strengthened by an observation that has frequently been made. Ina beautiful draw- ing made by M. Antoniadi with the great thirty-three-inch telescope of the Meudon Observatory on September 20, 1909, when the southern hemisphere of the planet was at its summer solstice, the bright region in the lower part of the planet represents a ruddy district, called by Schiaparelli, ‘‘ Aeria.” It borders a dark marking having the form of a cornucopia, the darkest marking on the planet, and formerly known as the “ Hour- Glass Sea,’ but now as the “ Syrtis Major.” It is a feature of Aeria and of several other of the ruddy lands of Mars that when near the ec ige of the disc—that is to say, early in the morning of the region or late in its after- noon—it becomes white instead of red, pointing to a deposition of frost in some form which disappears under the noonday sun and forms again shortly before he sets. In this case there can be no question of anything more than a thin film, whether of snow or of hoar frost, and as such regions go far to rival the polar cap in brightness, it is probable that it does not materially differ from them in character. Under such conditions plant-life must find it difficult to maintain the struggle for stence, even in its lowest and hardiest 3ut for life in any of its highest we may dismiss Mars as quite un- suited. For this a more genial climate, a denser and moister atmosphere, a less violent range of daily temperature are required, and these imply the conditions of a larger, denser planet, placed nearer to the sun; conditions of our earth, mantled with , tation and veiled in vapour, richly dowered with the cloud and with the leaf. of the Universe 61 CLOUD-FORMS IN MARS. These forms were observed and drawn by a German astronomer, Schroter, who noticed the changes of their mass more particularly round the equator. He therefore considered them to be clouds, and if this be so it demonstrates the existence of atmosphere and there- fore a possibility of life on the planet. 62 Marvels of the Universe THE LARGEST FLOWER IN THE WORLD BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. THERE are many plants whose flowers are so minute and inconspicuously coloured that one may pardon those who are not botanists for not knowing of their existence; but when we come, to consider a flower that measures a full yard across it is rather astonishing to learn that it remained entirely unknown until the nineteenth century. In the year 1818 Sir Stamford Raffles, with his wife and Dr. Arnold, were exploring the interior of Sumatra, when, suddenly, at the call of their Malay servants, they came upon a gigantic flower growing on the long twisting roots of some species of fig or vine. There were no leaves, the flower and flower-buds springing direct from these roots. Dr. Arnold, who was the first European to set eyes on this floral monster, confesses that, had he been alone, he would have hesitated to send home particulars of the flower’s dimensions, from fear that it would be received as one of the old type of traveller’s tales. Fortunately for his fears, Sir Stamford and Lady Raffles were within call and witnessed his measurements and particulars. The central portion of the flower contain- ing the stamens and nectary '; was a foot across, and each petal, which was almost round, measured twelve inches in length. They were not thin and delicate like the petals of most flowers, but fleshy, and a PRE ~ LE. J. Wallis. quarter of an inch thick, in ARNOLD'S RAFFLESIA the thinnest part, increasing A parasitical flower in the forests of Sumatra. Four buds are also shown in various to three-quarters of an inch stages of growth, breaking forth from the roots on which the plant is a parasite. AT theuthichest portions. The central cavity was computed to have a capacity of a gallon and a half, and the weight of the entire flower was calculated to be about fifteen pounds. The ground colour of the flower is flesh-tint or yellow upon which are heavy mottlings of a dull purple. The unopened buds are in form like cabbages. They take about a month to come to full size, and then are open only for a day or two, after which they rapidly decay. Resembling carrion in their general colouring, they also give off a carrion-like odour, which attracts swarms of flies. This is a device for securing the conveyance of pollen from the male to the female flowers. Two or three other species of Rafflesia have been discovered since, but none so large as Arnold’s [By Arthur Twidle. ST. ELMO FIRE these electrical manifestations the name of “‘corposants,”” and erroneously regard them as presaging bad many other manifestations of electrical force in Nature, these fires are unattended by any injury to persons or ey are, hox r, considered ill omens by sailors, and consequently greatly dreaded. 64 Marvels of the Universe Si EEMO See TRIES BY FRANK T.. BUELEN, FR :G:S: EveER since the dawn of seafaring, seamen have had their superstitious fears excited by the appearance on salient points of their vessels’ spars of these extraordinary agglomerations of | a | (v. J. Ward. THE WATER SPIDER. “Photo by) The spider has captured a worm, and is taking it to her home. Photo by) The spider is diving with a load of air to her diving-bell. static electricity. Many and various are the literature under differing names, of which St. Elmo’s Fire is perhaps the most poetical. Sailors, however, know them best by the name of “.corposants,”’ an obvious corruption of the Italian appellation corpo santo, or holy body. allusions made to them in Even this word corpo- sants has been corrupted by careless users into composants and other forms of the same kind. The popular idea that their appearance, glowing, lambent, and delicate, at a vessel’s yard- arms or mast-heads presages worse weather has no foundation in fact. They merely indicate that the air is at the time surcharged with electricity, which, having no discharging factor at work, simply accumulates upon some favour- able point and becomes visible as a soft, elusive, but never quite stationary flame. There can be little doubt that this light is similar to that of the Will-o’-th’-wisp, or Ignis fatuwus, although not proceeding from the same source; the latter being probably luminous marsh gas. i If anything would convince a superstitious person of the harmlessness of St. Elmo’s Fire it would be the fact, so frequently demonstrated, that it often covers like a halo the head of a seaman engaged in work aloft, and I myself have several times seen it streaming from my fingers when holding them up for the purpose: * Tcannot help confessing to a curious feeling’ of the un- canny on witnessing this phenomenon. Perhaps a belief in the supernatural origin of these most beautiful manifestations of the electricity in the air may be more readily under- stood than any other of the sea-superstitions now so rapidly dying away. Only appearing on the blackest of nights, moving from point to point without apparently passing through the intermediate space, unaffected by fiercest. wind or heaviest rain, and insusceptible of being touched or moved, St. Elmo’s Fires form what is probably the most mysterious and lovely of all the wonderful phenomena belonging to the ocean. Wlarvels of the Universe 65 PAP AWARE Ke SPEDE BY R. I. POCOCK, F.R.S. Most people regard the diving-bell as exclusively a product of human invention. That is a mistake, for, thousands of years before man discovered this method of breathing and keeping dry under water, there lived a species of spider which had solved precisely the same difficulty ; and this spider, probably in virtue of his clever invention, has survived to this day in our ponds and ditches. He is commonly known as the Water-Spider, and technically by a Latin name which means the “aquatic silver-swimmer.” It is the appearance of this spider under water that has earned him this name, for the hairs which cover the hinder-part of his body are long and hooked at the end, and have the power of entangling the air when exposed to that element, so that the animal, partially enveloped in a bubble, looks like a ball of quicksilver as it swims beneath the surface. The bell, which the spider makes for its home, is a thimble-shaped case of silk, anchored by threads to water-weeds, with the orifice turned downwards. To empty this bell of the water which fills it, the spider disentangles the bubble of air inside the aperture and this, rising to the top of the bell, displaces a certain amount of water. Another bubble is then fetched from the surface and liberated in the same way ; and the operation is repeated until the bell is filled with air. This provides a water-tight air chamber, and exhausted oxygen is made good by the same process of bubble liberation. In this bell two batches of eggs are laid, one in the early summer and one in the autumn. The summer eggs hatch quickly and the young soon start making diminutive bells on their own account ; but after depositing the autumn batch, the mother closes up the mouth of the bell and passes the winter in a dormant state with them, waiting for the warmth of spring to hatch them. At the time of courtship, the male spins a bell alongside that of the female and makes a silk passage from one to the other, so that he can pass into her bell without getting wet. Water-Spiders feed upon aquatic insects and upon flies or gnats which alight on the surface of the water. Photo by) (J. J. Ward, FES. THE HOVER-FLY. Wn 66 Marvels of the Universe THE HOVER-FLY GRUB AND ITS RAVAGES AMONGST THE SGREEN BEIGE. BY, JOHN Ji. WARD; E:E-S. To distinguish between insect friends and foes in the garden is not an easy task. The average gardener kills indiscriminately when insects cross his path, and especially if they happen to assume a grub-like form. Nevertheless, a little time devoted to dis- crimination between them would be time well spent; for his wholesale killing often results in the destruction of his greatest friends; indeed, he often kills much better killers than him- self. My friend the Hover-fly has perfectly protected my sweet- peas from the ravages of the “ green-flies,” or ‘‘ blight,” during the extraordinary summer just passed. Although at first the green-flies existed in more than usual abundance, and their attacks were even more persistent than ever, yet the Hover-fly, and his near relatives, acted so promptly, and supervised things so thoroughly, that, later on, I could scarcely find a single green-fly. It happened lke this. By the side of my sweet-peas there is a bed of mint which quickly produced its flowers. Now of all things in the garden on which Hover-flies love to feast, probably Photo bv] [J. J. Ward. EGG OF HOVER-ELY. mint flowers stand first. So these black and pale-yellow banded The egg here shown is magnified to flies came in large numbers, and of various species, to the sixty times the natural size. banquet, poising themselves above the mint flowers in their characteristic manner, held there by the rapid vibrations of their wings, and swooping down in hawk-like fashion to feast as opportunity occurred. There was merry-making and love-making amongst them during every hour of sunlight ; in due course, too, there was marriage, and also families. It was then that my sweet-peas had become badly attacked with the “ green blight,” which, like the Hover-flies, were thriving apace during the abnormally hot weather. It was then, too, that some of the female Hover-flies became deeply interested in my sweet-peas. Day after day they were hovering before the flowers and leaves, alighting upon them and carefully searching them over. The moment they met with a green-fly, they would deposit one of their eggs near to it, and then fly to another flower or leaf for the same purpose. Now, as everyone who has tried to cultivate plants will know well, green-flies possess extraordinary powers of repro- duction. A single green-fly will bud out twenty or more young in one day, and these are all females, which quickly develop to maturity, and are almost at once able to produce young in the same manner as their parent, and which are again all females. Photo by] lJ. J. Ward. Also, this budding process of reproduction continues for twenty GRUB OF HOVER-FLY. or more generations during the summer months, without any The grub, photographed soon after males appearing. Males are eventually forthcoming in the late emergence from the egg, is magnified about sixty times autumn broods, and after their appearance eggs are produced A full-grown grub of the Hover-fly has captured a green-fly by spearing it with the three-pronged fork at its mouth; it then elevates it in the air by holding to the flower with its broad hinder part—for it has no feet—and in this position Photos by) J.J. Ward, F.E.S. sucks the green-fly until only an empty skin is left. This is dropped, and another green-fly is at once sought, when the process is repeated over and over again. HOW THE HOVER-FLY GRUB FEEDS. 68 Marvels of the Universe instead of living young. When winter has passed, these eggs provide the first brood of budding females. It is obvious, then, that every “ green-fly’’ seen during the spring and summer months can become a mother. Réaumur has estimated that a single green-fly may be progenitor to no fewer than five thousand nine hundred and four millions nine hundred thousand individuals during the two or three weeks of its life. The mother Hover-fly seems fully acquainted with this state of things, for the moment that she detects a green-fly on a leaf or stem, she is content to place an egg there ; probably she is instinctively satisfied that the sight of a green-fly is a suffi- cient guarantee that ample pro- vision will be forthcoming to give her offspring a good start in life. In an illustration on this page the egg is shown as placed by the parent insect amongst the green-flies, and more in detail on page 66. Three days later a _ tiny, yellowish white grub emerges from the egg, which when fully extended is not more than one-sixteenth of an inch in length ; but its courage and strength are as marvellous as its voracity. The grub under observa- tion, when hatched, travelled down the stem until it came to a leaf, on whose surface it met with its first green-fly. One of the legs of the latter touched the grub as it moved towards it. Instantly the Photo by] (v. J. Ward, P.E.S. : ; BUD OF SWEET-PEA ENLARGED. grub thrust its head fouwand and a moment later it was In this enlarged photo the forms of the green-fly are clearly seen. Note the eggs of the Hover-fly on the upper part of the flower. standing upright on the tail- end of its body with the green-fly elevated in the air—a magnified photograph of the actual incident is shown on the page opposite. In this attitude the little grub held the green-fly for over an hour while it sucked its juices, and this in spite of the fact that its victim was much larger than itself and continually struggling to escape. It then cast away the empty skin of the green-fly and rested for a while. During the first day of its existence it captured and ate two half-grown green-flies and two smaller ones; and day by day, for ten days, its appetite increased in an astonishing manner. It grew rapidly, and by the end of the second day had become quite an expert in manipulating green-flies. It is interesting to note that the grub is blind ; it finds its prey by rapidly thrusting its head here, there, and everywhere as it travels. Sooner or later its nose comes in contact Marvels of the Universe 69 with a victim, when a three-pronged fork, or trident, at its mouth is immediately thrust into the green-fly’s body ; so it is elevated into the air. The method of feeding of the full-grown grub is clearly shown in the illustrations on page 67. The grub is of a green colour, with a white stripe down the centre of its back, which is tinged with purple at the base. When hungry, after searching for prey, these grubs are very ravenous, consuming green-flies at the rate of more than one per minute. As they feed during the might as well as the day, the enormous amount of destruction they work amongst these garden Photo by] (. J. Ward, F.E.S. : : © 5 ; Eee SGWERILS: GRUB. pests is incalculable ; indeed, man’s insecticides and Mihetecabatcoidavercldshaciecizedtarercens(s: fumigating devices scarcely count against the persistent Four times the natural size. onslaughts of these grubs. The grub’s method of locomotion is curious. It is not provided with feet, but adheres to the leaves by means of the rough edges of the skin at the sides of its body. It consequently has some difficulties to overcome when on the move ; nevertheless, it travels at a remarkable pace. It stretches out 1ts head—which is little more than a tapering proboscis bearing at its apex the trident previously referred to—as far as it can reach, then, gripping the leaf by means of its trident and immediately drawing up its hinder parts until its tail-end almost touches its nose, appears as if about to turn a somersault. Just as you expect to see it perform that movement, however, its head is suddenly thrust forward again ; so it moves along in this loop-by-loop fashion. It always appears to be in a big hurry, both when travelling and in making its thrusts around in search of prey. At the end of the ten days’ feeding period, the grub’s enormous appetite declines, and it attaches itself to a leaf or stem by the trident at its mouth. There it hangs for another ten or eleven days, its skin hardening and becoming of a golden brown colour. After that time has passed, this pupa or chrysalis is suddenly burst open, and we find that the voracious grub has been transformed into a shining black and yellow-banded Hover-fly. It is obvious that the Hover-flies are amongst the gardener’s most valuable allies. When we recognize the enormous rate of increase of which the green-flies are capable, together with the knowledge that, if their multiplication remained unchecked, every green plant or tree on the sur- face of the earth would soon become converted into living green-flies, and that, in consequence, the food supplies of all terrestrial animals would quickly terminate, we can only marvel at the efficiency of Nature’s sentinels»which are ever on guard and ready to strike. When the green-flies become too abundant, Hover-flies and other natural] foes of the green-flies quickly appear, and Photo by] [/. J. Ward, FBS. the work of destruction then goes on persistently PHONED OO ENIAC SO . . A portion of the previous photo enlarged to sixty until the normal balance is restored. times the natural size. Photo bu) CHRYSALIS OF HOVER-FLY. The grub having killed many a green-fly, has reached full size and turned into a chrysalis. Enlarged to four times the natural size. Photo bu) J. J. Ward, F.E.S. THE HOVER-FLY. Newly emerged from the chrysalis, the Hover-fly is waiting for the full expansion and hardening of its wings. Four times the natural size. after which they vanished. LJ. J. Ward, F.E.S. Marvels of the Universe THE SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN THE tourist who makes the ascent of the Brocken —a mountain in Germany—and reaches the sum- mit about the time of sunset, may be startled by observing towards the east a terrific apparition among the clouds. Continued inspection will reveal a remarkable resemblance in outline between the spectre and himself, and that all his movements are imitated by the gigantic form. It is really a shadow of himself thrown by the horizontal rays of the setting sun upon a bank of mist that mses in the neighbourhood, and the size of the shadow de- pends, of course, upon its nearness to, or distance from, the place where the tourist stands. The same phenomenon may be seen, of course, at sunrise by looking in the opposite direction to that indicated for sunset. A traveller who had often been dis- appointed in his efforts to raise the spectre, thus describes his ultimate success : “About a quarter past four I looked around to see whether the atmosphere would permit me to have a free prospect to the south-west, when I observed, at a very great distance towards the Achtermannshohe, a human figure of a monstrous size! pas 5 a LP. A. ravre. SACRED BEETLES. The Scarab having made a fine ball of food is joined by a brother who, under the guise of a helper, aims at appropriating the tempting sphere; but the owner repulses the false friend. bodies of the dead to drive away evil spirits. The insect itself was often placed in the coffins, and sometimes it was embalmed. The Scarab was adopted as a religious symbol to represent the motions of the earth and sun and a unique birth; on account of their rolling balls of dung, and of their sudden appearance, often in great numbers, on the margins of the Nile, after the annual rising and falling of the water. They were considered symbolical of the world on account of the globular form of their pellets of dung, and from an odd notion that they rolled from sunrise to sunset. As a symbol of the sun, because of the angular projections from the head resembling the rays and the ball being rolled backwards with their feet whilst the beetles themselves look forward. As the sun appears to proceed in the heavens in a course contrary to the signs, thus the Scarabzi turn the balls towards the west, while they themselves continue to move towards the east; the first of these motions was considered to exhibit the diurnal, and the second the annual motion of the earth and the planets. They chose the insect as a symbol of the moon, which divides the year into months of twenty-eight days each, because they believed the pellet of the Scarabeus remained a a 5 Photo by) ‘hel a ' [P. I. Pubes THE SACRED BEETLE, The Searab pushing backwards is the maker and rightful owner of the ball, which he is rolling along to his burrow, The other is trying to alter its direction with a view to getting it to his own burrow, 100 Marvels of the Universe in the ground for a period of twenty-eight days. As there were supposed to be no females of this species, it was chosen as the type of Phtah, the creative power, and of Regeneration or Reproduc- tion, because it was the first animal observed after the subsidence of the waters of the Nile. It was also supposed to represent Fecundity, and these beetles are even yet eaten by the women of the country to render them prolific. Now, however, let us turn to safer ground, and consider the beetle from the more substantial basis of known facts. The Scarab, which is found in Provence in France, in the south of Europe, in Egypt, Barbary, etc., is a large beetle, black in colour, with long legs and awkward action. It possesses ample wings, concealed beneath the wing-cases when on the ground, and can fly readily. The head is armed Photo by] Ea aaa "tae : ; [P. H. Fabre. THE SCARAB'S CELLAR. The underground crypt to which he has succeeded in getting his treasure. Here he can eat in peace after his prodigious efforts, or store up the food to be eaten by the Scarab grubs. with teeth, with which it digs, and the back legs are long and bent round, which enables them to grasp the ball of dung. Most beetles, and, indeed, all insects, possess six feet, usually composed of five joints each; but in this species the front pair of legs do not possess any feet at all. In other of the dung-feeders which do possess front feet, these feet are often to be found broken or injured by continual digging in hard ground, and can be of little, if any, use to the beetles. Darwin suggests that the want of front feet in this species is due to the effects of long-continued disuse. The male beetle is said to stridulate (z.e.. to make a noise by rubbing hard parts of its body together in the same way that grasshoppers, crickets, and also some other beetles call to each other, or cry out when alarmed), to encourage the female when working, and to express distress if she is taken away from him. The Scarab acts as a scavenger by breaking up and burying the droppings of cattle and other animals ; it will thus be seen to play a very important part in the economy of nature. They collect balls of dung, which they roll and eventually bury in the ground. It was supposed that these balls comtained the eggs of the beetle, and it is so stated in most of the works on natural history which Marvels deal with this insect. This, however, is not the case, as has been shown by the great French observer, J. H. Fabre, to whose patient investigations are owed most of the facts known concerning this interesting creature. For two months, in June and July, the beetles are busy collecting and rolling balls of dung, which they devour. When the weather gets too hot they bury them- selves in the cool ground and reappear in the spring. Their attention is then taken up with the continuation of their race. The beetle finds by scent the droppings of some animal, to which it flies. It collects masses of dung with its front legs, which are bent, and passes them under the body to the long circular back legs, which shape the masses into a ball. The ball is turned underneath the beetle and rolled into a perfect sphere. In a very short time a large ball is collected, some- times as large as an apple. The beetle then proceeds to roll the ball backwards with its hind legs. All the time the position of the ball is changed with the hind feet, so that every part of it comes in contact with the earth, and it is thus rolled hard and round. The object of the beetle is to move the ball away to a suitable spot where it can dig a hole, bury and devour it at leisure. Jt shows the greatest patience and perseverance in pushing the pellet over steep and difficult ground, or when it is obstructed by a root or stem. Should its pellet slip and roll down a slope, it will push it up again and again until the summit is achieved. Another discomfort often awaits our insect. Another beetle will not unfre- quently join it, and proceed quite un- necessarily to help it push the ball along. The newcomer always has its face towards the ball, to which it fastens itself. Its ob- ject is to either rob the rightful owner of its property, which it promptly does if an opportunity is offered it, to decamp with it, or at least to share the feast, without having had the trouble to collect a meal of the Universe 101 Photo by) TUMBLE-DUNG BEETLES Two other members of the same family as the Sacred Scarab, that share its habit of burying dung in tunnels they have dug. 102 Marvels of the Universe for itself. It was often thought that when two beetles were found pushing or devouring the same ball, they were the male and female; and that if a beetle was unfortunate enough to allow its ball to fall into a hole out of which it could not remove it, it flew away and brought back with it other individuals to help. Monsieur Fabre has shown that neither of these ideas is correct. He found that if he fastened the ball to the ground with a long pin, the head of which was buried in the ball, the beetle would, after much pushing and pulling, lever the ball off the pin by raising it : _ with its back, standing as high | as it could on its feet. Could | it not reach quite high enough | to force the ball off the pin, it | would make use of little stones | he placed for it. If he did not help it, when the beetle could not reach high enough, it would fly away and leave the ball sus- pended on the pin. If, also, he placed the ball in a hole out of | which the beetle could not raise it, after a time it flew away. _ In neither case, however, did it | ever return with other beetles to help it out of its difficulties. When the beetle has reached a spot which it considers suit- able, it proceeds to dig a_ hole with its armed head and power- ful front legs. It forms a chamber large enough to receive the ball, and blocking itself up in this temporary dining-room, it begins to devour its prize. It never ceases to eat until the whole of the pellet has been consumed, taking from a week to a fortnight over it. When all is finished, it comes out of the ground again, flies away, and proceeds to find a fresh dropping. When one beetle has ‘* a Brotoloy Cece nabie: come to the assistance (!) of THE SACRED BEETLE’S FEAST. Having rolled away a large ball of food, the Scarab sets to work to eat it, and will eat steadily on until he has consumed the entire mass. selected to bury the prize, the original owner starts to do the digging. The treacherous friend now takes the opportunity to run away with the coveted morsel. Special chambers are prepared in the spring for the eggs. The female beetle lines it with large quantities of dung arranged in different layers. The centre layer, which contains the egg, consists of a creamy paste for the newly-hatched grub to feed on. The outer layers become coarser and coarser to be more suitable to the grub as it grows larger. The grub changes to a chrysalis when full fed, and when hatched the perfect insect breaks out of the earth and flies away. another, and a place has been [By A. LE. Knight. LUMINOUS FUNGI IN A BRAZILIAN FOREST Certain toadstools are luminous, and give out a soft but brilliant light. It has been thought this is a device to attract certainJinsects who may be instrumental in the dispersal of theirjs 104 Marvels of the Universe LUMINOUS FUNGI ONE remembers that in the stories of school-life of a generation or so ago it was one of the favourite “ pro- perties ’ of the writers to tell how a soft new-comer was terrified by an arrange- ment of touchwood, which glowed after dark with a strange, mystic light, form- ing a sentence of warning or doom. The touchwood consisted of rotten wood whose softened tissues were permeated by the delicate threads of which the earlier stages of the fungi consist. In the case of some of the large fungi that at- tack timber, these delicate threads develop into thick interlacing cords that be- come luminous in the dark; and in caves and mines similar cords run down the walls. But perhaps more striking is this luminosity when it is displayed by the mature fungus, the stage in which we can recognize it [By A. E. Knight. as a mushroom or a toad- LUMINOUS FUNGI. stool, whichever we may choose to call it. Certain of the large, leathery fungi In some places travellers have recorded that these gZve out light sufficient to read a book by that grow out from our trees are said to exhibit, this luminosity; but the majority of cases on record relate to species that bear gills on the under-surface, like the common mushroom. One such group of tree-growing mushrooms is known as Ovyster-mushrooms from the shape of the cap, which has a short stalk at one side instead of in the middle. As early as the year 1840, Mr. Gardner, travelling in Brazil, met with such a mushroom which grew on decaying parts of a palm. In fact, he was led to discover it by finding the boys of a village playing after dark with this fungus. The plants attacked by the fungus gave out from every part a bright phosphorescent light much like that produced by the South American fireflies. Dr. Colling- wood has recorded similar experiences in Borneo, which are supported by the observations of Mr. Hugh Low, who says that, when crossing the island by a road through the jungle, he saw the jungle all in a blaze of light, by which he could see to read. Investigation showed him that the light was produced by a mushroom. Then, soon after, Mr. Drummond reported a similar experience of fungi growing from tree-stumps in Western Australia. He gathered a specimen and laid it upon a news- Marvels of the Universe 105 paper, and found that by the light emitted he could read the newspaper easily. One such luminous fungus measured sixteen inches across, stood a foot high, and weighed about five pounds. A mushroom that grows on the olive-trees in the South of Europe is well known to give out a similar light, and other species with the same power have been reported from various parts of the world. BIRDS AS BOWER-BUILDERS BY FRANK FINN, B.A., F.Z.S. THE remarkable erections of certain Bower-birds have long been familiar in the illustrations of natural histories ; but the purpose of, and the variety of construction in, these are not so well known. The Bower-birds belong to that class of bird that indulges in social dancing and posing as a part of their courtship. Not content with having a meeting-ground, the Bower-birds prepare it for the reception of visitors and even build and decorate playhouses. In general habits and form Bower-birds resemble Jays, and build quite ordinary nests, the bower having nothing to do with nesting. Like Jays, also, they hop when on the ground, so that the attitudes given to them by some taxidermists, in which they are represented as running like Partridges, are quite misleading. The simplest form of playground used by any Bower-bird is that of the Tooth-billed species, which simply clears a space and covers it with large green leaves. The others all build some structure or other on the play-place, the best known being that of the Satin- bird of Australia, so-called from the satiny purple plumage of the old male. The hens and young Photo tv) THE BOWER-BIRD AND ITS NEST. The Satin Bower-bird is here shown building its arbour-like nest, both sexes putting the materials into position and adding decorative touches. 106 Marvels of the Universe cocks are of a dull grey colour, and purple birds are so scarce that some Australian ornithologists look on the purple dress as a sort of anticipatory mourning plumage, put on by very old birds shortly before their death. The Satin-bird is a common species, and usually on view in Zoological gardens, where it freely builds its bower. This consists of an avenue of twigs set in a mat of the same, and round and in it the male shows off, constantly jerking up one wing and dancing absurdly with a leaf in his bill. His song is also amusing in the extreme, sounding like water gurgling down an obstructed pipe. Like Bower-birds generally, this species decorates its bower, but uses anything it can get hold of, such as shells, pebbles, bones and feathers. Other Bower-birds specialize more in their decorations: the Spotted Bower-bird, for instance, not only builds a larger bower than the Satin-bird, but uses more decoration, and prefers bones to most things for this purpose. This species, however, is also so fond of bright metal objects that it will even invade isolated houses near (L. Medland, F.Z.S. A BIRD'S PLAYGROUND. The Satin Bower-bird has built this arbour and laid out the surrounding ground with leaves, stones, beads, marbles, and anything else that appears attractive, and struts about its playground with evident pleasure. the bush in order to steal them. Its plumage, as the name implies, is spotted, with buff on a brown ground, and the male has a collar of the brightest rose-pink. Neither Satin nor Spotted Bower-birds can, however, compare in beauty of plumage with the cock Regent-bird, which is clad in golden-yellow and velvet-black ; this bird’s bower, however, is small and chiefly decorated with snail-shells. But by far the most extraordinary bowers are built by two species which favour flowers as decorations—Newton’s Bower-bird of Queensland, a brown and yellow species, and the Gardener-birds of New Guinea, which are brown, with orange crests in the males. The Gardener-bird whose bower has longest been celebrated, builds a conical hut round the stem of a sapling, and in front of it lays out a lawn of moss on which are laid the flowers, buds and gay-coloured insects with which the bird makes the garden. As these decora- tions fade they are thrown away at the back of the hut and replaced by fresh ones. An allied species, whose constructions differ somewhat in detail, especially favours black objects, such as blackbeetles, as decorations. The habits of Newton’s Bower-bird, though comparatively recently made known, are, if any- thing, more extraordinary. This species raises heaps of twigs round two adjacent tree-stems, a yard [By H. Gronveld, NEWTON'S BOWER-BIRD. This is, perhaps, the most remarkable of all the Bower-birds in its habits. It piles up sticks and twigs against two neigh- bouring trees, adding to them until they meet. In old erections one pile is several feet higher than the other, and may be nine feet high: all the work of bird no bigger than a thrush. 108 Marvels of the Universe [By H. Grinvold. THE REGENT BOWER-BIRD AND ITS BOWER. This Bower-bird erects a smaller bower than some other species, and the most conspicuous decorations it uses are shells. or so apart, adding to the piles year by year until they meet. In old houses one pile is always higher than another, and the higher one has been found three yards high—a good-sized edifice for a bird no larger than a thrush; thisspecies being small for a Bower-bird. It is the higher pile or wall of the V-shaped arcade that the birds decorate with flowers, especially favouring white orchids and rock- liies, while ferns and moss are also used. Quite a number of birds will frequent a large old bower, and they are quaintly touchy about having their decorations moved, so much so that the old males, who seem to be the artistic spirits of the community, will fight each other over the implied criticism of an altered decoration. Such a state of affairs seems to mark the limit attained by the evolution of bird social displays, and we may hail Newton’s Bower-bird as the most highly evolved creature outside man in the matter of refined and intellectual amusement ; indeed, considering the employ- ments in which many of us humans find recreation, it is doubtful whether the bird has not the advantage of us. : The nearest allies of the Bower-birds are the Birds of Paradise on one side and the Crows— especially the Jays—on the other; and in both these groups we see indications of the instincts which strike us as so wonderful in the developments described above. The Birds of Paradise have the habit of assembling on certain trees to display ; and at least one species, Lawes’ Bird of Paradise, which is very like a Bower-bird in form and habits, has its dancing-place on the ground. The Crows, on the other hand, display a great fondness for collecting bright-coloured objects; at any rate, their habit of stealing these is well known to those who have kept or watched these birds in captivity. It is true that they only hoard these treasures up, but it may be that this seemingly senseless habit is the starved remainder of an instinct for collecting and displaying bric-a-brac which their primitive ancestors may have possessed, to gradually wear away in the struggle for life experienced by their descendants in the course of their wide distribution over the world. It is significant that the Bower-birds, with their wonderful habits, are confined to Australasia, a region where life seems to be more secure, judging by the survival there of so many forms of life which, in structure at all events, are undeniably primitive, pointing to a less acute struggle for existence. Marvels of the Universe 109 THE LACE-BARK TREE BY RICHARD KERR, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. THE vegetable kingdom supplies many instances of the marvellous in Nature. Even with our limited knowledge of the mysteries of plant life we have abundant evidence that many plants are as wonderful in their way as members of the animal kingdom. We may take as an illustration the inner bark of certain trees, which seems to be valued by native races more than by white people. This, however, may arise from necessity. Doubtless many people have seen and inspected the curious and beautiful Lace-Bark of Jamaica, but few have any special acquaintance with specimens of the leaves and flowers or with the living plant as a whole. It was permanently introduced to Kew Gardens, and in fact to Europe, in 1844. (A young Lace- Bark tree was introduced to the Kew Gardens by Rear-Admiral William Bligh in 1793, but it was soon lost.) Trees of this species seem to be limited to the districts of Vere, Elizabeth and Clarendon in Jamaica. Mr. Wilson, a former curator of the Bath Botanic Gardens, Jamaica, procured seeds, and young plants, four inches high, which he sent to Kew in 1844, and thus was the means of introducing this rarity to our shores. In 1849 the plants were from eight to ten feet high, and one of them produced for the first time flowers and fruit copiously in the summer and autumn of that year. The authorities at Kew Gardens looked upon this as a very satisfactory event. The inner bark of this tree consists of layers of reticu- lated fibre, exactly resembling well-prepared lace; and its nature is best exhibited by -cutting a portion from a branch, soaking it in water, and tearing down the bark. It is then separated by the hand into as many layers as that portion of the tree is yearsold. This last statement is interesting, as it answers the usual question: “ Do these layers correspond with the years of growth?” The layers may number twenty or more. Dr. Lunan ob- serves :— “The ladies of Jamaica are extremely dex- terous in making caps, ruffles, NATURAL LACE. This is a photograph of a small piece of the inner bark of the LacesBark Tree, nets, bonnets, veils, and com- r lete suits of lace with it. to show the structure of the lace. This being slightly enlarged. its mesh appears some- what coarser than is actually the case. 110 Marvels of the Universe “Tn order to bleach it, after being drawn out as much as it will bear, they expose it (stretched) to the sunshine, and sprinkle it frequently with water. It bears washing extremely well, with common soap, and acquires a degree of whiteness equal to that of the best manufactured lace. The wild negroes have made apparel with it of a very durable nature, but the common use to which it is applied is rope-making. The Spaniards are said to have worked it into very strong ropes; and oto by] CA. J. Wallis. THE LACE-BARK TREE. A photograph of a young tree growing in Kew Gardens. The tree grows on dry soils in Jamaica, and the layers of lace are found on removing the rough outer bark. the Indians employ it in a variety of different fabrics. “Sloane relates that Charles II. had a cravat made of the bark of this tree, which was presented to him by Sir Thomas Lynch. “Tn the | daysi of slavery the negro-whips were commonly made of the branches of this tree. A portion of a branch was taken, and the wood was removed from the part that was intended for the lash. The remaining por- tion of the branch formed the handle. If it was desired to ornament the handle, a portion of the bark at the end remote from the lash was un- ravelled until it formed a tassel of spreading layers of lace.” In the ‘“‘ Hortus Kew- ensis,’’ second edition, it is stated that “ when Mr. Wilson, the curator, sent us the young plants, he informed us that it is in- variably found growing in very dry situations on marly limestone hills, where there is not a par- ticle of earth to be seen. The young plants grow in the crevices of the rocks, and in order to obtain them with roots, a hammer or large stone is required to break away the porous limestone.” He further adds, ‘that the soil for growing them in should be composed of one-third marl or lime-rubbish, for I am persuaded that pure loam will kill the plants.” Mr. John Smith, who collaborated with Sir W. Hooker in the production of The Botanical Magazine, enlightens us as to the methods adopted at Kew Gardens for the care of these Marvels of the Universe irae young plants from Jamaica. ‘‘ We are always most desirous to pay attention to information as regards the native habitats of plants, but in cases like the present one, we have found that’ when too strictly adhered to, successful cultivation does not always follow. In our experience we have never found any plant thrive by retaining it in its native soil, or in soil too closely resembling it. If we could, also imitate all the various influences of climate that modify and control the growth NATURAL LACE OF THE LACE-BARK TREE. “. reduced photograph of the lace around a branch about two inches thick, the layers being loosened to show their number and softness. of plants in their native localities, it might then be proper for us to cultivate the Lace-Bark tree in marly soil, like limestone ; , but our plants afford evidence that such soil is not required when they are grown in an artificially heated atmosphere. “ We have used good yellow loam, mixed with a little leaf mould and sand. In this way they have attained a height of eight feet, and continue in a perfectly healthy state. In their native place the leaves are deciduous, falling off in the dry season. But the health of a general collection of 112 Marvels of the Universe tropical plants grown in a hot-house, will not allow us to put them under the influence of their natural dry season; we therefore find that some individuals change their habit and become evergreens. This has been the case with the Lace-Bark plants.” The flowers closely resemble those of the lily-of-the-valley. Sir W. J. Hooker’s description of the tree may be of interest to the botanist : “A tree from twenty to thirty feet high, with branches too straggling and foliage (though of good size and glossy) too sparse to form a striking object, though really hand- some when in flower. “Leaves alternate, on rather short stalks, which are jointed on the branch ; hence the leaves readily fall off in drying. “Flowers pure white, or, in bud, greenish white, arranged in spikes which are solitary and terminal ona main branch, or on short side branches. . . . The fruit is a smooth oval drupe.”’ In the museum ot economic botany in Kew Gardens, the following articles made of lace-bark are exhibited: An early Victorian bonnet, a long purse, two small purses, a lady’s collar mounted on satin, a pair of slippers, a peaked cap, and a whip as used in the days of negro NATURAL LACE. This photo represents, on a smaller scale and taken sideways, the same natural cluster of lace as shown on the previous page. slavery. THE LUMINOSITY (OF THERSEA BY F. T. BULLEN, F.R.G.S. WHILE on the land we have such feeble light-bearers as glow-worms and fire-flies, which bear about with them their own illumination, and are only decorative in their effect, the conditions of life in the ocean are so very different that another scheme of lighting is essential, and this is entirely depen- dent upon the light-giving power of living organisms. Even the tremendous power of the tropical sun-rays can penetrate the ocean only to the depth of a mere skin of water, never exceeding three or four hundred feet, and very feeble then—a sort of dense twilight. Yet we know now that the remotest depths of ocean have light, as efficient and as full as the surface of the sea at night with the appearance of which so many of us are familiar. Yet although there is undoubtedly this universal system of lighting by many different organisms a“ Krearang eT eek! a4 a wes By H. Seppings Wright. THE COFFER FISH OF THE CORAL SEAS. the males are coloured so differently from the females that they were formerly taken for distinct species. s of brilliant blue on a grass-green ground; but in the females the ground colour is flesh-tint or pale It is interesting to note that against the rich colouring of the coral animals these fishes are not at all conspicuous; really the rev deadde y4s1Iq © }I oA oq jO UMo} a4} UIs NAdYVO-AVId S.GYldauyMOd V ~ pi Diane. A Marvels of the Universe 113 their power of emitting luminosity is not by any means constant in its effects, being acted upon by some unknown quality outside of them- selves and apparently independent of their own efforts. How far this affects the light-giving fish of the depths we have no means of knowing or of learning; apparently the con- ditions under which life is lived in the abysmal depths being a sealed book to us. But it is only reason- able to suppose that the same in- fluences, whatever they are, which cause the glow of the Noc#iluca, that microscopic spot of jelly lke an atomic brain, to wax and wane, will have a similar effect upon the highly- developed fishes of the profound depths which carry about with them SE Tn so complete a system, apparently, of THE NIGHT-LIGHT OF THE SEA ENLARGED. ordered illumination. If not in degree, certainly we should say in kind, judging from what we may observe of these fluctuations upon the surface. Of all these fluctuations, that which is known to seamen by the feeble name of a “milk sea”’ is certainly the most amazing. It is indeed a stupendous manifestation of that unknown power which affects the lighting of the during my seafaring I have witnessed eeps. Thrice it, but the most striking appearance of the three wasin the Bay of Cavité in the Philippine Islands. So intense was the glow of lambent light from the sea that the brilliancy of the scintillating stars was entirely paled, and they appeared like points of dead white against an absolutely black sky. There was not a cloud above the horizon, and the blackness was entirely due to the resplendent light fromthe sea. It washed against Photo by) (W. Bagshaw. NIGHT-LIGHTS OF THE SEA. amidst which the tracks of fish were Everybody knows how brightly’the sea shines at night, occasionally, The luminosity is caused by these little spheres, which are one-twenty-fifth of an the vessel in wavelets of flame, shown by more vivid bands of light. inch across. 8 114 Marvels of the Universe COM IP Id IN SWILS nls S BY W. P. PYCRAFT, F.Z.S. TuHeE Coffer-fishes are among the most remarkable of the fish tribe, and this, not only on account of their many structural peculiarities, but also on account of their singularly briliant—one might almost say garish—coloration. But vivid as this coloration appears to be when seen in a museum or freshly taken from the water, it is by no means so conspicuous when seen in its natural surround- ings. For the Coffer-fishes live amid a perfect riot of colour, and they have to “ live up to it” ; thereby they secure a measure of protection from their enemies, since they harmonize so completely with their general surroundings that movement alone betrays them ! [By W. Saville Kent. COFFER-FISH. The Cofies-fshes a.e among the most brilliantly-coloured fishes known. Living in the immediate vicinity of the coral reef, this striking coloration harmonizes with the colours of the coral animals and makes the fishes inconspicuous. The “ Aracanas,’”’ which form the subject of our coloured plate, will give a good idea of how extraordinary this coloration may be But to appreciate this fully one would have to travel to the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, where, in some deep pool on the fringe of the reef they would be found feeding upon the coral polyps and shell-fish, biting off lumps of coral and crushing shells with their parrot-like beaks. These polyps, the shell-fish, star-fish, sea-cucumbers and sea-worms, on every hand, are arrayed in colours of indescribable vividness ; as if each were trying to outdo the other. And, indeed, this is actually the case, for a dull-coloured animal would be conspicuous in such a brilliant gathering, and so would speedily fall a victim to the wolves of the sea ! The Aracanas wear, under this vestment of colour, a bony armour, leaving only the fins and tail free. Hence swimming has to be performed by the rapid vibrations of the dorsal fin and that immediately under it on the under side of the body. The tail is used for steering and the breast fins as fans to draw currents of water through the mouth for breathing purposes, since, owing to the development of the armour, there are no movable gill-plates. [By W, Saville Kent COFFER-FISH. of this remarkable fish as seen when coming towards you through the water. The appearance is then most grotesque and not at all fish-like 116 Marvels of the Universe MIMICRY IN SPIDERS BY R. I. POCOCK, F.R.S. Many insects, as well as other animals, are protected from enemies by some quality such as a hard shell, a nasty taste or a repulsive smell which makes them unpalatable. (By J. Teklenburg. SPIDER MIMICRY. The two spiders shown on the left are South-American species that both mimic one Ant, in order to protect themselves from the attack of a Mason-wasp that stores up Spiders for the food of its grubs, shown on the right. are useless food fer wasp-larve and are neglected by small insectivorous birds. the same purpose imitate in colour and shape little shining hard-shelled beetles. but leaves Ants alone. The Ant mimicked is After a certain amount of experience, varying in ex- tent according to the species and individual, insectivorous birds and mammals learn to know these uneatable species by sight, and thereafter leave them unmolested. Clearly, therefore, a tasteful species will be greatly benefited if it resembles a distasteful one sufficiently closely to deceive its enemies. Resemblances of this kind are very common in Nature, and the phenomenon is called ‘‘ mimicry.” Now the majority of spiders are comparatively defenceless, and being highly palatable are extensively preyed upon by other animals. But the worst enemies they have to fear are the digger or mason wasps which, to feed their larve, store away in their burrows and mud-cells vast numbers of spiders, stung to a state of coma and so preserved against decay. Persecution by many enemies, and especially by these wasps, has reacted upon the instincts and structure of spiders in various wonderful ways, perhaps the most won- derful being the mimetic re- semblance it has brought about between some of them and protected insects, more par- ticularly those that the mason wasps do not attack. There are indeed one or two instances known of spiders accurately mimicking small snails which Other spiders for Others, again, Marvels of the Universe in belonging to the same group as the common garden-spider have short legs, convex bodies and spotted coloration, so as to be exactly like the little beetles known as ladybirds, which are so nauseous on account of their acrid juices that very few animals will eat them. But the most perfect instances of mimicry in spiders are found amongst the species which imitate ants. These belong to several distinct families, but the modifications which bring about the resemblance have followed al- most the same lines in every case. Ants have a large head carrying a pair of feelers, and joined by a narrow neck to the long body, the fore-part of which bears six legs and is attached to the oval hinder-part by a slender, flexible waist Now spiders have no feelers and no head distinct from the body. Thev possess, however, eight legs and to imitate feelers they lift the legs of the first pair and, stretching them forwards, wave them in the air like feelers, thus leaving six legs for walking, as inthe ant. The semblance of the ant’s neck is produced by a deep groove on each side near the fore-part of the body, and this groove is filled with a patch of white hairs, which has the same optical effect as a piece of the body being Another South-American Spider of which only the male, here shown on the left, mimics the Ant on the right. cut away. Thus is the detached head of the ant represented. Other likenesses to the ant are produced in analogous ways ; and even the restless zigzag gait of the insect is unconsciously copied by the spiders to complete the deception. The mimicry is indeed often so close that the one animal can scarcely be distinguished from the other. The reason for this particular kind of mimicry becomes. perfectly clear when it is explained that out of the very large numbers of species of mason wasps that prey upon spiders, not [Ey J. Teklenburg. me ee Hee WANE, | SOE The three Spiders ea ised cee markings mimic Lady- of these wasps, in fact, are known to have birds, which have nauseous flavours and are therefore avoided by birds. They are orb-spinners, like our garden-spider, but come from the greatest fear of ants. Africa. The Ladybirds resembling them are shown to the right. 118 SPIDER Marvels of the Universe [Bu J. Teklenburg. MIMICRY. The Indian Jumping-spider on the left mimics the Leaf-cutting Ant on the right. spots look like eyes. The jaws of the Spider represent the head of the Ant and two black THE FATA MORGANA TuE Italian title which appears at the head of this paragraph has always been held to be a synonym those familiar appearances and malarious places which are known among us as “ Will-o’-the-Wisp,”’ “ Jacky-my-lantern.” And as all their character and origin has confirmed us in our belief that they are simply agglomerations of luminous gases hovering over the places of their production, the romantic and superstitious suggestion contained in the Italian name has gradually faded. Few. indeed, are the country-folk in our midst to-day who would believe that the weird for somewhat over marshy etc. investigation — of glow hovering over a dangerous swamp was intentionally being exhibited by a frivolous fiend bent upon luring them to destruction. But in other parts of the world, notably Southern Europe, many of the old superstitions still hold undisputed sway over the minds of the people, who apparently cherish them as if they bore nothing but comfort and solace with them instead of being full of terror and distress. Fishermen and coasting seamen generally are among the most prone to quaint, disturbing beliefs of this kind, and the appearance, during a highly electrical condition of the atmosphere, of the phenomenon (By J. Teklenburyg. SPIDER MIMICRY. Another Indian Spider (left) that mimics the same Ant (right), but only when it is going the other way. Note the spots at the rear of the Spider which look like eyes and produce this likeness. known as St. Elmo’s fires (dealt with in an earlier page) is sufficient to terrify them greatly. But in addition to these well- known phenomena, there may be observed off the coasts of Southern Italy and Sicily in the proximity of marshy lands mysterious-looking lights wandering over the sea near the shore, having no reference to human agency, and acting entirely differently from the better-known but no less feared St. Elmo’s lights. It must be admitted that among ignorant folk such appearances are sufficiently disturbing to warrant any trouble of mind, especially as the people are not in the least likely to hear any rational expla- nation of the sight, or, it must be confessed, to entertain it if they did. (Bu HH. Whanslae, FATA MORGANA, taf mirage scen over the Straits of Messina under certain conditions of atmosphere and sea. Houses and moving objects appear on the surface of the water and pass away in turn with movements of the current, Sometimes these reflections rise to a height of thirty feet above the water, Vhe Fata Morgana 120 Marvels of the Universe A fluffy, inchoate mass of light, itself indeterminate in shape and power, but appearing to be castles, palaces and what not, glowing and fading, rising and falling apparently without reference to the direction of the wind, but really acted upon by the lightest current of air; rebounding from the sea-surface as if it were a luminous bladder; what could any primitive folk make of that ? I very much doubt whether, if such a phenomenon were to be seen on our shores, we should not have considerable terror among our fishermen and longshoremen, hard-headed and unromantic as we know so many of them to be. So curious is this particular vagary of the Fata Morgana, that it affords sufficient excuse for including it among the Marvels of the Universe. Photo Uy] z (KR. F. Gwinnell. TWO SLABS OF FLEXIBLE SANDSTONE. The upper slab supported at its ends sags in the midcle; the lower slab is supported in the middle and droops at each end: thus showing its elastic character. FLEXIBLE SANDSTONE BY RUSSELL F. GWINNELL, B.SC., F.G.S. “As firm as a rock’ is a common mode of expressing stability, but here we have a case of a rock which will bend like indiarubber. If a thin slab of this sandstone be hung downwards, the free end can be made to swing to and fro like a pendulum while the upper end is held immovable. | Not only so, but as shown in the illustration, a slab will bend by its own weight when supported only at the two ends or in the middle. The two specimens photographed are each about two and a half feet long and they show a “sag’’ of the same number of inches. Their thickness is about an inch and a half. These specimens from Kaliana in the Punjab, India, are in the Geological Department of the Imperial College of Science. Flexible rocks are distinctly rare, and the few known to occur are mostly sandstones ; an excep- tion is the Magnesian Limestone of Durham, which very infrequently exhibits slight flexibility, and is the only British rock possessing this character. Georgia and the Carolinas (U.S.A.) possess flexible sandstones, but the best known example comes from Brazil, being found at Itacolumi, in the State of Minas Geraes. It is a porous yellow rock made of grains of quartz (the chief constituent of most sands and the clear, hard mineral found in Marvels of the Universe 121 granite, etc.), together with flakes of mica, a substance familiar to many people owing to its uses in the arts—in gas-fittings, electric insulators, etc.—where it is often miscalled tale. Now mica is a highly flexible mineral (thus-it is bent to form lamp-chimneys), and it was formerly supposed that the flexibility of Itacolumite was due to the presence of this mineral init. But many cases occur of micaceous sandstones where no flexibility is exhibited, such as the well-known flagstones used for street pavements ; while even in the Brazilian rock this peculiar property is only found in a small part of the whole mass. Associated with the sandstone—or, more properly, “‘ quartz- schist ’’—of Brazil, are “ mica-schists ”’ which are far richer in mica, but quite inflexible. Flexibility in the sandstone, then, seems to be due to the quartz and not to the mica. The grains of quartz are angular and interlock at their junctions, but yet leave many empty interspaces. The porous character of the rock allows movement in the spaces, while the hinge-like joints between the particles hold them together in spite of the shifting to which they are subjected when a slab is bent. lf the reader clasp his hands together so that the fingers interlock, and then rub the palms together, he will illustrate roughly the action described. The Brazilian Itacolumite has an added interest in being the probable source of the diamonds which are locally so abundant. PELORUS JACK Bei hes lenr DUE NominaRaG.S> It is very refreshing to find in the midst of so many manufactured stories about the lesser-known animals of our globe an item that, in spite of its romance and apparent fiction, is not only verifiable, but has been verified by so many competent authorities that its truth is beyond all shadow of reasonable doubt. Such a fact is found in the account of the Grampus which frequents the vicinity “Photo by] [afuinlaeafoodte: PELORUS JACK. The famous pilot of French Pass, New Zealand, which has been specially protected by Government. Although com- monly spoken of as a pilot-fish, it is really a Grampus. one of the whale family 122 Marvels of the Universe of the French Pass, on the direct route between Wellington and Nelson. New Zealand, and is popularly known as Pelorus Jack from his favourite cruising-ground, Pelorus Sound, Briefly and baldly stated, the facts about this curiously-mannered animal, as verified by myself, are as follows. It isa Gray Grampus of about eighteen feet in Jength, which for a considerable number of years has been in the habit of meeting vessels using the French Pass at a point about five miles south of that narrow current- tormented strait, and accompanying them for about half an hour, rubbing itself against the bows in the rush of the boiling foam like an affectionate cat against the legs of its owner. The speed of the vessel in which I made the passage was fully eighteen knots; but the little whale seemed to maintain its position with the same absence of effort as does the Albatross over the masthead of a swift steamer —any movement of fin or tail was impossible to detect. Occasionally with the same utter ease it glided ahead for a ship’s length, then dropped alongside again, until, its visiting time having expired apparently, it sheered off at right angles and disappeared. The causes of its visiting ships like this are entirely mysterious, since a ship can supply nothing the creature needs; yet it is absolutely faithful in its attendance, and so general is the interest aroused by it in New Zealand, that a resolution of the Legislature has been unani- mously passed requesting all persons to refrain from molesting it. This should not be neces- sary, but we must sadly admit that it is. Around this most interesting mammal has concreted a mass of legend, as, indeed, was in- evitable. | There are not wanting old zdentities of New Zealand prepared to swear that they have known the ways of this whale for half a century, that it was once wounded from a ship, and ever afterward avoided that par- Photo bu) (Muir & Moodie, PELORUS JACK. The Grampus is here shown as seen from the deck of the vessel it is piloting through the French Pass, New Zealand. ticular ship, and so on, and so forth. The Maori stories are highly picturesque and romantic, as might be expected from this strange people; but they all agree upon one point, which is that this whale is a minor deity well affected towards a particular tribe, which, indeed, it seems to have taken under its special protection. THE SABRE-TOOTHED TIGER BY R. I. POCOCK, F.R.S. -Iv is a great mistake to think that high organization necessarily involves success in the struggle for life. Specialization of structure means adaptation to special conditions ; and if the conditions fail, the organism fails too, because of its inability to adjust itself to a changed [By . Swan, THE SABRE-TOOTHED TIGER. One of the monsters of Prehistoric times. Similar in some respects to the Tiger of the present day, its unlikeness is made evident at once by a glance at the pair of terrible tusks, sharp-edged and blade-like, projecting about six inches from the jaw. 124 Marvels of the Universe environment. In this truism probably lies the explanation of the extinction of the Sabre-toothed Tiger, in some respects the most highly organized of all the cat family. The word “sabre-toothed”’ explains itself, and alludes to the tremendous development of the canine teeth of the upper jaw, which were compressed, sharp-edged and blade-like, and projecting in some species six inches or more below the gum, constituted the most formidable stabbing instru- ments within the limits of the carnivora. The term “ tiger,’’ however, can only be applied to this great cat in a very general sense to indicate its equality in size and strength to that well-known species. In no other particular can it be supposed that close resemblance existed between them. Judging from the skeleton, the Sabre-toothed Tiger (AZach@rodus) was a short-tailed, heavily-built beast, with massive fore-quarters, suggesting very limited leaping powers and little speed of foot, while the immense fangs and the muscular development required to give force to their stroke affected the shape of the head in a remarkable degree, especially by lessening the space between the ear and eye. The cat-like physiognomy must have been still further altered by the massive develop- ment of the chin. Since there are reasons for supposing these animals inhabited more or less open country ] y, 1t may be inferred that, like lions, they were self-coloured, and analogy suggests that their cubs were perhaps longitudinally banded. In spite of their final extinction these animals held their own for long ages—that is to say, from Oligocene to Pleistocene times—and were widely distributed. Remains of many species have been discovered in England and other parts of Europe, and in India as well. Probably from Asia they made their way into the United States and passed thence into South America. How the very long-fanged species killed their prey and fed has been a much debated question. That they did not bite in the ordinary way seems certain from the weakness of the lower jaw and from the impossibility of its clearing the points of the fangs, at all events to any great extent, when open. Very possibly they used their fangs for piercing the carotid arteries of their victims, and, like weasels, subsisted largely by blood-sucking. WASPS AND°THEIR TOOLS BY JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S. In the early history of a wasp city there are two kinds of individuals only—the queen and_ her daughters. The latter resemble their mother somewhat considerably, but are diminutive in size and sexually imperfect. Consequently, the queen-wasp is the only perfect female in the city. Photo by] - i (Ve J. Ward. : DHE WHREE iCEASSESSOR = WASP. This group includes the three types of Wasp found in each nest. In the centre is the female or queen, noticeable for her superior size. On the left is the male or drone with his longer feelers; and on the right is the active little worker Marvels of the Universe 125 The queen’s husband never sees the thousands of citizens of which he is the father; in- deed, he never sees the begin- ning and early stages of a city at all. He appears at the end of the summer, when the city is at the zenith of its glory, and when certain marriageable daughters have been born to the community from which he can select a wife. His function in life then having been ful- filled, he perishes, together with all the busy workers of the city in which he was born. Only the young queens are able to sur- vive the winter and become the mothers of new communities. Just how the above events come about need not concern us here, as this article is preliminary to another, where I shall be able to consider the habits and home-life of the wasp in detail. My pre- sent consideration is of the wasp individuals themselves, and, as we have seen, they consist of (1) the large-bodied female known as the queen, (2) the small-bodied imperfect females known as the workers, Photo bu) (/. J. Ward. 4 A WASP'S STING. and (3) the _ slender-bodied ; 3 The wound is made by the dark object to the left of the picture. But this is only males or drones with long a sheath in which moves the sharper sting, here shown removed from the sheath and feelers. to the right of it. Both the queen and the worker-wasps are endowed in a marvellous degree with the maternal instinct. They are veritable slaves to nest-building and the rearing of the young. Consequently, Nature has provided them with some wonderfully-made tools to carry on these functions. When we see a wasp on a wooden paling biting and tugging at its fibres, it is difficult to realize the strength that it is exerting in its efforts to bite and tear off a shred of the wood. Even if we look closely at its mouth-parts we can only observe its tiny jaws working persistently upon the wood, until at last a clean portion is revealed, showing that some of the fibres have been torn away, as shown in our photograph. That portion of wood is then worked up in the complex machinery of the wasp’s mouth and mixed with a gummy secretion, until at last a paper-pulp is produced, which is then spread out into a thin layer, and added either to the outer walls of the city or to the tiers of cells within. Just how the paper is manufactured, and what tools are employed in its production, we cannot quite understand ; but a glance at the mechanism of the mouth-parts through a microscope reveals 12 Marvels of the Universe the complexity of the machinery used in the process. The accompanying photo-micrograph shows the open mouth of a worker-wasp with the various organs in position, and which are so unlike the mouth-parts of man and other higher animals that it is almost impossible to make any adequate comparison between them. The large horny jaws, or mandibles, seen on each side work sideways, not up and down like our own, and _ serve alike to rasp wood-fibres for nest-building purposes, to bite into the choicest plum or pear in the orchard, or to cut off the wings of a captured fly before it is carried off to the nursery. When the wasp is biting hard substances, however, the transparent tongue and other deli- cate organs of the mouth are withdrawn into a receptacle within the lower part of the head. The upper lip, if we may call it such, is a simple scale-like body, while the lower lip WASP-STING AND NEEDLE (to complete the comparison) is of a much To show the fineness of the wasp's sting it is here photographed more complex structure. It is provided threaded through the minute eye of a No. 16 needle. ath Al broad transparent tongue, very different from that of a bee, a butterfly, or a moth, for it is but few flowers that the wasp visits in search of their nectar. Attached to the sides of the delicate four-lobed tongue, which is covered with minute hairs and bears a large gland at the tip of each lobe, is a pair of small four-jointed feelers, which serve as organs of sense. Outside the tongue and its feelers are two other complex organs, each bearing sensory hairs and a six-jointed feeler, and we may conventionally call them the modified lower jaw, the mandibles representing the upper jaw. Whatever work the wasp has to perform, whether it is carrying a little stone out from the building site of the nest, biting through strong roots, manufacturing paper-pulp, robbing the orchard, or stealing tiny portions of meat from the butcher’s shop—which it sometimes prefers to its more lawful prey, the flies—these are the tools which it employs. Just what function the delicate feelers and sensitive hairs serve, and which are associated with the senses of touch, smell, taste, etc., sclence is as yet quite unable to explain; especially as they are probably connected with senses which are not analogous with our own. The head, too, bears a pair of conspicuous feelers, and these again possess complex sensory functions. A glance into a thriving nest leaves no doubt in the mind of the observer that these are the organs by which communication is made one with another ; probably, too, they serve the sense of hearing. The large compound eyes, with their numerous lenses, so unlike our own, are likewise puzzling organs, especially as on the top of the head between these large eye-masses three simple eyes are to be found. Why the wasp should need three single eyes and two large compound eye-masses with thousands of lenses, each of which can receive an image, is, judged from man’s standpoint, an inexplicable problem. Marvels of the Universe 127 The wings of a wasp are also worthy of study. It will be observed that when a wasp alights and closes its wings that, though larger, yet they are not nearly so conspicuous as those of a house-fly. The explanation is that the two fore-wings are folded in a crease near the centre; in this manner their area on the body is reduced. Also, under a lens the lower wings will be seen to bear on their upper edges a row of minute hooks, and these are received into a groove on the lower edge of the fore-wings. By this means the two wings are united to form one strong wing. It is a curious fact that the male always has a less number of hooks, and, as he is the weakest flier, the inference may be made that they have some relation to the power of flight. Other useful tools in the daily work of the wasp are its spiny legs, which serve it not only for locomotion, but to hold and manipulate its prey and to clean its feelers and wings; indeed, the legs can be used for all its toilet purposes. A WASP’S FACE. If 2 Wasp were as big as a kitten this is the appearance that it would present if we gazed at it face to face. The lower portion of the “face"’ consists of a pair of powerful cutting jaws. 128 Marvels of the Universe Finally, there is the smooth body clothed in a flexible suit of mail, perfect in fit, and rhythmic in action. Attached by its slender waist, the abdomen can be twisted about in a wonderful manner, until that terrible organ the sting is directed against an assailant. What a complex weapon the sting really is may be appreciated “from the accompanying photo-micro- graphs. As seen with the unaided eye, it appears as only a protruding point which might penetrate the skin just as the point of a needle or thorn would do; but under the lens it is revealed as a much more diabolical tool. The penetrating point becomes only a sheath for two darts barbed at the tips and furnished with powerful muscles at their base, and which can be projected into the wound, at the same time opening the way to a poison duct, from which, by the same action, formic acid is pumped into the puncture. The queen wasp is not nearly so aggressive as the workers, and much less likely to sting; the Photo by] [v. J. Ward. Rye i ait epee o POINT) OF WASP'S| STING. barbs on her darts are often LORY imperfectly A small portion of the point of a Wasp’s sting is developed. A worker-wasp may lose its life while hereamuchycnlarzeditoy show, they barbedyedze: stinging an enemy, owing to its darts adhering, but the queen, in the interests of the race, is more protected, and uses her sting for its true function—namely, egg-depositing. The ovipositor of the worker-wasp, having largely lost its original function, has now developed into a complex weapon of offence, and is also used for paralysing living prey by means of its poison. It is scarcely necessary to add that the male wasp is harmless. THE|CAN DEE St REE BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. THE remarkable tree shown on the page opposite is a native of Central America. In the Isthmus of Panama, especially in the valley of the River Chagres, there are forests composed almost entirely of this tree, which from the peculiar shape of its fruits is known as the Candle-Tree. Dr. Seemann tells us that to enter one of these forests is like walking through an old-fashioned tallow-chandler’s shop, for from the older branches and the trunks of the trees hang what appear to be long candles from two to four feet in length and of a yellow wax colour. These are the fruits of the tree, and they contain seeds that are much like lentils in appearance. Though these fruits resemble wax- candles, they are more akin to tallow, for they are said to yield as much as sixty per cent. of fat, from which a lamp-oil is prepared. They also form a capital cattle food, and their peculiar apple- like odour is imparted to the flesh of the animals. Another species, known as the Cuajilote, is used as food by the people of Mexico, where it is a native. In both cases the fruit is preceded by large white bell-shaped flowers, and the trees in bloom have a fine appearance. These trees are related to the Calabash-tree, of whose fruits bottles and other vessels are con- trived by extracting the pulp from the cut end, but leaving the rind otherwise unbroken. Thus dried in the sun, they become hard, tough and watertight. a International Press r L Photo by) ANDLE-TREE. C Chagres, THE are the fruit of the tree and “ Candles" wax candles and resemble them in colour. The so-called Panama. They look like large of the the vo to four feet in length. that grows in tree A. remarkable valley measure from tw 130 Marvels of the Universe Photo by) (Z. E. Adams. NESTLING MOLES. This photograph of an opened Mole’s nest shows the young Moles like little sucking-pigs. The position of the nest in the Fortress will be seen on reference to the picture on next page. THE -ELPE “STORY OF EE MOmE BY LIONEL E. ADAMS, B.A. THOUGH perhaps no animal has been the subject of so many fantastic stories as the Mole, the true life story of a quadruped that spends practically its whole life underground is sufficiently strange to interest the lovers of marvels in Nature. During May the Moles are born in a warm nest of dry grass under a mound of earth, and closely resemble small sucking-pigs, less than two inches long, pink, naked and blind. They increase in size at the rate of a fifth of an inch a day. On the tenth day they turn from pink to lead colour ; in another four days they are clothed with a short velvety coat of the same leaden hue, which grows longer and darker till they emerge from the nest about the end of their fourth week, and commence life on their own account. They now resemble their parents in all respects, except in size, which is about three-quarters their full growth. These inexperienced juveniles come to grief in many ways, and may be found dead on the country roads during the summer. Towards the end of the year each Mole prepares a habitation for himself, which has aptly been called his Fortress, and merits special description. First, a cavity about the size of a large cottage loaf is excavated an inch or two below the level cf the ground, the loose earth being ejected through the top and forming a mound. . This cavity is to contain the nest of grass and leaves which the Mole brings in from above. Then, in order to protect the nest still further, he brings more earth by tunnels coming from the field outside and piles up an immense heap on the top of the original one, sometimes two feet high. These tunnels, being continued into the accumulating mound, usually remain intact, Marvels of the Universe 131 and were erroneously supposed by the old naturalists to be galleries arranged systematically to enable the Mole to elude his enemies when surprised in his Fortress. One such tunnel, however, does exist in every Fortress, leading downwards from the bottom of the nest cavity and then turning upwards into one of the tunnels leading away from the nest into the field, and termed the “ Bolt- run.”’ In this Fortress, then, the Mole lives solitary, sleeping curled up in the nest and emerging at intervals of every few hours to run along his tunnels, which extend in all directions from the Fortress into the open country, in search of worms, which form his usual diet. Occasionally, however, the fare is varied, a dead mouse or a slug, or even a live frog or a young bird, being devoured by the hungry Mole. Now, considering the strenuous life the animal is obliged to lead to find sufficient worms to support him, and considering the small amount of nutriment in a pint of worms, there is no mystery in his voracity. Hunger, moreover, induces bad temper, and when Moles meet they usually fight to the death—the vanquished forming a meal for the victor. In March and April the males seek the females, but it is doubtful whether they ever occupy a joint Fortress as husband and wife. Certainly the breeding female makes a separate Fortress as a nursery, somewhat similar to that of the male, but smaller and without a Bolt-run. During the time the young are in the nest the fields are bush-harrowed, and the Fortresses, as well as the ordinary small molehills, are levelled and scattered. This, however, does not harm the young in the nests below; indeed, in one way it is their salvation, since all visible signs of their existence have been cleared away and they are left unmolested. If these breeding nests were properly marked down and dug out, the race would be much reduced, as the mole only produces one litter a year—but then the mole-catcher’s occupation would be gone! During the summer the Mole leaves little trace of his existence, either foraging in his tunnels or on the surface of the ground when the worms come forth at night. Mole workings are beneficial to heavy soil, and the heaps when scattered form good top-dressing ; but on a sacred golf-green .. . ! = i S$ a ge oe THE MOLE’S FORTRESS A section through the fortress of the Mole, showing the nest wherein the young are born and reared. It will be seen to be far lese complicated in its tunnels and galleries than was formerly supposed to be the case 132 Marvels of the Universe BREESREAKS, THAT (GROW, UPON] RREES BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. In the autumn and winter chiefly. the rambler in the woods is almost sure to notice remarkable growths from the trunks of trees, mostly out of reach. These take the shape of semicircular brackets, often of considerable size, and of corky or woody consistency. Among them, however, in the earlier part of the autumn, will be found one of much softer character, dark red on the upper surface and flesh-coloured be- Lt Sol, CEES OS low. It may be a foot or Bay’ § a 2 more across, and weigh several pounds. This is the Vegetable Beef- steak, or Beef-steak Fungus. In reality it looks more like a mass of liver when viewed from above; but when it is cut through, its streaks of lighter and darker red afford considerable justification for its popular name Another feature that supports the name is its juiciness. When cut, a thin red gravy exudes freely and plentifully from it. If this is tasted it will be found to be astringent and slightly acid. The Beef-steak Fungus is almost restricted to the oak- tree, but rarely it may be found upon other trees. Where there are oak woods of any size, it would be an easy task, during September, to gather a hundredweight of vegetable steaks in the course of an hour or two. Ordinarily, it grows about six or seven feet from the ground, bunt in dry seasons Cat it will be found much nearer [PP ISDS SIG Be the roots, or actually on them. ee er ANF Pst Bees, <> = ay ee BS oo ae : (So 8 , pe , ae WE ats Te, & a t Photo bu) L THE MOLE. ll The Mole may occasionally be seen above ground, and then makes desperate efforts In the phenomena y dry year to escape observation by digging a new burrow. of IQII most specimens were to be found low down, the trees evidently affording more moisture to the fungus a little above the roots. There can be little doubt that the astringency of its juice is due to tannin it has extracted from the oak. It is, perhaps, unnecessary to explain that the Vegetable Beef-steak is a parasite. All the year its threads are extending farther and farther into the woody tissues of the oak, robbing it of nutri- ment, and breaking down its cellular structure, so that its timber becomes worthless. But it is not so speedy in its work of ruin as many other fungi, whose brackets we may find in the woods ; and, as Photo by) [Adeand Step, DLS, A dish of Vexetable Beef-steaks cut into fi 8 preparatory to cooking, here reproduced to show the meat-like appearance of its interior. 134 Marvels of the Universe ae " > - & ae it + 2a a ite THE BEEF-STEAK FUNGUS. The Vegetable Beef-steak is here shown as it grows from the trunk of an oak-tree. The margin is often flat and even, horo bu} though the form shown is quite characteristic. a consequence, if we gather beef-steaks from a particular oak-tree one autumn, we may go back to it in several succeeding years at a similar date with the certainty of gathering another crop. Our photographs not only show the Vegetable Beef-steaks as they grow, but also a dishful of “ fillets’ to give an idea of the meaty appearance of the flesh. There is really something in the name, for this strange fungus is—like many others of its tribe—a wholesome article of food. For my part, I think there are many fungi that provide better eating, but this is entirely a matter of personal taste, and there have not been wanting epicures who declare that the Vegetable Beef-steak can scarcely be beaten in this class of food-stuffs. It lends itself to varied treatment, or can be cooked almost without any preparation. For the simpler process, it needs only to be lightly washed to rid it of any woodland particles that may have adhered to its moist surface, then broiled like any other steak—or with another steak of the orthodox kind if it is to make a meal for one who harbours doubts as to the possibility of such things as fungi being palatable by themselves. Some stew it, adding seasoning of various kinds and yolk of egg when it is all but ready to be served up. It may be sliced and fried, either by itself or with animal steak accompanying it. Some there are who do not care for it as a solid, though they enjoy its flavour; these have it stewed down to make a stock which can be used in various ways, whilst the “ steak ”’ itself may be rejected. Again, it has been treated like beetroot (which the flesh also much resembles), by being cut into thin slices and added to the salad-bowl. The first appearance of the Vegetable Beef-steak is that of a more or less rounded, pale-red knob bursting through a crevice in the bark of the oak-tree and gradually spreading out into a some- what flabby fan, thin at the edge and thick at its base, as may be seen in the photo of the “ fillets.”’ Marvels of the Universe 135 A GIANT SILK-MOTH BY W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S. Tue Cecropia Moth is the largest and handsomest moth found in the Eastern United States and Canada, where it is far from uncommon. It is one of the Eyed Silkworm Moths, of which the only British representative is the Emperor Moth, which is a fine insect, as British moths go, but is not more than half the size of the North American moth, which often measures six inches in expanse ; though this again is equally surpassed by the great Indian Atlas Moth, which belongs to the same family, and is one of the largest moths known, sometimes expanding to nearly a foot. Nearly all the moths of this group have short, stout, downy bodies, and a double row of appendages on the feelers, which are very large in the male, but are much shorter in the female. Such feelers are called pectinated, or comb-like, and, as in the present case, almost equally resemble a feather when these appendages are well developed. The feelers are the seat of some sense (probably analogous to smell) which enables the males to seek out the females at a distance (in some cases) almost of miles. In most moths of this group each of the ample wings is ornamented in the centre with a conspicuous spot, which is sometimes round and opaque, as in the British Emperor Moth, and some- times crescent-shaped and opaque, as in the Cecropia Moth; while in many species it is as transparent as glass or talc ; irregular in shape in the Atlas Moth, or round in various other species. The Cecropia moth is dark brown, with an irregular white band and white crescents on the / Photo by} (LZ. alep, “Led. THE GIANT SILKWORM. This North American caterpillar is four inches long, coloured with shades of green and blue The thick spines are red, blue and yellow, with sharp black bristles from the knobbed ends. 136 Wlarvels of the Untverse wings, all bordered with red; the body and base of the fore wings are vinous red, and the outer portion of the wings shades into grey, marked with brown lines, waved on the fore wings, and straighter on the hind wings; between the white and red band of the fore wings and the outer margin is a large roundish black spot towards the tip, and often others below it. The moth appears to be less common in the Southern United States than further north. It was described and figured by the earliest writers on American butterflies and moths, and the caterpillar was described by Abbot as feeding on wild plum, and in capti- vity on apple. It really feeds upon a great variety of trees and shrubs, though manifesting a predilection for the rose family, such as apple, pear and plum; it also feeds on lilac, willows, maples, and the like. Like others of the family, this moth is accustomed to cling to the under surface of a branch and let its wings droop down, in which position Photo bu} [Z. Step, F.L.S. COCOON OF GIANT SILKWORM. it might easily be mistaken for a The full-grown caterpillar spins a large cocoon of white or brown silk in swaying leaf. which it changes to a chrysalis and spends the winter and spring. The eggs of the Cecropia Moth are of a chalky white, streaked with brown. The newly-hatched caterpillar is nearly black, but undergoes several moults, during which it becomes a beautiful pale green, shading into blue on the sides, with black, red and yellow tubercles. When full grown the caterpillar measures four inches in length, and is green washed with blue on the back, and ornamented with blue, red and yellow firm tubercles on the body. As in the case of most butterflies and moths, the Cecropia Moth is liable to the attacks of various parasites, several species of ichneumon flies laying their eggs on the caterpillar, when their grubs feed upon the contents of its body, and finally destroy it by the time that it attains its full growth. But if no such untoward accident should happen, the caterpillar becomes a chrysalis, or pupa. This is enclosed in a large brown or white cocoon like that of the common silkworm, with an outer covering of coarser silk which is securely attached to the branch of a tree. Abbot says that this silk has been carded, spun and made into stockings, and that it will wash like linen; but as the cocoon is open at the end, the silk is of less value and less easily unwound than that of the mulberry silk- worm, and I am not aware that much use is made of the silk of the Cecropia Moth for commercial purposes at present, though an allied Californian species, the Ceanothus Moth, a smaller and redder species, 1s regularly reared for its silk. There is no doubt that there are many natural products which might be put to commercial and other practical purposes which have not yet been made use of ; but it is possible for our zeal to carry oun ‘UMOLIA 21M OOBUY YIyIOd |Yy JO BoxoH OM) M sq poryjiuur 4]Au01;8 oFour Sip oq Aout ayout AL oy Aq poysing ‘spuuq pot puw ayy x Z @ IL fpog 49)No 8 BO sHYy apottoy LNVID rs = (2) STW Seas D a = 138 Marvels of the Universe Photo bu] : [E. Step, F.L.S. THE GIANT SILK-MOTH. The female moth is here shown of the natural size. A few of her eggs may be seen on the branch near the lower edge of the picture. us too far. Especially is this the case when we attempt to introduce animals and plants into a new country. Some years ago a Swiss entomologist who was settled in the United States engaged in a series of experiments in breeding moths which he thought might be useful as sikworms. Among others, he received some eggs of the European Gipsy Moth, and these were blown out of the window into his garden; and the insect succeeded in establishing itself in the neighbourhood, and became a terrible pest, costing thousands of dollars annually in vain attempts to exterminate it. When an injurious insect is introduced into a new country, it generally leaves its natural enemies behind, and is therefore enabled to multiply for a time without a check, if general conditions are favourable to it. On the other hand, conditions may not be favourable, and it will then dis- appear of itself. The Gipsy Moth formerly inhabited England, but was almost confined to the Fens ; and when they were drained it disappeared, like various other insects. | But though abundant every- where abroad, and recently so terribly destructive in America, it was never generally common in England, and even when introduced, has died out more than once, though amid what appeared to be favourable conditions. There seems to be something in our climate inimical to this particular insect; but its introduction into this country has now, very properly, been forbidden, in common with several other dangerous insects which have been proscribed. Several other species greatly resembling the Cecropia Moth, but differing somewhat in colour, are found in various parts of the United States, Canada and Mexico, to which they are restricted. Marvels of the Untverse 139 Wisl le JL UW IN AIR WOR IL ID) BY CAMILLE FLAMMARION. AT the hour of dusk, when all Nature seems to rest after the fevered activity of the day and to yield gently to the calm of the evening, a spirit of tender and high-souled thought comes over the thinker. It is the spirit of the vast skies and, above all, of the moonlight, whose rays, as soft as they are brilliant, spread little by little over the sleeping world. The sun has disappeared behind the western horizon ; and with him the day has fled. The earth, a revolving sphere, is carried forward in its daily course, bearing us onward to the east and enveloping us more and more in darkness. But soon a pale light invades the firmament. Towards the east the silver orb of the full moon, the radiant Phcebe of ancient mythology, ascends into the heavens, where she reigns as supreme ruler until the dawn. Often she is the unwitting enemy of astronomers, whose observations of the stars, the planets or the comets she nullifies as she eclipses with her exceeding beauty the rest of the Universe. She is the star of the night par excellence, the star of mystery and of dreams, the first halting place of the human mind as it hastens forward to the conquest of the skies. Ever since there have been eyes to see and brains to think upon the earth, the moon, of a surety, has-held captive the first looks and the first thoughts. Her positions on the (By Arthur Twidle. THE EARTH AND THE MOON In this picture we are supposed to be standing on some neighbouring planet and viewing the Moon from the side, thus f its true form. As the same end is al getting an ide ways presented to the Earth the idea we gain that the Moon is round the terrestrial view-point is necessarily misleading 140 Marvels of the Universe others, then the uninterrupted succession of her phases and their exceeding regularity, all these particularities attracted the special attention of the inhabitants of the earth to this mysterious star. The result of a long period of thought was the conclusion that these phases were due to the movement of the moon round the earth ; that the lunar sphere, our faithful satellite, did not possess any light of herself, and that the extent of her illumination depended on the position she occupied in relation to the sun, from whom she derived her light. When she is situated above the earth and is inconjunction with the day-star—that is to say, in direct opposition to the sun—the half of her sphere which is turned towards the earth receives the direct flood of the solar rays ; that is the period of the full moon. When she is lit obliquely or at right angles only a part of her surface appears brilliant, which —~ varies according to the angle at which the moon receives the sun’s rays. When the western half of the disc is visible that is the first quarter; fifteen days later the eastern half is in its turn illumined, and that is the last quarter. At the moment when the moon passes between the earth and the sun she is totally invisible, because the half of the sphere receiving the light is directed towards the greater luminary, and the other half, which possesses no light in its own nature, remains too dark to be perceived. That is the new moon. But about two days after the -con- junction of the sun and the moon the latter reappears to Photo by] [¢. Flammarion. THE MOON'S SURFACE. % r ““T possess upon the Moon, towards the centre of the visible hemisphere, a property the west in the beautiful guise of considerable dimensions, the Circle of Flammarion, with a diameter of 33 miles.” of a crescent delicately defined as if it were a sickle of light suspended in the darkling sky of evening. Sometimes during this phase the part of the sphere which is not directly lit is outlined in grey against the background of the sky. This shadowed light is the reflection of the earth light—that is to say, of the light of the sun reflected by the complete hemisphere of the earth and again reflected to us by the lunar disc. Our satellite, the moon, takes twenty-seven days, seven hours, forty-three minutes, eleven and a half seconds to reach the same position in the sky as regards its relation with the stars and to accomplish what is termed the sideral revolution, but it is necessary for her to continue her journey for about two days longer in order to come back to her position between the earth and the sun, who, in the interval of lunar circuit, have been displaced, the first in very fact, by the move- ment of the annual journey, the second in appearance only, owing to an effect of perspective resulting from the displacement of our globe, which brings the synodic revolution of the moon to occupy a total period of twenty-nine days, twelve hours, forty-four minutes, three seconds ; and this fact is of the utmost importance to us, for it determines the exact time of the moon’s phases. [The Yerkes Observatory. A MIGHTY CRATER, COPERNICUS. his one of the largest o > NN ( 9 . ; i f i i i This is one of the largest of the Moon's craters. The immense depression has a diameter of forty-six miles and is bounded by the circular range of mountains 12,000 feet high. The volcanic cones in the centre of the crater tower 24,000 feet above the lava bed. 142 Marvels of the Universe That is what the thinkers amongst men have succeeded in finding out after several centuries of observations. But our curiosity is far from being satisfied by these astronomical preliminaries. As we contemplate the moon shedding her pure light upon sleeping Nature, other reflections cross our minds and the delicate crescent of silver light appears symbolic of a magnificent interrogation mark which the heavens have set before us. The moon is a world, and it is the nearest to the earth. It receives from the sun the same rays which create the life upon the surface of our planet. Besides, everything in Nature has an end—a goal. Is it not, then, very natural for us to ask what part our satellite plays in the laws of the Universe and what the con- ditions may be which pre- vail in the lunar world whose destiny is so closely bound up with our own ? As soon as an explorer on this planet discovers a country that no civilized being has trodden before him, whether it be some region of burning desert or the rocky peak of a moun tain at last scaled, or some frozen tract in the polar zone, the matter that in- terests us most to know is the exact quality of the locality and consequently to discover its exact charac- teristics. We know that even upon our own planet the soil, the flora and the fauna are as infinitely varied as are the countries, and even in the most deserted regions the Photo by] me [Vhe Lick Ubservatory. Spay ie THE MOON careful observer can always A beautiful photograph taken at the Lick Observatory when the Moon was find out something which is fourteen days, one hour, old. worthy of remark. By the same method of reasoning the differences between one world and another must be greater still, and the true interest of astronomy is exactly to study the special characteristics of each and to consider its condition from the standpoint of life. Moreover, the lunar world, in spite of its relative proximity, is very different from our own, and if an inhabitant of the earth could transport himself to its surface he would feel himself very out of place. Unhappily, none of us could prove these new impressions; not that the 238,610 miles (which is about the measure of distance separating us from this star of the night) would be too far for a terrestrial traveller, for many men, by boat or by railroad, have made as long a journey as if they had been to the moon. An employée on the Metropolitan Railway travels by the electric car as much as 238,000 miles in eleven or twelve years. But by the laws of Nature and by the mechanics of earth the crossing of the space between the planets, which is void of air, is for ever forbidden to us. So it is that we make excursions upon our satellite by the aid of the telescope and Marvels of the Universe 143 only receive news of her through the rapid waves of light, which, travelling at the rate of 186,772 miles a second, arrive on our planet from the moon in a little less than a second and a quarter. The perfected methods of modern tele- scopic and photographic exploration can supply us with such precise facts about the earth’s companion that our geographers and land surveyors might envy the astro- nomers, for the lunar topography is perhaps better known than that of the terrestrial globe. It must be understood, however, that reference is now made to the hemi- sphere turned towards us, which alone we can see; the other half of the globe re- maining perpetually hidden from our eyes from the fact that the moon always presents the same surface to us. Many millions of centuries ago the earth and the moon formed one single confused mass revolving rapidly on itself. This enormous fluid sphere was subject, owing to the attraction of the sun, to formidable tides. Men who have made the science of the formation of worlds their study are of the opinion of Sir George Darwin: viz., that under the combined influence of centrifugal force caused by very rapid rotation and by the solar tides a portion of the surface of the terrestrial globe was detached and con- stituted a single body in space in the form of the link of a chain, or a mass of material which afterwards congealed into a ball and became the lunar globe. This event—the birth of the moon—took place about fifty- six million years ago. According to Mr. W.H. Pickering, the profound depression of the Pacific Ocean should mark the site of the cradle of the moon. Should such be the case, one is then forced to admit that at the moment of separation the earth was al- ready covered with a solid crust, a condition which appears doubtful, although the theory of mathematics teaches us that a viscous globe possessing even a thin skin can ex- perience tides as intense as those pre- vailing when it is ina state of complete fluidity. VIEW ON THE MOON. This view represents the district known as Hyginus. Note the long diagonal depression, which is thought by some astronomers to be a forrnation similar to the supposed canals of Mars. 144 Marvels of the Universe At this epoch the month and the day of the earth and of the moon had a common duration of five hours thirty-six minutes. Our satellite continued to revolve round the mother planet ; gradually, however, getting farther away and lessening the speed of her revolutions. Her surface was troubled by immense tides provoked by the excessive attraction of the earth, which caused the formation of a great bubble. The lunar rotation caused this excrescence to veer round to the east, but the all-powerful attraction of the earth brought the prominence into line with herself. The swelling acted like a bridle upon the daily movement of the moon and caused the speed to relax, until the lunar day became at length equal in duration to the present lunar month. The tides have ceased, suppressed somehow by the action of the earth: but they have left the mark of their action in the lengthening of the hemisphere turned towards us, and which gives the moon the shape of an egg. Photo by) [The Yerkes Observatory. VIEW ON THE MOON. One of the great grey depressions which cover a great part of the surface of the Moon. For want of a better term they are called seas. The one here shown is the important Sea of Serenity, possessing on the north-west of its borders two volcanoes— Posidonius and Caquet—which exhibit signs of activity. So it is that the moon is of terrestrial origin. But it is less dense, for although the constituents of its mass are those of the terrestrial surface, they have, nevertheless, a density only twice as great as that of water, while the mean density of the earth is five and a half times as great, and in its central depths the latter must attain the density of iron and heavy metals, which brings its total density to at least seven to ten times that of water. Above all, the lunar land surfaces appear to be com- posed of formations of chalk, broken by a vast number of fissures and very light. The extreme briliancy of their reflections creates the impression that the whole surface is coated with marble or a carbonate of chalk. During the day this reflection is equal to that of the whitest clouds. On first thoughts it would seem that a vast atmosphere should envelope this little globe broken off from our own, and that a great deal of vapour would be found thereon. Certainly the moon at Dr J Collis Browne's Refuse Imitations and i INSIST on_ having e | Dr. J. COLLIS i BROWNE’S i Chlorodyne, A Dee ; The Most ine Original an se bl Only Genuine. | VOLE | Medicine The Best Remedy known for ever COUGHS, COLDS, discovered. ASTHMA, BRONCHITIS. 1 The name Dr. J. Collis Cuts short all attacks | The only Palliative in ae: Browne is on the SELOID of SPASMS, NEURALGIA.GOUT, [ of every bottle of genuine HYSTERIA and RHEUMATI*“M, Chlorodyne. PALPITATION. TOOTHACHE, Acts like a charm in Convincing Of all Chemists DIARRHEA, DYSENTERY and Medical Testimony dt %, 29 AG. CHOLERA. with each bottle. Another article which will interest everyone is THE BEAUTIFUL SABELLA a marine worm which protects itself by building a tube-shaped house of silk and mud or sand. There are not many marvels of nature that can surpass VENUS’ FLOWER-BASKET in beauty and form. A fine series of photographs brings out its slender threads and delicate webbing of spun glass. Richard Kerr, who is an acknowledged specialist on the glass sponge, has written the text. The native of the Malay Archipelago, THE COBEGO flies not by means of wings like the bats but by means of a fold of skin stretched across from foot to foot. There is a unique photograph shewing MARVELS of the UNIVERSE: the mother carrying its young. PR!ZE COUPON II. The life history of —— THE WONDERFUL DIVING BEETLE Part III. a is well illustrated with photographs. One being of very special interest as it shews the hundreds of lenses in the beetie’s eye by the photographing of a postage stamp through the various lenses. This photograph has been taken specially for our publication. THE GIANT TORTOISE OF THE FAR EAST By R. Lydekker is ano:her of the many subjects included in Part IV. This corpon to be vetained and not sentin until after the publication of Part VIII. The above are only representative of the variely of subjects included, but each are full of interest to evervone Taere are @ BEAUTIFUL COLOURED PLATES picturing The Giant Moth of Madagascar Praying Insects The Portuguese Man of War Flying Fish being Attacked by the Dolphin King George. Queen Mary. Queen Alexandra. : Fry's eure Gocoa Makers to H.M. the King, H.M. the Queen, and H.M. Queen Alexandra. LETTERPRESS PRINTED AT THE CHAPEL RIVER( PRESS. KINGSTON-ON-THAMES ; COLOURED PLATES BY A. C. FOWLER, - jout 24 Fortnightly Parts. oy, 37, CW PART OWN. «fd. net. ‘RIZE COMPETITIONS. 1) VALUE | Pictures eee 8 ON ART PAPER and = . 6 yy ‘Coloured Plates © © OO @oo6 Hutchinson’s 6d. Novels. A RECORD. OVER [2] e e e Two Million Copies OF Allen Raine’s Novels ) Mixtu re HAVE BEEN ISSUED. A UNDER THE THATCH - - - Just Ready —Luxury indeed Where Billows Roll - - - - ~- 88,000 to the smoker All ina Month -<2- =-.° (2.0) (2 es cr Neither Storehouse nor Barn - - - 134,600 —A Flavour and Queen of the Rushes~ - - - - - 184,000 Fragrance of Hearts of Wales =e) 2) Sa e aes A Welsh Singer - - - - - - 378,000 n u unusual charm Torn Sails - - - - - - - 287,000 1 oz. 6id. 2 oz, 1/1 i Ib. tins 22 By Berwen Banks = - - = - 242,500 Of most high-class tobacconists, or send stamps Garthowen - = F = = = - 254,000 to the amount to the sole manufacturers: A Welsh Witch - = c 3 = - 281,000 THOMSON & PORTEOUS, EDINBURCH On the Wings of the Wind - aan The above figures do 7z0/ include the American Sales. London: HUTCHINSON ®& CO., Paternoster Row. MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE. A Note Concerning Part V. The first four parts of ‘Marvels of the Universe” have now been published and subscribers must be thinking what a beautiful work they will have when the Parts are bound into two handsome volumes of about12 Parts each. ‘* Marvels of the Universe” unquestionably will be the cheapest book, not in Great Britain only, but in the World; moreover the fascination of its subjects is without parallel. Part V. opens with a Beautiful Coloured Plate by Mr. James Green, of MINUTE MARVELS IN THE POND picturing these delicate creatures in their natural colours. The article on this fascinating subject is well illustrated with a unique set of photographs shewing the beautiful forms which are revealed by the miscroscope. The first few pages of the letterpress are occupied with the continuation of Sir Herbert Maxwell’s interesting article on “SEED DISPERSAL BY PARACHUTES AND LIFEBUOYS” The other subjects and their accompanying illustrations are all equal in interest to those in the former Parts. There is an article, THE DOR-BEETLE’S MITE by Mr. G. G. Ward, shewing under the microscope one of the hundred or more minute creatures which are to be found on an ordinary beetle. SATURN, THE RINGED PLANET which was such a puzzle to Galileo and the early astronomers, is fully explained by Mr. T. E. R. Phillips, F.R.A.S., a well-known authority on this subject. There are many fine ilustrations. Mr. Edward Step tells the story of THE WINE PLANT OR AMERICAN ALOE from which the Mexicans draw a natural wine, transferring it into great skin bottles. There is a fine set of photographs shewing the wonderful forms of SNOW-CRYSTALS taken by Mr. W. A. Bentley at very low temperatures during a great number of years, a descriptive article is written by Mr. Wilfred Mark Webb, Hon. Sec. of the Selborne Society. [continued on pase 3 of cover. Oe 1 OWL, a 6 payed i) UMOU YSy-AToy [ayo ATLL 1NO0.LMOd ask NVW = < ex = 2S a ae. ee 22 =z ZS a) on a 2s 2S fl as i ke 4 S 4 Pas ae = a = 4 = Gen] 3 tng % ey 3 eer ; HUME SMEG GOS qwouropuyy) Theo. Carreras. Painted by PRAYING INSECTS. Four distinct kinds of Mantis are shown in this picture. They all adopt the same reverent aspect when waiting for vict but it is ““ preying"' instead f ‘‘praying’’ in which they are enga, One of them, represented on the right-hand side of our plate, is known as the Diabolical Mantis. Its foreparts are so red to resemble a flower, which insects come to visit, only to be caught by the terrible claspers and devoured. the outset was possessed of both water and air, but she has not retained them. Her volume is only a fiftieth part of that of the earth, her mass only an eighty-first part and the weight of her surface about one-sixth. A pound of matter transported from the earth would weigh no more than two and four-fifths ounces in the moon. So her feeble powers of attraction have not been able to retain an atmosphere, for she allows every molecule thrown up vertically to escape at a speed of at least one and a half miles per second; and, further, according to the kinetic theory of gas, this speed is frequently surpassed by the majority of gaseous particles. As to the waters which first covered her mass, they have been quickly absorbed by the soil, which is as porous as a sponge. Owing to its small size, the moon has cooled much more rapidly than the earth, and a solid crust long before the latter body. The gases and vapours enclosed be- neath this crust have played dire havoc with the walls of their prison. Under the enor- mous pressure of their expan- sive force, the surface of the moon has suffered the extremes of tension, to which the ap- pearance of lunar territories to-day bears ample witness: the ground bristles with moun- tains, whose summits are worn away by the agency of the contraction of ages; there are numerous deep beds of rock, landslips of various natures, and corresponding upheavals. Marvels of the Universe 145 Photo by] RAT Ta [G. BE. Hale. THE MOON'S SURFACE. Showing the innumerable craters which witness to the vast disturbances that have befallen our satellite. fe) 146 Marvels of the Universe Lunar topography differs essentially from that of the earth. While on this planet the higher masses of the crust are arranged in mountain chains, upon the moon they always take a circular form, from the outlines of the greatest “‘seas’’ to the smallest craters. To explain this characteristic configuration we must remember that the lunar soil, as it became colder and solidified, enclosed a considerable quantity of vapour and gases. These gases, seeking an escape from the interior, have brought great pressure to bear on the exterior surface of the moon. One can perceive evidences of these forces with the naked eye, but it is possible by means of photo- graphs of the full moon to examine them in the long white tracks which spread out from the mountain of Tycho, and which appear especially brilliant. These white tracks seem to have been PLATO The large crater-ring on the right hand of the picture is that of Plato. Within this vast district other craters have appeared and passed away, or, as is sometimes the case, have changed their position, and these phenomena support the belief that all the craters on the Moon are not yet extinct. fissures across which floods of light-coloured lava have flowed, filling up the crevasses and solidi- fying. As for the mighty circles, it is possible that they were gas bubbles which rose to the surface and broke, producing a complete circular depression. The greatest formations must be the most ancient, the extent of the disturbed surface diminishing as the expansive force of the gases gradually lessened. The truly colossal dimensions of several of the circles and their surrounding heights give an idea of the forces which were in action in primitive times: the gaping mouth of Tycho measures about 52 miles and 1,435.8 yards in diameter, and the ramparts attain a height of about 3 miles and 552.7 yards. The circle of Clavius is 130} miles wide, and has an elevation of 4 miles 615.4 yards. One can count upon the moon’s surface about twenty circles whose diameter exceeds 60 miles, and about as many peaks of a greater height than Mont Blanc; Twidle. THE BIRTH CF THE MOON. an is ible cradle of the Moon tracted by the solar tides, it ig supposed that a eat nebulous r from the Earth, whose crust w insufficient to retain the semi-gaseous matter. The new-born Moon, howeve escape the superior attraction of the Earth, so that these ‘dual influences moulded it to its present shape and de present course Photo by) Marvels of Lick Observatory. [The THE YOUNG MOON. Aged seven days, three hours Photo by] THE MOON [P. Puiseuc. NEARING HER ZENITH, the Untverse the Mountains of Leibnitz rise to a height of 5 miles 222 yards, the Rocky Mountains to nearly 5 miles, the crater of Newton to 4 miles and 888.81 yards. A most curious feature is that the interior well of these mountain links is always at a very much lower level than the land on the further side of the enclosing mountains. It is not possible that these circles owe their origin to volcanoes such as we are cognizant of, and the mountains surrounding them are not composed of material thrown up by these craters. They are districts of overturned soil caused through the same agency—a gaseous explosion coming from the interior. The eruptions have diminished in power, but they are still to be found almost everywhere, and have even formed little circular marks upon the ramparts of the larger circles, while their numbers are legion. The beautiful photographs taken from the Ob- servatory at Paris show that over vast stretches of country a veritable deluge of mud _ finally invaded and submerged the lowest districts, often blotting out almost completely even the vestiges of these craters and burying the hollowed ground. There are yet to-day very small craters which eive off intermittent vapours. The little crater Linneeus appears to be one of these. For two and a half centuries it has been watched atten- tively, and sometimes it can be seen quite clearly, very deep and possessing a_ shadow ; sometimes it has disappeared completely and has been replaced by what appears to be a very brilliant white cloud. In the same lunar region, to the north-west of the disc, on the borders of a vast depression, which is circular and of a grey colour and has been named ‘“‘ The Sea of Serenity,” there are two other craters a considerable distance one from the other —Posidonius and Caquet—which afford similar phenomena ; that is to say, they appear at times to be filled with a white vapour which effectually hides their openings. Other points on the surface of the moon appear to be affected by similar changes. There is also Messier, whose variations are so strange. It is possible that during the long and cold lunar night, which lasts about fourteen days, during which time the temperature of the hemi- 1 Marvels of the Universe 149 sphere not illuminated is extremely low, water- vapour or carbonic acid gas is yet given off from the depths of these craters, and condenses in the form of hoar-frosts or snow on the interior of the bounding walls. The first rays of the rising sun dissolve these deposits: the ice melts, the snow evaporates and becomes invisible, and the crater reappears in its normal condition. This is precisely the impression created by the present (1911) observations of Caquet. During the three hundred and fifty-four hours of sunshine which constitutes the lunar day, the surface of the soil must reach a point of temperature a good deal higher than that of our most burning desert or of the equatorial regions ; for the heat must reach very nearly to one hundred degrees Centigrade and even more, perhaps even to nearly two hundred degrees in those parts which receive the solar rays perpen- dicularly ; for they are never lessened by clouds nor the presence of fog, nor even of air, since the atmosphere which around the earth acts as a filter to strain the rays coming from the sun, and as a shield to hinder them from escaping and being lost in space, is so rarefied upon the moon that its effect is almost nil. This great white globe, turn by turn too hot or frozen, whose great spots, dark and grey, mark the beds of dried-up seas ; this world without water and with little air; this neigh- bouring habitation appears by no means _hos- pitable. Nevertheless, I possess upon the moon, to- wards the centre of the visible hemisphere, a property of considerable dimensions, the Circle of Flammarion, with a diameter of 33 miles; but I very much fear that it is rather a sterile property. At the epoch when our world was yet only a mighty chaos, and was preparing itself slowly by the incessant travail of its elements for the future sojourn of humanity, the moon, more advanced inits planetary evolution, had probably given shelter for millions of years to living forms fitted by nature for the special conditions of life on her world. But she has grown old mor quickly than our terrestrial habitation. 3ut it is not necessarily to be supposed that Photo by] (2. Puiseur, THE MOON ON THE WANE (The Lick Observatory MOON IN THE LAST CUARTER. Aged twenty-three days, eight hours. 150 Marvels of the Universe we are dealing with a world completely dead. It is possible that beings of a different order to ourselves people the subterranean regions (or should we rather say sublunary ?), the last vestiges of a life that once on a time was vigorous and flourishing. The moon is not only a celestial mirror which reflects the light of the sun to us. She relates, for our eyes to see, the history of an earth; a history the more appealing in that she is united to our own world by ties which can never be broken. VEGETABLE Sig eaaae BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. So numerous are the instances afforded by plant life of counterfeit resem- blances to animal and other forms that a book might easily be filled with an account of them. In quite recent pages of the present work we have already dealt with several of them —vegetable steaks, vegetable candles —and there are vegetable cows that give milk, vegetable butter, vege- table bread, vegetable putty, and so forth. Some of these names are given on account of the vegetable in question serving as an actual substitute for the animal product ; in other cases they merely indicate an appearance that is deceptive, and may even at times give rise to feelings of annoyance with Dame Nature for having so successfully hoaxed us. Of this nature is the Vegetable Sheep. The shepherd on the upland pastures of New Zealand may see afar off, resting on some rocky ridge, a sheep or group of sheep that refuse ; i 4 me to comeat his call when he is shifting Photo by permission of] Terk ss Obsereatory the flock to a new feeding-ground. He MOON ee climbs a long distance after them ; but Tycho is, perhaps, the best-known crater on the Moon; but a Bee a , “crater” in the Moon is a different formation to that of the Earth. Itis it 1s not until he has got quite (close the centre of an enormous bubble which has burst and left a circular that he discovers he has been de- chain of mountains to mark the place of the upheaval. f ceived by appearances. The supposed sheep is nothing more than a dense white clump of vegetation—the Raoulia, or Vegetable Sheep. The plant is a member of the huge daisy family, and is near akin to that section of it known as everlasting flowers. In order to counteract the influence of the winds that sweep over its usual exposed places of growth, its branches divide into innumerable short twigs, and when these become clothed with small woolly leaves, you have a dense tuft of tightly packed vegetation as shown in our photograph. Our example, separated from its natural surroundings, might be mistaken at first glance for a mass of rock, it is so compact. If Photo by) [AL Watts. VEGETABLE SHEEP I led of flowers and leaves, showing the dense structure ling sufficiently strong to withstand the most boisterous weather. A detached mass of this curious plant, w of the is a member of the daiay family. the left-hand corner is a part de anches, which form a rcafle 152 Marvels of the Untverse looked closely into, however, the leaves will be seen, and a great number of tiny flowers. At the lower part of the left- hand side a portion of the plant is denuded of leaves and flowers to show how the stems branch again and again, and so build up a strong scaffolding upon which the leaves and flowers are produced in such a way that no wind can tear off portions. A TUBE WORM BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. THE observant rambler on the sea-shore meets with many strange tubes on the rocks, on empty shells, and sometimes standing up from the sand. Some of these appear to be constructed of porcelain, some of fragments of broken shell; others of grains of sand cemented together. They are all the work of different kinds of sea-worms, which, having delicate bodies such as fishes and other predatory neigh- bours would delight to make a meal of, are constrained to Photo by] [S. Leonard Bastin. : — Wd THE VEGETABLE SHEEP. build some sort of a house for their protection. For similar disadvantages of its home it branches out in a dense tuft of woolly leaves and white reasons these worms are all of flowers, which give the appearance of a sheep's coat. This plant grows in exposed and bleak places. In order therefore to overcome the a retiring nature; and he who is content merely to look at these tubes and wonder will never learn anything of their architects. Yet if a shell or a flake of rock supporting one of these tubes be placed in a glass of clear sea- water and watched, the observer will be rewarded by a beautiful sight. When everything is still, a brush, like a camel-hair pencil, begins to be pushed out cautiously from the mouth of the tube. Then the filaments of which it is composed begin to separate, first into a funnel-shape and then more widely, until as the light falls across them you find that each thread is really a plume, the shaft giving off delicate transparent branches. This beautiful object consists of the breathing organs, or “ gills,’ of the worm. Through these its blood circulates and absorbs the oxygen of the sea-water. They also serve as a fine net, by means of which microscopic food is gathered from the water and directed to the creature's mouth. A shadow falls across the creature or a step on the floor causes an almost imperceptible tremor, and at once the widespread plume folds up and glides back into the safety of the tube. Marvels of the Universe 153 The animal which builds this tube, and of which we have only seen a small portion, has a long body built up of a series of rings, and around each ring there is a circlet of bristles, by whose aid it climbs up and down its tube. In building this tower it employs a cement of its own production, which hardens into a kind of silk to which fine particles of sand or mud adhere, and the whole sets into a firm tube. Some species build solitary tubes ; others combine in colonies of scores or hundreds of individuals each in its own tube. THE PORTUGUESE MAN-O-WAR BY FRANK T. BULLEN, F.R.G.S. THAT very delicate and beautiful denizen of the deep seas which is known to seamen by the above slightly sarcastic title is eminently worthy of a little detailed attention, perhaps all the worthier because in a Universe of Marvels its value is purely decorative, having not the least commercial use. In some one or other of its hundred or so varieties it abounds in every tropical sea, exhibiting the delicate sapphire tints of its “sail” and the lovely shades of colour in its only when the ocean is sufficiently placid to allow so tender an argonaut to venture upon the surface. Then cc , oars ’” on some quiet evening, when the westward-hastening sun has flung along the level circle a succession of colour schemes each more wonderful than the last, a pigmy fleet of these timid voyagers may be Photos by} [Hugh Main, PES. THE SABELLA AND ITS HOUSE. The Sabella is one of the marine worms that protect themselyes from their enemies by building a tube-shaped house of silk and mud or sand. In the first photo its closed gills are just protuding; in the second they are spreading out. 154 Marvels of the Universe seen swaying in accord with some motion of the unstable sea that is imperceptible to man, dipping and rolling indeed as if making believe very much that the oe weather is “ quite rough, you know.” Many people have confused this little creature with the more highly-organized mollusc known as the Nautilus, with its exquisitely beautiful shell. The Portuguese Man-o’-War has no shell or bone, or any- thing about it but what will melt under the fervent rays of the sun if out of the water. Its “sail”? is but an air-sac, filmy almost as a soap-bubble, inflated by who knows what mysterious impulse from the little colony beneath. For herein lies another mystery: The Portuguese Man-o’-War is manned, if the term may be forgiven. It is not an individual, but a colony of indi- viduals, which is subject to continual birth, growth, and death; but which appears to be actuated by a common im- pulse; one law which governs the whole without friction, knows no disobedience or insubordination. Few things are more startling to wit- ness, even by one ignorant of the organiza- tion of these colonies, than the way in which, as if at some imperative signal, all Saree ae, 7 \ ; i j [By J. Teklenburg. ; Y THE PORTUGUESE MAN-O'WAR. those sapphire sails are suddenly furled This most brilliantly coloured member of the tribe of Jelly-fish makes | and the toy fleet disappears. Such a disap- a brave show in the waters of the Mediterranean. pearance is usually only momentary - even while the onlooker is lamenting the absence of such a wonderfully decorative adjunct to the plain sea-surface, they will all reappear, nodding and rolling as bravely as ever. Yet it must be noted that, beautiful and helpless and innocent as these miniature ocean voyagers appear, they possess a weapon that, while it is powerless to defend them from destruction, can, and does, inflict terrible punishment upon any aggressor. I allude to the extraordinary quality possessed by all of them of scarifying the flesh of anything that touches them almost as badly as vitriol does. It is probably an exceedingly potent digestive fluid secreted by the creature; but whatever it is, its effects are, in some cases at least, maddening. I can never forget seeing a pet pig of ours in a ship of which I was second mate writhing in agony, which culminated in our having to destroy her. She found a Portuguese Man-o’-War lying on deck, whither it had been washed in a gale the previous night, and essayed to eat it, with lamentable results. And I have seen a man temporarily bereft of reason through just touching the tentacles of a Portuguese Man-o’- War while swimming. But, after all, this innocent and faery-like ship of the sea forewarns us of its dangerous qualities; for the bright colours it displays are given to it for the especial purpose of a danger signal. Whoever, therefore, becomes a victim to this potent sting must take the onus of his predicament on himself and not blame this beautiful denizen of the ocean. | Bos a Photo by} [Zant di, Batre MANTIDS., it perhapa the best-known species is that of be one of deeds not words, for the Mantids There ore many varieties of the grotesque family of the Mantidas; Here female Mantids are shown quarrelling, and the war wi 156 Marvels of the Universe oF 7 oo. ' Photo bv) [Paul H. Fabre. THE MANTIS LEAVING HER EGG-CASE. This egg-capsule is deposited by the Mantis on the branch or twig of a tree. From it the young emerge, swinging by a delicate thread, after the fashion of spiders, till they reach another destination. THE PRAYING MANTIS AND ITS RELATIVES BY JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S. It would be difficult to find a more saintly-looking insect than the Praying Mantis. For hours together it will assume an attitude of innocence and quietness, its fore-legs raised as if in supplica- tion. Not until an unwary fly approaches it do we realize the object of its quaint posture. It then instantly becomes obvious that its purpose is not to pray, but to prey. In Britain we have no representatives of its group, its nearest relatives in this country being, on the one hand, cockroaches, and the other, grasshoppers and crickets. The Praying Mantis is the common European form, and it first begins to appear in Southern France, becoming more abundant further south. In general habits the European species is characteristic of its race; but its tropical relatives have evolved some extraordinary features. In the first place, the Mantis is carnivorous. It requires living prey—flies, grasshoppers, cater- pillars, etc. ; but being slow of foot, it has to capture its quarry by craft. The method adopted is to sit amongst the grass or leaves with its head held loftily erect, its thorax being developed into what resembles a long neck, thus extending its field of vision. Its colour may be green or brown, harmonizing with its surroundings so perfectly that it can only be recog- nized with difficulty. In front of its head its fore-legs are raised into what has been regarded as a praying attitude; hence the names “ praying insects’’ and “ soothsayers,’’ which are sometimes used in connection with these insects. It then awaits the approach of a victim, and sometimes will remain motionless for several hours. If the Mantis detects prey a little way off, but not near enough to effect its capture, it steals slowly and almost imperceptibly towards it. When within striking distance its raptorial fore-legs are thrown suddenly forward, and in an instant the victim is grasped clasp-knife-fashion between the toothed shanks and thighs of these powerful legs, after which it is ravenously devoured. If Marvels of the Universe B7 prey is abundant, however, it more often happens that fresh victims are continually captured and partly eaten, as if it enjoyed the sheer love of killing. Such are the feeding habits of this Mantis of saintly mien. Even the Greeks endowed it with supernatural powers. In Nubia, the Hottentots regard a Mantis with the greatest reverence, and should one alight on an individual he is recognized as selected of heaven, and at once becomes a saint; but woe unto the native that kills a Mantis; he becomes no longer a skilled hunter, but is ul-fated until the end of his days. Turks and Arabs contend that these insects are in constant prayer. with their faces ever turned towards Mecca. France, Portugal, America and many other countries provide similar superstitions, all of which have doubtless arisen from the quiet demeanour and devout attitude which have served to disguise the highly predaceous character of these insects. It is interesting to note that the Chinese have better realized their true character. I am informed that they are there kept in bamboo cages and matched like fighting cocks. Sucha thing is quite possible, for should two female insects meet, a fight is tolerably certain. By means of their powerful fore-legs they are able to strike tremendous blows, and with these weapons they engage in combat, the result often being that the weaker of the combatants gets one or more of its limbs severed by one successful stroke of the enemy, or even his body may be cut through. The male Mantis has a difficult task on hand when wooing his mate. She is both larger and stronger than he is, and should his advances not prove favourable, he rarely has the option of retreating ; for while she will not accept him as her lover, yet she takes care that he does not become the husband of another of her species—her refusal takes the form of killing and eating him. Cannibalism is in TER Sarat Tete re ey panel THE MANTIS. The female Mantis destroying her unfortunate wooer. Wooing is a hazardous affair amongst the Mantids, for the rejection of a proposal means instant annihilation of the ** proposer.” 158 Marvels of the Untverse quite a common feature with these insects, the larger individuals frequently attacking and devouring the smaller ones. The female Mantis deposits her eggs about September, the young being hatched in early summer. They resemble the adults, but are without wings in their early stages, when they prey upon green- flies. The numerous eggs are not deposited singly, but in a chambered capsule, which at first appears as a bubble of frothy foam, afterwards becoming hard and brittle, the capsule being attached to a twig or stem. When the young emerge, they drop down from the egg-cocoon on delicate strands, reminding one of young spiders. It is, however, in the warmer parts of the earth that Mantids are seen at their highest development. In the tropics many species are to be found, all of ~ which offer some won- ’ derful features of in- terest. As we have seen, the Praying Man- tis somewhat resembles its surroundings, but its foreign relatives carry such simulation to an extraordinary degree. Their leaf-like wing-covers so per- fectly mimic the foliage which surrounds them that, when removed, they are almost suffi- cient to persuade a | practical botanist into _ the belief that he is we ‘ examining a vegetable oa Oe Waa as ROO eee 2 202884 structure, so faithfully Photo by) ere sca are the veins and fine nervures of the leaves THE MANTIS PRAYING. Not really praying, but preying in deadly earnest; for in this position the creature waits for 2 its unwary victim, then the powerful fore-legs unfold and the unfortunate insect is grasped copied. Also, many of tightly between the toothed shanks and thighs. them have developed upon their legs irregular pieces of leaf-lke integuments, so that, when waiting amongst the foliage for their prey to approach, they are completely disguised. It is remarkable, too, that as the season advances they slowly change in colour from green to brown, in harmony with the leaf changes. ; Other species go further than merely harmonizing with their surroundings, and simulate some object which is of even greater utility to them. These, instead of resembling leaves, are brilliantly coloured like fine flowers, their attitudes and means of attaching themselves to the plant-stems combining with their external contour to heighten the effect. In this way their prey does not fall into their clutches merely by accident, but is directly lured towards them by their flower-like form. One species inhabiting India has its two hind pairs of legs flattened into broad pink or white plates, shaped like the petals of a flower, and when seeking for prey it spreads out these organs, two on each side, its fore-legs being almost hidden beneath its fore-parts. So butterflies and other flower- loving insects are attracted towards this apparent flower, which is really a death-trap for them. Photo by iE : (Paul H. Fabre. THE ATTACK OF THE MANTIS Very terrifying is the attack of the Mantis as it raises itself to its full height to swoop down upon its enemy. There is little doubt as to the end of the conflict, for there are few insects which can withstand the onslaught of this rapacious creature. 160 Marvels of the Universe 1 3S BBR SSS SU OU ‘ Photo by} (Paul H. Fabre. THE VICTORIOUS MANTIS. Once within the clutches of the powerful limbs the victim is immediately sacrificed to the rapacity of its cruel victor, for even if sport has been good and hunger appeased the Mantis will not leave its captive alive. Here the Mantis is devour- ing a grasshopper. Still other forms have evolved in entirely other directions, having become mimics of the excreta of birds for the purpose of attracting flies. A naturalist (Annandale) has recorded a remarkable instance of a pink Mantis found in Siam, and which was observed in the midst of some rhododendron-like blossoms. This insect being too large to successfully simulate part of a single flower, is provided with a green band, which divides its pink colouring into two sections, thereby assisting it to resemble two blooms. Its legs and the front part of the body are pink, and also the under-side of the end of its abdomen, which it turns up over its back. At the tip of the abdomen there is a black patch on which minute flies are fond of alighting. Thus we have the illusion of a flower with tiny flies feasting upon it. The tiny flies are too insignificant for the Mantis to prey upon, and are only part of its device for attracting its larger prey. It was further noted that when the abdomen was turned down and the upper surface exposed, brown lines were revealed, which suggested the appearance of the rhododendron-like blossoms when they are withering. GEASS) SRONGES BY RICHARD KERR, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. THE Glass Sponges, more especially those known as the “ Venus’ Flower Baskets,” are, without exception, among the most exquisite of all forms of marine life known to us. They have their abode on all ocean floors, generally at great depths. In size they range from a few inches in height to nearly two feet. They are attached to the bed of the sea or ocean by long wisps of flint, like spun glass. These flinty prolongations are part of the creatures’ own structures. The skeleton, the part with which we are most familiar in our museums, is a lacy fabric of flint in which the delicately-arranged lattice-work is in perfect order, based on a regular system which conduces in the best possible manner towards producing great beauty combined with wonderful strength. Arthur Twidle. GIANT MOTH OF MADAGASCAR. ilk-producers, ires eight inches expanc wings. Apart from its beauty of t ( ] tail to each lower wing. > 2>w examples of this moth have been captured at 1 our painting was made from one of the . cimens obtained. Painted by H. Sebpings Wright. FLYING-FISHES ATTACKED. s attacked in mid-ocean by the Corypheena, a fish to which modern sailors have erroneously given the name of ing-fishes take to the air to avoid their enemies, which, however, are able to take great leaps after them and catch many in flight. A school of Flying Dolphin. _ The Fly Marvels In the living state all this intricate and beautiful network of flint is filled in with the flesh proper of the sponge-creature. It resembles the white of egg and it contains the life principle. Perpetual movement is the order of its existence, so that currents of water, laden with food and other requisites for its sustenance, are always passing in through the tiny openings in the flattice-work. The water in its passage, deprived of these vital products, passes out through the larger openings on the upper part of the sponge. Numberless wonderful lashes, quite below the power of human vision, whip. the water along through every portion of the sponge from the numerous entrances to the large openings. But this is not all. On bringing the microscope to bear upon the fleshy sub- stance, we find multitudes of exceedingly small rods of flint of many shapes. They are too small to be recognized by eye- sight, however keen. Anchors, double anchors, spears, prongs, tridents and many other forms are present. All are composed of flint and appear to form a coat of mail, possibly for giving support to the delicate flesh of the creature. The account of the vicissitudes which one of the first Glass Sponges brought from Japan to Europe underwent forms interesting reading. To be very brief, it was looked upon as a clever piece of Japanese skill and was given a prominent place in a collection of Japanese curios by the great naturalist Ehrenberg! Later on it was pronounced to be a dual work of Nature, 7.e., a natural glass coil, or ‘wisp,’ combined with a coral. It was then removed from the cabinet of Japanese art and placed among a collection of natural history specimens. Here, how- ever, it was put in an inverted position! It is only fair to the deceived naturalists to explain the true condition of things. The Japanese dealer had ingeniously “made up”’ the so-called composite animal by uniting filaments of the “ wisp” to a of the Untverse 161 Lhoto by) (W. Bagshaw. VENUS, FLOWER BASKET, The species here shown is the most beautiful of the Glass Sponges, Il 162 Marvels of the Universe piece of coral. One would have thought, however, that those engaged in its examination would have seen how impossible it would have been for any creature belonging to the lower forms of marine life to take in flinty matter for one part of its structure and lime for the other part. It remained for Professor Lovén, of Sweden, to show that the specimen, so far as one portion was concerned, was a true Glass Sponge, and that it had been described in an inverted position, The other part was coral. The first Venus’ Flower Basket to reach England was sold for thirty pounds, one account says fifty pounds. At the time, its true history was not known. Attached to it was a small piece of shrivelled, brown, leathery substance. When this was softened and examined microscopically it displayed the spicules of flint, like harpoons, etc., already referred to. This at once indicated its animal origin. It was dredged up from the waters near the Philippine Islands, and was first fs mle! % Photo bu) [W. Bagshaw. VENUS’ FLOWER BASKET. A section of the beautiful basket showing the slender threads and delicate webbing of spun glass. This structure gives free access to the particle-laden water which forms the sustenance of the inhabitant of the fairy palace. described in a paper, in 1841, by Sir Richard Owen. From that date onwards more than one hundred differently-formed Glass Sponges have been brought up from ocean floors during the various expeditions made for marine exploration. But the most elegant of all the Glass Sponges is the cornucopia-shaped Euplectella, the ‘‘ beautifully-woven”’ sponge. Its texture is square-meshed, yet every angle is rounded and ornamented by fine filaments which form a natural web and woof, soft, beautiful and fascinating. Delicate ruffles of spun glass in zigzag and spiraloid directions add to the complexity of the structure, while they evidently assist the stability of the wonderful skeleton. It has been frequently said that no man can make a bird’s-nest so beautifully as the bird. With equal truth it may be said that no artificer in spun-glass handicraft can fashion a frame so marvellous as that involuntarily produced in the living Glass Sponge. It will be noticed in the illustrations of the cornucopia specimens that as the tube gradually decreases in size so the square meshes are proportionately graduated with exquisite precision. The A GLASS SPONGE. Over a hundred different specimens have been fished -up from the ‘ooze and bottom of the sea,”’ of which this example is one of the most striking. filaments of these {sponges are not transparent glass |hairs, but threads of a pure and lustrous white substance, of which one of the principal constituents is flint 164 Marvels of the Universe mathematician would find it no easy matter to ascertain by what amount these squares should be reduced right down to the end of the tube so that harmony should be the result and not disorder. Yet all is easily accomplished in that life principle of the humble creature we call a “ Glass Sponge.”’ The upper part of the sponge structure, known as the lid, was compared by Sir Richard Owen to the rose of a watering-pot. Through its meshes the waters flow outwards after traversing the ramifications of the animal. The late Lady Brassey brought home several specimens of Venus’ Flower Baskets from the eastern seas. They were greatly admired when exhibited in London. This was the first opportunity the public had of seeing so many. Even naturalists had only seen a few specimens. Some years ago the writer of this article was fortunate in making the acquaintance of Mr. Cruik- shank, who had resided for a long time with the late Rajah Brooke in Borneo. This gentleman’s experi- ences in fishing for Glass Sponges may be of interest : The actual sponge formation of this species is more evident than in those e My man and I spent many BE aren sesuemagan of fine threads serves the sponge-creature as days every year in hooking up Venus’, Flower Baskets from the mud of the sea-bed off Sarawak and other parts of the coast near Borneo. We only went out on very calm days. The man would row very gently while I sent down a fish-hook attached to a fine line, weighted with lead. On feeling the slightest resistance, the line would be carefully drawn up. Frequently a Glass Sponge would be captured. Contrary to the usual way of matters above ground, the creature in its living state does not look nearly so inviting as its skeleton looks when deprived of all the flesh and the micro-spicules which it contains. The grey substance enveloping the skeleton, which is the flesh proper, has to be washed away very soon, as our climate is hot. The skeleton is bleached and is then practically imperishable and uncommonly strong, considering its frail appearance and the light material of which it is built up. “There is one more point worthy of notice which is not mentioned in any of the printed descrip- tions of the Venus’ Flower Baskets which I have seen. In pulling up the line and hook, thinking we have made a capture, we find we have torn away a piece of the sponge, including the attached part ofits skeleton ; for you must remember that the long flinty filaments which are continuous with A GLASS SPONGE. Marvels of the Universe 165 the sponge structure act as so many anchors by which the creature is fixed to the sea-bed. We keep the portion of the skeleton thus torn away. In about a year we are again fishing for Glass Sponges in the same locality. Among the specimens brought up, it happens at times that a sponge has involuntarily repaired itself where a breach had been made either by us or by others fishing in the same waters. This may seem incredible, but it is no more wonderful than the fact that other marine creatures can grow a limb in place of one lost. «Tt is not easy to remove a hook from the sponge without making a rent, so that very few Glass Sponges fished up in this primitive manner, are free from damage. This fact is taken advantage of by the dexterous Oriental. He takes some of the long glass anchoring threads, and with them darns up the opening made by the hook, because he is aware that sponges repaired by the sponge-creature, if we may so put it, fetch a higher price than those not so repaired. It needs caution, therefore, on the part of the intending purchaser of ‘ repaired’ Glass Sponges.’’ The late Professor H. N. Moseley. in his “ Notes of a Naturalist on the Challenger,” gives-us an insight as to the methods adopted by the natives of Cebu for obtain- ing Glass Sponges : “The special interest of this place lay in its being the locality from which the well-known deli- cately beautiful siliceous sponge called Venus’s Flower Basket was first obtained. The sponge is dredged up from a depth of about one hundred fathoms in the channel between Cebu and the small island of Mactan. “The fishermen use, to procure the sponge, a light framework made of split bamboo, with two long straight strips, about eight feet in length, forming its front and meeting at a wide angle to form a point, which is dragged first in using the machine. The long straight strips have ~ fish-hooks bound to them at intervals all along their length, the points of the hooks being directed towards the angle of the machine. “The whole is very ingeniously strengthened by well-planned cross- pieces and is weighted with stones. It is dragged on the bottom by means of a light Manila hemp cord, which is attached to the angle. A stone attached to a stick is fastened just in fre C e angle to k ye t in tront of th angle to keep A curiously-shaped member of the Glass Sponges, which were once such a the point down on the bottom. puzzle to naturalists. In fact, one of the first of these marvellous structures, which was brought from Japan, was placed by the great Ehrenberg in a-cabinet of—Japanese art treasures! SiHEBIRDISE NESiIts The hooks creeping over the bottom 166 Marvels of the Universe and sweeping an area nearly fourteen feet wide catch in the upright sponges and drag their bases out from the mud. These sponges, once so rare and expensive, were a drug in the market at the time of our visit to Cebu. They were brought off to the ship in washing-basketsful, and sold at two shillings a dozen.” A very curious and inexplicable circumstance appears in the life-history of the Venus’ Flower Baskets. Within the vase formed by the skeleton two small crabs are to be seen in several of the specimens. They are prisoners in an exquisite prison-house. They are not parasites, for instead of living upon their hosts, they live, as it were, at the same table with them. The incurrent streams of sea-water bring food to the crabs as well as to the living sponge. The crabs in this instance would be termed “‘commensals,”’ or chums. This, however, is a department of nature study which is sure to be noticed in a satisfactory manner in a future part of ““ Marvels of the Universe.” A writer in Scribner's Monthly (1875) echoes opinions held by many students of marine fauna: “ The glass hair of which these sponges are woven is not transparent, as might be imagined ; it is of pure and lustrous white, giving, in certain lights, an opalescent play of colour. The tex- ture is like frost-work, phantom flowers, the finest and filmiest of the real Shetland lace ; it is so exquisitely delicate and lustrously white as to beggar description and to make one turn disheartened away from analogy. In all the world there is perhaps Photo by] j [W. Saville-Kent. nothing so fairy-like as these wonderful : Pa ORM se ean fabrics built up by this formless, struc- This strange animal is a native of the forests of the Malay Archipelago and neighbouring islands. It is enabled to fly, not with wings, like the bat, tureless life in the darkness and still- but by means of the fold of skin stretched across from foot to foot. ness of the deep-sea waters.” AN ANIMATED AEROPLANE BY W. P. PYCRAFT, F.Z.S. Few animals have puzzled naturalists so much as the Cobego, Kaguan, or Flying Lemur, a native of the great forests of the Malay Archipelago, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippine Islands. This remarkable creature has been placed with the Bats and with the Lemurs, but nowadays it is regarded as most nearly related to the Insectivora—the insect-eaters : a group which contains such familiar creatures as the hedgehog, the mole and the shrew. But even here it seems somewhat incon- ‘gruously placed, inasmuch as it does not eat insects, but leaves and fruit! However, what an animal eats is not nowadays regarded as the key to its genealogy. But we may leave this matter of Photo LW. Saville-Kent. THE COBEGO. When at rest the Cobego adds to its chances of security by its method of hanging itself up with its feet placed close together on the bough of a tree and its head tucked away between its fore-legs. In this way it mimics some large brown fruit and escapes the notice of its natur enemie3 168 Marvels of the Universe 7 classification to those whom it may concern and turn to the animal itself. This extraordinary crea- ture, which is about two feet long, may be described as an animated aeroplane. It does not fly, like the bat, but by means of a fold of skin ex- tending down the side of the body, so as to include the legs and tail, it is enabled to take flying leaps into space from one tree to another, descending, of course, as it goes. As much as seventy yards can be covered in a _ single leap. As it approaches its goal the “flight” takes an upward sweep, and at the moment of alighting, the great hands, armed with powerful claws, are spread out, and a sudden grip is taken of the bark of the tree. Then the ascent of the trunk is_ be- gun by means of a series of jerky leaps, with occasional pauses for rest. oz At such times the creature Photo by] ov. Saville-Kent: fe 3 THE COBEGO. is conspicuous enough, as all This illustration shows the mother Cobego carrying her young, a little hairless moving bodies are. But when animal tightly pressed against her warm, furry breast. Owing to the difficulty of this at rest she is far from means of transport the Cobego has but one young one at a time. Too t easily discovered; for at such times it hangs suspended, back downwards, the feet placed close together, and the head thrust in between the fore-legs, so that it looks for all the world like some great fruit, such as abounds in these forests. And this semblance to fruit is the more complete owing to the light spots on the dark-brown skin. Thus disguised, it rests in peace, for prowling hawks and other carnivores pass it by unnoticed. The Cobego has but one young one at a time. This limitation of the family is imposed by the fact that the mother has to carry her offspring with her wherever she goes, and even this must considerably hamper her freedom of action when necessity compels a leap into mid-air in search of fresh food. The youngster, which is at first quite naked, is carried across her breast, as shown in our illustration, and must be borne for a considerable time ; until, indeed, it is able to leap with safety after its parent. , As we have already remarked, the Cobego lives upon leaves and fruit. But there must be something more in its feeding habits, or in the nature of its food, than we are yet aware of. And: this, because of the very peculiar character of its teeth, and more especially of the Marvels of the Universe 169 incisors, or cutting teeth of the lower jaw, which are shaped like the teeth of a comb. That they serve some important end none can doubt; but no one has yet been able to throw any light on this problem. No other animal has similar teeth. It has been suggested that they are used for cleaning the fur, but this is hardly probable. One has been seen, when eating a banana, to suck it through its front teeth, using them as sieves; but since unripe fruit, and especially unripe cocoanuts, are eagerly devoured, this peculiar fashion of disposing of a banana cannot be regarded as the sole end and aim for such a remarkable modification of the lower incisors. In this connection it is interesting to note that the outer incisor of the giraffe has a notch in its cutting edge, which is used by the animal in tearing off leaves from slender twigs, the twig being drawn over the notch in the tooth. These teeth of the Cobego may, again, be compared to the “ pectinated” or “comb” claw of many birds, which also is of unknown function. That the Cobego is certainly one of the most contradictory of all animals we have already shown; but an additional illustration of this fact is afforded by the eyes ; for though the animal is nocturnai, these are not large, as is the general rule among nocturnal animals. But then, it may be pointed out, the bat is nocturnal and might almost be said to be eyeless! Although we have spoken of the Cobego, it must be pointed out there are two species. The larger, which forms the subject of our illustrations, is Galeopithecus volans; the smaller, G. Philip- pinensis, 1s, as its name implies, confined to the Philippines, and differs from its larger relative chiefly in point of size and the form of the cutting teeth of the upper jaw. THE GIANT-TAILED MOTH OF MADAGASCAR IN previous pages we have given particulars of the Giant Silk-moth of North America. The subject of the illustration on this page, and one of our coloured plates, is an even larger insect. It is a silk pro- ducer, like the American species, bg : 2 and the silk is declared to be very =“ eee A [by A. T'widle, good ; but whether it can be spun THE GIANT-TAILED MOTH OF MADAGASCAR. 13, perhaps, another matter. Ex- This great moth measures eight inches from wing to wing, while its length, periments in this direction are be- to the tip of its slender tails, is nine and a half inches. It has been suggested that these tails allow the moth a chance of escape when seized by any insect- Ing made at the present time, the eating bird, who, in their pursuit, would snatch at these easily-broken append- Insect being bred for the purpose ages, while the moth itself would escape uninjured. 170 Marvels of the Universe It is a native of Madagascar, and the two first specimens to reach this country were captured by a missionary in the south-east of the island. It was from one of these two original examples that our illustrations were made. Since then several others have been received at the Hon. Walter Rothschild’s museum at Tring Our example is a male, as shown by the beautifully plumed feelers. The conspicuous feature of the moth is the exceedingly long and slender tails to the lower wings. The utility of such an item in the adornment of the moth can only be guessed at ; but it has been suggested in similar cases that they serve to draw the assaults of insect-eating birds, who, in pursuit, may seize these tails—the nearest part—whilst the moth escapes with his vital portions uninjured. This Madagascar moth measures eight inches across the expanded upper wings. whilst taking its length in the other direction we find it to be nine and a half inches. FLYING FISHES BY R. LYDEKKER. THAT animals which swim at a great speed near the surface of the water, such as whales and fishes, should occa- sionally shoot themselves clear of that element, to take flying leaps in the air, is only what might be expected ; and we find the habit common to both groups, even such mighty creatures as spermwhales throwing their gigantic carcases completely out of the water. In the case of whales the leap is, however, solely dependent upon the original impetus ; but in certain groups of fishes it is converted into what may properly be termed a flight by the great expansion of the front, or fins i S large The Catalina Flying Fish, which is found on the coast of California, pectoral, AMS, which presen 2 8 is very like a herring, save that its breast-fins are of abnormal length, surface to the air and thus serve the reaching back to the root of the tail-fin. The fish, asa rule, measures ten [By W. B. Robinson. HE GFEYING'-BISH: purpose of wings. This power of flight attains its maxi- mum development in two perfectly distinct groups of fishes, namely, the true flying fishes—or flying herrings, as they ought properly to be called—and the flying gurnards. True flying fishes, of which the Catalina flying fish, from the coast of California, and the Celebean flying fish, of the seas around the island of Celebes, are shown in the accompanying illustrations, are very like herrings in general appearance, except for the great length of the pectoral fins, which reach at least as far back as the root of the tail-fin. As a rule, a flying fish measures from about ten to twelve inches in length, although specimens of eighteen inches are not very uncommon. They are beautiful silvery fishes, whose skimming flight as they rise in shoals from the crests of the waves just ahead of an ocean liner is one of the most beautiful sights in nature. They are essentially fishes of the tropical and subtropical seas ; but a specimen, perhaps driven to our seas by the unusual hot summer of IgII, was taken in a mackerel-net off the village of Wyke Regis, to twelve inches in length. near Weymouth, in August of that year. That the flight of flying fishes originated from an effort to escape the attacks of predatory fishes by leaving the water for a brief period and again falling into that element some distance ahead is admitted on all bands But for many years there was a great difference of opinion among FLYING FISH The skimming flight of these fishes oa they rise from the crest of the waves ie very beaut ul, r scales glisten like silver, and the rapid vibration of wings creates the appearance of a glittering film surrounding them, They invariably inhabit tropical seas 172 Marvels of the Universe naturalists as to whether the pec- toral fins, or wings (as they may convent- ently be called), of these fishes act merely like those of a mono- plane, and serve only to prolong the impetus of the initial leap from the water, or whether they [By W. B. Robinson. 3 3 THE FLYING GURNARD. eae really vibrate like Except for the extraordinary elongation of the breast-fin these fishes differ but little from the the wings of a ordinary red Gurnard. They, like the Flying Fish , inhabi : ; ike e yin ishes proper, inhabit the warmer seas bird and thus 1m- part a new and independent motion to the fish during its passage through the air. Some years ago the monoplane theory of the flight of flying fishes was almost unanimously accepted by naturalists. But as time went on several independent observers—myself among the number—who had watched the flight of these fishes from the bows of ocean steamers confidently expressed the opinion that there is a distinct vibratory movement of the wings. The death-blow to what may be called the aeroplane theory was, however, given by Col. C. D. Durnford, in two articles published in 1906. It was there pointed out that, as a flying animal, the flying fish is equipped with wings of a fractional sailing power as compared with those of a soaring bird ; and also that if the wings were many times larger, so as to place the fish on an equality in this respect with the bird, it could only sail with the bird’s limitations as regards direction of the wind and with the bird’s frequent assistance from soaring flight. On the other hand, the true explanation appears to be that, in commencing its flight the fish starts with a tail-impelled and wing-assisted jump from the water to a height where the wings can work freely. When this is accomplished, the flight is continued by an intensely rapid and laboured wing-movement, which to most observers appears merely as a blurr. There are, however, short periods of slow- ing down, during which the move- ments of the wings become visible; these * — often « “slows ’ preceding a special spurt, as when the fish has to top the crest of a wave. Finally, there is [By W.:B. Robinson. A THE FLYING GURNARD, either a sudden cessation of wing- flat against the side of the fish. movement and a Showing the method of progress under water when the greater part of the now useless fin is laid Marvels of the Universe WS consequent immediate drop into the sea, or a short slow-down into visibility previous to such drop. And yet, in spite of this clear and apparently conclusive statement, we are told in a recent work, purporting to be up to date, that flying fish fly in aeroplane fashion without any movement of their wings. Very different are the flying gurnards, of which the common species is shown in the illustration. These fishes, which run to about eighteen inches in length, differ from the ordinary red gurnards of the fishmongers’ shops mainly by the elongation of the pectoral fins into wings. They inhabit most of the warmer seas, and their habits are very similar to those of ordinary flying fishes, with which they probably agree in their mode of flight. In addition to the above, there is a small fish, known as Pantodon, inhabiting the rivers of West Africa, and a second, Gastropelecus, from South American rivers, both of which likewise enjoy the power of flight. Photo by) [Russell F', Gwinnell. FOSSIL SUNSHINE. This stone was once part of the shore of a salt lake. The climate was tropical, and the scorching sun dried up the briny waters at the edge of the lake, so that the salt deposit formed into little crystal pyramids. FOSSIL WEATHER BY RUSSELL F. GWINNELL, B.SC., A.R.C.SC., F.G.S. THERE is perhaps no feature in connection with the study of rocks that is more wonderful than this: it is possible to determine the climate of past ages. Thus the fossils—the buried remains of animals and plants once living above ground—clearly indicate that London (or, rather, the site on which London now stands) once basked in tropical sunshine. Palms and fig-trees flourished, with here and there a prickly cactus, while turtles and snakes abounded, and in the sea dwelt crocodiles and sharks, besides such tropical shellfish as the cowry, now abundant on African coasts and used there as money. Temperate and, later, Arctic conditions set in, until the few plants were mosses and dwarfed trees, like the Arctic birch and dwarf willow, while Baltic and Icelandic kinds of shellfish lived in the adjacent sea, with the staircase-shell of Greenland. All of these variations 174 Marvels of the Universe Photo by] [Russell F. Grinnell. A “THUNDERBOLT.” This ‘‘stony meteorite" fell in Yorkshire in 1881. of climate were experienced within comparatively modern times, when plants and animals were already largely of kinds living at the present day in various parts of the world. Now, not only climate—that is, the general conditions of temperature, rainfall and so on experienced throughout all the seasons—but also the actual weather experienced on a certain day may sometimes be traced in the rocks. These may, for instance, record the occurrence on a certain day, millions of years ago, of a short but sharp shower of rain, succeeded by brilliant sunshine, with a south-east breeze blowing rather strongly. In another case, a thunderstorm takes place and lightning flashes through the sky. Such “‘ Fosst. WEATHER” is here illustrated. In the first picture, specimens A, C, E and F show the effect of a showery day at the seaside. The rain must have been very brief, as shown by the small number of rain-pittings on the mud or fine sand of the beach ; sharp, also, because of the depth of the pits. Specimen C is not the actual surface on which the shower fell, but the later deposit of sand which was washed over it, burying and preserving the rain-marks, It is thus a sort of “ negative ”’ or “‘ cast,’ showing the pittings as little mounds, among which are ridges representing cracks due to the drying and shrinking of the sandy beach in the great heat of the sunshine which succeeded the shower. In some cases the great depth of the pittings suggests that hail, instead of rain, produced them. Specimen A was formed recently at Cromer, and the regular shape of the pits here, and in F (from the Bay of Fundy), show that the rain fell straight down, so that evidently no wind was blowing. But in the case of E, formed ages ago in Co. Down, in Ireland, the direction of the wind is unmistakably Photo by) (Russell F. Gwinnell. A “THUNDERBOLT.” An iron meteorite, weighing forty-four pounds, that fell in India. Notice the surface markings, a sure sign of the action of heat indicated by the fact that all the rain-pittings are deeper on one side than on the other : the rain fell obliquely, driven slantwise by a strong wind. The actual direction of that ancient breeze is found by noting the position which the slab of stone occupied in the sandstone quatry whence it came. Permanent evidences of thunderstorms are rarer, though occasionally a flash of lightning, striking a sandy surface, will melt the grains, so that they run into one another and form a hollow tube, or pipe, of glass-like material. Such a “lightning-tube,” from Starczynow, in Poland, is shown by B in the photograph. One small piece of it is viewed endwise, so as to show the central hollow. Much commoner are the cigar-shaped objects shown in D, and popularly known as “‘thunderbolts.”’ These are hollow at one end only, and pointed at the other, and have in reality nothing whatever to do with thunder or any other condition of weather. They are the stony internal guards of a sort of ancient cuttlefish. The nearest approach to such a thing as a “ thunder- bolt ”—in the sense of something fallen from the sky—is a meteorite, or shooting-star But these may fall in any I se Photo by} [Russell F Gwinnell RAIN, WIND AND LIGHTNING. The “pitted "’ sections of sandstone bear witness to the storms of ages passed away. A and F show that the rain fell vertically, but in E the marks are deeper on one side than -the other, showing that here the rain fell slantingly, driven by a strong wind. B shows the bore of lightning as it buried itself in the sand and fused the separate grains together, and so formed a tube. The cross-section to the left shows the actual channel bored by the lightning. D are the internal guards of a species of cuttlefish. but popular belief has erroneously regarded them as thunderbolts. 176 Marvels of the Universe weather, and have no special preference for thunderstorms, although their arrival may occasionally happen to occur in thundery weather. Unlike the fossil cuttle-bones, which may be best described as cigar-shaped, meteorites are usually more or less round, certainly never elongated. They are sometimes of stony matter, sometimes of nearly pure iron. Both kinds are shown on Page 174. The mushroom-shaped object with radiating furrows is a “ stony meteorite,’ which fell at Middlesbrough, Yorkshire, in 1881. The squarer lump, with characteristic surface-marking and a lustrous appearance, is made of nearly pure iron. Weighing forty-four pounds, this “ bolt from the blue” fell near Vizagapatam, India, in 1870. Returning to fossil wind, the accom- panying picture shows a slab of sand- stone, which, in long-past ages, formed part of a sandy sea-shore. A gentle breeze rippled the water as it lapped on the beach, and the moving water rippled the sand beneath it. The little wavelets should have travelled land- ward, leaving the slender ridges mark- ing their course; but the wind was blowing obliquely and, as a result, the ripples came ashore in a slanting way, and therefore rebounded in the opposite direction ; hence the cross-rippling of the sand, so beautifully exhibited in the specimen. But in the illustration on page 177, the wavelets have come straight ashore, and consequently have fallen back in a parallel series of outgoing ripples, and there is no possi- bility of distinguishing between the effects of incoming and _ retreating waves, one series of corrugations being alone produced. d : Fossil sunshine is further illustrated Photo by] Be ae ae [Russell F. Guinnell. in the picture on page 173. The long The action of wind upon the wavelets lapping the sea-shore. The seb of De cupeea e the mde ; shore of a salt-lake, where now the wind was blowing obliquely, so that the waves came on shore one way and ea aas 2 Be cppesite eure: The moving water rippled the sand Manchester Ship Canal exists. The climate was that of a tropical desert, and the scorching rays of the sun caused the briny water to evaporate and deposit all over the shore little crystals of salt, like dwarf pyramids in shape. The same process is happening now on the shores of the Dead Sea, in Palestine, and the Great Salt Lake of Utah. The salt-crystals are scattered in all positions, some on edge and some down flat on their square bases, with the sloping edges of the pyramid looking like the letter X. The upper specimen on page 177 shows slender suncracks as well as ripple-marks. Many millions of years have elapsed since the wind rippled that water and the blazing sun dried and cracked the sand after the ripples had been impressed upon it, on an Irish shore. In the lower specimen, the Marvels of the Universe 7 sun had been more powerful, or else had had more effect owing to the finer, muddy nature of this Gloucestershire beach. The resulting sun- cracks are very broad and deep. Here, as in a previous specimen, the slab of rock is a “ negative’ or “cast’’ of the actual surface affected by the sun, and hence the cracks appear as ribs standing up from the surface. This is the mud which covered the original cracked surface, forming a protecting ‘blanket upon it. [All photographs illustrating this article are by the writer, some from private speci- mens and some, reproduced by permission, from specimens in the Imperial College of Science and Technology.] THE BIRD WITH HANDS BY W-. P. PYCRAFT, F:Z-S: THAT strange native of British Guiana, the Hoatzin, Governor Battenberg’s Turkey, or the Stinking Pheasant, as it is variously called, is one of the most remarkable birds living. Its whole life-history, from the cradle to the grave, is remarkable. But we are concerned here only with the earlier phases of its growth. Hatched in a rough nest of sticks placed on the bough of a tree overhanging the water, the young Hoatzin displays a singular activity from the moment it breaks the walls of its shelly prison. Normally this would mean an enormous mortality, but there is nothing normal about the Hoatzin, even in the nestling stage. Un- like all other nestlings, it is an expert climber, using beak and wings and feet with amazing dexterity in scrambling from branch to branch. Many birds, like parrots, employ the beak and feet when climbing; but no other birds, not even the Hoatzin when adult, can use the wings for this purpose. But in the young Hoatzin the thumb and first finger are armed with long claws, and are very prehensile, serving at this stage of growth as fingers. More than this, the hand at this stage is ex- ceedingly long, and to preserve the efficiency of the claws till the flight feathers have Photo bu) (Russell F. Gwinnell. FOSSIL WIND. Here an on-shore wind was sending the wavelets straight ashore, and so making only parallel ripples. Photo by} (Russell I. Guinnell. “A BROILING SUN.” Very fierce must have been the heat which poured down upon the shore and caused it to crack so deeply. Other deposits of earth filled up these cracks and bore the reverse impression shown here. 12 178 Marvels ot the Universe developed far enough to break the force of a fall, should such an accident happen, the growth of the outermost quills is re- tarded lest they should hamper the grip of the claws. But as soon as the wing area is large enough to support the bird in mid-air, the quills held in re- straint begin to grow, and with their growth the claws are gradually absorbed and finally disappear. That on the thumb [By H. Gronvold. is the first to go. By the time THE BIRD WITH HANDS. the normal flying wing has been The wing of the young Hoatzin, showing the thumb and forefinger armed developed, the growth of the with the long claws with which it is provided. forearm has exceeded that of the hand, and for ever afterwards the hand becomes the shortest, instead of the longest, segment of the wing. Should one of these youngsters fall into the river below, it promptly strikes out for the shore, and seizing hold of some overhanging bough trailing in the water, it speedily scrambles back to its fellows ! Curiously enough, the wing of the young game-bird reveals incontestable evidence of former similar climbing feats, thus showing that once on a time these birds also dwelt in trees, and reared their young there. In such wings—and the point can be verified in the chick of any barn-door fowl—the growth of the outer quills presents the same phenomena of development; but to see the claws we must examine the embryo. Thus it is evident that the days of arboreal nurseries must be remote indeed, for structures which appear and disappear during embryonic life can have played no active part in the life-history of their possessor for countless generations. THE NESTING OF CAIMANS BY R. LYDEKKER. Mucu confusion exists in the popular mind as to the dis- tinction between crocodiles and alligators, Anglo-Indians almost invariably speaking of the re- presentatives of these reptiles found in India as alligators, whereas they are really croco- (Ly H. Gronvola. dies. To point out the distinc- tions between the two groups THE BIRD WITH HANDS. The wing ct a later stage of development. Notice how the growth of the outer- most quills is retarded so as not to impede the use of the claws. is impossible on the present useless ight, when the now it ished with claws on its wings, and so is enabled to climb to sustain in fl a Q CL < ao a Be long enough Ww ird is furn wings are he t THE BIRD The young b time as itis until euch i abits Br dexterity, with great The Hoatzin inh claws disappear. trees 180 - Miarvels of the Universe Pane a eS S ae RS NS F : Photo by} [IW. P. Dando, F.Z.S. THE CAIMAN. A Caiman is neither a crocodile nor an alligator, though more nearly allied to the family of the latter. Their skin is deep black, with yellow markings. occasion ; but it may be stated that while all alligators have broad, stumpy snouts, most, although by no means all, crocodiles have narrower and more pointed muzzles. True alligators have, how- ever, a much more restricted distribution than crocodiles; one species inhabiting the Mississippi valley and the other the valley of the Yang-tsi, in the heart of China. In tropical America there is, however, a nearly allied group of five species, often spoken of as South American alligators, but whose proper designation is caimans, or jacares. Several of these are more brightly coloured than crocodiles or true alligators, having the skin deep black, withSyellow markings. Crocodiles, alligators and caimans, like the majority of reptiles, produce their young from eggs, which in this group have hard shells and are about as large as those of a goose, although more elongated, and with the two ends nearly equal in size. In laying their eggs among dense vegetation the tropical American caimans differ from the crocodiles of the Old World, which make their nests in holes in the sand, and cover their eggs with a thick layer of the same, incubation being effected by the heat of the sun’s rays. From twenty to sixty eggs may go to form a clutch. In the case of both crocodiles and caimans, the female parent takes up her station in the neighbourhood of the nest ; and when the young reptiles are ready to emerge, they attract her attention by uttering shrill cries, those of young crocodiles being audible through a couple of feet or so of sand. Thereupon the mother crocodile digs down to the eggs, the shells of which are then chipped open by their occupants, which, like young caimans, are armed with a special temporary tooth for this purpose; but the female caiman merely has to remove the layer of brushwood with which they are covered. THE COMMON DIVING BEETLE BY HAROLD BASTIN. A BEETLE is one of the chief marvels of the universe; it is so wonderfully equipped for the life which it leads, so liberally endowed with unerring instincts. This statement applies to beetles in general, but it is especially true of the common Diving Beetle, a creature which may be readily studied, since it frequents pools and ditches throughout the kingdom, and will soon make itself Marvels ot the Universe 181 at home in a roomy aquarium. Let it be said at once that the Diving Beetle is carnivorous and that it possesses a voracious appetite. It is, indeed, a veritable fresh-water shark, and the dispatch with which it accounts for small fishes, newts, frogs, tadpoles, grubs, and other under-water dwellers has earned for it the equivocal title of “ water devil.” Being an insect, the Diving Beetle is furnished with six legs. It has also four wings ; but while the lower pair are well adapted for sustained flight, the upper pair consist of hard plates which cover and protect the more delicate functional wings when the latter are not in use A beetle is planned quite differently from a backboned animal, such as a rabbit or a fish. It possesses no internal skeleton for the attachment of its muscles. Instead, its skin is thoroughly permeated with a peculiar substance called chitin, which is remarkably hard and durable, well calculated to resist the weather, and to sustain the wear and tear of an active life. Thus, for practical purposes, we may regard the beetle as living within a suit of strong, light armour, to the inner walls of which its muscles are attached. This suit of armour is always divided into three compartments. The first encases the head, the second—from which spring the six legs and the chest,’ while the third envelops the hind body. « wings—protects the ° This type of structure is common to all beetles. But in the case of the Diving Beetle we shall notice certain modifications which fit the creature in a marvellous manner for its aquatic life. The Diving Beetle is not a mere surface swimmer. It is specially designed for under-water voyages. Its body is like a submarine—oval, somewhat flattened, having a highly-polished surface, and with its several parts so closely adjusted as to present practically a continuous outline. This smoothly elliptical contour and polished surface serve to lessen friction, which, as every naval architect will testify, is so serious a hindrance to speed. YOUNG CAIMANS EMERGING FROM THE EGG, These eggs are about the size of those of a goose, though more elongated in shape. The shell is quite hard, but the young Caiman is armed with a special temporary tooth with which he can break down his prison walls. 182 Marvels of the Universe Let us now examine the means of locomotion, the mechanism which propels this boat-shaped beetle through the water. The two front pairs of legs, especially in the female, are used for crawling among weeds, for seizing prey, and for anchoring the insect when it desires to remain in one position beneath the surface. In the male the front pair of limbs is specially modified to enable him to seize and retain the female. One of the joints is flattened and furnished with sucker-like discs and cupules, well shown in the figure on page 183. But the larger hind limbs have undergone great modification and are, in effect, a couple of powerful paddles. By a peculiar keel-like prolongation of the chest, they are set far back below the centre of the insect, and their arrangement and attachment enable them to be brought at right-angles to the body, thus providing for a strong, wide sweep. Moreover, the whole form of what we may term the foot—the five-jointed terminal portion of the leg—has been flattened and clothed with stiff hairs until it is transformed into a per- fect reciprocating oar-blade. These paddles are operated by powerful muscles. They generally strike the water simultaneously, driving the beetle rapidly forward in a straight line; but they are also capable of being used singly for the purpose of turning in a confined space, just as an expert sculler will use one oar to manceuvre his skiff. While the Diving Beetle is thus admirably fitted for progress through the water, its habits are by no means exclusively aquatic. True, its per- formance when afoot amounts to little more than an _ undignified scuttle, but its wings are large and well developed, and the beetle fre- quently makes long aerial excursions, especially at night, travelling from one pond or stream to another. It is, indeed, a wonderful colonizer, and Photo by] [Harold Bastin. ; THE ‘“‘SPIRACLE' OF THE WATER BEETLE. there can be few suitable sheets of The Diving Beetle has no lungs, nor does he breathe through his mouth. water, from one end of the kingdom He is supplied, however, with air-holes in his side and upon his back, each of which is guarded by a network of stiff hairs from the intrusion of any tO the other, which it has not made dirt or dust. its own. This beetle has been known to pitch precipitately upon the roof of a greenhouse, probably mistaking the glint of the glass in the moonlight for water. Moreover, when imprisoned in an aquarium, it is lable to effect its escape and turn up in the kitchen or parlour, much to the consternation of the lady of the house. The manner in which the Diving Beetle takes in its supply of oxygen is very remarkable. In order fully to appreciate it we must first fix in our mind the facts that insects have no lungs and that they do not breathe through their mouths. They take in air through holes in their sides, known as spiracles, each spiracle being guarded by a sort of quickset hedge of stiff hairs, which serves to keep out dust and dirt. Just within each spiracle, or breathing-hole, there is an ingenious little valve which opens and closes periodically by a muscular contrivance. The air which enters through the open valve is conveyed direct to every part of the body through a system of minute tubes, the final ramifications of which are so delicate that they penetrate the most distant extremities of the body. These air-tubes are soft and within them run spirally-coiled threads of hard material [Hugh Main. THE LEGS OF THE DIVING BEETLE. , insects have such elaborately designed legs. The first in the page is the front leg of the male, with the wonderful pad FE which enables it to hold to a polished surface. The second is the leg designed for anchoring the insect and for crawling amongst d pond weeds. The third leg is the powerful paddle, armed with stiff hairs, which propels the beetle through the water. 184 Marvels of the Universe similar to that which constitutes the insect’s external armour. They are, in fact, exact counterparts in miniature of our wire-lined rubber gas-tubing, and their structure is a safeguard against “short circuit.” The elastic inner coil keeps the tube open even when it is subjected to pressure, as by the bending of a joint through which it passes ; at the same time, the flexibility of the tube is preserved. Now, in the case of the adult Diving Beetle, the breathing-holes do not occupy their normal position along the szdzs of the body. They open upon the back, beneath the wing-cases, Moreover, the two terminal pairs of breathing-holes are much enlarged, while the wing-cases fit so perfectly Photo bu) [Harold Bastin THE DIVING BEETLE AND GRUB. The appetite of the grub is insatiable: it is always in search of prey. Its flat head is supplied with sickle-shaped jaws, which are traversed by a hollow tube leading to the closed mouth. By this means the blood is sucked out from the victim and goes to nourish the victor. upon the abdomen that an air-tight space is formed between them and the back of the insect. When the Diving Beetle wishes to take breath, it simply poises itself in the water with the hinder part of its body protruding slightly above the surface. It then curves the tip of its abdomen somewhat, when the air rushes into the four big breathing-holes, and fills the space between the wing-cases and the back. The chink is then closed tightly, and the beetle is once more ready for a diving excursion. Ex- periments made by Dr. Sharp, the eminent authority on insect life, revealed the fact that a male Diving Beetle comes to the surface to take breath once in every eight minutes and twenty seconds on an average, and remains poised for about fifty-four seconds. The longest interval that it was observed to pass without breathing was nineteen minutes, although the female insect, being less active in habit, rises less fre- quently than the male. We have still to speak of the Diving Beetle’s head. Its most important features are the eyes, the mouth, and the feelers. The latter are deli- cate, jointed appendages, which, so far as can be gathered, may be lhkened to the whiskers of a cat in that they serve the beetle’s sense of touch, and are possibly of special service at night, or when the insect is foraging in murky water. The mouth consists of a whole set of useful implements. First, there is the upper lip—a hard plate hinged to the solid armour of the head. Immediately behind this are the jaws, which move sidewise, and not with an up-and- down motion, as is the case with the higher ani- mals. After this comes a second pair of jaws, less powerful than the first, but highly sensitive. Each is made up of several parts, each carries a jointed feeler. So that these secondary jaws are well suited for holding food, examining it, and passing suitable portions towards the gullet. Indeed, they may be likened to a pair of Marvels of the Universe 185 dexterous hands, set just under the mouth. More- over, their labours are ably supplemented by the lower lip, an organ which really represents a third pair of jaws intimately fused to- gether. All these mouth- parts work in unison with amazing precision and ad- dress. I will now ask the reader to glance for a moment through a microscope at the Diving Beetle’s eye. The surface of this amazing Photo by] [Hugh Main, sense-organ consists literally Photo by] (Hugh Main. When the Grub is about to change into of thousands of facets. it lies quietly for a few days, then wriggles a chrysalis it constructs a rude cell at the Sutiaiiitallactherubvedite margin of the pond, where— That each of these facets is a perfect lens may be readily perceived by looking through a magnified eye at some object, such as a postage-stamp. Every facet forms a tiny image of the stamp, and on page 187 we give a photograph of a single stamp with part of the beetle’s eye used as the camera lens, the result being that the stamp is greatly multiplied in the photograph. That the beetle actually sees all the images is hardly probable. We must remember that each of our own two eyes produces an image, while only one picture is registered by the brain. The most plausible explanation of how the beetle really sees with its compound eyes was suggested by Johannes Miiller early in the last century. The gist of his theory is that the beetle perceives with each facet not a complete image, but a tiny section thereof, and that these sections are pieced together to form one mosaic picture. Thus we must assume that the Diving Beetle sees only one image of an object at which it is gazing, but because its faceted eyes cover a large area of its head we may be- lieve that the insect enjoys quite a panoramic outlook— seeing simultaneously to right and left as well as above and below. So much for the physical equipment of the adult Diving Beetle. Let us now sketch briefly its life-story. The mother beetle makes incisions in the submerged stems of rushes or pond weeds with her sharp egg-tube, and inserts her white, slightly sds curved eggs. She acts thus, NGA, (Hugh Main. not because her youngsters eae (eed) sponkihic vecet able ale arama pees sev adlcelt fect insect, but— substance, but asa precaution together in this strange shroud. Photo by) [Hugh Main. 186 Wlarvels ot the Universe against the egg-eating denizens of the pond. In about three weeks the young insects hatch. At first they are minute and pale, but they begin to feed almost as soon as they leave the egg, and rapidly attain a considerable size. They are now seen to bear a strange superficial likeness to shrimps, and one scarcely wonders that the old naturalists, who knew little about the amazing metamorphoses of insects, actually classed them with animals of the crab and lobster kind. Yet the young Diving Beetle is really very different from a shrimp. It has a long, spindle-shaped body, with six legs, and a broad flat head armed with sickle-shaped jaws. These jaws are marvellously contrived feeding-organs. Each is traversed through its length by a hollow tube leading to the closed mouth, so that when the insect fastens on its prey it can suck all the blood from the body without once relinquishing its hold. This, indeed, is its habitual way of making a meal. More- Photo by) = (Harold Bastin. THE DIVING BEETLE. The adult mal: and female in their native element. Notice the sweep of the oar-like legs, aad the comparative size of the Beetle’s eye. over, its appetite is insatiable and its activity tireless. So that we may imagine it as skirmishing among its native pond-weeds and pouncing upon one hapless victim after another, each of which in turn is first sucked dry and then cast ruthlessly aside. It is, therefore, not without some show of reason that juvenile students of pond-lfe know this grub by the name of the water-tiger. This programme of slaughter continues for a period of from four to six weeks. During this time the insect steadily increases in bulk, and repeatedly outgrows its skin—a little difficulty which it as often surmounts by wriggling out of its old suit and appearing in a new one of more ample proportions which has been perfected beneath. At length, having attained to its full size, the beetle-grub prepares for its further change to the chrysalis condition. At this stage in its career it crawls from the pond and constructs a rude cell high and dry within the bank. In this chamber ENIE? . i © ® & , a2 ete? 2222023 a2a?3 P 2 ; ' f ’ Ra 2 . , 2 ~ § SEEN THROUGH A BEETLE'’S & = : eo” 188 Marvels of the Universe [Stanley Mylius. THE GIANT TORTOISE. Few animals live to a greater age than these huge, ungainly creatures. The photograph here shown is of a patriarch at Matara, which is computed to be at least 150 years old. it changes into a chrysalis, and les for some three weeks, taking no food, but displaying some power of movement if disturbed. At length it emerges as a perfectly-formed beetle, differing in every way from the grub, or “ water-tiger,’’ which has so far claimed our attention. Apart from the deep-seated physical changes which take place unperceived, this strange transformation is accompanied by two skin-castings. When the grub has formed its cell, and lain quiet for a few days, it wriggles out of its latest grub suit and appears in quite a novel guise. If we open its cell at this juncture, we find within a white, mummy-like creature, unrecognizable at first glance either as the grub which we knew or the beetle which we anticipate. Yet if we make a closer examination, we may trace the several parts of the coming beetle all folded together. The wings, in particular, are packed up in little bags, and folded forward among the legs. Then comes the second skin-changing—a somewhat slow process, during which the wings and wing-cases “ fill out ’’ and assume their normal position above the insect’s back. When all is over the pupa has been changed into a perfect beetle—complete in every detail save that it is soft and limp, while its colour is yellowish white. How great is the transformation may be appreciated by a comparison of the accompanying photographs. Not long after attaining the adult state the beetle emerges from its cell and enters the water. It is still pale and soft, and fully a week will elapse ere it gains the colour and solidity of armour characteristic of its kind. But it soon begins to “‘ hustle,’ and to indulge its voracious appetite to the full, with the result that in ten days’ time it is as perfect a representative of the Diving Beetle fraternity as heart could wish. Marvels of the Universe 189 GIANT TORTOISES BY R. LYDEKKER. ALTHOUGH in the absence of definite information as to the maximum age attained by elephants it is impossible to affirm with certainty that Giant Land-tortoises are the longest-lived of all animals, yet they have undoubtedly a very strong claim to be regarded as the Methuselahs of the animal kingdom, and are, therefore, clearly entitled to rank as marvellous creatures. At earlier epochs of the earth’s history distributed over all the continents, Giant Tortoises, with the exception of one African species, which should perhaps be included in the group, are now restricted to the Galapagos Islands. off the west coast of South America, and the Seychelle and Mascarene Islands of the Indian Ocean, although many individuals from the last-named islands have been carried to various parts of the world. As to the age attained by the Galapagos Tortoises, there appears to be no information ; and in the case of the species whose home is the islands of the Indian Ocean the records relate, at all events in the main, to exported individuals. One of the most interesting of these is the monster represented in the illustration on the previous page, the existence of which I had the good fortune to make known to naturalists. A year ago this Tortoise was living at Matara, in Ceylon, to which place it is stated to have been brought at the end of the eighteenth century ; so that, at a moderate estimate, its age may be put down as at least one hundred and fifty years. Till the year 1894, when it died after removal from its old haunts, Ceylon also possessed a second Photo ty) Rennie! THE GIANT TORTOISE. } < A . ° he better-known Greek Tortoise has been put on the back of this great creature in order that its huge size may be the better appreciated 190 Marvels of the Universe Giant Tortoise, which was found at Colombo when the island was taken over by the British in 1796 At the date of our occupation it was probably at least fifty years old; its age at the time of its death was doubtless not less than a century and a half. Another record is formed by the celebrated Marion’s Tortoise, which, till recently, at any rate, was living at the Artillery Barracks at Port Louis, Mauritius. This monster was brought to Mauritius in 1766, and as it had attained its present dimensions in 1810, it may be presumed to have been at least fifty years old when imported ; so that its present age can scarcely be much, if at all, short of a couple of centuries ; and there is another claimant (recently living at Tring) to a very great age. Photos by] [Hugh Main. SEED PARACHUTES. These members of the Dandelion family bear their seeds clustered together on the top of thcir stalk. Each seed is situated at the base of a thin hair, whose head branches out into a fairy parachute, which is designed to carry the seed away from the parent. The first picture is of the puff of a Colt’s-foot, and the last two show the unripened and ripe heads of the ordinary Dandelion. SEED DISPERSAL BY -PARACHUTES AND LIFE-BUOYS BY SIR HERBERT MAXWELL, F.R.S. In no class of living organisms is the evidence of design more convincing than in plants. Leaving out of account bacteria, diatoms and other vegetable micro-organisms, plants are denied the power of locomotion. They are provided, therefore, with an exceeding variety of appliances for the dispersal of their seeds, so that each race may have a fair chance of colonizing fresh ground. One of the readiest means of transport is the wind; but to take advantage thereof the plant must equip its seeds with mechanical aids to locomotion. There are many plants which rely upon parachutes for dispersal of their seeds. Familiarity is apt to breed contempt, or at least indifference, in our regard for the crown of seeds in the common dandelion; but the fact that it is so common is in itself a warrant for the efficacy of this mode of dispersal. Nobody inspecting it through an ordinary pocket lens can fail to marvel at the exquisite NDELION PUFF ng the manner in which tke seeds are disposed in the seed-vesse] waiting for the catch the feathery parachutes which will carry them off. 192 Marvels of the Universe symmetry of the whole, the delicacy of the silky plume upon each seed, and its perfect adaptation for aerial transport. Nearly all plants of the Composite family produce similar parachutes; there is hardly any limit to the distance thistledown may be carried on a favouring breeze, and every gardener knows to his cost how vain is the attempt to exclude groundsel from his borders. In some of the Ranunculus family, such as the Traveller's Joy and certain species of anemone or wind- flower, aviation is contrived bythe develop- ment of a long silky and feathered filament from the top of each seed. The common reed, which grows almost all over the world, and the pampas grass of our gardens owe the beauty of their plumes to the silky hairs provided for the wafting of the ripe seeds. These are still more conspicuous, owing to their snowy white- ness and length, in the cottonsedge of our moorlands. Many a time the deer-stalker has recourse to these in approaching his game, flinging a tuft of the down of cottonsedge in ae eas the air to ascertain the exact direction of a TRAVELLER'S JOY. ‘ light wind. The cotton-plant is commercially J Each one of the little feathers that form the chief beauty of more important than any other plant in the this familiar plant is destined to wing a ripe seed to distant é i , 9 soil. world, which is owing entirely to the length, tenacity and uniformity of the silky white hairs that cover the seed and are intended to facilitate its transport by wind. The art of the cultivator has been exerted to exaggerate this feature as muchas possible, and the amount of this feather-weight material annually put upon the market can only be reckoned in millions of tons. Our native willows, though of a far different natural order from the cotton-plant, imitate it in a modest manner. The seeds lie in a tangle of fine white hairs, which bear them away on the breeze when the ripe capsules open. The willow-herbs, of which some species have beautiful rose-coloured flowers, are so named in English from a superficial resem- blance in their seeds and leaves to those of willows; but in the willow-herbs each seed carries its own crown of hairs. A very similar arrangement is found in the milk-weeds, which Photo by] [F. Noad Clark. THE PARACHUTE OF THE GOAT'S-BEARD. are natives of the United States. The parachute of the Dandelion-seed is only the simple The mention of the willow-herb brings us to skeleton of such a one as this, for it has none of this delicate water as a vehicle for seed-dispersal; for if the inter-tracery between its central threads DrJCollis Browne’s The Original and Only Genuine. The Best Remedy known for COUGHS, COLDS, ASTHMA, BRONCHITIS. Cuts short all attacks | The only Palliative in of SPASMS, NEURALGIA. GOUT, HYSTERIA and RHEUMATISM, PALPITATION. TOOTHACHE. Refuse Imitations and INSIST on _ having Dr. J. COLLIS BROWNE’S Chlorodyne, The Most Valuable Medicine ever discovered. The name Dr. J. Collis Browne is on the stamp of every bottle of genuine Chlorodyne. Acts like a charm in Of all Chemists, DIARRHEA, DYSENTERY and 11%, 2.9, 4/6. CHOLERA. Convincing Medical Testimony with each bottle. [** MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE ”’’— continued from page 2.) Mr. Frank T. Bullen gives a contribution, THE SULPHUR-BOTTOM WHALE the largest known whale, which is also remarkably corrugated, the channels forming a lodging for a large variety of sea-life. is a beautiful little thing found in small pools and cart ruts, and consequently seen by few eyes. A subject which cannot fail to attract attention is the article by Mr. Edward Step on HERMIT CRABS AND THEIR MESSMATES dealing with the remarkable partnerships set up by these crabs with anemones, worms and sponges. Dr. E. J. Spitta, F.R.MLS., the well-known authority on microscopy writes a long article on MARVELS of the UNIVERSE. THE HOUSE FLY PRIZE COUPON II. How many people to whom this insect is a continual pest have troubled to == consider its life and structure? The article is abundantly illustrated with photo- Part IV. micrographs which shew all the detail and structure,and make plain among other ai, things how it is possible for a fly to walk on the ceiling. LEE GOTLIEB OWLS BALLAD LATED OTE after the publication of Part VII. Two other interesting articles are AN ANT’S MESSMATE and | SEA-CUCUMBERS iere are in all sixty illustrations which, with the coloured plates and popular text, make a most interesting part. Ask your Bookseller or Newsagent to send you EACH PART of “‘ MARVELS OF THE ZRSE” as published every fortnight and so make sure of obtaining a standard and _._,htful work for everyone in the home. COCO We 6 1) “« y The 9,1S2 Destitute and Orphan Children in Dr BARNARDO'S HOMES Urgently need the help of all who Love the Little Ones. Destitute and Forlorn Boys and Girls are rescued Daily from all over the Kingdom and trained to become useful citizens and Empire Builders. 74,781 Children have passed through the Ever Open Doors Patrons—HIS MAJESTY THE KING, HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN, HER MAJESTY QUEEN ALEXANDRA. President—HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF SOMERSET. Honorary Director-WILLIAM BAKER, Esq., ¥.4. 77.5 Honorary Treasurer—HOWARD WILLIAMS, Esq. General Secretary—CLAUDE WRIGHT. Head Offices—18 to 26, STEPNEY CAUSEWAY, LONDON, E. GIFTS TO THE FOOD BILL FUND WILL BE WELCOMED. — Please mark Gifts ‘‘ Food Bill Fund.’ — Cheques and P.0.’s payable ‘‘Dr. Barnardo's Homes LETTERPRESS PRINTED AT THE CHAPEL RIVER PRESS, KINGSTON-ON-THAMES ; COLOURED PLATES BY 4. C. FOWLER. about 24 Fortnightly Parts. Dee J] 19il PART V. 7d. net. A=Foe pte Work onthe Marveis—of The HEAVENS The EARTH PLANT LIFE — ANIMAL _LIFE THE- MIGHTY DEEP b¥ EMINENT SPECIALISTS inctuding 1000 FINE ILLUSTRATIONS < AND NUMEROUS COLOURED PLATES. Hutchinson’s 6d. Novels. A RECORD. OVER Th Two Million Copies 04 Allen Raine’s Novels Mixture | oo“ b UNDER THE THATCH - - Just Ready —Luxury indeed Where Billows Roll - - - - - 88,000 to the smoker All. in'a’ Month =) =) 4) =) = eS OOo Neither Storehouse nor Barn - - - 134,600 —A Flavour and Queen of the Rushes - = - = - 184,000 Fragrance of Hearts of Wales Ss > = sl ROMY A Welsh Singer - - - - - - 378,000 unusual charm Torn Sails = = =) =) =) eeeemeeez000 1 oz. 6id. 2 oz, 1/1 3} Ib. tins 22 By Berwen Banks = = = = - 242,500 Of most high-class tobacconists, or send stamps Garthowen - = = = = = - 254,000 to the amount to the sole manufacturers: A Welsh Witch - a 2 = = = 281,000 THOMSON & PORTEOUS, EDINBURCH On the Vingsiof the Wind nen The above figures do of include the American Sales. London: HUTCHINSON @& CO., Paternoster Row. MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE. A Note Concerning ‘Part VI. Messrs. Hutchinson & Co. have pleasure in announcing that Sir Harry Johnston, G.C.M.G. has been occupied in collecting from all parts of the globe, materials for contributions to this work. ‘The first batch of articles by the famous explorer Will appear in this part and will include THE PROBOSCIS MONKEY OF BORNEO with its prominent nasal organ. so suggestive of the simil r human feature.‘ Dr. E. J. Spitta continues h's popular account of THE COMMON HOUSE-FLY as examined in detail under the microscope. A MUSHROOM PARASITE describes and illustrates how one rare kind of mushroom grows in clusters on another kind. Mr. Frank T. Bullen gives an account of A REMARKABLE PARROT FISH with its teeth taking the form of a parrot’s beak. Max Raebel, who is the only artist probably to have undertaken such work under similar conditions, has drawn for us the fascinating curtains of THE NORTHERN LIGHTS S-veral of the transcripts from nature, painted in the open air in Norway illustrate his note. In THE NEST-BUILDING OF THE MILLIPEDE Mr. Hugh Main for the first time publishes his remarkable discovery, illustrated in detail, that these little-known creatures are eet: THE GIGANTIC STEGOSAUR one of the huge reptiles of prehistoric times is described by Sir Harry Johnston. Mr. Ie. Step describes, and illustrates with photographs, THE SLUG THAT PREYS ON EARTHWORMS and is so ualike all other slugs. [continued on taze 3 of cover. i i nanny By James Green. MINUTE LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. In this picture are shown some of the many creatures of wonderful and beautiful forms whose existence has been revealed to us by the modern microscope. Some are animals, some plants; others again are so puzzling in their nature—at one stage of existence erhibiting the characters of the plant, at another those of the animal—that both botanist and zoologist claim them as their subjects. They baye been drawn in the natural colours under differing scales of magnification, ranging between 200 and 300 times their actual sizes, Marvels of the Universe seeds of the great willow-herb fall on the water, they may germinate afloat and take root when stranded. Of course, there are many other land plants the seeds whereof, falling in the water float and may be transported to a suitable resting-place; but very few British species de- velop special structures for flotation. The white water-lily is one exception and the sedges furnish others. ery, containing a number of small seeds. The fruit of the water-lily is a large Each seed is girt with a spongy belt containing air- lo” 1 chambers. When the berry bursts under water, the seeds are borne up to the surface, and float about until their lifebelts rot, when they fall to the bottom of the water. is very small, only one-sixteenth of an inch long, In the sedges, the seed but it is cased in a sack four times as big, which enables it to float-until it arrives at a suitable resting-place. The most notable instance of fruits special- ized for floating is the important one of thé coconut. In this country we are only familiar with it after it has been divested of its smooth white skin, between which and the shell is packed mass of the exceedingly tough fibres This nut sufficient buoyancy to from which our coconut mats are made. envelope gives the so that uninhabited this float for hundreds of miles, coral islands become colonized with most valuable food-plant. A still larger example of this type is found in the Sea Coconut, or Double Coconut, of the Seychelles, which, growing upon a lofty palm, are washed out on the Indian Ocean as far as the Maldive Islands. times only the fruit was known from examples picked up at sea by sailors, the tree producing it being discovered much later. Until comparatively recent Plants which cannot, or at least do not, equip their seeds either for flight or swimming, adopt an extraordinary variety of expedients to secure transport. Some of them actually educate their seeds to creep along the ground. The Stork’s-bill name to the long beak which common owes its popular forms in each flower as the seeds ripen. These seeds are five in number, each being armed with reflexed bristles and having a long tail, or “‘ awn,” These pro- ceeding from the top. form the awns Photos by] FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF CRANE’S-BILL. [H. Main, F.E.S. As they ripen the central pillar splits into five strips, and these, curl- The five seeds are contained in five pouches. ing up, lift the pouches into the air until they are upside down, when the seeds drop out. 13 194 Marvels of the Universe ay Photo by] (HW. Main, FUELS. STORK’'S BILL FRUITS. When the seed has reached the ground, the contraction and expansion of its tail drives the seed into the soil. [Bu J. Teklenburg. FEATHER-GRASS SEED. central column or beak. When the seeds are ripe they move outwards, and are freed by the awns splitting off from the column. And now the true purpose of the awn becomes apparent. It is hygroscopic—that is, it curls spirally in dry weather and uncoils in damp. The alternation of these movements causes the seed to move along the ground, till it comes to a soft, unoccupied surface, when the awn by its wrig- gling drives the sharp base of the seed into the soil, and the reflexed bristles on the seed prevent it being withdrawn. A great number of grass species rely for their dispersal on the hygroscopic properties of the awns and bracts with which they accoutre their seeds. An extreme instance is furnished by the Feather-grass, a native of Russia, and, for- tunately, not naturalized as yet in Great Britain. The seed of this species has a long awn, bent at an angle, exceedingly sensitive to drought and damp, and terminating in a very long feather-like tail which would enable it to fly off some distance from the parent plant be- fore coming to the ground. It is also barbed with bristles like the seed of the Crane’s-bill. When the spiral becomes damp it unwinds, with the result that the awn is lengthened, and, as the feathery portion is probably en- tangled in surrounding weeds, lengthening can only take place in a downward direction; so the seed is driven into the ground. At the next dry period, when the shaft again becomes a spiral, the seed cannot be dragged out of the soil because the barbs prevent it. At each atmospheric change the seed will get driven a little further in until it is deep enough for growth to begin. When this awn attaches itself to the wool of a sheep by winding and unwinding itself, it drives the hard, sharp point of the seed into the animal’s skin, whence the barb-like bristles prevent it being withdrawn, thereby causing intense irritation and, in some cases, actually killing the sheep. It is a re- markable fact that in three other parts of the world, widely separated, namely, North America, New Caledonia and Queensland, there exist as many different species of grass which, by similar means, exact upon sheep the same Ri WM SS RAS THE MILKWEED’S PLUMED SEEDS. is an American plant whose ceeds are crowned with a tuft of silky hairs which acts as a parachute and bears the 4 to some distance on a gentle wind. This method is very similar to that adopted by the Dandelion and the Thistle. 196 Marvels of the Universe fatal vengeance as does the Russian Feather- grass. This is only one of innumerable instances of the indifference shown by Nature to the “a . } Yi Shy : - suffering of individuals in her solicitude for the perpetuation of various species. THE DOR-BEETLE’S MITE BY JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S. Tue Dor-beetle, in its polished armour of what looks like burnished steel, is a familiar creature during the autumn evenings. Since, however, the similar story of its near relation, the Sacred Scarab, has already been told in this work, I need write but little here concerning it. My present consideration is of the host of tiny guests that usually accompany the beetle. When, in its hurried flight, the beetle has collided with some object, it is not infrequently found on its back on a hard road or path, kicking its very hardest with its six legs, and : yet quite unable to get its feet upon the ground. UJ. Ward, PLES. The metallic blues and purples of its underside WLS: DO IDS. show to perfection as it struggles, and it is at The Dor-beetle is the thick-set blue-black insect that fre- é Seen F os Seoncuarlente Sit stiac atlas indices \@.cins alunseaites SUCH ammomient that wer ateate nip ie CaCO y aaa that swarm upon its lower surface, it is often called the Lousy the insect. How often, though, have we im- aero mediately dropped it again—on account of the ~ Photo bu] crowd of little, pale yellow “ parasites’’ that are almost invariably found clinging to its body and legs ? One day I removed from a small-sized beetle forty-three of these mites—one of which is shown in the accompanying photo-micrograph—but that is a comparatively small number, for sometimes they literally swarm over the beetle. Yet, strange to relate, it never seems the least bit incon- venienced on their account ; there is, I think. a plausible explanation of that curious fact. In the first place I would like to call attention to the clean state in which the beetle is always found. Considering the noisome substances which it manipulates, and into which it completely burrows, it is rather surprising that it should not carry with it some trace of its labours ; but it does not even retain the odour of its surroundings. The latter is the more remarkable when we take into consideration the fact that the ill-savoured burying beetles make their presence known in no unmistakable manner; but with burying beetles the Dor-beetle’s mite apparently has no connection. Since the beetle’s body and legs are clothed in a horny armour, we naturally wonder on what the mites subsist ; for it seems impossible for such tiny creatures to penetrate so hard a surface as that of their host. Also, they never appear to be sucking the beetle’s blood. More often they are seen to be quietly travelling over its anatomy, or, when still, clinging to one of its hairs by means of one or both of their mouth-pincers—as shown in the photo-micrograph. We have, therefore, on the one hand, a beetle which, apparently, is not the least incommoded by what, normally considered, would be an embarrassing number of “ parasites’ preying upon it, and on the other, a host of “ parasites ’’ which seem to possess no desire to prey upon their host. Marvels of the Universe 197 Probably the explanation is that the mites are the beetle’s allies, and not its parasites. It may be that the beetle owes its spick-and-span and odourless toilet to the regular services of these little attendants. Many similar instances are known of apparent parasites which, on investigation, have proved to be useful allies, even in relation to such removed animals as fishes and birds. In cases of this kind the services are usually mutual, and it is possible that the little beetle-mite requires in its economy a diet similar to that of the beetle, together with an occasional aerial con- veyance to new grounds for mating purposes. In consequence, it has probably acquired the habit of engaging the Dor-beetle as its motor omnibus, reciprocating the service rendered by diligently cleaning down the machinery of its locomotion, the product of which labour may serve it as food. A feature which tends to point to that conclusion is the fact that these mites are frequently found away from the beetles, hiding under stones, and in damp places; especially is this the case during the winter months. At the advent of the cold weather, most, if not all, of the old_beetles perish, and apparently the beetle-mites leave the beetles and wait until the next generation of its hosts appears in the winged state. It is obvious that they are able to live for months together without any assistance from the beetles, and just what advantages they derive from the association is difficult to understand ; unless, as I have pre- viously suggested, they have some relationship to the functions of mating. I am inclined to think that the mites are reared on the ground, and that when a family has reached maturity the individuals betake themselves to those quarters where the beetles will be sure to visit, and so they find a host. In this way they probably get carried to new grounds Photo bu] UI. J. Ward, FBS. far from home, where they THE DOR-BEETLE'S MESSMATE. will meet with mates from This is a greatly magnified portrait of the mite that runs over the surface of the Dor- 2 beetle. A single beetle may be host to over a hundred of these mites, which apparently act other stock. as scavengers. 198 Marvels of the Universe In this connection it is interesting to observe that the legs and feet of the mites are adapted for locomotion on moist land, being provided with claws and suckers, and that they have no eyes. It would be a distinct advantage, therefore, when an individual had_ travelled a long distance to suitable ground to find a mate, and yet had been unsuccessful, to get quickly conveyed to another similar situa- tion; indeed, it may be that the beetle itself is the profitable hunting-ground for finding their mates. In any case, it is certain that the mite obtains some advantages from its association with the beetle, and as these on the whole do not appear to be of a parasitic character, perhaps the sugges- tions offered here will tend to further investiga- tion regarding the habits of these curious little organisms. The mites themselves are queer little animals, and may be regarded as degenerate spiders. In their early stages they have only six legs, but THE MITE'S' CLAW. when their development is complete, another soi ol fe ews oe Beetles ite bere eove mek” pair appears, Their /projecting, moutnaninees to explain how it clings to the Beetle when the latter fies can be either partially or wholly withdrawn into papain their bodies. Photo by] (J. Ward, F.ES. THE WINE PLANT BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. Tue American Aloe, which has been extensively introduced into Southern Europe and may fre- quently be seen in English gardens, is not really an aloe at all, but an agave. Gardeners used to call it the Century Plant, from an erroneous idea that it did not flower until it was a hundred years old. It is a native of Mexico, and is one of the largest of the herbs. Its great leaves, whose form is well shown in our photograph, are thick and hard, and their edges are liberally armed with spiny teeth which make them look like a coarse-toothed saw. They form a huge rosette, the older leaves bending their tips to the ground, and the flower stem rising from the heart of the rosette to a height of thirty feet, branching like a candelabrum and bearing thousands of flowers. Just before the flowering stem is due to make its appearance, the Mexicans cut out the heart of the plant in such a manner that it leaves a cup-shaped hollow into which exudes the sap that should have gone to nourish the flowering stem. This, the natives draw up into gourd-bottles and transfer to great skin-bottles, as shown on the donkey’s back. This juice, which is described as having “‘a very agreeable sour taste,’’ contains both sugar and mucilage, and the Mexicans long ago found that by fermenting it they could convert it into a sort of intoxicating wine, something like cider, to which they gave the name of Pulque. They also prepare from it a very strong brandy which they distinguish as mexical, or aguardiente de maguey. Pulque, however, has a very unpleasant odour —that of putrid meat—so that the newly-arrived European who wishes to get intoxicated by it has first to overcome his aversion to such odours. If he succeeds in that, he is said to prefer pulque to any other liquor. The Mexican Government draws a big revenue from pulque. Photo by THE AGAVE, OR The young ye young flower-sy ity that sa sort of 200 Marvels of the Universe 23 ~ 2 ee Photo bu) [H.,C. Shepstone. THE AGAVE IN FLOWER. The flower-shoot of the Agave grows to a height of thirty feet, with side branches bearing clusters of flowers, as seen. in this photo. But the juice, 1f evaporated, makes a good substitute for soap, and the fibres of both leaves and roots are valuable for various purposes. The old Mexicans made paper from these fibres much as the ancient Egyptians did from the Papyrus stems. The agave is a very common plant in Tropical America, and is found in the mountains even at a height of ten thousand feet above sea-level. THE PATRY. SEHiReIvie SoME of the most beautiful forms of hfe are to be found in the most unlikely, even the most unlovely, of places. One has only to refer to the illustrations of pond-hfe a few pages later for confirmation of this state- ment; but here we have further evidence in the portraits of two young Fairy Shrimps. The marvels of pond-life are mostly found in water that is far from being drinkable, but the most likely places in which to find the exquisite and delicate Fairy Shrimp are the deep ruts near woods that were made by the broad wheels of timber wains and that have filled with rain-water. In such a restricted world, liable to be dried up by the sun, without the presence of water-weeds to purify the water, and to all appearance nothing in the way of food, the Fairy Shrimp lives and grows and enjoys its life. The nearest relations of the Fairy Shrimp live in absolute brine in the salt- pans- where sea-water is evaporated to obtain impure salt, so that it becomes even more surprising to find the Fairy Shrimp itself in such isolated and restricted quarters as woodland ruts afford. The Fairy Shrimp is all but transparent, and the principal parts of its internal organization are visible from without. Like all the crab, lobster and shrimp family, to which it belongs, its body is built up of a number of rigs, and each ring has its pair of appendages. Eleven pairs of these are swimming legs, which are also breathing Marvels of the Universe 201 organs, for every movement of them—and they are scarcely ever at rest—sets fans in motion which cause water to rush in and out over the gills through which the blood circulates and is purified. The transparency of the Fairy Shrimp is one of the chief elements in its beauty, but this clear- ness 1s not so thorough as to produce monotony. The basal joints of its feelers are coloured bluish- sreen, and the tips are red. The termination of the tail also is red; and in the female the back go is tinted with blue. Our photograph represents a couple of shrimps not fully grown, so that in some points they have not a full development of ornamentation. When mature they measure from an inch to an inch anda half in length. They always swim with their backs downwards as shown in our photo. In spring—March or April—the female deposits eggs, minute globules bristling with spines, which probably enable them the better to adhere to the walls of thei little pool. It is probable that these do not develop until the autumn, for ruts are mostly dried up in summer time. It is really most remarkable that any creature not possessed of the means for migration, in the form of wings or walking legs, should choose pools of such temporary character as these woodland ruts are. The movements of the Fairy Shrimp are very quick, and it is by no means an ; Photo bu] [A. Leal. easy matter to capture a specimen, though THE FAIRY SHRIMP. to watch its movements in a clear elass The Fairy Shrimp is almost transparent. It is little more than an : inch in length, and lives in puddles and cart-ruts. It always swims on vessel] is well worth the attempt. Errsleeie ANIMALS WHICH GROW BACKWARDS BY W. P. PYCRAFT, F.Z.S. NATURE teems with contradictions, real or apparent, and surely nothing more contrary to our notions of the laws of growth can be found than is furnished by the history of the common fresh- water eel on the one hand, and of a curious South American frog on the other. As touching the eel, it is now almost a matter of common knowledge that the adult eels leave the fresh water when they have attained maturity and make their way down to the sea. Here they make for the abysses of the ocean, spawn and die; for no eel ever makes the return journey. The young, orphaned before they are born, do not at first bear the least likeness to eels. As may be seen in our illustration, they are, in the first place, much flattened from side to side, not cylindrical ; in the second, their bodies are transparent, and they have white blood and no fins. As time goes on they ascend towards the surface of the ocean and towards the light, and at the same time make their w ay landwards. All the while they are growing bigger (see photograph). But at last a stage is reached when a radical change of food is required, necessitating new jaws and teeth, and this change cannot be effected without closing for repairs, so to speak. While the new mouth is growing no food is taken. As a consequence, the material of the body itself is drawn upon to sustain life during the fast ; so that, by a process of slow absorption, the body becomes gradually reduced in length and changed in shape, the latterly compressed form giving place to the more familiar eel- 202 Marvels of the Universe shape. While this transformation is taking place the blood is taking on its characteristic red colour, and the fins are developing. By the time these tiny migrants have reached the rivers up which they are to ascend in vast hosts they are of about the size of darning-needles. In what enormous hosts these tiny eels, or “ elvers,’”’ as they are called, invade the rivers of the west coast of England may be gathered, from the fact that in the Severn they were caught in cartloads, and pressed into a “cake ’’ known as “ eelfare.’”” Happily this wasteful practice has ceased. How they make their way from the deep sea off the west coast of Ireland into the rivers, not only of Ireland, but also England, west, south and east, is a mystery. A few find their way into Scotch rivers, but these are comparatively neglected. No less wonderful is the manner in which these tiny travellers ascend weirs and locks, and make their way overland to isolated pools and ponds. Such journeys are always made by night, when the grass is wet with dew. Sooner or later these tiny travellers come to the end of their toilsome journey, and comfortably settle down till, maturity attained, the hunger for procreation seizes them, and they return to the salt sea which gave them birth, there to lay their eggs and die. Until quite recently the facts relating to the birth and death of eels was one of the profound mysteries of Nature. Difference of sex could not be discovered ; elvers known to develop into [bu W. &. Kobenson. mature eels were known to ascend TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE EEL. the rivers in millions every year; The Eel when newly-hatched is transparent and ribbon-like, as shown in the mature eels were known to descend first drawing. It gradually gets smaller and thicker, until it becomes small and round as in the lowest figure, which is known as an Elver. From this point it the rivers to the sea every year, again increases in size until it becomes a full-grown Eel. but never! Enownl tOmTetn ania consequence many wild fancies explaining the origin of eels were in general circulation, not one of which could be regarded by the naturalist as possessing an atom of probability. The frog of which ment.on has been made is the Paradox Frog of South America. In the tadpole stage this creature attains the enormous length of ten inches, andjof this no less than seven inches is taken up by the tail, which, as may be seen in the photograph, is of huge size. As the animal nears maturity this tail slowly shrinks, so that by the time the adult, tailless stage is attained the total length of the animal does not exceed two and a half inches, and commonly not more than two inches! Thus while the backward growth of the eel is but a temporary phase, in the frog it is permanent. [By We Be THE PARADOX FROG AND ITS TADPOLE. tadpole here shown attains to twice the size of its portrait; and yet as a completely developed lroy have dwi d to a length of not more than two and a | ches, A remarkable case of growing backwards, 204 Marvels of the Universe Photo by) [W. A. Bentley. SNOW CRYSTAL. Here the six rays have taken on leaf-like expansions. MARVELS OF THE SNOW BY WILFRED MARK WEBB, F.L.S. IF inanimate objects lack the special interest which appertains to living things and do not excite quite the same sympathy, they are yet No art of man could improve the appearance of many oftentimes exceedingly beautiful. groups of crystals, and even if these are not alive, they grow. They may come into exist- ence slowly and gradually from the tiniest beginnings, which arise in some suitable medium or by the introduction of a tiny crystal into a saturated solution, the whole of which will become a solid crystalline mass suddenly before our eyes. Water comes into play in this case ; but with a low enough temperature it will itself crystal- lize and give rise to all the beauties which we associate with ice and snow in the winter landscape ; moreover, 1f we are not content with these, we can bring to our aid the microscope, and in the individual crystals of the snow find such marvellous symmetry and such delicacy and intricacy of design as is difficult to imagine and well-nigh impossible to find in any other products of nature. It will be easy to appreciate that snow-crystals require very delicate handling, and if we want to examine them we must do it under conditions which will ensure that they are not injured and are kept at a temperature and in surroundings which prevent them from melting ; while to see their full beauty it is necessary to collect isolated examples. When photographs have to be taken as records or to demonstrate the wonderful variety of forms which they present, infinite trouble Photo by) SNOW CRYSTAL. The expansions of the six rays are developing into six-sided plates. [W. A. Bentley. and much skill have to be devoted to the task. It is not surprising, as will soon be appreciated, that very few workers have been found who Of these none have been more successful than Mr. Wilson A. Bentley, of Jericho, U.S.A., who has gained a world-wide reputation. He was probably the will make the necessary sacrifices. first to seriously take up the study, and he has now devoted a quarter of a century to it. He modestly attributes much of his success to the favourable position in which he lives ; but when it is remembered that the photo-micro- graphs of the snow-crystals have to be taken at a temperature of 32° Fahr., and that the photo- grapher has to stay out in the open air often during the whole of a snowstorm in order to find one or two perfect crystals, the enthusiasm of Mr. Bentley must be considered the most important factor in the success of his work. Two thousand photo-micrographs in all have been collected by him, which means an Marvels of the Universe 205 average of about eighty in a year, and this fact, taken in conjunction with what we have just said, will give some little idea of the time that has been devoted to this la- bour of love. The crystals are caught on a black receiv- ing-board, and it requires very care- Photo bu] [W. A. Bentley. ful examination to SOW GRAIL. H detect the perfect been fil ween the six rays have a complete six-sided figure is the result. Here ones six intermediate rays have been formed. These may, as has been indicated, be very few and far between, and after a whole day has been spent in the search only one or two good examples may have been secured, for a great many of them into collision and get broken, or they are merged together and therefore spoilt. Those who are photographers will know the many adjustments that have to be made in the case of ordinary objects of which a picture has to be obtained. but if the microscope lens has to be brought into lifficulties will be greater, and when it is remembered that the snow crystals are tiny ephemeral melt away in a moment, it will be recognized that the whole process has to be carried out “ against time.’’ It is true that there may be more excitement, as there is the danger j ing some treasure before its form has been recorded, but the strain on the worker will be the greater. ically speaking, no two crystals are quite alike. Water, as is well known, may be obtained -d prismatic crystals, and snow consists ¢ f beautiful stellate groupings of such crystals, while the six-sided arrangement always appears, and it is truly wonderful that so many changes can be rung upon this plan. The crystals may be like flowers, like wheels, like studs ; but there ys six branches. They lend themselves excellently to photo-micrography, because their growth takes place to a great extent in one plane, and they are them- selves no thicker than a piece of thin paper. Mr. 3entley’s photo- graphs, which are reproduced here, will show better than words can describe, the full beauty of form Photo bv] [W. A. Bentiey. which is to be met Photo bu} [W. A. Bentley. SNOW CRYSTAL. with. It is interest- SNOW CRYSTAL. wer figures have followed— ing to note that if much the same lines as the upper ones. 206 Marvels of the Universe the two thousand crystals which he has photographed were put into one solid’mass they would only occupy a cubic inch. Roughly speaking, we may distinguish feathery and solid crystals. The first grow quickly and are characteristic of low-lying storm clouds which are not very cold. In the most open forms there are the six distinct rays just joining at the centre (see the first illustration on page 204), each of which otherwise develops independently, but symmetrically, so that we get what are practically six crystals growing together to form new elaborate and delicate shapes. When the centre is at first a little more solid and the connection between the rays at their bases greater, we get probably the most effective of all the types of snow crystals such as are shown most beautifully in the full- page illustration. The compact crystal, on the other hand, is said to come, in some cases, from a height as great as eight miles, where great blizzards arise, and grows slowly as it is blown about, perhaps for days, adding gradually to its size and weight, until it finally comes to earth. Some examples of the very solid kind of crystal are given in the illustrations on page 205. They (W. A. Bentleu. rhotos ou) SNOW CRYSTALS. Three further variations, The central example shows the six rays but slightly decorated. may grow and continue to retain their very simple though accurate hexagonal outlines, or their angles may develop. In this case two things can happen; either the solid type of crystal will be reproduced in their branches, as shown on page 208, which are occasionally quite elaborate, or they may depart from their original method and become open and more delicate. In this way we may get the forms which we have already alluded to with the solid centre and lace-like branches shown in the plate. Not the least beautiful feature of the crystals, apart from their form, is the internal structure caused by the inclusion of tiny air-bubbles, and these also enable us to see how the growth of the crystal has graduallv taken place. The marvellous regularity with which the crystals increase in size in the six directions is shown by these bubbles. Take, for instance, the lower right-hand crystal shown on page 205. Within each side is a curious and complicated figure, at the top of which is a little four-rayed object with a dot in the centre. Each of the six is practically the counterpart of the other. It will be seen, however, that there is a pairof processes running from the inner hexagon towards the figures, twelve in all. Four of these join up with the figures, but the rest stop short. Here there is a little discrepancy ; (WA. Bentley. JES: 1 will show how great a range of variation s possible with straight rods radia rom a common centre, the interspaces 208 Marvels of the Universe but, judging from the small projections which are left on the figures, originally all of them were accurate. As regards the branches of the crystals it will be noticed that, as a rule, these come off in pairs, but that sometimes towards the tips of the rays, as seen in the topmost crystal in the plate, only the branch on one side may develop. It is interest- ing to notice, too, what happens when _ branches coalesce; and though in the majority of our illus- trations they point out- wards, in certain forms there is a tendency for some of them to grow to- wards the centre. This is indicated to some extent Photos by] [W. A. Bentleuv. j e or A fy SNOW CRYSTALS. in one or two of the more complicated crystals. An assemblage of varied forms. The central example differs widely from the others, but its adherence to the six-rayed type is manifest, though the rays are not equidistant. To the nature-lover and the artist, the perfect symmetrical forms have the greatest charm, but to the student of snow crystals some of the results which occur through one side of the crystal developing in a different way from the other have a very special interest, while very curious structures Sometimes occur as a result of accident. In certain cases parts of the crystals seem to stop growing, and we get apparently three-rayed structures, though examination will show, as in the case of the example in the centre of the illus- trations above, that the six rays are there. Then, again, there may be no branches, or very few, and these may occur on one part of a solid crystal, while the other angles remain unaltered, and occasionally we get quite an irregular form showing little of the usual beauty of the snow crystal. We have mentioned the stud-like forms, and these consist of a columnar hexagonal crystal with two plate-like crystals, one at each end. One aspect of the subject must not be overlooked. Lace-makers and designers of all kinds are often desirous of obtaining new patterns, and they could not do better than to examine and take advantage of Mr. Bentley’s pictures of snow crystals. No doubt they would find some of them too elaborate to reproduce, but others could be modified, while the simpler ones in many cases might be adopted as they stand. The whole subject of inorganic growth is at present of particular interest owing to the strange forms which have recently been obtained by the depositing of inorganic matter out of solutions and the suggestion which has been made that, after all, the bodies of plants and animals owe some of their shapes and development to the laws which govern inorganic matter and are not dependent upon the intervention of what we call life, though its meaning is still beyond our ken. RAVER By H. Seppings Wright SATURN, ald appear from one of its satellites, and at that phase when the ring is seen edgewise. It, therefo raight line, one 5 ¢ E ces that so greatly puzzled the earlier astronomers with their le ct instruments. i‘ Voy: 1 OA i 4 i ah vi Marvels of the Universe 209 SATURN—THE RINGED PLANET BY T. E. R. PHILLIPS, F.R.A.S. Ix the early morning of September 17th last two bright planets were very close together in the sky—so close that they could be seen in the same field of the telescope. They were Mars and Saturn —the swiitly-moving, blood-red star of war, and the leisurely planet to which the old astrologers assigned the character of lead. And of all the planets these are the two which appeal most strongly to men’s minds to-day: Mars, because it is the planet of romance—it is a near neighbour; we know a good deal about it, and it may be inhabited by beings something like ourselves. Saturn, because of the unique beauty of its system, and the old enigma of its rings. Prior to the discovery of Uranus, by Sir William Herschel, in 1781, Saturn was the most distant planet known. _ It revolves round the sun at a mean distance of more than nine and a half times that of our own globe, and at its very nearest approach to us it is still seven hundred and forty-four millions of miles away. The globe of Saturn, like that of Jupiter, is soft and plastic and very hot, and the dense clouds enveloping it are disposed in a number of more or less parallel streaks. Occasionally definite spots or other irregularities are seen, and from the study of these we learn that the great globe—seven hundred and sixty times as large as the Earth—is spinning round in between ten and eleven hours. But of course, it Is in the rings by which the planet is girdled that our interest is chiefly centred, and the story of their discovery and explanation furnishes a remarkable chapter in the history of astronomy. It was Galileo Galilei who, in the year 1610, first applied a telescope to the study of the heavens. It was only a very small and imperfect instrument as compared with the giant [By 7. ZL. R. Phillips, F.R.AS. THE PLANET SATURN. The glory and mystery of Saturn lie in its wonderful ceries of rings that greatly puzzled Galileo and other astronomers. oO ositi o hese ine afl y i . a H 4 ~ composition of these rings baffles even modern telescopes to determine; but they are believed to consist of loose particles of matter 14 210 Marvels of the Universe telescopes of our day, but it revealed to him many things that the eye of man had never seen before. The mountains in the Moon, the four chief satellites of Jupiter, thousands of stars studding the region of the Milky Way—all these were quickly found, and then Galileo turned his attention to Saturn. How astonished he was and how puzzled by what he saw! What could those little globes be, almost in contact with the planet, one on either side of him ? Surely the planet is triple, he thought; and then to his amazement he watched them dwindle away, till, in about two years’ time, they disappeared entirely! The men of those days had laughed at Galileo’s alleged discovery, and now even he himself began to wonder whether in some strange way his eyes and glass had not played him false. But the day of his triumph was at hand, for he soon saw the little bodies reappear in their old positions, and he watched them grow till TWO VIEWS OF SATURN. These are two of the phases of the planet that have puzzled observers. In the first the rings appear to be changed into a straight rod passed through the orb; in the second the rod-like character is lost, and only a dark bar across the orb is seen. This is really the shadow cast by the ring, the latter being unseen in this phase. they were no longer like globes, but handles attached to the body of the planet through which the dark sky could be seen. What a mystery Saturn was to the astronomers of those days is shown by their curious drawings, and it was not till 1655 that Huygens found the solution of the riddle. The planet, he said, “‘ is girdled by a thin detached ring, inclined to the ecliptic,’ and this statement afforded a complete explanation of those strange disappearances and reappearances which had been so great a puzzle. As the planet revolves in its orbit and comes into different positions relatively to the Earth the rings are seen in a variety of phases. Sometimes they are presented edgewise to view and become invisible, owing to their remarkable thinness ; sometimes they are open widely enough to look in small telescopes like loops or handles, as Galileo saw them in 1616; and sometimes—when their inclination to the line of sight is greatest—they are seen to project above and below the planet’s globe. SATURN RISING, The appearance of the planet which would be presented to us if we could stand upon Saturn's nearest satellite and watch its rising above the horizon of jagged peaks. Owing to its nearness the planet would appear to fill a great part of visible apace, as here shown. 212 Marvels of the Universe But the discovery that Saturn is surrounded by a ring, only solved a part of the strange puzzle. There remained the further problem—What 7s the ring? Is it solid, liquid or gaseous ? Is it stationary, or is it In perpetual revolution round the planet ? Such questions could only be answered by mathematicians, and amongst the great names associated with the story at this point must be mentioned that of James Clerk Maxwell, who, in 1857. found that the ring must be com- posed of a great number of little separate bodies, each one pursuing its own path in accordance with Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Of what size these bodies are no man knows, for they are far beyond the reach of the most powerful telescope we can ever hope to make. Saturn’s ring is far more complex than was at first supposed. Thus, amongst other details, there is a strong dark line or gap dividing it in two, and then there is a very mysterious- looking, faintly-luminous ring commonly known as the “ crape’”’ ring, between the bright one and the ball. This latter is partly transparent. so it is likely that the particles composing it are less densely packed than elsewhere, and permit the body of the planet to be seen between them. Saturn is accompanied by ten satellites, the most distant of which adds yet more to the mvstery of this marvellous system by revolving in a direction contrary to that of all her fellows. The coloured plate shows us how Saturn would look could we be transported to one of his satellites and view the globe and rings at close quarters. Another of the illustrations gives us a picture of the rings as seen from above the planet’s clouds at midnight in the summer time. Not on earth is it given to man to behold so glorious a spectacle as that gigantic arch spanning the sky, and illuminating the cloudscape below with its soft radiance. SATURN’S PHASES. In this diagram the different appearances of Saturn as seen from the Earth are explained. The planet follows the course indicated by the dotted line. The central sphere is. of course, the Sun, and the Earth is a little higher and to the right. Marvels of the Universe 213 [By A _ Twidle. SATURN'S RING -ABOVE THE CLOUDS. Saturn is hidden by clouds, but the Sun’s light from below throws the planet’s shadow acioss the ring. Above, one of the planet's satellites is seen at the full. SEA CUCUMBERS BY JOSEPH SINEL. It is doubtful if any person outside the ranks of the zoologists would be able to trace any sign of relationship between the leather-clad, sausage-shaped animals known as ‘‘ Sea Cucumbers’’ and the familiar Star-fishes and Sea Urchins of our shores. Yet the relationship is there, and they are all included in the same division of the animal kingdom. Diverse as are these forms, they have more than one bond of unity. In their early stages they are all alike, except in microscopic and technical details. They are at first little barrel-shaped organisms that, except in a few cases, swim freely in the sea, and in these stages undergo many wonderful transitions as they advance towards their ultimate and adult form. Even in adult life a common plan pervades them all. They are symmetrical and built on a five-cornered plan. This plan, masked, varied, and in many cases all but suppressed, can be traced by close study. All, with the exception of the swimming form shown on page 214, have an arrangement of plates or spines of lime either upon or within their skins. Even in their internal anatomy what at first appears contradiction can be seen to be but variation. In the Sea Urchins the plates are jointed together to form the well known prickly “shell.” In the Sea Cucumbers the plates are separate and scattered within the substance of the skin. As means of locomotion they possess a curious arrangement of what are termed “ tube-feet.” These are simply tubes of thin elastic material, which can be protruded through holes in the skin and into which water is forced by means of a series of canals termed the “‘ water-vascular system.”’ These canals drawing in water from the sea through a portion of the skin specially modified to act as a filter, forces it into the tubes and thus renders them turgid and enables them to act as locomotive appendages. A little sucker at the tip of each tube allows of a hold upon the surface travelled over, so that by this means the creature can progress at a fair rate. 214 Marvels of the Universe In the Star-fishes and Sea Urchins these tube-feet are arranged in five rows, but in the Sea Cucumbers they are not as a rule so regularly disposed. In the latter group some of the tube-feet are so placed as to take no part in locomotion, and so modified as to become mere sense organs, as in the two shown on page 216; whilst in the one that lives at the sea-surface they are modified into swimming appendages and resemble the tentacles of a Jelly-fish. In fact, in all members of the family these tube-feet have other than locomotive uses. Romanes has shown from experiment that even in the Star-fishes, where they are situated on the under side, they act as the organs of smell and that it is by their means that the animal is enabled to find its food. The eggs of the Sea Cu- cumbers in most cases are set free in the water, hatch- ing and development there taking place quite indepen- dent of the parent ; but in some the eggs are hatched and the young developed within special brood-pouches possessed by the mother. The eggs of the Saffron- coloured Sea Cucumber be- come attached to the back of the mother, where the young hatch out and remain until they have attained a considerable size, as shown on page 215. The Sea Cucumbers have around the mouth a circle of ten tentacles, which can be expanded or withdrawn. In some species these are small and simple; in others they are elegant branched appendages ; whilst in others to be a near relation of the Sea Cucumbers such as are shown on the opposite page. A they are like little fern muscular web stretches between the ‘‘arms,’’ and by its expansion and contraction the fronds, and are well shown animal makes its way through the surface waters. ia DSR AO a On A SWIMMING SEA CUCUMBER. Although this creature has more resemblance to a Jelly-fsh, its organization shows it on the opposite page. These tentacles assist in locomotion, and it is by their means that food is secured; they are also believed to be sense organs. Most Sea Cucumbers burrow, worm-like, in the sand or mud. Some creep over the ocean floor; others lurk in rock crevices and in coral reefs ; whilst one species—already mentioned—swims like a Jelly-fish, at the surface of the sea. About five hundred different kinds of Sea Cucumbers are known to science, and of these some fifty are found in British waters. [By Theo SEA CUCUMBERS AND THEIR YOUNG. firon-coloured Sea Cucumber is abundant at the Falkland Isles, where it adheres by its suckers to the big seaweeds. | ; P The branching expansions around the mouth are f s. By these food is caught from the waters and conveyed to the mouth. The young attach themselves by their suckers to the ck of their mother, and as each has its own expanded feelers the general 216 Marvels of the Universe In size they vary from a length of three or four inches to a couple of feet or more. Their food con- sists of anything, living or dead, which comes within their reach and which is not too bulky to enter the mouth. The limy plates which occur in the skin of some species are often of very beautiful patterns—St. An- drew’s crosses, curious little stools, and wheels with spokes, being among the A SEA CUCUMBER THAT RESEMBLES A SEA SLUG. Autarmithatidifersiremarkably from the ordinary Sea Cucumbers. It glides over theiooze | COMMON LonmSpawhulstaunay and mud at the sea-bottom and feeds upon this material. also occur as exquisitely shaped little anchors, each anchor accompanied by a perforated supporting plate. Mr. Moseley, in his ““ Notes by a Naturalist on H.M.S. Challenger,” tells how “ the King [of the Sandwich Islands, Kalakau] took the liveliest interest in the work of the Challenger, and was almost the only distinguished visitor of the many to whom I had exhibited microscopical objects during our voyage who recognized the well-known anchors in the skin of these creatures and named them at first glance. These anchors stood us in good stead at all the ports visited and were described in all the colonial newspapers as belonging to the ‘ Admiralty worm,’ supposed to be the most wonderful of the deep-sea discoveries of the expedition.’’ On page 218 is given a photo-micrograph of some of these. Some of the Sea Cucumbers are highly prized as an article of food under the names of Trepang and Béche de Mer ; they form the subject of extensive fisheries in various seas, notably in the Malay Archipelago, the New Guinea coast and California. The Chinese appreciate them highly and rank them with the gelatinous “ bird’s-nests ’’ as an ingredient for soups. 2 When taken from the sea the Sea Cucumbers are spht open and cleaned ; ei. Yi they are then boiled in sea- E water, flattened out and & Sa dried on wicker frames— ; first in the sun, and then over a wood fire, where they are slightly smoked. They are then packed for market and command a good price. About a dozen sorts are thus employed, their value : varying according to dis- A SLUG-LIKE SEA CUCUMBER. trict and to species, those A deep-water species that feeds on the ooze at the sea-bottom. In form it closely resembles | With the fewest limy plates one of the Sea Lemons among the Sea Slugs. being considered the best. Marvels of the Universe 217 The term Béche de Mer (literally French for “‘ Sea Spade”) is said to be taken from the shape of the dried article, which somewhat resembles a spade; but some autho- rities say it is derived from the Portuguese bzcho, a worm or grub. The term Tvepang, which is also applied to the com- mercial article, is simply the Malay name for the animal, Tripang. A SCALY SEA CUCUMBER. A number of different Another slug-like form from the Kurile Islands. The upper side is covered by large scales, kinds are indiscriminately and the mouth with its circle of feelers looks like a chimney. sold under the name of Béche de Mer, so that it is not advisable to refer to any particular species as being the delicacy in question. The probability is that, after they have received the curing treatment described, there is no great difference perceptible, and, after all, it is their glutinous character that recommends them chiefly to the Chinaman’s palate. Sea Cucumbers have not been found as such in a fossil state. All that has been found to show that they did exist in remote periods are the anchors, gratings and wheels, such as are shown from present-day examples on page 218. The oldest strata in which they have been found are those of the Carboniferous limestone. Certain of these Sea Cucumbers have for so long climbed over the rocks that they have at length developed an upper and under side, the former supplied with three lines of sucker openings, the latter with only two; and this arrangement clearly shows the origin of this two-sided form, especially as the two digestive openings are still situated at the two extremities of the body. This transformation shows itself particularly clearly in the species which is illustrated at the top of this page, where the mouth is thrown back upon the upper side at the end of a vertical chimney, and this gives the creature the appearance of a tiny loco- motive without wheels, but with smoke issuing from _ the funnel in the shape of branched tentacles. But to see still greater variations in the appear- ance of these Sea Cucum- bers it is necessary to go to the species which live in the greater depths of the sea. Here there are many whose former sym- metry is made manifest by the presence of a mouth < . This especies conforms more to the shape which has given these animals their popular on the inferior surface of names, but it differs in the fact that it is covered with spines, and the feelers are not the body. Sometimes this branch-like. A SPINY SEA CUCUMBER. 218 Marvels of the Universe is a simple opening, and sometimes it is a veritable snout. In such forms the under side is entirely different from the upper, either owing to its flattened form, or to the nature of its appendages. These may consist of little openings, sometimes of long tentacles, which, however, are of no use for locomotion. There are some which have no appendages of any sort, and some which crawl about on the ocean-bed after the manner of slugs. Besides these species, there are in the great depths some which live all but entirely buried in the mud, where they remain almost completely motionless. On this account their bodies have been absolutely changed as to symmetry. In the examples shown on page 220 it has taken the form of a U, so as to bring the two digestive orifices outside the region of the mud. The Sea Cucumbers of which we have spoken have very peaceful manners. But there is one which has dreamt of vast spaces and the greatest liberty. It has, therefore, be- come a swimmer, or, rather, a sea-navigator. It gets to the upper seas and balances itself gently on the waves. Different conditions of life have altered the structure of its body. The species illustrated on page 214 is the only one at pre- sent known that has taken to the Jelly-fish’s form and habits. There is a remarkable cir- cumstance connected with the Sea Cucumbers, though it ehoLowoy - [H.5. Cneavin, F.KMS, is a story in which they take ANCHORS AND GRATINGS. 2 2 These remarkable objects—which are here shown much enlarged—are found ‘ embedded in the skin of certain members of the Sea Cucumber family. Each unwilling part. The hinder particular species has its own peculiar forms. but a passive and probably opening of the Sea Cucum- ber’s body contains extensive branching organs known as the respiratory tree, because within it circulates the creature’s blood and absorbs oxygen through its walls. To keep up this supply of oxygen, sea-water is drawn in at short intervals, and expelled when the oxygen has been extracted from it. Taking advantage of these openings, a small fish, known as the Fierasfer, is said to enter the interior, and, turning, remains there with its head at the entrance ready to pounce upon any suitable food that comes by. The story has been doubted by some, and probably it stands in need of corroboration. It is a curious story, for it is neither a case of parasitism or of what is called commensalism, such as those examples of partnership described in relation to the Hermit Crabs and the Ant-nest Beetle. The Fierasfer takes nothing from the Sea Cucumber ; neither does he confer any benefit upon it: therefore, he is neither a parasite nor a messmate. The Fierasfer is a thin, ribbon-like fish, about six inches long. Photo by) . LW. Saville Kent. SNAKE-LIKE BECHE DE MER. The Béche de Mer, or Trepang, is a Sea Cucumber much in request as food by the Chinese and other Eastern peoples. They are dredged for by Malays, who cure and dry them for the market. Some of them are two or more feet in length. Photo bv} ; [W. Saville Kent. PRICKLY BECHE DE MER. A Sea Cucumber that would probably be rejected by the Beche de Mer merchants, because of the hard spines with which it is covered. 220 Marvels of the Universe €fa ee ~ “<2 EEREHR KD Oat WA's ae 333% BURROWING SEA CUCUMBERS, These are two distinct kinds that agree in their habit of sinking their bodies into the ooze, whilst keeping their mouths above it. Although bearing no resemblance to cucumbers, they may be likened to certain forms of gourd, which are the vegetable cucumber’s relatives. A MESSMATE OF ANTS BYHoaSii. Kk sDONISTHORPE. HZ.S2,):hb.o: PERHAPS one of the most interesting beetles which occur in Britain is the subject of this sketch. It is an ants’-nest species, and passes its whole life in the home of its host—the large blood-red Robber Ant, our only slave-making species. The writer was fortunate enough to witness one of its slave raids when at Bewdley Forest, in Worcestershire. Only two other observers, Charles Darwin and Frederick Smith, have seen this before in Britain. The worker ants march in a body from their nest to a colony of a black species of ant, which they have previously located. They attack the latter, kill any that offer resistance, and steal the cocoons, which they carry back to their own nest. When the black ants hatch out from these cocoons they act as slaves to their captors. To return to our beetle. In 1710 a single specimen was taken by Sir Hans Sloane on Hampstead Heath. Asecond was found by Dr. Leach, when travelling in the mail coach between Cheltenham and Gloucester, about 1820. Both these specimens are now in the British Museum. It was not found again for many years, and was considered doubtfully indigenous to Britain. On May 25th, 1906, the writer discovered it again when investigating a nest of its host, the slave-maker, at Woking, and since then has found it in numbers in the nests of this ant there. On one occasion over sixty individuals were found in a single nest. : The beetle is a true guest to its host; that is to say, it is fed by the ants, and supplies them in return with a sweet secretion which exudes from small orifices in the segments of the hind body. It is a reddish-brown creature, with tufts of golden hair, which cover the places from whence the sweet fluid springs. When it wishes to be fed it taps an ant with its feelers, in the same way that Marvels of the Universe 221 one ant does to another when asking for food. and the latter feeds it from its own crop. A near relation of this beetle, which is also a dweller in ants’ nests, has gone a step further. It not only uses its feelers when supplicating its host, but one of its front feet, which is also the procedure of an ant under these circumstances. The beetle can also feed itself. as when kept in observation-nests in captivity it has been seen e = Photo bu) to bite at dead ants and suck ANT-BEETLE’S GRUB. caterpillars and other creatures This grub is fed by the ants, even with their own young. It is very voracious, and its presence leads to a great reduction in the number of ants in a nest. [H. Donisthorpe, F.Z.S8. given to the ants as food. This beetle is not very ant-like in appearance when examined by itself, but when it sits among a lot of its hosts—and it is always to be found where the ants are thickest—it becomes practically invisible. The reason for this appearance is that the light which is reflected from the concave sides of the “ chest’ of the beetle appears to the eye like the narrow back of an ant, and the rolled-up hind body of the beetle reflects the light in the same way as the rounded hind division of a fat ant. When their hosts change their nest, or move from place to place, these beetles move with them. [hey can also fly, possessing ample wings wrapped up under their short wing-cases. ban Photo by] (7. Donisthorpe, I’.Z.8. ANT FEEDING ANT-NEST BEETLE. The beetle is treated as an honoured guest and fed by the ants. When it wishes to be fed it taps an ant with its feelers wn, and the ant feeds it with food from its own crop. In return it supplies the ants with a sweet secretion from 222 Marvels of the Untverse The courtship takes place in May, and the female lays her eggs on the egg-masses of the ants. The egg, which is very like that of an ant, is exceedingly difficult to detect. The young grub hatches from the egg in a very short time, and proceeds to feed on the brood of its host. The ants not only feed it by mouth (this has been proved by feeding the ants with honey coloured red, when the red colour can be traced in the intestinal canal of the little grub through its transparent skin), but they place it on their own grubs. The beetle grub is very like that of an ant, and though it possesses six short legs, it does not use them, and imitates the behaviour of an ant grub. The ants pay it the greatest attention, and when danger threatens the nest they carry it first into safety. It is extremely voracious, and devours large quantities of the ants’ grubs. In nests where the beetle has been a dweller for some years a decrease is produced in the number of worker ants. Now, as is well known, ants create females by feeding their grubs on special food, and to try and make up for this loss of worker ants they try to turn grubs which they have started to bring up as females into workers. The change, however, is too late, and the result is what are called false females. These are neither females nor perfect workers, but of an interme- diate form which does not work or bite. These nests are the centres from which the beetle spreads to other nests. At first the beetle is kept in check by the ants | digging up its chrysalis and carrying it about as they do their own cocoons, which of course kills a delicate beetle chrysalis; but as more false female ants are produced, fewer chrysalids are disturbed, till at last the destruction of the ant colony is brought about. Photo bu] [HZ. Donisthorpe, F.ZS. This beetle is spread BEETLE FEEDING THE ANT. over the whole of Europe In this photo the ant is seen licking up the sweet substance that exudes from small and North and Central openings on the beetle’s back. Asia as far as Thibet. THE SULPHUR-BOTTOM WHALE BY FRANK T. BULLEN, F.R.G.S. PRODIGIOUS in size, even among mammals that are noted for their vast proportions, the Sulphur- Bottom Whale (to give it the trivial name conferred upon it by whalemen) is more enveloped in mystery than any other of the whales, for various reasons, some of which will here be shown. But first of all, a brief description of the mighty animal is necessary. It is a toothless whale, having in place of teeth a series of plates of baleen (whalebone), dependent from its upper jaw. But these two rows of fringed plates are very short and ineffective compared with the enormous screens with which the Greenland whale is provided. The reason of this is obvious if we examine the throat of the creature. For whereas the Greenland whale, because of the tiny aperture of its throat, must carefully sift only the smallest of marine organisms (brit) from the surface inhabitants of the sea, the rorquals, of which the Sulphur-Bottom Whale is the chief, can swallow huge masses of fish, YAX ®YI Jo Wasa] OU) HL WO} ORT InYyayng Ou JO Bo\UIA posuysy kq poousdos Huyog ‘ouoqayuyM | INOJOYd o[duruxa oy] abl WOLLOH UAHA TAS “MIVHAN Yad ‘SOLWAY SB89]IOOY OY JO OO BE AT (Aq ojo" 224 Marvels of the Universe = Photo bv] [H. © Shepstone. THE SULPHUR-BOTTOM WHALE. This Whale owes its name to the colour of the under surface, which is pale yellow, and thrown into furrows and ridges extending from end to end. In these furrows many sea-creatures find firm hold, as they cling to the Whale and get carried about the oceans by it. such as cod, mackerel], herring, etc. Not that it has any more discrimination than a trawl; its only anxiety is to get enough. Feeding in such a different manner, upon lively food, all the rorquals have developed speed and agility far beyond that of the Greenland whales and the cachalots. Their forms are more elegant, their bodies longer in proportion to their size. Both of these qualifications—7z.e., speed and elegance—culminate in the Sulphur-Bottom, which has an authentic maximum length of one hundred and fifty feet, with a maximum girth of little more than thirty feet. As far as size is concerned, this may be compared with the great ‘““ Bowhead”’ of the Behring Sea, which, with a length of seventy feet and a median girth of fifty feet, may very well be the larger creature of the two. There is another feature of the Sulphur-Bottom Whale which differentiates him from all the rest of the deep-sea mammals, his enormously high vertical spout. One of the rudimentary lessons which the budding whale-fisher must learn is the ability to distinguish between whales by their spouts, which are visible several miles away. Or perhaps I should say that this knowledge was necessary before the present equipment of whalers, which makes comparatively easy prey of any whale, was invented. In those bygone days, then, from the crow’s-nest of a South Seaman even the veriest novice could not fail to detect a Sulphur-Bottom by the tall column of vapour rising vertically into the pure air for a matter of twenty to thirty feet, and hold his peace about it, since it belonged to an animal that was of no earthly use to anybody. It really seemed as if the Sulphur-Bottom knew of his immunity, since he cultivated quite a friendly acquaintance with ships in the lonely seas which are his habitat, often lying by them for days in a calm and occasionally rubbing his barnacle-infested belly against their bends, sending disagreeable tremors through the whole fabric and fostering superstitious fears among the sailors, who could not understand this colossal familiarity. The trifling reason for the popular name given to this monstrous mamma’ is to be found in the Marvels of the Universe 225 light yellow hue of its corrugated belly. All other rorquals have the belly corrugated longitudinally from the vent to the verge of the lower lip, but the colour is universally a dirty white with this one exception. The depth between these ridges of blubber, speculation as to the uses of which is at present mere waste of time, is from two to four inches, and the elasticity of the whole fabric so great that I have seen a blanket-piece from the belly of a humpback when skinning the whale extend from the whale to the futtock shrouds (just beneath the main-top) under the strain, and when cut off fly up into a space only ten feet long—this from a stretch of forty-five feet. This arrangement of the belly blubber is a perfect boon to the limpets, barnacles and other parasites which infest these whales, for within those snug folds the shellfish find a cosy abiding- place from which nothing but the death of their host can dislodge them. No one who has not seen the condition of the underside of a great rorqual can credit how terrible are the ravages made by these parasites upon the peace of the gentle monster compelled to give them lodging-place, or seeing, could fail to pity. Alas ! the day of the Sulphur-Bottom, as of all the harmless rorquals, is practically over. Many whaling companies, armed with the latest lethal weapons, which no whale can resist—or escape— are established in most of those desolate outliers of the world which, since the seals were exterminated therefrom within the last century, have been of no use to any. Now a new war of extermination is being carried on against the whales. It will not last so long as the one did against the seals, for several reasons, principal among which is the highly modernized character of the weapons, the speed of the vessels, and the length of the period necessary for reproduction of whales as against seals ; while other factors are the same, such as the absence of all control over such far-distant operations, and the want of knowledge of what the extermination of these vast sea-creatures and the consequent disturbance of the balance of Nature will mean. Photo buy {. C. Shepstone. THE SMALL EYE OF THE SULPHUR-BOTTOM WHALE. Here a portion of this huge creature is photographed to show the comparatively small size of the eye (to left of photo) and its great distance from the ear—shown to the right in the upper part of the picture, = wn Marvels of the Universe N N On MINUTE MARVELS IN THE POND BY WILLIAM WEST, L.D.S. AMONGST the many marvels of the universe there are none more wonderful than the minute forms of both vegetable and animal life to be found in the water of ponds and ditches, which need not of necessity be stagnant to be prolific. The most interesting forms inhabit clear ponds and _ running streams, in which aquatic plants grow. If we take a sample of water from one of these ponds and examine it carefully we shall probably see minute green spheres revolving over and over in their progress i Photo bv] [Platters & Co. THE CROWNED HORN. This beautiful creature lives in a transparent bag, from which it extends itself through the water. They are to catch food. The mouth is surrounded py the crown of five arms. These arms known by a name which means bear rows of fine hairs whose movements create currents which bring food to the mouth. About thirty-six of these creatures placed end to end would measure one Revolving Globes, and are eck: claimed by the botanist as plants and by zoologists as animals. They were by the earlier microscopists supposed to be single organisms ; but they are now proved to be made up of innumerable pear-shaped cells united into a spherical network. From each of these cells project two minute lashes, which by their regular movements propel the compound body through the water. In the interior of the network sphere are seen smaller spheres, which are set free by the break-up of the outer and larger one. In their interior may be seen eight still smaller globes, so that we often get in the one sphere several generations visible. About twenty of the larger globes placed side by side would measure one inch. Let us examine a piece of weed from the same pond, and perchance we shall see a small brown, rod-like body, about the twentieth of an inch in length, projecting at right angles to the green weed. This is the house of a marvellous little animal called the Little Brickmaker. The animal, as soon as it is hatched from the egg, attaches itself to a piece of aquatic weed and sets to work to build a tube around itself to live in. To enable it to do so, it is provided with four beautiful fan-like lobes, which radiate from the central mouth. These lobes have their edges fringed with fine transparent hairs capable of rapid movement, which fall and rise in rotation, one after the other, so rapidly that their motion produces the appearance of four revolving wheels. The object of this action is to create a vortex in the water the centre of which is the animal’s mouth, so that any particle of food coming within the current is drawn down the miniature whirlpool and swallowed. The Little Brickmaker seems to have the power of discrimination, for what it does not require for food it rejects, though sometimes it is captured again for brick-making. The recaptured particle is conveyed to a little receptacle situated at the base of the fans on the outer surface. The particles are drawn into this chamber and made to revolve rapidly, until they become solid enough for the brickmaker’s purpose ; when this is so, he swings his body over to the side and deposits and cements Marvels ot the Universe 227 the newly-made brick on the edge of his tube; then proceeds to make another. As he grows taller, so he builds his house higher to enable him to retreat into it when alarmed. The slightest vibration of the microscope is sufficient to alarm him, and he requires a little time to gain confidence enough to emerge from his retreat. The time occupied in making a brick is about three minutes ; but it depends, of course, upon the amount of material at his disposal. To see the process well it is advisable to put a little carmine in the water; he quickly utilizes it and makes carmine bricks. I once gave a Little Brickmaker carmine, and after he had laid two or three rows of red bricks around his tube, I put some chalk into the water. He then made some layers of white bricks. Next I supplied him with indigo; the result was he built his tube of the national colours, red, white and blue, in successive layers. Photo by] [A. Leal. THE CREEPING PLUMES. I paige ; : s Jelly-like material found coating water-weeds are seen under the microscope to protrude delicate tubes whose summits spread out into exquisite plumes, which are fringed with still more delicate hairs. These serve as a net for capturing food, and for refreshing the blood. 228 Marvels of the Universe Another interesting creature may be found attached to the same weed ; it is called the Beautiful Floscule. This charming animal is somewhat funnel-shaped, and fixed by its foot (the narrow end of the funnel) to the weed ; but it builds itself a clear transparent tube, which enables us to see its internal economy and all the processes adopted for its well-being. This tube, like the Brickmaker’s, is open at the top, which enables the creature to retreat entirely inside when alarmed. If we watch carefully for a few minutes we shall see a long brush protruded from the end of the tube. This brush consists of innumerable hair-like appendages, so fine as to be scarcely visible singly. When it has come out sufficiently these hairs are gradually separated and thrown wide apart. We then see that they are attached in five groups to the margin of the crown-like edge of the animal’s head. This head is shaped somewhat like a beautiful glass vase with a deeply scolloped edge. Or we may liken its appearance to a flower with five petals, and on the apex of each petal a little knob to which the hairs are attached. By means of a slight vibratory tremor smaller creatures are drawn in and devoured. The entire Floscule is so transparent that we can see the whole process of masti- cation taking place. The eggs —as many as nine in a batch— are laid and hatched in the crystal tube. There is another charming tube-dweller probably to be found on the same piece of weed, and known as_ the Crowned Horn. In this case the crystal vase is closed around the neck of the animal, Photo by] [A. Leat. and when the latter withdraws Reaiio cies ecuegeca the tube is folded in on itself. These bright green globes are about one-twentieth of an inch across, hollow, with younger globes revolving within them. They are of singular beauty, and are claimed It is not smooth and straight, by botanists to be plants and by zoologists as animals. like that of the Floscule, but appears creased, as if it were too large for its inhabitant ; this creasing enables it to fold in and become shorter when the creature withdraws in alarm. The head of the animal is ornamented with five horns, with tufts of short fringe arranged along them. These horns are curved inwards and form a beautiful crown ; hence the name of the animal. In placing our piece of weed into the bottle to convey it from the pond we probably disturbed some interesting forms which have fallen to the bottom ; so let us examine some of the sediment. Here is one of the lowest forms of animal-life, the Amceba, a transparent speck of jelly-like substance, capable of assuming any form it likes. It captures and devours its food by extending its margin into finger-like processes, and so enveloping the desired tit-bit, literally getting outside it. Another form, called from its shape the Sun Animalcule, possesses the same power of taking in its nourishment at any part of its body; but to enable it to procure food it is furnished with innumerable long hair-like extensions of its body, which radiate all around and give it the appearance Marvels of the Universe 229 THE LITTLE BRICKMAKER. This remarkable creature not merely builds the tower in which it shelters, but also the bricks which it is constructed. The size of the bricks may be estimated by the fact that the tower is about one-thirtieth of an inch in height. material of the body. A somewhat similar form is the Crystal Crest-bearer shown on page 230. In the coloured plate that shows a large number of these microscopic marvels there is a figure of the Bell-animalcule, which has the form of a wine-glass with a very long stalk which constantly coils into a spiral and then straightens itself again. The rim of the glass or the bell, whichever we choose to regard it as most like, is fringed with pellucid lashes that rise and fall rhythmically and create the illusion that the bell is whirling around. The movement creates a vortex, as in the case of the Little Brickmaker, carrying food particles to the creature’s mouth. Many variations of this form of obtaining a livelihood are to be found among these pond marvels. A group of them, known as Green Trumpets, are shown on this page. Here it will be seen there is a modification of form, by the bell-shaped end being tapered gradually to the base, so that the whole becomes trumpet- shaped instead of wine-glass shaped. of sun rays. It multiples by a contraction across the centre of the sphere, and eventually cuts itself into two, and so two individuals are produced in place of one. Upon the submerged roots of trees surrounding our pond and on the stems of aquatic weeds may be seen a mass of a jelly-like substance, which is a colony of animals of a higher order than those already mentioned, and known as the Creeping Plumes. When the piece of jelly is undisturbed we shall see cautiously projected from it numerous feelers arranged in horse- shoe form around the head of the animal, and together forming a most beautiful plume. Each of the feelers is fringed with fine lashes, which vibrate in rotation up one side of the feeler and down the other, so that they appear to be travelling along. The internal arrangement is well seen through the transparent Photo by] (A, Leal, THE GREEN TRUMPETS. Each of these brilliant Green Trumpets measures about one twenty- fifth of an inch They may be found under the leaves of Duckweed. They constantly change their shape from a round knob to a trumpet and back again. They increase in numbers by throwing out buds like plants. Marvels of the Universe Ny OO [e) HERMITS AND THEIR MESSMATES BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. In the article upon a Tree-climbing Crab we spoke of the Robber Crab as a Hermit Crab that had abandoned the habit of protecting its unarmoured hinder parts by thrusting them into an empty shell. The true Hermits may be found commonly upon our own shores, and the commonest of them must be very familiar to all who have spent a seaside holiday away from the crowded resorts, and where there are rocks and rock-pools. In the fascinating employment of watching the varied life in one of these natural aquaria, we are sure to SE€e ONE TOR Mone baby Hermit Crabs — scuttling across the bottom, the crab almost hidden by the red or yellow shell into which it has curled its tender tail. As soon as the young Hermits have passed through their in- fant swimming stage, and assumed the form of their parents, they look about for an empty sea-snail’s shell of the right size, and thereafter they spend their days in dragging a shell about wherever they go. They grow and, like other crabs, have to throw off their natural armour as it gets too small for their ex- panding bodies. With each casting of their natural shell comes the necessity for obtaining a more roomy snail’s shell for their Photo bu] [A. Leal. : .- Soe, Aes THE CRYSTAL CREST-BEARER. hinder parts. The suit- In general structure the Crystal Crest-bearer is much like the Creeping Plumes. The able shell may be found 5 base of the exquisite plumed crest takes the form of two horse-shoes. often it is found by two Hermits at once, and both decide that it is the only possible shell worth having. In that case the onlooker will be amused at the conflict that will ensue between them, each in turn gaining a tem- porary advantage of the other and momentary possession of the shell. At length one of the claimants to the property will feel that he has no chance against the superior tactics of his opponent, and possibly will come to the conclusion that there are much better houses in the market—more solidly built, more sanitary, or more artistically designed and ornamented. At every change of the natural shell this sort of thing goes on; but when the young Hermit has made several changes into more commodious residences, he finds that the rock-pool is too small a world for his ambitious ideas, and one day when the risen tide has come far above his pool, and Photo bu) (EB. Step, F.LS. THE COMMON HERMIT-CRAB AND ITS ANEMONE MESSMATE. In the photo the task of dragging the whelk-shell and its tall anemone appears a hopeless one, but as the anemone consists mainly of water its weight in the water is not very great. Of old the anemone was thought to be a parasite; it is really a messmate. . Step, L. Photo bu] THE HERMIT-CRAB AND ITS WORM MESSMATE. A beautiful, many-coloured sea-worm, eight inches long, dwells in the upper part of the Hermit’s house, and keeps it clean. At meal-times it creeps along the Hermit’s back, and helps itself to particles of tood. N Marvels of the Universe 43) made it for the time being a mere little hollow of the bound- less ocean, he walks out and down to deeper water. Here he grows apace, and soon we find him full-grown and occupying a big whelk-shell, perhaps four inches long and weighing more than two ounces. At this stage in his existence we shall find that he is not leading the solitary life usually attributed to human _ hermits. Our Hermit Crab is a sociable being, though his leaning may not be to his own kind. We are almost sure to find perched up on his house a broad, tall HERMIT AND SPONGE. a * column of flesh surmounted by This little Hermit, which lives in deep water, induces a sponge to grow over it, a Spreading nimbus of broad into which it can retreat when necessary. The growth of the sponge does away <= 2 Photo bu) with the necessity for finding a larger house every time the Hermit casts his natural flat Tays. This living tower 1S shell. a sea-anemone, to which the erroneous name of Parasite Anemone was given in days when friendship among the lower animals was not understood, and if one species attached itself to another it was regarded as a case of parasitism. But this anemone is more in the way of being a paying guest than the expensive hanger-on implied by his name. The Hermit is rather a nervous fellow, and at the slightest alarm pulls himself back into the whelk shell with a jerk. If you pick him up now you will observe what you may not have noticed much before—that his right hand with the pincer-claws is at least twice the size of the left, and that now when all else but the tips of his long walking legs is inside the shell, this big right hand is folded across the opening and forms an efficient street-door. But though the street-door may be sufficient to keep off minor foes, it could not save the Hermit from a big-mouthed fish whose palate teeth would be able to crush the whelk-shell. It is here, probably, that the services of his anemone friend come in. If you handle this anemone you will find your fingers covered with an evil-smelling slime, which is only to be got rid of after much expenditure of soap. It is probable that its odour is objectionable to crab-loving fishes, who are thus warned off by the presence of the anemone. On his part, he would benefit by getting tit-bits when the Hermit is cutting up his meals. Another advantage to the anemone consists of frequent change of scene without any exertion on his part, and the certainty of being conveyed to places where meals are to be had instead of waiting patiently for something to turn up. But the Parasite Anemone is not the only companion of the Hermit. In the hinder and other- wise empty part of the whelk-shell, a beautiful creature, six or eight inches in length, and known as a Nereis, winds his richly-tinted, iridescent body round the spiral chamber. When meal-time comes this Nereis, smelling the feast, pops out his head over the head of the Hermit and helps himself to a portion. This Nereis is one of a group of sea-worms that form most deadly baits for the salt- water angler, no fish being able to resist it. It is, therefore, a good thing for Nereis to be provided with safe quarters and a share of the Hermit’s meals; and in return it is surmised that he acts the part of a scavenger and keeps the house clean. Just inside the Hermit’s doorway may also be found a minute zoophyte, related to the corals, whose exact importance in the household is not so clear, Marvels of the Universe 232 though he may capture more minute and insidious foes that séek to creep in and attack the Hermit’s unprotected parts. This zoophyte is a fixture, attached by a stony skeleton to the whelk-shell ; but the anemone removes when the Hermit changes his cell, and seeks another host when the Hermit dies. As the stony base of this zoophyte runs up into hard spines at intervals between the soft bodies of the animal, it is clear that it helps to fill up the mouth of a shell that is too large, without blocking the access of sea-water to the interior. A much enlarged portrait of this guest will be seen below. Prideaux’s Hermit is another large species, that has a similar friendship for a different anemone, known as the Cloaklet, from its habit of wrapping itself round the Hermit’s cell, commonly in this case a shell of the large Top. Some years ago I had the remarkable experience of obtaining two specimens of this Hermit that, having escaped from crab-pots in harbour without their stony houses, had taken refuge between the stones of the harbour wall, and because the holes were too large, had induced or permitted Acorn-barnacles to build on their heads and arms, and so help the crabs to fill up the doorway. A photograph of one of these remarkable specimens is reproduced. The fact that a Hermit Crab placed under unnatural conditions had met the difficulty in such a way would have been remarkable ; but that two individuals should do precisely the same thing under those conditions was rather startling. Were it not that psychologists tell us that animals so low down in the scale of organization can have no glimmering of intelligence, one would be inclined to think they had both followed one line of reasoning, and acted upon it! The photograph on page 235 does not show one of these intelligent Hermits in the cave of its choice. From its situation iiss iti z 4 er Tes: eo “, “a THE HERMIT’S ZOOPHYTE COMPANION. nis greatly enlarged picture shows part of the zoophyte colony that lines the mouth of the Common Hermit's portable house. 234 Marvels of the Universe ey ae ¥ “ Photo bu] LE. Step, F.L.S. THE DOWNY HERMIT AND ITS AUGER-SHELL HOUSE. The Downy Hermit is a small, deep-water crab. The Auger-shell it has selected for a house is mainly covered by a zoophyte which builds hard spines, and these help to protect the Hermit from being eaten by fishes. There are also the stony tubes of certain sea-worms upon the shell, but their presence is probably accidental. this was not possible at the time; but the attempt has been made by the author to reconstruct the conditions with one of the actual crabs concerned. How long they had been in residence when my attention was called to them is not known, but the fact that the Acorn-barnacles were so fully developed is proof that they had been there some time. It is worthy of note that the anemone ordinarily found wrapping the house of Prideaux’s Hermit must secrete some acid, for I have ob- tained numerous examples in which the hard limy material of the shell had been dissolved away, and only the animal matter was left, like layers of tissue paper, but retaining the shell form. A smaller species from deeper water is the Downy Hermit, of which a photograph is given, living in the large Auger-shell, which is here encrusted with the spine-like bases of polyps, similar to those described as lining the mouth of the Common Hermit’s borrowed shell, and which is shown on page 233. It is as often coated by a small species of compound sea-anemone, which dissolves away the Auger-shell, but continues its shape, so that the Hermit’s cell becomes an entirely living one. Several of these smaller species of Hermits might be mistaken at first sight for young examples of the Common Hermit, but that they occur in deeper water. Another of these, shown in a photo- graph on page 232, induces a little sponge to cover its hinder parts, and the sponge constantly growing does away with the necessity for the crab changing its home. Yet another deep-water species—the Hairy-handed Hermit—is covered by a sea-anemone, which has never been found growing apart from the crab, and the crab has never been found apart from the anemone. This is one of the most perfect forms of animal comradeship known. The examples cited—and they might be increased in number—-are all drawn from British waters, but all over the world the race of Hermit Crabs exhibits the same characteristics. Whether it was that Nature was niggardly towards the first of the family and omitted to provide their hinder parts with the shelly covering proper to crabs, or that the founder of the dynasty took to thrusting this part into shells and set a fashion that has led by disuse to the absence of crab-shell, must remain for the Marvels of the Untverse 235 present a mystery. But in general habits, wherever we may find them, the Hermit Crabs have had to adopt similar methods to meet their present-day necessities. Some have entered into partnership arrangements under which an anemone provides them with a kind of blanket, without the interposition of whelk or other shell. The Robber Crab that has taken to a life on land, is only a huge Hermit, and as such he is compelled to protect his tender hind-body by thrusting it into a hole in the ground. Long persistence in this habit of thrusting the hinder part of the body into a spiral shell has brought about a corresponding twist in the body itself to make it fit comfortably. With this change several of the hinder feet have disappeared from several of the species, and the final pair have been modified so that they now form a hook by which the crab maintains a hold on its borrowed shell, and is able to drag it about to all appearance as though it were a part of itself. Of course, with such a creature there are at times exhibitions of strange likings for out-of- the-way fashions in houses. Forsome reason Hermits have appropriated to this use such things as glass bottles, and clay tobacco-pipe bowls, that have dropped overboard from ship or fishing-smack and fallen to the sea-bottom. It cannot be said that the form of these substitutes for spiral shells is at all convenient for the purpose. My private impression is that they have not seriously been adopted with a view to lengthy residence in them, but merely tried on experimentally to see how such an arrangement would work. They have probably been found by the naturalist in the act, and it has been assumed that they had been living under such uncomfortable conditions for some time. Whatever the psychologists may say to the contrary, it is difficult to avoid seeing in these habits, and these business-like arrangements with their partners, some faint beginnings, at least, of the intelligence that is seen in its higher developments in the dog, the horse, and man. PRIDEAUX’S HERMIT-CRAB. This Hermit usually lives in a shell that is wrapped around by a sea-anemone—the Cloaklet—but this one has lost his house and had to take shelter in a hole inshore. Note the Acorn-barnacles he has allowed to build on his head and arms. 236 Marvels of the Universe THE HOUSE VR BY E. J. SPITTA, F.R.M.S. CONSIDERABLE attention has of late been directed to the possibility, if not the proba- bility, that this household pest can be a most dangerous means of carrying infection. Before going further, it should be at once mentioned, that, although we have spoken of the House Fly, as if one type only existed, there are at least four different kinds that are popularly regarded as the same. Of these, three are very similar, only differing for the most part in size and slight modifications in the wing ; such differences being only under- stood and appreciated by the expert. Each of them has a suctorial mouth, too, that is to say, has a tubular tongue for Photo bu] LJ. H. Crabtree. obtaining its food, whereas SO aN Ey TEASE) Sr ps the fourth and largest variety Although one of the commonest objects of our everyday life, there are really few of all, the Stable Fly, fs of persons who know anything about the structure and habits of this dangerous pest. The accompanying article and photographs will help to supply the deficiency. quite a different construction —at least, so far as its head is concerned; being provided with an apparatus for biting as well as for sucking. This consists of lancets and a tongue. The first thing, then, to be kept in mind is that the House Fly mostly met with does not bite, because it cannot, and that it is only the much rarer Stable Fly which is provided with instruments of torture. This statement, it should be mentioned, is not common knowledge, nor, indeed, very possibly, is it in agreement with the opinion of many, who, on the contrary, very confidently assert that House Flies do bite, espectally towards the end of the season. But it is in this last sentence that the controversy is explained. The Stable Fly only puts in an appearance in houses towards the end of the summer, and its visits last for a short period in comparison with those of the House Fly: hence, as this Stable Fly can, and does, bite, and is usually mistaken for the House Fly, biting powers are attributed to the latter which only belong to the former. All varieties have much in common to be explained, but we will first discuss the differences, commencing with a description of the sucking apparatus of the House Fly. It will be seen extended in the photograph on page 245, which represents the entire female insect, photographed from a specimen prepared as a slide for the microscope, and therefore one compressed as flat as possible in the mounting. Although this is the only way to get the whole insect into focus for the purpose of photography, still it has the disadvantage of showing the proboscis in a manner that suggests to the student it is a direct prolongation of the body. This, however, is not the case; it really hangs down at right angles from it. [In another picture the lancets of the Stable Fly are shown with their sheath; these hang down in just the same way and serve to explain the arrangement.] LA. J. Spitta. SUCKING APPARATUS OF HOUSE-FLY. This is ti ‘ 33 i i | vis is the thick process beneath the head of the Fly with which it makes continual dabs at our food as it walks over the table. It is here flatten ed out for examination under the microscope, which shows it to consist of many delicate tubes opening out into two larger ones. Throug ‘ly’ i out into o larger ones. Through these tubes all the Fly's food is sucked up, and passed through the larger tubes to the mouth Photo bu] LE. J. Spilta. W503 ILS TOKO t The foot of the Fly consists of two horn-like projections attached to the end of the leg, at the base and sides of which are seen two pads. It is by means of these pads that the insect is able to hold on the ceiling or upon glass, even when upside down. The details of these pads, more highly magnified, are shown on later pages. Marvels of the Universe 239 The use of this position in Nature, becomes apparent with but little consideration. It is for a two- fold purpose : first to allow the fly to commence taking its food at once, without change of posture, and also for the purpose of allowing room for its eyes to look around in all directions to warn it of approaching danger. The eye of these insects, being compound—by which it is meant it is composed of numerous facets (something like four thousand), each furnishing an image—can see simultaneously in almost any direction; which explains why it is so very difficult to catch a fly. The tongue, as a whole, can be studied by examining the photograph, where it is shown lying in front of and between the two clubs. It Sessa ses = ike is a two-lobed organ, both lobes simul- eo og taneously acting as one, and being capable ‘ 3 or ea Ss of closing or collapsing like the shutting-up of an umbrella, and of withdrawal, as a snail retires into its shell. The entire organ is really enclosed in an exceedingly fine and delicate membrane, which for some reason is not easy to see or to photograph in the case of the House Fly. It is better shown in the tongue of the Gadfly, where the delicate membrane, broken away in : ae a aa ‘ ~~ S parts, is distinctly visible covering the top ‘ : of the lobes. The object of this delicate covering undoubtedly is to prevent dirt getting into the suctorial tubes, which are shown very plainly in the more highly- magnified photograph of the same organ. All these tubes, it will be seen, empty into two main collecting tubes, one for each lobe, by which the nutriment enters the system of the fly. Before proceeding further, it should be noted that the two ! ; black wire-like-looking objects, one curving Ee \ to the right and the other bending to the } left, at the lower part of the lobes, are not tubes, but the supports of the tongue— like the framework of the umbrella—and which serve to assist in the opening and at AMS * closing of the little organ. The extended AD Leese Sptttae PART OF FLY'S FOOT WITH BACTERIA. organ is well seen in another photograph, . ; : : ‘ A portion of the pad of a Fly’s foot showing how this insect which was prepared by a special method conveys Bacteria, often of a pernicious kind, to our food. The black without pressure. patches and streaks are the Bacteria. The tubes are ingeniously made, and merit a little close attention. Even a cursory glance at the photograph shows that they are not solid, like pieces of brass tubing, but that they are formed by a series of juxtaposed rings or ribs. These are believed to be formed of a gristle-like substance so as to be somewhat elastic. Further, close inspection of the same figure will reveal the fact that each rib (in the larger tubes) is nof a complete ring, but only about three-quarters of the same—like a horse-shoe, in fact. To convert the string of incomplete ribs into a continuous tube, a membrane of exceeding delicacy not only covers the spaces between the rings, but stretches across their open ends. A completed tube then, in section, would appear like a horse-shoe, where the heels have been 240 Marvels of the Universe F joined together by a membrane. But this is not all. The free ends of the gristle-rings are curiously fashioned, for whilst one appears to end closely resembling a pitchfork, the termination of its neighbour looks like nothing else than a spike. The object of this arrangement is believed by some to be as follows: It must be recollected that the tongue has to be opened and closed with great rapidity ; there must not be any hitch- ing, as sometimes occurs in opening an umbrella, for the insect might lose some food thereby. Now when the tongue is closed, it is easy to under- stand in the collapsed state of the organ, the membrane that Photo by] Web SU: we have explained as forming THE BASE OF A GADFLY'S TONGUE. } part of the tubes must of This photo shows the delicate envelope of the tongue, which is not easy to see or to photograph. It prevents dirt getting into the fine tubes. necessity be folded over into pleats by the compression, thereby effecting economy of space. It is thought, then, that as in compression the spikes of the tubes of one side all the way down drop into the forks of the other side so as to pack away closely, in opening the former serve the additional purpose of rapidly and somewhat forcibly freeing the membrane, should any of the folds accidentally attempt to stick together. This is a beauti- ful thought and a beautiful arrangement. As the second and third varieties of House Flies have each sucking mouths of a similar nature to the common kind, we can now pass on to the consideration of the biting apparatus of the Stable Fly. The entire fly is shown, but in life the apparatus is seen 7 situ hanging from the head of the fly at rmght angles to the body. Two very delicate lancets, so transparent as to be exceed- ingly difficult to photograph, Photo bu) (LE. J. Spitta. ; THE LOWER EDGE OF THE FLY’S TONGUE. can just be seen leaving the This beautiful photograph shows the ends of the fine branch tubes through which the Fly's nutriment is sucked up, and the two main tubes into which they all connect. sheath near the lowest part CHRISTMAS | GIFE BOGKS Two Beautiful New Colour Books The FLOWER FIELDS oi ALPINE SWITZERLAND | pyc. eremweur With 26 mounted Coloured Plates from paintings specially executed by the Author for the present work 2) In one handsome volume, foolscap 4to, cloth gilt and gilt top, 7s. 6d. net SHELLEY'S NATURE POEMS In one handsome volume, foolscap ato, cloth gilt and gilt top, 7s. 6d. net With 16 mounted Coloured Plates reproduced from water-colour drawings % By WILLIAM HYDE A DUKE and HIS FRIENDS By the EARL OF MARGH The Life and Letters of the second Duke of Richmond With 34 Illustrations, including 2 Photogravure Frontispieces In two vols., demy 8vo, cloth gilt and gilt top, 24s. net The history of a grandson of Charles the Second and the Duchess of Portsmouth, as told in the Duke’s correspondence, by his descendent, the Earl of March. “ The Earl of March has opened a window through which we obtain an agreeable, personal and intimate view of phases of early eighteenth century life. The Earl himself accompanies these selections from the family dossier with a running commentary, which betrays a cultured and often humorous appreciation of their romantic ae at a '—Daily Telegraph. In these two volumes the Earl of March sets forth the life story of his ancestor with a light and human touch, with due regard to its connesti with the history of England. A couple of most readable and pleasing volumes.’’—Datly Chronicle. et SOME RECOLLECTIONS By T. TEIGNMOUTH-SHORE Canon of Worcester Cathedral, Chaplain in Ordinary to His Majesty King George V. With a Photogravure Portrait. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt and gilt top, 16s. net The reminiscences of Canon Teignmouth-Shore, who has been Chaplain to three English sovereigns, contain some delightful stories and anecdotes, and he necessarily has much to say about Queen Victoria, King Edward, the Empress eee nicks and other notable persons. “ A very readable book. He has had a varied life, and his connection with the Court has been long and intimate. His narrative will take a high Place among the many biographical works of the present year.”— Westminster Gazette. * There is scarcely a page that is not enlivened by some gay and humorous story.’’—Datly News. “ There i is plenty of entertainment for everybody in this pleasant volume.’ '—Standard “Canon Teignmouth-Shore is an excellent raconteur. His reminiscences wil] be enjoyed as much for their stories of other people as for their personal record of a career which has been unusually full and varied.""—Datly Graphic. LONDON: HUTCHINSON & CO., PATERNOSTER ROW ——S = aa CHRISTMAS GIFT BOOKS A beautifully Illustrated Volume on a great Artist JOHN OPRTE AND HIS WCIRCLE By ADA EARLAND Author of ‘‘ Ruskin and His Circle ”’ In one large handsome vol., with 51 Illustrations, 2ls. net In the present work the author has attempted to tell the story of Opie’s life, fully and adequately, as never before related. The author has collected much new material, and many pictures are now reproduced for the first time. A valuable list of Opie’s pictures forms a copious appendix to the book. “A RARE, FINE YARN” SIXTY YEARS: Life and Adventure in the Far East By JOHN DILL ROSS In 2 vols., demy 8vo, cloth gilt and gilt top, 24s. net With 3 Photogravure Plates, 20 other Illustrations, and a Map ““Mr. Ross is a writer born... A romance of commerce and adventure in the Far East, written in a style resembling Thackeray’s, yet in no wise copying it, would at any time deserve attention. But Mr. Ross has done his work so thoroughly that his book is this, and more than this. Captain lives a vivid life in these pages: plucky, adventurous to the bone, bold in business enterprises as on the sea... The writer born should write again and again. And Mr. Ross makes every story an entertainment.’’—Evening Standard. Ls QUEEN JEANNE OF NAVARRE | aye. e. wittiam ryan Author of ‘‘ Queen Anne and Her Court” In demy 8vo, cloth gilt and gilt top, 12s. Gd. net With Photogravure and 16 other Illustrations ““Mr. Ryan has portrayed her judiciously and with great skill, allowing himself no bias, seeking to present her whole and lifelike. He has been very successful, too, with Catherine de Medici (a lady whom it is easy to fail with). He who nowadays attempts history is regarded less as judge than as witness, and Mr. Ryan has made good a difficult and many-sided case.’’—Daily Chronicle. PENELOPE RICH AND HER CIRCLE By MAUD STEPNEY RAWSON Author of ‘“‘ Bess of Hardwick,’’ ‘‘A Lady of the Regency,’’ ete. In demy 8vo, cloth gilt and gilt top, 16s. met With Photogravure and 28 other Illustrations The beautiful Penelope Rich was the adored of Sir Philip Sidney and the sister of the ill-starred Earl of Essex. This brilliant, beautiful, short-lived lady, ‘The Helen of the Elizabethan poets,” passes like a dazzling comet across the last years of her epoch. “This book is written with a clever and vivid pen, and its statements rest on considerable research. Her life was full of romance, and its closing phase was tragical. Many famous people, notably Sir Philip Sidney and Robert, Lord Essex, cross the pages of a book which gives us fascinating pictures of men and manners in the great days of Elizabeth.’’—Standard. LONDON: HUTCHINSON & CO., PATERNOSTER ROW LS New Gift Books tor Young People THE BEST BOY’S BOOK OF THE YEAR RECOMMENDED BY LORD ROBERTS JACK CHALONER or, when every man came forward to do his duty to his Country By EDWARD FRASER In handsome cloth gilt and gilt edges, with full page Illustrations, $s. with a foreword by Field Marshal EARL ROBERTS, V.C. Lorp RosertTs says: “This is a story full of stirring incident and picturesque adventure, well calculated to attract and hold the attention of youth, and to arouse and foster patriotic sentiments in the young men of this country. Mr. Fraser has written a readable, a healthy, and a useful story, and I hope it will be widely read.” Beautifully Illustrated Fairy Books Each in square 8vo, richly bound in cloth gilt and full gilt edges, 3s. 6d. The Golden Fairy Book Wa auandyssanecavineres ik aiiMICeRee yt ed Seemenver Fairy Book) 7" oases tiusrations by 4 8 MILLAR The Ruby Fairy Book Uo) rand! ¥@(orauings Wy els HaMILCAR TNC a mae Diamond Fairy Book 7 ies crewne wi 8 MuLaR Large crown 8vo, in cloth, richly gilt and gilt edges, Ss. each 52 Stories of the Sea _ 52 Stories of Classic Heroes Edited by COMMANDER E. P. STATHAM, R.N. Editadi3y/ FRANCIS STORR, | Editor of * The Journal of Education" With contributions by many well-known Writers, With contributions by THe Epiror, Mrs. Guy E. Lioyp, including THe Epitor, Haro_p BINDLoss, H. P, Maske_t, Hope Moncrierr, M. Mostyn Birp, Frank T. BuLLen, Frank SHaw, etc. V. CAMERON TURNBULL, etc. With Illustrations by J. FRASER, etc. | With Illustrations by FRANK PAPE. LONDON: HUTCHINSON & CO., PATERNOSTER ROW Ve OVER HALF A MILLION VOLUMES ALREADY SOLD and the demand is as great as ever. The series is known in every home, and the volumes are universally recognised as most reliable for presentation to young people, and the best that can be offered. All the stories are selected with the greatest possible care by one who has had a life’s experience in satisfying the literary needs of boys and girle. The FIFTY-TWO Library In large crown 8vo, 400-500-pp., cloth, bevelled boards, richly gilt, gilt edges Ss. net WELL ILLUSTRATED The “Fifty-Two Series” forms an excellent library of fiction for young people. The stories are by the a best writers for boys and girls, including :— ‘2 G. A. HENTy GorDON SraB_es, M.D., R.N. Mrs. G. Linn#us BANKS W. CLARK RUSSELL | Ascott HOPE Rosa MULHOLLAND G. ManviLte FENN F. C. SELous ALICE CORKRAN W. H. G. KincsTon | ROBERT CHAMBERS SARAH DOUDNEY ; = R. M. BALLANTYNE | R. E. FRANCILLON and many other well-known | CapTain Mayne REID | Dayip KERR writers Fi “Such volumes are invaluable for young people, and all thanks are due to those who have brought them within easy reach of every child in the three kingdoms.”—Guardian. LIST OF VOLUMES Fifty-Two Stories for Boye Fitty-T'wo Stirring Stories for Boys Fifty-Two Stories for Girls Fitty-Two Stirring Stories for Girls Fifty-Two More Stories for Girls Fifty-Two Stories of the British Empire : Fifty-Two Further Stories for Boys Fifty-Two Stories of Courage and Endeavour for Boys Fifty-Two Further Stories for Girls Fifty-T'wo Stories of Courage and Endeavour for Girls Fifty-Two Other Stories for Boys Fifty-Two Stories of the Brave and True for Boys Fifty-Two Other Stories for Girls Fifty-Two Stories of the Brave and True for Girls Fifty-Two Fairy Tales Fifty-Two Stories for the Little Ones Fifty-Two Stories of Life and Adventure for Boys Fifty-Two Stories of School Life and After for Boys Fifty-Two Stories of Life and Adventure for Girls Fifty-Two Stories of School Life and After for Girls Fifty-Two Stories of Pluck and Peril for Boys Fifty-Two Stories of Grit and Character for Girls Fifty-Two Stories of Pluck, Peril and Romance for Girls Fifty-Two Stories of Wild Life, East and West Fifty-Two Stories of the British Navy Fifty-Two Stories of Head, Heart and Hand for Boys Fifty-Two Stories of Duty and Daring for Boys Fifty-Two Stories of Head, Heart and Hand for Girls Fifty-Two Stories of the British Army Fifty-Two Thrilling Stories of Life at Home and Abroad Fifty-Two Holiday Stories for Boys Fifty-Two New Stories for Boys x Fifty-Two Holiday Stories for Girls Fifty-Two New Stories for Girls 7 Fifty-Two Sunday Stories for Boys and Girls Fifty-Two Pioneer Stories all round the Compass Fifty-Two Stories of Heroism in Life and Action for Boys Fifty-Two Excelsior Stories for Boys : Fifty-Two Stories of the Wide, Wide World Fifty-Two Excelsior Stories for Girls g LONDON: HUTCHiNSON & CO., PATERNOSTER ROW 3 The Oneins| and Only Genuine. The Best Remedy Known for COUGHS, COLDS, ASTHMA, BRONCHITIS. Cuts short all attacks | The only Palliative in of SPASMS, NEURALGIA. GOUT, HYSTERIA and RHEUMATISM, Re‘use Imitations and INSIST on having Dr. J. COLLIS BROWNE’S Chlorodyne, The Most Valuable Medicine ever discovered. The name Dr. J. Collis Browne is on the stamp of every bottle of genuine Chlorodyne. PALPITATION. TOOTHACHE. Acts like a charm in Convincing Of all Chemists DIARRHEA, DYSENTERY and ee ieee. = = Paes CHOLERA. with each bottle. 11%, 2,9, 4/6. i“ MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE’’—continued from page 2.] THE TRAVELLER’S TREE OF MADAGASCAR rendered famous in the records of early travel, is beautifully illustrated from life. The small, though ferocious FRESHWATER HYDRA of stagnant pools is shown ina series of beautiful photo-micrographs including some shewing it in the act of swallowing small fish and its life history is told by Mr. K. G. Blair. Sir Harry Jolinston introduces us to the quaint looking UMBRELLA BIRDS THE GIANT CLAM an enormous shellfish of the Southern seas. He proceeds to show us the great proportions of THE GIANT CRAB OF JAPAN which can span eleven feet between the tips ofits first pair of legs. of South America, and to One of the most quaintly formed of the corals is that called THE ORGAN-PIPE CORAL which is shown both as empty pipes and with these inhabited by their living polyp MARVELS of the UNIVERSE. : : : g ; PRIZE COUPON IV. builders. whose history is supplied by Mr. E. A. Martin. F.G.S. + M. Piul H. Fabre has contributed a wonderful series of photographs showing Part V. THE SCORPION on in its daily life, its courtship, fighting and as a careful parent. THE COCHINEAL INSECT from which the valuable pigment is obtained, is also among the numerous subjects treated in Part VI. This coupon t be retained and not sent in until after the publication of Part VIII. In addition to the foregoing there are coloured plates showing THE GIANT JAPANESE CRAB and a facsimile reproduction of a beautiful pastel painting by Max Racbel of THE NORTHERN LIGHTS. Nee . _ MANUFACTURERS 10 H.M.THE x HH XANDRA.. bout 24 Fortnightl Hutchinson's 6d. Novels. A_ RECORD. OVER e : Two Million Copies ? g : G | Allen Raine’s Novels Mixture HAVE BEEN ice : UNDER THE THATCH - Just Ready —Luxury indeed Where Billows Roll - - 88,000 to the smoker Allvin ao Monthee ene 58,000 Neither Storehouse nor Earn 134,600 —A Flavour and Queen of the Rushes —- — 184,000 Fra grance of Hearts of Wales 243,000 A Welsh Singer - 378,000 unusual charm Torn Sails - - 287,000 1 oz. 64a. 2 o7. 1/1 } Ib. tins 2.2 By Berwen Banks 242,500 = = 254,000 to the amount to the sole manufacturers: A Welsh Witch - = oe 281,000 THOMSON & PORTEOUS, EDINBURGH Se ne aE eae ce SROs ig am Of most high-class obacconists, or send stamps Garthowen The above figures do of include the American Sales. London: HUTCHINSON ®& CO., Paternoster Row. MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE. A Note Concerning Part VII. When a part work has reached its sixth instalment: ‘subscribers are in a position to judge of its entire character, and can estimate the general contents of succeeding parts. Still, a few notes on the salient features of the seventh part will not be unwelcome. There is a beautiful opening plate by Mr. H. Seppings Wright shewing THE PLANET JUPITER as it would be seen if we could stand upon its nearest satellite and watch the belted planet. The story of PEARLS AND THE PEARL-OYSTER which is begun on the last page of this part is told in detail. Several beautiful photographs of pearls and their makers help the description. Mr. Ernest Marriage has a note on a curious PARASITE OF THE HOUSE-FLY with enlarged photomicrographs. Sir Harry Johnston, G.C.M.G., writes upon those birds of eccentric appearance, THE HORNBILLS and their peculiar nesting habits. Mr. Edward Step, F.L.S., has a chapter upon the interestingly-repulsive fungus known as THE STINKHORN beloved of woodland flies, whilst his photographs show its progress from the egg-like early conditions to full growth, [continued on page 3 of cover. > $3 n ROALD EA AAA i NG aan i BHO hi ‘ 4 Hi tt WN BAT RAO eR Ae ‘By Max “Raebel. NORTHERN LIGHTS. A remarkable pastel painting of t! urora made by Herr Raebel, who has for several years devoted his vacations to visiting Norway for the express purpose of making colour studies in pastel of this ever-changing, always different, phenomenon. Marvels 2A1 of this photograph ; they are better seen, however, in the photograph which is on a larger scale and has been made with the special object of showing the sheath and lancets alone. In the actual use of this FS: apparatus, the bite is made with the lancets, which cut out a hole large enough in diameter to allow the exit of sufficient blood for the sucking tongue to é be placed into. 2 Space will not allow us to deal with an explana- tion of the clubs seen on each side of the tongue, which in all the varieties of flies are probably sense organs ; neither will it permit’ much being said con- cerning the wings, although passing mention should be made of the fact that differences in the position of the veins (as the linear markings are called), their arrangement and general appearance, offer. to the expert a means—in addition to that of size—of dis- tinguishing the House Fly from the others that are frequently confused with it. Mention might be made here also—for want of a better place—of the curious fungus disease so fatal to the House Fly, which causes them to adhere to window-panes and such like. When closely examined, the fly appears as if invested with a white substance which not only covers the body more or less completely, but even spreads to the wings and to the glass adjacent. A portion of a wing highly magnified is shown, in which this creeping fungus can be seen spreading itself as a white, transparent network, winding its way amongst the microscopic hairs, reminding one of clover in the way it pushes its wire-like fibres between the blades of grass upon the lawn. The wings move with great rapidity in flight. Messrs. Kirby and Spence quote the substance of an anonymous writer, who says that he calculates that a House Fly in ordinary flight makes about six hundred strokes—which carries it about five feet—every second. If alarmed, however, the velocity can be increased to about thirty to thirty- five feet per second. In this space of time, the writer adds, “a racehorse would clear only ninety feet. which is at the rate of more than a mile a minute.” The little fly, then, in his swiftest flight, goes, in the same space of time, about one-third of a mile. In conclusion, they further add: “A little calculation seems to show that did the fly equal the racehorse in size, and retain its present powers in the ratio of its magnitude, it could traverse the globe with the rapidity of lightning.”’ The breathing apparatus of the fly much re- sembles that of other insects. One of the chief anatomical differences between a mammal and an insect is that in the former the muscles lie outside the bones—as in the human subject, for example ; of the Universe Photo bu) LE. J. Spitta. PART OF FLY’S FOOT. This photo shows a portion of the Fly's foot under the microscope. The dots are the tubes with sucker ends which enable the insect to walk up glass or over the ceiling. Photo by) LZ. J. Spitta. BENCSe LOOM whereas in the insect the internal organs are en- closed in a sac-like body, made, in many instances, Portion of the cushion of a Fly's foot, lese highly magnified than the previous photo. It is in between the little prominences that Bacteria are carried about. 16 242 Marvels of the Universe of a horny substance closely resembling chitin. In the mammal air is taken in by the mouth, and after being led through tubes (the bronchial tubes), enters the lungs, which may be de- scribed as consisting of an abundance of little sacs, capable of opening and closing, about which the small blood- vessels encircle. The air, in passing through these air-sacs, re-oxidizes the nlood in the adjacent blood-vessels by simple contact, and thus purification of that fluid is effected. In insects, ene pal yasmin however, the arrangement is modified. - PIER CRUBIC Hele Holes in the sides of the body of the This much enlarged photo of the “ maggot" which iscues from the Fly's ege shows the true form. The mouth is at the pointed end and the insect Or between some of its segments digestive tract is shown as a darker band. called spiracles) exist, which lead into tubes that pass in all directions, and are all of different sizes, throughout the entire body. The blood, however, is not contained in any vessels, but is loose, and circulates freely all about the contents of the sac, and playing over these air-tubes, wherever they may be, causes re-oxidation of that fluid. The spiracles, or little holes, are more highly developed and easier seen in the Water Beetle than in the case of the Fly. One of these spiracles was given in an earlier page to show how Nature adopts an ingenious method for keeping out dirt or any foreign matter from the tubes by stretching across the entrance numerous twig-like little branches, closely associated together, and which act as a kind of mechanical filter. The tubes from these holes, which pass throughout the body in all directions, are beautifully made, consisting of,spirally wound fibres, the spirals themselves (figure of 8 in form in the large tubes) being designed to be of a somewhat spring- like nature, so as to assist in the distribution of the air as the insect draws in and lets out its breath. We have never seen the result of any experiments for ascertaining the rapidity of breathing in the case of the House Fly, but in that of the Bee it has been estimated at about forty when at rest, but when pushed, to reach from one hundred and ten to one hundred and sixty times a minute. It is not improbable the breathing of the Fly is much the same. The egg-laying apparatus of the Fly (called the ovipositor) is a curiously- shaped arrangement, the object of the different parts not being accurately known. It is somewhat long and stout, being especially made for the purpose of pushing aside bits of straw, etc., as the insect deposits its eggs deep down in the warm parts of a heap of stable manure. Here they hatch. On this page is shown the egg of a House Fly, whilst on the opposite Photo by] [E. J. Spitta. EGG OF HOUSE-FLY, MAGNIFIED. page is a group of eggs which, although often sold as those of the House Fly, The egg is very long in proportion to its width, and quite devoid of Z ornamentation. It hatches in twenty-four hours, producing a maggot like are really derived from some other GAY Crenm CN species. The eggs of the Stable Fly Photo tn [A. #. Smith. GROUP OF A FLY'S EGGS These are the eggs that are commonly shown under the microscope as those of the House-fly, but they are those of another will be clearly seen by comparing them with the phcto on the page opposite. These eggs are much more beautiful than 244 Marvels of the Universe Photo by] THE [Z. J. Spitta. HOUSE-FLY. The Fly is here shown sufficiently magnified to make its parts distinct. Note the spread- out “tongue "’ and compare it with the corresponding part in the photo below. & Photo by] [L. J. Spitta. THE STABLE FLY. The great difference in the confused is here made very clear. a little to the left of the tongue. “tongues” of the two Flies that are so frequently The lancets with which this Fly stings are shown are difficult to get, for when the Fly is obtained, it is not easy to keep alive, as it must have fresh blood upon which to live. The egg of the House Fly hatches in about twenty-four hours, when the grub puts in an appearance. It remains as such about seven or eight days, changing its skin several times as it increases in size, until reaching finality when about half an inch in length. The grub now changes into a chry- salis, which is smaller than the grub, being only about a quarter of an inch in length. Having remained three or four days, the case cracks, and out emerges the complete Fly. Mention should here be made that it is a misconception to suppose that flies grow. No growth takes place in their life save at the grub period, when they change’ their skins, as already explained ; hence the smaller variety of fly, occasion- ally and rather rarely seen upon the window-panes, is not the House Fly im the act of growth, but a smaller species. Before quitting the subject, we must not omit to mention the marvellous foot of this little insect, shown on page 238. Here it is seen ‘to consist of two horn-like projections at- tached to the end of the leg, at the base and sides of which are seen the two pads. It is the pads which are so wonderful, and their construction merits more than a passing attention ; for it is by means of these little arrangements that the insect is able to hold on the ceiling or upon glass, even when upside- Marvels of down. Each pad is like a cushion, and from it project numerous small cone-like-looking ‘ objects, each of which ends in what at first sight appears to be a minute hair, in some instances surmounted by a little pad. In times gone by it was thought the Fly exuded from its fad an adhesive fluid, which glued it on the ceiling or pane of glass; but this is believed now not to be quite correct. Since more perfect microscopes have been available, it has been found that each hair is really a tube; and hence each may be considered as a perfect suctorial arrangement, complete in itself. Experiments, however, of somewhat recent date most certainly _ : show that it is highly probable flies can aie at will pour out some sort of adherent material—very possibly from the tubes them- selves; for they -have been, and indeed the Universe oval case in which the grub changes to the chrysalis. days later one end is thrown off and the complete Fly emerges. LE. J. Spitta. INTERMEDIATE STAGE, MAGNIFIED. When the grub is full grown its skin hardens into a brown A few frequently are, found with their feet only firmly adherent to the glass, although quite dead, when all suctoria] powers must necessarily have ceased to exist. The foot, however, has unfortunately one more very special interest—a painful one to the human subject ; for it is by this means that it certainly can carry germs of infection. of disease are known to be wie exceedingly small, so small, oe indeed, that many _ thou- gna. sands can be comfortably [= * located on the point of a WP 7% needle. Hence, if the Fly ins ~ . alights on any poisonous » == ¥. matter, it is quite conceiv- ‘© able how bacteria can be , a lodged either upon the hair- © like suckers themselves or ~ between them. A photograph has been devised to show this, which depicts part of a pad magnified at five hundred diameters, upon which a photograph of the bacilli of consumption (for convenience of representation magnified twice as much) has been cast. The number of germs that could be carried even ~ —" = Photo bu) PORTION by a single pad of one foot of a House Fly is therefore painfully evident. The bacteria [Z. J. Spitta. OF FLY’S WING, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED. The pale threads and dark patches in this photo show the minute fungus which attacks Flies in the autumn and kills off thousands of them. It shows, indeed, that the House Fly is a living terror to mankind, and it cannot be wondered at that the Medical Officers of Health in all districts are now making such a stir for the extermination of one of the most dangerous pests that can occupy our houses. 246 Marvels of the Universe A MUSHROOM PARASITE It is not an uncommon thing for a fungus of one type to attack one of a distinctly different type. When any of the larger mushroom or toadstool forms begin to decay they are frequently over- run by one of the numerous species of mould, such as attack most decaying matter and help in the final break-up of its tissues. But it is quite a rare occurrence for one of the mushroom type of fungi to attack another species of the same group. Yet there are three closely-related species, known as Russules, which appear to be the exclusive victims of hereditary feud, for there are two other and smaller species of mushroom, known as Nyctalis, which will grow nowhere else but on one of these three Russules. The Nyctalis, which is quite small when compared with its four - inch - topped host, is of a light grey colour and issues in clusters from the upper side of the Russule’s cap. Sometimes, however, it hangs from the gills on the lower surface of the cap; and in the example photographed they are growing from both parts, whilst another is sprout- ing from just above the base of the stem. The Nyctalis is a distinctly rare fungus, and the fungus- hunter who comes upon it in the woods for the first time will be very pleased with himself. It gives out a very aia zi [E. Step, F.L.S. distinct and penetrating MUSHROOMS GROWING ON A MUSHROOM. odour, which, once smelt, may be instrumental in tracking it The clusters of small white Mushrooms are of a totally distinct kind from the larger Mushroom upon which they grow as parasites. They do not grow upon the E ground, and have only been found upon this and one or two other Mushrooms. down on other occasions. THE LONG-NOSED MONKEY OF BORNEO BY SIR H. H. JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. Few monkeys present such an extraordinary appearance as the Long-nosed Monkey of Western and Southern Borneo. In the female and young of this species the nose is much smaller in its projection from the face, and in the immature forms of either sex the short nose turns up like the caricature of a snub-nose among humans. Now there is a genus of “ snub-nosed ’’ monkeys closely allied to them, with ridiculous turned-up noses, projecting not more than an inch from the muzzle. These range from Eastern Tibet and Central China to Annam. At some time or other a species of this group must have found its way to Borneo when the huge island was still connected by land with the Malay Peninsula, for the more striking forms among the beasts and birds now existing in Malaysia may be traced back to an evolutionary area in the Eastern [Sir H. I, Johnston. Photo by permission LONG-NOSED MONKEY. This extraordinary example of the Proboscis Monkeys is a native of West Borneo, where its bare pink face has led the natives to call it ““The White Man.’ The long tail and the lower part of the back are white, which affords a strong contrast with the chestnut and yellow-brown of the upper parts of the body. 248 Marvels of the Universe Photo bu) (Fuller & Osborne. THE GLOBE FISH This fish of remarkable form is brilliantly coloured, and covered with spines. At ordinary times it is much more fish- like, but when danger threatens it puffs itself out and erects its spines. Himalayas, Assam, China, or even Tibet. Here it underwent isolation and an independent development, which produced in the male not only a very bright and peculiar coloration, but exaggerated the projection of the nose until it grew into the drooping proboscis which assumes such a quaint form in the unusually fine specimen of a fully developed male shown in the accompanying illustration—a specimen from West Borneo in the Natural History Museum at Munich (Bavaria). Nature is constantly repeating herself, and seems ever and anon to try experiments in peculiar developments which lead to nothing—or to nothing of much apparent use—until exactly the nght thing is hit upon; and then the new idea runs away with Nature and is carried out in the fullest possible manner. The human genus is a bundle of Nature’s plagiarisms of her earlier manner. The upright position and bi-pedal walk have been tried in reptiles and in birds and in many types of mammals ; notably in the far-back lemur ancestors or collaterals of man. The projecting nose (reaching its highest development in the white man) is no new idea, but possibly also showed itself in certain extinct lemurs, and has attained a comical distinctness (if incomplete and without any cartilaginous bridge) in the East Asiatic Proboscis Monkeys. The male Long-nosed monkey is very remarkable for his coloration. The bare face and drooping proboscis are pink, like the face of a white man; and so we find this monkey is called “‘ White Man ” by the natives of West Borneo. The top of the head is bright chestnut, the whiskers, shoulders and chest are ginger-colour, the hair of the arm-pits being white and that of the upper arm chest- nut, while the lower arm is grey fringed with white. The hind limbs are grey, and the hair of the hind parts is reddish, and that of the back deep, glossy chestnut-red. In vivid contrast with these tints of chestnut, yellow-brown and ash-grey are the lower back and tail, which are pure white. The Long-Nosed Monkey lives mainly on leaves; and the adult male grows to a con- siderable size—as large as an average-sized baboon. Marvels of the Universe 249 Pi CLOBE OR PARR Od IS BY FRANK T. BULLEN. AMONG all the multitudinous mysterious denizens of the sea with whose habits we are acquainted, only to become more mystified than ever as to the meaning of those habits, none are more curious than the numerous varieties of a fish whose popular name is given above. It is exceedingly widely distributed, being found in both tropical and temperate zones ; but in its greatest profusion frequents tepid waters and the vicinity of coral reefs. Its peculiarities are many, but one of them may be taken first as the most important, viz., that it is both poisonous and innocuous according to its habitat, this fairly well-known fact preventing ifs ever becoming a food fish. Asa general rule, the appearance of a fish will determine its accept- ance as an article of food, some of the sea-creatures being so repellent in their appearance that it needs considerable courage or pres- sure of hunger to attempt eating them. To this rule, however, there are several important exceptions, such as the John Dory and the Flat-head, of Australia. Indeed, it is difficult to assign reasons sometimes for the rejection of fish as food. I once caught some flying gurnard in St. Vin- cent which were almost the most beautiful fish I have ever seen; but even the negroes refused to eat them, without knowing why. Another fairly safe rule which is followed, or used to be, among seamen is that of rejecting as food all very gaudy fish. I need not say in the tropics, because the temperate seas are notable for the sober colouring of their fish. This simple rule is generally observed by natives, from whom, indeed, seamen have obtained it, and it effectually cuts off Photo bi [fuller & Osborne. the Globe Fishes, because WHE OUNNS PElnb The appearance of the distended fish when viewed from the front. The distention of ev are 22 7s “eee th ey ake nearly all of very the body causes the protrusion of the four large teeth, which then somewhat resemble brilliant hues. How brilliant the beak of a parrot. 250 Wlarvels of the Universe may be gathered from Mr. Charles Darwin’s remarks in “ The Voyage of the Beagle,” that when handled, one of these fish emitted from the skin of its belly a most beautiful carmine-red stain, which remained permanently bright and irremovable from the fabric upon which it fell. Another feature of this most curious fish calling for wonder is that some of its varieties are covered with spines almost as thickly as a hedgehog. These spines are quiescent as long as the fish is unmolested; but if it is caught and necessarily handled, they then come into play. But only in connection with another peculiarity, which is perhaps the greatest of all shown by this fish. I allude to the power which it has of self-inflation. On many occasions I have caught this fish and thrown it on deck, when immediately it has emitted gurgling sounds such as you hear when holding an empty bottle, open neck up- wards, under water. Coinci- dently with this, the body of the fish gradually became globular, the spines stood erect, and having attained its full distension, the creature re- mained thus. In fact, the passing of its life did not affect its appearance; after death it still appeared dis- tended and prickly. The trivial name Parrot Fish is really unsuitable, be- cause it only derives from the beak-like appearance of the teeth when the fish is in- flated. But those teeth are the common inheritance of many tropical fish, and are identical in their appearance with varieties entirely distinct. They are like human incisors, [By Max Raebel. but far more powerful; and I have known them to sever NORTHERN LIGHTS. The variation in the colours of these Lights is probably due to thezbreaking : up of the rays in the aqueous vapour. copper wire. THE AURORA BOREALIS, OR NORTHERN LIGHTS BY MAX RAEBEL. Most of what we now know of the nature and origin of the Aurora Borealis we owe to the Norwegian scientist, Professor Birkeland, who has succeeded, after years of observation and experiment, in reaching definite hypotheses on the subject. In this paper I shall content myself with giving a short account of the scientific research on the subject of the Northern Lights, adding a few particulars of my own observations. (By Max Raebel. THE AURORA BOREALIS AT TRONDHJEM The Northern Lights reach only the more rarefied upper air of our atmosphere, and have the property of condensing aqueous vapour. Their colour is generally green, but sometimes violet and red 252 Marvels of the Universe According to the latest views, the Northern Lights waves are negative electric rays which the sun, and especi- ally the solar spots, send out into space. These are what are called “‘kathode” rays. They bear a strong resemblance to radium rays, and may there- fore be regarded as.a kind of immense electrons. It has long been known that these rays are closely connected with the sun- spots, as we find in both the same eleven-year periods. When a ray of this kind comes into the neighbourhood of a magnetic expanse, as, for in- stance, on the earth in the vicinity of the magnetic pole, the ray will be, so to speak, sucked up by it, as Birkeland expresses it. If the course of the ray, on the other hand, is not directed towards such an expanse, it will be diverted from its course, and in this way the most varied forms arise. As our earth is very small in comparison with the universe, great expanses may [By Max Raebet. very well be affected at the NORTHERN LIGHTS. These were formerly thought to foretell a hard frost, but M. Raebel’s observations same time by the magnetic leadiiiimties quite ‘the opfosite conclusion: in mos! cases) milder weather follows diStuybances) Mand ay binkel ana immediately after a display. has discovered, by placing in- struments at Potsdam and Bosekop in the north of Norway, that the variations in the magnetic elements were alike at the two places at the same time, only that the oscillations were more intense in Norway. The Aurora Borealis causes magnetic disturbances which are called magnetic storms. The theory has been propounded that the earth derives its magnetism from the Northern Lights. We owe to Professor Stormer the mathematical calculation of the course of the rays and of their length—a portion of the subject in which the French scientist, Poincarré, has also done good service. In one of his experiments which consisted in passing an electric current through a bottle filled with rarefied air, Birkeland has produced light-waves (corkscrews) similar to what may sometimes be seen in the Aurora Borealis. The Northern Lights reach our atmosphere, but only the more rarefied upper air. They have the property of condensing aqueous vapour, and there are clouds whose origin is attributed to the Northern Lights. At the South Pole there exists a similar light, called the Aurora Australis. Marvels of the Universe 253 This light is visible, not only in the immediate vicinity of the poles, but sometimes as far as forty or fifty degrees away from them. For instance, the Magnetic North Pole is situated at a latitude of 78° north, and at a longitude of 71° west of Greenwich (1900). Thus the limit of the Northern Lights zone in the East (Asia) is almost at the 40th parallel, while on the other hand, in the West (America) it extends nearly to the 2oth. At a latitude not too far north—for instance, Scandinavia—the Aurora Borealis is generally green, but sometimes also violet and red. The violet colour always appears at the extreme edge, or underneath the light wave. The variations in the colour are probably due to the breaking-up of the rays in the aqueous vapour, and probably the nature of the air also contributes, for the sun also has different colours at different times, and the Northern Lights seen in daylight in spring are rosy red, but gradually change to green as the twilight comes on. It is a popular saying that hard frost follows a vivid display of the Northern Lights. This is not correct, for during the last fifteen years I have observed about four hundred such displays, and have come to the conclusion that, in ninety cases out of one hundred, warmer weather follows almost immediately. On the other hand, it is correct to say that bad weather often follows the Northern Lights, and this is easily explained. As the light waves can form clouds, it is quite natural that cloudy weather results. In winter this generally makes the air milder, and the change of temperature causes wind. Thus we have the bad weather. The Aurora Borealis is not affected by moonlight or clouds. It can some- times be seen in summer, but only in the twilight zone between latitudes 58 and 54. It is most vivid in October and March, or when sun- spots are in process of formation. When one has first discovered the most active side of the sun, one may be fairly sure that vivid Northern Lights will appear after the lapse of twenty-seven days, when the sun turns the same side to the earth. And now some particulars of the circumstances under which my draw- ings were made. I have always been interested in the Northern Lights, and wished to possess some pictures of them, but as these are scarcely to be found outside scientific works, ee rare TTT i j (Lhe Royal Society. there was nothing else for me to do SOUTHERN LIGHTS. than to set to work myself. First This photo and its companion, both taken in the Antarctic Regions, fittingly accompany the drawings of M. Raebel, as they demonstrate the essential similarity of the Northern and Southern Lights. I tried photography. Our cameras 254 Marvels of the Universe are probably good enough, but the plates are not nearly sensitive enough to catch the rays, which are always changing. On the other hand, it is possible to photograph landscapes by the light of the Aurora Borealis, and on one single occasion I succeeded in photographing a rayless Aurora Borealis arc. These large arcs rise but slowly in the heavens, and either dissolve into rays (when they approach each other) and disappear south of zenith, or else return as they came. As I did not succeed with my camera, I made an attempt with pastel drawings. I often stood for six hours at a time in frost and snow on the summit of Graakall Hill, sketching with my pencil the forms of the lights. By the help of a good memory I completed the drawings next day with pastel crayons, and criticized them at the next appearance of the lights. In this way I made good progress, and after working day and night for four or five months, I think I can say that, as far as the phenomena of the Northern Lights are concerned, my drawings are fairly correct and true to nature. It may be noted that a landscape lighted by the Aurora Borealis throws no shadows, as a single ray in zenith annuls all shadows. There is a strong resemblance between the light of a vivid Aurora Borealis and that of the full moon. Last winter I made the remark- able discovery that the light of the zodiac has the same origin as the Aurora Borealis, viz , the solar spots. About every twenty-seventh day last winter there appeared a vivid Aurora Borealis at the same time as a strong zodiacal light was seen at other places. I may mention January 25th, February 21st, March 19th and April 14th. Of these, the lights on the roth of March were the most vivid, and displayed such unusual forms that the lke may perhaps never be seen again. Some of these forms are re- produced in my drawings. Among these was a corona which appeared at 9.30 and 10.45 p.m., and which could scarcely be depicted satisfactorily by any painter. A cinematograph would have been necessary. From the north-west sky there came with great velocity a wave of light in the form of a hollow cone, and consisting of very regular green rays. As soon as. this cone reached zenith, there ap- peared round its lower edge an in- tensely bright violet line, and from this green and violet flames were projected with great velocity towards. Ber enGn E [The Roval Society, and through each other, as may some- AURORA AUSTRALIS. times be seen when the searchlights- This photo, taken during Capt Scott's Antarctic Expedition, shows how a i f 5 aie bb Hite closely the Northern and Southern Lights resemble each other. of sever al men-ol-war are roug. le (Hugh Main, FE. THE NEST-BUILDING OF A MILLIPEDE. four photographs represent successive stages by which the female Millipede fashions the nest that is to protect her numerous eggs, and at the same time adds to the layers of eggs inside the walls. In the last of the four pictures the Millipede h 0as been removed to show the half-built nest more clearly. These and the following photographs are all twice the natural size. Photo bu) [Hugh Main, FES. A pair of Millipedes at home selecting a site for the nest or egg-store. Photo by] THE MILLIPEDE’S NEST. The female has commenced to construct the lower walls. number of eggs can already be seen in the centre. A MWlarvels of the Universe into play at the same time. This hollow-cone form seems to point to the fact that magnetic currents and the form hurricanes and whirlwinds, and revolve round a Perhaps an Aurora Borealis ray struck such an eddy in eddies have same as centre. the centre and was divided in After the latter had sucked up the rays, they were probably drawn in towards the centre, and after some minutes died away. In any case, a vivid display of the Northern Lights is a magnificent and never-to-be-forgotten spectacle, and no one who has the opportunity should fail to visit the North of Norway towards the end of the winter. its circumference. It is not necessary to travel farther than to Trondhjem, but it must not be much further south. A MILLIPEDE’S NEST BY HUGH MAIN, B.SC., F.E.S. Tue Millipedes, or Thousand-legs as they are commonly called, are of a retiring disposition, hiding under stones and logs of wood. If we turn over one of their shelters the little creatures at once endeavour to hurry away out of sight. There is something repugnant to many people about their appearance, so on the whole they are generally left severely alone. A closer acquaintance with them, however, unfolds a most interesting story. With the help of the illustrations we can follow a small part of it which does not appear to have been de- scribed before, viz., the way in which the female builds her nest and lays her eggs in it. A pair of Miullipedes were found, in the month of March, hiding under a piece of wood lying on the ground. The wood was quite damp and had a rough, thin layer of earth on it. Wood and Millipedes were taken home and special precautions adopted to prevent the wood drying up and to give the creatures the shade they like. They are vegetarians ; but although supplied with various things to eat, they seemed to find sufficient nourishment among the earth on the wood. They lived together very happily, but evi- dently disliked being exposed to a bright light, always seeking the shaded side of the piece of wood when exposed to view. span eleven feet between the Jarveras. one of the f ti famil sd-cov tips of the front pair of limbs of Spider Crabs, and i ered rocks at the bottom of the but large ound only on the coasts of Ca, Marvels of the Universe 257 On looking at them on the morning of April 17th, the female was seen to be in the act of making her nest. The wall was about half built, and she continued her work all the rest of the day and through the night, and it was finished early on the next morning. A second nest was made, unobserved, shortly afterwards. On May 7th, about rr a.m., a third nest was seen to be just started. We shall follow the building of this nest. All the photographs are twice the natural size, so a good idea can be obtained of the actual dimensions of the differ- ent parts. When first seen, the wall was only raised a little above the level of the wood, and it con- tained an incomplete ring of spherical, white, semi-translucent eggs, one layer deep, and irre- gularly three or four eggs wide. The female rested on the top of the wal]l and worked round it, generally in the direction of the hands of a watch, with the feet on the side of the body towards the centre holding on to the upper = ia Photo by) (Augh Main, I. edge of the nest. She extended the anterior Eleven hours from the start saw the dome completed all but eoments of the body over the interior of the the chimney, which took three hours more to erect. nest and passed out the eggs, two at a time, from the openings of the oviducts, which are situated just behind the second pair of legs, 7.e., not far behind the head. After completing the ring of eggs, she proceeded to raise the wall of the nest about the height of the eggs themselves, and then deposited another layer of eggs as above described. The method of raising the wall was very curious. She foraged all round the nest, as she continuously revolved on the top, and ate up the small particles of earth within reach. The material thus obtained was passed out at the hinder end of the body in a prepared con- dition, and was moulded into position by the large flaps at the extremity. As the wall was raised it was made dome-shaped, and egg- laying alternated with wall-building. Only once did she stop work, and that was when brought into a stronger light about 4 p.m., and in the third photo on page 255 we see how the work had progressed. The mouldings are very noticeable, and the mass of eggs. She resumed Photo by) [Hugh Main, FES THE NEST HIDDEN. The nest is finally covered over with earth, which completely her task, and at 5.40 p.m. the opening at the top of the nest was reduced to the size seen Lice n i eee Coa ea Tae ese enone 17 258 Marvels of the Universe Photos by] ; [Hugh Main, F.E.S. THE NEST VIEWED FROM THE SIDE. To the left is seen the Millipede’s nest completed with the chimney; to the right the same nest after its builder has covered it with earth to hide its form and make it appear a mere lump of soil. in the next photo. It was not till 10.15 p.m. that the dome was finished, only a small opening being left at the top. She then proceeded to add a tube or chimney, forming a passage communi- cating with the interior of the dome, and this was completed at 1.15 a.m. of the next day. From the experience of the first nest, I knew that the next step was to cover over the whole structure with small rough pieces of earth, right up to a level with the top of the chimney. As, how- ever, I wished to secure a photograph of the nest before this was done, I gently drove the female away, covered up the nest with a pill-box, and went off to bed. In the photographs on page 257 we get a view of the completed nest uncovered, and the same nest quite hidden by small pieces of earth, and the female resting alongside it. The two nests appear in elevation in the final photographs, and show how wonderfully the nest is protected from observation by the covering of earth. This coating also helps to keep the nest damp, thus preventing the eggs within drying up. The female either resented my interference with her plans or forgot her nest, as she never paid any more attention to it. On May 17th, the eggs in the first nest hatched and the little white, six-legged creatures climbed out of the hole at the top of the chimney. It is not till later in life that the young Millipedes get their full number of legs. TWO DRAGONS OF THE PRIME BY SIR H. H. JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. TENNYSON, like some other poets, had the prophetic instinct strongly in him. He realized and wrote of things in the first beginnings of invention and discovery long before the conception of them could have grown up in the mind of humanity at large. And when somewhere about 1850 he wrote of ‘Dragons of the prime that tare each other in their slime,” he certainly seems to refer to the extinct gigantic Dinosaurs, which were not fully revealed by the discoveries of geologists till some years afterwards. The Dinosaurs originated, first of all, probably in the Old World, in what is called the Triassic Period at the beginning of the Secondary Epoch, from a group of generalized reptiles represented by the living Sphenodon of New dB. Photo by permission of] [Sie WH, A “DRAGON OF THE ywh as a Stegosaur, Its remains were A restor ion of the huge herb-eating reptile » but very similar forms have been found in this country, Ita enormous crest consisted 260 Marvels of the Universe Zealand. The earliest Dinosaurs were certainly carnivorous, and this flesh-eating type de- veloped in course of time into formidable reptiles of from fifteen to thirty feet in length, though never such monsters in bulk as grew up in the course of ages out of the herbivorous or seaweed- eating Dinosaurs. The vegetable-eating Dinosaurs reached an extravagant size, and evolved many strange growths of armour in course of time. It is popularly supposed that these marvellous monsters occurred mainly in North America; but although the biggest-known Dinosaurs are found in the later Secondary formations of the United States, there were others almost equally great imhabiting England, Belgium, France, Germany, East Africa and India. Some of these monsters seem to have ranged, with very little variation in species, between Western Europe and North America. Of WA ee . s pre EE = Photo by permission 0 ir H. H. Johnston. A DINOSAUR. The Dinosaur here represented is one of the flesh-eating kind. It will be noticed that it is a much smaller reptile than the huge Stegosaur on the previous page, which is a vegetable feeder. such was the Stegosaur of Colorado, here illustrated, which reappears in the closely-allied Omosaurus, in the formations of Oxfordshire and Dorsetshire, or as Polacanthus in the Isle of Wight. The picture which is given of a Stegosaur should be considered, perhaps, an American subject ; the huge armoured reptile which has been restored with such wonderful vividness and accuracy by Herr A. Pallenberg, for exhibition in the gardens of Carl Hagenbeck’s famous animal park at Stellingen, being almost certainly the American Stegosaur. The carnivorous Dinosaur, with its spinal crest of bony plates, is intended for a Megalosaur. The Megalosaurs originated in Europe, and are most commonly met with there in the formations representing the first three quarters of the Secondary Epoch, but they afterwards extended their range to western North America in time to attack and perhaps help to extinguish the last pre- posterous Stegosaur. Marvels of the Universe 261 Photo bu] 3 [z. Reps ELS. THE WORM-EATING SLUG IN A RESTING STATE. THE WORM-EATING SLUG BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. To the average gardener, amateur or professional, the statement that all slugs are not his enemies will be received as rank heresy. But it is a fact which even he would be compelled to accept if he were a little more observant and less inclined to treat all creeping things as specially designed to thwart his efforts. The slug to which special reference is now to be made is one that few people who are not naturalists have ever seen. It passes the greater part of its life underground, only coming to the surface when its underground runs are flooded, or on moist nights when its special prey, the earthworm, is also out for an airing. : The Worm-eating Slug is purely carnivorous, and would, Reauatiticley speaking, turn up its nose at the choicest bed of seedlings that were ever grown. In nearly all respects it differs from the well-known ordinary slugs. The latter, it will be remembered, are thickest at a little distance Photo by} LE. Step, F.L.S. THE WORM-EATING SLUG EXTENDED. In this condition the Slug enters the burrows of the earthworm and eats the worms. A hard shell on the tail end protects this Slug from a similar attack from one ot its own kind that may follow it down the same burrow. 262 Marvels of the Untverse behind the head, where they are covered by a flap with loose edges and known appropriately as the mantle. On the right margin of this mantle is an opening to the gill-chamber, where the slug’s blood is purified. Within the substance of the mantle are a few grains of shelly matter that, in a poor way, represent the spiral shell of the snail. From this stoutest part of the body the common sorts of slugs taper away to the rear. In the Worm-eating Slug much of this is reversed. The stoutest part of the slug is right behind, and it tapers forwards to the very sleader head. We were once told by a friend who had discovered one of these slugs in his garden that he had witnessed the extraordinary sight of a slug gliding backwards. He was an observant man, or he would never have taken note of the fact that slugs ordinarily go with the thickest part forward; but not sufficiently observant, or he would have noticed that this remarkable slug had a rather prominent shell. The Worm-eating Slug wears quite a small mantle covering its air-chamber, which is situated at the extreme hind-end of the body, and this mantle is almost covered by the small, thick shell. An ordinary slug has its mouth armed with jaws for cutting the stalks of the juicy seedlings, and a wonderful ribbon- shaped tongue studded with flinty hooks for rasping the said seedlings into pulp. The Worm-eating Slug has lips, but no jaws. It has a long ribbon-shaped tongue like other slugs, but the hooks upon it are barbed. These differences are all beautifully related to the peculiar habits of the Worm-eating Slug. Its great mission in life is to restrict the undue multiplication of the beneficent earthworm. Its small head and tapering body, capable of ex- tension to a length of three inches or more, enable it to enter the earthworms’ burrows like a ferret in a rabbit's run. In so doing its body fills the space, so its air-chamber must be at the extremity of its body to be provided with air. Photo bu) : ty. F. Cooper. NOW these slugs not only consume worms and THE SLUG'S TEETH. A portion of the tongue or tooth-ribbon of the Worm-eating lee l oft Atiete fl makraal If Slug. There are fifty rows of teeth, and each row consists of making a meal 0 nen Own Kindred. one subterranean beetle-grubs, but are not above fifty-one teeth. of them were followed by another in the same boring, the second one might begin to eat the first; so to guard against accidents of this kind each wears over his air-chamber the hard little shell which is proof against the tongue-hooks of his kindred. A portion of this wonderful tongue-ribbon, much enlarged, is here shown. Throughout its length it bears about fifty rows of the curved and barbed teeth, and in each row there are fifty-one teeth. The ribbon is partly thrust out, the hooks are pressed into the worm’s flesh, and he is dragged into the slug’s gullet. Wald, TUVAWVIBILIEI S JR Ie Is EVERYTHING that has life is in one way or another a marvel ; but we are too apt to consider as such only those things that are huge or ugly, or to which sentiment has given a fancy name. The Traveller's Tree is a case in point. A palm-like plant, somewhat nearly allied to the banana and THE TRAVELLER'S TREE. his . Z - = This fine palm-like tree grows in the island of Madagascar. The lower parts of the huge leaf-stalks are hollowed so that they catch and hold a large quantity of water. If the leaf-stalk is cut across, a stream of water gushes down to refresh the traveller who may need it. 264 Marvels of Photo by) ; {vlatters & Co. THE BROWN HYDRA. The Hydra is here shown fully extended, with a bud which will drop off its parent and begin a separate existence. Phoww vy | (Flatters & Co. THE HYDRA’'S STINGING THREADS. A small portion of the Hydra is here greatly enlarged in order to show the stinging threads with which it catches and kills its food. the Universe plantain, it is one of the most gracefully beautiful of such growths. But one seldom hears a word of its beauty, only of its supposed usefulness to the thirsting traveller who is struggling across the parched desert. The early travellers told how Providence had planted this tree in such places for their special benefit, and many a pious lesson has been founded upon this “ fact.’ Even when at the last gasp, with swollen tongue clinging to the dry palate, and making utterance impossible, when every throbbing vein was crying out for water, you had only to come upon the Traveller’s Tree to find all the liquid refreshment desired. Cutting the leaf-stem across, a stream of pure, cool water gushed out, and all was weli. The plentiful supply of liquid is a real fact ; and no doubt an exhausted traveller would not be too critical as to its flavour, said by later investi- gators to be disagreeable. But the weak part of the wonder-story is that the Traveller's Tree will not grow in the desert, and insists upon having its roots in well-watered soil ! As may be seen from our fine photograph, the gigantic long, flat leaves are arranged in two opposite rows above the woody stem; and these leaves are used for thatch, for dishes, and small portions folded serve for spoons. Its compara- tively small flowers are clustered at the base of the leaf-stalks. The plant is a native of Madagascar. THE FRESH-WATER HYDRA BY K. G. BLAIR, B.SC., F.E.S. To make acquaintance w th the Fresh-water Hydra all that is necessary is to go and collect a small bottle full of the floating duckweed or the thread- like green weeds that are found in almost any pond. If this material be emptied out into a bowl of clean water and allowed to stand for an hour or two in a good light, the Hydras that are almost sure to be present will have had time to recover from the shock of the disturbance, and many will probably be found to have attached themselves to the sides of the vessel and thus be more readily visible. They may be seen as a slender green stem, about one-sixth of an inch long, standing out from the side, each with a crown of about eight still more slender tentacles Marvels of the Universe 265 waving about in the water. If carefully watched, they may be observed to move about, which they do either by bending over and taking hold of the surface with their tentacles, then letting go with the other end, and attaching it again close by their new hold, or by gliding over the surface on their end of attachment, much in the same way as a snail crawls Care must be taken not to jar the vessel or to disturb tne water, or the Hydra will draw in its ten- tacles and contract its body to a mere globule of dark Photo bu} reauirent green jelly and fall to the Photo by} [A. Leal. Hydra swallowing a water grub. bottom. Hydra swallowing a young fish. In spite of its extreme tenuity, the whole animal is hollow, the cavity occupying the thread-like body sending a branch up each of the tentacles ; its only opening is the mouth, which is situated in the centre of the circlet of arms. Further, the body-wall of Hydra is composed of three distinct layers ; the middle one of these is of a jelly-like consistency, the layers on either side of this, both within and without, being composed of cells. The cells of the inner layer project into the central cavity, which serves as the stomach of the animal, and their secretions act upon the small animals captured and swallowed by the Hydra, so that they can be digested. The cells of the outer layer are considerably smaller, and are mainly muscular in function, effecting the elongation and contraction of the aiimal, though among them are various kinds of special cells, such as the reproductive cells and the stinging cells. The latter are arranged in little groups, or batteries, mainly upon the tentacles, and upon receiving the requisite stimulus, such as is afforded by the touch of any passing creature, they shoot out a fine thread-like dart that pierces the body of the prey and appears to exercise a paralysing effect upon it, so that it can be seized by the tentacles and swallowed without further struggling. These darts, highly magnified, may be seen in the photograph on page 264. Water-fleas and other minute animals form the staple food of the Hydra. A Hydra will very often be observed to have one or perhaps two young ones growing out like buds from the main body, at about one-third of its length from the base. The buds remain attached ‘> the parent for scme time, and put:out their tentacles and catch food on their own account, though their central cavity still remains in con-- munication with that of the parent. They may even put out secondary buds of their own, so that we find one individual consisting of three generations, all enjoying a common stomach which Photo bv] 1) Lea branches up between them. Photo by} [4 Leal. One Hydra sw 1g another The Brown Hvdra found on Hydra capturing a water-flea. the undersides of water-lily leaves and such-like places is more prolific in this manner than the Green Hydra of the duckweed; it is also rather larger and more slend2r, and a well-budded 266 Marvels of the Universe specimen with the long, thread-like tentacles of all its members waving gently in the water affords an extremely beautiful sight. Sooner or later, however, the buds become detached and commence housekeeping on their own account. There is also a sexual method of reproduction, in which, instead of a bud being formed, an egg takes its place. This, after fertilization, secretes round itself a hard coat, and drops off, and in due time the shell splits and a young Hydra emerges. Like many other animals that reproduce their species asexually—that is, by budding, or some similar process—Hydra is able to replace any lost parts; but in Hydra this power is developed to such a degree that even if cut up into pieces, each piece can replace all the rest and develop into a complete individual. Though such an inconspicuous creature, Hydra presents us with a number of most interesting phenomena. For instance, its very colour—green or brown, according to species—is due to a minute, single-celled plant that lives within the cells of the digestive layer of the body-wall. The plant is not a parasite, as it causes no harm to its host ; indeed, it is probably useful to it, both by the fact of its colour rendering the Hydra less conspicuous and less easily found by its enemies, and also by its vital processes yield- ing products that are useful to the Hydra. In return, the plant doubtless receives considerable protection in being enclosed within the body of the Hydra, and probably obtains its food from waste excretions of its host. In spite of its frail appearance, and the benevolent part it plays as host, the Hydra is a creature to be reckoned Photo bv) [Flatters & Co. THE HYDRA AND ITS VICTIMS. with in pond-life. Its capacity for z nourishment is enormous and vastly dis- In the upper figure the Hydra has captured and is swallowing a A 3 : = worm; in the lower it is a young fish that has fallen a victim. The proportionate to 1ts size. Many are the distinction between captor and prey may be traced by means of the water-fleas and other small fry that the tentacles, which surround the mouth. c ee) : c s) Hydra can account for, and occasion- ally even very minute fishes find their way down that capacious gullet. The victims are caught and stung to death by the thread-like tentacles shown on page 264. Even its own kind are not outside the limits of its voracious appetite. In the lower left-hand photograph on page 265 an instance of this flagrant cannibalism is shown. The vanquished is already becoming part of the victor. When we come to examine the affinities of the Hydra we find that it stands alone as an inhabitant of fresh water, all its relatives being marine. It is closely allied to the jelly-fish, so beloved of nervous bathers, and less closely to the sea-anemones ; indeed, it can hardly be doubted that Hydra itself is descended from marine ancestors, but. in adapting itself to fresh-water conditions it has, as is usually found in such cases, become considerably modified, especially as regards the development of the young. In Hydra this modification is evident in the suppression of the free-swimming stage in the life history that is found in its marine cousins; in the comparative rarity and simplicity of the sexual method of reproduction ; and in the fact that the buds sooner or later drop off and start life as new individuals, instead of remaining attached to form a branching colony. Bu permission of] [sir 1. H. Johnston. UMBRELLA BIRDS. Two distinct kinds of Umbrella Birds are here shown—the Pendulum-bearer to the left and the Bare-necked Umbrella Bird to the right. They are both from different parts of Tropical America. The remarkable appendages from the throat are connected with the vocal organs, and increase the depth and mellowness of their flute-like calls. 268 Marvels of the Universe UMBRELLA BIRDS BY SIR H. H. JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. SouTH and Central America are the home of several remarkable groups of Passerine birds of rela- tively large size, and of more primitive structure than the Singing-birds which make up such an overwhelming contingent in numbers of the whole bird class as it exists at the present day. Amongst these there is, perhaps, no more extraordinary form to be seen as regards the development of plumage than the Umbrella Birds. The best known of these was introduced to European collec- tions as early as the eighteenth century, coming from the forests of the Amazon in Northern Brazil. It had been seldom seen alive by white men, as it lived in the higher branches of forest trees, where it subsisted on wild fruits. But the natives pursued it for its extraordinary plumage and obtained specimens by the use of their blow-guns. The great naturalist-explorer, H. W. Bates, gave an excellent description of the peculiar vocal powers of this Umbrella Bird. “ It drew itself up on its perch, spread widely the umbrella-formed crest, dilated and waved its glossy breast lappet, and then, in giving vent to its loud, piping note, bowed its head slowly forwards.”’ Further research amongst the forests and mountains of Equatorial America produced still more remarkable developments of these birds in the way of plumage and appendages. Of such are the two species here illustrated—the Pendulum-bearer from Ecuador, and the Bare-necked Umbrella Bird from Costa Rica. In the first-named the chest appendage or lappet grows to a length of as much as eight inches in the male; in the females of all forms of Umbrella Birds the eccentric developments of the plumage do not attain the same proportions. In the Bare-necked Umbrella Bird the appendage is shorter, almost devoid of feathers, and is covered with a brightly coloured red and yellow skin. It was shown by Bates that these appendages were pouches communicating with the breathing and vocal organs, and increased the depth and flute-like mellowness of the loud call. Photo by) [W. Saville Kent. A GIANT CLAM. An empty shell of a Giant Clam on an Australian coral reef exposed at low water, The pure white of the interior contrasts strongly with the dull-coloured and weedy exterior. Marvels of the Universe 2€9 Photo bu} : ere cw. Saville Kent, A GIANT CLAM. In this photograph the Giant Clam is alive, and between the partly open valves of the shell the “mantle’’ which lines and produces the shell is seen. The weight of the shell keeps it in position among the rocks. THE GIANT CLAM BY SIR H. H. JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. THE Giant Clam, or Tridacna, like the familiar oyster, is a bivalve, and is the supreme develop- ment in size known amongst a!l shells. The specimens illustrated on page 270 measure about three feet across at their widest; but according to the late W. Saville Kent, probably the largest may attain to ten feet in width off the coast of Queensland, and the entire animal weighs as much as two thousand pounds. These Clams are evidently among the latest developments of bivalve shells, since they cannot be traced back farther geologically than the Miocene Period or middle of the Tertiary Epoch. The muscular power developed in these huge Clams is very great. When undisturbed this mighty Clam usually remains with the shell partially open, but if a man were so foolish as to insert his hand or foot between the inter- locking valves they would at once close on such an intrusion, and it would be impossible to open them without recourse to the forcible application of crowbars or axes. The Clams of to-day—or, at least, those of enormous size—come mainly from the shallow parts of the Pacific Ocean, amongst the coral islands; and Mr. Saville Kent, in his monumental work, ‘‘ The Great Barrier Reef of Australia,’ alludes to the loss of life occasioned among the men who wade or dive among the coral reefs in search of pearls or béche-de-mey, by their inadvertently inserting a foot between the gaping valves of the Giant Clam. The outer surface of the shell in the older clamsis so disguised by a parasitic growth of weeds, coral and sponges that they are not easily distinguishable from their inanimate surroundings, and the “‘ mantle’”’ of the Giant Clam, which may be seen between the open valves, is not brilliantly coloured like that of the smaller species, but is only light brown, with stripes of darker brown. The fisherman—black, white or yellow—once caught by the Clam, is held 270 Marvels of the Universe there till he drowns, unless a comrade comes to his assistance and prizes open the shell. The Giant Clam, however, merely rests on the rocks, anchored by its weight, and does not attach itself per- manently by any bundle of filaments or cartilaginous plug. The picture on page 269 (an original photograph by the late Mr. Saville Kent) shows the Giant Clam as and where it lives, and illustrates very well its remarkable development of shell-teeth. The powerful muscle which enables this Clam to close its shell is said to be good eating, and this use of the Giant Clams of the Pacific was noted by Captain Cook in his voyages of exploration. By permission of } GIANT CLAM SHELLS In this photograph both inside and outside of the enormous shell is shown. The high ridge at the back of one valve fits into a corresponding groove in the opposite one, and in conjunction with an elastic ligament constitutes the hinge upon which the valves open and shut. THE GIANT CRAB OF JAPAN BY SIR. H. H. JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. THE Giant Crab of Japan, or Kampfer’s Crab, is supposed to be the largest of the crab tribe in existence. The male can span between its outstretched legs as much as eleven feet. This is a moderate estimate, for there are records of specimens so large that they could span as much as eighteen feet. It is the opposite extreme in its class to the minute “‘ water-fleas ’’ found in every pond, which are barely a hundredth of an inch in total length. The Giant Crab of Japan belongs to the section known as the Spider Crabs, which are represented in the seas of Europe as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The largest European Spider Crab is the Spiny Spider Crab, but this is not so large or remarkable as the monstrous crab which was discovered in the waters of Japan and named after the German biologist, Kampfer. The specimen here illustrated, perhaps the largest in any : ’ ; [Sir H.W, Johns: THE GIANT CRAB OF JAPAN. Kaimpler's Spider Crab is here seen in retreat towards the sea, where naturally it remains; it is not a shore-haunting crab, but remains in fairly deep water among the rocks and weeds, as shown in the coloured plate, Between the tips of its firat pair of legs it can span eleven feet or more By permisstor 272 Marvels of the Untverse collection, was brought from Japan to the Natural History Museum of Munich by Professor F. Doflein. The Spider Crabs live on the sea-bottom, at varying depths from the surface. They clamber about amongst the weeds and rocks, and often show in their structure or adornments a remarkable resemblance to their surroundings. Some species actually plant upon their spiny shells anemones, sponges, or seaweeds, causing them to take root there. But in spite of all attempts at disguising themselves and of their sometimes enormous size, they are constantly preyed on by the octopus and many fishes. “ORGAN-PIPE” CORAL BY EDWARD A. MARTIN, F.G.S. Amoncst the great variety of forms assumed by the hard skeletons of the coral-polyps none is more beautiful than the group known as the ‘“ Organ-Pipe Corals.’” The chief living form has the remarkable peculiarity which has given it its popular name, and bears what is really a remarkable resemblance to a number of pipes of an organ clustered together, as though placed in position by the hand of man, rather than a normal natural growth. The pipes are arranged in fairly parallel upright rows, with spaces between them, and they are seen under the microscope to be made up of an immense number of chalky spicules fused together by the animal. All these pipes are held together by transverse plates, or platforms, placed at distances of about an inch apart, as though dividing the whole into floors or stories, with the different floors supported by a large number of hollow ‘ Photo by] CE. Step, F.LS. THE ORGAN-PIPE CORAL. This coral, which is of a fine though dull red colour, forms colonies of a foot or more across. It attaches itself to other corals, and can be found at low tide in the pools near the edge of the coral reefs. The little platforms connecting the tubes are the stage from which new growths begin py budding from the older ones. The tubes are here slightly enlarged. Marvels of the Universe 27 (oe) PuawsS 4 LW. Saville Kent. THE ORGAN-PIPE CORAL. This photograph of the living coral, taken through the water, shows the polyps expanded. They are the builders of the “organ pipes,” which are more clearly shown in the other photograph from the dead and empty coral. The tentacles of the polyps are coloured a bright emerald green, making a fine contrast with the red of the tubes. pillars. It is from these floors that new tubes are begun by the budding off of new polyps from the older ones. Both the tubes and the platforms are of a striking crimson colour, the polyps themselves and their enclosing flesh, with the exception of their tentacles, being of the same colour as their hard skeleton. The tentacles, which are eight in number, are of a fine emerald green. When living, each of the tubes encloses within it a little coral polyp, and the effect of hundreds of green tentacles projecting from hundreds of crimson tubes is marvellous in the extreme. It must be remembered that each polyp is essentially the same as a sea-anemone, although much smaller, and also that the hundreds of rosetted polyps in a single lump of coral are all united together and form one compound colony. The crimson layer of fleshy material covers the outside of all the tubes and the platforms, and the hard chalky “ coral”’ is the skeleton of the animal. It is the flesh which secretes from the ocean the lime which goes to make up the coral, and imparts its own crimson colour to it ; and when the tubes have departed from the upright sufficiently to allow room for another tube between them, a fresh tube will commence to be built from one of the transverse platforms by a process of budding from the parent stock. The colony is fed in the same way that a sea-anemone obtains its food. The polyps cannot go in search of food, so they have to wait until it comes within reach of their tentacles. Then, like the anemones, they grasp at the tiny particles of food which are wafted towards them, and the food is conveyed by the tentacles to the mouth, which is in the centre of each cluster of tentacles. Not the least remarkable thing in connection with these corals is the fact that all the polyps of a colony are in organic connection with each other, and thus the food which reaches any one of the numerous mouths goes to support the whole organism. The Organ-pipe Coral does not form reefs or islands as some corals do. The masses in which it is found are comparatively small, usually not much more than a foot or so across; and it is most frequently attached to other corals. It is found in comparatively shallow water, in the pools at the edge of the coral reef at low-water. 18 274 Marvels of the Universe THE SCORPION AT HOME BY K. G. BLAIR, B.SC., F.E.S. SCORPIONS are essentially tropical creatures, though a few species are found in the south of Europe. They are nocturnal in their habits, hiding away by day under stones, and, owing to their retiring disposition, and the fear and disgust in which they are usually held, until recently very little was known of the details of their life-history. Of recent years, M. J. H. Fabre, an eminent French naturalist, has investigated the habits of the larger of the two common European species, and to the delightful account he has given us we are indebted for many of the following particulars. This Scorpion, known as the Scorpion of Languedoc, attains a length of about three and a half inches, and is of a pale brownish-yellow colour. It inhabits dry hilly regions almost devoid of vege- tation by reason of constant exposure to a scorching sun, and is to be found-under the flat stones and slabs of rock that are scattered everywhere about. If a stone be turned over, a circular hole, several inches deep, will be found, often with the Scorpion at the entrance, with claws extended and tail curled over his back, ready for all comers. On a hot sunny day the Scorpion loves to lie thus immediately beneath the stone, heated right through by the sun; but on a cold or wet day it retires into its burrow. The large pincer-claws are used as weapons of attack and as purveyors of food to the mouth ; they are endowed with a very delicate sense of touch, and when the animal is walking are held well forward, slightly spread, and sway gently up and down; for though provided with four pairs of eyes, these are all directed so Photo bu] [P. H. Fabre, ia kee THE END OF THE MALE SCORPION. muehisidewa ys ca ae Une Scorpion is not able to see straight in front The lady Scorpion takes the government of the household into her own hands, and has her husband served up for breakfast. of ThE, and relies upon the delicate perceptions of its claws for information as to where it is going. The tail, armed at the end with the poison dart or sting, is usually carried curled forwards over the back, or when at rest curls to one side of the body. When attacking its prey, the Scorpion approaches quietly and seizes it with its pincers; if the fly seized remains quiet, it is simply brought to the mouth and held there while devoured at leisure, without the sting being brought into play at all; but should it struggle violently the Scorpion, which above all things dislikes a disturbance, curls the tail forward over the back, holds the sting poised, as it were, for a second, then pricks the victim once or twice to keep it quiet. Though so deliberate in all its movements, the Scorpion does not seem to care much how it holds the prey or in what region of the body the dart pierces it. The effect of the sting varies very much according to the victim, and experiments were tried, by inducing the Scorpion to attack different animals, to determine this effect. Spiders curled up and died at once; most insects, especially those of more delicate organization, were at once paralysed, while death followed more or less rapidly; on the other hand, a large centipede survived (Pol. Bab HOME-COMING OF THE BRIDE, ce, th Sc tis bride into it. Next morning the cave has only one photo 276 Marvels of the Universe for several days. Strangely enough, though an insect such as a moth or a beetle very quickly dies after being stung, their grubs seem to be quite immune, and even after their soft bodies have been pricked many times they appear quite un- affected by the poison, and in due time produce the perfect insect as though nothing had happened. A beetle reared from such a larva was stung to see whether it would now be immune, but it succumbed as rapidly as one that had never been inoculated. Unfortunately these experiments weré not extended to a human subject, but from other less exact reports it would appear that, while the sting of a Scorpion has been known occasionally to prove fatal, it does so probably only when the blood of the patient is very much out of order. The love affairs of the Scorpion are most en- tertaining. A male Scorpion out for a walk one Photo by] [P. Hl. Fabre. THE FINISHING STROKE. If its victim struggles the Scorpion curls its tail over its back and pricks its prey once or twice to quiet it. warm evening in April or Mav meets a lady, usually somewhat larger than himself. The two stand face to face with claws extended; and, resting the fore part of the body firmly on the ground, each raises the hinder part, as if trying to stand on its head, until their tails cross, when they rub them affectionately one against the other and hook the tips round one another. This performance is apparently the usual greeting in polite Scorpion society, though in the case of a young couple thinking of matrimony the actions are more ceremonious and partake of the nature of a caress. If the lady be agreeable, he seizes her two hands, one in each of his, and walking backwards, Photo bu) [P. . Fabre. MOTHER AND FAMILY. The young Scorpions are about one-third of an inch long when they leave the egg. They climb upon the back of their mother, and crowd together there without food for a week. draws her gently after him. They may perambulate in this manner for some hours, but eventually he finds some crevice under a stone that he considers suitable, enlarges it by scratching up the earth with his feet and sweeping it out with his tail, all the time maintaining his hold of the lady, and finally pulls her in after him. If she is satisfied, well and good, but if not they come out and wander round to find another home. Sometimes during their perambulations a bigger male than the first will put in a claim to the lady: they do not, as might be expected, engage in mortal combat, but each takes hold of one arm and pulls until one obtains the advantage, when the vanquished abandons the lady, and sets off to find another. When, however, the course of true love runs as it should, the happy couple at last find a house to suit them and take shelter there late that Marvels of the Universe 277 night. Next morning, if the stone be turned over, the female is found to be in sole possession, with possibly a fragment of her spouse beside her. The details of the awful tragedy are not fully known, but it appears that the lady, who has hitherto remained perfectly passive, suddenly takes the government of the household into her own hands and has her husband served up for breakfast. Exactly how she manages to overpower him, especially considering that he had hold of her hands, is not known, but the result is always the same. Whatever may be thought of her conduct as a wife, the female Scorpion forms an exemplary mother. About fourteen months after the tragedy of mating she deposits her eggs. It was formerly believed that Scorpions brought forth their young fully formed, but M. Fabre’s have proved that they are really deposited as eggs, though the eggshell is an extremely delicate researches Photo by} (PH. Fabre. A FRIENDLY GREETING. Two Scorpions meeting stand face to face with claws extended. Each raises its hinder part, as if it were trying to stand on its head, until their tails cross, when they hook the tips round each other. membrane, from which the soft, helpless young are unable to free themselves without the aid of the mother. As soon as the eggs are laid, the mother proceeds to tear open the membrane with her pincers and carefully detach it from the young; as soon as all are free she collects the débris and swallows it. The little creatures are now about one-third of an inch long, white, and almost helpless ; they climb with difficulty to the back of the mother, where they lie closely packed together for a week. At the end of this time, during which they have taken no nourishment, they undergo a kind of moult, but instead of the old skin being left intact, as happens at later moults, it peels off in rags and tatters, which remain as a kind of blanket over the mother. The young Scorpions are now about half as long again as before, and become more lively, climbing about the mother and some- times starting to wander off by themselves, only to be caught and brought back again. In another week they are able to catch food for themselves; the mother now ceases to take any interest in them, and the family soon becomes dispersed, each member wandering off to fend for itself. 278 Marvels of the Universe DHE COCHINE AL INSEE CH BY HAROLD BASTIN. THE Cochineal is one of the very few insects that are directly serviceable to mankind ; and nowadays the beautiful innoxious colour for which it is famed is rapidly falling into disuse, having been largely displaced commercially by the derivatives of aniline. The fact remains, however, that for centuries man depended for this dye, and for several of the pigments, such as carmine, used by artists, upon the product of a tiny creature closely allied to certain of the worst pests with which the modern agriculturalist has had to combat. For the Cochineal Insect is a near relative of the dreaded “fluted cushion scale,” which, in a single year, reduced the Californian orange crop from eight thousand to six hundred car- loads by its ravages. Nor is it far removed in affinity from the “ green-fly ’’ which infests our roses and broad beans. The Cochineal Insect feeds, RE by sucking the sap through its delicate, tubular mouth, upon several kinds of cactus of the “ prickly-pear”’ group. Its favourite food-plant is known as Nopal. A native of Mexico, it was introduced into the Eastern hemisphere, after several unsuccessful attempts, f \ about the year 1827, and was \ established with more or less success on the borders of the Mediterranean. It was in the Canary Islands, however, that its acclimatiza- The male of the Cochineal Insect when mature is provided with a pair of wings, tion was most successfully but he is short lived and has little opportunity for using them. The figure is greatly effected, and here it was for- enlarged: in actual size the insect is little larger than the common Green-fly. [Bu J. Teklenburg. THE COCHINEAL INSECT. merly the object of an exten- sive commerce. Forty years ago the imports of Cochineal from the Canaries to Britain were valued at over £800,000. The life-story of the Cochineal Insect is very remarkable. The young, when first hatched from the egg, are mite-like creatures, with six legs, which move rapidly about upon the stems of the cactus until they find suitable anchorages for their sucking-trunks. Then each one settles down to a sedentary existence and subsists upon the sap. The female Cochineal Insect develops backwards—if I may be allowed this hibernicism. It begins life, as we have seen, as an active, six-legged creature; it ends as an inert grub, so degraded in form that most of its external organs and appendages cannot be distinguished. But when once it has got its sucker through the skin of the cactus into the juicy tissues beneath, the sucker is never withdrawn. The insect enjoys a continuous feast, for which it pays with loss of the power of movement. The male, on the contrary, undergoes a com- plete metamorphosis, and eventually attains to the dignity of two delicate wings, and the Marvels of the Universe 279 liberty to use them. Its body is red and its wings white. It has also large eyes and a pair of wonderful ten-jointed feelers ; but it lacks a mouth, and is so quite unable to feed. Needless to say, its life is of short duration. The Female Cochineal Insect becomes, at the close of her life, a veritable egg-sac ; and it is at this period that her commercial value is at its zenith, as her tissues then contain’ the greatest amount of colouring matter. The insects are brushed or scraped in their thousands from the cactus plant and fall upon sheets which have been placed upon the ground. The strange harvest is then killed, either by immersion in hot water or by the heat of a specially con- structed kiln or oven. It is after- wards subjected to a careful dry- ing process, at the conclusion of which it is ready for the market. J For commercial purposes, Cochi- neal is separated according to its quality and place of origin into a number of grades, some of which command far higher prices than others. Cochineal was formerly used medicinally, by the way, chiefly as a specific for whooping- cough. It has been estimated that a pound of the dried com- mercial Cochineal contains about seventy thousand insects. From these about ten per cent. of pure dye is obtained. If the female insect is left un- disturbed upon the cactus plant —as, indeed, some of them must be in order that the species may continue—she deposits her eggs beneath her body. A few hours later she dies, and her body sub- sequently dries up and hardens, forming a kind of concave scale, Photo bu} [Harold Bastin. COCHINEAL INSECTS ON CACTUS. The Cochineal Insects are here seen closely attached to the Cactus and or shell, which protects the eggs, and from beneath which the young spending their lives in sucking its juices. The dried bodies of the insects as € ventually creep. shown here constitute the Cochineal of commerce. It is this scale-like form of the female of the Cochineal Insect and its allies that has earned for the group to which it belongs the general designation of Scale Insects. Any amateur gardener who has a greenhouse in which a collection of cacti is growing may find either the Cochineal Insect or one of its near relations somewhat disfiguring his plants by their brown scales attached firmly to the skin. As a rule these are not suspected of being insects, but are regarded as marks of decay. 280 Marvels of the Universe PEARLS AND PEARL OYSTERS BY CHARLES DE BOISMAISON. WHEN the Pearl Oyster was very young, it left the parental mantle and floated along, a mere film, on the ebb and flow of the tide. Each day it grew a little bigger, a little heavier, a little more important, while its increasing size protected it more and more from the voracious appetites of one or other species of the innumerable hosts of marine hfe that le in wait for such minute organisms. As it grew in bulk and weight, it became less active, till at last it sank upon “ the ooze and bottom of the sea’’ and fastened itself by its beard, which grew near the hinge uniting its Shells, to the most convenient rock that chanced to project from the gravelly soil. There it grew still larger, still heavier, still more important, opening its two shells to let the water flow in, for the water carried the minute life which nourished it; andso a year or two passed by. One day-a micro- scopical creature ventured too near these open doors and was swept in by the current, but not near the expectant mouth. It was caught in the tentacle-fringed mantle that was moving with a gentle undulation along the lip of the shell. This very movement carried it still further into the mantle of the oyster, and caused the tiny victim to break the filmy skin that envelops the edge of this mantle and carry a fragment with it into the interior of the expectant oyster. Now is the biter bit. The oyster cannot swallow his disappointing visitor, for that visitor is nowhere within reach of his mouth; and while he is himself denied the expectant feast, the little creature who was to form that feast is causing intense irritation to his nervous system. Time, however, and his own constitution help to ease him of his annoying intruder. His nervous disorder causes him to secrete the delicate film with which he has lined his shell and which has hardened into mother-o’-pearl. Photo bu} [W. Saville Kent. THE PEARL OYSTER’S SHELL. The open shell of the Pearl Oyster after the death of the animal, showing a large pearl. This was probably formed in a free condition and globular in form, but afterwards became attached to the shell. Refuse Imitations and INSIST on _ having Dr. J. COLLIS BROWNE’S Chlorodyne, | . The Most The Original and a Valuable Only Genuine. i | t Medicine The Best Remedy known for 3 ever COUGHS, COLDS, [ff discovered. ASTHMA, BRONCHITIS. 18 The name Dr. J. Collis + SA nha 1 Browne is on the stamp Cuts short all attacks | The only Palliative in i ie : a of SPASMS, NEURALGIA.GOUT, [— @ ! every bottle of genuine HYSTERIA and RHEUMATISM, Bl Chlorodyne. PALPITATION. TOOTHACHE. i | Acts like a charm in | Convincing od A HEA, DYSENTERY and BS fe Medical Testimony Pe. enor: DIARR CHOLERA. R 2 2 with each bottle. r/1¥, 2/9, 4/6. a: *“ MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE ”’— continued from page 2.] Dr. E. J. Spitta describes and illustrates LUCERNARIA the graceful marine animal that is something between a jelly-fsh and an anemone. account of the fsh-like lizard of ancient days, known as THE ICHTHYOSAUR. Mr. T. E. R. Phillips, F.R.A.S., the acknowledged chief authority upon the subject, tells the story of THE PLANET JUPITER. A BEE ARTIZAN Mr. Harold Bastin describes, with the aid of photographs, the clever upholstery work of the Leaf-Cutter Bee. Mr. Edward Step calls attention to the varied forms and utilitarian beauty of THE SEA SLUGS Sir Harry Johnston follows with an Under the title of (which is further shewn in a _ beautiful coloured plate) by means of MARVELS of the UNIVERSE. which they are practically concealed from their enemies. Mr. Frank I. Bullen PRIZE COUPON V. writes upon a THE REMORA OR SUCKING-FISH Pai whose peculiarities were known in a measure to the ancients. Some capital This coupon to be retained and not sent in until photographs make clear its power of adhesion. Mr. R. I. Pocock, F.R.S., YEA OE OME LEIE Of 9G beh deals with the well-known, though perhaps little-understood BIRD-CATCHING SPIDER. Other subjects dealt with in this part are Spanish Moss and the Python. There are two beautiful Coloured Plates and numerous Black and White Illustrations. The high quality of production, Subscribers may be assured, will be maintained to the completion of the work. Every part will consist of forty pages of letterpress and illustrations, with two beautiful Coloured Plates. THE CHEAPEST BOOK OF THE YEAR AND ONE OF THE MOST BEAUTIFUL THE WONDERS OF THE WORLD LS :OF NAT a Y AS: THEY-EXIST: TODAY N The work comprises an absolutely original and almost priceless collection of Photo- graphs of the Marvels of the World. All | the World’s most wonderful sights as seen by the most eminent travellers, many of whom have supplied the descriptive text. With over 1,000 BEAUTIFUL ILLUS- TRATIONS REPRODUCED FROM PHOTOGRAPHS INCLUDING 28 COLOURED PLATES THE CONTRIBUTORS INCLUDE; SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B.; THE EARL OF RONALDSHAY, M.P.; ALAN BURGOYNE, M.P.; PERCEVAL LANDON; CARA Cu GacRAV EIN Ge GilsE a airnine esa B. L. PURNAM WEALE. RHE Wee SERGEANT: BERBERA IG SPONMINGwEekiG:Sa: And many others. PRINTED THROUGHOUT ON ART PAPER. In two large handsome vols.; eloth gilt and full gilt edges, 12s. 6d. net per vol., and in various leather bindings. London: HUTCHINSON & CO. LETTERPRESE PRINTED AT THE CHAPEL RIVER PRESS, KINGSTON-ON-THAMES ; COLOURED PLATES BY A. C. FOWLER. spout 24 Fortnightly Parts. 72). 9,19)2 FANE Wl. fd. net. = a = : A-Popular Work on the Marvels of The HEAVENS The EARTH PLANT LIFE ANIMAL LIFE THE MIGHTY DEEP by EMINENT SPECIALISTS including 1000 FINE ILLUSTRATIONS AND NUMEROUS | COLOURED PLATES. suprre DELICIOUS COFFEE. RED | in « BLUE For Breakfast & after Dinner. Mix Cire 3 In making, use less quantity, it being so much stronger than ordinary COFFEE, —Luxury indeed to the smoker *“ Drink Fine China Black Tea if you —A Flavour and i value your nervous system.” Fragrance’ of unusual charm = | [| E= CELESTIAL toz.6id. 20-.1/1 } Ib. tins 22 is the O! most high-class tobacconists, or send stamps FINEST CHINESE BLACK TEA. to the amount to the sole manufacturers: THOMSON & PORTEOUS, EDINBURGH Sold in S3ib., ilb. and Half-pound Canisters, at 2/2 per Ib. ha ANY GROCER WILL SUPPLY IT. MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE. A_Note Concerning Part VIII: Mr. Frank T. Bullen, best known by his book ‘The Cruise of the Cachalot,” here returns to his favourite subject and tells the story of THRE CACHALOT OR SPERM WHALE Mr. R. I. Pocock, F.R.S., writes about the huge BIRD-EATING SPIDER of tropical countries. He has also a note on the most primitive of the birds, known as THE ARCHAKOPTERYX Which exists only in the fossil condition. A further contribution from the same pen deals with the so-called KING CRAB that is, in truth, nearer to being a scorpion than a crab. Mr. E. C. Ash gives an interesting account of a little understood group of organisms whose name is constantly on our lips— ~ BACTERIA A number of the most terrible of these germs are shown in photographs on a scale twelve-hundred times the natural size. Mr. K. G. Blair, B.Sc., describes the merry CICADAS and his article is illustrated with some wonderful photographs by Mr. P. H. Fabre. [continued on page 3 of cover. Se Sao Ty ia WN) ores flyey Wey Boo: ni Secu sas ¥ - ae rs By Theo. Carreras. A SLU in general form I igs of the Sea remind us of the Slugs of the Land, the former are more richly coloured and than their re t d garden. Tt rnamentation ves the purpose of hiding them from their enemies by harmonizing ith their surround) } of it is attained in the r and crested forms by wearing part of their liver in these ap . which thereby take on the colour of their food. The Slugs are here shown about five times their natural size. Marvels of the Universe 281 With one film after another he coats the now lifeless cause of his annoyance. Still he laboriously excretes the delicate substance, till at last he possesses a treasure that makes him the envy of vain woman and the desire of covetous man—a pearl, a pearl of price! Now comes the diver and wrenches him from his rocky bed. He is bundled into sacks with thousands of his unfortunate companions; with them he forms a heap of dying and dead oysters piled on theshore. Itis not long before he, too, is dead, and the two shells gape open, disclosing the sheen of his beautiful inner home. He is then dismembered, and his little green-grey pulpy body is cast with those of his kindred into the great tub standing ready to receive them. Now these murdered innocents take a late revenge on their captors. Their bodies decay and liquefy into an By permission of} (Charles de Boismaison. THE ENGLISH RIVER MUSSEL. It is this shell which is the chief pearl-producer of the Scots fisheries. evil-smelling, disgusting ““ broth.” Did I say evil-smelling ? The term is too light for the foul By permission of] (Charles THE GIANT STROMBUS This splendid shell has occas onally produced pearls of a pink hue, and of good quality, though apt to fade. de Boismarson. stench that is given off by hundreds of decayed oysters. The putrefying remains are left for a year or so, and then the liquid is drained away. At the bottom of the tub will at last be found the pearl which has caused the de- struction of the unhappy oyster. That is the life history of the pearl oyster and the jewel it secretes. As many as one hundred and fifty pearls of varying sizes have been found within a single shell. But the common pearl oyster is not the only shell that bears pearls ; specimens have been found in the great univalve shell known as the Giant Strombus, a photograph of which is given on this page. This shell, which has an inner lining of coral pink, bears a pearl of the same pink hue, which, however, is apt to fade with age; nor are these gems very often found in Strombus, though eagerly sought for on account of their good commercial value. Again, there is the river-mussel which inhabits the fresh-water streams of Scotland and the North of England and 19 282 Marvels of the Universe which was once noted for its pearls, though of late they have greatly decreased in commercial importance, as they are of no great size and have a dull, lifeless sheen which is comparable to that of glazed porcelain. Pliny relates that a red-coloured pearl was in his day taken from a shell named Myes, which inhabited the Thracian Bosphorus. Another shell in which pearls have been found is the hammer- headed oyster, but such specimens are prized more on account of their rarity than for any peculiar quality of the gem itself. The common edible mussel and some species of the wedge shells must also be added to the list of pearl-bearers. These names are necessarily taken as representative of certain families, many members of which are to be found throughout the world, all bearing the same specific quality of pearl production. For instance, the river-mussels of England and Sweden have Photo by] [W. Saville Kent. PEARLS A photograpn showing the several varieties of pearls. In the higher part of the picture are more or less perfect pearls, amongst which, however, can be seen several ‘baroque’ pearls. To the left are pearls immersed in a nacreous matrix, while at the bottom of the picture are simvle “‘blister"’ pearls their counterpart in those of America, which are often furnished with a nacre of great depth and beauty and sometimes contain excellent pearls A variety of colours are to be found in pearls—some are dull white, like those of the English rivers: many shells bear pink pearls: while uncommon shades, such as apricot, green, deep rose, purple and black are sometimes found. There was in the famous Hope collection a pearl found in American waters, which glowed with the fiery colours of the opal, tempered with that soft lustre which is the peculiar attribute of this gem. Mr. Saville Kent mentions in his book, ‘* The Naturalist in Australia,”’ the finding of several pearls the colour of gold, and a case was brought before the notice of the writer of a man who possessed a set of studs headed with pearls that could not easily be distinguished from solid gold. But the pearls of greatest beauty and renown are those taken in the fisheries of the Persian Gulf or Ceylon. They are of the true Orient variety—creamy, mellow and lustrous. This lustre results, not from any peculiar quality of the nacre, but from the slightlw uneven surface of each coating, which causes the globule to catch and diffuse the light.. To what circumstances the coloration of pearls is due is a question not yet completely settled, though the most acceptable theory ascribes the phenomenon to some mineral substance held in solution in Photo t [W. Saville Kene. S WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PEARL, he late W. Saville Kent. This remarkable pearl is just two inches in its largest diameter, and bears a singular resemblance to a human head 284 Wlarvels of the Universe the waters which furnish the food supply of the mollusc. The theory that the colour is due to external influences rather than to an inherent quality of the oyster itself is supported by the fact that a pink and a black pearl have been found in the same shell. Such a change of colour could have been brought about by a change in the tidal currents, bringing at one time one mineral substance, at another material of a different nature; but even here the data are insufficient to form a conclusive proof. All pearls are not perfect, for only those secreted in the fleshy parts of the oyster attain the regular shapes that are essential in the true “‘ virgin” pearl. These shapes are either globular, pear-shaped, or egg-shaped. Some pearls adhere to the shell of the oyster, and becoming shaped like half-globes, are known as “ button” pearls; others are formed round a core of irregular shape, and themselves become irregular. These are known as “ baroque pearls. A pearl is easily Photo bu] [WV Saville Kent. skinned, layer after layer of the precious substance peeling THE SOUTHERN CROSS. readily off. Baroque pearls are sometimes subjected to this This remarkable WesterameNeetralion pear! has been valued at £10,000. It is composed of nine amalgamated pearls. treatment, for it may happen that a perfect virgin pearl will be found secreted in the misshapen globule. Several such specimens are shown in the lower part of the illustration on page 282, while a particularly fine example attached to the mother-shell is shown on page 283. In the sixteenth and seventeenth century such pearls were greatly in demand for making into grotesque pendants; and famous jewellers have employed their skill in devising settings to show off these quaint gems. Several good examples of such work are to be found in the collection of jewellery lent by Mr. Pierpont Morgan to the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Yet others are fash- ioned by the mollusc to repel the invasion of some boring parasites ; they are hollow, and are therefore termed “blister” pearls; some of these hollow pearls are not even composed of the same material as the pearl proper, but partake of the nature of the mother-of-pearl, and to these is given the technical name “ coq de perle.”’ There is only one sa Oe . Photo bu] LW. Saville Kent. certain test for pearls, A STRANGELY-FORMED PEARL. A small fish, Fierasfer, has here entered the shell of the mollusc and has been entombed in the nacre deposited by his host them between the and that is trying Marvels of the Universe 285 teeth. An imitation is easily detected by its hard, shppery surface, for the real gem always feels gritty. Mention has already been made of the primary cause of pearl formation—the embedding of a minute organism in the body of the mollusc. Researches have lately been carried out to ascertain the exact nature of this organism. not attacked by the same parasite. the irritation caused by a minute grain of sand or particle of wood. A photograph is given on page 284 which shows a small fish that has entered the shell of a mollusc and has been entombed in nacre by the oyster. But as the Cevlon oyster fisheries produce the finest pearls, the parasite of the Ceylon oyster is most worthy of investi- gation. It has been proved by Professor Herdman to be the grub of a tapeworm. This grub be- comes embedded in the oyster, dies, and is entombed by its host in fold on fold of nacre; while the form of the grub, which is globular, influences the shape of the pearl. So it is with a dead worm in its little shining tomb that the woman of fashion adorns herself. It is the possession of numbers of little dead worms hidden in lus- trous globes that makes her to be envied of her fellows. “ Vanity of vanities,’ saith the preacher, “ all is vanity!” BASE SCORPIONS AMONG the surprising adventures of Sinbad the Sailor, it is related that he once found himself sur- rounded by precipitous clifis up which it was impossible to climb. After fruitless efforts, he at last made his escape by tying himself to the leg of a “‘ roc,” a gigantic bird, which flew out of the valley carrying Sinbad. Possibly a somewhat similar service is rendered by the house-fly to the It has been found that all species of pearl-bearing shells ace Some, indeed, owe their pearls to the desire to rid themselves of rm L IO Rikatnsa PMO, " iste RMA ie <3 Comcast Se _ “i Photo bu) [Zrnest Marriage ‘ A FALSE SCORPION. Such is the name given to this formidable-looking creature, which, however, is here represented about forty-seven times larger than the natural size. With its great nippers it attaches itself to the leg of a fly, using its host as a means of conveyance. 286 Wlarvels of the Universe small animals known as Chelifers, or false scorpions, one of which is represented in the accom- panying photomicrographs. The whole Chelifer is shown about forty-seven times, and the illustration below about sixty times the natural size. If one looks closely at flies, especially in warm weather in the autumn, now and again a small object will be seen attached to one leg of a fly, generally one of the last pair; it is pretty sure to be one of these creatures. One day in September I caught six of them in one room (not in an old house, by the way), all held on by one claw only, and in most cases the grip was taken high up on the fly’s leg. The one from which the illustrations were made, a particularly large specimen (though its length of body was increased in the course of preparing it as a microscopic slide), was attached to the foot of a fly, and it was seen in this position with some hours’ interval between observations. The flies seem to suffer a certain amount of inconvenience, which they show in endeavouring to get quit of their passenger by rubbing their legs together.. The Chelifer apparently uses the fly, as Sinbad did the roc, as a means of changing his quarters. Autumn is a time of migration, and he possibly feels the need of a warmer place of abode for the approaching winter. On the other hand, these false scorpions may actually be parasites on the flies. In the larger illustration, two pairs of jaws armed with long teeth are shown, which are probably used for gripping and at the same time sucking the juices of its prey after the manner of the real scorpions. Thus the Chelifer seems well equipped for a parasitical exist- ence, and the absence of eyes in the creature points in the same direction. However, as Photo bu] : (Ernest Marriage. far as my personal observation c / F THE FALSE SCORPION. : ; aie oe ae goes, these little animals are Be eee A icc a akek oreutk eh aaa Wates alse never attached to the body of known as the Book Scorpion, as one of its favourite haunts is an old and disused book. the insect. Again, their con- nection with flies may be purely accidental. Both for hibernating and for laying their eggs, flies frequent places which are likely haunts of the Chelifer; the latter may seize the fly’s leg in mistake for its regular prey, and once fastened, it certainly clings with great tenacity. In colour the Chelifer is a reddish-brown. Besides the formidable lobster-like claws already men- tioned, which are attached to its head, it has eight legs, a characteristic of the spider tribe to which it belongs. It bears in several respects a remarkable resemblance, though of course in miniature, to the true scorpions (fortunately not natives of the British islands), to which it isakin. Anyone comparing these photographs with drawings or photographs of real scorpions will see how similar are the claws and head; the false scorpion, however, lacks the formidable tail with the sting at its tip. They are also called Book Scorpions, because in olden, and probably dirtier, times they were to be found in libraries. They are not uncommon in store-rooms of old houses, in piles of dusty and neglected papers, and in stables; also under the bark of trees, in rotten wood or moss and under stones. Though the Book Scorpion looks a fearsome creature when seen under a [By A. Twidle. THE HORNBILL ON HER NEST. The method of “‘nesting’’ of the Hornbill is very peculiar. The hen makes her nest in the hollow of a tree, and eee incubation commences the cavity is filled up by the male bird, with an aperture only for the beak of the sitter. He then feeds his mate assiduously until the eggs are hatched. 288 Marvels of the Universe microscope, it is pro- bably more useful than harmful, and helps, by killing and eating mites and small insects, to preserve rather than destroy books. HORNBILLS BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. THE Hornbills, which range in size from a bird no larger than a crow (about eleven inches in length) to one that exceeds a _ large turkey in size and measures five and a half feet from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail, belong to the Picarian order of birds, of which they are the largest representatives. Together with the Todies, Kingfishers, Bee-eaters, Rollers and Motmots, they consti- tute a division of this order, which is charac- terized, amongst other features, by a joining as 2 Shee 4 ata together for half of By permission of] Bi Ca RE (Sir 1. IT. Johnston. their length of the third It is supposed—and there is little reason to doubt the supposition—that the Hornbill and fourth toes. Pro- is the original of the fabled Phoenix of the Ancients. bably their far-back an- cestors had their toes turned two and two like those of the Trogons, during which process the third and fourth toe grew close together. Then the second toe was once more turned forward, producing the type of foot which is now characteristic of the Hornbills and Kingfishers. But the casual observer will be more struck by the extraordinary beaks of these grotesque birds than by their peculiarly fashioned feet. The beak is always very large, though perhaps it does not in any species attain to such a disproportionate size as in the American Toucans (whose resemblance to the Hornbills is merely accidental and not due to near relationship). In some Hornbills not only is the beak very big, but it is surmounted by a casque or helmet, commencing on the forehead and growing on the top of the upper mandible. Thus certain Hornbills possess a really marvellous appearance, and undoubtedly attracted so much attention from the ancient Arvan invaders of Marvels of the Universe 289 India and Ceylon that they originated the myth of the Phcenix: though how they came to be associated with fire and immortality I cannot say. But the Arab and medieval Italian accounts of the “ Phcenix Bird”’ of Ceylonand Malaysia can all be traced back to an exaggerated description of one or other species of Hornbill; and there is said to be still amongst the Crown jewels of the Sultan of Turkey a cup which is carved out of the solid helmet of a Malay Hornbill, and is described as being made “ from the beak of a Phcenix.”’ In this species both beak and casque are solid and have the appearance of ivory; but in all the other Hornbills the swollen part of the upper mandible, and, above all, the helmet or casque, are hollow ; that is to say, the structure is a series of cells with light pithy walls, so that the monstrous beak and its excrescence are much lighter to carry than they appear. Another species of Hornbill found in India and Malaysia has a double casque on the top of its beak divided into two horns, while a kindred form here illustrated has the beak and casque of a bright brick-red colour, the casque being curved like a crescent and conse- quently apt to be manufactured into an ornamental sword-hilt by the natives. The big Rhinoceros Hornbill, which is here illustrated in two forms, has the beak yellow-white in colour. The casque, which is coloured red, orange and black, is curved crescent-shaped in the Indian form, and in another species or sub-species found in the Malay Islands it is very large, and straight along the top. In the great Ground Hornbills of Africa—which have developed long legs and bear a misleading resemblance to turkeys—the casque is abruptly truncated at the end as though it had been chopped in half by an axe, and the sides are curiously undulating. But less than half the species of this extraordinary group (which amongst other peculiarities develops thick black eyelashes) have no casque on the top of their beaks, though there may be a Eu permission of} (Sir H, H. Johnston. THE NIPAL HORNBILL. This bird is remarkable for the peculiar notches in the beak. Although they have the appearance of teeth they do not seem to be used for the purpose of mastication, as all food ie swallowed whole. 290 Marvels of the Universe slight ridge instead. In the absence of a helmet, the exuberance of development about the head is manifested in some cases by the growth of a crest or mane. Mane is almost the word which might be applied, for example, to the great Red Hornbill of Nipal. In the still more remarkable-looking Maned Hornbill of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula the head-feathers grow into a thick crest which projects over the basal part of the beak in delicate white spikes. It will be observed that the beak of the Nipal Hornbill is strongly toothed, the teeth, of course, being merely due to deep notches in the edge of the mandible. This is a feature developed in not a few Hornbills ; but it is difficult to see how it can be useful to the bird, since the Hornbills do not seem to crush or masticate their food, but to swallow it whole. The teeth, like the coloured ridges in the beaks of some Horn- bills, may be only an additional “ swagger ’’ development, intended, like the crests, to strike terror into their enemies. Curiously enough, in confnement, Hornbills —especially the Ground Hornbill of Africa—are amiable, good- natured birds, that never seem— at least, that is my experience, and I have kept or observed not a few of them in captivity—to make use of their formidable beaks In an aggressive manner or with the spitefulness of parrots, and they probably look much fiercer than they really are, and depend for protection more on their ex- ceedingly nasty-tasting flesh than on their clumsy and not over- strong beaks. The black and white Hornbills of Africa have de- veloped an extremely loud trum- TS RSET pet-call, which is sometimes like THE BLACK HORNBILL. the braying of an ass, sometimes In this variety the great horn is supplemented with a black mane. This like the loud cries of a woman horn, it should be remembered, is hollow and constructed of a series of cells with light pithy walls, which minimizes the apparent weight. in distress. It certainly serves to scare away from the Hornbills’ haunts not only the native hunter, but also monkeys, baboons, wild cats and civets, which might contemplate any tearing open of the nest and devouring of the callow young. Hornbills have very peculiar nesting habits. A hollow is excavated in a tall tree, generally in the fork between two branches. The bottom of the nest is covered with chips and dust dropped into the excavation. On this surface about four eggs are laid—sometimes more, sometimes less. As soon as the last egg of the clutch has been deposited, the female applies herself to incubation, and the male then, using his beak as a trowel, plasters up the orifice of the nest with clay in such a way that there is only a small hole left for the protrusion of the beak and head of the female, who is thus Photo by) ston of) (Sir H. H, Johnston. THE MANED HORNBILL OF SUMATRA. In this species the casque of the Hornbill has disappeared and has been replaced by a great crest or mane, which in the species here shown is white. 292 Marvels of the Universe immured until the eggs are hatched. During this period the male feeds her assiduously with insects, carrion, small reptiles and fruit. When the young are hatched, male and female tear away the dry plaster of mud, and thenceforth one or other of the parents mounts guard over the callow young until they are large enough to leave the nest. Hornbills are, of course, monogamous, and I should think paired for life. The Black Hornbill of Western Equatorial Africa resembles certain Asiatic Hornbills in the difference of coloration between male and female, the adult male being black in plumage, while the female has the head, back and breast of chestnut-brown. For the most part, however. the coloration of the large Hornbills is mainly black and white, the black being often glossed with tints of iridescent green and blue. When there is any third colour in the plumage it is generally the chestnut- red referred to. But these birds are often rendered still more picturesque by brightly-coloured spaces of bare skin round the orbits of the eyes, or on the throat. Two Black Hornbills of West Africa develop a wattle on the throat, which is Jleaden-blue in colour, contrasting in the male with the bright-red and purple-blue spaces of wrinkled skin at the base of the beak and round the eyes. The Maned Hornbill of Sumatra, here illustrated, has the naked spaces on the face almost a cobalt blue in tint when Bu permission of) [Sir H. H. Johnston. RHINOCEROS HORNBILLS the bird is alive. In The beak of these birds is yellow-white; the casque is coloured red, orange and black. other forms the cheeks are Notice that the casque is, in the upper bird, which comes from the Malay Islands, very straight-edged, while the lower Indian form is sharply curved. lemon-yellow. EE SING CRAs BY R. I. POCOCK, F.R.S. Tue King Crab is a wonderful creature for many reasons. In the first place, he holds amongst existing species in the animal kingdom a position which is almost unique for its isolation. Although commonly called a crab, because he lives in the sea, breathes by means of gills and uses the basal segments of his legs for chewing his food, he is not a crab at all in the sense in which that term should be properly understood. Indeed, there is far less of the crab about him than there is about a wood-louse, or a sand-hopper, or any of that great and hetero- geneous assemblage of aquatic organisms popularly designated shrimps. It would be much nearer the mark to call him the King Scorpion, for his kin- ship to the Scorpion, although admittedly remote, is not now doubted by any com- petent judge. So long as this relationship is clearly understood and remembered, no harm is done by adhering to the popular name of “ 4 pe Ria 8k ; “| trite pots vi 4. ue Photo by) CW. S. Berridge. F.Z.S. Marvels of the Universe 203 AMERICAN KING CRAB. On the upper side the King Crab is entirely protected by the two large armour-like shells. Only the long slender “‘tail’’ is exposed, but this is covered, likewise, by hard shell. King Crab for these animals. But we have to trace their lineage a long way back in the geological records before finding animals obviously related to them, which, by their superficial as well as fundamental resemblance to Scorpions, carry conviction as to the truth of the kinship above claimed. Unlike the King Crabs, these animals, the Eurypterida, were narrow, long-bodied, active swimmers, with the integument jointed as in Scorpions. In the King Crabs, as shown in the illustrations on this page, the body is exceedingly broad and short, and possesses only one large transverse joint, which divides it into an anterior portion and a posterior portion. The edges of the former are pro- duced sideways, and in front into a great downwardly bent, roof-like expansion, completely concealing the stout locomotor limbs which are tucked away beneath it. Of these there are five pairs, all except the last pair ending in powerful nippers. The mouth is placed in the middle of the lower surface of this region of the body, between the basal segments of the limbs, which are armed with spines, in the place of teeth, for tearing to os tot 7 Lad : Oy Sint or Devas hl, Photo by) (W.S. Berridge, P'.Z.S8. THE KING CRAB. The animal is here photographed on its back to show the jointed character of the under surface, and the five pairs of limbs. Four pairs of these are provided with nippers. The mouth is between the bases of these limbs. 204 Marvels of the Universe pieces the worms and other soft-bodied animal organisms upon which the King Crab feeds ; and in front of the mouth there is a pair of nipper-shaped jaws used for pushing food into the mouth. The part of the body behind the waist-like joint is produced sideways into a shelf-like ridge armed with spines, and it is hollowed out beneath to form a chamber for six broad foliaceous appendages, the last five of which carry two clusters of delicate plate-like gills. Loosely, but strongly-jointed to the end of the body, there is a long, spiniform tail. From this description it will be seen that, except for the fusion of all the segments of the body to form the two areas above described, the King Crabs have a strong resemblance to those very ancient creatures called Trilobites, which occur in the earliest fossiliferous rocks, but became extinct no one knows how many millions of years ago. Like the Trilobites, too, they have a pair of large kidney-shaped eyes, each composed of multitudes of ocelli, on the upper side of the body. King Crabs are essentially shallow-water species, usually living on sandy or muddy bottoms at a depth of not more than six fathoms. In the early summer they come to the shore in great numbers to spawn; and advancing with the spring-tides they leave their eggs in the mud near high-water mark so that they are exposed to the heat of the sun between the high tides. Existing King Crabs, of which there are several well-marked species, have a curious distribution. They are found only on the western coast of the Atlantic, where they range from about the latitude of New York to the Gulf of Mexico, and on the western shores of the Pacific, from Japan in the north to Borneo and the adjacent islands in the south. That they formerly lived in European waters 1s shown by the occurrence of fossil species both in Tertiary deposits and in the chalk and other rocks of the Secondary epoch ; and their wide geographical separation at the present time seems to be only intelligible on the supposition that there were formerly, although not necessarily contemporaneously, shallow water coast-lines between Europe and North America on the one hand and between Europe and Eastern Asia on the other, and this shows what far-reaching inferences as to the past history of the earth may be drawn from the study of one single small . Ay OBANTORER Nr group of animals. A LIVING SKELETON LEAF BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. Ir is a noticeable peculiarity of many water- plants that grow with their leaves submerged that the latter are thin and slender asa whole, or are divided up into a number of thread-like parts. A familar instance is afforded by the common Water-Crowfoot of our ponds and ditches, which has leaves of two sorts, neither having the slightest resemblance to the other. The one kind of leaf is more or less ivy-shaped, feeling greasy to the touch and persistently floating on the surface of the water; the other kind is split up into a large number of dark green threads, and is always spread out at some distance below the surface. The floating leaf acts asa buoy, enabling LATTICE LEAF. rie ; iis InqNe mato Gt he Tee oe Glen aes Peery ne lores xo sage tim tne Bis. The submerged the nerves. But for its colour and freshness it might be mis- _Jeaf is so greatly divided in order to expose as taken f f the leat-skel found in wi . iaeeee Un oh ee = great, a sunface as) possiblestomthemwatensandmce Photo bu) (W. Plomer Young. Photo by) THE LATTICE LEAF PLANT, anical curiosities of the world, with h subst native of Mad ona of the leaf, but the object ol expose larine a ag possible 296 Marvels of the Universe enable it to extract the dissolved carbonic acid gas from the water. Many of the smaller seaweeds and their fresh-water allies are similarly fashioned. The Water Yam’s leaf, commonly known in this country as the Lattice Leaf, unfolds from its bud with an unbroken, or almost unbroken, sur- face, but as it increases in size and the parallel veins get wider apart, the spaces between become perforated, and the soft green portion finally becomes visible only as a covering round the veins. By this mode of development, it will be seen, an enormous surface is exposed to the water. The Lattice Leaf is about a foot Jong, but only a few inches broad, with a stalk twice or thrice as long, which enables it to float free of its neighbours. The flower-stalk, which rises above the water, divides into two or more branches, each bearing a large number of tiny flowers. THE LUCERNARIAN Tue beautiful Lucernarian, as it has been often called, is an animal that in popular language may be said to be a kind of go-between ‘twixt the jelly-fish and the anemone, possessing some of the attributes of each, but not exactly resembling either. This little bell-shaped organism—about the size of a shilling—is frequently found adhering to pieces of floating seaweed or to other objects. The body consists of a simgle indivi- dual form, and is not, like nearly all of the allied species, of a compound mass including several. It attaches itself to any object by a short pedicle, or foot- like process, well shown in the illustration on the op- posite page; but it can de- tach itself at will, and swim vapidly about by contract- ing and opening its um- brella-like form. It can also move about slowly, like a leech, by fixing the tentacles, to be mentioned shortly, and dragging its Photo bv) [E. J. Spitta. ’ % = : BE ee CENA body forwards till fixed This beautiful little sea-creature takes rank between the jelly-fish and the sea- a\gyeuinl by its foot or stalk. anemone. It is about the size of a shilling, and is often to be found on pieces of The Lucernarian is pro- floating seaweed. vided with eight of these tentacles arranged round the margin of the umbrella, as seen much magnified in the accompanying photograph ; and each tentacle is composed of numerous increments—we have counted over seventy in one tentacle—each little tufted detail being a complete suctorial agent in itself ; hence the whole tentacle taken collectively is a powerful organ. The margin of the disc is eight-sided, the eight little processes supporting the tentacles radiat- ing from the central, or mouth portion, which is really a four-sided arrangement. When food is taken, the whole of the umbrella portion rapidly folds itself over the prey, if such be ¢oo large to H. Seppings Wright. THE PLANET JUPITER. i ild appear if sould s tes and watch its cising. € planet’s ar to be due to clouds, for they 5 in their details, as will trations on pa Marvels of the Universe enter entirely the four-sided mouth; hence in these circumstances, when the animal is feeding it assumes all manner of curious shapes, which for the most part resemble that of the object contained within. Before closing this short account, notice should be made of the curious-looking little black objects—almost circular in shape, sometimes single and sometimes double— that lie on the margin of the disc of the animal between the tentacles, for their actual use has been much discussed. Some have thought them to be organs for stinging the prey—paralysing or killing it—although such is difficult to believe, seeing that no secreting glands or delivery tubes can be made out. Others believe—and this is the opinion mostly held—that they are simply additional suckers used In some way to assist the animal in making its slow gliding motion already referred to, and hence have been appropriately named “ anchors.” hae ICHTHYOSAUR BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. WURTTEMBERG, in Southern Germany, is quite a small kingdom, only some seven thousand five hundred square miles in area ; but from the point of view of the science of extinct animals it is perhaps the most wonderful country in the world. This arises partly from the fact that during long periods of its ancient history it has been the great gulf of a shallow sea—a sea interspersed with islands and peninsulas. Together with the western parts of Bavaria it has produced some amazing links in the chain of life, many of which are referred to in the course of the present work. The sea which covered so much of the kingdom of Wirttemberg in the Secondary Epoch was no doubt con- nected through the valley of the Danube with the ancient sea of Hungary, the Black Sea and the Caspian—the ‘‘ Sarmatian Sea,” as it is sometimes called by zoologists. This sea swarmed with fish, and consequently attracted to its waters an incredible variety and number of fish-eating reptiles of those 297 (Bu J. Teklenburg. THE LUCERNARIAN. Various phases of activity are here shown; for though the Lucernarian can swim rapidly, it can only crawl slowly, and is chiefly occupied in throwing out its tentacles for food. 20 298 Marvels of the Universe distant days. Ever and again some catastrophe, such as a storm blowing them on shore, or a sudden landslide of the cliffs, immured these fish, together with giant amphibians and still more gigantic or extraordinary reptiles, in mud. In course of time the mud hardened into natural cement and rock, and was covered in its turn by other layers of deposit; and thus large portions of Wiirttemberg have become one of Nature’s great museums, in which specimens of antique fish, reptile, bird and beast have been locked up for ages away from the discovery of men of science. In some cases the ancient clay, hardened into rock, has made such a complete mould of the dead animal, that by filling up this mould with plaster-of-Paris an actual cast has been obtained, showing the shape of the dead creature. This has gone far to help zoologists to determine-—-with more or less accuracy—the appearance of some of the Ichthyosaurs when they were alive. From these records of the rocks in Wurttemberg, in England, and in North America, we are able to understand that the Ichthyosaurs were a remarkable order of reptiles developed, far back in the Earth’s history at the close of the Primary Epoch, from some very primitive ancestor of all the reptiles, which was at the same time closely related to the preceding frog-like creatures. In the course of Bupoumistion wal Eiko ; ae ¥ 5 [Sir H. H. Johnston. A SKELETON OF AN ICHTHYOSAUR. The members of this race of monsters were first of all frog-like creatures, who afterwards developed into huge water-reptiles, with great back-fins and a vertical tail. Examination of this skeleton will show that the tail end of the spine turned down- wards in order to strengthen the lower lobe ages we see these Ichthyosaurs growing into huge water-reptiles, with something of the appearance of whales and dolphins. They evolved enormous eyes, protected by plates of bone, with which to scan the waters for their prey. Fins like those of a whale grew out of the back, and the tail developed in course of time two large lobes, which, however, were vertical, instead of horizontal like those in the warm-blooded whales. At first it used to be thought that most of the Ichthyosaurs had died with a broken end to their spine; but through the investigation of Professor Fraas, of Stuttgart (some of whose photographs are here reproduced), it was shown that the tail-end of the spine turned downwards to strengthen the lower lobe of the tail. It is also evident from these records of the rocks that the Ichthyosaurs did not produce their young in the form of eggs which had to: be hatched, but developed them inside the body until they could issue forth—three or four in number, perhaps—as living creatures, ready at once to take up the battle of life. The fore-limbs of the ichthyosaurs gradually lost the appearance of five-fingered hands, and became paddles filled with many small bones and covered by a leathery skin and much tissue, while the hind-limbs degenerated into mere flaps on either side of the vent. All the Ichthyosaurs of Europe retained their large number of sharp-pointed, uniform teeth ; but those which attained an extreme development in the shallow seas of North America had, ere the order became extinct, lost their teeth PLATE, [By Charles Knight. THE ICHTHYOSAUR. This restoration of the creature shows the great eyes protected by plates of bone. All the Ichthyosaurs of Europe had a number of pointed teeth, but later generations inhabiting the shallow seas of North America became toothless like so many of the whales. 300 Marvels of the Universe By permission 0} [Sir H. H. Johnston. THE ICHTHYOSAUR. This fossil reveals to us some of the life-history of the giant lizard-fish. We learn that the young Ichthyosaur was not hatched out of an egg, but was born fully developed. and become toothless, like so many of the whales These strange water-monsters died out, as far as we know, before the beginning of the Tertiary Epoch and before they were displaced in the waters by the mammalian whales. THE “PLANED [UPTO R BY REV. T. E. R. PHILLIPS, F.R.A.S. THOUGH surpassed by Venus in lustre, by Saturn in beauty, and by Mars in general interest, Jupiter easily holds the palm amongst all the planets in point of size. In fact, he is larger than all of them put together and exceeds our own little Earth more than thirteen hundred times. It is true we have every reason to believe that his globe is greatly expanded by heat, and that were he in the same physical state as the smaller planets his bulk would be much less, but all the same the revolutions of his satellites tell us that he must be more than three hundred times as massive as our own globe. This giant orb revolves round the sun at more than five times the distance of the Earth, and requires nearly twelve of our years to complete one journey. If we look at Jupiter through a good telescope we see at once that he is not a true sphere, but flattened like the Earth at the poles, only to a much greater extent. This is because he is spinning round on his axis very fast indeed, and the same circumstance causes the dense vapours surrounding him to assume the form of parallel streaks and bands. These markings are by no means uniform, but irregular and spotted, as will be seen from the accompanying drawings. Marvels of the Universe 301 Now it might be thought that by watching the spots as the planet spins round it would be easy to find out exactly how long the planet’s day is. But this is not so; partly because the markings we see are not solid or permanent features, but cloud-like forms which are constantly changing their shapes and places, and partly because the time it takes a spot to go round and come back again into view depends on its distance from the equator. This is very interesting, for it means that Jupiter, as we see it, does not rotate “all of a piece”’ like the Earth or any solid globe, but that the length of the day varies with the place on the planet’s surface. If the Earth behaved like this, of course no permanent maps would be possible, for continents and islands and oceans would be perpetually changing their shapes and positions. In the case of Jupiter no part takes so long as ten hours to rotate, and equatorial spots perform their daily journey in about nine hours, fifty and a half minutes, though the time is somewhat variable. It follows that whereas a spot on the Earth’s equator is carried round at a speed of about seventeen and a quarter miles a minute, a spot similarly placed on Jupiter has a velocity of nearly four hundred and seventy miles a minute, r twenty-eight thousand miles an hour ! The belts of Jupiter often show very beautiful and diverse colours. Reds and browns and purples and blues are not uncommonly to be found, and these, like the forms of the markings, are subject to gradual change. But although change is the law of this planet, yet from time to time certain objects appear which last for many years. The most famous of these is the Great Red Spot, which was so conspicuous in 1878 and the years following, and which, though subsequently becoming very faint, has lately shown marked signs of revival. It is perhaps hidden at times by overlying clouds, but it is quite likely that it 1s identical with objects seen at various times during the last century, and perhaps with one seen by Hooke so long ago as 1664. Naturally many speculations have been made as Bu T. E.R. Phillips, F.RAS. JUPITER. appearance of Jupiter when viewed through a powerful telescope. It is so luminant that it shows only a no spherical shape. Four of its eight attendant moons are visible, but are so far away that they appear only 302 Marvels of the Universe to what so remarkable an object can be—as, for instance, that it is a volcano, or a part of the true globe projecting through the clouds—but no one knows what it is. It is quite certain, however, that although it has lasted so long, it is not a fixture on the planet, for it is constantly moving both in longitude and latitude. In the large coloured drawing this famous object is seen much as it has appeared in recent years, lying in the hollow it has made for itself in one of the dark belts. Another long-enduring object in Jupiter is an outbreak of dark matter between the two chief belts in the southern (upper in the drawings) hemisphere. This disturbance, which first appeared as a comparatively small object in rgor, is well shown in two of M. Antoniadi’s beautiful drawings. It is in the same latitude as the Red Spot, and, drifting much more rapidly, overtakes and, flowing round it, passes it every two years. In the first of M. Antoniadi’s drawings the Red Spot is seen disappearing towards the left, and in the other coming on the disc, surrounded by the dark material of the great disturbance. From what we have seen, it is clear that we cannot suppose Jupiter to be inhabited by creatures possessing animate life such as we know it on earth. Its hot, and perhaps molten, state renders it unfit for their abode ; nevertheless Jupiter is intensely in- teresting, because it illustrates so well the theory of the gradual evolution of worlds. We know that although it is not hot enough to shine by its own light, it has many points of re- semblance to the Sun, and thus it falls naturally into line between that giant globe of fierce heat and dazzling light on the one hand, and the smaller, colder and more solid bodies of our system, such as the Earth and Mars or the “ Dead World” of the Moon, a on the other. We can hardly doubt rss Raa Se ere Fe Bence eich that in the remote ages of the past 2) hours, 57 minutes our own Earth was soft and _ plastic as Jupiter is to-day, and that earlier still it was incandescent like the sun, but being so small a body, it has cooled down comparatively quickly and has long been fitted to be the abode of animal- and plant-Hhfe. As already mentioned, Jupiter is attended by satellites—eight are so far known, and four of these were discovered by Galileo in 1610. These four are so bright that they can be seen with a good pair of field-glasses, but the others are very faint indeed, and three of them were discovered and are best studied photographically. The most remarkable of all is the outermost, found by Mr. Mellotte on photographs taken at Greenwich in 1908. It is about sixteen million miles from the planet, takes between eight and nine hundred days to complete a revolution, and, like the most distant satellite of Saturn, revolves in a contrary direction to that of all the others. In the large coloured drawing one of the satellites is seen just passing in front of the planet, and the black spot to the left of it is its shadow. We should get a somewhat similar effect if we could stand on our own Moon during a total solar eclipse, for the Moon’s shadow would be seen as a round spot passing swiftly across the surface of the Earth. The other dark spot in the drawing is another THE SOI may 304 Marvels of the Universe JUPITER. In June (18 days, 22 hours, 9 minutes), by M. Antoniadi. of the satellites, which, though it shines brightly against the sky, looks dark by contrast with the greater brilliancy of the background near the centre of the planet’s disc. A BEE ARTISAN BEEs, like men, exhibit varying de- grees of civilization. Some species, of which the hive bee is the best-known example, dwell in vast communities, cherish one ‘“‘ queen mother’ and labour together for the common good. But there are other kinds of bees which shun the society of their fellows. Each one toils alone to promote the well-being of its little family of grubs, and seeks no assistance from its friends and neighbours. These are the so-called “solitary bees,” the most interesting of which in _ their habits are the Leaf-cutters. There are seven British species of these insects, and they all resemble one another in their great skill and ingenuity. In the following paragraphs, however, I shall deal only with the life-story of the particular Leaf-cutting Bee which commonly frequents gardens, both in the country as well as in JUPITER. In June (20 days, 2] hours, 16 minutes), by M. Antoniadi. the London suburbs. I have even seen the signs of its toil in a small garden close to the Holloway Road. These signs, by which the presence of the bee in a given locality may »e readily known, take the form of circular and lozenge-shaped gaps in -ose-leaves, showing where pieces have deen cut away. How and why these cuts are made I shall shortly describe. But in the irst place we must consider the origin of the bee’s housekeeping. The male of the species is rather smaller than his mate, and his front feet are beset with dense fringes of yellowish hairs —for what purpose I have never been able to discover. But save for the fact that he is the nominal master of the little bee household (in which, by the way, he seems to take not the slightest interest), he scarcely counts, for he is a lazy fellow who passes most Marvels of the Universe 305 of his time sipping nectar from wayside flowers or in revelry with his good-for- nothing companions. The female Leaf-cutting Bee deserves a more careful introduction. She has been aptly likened to a stout hive bee in form and general appearance. She is both larger and more robust than her partner, and this is only natural, her life being passed in a The male of this Bee ie smaller than the female, and is a round of arduous labour. Indeed, it is her drone leaving all work to his partner. habits rather than her appearance that call for our close attention, for she is one of the most skilful artisans of the bee-world, and is expert in at least three callings. She makes her début in the early summer, and as soon as her nuptials are accomplished she at once turns her atten- tion to house-hunting. Instinct guides her to rotten wood, such as an old gate- post, the defective beam of a shed or green- house, or the dead heart of a pollard willow. Here she commences to drive a tunnel, following, as a rule, the line of least resist- ance—t.e., the particular layer of wood which has become softened by decay. She rasps industriously at the wood with her jaws, rakes the chips beneath her body by means of her legs, and then, by walking backwards, pushes the débris out of the hole. The bee continues to demonstrate her skill as a carpenter for some days, until she has made her tunnel long enough for her purpose, or is stopped by a layer of wood too hard for her jaws to cope with. She then performs a brief toilet, carefully The Bee at work, leaf-cutting. (Natural size.) combing the dust from her abundant brown hair, and flies off to a rose-bush. She is now about to prove her dexterity as a pattern-cutter. It is not an easy matter to catch her actually at work; but if, during the sunny morning hours, we stand patiently near to a likely bush, we shall sooner or later be rewarded. The sight is well worth waiting for. The bee hovers in doubt for a moment. Apparently she is making up her mind as to which leaf Photos by] [Harold Bastin. she will attack. Suddenly her decision is Wile, OS NFKOUMIUING., E13, Nine of the eleven pieces of leaf which go to form one cell made. She alights upon the leaf, grasping of the Bee. (Natural size.) 306 Marvels of the Universe with her legs the piece which she desires to cut away. Then with her jaws she rapidly cuts the leaf- tissue, and just as one imagines that she has cut away the last strand of her support and will fall to the ground, she sets her shining wings in motion and darts off, carrving the severed piece of leaf tightly gripped beneath her body. The marvel is that the bee can arrange so exactly as not to fall when the last attachment is removed. She must “ have her wits about her’’ in a way which human beings (save, perhaps, the most skilful acrobats) can scarcely comprehend, while her nerves and muscles must work together with absolute precision. Still more wonderful is the manner in which the pieces ot leat are cut, each to a particular shape, with unfailing accuracy. The reader must know that each piece of leaf as it is cut is carried to the bee’s tunnel and there used to build up a thimble-shaped cell or nursery for a potential bee-grub. The number of leaf-fragments required for the formation of each cell varies somewhat with circumstances, but there are commonly seven lozenge-shaped and four circular pieces—the former constituting the Photo bu) [Harold Bastin. THE LEAF-CUTTING BEE, In the centre is the cocoon spun by the full-grown grub. Outside the silk is coarse, inside it is fine and soft. To the left is the new chrysalis, looking like some carved Chinese ivory. To the right is an older chrysalis, which grows darker as the insect nears the perfect state sides and lower end of the cell, the latter the wad or cap with which it is closed. The reader will appreciate this description after glancing at the accompanying photographs. The remarkable point about the whole business, however, is the fact that not one of the leaf-fragments exactly resembles another in shape. Each is cut specially by the bee to cover a particular area as the work proceeds. How does she accomplish this amazing feat? The parts of her mouth and legs are equivalent to a box of useful tools, but she has nothing that can be compared to a two-foot rule or a pair of compasses ; certainly she has no notebook in which to record figures. We are left to assume that she carries her measurements “ in her eye,” as the phrase goes, on each occasion that she leaves her burrow and visits the rose-bush. Certain it is that she brings home just the right-shaped piece of leaf each time and never evinces a sign of doubt or confusion. As soon as the Leaf-cutting Bee has completed the thimble-shaped portion of a given cell she changes her trade for the third time. We have admired her successively in the callings of carpenter and pattern-cutter. She now becomes a cook—and a very skilful cook, too, for she concocts a dish which is at once appetizing, nourishing, and perfectly adjusted in quality to the requirement of the eater. She gathers nectar and pollen from flowers, pours these ingredients into her thimble- & § $ ; Bastin. THE GRUB STATE 1 the newly-hatched grub lying on the eaten all his provisions the mothe ay egg C S , and in the fourth he has rd € is quic 308 Marvels Photo bu} [Harold Bastin. THE NEST OF THE LEAF-CUTTING BEE, Showing the tunnels bored in the decayed wood by the industrious mother, and the neat cells piled one on top of the other, each containing a single egg. of the Universe shaped cell, and carefully mixes them in accordance with a recipe which is an ancestral secret. When the cell is more than half filled with the sweet pudding, the bee lays an egg in it. She then makes further excursions to the rose-bush, cuts her four circular pieces of leaf, and uses them to closeup the cell’s entrance. Having made all snug, the industrious bee pro- ceeds at once to construct and provision. another cell (not forgetting to lay an egg in it), and}'so continues until her tunnel is almost filled, the last inch or so of space being plugged with wood-chips to keep out intruders. In the accompanying photographs I show a female Leaf-cutting Bee and underneath nine of the eleven pieces of leaf which go to the formation of a single cell. This will give the reader some idea of the task which the industrious insect per- forms. But it must be remembered that to the labour of leaf-cutting and leaf-carrying is added the gathering of provisions for each cell that is made, not to mention the work of tunnelling which is undertaken in the first instance. It seems impossible to estimate the average number of cells that a bee constructs in the course of the season, for the reason that when one tunnel is filled the in- sect may, and sometimes undoubtedly does, make and fill a second tunnel. Moreover, two or more bees not infrequently drive their tunnel close together in the same piece of wood, and it becomes difficult to decide exactly where the work of one little artisan ends and that of another begins. Let us now turn to what I may call the nursery life of the Leaf-cutting Bee. The egg in each cell hatches a few days after it is laid, and the tiny white bee-grub begins to feed upon the good things provided by its mother. It literally wallows in the sweet pudding and slowly absorbs it; so that, while at first there is a large quantity of pudding and a very little grub, at the end of a few days there is a big grub and no pudding at all. For the mother bee is such a wonderful cook that she puts exactly the right quantity of food into the cell. There is absolutely no waste; and when the grub has licked up the last atom of sweet pudding its desire for food ceases quite suddenly. Its babyhood is now over. It spins within its leaf-cell a cocoon of silk, coarse without, but very fine and smooth within, and with a kind of cap at one Marvels of the Universe 309 end, which is readily cut away when the grub ultimately becomes a perfect bee. Strange to say, the further trans- formation of the insect is delayed until the succeeding year. When the grub has spun its cocoon it becomes quite inert and lies enshrouded throughout the whole winter, only changing to the pupa in the late springtime, a few weeks prior to its assumption of the perfect winged state. The newly-formed pupa of a bee is one of the most beautiful natural objects with which I am Photo bu} [Harold Bastin. THE LEAF-CUTTING BEE PARASITE. This wasp-like creature seeks to lay its eggs in the cocoon of the Leaf- acquainted. It looks exactly as though it had been carved out of pure white 1VOry by an Oriental cutting Bee grub. If it is successful, its progeny feed on the sleeping craftsman. The wings, legs and ““""™ Bir antenne are folded close together upon the breast. Gradually, as development proceeds, the various organs grow darker, colour appearing first in the eyes. Finally a delicate membrane which envelops the whole insect is cast aside, and the perfect bee appears. It is a remarkable fact that the worst enemies of insects are insects. This is well illustrated by the case of the Leaf-cutting Bee, for one of her most persistent foes is a nearrelative. It is known as a Cuckoo Bee, because its habits are not unlike those of the cuckoo among birds. It evades the responsibilities of parentage by means of a most dastardly trick. The mother Leaf-cutting Bee s her cell, provisions it, and lays her egg. She then goes off to cut the circular leaf-fragments which are to cap the cell; and the Cuckoo Bee, who has been waiting about with an out-of-work sort of mien, suddenly becomes alert. ~She hurries into the leaf-cutter’s tunnel and lays one of her own eggs side by side with that of,the rightful owner. The usual result is that the Cuckoo grub devours most of the food, while the grub of the Leaf-cutter pines and dies ; but a few instances are recorded in which both grubs have developed into perfect insects. In either case, the Cuckoo Bee her offspring reared “ free, gratis and for nothing.”’ Another insect enemy of the Leaf- cutting Bee is a tiny wasp-like creature which contrives to lay its eggs within the cocoon spun by the full-fed grub; and this time it is the rub itself, not a lion’s share of the sweet pudding, that is the objec- tive. The minute grubs of the para- site fix upon the big sleeping bee-grub so many leeches, and suck, and suck, and suck, until nothing but a dry and empty skin remains. Each is then transformed into a tiny pupa. Photo by) (Harold Bastin. The accompanying photograph is of a 2 ~ = instead of the delicate chrysalis that should inhabit the cell, only the bee’s cocoon with part of the side cut tiny chrysalides of the robbers are to be found. 310 Marvels of the Universe away to show the interior packed with the parasite chrysalis. One cannot help speculating upon the probable feelings of the industrious Leaf-cutting Bee could she take a peep into such a cocoon. Happily she is spared all such distractions. Her work over, she perishes. Her offspring she never sees, nor can she, in the nature of things, be prescient of the dangers which beset their adolescence. VEGETABLE HORSEHAIR PECULIAR to Tropical America and the adjacent West Indies there is a family of aloe-like plants, many of them with beautiful flowers, which grow in crowded rows upon the branches of fores trees. These plants, named after Tillands, the Swedish botanist, are often grown in our hothouses for the sake of their flowers and ornamental foliage. But among the great number that have this up- right, somewhat stiff habit, which reminds one of their relation to the pineapple, there is one of entirely dittfer- ent appearance, and known as Spanish Moss. It attaches itself, as they do, to the branches by means of suckers rather than roots, and hangs down in dense tufts, so that it largely hides the foliage of the trees upon which it grows and_ produces the effects illustrated by our photographs of a grove in Florida. These swaying tufts are often many feet in length, and appear to be clad in From Stereo copyright by] CH. C. White Co. silvery scales. The slender “SPANISH MOSS.” Though a true flowering plant, allied to the Pineapple, this ‘“‘moss’’ is so called stems and branches of which from its resemblance to the Beard-moss lichen which is plentiful in some oak and the tufts consist bear two pine woods \nsthie country, rows of thread-like leaves, two or three inches long, and rounded sheaths almost as long, which clasp the stems. The name is quite a misnomer, for the plant bears tiny green flowers ; but it has no doubt been designated a moss because the effect produced by its hanging stems is very similar to that of the long silvery grey lichen that hangs freely from the oak and pine trees in some of our forests, and is known as Beard-moss. In both cases the hanging plant gives its host a weathered and venerable, hoary appearance. So far we have not given any indication of the reason for the title of this note; but if a long string of the Spanish Moss be pulled from the tuft and peeled, it will be found that it has a tough fibrous interior or core. It may be presumed that the Spanish conquerors of America discovered this fact and turned it to account, if any value attaches to the name of Spanish Moss. At the (Underwood d: Underwood, “SPANISH MOSS.” a forest grove in Florida, with the branches heavily draped with the long silvery trails of the so-called ose fibrous core is used as a substitute for horsehair. The plant is not a parasite as generally supposed, but ains its nourishment entirely from the atmosphere 312 Marvels of the Universe [By Theo. Carreras.> --—~ SEA-SLUGS. The two Sea-Slugs here represented of the natural size are the Bushy-backed Slug (upper) and Homberg’s Triton (lower). The branching plumes that ornament their backs are extensions of the liver. Those of Homberg’s Triton closely resemble the polyps of Deadman’s Fingers, upon which the Slug feeds; and the Bushy-backed Slug might be mistaken for a cluster of red-brown seaweeds. BEAUTIBUESS BUGS OF Shri BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. present time the plant is gathered in quantity as having a commercial value. It is steeped in water until the outer tissues decay and can be washed off with ease. Then it is dried and used as a good substitute for horsehair in the stuffing of cushions and mattresses. We have referred to the up- right-growing aloe-like species. There is an interesting. point concerning them which is worth mentioning. The bases of their leaves are dilated, so that, growing in rosette fashion, they form vases in which, during rainy periods, they collect a good deal of water, which helps to tide the plants over the dry seasons. A water-weed, one of the bladderworts—of which several species are well-known in this country for the traps they bear for the capture of minute pond life—has found its way to these elevated cisterns, and by throwing out runners, connects several of these plants together, and there preys upon the small insects that fall into the water. The marvel here is, that a small weak plant whose nearest relations inhabit ponds and ditches should presumably have changed its habitat so greatly as to have become, so to speak, an air plant whilst remaining an aquatic plant. SEA SoME of the most beautiful forms in which life manifests itself are utterly unknown to the vast majority of mankind ; and strange to say, one may search in vain in the ordinary natural-history books for any adequate representation or description of these subjects. The Slugs of the sea are in this category. Even the great Darwin, who was struck by the quaint beauty of these creatures and thought 1t must bear some intimate relation to their life and habits, could not obtain from the Marvels of the Universe 313 Slug specialists of his day any information that would support the idea ; on the contrary, they gave him reason to believe that their beauty was “ probably of no service to these animals.” A closer acquaintance with them as living animals rather than as museum“ specimens ’’ demonstrates clearly enough that both form and colour have special relation to their mode of life and are of the greatest service to them as a protection against their natural enemies. The Sea-slugs must be sought among the weeds and corallines that cover rocks and stones at extreme low water of spring tides and at lower levels. But they are not creatures that can be discovered at a glance, for they harmonize so well with their surroundings that even the largest members of the race may be but a few inches before our eyes and yet be unseen. One of the best known of the British species is familiar in books under the name of Sea Lemon, and it is really a good name, for, alike in form, size and colour, it closely resembles the half of a lemon that has been cut lengthwise. As depicted in natural-history books it is a very conspicuous object; but when it is engaged—as it commonly is—in feeding upon the similarly-coloured Crumb-of-bread Sponge that encrusts our submerged rocks, it is no longer half-lemon or Sea-slug, but part of the sponge. The low wart-like irregularities of its back then appear to be the pores in the substance of the sponge ; and so the sponge is doubly valuable to it ; for it provides a meal and security from inter- ruption whilst it is enjoying that meal. These encrusting sponges, it should be remarked, give off a strong unpleasant odour, which, in all probability, makes them unacceptable as food to other marine creatures, though not to the Sea Lemon. though there are several near relations that are as little adorned. One of these is only about an [By Theo. Carreras. SOME SEA-SLUGS. The Sea-Slugs here represented are all enlarged to about twice their natural length. The figure to the left is white with a rosy tinge. The one above it, covered with tubercles, is yellowish; the rosette on the lower portion is the breathing organ. The upper figure to the right, with the long snaky appendages, is coloured red with variations towards orange. Its appearance is much like that of a Sea-Anemone. 2] 314 Marvels of the Universe inch long—the common Sea Lemon measures three or four inches—and bright scarlet in colour; consequently, we find it feeding upon a red sponge. Johnston’s Sea Lemon is creamy white in hue, and it feeds upon the paler varieties of Crumb-of-bread Sponge, which varies from white to orange. Most of the Sea-slugs have a pair of tentacles, or sense organs, standing up on the back behind the head, and these often bear ring-like plates which appear to be the sensitive [By Theo. Carreras. Walls) CRISIIN SIEVE, portions. At the other extremity of This Sea-Slug is little more than half an inch in length. Its green body o. , is slender, but along each side there is a fin-like expansion. It varies its the body there 1S mostly a flower-like colour according to the hue of the weeds upon which it is found. expansion, which consists of the gills spreading around an orifice. In a large number of species there are in addition a varying number of filaments, which wave over the back and produce beautiful effects. Shakespeare speaks of one wearing his heart upon his sleeve for daws to peck at ; many of these Sea-slugs perform a similar physiological feat by wearing portions of their liver on the outside of their bodies. These filaments are really offshoots or branches from the liver, and their often beautiful colours are due to their food or to the presence of bile. There is a double advantage about this arrangement, for whilst the practice of wearing the liver outside gives more room for the expansion of the stomach within, the colour of the food consumed shows up in these appendages and so helps to make the slug less visible. For example, some years ago I experimented amongst other species with a pale form of the Plumed Eolis by putting it successively into glasses of sea-water, each containing a sea-anemone of a distinct colour ; and asit fed upon these in turn it changed colour accordingly. Its back is covered with several hundreds of filaments resembling the tentacles of the common Beadlet Anemone ; and when it is at rest after a meal, with the body curled round, it looks exactly like the anemone it has last eaten—having adopted that anemone’s colour. Homberg’s Triton is a very large species—four to eight inches long—and the outgrowths from its sides take the form of circlets of plumes, each of which reproduces a small seaweed, whilst the warts on its back resemble the unex- panded polyps of the compound animal known as Deadman’s Fingers, upon which the slug habitually feeds! The Bushy-backed Slug, which is much smaller—about an inch and a half long —has flat side ornaments cut and jagged into a close resemblance to the red-brown seaweeds among which it lives ; whilst the Crowned Sea-nymph, which feeds upon zoophytes and coral- lines, has the same parts got up to closely mimic the class of animals upon [By Theo. Carreras. which it preys. Indeed, most of the Sea-slugs, different as they are in form, This Sea-Slug measures less than a quarter of an inch, but its trans- is not sdllemaeniics, emkal f oy, ‘ a a Ok atte : ‘ete 3 ‘ Fee a par hy ik - er a a rm oe ~ tn: i Ve maar’ ha wg) i 7 5 Ca) G3 g | $e : e on , te x Te 3 . ’, aaa eit aes Pas? ~, * y “ff fh a sae wy oa | } Z s i de Se See z vay ety g %( i { ? a os, Ce oy ’ : ” = ee a “ i — A a os A WINDOW-PANE STUDY OF FROST CRYSTALS e built themselves up into Crystals hay e of the emaller Spleenwort Pp the fronds of som S mo veg as 3 5 <= > 20 ba] ] 6 > v 5 Y D5 2) ws Bw ar) a o a oO @ o im) Fern 346 Marvels of the Universe It has been said that foliage-forms assumed by hoar- frost are the result of the markings of the surface on which it is deposited. To a very small extent these may have some effect, but they do not account for the beautifully-curved lines and mimic forms of plant-life dis- played by hoar-frost. The window-pane designs are but another variety of hoar-frost, and as the glass is smooth and completely devoid of any guiding lines, their forms must depend upon some other cause. Most of the curved patterns on the window-pane can be accounted for by the currents of air charged with moisture in the room. These currents can be detected by smouldering paper or any such light combustible. The air is never still or motionless unless all the air in the room is of one temperature. Cold, the absence of heat, is one of the chief agents te ge ‘ Te. in the condensation of vapour which the atmosphere Photo bu] —G, Parkin. always holds in larger or smaller quantities, whether in a ICE CRYSTALS. ; These Crystals forming in water are the first stage in the production of solid ice. When a current of air passes over stretches of water or warm room or out of doors. the damp surface of the earth it becomes charged with moisture, and as it is only capable of retaining a certain quantity, much less when cold than when warm, it follows that warm. air, when so saturated, must surrender some of its moisture on cooling. The moisture thus liberated is deposited as snow, rain, or hoar-frost. This enables us to see what takes place in a warm room during a frosty night. The currents of air passing along in curves part with their fog-like particles of water, which are frozen into some of the various forms already referred to. So far we have said but little about the chief agent in the formation of frost-figures. Water holds the pre- eminent place among all the substances so extensively used in the operations of Nature on our globe. It is composed of invisible gases. It is almost colourless ; it has no smell, and it is transparent. It assumes the gaseous, liquid or solid states with great facility. It is the largest ingredient in the composition of animals and plants, and it forms an important part in several rocks of the globe. it is brilliant, without taste in its pure state ; It is not generally known that the crystals and window-pane frost-forms have the power of reproducing lost parts. Paget, in his work on “ Pathology,” shows that crystals, as well as certain animals, possess the remarkable power of repairing their own injuries. His statement is as follows: “ The ability to repair damages sustained by injury is not an exclusive property of living beings, for even crystals will repair themselves when, after pieces have been broken from them, they are placed Photo by) (G@. Parkin. = Eyer . : = ICE CRYSTALS. in the same conditions in which they were first formed.” Another group of the simple, first stages in the Beauty of form and of colour are both embodied in formation of ice on water The Crystals are seen = to be long, thin and spear-like. the window-pane frost-foliage, but the colour is only’ Marvels of the Universe 347 to be fully detected by the use of the polariscope. There are innumerable examples of beauty to be found in Nature. Those persons who are fortunate enough to have their powers of observation so educated as to see and admire the ex- quisite designs apparent in most natural objects ought to find the world less sombre than those who pass unnoticed Nature’s lavish illustrations of symmetry and ornate beauty. The following account of a pheno- menon which occurred many years ago in Sweden regarding warm air highly charged with’ moisture and the extra- ordinary ways in which the moisture is liberated when brought into contact with cold air, will bear out some of the state- ments just made. A large company had gathered in a ballroom. The night was icy and starlit. The air in the ballroom had evidently become highly charged with moisture. The heat was so oppressive that several ladies fainted. An officer present tried to open the window. The trost-crystals had done their work, for they had extended to all the crevices, so that the window was frozen fast to ts casement. As a last resort he broke vats a pane of glass; the cold air rushed in, and it snowed in the room. The warm air could sustain its great load of moisture no longer when mixed with the cold air from the outside. This is vouched for by Professor Dove, of Berlin. As children we were delighted when- ever the curious frost-figures decorated our bedroom windows. In our innocence we may have thought that the ferns, the seaweed, and the branches of trees had been traced out in some mysterious way. So they had; and in a measure the full secret of their beauty is still a mystery to us. Then, when out of doors we saw PRotos eran Stat a 1 ON REEL Wen, that all the blades of grass and all the EROSTRCRNSIAIES: Here the Crystals have grouped themselves into long ribbon-like twigs were glistening, vonderme WIE er glistening, DARDS NnKO lerme nt forms, this being probably due to the trickling of moisture down was greatly increased. definite lines. 348 Wlarvels of the Universe A TAILLESS LEMUR BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. NATURE, in the development of living forms, is constantly trying experiments. One of these has been the fabrica- tion of a mammal which might walk about erect on its hind legs and use its hands for other purposes than locomotion. In the perfect carrying out of this idea Man came into exist- ence, and really became the marvellous creature that he is by using his hands and fingers for manufacturing and for executing many a behest of the brain. This idea of walking about on the hind legs first made its appearance ages ago In rep- tiles, and brought the Bird into existence, as well as BM ivnigye hnteGrs (G. Parkin, FROST CRYSTALS. In this example the form is most like the pattern woven by lichens on a rock, the Marsupials (phalangers, opossums, kangaroos), and again makes its appearance more markedly amongst the Lemurs, or Half-apes. We know now that there were Lemurs once existing in Madagascar nearly as big as men in size and probably walking about erect on their hind legs, one of Nature’s numerous unsuccessful attempts to make a Man, and probably extinguished finally by the coming of real men to Madagascar. But amongst the existing Lemurs in that strange island is the one here illustrated, the Indris, largest of living Lemurs, which frequently walks and leaps on its hind legs only.. With these powerful limbs the Indris is able to jump from branch to branch over a distance of as much as thirty feet! When the tailless Lemurs are on the ground they do not progress on all fours, but stand erect and move by a series of leaps, keeping their balance by holding the arms above the head. The first toe is large, as it is in Man, but it is opposable to the others, as in monkeys. The tail is only a stump four or five inches in length. The thick fur is divided rather vividly into black and creamy-white areas. The range of the Indris seems to be restricted to the forests of the east coast of Madagascar, where it lives in small troops of four or five, probably a family of father and mother and grown-up children. THE SQUID BY EDWARD STEP, B-L.S: UNDER the general term of Cuttle-fish at least three distinct groups of related animals are included. These are the Octopus, the Sepia or true Cuttle, and the Squid. The Octopus has been described already (see page 26). The Squid differs from the Octopus in that its body is cylindrical instead By permission of] [Sir H. H. Johnston, G.C.M.G. A TAILLESS LEMUR. The Indris, here represented, is the largest of the Lemur family. Its tail is reduced to a short stump, and its thick fur is mapped out into black and creamy-white areas. A native of the Madagascar forests, it is able to take flying leaps from branch to branch as much as thirty feet apart. 350 Marvels of the Universe of being globular, and that in addition to the eight arms of the Octopus it has two tentacles three or four times the length of the arms. Also, the hinder upper part of the body is provided with a pair of fins, which enable the Squid to swim in the middle or upper waters, whilst the Octopus is compelled to crawl over the bottom. The Octopus has merely the rudiments of a skeleton, represented by a couple of small rods embedded in his outer integu- ment. In the Squid the rods are developed into what is known as the pen, a long, flat band of clear, thin gristle, in adult specimens fifteen to eighteen inches in length. To give it additional strength this pen is keeled along its under side. It is not easy to get a perfect example, as it is very fragile ; tender and easily torn when fresh, brittle when dry. One would imagine that to this “sort of a back- bone”’ the muscles of the Squid would be attached, but this is not the case: the pen lies quite loosely in the mantle. A reduced photograph of two of these pens will be found on page 351. Like the Octopus, the Squid has a water-siphon, through which it can eject a very forcible jet of water, which has the effect of sending the Squid rapidly backwards. It may sound Irish, but this is its mode of progression, modified by the action of its fins. Into the siphon there opens a tube connected with the ink-bag. Though the ink-bag is small, its contents are so highly concen- A hetorey : Le Sead Ge. trated that only a very small quantity poured A TASMANIAN SQUID. ; pee : P i urrent of w This Squid differs from the European kind mainly into the Qutgo ng iS t ee ater 1s sufficient to in the rounded margins of the fins. produce a dense black cloud in the surrounding sea, enabling the Squid to shoot back out of sight and sink to the sands, where its colouring renders it inconspicuous. As in the Octopus, the eight arms, as well as the two tentacles at their broad extremities, are covered on their inner face with powerful suckers, by which they attach themselves to their prey whilst the parrot-like beak is tearing it to pieces. Fish is the principal food ; and let us not exclaim, ‘Poor fish!”’ for there are few things fishes appreciate more in the way of food than the flesh of the Squid. It is generally a matter of which is the bigger ; if the fish, then the Squid may be eaten ; if the Squid, then the fish may be the victim. There is no better bait for sea-fishing than the flesh of Squid, and it is one of the principal foods of the sperm whale. The eggs of the Squid are laid in long capsules of a gelatinous character, each capsule eomviataine a number of eggs, and many capsules being attached together to form what fishermen know as a “sea-mop, which will contain about forty thousand eggs. The Squid is the largest of the Cuttles found ordinarily around the British Islands. Without reckoning the arms, its length is about two feet. _ Occasionally we have had visits from much larger species. The largest-known Cuttles swimming on the surface with arms extended have no doubt upon occasion served as the great sea-serpent. One of these was cast upon the shore of County Kerry a couple of hundred years ago, and was ascertained to have been nineteen feet in length, Marvels of the Universe 25 plus the length of its tentacles. These, unfortunately, had been mutilated by rolling and beating on the shore ; but what was left of them measured eleven feet. Forty years ago two large Squids of this kind were stranded on the shores of Newfoundland and these measured respectively forty- seven and forty feet long. Our full-page illustration shows the Squid in mid-water pursued by a conger, and resorting to its accustomed tactics—the submarine equivalent of “ throwing dust in the eyes” of its opponent. The ink-bag is brought into requisition and a black aqueous fog is interposed between its pursuer and itself, under whose cover it will make off backwards. A very little of this ink will go a long way, as may be learned by cutting up a Squid for bait in fishing. The unskilful amateur fisherman who has hooked a Squid for this purpose and does not know how to manage his capture may have his face and clothes spoiled by the profuse discharge. The experienced fisherman contrives to keep the Squid’s head turned away from the boat. The ink has a burning, smarting effect on the skin, and its stains are not easily removed. When the Squid is at rest it lies on the sandy bottom, where it is well concealed, for its dirty white flesh is peppered with darker dots, and is thus very similar in appearance to the sand around it. HOW NATURE PROTECTS INSECTS BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. INsEcTs have a multitude of natural enemies, in- cluding some of their own class, whilst to many birds, reptiles and some small mammals they form the staple of their food supply. The constant onslaught upon them that this implies is no doubt one of the reasons for their marvellous fecundity. At the same time it must have led to the gradual destruction of the unfit, and the development of natural defences. The un- armed and the undisguised would fall victims whole- sale and have little chance of leaving descendants. It is thought that those that varied in form and colour in the direction of harmonizing with their surroundings would stand a better chance of being overlooked by their enemies, and, therefore, of transmitting their advantage to their progeny. In a similar way stings might be, developed from organs originally intended and used for piercing plants in the process of egg- depositing, and the throwing off of waste substances from the body might have made certain insects un- palatable. However the advantages may have arisen, we find Photo by) [Z. Step. that many insects are to-c ively ao y ins to-day effectively protected by SQUIDS’ “ PENS.” stinging or biting apparatus, the discharge of corrosive As a sort of a backbone the Squid bears in its or otherwise offensive fluids, a general unpalatable- ™antle what is known as a “pen.” It is thin, trans- = 5 2 Z parent and gristle-like. The photograph is only one- hess accompanied by conspicuous colouring that third of the actual size. “Ajojes OyUL SpreMmyIeG jjO St99yS 19912] JY) YS[IYM ‘payxoe}Ve pue 199x98}}e UVAaMJ9q posodisjuUl 31 pnojo yx1ep eB ‘uoYdIs st Woy BuUI}ZDaLa A[qt104 st yt 9}BM JO UBIIS OY} OJUL YUL Sit JO aft] eB Surmnod Aq ynq ‘[aa-1asuod eB fq yx9B}}e JO JoBuep UI st pInbS we ainjyoId sty, uy ‘soysy s1as1e] ayy Aq Pooj se pautsajsa st pinbs ayy TADTYADNOD GNV INOS ‘oa Ng) Marvels of the Universe advertises the fact to all whom it may concern; or a scheme of colour that so admirably harmonizes with their accustomed surroundings as to render the insect all but invisible. Then, again, there is a class of de- fences in which the whole external form has been so modified as to make it bear a very close likeness to some other and uneatable natural object. These various defences constitute too wide a subject to be dealt with in a short article. We must content ourselves for the moment with calling attention to a few non-combative defences adopted by insects; not those in which the jaws, the sting, the poison or the terrifying aspect is relied upon, but what we may fitly describe as the self-effacing type of protection. To properly appreciate the efficiency of protective coloration we must go to living nature. The cabinet drawers of the entomologist will exhibit clearly all the diversitics of form and colour by which the naturalist distinguishes one species from another, and may well fill us with admiration for the beauty of colour and design ; but the fullness of that beauty can only be appreciated when we study those same insects in the places where they live, and learn the true significance of every tint and pencilling. The butterflies in the cabinet are chiefly admired for the rich tints with which the upper sur- face of the wings is painted. But this, as a rule, is mere sexual show ; the marvel of the butterfly’s wing is mainly to be found on the underside. We may watch the apparently joyous flight of the butterfly in the sun, and feel delight in its rich colouring, for it is one of the most brilliantly con- spicuous things in Nature. A cloud passes over the sun, and the butterfly drops upon the nearest herbage. We hurry up to view it at leisure; but Photo by] STICK-LIKE CATERPILLAR. SoS (2. Enock, F.L.S. : In this photograph a caterpillar of the Swallow-tailed moth is attached to a dead shoot of ivy, and is scarcely to be distinguished from the dead twigs. Photo by) CATERPILLAR ON ROSE-SHOOT. Cf. Enock, F.L.S. The caterpillar of the Willow Beauty moth is here shown among the shoots of a rose-tree. Its colouring, form and attitude are such that it is easy to overlook it as one of the branches. 2 4 354 Marvels of the Universe our butterfly has completely disappeared— though probably it is sitting on a leaf or a flower within a few inches of our eyes. What has happened is that the wings have closed together over the back, completely hiding their brilhant upper surface and bringing the more subdued ornamentation into view. This, as a rule, so harmonizes with the immediate sur- roundings that the butterfly is no longer recognizable. One of our photographs shows the conspicuous little Orange-tip butterfly that has alighted upon a flower cluster of Jack-by-the-hedge. Its orange-tips are no longer prominent, but the green mottling of the underside is turned to us, and so well does this match with the green and white parts of the flower cluster that, even in the photograph, PROCOLSH Fue = Sal ER OCREEATAS! it is difficult at first to detect the butterfly. LAPEET MOE: I have said “even in the photograph,” PURRI Ue ainismate ot dees Gn me because, asa mule, tk tsuaniccetee eee it resembles in colour. disguised insect in a photograph than it is in Nature, for the area that the eye has to wander over is small, and in most cases the photographer almost mechanically centres his chief object. Another beautifully protected butterfly is the Green Hairstreak. In this, only the underside of the wings is coloured green; but when the butterfly settles on the new foliage of the beech, as it likes to do, and turns up its wings to expose the green side, it is seen with difficulty. |The Comma butterfly, whose wings have a very ragged margin, 1s bright brown of various shades above, but beneath it is clouded with duller, darker browns, and when it is at rest and showing this side, it might pass for a dead leaf. The Lappet moth, of which also we give a portrait, is, when at rest, like nothing so much as a bunch of dead leaves. The Hook-tip moth is much like the Comma butterfly in the effect it produces when at rest, for it has the butterfly habit, not common among moths, of throwing its wings up vertically. The Dotted Border, on the contrary, spreads its G3 eS Bx: Os AE i wings half open and lets the edges come into Photoby) Gia? Anetiss mone. eee close contact with a dead leaf. If this is a wintered oak-leaf, as frequently happens, the The Grey Arches moth sits by day on the trunks of trees, and its colour and markings so closely resemble the lichens and colour matching is almost perfect 5 in any irregularities of the bark that it is seen with difficulty. In the ox Sn : case, it is so close as makes the detection of photo the moth is about one-third less than the natural size LF. Enock, F.L.S. Photos by) PROTECTIVE COLOURING OF INSECTS. resting attitudes. The first is the Dotted Border moth on a These four photos show four living insects in their natural Comma butterfly among dead leaves, dead oak-leaf, similar in colour, and therefore not easily seen. The second shows the with which its brown underside harmonizee. The third is the Hook-tip moth, looking like a withered leaf, a resemblance helped by the vein-like lines across its wing. The last photograph shows the Orange-tip butterfly at rest on the flowers of Jack-by-the- | hedge. All are reduced from natural size 350 Marvels of the Universe the moth most difficult. Even if the moth settles on a tree-trunk the resemblance is still to a dead leaf, only now :t looks like a thin leaf that has been carried by the wind and has caught on the rough bark in its passage to the ground. The Jast-mentioned moth—the Dotted Border—belongs to the large Looper family, so called from the habit of the long slender caterpillars, which in walking draw the greater part of the body up into a loop; the legs being situated near to the head and a pair of clasping organs at the other extremity, this is the only method of pro- gression open to them. We shall have a few words to say of some of these caterpillars before we have done, but our present concern is with the moths that develop from them. They mostly rest with their wings spread flat and almost as widely as the “set”? specimens in the col- lectors’ cabinets, and their wings are marked with patterns that fit in wonderfully with the cracks and crevices in the bark of trees or with the grain and weather streaks in the wood of fences and posts. The Waved Umber moth, both in colour and pattern, matches the oak palings on which it was sitting when photographed. Most of such moths spend the whole day in these posi- tions, and appear to be unseen by any enemies, or the trick would soon be abandoned, for moths so openly exposed would become extinct. Some of these Looper moths seen in the cabinet are conspicuously coloured, a broad expanse of white, for example, being contrasted with a patch of black or dark brown. But see such a moth on tree trunk sane [2 Step, F-LS. or broad leaf and you pass it ume CATERPILLAR OF BEAUTIFUL YELLOW UNDERWING MOTH. sani). aye ee AS Ah t ll This caterpillar is coloured dark green chequered with white, and is scarcely noticec LO LELGAS OM 149) “el appear- distinguishable from the branch of heather upon which it is feeding. ance a bird-dropping. A somewhat similar type of coloration—though intended to produce a different illusion—is adopted by some of the smaller of the thick-bodied moths. In this class of moths the upper wings are folded when the insect is at rest, over the lower ones, as shown in several of our photographs. The Marbled Coronet moth is one of these, and its light markings may appear to be merely white or grey lichen spots on the bark of the tree it is resting upon. Another instance of the same type is afforded by the photograph of the Marbled Green moth which shows a portion of a wall in a much Marvels of the Universe B5,7/ frequented thoroughfare of one of our popular South Coast resorts. The particular patch of wall was within a few inches of the shoulders of the numerous passers-by, yet to our knowledge those two moths remained unseen and unmoved for at least six hours in the height of “ the season.” There seems to be a kind of consciousness in the moth that, so long as it remains immovable, it will be passed as merely one of the lichen-spots that ornament these walls. An interesting point about this moth is that the caterpillar feeds on these same lichens, and constructs for itself a chamber of moss and lichen—unless it can find a hole in the masonry—in which it hides during the day. A larger example is afforded by the Grey Arches moth, shown on page 354. This moth spends the day on tree trunks in or near woods, and it will be seen how admirably the streaks and out- Photo by} (ZL. Step, F.L.S. THE MARBLED CORONET MOTH AT REST ON A BEECH TREE. This beautiful moth has its grey wings marked with white spots which strongly resemble the lichen-spots that are found on the bark of most old trees. lined spots of its grey-brown wings fit in with the crevices of the bark. So, too, with the lighter Grey Dagger moth, which is often found on lichen-spotted trunks, though our example was photo- graphed on the author’s fence, where it was much less conspicuous than in the narrow limits of the photograph. It will, indeed, be found that in almost every case these sitting moths are invisible save to the trained eye of the entomologist. And much the same may be said of caterpillars. If they are not marked with warning colours, or clothed with long hairs or spines, they are coloured to harmonize with some part of their food- plant. The majority are green, but if they feed only at night and spend the day in or on the earth near the root of the plant they will be dirty brown in hue. If day feeders in the open their green may be streaked or spotted in some fashion that will break up their outline. An example is afforded by the photograph of the Beautiful Yellow-underwing moth on page 356. This caterpillar feeds openly on heath and heather, and its green back is chequered with diagonal white spots in such fashion as to repeat the effect of light on the small glossy leaves of its food plant. Even the huge 358 Marvels of the Universe Berao cuits a ae 3 LE. Step, F.L.S. THE GREY DAGGER MOTH ON A FENCE. Most frequently this moth would be found on a tree trunk where its dagger marks would fit in with the cracks in the bark, caterpillars of several of the Hawk moths, though they may be as thick as one’s finger, are so marked with diagonal stripes of white and violet that in some cases these look lke the light reflected from the edges of leaves, or nerve branches on a_ curled-up leaf. In the case of most of the Looper caterpillars’ al- ready referred to, the general form and habit is to re- semble a twig, the cater- pillar holding only by its hind ~~ claspers, standing rigidly at an angle corre- sponding to that of the real twig. Examples will be seen in the caterpillar of the Swallow-tailed moth on an ivy stem and in that of the Willow Beauty moth on the rose, as shown on page 353. These few examples could be multiplied ad /ebrtum, but for the present sufficient has been said to call attention to very remarkable phenomena that exist, here, under our eyes. The reader, if he will keep his eyes open upon his daily walks, even between home and the railway station will find further illustrations upon the familiar walls and fences. teeter Photo by] THE MARBLED GREEN MOTH. This moth rests on exposed lichen-covered walls and rocks. So close is its re- semblance to its surroundings that the specimens photographed were passed by hundreds of persons without being seen. BIG SNAILS BY LIONEL E. ADAMS, B-A- THERE are people who re- gard snails as noxious ob- jects to be collected in a flower-pot and __ stealthily heaved into the next garden, or else crushed beneath the foot. If our British snails attained the size of the great tropical Agate Snails, the former method of rid- dance would be dangerous and likely to lead to a breach of the peace, and the second method _ too horrible to contemplate ! If, however, the not unnatural antipathy to slime can be overcome, these handsome Marvels of the Universe 359 creatures can be made most interesting pets— even though, perhaps, a trifle unresponsive. They have been called Agate Snails on account of the high polish and curious variously- coloured markings which adorn some members of the tribe. In captivity, when the young emerge from the bird like eggs, they should be separated from their parents or they will certainly be devoured, as most snails are cannibals. They possess a powerful weapon of offence, a long, flexible ribbon set with numerous rows of minute but serviceable shark-like teeth, the rasping of which can be plainly heard when the aniinals are feeding. There are some one hundred and sixty different kinds of Agate Snails, mostly in- habiting the tropics ; only a single representa- tive of the tribe being found in Britain. This species, however, is so peculiar in its habits and structure that it is quite worthy of mention among the Marvels. Not exceeding a fifth of an inch in length, the highly- polished, transparent and colourless shell is known from its slender form as the Hairpin shell. It is inhabited by an equally colour- less animal, which is so transparent that the food it has eaten may be seen within. This absence of colour in animal and shell is due 4 if yay to the fact that it lives three or four feet Photo by) ra CH, underground and has never been found alive BNO SON ONS FBI Bite cariace” ibis subtemancan Gabo? gle, Noun ee fecancs ettGaiey te Cat life has also deprived it of the power of sight, that it ie scarcely perceptible. though it possesses perfectly-formed eyes at the ends of its ‘“‘ horns,” or tentacles. Its food is likewise mysterious, no one having yet been able to determine whether it consists of vegetable or animal matter; but the fact that it is specially attracted by buried bones gives colour to the belief that it is carnivorous by preference. There are large species of Hunger Snails that run the Agates rather close for size. These also are mostly tropical, the species photographed (page 361) being from New Caledonia. Our only British representatives of the group are tiny snails found on trees and rocks of which the larger of the two measures only two-thirds of an inch. Our largest British land snail is known by various names. Archzeologists, who used to find it on the sites of old Roman camps and villas, supposed it to have been introduced into this country asa dainty by wealthy Roman officers, and called it the Roman Snail. But though this (or a very similar species) was in high favour with the Romans as a nutritious delicacy, the shells may be found in earthy deposits which were formed long before the Romans appeared in these islands ; and it is merely a coincidence that the Roman camps and villas were built on chalky soil, which is the natural habitat of this snail. Another name, the Apple Snail, has also been bestowed upon it erroneously. This term is very appropriate as regards its shape, but its scientific name, pomatia is derived from a Greek word meaning a “ trap-door,’’ and not from the familiar Latin pomum—an apple. The ancient Greek naturalist gave it its name because he observed that tep, VL.) 360 Marvels of the Universe on the approach of winter the snail forms a thick calcareous covering over the opening of the shell, both to keep out the cold and as a defence against the attacks of beetles and other enemies. The value of this snail as food is patent to anyone who wanders through the markets on the Continent, where the gathering of the snails and fattening them in “ snail-farms’’ forms an im- portant industry. In certain districts they are fattened on vine-leaves and are known as Vine Snails. At one of these farms in Switzerland as many as eighty thousand are fattened annually ; their wholesale price varies from ten to seventeen francs per thousand according to their quality. The Roman Catholic Church permits their use as food during Lent, in which season Paris alone is A MONSTER SNAIL. One of the huge Agate Snails of Africa. They are the largest land-snails known, and different species of them are found in several of the warmer parts of the world. The one shown is a native of Nigeria, whence living specimens have been brought to this country. Their eggs are as large as those of pigeons. q said to consume fifty tons daily! In fact, the increase in the consumption of this snail caused a necessary restriction for fear of its extinction, and the authorities of Cote d’Or, in France, have established a close season from April 15 to July 15. The Continental export trade extends to both North and South America ; indeed, in Buenos Ayres the species is now firmly established. Their import to this country also is considerable, one hundred thousand being consumed annually in London, where they are utilized extensively in thickening certain soups and in giving a glaze to various kinds of pastry. It is our British custom to decry as “ foreign messes” many really excellent Continental dishes ; though why prejudice should extend to this most nutritious mollusc, while the indigestible whelk and the dubiously wholesome mussel are tolerated, is hard to understand. The Original and Only Genuine. The Best Remedy known for COUGHS, COLDS, ASTHMA, BRONCHITIS. Cuts short all attacks | The only Palliative in of SPASMS, NEURALGIA. GOUT, HYSTERIA and RHEUMATISM, PALPITATION. TOOTHACHE. Acts like a charm in DIARRHEA, DYSENTERY and Of all Chemists, CHOLERA. Refuse Imitations and INSIST on having Dr. J. COLLIS BROWNE'S Chlorodyne, The Most Valuable Medicine ever discovered. The name Dr. J. Collis Browne is on the stamp of every bottle of genuine Chlorodyne. Convincing Medical Testimony with each bottle. 1/13, 29, 4/6. “ MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE *’—continued from page 2.] Mr. K. G. Blair, B.Sc., F.E.S. in his note on THE EARTHWORM supplies us with information that will astonish and interest every reader who possesses a few square feet—or acres—of lawn. Dr. E. J. Spitta, F.R.M.S. deals with the wonderful minute plants known as MARVELS of the UNIVERSE. PRIZE COUPON VIL DIATOMS Aa Part VIII. which, though invisible to unassisted eye-sight, are enclosed each in a box of pure flint which is covered with its own particular sculptural ornamentation. Remarkable photographs show many forms of these planis enormously magnified. THE PAPER NAUTILUS is the title of an article that tells the real wonderful story of this very beautiful shell, so long the foundation of myth. Mr. J. J. Ward begins a paper on the entrancing story of THE DOMESTIC LIFE OF THE WASP, and its industry as paper maker and architect. Sir Harry Johnston has a note on the GREAT SEA EAGLE, and in addition there are articles on Roxburgh’s Fig, the Spiny Spider of Trinidad, and the Dove Flower, all profusely illustrated. There are also two magnificent coloured plates illustrating STICKLEBACKS AND THEIR NESTS and SEA EAGLE. Ths coupon may be sentin after the publication of Part VIII, | ci hate The 9,152 Destitute and Orphan Children in AND MISERABLE. {Dr BARNARDOS HOMES Urgently need the help of all who Love the Little Ones. HUNGRY Destitute and Forlorn Boys and Girls are rescued Daily from all over the Kingdom and trained to become useful citizens and Empire Builders. 74,781 Children have passed through the Ever Open Doors Patrons—HIS MAJESTY THE KING, HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN, HER MAJESTY QUEEN ALEXANDRA. President—HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF SOMERSET. Honorary Director-WILLIAM BAKER, Esq., M.A., LL.B. Honorary Treasurer—HOWARD WILLIAMS, Esq. General Secretary—CLAUDE WRIGHT. Head Offices—18 to 26, STEPNEY CAUSEWAY, LONDON, B. GIFTS TO THE FOOD BILL FUND WILL BE WELCOMED. Please mark Gifts “ Food Bill Fund.” — Cheques and P.0.'s payable ‘‘Dr. Barnardo's Homes.’ x Ww X : ————— TEE pppPes -pHIZTEND AT THE CHAPEL RIVER [REGS RINGSTONONOTHAMES = COLOURED PLATES BY A. Cc. FOWL) rRAPE FA. FG. Net. ME A-Popular Work on=the_Marvels—or The HEAVENS The EARTH PLANT LIFE — ANIMAL LIFE THE MIGHTY DEEP by EMINENT SPECIALISTS includme ‘1000 FINE ILLUSTRATIONS ‘ ANL_NUMEROUS COLOURED PLATES. DELICIOUS COFFEE. RED WHITE « BLUE For Breakfast & after Dinner. nlin Mixfure —Luxury indeed to the smoker In making, use less quantity, it being so much stronger than ordinary COFFEE, “Drink Fine China Black Tea if you value your nervous system.” TE-CELESTIAL is the FINEST CHINESE BLACK TEA. Sold in 3ib., 1lb. and Half-pound Canisters, at 2/2 per Ib. —A Flavour and Fragrance’ of unusual charm 1 oz. 6id. 2 oz, 1/1 3} Ib. tins 2.2 Of most high-class tobacconists, or send stamps to the amount to the sole manu‘acturers: THOMSON & PORTEOUS, EDINBURGH ANY GROCER WILL SUPPLY IT. MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE. Concerning Part the Tenth. The forthcoming issue of “ Marvels” will be one of great and varied interest and beautifully illustrated. Mr. J. J. Ward HOME LIFE IN WASPLAND begun in the present part. Mr. R. I. Pocock, F.R.S, writes on the peculiar habits of the interesting CALLING OR BECKONING CRAB. of the sali marsh and mangrove swamp. Sir Harry Johnston, G.G.M.G., tells the story from the rocks of the extinct THE PLESIOSAURUS concludes his paddle-bearing reptile and has a further article upon THE SUPERB LYRE BIRD whose wonderful tail-feathers suggest the name of the musical instrument. Mr. W. P. Pycraft, F.Z.S., writes upon the East ARCHER FISH which is reputed to catch flies by shooting water at them. Mr. E. A. Martin, F.G.S., deals with the SEA FANS Indian and other examples of the remarkable flexible corals. [continued on pase 3 of cover. pede : ‘ A aed SXF h pose ney rayt AIA a E. H. Fitchew. STICKLEBACKS AND THEIR NESTS. e Stickleba y and streams are among the fishes that construct nests. The male is the nest-builder, and having finished the > isfz n, he induces the female to enter and deposit her eggs in it. ereafter, he assiduously watches and guards then and by fanning with his tail-fi currents of fresh water ever the eggs until they are hatched. - The male of the Three-spined Stickleback in bridle attire is known as the Red-throat- That of the Ten-srined species under similar conditions is called the Tinker on account of his sooty crnamentation. The figures are drawn to the natural size. Marvels of the Universe 301 The largest Jand Snails in the world are the subjects of the illustrations on this and the opposite pages. The family to which these giants belong is not only exceedingly numerous, but is represented in most parts of the tropics and the temperate zones—two quite small and inconspicuous forms alone being found in Britain. The special genus or group to which the Giant Snail belongs is confined to South America and the West Indian Islands. These giants, which sometimes attain the length of six inches, are said to be still sold as human food in the Brazilian markets. The eggs of a specimen of the Oblong Giant Snail shown in the illustration on this page), which came from the Island of Trinidad, were ascertained to measure as much as thirty-one millimetres in length and twenty millimetres in breadth; or, in more familiar terms, one and a fifth of an inch in length and four-fifths in breadth. Perhaps the marvellous size of these eggs may be best realized if we compare them with those of our Common Thrush, to which they are, roughly speaking, equal. The young, when they eat their way out of the shells, are SNAILS, ACCS: about the size of our common periwinkle, though of a bite gas cho, Unitebel Sara) fe exe chow slightly enlarged. The lower example shows that more elongated form. These eggs differ from those of the snail's shell is already formed before the most land snails inasmuch as they are hard and brittle "oun leaves the cee: like those of birds, instead of tough and leathery like those of turtles and crocodiles. When freshly laid the white is used extensively as cement for mending china and glass. ROXBURGH’S FIG Tue Fig family of plants is a large and varied one. Few of those who grow the familiar india- rubber plant in their windows or conser- vatories realize that it is a near relation of the tree that in the Mediterranean region produces the fruit that comes to us flattened and slightly pressed in neat little boxes. Neither do they as- sociate it with the banyan of India, that will cover acres of. ground, sending "Photo by} (EZ. Step, F.L.S. roots down from THE SHELL OF A HUNGER SNAIL. the The Hunger Snails are so-called in Greek by the naturalists on account of their voracious appetites. The species here shown of the natural size is a native of New Caledonia. Our British representa- far - spreading branches, which tives of the family are not more than two-thirds of an inch long roots ultimately be- 2 imal 362 Marvels of the Untverse come stout props and trunks supporting a leafy roof, under which an army could shelter. There are other Figs in Burmah, South America and other warm regions which take advantage of other trees as supports up which to climb, and end by strangling their supporter and occupying its place. Roxburgh’s Fig, which forms the subject of our photograph, was discovered in Silhet seventy- two years ago, and named in honour of Roxburgh, the famous botanist, who added so much to our knowledge of the flora of India. Its leaves have little resemblance to the seven-lobed leaves of the ancient fig-trees that luxuriate in old gardens in the South of England (where they are believed to have been originally introduced by the Romans and re-introduced at a later period by Cardinal Pole). Roxburgh’s Fig, apart from its fruit, might be taken for a mulberry-tree, for its foliage is very similar in shape. Like the Common Fig, it grows toa height of about twenty feet only ; but the remarkable point about it, which is clearly shown in our photo, is the manner of producing its large fruit. In the Common Fig the fruits are pro- duced singly or in pairs from the base of the leaf-stalk ; but those of Roxburgh’s Fig come in clusters from the lower branches, the main trunk, and even those parts of the stout roots that are above ground. They are : es e as : much larger than the Hhotoiey) . sen 5 Lente, HLS. European Figs, shaped THE ROMAN SNAIL. : 2 This! is the largest of the British Snail, and is here shown of the natural size, By meny _ UCH like ajturmpabae people—especially on the Continent—it is esteemed a greal delicacy. It is found only on Tibbed and _ covered Sea cass with coarse down. Our photograph, for which we are indebted to Major Gage, the superintendent, was taken in the Botanical Gardens at Sibpur, Calcutta. THE LOVE-STORY OF THE SHICKIPRAGK BY JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S. THE Stickleback in yonder pond is a gay fellow indeed. There is no creature either in the pond or the brook that is so gorgeously attired. Even the male newts, with their flowing crests and gaudy orange and black hues, cannot compare with his exquisite suit of iridescent sapphire blue and glowing red. Also, he is as courageous as he is brilliantly coloured. He has built a tub-shaped nest from particles of decayed vegetation, well cemented together, and hammered into shape by means of his head. Now that it is complete and almost hidden from view (being partly covered by mud and sand), he is very proud of his accomplishment; and his . [Major A. T. Gage, A ROXBURGH'’S FIG-TREE. This photograph from a specimen in the Calcutta Botanical Gardens well illustrates the tree's peculiarity in producing an abundance of fruit not only on its Jower branches and trunk, but even on the above-ground portions of the roots. 364 Marvels of the Universe present business in life is to lure a lady Stickleback into that struc- ture, so that she may assist in stocking it with eggs. Presently one is seen approach- ing; and then the eyes of this gay fellow flash fire-like glances towards her as he manceuvres round and about his household in ecstatic delight. His colours glitter with extraordinary briliancy as his rapid movements continually expose them to the sunlight. Then he makes a headlong dive right into the entrance of his nest, Be te re almost immediately backing out THREE-SPINED STICKLEBACK. ? Al wali Tif g K irchn The Three-spined Stickleback is here photographed the full natural size. In again ancrones en ee 8 Lady Stickleback, how- the breeding season it is known to juvenile anglers as the Redthroat, from the preserve. resplendent bridal tints it 2 S S al tints it assumes ever, apparently regards him with Photo bu] a very indifferent air. Suddenly his prospective bride darts to one side, and, like a flash of light, a third Stickleback has appeared. In an instant there is a whirl of colour: silver, blue and red are immediately merged into a blur of grey. In truth, we are witnessing a desperate ‘duel for a lady fair. The colours of the combatants promptly reappear again, for they have quickly separated, the owner of the nest instantly diving to guard its entrance. His adversary, however, is not yet beaten, for he also has made a rapid plunge for the nest. That manceuvre, though, was a fatal mistake, for the anger of the rightful owner was at its height, and, by a dexterous turning movement, he has charged the lower part of his foe with his formidable spines. His rival has retreated mortally wounded, but the victor glows more brilliantly than ever. Lady Stickleback had been quite forgotten during the fight ; but, to the great delight of her valiant suitor, she has now entered his home. After depositing four eggs therein, and pushing her way out through the opposite side, leaving a clear passage through the nest, she at once swims away. Such are the scenes which may be witnessed during the merry month of May when the Stickle- back’s “‘ fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love’’; for he is a confirmed polygamist, and requires many consorts to fill his nest with eggs, which he faithfully guards until the young fry appear. Even then he vigilantly protects the off- TEN-SPINED STICKLEBACK. spring, and promptly returns them This species is less common than the Three-spined Stickleback. It is a to the nest by means of his mouth thinner fish than that species, and its adornment in the breeding season is a rich black, which has earned for it the familiar name of Tinker. when they go astray. (Bu J. Teklenburg. Marvels of the Universe 305 COMETS BY G. F. CHAMBERS, F.R.A.S. GREAT Comets which appeal ostentatiously to the public are so rare that probably the announce- ment made in the newspapers in September, Ig11, that no fewer than seven Comets were then under the observation of astronomers in differents parts of the world fell rather flat on the minds of the uninitiated. In reality, Comets are very common, especi- ally now that so many giant telescopes are available for picking them up and following them. In bygone times, when there were no telescopes available, of course it was only the specially brilliant ones which attracted notice, and as these only appeared at rare intervals of, it might be, twenty or thirty years, they came to be Photo bu} [/. J. Ward, I’. 2 ae b eae es looked upon as por STICKLEBACKS AND NEST. c Cc ma c pon, and portents ot In this photograph a male Three-spined Stickleback is guarding the nursery it has built evil rather than ot against the attack of a marauding Ten-spined Stickleback (upper figure). (About one-third less = : than natural size.) good to the nations. Shakespeare, therefore, was no more than abreast of the times when he wrote : ** Comets importing change of times and states Brandish your crystal tresses to the sky, And with them scourge the bad revolting stars That have consented unto Henry’s death.” Allusions in the same spirit may be found throughout the literature of the world from classical times down to the last century, and, indeed, belief in the mischievous influence of Comets is not even yet extinct. On several occasions during 1911 I was asked whether the intense hot weather was not due to the prevalence of Comets; but the answer was bound to be in the negative, and it may as well be stated once for all that there is not the slightest ground for the opinion that Comets exercise any influence whatever on mundane affairs, except it be to frighten nervous people. Ascending to a more scientific level, it may be pointed out that nearly all Comets at their first discovery need to be termed “ telescopic ’’ Comets; that is to say, are only visible in telescopes, and the great majority of them never become anything else. Whilst some Comets are picked up by chance, there has been carried on now for many years, especially in America, a systematic search for them by sweeping over parts of the heavens in the neighbourhood of the sun immediately after sunset and before sunrise. In other words, the best chance of finding a Comet is when, after a long journey from the distant realms of space, it approaches the sun—the normal place of assembly for such Comets as come within the ken of us who live on the earth. 3066 Marvels of the Universe When first discovered by means of a telescope, a Comet is usually a small speck of light, perhaps no bigger than a star of the twelfth magnitude, or even less. As it comes nearer the sun it will grow both in apparent and also in real size, and will present the appearance of a more or less circular patch of grey light. It may or may not have a central condensation of light, which will give it the appear- TELESCOPIC COMETS. ance of a star surrounded by a sort of halo or cloud of Without nucleus. With a nucleus. light. | When such is the case, the star-like condensation 1s When a Comet can only be seen through a pe Renner mig ari Ome eho, «Cet hnically called the “nucleus,” and the surrounding the aid of a telescope always have tails. portion the “coma.” The question of a tail then arises. Does the Comet or does it not exhibit a tail? This is a matter of uncertainty. It may be taken as a general rule that Comets which are only visible in a telescope have no tails, but that the Comets visible to the naked eye always have tails. This latter fact accounts for the popular idea that unless a Comet has a tail “ the man in the street ’’ does not regard the object as a Comet at all, and takes no interest in it. To the rule just stated, that naked-eye Comets always have tails, I cannot recall a single exception ; but the other part of the rule that telescopic Comets never have tails is not so universally true. But in the case of a telescopic Comet, whilst there may be no tail, properly so called, visible, it will sometimes happen that a coma with its nucleus acquires an elongated shape, which may or may not indicate that a tail will soon appear. The general nature of Comets and their tails is a matter not easily dealt with. Now and again 4 Comet appears in which it will be noticed that luminous matter is persistently ejected from the nucleus, indicative of action closely re- sembling in appearance, and perhaps in actual nature, the ejection of water from the jet of a fountain under pressure from below. On the other hand, with many Comets there is no appearance of the tail being the result of internal RORDAME-QUENISSET COMET 1893. forces : This was a particularly beautiful Comet. ; is eT > jc oO. ore c se R GEites Treat Tee this pe thaps is the more common case, though probably to electric discharges. to say that it grows from nothing is quite unphilosophical. At this point, perhaps, the reader will ask the question : ““ What is a Comet ? ’’ “ What is it made of?’ Iam bound frankly to confess that we do not know; that these questions do not admit of but the tail simply grows as from nothing, and a straight answer. The internal structure of tails is an interesting matter of inquiry. Whilst we can give a reason for their being curved (because, being more ethereal than the heads, they lag behind the more dense heads), we cannot pronounce definitely as to what is the cross section of an average tail. Judging by the fact that its outer margins are more luminous than the centre, it may be inferred that the tail is cylindrical in section. Whilst it cannot be said that we tureeque celestiall sights ever ccen, appeared in _LCally ‘understand how the tail of “a Comet issiormed on 1858, and was visible for 112 days why it should be formed, it may at least be conceded that DONATI’S COMET. This, one of the most brilliant and_pic- [Bu Arthur Tiidle, SOME NOTABLE COMET. On the left-hand side the upper figure shows Donati’s Comet (1858) passing in front of Arcturus. Below it is Coggia’s Comet of 1874, and at the foot-are two views of Holmes’ Comet of 1892. The upper centre is occupied by the many-tailed Comet of 1744, and below it Sawerthal’s Comet of 1888. In the upper right-hand corner are two views of Biela’s Comet (1846), below it the Great Comet of 1882, and at the foot the Comet of 1862. In this Picture we-have brought together some of the most notable Comets of recent times. 308 Marvels of the Universe some manifestation of an electric nature may be involved. To this it may be added that some recent Comets, especially Morehouse’s of 1908, have exhibited transformations in their tails of a kind not generally noticed or recognized in the past. These transformations have included a development of swellings in the tail not unlike knots in a rope; whilst in a somewhat larger number ef cases it has been noticed that a Comet has, as it were, shed portions of its tail, which have fallen off and become distinct fragments. Even beyond this there are a few cases on record, such as that of Biela’s Comet, where Comets have broken up, have become disintegrated and scattered through space to form the objects which we call luminous meteors. As regards their motions, some Comets are very regular and others very erratic. The Comets which are regular in their movements are technically termed “ periodic Comets,” and circulate Photos bu] ; ; Tae ; j Ta Le ; MOREHOUSE’'S COMET OF 1908. These two photographs exhibit remarkable developments in the tail of this Comet which had not been generally noticed previously. These changes have included the formation of swellings in the tail not unlike knots in a rope, as shown in the second photo. Jarnard. round the sun in regular or closed orbits. The erratic Comets come up to the sun and become visible to us, having travelled from whence we know not. and pass on after they leave us, whither we know not. The periodic Comets may be grouped in two classes. The first class includes those Comets which visit us with great regularity at stated intervals of from three to a dozen years, or thereabouts ; whilst there is also a small group which seem to belong to our system, and may be expected to reappear about every seventy years. Of these the well-known Comet of Halley is a noteworthy example. The second class, which we verily believe are really periodic, judging by the calculated form of their orbits, have periods supposed to amount to many hundreds of years. Therefore, they have not proved to us yet their periodicity by paying us a second visit, though they may do so perhaps some centuries hence, if the world lasts so long. Something should be said about the numbers of the Comets. The total: number recorded from Marvels of the Universe 369 the earliest times down to the end of IgiI is nearly eleven hundred, and the orbits of about five hundred of these have ever, that the number which have appeared during been calculated. It is obvious, how- the last two thousand years is vastly more than the eleven hundred just mentioned, because before the that were invention of the telescope none of class of Comets which we call “ telescopic ”’ observed, although, doubtless, hundreds of such came into our system and went away again. This fact will be readily grasped when I state that 1911 produced eight Comets, of which no more than probably one would have attracted the notice of the few astronomers or historians who chronicled Comets in pre-telescopic times. Even the number of eight belonging to the year rar1, large as if may seem, is not unprecedented ; for 1898 pro- duced ten Comets, 1886 produced nine, 1858 produced eight, as did 1881, and, not to multiply instances, there have been in several recent years as many as seven Comets each year. A subject of some interest is the absolute dimen- both matter in sions of Comets as regards heads and _ tails, measured in miles. This is a which we meet with great extremes. The mated to be only thirty miles in diameter, whilst nucleus of the Comet of 1806 was esti- the nucleus of the third Comet of 1845 had a diameter of eight thousand miles. So likewise as regards the heads, or come. The fifth Comet of 1847 had a small head, only eighteen thousand miles across, whilst the first Comet of 1811 had a diameter of more than a million miles. But it is in the case of the tails of Comets that we come across the most stupendous figures. Whilst these may show such moderate dimensions as only hundreds of thou- tail of the Great Comet of 1843 TWwo sands of miles, the was calculated to be hundred millions of miles long. As a last word, let me say that cometary astronomy is a branch of the science well worthy of the attention of amateur students of nature; for Comets, as will be readily understood from what has gone before, are constantly coming and going; the changes of size and form which they often go through are very curious and diversified, and a large number of Comets may be studied with the aid of the telescopes of moderate size, which are now so common, and comparatively cheap, considering the prices of half a century or MOre a THE DAYLIGHT COMET. As seen in North Africa in January, 1911. HALLEY’S COMET. Edmund Halley suggested the identity of the great Comets of 1531, 1607 and 1682, and predicted a reappearance at intervals of seventy-six years. ENCKE’S COMET. ‘nucleus,’ is not an essential detail of A tail, or a a Comet, as its nature is determined by the shape of the orbit in which it travels. This Comet has a par- ticularly short period of 1,204 days. Marvels of the Universe MAMMOTHS AND EXTINCT ELEPHANTS BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. oy Tue Elephant order came into existence somewhere ¥ in North-East Africa, probably in Egypt, arising from a generalized type of ungulate related to the surviving Hyrax, of African rocks and forests, and even to those strange aquatic mammals, the Manati and Dugong, which still remain as eaters of seaweed and waterside vegetation in the seas and estuaries of the tropical world. The earliest type of Elephant was a creature not much larger than a pig, which developed a very long head and snout, no doubt for the purpose of groping and grubbing after roots along the banks of rivers and devouring on a large scale With these habits it gradually developed its front incisor teeth into formid- able tusks, andat last became of the type which riverside vegetation, we know in a general way as “‘ Mastodon,” from the hilly, or nippled, appearance of the surface of its large molar teeth. The Mastodons grew to an enormous size, possibly exceeding in height anything since attained by the True Elephants, and they developed very remarkable tusks. The THE COMET OF 1811. This Comet was notable for its extreme brilliancy. It is a curious fact that stars which the slightest fog would conceal shine clearly through millions of miles of the unsubstantial stuff which makes up a Comet. earliest forms had tusks in the lower, as well as the upper, jaw. One branch devoted itself entirely to the development of its lower tusks and became the Dinotherium, a creature which may have sur- vived in Tropical Africa down to the human period, its fossil remains having recently been discovered in East African strata of relatively recent origin. Some people think a Dinotherium still lives in the inaccessible marshes of Lake Bangweulu and the region of the Upper Zambezi, perhaps also in Congo- land, in all of which countries there are traditions of a “‘ Water Elephant.” The more elephant-like type—Mastodon—spread from the Old World to the New, and grew toa great size in North and South America. This creature may also have lingered in America down to the coming of Man. In Africa, Mastodons (we now know), extended their range as far south as Cape Colony. In Eastern Asia, from out of the Mastodon type grew the True Elephant, which soon attained, like the bigger Mastodons, an almost world-wide range, only the continent and islands of Australasia and Madagascar being without Elephants. The chief region of development for the Elephant genus was, of course, the Old World, where it exhibits two leading types, which might (Bu Sir I, H. Johnston, G.C.M.G. MAMMOTHS. The Mammoth resembled structurally the Indian Elephant of to-day, but had much longer and more curved tusks, and its body was covered thickly with hair and wool. Mammoths have been found preserved in the ice of Siberia, and their flesh has been thawed and eaten within the last few years. By2 Marvels of the Universe Photo bv] [Professor Fraas. ELEPHANTS’ TUSKS, PAST AND PRESENT. The upper tusk in this picture is that of an extinct “ African"’ type of Elephant of about half a million years ago. The lower figure is the largest known tusk of the African Elephant of to-day. It will be seen that the ancient species, which in- habited Europe and North Africa, had tusks half as long again as those of the modern Elephant. be roughly called the “ African’”’ and the “ Asiatic,’’ the African being the less specialized of the two. African Elephants once inhabited (even in the human period) the greater part of Europe and Western Asia, as well as the African Continent. One of their extinct species (antiguus) developed tusks exceeding anything we know of in modern developments, as is displayed in one of the illustra- tions to this article. An allied type—ganesa—in India (as may be seen by the example in the British Museum) probably reached a climax in tusk development which has never been surpassed. But the Asiatic group of True Elephants—typified by the Indian Elephant of to-day—was not far behind in the matter of tusks. It gave us, amongst other extinct forms, the Mammoth, which is little more than an “ Indian”’ Elephant, with somewhat more specialized molar teeth, and with a thick covering of hair over its skin. The Mammoth did not perhaps attain to a greater height at the shoulder than the largest specimens of Indian Elephant known to-day (and the biggest of these—twelve to fourteen feet high at the shoulder—have been recorded from Siam and Sumatra), but it certainly had tusks of a size and length (ten feet) never attained by any existing species of Asiatic Elephant, and leaving even the biggest known Africans behind. These tusks were, as a rule, much more curved than those of the African group of Elephants, and even tended to be spiral. The Mammoth, which probably first assumed its specific type in Asia, spread across Bering’s Straits (then, no doubt, dry land) to North America, and traversed the New World down to Northern Mexico, developing several sub-specific types of great size, one or two of which, no doubt, co-existed with Man. In fact, in Alaska and North-West North America it 1s probable that the Mammoth only became extinct a short time before the arrival of the European explorers. Northwards and westwards from Central Asia the Mammoth spread to the shores of the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans. It permeated all Europe as far south as the Danube, the Rhine, Northern Italy and Northern Spain. Its range extended westwards as far as Ireland, where, likewise, it may have lingered down to the coming of Neolithic Man with improved weapons. Speaking generally, however, the Mammoth became extinct in Europe not long after the last of the Glacial periods had melted into a more genial climate. Its extinction, however, was Marvels of the Universe 373 © not brought about by a rise in temperature, but by the growing boldness and skill of Man as a hunter. We know much more about the Mammoth than other extinct Elephants, because specimens of it have been preserved whole in the ice of Siberia, so that men of science have actually had the creature's stomach to examine with undigested fragments of its food, and anyone who has been able to visit the museums in Russia has been able to see the actual skin of a Mammoth coated with shaggy hair, while there have even been dinners given in Russia at which frozen Mammoth flesh has been thawed and cooked for the delectation of a few scientific enthusiasts. The very fine illustration of a Mammoth’s skull here given is from a photograph kindly lent by Professor Fraas. This depicts an unusually fine specimen of this extinct Elephant recently exhumed in the wonderful little kingdom of Wtirttemberg, which has provided museums in modern Germany with so many marvels of vanished beast, bird and reptile. iE SBIN YE SPIDER THE family of spiders is a very large and comprehensive one, but a still greater number are said to exist in the Southern hemisphere. Some are extremely forbidding in appearance, the terrible Tarantula being only surpassed by the repulsive Scorpion Spider. Others, however, approach things beautiful, and one of those especially attractive is certainly the Spiny Spider, a native of Trinidad. About the size of a sixpenny-bit, it rejoices in having a series of six spines—each covered with minute hairs—arranged around its body, and these, together with the legs, as well as the head and its appendages, are coloured a kind of bright brick-red. The body, however, is almost pure white, which offers a great contrast to the spots dotted all over its surface, which have much the same olour as the spines, outer jaws, feelers and head. Photo ba [Professor Fraas. A MAMMOTH’S TUSKS. This photograph shows the skull and tusks of an enormous Mammoth discovered in Wurttemberg in 191] by Prof. Fraas. Note the considerable curvature of the tusks, which are also unusually thick for a Mammoth. Marvels of the Universe io») ~I aS AX JAC/NNL INSUMIE SSIS) WW MINER IDRVARS BY JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S. I HAVE already introduced to the readers of this work some strange plants which catch and eat insects, and in that article I pointed out that this habit was the natural outcome of those plants living in boggy and wet situations, because in such places the soil lacks a sufficiency of the nitro- genous matter so necessary in the plant economy. Here I want to introduce another curious plant with similar habits, but in this case one that has disposed of its roots entirely and become com- pletely aquatic. The plant in question is the English Bladderwort (of | which there are three recognized species) of the deep pools and sluggish waters. In the first place, it is ob- vious that the Bladder- wort by becoming aquatic has made an advantageous change. Its roots were more or less useless for feeding purposes, owing to the fact that there was no material on which they could feed. Therefore, their natural function was lost, and they, in conse- quence, have disappeared. At whatever remote period in its evolution the Blad- derwort lost its roots, we may assume that it then grew in watery surround- ings. That being allowed, we can imagine that the ; Photo by] [Dr. E. J. Spitta. next thing that would aR TE SPINY. SIDER. happen would be that the A view from the underside of a remarkable Spider which is a native of Trinidad. It lane al Gil Siealf is three-quarters of an inch across. It has a white body, spotted with red, and the six Pp. an wou n 1tSE spines, as well as the legs and jaws. are also red. afloat. From thence its possibilities of development would improve. In floating about it would doubtless come in contact with decaying animal and other matter, which would provide it with those nitrates which had hitherto been its main want. And, as in the case of the insectivorous plants previously considered, its primitive glandular structures would scarcely lose the opportunity of making the best use of this all-important material. That, possibly, was the beginning of things, and then, by a process of natural selection combined with what the philosopher Bergson defines as “the internal push that has carried life, by more and more complex forms, to higher and higher destinies,’ the Bladderwort would evolve the complex mechanism that we find it possessing to-day. To-day, indeed, it is an exceedingly successful water-trapper. It floats near the surface, with its traps all set for minute insects, water-fleas, the small fry of fishes, etc. The traps are popularly (By J. Teklenburg. THE BLADDERWORT. The Bladderworts are small aquatic plants that float in ponds and ditches. The large leaves consist of many branching fine threads which bear little pear-shaped vessels with spring doors which allow minute water animals to pass in but prevent their exit. The dead bodies of these little victims are used for the support of the plant. 376 Marvels of the Universe termed “ bladders,” and are borne amongst the leaves, of which they are modified portions. In the accompanying photo-micrograph they will be seen to be somewhat pear-shaped structures supported on short footstalks. The entrance is at the narrow end, and is closed with an elastic valve which opens inwards. When the prey is scarce the valves act very promptly, giving way the moment they are touched, and precipitating the inquiring water-flea, or other animal, into the interior, and then immediately closing again. It is quite impossible for the captive to escape, as the valve cannot be opened from the inside. Around the entrance of the bladder are several branched bristles, which probably serve to conduct the prey to the vicinity of the valve. The bladder often contains several water-fleas or similar organisms, which will sometimes remain alive for two or three days, but eventually they perish and begin to decay. Inside the bladders, too, are numerous living animalcule which seem to thrive on the decaying prey. Whether these Photo bu} (V. J. Ward. F.E.S. . foo THE BLADDERWORT. A portion of the plant, natural size, showing the position of the bladders in which minute aquatic animals are entrapped and done to death. are to be looked upon as parasites on the plant’s preserves, or whether they in turn serve as further nourishment for the plant, is a difficult point to decide. On the inside walls of the bladders are innumerable minute glands (which are visible as little points in the photo-micrograph), and it is these organs which supply to the plant its nitro- genous food. They absorb the material after it has reached the condition of a liquid manure, and do not, so far as Charles Darwin’s experiments showed, digest their prey in the manner of the Sundew and Butterwort previously considered. What is perhaps the most curious point regard- ing the Bladderwort is what induces the tiny prey to go so readily to its slaughter. It may be the naturally inquisitive characteristics of these or- ganisms for penetrating crevices that lead them into trouble; but the valve of the bladder is transparent, and possibly that may be the attrac- TS HUNDASERRORTES FREES tion. It may create a bright spot which acts asa Te eS EE ERE carte ae eer lure, and so draws the victims to the entrance. means of which the plant catches its food, on a scale of | Then, should they stumble against the valve, they magnification which shows them twenty times larger than life size. are immediately entrapped. Photo bu] (J. J. Ward, F.E.S. oe aetst ANSE. By H Seppings Wright. A SEA EAGLE FISHING. t disdain other kinds of food, they prefer a fish diet, and are skilful in catching their prey on the open sea, and where they can co me it undisturbed, using their half-spread wings as sails. They are addicted to loud are among the largest of the birds of prey: some Australian species, on the other hand, are no larger than hawks, The drawing is about one-tenth of the natural size. Marvels of the Universe ioe) ~I ~I TEE. AUSTRATEIAN =SPIN Yo VeUZAIRD BY R. LYDEKKER AmoncG the many strange and weird creatures whose home is Australia, none is more grotesque or more suggestive of a nightmare than the eight-inch-long reptile to which the colonists give the name of Spiny Lizard, or Thorny Devil. From the latter title, and still more from its scientific designation of Moloch (borrowed from the evil Babylonian deity), the Spiny Lizard might naturally be regarded as a reptile as much to be dreaded and avoided as a cobra or a rattlesnake. But, asa matter of fact, it is perfectly harmless, inhabiting dry and sandy districts in Southern and Western Australia, and subsisting apparently to a great extent on ants. What, then, it may well be asked, is the object of this wonderful panoply of horny spines ,with which the entire upper surface of the head, body, limbs and tail is so thickly covered? But it must be remembered that spines may serve just as well for defensive as for offensive purposes ; and it seems quite reasonable to suppose that those of the Spiny Lizard are designed to prevent any hungry bird from making a meal of what may be a very toothsome creature. And in confirmation of this, it may be mentioned that, according to the meagre accounts of their habits we possess, it is by no means uncommon to see two or three of these lizards lazily sunning themselves on the top of a sand-dune, where, in spite of a certain limited power of changing their colour to harmonize with their surroundings, they can Photo by} [W. Saville Kent. — THE AUSTRALIAN SPINY LIZARD. The Spiny Lizard is a perfectly harmless reptile, inhabiting dry, sandy districts in Southern and Western Australia, where it appears to live chiefly upon ants. The phctograph shcws it about one-third less than the natural size. Its spines are defensive, not offensive. 26 378 Wlarvels ot the Universe scarcely fail to be more or less conspicuous. Generally, however, these lizards partially bury them- selves in the sand when in repose. The Spiny Lizard, which is the sole representative of its kind, is a relative of the Stellion Lizard of Southern Europe, which, although not unlike the smaller British Lizards in general appearance, represents a separate family. From all the others of its own family the Australian species is broadly distinguished, not only by its protective armour of spines, but likewise by the very small size of its mouth, and by the wall of teeth which crown the summit of its upper jaw being inclined inwards instead of standing vertically. Possibly some of my readers may be led to imagine that the Spiny Lizard is a diminutive survivor of some of the giant reptiles of former epochs of the earth’s history, which were likewise armed with formidable spines, or spines and vertical plates, on their heads, bodies and tails. But there is one important difference (to say nothing of others) between the two: namely, that whereas in the giant extinct species Dinosaurs, as they are called—the spines consist of bone, covered presumably in life with hollow horny sheaths, like those of cattle, in the Spiny Lizard they consist cf horn alone. Photo by) [W. Saville Kent. SPINY LIZARDS. It is no uncommon sight to see two or three of these Lizards sunning themselves on the top of a sand-dune. They havea limited power of changing colour to harmonize with their surroundings. They partially bury themselves when in repose. There are, however, in the warmer parts of North America certain small lizards, locally known as Horned Toads, which present a remarkable resemblance in general appearance to the Spiny Lizard, having their heads, bodies and tails similarly covered with horny spines—albeit somewhat differently arranged. So close, indeed, is the resemblance between the two that it might be imagined that they were near relations ; the shortness of the head from which the American species derive their name of toads being a feature of little importance. But the resemblance is only skin-deep, for the Horny Toads have teeth attached to the sides of the jaws, in the manner characteristic of the almost exclusively American family of Iguanas [I don’t want to be told that iguanas are found in India and Africa, as, in spite of popular opinion, they are not], and it is to that group that they belong. The resemblance between the Spiny Lizard and the Horny Toads is thus in a certain sense accidental (although nothing in Nature is really so), and may be due to the same special need for protection from birds and other enemies. Another feature common to the Spiny Lizard and the Horny Toads is the extreme flatness or depression of their bodies, this being a characteristic of lizards which dwell on the ground, as distinct from those dwelling in trees, which have very thin or laterally compressed bodies, as is [By A. Twidle. DEEP-SEA FISH. In this group of rem sle forms of Deep-sea fish the upper example is the Angler-devil; a front view of the same species is shown in the lower right-hand corner. The middle figure is the Sturgeon-like Gurnard, and the two spherical fishes below are the Tiny Globe-fish, only an inch and a quarter in length. 389 Marvels of the Untverse the case with the great majority of the members of the Iguana group. The depression is, however, carried to a very unusual degree in the Spiny Lizard-and the Horned Toads, and is in accordance with their habit of squatting close down on the ground. If a Spiny Lizard be placed in a saucer of water, the fluid will be rapidly absorbed by the skin. This is very remarkable in a creature inhabiting arid districts, in which it would be natural to suppose that there was some special means to prevent the fluids of the body from drying up. [By A. Twidle. THE ILLUMINATED ANGLER. Fins and tail are enormously developed in this fish, but the mouth, though still immense in its gape, by comparison with the body, is normal in shape and position. The creature seems to be well adapted for pursuit, and to have abandoned the lurking habit altogether. DEEP-SEA FISH BY. FRANK T. BULLEN, F.R.G.S. CONSIDERABLE trep:dation must be felt by anyone who approaches the task of a popular description of the exceedingly strange fish depicted in the accompanying drawings. For several reasons, chief among which are (1) they have no popular names, the titles given them by their discoverers usually running into nine syllables of mixed Greek and Latin, and (2) that those specimens which have been dragged to the surface from the darkling depths where they lurk can hardly be considered repre- sentative. In fact, except to a favoured few they are and must remain unknown from the very nature of the case. Few among us will consider this a hardship when we contemplate their weird and gloomy shapes, and most of us will hope that the few diminutive specimens that have been secured in the most accidental manner are full sized—we hardly like to think of such awful creatures as growing big. But Marvels of the Universe 281 we do not know, and by a very little exercise of the imagination we can people the abyss with stealthily gliding forms that materialize the very worst figments of a severe nightmare. Amidst a world where all is paradoxical and un- explainable, we find what we might expect, that colour is absent; for, with hardly an exception, these extraordinary shapes are either black or dirty- grey, in keeping with the gloom of their native sur- [Bu A, Twidle. roundings. But there any THE INVERTED ANGLER. universal characteristic Judging by appearances one would suppose that this Angler carried his stomach on his x Mu back. He is a degenerate Angler, for his fishing-rod is contemptible, while every other ends. Species apparently organ except his mouth is only just in evidence. allied most closely in all other respects will differ as widely as possible in some most important detail. As, for instance, one will have eves like pin-points; another eyes like saucers. One will have a mouth likea coal-sack, with a body behind it like a whip-lash ; another has a mouth like a pin-hole and a body like a porpoise. Or one light, slender, almost elegant in shape, has an immense propelling organ or tail; another with a body like a porpoise, has practically no tail-fin at all: its body tapers off to a point. But we must pause in this brief intro- duction to consider a few of the creatures here de- picted, popularizing, as far as possible, the terrible appellations given them. The Snipe-beaked Rib- bon-fish shown on p. 383 has been found, as usual with the deep-sea crea- tures, in widely separated districts, and has been brought up from depths varying from two hundred to two thousand fathoms ; but the possibility of specimens of little-known [ly A, Twidle. fish having got into the ; eee me THE LURKING ANGLER. trawl on its way down Zz Like most of the ‘Anglers, this fish is ill-adapted for swimming. The best description that could be given of it is that of an animated stomach. It is only about two inches long. mind. Especially sO in and it has been found in water seventeen hundred fathoms deep. must always be borne in 382 Marvels of the Universe this case, aS a specimen was brought up by a trawl from the Fish Hawk in two hundred and fifty-two fathoms off Newport, which was clinging by its long jaws to the outside of the net. The largest specimen yet found was brought up from a depth of one thousand eight hundred and eighty-eight fathoms, and measured six hundred and fifty millimetres, or, roughly, twenty-five inches in length. But again, in measurements of queer fish dredged from great depths, it must always be remembered that, owing to the necessarily small size of the trawl, the possibility of securing any but the smallest and feeblest specimens is very small. “ A sack-throated fish with a whip-like tail’ is a very free translation of the scientific name of our next subject, which is one of the most paradoxical creatures of all that perverse population. [By A. Twidle. THE SACK-THROATED WHIP-TAIL. A side view of this extraordinary fish is shown in the opposite plate. Here the view s from above. It is one of the most paradoxical creatures of all the deep-sea population. Its principal characteristic is an astounding gluttony. Its entire length is over six feet. Its principal characteristic may be inferred from its appearance—an astounding gluttony. Only five specimens have been taken, three of which were choked by attempting to swallow fish many times larger than themselves. These three were found on the surface ; another specimen was taken in nine hundred fathoms. The largest individual had a body twenty and a tail fifty-eight inches long. The Angel Fish must be passed over promptly, as it evidently, in spite of its extraordinary appearance, belongs to a surface-frequenting species, and, moreover, only one specimen seems to have been taken, four inches long. Why our next specimen should have been provided with such an amazing suit of protective armour is another of the mysteries of ocean. It does not appear to have any value, yet judging from the character of its spines, conical flinty protuberances covering the whole of its body, each of which Seed PEE = oS al >. # yams — fanny < Pie ote > : y Yi yi | : ao “sf —- oo 2 [By A, Twidle. DEEP-SEA FISH. upper fish is an A fi - great development of fins indicates that he has ayed ‘from the upper dina form bel he § a Whip-tail, and beside it is the Snipe-b ed Ribbon-fish, whose e plate is the Armoured Globe-fish. 384 Marvels of the Universe in turn is studded with needle-like flexible prickles, it must be a morsel to destroy the stomach of any fish, however omnivorous, that ventured to swallow it. So far as is known, it does not inhabit abysmal depths, only one hundred and twenty-nine fathoms being the deepest, and its size is not even hinted at in the scientific descriptions. But probably it is very small. Our old familar friend, the Gurnard, is a quaint-looking fish in its normal appearance, but when it goes in for decorations and protective covering it becomes fantastic, if one may safely apply the term. Our picture represents a curious kind taken from depths not excceding two hundred fathoms, and in spite of its habitat still retaining its vivid colouring, the best specimen obtained being a bright crimson. As usual, the size of this specimen is small, only three hundred millimetres in length—or, roughly, about a foot. Angler-fish abound in the great depths of an amazing variety, some of which are shown in our illustrations. From most of the external characteristics of these bizarre fish one would be led to the conclusion that they were essentially licrs in wait, dependent not upon speed but on finesse for the supply of food which their general appearance indicates that they require in fairly large quantities. But here again that condition of para- dox confronts us. One specimen shown is cer- tainly ill-adapted for swim- ming, its fins and tail being of the feeblest, most rudi- mentary kind; the latter, indeed, appearing as if in- tended more for a feeble de- fence than for propulsion, owing to its spikiness and exiguity of membrane. And the pectoral fins, whereon Mee he ital a it must depend for its bal- SACK-THROATED WHIP-TAIL. ce, are so tiny a; to ap- In this view the fish has recently made a hasty meal. The fish eaten was larger than Sige J ) E12 itself, but the stomach has stretched to accommodate it. ‘The eye of the victim will be pear ludicrously inefficient seen showing through the skin of its captor. FOE any practical purpose. Moreover, its eyes are mere pin-points, rudimentary, in fact, like most of its other organs, the exceptions being the very efficient lure, or fishing-rod, and the enormous mouth. Perhaps the best concise description that could be given of this fish is that of an “ animated stomach,” and to its prey it should be a satisfaction that its size is so insignificant, only about two inches long. It has been found in one thousand seven hundred fathoms. When we turn to another specimen, however, we find fins and tail enormously developed ; indeed, the back and belly fins are each as long as the entire creature, while the pectorals, or chest fins, now extraordinarily near the tail, have increased in size until they are nearly as wide as the body. The fishing-rod has dwindled to an insignificant rudiment ; the mouth, though still immense in its gape by comparison with the body, is normal in shape and position; the body is more elegant and fish-like, and altogether the creature seems to be well adapted for swift pursuit and to have abandoned the lurking habit altogether. Another peculiarity possessed by this species is that its back is covered with luminous filaments, which, when all fully excited, must give the creature a dazzling appearance. Marvels of the Universe 385 INTEL 15 AVIRG Wel WACO) NUL BY K. G. BLAIR, B.SC., F-E.S. EARTHWORMS are perhaps the commonest and most generally known of all our native fauna, yet it is truly astonishing how few peope are acquainted in any detail with their habits or realize how great are the results brought about by their work. They prefer to live in moist earth, into which they penetrate partly by thrusting in their pointed heads and pushing away the particles on either side, but mainly by swallowing the earth as they go along, passing it through their bodies, whence it emerges at the tail end in the state of a semi-fluid, fine comminuted mud. A con- siderable quantity of this material is made use of by the Worm to form a smooth, firm lining to its galleries, an operation in which the flattened tail plavs the part of a trowel ; the rest is brought to the surface and there ejected in the form of the well-known worm- casts. The body of the Earthworm is of fairly simple structure, consisting of one long tube within another. The inner tube is, of course, the alimentary canal, the greater part of which is formed by the intestine, whose function it is to absorb nutriment from the materials passing through it. In many animals, ourselves for instance, the intestine is long and coiled in order to in- crease this absorbent area; in the Earth- worm it remains straight, but the same object is attained by a great inward fold along the back. This arrangement will per- haps be better understood after a glance at our fourth illustration, which represents a section through the front part of a Worm. The outer tube is formed by the skin and muscles, while the space between the two is crossed by a large number of transverse partitions, and it is these partitions, seen from without, that give the Worm its characteristic ringed appearance. Its food consists mainly of decaying leaves, which it pulls partly into its burrow ; Photo by) (7. Main, PES. THE COMMON EARTHWORM. Tat Vas f, WTS teers ait} fete est Eee: yr oa pe ps a io: Photo bw) PART OF AN EARTHWORM'S BACK. In this photo of skin from an Earthworm’s back magnified about thirty times the natural size, the rings and the apertures are shown clearly. From these pores a fluid is poured out that protects the worm from the attacks of bacteria. 386 Marvels of the Universe but, in addition, the earth swallowed by the Worm in making its burrow is acted upon by the digestive fluids in its passage through the body, and the organic matter contained in it extracted. It is, of course, only at night that Worms become active ; during the day, especially if the atmosphere be warm and moist, they like to lie close to the mouth of their burrows, concealed by a plug of leaves or heap of castings, and they frequently line this part of the burrow with bits of leaf or small stones, presumably to keep their bodies from direct contact with the earth. They seldom entirely leave their burrows, but reach around as far as they can, keeping the tail in the burrow ready for instant retreat. For this purpose the rows of short, strong, retractile hairs along the body, ; that are readily felt on pulling the Worm backwards through the fingers, agence go Ue: give it an excellent hold upon the sides of the burrow. Though they eS sce nate usually confine their workings to w-thin about a foot or two of the surface, aun seats Bae sony yet in very cold weather, or in times of drought, they will penetrate to a worm. depth of four or five feet, and there construct a little chamber, which they line also with small stones ; here they lie coiled up, often two or more Worms together in a knot, until more favour- able conditions are resumed. Owing to the immense numbers in which Worms exist in the ground, the effect that they exercise is considerable. In ordinary agricultural or pasture land the whole of the upper foot or so is being continually passed through the bodies of Worms and brought to the top, thus, as it were, being repeatedly though slowly “ ploughed.” The effect is not at once evident ; but when it is considered that as castings are brought to the surface, burrows are formed below which sooner or later collapse, and that this process is being continuously repeated, it will readily be perceived that in time the effect will be considerable. Darwin, indeed, quotes nume- rous instances of a layer of top-dressing of sand or lime being laid on a field and a number of years later a pit being dug revealing this layer some distance below the sur- face all round the pit. A large number of observations show that this burial takes place at an average rate of rather over one-fifth of an inch per annum. The same explanation applies to objects left on the ground— stones, coins, etc.—being grad- ually buried, and shows why a _ stony field regularly ploughed remains stony, but when left for pasture becomes soft, even turf, and why the floors of old © Photo.bal LH. Crabtree . Roman houses and other ob- SECTION THROUGH “HEAD” OF EARTHWORM. jects of antiquarian interest The ‘first four rings of the Earthworm are here magnified about twenty-two times, ~ o to show_the simple mouth. The two dark patches, one above and one below the gullet, hav € lain protected beneath are nerve centres. a foot or so of earth. THE DOVE FLOWER. orchid from tropical America whose central organs bear a remarkable likeness to a fluttering of Panama know as Ef § to nf or flower of the Holy Ghost. The flowers are 388 Marvels of the Universe THE DOVE PLOWEK ONE of the most remarkable phenomena in plant life is the resemblance that certain flowers, or parts of flowers, bear to animal structures. We need not go far to find examples of this, for the Bee Orchis, the Fly Orchis and the Butterfly Orchis supply really good illustrations; yet one cannot say what is the purpose of these resemblances, for so far as at present ascertained they appear to have no distinct relation to the habits of the plant. Still more puzzling is the remarkable likeness the inner organs of a Central American orchid bear to a dove hovering with half-expanded wings, as shown in our photograph. In this case it is not a resemblance of the whole flower, which might be seen from a distance and deceive some animal. Until one makes a close inspection of the flower and peers right into its heart, nothing striking is visible ; further, the mimic is on a scale so small that no one could mistake it for a bird. Yet, there is the likeness. The plant is one of those species of orchid that grow upon the trunks and branches of trees in the tropical forests, where the air is so laden with moisture that the roots of these orchids, hanging down from the tree but far from the earth, are able to obtain all the water the plant needs. To tide it over the dry seasons the plant stores its food-material in false bulbs as large as swans’ eggs. When the growing period returns, leaves a yard long and six inches broad arise from these bulb- like stores, and with them a flower-stem five or six feet in height, of which the upper third bears the creamy-white flowers, which are about an inch and a half across. They give off a strong, sweet scent. The Spanish-speaking people about Panama call it El Sfirito Santo, or Holy Ghost flower, from this resemblance to the conventional art representations of the Holy Spirit. Photo bu] [v. J. Ward, F.E.S. PAPER NAUTILUS. This exquisitely beautiful structure is a false shell, for it is not inhabited by the animal, but produced solely for the purpose of holding her eggs. In earlier days many disputes arose between naturalists as to the true nature of this shell. The photograph is slightly larger than natural size. Marvels of the Untverse 389 [Bu Theo. Gana THE PAPER NAUTILUS. The female Nautilus holding the wonderful shell she has constructed for the reception and care of her eggs. She is repre- sented as going backwards, impelled by the discharge of water through the siphon. The small, shell-less creature below is the male. The scale is one-half the natural size. DHE PAPER NAUDIEUS Many an idle tale has been spun around the Paper Nautilus, and learned folk give the doubtful honour of their origin to the Greek sailors, who, in crossing and recrossing the A¥gean Sea, became ” familiar with these strange little fairy vessels and their faithful pilots. “ Argonauts ”’ is the name that has been given to the species, and therein is to be found the germ of the first legend ; for the word means “ the sailing-ship,’’ and it would not be long before the charming but fallacious romance obtained credence that the Paper Nautilus sails upon the ocean with numerous tentacles stretched out from the delicate shell, two of which are raised aloft and spread out into thin, filmy sails to catch the wind that shall propel it through the waves, while the remaining arms are used by this quaint navigator after the fashion of oars. Vastly wonderful, but vastly untrue ! Again, it was stated with all possible circumstances of verity, and supported by the most elaborate and ingenious argument (aye, and believed even as lately as the beginning of the last century), that the Nautilus was a parasite who, by fair means or foul, had obtained possession of his host’s shell and sailed therein—a theory equally wonderful and equally untrue. Yet ours would be a sorry task 1f we had to repudiate such extravagant theories and make of our romantic ship nothing but a small and insignificant ocean-dweller. Such, however, is not the case. The sober facts of the life history of the Nautilus corroborate the statement that Truth is stranger than Fiction. The Nautilus is not a pilot, she is a nurse; her shell is not a ship, it is a cradle—or, as Professor Huxley more aptly described it, a perambulator. It is only the female of the species that bears the shell ; the male is a small creature not more than an inch in length; 390 Marvels of the Universe and the race of which they are ; = members is that of the cuttle-fishes. we Imagine a cuttle-fish clasping with ; \ j two long arms a large oval and not ‘ yf . very wide snail-shell which looks as though it were made of crinkled tissue-paper, with the greater part of its body and the remaining arms — hanging outside the shell, and you \ will have a very fair idea of the \ appearance of the Paper Nautilus. & ay The first actual observations eel recorded of their habits are those ie : of Mme. Jeannette Power, who we oo. Imexed f studied these creatures in her viva- . : U Dace fonts rium at Messina. She states that the young Nautili are naked when they issue from the parent shell, but that in the females the shell Pn eeey Lee Seats A MICROSCOPE ; 5 Fe jhinne t | A DIATOM AND A HUMAN HAIR. eins i , 2n or relve SUPE BS eal aera ecg arate th The centre of the slide is here shown enlarged In the black ring are days. Its formation 1s due tO! a eighty times, with a human hair stretched across. some Diatoms of the The black band is the hair, and beside it is a Diatom, natural size, like specks secretion exuded from the two to which an arrow points. The same Diatom is eb fime cist large tentacles which sweep back- _ shown at the foot of the page on a larger scale. wards from the creature’s beak over the bag-shaped body. Should anything happen to this delicate construction the owner is able to repair it in the same way that any other mollusc can repair his home, except that the tools here used are different ; for most molluscs obtain their secretion from the mantle which lines the interior of the shell, while the supply of the Nautilus is derived entirely from her two tentacles. These tentacles fulfil another important purpose, for they act as spring clasps to this frail cradle (now become the treasure-house of the eggs of the Nautilus), and press it against the bag-shaped body, which entirely fills up the opening of the shell, so that the eggs may be securely packed in their appointed vessel. To better serve the purpose of security, each tentacle 1s supplied with a fine membrane, which spreads out like a web from the central ridge and can be made to fold over the greater part of the cradle, adhering closely on account of its elasticity to the ridges and depressions in its surface. There are several species of the Paper Nautilus, all of which are found in the warm seas. The most common is that found in the Mediterranean, such as is depicted on page 389, while the first illustration shows a very beautiful variety, noticeable for its network ridges and the bolder toothing along the crest of the shell. Photo bu) [Max Poser, F.R.M.S. A BEAUTIFUL DIATOM. The central area of this graceful form is marked with fine cross-lines. Only fine lenses of high power can separate these lines. The original photograph from which this block was made was ona scale of 3,600 times the natural size; here it is reduced to half that scale, or 1,800 times. Marvels of the Universe 391 IDPAMOMSE WiIRIAUS VAIkds, EE ver BY E. J. SPITTA, F.R.M.S. Dratoms, or Brittleworts, are minute alge. But what does that mean? Plants belonging to the class algz grow in water, whether salt or fresh ; seaweeds are alge. All of this group, speaking popularly, are separated into three grand divisions: olive-coloured, red-coloured and green-coloured. One of Photo by} (4. LZ. Smith. A GROUP OF DIATOMS. Each of these microscopic plants, in spite of its minuteness , is delicately sculptured, each species with its own special pattern. They are here shown about sixty times larger than the actual size. Several of them will be found, much more highly magnified, on other pages. the sub-divisions of the green-coloured is peculiar in that its members all possess a flint-formed base, which supports what is oft-times called the fleshy exterior or envelope. These are Diatoms. So hard is this flinty matter, that if any Diatoms are placed on the tip of a knife and held in the flame of a spirit-lamp to burn off their envelopes, the pure flint framework remains perfectly intact ; in Marvels of the Universe (op) \O to Sl re Photo bu] [E. J. Spitta, P.RM.S. PART OF A DIATOM. This photo shows a small portion of the Diatom shown at the foot of page 390, but under a much greater magnifying power of the microscope. Here the fine lines of the former photo are seen to consist really of minute dots. The scale of magnification is 1,000 times the actual size. It is the summit of the photo-micrographer’s ambition to thus resolve the lines into these dots. fact, this is one way of cleaning them. It is these “‘ remains’ that are of such interest to the micro- scopist, for they are found in every variety of form, whether boat-shaped, circular, spindle-shaped, or like a strip of tape, shaped as a basin or as a three-cornered hat. Sometimes forms are met with twisted as a portion of a spiral. They all vary, too, in size, some only requiring a moderate-power microscope to render them visible, whilst others need the highest of magnifications. But this is not all. If the highest possible magnifying power be used, and every optical construction and mechanical adjustment of the microscope be employed at its best, fine markings are revealed, called “ secondaries,” or ‘* secondary markings,” which were invisible before. These consist of minute lines ruled close together, dots or pearls and cavities. The way in which these minute markings are executed, their exquisite symmetry of design and their regularity of arrangement, surpasses man’s comprehension, both as to the method by which they have been sculptured, as well as to compre- hend or even speculate upon any possible purpose for which they can have been formed. It must Pe : ? 223 >-=" : ; eS —“- os . Be 4 7 Pe ag €. 4 d ; 2 3 le ae ee a ¥ 9 : : CPP * & Or ~ Fs 4 eee ten, Proto bv) Cs LE. J. Spitta, F.RM.S. PORTION OF A DIATOM. This photo shows a smaller part of the Diatom shown above, but still more highly magnified. In consequence the dots are seen to be cavities—perforations of the valve. The scale of magnification here is 3,200 times the actual size of the portion shown. Marvels of be remembered, too, that these markings are not themselves visible until the cloak of green integument is removed. The mind is appalled also when one comes to think that the dimensions of these mark- ings lie in the region of thousandths or even hundreds of thousandths of an inch! Then, too, unless one is familiar with such small quantities as microscopists are accustomed to, the mind seems unable to grasp what magni- fication is required to be able to see objects of these dimensions. To make this clear the following attempt has been carried out. Our first illustration on page 390 is a photograph of an ordinary microscope “slip”—a small piece of glass three inches long and one inch wide. In the centre is seen~a ring of black varnish which attaches to the slip a little “ cover- glass’ made of extremely thin glass about .17 millimetre in thickness. Under this have been placed a little scattering of Diatoms ; the Universe 393 Se WR SS : Photo bu} (A. EL. Smith. A CIRCULAR DIATOM. This photograph is nearly fifty times larger than the natural size of the Diatom, which is shaped like a watch-glass, and beautifully sculptured, every dot under a still higher magnifica- tion resolving itself into a six-sided figure. but they are quite invisible to the naked eye. The only appearance capable of being seen under the cover-glass is what looks like a little accumulation of dust more in one part than another. In the second photo we are looking at a portion of the space enclosed by the black ring, but more magnification has been employed, and we now see a little, long and thin Diatom lying parallel to a black band running from the top to the bottom of the circle. This band is a human hair of the head. It has been so placed to educate the mind to appreciate the size of the Diatom in question. The exact Diatom is in- dicated by an arrow pointing to it. Apply considerably more magnification and we now see, as at the foot of the same page, the same little Diatom much amplified in size, and we notice lines are now visible running across from side to side the whole way down its extent. If now we come to higher magnifi- cation still, using microscopic objectives of the finest quality and employing the utmost re- finement of the microscopist’s art, we find that these lines are really capable of being resolved into dots (see upper photo on page 392), and, moreover, we discover if we measure them that they are so small as to require one hundred thousand to be placed side by side to reach across a halfpenny! The mind literally reels at an assertion of this kind—it is a statement that is at once staggering and appalling. The [B. J. Spitta. ANOTHER CIRCULAR DIATOM. Photo by} In this form the ornamentation is entirely different from the above, the markings making more than twenty concentric circles cut by thirty radiating lines from the clear centre. (Nearly fifty times larger than life size.) 27 394 Marvels of the Universe Photo by] LA. 2. Smith. A TRIANGULAR DIATOM. This Diatom is here enlarged to 500 times its natural dimensions, a scale of magnification which resolves the central dots into six-sided openings. Photo bu) (4. £. Smith. A CUSHION-SHAPED DIATOM. A nearly square Diatom, closely related to the one shown above, magnified 440 times. magnification that is required to effect this resolution is very great, in the original negative amounting to about three thou- sand eight hundred diameters, an amount which, if applied to a man, would raise his stature to over four miles, and if a_half- penny were magnified the same amount would extend it to over three hundred feet. These interesting little bodies really consist of two valves (united by a kind of band), one overlapping the other much as a lid of an ointment-box covers the box itself. They are dis- tributed in a living state all over the world, in ditches, ponds, lakes, rivers and seas, having even been found in the Arctic ice; and as fossil remains they are found sometimes in great heaps in many parts of the world; the city of Richmond, Virginia, for example, being built on a layer of fossil Dia- toms over fifteen feet in thick- ness. Diatomaceous earth—as the material is sometimes called —is to be found in Great Britain at Peterhead, Dolgelly, Lough Mourne, Raasay, Cantyre, Mull, and other places. Fossil Dia- toms, too, have been found in volcanic dust. Some of the comparatively large varieties are composed of very marked dots as secondaries, one being shown in the illus- tration at foot of page 392. Others are circular in form, as seen in the illustrations on page 393, the lower reminding one of a spider's web. Boat-shaped varieties are furnished by later illustrations, whilst the honey- comb or cavity type of second- ary, structure is displayed on Marvels of the Universe 395 page 396, in which the little holes are so - small that fifty thousand would have to be placed side by side to reach across a halfpenny. In the foregoing remarks we have dealt with the Diatoms chiefly from the micro- scopist’s point of view, that is to say with the hard flinty skeleton or support for the living gelatinous envelope. It is the enve- lope that has chief interest for the botanist, for that is the only part that has life, and by its vital activity it extracts the dissolved flint from the water and deposits it in a solid form within its own simple body. We say simple body advisedly, for the Diatoms are among the simplest of all the plants— those that consist ofa single cell. They never reach a higher development than this, and though a Diatom that is multiplying by division may be said to consist temporarily of two cells, it does not remain long in this condition. In certain species a number of Diatoms may be seen united in a chain, but each link is a separate and complete plant. More than ten thousand distinct species of Diatoms have been named and described. As already indicated, they are ubiquitous. They occur in such vast numbers in the living state as to form a brown scum on stagnant water. They sometimes cling in thousands to the stems and leaves of higher freshwater plants and to seaweeds. They may even be collected from the face of wet walls and rocks. One more remark should be made before closing this brief account of one of Nature’s marvels. Some of these plants possess a power of movement which has baffled all attempts at explanation, several theories having been put forward; but all seem open to certain objections. To examine this movement it is only necessary to gather a little mud out of a pond, when several varieties will be sure to be obtained ; and no little surprise will be felt at seeing some of these minute organisms floating across the field of view of the microscope in a slow but elegant manner. Photo by) [Max Poser, F.R.M.S. A DIATOM. This photograph of one of the “ Little Ship’’ section of Diatoms is about 750 times larger than the natural size. 396 Marvels of the Universe Photo bu] EZ: PART OF A DIATOM’S SHELL. This small portion of the flinty shell has been magnified about two thousand times. Photo bu) [Platters & Co.. Longsight. SPINDLE-SHAPED DIATOMS. Enlarged about six hundred times. a Photo bu) ' (BZ. J. Spitta. HONEY-COMBED DIATOM. The spaces in the valve of this Diatom are so minute that fifty thou- sand of them would be required to reach across a halfpenny. THE GREAT SEA EAGLE BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C M.G. THE Sea Eagles belong to a genus which (with two subgenera) is found almost all over the world, and is invariably addicted in the main to a fish diet, though its members do not disdain other forms of flesh food if they are within reach. These Eagles are noteworthy also for their loud screaming cries and for their bold, unusual, and _ often handsome coloration. Some species found in Australia are quite small birds—not larger than a buzzard—and, like the screaming Fish Eagle of Tropical Africa, are white, chestnut-brown and __ black. But the Fish Eagles of the Pacific coast of the Americas and Eastern Asia are very large birds, almost, but not quite, the largest of the birds of prey. The most striking of these Fishing Eagles is Steller’s Sea Eagle, of the Pacific coasts of North America, Alaska, Kamschatka and Japan, a bird which was first dis- covered by a Russian naturalist of that name in the eighteenth century. It is a favourite subject in Japanese art, and is, in fact, a great lure to the artist for both form and colour. The big, narrow, deep beak is a_ bright lemon-yellow, and the plumage is dark sepla brown and snowy white. Some of the finest examples of these magni- ficent birds measure about four feet in length from the tip of the beak to the end of the tail, and have a spread of over six feet across the wings. Steller’s Sea Eagle differs from the more typical Sea Eagles by having fourteen tail feathers instead of twelve. Its food consists of young seals, foxes and grouse, besides fish. Marvels of the Universe 397 HOME LIFE IN WASPLAND BY JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S. If was a bright, sunny day in early November and a young queen Wasp had just returned from her honeymoon tour. By some means she had lost her husband; the loss, however, did not cause her the slightest anxiety. As a matter of fact, as the sun retreated her spouse had felt advancing the chilled air which foretold an early frost, and an hour before he had alighted and crawled beneath a log of wood that rested against a wall. In all probability, too, he would die there ; for the male Wasp rarely lives for many hours after his wedding, and if a frost follows it almost certainly spells his doom. The queen herself was also now feeling the cold, but what she felt more was a drowsy feeling that seemed to overcome her. She had alighted on the sunny side of the bole of an old elm-tree and was slowly crawling over the bark. Presently she came to a split in the tree, where the bark was loose, and through which she made her way, eventually finding herself in the heart of the tree. For a minute or two she crawled round and about the inside; then, selecting the driest spot, she opened wide her strong jaws and took hold of a pro- jecting portion of the hard wood and gripped it firmly, folded her wings round her body and immediately fell into a sound sleep. Later on she awoke, feeling a little dazed and stiff; but through the opening by which she had entered the tree she could see some rays of sunlight penetrating and she steered towards them, coming out on to the bark ; and there she sunned herself for nearly an hour. At the end of that time she appeared to have got thoroughly warmed, and then she started on her toilet. After cleaning her jaws very thoroughly and briskly rubbing her face, she brushed down her wings and body by means of her legs. Finally she drew each of her feelers, one at a time, between her folded forelegs, cleaning them from base to tip. Her toilet then being complete she immediately spread her wings and pushed out into the air. This queen Wasp did not, of course, know anything about dates ; had she have done so she would probably have been greatly surprised to know that her sleep had lasted from November gth until April rgth. For more than five months cold and wet days had come and Photo bu) LA. £. Smith. A CANOE-SHAPED DIATOM. The movements of these minute plants through the water naturally suggest that this species is canoe-shaped. The markings are of a_ stronger character than in some others here _ illustrated. As shown, it is about eight hundred times larger than natural size. gone while she had remained dormant. Now her hour of victory had come: she was to become the mother of a new Wasp community ; indeed, she was destined to be the queen of a thriving city with perhaps as many as fifty thousand inhabitants—all her children. THE GREAT SEA EAGLE. The species represented in this photograph is the enormous Sea Eagle of Japan and the northern coasts of the Pacific. It has a bright lemon-yellow beak, and the dark parts of its plumage are sepia-brown, whilst the rest is white. The spread of its wings is over six feet, and its entire length about four feet. Marvels of the Universe 399 Her flight did not continue very far before she suddenly swooped down, alighting upon an old and broken fence, where she flew from post to post as if at play ; but queen Wasps have no time for play ; there is probably no animal that lives which works so hard and so persistently. She had discovered the building material for the city which she was to establish and she was making herself acquainted with its exact location. Presently she ascended in the air again, and, after flying along the whole course of the fence, she suddenly turned and flew in a circular direction towards a high hedgerow bank. There she spent twenty minutes or more, running in and out of the crevices amongst the sandstone and soil of the bank. In one of these holes (which probably was once the home of a pair of field-mice and their family) she spent a great deal of time. Just what she was doing inside was difficult to say, but it was fairly obvious that she was cleaning up the place a bit, for every now and again she would come to the outside of the hole and on each occasion she carried something in her mouth which she dropped outside. Sometimes it would be a scrap of dried nut- shell, sometimes a bit of root or a seed, and not infrequently a little pebble. These actions made it quite clear that she had com- menced operations for building a Wasp city and was clearing the ground. After nearly two hours at this work she came outside very dusty and dirty, but she quickly ar- ranged her toilet (which is-always an important matter with a Wasp) and then she flew towards the old fence, following the circular route 3 Photo bu] WadeWardsT by which she came earlier in the NEST OF A TREE WASP. day, and meeting the fence at the The species of Wasp that builds in trees and bushes is different from = those that construct their nests in the earth; but the internal arrangements end just where she had left it. are the same. Afterwards she made some hundreds of visits to that fence, but she always followed the same course, although the distance would have been much shorter had she flown direct to her building- site instead of following the long, circular route. The fact is, if she had gone any other way she would have got lost ; for Wasps have to find their way by familiar landmarks, and if the latter are disturbed they become like a ship without a rudder. If, however, it should discover its nest by accident during its wanderings it will find it again and again afterwards, but always by the last route which it discovered. In this connection the writer, during the past summer, had a live nest of Wasps under observation 400 Marvels of the Universe in his photographic studio, and in the ordinary way these Wasps flew in and out the open door- way ; but in the early morning, before the door was opened, the Wasps that had just emerged from their cells learnt their way out through a triangular ventilator immediately over the door. Now, although the ventilator was only separated from the open door below by a strip of wood about one and a half inches wide, yet those wasps which had left by the ventilator always returned that way. If the ventilator was closed they alighted on the outside and were quite lost. Occasionally, in trying to find their way in, one would fly within the doorway, and in a moment it would recognize its whereabouts and fly to the nest. When, too, the nest was removed two yards to the opposite side of the studio the Wasps were equally lost, and when they returned would alight upon the spot on the table where the nest should have been, accumulating there in large numbers and becoming very angry with each other. These experiments, then, tend to show that the Wasp followed the circular route because that was the only way to her building-site which she had learnt. So for days together she continued to make this journey. Each time that she alighted upon the fence she tore off shreds of the wood fibres by means of her strong jaws, and these she masticated into a pulp and carried back to her home in the bank. The first use of this material was to form a stout little papzer-maché pillar attached to a projecting portion in the roof of the chamber—for the Wasp builds the roof of its home first. Then to the end of this footstalk a cap of the same material was added about half an inch in diameter. To the under side of this cap four cells were attached; and in that manner the first stage in a new Wasp city was built. Photo bu] [J. J. Ward, F.E S. INTERIOR OF A WASP’S NEST. By cutting away part of the paper walls the arrangement of the combs is seen. It will be noticed that they hang one from another on paper pillars, and that the cells all open downwards. Only just sufficient space is left between the combs to enable the Wasps to crawl about, and attend to the grubs. Re‘use Imitations and INSIST on _ having Dr. J. COLLIS BROWNE’S Chlorodyne, ROTO oe The Most e Original an ai Only Genuine. i] Valuable i Medicine The Best Remedy Known for - ever = COUGHS. COLDS, tf discovered. ASTHMA, BRONCHITIS. # The name Dr. J. Collis Cuts short all attacks | The only Palliative in Browne is on the stamp of SPASMS, NEURALGIA. GOUT, of every bottle of genuine HYSTERIA and RHEUMATISM, 1 - Chlorodyne. PALPITATION. TOOTHACHE. : Acts like a charm in Convincing Of all Chemists DIARRHEA, DYSENTERY and : Medical Testimony Desig. 4i6 CHOLERA. with each bottle. 23 “i193 f 7 “* MARVELS OF THE UNIVERSE ”’—continued from page 2.] Mr. L. P. Bowler, F.C.I., recounts some astonishing experiences with AFRICAN DRIVER ANTS. Mr. E. Step, F.L.S., writes upon the habits and structure of the graceful SEA ANEMONES. Mr. Richard Kerr, F.G.S., describes the minute but interesting animals known as FORAMINIFERA whose fossils have contributed largely to the formation of our rocks. Mr. G. Auburne Clarke has an illuminating article on CLOUDS with a beautiful series of photogravhs illustrating all the principal forms; and Mr. K. G. Blair, B.Sc., has a note on one of he ; STICK INSECTS that mimic vegetable growths in all their parts. In addition there are articles upon the Hand Plant of Central America, the Bombardier Beetle, the Long-eared Bat, and the Telegraph Plant. whose Jeaves act like railway signals. All splendidly illustrated, There are also two beautiful Coloured Plates representing— THE LYRE BIRD and SEA ANEMONES. MAKERS BY SPECIAL SEALED WARRANTS OF APPOINTMENT H.M. THE KING, H.M. THE QUEEN AND H,M. QUEEN ALEXANDRA, Td. net PART X htl bout 24 Fortnig Juphin —Luxury indeed to the smoker —A Flavour and Fragrance’ of unusual charm oz. 6id. 2o0z.1/1 } Ib. tins 2/2 Of most high-class tobacconists, or send stamps to the amount to the sole manufacturers: THOMSON & PORTEOUS, EDINBURGH Two New 6/- Novels. By the author of “ The Silent Rancher, &c. The Rhodesian By GERTRUDE PAGE In Miss ‘Gertrude Page’s new novel ‘‘ The Rhodesian,”’ she has once again laid her plot in Rhodesia—choosing this time the neighbourhood of the wonderful Zimbabwe ruins, and wreathing around her characters beautiful word pictures of the fascinating country. A new and original novel Mated in Soul By G. de VAURIARD “Hitherto the story has run on ordinary lines, but now the author shows the reason of it all, which is to propound a theory, suggest a problem ~ not~a nasty one, as such things generally are, but decidedly startling: It is possible, she contends and herein proves, for a mother;to\so work her will upon her child that he grows into a semblance not of his father in reality, but of the one she would have preferred for him. An ingenious idea and very convincingly expounded. It brings about an unexpected finish, and turns the story out.of the commonplace groove into something entirely original.” —Dzazly Chronicle. LONDON: HURST & BLACKETT, LTD. DELICIOUS COFFEE. RED WHITE « BLUE For Breakfast & after Dinner. In making, use less quantity, it being so much stronger than ordinary COFFEE, “Drink Fine China Black Tea if you value your nervous system.” TE- CELESTIAL is the FINEST CHINESE BLACK TEA. Sold in 3lb., ilb. and Half-pound Canisters, at 2/2 per Ib. ANY GROCER WILL SUPPLY IT. Three New 6/- Novels. By Popular Authors The Red Man’s Secret A romance of the Stage Prairie By F. FRANKFORT MOORE Mr. Frankfort Moore’s new story is likely to prove as greata novelty in its way as did his early work, ‘‘I Forbid the Banns,”” many years ago. It is sufficient to say that the book has been described by those who have seen it as very bright and witty, and something entirely fresh ; in fact, an entirely new note in fiction. By the author of “ The Strayings of Sandy,” etc. The Arrival of Antony By DOROTHEA CONYERS Mrs. Conyers’ new book is a sporting one, on the lines of the — “< Strayings of Sandy.’’ It tells of Antony, brought up in Germany, 5 . - > coming over to Ireland to live with his uncles, who are horse- dealers, and the adventures which befall him with them. The Satanist By Mrs HUGH FRASER and J. I. STAHLMANN LONDON: HUTCHINSON & CO. NN Hye As Wy i wy) M Di UE uaa NT ee Veaig} iy See MAY S729 FAT a Hy pa tS aed 1) Aine ee. y Hi Beit eat ey} yi ‘ vey ey: Me Must eNe S Soy <= “eel eae SEA ANEMONES OF NORTHERN SEAS. This plate illustrates a few of the beautiful forms of Sea Anemones that are natives of our own coasts as well as the shores of neighbouring countries. Several of these may be found in any rock-pool between high and low water marks, though often harmonizing so well with their surroundings as to be unncticed by the casual observer. A few, like the Beadlet (the red figure near the centre of the foreground) expose themselves out of the water between the tides, and are consequently well-known. Though capable of movement by gliding on their base like slugs, they remain as a rule on the same spot, catching their food by means of the numerous tentacles that surround the mouth. All the species here shown are drawn of the natural size. Marvels of the Universe AOI In each of those cells she then placed an egg. From those eggs, too, would come the first four citizens of the new city. She then added other cells by the side of the first four, ex- tending the edges of the covering cap as she built them. In this manner a layer of cells soon appeared and in each one she deposited an egg as it was completed. Meanwhile the eggs which she laid first hatched out their grubs, and this queen—in name only— then had nursery matters to attend to. The young grubs had to be fed on chopped insects and vegetable food, which she had to find and prepare. Still the Wasp-mother kept pace with it all, building new cells between the intervals of feeding her offspring. In the course of three weeks the grubs which emerged from the first four eggs deposited had grown so large that their fat, white bodies almost completely filled up their cells, and they themselves then proceeded to seal up their cells with a white cap ; after which they troubled their mother no more. Ten days later the cells were cut open from within by the sharp jaws of their inmates and four worker Wasps emerged. That was a glad day for the mother Photo by) (a. step, MLS. Wasp, for her powers of paper-making WHERE THE WASP OBTAINS MATERIALS. bbe B i i hat is a_ favourite had declined. Here owev rere This photo shows a small portion of a fence t = y h AN VOTE collecting ground for Wasps engaged in building nests. Each light streak four young and strong daughters, less — shows where a shaving of wood, the same size, has been scraped off by a in size than their mother, and sexually Wasp to be worked up into paper building material. imperfect, but like her in all other respects, for they could build new cells and were just as capable as she in tending the young. Day by day new workers appeared, and soon the queen Wasp did nothing but deposit eggs in the cells as rapidly as the workers could build them. So the city grew apace ; new tiers were suspended to those above by short pillars, until eleven floors had been made. The central and largest tier alone contained more than four thousand cells, and some of these were used for the rearing of at least two broods. At the end of the summer the Wasp city was at the height of its glory ; food was abundant and the thousands of busy citizens were extremely active. About this time, too, some very large cells were built in the lower tiers and extra food was supplied to the grubs that hatched within them. Then there came a terrible blow to the community—the vitality of the queen Wasp became exhausted and she could no longer deposit eggs. At first the worker Wasps did not realize that anything was wrong, but later on they found themselves idle, having no new grubs to feed. Then the large cells were cut open from the inside and from them emerged a host of young 28 402 Marvels of the Universe queens, while at the same time from other cells appeared another host of slender-bodied Wasps with very long feelers. The latter were the male suitors of these queens of the future. In the course of a few days they selected their mates and left the nest never to return. What eventually happens to these males and queens has already been told. Many of the workers still remained in the nest, but they appeared to have all suddenly gone mad. Their sole occupation was that of pulling out the half-developed grubs from their cells, dragging them to the entrance of the nest and leaving them there to perish on the ground. Many ridiculous solutions of this action have been advanced. It is not infrequently attributed to a merciful instinct on the part of the workers, who apparently realize that, with cold weather approaching, they will not be able to rear their charges and consequently they mercifully ter- minate their suffering. The true ex- planation is, I think, one of sanitation. An instinctive impulse guides them to clear the nest of the starving grubs, just as they would rid it of any other matter which threatened the health of the community. Then, however, arises the question: Why should they clear a nest which every hour is becoming more and more deserted ? Until late in the year there are still queens and males to emerge, and the last service the workers render to their race is to remove the grubs they cannot rear, so that these sexual individuals may mature in a healthy atmosphere. Afterwards, when all the grubs are removed from the cells, the young workers forsake the nest, and, Photo by] VV. J. Ward, F.E.S. WASP PAPER. having no home ties or young to Here are shown, natural size, samples of three qualities of paper made and used by the Wasps in the construction of their nests. The centre feed, they become freebooters, giving sample is that of the Common Wasp, characterized by its shelly patches. themselves over to orgies in any Above and below are shown paper from the nests of two species of Tree : Wasps, which is made in long layers. warm kitchen where they can scent savoury food being prepared. Their orgies may revive their spirits somewhat for the time being, but even though they may escape from the hands of the cook, yet their time is short ; for, having deserted their nest, they now have no home, and as night approaches they seek shelter perhaps beneath a leaf or in some similar situation, and so, sooner or later, wet and cold overtake them. Occasionally the Common Wasp will vary its building site ; perhaps the commonest place other than underground is in the roof of a building. A monster and beautiful nest, which was built on a beam in the roof of an empty house in Warwick during the extraordinarily hot summer of rort, is Photos bu} [J.J Ward, F.LS. TWO WASPS’ NESTS. shows that in excavating ‘the Wasps met with a stone too large for removal, so the nest was built around hoto is of a monster nest of the Common Wasp, built in the roof of an empty house, and measuring just 404 Marvels of the Universe shown amongst the illustrations. The nest was of an oblong form and of extraordinary size, measur- ing five feet in circumference, with a diameter of eighteen inches. How many tiers it contained is uncertain, as it was preserved whole for a museum specimen. Judging from its measurements, it would contain at least sixteen tiers. Another remarkable feature of this nest was its pale biscuit-colour ; each little band of masticated paper added to the shelly patches by the individual workers could be distinctly seen, as shown in the photograph. The British Tree Wasps construct their nests on almost identical principles with those of the Common Wasp here described, excepting that they are suspended amongst the branches of the trees. Each of the three species found in this country favours different trees: one selects thorny hedgerows, another holly bushes, while a third usually places its nests upon the branches of larch-trees. These nests often surprise country people when discovered for the first time. There are also three British species of Ground Wasps, not including the large species known as Hornets, which sometimes build underground, though more often in a roof or in a rotten tree ; but the Wasps themselves require a practised eye to distinguish. The outer covering of the nest is, however, the best guide to their recognition, as each species seems to have its own particular method of paper manufacturing. In the case of the Ground Wasps and the Tree Wasps the distinction is at once obvious (see illustration), but between the individual species it is less easy to recognize. In this country the nests of the Tree Wasps do not reach such large sizes as those of the Photo by] (Harold Bastin. A BRAZILIAN WASP’S NEST. This nest was built in an orange-tree. It will be seen to differ from the nests of British Wasps in form as well as in its smooth surface. The paper substance of the outer case is as thick and durable as cardboard. It is known as the Dutchman's Pipe. Ground Wasps, but in tropical America and Central Africa very large examples are found ; sometimes they attain three and four feet in _ height. Amongst the illustrations is shown an example of a nest from Brazil, which is popularly known as the Dutchman’s Pipe, its shape somewhat re- sembling a large pipe-bowl with a small mouth, while the portion of the branch on which it was suspended serv- ing as the stem, completes the resemblance. The builders of these nests are known as _ Pasteboard Wasps, as the walls of their nests are thick and tough, like strong cardboard. In addi- tion, they have a beautifully polished surface, which makes them impenetrable by rain and mist. The resemblance to cardboard is so good that it would almost deceive a paper manufacturer, and to others it certainly appears as an artificial production. These nests are not infre- quently placed on orange-trees, and their structure is rather curious from the fact that a central orifice passes through all the combs, commencing at the entrance. Marvels of the Universe 405 Photo by] (J.J. Ward, PES. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A WASP. In this photo the lower cells of the comb contain eggs and young grubs; above the cells are capped with a papery material elaborated by the full-grown grubs before becoming chrysalids. In several the cap has not yet been made, and the grub is seen filling the cell. On the left a Wasp has just emerged from the chrysalis. (Twice the natural size.) Having regard for the facts we have sketched in this and an earlier article, we may claim that in its social economy the Wasp is certainly as marvellous as the Bee. A PEE SIOSANUKE BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. From the earliest reptiles, in the latter part of the Primary Epoch, were evolved not only the Fish- lizards or Ichthyosaurs (which adopted a wholly aquatic life and had an appearance something like whales or porpoises), but also a remarkable order known as Sauropterygia, or Saurians with paddles. These, perhaps, had some affinity with the ancestors of the tortoises and turtles, though the resemblance in structure may be mainly due to a parallel line of development. The Sauro- pterygia are generally summed up for the unscientific public by one name—Plesiosaur. [This really 406 Marvels of the Universe means “‘ more lizard-like,”’ because to its discoverer the long-necked sea-reptile seemed more like a lizard in shape than did the contemporaneous Ichthyosaur. ] Fifty or sixty years ago, when interest was first aroused in the marvels amongst extinct forms of life, there was no illustration more popular in works dealing with the past phases of the earth’s history than one which depicted a fight between a Plesiosaur and an Ichthyosaur. Both these groups of aquatic reptiles flourished during the Secondary Epoch of the earth’s history ; and it is possible, of course, that in their common pursuit of fish they may have quarrelled and fought. The extraordinary Plesiosaur which is here illustrated, both in Professor Fraas’s picturesque and accurate restoration and inits skeleton form, is known scientifically as Thaumatosaurus, and was discovered in the Upper Lias formations of Holzmaden, in Wurttemberg, by the well- known German professor of paleontology at Stuttgart, by whom both illustrations have been kindly lent. This Plesiosaur was a large animal, about fourteen feet long. Its jaws were armed with long, sharp fangs, but its neck, in striking contrast to the Ichthyosaurs, was very long and slender. Yet in most of the Plesio- saurs the neck must have been stiff, almost rigid, except for lateral movements—to judge from the conformation of the joints. In another very re- markable form, also discovered in the Upper Lias formations of Wiurttemberg, the end of ; SON the tail spread into two broad REO a) Aa Ee ely PLES flukes. NEST OF THE TREE WASP. O fe alae : This nest of the Tree Wasp was built under a sloping roof. As photographed it NSO) ue ulustrations to was in a somewhat early state, but was gradually enlarged until it measured six inches this article is photographed across the middle. The photograph is twice the actual size. Reo. ihe carefully-sculptured restoration of a Plesiosaur in Carl Hagenbeck’s Animal Park, near Hamburg. It is the work of a German artist, Herr A. Pallenberg, who has developed, under the guidance of Professor Fraas and other German naturalists, a great talent for realizing and reproducing the appearance of extinct reptiles, birds and mammals. But it is questionable, except on some seaweed-covered rock nearly on a level with the water, whether any Plesiosaur was able to resort to land. These marine reptiles seem to have spent their lives entirely in the water, and would have found it as difficult to move on a solid surface as a porpoise or a turtle. Yet apparently they did not produce their young alive, as did the Great Fish-Lizards. Perhaps, like the existing turtles, they laid their eggs on sandy beaches or amongst the smooth rocks along the margin of the sea. AEN, [Carl Hagenbeck. A PLESIOSAUR. 4. restoration. in Hagenbeck’s Tierpark, of one of the great Saurians with paddles, known as Plesiosaurs, which were contemporary with the Icthyosaurs shown in earlier pages. 408 Wlarvels of the Universe The food of Plesiosaurs, besides fish, consisted of cuttle-fishes and crustaceans: and the types of later development show by the fossilized contents of their stomachs that they were in the habit of swallowing stones to assist them in grinding up the harder parts of shellfish. The largest known members of this order of sea-reptiles with paddles attained to a length of twenty feet. Plesiosaurs of various genera and_ species frequented the shallow seas all over the globe down to the verge of the Tertiary Epoch. They must have looked very like the average sketch of a sea-serpent, with their long necks, turtle-like bodies and short, thick tails. In fact, one is tempted to believe that there are still Plesiosaurs which have survived down to the present era in the great oceans, and whose occasional appearance gives rise to the stories of a great sea-serpent. THE HAND FLOWER One hundred and twenty-five years ago there was discovered near the town of Toluco, in Mexico, a tree about thirty feet in height and covered with large leaves, much like those of the Plane-tree in shape. The Mexican Indians regarded this tree with feelings of great veneration: they believed it to be of great age—as, no doubt, it was —and that it was the only tree of its kind in existence. But the chief reason for thew reverence lay in the peculiar structure of the flowers, from which a long and skinny hand, with claw-tipped fingers, appeared to protrude. So great was their interest in this tree that as soon as its flowering time arrived they flocked to it and gathered every flower ; so that there was little chance of its producing seeds. Photo bu] [Prof. E. Fraas. But although it was thus prevented from \ GIANT PLESIOSAUR. This photo represents a perfect skeleton of a large Plesiosaur propagating itself in that neighbourhood, the which was found in'the quarries of Helemaden in Wurttem. Loluco example was) notathemonlysiimeemotamts berg. “It is\a fossil of the Upper Lias| formation. kind ; for about fourteen years later a traveller in Guatemala discovered its probably true home, {where forests of it existed. It is therefore surmised that in much earlier times some wandering Indians, being struck by the remarkable flowers, carried off a young plant to Toluco and thus established the cult of the Hand- flower in Mexico. They gave it the terrible-looking name of Macpalxochitlquahuitl, and beside this the Greek name given to it by the scientific botanists looks quite pale and simple. The flower is about the same size as our photograph, and consists of a cup-shaped calyx of leathery consistence and a rust-red colour, deeply cleft into five parts. The likeness to a hand is furnished by the five long stamens, which are united towards their base and of a brighter red than Marvels of the Universe 409 the calyx. There are no petals. At the bottom of the cup there are five cavities of a bright yellow colour, which are filled with a sweet fluid which is said to have the flavour of toast and water. This, no doubt, is to make a palatable drink for some insect whose services are required for carrying the pollen from flower to flower, and so to help in the fertilization of the future seeds. THE ARCHER-FISH BY W. P. PYCRAFT, F.Z.S. Tue Archer-Fish well deserves its place among the marvels of Nature, for it is the only creature save man which brings down its prey by shooting! Further, it has this advantage over man, that [By Prof. L. Fraas: PLESIOSAURS OF THE UPPER LIAS. In this picture Prof. Fraas has restored the probable life appearance of the Plesiosaur whose fossil skeleton is shown on the opposite page. its supply of ammunition is inexhaustible. Briefly, it lives largely on insects which haunt the margins of streams and rest on leaves and twigs overhanging the water. Prowling along at the surface of the stream, the hungry and eager fish sooner or later marks down a luscious-looking fly, and then, with careful aim, brings it down with a drop of water squirted from its tubular mouth. The Malays set great store by the Archer-Fish on account of the entertainment which it affords them. They call it the “ Ikan Sumpit,”’ and keep it in small aquaria the more easily to watch its wonderful marksmanship. How did the Archer-Fish discover its ability to shoot ? Another remarkable feature of this strange phenomenon is the fact that the fish can see its prey sufficiently clearly to enable it to aim surely, for it must be remembered that the eyes of fishes are adapted to see clearly only under water. Thus we must assume that the eyes of the Archer-Fish differ from those of other fish. That this is AIO Marvels of the Universe a matter demanding investigation is shown by the fact that the only other fish which takes an interest in the upper world is that known as the “‘ Four-eyed Fish,’’ or Anableps. This creature has bulging eyes and habitually swims at the surface, so that the upper half of the eye is above the level of the water. This portion is divided by a sort of Plimsoll mark from the lower half, and is modified to meet the requirements of terrestrial vision, while the lower half agrees with that of fishes generally. The lens of the eye does not undergo any special change; by a modification of the iris, or coloured portion of the eye, two distinct pupils are formed, one above the other ! The Four-eyed Fish is a native of the rivers of tropical America. | The Archer-Fish enjoys a much wider distribution, being found in the fresh waters.of the East Indies, North Australia, Polynesia and New Zealand. i Photo by] [B. J. Wallis. THE HAND FLOWER. This is the flower of a Central American trees whose five red stamens, united towards their base, resemble a long, thin hand with clawed fingers—a resemblance that has caused the Mexican Indians to regard it with veneration. It is here shown about the natural size. THE BECKONING CRAB BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. THE Crab family presents us with a great variety, not merely of form, but of habit also. Even the Crabs of a single country—our own, for example—make this diversity plain ; but when we take the Crabs of the world into consideration we are astonished by the many ways of life they have adopted. Some, save for an annual trip to the sea, spend their lives on land away from the shores. Others, though keeping close to the sea, live mostly out of water; and among these is the quaint- looking Crab of our photographs. Represented by different species in several parts of the world, the Beckoning, or Calling, Crabs all have similar habits and the same grotesque appearance— in the males, at least—due to the disproportionate development of one of the pincer claws. Whilst one of these is scarcely larger than the walking feet, the other is larger than the little body Een Bilson (Bu W. B. Robinson. THE ARCHER-FISH. The Archer-Fish is a native of the East Indies, where it is reputed to catch ingects from the riverside vegetation by shooting drops of liquid from its mouth, with such good aim as to bring them down into the water, where they are, of course, snapped up by the Archer. The Malays call it “Ikan Sumpit.’’ and keep it in aquaria in order to watch its marksmanship. AI2 Marvels of the Universe to which it is attached, and which appears always to be in danger of being over- turned by the superior weight of the big fist. As they run along the sands with this big claw held up— as though they were afraid of falling over it if carried in front of them—they ap- pear to be beckoning. One species that occurs in the Far East is named by the Japanese Siho Maneki, which is said to mean “beckoning for the return of the tide.”’ Latreille, the French naturalist, who defined the characters of the group, gave them a scientific name which signifies laughable or ridiculous. But in spite of their grotesque demeanour, the Beckoning Crabs are a very useful people. We acclaim certain indi- viduals as empire-builders. The Beckoning Crabs are more than that: they are world builders—indus- BECKONING CRABS AMONG MANGROVE ROOTS. ‘ ‘anenit hilst a i res 7. The Beckoning Crabs are so called from their manner of carrying the relatively ecto ORES = lit WANES huge pincer-claw, which makes them appear as though beckoning to a friend at looking primarily after a distance. Saville Kent. Photo bu) cw. their own interests, are helping to wrest new land from the dominions of the sea, and to convert barren shores into rich soil. The Beckoning Crab is a burrower. Like the benevolent earthworm, they excavate tunnels a foot or more deep, and perhapsan inch in width. Bringing up pellets of damp sand from the depths, they carry it to a distance of three or four feet from the mouth of their hole before depositing it, and when their tunnel is completed they carry down bits of seaweed and other vegetable débris to be consumed as food. Some species are said to make stores of food in a terminal chamber of their tunnel. The burying of vegetable matter by hundreds of thousands of these little burrowers has an appreciable effect. Mr. H. O. Forbes, who observed their work on the coral islands of the Eastern Archipelago, says: “ By the inner margin of some of the islands, and forming lagoonlets in some of them, there are soft, limy mud-flats, which are gradually becoming land, mainly by slow eleva- tion and by crustacean agency. One of the largest of these is in West Island. Its lagoonward portion near the entrance conduit, which is submerged at high tide, is tenanted by two, if not three, species of Beckoning Crab. They live in narrow, corkscrew burrows, round the tops of which there Marvels of the Universe 413 is always a little mound, just such as is seen about an earthworm’s; and, indeed, they are most perfect worm-substitutes. I counted one hundred and twenty of these holes in an area of only two feet square, and as there were many square acres in the ground of which I speak, some idea of the number of this busy army may be obtained. They were incessantly active during the recess of the tide, and even during high water, which is generally perfectly still, in carrying down twigs of trees or fucus leaves, scraps of coconut shell and seeds, laying the foundation of the future land.” Forbes further tells us that the entry of a man into this region is the signal for a stampede of the Crabs to their holes, where they wait within the entrance, watching the intruder with their long- stalked eyes over the folded big pincer claw, which serves as a sort of street-door. It is just the position of affairs that is shown in the photograph below. A distinct species of the same group, which is known as the Boxer, from its attitude when alarmed or disturbed at its work, is a native of the southern parts of the United States. It has been described as occurring in millions on the seashores and along the tidal rivers of Carolina, where they carry out similar operations to those of their relatives in Southern seas. They are the prey of otters, birds, turtles and alligators, but though these enemies destroy vast numbers of them, the fecundity of the race is such that no appreciable difference in their numbers can be noticed. Another American species, known as the Fiddler, owing to the peculiar movements of its big arm, lives in salt-marshes and on fresh-water shores. It constructs a sort of porch of mud at the mouth of its burrow, and sits there on the watch. te t k THE BECKONING CRAB AT HOME. v When alarmed these Crabs scurry into their holes, blocking the entrance with the big pink-coloured claw, over which the long-stalked eyes keep watch upon the intruder. A14 Wlarvels of the Universe THE FAN-CORALS BY EDWARD A. MARTIN, F.G.S. Tue four examples of deep-sea life which we here show are not usually recognized by most persons as Corals at all ; the word “ Coral’’ as a rule conveying a meaning as of something hard and stony, and bearing various pretty markings which are at once recognized as having been the clefts in which the polyps lived anddied. But theyareno less true Corals than are the Madrepores and the Brain- Stones which are so familiar as ornaments in the cabinet or the drawing-room. As a matter of fact, they belong to the same great order of Nature as that to which the beautiful Red Coral belongs, LH. J. Shepstone. Photo bu) A FERN-LIKE HORNY CORAL. Like all the horny Corals the branches of this species are covered, when living, with a rind of flesh, of which the polyps form part. The branches start off from the stems in two directions only, so that they present a fern-like appearance. although even this has to be polished before it assumes the brilliant appearance which the article possesses when it is placed on the market. The Fan-Corals—or, as they are sometimes called, the “‘ sea-shrubs ’’—are scientifically known as the Gorgoniz, although most of them are too pretty to even suggest any resemblance to the Gorgon’s head of ancient myth. Nor is the title “‘ sea-shrub”’ a happy one, as they are no part of the vegetable world at all. Like many other wonders of the sea, the name was given them because of outward resemblance only, and it remained for science to place them in their right place in the scheme of Nature. All Corals are distinctly animal, and if only we could watch the polyps working under a microscope we should at once see clearly their animal nature. Sometimes in museums we find a specimen of Coral with all its flesh intact, whilst peeping from out of the flesh the snow-white polyps have been caught in the act, so to speak, and preserved in that condition in spirit. Saran TA Os on Y mee fe a, a\ eee set Wa enn fh eS vad, LZ. Step, FLAS. Photo by) THE SEA-FAN. Fan Ma was coated with a thin covering of flesh in which the polyps were embedded. The photo is about one-third less than the natural size. In life the “ Here the skeleton is all in one plane. 416 Marvels of the Universe Let us see for a moment Yf y what a Fan-Coral is like. y) if Y) Y The same description fy) MY) will hold good for the fami- ah Ls liar Red Coral. As shown ws 5 | tk 7, 2 he YY YE: y to us in the illustrations, ) H Y| we only see the skeleton of 2 an Cpypiyjpye PANY Yigg Ly the animal. Just as much 5 as human beings are made WY l) up of flesh and bone, so 4 also are the Corals, the difference being that in Ake if oN nN , ! aA some cases the “ bone”’ is \ —j not composed of lime or \\ WS, — ae calcareous matter, but is \ WA am ae sometimes made of horny E SF material; whilst in other cases the hard skeleton is made up alternately of pieces of limy and horny . material. On the next Photo by) ; [#1 J. Shepstone. page we can see in the AN AUSTRALIAN SEA-FAN. ; In this species—quite distinct from that shown on the previous page—the connections centre ofjthe ACEH ens ofithe branching network are maze-like. It is flexible like the others, and covered in life portions of stems which by a layer of gelatinous flesh. seem to be alternately light and dark. This is where the two kinds of material take part in turn to make up the stem. Such a stem, it will at once be seen, has a great advantage in seas that are troubled with submarine swell, since the deposition of pliable horn at intervals enables the creature to bend to and fro in a sea that would be fatal to other forms not so well adapted to it. This is, indeed, a wonderful adaptation in Nature, and it may seem strange that other forms have not in the course of time become similarly adapted. But it will be at once seen that the other forms we illustrate above and on page 415 have other means of support in the shape of cross-growths of hard material, which bind the whole of the structure together. These cross-pieces of the Coral skeleton remind us of the cross platform-like pieces which we saw in the red Organ-pipe Coral in a previous article ; but the shape of the skeleton is altogether different. In these two forms the “ Fan’’ is all in one plane. We can imagine that Nature wished to prevent the straggling appearance shown on the next page, and betook herself to cross- junctions in order to steady the whole colony. The most economical way to do this was to press all the branches out into one flat plane, and thus the cross-bars became of the shortest possible length. Now we see that however much the young shoots may cluster around one another at what answers for the root—or, rather, we should say, the place of attachment to the rock—they quickly flatten out as they grow older. Just imagine for a moment all the horizontal pieces of Coral removed, and the loose stems would be swept all over the rock around. In fact, they have adopted in lowly animal life a system which, if adopted by the higher forms of vegetation, might prevent many a noble tree from biting the dust after a storm of great severity. We can see, also, that although the Fan-Coral is able to sway forward and backward fairly freely owing to its horny build, it is given additional strength and rigidity from the fact that no part of it can bend in any direction individually without affecting the whole. And its fan-like build given the bird By E. H een that, as in the case of the 's whose distinctive curves have lopment of the tail feather: olitary or almost so in its habits, rarely more than a pair being seen in company. BIRD. LYRE Both male and female are represented, and it will bes THE so endowed with the beautiful d It is € Birds are ground-birds, natives of Australia. its name. wl, it is only the male that is € Ze Gemakil oP The Lyr Pea-fo Marvels of the Universe AIT causes it to be almost unaffected by currents or sea-bed swells which strike at right-angles to the principal plane. To see these creatures in a living state, we must imagine them as being completely clothed with a thin layer of vivifying flesh. The flesh is external and the bone internal, and this is, as far as possible, the complete opposite to the arrangement obtaining in the crabs and other crustaceans, in which the flesh is inside and the skeleton outside. The flesh of this order of Corals covers the inside hard corallum as ‘the bark of a tree covers the woody trunk. It is the living principle of the animal. You will see no clefts in the hard part in which the polyps might have lived had they been like the Madrepores, for the clefts were, in the latter, actually in the skeleton itself. All these Gorgonian Coral-polyps were seated in little clefts which opened out from the flesh, so that when the flesh had decayed there remained nothing to show where they had formerly lived. We have only the internal axis left behind. The order to which the Fan-Corals belong has an additional claim to beauty over and above the order of the Brain- Corals and the Madre- pores, in that every one of the eight tentacles which always surround the mouth of each of these little sea-anemone- like polyps is beautifully fringed. The tentacles are always eight in num- ber. The whole organism is a compound one, and all the polyps intercom- municate by means of a network of canals which permeates the fleshy bark and is joined to each of the polyps in succession. Nature is not slow to cover up man’s work, and so when a broken sub- marine cable is brought up it is found to be generously coated with THE SEA CANE. these flexible corals among hacia ants rals among In this species the slender flexible branches are unconnected by cross branches, and other things. are very long and like canes. 29 418 Wlarvels of the Universe WSUS SWABS IVORIES TRIIRID BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. Ir will scarcely be denied that one of the world’s marvels is the Lyre Bird of Australia, and -that being the case, and Australia having been colonized by people of Anglo-Saxon race, the readers of this work will not be surprised to learn that every possible attempt is being made to exterminate this largest and most remarkable of Passerine birds. There are three species of ‘Lyre Birds, all of them restricted in their range to the eastern and southern parts of the island-conti- nent of Australia. The largest of these three species, and the one here illustrated, is the Superb Lyre Bird of New South Wales, which is thirty-three inches long in the adult male. The colour is a dark umber-brown, which becomes russet on the throat, while the back’ has a tinge of purplish-grey. The naked space round the eyes is lead- blue in colour, and the two superb lyrate feathers of the tail are a rich chestnut-brown, marked on the broad inner side of the web with notches, which are semi- transparent. Though the Lyre Birds are unmistakably members of the great Passerine order, they exhibit features in their anatomy and habits rendering them pecu- liarly interesting as survivors of early types, which were connecting links assisting to bridge over the interval between the birds of more Photo bu] Ge Fie cinigaavelnene or less gallinaceous type, on the TAIL FEATHERS OF LYRE BIRD. one hand, and the cuckoos, wood- ariel tasiiy int etee dene se ctcanicinenens neni peckers) and: singing Diets emrie erected as shown in the photo. other. Lyre Birds live mainly on the ground, and prefer to run and jump rather than to fly, though quite able to use their wings. if they wish. It is said that with their strong legs they can leap to a height of ten feet from the ground at a single bound. They carry the tail horizontally when they run, and with their strong feet scratch amongst fallen leaves and dust, much after the fashion of pheasants and domestic fowls. But although the male Lyre Birds make the utmost use of their strange tails in showing off for the fascination of the female, they are apparently husbands of only one wife, before whom they strut and whirl and dance with erect tail and drooping wings—pecking at the ground as they do so. and uttering loud gurgling sounds. The nest is built with a dome or roof, and is constructed either ermission of] [Sir Hf. IT. Johnston, G.C.M.G. THE SUPERB LYRE BIRD. The Lyre Birds are al] restricted in their Tange to the south and east cf Australia. The Superb Lyre Bird, shown in this photo, is peculiar to New South Wales. It is a male, that sex alone having this magnificent adornment. 420 Marvels of the Universe on a ledge or in a cranny of the rocks, or in the fork of a low tree, or amongst fallen logs. The materials they use are sticks, bark, grass and leaves, and the inner part of the nest is lined with moss, fibres and the bird’s own feathers. Only one egg seems to be laid, which is a purplish-brown in colour, marked with spots and streaks of a darker tint. They are very clever mimics of the sounds they hear around them, and are birds which might easily be tamed, domesticated and bred in captivity. It is little else than a disgrace to the young nation of Australia that so marvellous a form should be brought so near to extinction. DMISHID, SID RILAY Id, IR ve INIT BY LOUIS P. BOWLER, F.C.1. Tue large black species of Ant common to the African jungle is generally known as the Driver Ant, for the reason that every living thing makes room for these ants to pass ; for if by any chance a mouse or an elephant stands in their road, it is forced to speedily move on or remain and be eaten up. The Driver Ants will not budge an inch from the direction they are bent on travelling ; no obstacle will prevent their advance but fire or water. They reign supreme as conquerors amidst the inhabitants of the jungle, and are universally respected in the insect and animal world, commanding admiration for the resolute manner in which they carry out the [oy “neo. Carreras. DRIVER ANTS ATTACKING A SNAKE. The Ants covered every portion of its body, The snake is the Horned Viper, and it was attacked whilst casting its skin. the end was killed hanging on by their pincer-like jaws. The snake writhed and struggled for a quarter of an hour, but in and finally eaten by the Ants. Marvels of the Universe 421 [By Theo. Carreras ANTS TUNNELLING A DRY WATER-COURSE. These Ants being accustomed to take a certain route, which was liable after rain to be crossed by a stream of water, took the precaution to tunnel this portion and so safeguard themselves against being swept away by a sudden rush of water. scavengers duty allotted to them in Nature’s burden: a work they share with the Red, White and Sugar Ants as sextons and sanitary inspectors, checking the spreading of disease in the animal and vegetable kingdom, and adding enormously to the improvement of the soil. In Africa, just before the rainy season sets in, it is a common occurrence to see long lines of Driver Ants on the march. They rapidly advance in perfect formation, in lines two to three inches wide, and often extending for nearly a mile, with an organization and military precision that is truly marvellous, as shown by their well-drilled battalions led by their officers. It is interesting to watch the various sections pass at the double, first a column in close formation, consisting of warrior Ants possessing formidable-looking nippers, led by one or more very large Ants, twice the size of the others ; behind this column follows a mixed mass of smaller Ants. These are the carriers, carrying various loads: some bring eggs, others their young, bits of leaves and sticks, grass, berries, dead bodies of insects, and general goods and chattels from their storehouses and towns. All trot along with a determined swaggering air, as if conscious of their irresistible strength by sheer force of numbers. They tear along, tumbling like a cataract over obstacles, and run over one another or not, as the procession winds in and out of the paths in the forest, looking, especially in the moonlight, like a long black snake unfolding itself from the jungle growth. Their sagacity and engineering aptitude are truly remarkable, as is seen by the wonderful tunnels they construct, generally under the exposed portion of the road on their line of march, where there is any danger of a torrent washing down through a sudden downpour of rain. I came across one 422 Marvels of the Universe of these tunnels at Subilsu, near Tarkwa, which measured thirty-two feet in length, and within this length I found several perpendicular air, emergency, or escape shafts, measuring eight, fourteen and eighteen inches deep, sunk below the surface. They were placed at a little distance from a position where a possible wash might occur. The carrying strength of the Ant is out of all proportion to its size. I have often seen an Ant struggling along with a beetle a dozen times its own weight ; but this feat sinks into insignificance with the extraordinary powers they possess of communicating with one another. In watch- ing their movements, I have noted the rapidity with which the Ants forming the rear sections of a procession be- come aware of any interrup- tion to their advance column a long way ahead. They appear to have a system of instantly telegraphing the news up and down the line; for all the fighting Ants become excited, and rush forward to give battle or to investigate the cause of the interruption. I tested this on one occa- sion by placing a friend one hundred yards ahead in their procession, and told him on a given signal to break their line, while I timed with a watch how long it took be- fore a commotion transpired amongst the Ants passing where I stood. In ten seconds from the time my friend called out, all was bustle and _ excite- ment; the carriers halted, ; but the warrior Ants rushed (iy heal Carneras! forward, showing clearly that they were aware of trouble A BALL OF ANTS. A huge black mass of sleeping Ants hanging to the roots of a tree in the shade, seen by the author in Africa. ahead. While I was travelling a bush-path near Bensu, in the Gold Coast Colony, during the dry season, my natives suddenly warned me to quit the path and make a détour to avoid an open, dry, sandy spot that lay in the road, saying, “ that a big palaver of Ants was taking place, as they were electing a new king on the throne ”’ (“ stool,” they called it), “‘ and if we disturbed them they would flog us bad (meaning “ bite’’). The ground in front of me was black with Ants, and streams of them were pouring in from all sides. The noise they made rustling over the leaves and ground sounded like the swish of a scythe. In the centre of this living mass was a small open space, encircled with rings of Ants, all facing outwards with their nippers held up. There were several clearly defined rings, [By Theo. Carreras. EMBLY termed it, : : the or in the Gold Co: Coleny. A small open space in the all facing outwards with their nippers held up. They appeared to be guarding the centre, of a lighter colour and dentlyJof greater importance. 424 Marvels of the Universe quite stationary, the Ants appearing to be guarding the centre,in which were half a dozen larger Ants of a lighter colour than the rest. These evidently were important individuals. I became so absorbed at the sight of this magic circle that I failed to notice the hundreds of these creatures who were investigating my body; some penetrated to the calves of my legs, others climbed to my neck, and then at a given signal they all bit at once. I had often heard of this peculiar habit of biting all together, but never experienced it before. Needless to add, I beat a hasty retreat and tore my clothes off, to find these tigerish creatures had buried their pincers into my flesh, and had to be scraped off. On another occasion, at midday, I noticed a huge black mass hanging to the roots of a shady tree. An inspection proved this to be a mass of Ants. They were clinging to one another in this bunch, fast asleep. I once witnessed a fierce fight between a cerastes (horned adder) and a swarm of Driver Ants. The snake had evidently been attacked while shedding its skin, and was struggling frantically amidst a dense mass of Ants, who covered every portion of its body. They were furiously hanging on with their sharp pincers, and every second a fresh Ant fixed its grip. The snake writhed and squirmed about amongst its implacable enemies for fully a quarter of an hour, and then its struggles became feebler, and it stretched its length out on the ground ; in a very few minutes its body was covered two inches deep with Ants tearing and cutting away its flesh. [By Theo. Carreras. ‘WO IRISH ANEMONES. The larger of the two species here shown is Richard’s Anemone, with a pale green column studded with rounded warts, and white tentacles. The smaller species shown on the rock above and also to the extreme left is Haddon’s Anemone, with flesh- tinted column, and pale tentacles with dark base. (Natural size.) Marvels of the Universe 425 SOME SEA ANEMONES BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. THERE is a pretty constant tendency to name the newly-known according to its resemblance to the well-known, and much confusion has arisen from the practice. As a case in point, take the wonderful Sea Anemones. The earlier observers were impressed by their superficial resemblance to certain flowers; so when they admitted them into their schemes of classification and had to invent a name for the group of hitherto nameless things they manufactured from the Greek lexicon the word Anthozoa, which means “ flower-animals.” As an English equivalent they invented Sea Anemones, which served to fix the floral idea, and different species were named with the names of particular flowers. Minor poets wrote of them as flowers of the sea, and so, even to-day, there lingers the idea that they are as much vegetable as animal, if not more so. If the Sea Anemones, with their beautiful tints and petal-like tentacles, are not flowers, what are they 2 To give an idea of their true nature in popular language, we may describe them as coral-polyps that deposit no coral. Coral-polyps are united to form colonies of many individuals, but Sea Anemones (with a few exceptions) are indi- vidually separate. The majority of visitors to the seaside know only one kind of Anemone, the kind that may be found in plenty on the rocks between tide-marks, and as the waters have receded they are seen only in a closed and more or less flaccid condition. To see the Anemones in their full expanded beauty we must peer into the clear water of the rock-basins that are left full when the tide [Lu Theo. Carreras. goes out. Some of them SEA ANEMONES. never venture so far up The species in the upper part of the picture is the Gem Pimplet, a flesh-tinted Anemone 5 with Ilucid tentacles barred wi k Zre “he | i e i i tlie Sipe get nto wi pellucid tentacles barred with black and grey. The lower figure is the Dahlia Wartlet. a large and showy species, common on our shores. (Natural size.) 426 Marvels of the Universe these pools, and must be sought on the rocks that are never uncovered by the tide ; marks to afford a correct idea of their beauty, their structure and their habits. But before glancing at a few of these forms, let us consider what but there are quite enough of different varieties found between tide- the Sea Anemone is in general. Roughly speaking, it is a hollow cylinder of soft flesh, closed at both ends, with a spreading base which adheres closely to the rock, much as a slug’s body adheres to its support. Within the cylinder a number of plates of varying breadth jut out from the walls into the cavity, dividing it into a number of A SEA ANEMONE. — open compartments. When the Anemone is fully expanded, the top of the ements ae cylinder is seen to have a slit-like opening, which is the mouth of the interior parts. animal, and around it, spreading out much like the petals of some flower, are the tentacles in a single row or several rows one within another. These tentacles serve the Anemone as hands. They close upon any small living creature that comes in their way, and by the emission of barbed microscopic threads from their surface kill and secure their prey at one operation. Pushing it towards the mouth, the lips part and the victim is received into the gullet, which is a bottomless sack opening into the general cavity. As the food is digested, it falls into this cavity, and is absorbed by its walls, the undigested portion being ejected through the mouth. The common kind of Anemone to which we have already referred as the best-known species is named the Beadlet, from the fact that just below the outer row of tentacles is a series of bead-like spheres of a brilliant blue. A narrow line of blue also runs round the base of the column. Commonly, cBu Theo. Carreras. THE ARROW MUZZLET AND THE CUP-CORAL. The only British Coral is shown in the upper half of this picture, and to the right of it are seen two specimens of the limy corallum left on the death of the animal. Below is the Arrow Muzzlet, which buries its column in the sand. (Natural size.) Marvels of the Universe 427 Photo bu} (4. 2. Smith, A GROUP OF FORAMINIFERA. This group of minute shells under the microscope shows a few of the numerous forms of Foraminifera. They are magnified about twenty-five times. The entire group would thus go comfortably into a space no larger than the uncut end of a drawing-pencil. the Beadlet is liver-coloured, or dark red, but it is one of the most variable of species, so far as colour is concerned. The specimens that are found on the rocks when the tide has receded are not full grown ; in later life the Beadlet prefers to migrate below tide-marks, where it may always be submerged. The tentacles are hollow, and so it is easy by withdrawing water from them to pack them into a small compass ; the same, indeed, may be said of the entire animal. Children know this fact in their natural history well, for they like to amuse themselves by touching these exposed Anemones in a way that irritates them and causes them to squirt out water that they may shrink into a smaller space. In some of the lighter-coloured species, such as the Gem Pimplet and the Dahlia Anemone, this hollowness of the tentacles may easily be seen, for they often keep their young in them until they are sufficiently developed to be cast out into the waters. 428 Marvels of the Universe These infant Anemones are exceedingly graceful and active creatures, constantly changing their forms and positions, roaming about on the rock until they have found a spot to their taste upon which to settle. They are alternately spherical and worm-like, with all sorts of intermediate shapes. The worm-li ke shape is assumed for purposes of locomotion, the base retaining its hold until the tentacles have laid hold at a distance ; then the base disengages itself, the column is drawn up to the tentacles, and may again lengthen and take hold in an opposite direction. The Ope its quarters, least, this is et, which is one of our largest species, is a very inconstant Anemone—always shifting and found as much, perhaps, on the broad fronds of the oar-weed as on the rocks. At the case when it has attained to full size, and it may frequently be found floating ten- tacles downward, and its broad base hollowed out like a boat. This is a very graceful species, with Photo bu| Another gr [A. E. Smith. FORAMINIFERA. oup of varied forms of these wonderful examples of minute life. The scale of magnification is about twenty- five times larger than the actual size—that is to say, the real size of the entire group is one-fifth of an inch across its broadest part. Marvels of the Universe 429 a multitude of long, taper- ing tentacles. The broad- based column is flesh- -oloured or lilac, whilst the tentacles are mostly green, with pink or rimson tips. In Provence this Anemone is converted into a table delicacy known as “ Rastegna.”’ The Dahlia Wartlet is our most showy specie v7) its banded thick tentacle Y with their clear tints, making a strong contrast with the crimson disk. The column is mostly hid- den, for it is covered with suckers to which bits of shell and small shingle ad- here, so that when the tentacles are withdrawn the Dahlia looks like a small rounded heap of gravel. There are many in- teresting species we should like to mention, but space forbids. For an idea of some of these we must refer the reader to the WORM TUBES BUILT OF FORAMINIFERA. illustrations in these pages, These Foraminifera have been picked up by a minute worm and cemented together to form a secure retreat. They are shown twenty-five times larger than the natural size. and to the coloured plate. FORAMINIFERA BY RICHARD KERR, F.G.S. THESE are small marine creatures, which possess very beautiful shells composed of carbonate of lime. The shells, however minute, are perforated throughout to allow numbers of tiny feelers to protrude. These feelers may be used both as a means of locomotion and for drawing in food particles. Because of the minute perforations in the shells the name Foraminifera is given to them as a whole, however varied their shapes may be. About the size of a pin’s head”’ is a common expression, used so frequently to describe the / N = very small object that it has almost become a sort of mental unit of measurement. well hold good for some of the shells under consideration, but for myriads of them ad dimensions would convey an exaggerated idea of their actual size. Suppose the 5 pin’s head to be hollowed out, it would readily form a receptacle for a score or more of some forms known to students of micro-marine life. This shows us that the powers of the microscope must be employed to enable us to see them to advantage by unfolding the beauty of their structure. must not lose sight of the fact that there are several great families of Foraminifera much 430 Marvels of the Universe larger than the pin’s head, such, for example, are the nummulites, or coin-shaped fossils, to which reference will be made. Some of the shells consist of a single compartment ; others of a number of compartments arranged one after the other in a single line, which may be straight or rolled on itself as a spiral. There are others with cells or chambers arranged in double or triple rows. Others have their minute compartments fashioned around invisible axes, if we may so term them. Now if we imagine the first cell to be an exceedingly small one and the next a little larger, and so on as the gradual additions are formed, until the most recently added cell is the largest, we shall have an idea of a structure that re- sembles a pyramid with its graduated divisions. This is a very characteristic form among the “ Forams.’’ We might proceed in this manner to describe different structural arrangements of the cells, and we should find at the end of a long period of time that we had by no means exhausted all the different types and shapes assumed by these tiny marine organisms. With very few exceptions, which are doubtful, the body proper of the creature is continuous through all the different compartments in each shell. This is a fact which is very marvellous when we con- sider that scores of cavities or chambers are present in nearly all these little shelly homes. In the many wonderful pro- (> Photo by) j (7. £. Freshwater. : 5 FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA. cesses involved and agencies This is a section through a piece of limestone largely consisting of Foraminifera. utilized through countless ages Many important buildings are erected of such stone, and the Pyramids of Egypt are formed of nummulites which are a large form of Foraminifera. (Magnified about in the building-up of this great Blevdtimes:) world, the ‘‘ Forams’”’ occupy a prominent position, owing to the extensive results of their existence. They are a tiny people, but they have left behind them, and their modern representatives are still leaving, a record on the side of the elevating influences probably second to no other forms of life. Their work goes on, and is likely to go on as long as the world lasts. In point of actual numbers, it is not at all unlikely that they are the most numerous agents that are employed in the construction of the earth. Even if we omit all reference to the geological formations of America, Asia and Oceania, we shall find abundant evidence in the rocks of Europe and Northern Africa of the tremendous record Photos bi (VJ. Ward, FE THE LONG-EARED BAT PREPARES FOR REST. Having taken secure hold, head downwards, the Bat folds up his wings and tucks them closely to his side. Then first one long ear and then the other is likewise folded and tucked away, until little resemblance to a Bat is left. 432 Marvels of the Universe of the building powers of the Foraminifera. A superficial list will be sufficiently convincing : The chalk formation extending along the south coast of England, hundreds of feet in thickness ; the similar formation on the French coast ; the Tertiary rocks of the extensive geological formation known as the “ Paris basin’’; the corresponding strata of Austria and Italy; the calcareous deposits of Russia, and the rocks comprising the Pyramids of Egypt consist, for the most part, of shells of the Foraminifera! They are present in vast numbers among the sands on the seashore. An ounce of sand, taken at random from the shores of the Adriatic Sea, contained six thousand beautifully formed micro-shells quite as attractive as that of the Pearly Nautilus. D’Orbigny, closely examining the sands on the shores of the Antilles, calculated that there must have been nearly four millions of these shells in a single ounce! A row of figures representing the number contained in a cubic yard would baffle our powers of comprehension. That being so, we must admit that the Foraminifera form a population gigantic beyond all means of intelligible expression ; for they are found on all seashores ; the successive accumulations of their shells form banks that are dangerous to navigation, and they assist in conjunction with corals in building up reefs and islands in tropical seas. They constitute the chief organic deposit on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean. This was proved when the first cable was being laid to America. Samples of ‘ ooze’’ consisting almost entirely of shells and fragments of shells of Foraminifera were brought up. Under microscopic examination they were found to bear a close resemblance to the fossil forms of which the chalk cliffs of Dover and other localities are composed. With regard to the rocks which form the principal building material of the city of Paris and the neighbouring towns and villages, we are told by D’Orbigny that a cubic inch of this stone contains fifty-eight thousand shells of Foraminifera ! Lou a. Whunslaw. THE BOMBARDIER AND THE GROUND BEETLE. ‘The little Bombardier Beetle, pursued by a Ground Beetle with evil intentions, repulses the enemy by ejecting an acrid fluid which becomes converted into a vapour by contact with the air. The emission is accompanied by sharp little reports. Marvels of the Universe 43 ies) THE LONG-EARED BAT BY JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S. In the whole history of life on the earth probably no animal has possessed proportionately larger ears than those of the Long-eared Bat, which is one of the most grotesque of animals. It is only occasion- ally seen in flight during day- light. Then it becomes a most curious object indeed, for during flight it is quite unlike any other creature of the air. Its huge ears are erected and lowered continually in a most extraordinary manner, and being almost as long as its body, they give it a very striking effect when seen against the light. In the natural order of things, how- ever, this Bat does not fly until very late at night. This habit, I think, throws some light on the purpose of its huge ears. I am inclined to think that it hunts by sound, and that Photo bu] LE. Step, FL.S. its ears serve as huge ear- IND TAN STS INSECT: In form and colour this ‘‘Stick’’ is much like a small branch of a bush. It is trumpets, by means of which it can detect the faintest remarkable eggs, shown on the next page, almost invariably produce female insects. one of the wingless species, and is here shown not quite the natural size. The sound-vibrations, even those of the flight of gnats and other small insects on which it preys. While holding this species of Bat in my hand I have heard it screech with terror, and its voice is a very razor’s-edge of sound; so shrill is it that it is almost inaudible to the human ear. Yet with that voice it calls its mate from afar. Probably, too, its late habits in the silent night adapt it the better to detect such delicate sounds. Thus, when it rests it folds up its ears that it may not hear. THE BOMBARDIER BEETLE AmonG the methods adopted by insects for the purpose of discouraging enemies who would make a meal of them, is the production of objectionable odours and fluids. Thus, large numbers of the great Bug family evolve the disgusting odour that reaches its highest development in the repulsive Bed-bug. The pretty beetles known as Lady-birds, if molested, exude from their joints a yellow, oily fluid that is objectionable to birds, and advertise the fact by their red and black coats. 30 A34 Marvels of the Universe Various species of Ants eject a corrosive fluid known as formic acid, and the group of small beetles known as Bombardiers have a somewhat similar defence. The last segment of the Bombardier’s body bears a couple of glands which secrete an acid fluid into a pair of little bladders. When the Bombardier is pursued by a larger beetle or other enemy, muscular pressure appears to be exerted upon these bladders, with the result that there is a cracking report and a little of the acid is ejected and turned to a bluish vapour on contact with the air. The action may be repeated several times 1f the first explosion does not serve the purpose of repulsing the enemy. The Bombardier is a small beetle, found chiefly along the shores of rivers, where it is often pursued by the larger Ground Beetles which are carnivorous, and therefore the Bombardier stands in some need of special protection. Such a pursuit and repulse is shown in our illustration, where both Beetles are shown twice the actual size. STICK INSECTS BY K. G. BLAIR, B.SC., F.E.S. Stick Insects afford a _ beautiful example of those animals which in their bodily structure, combined with the habit of remaining motionless, bear so close a resemblance to some inanimate object of their natural sur- roundings that they very readily escape notice, and consequent consumption, by their enemies. As their name im- plies, they resemble sticks and twigs of the foliage in which they usually dwell; if disturbed, the resemblance is made yet more close by their habit of folding the limbs close to the body with the forelegs straight out in front aes _ and feigning death ; it is then difficult sens [F, Noad Clark. tg realize that one is dealing with a EGGS OF STICK INSECT. eins F : living insect and not with a piece of The eggs are shown about nine times larger than the real size. They have a close resemblance to seeds. Each is provided with a lid, which the dead twig. In connection with this newly-hatched “‘Stick’’ pushes off, as shown in one of the upper figures. Abie should be noticed the shape of the front legs. At the base they are very slender, but about the middle of the first joint they thicken rather suddenly and then taper away to the foot. When they are held straight out in front in the proper “stick” attitude, the head fits exactly into this hollowed part and the eyes are able to look out over the base of the leg, while the continuity of the stick-like body remains uninterrupted. Stick Insects are found throughout the warmer parts of the world, but the kind here illustrated comes from India. Though many of its relatives possess wings, this species is wingless in all stages. They are nocturnal in their habits, remaining motionless among the twigs of their food- plant during the day. They walk rather slowly, and before coming to rest have a peculiar habit THE SOLAR HALO. The silvery sheet of Cirro-stratus covers the sky, and a shining circle of light is formed by the sun’s rays passing through the ice-crystals which form the cloud. The sun forms the centre of the circle, and is just under the edge of the dark cloud. Photos by] a THE THUNDERCLOUD. The Cumulus-nimbus is the grandest and most massive of all clouds. The one shown is commencing to dissipate in a heavy shower, as may be seen at the left of the picture. 1. A, Clarke. 436 Marvels of the Universe of swinging gently from side to side. It is a curious fact that the male of this species is excessively rare (indeed, the writer knows of only one example), but the propagation of the species seems to be in no way impaired thereby ; generation after generation may be reared, but all are females. The eggs are simply al- lowed to fall to the ground. They are no less curious than the insects themselves, and bear an exceedingly close re- — * : . ; semblance to the seeds of some LDU GAOL. GUOTIRN. eels Ce plant of the gorse tribe. They The marvellous beauty of the Cirro-cumulus is well shown here. It is, as a rule, are little shortly oval bodies, an accompaniment of fine weather. with a lid-like structure at one end, in the middle of which is a little yellow button. When the egg hatches the lid is pushed off and the young Stick Insect drags itself out, slowly straightens its back and limbs—for in the egg it was all curled up—and presently wanders off to look for something to eat. It is very like the adult in form, but not so long-drawn-out, and does not at first assume the stick-like attitude. It feeds on privet, rose and a few other plants, and after moulting several times becomes mature in about five or six months. While young they possess the power of growing new legs in case of accident, but the process occupies three or four moults, and if the loss occur too late in life no attempt to replace it is made. THE €Loubs BY GEORGE AUBOURNE CLARKE. OF all the marvels that are to be found in the universe, pro- bably none can surpass the clouds for beauty of form and colour ; and whether it be the scarlet pageantry of the sunset or the purple gloom of ‘the thunder-cloud, there is always in the picture before us a sub- limity that compels our admira- tion. ars Even the most casual ob- servation cannot fail to bring to our notice that the forms Photo by) [G. A. Clarke. ALTO-CUMULUS CLOUD. assumed by the clouds are This is another variety of the Cumulus clouds shown in the previous illustrations. many and various , that, for Marvels of the Universe 437 instance, the swiftly changing and passing shower-clouds of springtime are quite different from the beautiful wavy bands which we call a “ mackerel sky.’ The natural association of certain cloud- forms with certain kinds of weather demanded some means of distinguishing between these different forms ; and, though space does not permit of our here entering into the history of cloud nomen- clature, it will be sufficient to say that in r89r an International Meteorological Conference authorized the publication of an atlas and classification of cloud-types for the guidance of observers. This classification has been generally accepted, and the names here mentioned are in accordance therewith. Clouds owe their origin to the sun. The sun’s rays heat the ground, and the air lying imme- diately above the ground thus becomes warm and charged with evaporated moisture, and this Photo by] {G@. A. Clarke. LENTICULAR!;FORM OF CIRRO-CUMULUS. It is to the Lenticular form of the Cumulus clouds that we owe many of our most gorgeous sunset effects. warm, moist air, being lighter than the colder air above it, naturally rises upward. When this ascending air-column reaches a height where the temperature is sufficiently low, the water-vapour which it contains condenses into very minute drops of water, and these then become visible as a cloud. A simple illustration of this process is to be seen in the familiar puffs of steam from the exhaust of a locomotive. This condensation is repeated at successively higher levels, and conse- quently we meet with clouds at greatly differing heights. Highest of all float those delicate filaments resembling feathers or wisps of hair, popularly known as mares’ tails,’ but in cloud classifications called Cirrus. Twenty-nine thousand feet is the average height of such clouds, practically the same as that of Everest’s snowy peak. At such a great altitude the temperature is far below freezing-point, and these clouds are therefore composed of ice-crystals. Sometimes the Cirrus becomes sufficiently extensive to cover the whole sky with a pearly or y sheet, and is then known as Cirro-stratus. When this occurs, we frequently see 438 Marvels of the Universe bright rings of light encircling the sun or moon at a radius of about twenty-two degrees. These are called halos, and are caused by the ice-crystals refracting the sun’s rays. Halos are popularly regarded as portents of coming storm or wet weather, owing to the fact that large quantities of Cirro-stratus are usually found in the front of an approaching atmospheric depression. Next in order of height come the Cirro-cumulus and Alto-cumulus types, and as arule they accom- pany fine weather. The general characteristics of these two types are similar ; but while the Cirro- cumulus may be as high as twenty-three thousand feet, the Alto-cumulus may be found as low as ten thousand feet. These clouds are extremely beautiful when stretched across the sky in long bands and fleecy masses, exhibiting a wavy, rippled structure, or marshalled in parallel lines of tiny cloudlets, and the fancied resemblance of the ripples to the markings on a mackerel has earned for Photo bu] ; . SE waa “(@. 4. Clarke. LENTICULAR FORM OF ALTO-CUMULUS. This again is a form of cloud much in evidence during fine sunsets. The edges of the cloud reflect intense colours, which form a fine contrast with their denser parts and produce those wonderful effects that are so fascinating to the beholder. them the name of “ mackerel sky.’ One particular form of these clouds—the lenticular one— gives rise to our most beautiful sunsets; for, when the last rays of the sun impinge upon their rippled under-surfaces, the whole sky seems transformed into a sea of shining gold or fiery crimson. Still lower down, at about six thousand five hundred feet, is found a similar but much heavier cloud, called Strato-cumulus. This isa type frequently to be seen, and is sometimes heavy enough to cover the whole sky with its dark, wavy masses. About the ten thousand feet level there is occasionally seen a uniform, greyish sheet called Alto-stratus, through which the sun shines dimly. It is the “‘ watery sky’ of popular weather-lore, and is almost always followed by rain. Owing to its uniformity it cannot be photographed effectively. The Cumulus, or “ wool-pack”” clouds, are probably the best known of all clouds, and consist of pee Photos by) CUMULUS CLOUDS, Of this fine set of Cloud photographs the firat shows the dark wavy mosses of Strato-cumulus covering the sky; the second and third preser finest aspects ; w two of its in the fe 1 a Cumulo-nimbus, or Thundercloud, may be seen piling up its enormous masa, 440 Marvels of the Universe dome-shaped masses of condensation with flat bases. When they pass over the sun they appear as dark masses with bright edges. The average height of their base level is about four thousand feet, and that of their summits about six thousand feet. They are quite plentiful during summer, and are a fine-weather type. Unfortunately this last remark cannot be applied to the Cumulo-nimbus clouds, for they appear at their best during thunderstorms, and likewise give rise to the sharp hail- and rain-showers of springtime. These clouds are really an over-development of the Cumulus type and have a similar base level ; but they continue to heap up mass upon mass of cloud, till their summits reach almost Bs as high as the Cirrus. Imagine a pile of cloud three or four miles high, and con- taining twenty or more’ cubic miles of con- densed vapour! It is fascinating to watch the ‘growth of their fantastic forms, which continues until con- ditions become un- stable, when the whole huge“ fabric collapses in a torrential “ thun- der-shower.”’ The Nimbus, or rain-cloud, is a mass of cloud without de-— finite form, from which steady rain falls. It is sometimes accom- panied “by small de- tached pieces of cloud which float below the main “mass, and to which sailors have , : given, the name of re) THE TELEGRAPH PLANT. Bees “flying scud.” — Its The two small leaflets, at the base of the large leaflet, are in constant movement, revolving on height is six thousand their stalks. The large leaflet moves up and down only, like the arm of a railway signal. ‘feet or thereby. Stratus, the lowest of all clouds, is simply a sheet of lifted fog, found anywhere up to about three thousand feet; and, like: the Alto-stratus, does not lend itself to photography because of its uniformity. Nees pat THE TELEGRAPH PLANT es: THE telegraph referred to in the name of this plant is the old semaphore apparatus with which, before the application of electricity, messages were signalled from hill to hill. . It survives in the signal-posts and arms of the railways by which sections of the line are indicated to be free or blocked according to whether the arm is depressed or horizontal. The suitability of the name will be Dr:J.Collis Browne’s The Original and Only Genuine. The Best Remedy known for COUGHS, COLDS, ASTHMA, BRONCHITIS. Cuts short all attacks | The only Palliative in NEURALGIA. GOUT, RHEUMATISM, TOOTHACHE. Acts like a charm in DYSENTERY and CHOLERA. of SPASMS, HYSTERIA and PALPITATION. Of all Chemists, DIARRHEA, Ii7, 2.9; 4/6. HUTCHINSON’S NEW G/- Refuse Imitations and INSIST on _ having Dr. J. COLLIS BROWNE’S Chlorodyne, The Most Valuable Medicine ever discovered. The name Dr. J. Collis Browne is on the stamp of every bottle of genuine Chlorodyne. Convincing Medical Testimony with each bottle. NOVELS 3rd Large Editon “Simply masterly ”’—Daily Mail. Christopher By RICHARD PRYCE The Morning Post says: ‘‘It does not often fall to the lot of the reviewer to read a book with real delight from cover to cover. But this has been our happy fate in the case of ‘ Christopher.’ The charm of it lies in the extraordinary—almost uncanny—know- ledge displayed by the author for the value of impressions and associations. ‘Christopher’ is indeed a book to be read not only read but re-read.”’ By the Author of “The Dawn of All,” etc. 2nd Edition The Coward By ROBERT HUGH BENSON 2nd Edition The Third Miss Wenderby By MABCL BARNES-GRUNDY 3rd Large Edition By the Author of “The Blue Lagooa,” &c. The Order of Release By H. DE VERE STACPOOLE The Datly Telegraph says: ‘‘Thisis a novel of real distinction, which is sure to be appreciated by all lovers of sound workmanship, brisk narrative, and thoroughgoing unaffected romance.”’ The Glasgow Herald says: ‘‘ Mr. Stacpoole is easily the most versatile novelist of the day. He now adds this delicious comedy of old France—in our opinion the most charming piece of romantic fiction since Dumas.”” By the talented Grand-Daughter of Charles Dickens The Debtor By MARY ANGELA DICKENS The World says; ‘‘‘ The Debtor’ is a book which all novel- readers who are concerned with the deeper mysteries of the human soul will read to their profit.” London: Hutchinson & Co. HUTCHINSON'’S Popular Pocket Nature Books In uniform binding, size 7} by 5. Each in cloth, richly gilf and with rounded corners, 5S. net. BIRDS OF THE COUNTRYSIDE By FRANK FINN, B.A., F.Z.S., etc. Late Deputy Superintendent Indian Museum, Calcutta In cloth, richly gilt (73 by 5), rounded corners, 5s. net. With 12 @bloured Plates, 118 Illustrations from photographs, printed on art paper, and numerous Outline rawings PCGoc NESTS OF BRITISH BIRDS By FRANK FINN, B.A., F.Z.S., &c. eS wil FRUITS OF Tid COUNTRYSIDE By F. EDWARD Ee as we a om S.A., etc. Vice- ae res igen! of the os Author of ‘‘ Familiar Wild Flov ”“ Butterflie: Tae ae Sane uO ntryside,’” et In el tech richly aa > by 5), rounded corners, Ss. net. 5 Gea With 36 Coloured Plates by the re and 25 Illustrations from photographs on art paper OUR BRITISH TREES AND HOW TO" KNOW THEM AsPopulaciGuide toute Imes By FRANCIS GEORGE HEATH 492 Pages, with 520 Illustrations PETS AND HOW TO KEEP THEM By ae FINN, B. De Bae che S., etc. Author of ‘‘ Birds of the Country In cloth aie (73 by 5), rounded corner ean net. With a large number of Illustrations from ae nee and 12 Coloured Plates THE WORLD'S BIRDS 68, FRANK FINN, B.A. PLS. A Simple and ee Classification of the Birds of the World In crown 8vo, cloth gilt and gilt top, 5s. net. With numerous Illustrations from photographs and drawings London: HUTCHINSON & CO., Paternoster Row, E.C. —Luxury indeed to. the smoker —A Flavour and Fragrance’ of unusual charm 2 oz, 1/1 ; Ib. tins 2/2 Of most high-class tobacconists, or send stamps 1 oz. 63d. to the amount to the sole manufacturers: THOMSON & PORTEOUS, EDINBURGH Two New 6/- Novels. By the author of “ The Silent Rancher,” etc. The Rhodesian By GERTRUDE PAGE In Miss. Gertrude Page’s new-novel ‘‘ The Rhodesian,” she has once again laid her plot in Rhodesia—choosing this time the neighbourhood of the wonderful Zimbabwe ruins, and wreathing around her characters beautiful word pictures of the fascinating country. A new and original novel Mated in Soul By G. de VAURIARD “Hitherto the story has run on ordinary lines, but now the author shows the reason of it all, which is to propound a theory, suggest a problem—not a nasty one, as such things generally are, but decidedly startling. It is possible, she contends and herein proves, for a mother to so work her will upon her child that he grows into a semblance not of his father in reality, but of the one she would have preferred for him. An ingenious idea and very convincingly expounded. It brings about an unexpected finish, and turns the story out of the commonplace groove into something entirely original.” —Duazly Chronicle. LONDON: HURST & BLACKETT, LTD. DELICIOUS COFFEE. RED WHITE s BLUE For Breakfast & after Dinner. In making, use less quantity, it being so much stronger than ordinary COFFEE, “ Drink Fine China Black Tea if you value your nervous system.” TE-CELESTIAL is the FINEST CHINESE BLACK TEA. Sold in 3lb., 1lb. and Half-pound Canisters, at 2/2 per Ib. ANY GROCER WILL SUPPLY IT. Three New 6/- Novels. By Popular Authors The Red Man’s Secret A romance of the Stage Prairie By F. FRANKFORT MOORE Mr Frankfort Moore’s new story is likely to prove as greata novelty in its way as did his early work, ‘‘I Forbid the Banns,”’ many years ago. It is sufficient to say that the book has been described by those who have seen it as very bright and witty, and something entirely fresh ; in fact, an entirely new note in fiction. By the author of “ The Strayings of Sandy,” etc. The Arrival of Antony By DOROTHEA CONYERS Mrs..Conyers’ new book is a sporting one, on the lines of the “* Strayings of Sandy.”’ It tells of Antony, brought up in Germany, coming over to Ireland to live with his uncles, who are horse- dealers, and the adventures which befall him with them. The Satanist By Mrs HUGH FRASER and J. I. STAHLMANN LONDON: HUTCHINSON & CO. NAN RYMAeS USEC (Pp ele So PUN) ahh + iy I NOea pened Pali e4 AV rly GA Moths Ki sy enay ant Raya NTA DAY i bth Marvels of the Universe AAI manifest to anyone who watches the behaviour of the plant. It is a native of India, Ceylon, etc., and belongs to the great pea family. Like so many other members of that family, its leaves are broken up into three leaflets, of which one is enormously larger than the other two, which look like mere stipules, one on each side of the leaf-stalk. These small leaflets are in almost constant move- ment, and this quite independently of any movements in the air. In this country, of course, they can only be grown in hothouses, and there, where the air is quite still, the movements can be seen to best advantage during the hours of sunlight. The leaflets revolve, so to speak, on their stalks, their movements describing an ellipse. Sometimes they move very gradually, sometimes by jerks ; sometimes repeated up-and-down movements take the place of the elliptical progression. The movement of the large leaflet is not so obvious, as it maintains a more or less horizontal position during the day; but at night its tip always points towards the earth. Now these movements are perfectly spontaneous; that is to say, they are not due—as in the e of the Sensitive Mimosa—to external stimulus or irritation. It is safe to say that they serve some important purpose in the economy of the plant. You may try to influence their movements in the ways that are adopted towards the Mimosa, but the Telegraph Plant pays little or no attention to your efiorts. The plant bears upright spikes of violet flowers, much like those of the lupine. A BEAUTIFUL SHRIMP BY E. J. SPITTA, F.R.M.S. Tue Crustaceans are an im- portant division of animals, to which crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps and prawns belong, and which are characterized by having an extemal skeleton of shell in many pieces. They are mostly aquatic, and all, even the terrestrial forms, breathe through the integument, or through the projections of the integument which are known as “‘ branchiz,” or gills. Their integument, or covering, is made of a peculiar substance called “ chitin,’ which is also the chief ingredient of the wing- cases of insects. It is of great hardness, resisting almost any ordinary means of cutting or as witnessed by the hard shell of the lobster or the tough skin of the shrimp or prawn. Its actual formation Photo by) (ZL. J. Spitta. A BEAUTIFUL SHRIMP. Arcturus, as this little creature has been named, is noted for its beautiful as a covering skin is a mystery resent, and its power of pink colouring and its bright blue eyes. It is here shown in the characteristic attitude which it takes up on a branch of coralline, after the manner of the Mantis alcohol, ether, water, on a land plant, and with a similar purpose. A42 Marvels of the Universe acetic acid and alkalies single it out as a very curious substance. So resisting, indeed, is the material that if shrimps or prawns, for example, be softened out by treatment in various chemical solutions, the original form of the little animal is elegantly and perfectly maintained notwithstanding. There are an almost endless number of animals belonging to this group, and some have different habits from others. Their formation, too, varies, some having eyes projecting on little stalks, like lobsters, whereas others possess eyes, called “ sessile,’’ those which are attached to the body without any sensible projection or visible support. Our present illustration is an example of a curious little crustacean, known as Arcturus, to which one or two interesting peculiarities are attributed, although it must be distinctly acknowledged they are not universally accepted as _ facts. The Arcturus is seen in the first illustra- tion reared up on its hind legs, and it is said that this is the position in which it watches for its prey; whereas another account attributes to this little member of the sea a peculiar habit of fretting such things as the wood of piers or harbour supports for a purpose only known to itself. The most interesting features, however, of this little animal are to be found really in its beautiful pink colour, its shining skin, and its remarkably beautiful blue eyes, each being more like a mulberry than an organ of vision, and one of which is shown in the second illustration con- siderably magnified. THE DODDEK WHEN wandering over heath or downland in summer one may often come across a furze-bush over which, to all appearance, someone has been industriously twining Photo oy) LB. J. spua. and entangling a few hundred yards of A BEAUTIFUL SHRIMP. Some of the Crustaceans, such as- the Lobsters, have eyes pro- 4 5, jecting on little stalks This Shrimp has “‘sessile’’ eyes, that is to threads are thick knots, half an inch or say they are set close to the body without any appreciable projection. crimson thread. Here and there upon the more across. This tangle of threads is really a living plant, leafless but not flowerless, for what appeared at a little distance as a knot is a dense cluster of tiny bell-shaped blossoms. This is the Dodder. Now there is one thing that will at once strike the observer who is told that the Dodder is a plant, however ignorant of botany he may be, and that is, that it is remarkable for a plant that bears flowers to have no leaves ; yet search the interminable threads from end to end and you will find no trace of them. Another thing worth notice: trace any of the lower threads of the tangle downwards and you will find that it has no roots—it does not even reach the ground. Then, perhaps, you conclude that, like mistletoe and many tropical orchids, it began life on the trunk or branch of its host, where a seed may have caught in a crevice. But that is not so. The Dodder seed must fall to the ground before it germinates and becomes a seedling. Most seedlings emerge from the seed provided with a pair of fat leaves of different shape from those they LH. C. Shepstone FLOWERS OF THE DODDER. ich is three times larger than nature, several clusters of the flowers are shown. The two stout upright taken for those of the Dodder: they belong to its victim. The {Dodder stems are the much more slender, 444 Marvels of the Universe put forth later. These seed-leaves are, in effect, a couple of pockets filled with as much food as the baby plant requires until it has developed the be- ginnings of a root system and a leaf or two that can gather food from the at- mosphere. Not so with the Dodder. It comes of what the Eugenists would call “‘ degenerate ”’ stock, the thriftless, unemploy- able class, doomed from their birth to be parasites and criminals. The Dod- der is one of them. For ages all its ancestors have got their living at the expense of the industrious plants and never done a hand’s-turn to provide their own food. Of course, if you go far enough back you will find honest and industrious ancestors. Photo bu) [Z. Step, PLS. THE DODDER. The Dodder seed, on The fine threads are the leafless stems of this plant-parasite. In this common species, which attacks’ heath\aud’ farae: the thréeds are ccimion, invothers they/ere pinkier yellow.) | GCENUMALION yPLOduceSmE (Natural size.) mere thread without any food-provision. That thread bends from its base and sweeps its limited horizon, its tip boxing the compass against the sun. If during these revolutions it chances to touch against a suitable plant, its future is assured ; if not, it dies within two or three days of its birth. But if it touches the stem of a furze- or heath-plant the thread at once begins to twine round it, from north to west or south to east, and makes its hold secure by means of little suckers. Then it drives root-like tubes into its victim, and through these sucks as much of its victim’s juices as it requires. It revels and riots in the good things of plant-life, without troubling to inquire whether the poor furze can spare it all. Its threads lengthen rapidly, and before long it indulges in a display of flowers. These flowers, if examined curiously, will reveal the honourable stock from which the Dodder’s degenerate ancestors came. It is the beautiful family of the Bindweeds—the Convolvulus of our cornfields and hedges, the Morning Glory of our gardens—for the flowers, though diminutive, bear all the family features. SEA GOSSAMER BY RICHARD KERR, F.G.S., F-R.A.S. , “SEA GOSSAMER ”’ is an apt description of these frail creatures which float in the waters and spread out their fairy meshes of fine, transparent threads. So beautiful are these tubular jelly-fishes, and so unlike any other living organism, that they defy comparison, though the description of an Marvels of the Universe 445 expert on the Sea-Comets approaches nearly to the truth, and may be considered typical of many of these jelly-fishes. “‘ Imagine, if you can, a spiral axis of flexible crystals, about which is a garland of hundreds of diaphanous pearls of a vivid red colour and an infinity of pendants full of life and light and motion, glistening among the waves like some crowning triumph of the lapidary’s art—a royal sceptre endowed with vitality and consciousness—and you have at best a very slight and imperfect idea of the Sea-Comet.”’ These spangled webs of crystallized dew can elongate and contract amazingly, and a thread of polyps which would stretch out to about three feet can compress itself into a finger’s length. Another characteristic is their frailty. The Gossamer cannot be gathered with the hand from the water ; it will break into an infinite number of particles, and even when “‘floated ’”’ into a convenient receptacle and raised out of the sea in its confined state it soon loses its beautiful ents and shrinks to an insignificant size. The principle by which these creatures obtain their food- supply is that of the lasso. As the Sagartians in the Persian army captured their enemies’ horses and riders by entangling them in the noose of the skilfully-thrown rope, so > @ \ } bs \ \ i h these slender jelly-fish catch and seize the minute life of the ocean by means of often- times invisible threads, which, besides, have the power of st ing their prey. Their pow of movement, too, is and is situated in the swimming-blad- “aking, it is bag lined with the contraction of the reaction is opposite direction. smbers of a large division of these thread-like ie] ve been called by siphon-bearers,”’ of their possession of suctorial tubes which serve for t eception and digestion of food and which are the st iportant and the most THE PRAYA. Seite appendages of their This thread-like Jelly-fish is named after its favourite haunt, the Porta della Praya, Cape Verde Islands. The thread uniting the many polyps is so contractile structure. that three feet of ‘‘ gossamer’’ can compress itself into a finger’s length. 446 Marvels of the Universe All siphon-bearers are free-swimmers anda, therefore, each must have azyswimming apparatus. This is formed of two different organs—the swimming-bells and the swimming-bladders. The swimming-bell resembles the umbrellas of the larger jelly-fish. The swimming-bladder is an air- chamber. We may consider these creatures as colonies of bells. The bells of each colony are joined together in a great variety of ways and positions. The individual bells appear to be able to act as separate creatures, although united ; and they seem to perform their part in life on the division of labour principle. The duty of one set of bells is to steer or push forward the whole craft: another set looks after the food supplies, as if commissariat officers ; others produce eggs so necessary for the continuation of the species ; others control the stinging tentacles ; while all take part in the floating of the colony. The siphon-bearers are possessed also of curious formations which alternate with the polyps along the polyp-stem. These are the “ tasters ’’—flask-shaped and with a long filament attached to the base. What the function of these “‘ tasters’? may be. has not been determined, but what- ever it is, it has nothing to do with “ tasting.” Most beautiful of all the attributes of the Sea-Gos- samer, however, is 1ts quality of giving out a soft phosphor- escent light, illuminating the stem and the congregated polyps with their waving filaments, and making a miniature auroral curtain floating in the sea. A brief description of the four creatures represented in the illustrations will suffice for the purpose of this article. The Sea-Comet is one of THE “FLOATS” OF THE SEA-COMET. the siphon-bearers. Its Latin These beautiful clusters of transparent tissues are ranged at intervals throughout the length of the polyp-stem. Each cluster consists of little polyps, ‘‘tasters.” and name signifies that its feelers, HOIST SEU or tentacles, are devoid of stinging power, and these are single tubules. It is one of the largest of the thread jelly-fish ; its polyp-stem alone attaining to a length of two or three feet. It is composed of transparent tissues, and its system of float-bearers, illustrated on an enlarged scale on this page, is peculiarly beautiful. The Golden Helmet is not more than three-quarters of an inch long ; it is found in the Mediter- ranean, the Indian Ocean, and off the coasts of Greenland and Norway. Unlike most of the siphon- bearers, it only possesses one pair of swimming-bells. The polyps are attached to the stem that branches from the junction of the bells, and to each polyp is attached a capturing tentacle. The Bladder-bearer works upon the same principle as the airship. It keeps to the surface waters of the ocean by means of an air-bladder situated at the extremity of a narrow tube, which supports the creature in any position. Underneath there are two rows of bells which contain water and which pulsate rhythmically, with the result that the animal is moved forward as the water is pressed out. The siphons for drawing in food particles and the tentacles which capture and convey the food to them form a mass of slender filaments below the bells. The Praya, as its Latin name implies, possesses two swimming-bells. Between the two swimming-bells the end of the long tubular body of the animal is attached by slender tubes, j Ut AN Gilet We) xy a \ AN Ae ‘ TO on 448 Wlarvels of the Universe through which a_ nourishing liquid passes along canals into the bells. The movement forward is accomplished by the alternate absorption and ejec- tion of water, so that the bells advance head foremost and regulate the motion of the whole compound animal. The bells also perform the duties of rudder. When they act to- gether the creature advances straight ahead ; but when the right bell is alone in action it goes to the left, and so on. TOUCANS BY SIR H. H. JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. THE Toucans are a group of birds which have developed very fantastic and, in some cases, most disproportionately large beaks: in fact, the Toco Toucan, which is here illus- trated in colour, is probably the culminating marvel in big beaks, proportionately to the size of the bird. In their dis- tribution they are entirely Tropical American, and even here their range is somewhat limited. No Toucans are found, for example, in the West Indian Islands or to THE GOLDEN HELMET. the west of the Peruvian So called from the two large swimming-bladders which serve to propel the Andes. They are mainly whole colony of polyps attached to the principal ** thread."’ : < confined to the Equatorial region of north-eastern South America and the forested parts of Central America. Like so many Tropical American animals, in fact, their geographical origin seems to have been from the direction of West Africa, and their ancestors probably passed over to Brazil from Africa, together with the parent forms of so many beasts and birds, at the close of the Eocene Period, before the land bridge or archipelago of islands which once connected the Guinea Coast with Guiana or Brazil had broken down. The Toucans with their big beaks made a great impression on naturalists, and on travellers in South America, during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries ; so much so, that when the natural history of Africa was first investigated and explorers encountered a very common type of African bird—the smaller hornbills, or “ tocks’’—they were wont to style them “ Toucans.” Marvels of the Universe 449 This error is very prominent in the earlier travel-books of the great explorer Stanley. He and others frequently mentioned the “ Toucans”’ of the Congo Forest. But these are really small hornbills, and although they bear a strong superficial resemblance to Toucans, there is absolutely no near relationship between the two groups. Toucans have, as their nearest affinities, the barbets —a family of small and often brilliantly coloured birds, with rather large and serrated beaks, which are found throughout the tropics of the Old and New Worlds, and most abundantly in Equatorial Africa and Asia. Not much more distant in relationship are the woodpeckers; the jacamars and puff-birds of South America ; and perhaps the honey-guides of Tropical Africa and Asia. All these groups agree in having their toes placed two and two, instead of three and one. The beaks of Toucans are not only large and sometimes very serrated at the edges (for the purpose of masticating food), but they are usually conspicuous either for their striking coloration or their ornamental carving, or for both these adornments. Yet, despite their great size, they are of cellular construc- tion and very light. The beak in the species illustrated in the coloured plate is not only the largest proportion- ately in all the group, but is really a beautiful object in its vivid orange colour, with a large blackish spot on the lower mandible. The beaks of other Toucans that are not SO huge are more elaborate in their colora- tion, the upper mandible be- ing a vivid black and orange, and the lower mandible pure white. The yeaks of other types may be white, red, green and black, while the plumage of their owners in- cludes many brilliant tints of green, scarlet and orange, besides deep blac and pure white. But no Toucan has any bright blue in its plum- age: the nearest they get to it in one or two species being a bluish-grey. On the other hand, the bare spaces of skin THE SEA COMET. which appear in some forms Very beautiful is this inhabitant of the Mediterranean. Its spiral axis of flexible es Maes jewels is often more than forty inches in length, and is garlanded with hundreds of on the face may be a brilliant — diaphanous red pearls and an infinity of pendants full of light and motion. 450 Marvels of the Universe cobalt blue, and this is the case (though not, perhaps, to the same extent) with the Toco Toucan of my painting. The Toco is about the largest of the family, and may be as much as two feet long from the tip of the beak to the end of the tail. But ordinarily the Toucans are small birds, ranging in size from that of a thrush to a turtle-dove. They live mainly on seeds and fruit, but add insects to their dietary, especially during the breeding season, and apparently will also eat small mice and lizards if they can get them. But unlike the hornbills, they do not swallow whole the larger morsels of their food for subsequent digestion in the crop and the muscular gizzard or stomach. On the contrary, they make much use of their beaks in mastication. Sometimes, when the fruit or grub has been swallowed at a gulp, it is regurgitated from the crop after an interval and masti- cated between the serrated edges of the beak. The eggs of Toucans appear to be always white, with a glossy surface, and they are laid—two in number only—in a nest which is formed in the hollow or hole of a tree. THE, PEL YCOSAWIk BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. ALLUSION is made in this work to the order of reptiles represented at the present day by the Tuatera “ lizard” of New Zealand. This last is a most remarkable animal closely related to extinct reptiles that inhabited Scotland, Germany and India in very remote Lente f RRS " » Y periods—at a guess, some six millions Photo by/) (A. S, Rudland & Sons. of years ago. At one time the Tuatera THE CURL-CRESTED TOUCAN. was fairly common in the North Island oe a a es epee gece © Nor] (2B), [ne owing to axaselax whole weight of the bird. This species derives its name from the feathers’ ‘ persecution by (the ‘stupid!| ‘colonists on its crest, which have the appearance of steel or iron filings. (quite unable to appreciate the marvel they had amongst them), it has become almost extinct, and the few survivors only linger at the present day on islets of the Bay of Islands in North New Zealand. The order to which the Tuatera belongs is particularly interesting, because it is rather basic in character and shows us a somewhat generalized type of reptile from which several very divergent orders may have been in time developed, such as, for example, the Tortoises, the Dinosaurs and the Crocodiles. Reptiles of this order often retain in their skulls the traces of an opening in the cranial bones on the top of the skull. Though there is some doubt as to the meaning of this opening and the gland it exposes, it seems on the whole most likely to be the vestige of a third eye which may have been Se ty, “je VHOLO OY p GOARG. THE PELYCOSAUR ¢ the enormous upward development of the spines, which form a distinctive feature of this exti 452 Marvels of the Universe developed in early types of amphibian and reptile and have been of use to them as they basked on the sand or mud and wished to be aware in some way of what was going on im- mediately above their heads. A very interesting group of the extinct reptiles of this order was that known as the Pelycosaurs, in some forms of which the spines of the vertebree were enormously de- veloped upwards, till they gave to the body the huge shield which is so well shown in my illustration—a _photo- graph of the restoration by Herr Pallenberg, ex- WEDS: CANON Ress BASS) UI Se hibited in the grounds This Meteorite, which derives its name from the place of its fall, is an enormous mass of of Mr. Hagenbeck’s iron weighing 1,400 pounds. park at Stellingen. METEORITES AND AEROLITES BY EDWARD A. MARTIN, F.S.S. THAT meteoric stones actually reach our earth from outer space is a fact which everybody now accepts, but we have only to go back a century to find that even scientific people were loth to believe in the possibility of such an occurrence taking place. Those who said that they had seen a meteorite fall were laughed at for being so easily deluded, as it was thought, and this in spite of the fact that from very early times such falls had been seen and recorded. Much superstition had come to be connected with these early falls, and science was not inclined to aid it by recognizing the truth concerning the stones which, as was then thought, had come down from heaven. We alter the term nowadays, and are content to say that they came down from the heavens, including in that term the whole realm of the star-lit sky. An inquiry into certain reported falls which was made early in the last century resulted in the acceptance by Edward Howard of the principle of extra-terrestrial meteorites, and whilst the French philosophers were still discussing the matter a fall, in 1803, of some two or three thousand stones took place at L’Aigle, Orne, and this was followed by an exhaustive report by the physicist Biot, which compelled the whole scientific world to recognize the fact that such stones did actually fall from outer space. For the earliest record of a meteorite we have to go to the Chinese, for in some of their early manuscripts it is mentioned that falls have again and again been seen, the earliest of these dating Marvels of the Universe 453 from as far back as 644 B.c., but so far as we know the stones themselves have not been preserved. Of those that can still be seen the oldest is that which has been for centuries an object of venera- tion, if not worship, of hosts of Mohammedans, and which is still to be seen built in the wall of the holy Kaaba, at Mecca. Its history goes back to the seventh century. There appears to have been another which fell in Thrace about 470 B.c., and which, five hundred years later, was stated by Pliny to have been still in existence, although all further record of it has since been lost. Amongst the more famous of recent falls we have that which fell at Ensisheim, in Elsass. A document which is still preserved in the church shows that it fell in 1492, and it was accompanied by a prolonged noise as of a crash of thunder. It was seen by a child to strike the ground, where it made a hole more than five feet deep. It is now kept in the Rathhaus. It weighed no less than two hundred and sixty pounds. Another of the most famous falls is what is known as the Pallas-iron. Of this a piece weighing about seven pounds is preserved in our national collection at the Natural History Museum. But the whole mass weighed as much as fifteen hundred pounds, and the greater part is now to be seen in the St. Petersburg Museum. This had been seen by a Cossack, at Mount Kemirs, in Siberia, as early as 1749, and was recognized by Pallas in 1772. We are told that it was re- garded by the Tartars as a holy thing fallen from heaven. It has a very irregular sur- face, with large sponge-like pores in which olivine is found. Many meteorites have a very smooth and almost polished exterior, and of these two massive specimens are to be seen at South Ken- sington. One, which comes from the Canon Diablo, Arizona, weighs about two hundred pounds, and it is remarkable that many other meteorites have come from the same neighbourhood, and THE CRANBOURNE METEORITE. in some cases they have con- This ie a giant among Meteorites, and weighs three and a half tons. The rusting of its surface is remarkable, which is caused by corrosion from exposure to tained minute diamonds. The the atmosphere. 454 Marvels of the Universe surface, though smooth, is very irregular, and pieces appear to have been gouged out of it as it was flying through space, reminding us on a large scale of the frost-chippings which are noticed upon many flints. The second meteorite referred to is from Otumpa, in the Argentine, and this weighs even more than the former, turning the scale at fourteen hundred pounds. These smooth-surfaced specimens are very different in appearance to others in which the surface has readily corroded from exposure to the atmosphere. Such an one is that enormous mass which fell at Cranbourne, near Melbourne, which weighs no less than three and a half tons. The rusting of the surface is remarkable, and small pieces appear ready to flake off at any moment. Unlike the dark though shining appearance which characterizes so many of the meteoric irons, this one is of a reddish colour. It stands in a special case at the Natural History Museum. One can only imagine what were the concomitants of the fall of a mass such as this. It must have been con- siderably larger when it first sailed into the thin atmosphere a hundred miles above the earth’s surface. Then, as it rushed along with a com- mencing velocity varying from ten to forty-five miles a second, we can see its surface becoming scorched by the great heat evolved by friction with the atmosphere, giving rise to numerous detonations as it compressed the air in front of it into great wave-like disturbances. Then, finally, it be- came so retarded by the resistance of the air that by the time it reached the earth its initial velocity was lost, and it merely fell, as would an enormous stone dropping from a position of rest on the outskirts of our atmosphere. The air thus acts as a veritable armour, protecting us from bombardment from the outer © Photo bu] [H. J. Shepstone, spheres. But even the striking of the THE SELMA METEORITE. : 5 The present weight of this Meteorite is 306 pounds; but it must have Cam et a velocity OM lose @ mile a been considerably greater when it first sailed into the thin atmosphere Second might be enough to do con- Tend ca ast sac tsa “Pat ould ceute fncions| “siderable, damage) anda a neue fell in Finland, in 1gor, at a rate, it has been calculated, of five hundred and eighty-four feet a second, made a hole in stiff loam of about twenty-two inches. On the other hand, several stones which fell on the ice, a few inches thick, at Hessle, near Upsala, in 1869, rebounded without damage either to the ice or to themselves. The greater the trail left behind as a meteor sails across the sky, the greater has been the fusion of its surface. This fusion appears to affect but the thinnest possible layer of the meteor, and with the exception of this thin layer it is intensely cold. It has no heat whatever as it sails through space, and the few seconds of friction with the air is insufficient to heat it to any great extent, since allowance has to be made for the heat carried away from the mass by radiation into the cold air. But the sudden generation of heat causes the fusion and luminosity of the outer layer, and as one layer is carried away as a luminous haze, another layer is acted upon in the same way, and in some cases the trail may develop into a luminous cloud, from which the meteorite is seen A GROUP OF METEORITES. The curious shaped Meteorites at the top of the page are excellent examples of the corrosion caused by the fusion of their surface in the transit through the air. The centre Meteorite is of iron, and shows the structure of the mass. The left-hand lower specimen is the Imilac Meteorite. with olivine enclosed, and the right-hand is a typical example of a smooth Meteorite. 456 Marvels of the Universe apparently to emerge. When the case is one of a stony meteorite, the unequal heating must result in chipping and flaking, and fragments may fly off with a series of small explosions. Great as the Cranbourne meteorite is, its size has been considerably exceeded by one found in western Greenland, and by another which is still remaining at El Ranchito, in Mexico. The former mass, which measures eleven feet long, weighs thirty- six and a half tons, and was brought from Melville Bay to New York, where it is now preserved. The Mexican mass, which is thirteen feet long, has been estimated to weigh no less than fifty tons. These two meteorites are, in fact, the largest known. When we consider such enormous world-fragments as they were before reaching our atmosphere, we cannot help regarding them as comparable with small planetoids, travel- ling, as we now know, in an exceedingly elongated orbit around the sun. There is no doubt that they are made up of the same chemical elements as those which have gone to form all other mem- bers of our solar system. No new elements have been found in them, whereas thirty-two of our own elements have been recognized in them. Speculation as to their origin has been to a great extent set at rest by the aid of the spectroscope, and there is little doubt that meteorites, shooting-stars, comets’ tails and the rings of Saturn are made up of the same materials, Photo by] (H. J. Shepstone. A STONY METEORITE. With a Meteorite of this nature, the fusion caused in its passage to earth is whilst the two latter consist unequal, and results i much chipping em! flaking of the surface, and these fragments of enormous numbers of may fly off with a series of small explosions. meteorites whirling around their respective orbits, and possibly giving rise to luminous haze by constant collision and the heat engendered by it. Careful scrutiny of the paths of well-known comets has shown that they are identical with those of well-recognized meteor-showers. The inference is at once seen that meteor-showers will occur when the earth passes through a comet’s tail or the path along which a comet has passed. This Se poets strong box, built up of will of the animal. The U pper left-hand figure is < of Hy 2 lower, the Straits of llan ; below it, a purple-spined European from Port Jac bs AP SN n £0 fal cn Rees a Marvels of the Universe 457 is known to be the case. Apparently the tails of some comets have gradually lagged behind until portions of them extend along the greater part of their orbit, and when the earth crosses that orbit shooting-stars are seen. It would be fruitless to catalogue here the many falls that have occurred. Our national collection has nearly six hundred specimens, of which a dozen fell in the British Isles. The latest was that which was seen to fall at Crumlin, Antrim, in 1902. This weighs eight Photo bu] [Hugh Main, BoSt., FES. pounds. Most of them were stony THE BINSITTA MOTH. meteorites, or as they are called, This beautiful moth, with glistening white wings dappled with brown, aerolites, consisting for the most part emerges from the remarkable chrysalis shown below. of silicates. The meteoric irons are known as siderites, and consist chiefly of nickel-bearing iron. Others contain both iron and silicates in large proportion, and these are called siderolites. It is scarcely to be wondered at that these messengers from space have been regarded with awe and veneration in the past. Even with the cold light of science thrown upon them we do not regard them as any the less wonderful. Our knowledge of them has increased, but with this increase of knowledge has come a more thorough appreciation of the marvels of our solar system, which may itself be perhaps but a portion of a greater system which at present we have not been able to fathom. IS SINKS SE ADs CERES AES BY) HUGH IMATINIB ISC 5 kb .o. WHEN a butterfly or moth is in the chrysalis stage of its existence it is usually very inactive and thus unable to escape by any movements from its enemies, such as birds or lizards, who would gladly make a meal of it. We find that the caterpillar often buries itself in the ground, or hides itself away in some crevice, or spins a cocoon more or less strong, in which the next change may take place, and where the chrysalis can remain secure from the weather and protected from observa- tion. In other cases where the chrysalis is not thus hidden away, it has been noted that it frequently bears a resemblance g to some other object, and so, for one Photos bi] " [Hugh Main, Bose. FES. reason or another, escapes being taken THE SNAKE'S HEAD CHRYSALIS. The chrysalis, to protect itself in its inactive state, assumes the appearance of a bird-eating snake. The black eyes, the nostrils, snout, Such resemblances, which also occur mouth and chin are all faithfully reproduced. for what it really is. is) ioP) 458 Marvels of the Universe in all the various stages of an insect’s life, may be classified into various groups, one including such cases as those in which the insect becomes practically indistinguishable from its surroundings, and another in which it is quite conspicuous, but looks more like some easily recognized noxious creature than something quite harmless and perhaps good to eat. It is difficult, without a good deal of patient observation, to gather from their actions what are the views of a bird or lizard upon such resemblances, but many examples are readily appreciated by human beings. In the second class above mentioned many examples could be given, but one of the most remark- able on record is shown in the illustrations on page 457 of the chrysalis of a moth. This was found attached to the branch of a small bombax tree in Upper Burma. It bears a wonderful resem- blance to the projecting head of a small snake, and not only that, but to a particular bird-eating tree-snake which occurs in the same part of the world. The staring black eves, the nostrils, snout, mouth, chin, are all there, and certainly give the chrysalis a most forbidding aspect. The moth itself which emerged from the chrysalis is very beautiful, the wings hay- ing a lovely white, silky sheen with patches of darker scales. THE CLIMBING PERCH BY W. P. PYGRAFT, A.L.S:, P.ZS:, BUC. Ir is always the unexpected that happens in Nature. Photo bu) 5 (W.S. Berridge, F.Z.S. TEERCTIMEINGEDERert Doubtless he who coined the The first of these curious fishes was found by Lieutenant Daldorf, in 1797, in phrase Like a fish out of a crevice of the bark of a palm. water ’’ as a vivid means of expressing extreme discomfort amid unusual surroundings, felt confident that no fish could leave its watery world and live. But as a matter of fact there are many species which possess this power, and the wonderiul Anabas is among this number. Stranger still, it can not only live without discomfort ashore, but it can both crawl and climb! And this by means of the stout spines which arm the hinder pair of belly-fins, the unpaired fin which runs along the body between these paired fins and the tail, and the stout spines on the gill-cover. In crawling, it thrusts the spines of the gill-cover into the ground, bends its tail and inserts the belly-spines, then straightens out the body, which is thus thrust forward, when the same movements are repeated. Thus the fish wriggles along at a fairly rapid rate. This fish was first discovered in India, and was reported to be able to climb low trees, but confirmation of this feat is still wanting. It can, however, as our illustration shows, climb up reeds to enjoy “a place in the sun,” or to gain the sloping bank for the purpose of making excursions on land. The latter journeys are probably only undertaken when, by a premonition of impending drought and the probable drying-up of the stream in which it is living, it desires to find a more secure abiding-place. Now it is obvious that these peregrinations would be impossible but for some special breathing apparatus contrived to enable the creature to breathe the upper air. This apparatus takes the form of a pair of large cavities, on either side of the head, above the gills. This cavity opens down- [Bu W. B. Robinson. THE CLIMBING PERCH. For a long time the curious habits of this fish were considered to be fab!e, but that the fish does climb out of the pools it inhabits has now been incontestably proved. Phote by permission of} (Gerald NV. White. THE NEST OF THE TRAP-DOOR SPIDER. This photograph is taken looking down on the Spider's nest, and shows the admirable way in which the insect hides its living-place. Photo bu) [W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S. THE NEST OF THE TRAP-DOOR SPIDER. This nest has been dug out of the ground, and shows the long tube excavated by the Spider for her eggs. The whole tube is lined with silk. Marvels of the Universe wards into the gill-chamber, and is divided up’ ‘by thin, scroll-like plates of bone covered with a delicate skin, over which ramifies a network of blood-vessels for the purpose of absorbing oxygen. The Climbing Perch is a freshwater fish found in India, Burma and the Malay countries, while other species are found in Africa. Nearly related to the Climbing Perch is the “ Snake-head,’”’ which is found in the grassy swamps of India, China and the Philippine Islands. Like its more famous relative, it is also able to live long out of the water and is provided with a similar apparatus for breathing atmospheric air, save that the scrolls of bone are wanting. Thus the breathing surface is much less in extent than in the Climbing Perch, and its sojourns on land can only be of comparatively short duration. Nor does it possess the power of locomotion on land, so that it would seem that this provision is only for the purpose of tiding over a temporary shortage of water or of breathing atmos- pheric air when, owing to the drying-up of the stream, the water which remains is too foul to breathe by means of the gills. TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS BY R. I. POCOCK, F.R.S. Not without reason have the burrows of Trap-door Spiders been called ‘‘ triumphs of protective archi- tecture.” The essential feature distinguishing these burrows from those of other spiders—indeed, from those of all other animals—is the presence of a movable lid hinged to the edge of the aperture, so that it can be opened and closed at will. Moreover, the outer surface of the lid is covered by the Spider with particles of moss or other vegetation growing in the vicinity of the burrow, so that, when closed, it exactly matches its surroundings and becomes practi- cally invisible. By thus concealing the burrow the Spider secures the double purpose of hiding from his enemies and surprising his prey. When on the watch for food he takes up a position at the top of the burrow beneath the lid, which is raised just sufficiently to allow the occupant within to peep through the narrow chink. Then woe betide any beetle or fly that passes within striking distance. Like a flash the Spider is upon it and drags it underground, the whole performance being accomplished with such marvellous speed and precision that it is all over in Marvels ot the Universe AGI less than a tick of time, too swiftly, ©, indeed, for the human eye to follow « SS ~~ S the consecutive details of the act. © The closing of the lid is effected auto- matically, because the Spider cunningly lays on the threads composing its hinge in such a way that they are on the stretch when the lid is open and thus tend always to keep it shut. But why, it may reasonably be asked, is the Spider at such pains to conceal the burrow and to capture prey with such lightning speed? Because, like Photo bu permission of] (Gerald N. White. : ; j THE NEST OF THE TRAP-DOOR SPIDER. all spiders nearly, he lives in mortal The same nest as that shown on the opposite page, but here the trap- dread of those dire enemies of spiders, door is open, balanced on the delicate silk hinge which, when the Spider has emerged, closes the lid down again over the aperture. the mason-wasps, which all through the spring and summer are relentlessly ransacking every nook and cranny in the search for spiders wherewith to provision the nests of their young. Against these powerful, venomous and armoured insects the Trap-door Spider has no chance, even when fighting within the narrow precincts of the burrow. The persecution of these insects, carried on generation after generation for untold thousands of years, has had a wonderful influence in fashioning the structure of the burrows made by some species of these Spiders ; for quite commonly the burrow is not a simple tube, but is complicated internally by side-branches or secondary chambers, usually shut off by internal doors from the main part which opens to the surface of the soil; and it is interesting to note that in nearly all cases these additional passages for escape are found in burrows which are closed by what have been aptly called, from their delicacy and thinness, “‘ wafer” lids, to contrast them with the thick, heavy “ cork” lids, with a bevelled edge, which fit tightly into the slightly expanded aperture of the burrow. Nearly all the cork-lidded burrows are simple tunnels, but many of those furnished with wafer-lids are more complex ; and perhaps the most perfect burrow, from a defensive standpoint, that has yet been discovered is that made by a species of Nemesia which occurs in South Europe. From a point a short distance within the main burrow a second passage, mounting obliquely towards the surface, is excavated; and to the upper edge of the orifice an inner door is hinged in such a way that it can be swung upwards so as to block the main passage, or pulled over the aperture of the side tunnel. The Spiders thoroughly understand the use of the doors. If conscious of inter- ference with the main door from with- out, they quickly mount to it, and grasping its inner surface with their fangs and driving their claws into the walls of the silk-lined burrow, hold on Photo vu] with might and main to prevent it THE NEST OF THE TRAP-DOOR SPIDER. being forced open. If unable to A view of the opposite nest in situ. When the Spider has entered and on a the door of the nest is shut, the inmate holds on to the inside of the door resist the strength of the mal auder, by the mandibles and the first two pairs of feet, while the third and fourth the fate of the occupant is sealed pairs are pressed against the walls of the tube. 462 Wlarvels of the Universe unless he can fall back upon a second line of defence. Here comes in the use of the inner door made by the species of Nemesia above mentioned. Abandoning the outer door, he plunges deeper into the burrow and thrusts up the inner door so as to block the passage. If the wasp forces this, the Spider still has a chance, and retreating up the side passage, pulls the door after him. If the wasp then descends to the bottom of the burrow, and finding it apparently unoccupied, quietly departs, well and good; but if he detects the inner door, now flush with the wall of the main tube, and attempts to force it, the Spider’s last hope les in the strength with which he can hold it shut. Trap-door Spiders are distributed all over the warmer parts of the world, and are akin to the great Bird-eating Spiders. They vary greatly in complexity of structure, the most highly- organized having the jaws and forelegs armed with rows or clusters of strong spines to help in digging. They live in all kinds of places, some, indeed, building their silk burrows on the surface of tree-trunks; but to show, in conclusion, that their activities are guided entirely by instinct, it may be mentioned that the newly-hatched little ones make trap-door burrows as perfect at the start as those of their parents after months, perhaps years, of practice. WHY A LEAF FALES BY E. J. SPITTA, F.R.M.S. THIS curious and wonderful phenomenon is brought about by the growth of an intercept- ing wall of cells which cuts off the flow of the sap from the leaf at the junction of its stalk with the stem of the plant. It is called the “cork” layer. To Photo by] LE. J. Spitta, F.R.M.S. : WHY A LEAF FALLS. understand this fully, resort Here is a slightly magnified photograph of a section cut along the stem of a must be had to the examination Horse Chestnut showing the junction of the leaf-stalks with the main stem of the 3 P 3 9 plant. Notice the growth of the cork cells at the junction of the left-hand stalk microscopically of a longitudinal with the main stem. section through the stem of the plant at its point of union with the stalk of the leaf. A photograph of this is seen slightly magnified in the illustration on this page. It was made from the Horse Chestnut. The stem of the plant has two leaf-stalks attached to it, one on the left and one on the right as looked at in the photograph. It is the right one we first examine. A portion in this situation is shown more magnified in the full-page plate, where it will be seen coming from the lowest part of the stalk (at its junction with the stem) and reaching almost across its entire width, a finger-like projection of cells all piled one on the other, and all closely approximated and packed together. The top or tip of this finger is illustrated at a great magnification in the last illustration, where it is readily seen to be blunt-ended and larger than the part which supports it, as the head of a pin is larger than the pin upon which it is carried. This is supposed to be for the purpose of pushing the cells of the stalk aside, and to make room for the intercepting wall to grow and increase in thickness. The sap from the mother tree, of course, usually has free access to the leaf by passing through the stem and then the stalk ; but this cork layer, which commences to grow in the early autumn Photo ty) LE. J. Spitta, PR ALS. WHY A LEAF FALLS. In this photograph the point of junction has been more highly magnified to show with greater distinctness the lighter coloured cork cells packed closely together. As autumn advances these cells will stretch right across the connecting space till they reach the base of next year’s bud, when the leaf will fall off. 464 Marvels of the Universe and reaches the other side of the stalk towards the end of that season—although this varies in different plants—acts like shutting the gates of the harbour against the incoming tide. In other words, it deprives the leaf and stalk of its life-giving sap. Nourishment being thus cut off, the leaf and stalk soon commence to shrink like a piece of orange-peel dried in the sun (see the left stalk in the photograph on page 462, which is shrinking), and this act of shrinking slowly increases, eventually loosening the attachment of the istalk at its union with the stem, so that the first puff of the autumn winds completes its severance and the leaf falls to the ground. It should be noticed, however, that this cork layer has another function, for it also seals effectually the point of severance, so that the plant, after the fall of its leaf, shall not spring a leak in this situation. THE» DEVAS COACH - HORSE BEETER BY JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S. Hr had just come from under a heap of stones and was travelling at a rapid pace along the dusty road, when I approached. I do not think that he heard me coming, but probably the vibration from my footstep warned him of my presence, and, being a warrior bold who knew no fear, he instantly The foremost cslls of the growth of cork are here magnified’ to show (that halted. He set his legs they are “' blunt-ended.” wide apart and grasped the“ground well with his feet, while his jointed feelers quivered excitedly for a moment, and then became still—as shown on page 466. Now a Devil’s Coach-horse Beetle that is not prepared to meet a foe and fight until death, if need be, is no credit to hisrace. This fellow was no coward, he evidently had no intention of running - away ; indeed, his attitude seemed to distinctly invite a quarrel. While he was awaiting events, there was ample opportunity for viewing this gentleman of the road, and it did not take long to decide that he was undoubtedly the ugliest insect that one could expect to meet on an English roadside. He looked somewhat like a large and exaggerated earwig without tail-pincers, and with a big head bearing a pair of cruel-looking eyes. His colour, too, helped his hideousness, for, quite unlike, I think, any other animal in the British fauna, he was a funereal, dead black from head to tail. : I pushed the toe of my boot towards his tail-end. That was more than his irritable and aggressive Photo bu) (LE. J. Spitta, P.RALS. WHY A LEAF FALLS. Marvels of the Universe 465 nature could tolerate, and in an instant he turned completely round, fully prepared for battle. He held his head low down and half raised his tail, and seemed all ready tomakea : eo at sudden and ferocious charge—as shown in the ON o first photograph on page 467. Probably that manceuvre scares away many of his foes; his tactic, however, is to invite the charge rather than to make it. He, therefore, adopted his usual procedure and once more became motionless in his changed attitude. Another movement of my toe instantly produced another and more desperate posture. He rapidly changed the position of his legs, raised high his tail in scorpion fashion, opened wide his huge jaws (which open sideways), and positively glared with his cruel-looking eyes in a most savage manner—as the second Photograph on page 467 SIE DEVIESE COREE One, shows. Then from a pair of glands at the tip There is no member of the insect world so pugnacious as of his tail he discharged two globules of a _ this Beetle. He is here shown attacking the stalk of a leaf volatile fluid with a horrible odour. bp ee aaa Brave would have been the insectivorous foe that dared to tackle such a meal. Doubtless, in the course of his life he had scared away many birds, hedgehogs, toads, lizards, and similar enemies by these same manceuvres, but he had never before met a wandering naturalist bent on seeing what fighting powers a Devil’s Coach-horse Beetle really possessed. Here, therefore, was a new venture for this fellow of menacing attitudes. After the one discharge of the evil fluid, that means of defence was for the time being ex- hausted. Its next defence is its jaws, for although its tail assumes a stinging posture, yet it is quite incapable of stinging. So its wide-opened mandibles would be the foe’s next consideration. Can ‘it really bite ? the unsatisfied attacker would naturally inquire. A small folded portion of coarse brown paper would probably represent a fairly tough natural foe. So with that object in one hand and the camera release ball in the other I made some experiments. I gently pushed the folded paper towards him. He at once savagely seized it, much after the manner of an angry bull- dog, attacking it not only with his mandibles, but also with his legs. He held it so firmly that I was able to lift him up from the ground § ¢ Bo ey ; (see photograph), but this movement only Photo by] LJ. Ward, FES, made him still more desperately angry—as THE DEVIL'S COACH-HORSE. shown in the next photograph. So he held So furiously has he laid hold of the cause of his annoyance . Fi ee that he has been lifted up bodily from the ground hanging on literally with tooth and nail. to the leaf-stalk entirely by his jaws. SRS Photo bu) (V. J. Ward, FES. 466 Marvels of the Universe After a few minutes I laid him and the paper down, and after the latter had been quiet suffi- ciently long to justify its release, the beetle let go. He made no attempt to move away, but doggedly waited for the paper to move again. When he had rested for about five minutes I laid a leaf-stalk beside him. His blood being up, and apparently having laid one enemy low, he was ready for the next, for he instantly pounced on this, taking the end of it firmly in his jaws. My touching the other end of it made him very angry, causing him to get his legs well over it—as the photograph on page 465 shows. I then lifted the leaf-stalk, when to my great astonishment he raised his tail and slowly turned half a somersault, and in that attitude he held firmly on, his mandibles bearing his whole weight (see photograph), until I laid him and the leaf-stalk down again. An examination of the folded brown paper showed that his mandibles had neatly pierced it. Were those jaws strong enough to pierce the human skin? To decide that point, after he had rested I offered him the tip of my forefinger. Again he was ready to attack, and time after time he endeavoured to get a grip, but the roundness of the finger prevented this. I could distinctly feel the nip of his jaws, and the amount of pressure which they exerted was really astonishing. Suddenly I felt that he had accomplished his purpose, when I in- stantly withdrew my finger. The skin was firmly gripped and he was holding on. He had, however, made a mistake in biting so hard on this occasion, for his wedge-shaped jaws had penetrated only the surface skin ; but so thoroughly had they been driven in that he was not strong enough to withdraw them again. Having performed his part so well, I care- fully released him and placed him on _ the ground. After cleaning up his mouth-parts Photo bv] ae Z LJ: Ward, FES. s THE DEVIL’S COACH-HORSE. further enemies were abroad, he pursued his: Already in his rambles the ferocious insect has realized path on the roadside, quite ready to attack wieere ace piimnmeerecnse jceray snaytenerenared stood rs prey in the same fearless manner that he had dealt with his supposed foes. He is a most useful insect, and should never be killed; his prey consists of almost any insect with which he meets, and a slug or a worm does not come amiss to him; he will even attack a young toad ; also he has ample wings, is a bold flier. and is common throughout the British Isles. and waiting sufficiently long to see that no THE WONDERFUL. SEA-URCHIN BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. THE Sea-Urchin, or Sea-Hog, is so called because it resembles the hedgehog, or urchin, by being covered with protective spines that keep most enemies at a distance. With a remark to the effect that this is a curious correspondence between a land-beast and a sea-creature, the average person 5 Hg SSRs Photos bu) [. J. Ward, FES. THE DEVIL'S COACH-HORSE In the two upper photographs the creature is shown in his characteristic attitudes of defiance. Like the scorpion he raises his ten his enemy, but unlike the scorpion he is innocent of sting. In the lower pictures he is shown attacking a piece tail to thre of brown paper “tooth and nail.” Marvels of the Universe Photo bu] LH. J. Shepstone, THE COMMON SEA-URCHIN. The Urchin has been denuded of its spines to show the arrangement of the plates in bands extending from summit to base, with their bosses for the spines and perfora- tions for the water-tubes. is inclined to pass the Sea- Hog by as having no further interest for him. Let me say that this is a great mistake. There are few creatures exist- ing that are so wonderfully constructed and organized. Let us consider it for a while. The Sea-Urchin is shut up in a stony box which cannot be opened without — killing the it is entirely without any limbs, yet cap- able of walking, not only over horizontal surfaces, but also up vertical rocks and even under the roofs of submarine caverns, with as much ease as on the level. The box in which the creature is encased is a wonderful structure ; and inmate ; wonderful are the thousands of spines which suggest to a big-mouthed fish that the Urchin, if swallowed, might cause some serious stomachic troubles, and that, in consequence, the Urchin had better be left alone. It is not only on broad, solid surfaces that the Urchin can climb ; he can ascend the slender bars of the crab- and lobster-pots, enter at the summit just as the crab does, and help to dispose of the bait. Photo bu) aro HE Ie ea The spines have all been detached is encircled by which they Each big knob small spines. move. [H. J. Shepstone. OF A SEA-URCHIN. the smaller polished bosses upon which to show clearly ones support Naturally, the crabber is annoyed at the Urchin’s presence ; he looks upon the Urchin as standing in the room of a good-sized crab, and his feel- ings do not allow him to spend time in musing on the marvels of Sea-Hog structure. He is determined that the particular Sea-Hogs he found in his crab-pots this morning shall not trouble him again ; so he brings them to shore in his boat and then dashes them to pieces against the rocks! In one acquainted with the Sea-Hog’s history, this act of vandalism gives rise to feelings such as the china-maniac might experi- ence on seeing some cun- ningly-designed piece of his treasured ware shattered be- fore his eyes. But no human pottery, fashioned out of a lump of plastic clay, can com- pare with this natural box of eggshell-ware built up of nearly six hundred pieces, all fitted together edge to edge with such nicety that there is not a hairs space between them. And yet this ware is only about one-twenty-fourth of an inch in thickness ! A remarkable feature of this structure is seen in the five-sided character of all the little plates that go to make up the cupola-like box. The Sea- Hog, in truth, is built up ona pentamerous system. Well nigh everything about it is arranged in fives or some multiple of five. Turn it over, and you will see that its mouth Marvels of the Universe 469 Photo by) (EL. Step, F.L.S. THE COMMON SEA-URCHIN. Here represented about half the natural size. Common on all our shores, it is esteemed as food in the countries round the Mediterranean, where it is cooked like an egg. —which is lowermost—is guarded by the tips of five white teeth, which meet in a common point. Then the plates of which the box is composed are arranged in bands according to their size and character ; these are of three kinds and there are ten bands of each. The smallest of these plates are perforated with a large number of minute holes which are arranged in pairs, and there are three pairs in each row. Other plates bear spines, which are attached by cup-and-ball socket- joints to solid polished bosses on the plates, the spine and the boss being held together by a muscular band which moves the spine in any direc- tion. When an Urchin has been denuded of its spines these little bosses will be seen standing out in regular rows from the shell. In order to manipulate these spines, and for other purposes, the outside of the box is coated with a layer of thin flesh, which is very sensitive. Touch it gently with any slender instrument that will pass between the spines without touching them, and immediately every spine in that area will turn its point towards the spot touched. At Photo by) LE. Step, F.L.S. FLEMING’S SEA-URCHIN. This is, perhaps, the most beautiful of the British Urchins, its long sharp spines being particularly graceful. They are an inch and a half long, whilst the ‘‘shell’’ is three inches across, and nearly as high. 470 Wlarvels of the Universe the same time you will become aware of the presence of active living bodies among the spines that at first you will regard—quite reasonably—as little worms with jaws like the beak of a bird, except that some have three bills instead of two. These remarkable bodies were formerly con- sidered as parasites, and named and classified as a distinct group of animals. They are really part of the Urchin organization, and apparently modified spines, for they have a solid, stony base, and a pliant, fleshy “ neck’’ between it and the beak. The probability is that when you touch the delicate flesh of the Urchin that covers its box your instrument will be in the neighbourhood of one of these bodies ; if so, it will turn in the direction of the annoyance, snapping its beak and probably taking a grip. Their principal purpose is apparently to keep offensive refuse from accumulating between the spines, for they may be seen to pick up such particles and convey them as far as their length permits, and so handing on the duty to others. But they also serve as weapons of defence, for they have been observed to repulse Star-fishes by biting their sucker-feet. Photo bu) (A. J. Shepstone. TWO JAPANESE URCHINS. These are in life covered with bristles, similar to those of the Heart Urchin. The pores for the water-tubes are all on the upper surface and form the outlines of a flower’s petals. The Urchin has sucker-feet also. The minute perforations in the five-sided plates of which the box is built up give exit to little fleshy tubes, each ending in a sucker. It is by means of these apparently weak but really powerful suckers that the Urchin climbs up rocks or travels over the sea-bottom in search of food. The tubes are filled with water and the suckers are worked by water power ; a special system of water-vessels inside the box supplying the necessary pressure. In our Common Sea-Urchin these tubes extend from the base to the summit, so that by their aid, should the Urchin get turned upside down, it can easily right itself again. Some of its relatives, however, are not so liberally provided. The Heart-Urchin shown on page 473, for example, has them only on the upper and under surfaces, not down the sides. Certain of these organs, distinguished by ending in a clear round head, are noticeable on the upper surface of the Urchin. The comparative robustness of these heads is due to the fact that each of the three jaws bears on its exterior a transparent pouch, filled with liquid, from which two tubes run nearly to the tip of the jaw. The liquid in the pouch is poison. When the jaws are closed Photos by) [/. J. Shepstone TWO SEA-URCHINS. In both these forms the spines are comparatively few. They serve to give an idea, with the other illustrations, of the great diversity of form there is in this tamily. In the upper figure, though the spines are few, they are long and so disposed as to keep an enemy at a safe distance. In the lower photo they are very stout. 472 Marvels of the Untverse upon any available part of an enemy their bite is a poisoned one. Experiments made to test the virulence of the poison have shown that a single one made to bite a frog has caused the victim’s heart to stop beating. The three-jawed organs, which are by far the most numerous, open quickly, and close with a snap. One of their special functions is to seize the swimming forms of parasites that are ever seeking to establish themselves on the Urchin’s delicate exterior. A third kind end in a pair of toothed jaws that give them a close resemblance to the head of a snake. Their function appears to be to catch small animals as food, and hold them until the tube-feet can bend that way and convey the captive from one to another until it reaches the Urchin’s mouth. The Urchin’s box is full of wonders, although the Urchin is an animal of a low grade in the scale of life. It is a creature without a head or a brain, a heart or circulatory system. There is a nervous system, but it is not of a high order. The complicated masticatory apparatus, which is known as “ Aristotle’s Lantern” (shown on page 474), is worked by a ring of muscles; the five large teeth, whose tips show externally in the centre of the underside, form the chief part of this apparatus. The chief food of the Common Sea-Urchin appears to be the leathery brown fronds of the great Tangles and the numerous small animals that live upon them, among other things small crustaceans and worms. The fact that it is fre- quently found in crab-pots, attracted thither by the pieces of fish pro- vided as bait, shows that it is only restricted to smaller animals natur- ally as food by the fact that it cannot capture larger ones. One of our rarer Urchins, with purple. spines, when living upon exposed limestone rocks, especially notice- Photo by] [H. J. Spitta, F.R.ALS. able on the west coast of Ireland, eat AEN ES AE excavates holes in the rock by the This is a highly magnified view of a section cut across an Urchin’s spine. rotation of its spines. These hollows Each species has its own peculiar design. which corresponds with differences mathciercoving of theiexterior. are sufficiently deep and wide to accommodate the Urchin and save it from being washed away by heavy seas. Recent observa- tions, however, seem to show that it does not start with solid rock, but takes advantage of an existing crevice and enlarges it to suit its own circumference. These internal matters, however, we must leave, and devote a little space to the forms of Urchins represented by our photographs. The Common Sea-Urchin, which may be regarded as the typical form, bears about four thousand spines, each a wonderful piece of workmanship. If one of these be microscopically examined it will be seen to be a thing of great beauty, whether we examine it as a whole or in parts. Its full length under a low power of magnification reveals itself as a beautiful tapering shaft, fluted in a manner characteristic of the species ; the cup-like hollow at its base, which revolves so freely on the polished boss of the shell, is itself polished perfectly. If we cut the spine across and examine a thin slice of it we shall see that in spite of its apparent solidity it is really a symmetrical network of mbs and hollows. We have said that there is not a hair’s space between the edges of the living plates Marvels of the Universe 473 Photo bu) LE. Step, F.L.S. THE HEART-URCHIN. This species burrows in fine sand and mud. It is covered with fine bristles (cleaned off the middle specimen), and has the pores all on the upper side. (Slightly reduced from natural size.) that make up the Urchin’s box, and this is true; yet the plates are not in actual contact, for a film of living animal matter separates them. It is by the vitality of this film that the box increases in size, for it is always depositing fresh particles of lime equally on all the edges of all the plates, so that increase takes place simultaneously in all parts. The Urchin multiplies by means of eggs, and the young go through preliminary stages of existence in which they present not the faintest resemblance to their parents. But the adult form in little gradually develops within the infant body, which is ultimately thrown off. : In the breeding season our Urchin contains five large masses of eggs, and in some localities on our own coasts these make it a desirable article of food. On the shores of the Mediterranean also Urchins are esteemed, and at Naples they are known as frutta di mare, or fruit of the sea. So great is their fecundity that it is calculated that our Common Sea-Urchin produces twenty millions of eggs in a single season. There are throughout all seas many variations from this typical form, and a few of them may Photo by) LB. Step, F.L.S. THE WHEEL-URCHIN. An African species of Cake-Urchin which burrows in the sand. The spines have been cleaned off. One half the margin is indented to form teeth like the cogs of a wheel. (Natural size.) ioe) ew 474 Marvels of the Universe be obtained in the sea around our own islands. In these differences, which constitute distinct species, we find some with shorter or longer spines, each with a constant and characteristic grooving and internal pattern by which the species may be distinguished. They differ also in colour, some deep red, some green, others purple. Some, of which the Heart-Urchin shown on page 473 may be taken as a type, are clothed with silky bristles, all pointing one way, instead of the spines, which point in all directions. These are burrowing Urchins that live in sand or mud, and, in consequence, are not so well known to the public. These will be seen to be oval instead of round, and as they live upon substances that require no mastication they are without teeth; instead, the mouth is a simple open scoop situated at the front of the lower surface, so that the mere act of burrowing pushes the sand or mud into it, Photo by) [E. J. Spitta, FP. RMS. SECTION OF SPINE. This magnified section of an Urchin's spine presents an entirely different pattern from that and the nutritive material mixed up in the sand is then shown on page 472. 4 i : digested out in the internal organs. Another group comprises the Cake-Urchins and Shield-Urchins, which are very flat and thin. Like the Common Urchin, they have the mouth in the centre of the underside, and it is provided with apparatus for masticating the food ; but in the matter of spines they come nearer to the Heart- Urchins. One of these is the well-known Sand Dollar, of North America, and the little-known Wheel-Urchin, from West Africa, which is represented by the lower photograph on page 473. The specimens have been denuded of their spines. A remarkable point about the Wheel-Urchin is the character which has suggested the name—the cog-like indentations upon half the edge of the disc. The pores through which the suckers emerge are all on the upper side, and they run off from the little five-sided button in the centre like the petals of a flower. This button, by the way, should be mentioned as one of the marvels of the Sea-Urchin and Star-fish organization. It is porous and a natural filter. It is the intake for the water-vessels that work the thousands of sucker- tubes. When one regards the minuteness of the pores in the walls through which these tubes pass, it must be manifest that the freedom of the water filling them from any particles of solid matter is an absolute necessity for the working of the system. This porous plate is Nature’s plan for over- coming that difficulty. No solid matter can pass through it, and all the water for working the tubes does pass through it and is kept separate from what passes through the mouth. The Cake-Urchins having two almost flat surfaces, require support for the roof, and so we find the interior is strengthened by limy partitions connecting the upper and lower surfaces. The Sea-Urchins are a very ancient family, and their fossils are among the most abundant of the many forms of life that have left evidence in the rocks of their former existence. They appear as far back as Silurian times, for fossil forms are found in the rocks formed at that period. “ ARISTOTLE’S LANTERN.” Certain beds of the Upper Chalk are full of fossil Sea- The above name was given by the ancients | Urchins. The fossils known as “ fairy loaves”’ in chalk to the masticatory apparatusjot the Sea-Urchin. districts. are among the most plentifulsofsthese wandmumell which consists of five strong teeth, of which only the polished tips show outside the mouth. recently that particular type of Urchin was supposed to be —- - ~~~ ——— — STAN [Lu W. B. Robinson. THE TARPON. The Tarpon is noted for its huge bulk and prodigious agility. Its appearance is that of a gigantic herring, but it can be distinguished by its enormous scales (more than four inches across), the long filament from the hinder margin of the back fin, and the unique possession of the large single plate of bone on the throat. 476 Marvels of the Universe extinct, but a closely allied living form was dredged by the Challenger from a depth of nearly three miles in the North Atlantic. Our Common Sea-Urchin is found as a fossil in the Coralline Crag beds of the Pliocene Period. Other forms in plenty are found in the Greensand, the Carboniferous Limestone, the Oolite and the Devonian rocks. Truly, we may say that our despised Sea-Urchin is a box of marvels, both within and without. PE AK PON BY W. P. PYCRAFT. F.Z.S., A.L.S., Etc. TuE Tarpon by common consent occupies a very conspicuous position among living fishes. In the first place, he is of extremely ancient lineage, preserving in his person many tokens of this fact : Photo bu) eae j j an =z rae z ” [U. A. Dimock: THE TARPON. Very remarkable are the jumping feats of the Tarpon, especially when it is remembered that the creature is some seven feet in length and exceeds two hundred pounds in weight. though these must be sought for, if not “‘ with forks and hope,” at any rate, with the anatomist’s knife. On this account the ichthyologist makes much of him. In the second place, he displays a huge bulk and prodigious agility, and may be caught with rod and line by those who are strong enough to hold him, and thence he is held in high honour among fishermen. Most of us must deem ourselves fortunate if we succeed in finding a specimen in some museum, since to meet with the Tarpon alive one would have to cross the “ herring-pond’”’ and make for the south-eastern coasts of North America, whence it could be followed southwards to the West Indies and Brazil. For choice the Tarpon fishers select Florida. Though strictly speaking a “ sea-fish,”’ and, as it were, hugging the shore, it frequently ascends rivers, and even enters lakes far inland, drawn thither in the chase of the mullet, its favourite food. At times the Tarpon behaves after a very extraordinary fashion, leaping high into the air, and descending again with a resounding splash, the body bent like a bow and the great gill-covers wide open, revealing the crimson gills. Why Marvels of the Universe 477 such acrobatic feats are performed no one seems able to say, at any rate when these are what we may call spontaneous movements ; for similar agility is displayed when desperate efforts are being made to break the line or dislodge the hook of an all-too-successful angler, and often with success, for the inside of the mouth of the Tarpon is almost “ armour-plated.”’ To really appreciate what these leaps mean, it must be remembered that a Tarpon may measure some seven feet in length and exceed two hundred pounds in weight. The careful angler is never in a hurry to strike when Tarpon fishing ; hurry is fatal to success, but it requires considerable experience and self-control not to strike the moment the bait is taken. If the lure is to achieve its purpose it must be gorged. There are exciting moments while this is being done, but they become much more so when the victim suddenly realizes that something is checking his freedom of action. Then, with a mighty rush he makes for the surface and leaps six feet or more into the air. At the downward plunge he races on at a furious speed till checked by the line. Then follow more leaps and more wild rushes, till after an hour, perhaps, or more, resistance fails and the gallant fish is slowly drawn to the side of the boat and gaffed. The seine fishermen in Florida have a wholesome dread of the Tarpon. For, while dragging their nets, as in the Pensacola and Homosassa rivers, one of these giants is not infrequently caught. Then trouble in real earnest begins, for one or more of the unwilling captors have before now been seriously injured, and even killed, by the tremendous leaps which the enraged captive indulges in, in order to make his escape. If the men escape, the nets are ruined. Occasionally, however, and much to the relief of all concerned, the enclosed monster leaps clear over the edge of the net. But though regarded as one of the greatest of game-fishes, no one used to eat Tarpon. The fishing was purely for sport, and all that was saved from the carcase was the scales, which are of huge size, measuring about four inches across. They find a ready sale in the curiosity-shops in Florida, while the rest of the body was either eaten by vultures or used for manure for the a Photo by} (V. A. Dimock. = Photo bi) (J. A. Dimoeck. In angling for this giant the expert endeavours to gorge his victim, and does not strike the moment the bait is taken,— —for if the Tarpon realizes that something is checking his freedom he plunges and leaps frantically until exhausted with the unequal struggle. Photo by] x [/. A. Dimock. THE TARPON. ““At times the Tarpon behaves after a very extraordinary fashion, leaping high into the air, and descending again with a resounding splash, the body bent like a bow and the great gill-covers wide open, revealing the crimson gills.” Marvels of the Universe 479 orange-trees. Improved methods of cooking, however, seem to” have changed this, earning for the victim a more glorious end, since it is now described as most excellent eating. The general appearance of this magnificent fish can be well seen in our illustrations. Bearing an unmistakable likeness to a gigantic herring, it differs therefrom not only in the matter of the great scales, but also in the long filament which grows from the hinder margin of the back fin. Yet, closely examined while still in the flesh, another curious point would be noticed—to wit, the large single plate of bone on the throat, which is found in no other living members of what are called the “‘ bony’ fishes—to distinguish them from sharks, sturgeons, lung-fishes, and so on. The coloration of the body is like that of a herring—blue and silver. Until recently, comparatively speaking, but little was known about the Tarpon, and not the least remarkable fact which a study of its life-history has revealed, is that concerning its early period of development. Briefly, there is every reason to believe that Tarpon retreat to the deep Photo bu} [/. A. Dimock. THE TARPON. “ Though strictly speaking a “sea-fish,’ it frequently ascends rivers and even enters lakes far inland, drawn thither in the chase of the mullet, its favourite food.” sea to spawn. And this because the young Tarpon enter the world in a “ larval,’”’ or incomplete state of development, bearing not the least likeness to their parents. On the contrary, they closely resemble the larval stage of the eels, which we have already described in these pages, and, like them, as they grow older they grow smaller—up to a certain point. Then the tide turns; the frail, anemic, scaleless morsels become gradually transformed into the giants so eagerly sought by the fisherman. This peculiar larval state is met with in three near relations of the Tarpon—the Ox-eye, the Lady-fish, and the “ Ten-pounder,”’ or Elops. But none of these attain the magnificent proportions of the Tarpon. The Ox-eye is an Indian species of about five feet long, and in marked contrast with its larger relative, is most excellent eating, and is, in consequence, kept in ponds or tanks for table purposes. The “ Ten-pounder’”’ and the Tarpon frequent the same waters, but another species of the same genus is found along the West Coast of Africa, spending a part of the year, at least, in rivers. Though the jaws of the Lady-fish are but feebly armed with teeth, there are large crushing teeth 480 Marvels of the Universe within the mouth, which are used for smashing shellfish. Opinions differ as to its palatability, but it is held in high regard by anglers on account of the sport it affords. Compared with the Tarpon, it is a pigmy not exceeding thirty inches in length and a weight of ten pounds when full grown. Mention has been made of the long and rather delicate filament or thread which projects from and far beyond the hinder margin of the back fin ; and it has occurred to some of my readers, no doubt, to ask what purpose this may serve. So far, this question remains unanswered ; but it is possibly, as are the similar fin-threads of so many other fishes, of use as a special sense-organ—an organ of touch in various ways. At any rate, it is significant to notice that when a shoal of Tarpon is sighted it is always by the great commotion in Photo by) Bs (WW. Bagshaw. THE BIRD’S-NEST FUNGUS. A group of this quaint little fungus growing on adeaad the water which they make, either’ brealaneiihe stick. Each “‘egg"’ or spore-case is attached to the nest by water sharply, or showing their backs in the peta tc teasraces (Neral see) slow and regular movements of the porpoise, or swimming with the dorsal-fin and its queer whip-like thread thrust out above the surface. The latter action suggests the wetting of the finger and holding it up to learn the direction of the wind, a plan often adopted by the weatherwise. The fish may similarly gather information by the play of the wind on this fin-thread. It is a pity that it has not occurred to Tarpon fishers to investigate this matter. The above observations as to the movements of shoals of Tarpon were made by a particularly keen naturalist, Mr. Rowland Ward, and are recorded in some detail in his delightful book on Tarpon-fishing in Florida, published some years ago. But he makes no suggestion as to the use of this “ feeler,’’ as we may assume it to be. THE BIRD’S-NEST FUNGUS OnE of the prettiest of the smaller fungi that are not of microscopical smallness is that depicted in the accompanying photographs. It is also one of the few for which the novice has not to hunt far to find its name. The first sight of it springing in a cluster from a rotten root at the copse-side, or— as the specimens photographed were—growing from decaying wood in the garden—suggests that it is the nest of a fairy-bird, complete with eggs. That is the view one gets of them from above - from the side they are vase-shaped or bell-shaped, which does not fit in with our notions of ordinary nest-shapes. Our forefathers appear to have overlooked this ; neat little fungus, or we should have had some Photo by} é Wye cBag shat: quaint legend to account for its form, and prob- BIRD'S-NEST FUNGUS. ame : ably some wonderful medicinal or magical powers Two specimens are here shown enlarged to twice the natural size. attributed to the “ eggs.” These nests are really The Original and Only Genuine. ASTHMA, BRONCHITIS. Cuts short all attacks of SPASMS, The only Palliative in NEURALGIA. GOUT, HYSTERIA and RHEUMATISM, PALPITATION. TOOTHACHE. Acts like a charm in DIARRHEA, DYSENTERY CHOLERA. Cf all Chemists, and Refuse Imitations and INSIST on _ having Dr. J. COLLIS BROWNE’S Chlorodyne, The Most Valuable Medicine ever discovered. The name Dr. J. Collis Browne is on the stamp of every bottle of genuine Chlorodyne. Convincing Medical Testimony with each bottle. 11%, 2,9, 46. HUTCHINSON’S NEW G6/- NOVELS 3rd Large Edition “ Simply masterly ”—Daily Mail. Christopher By RICHARD PRYCE The Morning Post says: “‘It does not often fall to the lot of the reviewer to read a book with real delight from cover to cover. But this has been our happy fate in the case of ‘ Christopher.’ The charm of it lies in the extraordinary—almost uncanny —know- ledge displayed by the author for the value of impressions and associations. ‘Chris opher’ is indeed a book to be read, not only read but re-read.’ By the Author of “The Dawn of All,” etc. 2nd Edition The Coward By ROBERT HUGH BENSON By the Author of “ The Lady Noggs,” “Tangled Wedlock,” etc, The House on the Mall By EDGAR JEPSON 3rd Large Edition By the Author of The Blue Lagoon,” etc. The Order of Release By H. DE VERE STACPOOLE The Daily Telegraph says: ‘‘Thisis a novel of real distinction, which is sure to be appreciated by all lovers of sound workmanship, brisk narrative, and thoroughgoing unaffected romance.”’ The Glasgow Herald says: ‘‘ Mr. Stacpoole is easily the most versatile novelist of the day. He now adas this delicious comedy of old France—in our opinion the most charming piece of romantic fiction since Dumas.’’ By the Author of “The Real Mrs. Holyer,” etc. Stoneladies By E. M. CHANNON London: Hutchinson G&G Co. “THE HEALTH SECRET.” PURE bf BREAKFAST “Tts Royal Flavour O Wins Royal Favour.” MANUFACTURERS BY SPECIAL SEALED WARRANTS OF APPOINTMENT TO H.M. THE KING, H.M. THE QUEEN AND H.M. QUEEN ALEXANDRA, dea ton ESa . T CHAPEL RIVER PRESS. KINGSTOR-ON-THAMES ; COLOURED PLATES BY A. C. FOWLER. Se ea A Popular Work on_the Marvels of “The HEAVENS The EARTH PLANT LiFe ANIMAL LIFE "FHE— MIGHT ¥— DEEP ____ EMINENT SPECIALISTS Hmcidineg Sy 1000 FINE ILLUSTRATIONS V2 ep ow AND NUMEROUS a Mites COLOURED PLATES. svoa s. "ame — =@8. om. = @ fin Mixture —Luxury indeed to the smoker r —A Flavour and Fragrance’ of unusual charm 1 oz. 64d. 2 oz, 1/1 } Ib. tins 2/2 Of most high-class tobacconists, or send stamps to the amount to the sole manufacturers: THOMS3ON & PORTEOUS, EDINBURGH Two New 6/= Novels. By the author of “ The Silent Rancher,” etc. The Rhodesian By GERTRUDE PAGE In Miss Gertrude Page’s new novel ‘‘ The Rhodesian,’ she has once again laid her plot in RKhodesia—chouosing this time the neighbourhood of the wonderful Zimbabwe ruins, and wreathing around her characters beautiful word pictures of the fascinating country. A new and original novel Mated in Soul By G de VAURIARD ““Hitherto the story has run on ordinary lines, but now the author shows the reason of it all, which is to propound a theory, suggest a problem—not a nasty one, as such things generally are, but decidedly startling. It is possible, she con’ends and herein proves, for a mother to so work her will upon her child that he grows into a semblance not of his father in reality, but of the one she would have preferred for him. An ingenious idea and very convincingly expounded. It brings about an unexpected finish, and turns the story out of the commonpl: ice groove into something entirely original.”—Duzly Chronicle. LONDON: HURST & BLACKETT, LTD. DELICIOUS COFFEE. RED WHITE s BLUE For Breakfast & after Dinner. In making, use less quantity, it being so much stronger than ordinary COFFEE, “ Drink Fine China Black Tea if you. value your nervous system.” I TE-CELESTIAL is the FINEST CHINESE BLACK. TEA. | Sold in 3lb., 1b. and Half-pound — Canisters, at 2/2 per Ib. a ANY GROCER WILL SUPPLY IT. Three New 6/- Novels. By Popular Authors I The Red Man’s Secret A romance of the Stage Prairie By F. FRANKFORT MOORE Mr Frankfort Moore’s new story is likely to prove as great novelty in its way as did his early work, ‘‘I Forbid the Banns, many yesrs ago. It is sufficient to say that the book has hee described by those who have seen it as very bright and witty, anv something entirely fresh ; in fact, an entirely new note in fiction. | By the author of “ The Strayings of Sandy,” etc. The Arrival of Antony | By DOROTHEA CONYERS Mrs. Conyers’ new book is a sporting one, on the lines of thi ** Strayings of Sandy.’’ It tells of Antony, brought up in Germany coming over to Ireland to live with his uncles, who are horse dealers, and the adventures which befall him with them. The Satanist HUGH FRASER and STAHLMANN By Mrs J. |. LONDON: HUTCHINSON & CO. ‘ TANGA TANS YM ID LU ny i i) TALON) A Wh i ra) rhe w on MeL SEWAGE Ay), Teese fh) ust Wi VatnyS Ey i By Theo. Carreras. A GROUP OF GRASSHOPPERS. brought together from various parts of the world. Going from left to species next to it with the sreen hood comes from India and Ceylon, and the purple and green exampl a nd The one with expanded wings native of the Caucasus, and the remaining example with the long, slender rom East Africa. right and top to bi Marvels of the Universe 481 the fructification of the fungus, whose vegetative parts exist as mere threads ramifying among the rotting wood and leaves upon which it feeds. Then at a certain point in its life, little knots are formed upon the threads and gradually assume a short club-shape. The thicker end is closed by a thin veil, which soon breaks ; the edges of the bell turn over, and the eggs are revealed. If these eggs are shaken out they will be found to be too thin and flat to keep up the egg illusion. More- over, each one is attached to the walls of the interior by an elastic thread from its under surface. What are these “ eggs,’ and what their purpose? If we are satisfied that our nest is some form of plant-life we shall at once come to the conclusion that the eggs are seeds, and in this we shall be near the truth, though not absolutely reaching it. The plant, being a fungus, produces no seeds, but Pkotobsy : Me Taine ; ri t THE FIRE-BELLIED TOAD. This Toad is common in many parts of the Continent. It takes its name from the colour of its under surface, which varies according to locality, the yellow variety inhabiting streams at considerable elevation, while the orange form confines itself to the ponds and rivers of the plains. erridge, F.ZS. reproduces itself by means of spores, which are very different in character, though they attain the same end. The egg is a special lentil-shaped body, in which the spores are produced. Our photographs represent the Bird’s-nest Fungus of the natural size and enlarged to twice the size. THE FIRE-BELLIED TOAD BY R. LYDEKKER. Tue Fire-bellied Toad is a representative of a small family of the frog tribe characterized by the disc-like form of the tongue, which may be either free, or adherent to the floor of the mouth ; the latter condition obtaining in the Fire-bellied species. | Although unknown in the British Isles, this Toad is common in many parts of the Continent, whence it extends eastwards into Asia. In addition to the peculiar conformation of its tongue, it may be recognized by the warty character of the olive-brown skin of the back, which may, or may not, be marbled with black ; and by the smooth skin of the under-parts, which may be either yellow or orange, with black marblings. 34 482 Marvels of the Universe Whether the ground-colour of the under surface of the body is yellow or orange depends, it seems, on what naturalists call station ; the yellow-bellied phase living in streams at a considerable eleva- tion in the mountains, while the orange-bellied form inhabits ponds and rivers in the plains. What may be the meaning of this difference in colouring has not yet been ascertained ; but its existence can hardly be regarded as a reason for including this Toad among marvellous animals, as such “dichroic” (7.e., two-coloured) species are by no means uncommon. Neither can I consider the death-feigning instinct possessed by this Toad in a high degree (as shown in the second illustration) as entitling it to a position among the marvels of the world, for this trait is shared by quite a number of animals—from the American opossum to the English click- beetle and dor-beetle—and is also exhibited by the common British Toad, which, as every gardener knows, will often, when thrown on the surface in the course of digging a piece of ground, lie sprawling on its back with its limbs as rigid as though in the grip of death. One peculiarity of the Fire-bellied Toad is the great size attained by its tadpole, which is further characterized by the un- usual development of its tail-fin. And this leads me to point out that in one re- spect all frogs and toads are really some of the ; s most marvellous of all , ; < animals; for what can be more wonderful than the development of the purely aquatic, vegetable- feeding, gill - breathing, limbless, long-tailed tad- ~ Photo by} [W.S. Berridge, P.Z.8. - oo THE FIRE-BELLIED TOAD. pole into the amphibious, Many Toads possess the instinct of death-feigning, but this species shows this curious carnivorous, lung-breath- method of self-protection in a high degree. ing, four-legged, tailless frog or toad? It is, indeed, a metamorphosis paralleled only by the development of the creeping caterpillar into the winged butterfly ; the quiescent pupa-stage being, however, missed in the case of the frog. Most of us have probably noticed the manner in which tadpoles or frogs, after their emergence from the spawn, develop first the hind and then the fore limbs, while they exchange external for internal gills, and when both pairs of legs are fully formed gradually absorb. their long, fish-like tails, till they finally leave the water as miniature frogs. But this ordinary process is only one of many marvels connected with the development of frogs. and toads. Many kinds of frogs, for instance, spend their lives in trees, where there is no opportunity for the tadpoles to live in water; but Nature is not to be beaten by trifles of this kind, and we accordingly find that the eggs are much larger than usual, thus permitting the whole of the tadpole- time being passed within the egg, and allowing the young to make their appearance in the world as full-blown frogs. Again, a frog inhabiting dry districts in the Solomon Islands, lays eggs of the size of marbles in rocky situations, from which also emerge in due course perfectly-formed frogs. Other tree-frogs take advantage of the moisture contained in the cavities of the boughs or leaves of Photo buy [/. J. Ward, F.E.S. THE GOLIATH BEETLE. Th s probably not only the largest Beetle but the largest insect known. It is of a chocolate-brown colour marked with creamy-white, while the large wings glitter with a beautiful green lustre when in flight, and is shown here about natural Size. A84 Marvels of the Universe the trees in which they dwell; so. that the tadpoles may un- dergo their develop- ment either in little pools or in masses of froth like that of our well-known “ cuckoo- spit ”’ insect. Stranger still is the development of the so- called marsupial frogs of South America, the females of which have a long pouch in the hind part of the back, wherein the fifteen or sixteen eggs are placed by the male, there to hatch and _ produce tadpoles which under- go the usual course of development. Even this is surpassed in the case of Darwin’s frog THE GOLIATH BEETLE. a atin i of Chile, the males of The horns on the head of the male Beetle are said to be weapons for fighting its adversaries, but they are also of use in tearing the bark of certain species of vine from which the insect which take the eggs sucks the sap. into a special chamber in their throats, there to remain till they develop into fully-formed frogs. The nursery arrange- ments of the far-famed Surinam Toad will form the subject of a special notice. THE WORLD’S LARGEST BEETLE BY JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S. AmoncstT land animals greatness in bulk has not proved a success. Many huge extinct animals are now represented by quite diminutive forms. Indeed, development to a large size is, as it were, a blind alley which leads nowhere. As a consequence, insects, which have always remained small, have become the most abundant of living land animals, their species outnumbering those of all other groups put together. The Goliath Beetle is not only the largest among living beetles, but possibly the giant of all insect life—past and present. The full-fed grub constructs an oval-shaped cocoon of mud, with very thin walls, which are strengthened round the central part by a thickened belt. This cocoon varies in size according to the amount of food consumed by the individual, and some are as large as a swan’s egg. In habits the Goliath Beetle is very like our Rose Chafer, and especially so during its flight, for it does not extend its horny wing-covers at the same time as its membranous wings. They are only momentarily raised to allow the flying wings to project from the sides, but are not separated. While our Rose Beetles feed largely on the nectar of flowers, the chief support of the Goliath Beetle is the thick juicy sap of some species of vines, which the male obtains by wounding the bark with the horns on the front of hishead, and which he works at very persistently, the female coming Marvels of the Universe 485 to the feast when the bark is broken. The horns on the head of the male are also said to be used in fighting his adversaries. Dr. Bennet states (in the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, 1899) from his own observation of one of these insects in Bululand, West Africa, that, while soaring around a vine hanging from an immense tree, it gave forth “a sound not unlike that of steam emerging from a small safety-valve.’’ He also states, its “ large wings glitter and scintillate with a most beautiful greenish lustre.’”’ Its movements were described as being so rapid that it was only the “strange sound ” that first arrested attention. These huge beetles are chocolate in colour, marked with creamy-white, and have a surface soft as velvet ; but their remarkable appearance and giant size are a menace to their species, as they are eagerly sought for by collectors, and their ultimate extermination from this cause is a possibility. In addition, they are used by the natives as ingredients for soups and fricassees. THE GNOME-CRAB BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. AmoncG the numerous varieties of form to be found among Crabs, the family represented by our photograph is singular in the fact that its members are almost globular, and, therefore, look very uncrablike. Unfortunately, the species figured has no English name. Perhaps the name of Gnome- Photo by) (ZL. Step, FLAS, THE GNOME CRAB. The Gnome belongs to a family of Crabs that are peculiar for their globular form, and is remarkable besides for his thick coat of short hair, like shabby velvet: so that when he tucks in his claws he looks much like a dark pebble. He further hides his_identity under a sponge attached by means of a special pair of nippers to his back. (Natural size.) 486 Marvels of the Universe Crab would best fit its appearance as in the photograph. In ordinary his form and proportions are not so clearly displayed, for it is his custom to carry a mass of living sponge upon his back ; or, if the sponge is not there, its place is taken by a growth of polyps of various kinds. The Gnome is best known as a native of the Mediterranean and the Adriatic, but it also occurs somewhat rarely on our own shores; though this latter fact was not known to British naturalists until the year 1824. The first recorded British example was discovered in Billingsgate Market, among some oysters that had come from Whitstable. Later 1t was found off the Sussex coast, and again off Plymouth. The individual who sat for the portrait on page 485 came from Cornish waters. In addition to his globular form, the Gnome is remarkable for his close pile of short hairs THE SKELETON OF A TRICERATOPS. This strange creature was one of the group of vegetarian Dinosaurs, which developed during the latter part of the Secondary Epoch, and which resumed progress on all four legs after its ancestors had for some ages hopped about like kangaroos on the hind limbs only. In full-grown specimens the enormous skull was from seven to eight feet long. of a dull brown tint which looks like shabby velvet. He is moving lazily in the picture, but when quite at rest he tucks his limbs (or most of them) under him, and then looks much like a dirty, dark-coloured pebble. The exceptions to this general covering of velvet are the claws and the pink nippers, which appear to have been exempted on the principle that “‘ cats in gloves catch no mice ’’ ; crabs in gloves might also find it difficult to catch their prey. The two hinder pairs of legs have their attachment almost on the upper side of the crab, and are usually—the fifth pair always— laid on the back, and provided with nippers. There is a reason for the last-named departure from rule in the case of crab-feet. | The nippers are a special development for holding the sponge we have referred to as usually concealing the Crab. Bell, who wrote on the British crabs and their allies, in 1853, strangely confused cause and effect oul | Pp [ppys e 2 2 “Mul aod oul Ayqucoad sUM UDTS SdOLVUAOM 488 Marvels of the Universe in this matter. He says he has received a number of young specimens of this Crab from the Mediterranean, and finds that in every case they have been overgrown by a sponge, which even hides the last two pairs of legs and presses them against its back, rendering them immovable. The truth is, of course, that the Crab has adapted its legs to take this uncomfortable-looking position in order that it may securely hold its sponge-messmate as a disguise, and under cover of this inoffensive mantle approach its prey without arousing fear or suspicion. Some of the foreign relatives of this marine Gnome hold bivalve shells and leaves over their backs in the same manner and with the same object in view. HORNED, FRILLED AND ARMOURED DINOSAURS BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.@¢, VERY marvellous amongst the most amazing group of reptiles ever evolved in past ages (the Dinosaurs) was the Triceratops genus, which came into existence in Western North America in the last period of the Secondary Epoch, at a time when many groups of reptiles were “ over-doing it,’ becoming, that is to say, so fantastic, so huge, or so fettered in their movements by extravagant developments of armour, length of tail, or head-covering, that they must at last have found it very difficult to cope with active enemies or to reproduce their species with sufficient rapidity to keep pace with the growth of mammalian rivals, whose later development of bulk and limb they were anticipating. THE TRICERATOPS. This is a remarkable restoration of the outward form of Triceratops, a vegetarian Dinosaur which existed at the close of the Secondary Epoch in the United States. Herr Pallenberg. the designer of this group at Stellingen, has shown us a male, female and young one. Marvels of the Universe 489 It has already been related in these pages how the sub-order of the Dinosaurs arose, addicted to a purely vegetable diet, and described as “ bird-limbed,”’ because they walked mainly on: their hind legs, which became very long, and used the shorter fore-limbs for grasping. But a section of these bird-limbed Dinosaurs relapsed into going about on all four legs, and although their hands and arms continued to be a little smaller and shorter than the feet and legs, they grew so thick and substantial as not to exhibit much disproportion. Prominent for its extraordinary appearance amongst these vegetable-eating Dinosaurs of very mammalian appearance was the monster called Triceratops, from the three bony projections or horns growing from the upper sur- face of the skull, one pair just above the eyes and a single horn from the top of the nose. There were probably no front teeth, but the fore parts of the upper and lower jaws were fashioned into something like a hooked beak. But there remained a sub- stantial set of grinding teeth in the back part of both jaws. ei a ibl ih h Di aval al Photo by) (Augh Main, B.Sc., FES. t is quite OEE e that a ESE EN, agant Dinosaurs ae cease THe HORGAPAULE OR THE to lay eggs, and, like some living reptiles and other extinct forms, LEAF INSECT. had taken to developing the young within the body and giving The mimicry of this insect is apparent : : throughout its life-history, while the eggs birth to them fully alive and able to take care of themselves. 4..,< all the appearance of ribbed seeds. And no doubt, as occurs with most very specialized forms of They are here shown twice natural size. vertebrates, the number of young produced at a time may have become fewer and fewer, until at last the Triceratops, so admirably reproduced in sculptured form by Mr. Pallenberg at Stellingen, may have had only one calf at a time. Through the enterprise of Mr. Hagenbeck, a wonderfully in- teresting group, which we may suppose to be father, mother and baby, of this Horned, Frilled and Armoured Dinosaur, is set forth for exhibition amid very natural surroundings of wood and water. LEAF INSECTS BY SIR HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G. Miicry in insects is a subject of vast complexity, deep interest, and one which still arouses fierce conflicts of opinion amongst students of natural history. Whether it arises to some extent from the deliberate exercise of will power on the part of the insect —which, being conscious of its resemblance, partial or even ex- traordinary, to its surroundings, deliberately makes use of this similarity for purposes of eluding the observation of enemies or disguising itself in order to prey on unsuspecting victims—or whether, on the other hand, the mimicry has been begun and has become perfected by a series of accidents resulting favourably for the species, are points not yet determined as universal articles of faith on the part of biologists. To the observer with a normal mind it would seem to be an inevitable conclusion that these insects, like birds, fish, reptiles and mammals, are completely con- Proio'by) aap nearer scious of their resemblance in colour or form to their surroundings THE YOUNG LEAF INSECT. and make full use of this advantage, deliberately choosing to place The eggs hatch out into reddish- _ SES ee » coloured and active Leaf Insects, who be- themselves where the resemblance may be most effective. When ore on cfter they begin to feed travelling through the forested regions of the Uganda Protectorate upon leaves. (Three times natural size.) 490 Marvels of the Universe I have on more than one occasion been startled by the marvellous mimicry of certain butterflies. Unfortunately they were so wary that they eluded my net, and have perhaps remained uncaptured and undescribed down to the present day, since I have met with no specimens of the “ Greenleaf Butterfly” in any collection. These butterflies, when they closed their wings, were absolutely indistinguishable, even to a sharp eye, from bright green leaves. Had it not been that they were not completely confident of their assimilation and flew away from the twigs on my approach, I should never have guessed that they were anything but a collection of green leaves. Most people are familiar with the butter- flies and moths that resemble in almost every detail the dried or dead leaf. Other moths exactly simulate bark or lichen. There are mantises in Central Africa which imitate to a nicety large pink flowers with a green stalk and a green sheath to the calyx. But perhaps the most spectacular and marvellous of insects in mimicry of leaves are to be found amongst the Carabid Beetles ; and in a widely different group, the Stick and Leaf Insects of the great order Orthoptera—the same order which includes the mantids, the cockroaches, ear- wigs, crickets and locusts. The Leaf Insects in the accompanying photographs only occur in the tropical regions of Asia and the islands of the Indian and Pacific Ocean. They do not extend their range either to Africa proper or to America, yet they are found as far west as Mauritius and the Seychelles, and as far east as the Fiji Islands, or even (it is said) Tahiti. Curiously enough, they seem to flourish particularly well on islands rather than on broad continental areas; but the Leaf Insects here illus- trated would probably come from Assam, Photo bu) [Hugh Main, B.Sc., FES. THE LEAF INSECT. several species being found in India and This Leaf Insect is a native of Seychelles. Together with the rest Malaysia. These remarkable creatures of its family (which is very abundant in Assam), it is a remarkable fugtance af pestetive, resemblance, Leaf Incestsfanec