GOOD'S

MATERIA MEDICA ANIMALIA.

MATEEIA MEDICA ANIMALIA,

CONTAINING

THE SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS, NATURAL HISTORY, AND
CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES

OP THE

SUBSTANCES THAT ARE THE PRODUCTS

BEASTS, BIEDS, FISHES, OR INSECTS.

ILLUSTRATED BY

COLORED ENGRAVINGS

OP

ORIGINAL DRAWINGS COPIED FROM NATURE.

I

BY PETER P. GOOD,

EDITOR OF THE FAMILY FLORA AND MATERIA MEDICA BOTAJSICA.

CAMBRIDGE, MASS.:
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR.

rr
tl

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1853, by

PETER P. GOOD,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.

CAMBRIDGE:
METCALF AND COMPANY. STEHEOTYl'ERS AMD PRINTERS.

PREFACE.

UTILITY, more than either originality of contents or ele-
gance of phraseology, has been the author's principal object in
the following pages. He has endeavored to gather together in
one volume, attainable at a moderate price, an arranged
and easily consulted record of the entire Materia Medica Ani-
malia, and he believes no attempt of a similar description has
ever been made. To effect this object he has obtained aid
from the best living authorities, as well as from their pub-
lished works ; but he has not neglected those of other periods,
where he has found in them directions upon which the mod-
erns have suggested no improvements.

Of all departments of science, there is perhaps no single
one capable of exercising such an advantageous influence
on the mind of the cultivator as Natural History, in any of
its departments. Every kind of knowledge has in it some-
thing that is valuable ; for even if it be of no direct utility
in the ordinary concerns of the world, the acquirement of
it is a useful exercise to the mental faculties, and the posses-
sion of it may operate in a most beneficial manner on the
habitual feelings, and give a corresponding direction to the
whole course of life.

It is desirable to cherish correct views of the benefits of
different kinds of knowledge, that those may choose most
advantageously for themselves whom the necessary business
of life debars from the extended pursuit of it; and without
undervaluing other particular branches of science, it may be
safely affirmed that any department of Natural History is
capable of affording more to interest and instruct, more to
refresh and relax, the well-disposed mind, on a very slight
acquaintance with it, than any other pursuit. Not a step
can the learner advance in it, but he meets with wonders

Vi PREFACE.

previously unsuspected ; — not a height does he gain from
which his prospect is clearer and more extensive, but his no-
tion of these wonders acquires a yet more astonishing vast-
ness. The more he knows, the more he desires to know, and
the further he advances, the more does he perceive how much
delight is yet in store for him.

The beneficent Creator of all has not only ordained, that
every part of his works should be good, — should be adapted
to answer its designed end, and should contribute in the
highest degree of which it is capable to the well-being of his
creatures; but he has made every thing "beautiful in its
season," — he has so formed the mind of man that it derives
pleasure from the contemplation of the glorious works around
him. And it is therefore a worthy employment of our fac-
ulties to encourage this pleasure, and to place it upon a more
solid and extended foundation than that afforded by the mere
forms and colors of the objects around us, however beautiful
they may be.

One great source of the pleasure derived from the inquiry
into the structure and mode of existence of the living beings
around us arises from the beautiful adaptation of their parts
to each other, and of the whole to the place it has to occupy,
which we can easily trace in every one. The philosopher
who studies the motions of the heavenly bodies, and the sta-
tion of this earth among them, traces these adaptations no
less clearly, but it requires profound and long-continued study
to be able to comprehend them aright. The naturalist, how-
ever, can discern them with far less research in every animal
that breathes, and he meets with a constant variety, which
prevents him from growing weary of the pursuit. Yet many
are too frequently kept in ignorance of the wonders and
beauties around them ; and whilst encouraged to learn many
languages and read many books, they remain unacquainted
with the bright volume of creation, the pages of which are
daily and hourly unrolled before them, " written," to use the
impressive words of Lord Bacon, "in the only language
which hath gone forth to the ends of the world, unaffected by
tfle confusion of Babel." But these pages are not to be read
without some study ; the alphabet and grammar must be
learned, in order that their* beauties may be rightly compre-
hended, and those who are entering upon the inquiry need
to be rightly directed by those who are more advanced.

PREFACE. Vl

Natural History in general has been too much shunned, as
a science of hard names and intricate classification, by those
whose minds are occupied with the necessary employments
and cares of the world, and who seek in the pursuit of knowl-
edge a source of refreshment and relaxation. But the objects
of its several departments are not commonly understood.
The study includes the examination of the structure, habits,
mode of existence, and particularly the uses of all the living
beings which so thickly people the surface of the globe ; and
it is only in order to become acquainted with these more
readily, that the naturalist arranges or classifies them, placing
those together which have most in common, and separating
those which are widely different. Classification (one of
the most prominent divisions of this work) is not the object
of Natural History, but a means of gaining that object, and
it is very easy to enter upon many interesting inquiries
without the slightest knowledge of it. The structure and ac-
tions of man, for example, may be examined in the greatest
detail without knowing any thing of his place in the general
scale of being (although such knowledge will often shorten
the student's labor) ; and other kinds of animals may be ob-
served in the same manner.

A second very prominent division of this work, constituting
the Natural History of each individual animal under consid-
eration, has been less brought under the notice of those who
pursue this study only for the improvement and recreation
of their minds, than it perhaps deserves. No one will dispute
the importance of the animal world in the economy of na-
ture, and therefore this particular department of the work
will lead those who may be disposed to enter upon the study
to a pursuit which cannot fail to prove an important source
of interest, delight, and improvement* It is adapted as
much as possible to such as have no previous information on
the subject, beyond that which all persons of ordinary capa-
city may gain by themselves, and at the same time it omits
no topic of high but less general interest, which those who
feel interested in the subject may wish fully and elaborately
treated.

A third and perhaps the most important division of this
work is offered to supply a deficiency in this department of
medical literature, upon a plan quite new and unprecedented.
The student who wishes to obtain correct systematic descrip-

V1U PREFACE.

tions of the various substances obtained from the animal
world employed in medicine, must either consult a long se-
ries of expensive books, or be content with the short notices
contained in the usual treatises on the Materia Medica, and
hence the important subject has been very generally neglect-
ed. The popular and expensive works now referred to un-
doubtedly contain much that is interesting and important
on these topics ; they are not, however, adapted to the general
reader. They wholly confine the attention of the student
to an account merely of medicinal articles, and of their com-
position and uses, rather than dwell particularly and at
length on the analysis and history of their sources. To sup-
ply this want has been the aim of the author in the present
publication, which is confined particularly to the Materia
Medica Animalia; and the very favorable reception given by
the public to his Materia Medica Botanica, published on the
same plan, encouraged him in the undertaking.

The introduction contains a brief and general view of ani*
mal life, and a sketch of the structure and classification of
the whole animal world. Occasion has been taken, in the
delineation of this preliminary part of the work, to arrange
under its respective order, class, and division every Beast, Bird,
Fish, and Insect treated of in the work, that furnishes a
substance yielding a medicinal agent. That something of
this kind was necessary cannot be doubted, and the light
thrown upon these subjects by this means seems preferable
to incorporating the requisite additions for this purpose with
each subject in the body of the work.

The Glossary, added to the other contents of the volume,
contains numerous terms used in zoological works, and other
words of frequent occurrence in, if not peculiar to, the study
of Natural History. The careful definition of these terms
will be esteemed as real desiderata.

The extreme difficulty and great expense of executing the
colored plates at once in an accurate and elegant style, can
only be appreciated by those who have actually attempted
something of the same kind. It is gratifying, however, to find
that the general execution of the plates has met with the
public approbation, — a fact of which the favorable notices
of the press and the large subscription list afford ample evi-
dence, and, it is hoped, a guaranty for what may appear in
future.

CONTENTS.

nun

FRONTISPIECE ......... i

TITLE AND PORTRAIT . . . . . . . iii

PREFACE .......... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

INTRODUCTION ......... xi

FAMILY FLORA OR MATERIA MEDICA BOTANICA. Advertisement xvii

Isis NOBILIS, the Coral xviii

ASTACUS FLUVIATILIS, the Cray-fish ..... xxi

SPONGIA OFFICINALIS, the Sponge ..... No. 1
GALLUS DOMESTICUS, the Domestic Cock and Hen ... 2

Bos TAURUS, the Ox and Cow 3

GADUS MORRHUA, the Common Cod 4

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA, the Blister Beetle, or Spanish Fly . 5
APIS MELLIFICA, the Hive-bee, or the Honey-lee ... 6

MOSCHUS MOSCHIFERUS, the Musk Animal .... 7

PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS, the Spermaceti Whale, or Great-headed

Cachalot . . . . . , . , . . .8

Sus SCROFA, the Hog . . . . • , . . 9

Coccus CACTI, the Cochineal Insect . . . >•••-. • . .10
CASTOR FIBER, the Castor Beaver . . . .i- . 11

VIVERRA CIVETTA, the Civet Cat . . ... . .12

Ovis ARIES, the Sheep ........ 13

OSTREA EDULIS, the common Edible Oyster . . . .14

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII, the Gall Insect .... 15

CERVUS ELAPHUS, the Stag . . . . . 16

SANGUISUGA, Blood-sucking Leeches ..... 17

SEPIA OFFICINALIS, the Cuttle-jish ...... IB

HELfx POMATIA, the Snail 19

b

X CONTENTS.

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS, the Spider .... No. 20

ACIPENSER HUSO, the Sturgeon 21

Isis NOBILIS, the Coral . . . . . . . .22

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA, Earth-worms ..... 23

CROTALUS HORRIDUS, the Rattlesnake . . . . .24

GLOSSARY.

APPENDIX, containing a specimen of the Family Flora, together with
the Prospectus, Contents of the first and second volumes, and
various commendations.

%* The bookbinder will be careful to place the pictures immedi-
ately in front of their respective numbers.

INTRODUCTION.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.

IN order to treat clearly of the animal world, it is necessary
to consider it according to some method of arrangement, by
which those animals that most resemble one another are con-
nected together for the convenience of description. This ar-
rangement is founded upon their form and structure, and
separates them into various kingdoms, divisions, classes, &c.,
according to their degree of similarity, and the points in
which their structures correspond. Such a system of ar-
rangement is called a classification of the animal kingdom,
and as an accurate acquaintance with the principles on which
it is founded is of great importance to the student of Natu-
ral History, a general view is here presented of that which is
most commonly received at the present day.

In surveying the series of animals, from the lowest and
most insignificant worm up to man, the lord of the creation,
and examining the structure of their bodies and the mode
in which they are enabled to carry on the functions of life,
certain lines of distinction are observed among them, which
afford ground for arranging them, in the first place, in two
grand kingdoms. Those of the first grand kingdom are
possessed of an internal skeleton, a system of bones covered
by the flesh, which serves to give form, support, and strength
to their whole fabric, and assist in containing the various inter-
nal organs, whose actions keep up the life and vigor of the
system. Those of the second are not possessed of any such
skeleton, but consist of a collection of organs more or less
distinct, without any solid basis, and are generally of a soft,
yielding texture, though occasionally covered and protected
externally by a shell or other hard covering. It may be obr

X INTRODUCTION.

served further, that in animals of the first kind the blood is
always red ; in those of the second kind it is with a few ex-
ceptions white.

In those of the first kind, there is always a bony case,
called the cranium, or skull, which contains the brain ; and a
number of bones called vertebrae, connected together so as to
form a long column, usually called the spine, the backbone, or
the vertebral column. This column contains a canal extend-
ing its whole length, which receives the spinal nerve or mar-
row, as it passes out of the skull, and conveys it along the
trunk, to be thence distributed to the various parts of the
body. It is, as it were, the main pillar or common sup-
port of all the rest of the skeleton ; and hence the animals
possessed of it are called VERTEBRAL Animals, as this forms
the most striking characteristic which is common to them
all.

In animals of the second kind there is no skeleton and of
course no vertebral column. The brain and nervous system
are not therefore protected by any bony covering. These
organs do not resemble the corresponding ones of the verte-
bral animals ; they are less distinct and apparently less im-
portant. They have not many common points of resemblance,
but as none of them possess a backbone or a skeleton, they
are denominated from this circumstance invertebral animals,
that is, without vertebrae.

The first two grand kingdoms of the animal world then
are, I. Vertebrated Animals, such as man, quadrupeds, birds,
fishes, &c., having a skeleton and red blood ; and, II. Inver-
tebrated Animals, such as worms, insects, shell-fish, &c., hav-
ing no skeleton and white blood.

But in examining the first grand kingdom further differ-
ences are observed. Man, quadrupeds, whales, and birds
have all a temperature above that of the air or water in
which they reside. Their flesh is warm, and as this warmth
is supposed to depend upon the temperature of the blood, they
are called warm-blooded. On the other hand, frogs, toads, liz-
ards, serpents, and fishes have all a temperature varying but
little from that of the air or water in which they live. They
impart when touched the sensation of cold. Hence they are
called cold-blooded. Here, then, is afforded ground for a sub-
division of the vertebrated animals into the warm-blooded
and the cold-blooded.

INTRODUCTION. Xlil

Again, the warm-blooded animals are capable of being di-
vided into two classes. A part of them produce their young
alive, nourish them during infancy by their own milk from
organs called their mammae or breasts, and are hence called
Mammalia, or mammiferous animals. This class includes man,
quadrupeds, whales, porpoises, &c. Another part produce
their young by means of eggs, which they hatch by the heat
of their bodies, and support them by food, which they provide
for them as soon as they come out of the egg. This class
includes birds.

The cold-blooded vertebrated animals also form two class-
es. The first contains those which breathe air only, and
cannot exist without it, as tortoises, frogs, serpents, &c.
These are called reptiles. The second contains those which
breathe by gills or branchiae, through the medium of the wa-
ter. This class includes all the true fishes, for the cetaceous
animals mentioned above are not properly to be numbered
among fishes.

The invertebrated animals are not capable of so satisfac-
tory and accurate an arrangement. Their structure is not
yet sufficiently understood ; but they may be separated into
four divisions according to such circumstances of resem-
blance as the present state of knowledge with regard to them
admits.

The whole animal world is thus arranged into two grand
kingdoms, and five distinct divisions. These are again sep-
arated into classes and subdivisions as in the following table.

I. ANIMAMA VERTEBRATA.

1. Division. VERTEBRATA.

Class 1. Mammalia, J warm.blooded.

2. Aves, )

3. Reptilia, | Gold.blooded.

4. Pisces, )

II. ANIIHTALIA INVERTEBRATA.

II. Division. HETEROGANGLIATA.
Class 1. Cephalopoda. Class 5. Tunicata.

2. Pteropoda. 6. Brachiopoda.

3. Gasteropoda. 7. Cirrhopoda.

4. Conchifera.

INTRODUCTION.

III. Division. HOMOGANGLIATA.
Class 1. Crustacea. Class 4. Myriapoda.

2. Arachnida. 5. Annelida.

3. Insecta.

IV. Division. NEMATONEURA.
Class 1. Echinodermata. Class 4. Bryozoa.

2. Epizoa. 5. Crelelmintha.

3. Rotifera.

V. Division. ACRITA.

Class 1. Sterelmintha. Class 4. Polypa.

2. Acalephse. 5. Spongia.

3. Polygastrica.

After these greater divisions are distributed into classes,
which will be presently described, there are several smaller
divisions also, of which it will be useful and necessary to give
some account.

CLASSES are subdivided into a greater or less number of OR-
DERS, and these are distinguished by some important, clear,
and remarkable peculiarities of conformation and structure,
which are common to all the animals included under each
of them. Thus in the class Mammalia, the order Quadru-
mana includes those animals which have hands upon all four
of their extremities, such as monkeys and apes ; the order
Ruminantia, those which ruminate or chew the cud; the or-
der Carnivora, those adapted to feed principally on animal
food. In the other classes the divisions are of a similar
kind.

ORDERS are subdivided into GENERA. These comprehend
animals which have a general resemblance to each other, a
kind of family likeness. Thus the genus Felis includes all
those of the cat kind, and these animals, although differing
one from another very much in size and color, have yet a
close resemblance in their general form, figure, character, and
habits of life. The genus Canis includes those of the dog
kind, the wolf, the fox, the jackal, and the domestic dog, of
which the same remark may be made. Thus, too, the horse,
the ass, and the zebra are of the same genus, Equus, on
account of their obvious general similarity.

Again, GENERA are made up of .SPECIES. Each distinct
sort of animal constitutes a species, and they are known from

INTRODUCTION. XV

one another by the size, color, form, and various other cir-
cumstances of external appearance. There are, then, as
many species as there are sorts of animals. Thus the cat is
one species, the tiger is another, and the lion, leopard,
jaguar, and catamount are also separate species ; but taken
together with others, they constitute the genus Felis. Thus,
too, the genus Canis contains the dog, the wolf, the jackal,
and the fox, which are all so many distinct species. The ge-
nus Sciurus contains the gray, red, striped, and several other
kinds of squirrels. In treating of any particular animal, nat-
uralists are accustomed to designate it by a name derived from
its genus and species. This name is composed of two words,
the first being the name of its genus, and the second being
altogether arbitrary, or else expressing some circumstance,
relating to the color, size, or residence of the animal, which
serves in a degree to distinguish it from others. The first 13
called its generic, the second its trivial or specific name, and
they correspond very closely to the names of human individ-
uals, the generic terms answering to the surname, which
designates the family to which any one belongs, and the triv-
ial to the Christian name, which designates the particular
individual.

To give an example : — The different species of the genus
Felis, above mentioned, are distinguished one from another in
the following manner. The lion is called Felis leo ; the tiger,
Felis tigris; the leopard, Felis leopardus ; the jaguar, Felis
onca ; the lynx, Felis lynx ; the serval, Felis serval, &c. In
the genus Canis, the dog is called Canis domesticus ; the
wolf, Canis lupus ; the black wolf, Canis lycaon ; the fox,
Canis vulpes, &c. In this way, each animal is capable of
being clearly and accurately designated, by a name less liable
to mistake and confusion than its common one, which is
sometimes applied to several different species. This is called
the scientific or systematic name.

Each sort of animal thus constitutes a distinct SPECIES ; a
number of species taken together form a GENUS ; those genera
which have important and well-defined points of resemblance
in structure and conformation are placed together in an ORDER ;
whilst upon a similar principle, but more extensive in its ap-
plication, these orders are marshalled into separate CLASSES ;
these, again, are arranged into distinct DIVISIONS ; which con-
stitute the two grand KINGDOMS of the whole animal world.

XVI INTRODUCTION.

This completes a view of the animal world, beginning with
man, the most perfect member of it, and descending to those
obscure and minute creatures which are scarcely visible ex-
cept with the assistance of the microscope. It will be observed
that one common plan pervades the whole, that the same
general objects are had in view, in the structure of every class,
and that there is a general analogy in the methods employed
for effecting these objects, although there is a great variety in
the details ; that there is a grand simplicity in the design,
though a great diversity in the means. In short, not only in
the structure of each individual animal, but in the wonderful
manner in which that structure is varied to correspond to the
nature, habits, and wants of the different classes, may be per-
ceived the wisdom, the power, and the benevolence of that great
Creator, who has devised and formed, and who continues to
uphold, the myriads of animated beings with which the earth
is filled.

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINAL AGENTS.

The substances employed as medicines are found, in com-
mon with the other objects of nature, everywhere surround-
ing us. They are prescribed either in their natural condition,
that is, as they are found on the surface of the earth or be-
neath it ; or as they are artificially prepared, that is, changed
from their natural condition, either by the abstraction of some
of their parts or by the addition of new parts. The natural
substances consist of both simple and compound bodies, de-
rived from the organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature.
The artificial are the productions of the pharmaceutical art;
thence the study of the nature of medicinal agents implies
some acquaintance with Natural History and Chemical Sci-
ence.

The medicinal agents which are the products of organiza-
tion are of animal and of vegetable origin ; the inorganic sub-
stances are minerals. The medicinal properties of organic
bodies (whether animal or vegetable) vary at different periods
of their existence, and owing to changes of a functional kind.
In animal bodies they are most active during the exercise of
some peculiar function. In vegetables they often remain la-
tent or are not formed until the plants have attained their full
growth and are capable of exercising their reproductive facul-
ties. The medicinal properties of mineral substances (inor-

INTRODUCTION. XV11

garrio bodies) are always the same, the circumstances of the
habit of the patient under which they are administered being
equal.

ANIMAL, SUBSTANCES.

The animal substances as medicinal agents are few. As
objects of Natural History, their general classification has
been already stated. The respective Divisions of the two
grand kingdoms will now be more particularly described.

VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES.

For these see the Family Flora, or Materia Medica Bo-
tanica, Vols. I., II., III., published on a similar plan with this
work, by the same author.*

V. Division. Ac KIT A.

In animals belonging to this division no nervous filaments
or masses have been discovered, and the neurine or nervous
matter is supposed to be diffused in a molecular condition
through the body, mixed up with the gelatinous parenchyma
of which they consist. Possessing no brain or central mass

* ADVERTISEMENT.

The Family Flora, or Materia Medica Botanica, is published, in pamphlet form,
regularly, in quarterly parts, in January, March, June, September, and December
of each year, and each year forms one volume alternately and consecutively. Each
quarterly part contains twelve numbers and plates, with the letter-press matter
attached, embracing the Botanical Analysis, the Natural History, and the Chemical
and Medical Properties and Uses of each plant.

"With these four parts, containing No. 1 to No. 48 inclusive, completing the first
volume, is published (without additional charge) an extra Part, in January, containing
a handsome Frontispiece, with the Title, Preface, Index, and an extensive Glossary
of Botanic Terms, together with an uncommonly striking likeness of the late John
M. Good, M. D., F. R. S., &c., &c., with a notice of his life, writings, character, &c.

Cash terms, $ 3 a year, in advance.

Four quarterly parts, containing No. 49 to No. 96 inclusive, similar in all respects
to the above, but embracing different plants, are published for the second year.

With these four parts, completing the second volume, is published (without addi-
tional charge) an extra Part, containing the Title, Index, and Introduction to the
Study of Botany, with two beautiful plates representing the Linnaean Classification.

Cash terms, $3 a year, in advance.

OUT The third year and volume is not yet published.

The two volumes already published, perfect, interleaved, and handsomely bound,
will be immediately forwarded (free of postage) to any part of the United States, on
receipt of orders with the money. Cash terms, $ 4 each volume, in advance.

Address Peter P. Good, North Cambridge, Middlesex Co., Mass.

INTRODUCTION.

to which external impressions can be transmitted, or nervous
filaments calculated to conduct sensations to distant points
of the system, or associate muscular movements, they are
necessarily incapable of possessing those organs which are
dependent upon such circumstances: instruments of the ex-
ternal senses are therefore totally wanting, or their existence
is at least extremely doubtful ; the contractile molecules of
their bodies are not as yet aggregated into muscular fibre.
The alimentary apparatus consists of canals or cavities, per-
meating the parenchyma of the body, but without distinct
walls, as in the higher divisions, where it floats in an abdom-
inal cavity. The vascular system, where at all perceptible,
consists of reticulate channels, in which the nutrient fluids
move by a kind of cyclosis. Their mode of reproduction is
likewise conformable to the diffused state of the nervous and
muscular systems ; not only are most of them susceptible of
being multiplied by mechanical division, but they generate
by spontaneous fissure, as well as by gemmae, ciliated gem-
mules, and true ova. Many appear to be made up of a repeti-
tion of similar parts, forming compound animals of various
forms, and different degrees of complexity.

The only animal substance yielding a medicinal agent ob-
tained from this Division of the animal world is from

Class 5. The Spongia.

SPONGIA OFFICINALIS, the Sponge. The No. 1 of this work.
Isis NOBILIS, the Coral, is now rejected from the list of the
Materia Medica, and forms no No. of this work.*

* Isis NOBILIS, the Coral. A substance found at the bottom of the Mediterra-
nean and other seas, formerly considered as a plant, but now universally admitted
to belong to the animal kingdom. The red coral (Corallium rubrum of Lamarck,
Isis nobilis of Linn.) is in the form of a small shrub, a foot or two in height, with a
stem sometimes an inch or two in thickness, fixed to the rock by an expansion of
the base, divided above into branches, and covered with a pulpy membrane, which
is properly the living part, and which is removed when the coral is collected. The
central portion is extremely hard, of various shades of red, susceptible of a brilliant
polish, longitudinally striated, and formed of concentric layers, which are rendered
obvious by calcination. Its chief constituent is carbonate of lime, which is colored
by oxide of iron, and united, as in similar calcareous products, with more or less
animal matter. It was formerly very highly valued as a remedy, but is in no
respect superior to prepared oyster-shell, or other forms of carbonate of lime, de-
rived from the animal kingdom. It was employed in the form of tine powder, or
in different preparations, such as troches, sirups, conserves, tinctures, &c. At pres-
ent it is valued chiefly as an ornament.

ISIS ]^ (DIB I Hi IS
The Coral.

Hartford,

INTRODUCTION. XIX

IV. Division. NEMATONEURA.

In the second division of the Radiata of Cuvier, the nervous
matter is distinctly aggregated into filaments, and in some
cases nuclei of neurine, which may be regarded as rudimen-
tary nervous centres, have been noticed. It is to be lament-
ed, however, that in this most interesting group of animals, in
which is the first development of most of the organs subser-
vient to the vital functions, the extreme minuteness of some
genera, and the difficulty of distinctly observing the nervous
system in the*larger species, have prevented our knowledge
regarding their organization, in this particular, from being of
that satisfactory character to which it may hereafter attain.

Owing to the want or imperfect condition of the nervous
centres, the Nematoneura are necessarily incapable of possess-
ing external organs of the higher senses, the general sense of
touch being as yet the only one of which they are indubitably
possessed. Yet in their muscular system they are much more
efficiently provided than the Acrite orders, as the development
of nervous threads of communication renders an association
of muscular actions possible ; and therefore, co-apparent with
nervous filaments, are distinguished in the structure of the
Nematoneura distinct fasciculi of muscular fibre, and powers
of locomotion of a much more perfect description.

The digestive apparatus is no longer composed of canals
merely excavated in the parenchyma of the body, but is pro-
vided with distinct muscular and membranous walls, and
loosely attached in an abdominal cavity.

The circulation of the nutritious fluid is likewise carried
on in a separate system of vessels, distinct from the alimen-
tary apparatus, yet still unprovided with a heart or exhibiting
pulsations for the forcible impulsion of the contained blood.

The fissiparous mode of reproduction is no longer wit-
nessed, an obvious consequence of the increased complexity
of structure, and these animals are for the most part androgy-
nous, or capable of producing fertile ova, without the coopera-
tion of two individuals.

It will be perceived, that this division, however well sepa-
rated from the preceding by physiological characters, is, in a
zoological point of view, principally composed of groups de-
tached from the members of other orders. The Bryozoa are
evidently dismemberments of the family of Polyps, from which

XX INTRODUCTION.

they differ in their more elaborate internal organization. The
Cceleirnintha are more perfect forms of the Parenchymatous
Entozoa. The Rotifera, formerly confounded with the Infu-
soria, exhibit manifest analogies with the articulated Crusta-
ceans, as in fact do the Epizoa. The Echinodermata alone
appear to form an isolated group, properly belonging to the
division under consideration.

No animal substance yielding a medicinal agent is ob-
tained from this division of the animal world.

III. Division. HOMO GANGLI ATA.*

The Articulated division of the animal world is character-
ized by a nervous system, much superior in development to
that possessed by the two preceding, indicated by the superior
proportionate size which the ganglion ic centres bear to the
nerves which emanate from them. The presence of these
central masses of neurine admits of the possession of external
senses of a higher class than might be expected among the
Acrita or Nematoneura, and gives rise to a concentration of
nervous power, which allows of the existence of external
limbs of various kinds, and of a complex muscular system,
capable of great energy and power of action.

The nervous centres are arranged in two parallel lines along
the whole length of the body, forming a series of double gan-
glia or brains belonging apparently to the individual seg-
ments of which the animal is composed. The anterior pair,
placed invariably in the head above the oesophagus, and con-
sequently upon the dorsal aspect of the body, seems more
immediately appropriated to the higher senses, supplying
nerves to the antennaB or more special instruments of touch,
to the eyes, which now manifest much complexity of struc-
ture, to the auditory apparatus where such exists, and proba-
bly to the senses of taste and smell. This dorsal or anterior
pair of ganglia, which evidently is in relation with the higher
functions of the economy of the creature, is brought into
communication with the series of nervous centres placed
along the ventral aspect, by means of filaments which em-
brace the oesophagus, and joins the anterior pair placed be-
neath it ; the whole system may therefore be regarded as a
series of independent brains destined to animate the seg-
ments of the body in which they are individually placed.
Such a multiplication of the central organs of the nervous

INTRODUCTION. XXI

system is obviously adapted to the elongated forms of the
vermiform orders, but, from the want of concentration which
such an arrangement implies, this type of structure is still
very inferior in its character. As the Articulata become more
perfect in their outward form, the number of the brains be-
comes diminished, while their proportionate size increases;
and thus in the carnivorous insects, Arachnida and Crustacea,
they are all united into a few great masses, which, becoming
the general centres of the entire system, admit of a perfection
in their external senses, a precision in their movements, and
an energy of action, of which the detached character of the
ganglia in the lower tribes was incapable.

This dependence of the perfection of the animal upon the
concentration of the central masses of the nervous system is
strikingly proved by the changes perceptible in the number
and arrangement of the ganglia, during the progress of an in-
sect through the different stages of its existence. In the
elongated body of the worm-like caterpillar each segment
possesses its appropriate pair of ganglia, and the consequence
of such diffusion of its nervous apparatus is apparent in its
imperfect limbs, its rude organs of sense, its sluggish move-
ments, and general apathy ; but as it successively attains to
more mature forms of existence, passing through the dif-
ferent metamorphoses which it undergoes, the nervous gan-
glia gradually coalesce, increase in power as they diminish in
number, until, in the imago or perfectx state, having arrived at
the greatest concentration compatible with the habits of the
insect, it is endued with new and far more exalted attributes,
the organs of its senses are more elaborately formed, it pos-
sesses limbs which previously it would have been utterly inca-
pable of wielding, its movements are characterized by their
activity and precision, and its instincts and capabilities pro-
portionately enlarged and exalted.

The Homogangliate division of the animal world is ex-
tremely natural. Four classes of this division furnish animal
substances yielding medicinal agents.

Class 1. The Crustacea, yields
ASTACUS FLUVIATILIS, the Cray-fish, not much used.*

* Concretions are formed in the stomach of this fish, just before the shell is cast.
They consist chiefly of carbonate of lime, and were formerly employed as antacids,
but they are now seldom used, and consequently this fish forms no No. of this work.

XX11 INTRODUCTION.

Class 2. The Arachnida, yields
TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS, the Spider. The No. 20 of this work.

Class 3. The Insecta, yields

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA, the Spanish Fly. The No. 5 of
this work.

APIS MELLIFICA, the Honey-bee. The No. 6 of this work.

Coccus CACTI, the Cochineal insect. The No. 10 of this work.

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII, the Gall insect. The No. 15 of
this work.

Class 5. The Annelida, yields

SANGUISUGA, Blood-sucking Leeches. The No. 17 of this
work.

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA, Earth-worms. The No. 23 of this
work, not considered officinal.

II. Division. HETEROGANGLIATA.

The characters of this division are well defined, and the
irregular and unsym metrical forms of the bodies of most of the
genera which compose it, in exact relation with the arrange-
ment of the nervous apparatus.

As in the Articulata, there is a large nervous mass placed
above the oesophagus, which supplies the principal organs of
sense, but the other ganglia are variously dispersed through
the body, although always brought into communication
with the supra-cesophageal portion by connecting filaments.
Throughout all the forms is found a distinct relation between
the size and development of the nervous centres and the per-
fection of the animal, indicated by the senses and organs of
motion with which it is provided.

Three classes of this division furnish each an animal sub-
stance yielding a medicinal agent.

Class 1. The Cephalopoda, yields
SEPIA OFFICINALIS, the Cuttle-fish. The No. 18 of this work.

Class 3. The Gasteropoda, yields
HELIX POMATIA, the Snail. The No. 19 of this work.

Class 4. The Conchifera, yields

OSTREA EDULIS, the common Edible Oyster. The No. 14 of
this work.

INTRODUCTION. XX111

I. Division. VERTEBRATA.

The arrangement of the nervous centres in the highest or
Vertebrate division indicates the greatest possible concentra-
tion and development. The ganglionic masses assume a
very great proportionate size when compared with the nerves
which emanate from them, and are principally united into a
long chain denominated the cerebro-spinal axis or cord, which
is inclosed in a cartilaginous or bony canal occupying the
dorsal region of the animal. The anterior extremity of the
cerebro-spinal axis is made up of those ganglia which are
more especially in relation with the principal senses and the
higher powers of intelligence, forming a mass denominated,
from its position in the skull which incloses it, the encephalon.
It is with the increased proportionate development of this
portion that the intelligence of the animal becomes augment-
ed ; in the lower tribes the cerebral masses scarcely exceed in
size those which form the rest of the central chain of ganglia,
but in advancing from fishes towards the higher forms of the
Vertebrata, they are observed to preponderate more<and more
in bulk, until at last in man they assume that extraordinary
development adapted to the exalted position which he is des-
tined to occupy. It is in the cerebral ganglia, therefore, that
is found the representative of the supra-oesophageal masses of
the articulated and molluscous classes, which, as already ob-
served, preside especially over the senses, and correspond in
their proportions with the capabilities of the tribes of animals
included in those divisions. The spinal cord, as the rest of
the central axis of the nervous system.of Vertebrata is denom-
inated, is made up of a succession of ganglia, in communica-
tion with symmetrical pairs of nerves connected with them,
and which preside over the generally diffused sense of touch
and the voluntary motions of the body. But besides the
cerebro-spinal system, there is in the vertebrated classes an-
other set of nervous centres to which nothing corresponding
has been satisfactorily identified in the lower divisions ; name-
ly, the sympathetic system, which mainly controls the involun-
tary movements of the body connected with the vital functions.

The Vertebrata are further distinguished by the possession of
an internal organized skeleton, composed of either cartilage or
bone, made up of several pieces, serving to support the frame,
and forming a series of levers upon which the muscles act.

XXIV INTRODUCTION.

All the classes of this division furnish animal substances
yielding medicinal agents.

Class 1. The Mammalia, yields

Bos TAURUS, the Ox and Cow. The No. 3 of this work.

MOSCHUS MOSCHIFERUS, the Musk animal. The No. 7 of
this work.

PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS, the Spermaceti Whale. The
No. 8 of this work.

Sus SCROFA, the Hog'. The No. 9 of this work.

CASTOR FIBER, the Castor Beaver. The No. 11 of this work.

VIVERRA CIVETTA, the Civet Cat. The No. 12 of this work.

Ovis ARIES, the Sheep. The No. 13 of this work.

CORVUS ELAPHUS, the Stag. The No. 16 of this work.

Class 2. The Aves, yields

GALLUS DOMESTICUS, the Domestic Cock and Hen. The
No. 2 of this work.

Class 3. The Reptilia, yields

CROTALUS HORRIDUS, the Rattlesnake. The No. 24 of this
work, not considered officinal.

Class 4. The Pisces, yields

GADUS MORRHUA, the Common Cod. The No. 4 of this work.
ACIPENSER HUSO, the Sturgeon. The No. 21 of this work.

Thus are represented all the substances of the animal world
that yield medicinal agents and perfect the MATERIA MEDICA
ANIMALIA. It would be easy to dilate on the uses and ad-
vantages to be derived from an acquaintance with this branch
of Natural History, nor would it be difficult to show how
much that is bright and beautiful in Nature is for ever lost to
him who has never become conversant with the study. No
part can be viewed as unimportant or uninteresting; none
is unworthy of the most attentive consideration, or can fail
to impress the mind with feelings of profound admiration
for the works of Nature. Marvellous indeed as they are all,
the most astounding manifestations of Supreme Intelligence
are unquestionably displayed in his character as " LORD AND
GIVER OF LIFE," as the Creator and Preserver of all that
" live, move, and have their being."

•

~M" O /I

IFF:

Sponge.

Jfartford,

MATERIA MEDICA ANIMALIA.

ACRITA.

Zoophytes, or Radiated Animals.

No. 1.
SPONGIA OFFICINALIS.

SPONGE.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Geog. Position. Mediterranean and Red Seas.
Quality. Soft, porous, elastic.
Power. Stimulant, resolvent.

Use. Surgical operations, and for checking hemorrhage.
Scrofulous complaints and bronchocele.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
1. DIVISION Acrita. CLASS Spongia.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 464. EC. Disp. U. S. 389. Jones's An. King. 12.
Pereira, Mat. Med. II. 767. Lond. Disp. 601. Syst. Nat. Gmelin, VI. 3817. Thom-
son, Mat. Med. 75*. U. S. Disp. 704.

GENUS SPONGIA.

Znoyy'ia (Gr.),eponge (Fr.), spugna (It), esponja (Sp.), spongea (Sax.), spons
(Dan.), Meerschwamm, Saugschwamm (O.), Spongie (Dutch), Bodiaga (Euss.),
Isfunj (Arab.), Mo-abadul (Hind.), Abeermoordele (Pers.), Uniwatta (Jap.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Nervous System none, the nervous matter diffused in a mo-
lecular condition through the body.

Brain or central mass none ; organs of sense, or any circular
glandular organs, totally wanting.

Body composed of a soft, gelatinous flesh, traversed inter-
nally with numerous ramose anastomosing canals, which
commence from superficial minute pores and terminate in
larger open vents.

Mode of reproduction by mechanical divisions, and by germs
or gemmules.

I

SPONGIA OFFICINALIS.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

SPONGIA. Body soft, very elastic, multiform, more or less
irregular, very porous, traversed by numerous tortuous canals
which open externally by very distinct vents (osculd), and
composed of a kind of subcartilaginous skeleton, anastomosed
in every direction, and entirely without spicules.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

SPONGIA OFFICINALIS. Masses very large, flattened and
slightly convex above, soft, tenacious, coarsely porous, cracked,
and lacunose, especially beneath. Vents sound, and for the
most part large.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The great circles to which the animal and vegetable king-
doms are compared, like the smaller circles, touch each other ;
that is, there are certain forms of organization so closely allied
to both, that it is difficult to say precisely in which they ought
to be included. Such are the sponges, which, although by
common consent admitted into the animal series, will be found
to be excluded, by almost every point of their structure, from
all the definitions of an animal hitherto given. The con-
cise axiom of Linnaeus upon this subject is well known : —
" Stones grow, vegetables grow and live, animals grow, live,
arid feel." The capability of feeling, therefore, formed in the
opinion of Linnseus the great characteristic separating the
animal from the vegetable kingdom ; yet in the class under
consideration, no indication of sensation has been witnessed;
contact, however rude, excites no movement or contraction,
which might indicate its being perceived; no torture has ever
elicited from them an intimation of suffering. Sponges have
been pinched with forceps, lacerated in all directions, bored
with hot irons, and attacked with the most energetic chemical
stimuli, without shrinking or exhibiting the remotest appear-
ance of sensibility. On the other hand, in the vegetable world
there are plants which apparently feel, in this sense of the
word. The sensitive plant, for example, which droops its
leaves upon the slightest touch, has far greater claims to be
considered animal than the sponges of which we are writing.

The power of voluntary motion has been appealed to as
exclusively belonging to the animal economy ; yet, setting
aside the spontaneous movements of some vegetables, the

2

SPONGIA OFFICINALIS.

sponge, rooted to the rock, seems absolutely incapable of this
function, and the most microscopic scrutiny has failed to detect
its existence.

The best definition of an animal, as distinguished from a
vegetable, which has as yet been given, is, that whereas the
latter, fixed in the soil by roots, or immersed perpetually in the
fluid from which it derives its nourishment, absorbs by its
whole surface the nutriment which it requires ; the animal, be-
ing generally in a greater or less degree capable of changing
its position, is provided with an internal receptacle for food,
or stomachal cavity, from which, after undergoing the process
of digestion, the nutritious matter is taken up. But in the
case of the sponge no such reservoir is found ; and in its
place are only anastomosing canals which permeate the whole
body, and convey the circumambient medium to all parts of
the porous mass.

Another circumstance which specially appertains to the ani-
mal kingdom is derived from the chemical composition of or-
ganized bodies. Vegetables contain but a small proportion of
azote in their substance, whilst in animals this element exists
in considerable abundance, causing their tissues, when burned,
to give out a peculiar odor, resembling that of burned horn,
and in this particular sponges differ from vegetable matter,
The discoveries of Mr. Bowerbank appear conclusive as to
its animality. In one species of the sponge he detects a
branched vascular system, with globules in the vessels anal-
ogous to the circular blood disks of the higher animals.
Nothing analogous to this has hitherto been detected in plants.

The common sponge of commerce is made up of horny,
elastic fibres of great delicacy, united with each other in every
possible direction, so as to form innumerable canals, which
traverse its substance in all directions. To this structure the
sponge owes its useful properties, the resiliency of the fibres
composing it making them, after compression, return to their
former state, and leaving the canals which they form open,
to suck up surrounding fluids by capillary attraction.

The dried sponge is, however, only the skeleton of the liv-
ing animal ; in its original state, before it was withdrawn from
its native element, every filament of its substance was coated
over with a thin film of glairy semifluid matter, composed of
aggregated transparent globules, which was the living part of
the sponge, secreting, as it extended itself, the horny fibres

3

SPONGIA OFFICINALIS.

which are embedded in it. The anastomosing filaments
which compose the skeleton of such sponges, when examined
under a microscope and highly magnified, appear to be tabu-
lar, as represented Plate I. Fig. 1, c.

Many species, although exhibiting the same porous struc-
ture, have none of the elasticity of the officinal sponge, a cir-
cumstance which is due to the difference observable in the
composition of their skeletons or ramified framework. In
such the living crust forms within its substance, not only tena-
cious bands of animal matter, but great quantities of crys-
tallized spicula, sometimes of a calcareous, at others of a sili-
cious nature, which are united together by the tenacity of the
fibres with which they are surrounded. On destroying the
softer portions of these skeletons, either by the aid of a blow-
pipe or by the caustic acids or alkalies, the spicula remain, and
may readily be examined under a microscope ; they are then
seen to have determinate forms, which are generally in rela-
tion with the natural crystals of the earths of which they
consist ; and as the shape of the spicula is found to be simi-
lar in all sponges of the same species, and not unfrequently
peculiar to each, these minute particles become of use in the
identification of these bodies.

Crystallized spicula of this description form a feature in the
structure of the sponge which is common to that of many
vegetables, resembling the formations called Raphides by
botanical writers. Some of the principal forms which they
exhibit are depicted Plate I. Fig. 1, a, 6, which likewise will
give the reader a general idea of the appearance of the sili-
cious and calcareous sponges, after the destruction of their
soft parts has been effected by the means above indicated.
The figures, Plate I. rf, e, /, and «•, exhibit detached spicula
of different forms, highly magnified. The most convenient
method of seeing them is simply to scrape off a few particles
from the incinerated sponge upon a piece of glass, which,
when placed under the microscope, may be examined with
ordinary powers.

On placing a living sponge of small size in a watch-glass,
or small glass trough filled with sea-water, and watching it
attentively, something like a vital action becomes apparent.
The entire surface is seen to be perforated by innumerable
pores and apertures, some exceedingly minute, opening on
every part of its periphery ; others of larger dimensions, placed

4

SPONGIA OFFICINALIS.

at intervals, and generally elevated upon prominent portions
of the sponge. Through the smaller orifices the surrounding
water is continually sucked, as it were, into the interior of the
spongy mass, and it as constantly flows out in continuous
streams through the larger openings. This continual influx
and efflux of the surrounding fluid is produced by an agency
not yet discovered, as no contraction of the walls of the ca-
nals, or other cause to which the movement may be referred,
has ever been detected. It is certain, however, that it is from
the currents thus continually permeating every portion of its
substance, that the general mass is nourished. The diagram,
Plate I. Fig. 2, a, will give an idea of the most usual direc-
tion of the streams ; the entering fluid rushes in at the count-
less pores which occupy the body of the sponge, but, in its
progress through the canals in the interior, becomes directed
into more capacious channels, communicating with the prom-
inent larger orifices, through which it is ultimately ejected in
equable and ceaseless currents. Organized particles, which
necessarily abound in the water of the ocean, are thus intro-
duced into the sponge on all sides, and are probably employed
as nutriment, whilst the superfluous or effete matter is con-
tinually cast out with the issuing streams as they rush through
the fecal orifices. The growth of the sponge is thus provided
for, the living gelatinous portion continually accumulates,
and, as it spreads in every direction, secretes and deposits, in
the form peculiar to its species, the fibrous material and earthy
spicula which characterize the skeleton.

From this description of the structure of a sponge, it will
be apparent that all parts of the mass are similarly organized ;
a necessary consequence will be, that each part is able to carry
on, independently of the rest, those functions needful for ex-
istence. If, therefore, a sponge be mechanically divided into
several pieces, every portion becomes a distinct animal.

The multiplication of sponges, however, is effected in an-
other manner, which is the ordinary mode of their reproduc-
tion, and forms a very interesting portion of their history. At
certain seasons of the year, if a living sponge be cut to pieces,
the channels in its interior are found to have their walls stud-
ded with yellowish gelatinous granules developed in the liv-
ing parenchyma which lines them. These granules are the
germs or gemmules from which a future race will spring ;
they seem to be formed indifferently in all parts of the mass,

5

SPONGIA OFFICINALIS.

sprouting as it were from the albuminous crust which coats
the skeleton, without the appearance of any organs appropri-
ated to their development. As they increase in size, they are
found to project more and more into the canals which ramify
through the sponge, and to be provided with an apparatus of
locomotion of a description which will be frequently noticed.
The gemmule assumes an ovoid form, Plate I. Fig. 2, B,
and a large portion of its surface becomes covered with innu-
merable vibrating hairs or cilia, as they are denominated,
which are of inconceivable minuteness, yet individually capa-
ble of exercising rapid movements which produce currents in
the surrounding fluid. As soon, therefore, as a gemmule is
sufficiently mature, it becomes detached from the nidus where
it was formed, and, whirled along by the issuing streams
which are expelled through the fecal orifices of the parent, it
escapes into the water around. Instead, however, of falling
to the bottom, as so apparently helpless a particle of jelly
might be expected to do, the ceaseless vibration of the cilia
upon its surface propels it rapidly along, until, being removed
to a considerable distance from its original, it attaches itself
to a proper object, and, losing the locomotive cilia which it al
first possessed, becomes fixed and motionless, and develops
within its substance the skeleton peculiar to its species, ex-
hibiting by degrees the form of the individual from which il
sprung. It is curious to observe the remarkable exception
which sponges exhibit to the usual phenomena witnessed in
the reproduction of animals, the object of which is evident, as
the result is admirable. The parent sponge, deprived of all
power of movement, would obviously be incapable of dispers-
ing to a distance the numerous progeny which it furnishes',
they must inevitably have accumulated in the immediate vi-
cinity of their place of birth, without the possibility of their
distribution to other localities. The seeds of vegetables,
sometimes winged and plumed for the purpose, are blown
about by the winds, or transported by various agencies to dis-
tant places ; but in the present instance, the still waters in
which sponges grow would not have served to transport their
progeny elsewhere, and germs so soft and delicate could
hardly be removed by other creatures. Instead, therefore, of
being helpless at their birth, the young sponges can, by means
of their cilia, row themselves about at pleasure, and enjoy for
a period powers of locomotion denied to their adult state.

6

SPONGIA OFFICINALIS.

Sponge is found chiefly in the Mediterranean and Red
Seas. In some of the islands of the Archipelago the inhabit-
ants are trained from infancy to dive for sponges, which are
generally found attached to the bottom of rocks, to which they
adhere by a very broad base. When the sponge is brought
on shore, it is immediately squeezed and washed to get rid of
the gelatinous matters ; otherwise putrefaction speedily ensues.

In commerce two kinds of sponge are met with, which are
respectively known as Turkey and West- Indian.

The Turkey sponge is imported from Smyrna, and is con-
sidered the best. It occurs in cup-shaped masses of various
size. Its texture is much finer than the West-Indian kind.
By the aid of the microscope, it has been discovered that it
consists of two species of Spongia, not distinguishable from
each other by the naked eye. One of these is characterized
by the presence of a beautiful branched vascular tissue, which
surrounds, in great abundance, nearly every fibre of its struc-
ture, and is inclosed in an external membrane or sheath. In
the other, and most common, kind of Turkey sponge, no vas-
cular tissue has yet been discovered.

The West-Indian sponge is found in the Bahama Islands,
whence it is commonly known as Bahama sponge. Its forms
are more or less convex, with projecting lobes. Its fibre is
coarser. Its tissue has but little cohesion, and hence this kind
of sponge is commonly regarded as rotten. It consists of one
species only of Spongia.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

SPONGE when first taken out of the sea has a strong fishy
odor. Its color varies from pale to deep brownish-yellow. It
often contains stony or earthy concretions, which are found to
consist principally of the carbonates of lime and magnesia.
Shells are also found in sponge. Various marine animals
pierce and gnaw it into irregular holes.

Spongia qfficinalis is the dry skeleton of the animal, from
which the gelatinous flesh has been removed. When de-
prived of stony concretions, &c., found in the interior of the
mass, it is soft, light, flexible, and compressible. When burnt,
it evolves an animal odor. It absorbs water, and thereby
swells up. Nitric acid colors it yellow. Liquor potassae dis-
solves it. The solution forms a precipitate on the addition

7

SPONGIA OFFICINALIS.

of an acid. The finer sponges, which have the greatest firm-
ness and tenacity, were formerly called male sponge, while the
coarser portions were denominated female sponge.

Well-washed sponge, freed as much as possible from earths
and salts by dilute acids, is found to consist of a substance
similar to osmazome, animal mucus, fat oil, a substance soluble
in water, a substance only soluble in potash, and traces of chlo-
ride of sodium, iodine, sulphur, phosphate of lime, silica, alu-
mina, and magnesia. Sponge also consists of gelatine (which
it gradually gives out to water), and a thin, brittle, membra-
nous substance, which possesses the properties of coagulated
albumen.

The extensive economical uses of sponge are well known.
To the surgeon it is of great value on account of its softness,
porosity, elasticity, and the facility with which it imbibes
fluids. Its use in surgical operations and for checking hemor-
rhage is universal. It has also been applied to wounds and
ulcers for imbibing acrid discharges. The sponge-tent is
usually made of compressed sponge impregnated with wax
(Spongia ceratd), and which is called prepared sponge (Spongia
prceparata). It is prepared by dipping sponge into melted
wax, and compressing it between two iron plates till the wax
hardens. It was formerly much resorted to for dilating sinu-
ses and small openings, but it is now seldom used.

SPONGIA USTA. Calcined or burnt sponge. Cut sponge
into small pieces and bruise it, in order to free it from any
adhering extraneous substances ; then burn it in a covered
iron vessel, until it becomes black and friable ; finally, rub it
to a very fine powder.

The properties of burnt sponge consist of carbonate and phos-
phate of lime, subcarbonate of soda, iodine, and charcoal. The
active ingredients are the subcarbonate of soda and the iodine.

Burnt sponge is tonic, deobstruent, and antacid. It has been
much recommended in bronchocele, scrofulous affections, and
herpetic eruptions. It has also been used with considerable
effect in scirrhous testicle, when given in combination with
cinchona bark. It is supposed to derive its efficacy from the
iodine it contains. The dose is from one to three drachms,
mixed into the form of an electuary, with powdered cinna-
mon and honey. In bronchocele the patient is directed to
swallow the portion of electuary very slowly, from a supposi-
tion that some local effect is produced.

8

VERTEBHATA.

Vertebrated Animals.

No. 2.

GALLUS DOMESTICUS.

THE DOMESTIC COCK AND HEN.

The animal substance. Ovum, Egg. A medicinal agent.

Geog: Position. Domesticated everywhere.

Quality. Inodorous, nutritive.

Power. Emollient, demulcent.

Use. The white to clarify fluids. The yellow to suspend
camphor and resins in emulsion. The shell as an ab-
sorbent. The oil as an emollient.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
5. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Aves.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 452. EC. Disp. U. S. 289. Pereira, Mat. Med. II.
806. Lond. Disp. 489. Syst. Nat. Gmelin, I. 737. Willd. Ornith. 154, t. 26.
Thomson, Mat. Med. 70. U. S. Disp. 546.

GENUS GALLUS.

(Euf (Fr.) Ei (G.), Uovo (It.), Huevo (Sp.), Eij (Dutch), Aeg CDan.), Agg
(Swed.), Ovo (Port), Jaizo (Russ.), Jaie (Poln.), Wegee (Bohem.), Muna (Finl.),
Moune (Lapl.), Jemurda (Turk.), Tochem (Pers.), Mennik (Greenl.), Manning
(Esquimaux), Mootay (Tarn.), Anda (Sans.), Gubbel (Bornouese).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Blood red and warm, respiring by lungs.

Body covered with feathers, and general conformation organ-
ized for flying.

Bill short, convex, in some genera covered by a cere. Upper
mandible bending from its base, or only at the point. Nos-
trils internal, covered by a membrane naked or feathered.

Tarsus long. Three toes before united at their base by a
membrane ; hind toe articulated on the tarsus above the
junction of the anterior toes.

Mode of reproduction, from eggs.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

GALLUS. Bill of medium size, strong, base naked. Upper

I

GALLUS DOMESTICUS.

mandible arched, convex, bent towards the point. Head sur-
mounted by a crest or plume. Ears naked. Three toes be-
fore, united to the first joint. The hind toe raised from the
ground. Tarsus with a long and bent spur. Middle feathers
of the tail arched. Wings short.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

GALLUS DOMESTICUS. Comb dentated. Throat wattled.
Feathers of the neck linear and elongated. Body variegated
with beautiful colors. Tail compressed and ascending. Comb
and wattles of the female less than those of the male.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The Cock and Hen, fowls or poultry, were originally natives
of Persia and India. They are most valuable to the farmer,
as yielding profit in eggs, broods, and feathers. The varieties
of the common fowl are very numerous, and are distinguished
from one another by their size, color, and fecundity. Fowls
should be kept very clean and dry, and particular care must
be taken to furnish them with clean, sweet water ; foul water
produces that fatal disorder among chickens called roup, or
gapes, which is known by the chicken gasping for breath, and
dying in a few hours. No remedy has yet been discovered
for this disorder; and, consequently, care and cleanliness
should prevent it. Foul water and a scarcity of water are
also causes of the pip in hens, and originate all their diseases.
Poultry of all sorts should have clean, sweet houses to retire
into during the night, and in seasons of wet. Warmth is
necessary to the comfort and well-doing of poultry. If hens
are kept with care, and have clean, quiet places to deposit
themselves in, they will lay regularly and repay all trouble.
One cock is sufficient for ten hens. He should be chosen
with care. A good cock should be well-sized, carrying his
head high ; he should have a quick, animated look, a strong,
shrill voice, the comb of a fine red, broad breast, strong wings,
legs thick, and his bill thick and short. The vigor of the cock
lasts three years ; he must then be superseded, and a fine, spir-
ited youthful successor installed in his room. A cock is at
full age at three months old. Three sorts of hens are use-
ful. The common hen^ whose proper signs should *be a large
head, bluish feet, sharp eyes, and pendant comb. The tufted
hen, for eating, as she does not lay much, and therefore fat-

2

GALLUS DOMESTICUS.

tens well. And the large white Dorking' breed, which is al-
ways considered the most valuable, and always fetches the
highest price in the market. The Dorking fowls are distin-
guished by having five claws on each foot. Equal to the
Dorking in estimation some consider the Poland fowls. Their
color is black, their head flat, and surmounted with a crown
of feathers. They are a very useful variety, prolific of eggs,
but less inclined to set than those of any other breed. All
others are kept more for show and fancy than for use. The
Bantam is a little Indian breed, very delicate to eat, but from
the smallness of its size not of any economical importance.

The Chittagong or Malay fowl is the largest breed that has
been brought either to Europe or America, but the flesh is
regarded as inferior to that of the Dorking or Poland. Fowls
should not be allowed to wander much ; they lay better and
more regularly when confined to their own yards. Their food
should be given with great regularity at sunrise and sunset,
and they should be fed under cover during rain or high winds.
During harvest their portion of food is always diminished.
All sorts of pot herbs boiled in the washings of dishes, mixed
with bran, and then drained, is excellent, the paste warmed up
as required, while sweet. Well-boiled mealy potatoes, buck-
wheat, barley, whole or ground, refuse of fruit, bread, offal
from the kitchen, &c., is taken greedily. But all their food
should be fresh of its kind.

The laying-time begins about March. A hen gives notice
of her intention by being busy and restless, and talking to her-
self for some time, and her comb becomes very red. Her
cackling soon gives notice that the deed is done. Let her
have a dark, quiet box to lay in. The moulting season be-
gins in autumn, when the hen ceases to lay for some time;
the whole feathered tribe are then drooping and dull, till the
new feathers have replaced the old ones. A hen is old at four
years of age ; for three years she is valuable, and in her fourth
year she must make way for younger birds. A hen sets three
weeks. Her disposition to set is soon discovered by her placing
herself upon any eggs she can find, and remaining thereon
instead of roosting. She should be placed upon fresh eggs,
unless allowed to sit as nature directs upon her own natural
number, — which rarely exceeds eighteen ; but if one egg alone
is allowed to remain in the nest, she will continue to lay many
more before she wishes to set. If the brood is hatched irreg-

3

GALLUS DOMESTICUS.

ularly, the firstlings should be kept in flannel, near a fire, all
day, till the others come forth ; but they should be returned to
the mother at night. The hen and her brood should be kept
warm, and be cooped out of doors only in dry, fine weather.
They should be fed for some days on bread-crumbs, with
some finely-chopped leeks, and be carefully supplied with
clear, clean water daily. Boiled barley, and boiled rice, &c.,
succeeds, till in about three weeks they are sufficiently strong
to be turned into the poultry-yard. When the young chick-
ens get their head feathers, they are out of danger of all in-
fantine disorders. Nothing is so requisite for all poultry as
warmth, cleanliness, and good water. They should never be
allowed to roost in stables, or kept near cattle, as they com-
municate their vermin to these, which worries and prevents
them from growing fat. Every poultry-yard should have a
bed of ashes deposited in a corner, the fowls delight in a
dung-hill and an ash-hole ; the former produces seeds and in-
sects, and the latter calcareous matter, and destroys their ver-
min by its sharpness, as they revel in its rough particles.
Fowls to be fattened for the table should be put into coops
for a fortnight or three weeks, and fed upon good barley-meal
moistened with milk or water and lard. Give it four or five
times per day, sufficiently moist to require no drink with the
food.

The changes which the hen's egg undergoes during incu-
bation have been described by Sir E. Home, in the Philo-
sophical Transactions for the Year 1822 (page 339), and illus-
trated by a beautiful series of plates, after Banner's drawings ;
the same volume also contains a valuable paper by Dr. Prout
on the same subject, but chiefly in reference to the chemical
changes of the egg during that process. The specific gravity
of new-laid eggs at first rather exceeds that of water, vary-
ing from 1080 to 1090 ; but they soon become lighter, and
swim on water, in consequence of evaporation through the
pores of the shell. When an egg is boiled in water and suf-
fered to cool in the air, it looses about 32 hundredths of a
grain of saline matter, together with a trace of animal matter,
and free alkali. The mean weight of a hen's egg is about
875 grains, of which the shell and its inner membrane weigh
93.7 grains, the albumen or white 529.8 grains, and the yelk
251.8 grains. When the yelk of a hard-boiled egg is digested
in repeated portions of strong alcohol, there remains a white

4

GALLUS DOMESTICUS.

residue having the leading characters of albumen, but contain-
ing phosphorus in some peculiar state of combination ; the
alcoholic solution is yellow, and deposits a crystalline, fatty
matter, and when distilled leaves a yellow oil. The use of
the phosphorus is to yield phosphoric acid to form the bones
of the chick, but the source of the lime with which it is com-
bined is not apparent, for it has not been detected in the soft
parts of the egg, and hitherto no vascular communication has
been discovered between the chick and the shell.

The shell of the egg is lined throughout with a thin but
tough membrane, called pellicula ovi, which, dividing at or
near the obtuse end, forms a small bag, — the air follicle.
This membrane weighs about 2.25 grains in a common or
usual sized egg. It contains what is called the albumen or
white, and the vitellus or yellow. The white consists of two
distinct parts, one of which is a delicate membrane forming a
series of cells which inclose the other or fluid part. It has
the well-known property of being coagulated by heat. The
yelk consists of oil, suspended in water, by means of albumen,
and held in a membranous sack, the yelk-bag, each end of
which is twisted, to form what is called the chalaza intended
to preserve the yelk in such a position that the cicatricula or
rudimental embryo shall always be uppermost. The egg
loses two or three per cent, of its weight when boiled in
water. The white is more easily digested than the yelk, and
both are more digestible in the soft than in the hard state.
Hen's eggs are decidedly wholesome, and when new-laid are
an agreeable and nourishing food.

Eggs are preserved any length of time by greasing them
well over with butter or lard, when warm from the nest. It
keeps out the air, arid, preventing the admission of air through
the pores of the shell, preserves eggs for a longer period than
they otherwise would be kept good. Fresh-laid eggs are
easily known by holding them up to a bright light. If the
inside appears semi-transparent and fluid, and the yelk in the
centre, it is a fresh egg. On the contrary, if it looks turbid,
opaque, or irregularly clouded, it is a stale one, and should be
rejected. Also, if an egg held up to a bright light shows a
small vacancy at the top of it within, it will produce a male
bird ; on the contrary, if the little vacancy is observed at the
side of the egg, it will prove a female. (Main's Domestic
Poultry, p. 253.)

5

GALLUS DOMESTICUS.

A new method of preserving eggs, by packing them in salt
with the small end downwards, and by which they have been
kept perfectly good for eight or nine months, will, it is be-
lieved, enable the inhabitants of portions of our country where
eggs abound to make them considerably profitable. Thou-
sands of bushels (and every bushel should contain forty-five
dozen), may thus be sent off to the Atlantic markets. Great
quantities are used in France. It is stated in the Quarterly
Journal of Agriculture that the number of eggs imported into
London alone amounts to near <£ 50,000 sterling, or almost
two hundred thousand dollars' worth, a year.

There is a communication in the Farmers' Cabinet^ Vol. II.
p. 95, upon keeping hens and the profits from eggs, from a poul-
terer in Massachusetts, which contains much useful informa-
tion. "On the first of January," says the writer, " I had ten
hens and one cock. In the spring three of the hens were suf-
fered to set, which left seven with which to experiment. The
three which set raised twenty-four chickens, which were sold
for three dollars, when about the size of quails." The sooner,
he observes, the chickens are sold, the better, since they do
not bring prices corresponding with their increase in size.
The seven hens which did not set laid one hundred dozen of
eggs. During half the time in winter the fowls were fed
upon boiled potatoes and bran or meal mixed together with
warm water, and as the place where they were kept was well
sheltered, none were lost by the dough freezing in their craws
or crops. For the remainder of the time oats were given
them, which the writer considers better for fowls than Indian
corn, having tried both. The oats were first allowed to soak
in warm water for three or four hours, till well swelled, after
which they were given to the fowls. Treated in this way, he
considers one bushel of oats will go as far as a bushel and a
half of corn.

If cocks, when young, are emasculated, it has a wonderful
effect upon their condition, and a similar effect may be pro-
duced upon young hens, by the abstraction of their egg-bags.
These operations have been practised upon poultry from the
earliest antiquity, for the purpose of improving the flesh.
The art of caponing fowls forms a part of rural economy, but
the mode of operating is very little understood in the United
States. The chickens intended for capons should be of the
largest breed that can be obtained, and perhaps there is not

6

GALLUS DOMESTICUS.

one better suited in this respect than the celebrated large
Bucks County breed, well known in the Philadelphia market,
where capons made from these fowls have been sold weighing
twenty-five pounds the pair. As in breeding with a special
view to making capons, male chickens alone are required,
those eggs should be selected to set under the hens which
produce males, namely, such as have the sharpest points.
The alteration of a chicken into a capon will, in about a
twelvemonth, nearly double the size of the bird. Persons
wishing to become expert in the operation of making capons
may consult Johnson's Farmers' Encyclopcedia, Article Capon,
where such ample and minute instructions are given upon
the subject, as, with the aid of original drawings, will enable
any one to succeed who possesses common dexterity.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

The Egg, which is the only officinal product of the fowl,
consists of, — I. An exterior covering, called the shell ; II. A
white, semi-opaque membrane lining the internal surface of
the shell ; III. The white or glaire, a viscid liquid contained
Hn very delicate membranes. IV. The yelk, inodorous and of
& bland oily taste.

I. The shell consists, according to Prout, of carbonate of
lime 97 ; phosphate of lime and magnesia, 1 ; animal matter,
with traces of sulphur and iron, 2. The chalk renders the egg
absorbent and antacid ; hence its use to neutralize the acidity
of wines. When it is burnt, the carbonic acid is dissipated,
the animal cement destroyed, and pure lime, with phosphate
of lime, obtained.

II. An albuminous membrane soluble in alkalis, and from its
solution is precipitated by acids. At the larger end of the egg
it forms the follicula aeris, the air of which, according to
Bischoff, contains 23.475 per cent, of oxygen.

III. The white or glaire is inodorous and insipid, readily
dissolving in water, coagulable by a heat of 165° Fahrenheit,
and also by acids and alcohol. When coagulated it becomes
sapid, and is no longer soluble, either in cold or hot water.
From the experiments of Dr. Bostock, it appears to be com-
posed of water 85.0, albumen 1.2, in one hundred parts ; and
besides shows traces of uncoagulable matter 2.7, and salts
0.3, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and benzoic acid.

7

GALLUS DOMESTICUS.

IV. The yelk forms an opaque emulsion when agitated by
water. When long boiled, it becomes a granular solid, and
yields by expression a yellow, insipid fixed oil. It consists of
four constituents, water, oil, albumen, and gelatine ; on the
presence of the albumen depends the hardness of the boiled
yelk.

Eggs are applied to various purposes in medicine and phar-
macy. The shells, powdered and levigated, may be used ben-
eficially as an antacid in diarrhoea. In common with oyster-
shells they possess the advantage of uniting intimately ani-
mal matter with the carbonate of lime, the particles of which
are thus more thoroughly isolated, and prove more acceptable
to the stomach, than chalk, in the finest state of division to
which the latter can be brought by mechanical means. The
dose and mode of preparation are the same with those of
oyster-shell.

The white of the egg is used chiefly for the clarification of
liquids, which it affects by involving, during its coagulation,
the undissolved particles, and rising with them to the surface,
or subsiding. When the liquid to be clarified does not spon-
taneously coagulate the albumen, it is necessary to apply heat.
It is recommended as an antidote for corrosive sublimate and
sulphate of copper, with which it forms insoluble and com-
paratively inert compounds. It is sometimes also used for the
suspension of insoluble substances in water, but is inferior foi
this purpose to the yelk, and even to mucilage of gum Arabic.
Agitated briskly with a lump of alum it coagulates, at the same
time dissolving a portion of the alum, and thus forming an
astringent poultice, advantageously applied between folds of
gauze over the eye, in some states of ophthalmia.

The yelk in its raw state is gently laxative, and has been
thought serviceable in jaundice and other hepatic obstruc-
tions. Beaten up with sugar and wine, it is extremely nutri-
tive, and is consequently useful in convalescences and other
cases of debility.

As an article of food eggs are the least stimulating of ani-
mal substances ; and the broth made of the young chicken is
not only the best restorative diet for the convalescent, but is
also a useful diluent in cholera, dysentery, and other disorders
of the bowels. After they are a year old, their flesh becomes
less and less digestible ; but the capon and poulard retain their
tenderness longer.

8

VERTEBHATA.

Vertebrated Animals.

No. 3.
BOS TAURUS.

THE OX AND COW.

The animal substance. Lac, Milk. A medicinal agent.

Geog. Position. Domesticated everywhere.
Quality. Bland, sweetish, faint peculiar odor.
Power. Demulcent, emollient.

Use. In cases of poison. Aliment. Preparation of cream,
butter, cheese, whey, and frangipane.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
5. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Mammalia.

Pereira, Mat. Med., II. 820. Carpenter's Hu. Phy., I. 686, et seq. EC. Disp.
U. S. 174. Jones's An. King. 647. Farmer's Encyc. Article Cattle, &c. U. S.
Disp. 1344 and 1365.

GENUS BOS.

Sovg (Gr.), Oxa (Sax.), Ochs, Ochse (G.), Os (D.), Oxe (Swed. and Dan.),
Uksha (Sans.), Ych (W.), Agh (Erse), Os (Arm.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Incisors none in the upper jaw, in the lower usually eight.
A vacant space between the incisors and molars, but in
which in some genera are found one or two canines. Mo-
lars twelve in each jaw, the crown marked with two
double crescents of enamel, of which the convexity is uni-
versally outwards in the lower jaw, and inwards in the
upper.

Clavicles none. Extremities disposed for walking. Two
toes furnished with hoofs, metacarpal and metatarsal bones
united.

Stomachs four. Intestines long.

Mammce two or four inguinal.

Horns in the male, and frequently in the female of most spe-
cies.

1

BOS TAURUS.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

Bos. Body large. Members strong. Head large, foreheau
straight, muzzle square. Eyes large. Ears generally funnel-
shaped. A fold of the skin, or dew-lap, on the under side of
the neck. Mammce four. Tail long, tufted. Horns simple,
conical, round, with different inflections, but often directed
laterally, and the points raised.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

Bos TAURUS. Horns round, lateral, arched, with the point
turned outwards. Face flat or a little concave. Occipital
crest in the same line as the base of the horns. Mamma dis-
posed in a square form. Hait fawn-colored, brown, or black,
not sensibly longer at the anterior than the posterior parts.
About seven feet long.

NATURAL HISTORY.

That the Ox has been domesticated and in the service of
man from a very remote period is quite certain. We learn
from Gen. iv. 20, that cattle were kept by the early descend-
ants of Adam. Preserved by Noah from the flood of waters,
the original breed of our present oxen must have been in the
neighborhood of Mount Ararat; and hence, dispersing over
the face of the globe, altering by climate, by food, and by
cultivation, originated the various breeds of modern ages.
That the value of the ox tribe has been in all ages and cli-
mates highly appreciated, there is abundant evidence. The
natives of Egypt, India, and of Hindostan seem alike to
have placed the Cow amongst their deities, and, judging by
her usefulness to all classes, no animal could, perhaps, have
been selected, whose value to mankind is greater.

In nearly all parts of the earth, cattle are employed for
their labor, for their milk, and for food. In Southern Africa
they are as much the associates of the Caffres as the horse is
of the Arab. They share his toils and assist him in tending
his herds ; they are even trained to battle, in which they be-
come fierce and courageous. In Central Africa the proudest
ebony beauties are to be seen on their backs. They have
drawn the plough in all ages ; in Spain they still trample out
the corn ; in India, raise the water from the deepest wells to
irrigate the thirsty soils of Bengal. When Caesar invaded

2

BOS TAURUS. .

England they constituted the chief riches of its inhabitants,
(Caesar, Lib. V. c. 10,) and they yet form no inconsiderable
item in the estimate of that country's abounding riches. An
excellent paper on the origin and natural history of the do-
mestic ox and its allied species, by Professor Wilson ( Quar
terly Journal of Agriculture, Vol. II. p. 177), may be con
suited with advantage by those who wish for more informa-
tion on the subject.

The breeds of cattle are remarkable for their numerous
varieties, caused by the almost endless crossings of one breed
with another, often producing varieties of the most mongrel
description, and which are rather difficult to describe. The
principal varieties will here only be noticed.

The qualities of a cow are of great importance. Tame-
ness and docility of temper greatly enhance the value of a
milch cow. Some degree of hardiness, a sound constitution,
health, and a moderate degree of spirits, are qualities to be
wished for in a dairy cow, and what those of Ayrshire gen-
erally possess. The most valuable qualities which a dairy
cow can possess are that she yields much milk, and that of
an oily, butyraceous, and caseous nature ; and that after she
has yielded very large quantities of milk for several years, she
shall be as valuable for beef as any other breed of cows
known ; her fat shall be much more mixed through the whole
flesh, and she shall fatten fully as fast, if not faster, than any
other.

The pastures in New England are short, and the winters
long and severe, and therefore ill adapted to a race of large
size, of tender habits, and requiring extraordinary keeping,
and the most particular care to maintain their condition.
The most celebrated breeds are the improved Durham Short-
horn, the Hereford, the Ayrshire, and the North Devon. Of
these different races, highly improved animals of each sex,
for the purposes of breeding, have been introduced into al-
most every part of the United States, and each race hasN
found strong advocates, who have preferred it to every other.
For dairy purposes, the Ayrshire, or a first cross with the
improved Durham and the Devon, is to be preferred. For
early maturity and size as beef animals, the improved Dur-
ham Short-horn appears to take the lead. But they are ten-
der, and require extraordinary keeping and care to maintain
their good qualities. They seem better adapted to the rich

3

BOS TAURUS.

prairies and feeding-grounds of the Western States than to
the scanty pastures of the East. The Hereford, of which
some remarkably beautiful animals are to be found in York
State, have warm advocates both here and abroad, and come
in strong competition with the improved Durhams, but ex-
hibiting upon the whole admirable constitution and symme-
try. As working oxen and for the purpose of stall-feeding,
the North Devon cattle are most generally approved. This,
undoubtedly, is the prevalent stock of the country, though
diversified and contaminated by various mixtures. No pains
have been taken, by systematic efforts, by judicious selection,
and by perseverance in endeavors to combine the best quali-
ties and to eradicate or remedy defects, in order to form, from
what are called our native stock, a distinct and valuable
breed. Indeed, where the improved blood has been intro-
duced, it has been suffered, after a short time, to run out
through neglect and carelessness, or to become degenerate by
poor keeping.

THE DURHAMS OR SHORT-HORNS are decidedly the most
showy and taking among the cattle species. They are of all
colors between a full deep red, and a pure cream-white ; but
generally have both intermixed in larger or smaller patches,
or intimately blended in a beautiful roan. Black, brown, or
brindled are not recognized among pure-bred Short-horns.
Their form is well spread, symmetrical, and imposing, and
capable of sustaining a large weight of valuable carcass.
The horn was originally branching and turned upward, but
now frequently has a downward tendency, with the tips
pointing towards each other. They are light and compara-
tively short, clear, highly polished, and waxy. The head is
finely formed, with a longer face, but not so fine a muzzle, as
the Devon. The neck is delicately formed, without dew-lap ;
the brisket projecting, and the great depth and width of the
chest giving short, well-spread fore-legs. The crops are
good ; back and loin broad and flat ; ribs projecting ; deep
flank and twist ; tail well set up, strong at the roots, and
tapering. They have a thick covering of soft hair, and are
mellow to the touch, technically termed handling1 well. —
They mature early and rapidly for the quantity of food con-
sumed, yielding largely of good beef with little offal. As a
breed, they are excellent milkers, though some families of the
Short-horns surpass others in this quality. They are inferior

4

BOS TAURUS.

to the Devons in their value as working oxen, and in the rich-
ness of their milk. The Short-horns are assigned a high an-
tiquity by the oldest breeders in the counties of Durham and
Yorkshire, England, the place of their origin, and for a long
time of their almost exclusive breeding. From the marked
and decided improvement which they stamp upon other ani-
mals, they are evidently an ancient breed, though much the
juniors of the Devon and Hereford. Their highly artificial
style, form, and character are unquestionably the work of
deeply studied and long-continued art ; and to the same de-
gree that they have been moulded in unresisting compliance
with the dictation of their breeders, have they departed from
that light and more agile form of the Devon, which conclu-
sively and beyond the possibility of contradiction marks the
more primitive race.

THE HEREFORD. The oxen of Herefordshire are .much
larger than the Devon, and of a darker red, some are dark
yellow, and a few brindled ; they generally have white faces,
bellies, and throats. They have thicker hides than those of
Devonshire, and they are more hardy, and shorter in the car-
cass and leg ; are higher, heavier, and broader in the chine ;
have more fat and are rounder and wider across the hips ;
the thigh is more muscular, the shoulders larger. Marshall
describes them very correctly, as follows : — " The counte-
nance pleasant, cheerful, open ; the forehead broad ; eye full
and lively ; horns bright, taper, and spreading ; head small ;
chap lean ; neck long and tapering ; chest deep ; bosom broad,
and projecting forward ; shoulder-bone thin, flat, no way pro-
tuberant in bone, but full and mellow in flesh ; chest full ; loin
broad ; hips standing wide and level with the spine ; quarters
long and wide at the neck ; rump even with the general level
of the back ; not drooping nor standing high and sharp above
the quarters ; tail slender and neatly haired ; barrel round
and roomy, the carcass throughout deep and well spread ; ribs
broad, standing close and flat on the outer surface, forming a
smooth, even barrel, the hindmost large and of full length ;
round bone small, snug, not prominent ; thigh clean, and reg-
ularly tapering ; legs upright and short ; bone below the knee
and hough small ; feet of middle size ; cod and twist round
and full ; flank large ; flesh everywhere mellow, soft, yielding
pleasantly to the touch, especially in the chine, the shoulder,
and the ribs ; hide mellow, supple, of a middle thickness and

5

BOS TAURUS.

loose ; coat neatly haired, bright, and silky ; color of a middle
red, with a bold face characteristic of the true Herefordshire
breed."

THE AYRSHIRE breed are second to none as milkers ; they
are peculiarly fine cattle, and thus described by Mr. Aiton in
his excellent treatise (p. 26) on the dairy breed of cows.
" The most approved shapes in the dairy breed are small
head, rather long, and narrow at the muzzle ; eye small, but
smart and lively ; the horns small, clear, crooked, and their
roots at considerable distance from each other ; neck long and
slender, tapering towards the head, with no loose skin be-
low ; shoulders thin ; fore quarters light ; hind quarters large ;
back straight, broad behind ; the joints rather loose and open ;
carcass deep and pelvis capacious and wide over the hips,
with round, fleshy buttocks ; tail long and small ; legs small
and short, with firm joints ; udder capacious, broad and
square, stretching forward, and neither fleshy, low hung, nor
loose ; the milk-veins are large and prominent ; teats short,
all pointing outwards, and at considerable distance from each
other, skin thin and loose ; hair soft and woolly ; the head,
bones, horns, and all parts of least value, small ; and the gen-
eral figure compact and well proportioned."

THE NORTH DEVON. Of this breed the bull should have
yellow horns, placed neither too low nor too high, nor be too
thick, but growing gradually less towards the points ; the eye
clear, prominent, and bright ; the forehead small, flat, and in-
dented ; the muzzle fine ; the cheek small ; the nose of a
clear yellow, the nostril high and open ; the neck thick, and
the hair about the head curled. The head of the ox is small-
er, otherwise he does not differ materially from the shape of
the bull ; his action is free, and he is quicker in his move-
ments than any of our oxen ; but his legs are, apparently,
placed too much under his chest for speed, yet he possesses
this property in an eminent degree ; his legs are straight ; the
forearm is large and strong ; the bones of the leg, especially
below the knee, very small ; the tail is set on high, on a level
with the back, rarely much elevated, never depressed, is long
and taper, with a bunch of hair at the end ; the skin is very
elastic, mellow, and rather thin ; some have smooth hair,
which should be fine and glossy ; some curly, and these are
rather the most hardy, and fatten the best ; red is the most
favorite color ; many, however, are brown, and others are ap-

6

BOS TAURUS.

preaching to chestnut. Those of a yellow color are reported
to be subject to the steal (diarrhoea). The Plate, No. 3, is
taken from Low's splendid work upon British Animals.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

MILK, or to be more precise in our description, Cow's milk
is an opaque, white, emulsive liquid, with a bland, sweetish
taste, and a faint peculiar odor. The constituents of milk
are butter, which varies from 2 to 6. per cent. ; casein or
cheese, usually 4 to 5, but sometimes varying from 3 to 15
per cent, (the last excessive quantity yielded only by the
first milk after calving) ; milk sugar, 4 to 6 per cent. ; salts
or saline matter, 0.2 to 0.6 per cent. ; and water, 80 to 89 per
cent. Milk in general contains from 10 to 12 per cent, of
solid matter on being evaporated to dryness by a steam heat.
The mean specific gravity of cow's milk is 1,030 grains, but
it is less if the milk be rich in cream. This latter property,
therefore, is subject to considerable variation. Milk owes its
whiteness and opacity to an emulsion composed of the case-
ous matter and butter, with sugar of milk, extractive matter,
salts, and free lactic acid.

The curd of milk, or caseous matter, partakes in many of its
chemical properties of the nature of albumen ; in others it re-
sembles vegetable gluten, more especially in the fermentation
which it undergoes when kept in a moist state. Sugar of
milk is obtained by evaporating whey. When purified it has
a sweet taste, and requires 7 of cold and 4 of boiling water
for solution, and is insoluble in alcohol ; when digested with
nitric acid, it is partially converted into mucous or saccholac-
tic acid, and not, like common sugar, into oxalic acid. This,
therefore, though an animal product, closely resembles the
vegetable proximate principles ; and milk may hence be con-
sidered as partaking of the nature of vegetable as well as ani-
mal food.

When milk, contained in wire-corked bottles, is heated to
the boiling point in a water-bath, the oxygen of the included
small portion of air under the cork seems to be carbonated,
and the milk will afterwards keep fresh, it is said, for a year
or two ; as green gooseberries and peas do by the same treat-
ment.

Milk is an exceedingly valuable substance in irritation of

7

BOS TAURUS.

the pulmonary and digestive organs. It is an excellent
sheathing agent in poisoning by caustic and acid substances,
and in some of these cases it acts as a chemical antidote ; for
example, in poisoning by bichloride of mercury, sulphate of
copper, bichloride of tin, the mineral acids, &c., &c. Milk is
also employed, on account of its demulcent qualities, in the
preparation of bread and milk poultice, which requires to be
frequently renewed on account of the facility with which it
undergoes decomposition and acquires acrid qualities.

Whey is an excellent diluent and nutritive. Wine whey
taken warm and combined with a sodorific regimen, acts pow-
erfully on the skin, and is a valuable domestic remedy in
slight colds and febrile disorders.

Ox OR BEEF'S GALL. The bile of the ox is a viscid fluid,
of a green or greenish-yellow color, a peculiar, nauseous odor,
and a bitter taste ; its exact composition is not yet settled.
As prepared for medicinal purposes, it is dried by spontane-
ous evaporation, or aided by a very moderate heat, when it
is of a more or less solid and hard consistence, brown color,
and possessing its natural and peculiar odor. The method
recommended for its preparation is to pour two or three gal-
lons of the gall into a deep vessel, and let it stand for twen-
ty-four hours. Then pour off the supernatant fluid into a
shallow earthen dish. Simmer it away slowly, stirring it all
the time until it is dry. Then preserve in glass bottles, well
stopped. Thus prepared, it is of a bright-green color, friable,
pulverulent, and slightly aromatic.

A refined gall is obtained by boiling one pint of it, and
skimming ; then add alum one ounce, and keep it on the fire
for some time ; to another pint of gall add one ounce of com-
mon salt, in the same manner ; keep them bottled, separate-
ly, for three months, then decant off the clear liquid ; mix
them in equal proportions ; a thick, yellow coagulum is im-
mediately formed, leaving the refined gall clear and colorless.

Bile is supposed to be tonic and laxative. It is highly val-
ued as a remedy in numerous complaints, and peculiarly ap-
plicable to cases attended with deficient biliary secretion. It
is used in intermittents, dyspepsia, torpor of the liver, colic,
constipation, diarrhoea, dysentery, &c. Five or eight grains
of inspissated gall neutralizes the constipating and narcotic
effects of one grain of opium, without injuring its sedative
influence. Dose, one to ten grains.

8

VERTEBRATA.

Vertebrated Animals.

No. 4.
GADUS MORKHUA.

COMMON COD.

Morrhuce Oleum.
The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Cod- Liver Oil.

Geog. Position. Banks of Newfoundland. North Atlantic.
Quality. Noxious.
Power. Alterative, nutritive.
Use. Chronic rheumatism, scrofula, gout, &c.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
5. DIVISION Verlebrata. CLASS Pisces.

Cuvier, Regne Animale, II. 212. Syst. Nat. Gmelin, I. 1162. Ballard and
Garrod, Mat. Med. 451. Jones, An. King. 513. Pereira, Mat. Med. II. 804.
Thomson, Mat. Med. 1081. U. S. Disp. 506. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 93. EC. Disp.
U. S. 276.

GENUS GADUS.
Huile de morue (Fr.). Stockfisch leberthrun (Ger.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.
Skull and vertebral column for the protection of the brain and

spinal marrow.
Blood red, cold. Respiring by gills or branchiae, and moving

in the water by the aid of fins.
Ventrals attached under the pectorals.
Pelvis immediately suspended to the bones of the shoulder.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

GADUS. Ventrals sharp, pointed, attached under the throat.
Body compressed, slightly elongated, covered with soft scales.
Head without scales. Fins soft. Jaws and front of the vomer
armed with unequal pointed teeth in many rows. Branchice
large, with seven rays, two or three dorsal fins, one or two
anal, and a distinct caudal.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

GADUS MORRHUA. Three dorsal fins. Two anals. A cirrus
at the point of the lower jaw.

1

GADUS MORRHUA.

NATURAL HISTORY.

GADUS MORRHUA. The common or Bank cod is the most
interesting of all the species. Regarded as a supply of food,
a source of national industry and commercial wealth, or as a
wonder of nature in its continuance and multiplication, this
fish may justly challenge the admiration of every intelligent
observer. Though found in considerable numbers on the
coasts of other northern regions, an extent of about four hun-
dred and fifty miles of ocean, laving the chill and rugged
shores of Newfoundland, is the favorite resort of countless
multitudes of cod, which visit the submarine mountain known
as the Grand Banks, to feed upon the crustaceous and mol-
luscous animals abundant in such situations. Hither, also,
fleets of fishermen regularly adventure, sure of winning a rich
freight in return for their toils and exposure, and of conveying
plenty and profit to their homes and employers. Myriads of
cod are thus yearly destroyed by human diligence ; myriads
of millions, in the egg state, are prevented from coming into
existence, not only by the fishermen, who take the parents
before they have spawned, but by hosts of ravenous fishes, and
an immense concourse of other animals, which attend upon
their migrations to feed upon their spawn ; yet, in despite of
the unceasing activity of all these destructive causes, year
after year finds the abundance still undiminished, inexhausti-
ble by human skill and avidity, irrepressible by the combined
voracity of all the tribes of ocean. This, however, is by no
means the sum of destruction to which the species is liable.
After the spawn is hatched, while the fry are too young and
feeble to save themselves by flight or resistance, they are pur-
sued and devoured in shoals by numerous greedy tyrants of
the deep, and, still worse, by their own gluttonous progenitors,
clearly showing that, without some extraordinary exertion of
creative energy, the existence of the species could not have
been protracted beyond a few years. Such, however, is the
fecundity with which this race is endowed, that if but one fe-
male annually escaped, and her eggs were safely hatched, the
species would be effectually preserved. This is not so sur-
prising, when we recollect that the ovaries of each female con-
tain not fewer than 9,344,000 eggs, as has been ascertained
by careful and repeated observation. Few members of the
animal creation contribute a greater mass of subsistence to

2

GADUS MORRHTJA.

the human race ; still fewer are more universally serviceable
than the codfish, of which every part is applied to some use-
ful purpose. When fresh, its beautifully white, firm, and
flasky muscles furnish our table with one of the most delicious
dainties ; salted, dried, or otherwise conserved for future use,
it affords a substantial and wholesome article of diet, for which
a substitute could not readily be found. The tongue, which
is always separated from the head when the fish is first caught,
even epicures consider a delicacy ; and tongues salted or pic-
kled along with the swimming bladders, which are highly nu-
tritious, being almost entirely pure gelatine, are held in much
estimation by housekeepers, under the title of tongues and
sounds. The liver of the cod, when fresh, is eaten by many
with satisfaction, but it is more generally reserved by fisher-
men for the sake of the large quantity of fine limpid oil which
it contains. This is extracted by heat and pressure, and forms
the well-known cod-liver oil of commerce, which in many re-
spects, and for most uses, is superior to the commonly used
fish-oil. The heads of codfish, after the tongues are cut out,
and the gills are saved for bait, are thrown overboard, on ac-
count of want of room, and because salting would not preserve
them to any advantage. Yet the head, being almost entirely
composed of gelatine, is, when fresh, the richest, and perhaps
the most nutritive, part of the fish. The fishermen, it is true,
make use of it for their own nourishment, but the great mass
is thrown into the sea, — a circumstance to be regretted, when
it is remembered how many poor, in various charitable insti-
tutions, and through the country generally, might be luxuri-
ously fed with this waste. If vessels were provided with the
requisite implements and fuel, these heads would furnish a
large amount of strong and valuable fish-glue, or isinglass,
that would well repay the trouble and expense of its prepara-
tion. The intestines of the codfish also yield a tribute to the
table. The French fishermen, especially, prepare from them
a dish somewhat similar, and not much inferior, to the sounds.
Finally, the ovaries, or roes, of the females are separated from
their membranes, and the eggs, nicely pickled, afford an agree-
able and gustful relish, far more delicate and inviting to the
palate than the celebrated Russian caviare. In addition to
these usual modes of employing the different parts of the cod-
fish, the Norwegians, Icelanders, and Kamtschadales pound
up the backbones and other refuse parts, for the purpose of

3

GADUS MORRHUA.

feeding their dogs and other domestic animals during the win-
ter. Strange as such diet may appear, it is stated as a well-
established fact, that cows fed upon these pounded bones,
mingled with a small quantity of vegetable matter, yield a
larger supply and a better quality of milk than those supported
upon more ordinary provender.

The usual mode of preserving codfish for commercial pur-
poses, and the demand is considerable, is by salting them im-
mediately after they are caught, having first removed the head,
bowels, &c. Those which are carefully selected, and salted
with greater attention to their whiteness, are usually called
dun-fish^ and bring a better price than such as are salted in
bulk, with little regard to the discoloration caused by imper-
fect washing and draining before being packed. Where fa-
cilities are afforded for drying by an adjacent shore, or by the
construction of the vessel, cod are cured by drying alone, or
with a very small quantity of salt. This process requires sev-
eral days' exposure to sun and air, and when skilfully con-
ducted keeps the fish for an indefinite period in a very desira-
ble condition of whiteness and freshness, both peculiarly ad-
vantageous to the appearance of the fish at respectable tables.
Cod thus cured are called stock-fish, and before being cooked
require to be softened, by soaking in water and pounding with
a wooden mallet. The spawning season on the Banks of
Newfoundland begins about the month of March and termi-
nates in June ; consequently the regular period of fishing does
not commence before April, on account of the storms, ice, and
fogs ; and, indeed, many fishermen consider the middle of May
as sufficiently early. After the month of June, cod commence
their migrations to other quarters, and of course the fishing is
suspended until the ensuing season. During the months of
April and May fresh cod of several species are caught in con-
siderable abundance on the Atlantic coast of the United States,
as far south as the Capes of Delaware, and perhaps still more
to the southward.

Cod-liver oil, which is largely consumed in the arts, particu-
larly in the preparation of leather, has long been collected
upon the coasts of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New
England. Fishermen, whose boats near the shore are small,
soon obtain a load, and, running in to land, deliver their car-
goes to persons whose business it is to cleanse and salt the
fish. The oil is prepared either in the huts of the fishermen,

4

GADUS MORRHUA.

or more largely, at establishments to which the livers are con-
veyed in quantities by the fishermen. These are put into a
boiler with water, and heated until they are broken up into a
pultaceous mass, which is thrown upon a strainer covering the
top of a cask or tub. The liquid portion passes, and upon
standing separates into two parts, the oil rising to the surface
of the water. The oil is then drawn off, and, having been
again strained, is prepared for the market. Another and im-
proved method, which has come into use since the extensive
employment of the oil as a medicine, is to heat the livers in a
large tin vessel by means of steam externally applied. The
pultaceous mass resulting is drained as before mentioned ; the
livers themselves containing, besides oil, a considerable portion
of watery fluid, which passes off with it in the form of emul-
sion, and separates on standing. The oil thus procured is
called shore oil) from the circumstances of its preparation, and
is the purest kind. The crews of the larger boats, which fish
upon the banks far from land, cleanse the fish on board, and,
throwing the offal into the sea, put the livers into barrels or
other suitable receptacles, where they undergo a gradual putre-
factive decomposition, the oil rising to the surface as it escapes
from the disintegrating tissue. The oil which first rises, be-
fore putrefaction has very decidedly commenced, approaches
in purity to the shore oil, but is somewhat darker and less
sweet. This is sometimes drawn of, constituting the straits
oil of the fishermen. The remaining mass, or the whole, if
the portion which first rises be not separated, remains exposed
a variable length of time to the heat of the sun, undergoing
putrefaction, until the boat, having completed her cargo, re-
turns to port. The contents of the casks are then put into
boilers, heated with water, and treated as already described.
Before being finally put into barrels, the oil is heated to expel
all its water. Thus prepared, it is denominated banks oil,
and is of the darkest color, and most offensive to the taste and
smell. Much of the oil prepared by the fishermen is collected
by the wholesale dealers in the large towns, who keep it in
huge reservoirs of masonry in their cellars, where it becomes
clarified by repose, and is pumped into barrels as wanted for
use. By the further exposure, however, which it thus under-
goes, it acquires a still more offensive odor, while that which
has been originally introduced into barrels, and thus kept ex-
cluded from the air, is better preserved.

5

GADUS MORRHUA.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

OLEUM MORRHUA. Cod-liver oil has been long popularly
employed in rheumatic and strumous diseases in the northern
parts of Europe. It was brought to the notice of the profes-
sion generally by German practitioners, and had acquired
great reputation on the Continent before it was used to any
extent in Great Britain. The treatise of Professor Bennett of
Edinburgh, in 1841, greatly contributed to its reputation, and
since the publications of Dr. Williams it has obtained very
general notice both in England and the United States. It has
now, however, become one of the most esteemed remedies in
the whole catalogue of the Materia Medica. The diseases in
which it has proved most efficient are chronic rheumatism and
gout, and the various morbid affections connected with a scrof-
ulous diathesis, such as external glandular scrofula, diseases
of the joints and spine, carious ulcers, tabes mesenteria, rick-
ets, and phthisis. Many respectable physicians and practi-
tioners are now prepared to acknowledge that in phthisis this
medicine has far exceeded in efficacy any other remedy or
combination of remedies hitherto employed. It is necessary,
however, to persevere for four or six weeks before looking for
any decidedly favorable result, though the change does often
begin earlier. In most cases, remarkable temporary relief is
afforded ; in very many, the disease is favorably modified and
its fatal termination postponed ; and in some, cures appear to
have been effected. Time and more experience, however, are
yet required fully to determine its merits.

The dose is a table-spoonful three or four times a day for
adults, a teaspoonful repeated as frequently for children, which
may be gradually increased as the stomach will permit, and
continued for a long time. It may be taken alone, or mixed
with some vehicle calculated to conceal its taste and obviate
nauseating effects. For this purpose recourse may be had to
any of the aromatic waters, or the aromatic tinctures, as the
tincture of orange-peel, diluted with water. Perhaps the best
vehicle, when it is not contraindicated, is the froth of porter.
Let a table-spoonful of porter be put into the bottom of a
glass, upon the surface of this the oil, and over all some of the
froth of the porter. It is recommended to chew a small piece
of orange-peel before and after taking the medicine. The oil
is sometimes applied externally by friction, and in cases of

6

GADUS MORRHUA.

ascarides or lumbricoides is injected into the rectum. It has
been recommended also as a local application in paralysis,
various chronic cutaneous eruptions, and opacity of the cornea,
after the subsidence of inflammation. In the last-mentioned
affection, one or two drops of the oil are applied by means of
a pencil to the cornea, and diluted, if found too stimulating,
with olive or almond oil. It is said when long used to occa-
sion sometimes an exanthematous or eczematous eruption.

Three varieties of cod-liver oil are known in the market :
the white or pale yellow, the brownish yellow, and the dark
brown, corresponding to the three commercial varieties already
alluded to. These differ in no essential character, but simply
from the mode of preparation, the pale being prepared from
fresh sweet livers, the dark brown from livers in a state of pu-
trefaction, and the brownish yellow from those in an interme-
diate state, and the three varieties run together by insensible
shades. The color of the pale is from the slightest tint of
transparent yellow to a fine golden yellow, that of the light
brown very similar to the color of Malaga wine, that of the
dark brown what its name implies, with opacity in mass, but
transparency in thin layers. They are of the usual consist-
ence of lamp oil, and have a peculiar odor and taste, by which
they may be distinguished from all other oils. This smell and
taste are familiar to most persons, being very similar to those
of shoe-leather, at least as prepared in this country, where the
curriers make great use of the cod-liver oil. These sensible
properties are regarded as the most certain test of the genu-
ineness of the oil. They are much less distinguishable in the
pale than in the dark brown varieties, but there are no speci-
mens which do not possess them in some degree. In the pur-
est they are scarcely repulsive, in the dark brown they are very
much so. When a decided smell of ordinary fish-oil is per-
ceived, the medicine may always be suspected. It is quite
distinct from that peculiar to cod-liver oil. The taste of all
the varieties is more or less acrid, and in the most impure is
bitterish and somewhat empyreumatic.

From an analysis of the oil by De Jongh it appears to con-
sist of a peculiar substance named gaduin, oleic and margaric
acids with glycerin, butyric and acetic acids, various biliary
principles, as fellinic, cholic, and bilifellinic acids and biliful-
vin, a peculiar substance soluble in alcohol, a peculiar sub-
stance insoluble either in water, alcohol, or ether, iodine, chlo-

7

GADUS MORRHUA.

rine, and traces of bromine, phosphoric and sulphuric acids,
phosphorus, lime, magnesia, soda, and iron. These were
found in all the varieties, though not in equal proportion in
all ; yet it is quite uncertain whether the difference had any
relation to their degree of efficacy.

Gaduin is obtained by saponifying the oil with soda, de-
composing the soap by acetate of lead, and treating the result-
ing lead soap with ether, which dissolves the oleate of lead
and gaduin, leaving the margarate of lead behind. The ethe-
real solution, which is dark brown, is decomposed by sulphuric
acid, which liberates the brown oleic acid. This owes its color
to gaduin, to separate which soda is added in excess ; the re-
sulting oleate of soda, which is insoluble in an excess of the
alkali, is dissolved in alcohol, and the alcoholic solution is
cooled below 32°, by which means the oleate of soda is sep-
arated, the gaduin remaining in solution. This is precipitated
from its solution by the addition of sulphuric acid. Gaduin
is a dark brown substance, brittle and pulverizable when dry,
without odor or taste, quite insoluble in water, and in great
measure soluble in ether and alcohol. It is insoluble in nitric
and muriatic acids, but is dissolved by sulphuric acid, giving
a blood-red color to the solution, from which it is precipitated
by water and the alkalies. It is soluble in alkaline solutions.
Chlorine decolorizes it. Its formula is C^ H^, O9. By boil-
ing in alcohol it is gradually converted into a blackish-brown
insoluble substance. Gaduin itself is yellow, but becomes
brown by exposure to the air. It has not been ascertained to
be in any degree connected with the virtues of the oil. It is
highly probable that the biliary principles associated with the
oil are concerned in its peculiar influences, as it is by their
presence mainly that this differs from other oils. It has been
thought that gaduin itself is of biliary origin. Some have
been disposed to ascribe the virtues of the oil to its iodine and
bromine, but these are in too small proportion for much effect,
and the oil has produced results which have never been ob-
tained from iodine or bromine. The presence of iodine can-
not be detected by the usual tests. It is necessary to convert
the oil into a soap, and to carbonize this before it will give
evidence of iodine. The proportion never exceeds 0.05 per
cent, or 1 part in 2,000. The oil is capable of dissolving a
larger proportion, and if any specimen contains more, there is
reason to suppose that it has been fraudulently added.

8

'

jar? 5.

TESKDATOBTTA.
The Blister Beetle, or

HOMOGANGLIATA.

Articulated Animals.

No. 5.

CANTHAEIS VESICATOBJA.

THE BLISTER BEETLE, OR SPANISH FLY.

The animal substance. Cantharidin. A medicinal agent.

Geog. Position. Europe.

Quality. Acrid, heavy, disagreeable odor.

Power. Stimulant, diuretic, rubefacient, epispastic.

Use. A vesicating material in plaster or oils. Cautiously

in gleet, leucorrhcea, paralysis of the bladder. In large

doses poisonous.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS-

Natural Classification.
4. DIVISION Homogangliata. CLASS Insecta.

Ballard and Garrod, 453. Lond. Disp. 231. Thomson's Mat. Med. 982, 1105.
Pereira, Mat. Med., II. 782. U. S. Disp. 166. EC. Disp. U. S. 104.

GENUS CANTHARIS.

Cantharides (Fr.), Spanische Fliegen, oder Kantharidea (G.), Spanche Vliegen
(Dutch), Spanka (Swed.), Machy Hisapanskie (Pol.), Cantarelle (I.), Cantari-
das (S.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Head provided with two antennce of various forms, and al-
most always with eleven articulations. Eyes two, with
facets, no smooth eyes.

Mouth composed of a labrum, or upper lip ; a pair of man-
dibles of a scaly consistence, a pair of jaws, having each
one or two pair of palpi, and a labium having a pair of la-
bial palpi. Mandibles and jaws for mastication.

Wings four, of which the two upper or anterior are horny or
leathery, united down the back by a straight suture. Low-
er or posterior wings folded longitudinally.

Larva vermiform, with six short feet. Nymph inactive, with
limbs visible.

Metamorphosis complete.

1

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

CANTHARIS. Head large, heart-shaped, not produced into
a rostrum. Thorax small, rather quadrate, narrower than the
elytra, which are as long as the abdomen, soft, linear, the
apex slightly gaping. Maxilla with two membranous lacinice,
the external one acute, within subuncinate. Maxillary palpi
with terminal joint somewhat ovate, larger at tip. Wings
two, ample, perfect.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA. Head large, subcordate with a
longitudinal furrow along its top. Eyes lateral, dark brown.
Thorax not larger than the head, narrowed at the base. Ely-
tra from four to six lines long, and from three fourths to one
and a half lines broad. Costa slightly margined. Wings
ample, thin, membranous, veined, transparent, pale brown.
Tips folded. Legs stout, from four to six lines long, the
hinder ones longest. Tibia clavate, in the female all termi-
nated by two small movable spurs ; in the male the two hinder
pairs of extremities alone have this arrangement, the anterior
ones having but one spur. Last joint of the tarsi with a pair
of bifid claws. Abdomen soft, broadest in the female. In the
female, near the anus, are two articulated, caudal appendages.
Form elongated, almost cylindrical. Length six to eleven
lines. Breadth one to two lines. Color brass or copper green.
Odor nauseous, unpleasant. Body covered with whitish-gray
hairs, which are most numerous on the thorax.

NATURAL HISTORY.

HIPPOCRATES employed in medicine an insect which he
calls KavBapisj whose effects were similar to those of Cantharis
vesicatoria. Hence it has been erroneously inferred that the
blister beetle is identical with that employed by the ancients.
That this inference is incorrect is apparent. Many beetles
agree in their effects on the system with those of Cantharis
vesicatoria. The Greek word merely signifies a small beetle,
scarabceus parvus. Both Dioscorides and Pliny refer to sev-
eral kinds of Cantharides, but remark that the most powerful
are those with transverse yellow bands on the wings, and
that those which are homogeneous in color are weak and inert.

2

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA.

It is tolerably clear, therefore, that neither of these ancient
writers were acquainted with Cantharis vesicatoria. The
characters also assigned to the ancient blistering insect
agree precisely with those of two species of Mylabris. Bur-
meister suggests, therefore, that Mylabris fusselini^ a na-
tive of the South of Europe, was the species used by the
ancients. Mylabris Cichorii is employed as a blistering
beetle at the present day in China, and some parts of Hin-
dostan, and may, perhaps, have been used by the Greeks
and Romans.

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA, the blister beetle, from which
cantharidin is procured, is a coleopterous insect. It is ob-
long, nearly parallel for two thirds of its length, and then ta-
pering to the extremity. It is about two thirds of an inch
long, and a quarter of an inch broad ; the elytra or wing-
covers are green, shining, and tinted with a golden hue ;
the wing-sheaths are marked with three longitudinal, raised
stripes ; the wings are brown, membranous, and transparent.
The body is terminated with two small, callous, sharp spines ;
the head, which is gibbous, bears two black, jointed, thread-
like feelers, and along the head and the chest there is a longi-
tudinal furrow. It is of some importance to know the real
character of the blister beetle, as the specimens of it are fre-
quently mixed with the Melolentha, Scarabcei, Cetonice, and
other beetles. It is a curious fact, that the circulating, respi-
ratory, and nervous system of this insect, in conjunction with
the generative organs, has a singular analogy with those of
the vertebrated animals. This beetle is found in every part
of Europe where the vine flourishes naturally in the open air,
that is, from the equator to the fifty-second degree of north
latitude ; it has also been seen in the South of England, and
is abundant in the southern provinces of Russia. It feeds
upon the ash. the privet, the lilac, the honeysuckle, the rose,
willow, poplar, and elm. When it is very abundant, an odor
resembling that of the mouse is exhaled ; and it is probable
that the cause of the ardor urince and ophthalmia, experienced
by persons who sit under a tree containing many of these in-
sects during the time of their copulation, is to be attributed
to the cantharidin being carried off with the volatile oil
which causes this odor. Ophthalmia is severely felt by those
who prepare cantharidin, unless the eyes be protected by
gauze shades.

3

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA.

For medicinal purposes, Cantharides are collected in May,
by shaking them at dawn, when they are torpid, from the trees
upon which they settle, and catching them on cloths ; they
are then killed by the vapor of boiling vinegar, — a process
as ancient as Dioscorides, who describes it. Sometimes
they are killed by dipping the cloths on which they are col-
lected into vinegar and water, after which they are dried by
exposure to the sun. During the drying, the insects require
to be frequently turned ; and if the hands of those who per-
form this operation be not guarded with gloves, great pain
is felt at the neck of the bladder, and strangury and ardor
urince supervene. When properly dried, Cantharides preserve
their active properties for more than thirty years. They are
often attacked by a small mite or acarus, which, devouring
the soft parts, leaves only the hard parts, or the shell of the
insect, thus rendering it nearly inert. The only method to
stop the depredations of this parasite is to put a little pyro-
ligneous acid into the bottle containing the Cantharides ; or
some carbonate of ammonia ; or to kill the beetle with oil of
turpentine instead of vinegar.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

The substance CANTHARIDIN is procured by the following
process from the soft parts of the Cantharis vesicatoria, the
blister beetle. Prepare an alcoholic tincture by percolation,
concentrate it, and set it aside ; as the evaporation proceeds,
the cantharidin crystallizes. It is purified from the resinous
matter adhering to it, by washing with cold alcohol, and af-
terwards boiling it in alcohol with animal charcoal. It is a
white substance, and may be regarded as a resinoid.

The blister beetle is justly regarded as a direct stimulant
diuretic, when administered in doses not sufficient to excite
inflammation of the alimentary canal. These diuretic prop-
erties of this insect were known to Hippocrates, who pre-
scribed them in dropsy and amenorrhoea. A very celebrated
diuretic also, that of Tulpius, consisted of a tincture of blis-
ter beetles, tincture of cardamoms, and sweet spirit of nitre.
The effects of this insect upon the urinary organs were also
very generally known in Oriental countries and in the South
of Europe, where it was used as an aphrodisiac ; but unless
they were employed with the greatest caution, the volup-

4

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA.

tuary who swallowed the powder bought his momentary
gratification by pains and suffering of a very acute descrip-
tion, and it is doubtful whether the anticipated effect was
obtained. Like many other popular beliefs, it seems to rest
upon a very doubtful foundation. It is, nevertheless, true,
that Cantharides, internally administered in large doses,
cause priapism, which is occasionally, not always, accom-
panied with satyriasis. It was probable that the violence of
these results of the internal use of the Cantharides tended to
prevent them from being much employed as a diuretic.

When Cantharides are swallowed, they are partially digest-
ed, and the cantharidin is, probably in conjunction with the
oil, received into the circulation. But whether it be this prin-
ciple or the entire matter of the insect, in minute division,
that is absorbed and conveyed to the kidneys, its influence
upon these organs is stimulant, and, when large doses are ad-
ministered, may amount to acute imflammatory action, pro-
ducing bloody urine, insupportable pains in the abdomen,
strangury, vomitings, convulsions, delirium ; and frequently
the issue is fatal, The post mortem examination of the body
displays inflammation, not only in the urinary and genital or-
gans, but in the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal.
When administered in proper doses, namely, one or two
grains, Cantharides stimulate the kidneys, and cause an in-
creased flow of urine. Their effect is stimulant in the first
instance ; but this is transitory, and, whilst there is a copious
increase of the urinary discharge, neither heat of the kidney
nor strangury is experienced. They have been found ex-
tremely useful, when administered as a diuretic, in scaly
affections of the skin ; but this is the result rather of the gen-
eral stimulus given to the capillary system than of their diu-
retic power. They have been employed with success in the
ascites of old, worn-out constitutions. It is requisite, during
their employment, to dilute freely with bland fluids. If stran-
gury occur, the best mode of relieving it is to throw into the
rectum a pint of warm water, containing from twenty to six-
ty minims of laudanum. Notwithstanding the safety and
advantage with which they may be internally administered,
they have not been much employed, and, indeed, when it is
considered that many individuals suffer considerably, even
from the absorption of such minute portions as can be taken
up from a blistering plaster, the danger of an incautious em-

5

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA.

ployment of them internally is sufficient to set aside their
general administration.

When Cantharides have been accidentally taken in large
doses, the best mode of counteracting the dangerous symp-
toms is to administer emetics, to bleed, and to dilute copious-
ly with bland, demulcent drinks. The use of oil must be care-
fully avoided ; for as oil is the best solvent of cantharidin, the
poison is only the more widely diffused, and consequently it
is rendered more extensively hurtful. Many of the cases of
poisoning by Cantharides have arisen from the poison having
been swallowed with the view of exciting the venereal appe-
tite ; for, as in many cases this effect has not followed the or-
dinary dose, large doses have been swallowed. The greater
number of the cases detailed by toxicological writers have
not terminated fatally, although the sufferings of the patients
have been most severe. In some instances the inflammation
of the genital organs has run on to gangrene ; which was the
case in a fatal instance noticed by Ambrose Pare, which was
caused by a young woman seasoning comfits for her lover
with Cantharides. In some instances phrenitic symptoms,
with tetanic convulsions and hydrophobia, have been the con-
sequence of over-doses of the tincture.

The emplastrum Cantharidis of the Pharmacopoeias, the
substance commonly applied for producing a blister, has some
disadvantages attending its employment. It consists of one
part of finely powdered Cantharides blended with one or two
parts of wax plaster. In the first place, the formation of the
plaster by heat injures the activity of the Cantharides ; in the
second place there is a great waste, as only those particles of
the powdered insect which are upon the surface are of use.
It would, therefore, be much better, were some kind of semi-
adhesive paste contrived for forming the basis of the plaster,
upon which the powdered Cantharides could be sprinkled
before applying the plaster to the skin. Were cantharidin
easily prepared, the most certain blister would be a solution of
that substance in oil ; but the tediousness of the process, and
the smallness of the product, render it impossible to employ
it for ordinary purposes. The plaster of Cantharides causes,
first, a sensation of heat and pricking in the part, attended
with some general excitement and increased quickness of the
pulse ; if it remain on a sufficient space of time, namely, from
six to ten hours, the cuticle is raised, and betwixt it and the

6

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA.

true skin a yellowish serum is deposited. Sometimes fresh
blisters continue to rise round the first blister after the plaster
has been removed. Both the degree of excitement and the
character of the effused serum, and its quantity, are greatly
modified by circumstances connected with the general habits
of individuals, and the disease for which the blister is applied.
In many persons, the acrid principle of the insect is carried
into the circulation, and produces strangury ; especially when
the blister is applied to the scalp. In this case the hair should
be removed some hours before applying the blister, if the ne-
cessity of the case admit of delay. The usual time for per-
mitting a blistering plaster to remain applied is ten or twelve
hours, when it is usual to puncture the blister, and, after dis-
charging the fluid, again to apply the plaster. This practice
is to be reprobated, inasmuch as it does not answer any bene-
ficial purpose, and it favors the absorption of the cantharidin
and the consequent production of strangury. As soon as a
blister has risen, the plaster ought to be removed, and the fluid
discharged. In children, in particular, this rule should always
be attended to ; as, owing to great irritability of skin, they
are not only more easily blistered than adults, but when the
blistering plaster is permitted to remain too long applied,
spreading, irritable, sometimes gangrenous ulcers are apt to
supervene. When this happens, the strength of the patient
must be sustained by bark or other tonics, the irritability of
the part soothed by poultices made with a strong decoction
of poppies, and every method which can change the irritable
state of the habit into one of tone must be adopted.

Blisters, by whatever means raised, should be applied as
near as possible to the affected part. They should also be as
large as the nature of the part will permit ; large blisters caus-
ing no more pain than small. In every instance, the blistering
plaster should be kept in close contact with the skin by a few
strips of adhesive plaster, or a bandage ; nevertheless, the pres-
sure ought not to be so great as to restrain the inflammation
of the capillaries, and prevent vesication. Strangury is best
prevented by interposing something between the blistering
plaster and the skin. Gauze or muslin, or thin paper, mois-
tened with oil, pressed down upon the blistering plaster, an-
swers the purpose effectually, does not prevent vesication,
and enables the plaster to be removed in a more cleanly man-
ner. When the tendency to strangury is great, the blistering

7

CANTHARIS VESICATORIA.

plaster ought not to remain on longer than is necessary to ef-
fect vesication, which takes place, generally, at the distance
of eight hours, even when the blister plaster has been re-
moved two hours before that time, and no vesication be then
present.

Of late years, another insect has been introduced into
practice as a substitute for Cantharides, which appears to
possess all their vesicant and diuretic properties. This is a spe-
cies of the genus Mylabris, one species of which, the Mylabris
chicorii, is a native of the South of France, Italy, and Greece,
and known to the ancients. The genus Mylabris consists of
fifty-one species, of which twenty-eight are found in Africa.
The species employed as a substitute for Cantharides is the
Mylabris variabilis. It is brought from China, and is regard-
ed rather as a variety of the Mylabris chicorii than a distinct
species. M. Robiquet has analyzed it, and has found that it
affords cantharidin in as great abundance as the Cantharides.
It acts with as much energy as a vesicant as the best Cantha-
rides. Another species of Mylabris, the Mylabris pustulata of
Olivier, is also used as a vesicant in China. Some species
of Meloe, the Proscarabceus and Majalis in particular, also
contain cantharidin ; they may be used both as vesicants and
diuretics. If an easy method of obtaining cantharidin were
discovered, its use might supersede that of the entire insect.
The powder of Cantharides is now seldom used as an inter-
nal medicine, and the tincture, which is undoubtedly the best
preparation of the insect, is also the most generally employed.

TINCTURA CANTHARIDIS. Tincture of Blister Beetles. Take
of blister beetles, bruised, an ounce ; diluted alcohol, two
pints. Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through
paper.

The London College takes four drachms of the beetles, and
two pints (Imperial measure) of proof spirit, macerates for seven
days, expresses, and filters. The Dublin, half an ounce (avoir-
dupois) of the former, and two pints (Imperial measure) of the
latter, and macerates for two weeks, strains, expresses, and fil-
ters. The Edinburgh College takes the same proportions as
the London, digests for seven days, strains, expresses the re-
siduum strongly, and filters ; or prepares the tincture by per-
colation, having previously moistened the coarsely powdered
beetles with a little of the spirit, and allowed them to stand
for twelve hours.

8

Drone.

Queen Bee,

Working Bee.

Hartford, Conn-

The hive bee, or the Honer bee.

HOMOGANGLIATA.

Articulated Animals.

No. 6.
APIS MELLIFICA.

THE HIVE-BEE, OR THE HONEY-BEE.

Mel, Honey.

The animal substance. A medicinal aerent.

Cera, Wax.

Geog. Position. Domesticated everywhere.

Quality. HONEY, sweet, viscid. WAX, insipid, inodorous.

Potiter. HONEY, demulcent, nutritive, slightly laxative.
WAX, emollient.

Use. HONEY. Catarrhal coughs, a vehicle for the admin-
istration of powders. WAX. Diarrhoea, dysentery; a
constituent of all cerates.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
4. DIVISION Homogangliata. CLASS Insecta.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 459. Jones, An. King. 286 Pereira, Mat. Med.
II. 795. Thomson, Mat. Med. 855, 1175. Lond. Disp. 431, 256. U. S. Disp.
473, 204. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 137. EC. Disp. U. S. 258, 116. Kost, Mat. Med.
118. Farmer's Encyc. Brand, Encyc. Sci.

GENUS APIS.

MEL. Miel (F.), Gemeiner Honig (G., Dutch), Mele (It.), Miel (Sp.), Homing
(Swed.), Honning (Dan.), Miod (Pol.), Mel (Port.), Med (Russ.), Medhu (Hind,
and San.), Tayn (Tarn.), Ussub (Arab.), Shahid (Pers.), Tejee(Beg-), Honey (Eng.).

CERA FLAVA. Cire jaune (F.), Wachs (G.), Cera gialla (It.), Cera gualda
(Sp.), Gult wax (Swed.), Zotty wosk (Pol.), Munjie Mellughoo (Tarn.), Un-
bleached wax (Eng.).

CERA ALBA. Cire blanche (F.), Cera biancha (It.), Cera blanca (Sp.), Hwitt
wax (Swed.), Biaty Wosk (Pol.), Vulay Mellughoo (Tarn.), Suffiad mooru (Duk.),
Bleached wax (Eng.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Wings four, naked, membranous, veined longitudinally, the
superior of which .are always longer than the inferior.

Mouth composed of jaws and a labium very narrow, (besides
the labium and mandibles,) forming a demi-tube more suit-
able for suction than mastication.

1

APIS MELLIFICA.

Envelope of the body not crustaceous.

Tarsi with five joints.

Abdomen generally attached to the thorax by a very slender
pedicle, terminated in the females, either by an ovipositor
in the form of a saw, or by a simple retractile sting, which
introduces an irritating fluid into the wounds it creates.

Metamorphosis complete.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

APIS. Labium filiform, composing with the jaws a kind of
proboscis, geniculate and bent downwards. First joint of the
posterior tarsus large and compressed in the form of a square
and triangular face. No spines at the extremity of the 'last
two legs. Upper wings with one radial and three cubital cells.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

APIS MELLIFICA. Blackish. Abdomen of the same color,
with a transverse grayish band, formed by the down at the
base of the third and following segment.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The BEE is an industrious and useful insect, and well wor-
thy the attention of all classes, and will repay the utmost care
that can be taken in its management.

No farm or cottage garden is complete without a row of
these busy little colonies, with their warm, neat roofs, and
their own particular fragrant bed of thyme, in which they
especially delight. Select a sheltered part of the garden,
screened by a wall from the cutting north and easterly winds ;
let them enjoy a southern sun, but do not place them facing
his early beams, because bees should never be tempted to quit
their hive in the heavy morning dew, which clogs their limbs
and impedes their flight. Place them, if possible, near a run-
.ning stream, as they delight in plenty of water ; but if none is
within their easy reach, place pans of fresh water near the
hives, in which mix a little common salt, and let bits of stick
float on the surface to enable bees to drink safely. Never
place hives in a roofed stand ; it heats them, and induces the
bees frequently to form combs outside of their hives instead
of swarming. Let the space before fche hives be perfectly
clear of bushes, trees, and every impediment to their move-
ment, that they may wing their way easily to seek for food,
• * 2

APIS MELLIFICA.

and return without annoyance. Bees returning heavily laden
and wearied are unable to bear up against any object, and
should they hit any thing, they fall. Let their passage to
and from their hives be clear, but trees and bushes in the
vicinity of their residence are advisable, as they present con-
venient spots for swarms to settle, which might otherwise go
beyond sight or reach. A swarm seldom goes far from home,
unless the garden is unprovided with resting-places to attract
the queen, who takes refuge in the nearest shelter. Towards
the end of October, if not otherwise properly provided, remove
the hives into a cool, dry, and shady room, outhouse, or cellar,
where they will be protected as well from the winter sun as
from the frosts. Warm days in winter often tempt bees to
quit their cells, and the chilling air numbs and destroys them.
Let them remain thus until about the end of March. In the
spring bees are very subject to a disease similar to dysentery.
Before the hives are placed in their summer quarters, exam-
ine the state of the bees, by turning up the hive and noticing
the smell proceeding from it. If the bees are healthy, the
odor will be that of heated wax ; but if diseased, it will appear
like that of putrefaction. In this case, a small quantity of
port wine or brandy mixed with their food will restore them.
In the early spring feed them, and do the same when the
flowers pass away in autumn, until they are taken into the
house, and then disturb them no more.

As to the best situation for bees during their working sea-
son, this must depend upon circumstances of climate and
locality. In southerly latitudes and warm exposures, where
the climate will admit of the hives remaining upon the stands
during winter, it may still be advisable to give some shelter ;
and the principal object should be to ward off the sun, the
warmth from which invites the bees to fly abroad at an
unprofitable season, and makes them sensitive to the sucfden
spells of cold experienced throughout the United States. In
summer the extreme heat of the sun should certainly be ward-
ed off by sheds and suitable shades, although it is improper
to oblige the bees to pass through barriers of boughs and
bushes. The heat accumulated by objects exposed to the
direct rays of the sun often increases to 130° or 140° of Fah-
renheit, a temperature which must be injurious, not only to
the bees themselves, but to their honey and wax.

As soon as the bees commence working in the spring, the

3

APIS MELLIFICA.

hives should be examined, and, with a piece of hoop-iron or
other suitable implement, the stand should be well scraped
immediately under them, and especially around their inner
edge. The whole secret of keeping off the moth, that com-
mits great devastation among bees, consists in keeping the
hives free from the larva or maggot of these troublesome in-
sects. After this scraping operation, the hive should be raised
not quite half an inch from the stand, and the cleaning be
repeated every three or four days, especially if there be any
appearance of web. In winter the hive should be let down
upon the stand, as a security against mice and other depreda-
tors upon the honey. An entrance should be made for the
bees, by cutting a perpendicular slit one eighth of an inch wide
and two and a half inches long, situated about half way
from the bottom. Just under this a small shelf is to be placed,
as a resting-place for the bees in going out and returning to
the hive. The bees soon get accustomed to this new place
of entrance. It is said this plan has often proved an effect-
ual security against the worm, after every other remedy has
failed.

As bees, like most other winged insects, are annuals, or go
through the whole essential economy of their existence within
the year, the history of a year's existence includes the whole,
and it is only requisite to choose the point in the circle at
which to commence. As some individuals, however, always
survive the winter and begin to breed only in spring, forming
a colony which quits the parent stock, we shall begin with
this colony and trace their operations through the year.

The first young swarm is generally sent off about the end
of June. The migration seems to depend on want of room
in the mother hive, not on an instinctive desire of change on
the part of the brood ; for if there be space for the operations
of fhe increasing community, bees will not naturally swarm,
and skilful apiarians sometimes take advantage of this cir-
cumstance, and, by making successive additions to the hive,
retain the whole year's increase in the same building. The
swarm consists in general of about six or seven thousand
individuals, of which about one thirtieth part are males, the
rest females, and of these one only, for the most part, is pro-
lific, and she is called the queen. Her body is longer than that
of either the drone or worker, her colors are brighter and purer
and generally of a darker shade, the transverse bands across

4

APIS MELLIFICA.

the abdomen are of a deeper and brighter yellow, and are
sometimes orange ; the head is smaller than that of the un-
prolific female, and the tongue is shorter and more slender ;
her mandibles are notched and her sting is curved ; but the
most obvious distinctive character is the proportional length of
the abdominal segment of the body, which lodges the genera-
tive apparatus, and which is of an elongate conical form, ta-
pering rather sharply to the anus. The male bee is readily
distinguished by the short and thick form of his body, which
is obtuse at each extremity. He has no sting. The workers,
like the queen, are armed with a sting, but it is straight and
proportionally larger and stronger. The workers are essen-
tially females in their internal structure, but their growth is
arrested before arriving at the period when the full develop-
ment of the sexual system takes place, and they consequently
are smaller than either the queen or the drones, and their
colors are less bright. According to Huber, there are two va-
rieties of laborers, one of a large size, which he calls " abeilles
cirieres" or makers of wax ; the other or smaller variety he
terms " abeilles nourrices" or nurse bees, whose crop or first
stomach is not capable of the distention requisite for collecting
honey, but whose office it is to build the combs and cells, after
the foundation has been laid by the cirieres, and to feed the
larvaB.

It is also stated that there are two kinds of drones, one not
larger than the workers, the other as above described. And
Huber has described another variety of the inmates of the hive,
which he terms " black bees" and which are supposed to be
the superannuated workers.

The swarm thus composed commonly leaves the hive in
the heat of the day, and often immediately after a shower.
It is supposed that the queen takes the lead, and she ever
afterwards exercises an inscrutable influence over all the oper-
ations. Perhaps a stronger proof that instincts do not ne-
cessarily depend on physical conformation is not afforded by
any phenomenon in natural history, than by the effects which
the loss or death of the queen produces on the laborers. This
event does not deprive them of any organ, or paralyze any
limb ; yet the moment they are conscious of her loss, all their
labors are interrupted and forsaken, and unless another queen
be provided, they join another hive, or perish from inanition.

The flight of the swarrn is directed to some neighboring

5

APIS MELLIFICA.

fixed place, and wherever the stand is made, they all forthwith
repair to it. In the wild state, the cavity of an old tree is
commonly chosen, and this with a seeming prudence and
foresight which cannot be sufficiently admired. The first
care of the bees is to cleanse it from dust and rubbish, and to
gnaw off with their mandibles any asperities or projections
which might interfere with the future construction of the
comb. In the state of domestication in which the hive-bee
is usually preserved, the practice of the above instinctive ac-
tions is rendered unnecessary by the reception of the swarms
into neat artificial hives. Yet this modification of their habits,
and many other interferences to which they are subject, have
had no effect in inducing any varieties in the organization of
the bee, or any change in those instinctive actions which the
care of man has not rendered indispensable. The considera-
tion of this curious exception to the ordinary consequences of
domestication and of the conditions on which the circum-
scribed limits of variation in the bee depend, would lead us
far beyond the extent allotted to the present subject ; but it is
an inquiry full of interest in relation to the recondite laws
which govern the variation of animals from their specific
standard.

In the wild state, the young colony at first return occasion-
ally to the parent establishment for supplies of provision, and
the domesticated bees always fill their crops with honey before
they leave the hive. The wax is a peculiar secretion from
the working bee, and having the materials therefore within
themselves, they immediately begin to form the comb.

Before describing the many-chambered nursery and store-
house which the bees prepare, a few words are necessary re-
garding the material of which it is constructed.

The formation of the wax is a very singular and complex
operation. Huber says : " The wax-makers having taken their
due portion of honey or sugar, from either of which wax can
be elaborated, suspend themselves to each other, the claws of
the forelegs of the lowermost being attached to those of the
hind pair of the uppermost, and form themselves into a clus-
ter, the exterior layer of which looks like a kind of curtain.
This cluster consists of a series of festoons, or garlands
which cross each other in all directions, and in which most of
the bees turn their back upon the observer ; the curtain has no
other motion than what it receives from the inferior layers,

6

APIS MELLIFICA.

the fluctuations of which are communicated to it. All this
time the nurse bees preserve their wonted activity, and pur-
sue their usual employments. The wax-makers remain im-
movable for about twenty-four hours, during which period the
formation of the wax takes place, and thin laminae of this
material may be generally perceived under their abdomen.
One of these bees is now seen to detach itself from one of the
central garlands of the cluster, to make a way amongst its
companions to the middle of the vault or top of the hive, and
by turning itself round to form a kind of void, in which it can
move itself freely. It then suspends itself to the centre of the
space which it has cleared, the diameter of which is about an
inch. It next seizes one of the laminae of wax with a pincer
formed by the posterior metatarsus and tibia, and, drawing it
from beneath the abdominal segment, one of the anterior legs
takes it with its claws and carries it to the mouth."

The wax has perhaps a nearer analogy to the sebaceous
secretion of the integument than to any other animal secretion ;
it is formed beneath the scales on the under side of the abdo-
men, and when accumulated there, seems to irritate the part, for
the bee may then be observed wagging her abdomen and run-
ning round, to and fro, as if endeavoring to shake out the little
scales ; and she is generally followed by one or two other bees
which have been attracted by her movements, and are ready
to seize upon the plates of wax as they fall. How the bees
mould the scales into the walls of the cells is not exactly
understood. Some have supposed that they bite pieces off
and join them together, but the smooth and uniform surface
of the cell shows that some other operation must take place ;
besides, the wall of the cell is sometimes thicker than a scale
of wax. It is therefore supposed that the bees have the power
of applying some dissolving or softening menstruum to the
wax-scales, by which they are enabled to knead and blend
them into a ductile paste. And when it is remembered that
the secretion of the salivary tubes of insects is generally alka-
line, and that wax is best dissolved by alkali, it is reasonable
to suppose that it is by this means that the wax-scales are
brought into a workable state. Reaumer indeed observed a
frothy substance exuding from the mouth of a bee while
working at a cell, which was applied to the proper place by
the nimble tongue, and then kneaded in by the mandibles ; and
Huber has described the process very circumstantially; he says

7

APIS MELLIFICA.

that the bee holds the lamina of wax with its claws vertical-
ly, — the tongue rolled up serving for a support, — and, by ele-
vating or depressing it at will, causes the whole of its circum-
ference to be exposed to the action of the mandibles, so that
the margin is soon gnawed into pieces, which drop as they
are detached into the double cavity bordered with hairs of the
mandibles. These fragments, pressed by others newly sepa-
rated, fall on one side of the mouth, and issue from it in the
form of a very narrow ribbon. They are then presented to the
tongue, which impregnates them with a frothy liquor. During
this operation the tongue assumes all sorts of forms; some-
times it is flattened like a spatula, then like a trowel, which
applies itself to the ribbon of wax ; at other times it resembles
a pencil terminating in a point. After having moistened the
whole of the ribbon, the tongue pushes it so as to make it re-
enter the mandibles, but in an opposite direction, where it is
worked up anew. The liquor mixed with the wax communi-
cates to it a whiteness and opacity which it had not before,
and doubtless gives it that ductility and tenacity which it
possesses in its perfect state.

Bees commonly begin at the top or roof of their chamber
and build downwards, at first working irregularly, and as it
were pasting over the surface, and then building horizontal
cells of a more perfect form. These at length become so nu-
merous that they extend downwards in the form of a vertical
wall ; other congeries of cells are formed in succession, until
the whole comb assumes the form of a series of perpendicular
plates or partitions. Each plate consists of a double set of
cells, the bottoms of which are applied to each other and form
the partition between each set. The plates are not always
regular, and the irregularities which may be observed are not
always necessary adaptations to a peculiar form of the cavity
in which they are built. The cells are not all of the same size,
but a sufficient number of a given depth are reserved for receiv-
ing the eggs, and which are necessarily adapted to the size of
the future maggot; the smaller or shallower cells are those in
which the honey is stored. The breeding and store cells are
placed horizontally, but the mouth of the cell is sometimes a
little raised, the better to retain the honey. The interspace
between the vertical combs is about half an inch, these streets,
as they may be termed, in this city of industry, being just
wide enough to allow two bees busied upon the opposite cells

8

APIS MELLIFICA.

to pass without incommoding each other. In addition to
these interspaces, the combs are perforated in various places so
as to allow a passage for the bees from one street to another,
thus saving them much time.

The shape of each cell is not, as might have been expected,
cylindrical, or that which seems best adapted to the form of
the maggot, or even of the bee constructor, but it is hexago-
nal, — the only form which allows the cell to be of the largest
size in proportion to the quantity of matter employed, and at
the same time to be so disposed as to occupy in the hive the least
possible space. The form of the base of each cell, which is
in apposition with the one on the opposite side, is also such
as to gain greater strength and more capacity with less expen-
diture of wax, the latter consideration being one of great im-
portance to bees, which do not secrete a very large quantity
of this material: and the most profound mathematicians and
most skilful geometers have found the solution of the problem
relating to the attainment of the preceding objects as derived
from the infinitesimal calculus to have a surprising agreement
with the actual measure of the different angles formed by the
walls of the cells.

There may generally be observed one or more cells wider
and shallower than the rest, placed either on the edge of a comb
or partition, or against the mouths of the cells, and projecting
beyond the general surface of the comb. These are called
the royal cells ; but as they are not adapted to the form of the
queen, nor ever lined with the silken covering of the chrysalis,
the supposition that she is bred in them seems impossible.

Having now generally described the comb, the consideration
of those instinctive operations by which its several compart-
ments are furnished with their destined contents deserves at-
tention.

The comb seems at first to be formed entirely for propa-
gation, and indeed to be essentially related to that function,
for if the workers lose their queen they make no combs, and
the reception of honey is therefore its secondary use. Wasps
and hornets make combs, although they collect no honey.

As soon as the young colony has prepared a few combs,
the female begins to exclude her eggs. The first that she lays
produce the imperfect females or workers, the subsequent ones
produce the males, and perhaps the fertile females, or queens.
The eggs are deposited at the bottom of the cells, often before

9

APIS MELLIFICA.

they are half completed ; they adhere generally by one end to
the cell. In about five days the little maggot is hatched, and
is seen lying at the bottom of the cell, coiled up in a transpar-
ent fluid.

Now begins the additional employment of the laborers,
that of feeding and nursing the young maggots ; and for this
purpose new materials must be collected abroad and brought
into the hive.

At first the bees of a young colony fly out singly, and after-
wards collectively. They direct their flight generally in a
straight line or nearest way to the desired object, and often
travel to great distances from the hive. In summer time they
may be seen almost everywhere where flowers bloom. In
April and May they are abroad the whole day, but in the hot
months they venture out less frequently, generally in the
morning and evening, at which times it is more easy for them
to form the pellets of the pollen, the grains of which adhere
together less strongly during the heat of noonday.

Bees do not like wet weather, yet it is perhaps less the
presence of rain than the changes in the degree of light
which deter them from venturing abroad at this time ; for
they possess large and complex organs of sight, and when
clouds collect quickly over the clear sky, they are seen to hur-
ry back in great numbers to the hive, while if the sky be uni-
formly overcast, it is not merely a shower of rain that will
drive them back ; many of the actions of the bee prove, on the
contrary, how essential moisture is for them. The bee does
not take honey indiscriminately from every flower. In the
meadows they may be seen generally upon the Orchidaceae, Po-
lygonacese, Caryophyllacese, but seldom if ever upon the Ra-
nunculaceae, perhaps on account of some poisonous quality.
The oleander (Nerium oleander), which yields poisonous honey
fatal to thousands of flies, is carefully avoided by bees, and
the crown imperial (Fritillaria imperialist the white nectaries
of which are so conspicuous, tempts in vain the passing bee.
They are, however, extraordinarily active in spring at the blos-
soming of the Amentaceae, Rosacese (especially the dog-rose),
and the balsamic lilies, Primulacese, &c., and are above all
allured by the innumerable flowers of the lime (especially
Tilia parvifolia), and their hum may be heard among the
branches at some distance. The finest-flavored and most
delicate honey is collected from aromatic plants, and it is

10

APIS MELLIFICA.

therefore always advisable to have large beds of borage,
mignonette, lemon thyme, and sage in the neighborhood of
beehives. Those flowers which yield a nectar innocuous to
the bees themselves, but possessing poisonous qualities when
taken by man, are sometimes frequented by the bees, and the
honey derived from them acts like a poison. The description
by Xenophon of the intoxicating or maddening honey, which
so violently affected a number of the ten thousand Greek sol-
diers in his celebrated retreat, has been confirmed by the ob-
servations of Tournefort ; and Dr. Barton, in his account of
the poisonous honey collected from the Kalmia latifolia by
the bees in Pennsylvania, justly observes that there is more
of poetry than philosophy in the following lines of Pope: —

" In the nice bee, what sense so subtly true
From poisonous herbs extracts the healing dew."

The honey which is swallowed by the bees passes into the
crop, where it is accumulated as in a reservoir, and upon the
return of the bee to the hive is regurgitated into a honey-cell.
If any honey had been previously accumulated there, the bee
breaks through the firm, cream-like crust which always forms
upon the exposed surface of the honey, and it is this crust
which maintains the honey in the horizontal cells.

The collection of the farina or pollen of flowers is a great
object of the industry of bees. In large flowers, as the tulip,
the bee dives in, and, if the pollen receptacle or anther be
not burst, she bites it open and comes out singularly disguised,
being covered over entirely with the fertilizing dust, which
adheres readily to the fringed hairs of her body and legs.

Aristotle, who was well acquainted with much that is in-
teresting in the economy of the bee, was the first to observe
that a bee during each single excursion from the hive limits
her visits to one species of flower. Modern naturalists have
confirmed the general accuracy of this statement, and have
noticed that the pollen with which a bee comes home laden is
always of the same color. The necessity of this instinct
arises out of the operation which the pollen first undergoes
when collected by the bee. She rakes it out with incredible
quickness by means of the first pair of legs, then passes it to
the middle pair, which transfer it to the hind legs, by which it
is wrought into little pellets. Now if the pollen were taken
indiscriminately from different flowers, it is probable that the
grains, being heterogeneous, would not cohere so effectually.

11

APIS MELLIFICA.

Certain it is that bees enter the hive, some with yellow pel-
lets, others with orange, pink, white, or even green colored
ones, but they are never observed to be party-colored. Through
this instinct another important end is gained, in relation to the
impregnation of flowers ; the production of hybrid plants by
the application of the pollen of one species to the stigma of
another is avoided, while those flowers are more effectually
fertilized which require the aid of insects for that purpose.

When a pollen-laden bee arrives at the hive, she generally
walks or stands upon the comb beating her wings, and three
or four of her fellow-citizens assist in lightening her of her
load ; or the laden bee puts her two hind legs into a cell, and
with the intermediate pair, or the extremity of the abdomen,
brushes off the pellets. These are then kneaded into a paste
at the bottom of the cell, and several cells are thus filled with
the packed and softened pollen, which is called bee-bread.

Besides the honey and farina, bees collect a peculiar sub-
stance like gum-resin, which was called "propolis" by Pliny;
and this they obtain principally from the balsamic buds of the
horse-chestnut, birch, and poplar, especially the Populus bal-
samifera. The propolis is soft, red, will pull out in a thread,
and is aromatic. It is employed in the hive, not only in finish-
ing the combs, but also in stopping up every chink or orifice
by which cold, wet, or any enemy can enter. Like the pellets
of pollen, it is carried on the posterior tibiae, but the masses are
lenticular. Having thus traced the operations of the working
bees relating to the collection of the substances required in
the economy of the hive, it will now be requisite to return to
the larvae, which are the immediate objects of all this industry.

The bees may be readily detected feeding the young maggot,
which opens its lateral jaws to receive the bee-bread, and swal-
lows it. The well-fed maggot soon grows too large for its
tough outer skin, and accordingly casts it, when its bulk has
increased so that it fills its cell ; it then requires no more food,
and is ready to be inclosed for the chrysalis state. The last
care of the foster parents is to cover over the mouth of the
cell with a substance of a light brown color, apparently a mix-
ture of wax and farina. This takes place generally four days
after the larva was excluded from the egg. The inclosed larva
now begins to line the cell and covering of the aperture before
mentioned with a silk, which it spins from glandular tubes
similar to those of the silk-worm. When the first three seg-

12

APIS MELLIFICA.

ments of the trunk, to which the locomotive organs of the per-
fect insect are attached, begin to be enlarged, the last larva-
skin splits along the back, and is pushed off from the head
backwards and deposited at the bottom of the cell, and it then
becomes a chrysalis. Now the wonderful changes take place,
partly by a formation of new organs, partly by the develop-
ment of preexisting ones, which end at last in the completion
of the perfect bee.

Mr. Hunter ascertained the duration of the pupa state of the
bee to be in one instance thirteen days and twelve hours, ex-
actly, making the period of immature life, from the first deposi-
tion of the egg, to be twenty-two days and a half, — a re-
markably brief time for the completion of the metamorphoses,
as compared with that in which the corresponding changes
are effected in other metabolian insects. When the bee first
comes forth, it is of a grayish color, but soon assumes the or-
dinary brown tint.

When the season of oviposition and the rearing of the
larvae is over, then the business of collecting honey seriously
begins ; and when the last chrysalis of the season has disclosed
its image, the deserted cell is immediately filled with honey,
and covered over with wax, to serve as a store for winter.

In the month of August it is supposed that the prolific fe-
male, which is to produce the swarms of the following year,
is impregnated. This act takes place in the air. The queen,
being preceded by the drones, traverses the exterior of the
hive, and suddenly rises aloft in the air, wheeling upwards
in large circles until she is out of sight. The male, unable to
extricate the intromitted parts, generally perishes. The rest
of this unhappy sex share a similar fate, and meet a violent
death from the jaws of the unprolific females. It would seem
as if the drones were conscious of their danger at this season,
for they do not loiter as usual at the mouth of the hive, but
hurry in or out. However, they are attacked by one, two, or
three workers at a time, who do not sting them, as Huber as-
serts, but pinch them and pull them about as if to wear them
out. From this instinctive and indiscriminate slaughter of the
males it may be inferred that the impregnation of the queen
has taken place before the setting in of the winter season,
and that the ova, the development of which is retarded dur-
ing the indolent state in which bees pass through the cold
months, are in a condition to be developed and produce the

13

APIS MELLIFICA.

larvae at the approach of spring. Yet, although on the setting
in of the cold weather the bees remain very quiet, they are not
torpid, as is the case with most other insects. They cluster as
close together as the comb will permit, and have the faculty of
generating a degree of heat superior to that of the external
atmosphere.

Mr. Hunter found, during an evening in July, when the
temperature of the atmosphere was 54°, that of the interior
of a hive full of bees was 82° ; and in December, the external
atmosphere being 35°, the bees preserved a temperature of
73°, and what is at this season extremely rare in the lower
animals, they maintain their digestive powers, and subsist on
the produce of the summer and autumn. Accordingly, they
are ready to take advantage of any fine and mild day, and
may be seen then flying abroad, and appearing to enjoy it.
They void their excrements at this time, for they are insects
of singular cleanliness and propriety, and when purposely
confined in the hive with abundance of food, they have been
known to fall a sacrifice to this instinctive repugnance to
defile the hive.

The continuance of the digestive actions during the winter
influences the condition of the oviducts in the queen, and the
impregnated ova begin early to expand, and are ready for
exclusion towards the end of March. This makes the bee
the earliest breeder among insects. The laborers now resume
their accustomed duties, and as the season is too early for
collecting the provision of the maggot abroad, the store of
bee-bread laid up in the preceding year comes into use, for
the sustenance of the larvae, which are about to form the first
swarm. As soon, however, as the flowers begin to blow, the
bees fly forth to gather fresh pollen, propolis, and honey, and
the labors of the year recommence.

It appears to be the presence of the larvae which are des-
tined to become perfect females, which stimulates the old
queen to leave the hive. After repeated attempts to penetrate
their cells, and destroy her royal progeny, she becomes infu-
riated, communicates her agitation to a portion of her subjects,
which together with her rush out of the hive, and seek a
new domicile. It is stated, that, in every instance, the old
queen leads the first swarm; the laborers that remain pay
particular attention to the royal larvae that remain, and these,
as they are successively excluded, lead away fresh swarms, if

14

APIS MELLIFICA.

the hive be not sufficiently enlarged. Each swarm contains,
not only the recently hatched young bees, but also a portion
of the old inhabitants. Some assert that the queen which
leads each swarm is impregnated soon after the new colony
is settled ; and as this may take place early in the summer,
she begins to oviposit the same year. The number of ova
which are fertilized by a single coupling is prodigious. Hu-
ber calculates that the queen lays twelve thousand eggs in
two months, while, according to Reaumur, she oviposits at
the rate of two hundred a day. The duration of life of the
different individuals of the hive varies ; that of the male bee
is not more than two or three months ; there is more doubt
respecting the longevity of the workers, but it is probable
that it does not extend much beyond a year. The term of
the queen's existence has been stated to have been prolonged
for five years ; but this is rendered improbable by the fact, that
all insects of the same species have nearly the same duration
of existence allotted to them.

APIS MELLIFICA, the true honey-bee, was originally limited
in its geographical range to the Old World, whence it has
been transported to America, and other countries where
European colonies have been established, and where it is
now acclimated. The distinguished entomologist, Latreille,
on whose authority it is stated, is even of opinion that the
honey-bee of the South and East of Europe, as well as that
of Egypt, differs specifically from the Apis mellifica of West-
ern Europe.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

HONEY has a peculiar saccharine aromatic odor, and a sweet
acidulous, sharp taste. In color, it varies from white or yel-
lowish-white to a pretty deep shade of amber or golden-
yellow. In consistence, it varies from the fluidity of limpid
oil to the stiffness of soft suet, and when the more limpid
kind is kept, partly crystallizes into little irregular concretions.
It evidently contains sugar, mucilage, wax, and an acid,
and occasionally some essential oil, as in the perfumed honey
of the Crimea. Honey is soluble in water, and partially in
alcohol, and, like sugar, passes into the vinous and acetous
fermentation. When heated over a slow fire, it throws up a
scum, and if the heat be continued, so as to produce evapo-

15

APIS MELLIFICA

ration, the vapor is inflammable, and the honey becomes
brown and acquires an unpleasant flavor, which is strong in
proportion to the degree of temperature employed. Lowitz
found that the addition of charcoal to a solution of honey
deprives it of odor, taste, and color, but the color again returns
when the solution is evaporated. Cavezzali separated the
sugar by first melting the honey, then adding carbonate of
lime (egg-shells) in powder as long as any effervescence ap-
peared, and after separating a scum, which forms by rest,
filtering it, and setting it aside to crystallize. The crystals
he purified by washing them with alcohol. Proust separated
it from a ready-granulated honey by the action of alcohol.
The sugar of honey is of two kinds, one resembling the sugar
of grapes, the other the sugar of the sugar-cane. Nitric acid
converts honey into oxalic acid.

Honey is laxative, and externally detergent and stimulant.
Simple honey is seldom ordered as an internal medicine;
indeed, when freely eaten as food, it passes off quickly by stool,
and induces colic in some habits, on which account simple
sirup should perhaps be preferred in all cases for forming
medicinal preparations for internal use. As a local stimulant,
it is employed in glysters, and forms an excellent adjunct to
gargles in cynanche and aphthous ulceration of the mouth
and fauces. It is also a useful detergent to foul ulcers.

WAX, in the extended meaning of the term, may be re-
garded both as an animal and a vegetable product. But
it is only the former species of it, or beeswax, which is offi-
cinal, and demands present consideration. It is admitted
into the list of materia medico, under two forms. I. As it is
procured originally from the combs, combined with coloring-
matter, or unbleached. II. Deprived of color, and purified,
or bleached.

CERA FLAVA. Unbleached wax, or yellow wax, is prepared
immediately from the honeycomb. The honey is obtained
by dripping and pressing the comb, which is then soaked for
some days in clear water to extract all the remaining honey,
and afterwards melted in a clean vessel with boiling water,
and pressed through cloth bags. It is then remelted and cast
into round cakes, in which form it is brought to market.

Good and recent yellow wax has a slight odor of honey,
is insipid, and of a bright pale-yellow hue. It is brittle, yet
soft, somewhat unctuous to the touch, but without adhering

16

\PIS MELLIFICA.

to the fingers, or to the teeth when it is chewed, acquires
tenacity when heated, melts at 142°, and burns entirely
away. Its specfiic gravity varies from 0.9600 to 0.9650.

Wax in this form is often adulterated with earth, or resin
and tallow. Earth may be suspected when the cake is very
brittle, and the color inclines more to gray than bright pale-
yellow ; they may be separated by melting and straining the
wax. The presence of resin may be suspected when the
fracture appears smooth and shining, instead of being gran-
ulated, and it may be detected by putting small pieces of
the wax in cold alcohol, which will readily dissolve the resin-
ous part, without acting on the real wax. Tallow is discov-
ered by the greater softness and unctuosity of the cake, and
its disagreeable, suffocating smell when melted.

Yellow wax is scarcely ever ordered as medicine for inter-
nal use, although its coloring matter does not affect its
medical properties. It is chiefly employed in the composition
of external applications.

CERA ALBA. Bleached wax, or white wax. When yellow
wax is exposed, with an extended surface, to the action of
light and air, and sprinkled with water, the yellow color and
peculiar odor are lost, and it becomes white. This process
is thus performed. The yellow wax is melted with a very little
water in a copper vessel, and then run off through a plug-
hole in the bottom into another vessel, which is covered with
a cloth to retain the heat until the water and the impurities
settle. The clarified melted wax is next suffered to flow into
a vessel, the bottom of which is full of small holes, through
which it runs in small streams upon a cylinder kept constant-
ly revolving over, and partly dipping in, cold water, into which
the wax falls drawn out into thin shreds or ribbons, and is
instantly cooled. These are spread upon cloths stretched on
frames exposed to the light and air, and occasionally watered
and turned, so that after some days the color nearly disap-
pears. After being thus half bleached, the wax remains
heaped up in a solid mass for a month, when the whole pro-
cess is again repeated. It is, lastly, generaUy melted and cast
into thin discs, about five inches in diameter, in which form
it is found in the stores.

White wax is sometimes adulterated with white oxide of
lead, in order to increase its weight, with white tallow, and
with potato-starch. The first is detected by melting the wax

17

APIS MELLIFICJfc.

in water, when the oxide falls to the bottom of the vessel ;
white wax is known to contain tallow, when it is of a dull,
opaque white, and wants the transparency which distinguish-
es pure wax; and starch is detected by adding to the sus-
pected wax two per cent, of strong sulphuric acid, and then
washing the mixture carefully : the acid carbonizes the starch
without acting on the wax.

Pure white wax is perfectly insipid, inodorous, and some-
what translucent. It is harder, less unctuous to the touch,
heavier, and less fusible than yellow wax ; its specific gravity
being from 0.8203 to 0.9662, and its melting point 155°. It
melts into a colorless, transparent fluid, which concretes again
as it cools, resuming its former appearance. Wax is perfect-
ly insoluble in water, and nearly so in cold alcohol, although
this fluid takes up about one twentieth of its weight at a
boiling temperature, which, however, is again deposited as
the fluid cools. Ether acts in the same manner as alcohol.
Wax dissolves in the fixed oils, forming the base of cerates
and ointments, and unites in some degree, when boiled, with
alkalies, forming soaps. The acids at an ordinary tempera-
ture scarcely affect it. The products of its decomposition
by heat, in close vessels, show that, like the fixed oils, it is
a triple compound of carbon 81.607, hydrogen 13.859, and
oxygen 4.534, in one hundred parts. Dr. John affirms that
one hundred parts of wax digested in boiling alcohol is divid-
ed into two distinct substances, eighty parts consisting of a
body soluble in hot alcohol and oils, and deposited by cooling,
and thirteen of a substance completely insoluble in alcohol,
the first of which he has named cerine^ the second myridne.

Wax is regarded as a demulcent, and is sometimes exhib-
ited in obstinate cases of diarrhoea and dysentery, with the
view of sheathing the bowels, but its place may be better
supplied by simple mucilages and gelatinous solutions. It
is generally exhibited diffused in mucilaginous fluids by
means of soap, in the proportion of one third part of wax,
with which it is first melted, and then rubbed in a mortar
with the fluid, which is gradually added: but Poerner's
method, which is first to melt the wax with olive-oil, and
then to mix the oily compound while hot with the mucilagi-
nous fluid, by triturating with the yelk of an egg, is a prefer-
able one. The dose is a cupful of the emulsion, containing
about one scruple of wax, given every four or five hours.

18

VERTEBRATA.

Vertebrated Animals.

No. 7.
MOSCHUS MOSCHIFERUS.

THE MUSK ANIMAL,.

Moschus.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Musk.

Geog: Position. Asia.

Quality. Aromatic.

Power. Stimulant, antispasmodic.

Use. Spasmodic diseases, hysteria, asthma, cholera, &c.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
5. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Mammalia.

Cuvier, Regne Animale, II. Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 447. Syst. Nat
Gmelin, I. 172. Pereira, Mat. Med. H. 812. Thomson, Mat. Med. 63, 510.
Lond. Disp. 444. U. S. Disp. 481. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 52. EC. Disp. 266.

GENUS MOSCHUS.

Muse (F.), Bisam (G.), Muschio (It), Almizcle (Sp.), Muskus (Dutch), Mysk
(Swed.), Denner (Dan.), Almisca (Port.), Meshk (Arab, and Hind.), Castorie
(Tarn.), Mesk (Pers.), Jebat (Malay), Rutta Oorrola (Cyng.), Ziakoo (Japanese).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Incisors none in the upper jaw, in the lower usually eight. A
vacant space between the incisors and molars, but in which
in some genera are found one or two canines. Molars
twelve in each jaw, the crown marked with two double cres-
cents of enamel, of which the convexity is universally out-
wards in the lower jaw, and inwards in the upper.

Clavicles none. Extremities disposed for walking. Two toes
furnished with hoofs, metacarpal and metatarsal bones
united.

Stomachs four ; the first and largest is called the paunch, the
second the bonnet, the third the leaflet, and the fourth the
rennet. Intestines long.

Mammae two or four, inguinal.

Horns in the male, and frequently in the female, of most species.

1

MOSCHUS MOSCHIFERUS.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

MOSCHUS. A long canine on each side of the upper jaw
and projecting from the mouth in the males. Canines wanting
altogether in the females. Body slender. Ears long and point-
ed. Feet small, with hoofs separated and enveloping the last
phalanges. Tail very short. Two inguinal mammce. No
lachrymal apparatus.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

MOSCHUS MOSCHIFERUS. Fur of a gray brown. Hair coarse.
Size of the roebuck. A pouch placed under the belly and before
the prepuce of the male, in which is inclosed a strong, unctuous
musky substance.

NATURAL HISTORY.

MOSCHUS MOSCHIFERUS. The musk deer inhabits the vast
mountainous regions of Central Asia extending from India
to Siberia, and from the country of the Turcomans to China.
It is an active and timid animal, springing from rock to rock
with surprising agility, and frequenting the snowy recesses
and most inaccessible crags of the mountains. Concealing
itself during the day, it chooses the night for roaming in search
of food, and though said to be abundant in its native regions
is taken with difficulty. The length of the full-grown animal
scarcely ever exceeds three feet, and in its general aspect it
resembles the deer; the head is not very unlike that of a hog,
the eyes are black and full, and, projecting from the upper
jaw, the teeth hang pointing downwards over the lower jaw;
the fleece is coarser than that of the stag, but very light and
soft, and varying in color at different seasons of the year and
different periods of life, chiefly from brown to nearly black,
hoary underneath and sometimes, but rarely, whitish. The
tail is very short. Close to the skin, at the posterior part of
the abdomen of the animal, is an oval bag, flat on one side and
convex on the other. It is situated under the skin, and opens
exteriorly by a small aperture immediately in front of the pre-
putial orifice. It is an appendage only of the males. On the
convex side it is covered with stiff hairs, but on the flat surface,
which is applied to the abdomen of the animal, it is a naked
membrane. The bag is lined with an irregularly plaited mem-
brane, in depressions of which are the glands that secrete the

2

MOSCHUS MOSCHIFERUS.

musk, which during the life of the animal is soft, unctuous,
in irregular reddish-brown granules. The quantity in the bag
varies ; in the young animal it is empty and contracted, in the
adult it contains about a drachm and a half of musk, arid in
old animals more than two drachms. But these quantities
must be below the average, since the dried pods of commerce
contain, on the average, more musk than this. The animal
itself often expresses part of the contents of the bag when it
becomes too full, by rubbing itself against stones, and the mat-
ter thus ejected is said to be a purer musk than that which is
brought to market. The bag is generally cut from the animal
while it is yet alive, and an idea prevails that the animal must
be caught alive in order to obtain the musk, which is said to
be absorbed and lost if the deer be shot. As soon as the bag
is cut away, a small hollow reed is inserted into it that the
musk may not suffer, which it would be apt to do from want of
air, and the whole is tied around with a sinew of the animal.

Various methods of catching the animals are adopted.
Sometimes they are taken by snares or gins, sometimes by
pitfalls, sometimes by shooting them. The Tungouses, one
of the native tribes of Siberia, employ the bow and arrow
only.

Two kinds of musk are found in the market. One, the
Tonquin or Chinese, has the bag covered with reddish or
cinnamon-colored hairs. The other, called the Kabardine or
Russian, is covered with coarse white hair. The Tonquin or
Chinese is the best. This is imported in small rectangular
boxes or caddies, covered externally by silk, and lined with
sheet-lead and paper. These boxes contain from twenty to
sixty and one hundred ounces each, in sacs or pods separately
wrapped in paper. These natural follicles or pods are round-
ish or somewhat oval, generally broader at one end than at
the other. The hairs are brownish-yellow, or grayish, or whit-
ish, bristle-like and stiff, arranged in a concentric manner
around the orifice of the sac. The weight of each pod, as
well as of the contained musk, is very variable.

The Kabardine or Russian musk is an inferior kind. The
pods are said to be more oblong or oval than those of the
Chinese kind, the hairs longer and whiter. The odor is much
less powerful, and more nauseous and disagreeable, being
somewhat empyreumatic. Geiger says it is sometimes ac-
companied by an odor similar to that of the sweat of a horse.

3

MOSCHUS MOSCHIFERUS.

This kind of musk is imported in wooden boxes, and some-
times not in a good state of preservation.

The high price of musk is a strong inducement for its adul-
teration, and this is not confined to the grain musk. When
adulterated, the bag, which should not have any appearance
of having been opened, appears, if narrowly examined, slit or
punctured in several places, through which sand, lead, and
other heavy matters, are inserted. The musk is sometimes
nearly all abstracted, and a mixture of dried blood and as-
phaltum introduced into the bag; or both the bag and the
musk are artificial, and only scented with real musk. The
blood of the animal itself is often injected into the bag of
musk, while both are warm, and they then unite. The first of
these adulterations is easily detected. The presence of blood
may be suspected, if the musk, when held over the flame of a
candle on a thin spatula, emits as it inflames a fetid smoke ;
and asphaltum is discovered by its melting and running before
it inflames, if heated on a spatula : whereas real musk in-
flames without running, and is converted into charcoal. The
artificial bags are known by the inner membrane, which lines
the real musk-bags, being deficient. Grain musk is sometimes
imitated by dried blood, and perhaps by other substances.
The fraud is to be detected by a careful examination of the
appearance and odor of the particles, and by their chemical
characters. An infusion of genuine musk gives no precipi-
tate with a solution of bichloride of mercury, but does with
tincture of nutgalls and acetate of lead. By incineration,
genuine musk leaves behind a grayish-white ash, whereas
blood yields a reddish one. Artificial musk is said to be pre-
pared by rubbing in a mortar dried bullock's blood with caus-
tic ammonia, and mixing the half-dried mass with genuine
musk.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

THE odor of Musk is aromatic, but peculiar, extremely
powerful, and durable. In many individuals the odor of
musk causes headache, and in some instances, when it is
strong, convulsions. The taste is bitterish and heavy, and
the color a deep brown, with a shade of red. Exposed to
heat it burns with a white flame, and leaves a light, spongy
charcoal. Trituration with potassa develops ammonia. Boil-

4

' MOSCHUS MOSCHIFERUS.

ing water dissolves about eighty parts, alcohol only fifty, but
sulphuric ether completely. The watery infusion has a yel-
lowish-brown color, a bitterish taste, and the strong odor of
the musk, and reddens infusion of litmus. Solutions of oxy-
muriate of mercury and of sulphate of iron produce with it
copious precipitates, as does also infusion of yellow cinchona
bark. Solution of nitrate of silver throws down a whitish
precipitate, which, on exposure to the light, changes to a livid
blue, and nitrate of mercury produces a brownish precipitate.
The alcoholic tincture is of a reddish-brown color, transparent,
but with scarcely any odor of the musk. Water renders it
milky, and gives out the strong musk odor ; but with the other
test, it presents the same results as the watery infusion. The
ethereal tincture has a deep brown color, and when evaporated
on the surface of water deposits a brown, tenacious, nearly
insipid resin, and renders the water milky. The resinous
matter has the musk odor in perfection, while the substance
which occasions the turbidness of the water possesses the
properties of extractive. From these results, musk appears
to contain albumen, gluten, muriate of soda, phosphate of
soda, and an uncombined acid, but the greater part of it con-
sists of a resin, combined with a volatile oil and a mucilagi-
nous extractive matter. According to the analysis of Blon-
deau and Guibourt, and that of Geiger and Reinmann,
musk consists of stearine, elaine, cholesterine, an acid oil com-
bined with ammonia, free ammonia, muriates of ammonia, po-
tassa, and lime, an undetermined acid combined with ammonia,
potassa, and lime ; gelatine, albumen, fibrine, carbonized matter,
soluble in water ; carbonate and phosphate of lime, and water,
and a peculiar bitter resin, which can be readily separated by
ether, from which it is deposited on the surface of the water.
The odor of musk can scarcely be called peculiar, since it
is common to several animals and vegetables. Thus the
musk-ox and the musk or civet cat evolve it. Among plants
ERODIUM MOSCHATUM, the musk geranium, MALVA MOSCHATA,
the musk mallows, and CENTAUREA MOSCHATA, the sweet sultana,
may be referred to as possessing a musky odor. When
mixed with other scents, musk has the remarkable property of
augmenting and improving their smell, without much impart-
ing its own ; hence it is extensively used by perfumers. A few
drops of potash added to musk increases its odor, by setting
free, it is supposed, ammonia.

5

MOSCHUS MOSCHIFEKUS.

Musk is stimulant and antispasmodic. Aetius is the first
writer who mentions it as a medicine, but it did not come
into general use till the beginning of the sixteenth century.
In moderate doses it operates on the nerves of the stomach,
causing, when this organ is in an irritable state, nausea and a
sensation of heat at the epigastrium. If the dose be repeated
at short intervals, it acts as a general excitant and antispas-
modic, increasing the force and quickness of the circulation,
and exciting perspiration. It is taken into the blood, and the
odor of the drug becomes evident in the urine, the sweat,
and other excretions, and in post-mortem dissections of persons
under a course of musk, every cavity and tissue is found to
be penetrated by it. From the report of M. Jorg and a soci-
ety of experimentalists at Leipzig, the primary influence of
musk appears to be that of an excitant on the stomach,
causing increase of appetite, dryness of the gullet, and eruc-
tations ; the secondary, on the nervous centres, causing ver-
tigo, headache, nausea, drowsiness, and a general sensation
of heaviness and faintness.

Musk has a remarkable power of resolving spasm and
increasing the energy of the brain and nerves. Hence it is
very efficaciously given in typhoid fevers, when low delirium,
subsultus tendinum, and hiccough supervene ; and in combi-
nation with ammonia to arrest the progress of gangrene. Its
beneficial effects in all spasmodic diseases are well established,
and Dr. Cullen says he can vouch for its powers in retrocedent
gout, which in many instances he had seen suddenly relieved
by large doses of musk. It checks the vomiting in cholera,
at the same time that it allays the termina of the intestines.
In epilepsy, more benefit has been derived from musk in com-
bination with calomel than from any other remedy, and
much of 'the disappointment which others have experienced
may be attributed either to the remedy not having been gen-
uine, or to the smallness of the dose. To obtain the full
benefit of musk in this disease, the dose must be much larger
than that which is usually given, it should be repeated
at shorter intervals, and its use be continued for a longer
period.

It may be given in the form, of pill or emulsion. The me-
dium dose is ten grains, to be repeated every two or three
hours. In the cases of children, it may be given with great
advantage in the form of enema.

6

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1

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Ps I

33 B •
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Z%\

VERTEBRATA.

Vertebrated Animals.

No. 8.
PHYSETEK, MACROCEPHALUS.

SPERMACETI WHALE, OR GREAT-HEADED
CACHALOT.

Cetaceum.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Spermaceti.

Geog-. Position. Southern seas.
Quality. Inodorous, insipid.
Power. Emollient, demulcent.

Use. Diarrhoea, dysentery, catarrh, and in the preparation
of cerates and ointments.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
5. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Mammalia.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 450. Syst. Nat. Gmelin, I. 227. Pereira, Mat.
Med. II. 809. Thomson, Mat. Med. 70, 1174. Lond. Disp. 490. U. S. Disp.
209. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 55. EC. Disp. U. S. 117.

GENUS PHYSETER.

Spermaceti, Cetine (Fr.), Wallrath (Ger.), Spermaceti (It.), Espermaceti (Sp.),
Walschot (Dutch).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Body pisciform, terminated by a caudal appendage, cartilagi-
nous and horizontal.

Fins, two anterior extremities formed similar to, having the
bones which form them flattened and very soft.

Head joined to the body by a very short, thick neck.

Mammce two, pectoral or abdominal.

Ears with very small external openings.

Brains large.

Pelvis and bones of the posterior extremities represented by
two rudimentary bones lost in the flesh.

1

PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

PHYSETER. Inferior teeth eighteen to twenty-three on each
side of the jaw. Upper jaw broad, elevated, without teeth, or
with these short and concealed in the gum. Lower jaw elon-
gated, narrow, corresponding to a furrow of the upper, and
armed with thick and conical teeth, entering into correspond-
ing cavities in the upper jaw. Spiracular orifices united at
the upper part of the snout. A dorsal fin in some species, a
simple eminence in others. Cartilaginous cavities in the su-
perior region of the head, filled with oily matter.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS. Lower teeth twenty to twenty-
three on each side, recurved and pointed at the extremity.
Small conical teeth concealed in the upper gums. Tail narrow
and conical. A longitudinal eminence on the back above the
anus. Upper part of body blackish or slate-blue, a little spotted
with white. Belly whitish. Length forty-five to sixty feet.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The grand classical characters which Nature has imprinted
on the cetaceous order will, in a philosophical view, vindicate
their arrangement among the Mammalia. Their internal
structure agrees in every respect with that of the Mammalia of
Cuvier, and their external conformation also is in some other
parts similar. Being destitute of gills, they breathe by means
of lungs, which obliges them frequently to rise to the surface
of the water for fresh air. Another great resemblance to the
Mammalia is their having warm blood, and being provided
with mammae, with which they suckle their young.

The PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS inhabits chiefly the South-
ern Ocean, although occasionally it is found in the European
seas. It is a large fish, generally measuring about sixty feet
in length and thirty in circumference at the thickest part of
the head, which is blunt and about nine feet in height. Not-
withstanding its prodigious length, the snout is formed only
by the maxillae on the sides, by the intermaxillae towards the
median line, and by the vomer on this line. The intermaxillae
project to form the anterior part of the snout. Posteriorly, the
right one ascends higher than the left. The spout-hole is sin-
gle (in most it is double), and directed towards the left side,

PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS.

so that whenever the animal spouts water it is to that side on-
ly. The upper part of the body is of a blackish color, and the
belly white. There are forty-six double teeth in the lower
jaw, which is shorter than the upper, and in the head is a tri-
angular, bony cavity, covered by the common integuments
only, and filled with an oily fluid, which on the death of the
fish congeals into a spongy mass. The eyes are small, the
pectoral fins near the angles of the mouth, and the tail forked.

Spermaceti is found in several parts of the body of the ani-
mal, mixed with the common fat. The head, however, is the
grand reservoir for it. Here it is found (mixed with oil), in a
large excavation of the upper jaw, anterior to, and quite dis-
tinct from, the true cranium which contains the brain. Mr.
Hunter (Phil Trans., Vol. LXXVII. p. 390) states that the
spermaceti and oil are contained in cells, or a cellular mem-
brane, in the same manner as the fat in other animals ; but
that, besides the common cells, there are larger ones, or liga-
mentous partitions going across, the better to support the vast
load of oil, of which the bulk of the head is principally made
up. An ordinary-sized whale wih1 yield upwards of twelve
large barrels of crude spermaceti.

There are two places in the head where this oil lies ; these
are situated along its upper and lower part; between them
pass the nostrils, and a vast number of tendons going to the
nose and different parts of the head. The purest spermaceti
is contained in the smallest and least ligamentous cells. It
lies above the nostril, along the upper part of the head, im-
mediately under the skin and common adipose membrane.
These cells resemble those which contain the common fat in
the other parts of the body nearest the skin. That which lies
above the roof of the mouth, or between it and the nostrils, is
more intermixed with a ligamentous cellular membrane, and
lies in chambers whose partitions are perpendicular. These
chambers are smaller the nearer to the nose, increasing towards
the back part of the head, where the spermaceti is more pure.

Mr. Hunter discovered about the nose, or anterior part of the
nostril, a great many vessels having the appearance of a plex-
us of veins, some as large as a finger. On examining them
they were found loaded with spermaceti and oil, and some had
corresponding arteries. They were most probably lymphatics,
whose contents had been absorbed from the cells of the head.

In the right side of the nose and upper surface of the head of

3

PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS.

the whale is a triangular-shaped cavity, called by the whalers
" the case." Into this the whalers make an opening, and take
out the liquid contents (oil and spermaceti) by a bucket.
The dense mass of cellular tissue beneath the case and nos-
tril, and which is technically called "junJc" also contains sper-
maceti, with which and oil its tissue is infiltrated. The sper-
maceti from the case is carefully boiled alone and placed in
separate casks, when it is called " head-matter" The sub-
stance called head-matter consists of spermaceti and sperm
oil. Its color is yellow. Its consistence varies with the tem-
perature. In cold weather it consists of a congealed mass
(spermaceti) surrounded and infiltrated by oil. To separate
the latter as much as possible, the mass is put into hair bags
and pressed between two plates of iron, in a screw-press, until
it becomes hard and brittle. It is then broken in pieces and
thrown into boiling water, where it melts, and the impurities
rising to the surface are skimmed off. After being cooled
and separated from the water, it is put into fresh water in a
large boiler, and a weak lye of the potassa of commerce added
to it by degrees. This part of the process is thrice repeated,
and the whole poured into coolers, where the spermaceti con-
cretes into a white, semitransparent mass, which, on being cut
into small pieces, assumes the flaky aspect it has in the stores.

The Spermaceti whale or Cachalot resembles in size and
appearance the Large Whalebone whale (Balcena myslicetus)^
the value of which to man is such, that large fleets are annu-
ally fitted out expressly for its capture. The food of the
whale consists exclusively of small molluscous and crustaceous
animals, but chiefly the Clio borealis, and as these animals
abound only in the Arctic seas, the whale cannot be expected
to frequent for any length of time those latitudes in which its
food is scarce or altogether wanting. The annual destruction
of the Balcena mysticetus has greatly diminished its numbers,
and driven it to the extremest limits of the Northern seas,
where its means of subsistence can be obtained.

The Large Whalebone whale is often spoken of as the lar-
gest of existing animals, but it is inferior in magnitude to the
Small Whalebone whale (Balcenoptera). The latter attains
the length of from ninety to one hundred feet, while the ordi-
nary dimensions of the true whale are from fifty to sixty feet
in length, and from thirty to forty feet in circumference. The
terms " Large Whalebone" and " Small Whalebone" relate to

4

PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS.

the size of the whalebone or baleen-plates, which are always
much greater in the genus Balcena than in Balcenoptera, and
it is this structure combined with the greater amount of blub-
ber in the true whale, which renders it an object of so much
more value to the whale-catchers, while its less courageous
habits, and .less violent efforts to escape when wounded, make
it a more sure and safe prey than the Small Whalebone whale.

The plates of whalebone are the substitutes for teeth in
the mouth ; they have a similar mode of development from a
pulp and external membrane, and differ only in form, and in a
less proportion of earthy matter in their composition. They are
arranged vertically and transversely, in two series, consisting
each of three hundred plates, descending from the palatal
surface of the upper jaw, and terminating in a fringe of coarse
hairs on their oblique and inner margins, which is in contact
with the upper surface of the bulky tongue when the mouth is
closed. The mechanism of the seine is thus realized on an
enormous scale, and while the water gulped at each successive
mouthful is drained off through the interstices of the baleen-
plates, the molluscous and crustaceous animals are retained,
bruised into a pulp between the muscular tongue and coarse
fibres of the whalebone, and swallowed. The area of the gul-
let corresponds with the minute character of the food, and is
relatively smaller in the whale than in any other animal. The
stomach is divided into four cavities ; the intestinal canal is
long and narrow, and provided with a short and simple ca3cum.

The whale has usually but one young at a birth, and brings
forth in the early spring. The period of gestation is unknown,
that of suckling lasts a year. In this stage of their growth,
the young are called short-heads by the whale-fishers ; at two
years old, and until able to find their appropriate food in due
abundance, they are termed stunts ; when they begin to get fat,
and until they attain their full size, they are called skull-fish.

The interesting details of the profitable but perilous occu-
pation of whale-fishing will be found most amply and correctly
given in Scoresby's Account of the Arctic Regions. The baleen
and blubber are the only parts of the animal of any commer-
cial value, and the quantity of both yielded by these enormous
animals is of course considerable. The length of the largest
whalebone plates in a whale of sixty feet is as much as twelve
feet, and the blubber of such a one will yield more than
twenty tuns of pure oil, the proportion of oil to the blubber

5

PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS.

from which it is extracted being as three to four. The blubber
is principally accumulated at the circumference of the body,
beneath and in the extended tissue of the skin ; an immense
quantity of fine oil is also lodged in the cellular substance
of the tongue, and the coarse and porous bones, particularly
the lower jaw, are full of pure oil.

The common whale oil and the oil of other cetaceous ani-
mals contain small quantities of spermaceti, which they
slowly deposit on long standing ; and this is also the case in
a moderate degree with the oil of all fishes, whether breath-
ing by lungs and mammiferous, or breathing by gills.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

SPERMACETI is in white, pearly, semitransparent masses, of
a crystalline foliaceous texture, friable, soft, and somewhat
unctuous to the touch, slightly odorous, insipid, specific grav-
ity 0.943, fusible at 112° Fahrenheit, volatilizable at a higher
temperature without change in vacua, but partially decom-
posed if the air is admitted, inflammable, insoluble in water,
soluble in smaU proportion in boiling alcohol, ether, or oil
of turpentine, but deposited as the liquids cool, readily solu-
ble in the fixed oils, not affected by the mineral acids, except
the sulphuric, which decomposes and dissolves it, rendered
yellowish and rancid by long exposure to hot air, but capable
of being again purified by washing with a warm lye of potash.
By the agency of the alkalies, it is with difficulty saponified,
being converted into an acid called by MM. Dumas and
Stass ethalic acid, and a peculiar principle named ethal by
Chevreul. Spermaceti, when quite pure, may be considered
either as a compound of ethalic acid and ethal, or as a dis-
tinct substance which is resolved into these two by reaction
with alkaline solutions. (Aimal. der Chem. undPharm., XLIII.
241.) The name of cetin was proposed for it in this state
by Chevreul. As found in the stores it is not entirely pure,
containing a fixed oil and often a peculiar coloring principle.
From these it is separated by boiling in alcohol, which on
cooling deposits the cetin in crystalline scales. Thus purified,
it does not melt under 120° Fahrenheit, is soluble in forty parts
of boiling alcohol of the specific gravity 0.821, and is harder,
more shining, and less unctuous than ordinary spermaceti.
The ultimate constituents of spermaceti are carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen ; and its formula according to Dumas C32 H;}3 O.

6

PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS.

Spermaceti is employed as a demulcent and emollient,
though scarcely more valuable as a remedy than gelatine. It
is readily digested in the stomach, in the same manner as
animal fat, and is converted into chyle with equal facility as
any other animal matter. It is used in dysentery and irri-
tations of the alimentary canal, and in catarrh and phthisis,
but in the latter case it is less beneficial than the bland oils,
for as these are readily united with water by means of alka-
lies and mucilages, the compounds formed with them are more
viscid, and better adapted for smearing the fauces. Several
imaginary healing virtues were formerly supposed to belong
to spermaceti, on which account it was and still is sometimes
given and regarded as highly beneficial in affections of the
chest, the kidneys, and the uterus. It is often likewise pre-
scribed as a vehicle for preparations of opium and sedatives
after child-birth. It is not here intended to perpetuate error,
and as an internal remedy experience has decided against
the claims of this substance. Its chief use is in the forma-
tion of ointments.

CERATUM CETACEI, U. £, Lond.~ CERATUM SIMPLEX, Ed.
UNGUENTUM CETACEI, Dub. Spermaceti cerate. " Take of
spermaceti an ounce ; white wax three ounces ; olive-oil six
fluid ounces. Melt together the spermaceti and wax, then add
the oil previously heated, and stir the mixture till cool." U. S.

TJie London College directs two ounces of spermaceti, eight
ounces of white wax, and a pint (Imperial measure) of olive-
oil. The Edinburgh College directs six parts of olive-oil,
three parts of white wax, and one part of spermaceti. The
Dublin College directs half a pound of white wax, a pound of
spermaceti, and three pounds of lard. The direction to heat
the oil before adding it to the other ingredients is peculiar to
the United States and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias. If added
cold, it is apt to produce an irregular congelation of the wax
and spermaceti, and thus to render the preparation lumpy.

This cerate is employed as a dressing for blisters, excoriated
surfaces, and wounds ; and as the basis of more active prepa-
rations. When the ingredients are pure and sweet, it is
perfectly free from irritating properties.

UNGUENTUM CETACEI, Lond. Spermaceti ointment. " Take
of spermaceti five ounces, white wax fourteen drachms, olive-oil
a pint (Imperial measure) or a sufficient quantity. Melt them
together over a slow fire, and stir constantly until cold." Lond.

7

PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS.

This ointment is employed as a mild dressing for blisters,
wounds, and excoriated surfaces. It should be made in small
quantities, as it is apt to become rancid when long kept.

AMBERGRIS. Ambra grisea. This substance, which is found
floating on the waters of the sea, or thrown by the waves
upon the shores of various countries, particularly in the
Southern hemisphere, is now very generally believed to be
produced in the intestines of the PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS,
Spermaceti whale or Great-headed Cachalot, and perhaps also
in those of some other fish. It appears to be the indurated
faeces (perhaps somewhat altered by disease) of the animal.
Mr. Beale collected some of the semifluid faeces, and found
that the dried mass had all the properties of ambergris. In
the United States it is used as a perfume only, in Europe it is
employed in medicine. It is in roundish or amorphous pieces,
usually small, but masses have been found weighing fifty, a
hundred, or even two hundred pounds. These pieces are often
composed of concentric layers. They are of various colors, usu-
ally gray, with brownish-yellow and white streaks, often dark
brown or blackish on the external surface. They are opaque,
lighter than water, and of a consistence like that of wax.

Ambergris has a peculiar aromatic, agreeable odor, is almost
tasteless, softens with the warmth of the hand, melts under
212°, is almost completely volatilizable by heat, and is inflam-
mable. It is insoluble in water, but is readily dissolved with
the aid of heat, by alcohol, ether, and the volatile and fixed
oils. It consists chiefly of a peculiar fatty matter, analogous
to cholesterin, and denominated by Pelletier and Caventon
ambrein. This may be obtained by treating ambergris with
heated alcohol, filtering the solution, and allowing it to stand.
Crystals of ambrein are deposited. It differs from most other
fatty matters in not forming soaps -with the alkalies. When
pure it has little or no odor.

Ambergris is often adulterated, but does not then exhibit
its ordinary fusibility and volatility. It was long regarded
as a cordial and antispasmodic, somewhat analogous to musk,
and has been recommended in typhoid fevers, and various
nervous diseases. It formerly entered into many officinal
preparations, and is still retained in some of the European
Pharmacopeias. It is, however, feeble as a remedy, and is
much more used in perfumery than in medicine. The dose
is from five grains to a drachm.

8

VERTEBHATA.

Vertebrated Animals.

No. 9.
SUS SCROFA.

THE HOG.

) Lard.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Lard Oil.

Geog. Position. Temperate parts of Europe and Asia,

northern parts of Africa, America, &c.
Quality. Little or no taste or odor.
Power. Demulcent, emollient.
Use. Preferable to fat as a friction ; ingredient of oint-

ments and cerates.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
5. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Mammalia.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 449. Syst. Nat. Gmelin, I. 217. Jones, An.
King. 15. Pereira, Mat. Med. II. 823. Thomson, Mat. Med. 81. Lond. Disp.
615. U. S. Disp. 57. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 49. EC. Disp. U. S. 29. Farmers' Encyc.
Articles Swine, Lard.

GENUS SUS.

Axonge, Graisse, Sajndoux (Fr.), Schweineschmalz (Ger.), Grasso di porco, Lardo
(It.), Pingue, Mantera de puerco, Lardo (Sp.), Swinster (Swed.), Szmalee (Pol.J,
Punnie Colupoo (Tarn.), Booboo (Beg.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Teeth, three kinds in the greatest number, in the rest at least

two sorts.
Extremities four, with the toes variable in number, and fur-

nished with strong nails or hoofs.
Clavicles, none.
Organs of digestion simple or divided into several pouches,

not disposed for ruminating.
Skin thick, naked, or nearly so.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

Sus. Incisors varying in number, canines curved upwards
and laterally, molars with tuberculous crowns, lo.wer incisors
bent forwards. Four toes on all the feet, the two middle ones

1

SUS SCROFA.

large and with strong hoofs, the two exterior ones much shorter
and not touching the earth. Muzzle truncated and terminated
by a snout) elongated, cartilaginous. Body covered with bris-
tles. Teats twelve.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

Sus SCROFA. Tusks strong, triangular, directed laterally.
No protuberance under the eyes. Color blackish-gray in the
wild animal, but varying much in the domesticated races.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The HOG has been generally described as a creature of gross
habits and unclean tastes, as having the senses of touch and
taste obtuse, and even as being so insensible that mice may
burrow in his skin without his seeming to feel it. But these
opinions are most unjust and incorrect. Far from being un-
clean, nature has furnished him with powerful organs of di-
gestion, enabling him to derive sustenance from a variety of
substances, and his voracity is only the result of the extent
and perfection of his digestive and respiratory organs. Al-
though one of the pachydermatous or thick-skinned animals,
the hog feels blows acutely, and manifests his sufferings by
loud cries. Indeed, the inference that his sense of touch is
dull, because of the thick layer of fat with which his body is
enveloped, is most erroneous, for it is well known that the plex-
us of nerves which gives sensibility to the body is exterior to
this fatty layer. So far from being insensible to pain, the hog
even suffers under the irritation arising from the punctures of
gnats, mosquitos, and other small insects, and endeavors to
protect himself from their persecution by rolling in moist
places and covering himself with mud.

The hog is subject to remarkable changes of form arid
characters, according to the situations in which he is placed.
When these characters assume a certain degree of permanence,
a breed or variety is formed, and there is none of the domes-
tic animals which more easily receives the characters we desire
to impress upon it. This arises from its rapid powers of in-
crease, and the constancy with which the characters of the par-
ents are reproduced in the progeny. There is no kind of live
stock that can be so easily improved by the breeder, and so
quickly rendered suited to the purposes required : and the
same characters of external form indicate in the hog a dispo-

2

SUS SCROFA.

sition to arrive at early maturity of muscle and fat, as in the
ox and sheep. The body is large in proportion to the limbs, or
in other words, the limbs are short in proportion to the body,
the extremities are free from coarseness, the chest is broad and
the trunk round. Possessing these characters, the hog never
fails to arrive at earlier maturity, and with a smaller consump-
tion of food, than when he possesses a different conformation.

The true hog does not appear to have been indigenous to
America, but was brought over by the early voyagers from
the Old World, and it has now spread and multiplied through-
out the continent. The first settlers of Canada, the British
North American settlements, and the United States, carried
with them the swine of the parent country, and a few of the
breeds still retain traces of the old English character. From
its nature and habits, the hog was the most profitable and use-
ful of all the animals bred by the early settlers in the distant
clearings. It was his surest resource during his first years of
toil and hardship. It arrived earlier at maturity, required less
care, sought out for the most part its own food, was the least
subject to accidents and diseases in a new situation, and there-
fore best repaid any portion of attention bestowed on the
breeding and rearing of it.

The widely extended foreign commerce of the Americans
afforded opportunities of procuring the varieties from China,
Africa, and other countries. The large consumption of pork
in the United States, far exceeding the consumption of any
other country, has also contributed mainly to the improvement
of the breeds, by causing the farmers of the different States to
pay considerable attention to the rearing of swine, which have
thus become one of the most important articles of commerce,
and a source of profit to the breeder on a large scale.

The various breeds which have been reared by crosses be-
tween those procured from different countries are so numerous,
that to give any thing like a detailed description of all would
require more room than our plan will permit us to occupy. We
shall therefore give a short notice only of those which are either
considered as the origin of some peculiar race, or most gener-
ally bred for their fattening or other profitable qualities.

The original native breeds of Great Britain may be ar-
ranged into two general classes ; but between these extremes
there are so many varieties, that numbers cannot be reduced
to either class.

3

SUS SCROFA.

I. Those of small size, with the ears erect or partly so, of
which the most marked are those of the Highlands and islands
of Scotland. They are hardy creatures, usually of a dusky-
brown color, having an arched back, with coarse bristles on
the neck and spine, and approximate closely in character and
habits to the wild hog. They are, for the most part, left to
provide for themselves, ranging at large, grubbing up roots
and destroying the eggs of birds, and even newly born lambs,
when they come in their way. These hogs are usually very
meagre and thin ; the flesh is coarse and fibrous, but it is great-
ly improved when the animals are confined and properly fed.

II. The second class comprises those of a larger body,
with long, pendent ears.

Although their color varies considerably, they are, for the
most part, white, or white spotted with black. The charac-
teristics of this old race, where it exists without intermixture
with foreign blood (which is very seldom the case), are a huge,
uncouth form, large bones, long limbs, arched and narrow
back, low shoulder, and long snout, with the ears large and
flapping, covering the greater part of the face. They con-
sume much food, are slow feeders, and their only recom-
mendation is that of being prolific breeders, and attaining to
a large size, when fattened at the age of two or three years.
The old English breed, and many other once celebrated local
races of that country, have all had their distinctive characters
more or less effaced by crossing.

The varieties of the Chinese or Siamese breed are a wide-
ly extended race, and the most common in England. They
were brought to England and America from Canton and oth-
er Indian ports, for the most part as sea-stock, by the vessels
employed in the tea trade, &c. Owing to the much larger
consumption of pork by the Chinese than of any other ani-
mal food, they pay great attention to the rearing and fattening
of their swine. It is said, they even use the milk of the sow
for domestic purposes. The pure Chinese breed is too deli-
cate and sensitive to frequent changes of temperature. It is
chiefly, therefore, by intermixture that its value is recognized,
and it is for this reason that its introduction has proved so
beneficial in the Eastern States, by correcting the coarseness
of form, quieting the restless disposition, and adding a great-
er tendency to mature quickly and fatten kindly.

The rearing and fattening of the hog present little diffi-

4

SUS SCROFA.

culty, for this animal is reared equally well on a small or a
large scale ; by the cottager, from the wash and refuse of his
house and garden, or by the extensive breeder, who has abun-
dance and more variety of food at command. There is, how-
ever, much difference of opinion as to the best age for breed-
ing-sows. Some consider that sows at three years old throw
their stock much larger and stronger than when at a less age ;
while others are of opinion, that they are never such good
breeders as at the age of from a year and a half to two years
and a half old, after which they throw the pigs unevenly.

The practice of ringing swine, which was usually performed
at the time of weaning, is growing into disuse, and the ring-
ing is not advisable, inasmuch as it not only proves painful
to the animal, but troublesome to the owner, for it frequently
happens that the ring breaks, or is worn out, the cartilage
gives way, and the ring has to be as often replaced by a fresh
operation. A more preferable and lasting process is now
adopted, which consists in either cutting the two strong ten-
dons of the snout (the cartilaginous and ligamentous prolon-
gations) about an inch and a half from the nose, by a slight
incision with a sharp knife, or else to shave or pare off the
gristle on the top of the nose, which may be done without
prejudice to the animal, when about two or three months old.
The place heals over in a short time, and the animals are thus
prevented from grubbing or tearing up the ground.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

The PIG, for its size, is one of the most useful animals in
the whole creation. He is food from top to toe, and there is
no part of him which cannot be turned to account. His fat
is made into lard, much used for domestic purposes and in
cookery, for ointments, pomatums, and other purposes. The
flesh is eaten fresh when young ; that of the adult animal, or
bacon hog, is salted in brine or with dry salt, and then either
kept rnoist, as pickled pork ; or merely dried, white bacon ; or
cured, dried, and smoked, bacon ; that of the hind legs, ham, is
equally nutritive, but less easily digested ; the collar and head
of the old boars are made into brawn. The skin or rind is eat-
en with the flesh, if not smoked, and it is also tanned for sad-
dle-seats, shoes, covers for pocketbooks, &c. The bladders
are prepared like ox -bladders. The bristles clean our teeth and

5

SUS SCROFA.

brush our clothes. The abdominal fat is used, as also the
blood, for food, and it yields a bezoar, principally from a mor-
bid concretion in the stomach of the wild hog. Even the in-
testines are used for chitterlings, and converted into an inferior
kind of lard, by being cut open and washed clean, and (after
the water is well pressed out of them) melted in the same
way as lard ; this substance is very useful for making common
candles, greasing wheels, and other general purposes. And,
to sum up all, the hog multiplies his species in a degree pro-
portioned to his usefulness.

The flesh of the hog, when fresh, is easy of digestion and
nutritive, but it is not a food capable of being eaten for a
length of time with impunity. It favors obesity, and occasions
disorders of the skin, particularly in the sedentary.

LARD is the officinal part of the hog, and is the fat of the
animal melted. Pure lard has little or no taste and no odor ;
its melting point is about 97° Fahrenheit. Lard is a com-
pound of a solid firm fat, stearine, and a semifluid substance,
termed claim, in the proportion of thirty-eight of the former
to sixty-two of the latter.

Most fats and oils, whether of animal or vegetable origin,
are composed of these two ingredients, upon the relative pro-
portion of which their consistence respectively depends. They
may be obtained separate by the action of boiling alcohol,
which on cooling deposits the stearine and yields the elaine
upon evaporation. Another method is to compress fat, or
oil congealed by cold, within the folds of bibulous paper.
The elaine is absorbed by the paper, and may be separated
by compression under water ; the stearine remains. Elaine
resembles oil in appearance, is colorless when pure, congeals
at 20° Fahrenheit, may be evaporated unchanged in vacua,
has little odor and a sweetish taste, is insoluble in water but
soluble in boiling alcohol, and consists of carbon, oxygen,
and hydrogen.

Stearine is white, concrete, fusible at 111° Fahrenheit, vol-
atilizable, unchanged in vacua, partly volatilized and partly
decomposed when heated in a retort, insipid, inodorous,
slightly soluble in alcohol, insoluble in water, and composed,
like the former principle, of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.

Exposed to the air, lard absorbs oxygen, and becomes ran-
cid. It should therefore be kept in well-closed vessels, or
procured fresh when wanted for use. In the rancid state it

6

SUS SCROFA.

is irritating to the skin, and sometimes exercises an injurious
reaction on substances mixed with it.

In the United States, where swine are raised so abundant-
ly, oil is now very extensively separated from lard. Its close
connection with the question of disposing of the agricultural
products of the Union, and especially of the Western States,
forms a reason for giving it an extended consideration.

LARD-OIL is considered much superior to olive or sperm
oil, for machinery, and for the manufacture of woollens, &c.
It can be furnished also at half the price, and therefore it will
doubtless supersede that article of import. As it contains
less stearine than other oils, it is found much better for comb-
ing wool, for which purpose a single factory wished to con-
tract for ten thousand gallons from one establishment.

Repeated experiments have shown, that for the purpose of
combustion no oil is superior. It is important, in trying it
with this view, to obtain a good article, manufactured from
good lard, and not from the dark-burned which creates smoke
and clogs the flame. For want of sufficient care in this re-
spect, some have no doubt met with disappointment in their
attempts to substitute this oil for sperm oil in their lamps.

The following are given as the relative constituents of lard
oil and sperm oil, in one hundred parts of either: —

Carbon. Oxygen. Hydrogen.

Lard oil, . . 79.03 9.548 11.422

Sperm oil, . . 79.5 8.9 11.6

It will thus be seen that the difference in carbon is only .47,
in hydrogen about .18, while in oxygen it is over .60 in favor
of the lard-oil. The large quantity of carbon proves that
it may be relied on as a material for giving light, as it is
well known that, whenever carbon predominates in an animal
oil, the article is capable of a high degree of luminous power.
Experiments have been made which have shown results in
favor of lard-oil. About 60 Ibs. in 100 of good lard, in tallow
only 28, are oil, and the process of manufacture resorted to
shows that it may be made a profitable business. Large or-
ders have already been executed at the West for this oil, to
be used in the Eastern States.

The heat of lard oil for the blow-pipe has been found to be
much greater than that of sperm. Lard itself melts at 97°
Fahrenheit; its specific gravity at 60° is 0.938. Lard crystal-
lizes in small globules, sperm in flakes or scales. It is soluble

7

SUS SCROFA.

in boiling alcohol. The proportion is eighty gallons of lard
to one of alcohol. The application of stearine for making
candles promises greatly to reduce the price of that article,
so that candles equal to spermaceti may eventually be ob-
tained for twelve and a half cents per pound.

As the capillary attraction of the lard-oil is not so great as
that of sperm, it is recommended that the form of the lamp
should be such as to bring the bulk of the oil as near to the
point of combustion as possible. It is also recommended
that the tube should be filed thinner at the top, where the
wick is inserted, to prevent the escape of heat. Various lamps
have been constructed for burning lard as well as lard-oil,
which have been found to answer very well. The burning
of this oil has been introduced with entire success into the
lighthouses on Lake Erie. An objection has been made
against lard-oil, that it is not capable of being preserved in a
liquid state in cold weather, but by a process similar to that
by which the winter sperm is prepared, lard-oil can be made
which will not chill at 30° of Fahrenheit.

The importance of this application of lard can scarcely yet be
realized. Vast quantities of the oil can be manufactured at
the West. Indeed, there is hardly an assignable limit to the
power of production of the article, so that, while the demand
continues, the business may be conducted profitably.

The proportion of lard to the whole hog is about sixty per
cent, after taking out the hams and shoulders ; or taking out
the hams only, the estimate for hogs of the best breeds, and so
fed as to produce the greatest quantity of fat, is seventy per
cent.

By a new process of steaming (a very simple method de-
scribed by Mr. Stafford) it appears that the whole of the lard
or oily matter in the hog, or of tallow in cattle, may be ob-
tained, while the danger of burning (common in other modes)
is avoided, the consumption of fuel is lessened, and the degree
of pressure required not so great as otherwise. It will be
recollected that, while conducting the manufacture of lard,
the other parts of the animal, as the hams and shoulders, may
be turned to profit. Besides these, also, the hides may be
tanned by a cheap process, and the bones, which are worth half
a cent per pound, may be calcined and made into animal car-
bon, for which they are said to be worth, in this calcined state,
two cents and a half per pound. (Ellsworth's Report.)

8

Hartford* Con*

K° 10

(C CD (DOT'S CD A (DOT.
Cochineal Insect.

HOMOGANGLIATA.

Articulated Animals,

No. 10.
COCCUS CACTI.

COCHINEAL, INSECT.

The animal substance. Cochineal. A medicinal agent.

Geog. Position. Mexico.

Quality. Faint, heavy odor ; bitter, austere taste.

Power. Antispasmodic, anodyne.

Use. Whooping-cough, neuralgic affections. In pharma-
cy, to color tinctures and ointments. In the arts, to dye
scarlet and crimson, and in the manufacture of carmine
and lake.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
4. DIVISION Homogangliata. CLASS Insecta.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 458. Syst. Nat. Gmelin, I. 222. Elem. Nat.
Hist. II. 318. Pereira, Mat. Med. II. 793. Thomson, Mat. Med. *73. Load. Disp.
287. U. S. Disp. 261. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 133. EC. Disp. U. S. 13a

GENUS COCCUS.

Cochenille (Fr.), Cochenille (Ger.), Cochenilje (Dutch), Konsienell (Swed.),
Cuzzinel (Dan.), Coccinilia (It.), Cochinilla (Sp.), Cochineel poochie (Tarn.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Wings two, covered by two elytra generally membranous at

their free extremity.
Mouth formed for suction, the rostrum composed of a tubular

articulated sheath, including four scaly setce in place of

mandibles and jaws, organs which have disappeared in

these insects.
Elytra in some crustaceous, with the posterior extremity

membranous ; in others almost similar to wings, but more

extended, thicker, and colored.

Eyes never more than two, and many have smooth eyes.
Metamorphosis generally incomplete.

1

COCCUS CACTI.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

Coccus. Tarsi with one joint only and terminated by a
single hook. Male destitute of a rostrum, with two wings
which lie one over the other horizontally. Abdomen termi-
nated by two setce. Female apterous, furnished with a ros-
trum. Antennce filiform or setaceous, and most commonly
with eleven joints.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

Coccus CACTI. Male very small, with the antennae shorter
than the body. Body elongated, of a deep red, terminated
by two long, diverging setce. Wings large, white, crossed
above the abdomen. Female nearly twice as large as the
male, bluish red, covered with a white farina. Antennce short.
Body flattened below, convex. Feet short.

NATURAL HISTORY.

This insect, Coccus CACTI, is found in its wild state in
Mexico and the adjoining countries feeding on several species
of Cactus and allied genera of plants. It is said also to have
been discovered in some of the West India Islands, and the
southern parts of the United States. In Mexico, however,
and particularly in the provinces of Oaxaca and Guaxaca, it
is an important object of culture, where it is, as it were, do-
mesticated and reared with great care. Plantations of the
nopal ( Opuntia cochinillefera) are made, upon which the in-
sect feeds and propagates, and attains to a greater size than
in the wild state. The insect has been taken from Mexico to
the Canary Islands, where the product is now very large ;
and considerable quantities of cochineal have been brought
to market from the island of Teneriffe. The culture has also
been successfully introduced into Java by the Dutch, and
attempts have been made to introduce it into Spain, Corsica,
and Algiers.

The cochineal insect is small, very seldom exceeding a
small pea in magnitude, with the head, except in the males,
scarcely distinct from the body, which is depressed, downy,
and transversely rugose. The abdomen is of a purplish-red
color, flat below and convex above. The legs are six in num-
ber, short and black. The males — which are few in propor-

2

COCCUS CACTI.

tion to the females, there being, according to Mr. Ellis, only
one to one hundred and fifty or two hundred females — are
winged, slender, and active, with the body of a red color ; the
head is small, but very distinct from the neck, furnished with
jointed feelers, and two long, diverging white hairs, about five
times the length of the body, which proceed from the tail.
The body is elliptical, and furnished with beautifully snow-
white wings, which lie flat when the insect rests or walks, but
are erected when it flies. The females have no wings, and
are sluggish, scarcely ever moving from the part of the plant
where they fix themselves ; here they couple and increase con-
siderably in size. Each insect lays several thousand eggs,
which proceed from the body through an aperture placed at
the extremity of the abdomen, and pass under the belly to
be there hatched. Death then ensues, the body of the mother
dries up, its two membranes become flat, and form a sort of
shell or cocoon, in which the eggs are inclosed, and from
whence the little cochineals soon proceed. The female only
is of commercial value.

The wild cochineal is collected six times in the year, just
before the females begin to lay their eggs, a few being left on
the plants to furnish a future supply. But the domesticated
insect is collected thrice only in the same space of time, the
domestication diminishing the number of breeds to three in
a year, owing to their propagation being suspended during
the rainy seasons, whilst the downy covering of the wild
species allows them to withstand the inclemency of these
seasons. At the third gathering, branches of the plant, to
which a certain number of females is left adhering, are broken
off and preserved with great care under cover during the
rainy season, and after this is over they are distributed over
the out-door plantations of the cactus, where they soon mul-
tiply, and in the space of two months the first crop is fit to
be gathered. The insects are detached from the plant by
means of a blunt knife, then put into bags and dipped into
boiling water to kill them, after which they are dried in the
sun ; and although they lose two thirds of their weight in
this process, yet about six hundred thousand pounds are car-
ried annually to the European markets.

Cochineal was used by the natives of Mexico before the
Spaniards arrived there in 1518, and was introduced into
Europe very soon after. The domesticated kind, which is

3

COCCUS CACTI.

not only much larger, but yields a richer color, and is conse-
quently most esteemed, is known in the language of the
Spanish merchants by the name " grana fina" The wild is
one half the 'size only of the other, covered with white down
or powder, and is denominated "grana silvestra" But both
kinds are often mixed together. They are imported in bags,
each containing about two hundredweight, and have the ap-
pearance of small, dry, shrivelled, rugose berries or seeds, of
a deep brown-purple or mulberry color, with a white matter
between the wrinkles. In this state they suffer no change
from length of keeping. Dr. Bancroft directs that cochineal,
to be chosen as the best, should be " large, plump, dry, and
of a silver-white color on the surface."

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

Cochineal has a faint, heavy odor, and a bitter, austere taste.
It is easily pulverized, affording a powder of a purplish-red
hue, which has been found to be composed chiefly of carmine,
a peculiar animal matter, a fatty matter, phosphate and car-
bonate of lime, and muriate and phosphate of potassa ; the
coloring matter is taken up by water, alcohol, and solutions
of the pure alkalies. The watery infusion is of a violet crim-
son, the alcoholic of a deep crimson, and the alkaline of a
deep purple or rather violet hue. The color of the watery
infusion is brightened by all the acids, except the oxymuriatic
(chlorine), by which it is destroyed. It is brightened also by
supertartrate of potassa and alum, and at the same time is
partly precipitated. It is also precipitated by sulphate of
iron of a brownish-violet color, the liquid remaining a pale
yellowish-brown, and by sulphate of zinc and acetate of
lead of a purple-violet, the liquid being perfectly colorless.
Hence cochineal is incompatible as a coloring matter with
these metallic salts. According to the analysis of Pelletier
and Caventon, it contains carmine (cochinaline) , a fatty mat-
ter, phosphate and carbonate of lime, muriate and phosphate
of potassa, and potassa united to an animal acid.

Antispasmodic and anodyne properties have been assigned
to cochineal. A mixture with carbonate of potash has been
at various times extolled as a remedy for whooping-cough.
Its only real value, however, is as a coloring matter, and as
such it is used both in powder and solution.

4

VERTEBRATA.

Vertebrated Animals.

No. 11.

CASTOR FIBER.

THE CASTOR BEAVER.

Castoreum.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Castor.

Geog. Position. North America, Europe.
Quality. Bitter, nauseous.

Power. Stimulant, antispasmodic, emmenagogue.
Use. Hysteria, epilepsy, amenorrhoea, chlorosis.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
5. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Mammalia.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 446. Syst. Nat. Gmelin, I. 124. Pereira, Mat.
Med. II. 825. Thomson, Mat. Med. 512," 1038. Lond. Disp. 247. U. S. Disp.
195. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 45. EC. Disp. U. S. 111.

GENUS CASTOR.

Castoreum (Fr.), Kastoreunt, das Bibergeil (Ger.), Castoro (It.), Castoreo (Sp.),
Bevergeil (Dutch), Bafvergall (Swed.), Stroy Bobrowy (Pol.), Ash batchegan
(Ara.), Goond beyduster (Pers.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Teeth, two large incisors in each jaw, increasing during life,
and of prismatic form, separated from the molars by a
vacant space, the enamel concentrated to the front. Ca-
nines none. Molars with flat crowns or blunt tubercles,
whose enamelled eminences are always transverse.

Under jaw articulated by a longitudinal condyle, so as to
have no horizontal movement, except from behind forwards,
and vice versa, as is suitable for the action of gnawing.

Extremities, the posterior longest, terminated by unguiculated
toes, the number varying according to the species.

Mammce variable in number.

Stomach empty, simple, or little divided.

Intestines very large.

1

CASTOR FIBER.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

CASTOR. Molars to the number of four, everywhere com-
posed of flat crowns, with sinuous and complicated ridges of
enamel. Five toes to each foot, the anterior short and close,
the posterior longer and palmated. Tail broad, thick, flattened
horizontally, of an oval form, naked, and covered with scales.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

CASTOR FIBER. Incisor teeth smooth, orange-colored an-
teriorly, white posteriorly. Fur consisting of two sorts of
hair, one coarse and brownish, the other downy, more or less
gray. About two feet long. Tail remarkable for its scaly
appearance. Its great breadth (often five inches) depends
not on the width of the caudal vertebrae, but on numerous
strong tendons inserted on these vertebrae.

There is some reason for supposing that the American and
European beavers are distinct species. The former are for
the most part builders, the latter are burrowers.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The BEAVER is an amphibious quadruped found in the
northern parts of Europe and America, living on the wood-
ed banks of uninhabited rivers and lakes, in which situations
it is gregarious, and constructs its habitation with more ap-
parent skill than any other animal except man. The body
is thick, not three feet in length, and covered with short iron-
brown and chestnut-colored hair ; the feet are webbed, the
eyes small, round, and so acutely sensible of light as to re-
main open only in dull weather, and the ears short, hairy,
and so formed that the meatus is closely shut when the an-
imal plunges and is beneath the water. The tail is gray, and
about half the length of the body, flat, horizontal, scaly, with
that part of it only which is next to the body covered with
hairs. Between the anus and the external genitals are four
follicles, of an oblong shape, smaller above and larger below ;
the two smaller are filled with a fatty substance, while the
two larger contain each about two ounces of an oily, viscid,
strong-smelling substance inclosed in membranous cells, which
is the officinal castor.

The general aspect of the beaver, at first view, is that of a
very large rat, and seen at a little distance it might be readily

2

CASTOR FIBER.

mistaken for the common muskrat. But the greater size of
the beaver, the thickness and breadth of its head, and its
horizontally flattened, broad, and scaly tail, render it impos-
sible to mistake it for any other creature when closely exam-
ined. In its movements, both on shore and in the water, it
also closely resembles the muskrat, having the same quick
step, and swimming with great vigor and celerity, either on
the surface or in the depths of the water.

In a state of captivity or insulation, the beaver is a quiet
or rather stupid animal, evincing about as much intelligence
as a tamed badger, or any other quadruped which can learn
to distinguish its feeder, come when called, or grow familiar
with the inmates of the house where it is kept. It is only in
a state of nature that the beaver displays any of those sin-
gular modes of action, which have so long rendered the spe-
cies celebrated. These may be summed up in a statement of
the manner in which they secure a sufficient depth of water
to prevent it from being frozen to the bottom, and their mode
of constructing the huts in which they pass the winter.

The materials used for the construction of their dams are
the small trunks and branches of the birch, mulberry, willow,
poplar, &c. They begin to cut down their timber for build-
ing early in the summer, but their edifices are not commenced
till about the middle or end of August, and are not com-
pleted until the beginning of the cold season. The strength
of their teeth and their perseverance in this work may be
fairly estimated by the size of the trees they cut down.
These are cut in such a manner as to fall into the water,
and then floated towards the site of the dam or dwellings.
Small shrubs, &c., cut at a distance from the water, they
drag with their teeth to the stream, and then launch and
tow them to the place of deposit. At a short distance above
a beaver-dam, the number of trees which have been cut down
appears truly surprising, and the regularity of the stumps
which are left might lead persons unacquainted with the hab-
its of the animal to believe that the clearing was the result
of human industry.

The figure of the dam varies according to circumstances.
Should the current be very gentle, the dam is carried nearly
straight across ; but when the stream, is swiftly flowing, it is
uniformly made with a considerable curve, having the convex
part opposed to the current. Along with the trunks and

3

CASTOR FIBER.

branches of trees they intermingle mud and stones to give
greater security, and when dams have been long undisturbed
and frequently repaired, they acquire great solidity, and their
power of resisting the pressure of water and ice is greatly
increased by the willow, birch, &c. occasionally taking root,
and eventually growing up into something of a regular hedge.
The materials used in constructing the dams are secured
solely by the resting of the branches, &c. against the bottom,
and the subsequent accumulation of mud and stones by the
force of the stream or by the industry of the beavers. In
various parts of the Western country, where beavers are at
present entirely unknown, except by tradition, the dams con-
structed by their labors are still standing securely, and in
some instances serve instead of bridges to the streams they
obstruct. There are few States in the Union in which some
remembrance of this animal is not preserved by such names
as Beaver-dam, Beaver-lake, Beaver-falls, &c.

The dwellings of the beaver are formed of the same mate-
rials as their dams, and are very rude, though strong, and
adapted in size to the number of their inhabitants. When
building their habitations, they place most of the wood cross-
wise, and nearly horizontally, observing no other order than,
that of leaving a cavity in the middle. Branches which pro-
ject inward are cut off with their teeth and thrown among
the rest. The places are by no means built of sticks first,
and then plastered, but all the materials, sticks, mud, and
stones, if the latter can be procured, are mixed up together,
and this composition is employed from the foundation to the
summit. The mud is obtained from the adjacent banks or
bottom of the stream or pond near the door of the hut. Mud
and stones the beaver always carries by holding them be-
tween his fore paws and throat. Their work is all performed
at night, and with much expedition. When straw or grass
is mingled with the mud used by them in building, it is an
accidental circumstance, owing to the nature of the spot
whence the latter was taken. As soon as any part of the
material is placed where it is intended to remain, they turn
round and give it a smart blow with the tail. The habit
of flapping with the tail is retained by then* in a state of
captivity, and, unless it be in the acts already mentioned, ap-
pears designed to effect no particular purpose. Their dwell-
ings which have stood for some time, and been kept in repair,

4

CASTOR FIBER.

become so firm, from the consolidation of all the materials,
as to require great exertion and the use of the ice-chisel or
other iron instruments to be broken open. The laborious
nature of such an undertaking may easily be conceived, when
it is known that the tops of these habitations are generally
from four to six feet thick at the apex of the cone. The
Northern Indians believe that the beavers always thicken the
northern walls of their dwellings much more than the others,
in order more effectually to resist the cold. Consequently,
these Indians always break into the huts from the south side.

In situations where the beaver is frequently disturbed and
pursued, all its singular habits are relinquished, and its mode
of living changed to suit the nature of circumstances ; and
this occurs even in different parts of the same rivers. Instead
of building dams and houses, its only residence is then in
the banks of the stream, where it is now forced to make a
more extensive excavation, and be content to adopt the man-
ners of a muskrat. More sagacity is displayed by the beaver
in thus accommodating itself to circumstances, than in any
other action it performs. Such is the caution which it ex-
ercises to guard against detection, that were it not for the
removal of small trees, the stumps of which indicate the sort
of animal by which they have been cut down, the presence
of the beaver would not be suspected in the vicinity. All
excursions for the sake of procuring food are made late at
night, and if it pass from one hole to another during the day-
time, it swims so far under water as not to excite the least
suspicion of the presence of such a voyager. On many
parts of the Mississippi and Missouri, where the beaver for-
merly built their dwellings, no such works are at present to
be found, although beavers are still to be trapped in those
localities. The same circumstances have been remarked of
the European beaver, which has been thought to belong to
another species, because it does not build.

The beaver swims to considerable distance under water,
but cannot remain for a long time without coming to the
surface for air. They are therefore caught with greater ease,
as they must either take refuge in the banks, or seek their
huts again for the sake of getting breath. When disturbed,
they usually fly from their huts to these banks, which, although
not so exposed to observation as their dwellings, are yet dis-
covered with sufficient ease, and allow the occupant to be

5

CASTOR FIBER.

more readily captured than if he had remained in his ordi-
nary home. To capture beavers residing on a small river
or creek, the Indians find it necessary to stake the stream
across to prevent the animals from escaping, and then they
try to ascertain where their hiding-places in the banks are
situated. This can only be done by those who are very ex-
perienced in such explorations. The hunter takes with him
an ice-chisel, lashed to a handle four or five feet in length ;
with this instrument he strikes against the ice as he goes
along the edge of the banks. The sound produced by the
blow informs him when he is near the beaver's lair. A hole
is then cut through the ice of sufficient size to admit a full-
grown beaver, and the search is continued until as many of
the places of retreat are discovered as possible. During the
time the most expert hunters are thus occupied, others are busy
in breaking into the beaver-huts, — a task of some difficulty.
The beavers, alarmed at the invasion of their dwelling, take
to the water and swim with surprising swiftness to their re-
treats in the banks, but their entrance is betrayed to the hun-
ters watching the holes in the ice by the motion and discolo-
ration of the water. The entrance is instantly closed with
stakes of wood, and the beaver, instead of finding shelter in
his cave, is made prisoner and destroyed. The hunter then
pulls the animal out, if within reach, by the introduction of
his hand and arm, or by a hook designed for this use, fas-
tened to a long handle. Beaver dwellings found in lakes or
other standing waters offer an easier prey to the hunters, as
there is no occasion for staking the water across.

The beaver feeds principally upon the bark of the aspen,
willow, birch, poplar, and occasionally the elder, but it rarely
resorts to the pine tribe, unless from severe necessity. They
provide a stock of wood from the trees mentioned, during
the summer season, and place it in the water opposite the
entrance to their huts. They also depend in a great degree
upon the large roots of the Nuphar luteum, common yellow
nuphar, but it is remarked that these roots, although they fat-
ten the beaver, impart a rank and disagreeable taste to its
flesh. During the winter season the beaver becomes very
fat, arid its flesh is esteemed by the hunters to be excellent
food. But those occasionally caught in the summer are very
thin and unfit for the table. They lead so wandering a life
at this season, arid are so much exhausted by the collection

CASTOR FIBER.

of materials for building, or the winter's stock of provision,
as well as by suckling their young, as to be generally at that
time in a very poor condition. Their fur during the summer
is of but little value, and it is only in winter that it is to be
obtained in that state which renders it so desirable to the fur-
traders. The different appearance of the fur, caused by age,
season, disease, or accident, has at times led some to suppose
the existence of several species of beaver in this country.
No other species, however, has yet been discovered than that
under consideration.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

CASTOR has a strong, peculiar, somewhat aromatic odor,
and a bitter, sub-acrid taste. The odorous principle is dissi-
pated in forming the decoction, which displays an alkaline
reaction. Both alcohol and ether take up all the active prin-
ciples of castor, and retain its odor and taste. According to
Bonn, castor contains an ethereal oil, cholesterine, resin, lime,
iron, and some salts. Bouillon, Lagrange, and Laugier
found a volatile oil, benzoic acid, resin, adipocere, a coloring
principle, mucus, carbonate of potassa, lime, ammonia, and
iron. M. Bizio obtained from it a peculiar crystalline mat-
ter, which he called Castorin^ having the odor of the castor
and a styptic taste. From the American castor scarcely any
is procured.

The castor is contained in follicles found in both sexes.
They are placed near the pubis under the skin. There are
two castor follicles, each covered with a cellular coat in-
closing muscular fibres, intended to compress the follicle.
During life the castor is semifluid, but gradually becomes
solid and viscid, occasionally perfectly dry and pulverulent.
The quantity contained in the sacs is very variable. The
best castor is that which comes from Russia, but it has been
very rare of late years, and almost all now found in the mar-
ket is imported from Canada. The former is in roundish,
solid, pod-like sacs, smooth on the outside, and when cut
presenting an orange-colored surface ; the latter is in oblong,
thin sacs, corrugated on the outside, and deeper-colored than
Russian castor. The Russian, when treated with ammonia,
affords a whitish, the American an orange-colored product.

When the beaver is taken, the follicles are cut off entire
and dried, either by exposure to the sun or in smoke. They.

CASTOR FIBER.

are in pairs, like two testicles united at the upper end.
The cods of the Russian castor are large, dry, roundish,
heavy, and solid, appearing when cut of a reddish liver color ;
those of the American are smaller, hard, oblong, thin, and
corrugated on the outside. In each beaver there is a large
and small bag, and the castor in the larger bag is always the
best. The goodness of the castor is determined by its sen-
sible qualities ; that which is quite black is insipid, inodorous,
oily, and unfit for use. Castor is said to be sometimes coun-
terfeited by a mixture of some gummy and resinous sub-
stance with a little real or genuine castor, artificially inter-
spersed with membranes and stuffed into the scrotum of the
goat. The fraud is easily detected by comparing the smell
and taste with those of real castor, and by the deficiency of the
sebaceous follicles, which are always attached to the real cods.

Castor is antispasmodic and emmenagogue. It was for-
merly given in combination with myrrh as a specific in quar-
tans ; and is still prescribed with seeming advantage in low
nervous fevers, hysteria, epilepsy, and spasmodic affections ;
and from the idea of its action being particularly determined
to the uterine system, it is supposed to prove useful in ame-
norrhcea and chlorosis. It may be exhibited either in pow-
der or in the form of tincture, but owing to the scarcity and
the high price of good castor it is seldom ordered ; and more-
over, the materia medico, certainly contains many antispas-
modics equally good, and perhaps better.

Castor is supposed to operate chiefly on the cerebro-spinal
nerves. In moderate doses it causes a sensation of heat in
the stomach and accelerates the pulse, it enters the circulation
and displays the presence of its odorous principle in the
urine. Its influence as an antispasmodic was at one time
conceived to be considerable, but recent experience has not
confirmed this opinion. The dose of castor is from ten
grains to one scruple, but it may be given to almost any ex-
tent. It is administered also in the form of a tincture.

Castor has been regarded above as a beneficial emmena-
gogue, when the suppression of the catamenia is connected
with spasm and hysteria. It is not, however, an emmena-
gogue of much value. Dr. Alexander affirms, that it pro-
duces very little sensible effect upon the habit, in much larger
doses than those in which it is usually given, and he conse-
quently condemns it as a useless and inert substance.

8

VERTEBRATA.

Vertebrated Animals.

No. 12.
VIVEERA CIVETTA.

THE CIVET CAT.

Zibethum.

I he animal substance. A medicinal agent

Civet.

Geog. Position. Asia, Africa.

Quality. Soft, odoriferous.

Power. Stimulant, nervine, antispasmodic.

Use. Principally as a perfume.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
5. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Mammalia.

Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 39. Desmarett, Mammalogy, 205. U. S. Disp. 1315. Jones,
An King. 654.

GENUS VIVERRA.

Civette (Fr.), der Zibet (Ger.), Algalia (Sp.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Teeth, four thick and long canine. Six incisors in each jaw,
the root of the second of the lower ones being placed a
little more inwards than the others. The molars are en-
tirely trenchant, or have blunted tuberculous parts, but
never bristled with conical points. The anterior molars
are the most trenchant ; they are called false molars ; next
comes a molar larger than the others, and which has gen-
erally a tuberculous heel, more or less wide ; it is called
carnivorous; then follow one or two small teeth perfectly
flat, and denominated tuberculous.

Carnivorous, more or less so in proportion to the quantity of
the tuberculous surfaces, the acuteness of the false molars,
and the length of the canine.

Best adapted for biting, they which have the fewest false mo-
lars and shortest jaws.

Courage not proportioned to their size and strength.

1

VIVERRA CIVETTA.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

VIVERRA. Three false molars above, four below, the ante-
rior of which sometimes fall out. Two pretty large tubercu-
lous teeth above, only one below. Tongue bristled with sharp
and rough papillae. Claws more or less retractile. They
often emit an agreeable perfume.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

VIVFRRA CIVETTA. A deep pouch divided into two sacs,
filled with a pomade of a strong musky smell. Pupil of the
eye round during the day. Claws semi-retractile.

NATURAL HISTORY.

VIVERRA CIVETTA, a genus of carnivorous, mammiferous
quadrupeds, natives of the torrid regions of the ancient conti-
nent, particularly distinguished by having a secretory appara-
tus which forms a powerful odorous matter, known by the
name of Civet. These animals have been called Musk Cats,
or Civet Cats, yet they are not of the cat species, which, how-
ever, they resemble in some zoological points, and in their
activity and their predatory, sanguinary, and nocturnal hab-
its. They somewhat resemble the fox, especially in the head,
and also in its habits ; but the tail is long, hairy, and cylindri-
cal, and the claws, though by no means so acute as those of
the cat, are still partially retractile, or cat-like. The resem-
blance of the Viverra to the feline race is increased by the
pupil of the eyes, which contracts in a straight line, and by
the color of the skin, which is diversified with stripes and
spots, a circumstance which has occasioned them to be mis-
taken for small panthers, by persons who had only seen them
at a distance. In every other respect, however, they differ
from the panther.

The civet is from two to three feet in length, stands from
ten to twelve inches high, and has a tail half the length of
its body. The hair is long, and the ground color of it is a
brownish gray, interspersed with numerous transverse, inter-
rupted bands or irregular spots of black. Along the centre of
the back, from between the shoulders to the end of the tail, is
a kind of mane, which can be erected or depressed as the ani-
mal pleases, and which is formed of black hairs longer than
those uf the body. The sides of the neck and the upper lip
are nearly white. The tongue is studded with stout horny

2

VIVERRA CIVETTA.

prickles, and the ears are of middling size, straight, and
rounded at their tips. The legs and the greater part of the
tail are perfectly black. There is a large black patch round
each eye, which passes thence to the corner of the mouth, and
two or three bands of the same color stretch obliquely from
the base of the ears towards the shoulder and neck, the latter
of which is marked with a black patch. The animal is wild
and fierce, and though sometimes tamed, is yet never thor-
oughly familiar. Its teeth are strong and sharp, but its claws
are feeble and blunt. It is light and active, and lives by prey,
pursuing birds and other small animals which it is able to
overcome. It generally attacks at night, and by surprise.
They are sometimes seen stealing into yards and outhouses,
like the fox, in order to carry off poultry. Their eyes shine in
the night, and it is very probable that they see better by night
than by day. When they fail of animal food, they are found
to subsist upon roots and fruits. They very seldom drink,
nor do they ever inhabit humid ground, but in burning sands
and in arid mountains they cheerfully remain.

The civets, though natives of the hottest climates of Asia
and of Africa, are yet capable of living in temperate, and even
in cold countries, provided they are carefully defended from
the injuries of the air, and provided with delicate and escu-
lent food. Persons who breed these animals for the sake of
their perfume, put them into a long and narrow sort of box,
in which they cannot turn. This box the person who is em-
ployed to collect the perfume opens behind for this purpose,
twice or thrice a week, and, dragging the animal which is con-
fined in it backward by the tail, he keeps it in this position
by a bar before. This done, he takes out the civet with a
small spoon, carefully scraping with it all the while, as gently
as possible, the interior coats of the pouch. The perfume
thus obtained is put into a vessel, and every care is taken to
keep it closely shut. The quantity which a single animal
will afford depends greatly upon its appetite and the quality
of its nourishment. It yields more in proportion as it is
more delicately and abundantly fed. Raw flesh hashed small,
eggs, rice, small animals, birds, young fowls, and particularly
fish, are the food in which the civet most delights. In Hol-
land, where no small emolument is derived from their perfume,
they are frequently reared. The perfume of Amsterdam is
esteemed preferable to that which is brought from the Levant,

3

VIVERRA CIVETTA.

or the Indies, which is generally less genuine. That which is
imported from Guinea would be the best of any, were it not
that the negroes, as well as the Indians and the people of the
Levant, adulterate it with mixtures of laudanum, styrax, and
other balsamic and odorous drugs.

The generality of naturalists have been of opinion that
there is only one species of animals that furnish the perfume
known by the name of civet. Two animals that furnish it,
however, are easily distinguishable ; namely, the VIVERRA CI-
VETTA, or civet cat of Africa, and the VIVERRA ZIBETHA, which
inhabits the East Indies. The latter animal differs from the
civet in having a body longer and less thick, a snout flatter,
more slender, and somewhat concave at the upper part ; its
hair is much shorter and softer, it has no mane, and no black
under the eyes or upon the cheeks.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

CIVET is an odorous substance, and a very strong per-
fume. It is secreted in the opening between the anus and
external genitals, and though the odor is so strong, it is yet
agreeable even when it issues from the body of the animal.
This perfume must not be confounded with that of musk,
which is a sanguineous humor obtained from an animal
altogether different from the civet.

CIVET ZIBETHUM is a semi-liquid, unctuous, yellowish, be-
coming brown and thicker by exposure to the air, of a very
strong, peculiar odor, similar to that of musk, though less
agreeable and less diffusible, and of a bitterish, sub-acrid, dis-
agreeable, fatty taste. When heated it becomes quite fluid ;
and at a higher temperature takes fire and burns with a clear
flame, leaving little residue. It is insoluble in water, and
only slightly soluble in ether and cold alcohol; but heated
alcohol dissolves it almost entirely, depositing it again upon
cooling. It contains, among other ingredients, a volatile
oil, fat, and free ammonia. In medicine it was formerly em-
ployed as a stimulant and antispasmodic, like castor and
musk, and its virtues were considered both numerous and
various ; but it is now almost entirely laid aside, even as a
perfume, so that the words of the dramatist, — " Give me an
ounce of civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my imagina-
tion,"— maybe frequently repeated, even in our largest cities,
with slight probability of obtaining the article.

4

I

VERTEBRATA.
Vertebrated Animals.

No. 13.

OVIS ARIES.

THE SHEEP.

Sevum.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Suet.

Geog. Position. Domesticated everywhere.
Quality. White, inodorous.
Power. Demulcent, emollient.

Use. Diarrhoea, dysentery, to give consistence to oint-
ments and plasters.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
5. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Mammalia.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 448. Syst. Nat. Gmelin, I. 197. Jones, An.
King. 647. Pereira, Mat. Med. II. 819. Lond. Disp. 467. U. 8. Disp. 681.
Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 54. EC. Disp. U. S. 376.

GENUS OVIS.

Graisse de Mouton (Fr.), Hammeltalg (Ger.), Grasse duro (It.), Grassa (Sp.)
Aatoo Kalupoo (Tarn.), Lemak (Malay), Elloomustail (Cyng.), Addjavuppa
(Sans.)-

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Incisors none in the upper jaw, in the lower usually eight.
A vacant space between the incisors and molars, but in
which in some genera are found one or two canines.
Molars twelve in each jaw, the crown marked with two
double crescents of enamel, of which the convexity is uni-
versally outwards in the lower jaw, and inwards in the
upper.

Clavicles none. Extremities disposed for walking. Two
toes furnished with hoofs, metacarpal and metatarsal bones
united.

Stomachs four, the first arid largest is called the paunch, the

1

OVIS ARIES.

second the bonnet, the third the leaflet^ and the fourth the

rennet. Intestines long.
Mamma two or four, inguinal.
Horns in the male and frequently in the female of most

species.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

Ovis. Horns common to both sexes, sometimes wanting
in the female, thick, angular, wrinkled transversely, pale-
colored, directed backwards, but inclining spirally more or
less forward. Forehead generally convex. Ears small.
Beard none. Leg's slender. Hair of two kinds. Tail more
or less short. Mammce two.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

Ovis MUSIMON. Horns very strong, arched backward, and
curved downwards, and towards the point. General color
fawn, more or less brown, white on the face and legs, and
under the belly ; a darker streak on the dorsal line, on the
flanks, and often black about the neck.

ICF* The immense number of races of this animal in cul-
tivation is well known, and it is now difficult, perhaps impos-
sible, to determine its native condition. Modern zoologists,
however, ascribe the domesticated sheep to the Ovis musi-
rnon) termed the Movflon or Muflon of Sardinia, or to Ovis
ammon, called the Argali of Siberia.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Of domestic animals, SHEEP are, with the exception per-
haps of horses and cattle, by far the most important. They
can be reared in situations and upon soils where other ani-
mals would not live. They afford a large supply of food,
and one of the principal materials of clothing. Wool has
long been a commodity of immense importance, and its
manufacture employs a very considerable number of people.
The skin dressed forms different parts of our apparel, and is
used for covers of books. The entrails properly prepared and
twisted serve for strings for various musical instruments.
The bones calcined (like other bones in general) form mate-
rials for tests for the refiner. The milk is thicker than that
of cows, and consequently yields a greater quantity of butter
and cheese, and in some places is so rich that it will not pro-

2

OVIS ARIES.

duce the cheese without a mixture of water to make it part
from the whey. The dung is a remarkably rich manure,
insomuch that the folding of sheep is become too useful a
branch of husbandry for the farmer to neglect. Whether,
therefore, the advantages that result from this animal to indi-
viduals in particular, or to the world in general, be consid-
ered, sheep may certainly be ranked as the first of domestic
quadrupeds ; and particularly are they deserving the attention
of the agriculturist, both from the influence of improvements
on the breed, and from their generally affording larger profits
than can be obtained from the rearing and feeding of cattle.

The history of the sheep may be traced to the remotest
antiquity, for we read that " Abel was a keeper of sheep,"
Gen. iv. 2, and that " Abel brought as an offering to the
Lord the firstlings of his flock, and the fat thereof." There
probably is not a species amongst all our domesticated ani-
mals which in its historical relations is so interesting as the
sheep. Its early domestication, its employment as the sub-
ject of the first sacrifices, its typical character as an offering
of atonement, its importance as forming the principal wealth
of the early patriarchs, its various connection, in short, with
the political, the religious, and the domestic customs of those
primitive magnates of the Jewish nation, are all of them
subjects forming ample food for deep and delightful reflec-
tion. The relation which existed between the patriarchal
shepherds and their flocks was indeed of so intimate and
even affectionate a nature, as to have afforded the subject of
many of the most beautiful and touching parables and moral
illustrations in the Sacred Writings. It is scarcely necessary
to refer to the unequalled appeal of Nathan to David, to the
still higher and prophetic allusion to the character of the
Messiah, or to the sublime illustration of the beneficence of
the "great Shepherd of Israel" in the beautiful and well-
known pastoral psalm. These are subjects which cannot be
discussed here, but it is impossible to pass them wholly witb
out notice. But the historical interest attached to this ani-
mal does not stop here. The customs observed in the treat-
ment of their flocks by the shepherds of the Eastern nations,
in the present day, offer numerous and highly important
coincidences with those incidentally alluded to, or more dis-
tinctly described, in the Scriptures.

Many persons are accustomed to consider the sheep as the

3

OVIS ARIES.

most stupid of all domestic quadrupeds, and as the only one
which is probably incapable of returning to a state of nature ;
that it neither knows how to avoid danger, nor to seek shel-
ter from the changes of the atmosphere, nor even to procure
nourishment, except in abundant pasturage. To a certain
extent this may be true, but those who have witnessed the
boldness and agility with which sheep leap from crag to crag,
— or the safety with which others descend rocky precipices,
to graze on the sweet but scanty herbage below, and then
reascend till they reach the summit, bounding upwards with
a sureness of foot and strength of spring that seem to rival
the goat, — would be disposed to consider that neither their
instincts were so obtuse, nor their return to a state of nature
under favorable circumstances by any means so difficult, as
they had imagined.

The natural habits of the sheep attach it to the highest
ground, — to the upland slopes where aromatic plants abound.
Nature never intended this animal to occupy the deep allu-
vial lands of the rich arable farms, or to consume the succu-
lent grasses of the water-meadows. Every farmer is aware
that their natural instinct, after being for ages domesticated,
still leads them invariably to the elevated portions of the field
in which they are placed. All these facts tell the farmer, in
very intelligible language, that it is change of food, of pastur-
age, and, if possible, the giving them occasionally aromatic
food, that will best conduce to the prosperity of his flock.
Sheep in temperate climates are clothed with wool, which is
annually renewed ; but in warmer countries the animal is fur-
nished with hair. In its wild state, it has generally horns,
but these have nearly disappeared in most of the breeds of
domestic sheep. That the primitive breed of sheep were
horned we have direct evidence, Gen. xxii. 13, Josh. vi. 6.
Immense flocks of this animal have in all ages of the world
been kept by man, but more universally for their wool and
skins than for their flesh, for that is yet to many nations by
no means a favorite meal. The Calmucs and Cossacks still
prefer that of the horse and the camel; the Spaniards who
can procure other flesh rarely eat that of the Merino. Eng-
lishmen perhaps consume more mutton than the people of
any other country ; but the taste for this is certainly of mod-
ern origin. It has rapidly extended, as better breeds and
sweeter kinds of mutton have been produced.

4

OVIS ARIES.

The principal varieties of sheep are the large Lincolnshire,
the Dorset breed, the Southdown, the Cheviot, and the Merino.

The Lincolnshire sheep are of a large size, big-boned, and
afford a great quantity of wool, owing to the rich marshes on
which they feed; but their flesh is coarser, leaner, and less
finely flavored than that of the smaller breeds.

The Dorset sheep are mostly white-faced, their horns are
finely curved, their fleece clear and white, but many of them
are without wool upon their bellies ; their legs are long and
small, and their general form handsome and well propor-
tioned. This breed is prolific, and is principally esteemed
for producing lambs at an earlier period than other varieties.
Great numbers of these premature victims to luxury are year-
ly sent to market. The manner of rearing these lambs is
curious ; they are imprisoned in little dark cabins, the ewes
are fed on oil-cakes, hay, corn, turnips, or cabbages, which
are given them in a field contiguous to the apartments
where the lambs are kept, and at proper intervals the nurses
are brought to give suck to their young ones, while the at-
tendants at the same time make their lodgings perfectly clean,
and litter them with fresh straw. Great attention is paid to
this, as much of the success of rearing these ^unseasonable
productions depends upon warmth and cleanliness.

The Southdown sheep have dun or black faces, and are
of the same hardy nature as the Cheviot breed, being able to
live and thrive on the barest hills. Their wool is fine, and
their mutton well flavored. They have of late years, in conse-
quence of these valuable qualities, proved more advantageous
than some of the existing breeds.

The Cheviot breed have no horns, and are mostly white-
faced and white-legged ; the body is long, with fine, clean,
small-boned legs. The mutton is highly esteemed for its
flavor. They are valuable as mountain sheep, on account of
their hardiness and the superior value of their wool.

The Merino sheep are a celebrated breed. Their excel-
lence consists in the fineness and felting quality of their wool,
and the weight yielded by each sheep, the ease with which
they adapt themselves to the climate, the readiness with
which they take to the coarsest food, their gentleness and
tractableness. Their defects are unprofitable and unthrifty
form, voracity of appetite, a tendency to barrenness, neglect
of their young, and inferior flavor of the mutton.

5

OVIS ARIES.

In Spain the Merino breed are divided into estantes, sta-
tionary, and transhumantes, migratory. The first are those
which remain during the year in one place or farm ; the last
travel some hundred miles every year in search of pasture.

The stationary sheep consist partly of the larger sheep of
the lower country, partly of mixed races, and partly of pure
Merinos, which do not differ in any respect from the migra-
tory sheep of that name, except in the method of treatment.
The stationary Merinos are reared where the district or farm
affords them sufficient food during the whole season. They
are most numerous in the central countries, where the pas-
tures are less apt to be scorched by the heats of the summer,
as in Segovia and the mountain ranges to the north of Madrid.

The migratory sheep have been reckoned to amount to ten
millions, which is probably equal to half the whole number
of the sheep of Spain. They may be divided into two great
bodies, those which are to pass farther to the eastward, to
Soria, or even beyond the Ebro. These vast hordes of sheep
break up from their winter cantonments south of the Guadi-
ana about the middle of April, and proceed chiefly northward.
In the course of their journey northward, they are shorn,
in large buildings erected for that purpose. The western or
Leonese divfsion crosses the Tagus at Almaraz. The eastern
or Sorian division crosses the same river farther to the east-
ward, at Talavera, and in its course approaches the city of
Madrid. Having reached their destination, they are pastured
until the end of September, when they recommence their jour-
ney southward. Each of these journeys of many miles in
length occupies about six weeks in travelling. The older
sheep, it is said, when April arrives, know the time of setting
off, and are impatient to be gone. In the ten or twelve latter
days, increased vigilance is required on the part of the shep-
herds, lest the sheep should break out. Some of them do so,
and pursue their accustomed route, often reaching their for-
mer year's pasture, where they are found when the main
body arrives ; but for the most part these stragglers are carried
off by wolves, which abound along the course which the
migratory flocks pursue.

These migratory sheep are divided into flocks of a thou-
sand or more, each under the charge of its own mayoral or
chief shepherd, who has a sufficient number of assistants
under his command. It is his province to direct all the de-

6

OVI8 ARIES*

tails of the journey. He goes in advance of the flock ; the
others follow with their dogs, to collect the stragglers and
keep off the wolves which prowl in the distance, migrating
with the flock. A few mules or asses accompany the caval-
cade, carrying the simple necessaries of the shepherds and
the materials for forming the nightly folds. In these folds
the sheep are penned throughout the night, surrounded by
the faithful dogs, which give notice of the approach of
danger.

When the sheep arrive at the shearing-houses, which is in
the early part of their journey northward, a sufficient number
of shearers are in attendance to shear a thousand or more in
one day. The shearing-houses consist of two large, rude
rooms, and a low, narrow hut adjoining, termed the sweating-
house. The sheep are driven into one of the large rooms,
and such of them as are to be shorn on the following day are
forced into the long, narrow hut as close as it can be packed,
where they are kept all night. They undergo in this state a
great perspiration, the effect of which is to soften the hard-
ened, unctuous matter which has collected on the fleece.
They are then shorn without a previous washing, and the
wool is left in the shearing-houses, where it is sorted and
made ready for sale. By this arrangement one thousand
sheep or more are shorn with only the delay of a day.

The shepherds employed in tending these sheep amount to
more than fifty thousand, which, supposing there are over
ten million sheep, is at the rate of about two hundred to
each shepherd. The number of dogs is calculated at thirty
thousand. These shepherds form a peculiar class of men,
strongly attached to their pursuit, and living in a state of
great simplicity. Their food is chiefly black bread, oil, and
garlic. They eat the mutton of their sheep when they die
or meet with accidents. In travelling, they sleep on the
ground, wrapping themselves in their cloaks, and in winter
they construct rude huts to afford shelter. It is said they
seldom marry or change their calling.

The whole of this extraordinary system is regulated by a
set of laws, and an especial tribunal exists for the protection
of the privileges of the parties having the right of way and
pasturage. These parties claim the right of pasturage on all
the open and common land that lies in their way, a path of
ninety paces wide through the inclosed and cultivated coun-

7

OVIS ARIES.

try, and various rights and immunities connected with the
pasturage of the flocks. The system is opposed to the true
interests of Spain. A change of pasture may be required for
the flocks in the drier countries at certain seasons, but the
periodical migration of so vast a body of sheep cannot be
necessary to the extent to which it takes place. Enormous
abuses are committed on the cultivated country as they pass
along. A fourth part of the year consumed in travelling
must be prejudicial to the health of the animals in a greater
degree than the benefits they derive from a change of pas-
turage. A prodigious mortality accordingly takes place
among these sheep, and more than half the lambs are volun-
tarily killed, in order that the others may be brought to ma-
turity. The sale of the lamb-skins, which form a subject of
export to other countries, is indeed a source of profit, but
nothing equal to what the rearing of the animals to their
state of maturity would produce. That these extensive mi-
grations are necessary to preserve the fineness of the wool is
thought to be an error. Attention to breeding and rearing
would more certainly produce this effect than a violent
change of place. In Spain itself there are numerous flocks
of stationary Merinos, whose wool is of all the fineness re-
quired, and in other countries, where the sheep are never
moved off the farms that produce them, wool is produced su-
perior to that of the migratory flocks of Spain. The system,
however, is of great antiquity, and is so riveted in the habits
of this ignorant and intractable people, that it is likely to be
one of the last of those ancient abuses which will yield to the
desire of change which at this moment agitates the feelings
of men in this distracted country. The Spaniards long pre-
served the monopoly of this race of sheep with jealous care,
but other countries at length were able to carry off the Gold-
en Fleece of Spain, and the Merino race is now spread over
the greater part of Europe and America.

All the best varieties of sheep have been introduced into
the United States, where the raising of sheep, both for the
profits of carcass and wool, is a highly productive branch of
agriculture. Immense numbers are raised in the high and
cool districts in Northern Pennsylvania, New York, and the
Eastern States, and various American agricultural periodicals
contain valuable observations in regard to sheep in the United
States.

8

OVIS ARIES,

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

SEVUM, Mutton suet, which is the officinal part of the ani-
mal, is chiefly obtained from about the kidneys and loins.
It is the most consistent of the real animal fats. It is very
white, has some degree of brittleness, is inodorous, of a bland
taste, insoluble in water, and nearly so in alcohol. It re-
quires a temperature of 127° Fahrenheit to melt it. Boiling
alcohol dissolves it and deposits it again on cooling. It con-
sists, according to Chevreul, of stearine, olein, and a small
proportion of hirein. For an account of the two first-men-
tioned principles, see Sus SCROFA, No. 9. Hirein is a liquid
like olein, from which it differs, however, in being much more
soluble in alcohol, and in yielding hireic acid by sapon-
ification.

Like the other fats, suet is demulcent and emollient. It is
sometimes boiled in milk in the proportion of three ounces of
the suet to one pint of milk, and a cupful of the mixture may
be administered in chronic diarrhoea, when there is much
acrimony of the contents of the bowels. Its principal use,
however, is to give a proper consistence to ointments, serates,
and plasters, and sometimes as a dressing to blisters.

Suet acquires by time an unpleasant smell, and becomes
unfit for pharmaceutic purposes.

SEVUM PRJEPARATUM, Lond. Prepared suet. Cut the suet
in pieces, then melt it by a gentle heat and press it through
linen.

ADEPS OVILLUS PR.EPARATUS, Dub. Prepared suet. Cut
the suet into small pieces, then melt it by a moderate heat,
and strain it by pressing it through a linen cloth.

The above processes are intended to purify them, but in
order to obtain them very pure, it is necessary that they be
washed in water until the water comes off colorless before
they be melted. Any water that may remain attached to the
fat is evaporated during the melting, and that it is all evapo-
rated is known by throwing a little of the melted fat into the
fire, when it will crackle if any water be present. The heat
must not be raised above 97° Fahrenheit, the melting-point
of fat, as otherwise the fat is decomposed, rendered acrid, and
assumes a yellow color. This purification is seldom attempt-
ed by the apothecary, as both kinds of fat can be procured
very well purified from the dealers. To keep fat clean and

9

OVIS ARIES.

preserve it from the action of the air, it is generally run into
bladders while in the liquid state.

Mutton is less dense than beef, very digestible and whole-
some, and is at its greatest perfection when about five years
old. It is very much improved by the castration of the ani-
mal, and is then called wether -mutton. The broth made of it
does not agree so well as light beef-tea or veal-tea with deli-
cate and weakened stomachs, but it forms an excellent emol-
lient enema, in cases of ulceration or abrasion of the rectum,
and that state of the bowels of infants which occasions green
stools and aphthae.

The milk of the ewe is seldom used either as aliment or
medicine. It contains more cream and less whey than cow's
milk, but the butter yielded by it never acquires a proper con-
sistence. It is made into cheese in some parts of Scotland,
which is bitterish, and when old, warm, biting, and resem-
bling Parmesan cheese in flavor*

The peculiar characteristics of wool, and those on which
its valuable qualities chiefly depend, are the serrated charac-
ters of its surface, arising from its structure, which consists
of a series or succession of inverted cones, the base of each
being directed from the root of the woolly fibre and receiving
the apex of the succeeding cone. It results from this struc-
ture, that the pressure to which the workman subjects the
wool in moving it backwards and forwards brings the fibres
together and multiplies their points of contact The agita-
tion gives to each hair a progressive motion towards the root,
and the serrations of one hair fix themselves on those of an-
other hair which happens to have its root turned in the oppo-
site direction, and the mass at length assumes the compact
form which is termed "felted" wool.

The wool of the sheep, from the remotest period of history,
has been of primary importance to mankind, and it has been
surprisingly improved by its domestic culture. The Mou-
FLON, Ouis aries, the parent stock from which our sheep is
undoubtedly derived, and which is still found in a wild state
upon the mountains of Sardinia, Corsica, Barbary, Greece,
and Asia Minor, has a very short and coarse fleece, more like
hair than wool. When this animal is brought under the fos-
tering care of man, the rank fibres gradually disappear, while
the soft wool round their roots, little conspicuous in the wild
animal, becomes singularly developed. The male most speed-

10

OVIS ARIES.

ily undergoes this change, and continues ever afterwards to
possess far more power in modifying the fleece of the off-
spring than the female parent. The produce of a breed from
a coarse-woolled ewe and a fine-woolled ram is not of a
mean quality between the two, but half way nearer that of
the sire. By coupling the female thus generated with such a
male as the former, another improvement of one half will be
obtained, affording a staple three fourths finer than that of
the grandam. By proceeding inversely, the wool would be
as rapidly deteriorated. It is therefore a matter of the first
consequence in wool husbandry to exclude from the flock all
coarse-fleeced rams.

Sheep's wool is of two different sorts, the short and the
long stapled, each of which requires different modes of manu-
facture in the preparation and spinning processes, as also in
the treatment of the cloth after it is woven, to fit it for mar-
ket. Each of these is, moreover, distinguished in commerce
by the names of fleece wools and dead wools, according as
they have been shorn, at the usual annual period, from the
living animal, or are cut from its skin after death. The lat-
ter are comparatively harsh, weak, and incapable of imbibing
the dying principles, more especially if the sheep has died of
some malignant distemper. The annular pores leading into
the tubular cavities of the filaments seem in this case to have
shrunk and become obstructed. The time of year for sheep-
shearing most favorable to the quality of the wool and the
comfort of the animal is towards the end of June and begin-
ning of July.

Long wool is the produce of a peculiar variety of sheep,
and varies in the length of its fibres from three to eight
inches. Such wool is not carded like cotton, but combed
like flax, either by hand or appropriate machinery. Short
wool is seldom longer than three or four inches ; it is suscep-
tible of carding and felting, by which processes the filaments
become first convoluted and then densely matted together.
The shorter sorts of the combing- wool are used principally
for hosiery, though of late years the finer kinds have been
extensively worked up into merino and mousseline-de-laine
fabrics. The longer wools of other breeds are manufactured
into hard yarns for worsted pieces, such as waistcoats, car-
pets, bombazines, poplins, crapes, &c.

The wool of which good broadcloth is made should be not

11

OVIS ARIES.

only shorter, but generally finer and softer, than the worsted
wools, in order to fit them for the fulling process. Some
wool-sorters and wool-staplers acquire by practice great nice-
ty of discernment in judging of wools by the touch and trac-
tion of the fingers. From a series of observations made upon
different wools, the following results were noticed. The fila-
ments of the finer qualities varied in thickness from TTVry to
rsluv of an inch ; their structure is very curious, exhibiting in
a good achromatic microscope, at intervals of about ^^ of an
inch, a series of serrated rings, imbricated towards each other
like the joints of Equisetum, or rather like the scaly zones of
a serpent's skin.

There are four distinct qualities of wool upon every sheep,
the finest being upon the spine, from the neck to within six
inches of the tail, including one third of the breadth of the
back ; the second covers the flanks between the thighs and
the shoulders ; the third clothes the neck and the rump ; and
the fourth extends upon the lower part of the neck and breast
down to the feet, as also upon a part of the shoulders and
the thighs to the bottom of the hind quarters. These should
be carefully torn asunder and sorted immediately after the
shearing.

The harshness of wools is dependent not solely upon the
breed of the animal, or the climate, but is owing to certain
peculiarities in the pasture, derived from the soil. It is known
that, in sheep fed upon chalky districts, wool is apt to get
coarse ; but in those upon a rich, loamy soil, it becomes soft
and silky. The ardent sun of Spain renders the fleece of the
Merino breed harsher than it is in the milder climate of Sax-
ony. Smearing sheep with a mixture of tar and butter is
deemed favorable to the softness of their wool.

All wool in its natural state contains a quantity of a pecu-
liar potash-soap, secreted by the animal, called in the country
the yolk, which may be washed out by water alone, with
which it forms a sort of lather. It constitutes from twenty-
five to fifty per cent, of the wool, being most abundant in the
Mexico breed of sheep, and, however favorable to the growth
of the wool on the living animal, should be taken out soon
after it is shorn, lest it injure the fibres by fermentation, and
cause them to become hard and brittle. After being washed
in water somewhat more than lukewarm, the wool should be
well pressed and carefully dried.

12

I

HETEROGANGLIATA.

Invertebrated Animals.

No. 14.
OSTREA EDULIS.

COMMON EDIBLE OYSTER.

Testce Ostrece.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

The Shell

Geog. Position. European and Indian seas.

Quality. Delicious, digestible.

Power. Aphrodisiac, lithontriptic.

Use. Aliment, phthisis, and some abdominal affections.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
4. DIVISION Heterog'ang'liala. CLASS Conchifera.

Ballardand Garrod, Mat. Med. 453. Syst. Nat. Gmelin, VI. 3315. Pereira, Mat
Med. II. 769. Thompson, Mat. Med. *71. Lond. Disp. 466. U. S. Disp. 735. EC.
Disp. U. S. 146. Jones, An. King. 379. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 107.

GENUS OSTREA.

Ecailles de Huitres (Er.), Austerschaalen (Ger.), Conchiglia d'ostrica (It.),
Cascara (Sp.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Mollusks, acephalous, aquatic, with a bivalve or multivalve
shell. The mantle opens in various ways, sometimes before,
sometimes all around, and then again only upon one side.

Organs of respiration four pectinated laminae.

Heart simple. Touch and taste the only senses certainly
ascertained to exist.

Feet very small or entirely wanting.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

OSTREA. Body compressed, more or less orbicular. Edges
of the mantle thick, non-adherent or retractile, and provided
with a double row of short and tentacular filaments. The
two pair of labial appendices triangular and elongated. A
subcentral, bipartite muscle. Shell irregular, inequivalved,

1

OSTREA EDULIS.

coarsely laminated. Left or inferior valve adherent, largest
and deepest ; its summit prolonged by age into a kind of
keel. Right or upper valve smallest, more or less operculi-
form. Hinge oral, toothless. Ligament somewhat internal,
short, inserted in a cardinal pit, growing with the summit.
The muscular impression unique and subcentral.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

OSTREA EDULIS. Shell bivalve. Valves ovate-roundish or
obovate. The upper one flat. Lamellce of both valves imbri-
cated and undulated. Vulva none.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The OYSTER, Ostrea edulis, is a well-known edible mollusk,
the shell of which is formed of two unequal valves connected
together by a hinge of the simplest character. Externally the
shell has a coarse and dirty appearance, each shell being com-
posed of a great number of laminaB irregularly closed down
on each other. In some species it is smooth, in others stri-
ated, tuberous, or prickly, the lower shell being always the
deepest. The animal itself is also of very simple structure.
No vestige of a foot can be seen, and the ligament which
unites the valves is of small size. On separating the valves,
four rows of gills, or what is called the beard) are observed at
a little distance from the fringed edge of the mantle. The
abductor muscle is situated at about the centre of the body,
near which the heart is to be distinguished, and the mouth
may be seen beneath a kind of hood formed by the union of
the two edges of the mantle near the hinge. Many curious
discussions have arisen as to whether oysters possess the
faculty of locomotion. It is well known that in general they
are firmly attached to stones or to each other, and it has been
stated and generally believed that they are not endowed with
any powers of changing their position. This much, indeed, is
certain, that it is one of the most inanimate of the Mollusca,
remaining fixed upon some submarine substance, enjoying
only the nourishment brought it by the waves, and giving
scarcely a sign of life, except the opening and shutting of its
valves. In the British Museum there is a large specimen of
a crab, to the back and claws of which a number of good-
sized oysters have attached themselves. From the observa-
tions and experiments of naturalists it appears, however, that

2

OSTREA EDULIS.

they can move from place to place by suddenly closing their
shells, and thus ejecting the water contained between them
with sufficient force to throw themselves backward or in a lat-
eral direction.

The principal breeding-time of the common oyster is in
April or May, when their spawn is usually cast ; this appears
at first like little spots of grease, which fasten upon rocks,
stones, or other hard substances that happen to be near.
Very commonly they adhere to adult shells, and thus are
formed the large masses termed oyster-banks. In about a
year and a half they attain a size fit for the table, when they
are taken by dredging, and stored in pits formed for the pur-
pose, furnished with sluices, through which, in spring, the
water is suffered to flow. In these receptacles they acquire
a green tinge, which arises from the confervce and other ma-
rine vegetable matter on which they feed. The powers of
multiplication which oysters possess are so wonderful, that the
banks or beds which they form occupy portions of the sea, in
shallow parts extending for miles, and in some places (partic-
ularly along the alluvial shores of the Atlantic Southern
States) walls of living oysters literally counteract the other-
wise resistless force of the tide. Oysters are consequently
particularly plentiful, and form a most important article of
commerce. The breeding and fattening of them for market
forms a separate and considerable branch of business. (For
more details, see Spratt's History of the Royal Society, p. 307.)

From the spawning time till about June the oysters are
said to be sick; but by the end of August they become per-
fectly recovered. In England the oyster fisheries are regu-
lated by a court of admiralty, and after the month of May it
is felony to carry away the cultch (which means any sub-
stance the oysters adhere to), and otherwise punishable to
take any oyster between whose shells when closed a shilling
will rattle.

The oyster is a very entertaining object to those who are
fond of microscopic investigation. In the clear liquid around
the animal many minute, round, living animalcules have been
found, whose bodies, being unjoined, form spherical figures
with tails, not changing their place otherwise than by sinking
to the bottom, being heavier than the fluid ; these have been
frequently seen separating, and coming together again. In
other oysters animalcules of the same kind were found, not

3

OSTREA EDULIS.

unjoined, but swimming by one another, where they seemed
in a more perfect state, and were judged by Lewenhock to be
the animalcules in the roe or melt of the oyster.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

The officinal parts of oysters are the SHELLS, Testce Ostrece.
The hollow valves are preferred. The shell is composed of
carbonate of lime and animal matter, and was at one time
supposed to possess peculiar medical properties ; but analysis
has shown that the only advantage of these animal carbon-
ates of lime over those from the mineral kingdom arises from
their containing no admixture of any metallic substance.

Oyster-shells require to be reduced to an impalpable pow-
der before they are fit for medicinal employment, and their
preparation in this way constitutes their sole pharmaceutical
use. When thus prepared they form TESTA PILEPARATA,
Prepared Oyster-shell. Take of oyster-shell a convenient
quantity, free it from extraneous matter, wash it with boiling
water, and reduce it to powder. Throw this into a large ves-
sel of water, stir it, and after a short interval pour off the su-
pernatant turbid water into another vessel, and set it apart,
that the powder may subside ; lastly, let the water be poured
off, and dry the powder.

Prepared oyster-shell differs from prepared chalk in contain-
ing animal matter, which, being very intimately blended with
the carbonate of lime, is supposed to render the preparation
more acceptable to a delicate stomach. It is given as an
antacid in diarrhoea, in doses of from ten to forty grains or
more, frequently repeated. A preparation has been intro-
duced within a few years, under the name of Castilleri's pow-
ders, consisting of sago, salep, and tragacanth, each in pow-
der, a drachm, prepared oyster-shell a scruple, and sufficient
cochineal to give color to the mixture. A drachm of this is
boiled in a pint of milk, and the decoction used ad libitum as
a diet in chronic bowel affections.

The flesh of the oyster furnishes a delicious article of food,
and is more digestible in the raw state than when cooked, for
the heat employed coagulates and hardens the albumen, and
corrugates the fibrine, which are then less easily soluble in the
gastric juice, and the heated butter generally used as an ac-
companiment adds still more to the indigestibility of the oyster.

4

° 15.

BM

The Gall Insect

HOMOGANGLIATA.

Articulated Animals.

No. 15.

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII.

GALL, INSECT.

The animal substance. Galls. A medicinal agent.

Geog. Position. Asia Minor.

Quality. Inodorous, bitter.

Power. Astringent.

Use. Chronic diarrhoea, chronic dysentery.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
3. DIVISION Homogangliata. CLASS Insecta.

Cuvier, R6gne Animale, t. v. 290. Olivier, Voy. Orient., t. 14 et 15. Ballard
and Garrod, Mat. Med. 394. Pereira, Mat. Med. II. 199. Thomson, Mat. Med.
*74, 659. Lond. Disp. 538. U. S. Disp. 352. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 137. EC. Disp.
U. S. 337. Kost, Mat. Med. 484.

GENUS CYNIPS.

Noix de Galles (Fr.), Gallapfel (Ger.), Galle (It.), Agalla de Levante (Sp.), Gal-
noot (Dutch), Gallaple (Swed.), Galdabel (Dan.), Galha (Port.), Maju Fhal (H.
and San.), Makakai (Tam.), Afis (Arab.), Mazu (Pers.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Wings four, naked, membranous, veined longitudinally, the
superior of which are always longer than the inferior.

Mouth composed of jaws and a labium very narrow (besides
the labium and mandibles), forming a demi-tube more
suitable for suction than mastication.

Envelope of the body not crustaceous.

Tarsi with five joints.

Abdomen generally attached to the thorax by a very slender
pedicle, terminated in the females either by an ovipositor
in the form of a saw, or by a simple retractile sting, which
introduces an irritating fluid into the wounds it creates.

Metamorphosis complete.

Individuals three kinds, whose color and form vary greatly, —
the males, the females, and the neuters.

1

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

CYNIPS. Head small. Corselet thick and high, which
causes them to appear as if hunch-backed. Wings inferior,
with a single vein.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII. The females, towards the period
of oviposition, assume a globular form and make punctures
in plants (particularly in the Quercus infectoria), for the pur-
pose of introducing their eggs, which cause excrescences de-
nominated gall-nuts.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Hippocrates employed the nutgall (KTJK'IS) as an astringent,
both internally and externally. Dioscorides describes it as
the fruit of the oak, and the same error is found in the works
of comparatively recent writers.

The leaves of the oak, of every species, and those of some
other plants, display small excrescences on the petioles, pro-
duced by an insect ; but the officinal gall is found only on
the Quercus infectoria, whose geographical position is Asia
Minor from the Bosphorus to Syria, and from the Archipela-
go to the frontiers of Persia. These excresences are the
result of the puncture of the CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII (Diplo-
lepsis Gallcetinctorice), which is furnished with a terebra, or
borer, by means of which it is enabled to perforate the folia-
ceous or cortical parts of plants, for the purpose of depositing
its egg in the wound thus made.

This insect is a small hymenopterous fly, with a fawn-
colored body, dark antennae, and the upper part of the abdo-
men of a shining brown color. The ovipositor, as it is termed,
of the female is long, slender, articulated, and so flexible that
it is rolled up spirally and concealed within the abdomen
when the insect is not using it ; but it is so admirably con-
structed, that it can be run out and made stiff and firm at
pleasure. With this little instrument the insect punctures
the petiole of the oak-leaf, and deposits in the wound an egg
too small to be seen by the naked eye, and probably also a
drop of some irritating fluid. In a few hours the irritation
which is induced in the part causes an afflux of fluids to it,
the gall rises, and in a day or two attains its full size. It is

2

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII.

difficult to conceive how the insertion of so minute a body as
the egg of the Cynips should cause so singular a divergence
from the ordinary growth of the part. The simple puncture
and the mere mechanical irritation are not sufficient to ex-
plain the phenomenon in a satisfactory manner; therefore it is
thought that some acrid secretion is injected from the ovipos-
itor along with the egg, which, acting locally, like any other
acrid lymph which in the animal body produces a specific
change in the structure of the part, is the chief cause of the
irritation. Not the least singular circumstance is the rapidity
of the growth of the gall, which, however large, attains its
full size in a couple of days ; and this is another reason for
supposing that there is some fluid injected along with the
egg, as the larva is not yet hatched. After a certain period
the egg enlarges, the larva is hatched, and derives its nour-
ishment from the gall ; after some time it eats its way out
of the prison, which then becomes lighter and contains much
less of the astringent principle ; the galls, therefore, that have
a hole in them, are less valuable than the entire galls. The
best galls are gathered before the fly has issued from them,
and from galls of this kind very perfect specimens of the in-
sect are frequently procured.

The oak on which the best galls are formed is the Quercus
infectoria, a small, tortuous tree belonging to the natural
order Cupuliferce, and is thus described by Olivier. It has a
crooked stem, seldom exceeds six feet in height, and more
frequently assumes the character of a shrub than that of a
tree. The leaves, which are deciduous in autumn, are on
short petioles, smooth, of a bright green color on both sides,
and obtusely toothed ; the acorn is elongated^ smooth, two or
three times longer than the cup, which is sessile, in a slight
degree downy, and scaly ; the gall comes at the shoots of the
young boughs, and acquires from four to twelve lines in di-
ameter. Never more than one ovum is deposited in the gall,
this fetal habitation being what entomologists term mono-
thalmous.

The best galls are those of Aleppo, Smyrna, Magnesia,
Karahisser, Diarbekir, and the interior of Natolia. They are
termed black, green, or blue galls ; those through which the
insect has eaten its way out are called white galls. The galls
formed on the Quercus robur, Quercus cerris, and other spe-
cies of oak, are small, smooth on the surface, polished, reddish,

3

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII.

and not used. So also are galls formed on other plants, by
beetles or other insects, of no medicinal use.

Black or blue nutgalls ( Gallce nigrce seu ccerulece). Green
nutgalls ( Gallon virides) are called by the natives Yerli. They
vary from the size of a pea to that of a hazel-nut, and have
a grayish color. The smallest have a blackish-blue tint, and
are distinguished by the name of black or blue galls, while
the larger and greener varieties are called green galls. Ex-
ternally they are frequently tuberculated, but the surface of
the tubercles and of the intervening spaces is usually smooth.
Their texture is compact, but fragile.

White galls (Gallce albce) are for the most part gathered
after the insect has escaped, and hence they are perforated
with a circular hole. They are larger, lighter colored (being
yellowish or whitish), less compact, less heavy, and less as-
tringent.

TANNIN, TANNIC ACID, is a peculiar vegetable principle. It
receives its name, Tannin, from the circumstance of its form-
ing the principal agent in the operation of converting the
skins of animals into leather ; a process in which this princi
pie, as obtained from various astringent vegetables, is precip-
itated upon the gelatine of the skins from water in which it is
held in solution, and in which the skins, properly prepared,
are placed ; they are thus rendered impermeable to moisture,
and capable of resisting putrefaction under the ordinary cir-
cumstances which favor it in untanned animal matters. This
process is termed tanning ; hence the French chemists named
the principle on which it depends Tannin. It is an acid, and
is now named Tannic Acid. It is a component of most as-
tringent plants, and some diseased excrescences of such
plants, as, for example^ galls.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

GALLS are nearly globular in their form, varying in size
from that of a pea to that of a large hazel-nut, and studded
with tuberosities ; they should be of a blackish-blue, or very
deep olive color, heavy, compact, brittle, breaking with a
flinty fracture, and their internal structure crystalline. They
yield the whole of their active matter to water, the residue
being inert and insipid. Alcohol and ether also take up a
considerable portion of the active principle. They contain a

4

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII.

large quantity of tannic acid. The aqueous infusion red-
dens litmus. Sir H. Davy found 25 per cent, of tannin, 6.2
of gallic acid and extractive, 2.4 of mucilage, and 2.4 of saline
and earthy matters, in galls ; but Royer states that he obtains
125 grains of pure gallic acid from 500 grains of the galls ;
and Dr. Duncan thinks that Sir H. Davy has estimated the
quantity of tannin too low ; in one experiment with 500
grains of gall-nuts, Dr. Duncan obtained 220 grains, and in
another 256 grains of soluble matter.

The chemist who has most successfully examined galls is
Pelouze, who has obtained from them by means of ether from
40 to 60 per cent, of tannic acid. He recommends that pow-
dered gall-nuts should be introduced into a tube closed at
one end with a linen rag, and pouring over them sulphuric
ether. The lower end of the tube is then inserted in a com-
mon jar or bottle. The ether gradually yields its water to
the tannic acid, and forms with it a thick syrup, which is
pushed into the bottle by the expansion of the ether above it.
This syrup, which consists of water, ether, and tannic acid,
being evaporated, leaves the latter in a state of purity. The
acid, however, is more easily procured by a process recom-
mended by M. Leionnot ; namely, to macerate the powdered
galls in ether and submit the pulp to the action of a strong
press, repeating the process on the marc several successive
times, until the gall-powder is exhausted, and then uniting
the solutions, distilling off a portion of the ether at a low
heat, and evaporating the residue in a water-bath.

Tannic acid, when pure, is nearly colorless, apparently but
not regularly crystallized, inodorous, and powerfully astrin-
gent to the taste. It is unalterable in the air, and is easily
pulverized. It is a true acid, capable of decomposing the
alkaline carbonates with effervescence, and forming tannates
with oxides. It dissolves readily in water, and is soluble in
alcohol and ether. When exposed to the air in solution for
a considerable time, it absorbs oxygen, which changes it into
gallic acid. It is a curious fact, that, although tannic acid
is a real acid, yet it is precipitated from its solution by nitric,
phosphoric, hydrochloric, and arsenic acids. Protosulphate
of iron produces no alteration on the solution of pure tannic
acid; but the sesquisulphate immediately precipitates it in
combination with the oxide, of a deep bluish-black color; if
an excess of the solution be added, what remains undecom-

5

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII.

posed of the sesquisulphate is converted into the protosul-
phate, owing to the tannic acid attracting the oxygen. The
precipitate is a compound of gelatine 54 -j~ tannic acid 46 =
100, and is known under the name of Tanno- Gelatine. It
affords a pretty accurate test of the quantity of tannic acid
contained in any astringent vegetable infusion or decoction.
If an excess of the solution of gelatine, however, be added to
the vegetable infusion, the precipitate is re-dissolved. Lime-
water and barytic water precipitate tannic acid from its solu-
tion, the precipitate being a compound of the earth and the
acid ; but when the earth is separated by an acid, the freed
tannic acid again acts upon gelatine. It also precipitates all
the salts of quinia, morphia, strychnia, and the other alkaloids
from their solutions. From the analysis of Berzelius, the
constituents of tannic acid appear to be: hydrogen 4,186,
carbon 51,160, oxygen 44,654, in 100,000 parts ; but accord-
ing to Liebig it consists of 51.17 carbon + 44.09 oxygen +
4.12 hydrogen, or 18 eq. of carbon + 12 oxygen + 8 hydro-
gen, equiv. = 216.16. (C18 Hja O5.)

Braconnot has discovered in galls a new acid, which he has
called Ellagic, a word derived from reversing the word Galte,
in French, and adding ic, — a singular and whimsical inno-
vation in nomenclature. This acid possesses peculiar proper-
ties, is insipid, inodorous, white, with a slight tinge of red ;
and is insoluble in boiling water, on which account it is read-
ily separated from gallic acid in the process of obtaining it
When ellagic acid is mixed with nitric acid and gently heat-
ed, the mixture acquires a red hue, and ultimately becomes
blood-red ; it is owing to the presence of this acid, therefore,
that nitric acid, added to the infusion of galls and of oak-
bark, produces a blood-red color. In the infusion of galls,
the application of heat causes the partial decomposition of
the nitric acid, nitrous fumes are emitted, and both the gallic
and the ellagic acids are converted into oxalic acid.

In preparing galls for medicinal purposes, it is of impor-
tance to obtain the astringent matter as free from the other
ingredients with which it is combined as possible. The galls
should therefore be simply infused in distilled water of a tem-
perature not exceeding 180° ; this takes up little more than
the tannic acid, but when the galls are boiled, the starch is
partly converted into a tannate, which precipitates as the
decoction cools. The infusion in cold water is a very delicate

6

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII.

test of the presence of iron in any liquid, and it is also an
excellent test of the presence of morphia.

Tannic acid has been rarely procured in a state of purity.
It is found chiefly in the inner bark of the roots and the stems
of trees ; sometimes it is contained in the wood, occasionally
in the petals of the flowers, varying in character in different
plants, owing to its combination with other principles. It
has been employed, in its pure state, in uterine haemorrhages ;
and M. Cavalier says it has succeeded in stopping these
when many other astringents have failed. He gives it in
doses of two grains every two hours. For this purpose it
can be procured sufficiently pure from a solution of catechu
in cold distilled water, filtered and evaporated to dryness.
Tannic acid exposed to the air for some weeks is oxidized,
and converted into gallic acid.

The incompatible substances with infusion or decoction
of galls are very numerous. Many substances form precipi-
tates with these preparations besides those which indicate
the astringent character of the galls. Thus the infusion is
precipitated by infusions of cinchona, cusparia, and calumba ;
solutions of opium, lime-water ; carbonate of potassa ; the
acetates of lead ; sulphates of copper and of iron ; nitrate of
mercury and of silver and potassio-tartrate of antimony ; all
of which are therefore incompatible in prescriptions with it.
The sulphuric and hydrochloric acids cause flaky, white pre-
cipitates ; nitric acid changes the color, first to deep orange
and then to pale orange or yellow; and the astringency of
the infusion is also greatly weakened. Although the nitrate
of mercury throws down a clotted, bright-yellow precipitate,
yet the bichloride, which is more likely to be ordered in con-
junction with the infusion of galls, only renders the infusion
milky. It is curious that so copious a decomposition of tar-
tar emetic should take place on the addition of the solution
of that salt to infusion of galls, when no precipitate is pro-
duced by it in decoction of oak-bark. No precipitates are
thrown down with infusion of quassia, gentian, canella alba,
orange-peel, saffron, ammonia, sulphate of zinc, and bichlo-
ride of mercury, which may therefore enter into the prescrip-
tions with infusions of gall-nuts. By distillation per se, galls
have been found to yield a concrete volatile oil, which Profes-
sor Branchi, the discoverer, regards as a component of galls ;
but some have considered it only the production of the opera-

7

CYNIPS QUERCUS FOLII.

tion. A solution of galls in ether is the most delicate test
of the presence of salts of iron.

As an astringent, galls possess all the properties which can
be expected from medicines of an astringent character; they
are, nevertheless, seldom used as internal medicines. They
enter the circulation, but previously produce a primary styp-
tic influence upon the stomach, which, when the dose of the
medicine is large, greatly incommodes the organ ; hence,
when internally administered, they are combined with other
substances, usually with aromatics. For internal exhibition,
the powder is certainly the best form of administering the
medicine ; the dose of galls may be from ten grains to one
scruple, which may be given twice or thrice a day. They
are frequently ordered in the form of gargles and injections ;
and an ointment formed of galls in fine powder, with eight
parts of simple ointment and a small proportion of powdered
opium, is a useful application to blind piles.

It is almost unnecessary to remark, that galls ought not to
be powdered in an iron mortar.

TINCTURA GALL.E, L. D., U. S. TINCTURA GALL ARUM, Ed.
Tincture of galls. Take of galls bruised foitr ounces ; diluted
alcohol two pints; macerate for fourteen days, express, and
filter through paper.

This tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moisten-
ing the galls, in powder, with diluted alcohol, allowing it to
stand for twenty-four hours, then transferring it to a percola-
tor and gradually pouring upon it diluted alcohol, until two
pints of filtered liquor are obtained. U. S.

The London College directs five ounces of powdered galls,
two Imperial pints of proof-spirit, and maceration for seven
days ; the Dublin, five avoirdupois ounces of the galls, two
Imperial pints of the spirits, and maceration for fourteen days.
The Edinburgh College takes the same quantity of materials
as the London, and prepares the tincture either by digestion
or percolation.

UNGUENTUM GALL.E COMPOSITUM, L. UNGUENTUM GALLJE
ET OPII, E. Compound ointment of galls. Take of galls in
very fine powder six drachms, lard six ounces, opium in pow-
der a drachm and a half. Rub them together. L.

The Edinburgh College takes two drachms of galls, a drachm
of opium, and an ounce of lard, and rubs them together into
a uniform mass.

8

H

YERTEBHATA.

Vertebrated Animals.

No. 16.
CERVUS ELAPHUS.

THE STAG.

The animal substance. Hartshorn. A medicinal agent.

Geog-. Position. Europe, northern parts of Asia and

America.

Quality. Inodorous, insipid.
Power. Nutritive, emollient, demulcent.
Use. A light and nutritious article of diet for the sick and

convalescent, but this renders it useless as a medicine.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
1. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Mammalia.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 449. Syst. Nat. Gmelin. 175. Pereira, Mat.
Med. II. 818. Thomson, Mat. Med. *70, 1172. Lond. Disp. 259. U. S. Disp.
284. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 52.

GENUS CERVUS.

Corne de cerf (F.), Hirschorn (Ger.), Corno di cervo (It.), Cuerno de ciervo
(Sp.), Hertshoorn (Dutch), Hjorthorn (Swed.), Corne de veado (Port.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Incisors none in the upper jaw, in the lower usually eight.
A vacant space between the incisors and molars, but in
which in some genera are found one or two canines. Mo-
lars twelve in each jaw, the crown marked with two double
crescents of enamel, of which the convexity is universally
outwards in the lower jaw, and inwards in the upper.

Clavicles none. Extremities disposed for walking. Two
toes furnished with hoofs, metacarpal and metatarsal bones
united.

Stomachs four, the first and largest called the paunch, the sec-
ond the bonnet, the third the leaflet, the fourth tlie rennet.
Intestines long.

Mammce two or four, inguinal.

Horns in the male and frequently in the female of most species.

I

CERVUS ELAPHUS.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

CERVUS. Incisors eight in the lower jaw. Canines none or
sometimes solitary in the upper jaw ; when they exist, com-
pressed and bent back. Head long, terminated by a muzzle.
Eyes large, pupils elongated transversely. A lachrymal sinus in
most. Ears large and pointed. Tongue soft. Body slender.
Four inguinal mamma. Horns solid, deciduous, palmated,
branched or simple in the males; females, with one exception,
without horns.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

CERVUS ELAPHUS. Horns when tender covered with a vel-
vety coat and growing at the apex. Antlers three, anterior,
all curved upwards, the summit forming a crown of snags
from a common centre. Lachrymal sinuses. Fur red-brown
in summer, brown-gray in winter. A pale disc on the but-
tocks.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Both the Hart and the Hind, the male and female stag, are
repeatedly mentioned in the Bible (Deut. xiv. 5 ; Psalm xviii.
33). The stag is also noticed by Hippocrates, Aristotle,
Pliny, and other ancient writers.

CERVUS, the stag, of which there are three known varieties,
is a native of almost every part of America and Asia. In
Britain its numbers have been much reduced by the prog-
ress of civilization, but it is still found wild in the highlands
of Scotland, the moors bordering on Devonshire and Corn-
wall, and on the Kerry mountains in Ireland. Among the
various animals which embellish the forests and animate the
solitudes of nature, none are superior to the cervine race.
These well-known ruminants are distinguished from the an-
telopes by their horns, which are composed of a bony sub-
stance, caducous, or falling off annually, and again renewed
of a larger size than in the preceding year. The easy ele-
gance of their form, the lightness of their motions, their size,
their strength, their fleetness, and the extraordinary develop-
ment of those branching horns, which seem fully as much in-
tended for ornament as defence, all contribute towards pla-
cing them in the foremost rank of quadrupeds.

The stag is an animal of a stately, elegant form. When full-

2

CERVUS ELAPHUS.

grown he is commonly between four and five feet high ; often,
when he enjoys abundance of food, and lives undisturbed by
man or the beasts of prey, he attains a much larger size.
His legs are slender and elegant, tail short, horns lofty and
branched. The female is of a smaller and more slender form,
and destitute of horns. A reddish-brown color, which has
gained this genus the appellation of red deer, distinguishes
the upper part of the body ; the hinder part of the neck and
the space between the shoulders are marked with a black list;
some part of the face is commonly black, the sides and un-
der part are white. The stag loses and renews his horns an-
nually, and for a while each set of horns is adorned with an
additional branch. The young have no horns the first year ;
in the second year the horns are single and straight, and till
the sixth, the number of the antlers continues to increase.
From this period they are multiplied so irregularly, that the
animal's age is estimated, not so much by the number of the
antlers, as by the size and thickness of the whole horns.
The sprouting horns are at first extremely tender, and covered
over with bloodvessels. They grow, not, like the horns of the
bull, the sheep, or the goat, by shooting out new matter at the
roots, and moving forward that which is already formed, but,
like trees and other vegetable bodies, increase their length
by additions at the points. Delicacy and acuteness of the
senses distinguish the stag in an eminent degree : his sense
of smell is exquisite, his eye is sparkling, soft, and glowing
with expression, he hears distinct and low sounds, and is not
incapable of relishing the melody of music. One mode of
hunting this animal, practised in ancient Greece, was for two
persons to go out together, and one to charm the unsuspect-
ing stag with the melody of his voice or his pipe, till the
other approached near enough to pierce him with a dart or
arrow. These animals run with great swiftness, living gen-
erally in forests, upon grass, leaves, and buds.

The horns of the stag differ from those of most other ani-
mals, and approach nearer to the nature of bone, only contain-
ing less of the phosphate of Jime in their composition, and
yielding a much larger proportion of gelatine. It is for the
sake of the gelatine that their shavings are medicinally used.
These are often adulterated with shavings of mutton-bones,
which, however, are easily detected, by their greater degree
of brittleness.

3

CERVUS ELAPHUS.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

Pure hartshorn shavings, which are formed by planing down
the internal white part of the horn, yield to water, by de-
coction, 27 parts of gelatine, -4- 57.5 of phosphate of lime,
-f- 1.0 of carbonate of lime, + 14.5 of water, = 100.0 of the
horn. The gelatine is inodorous and insipid, and has all the
chemical properties of pure gelatine.

The retention of hartshorn in the list of the Materia Medica
is the relic of a period of inert practice : it yields a light and
sufficiently nutritious article of diet for the sick and the
convalescent, but this very quality renders it useless as a
medicine.

Gelatine, when freed from water by evaporation, so as to
become brittle, is not susceptible of change, and may be kept
for any length of time. For medicinal use it should there-
fore always be kept in the dry state. But when it is united
with so much water as to render it tremulous, it soon under-
goes decomposition, first becoming acid, then exhaling a
foetid odor, and putrefaction takes place. Exposure to the
air is not necessary to effect this change in gelatine. When
exposed to a high temperature it first whitens, then shrivels,
and is carbonized : tremulous gelatine melts before it under-
goes these changes. When tincture of galls or any astrin-
gent vegetable solution is dropped into a solution of gelatine,
an insoluble precipitate takes place. This is tawwo-gelatine, a
compound of the gelatine and tannic acid, and it is this com-
bination that produces leather. Gelatine, like gum, renders oils
miscible with water, forming emulsions. Alcohol and ether
do not dissolve gelatine, but they separate it from the water of
its solution ; in a thin solution, however, neither alcohol nor
ether produces any obvious change. All the concentrated
acids decompose gelatine, but diluted acids dissolve it un-
changed. When chlorine gas is mixed with a solution of
gelatine, a white solid matter, in filaments, is separated, which
Bouillon la Grange has named oxygenized gelatine, but the
nature of this change is unknown. The alkalies assisted by
heat dissolve gelatine, but do not produce soaps. None of the
earthy salts, with the exception of those of baryta, precipi-
tate its solution ; phosphate of soda, however, causes a slight
milkiness in it. Among the metallic salts, nitrate of silver
only precipitates the solution of pure gelatine.

4

HOMOGANGLIATA.

Invertebrated Animals.

No. 17.
SANGUISUGA.

BLOOD-SUCKING LEECHES.

The animal. A medicinal agent.

. Position. Europe.

Quality. Blood-sucking.

Power. Important therapeutic agent.

Use. Local abstraction of blood.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.

I

3. DIVISION Homogangliata. CLASS Annelida.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 461. Syst. Nat. Gmelin, I. 3095. Jones, An.
King. 191. Pereira, Mat. Med. II. 770. Thomson, Mat. Med. 332. Lond.
Disp. 373. U. S. Disp. 384. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 112. EC. Disp. U. S. 209.

GENUS SANGUISUGA.

Sangsue (Fr.), Blutegel, ^Egle, Lyche-lake (Ger.), Sanguisuca Mignatta (It.),
Sanguijuela (Sp.), Pijavoka (Pol.), Jonc (Hind.), Jelauca (San.), Utter (Tarn.),
Kheruheen (Ara.), Zeloo (Pers.), Patchet (Malay), Lek, Leikeis (Moeso-Gothic),
Lsec, Lece (Saxon), Laekare, Lseknare (Gothic and Swed.), Likaer (Sclav.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Body more or less elongated, divided by a great number of

transverse lines into numerous rings.
Skin soft, segmented and annulated.
Articulated members and wings absent.
Blood red, and circulates in a double system of arteries and

veins.
Mode of reproduction, almost all hermaphrodite, though gen-

erally they require the congress of two individuals for im-

pregnation.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

SANGUISUGA. Body elongated. Back convex. Belly flat.
Extremities somewhat narrowed, furnished with discs or suck-
ers. The anterior extremities somewhat narrower than the

1

SANGUISUGA.

posterior ones. Ring's from ninety to a hundred. Eyes rep-
resented by ten blackish points. Mouth tri-radiate. Jaws
cartilaginous, armed with numerous cutting teeth. Anus
small, placed on the dorsum of the last ring.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

Species I. SANGUISUGA OFFICINALIS, HIRUDO PROVINCIALIS,
the Green Leech. Back greenish or blackish green, with six
rusty-red, band-like longitudinal stripes. Belly olive-green,
unspotted.

II. SANGUISUGA MEDICINALIS, HIRUDO MEDICINALIS, the true
English or Speckled Leech. Back greenish, or olive-green,
with six rusty-red longitudinal stripes which are mostly spot-
ted with black. Belly greenish yellow, spotted with black.
Spots very variable in size and number ; in some cases they
are but few, in others they are so numerous as to form the
almost prevailing tint of the belly, the intervening spaces
appearing like greenish yellow spots.

NATURAL HISTORY.

LEECH, Hirudo. A genus of suctional animals or red-
blooded worms, of aquatic habits, provided with a sucker at
both ends of the body ; the greater part are inhabitants of
fresh water; some, however, are only found in the sea, while
others live in moist situations near stagnant water, pursuing
earth-worms, &c. Many of them accumulate their eggs
into cocoons, enveloped by a fibrous excretion, at first sight
so closely resembling sponge in structure as to have been once
mistaken by a distinguished naturalist for a new genus of
that family.

The common Leech, Hirudo medicinalis, affords the most
interesting example of a suctorial Annelidan, and principally
deserves our attention. The outward form of one of these
animals is familiar to every one, and their general habits too
well known to require more than a very brief notice. The
body is very extensible, and divided by a great number of
transverse lines into numerous rings, extremely apparent in
the contracted state of the animal, but nearly imperceptible
when the body is elongated. The skin is soft, being merely a
thin cuticular pellicle separable by maceration, and the surface
is lubricated by a copious secretion of mucus. Beneath the
cuticle is a layer of colored pigments, upon which the colors

2

SANGUISUGA.

of the animal depend, but the cutis or true skin is so inti-
mately connected with the muscular integument of the body,
that its existence as a distinct tunic is scarcely demonstrable.
The muscular covering or walls of the body, which form a
kind of contractile bag inclosing the viscera, are found upon
accurate dissection to consist of three distinct strata of fibres
running in different directions. The outer layer is composed
of circular bands, passing transversely ; in the second the fibres
assume a spiral arrangement, decussating each other, while
the internal layer is made up of longitudinal muscles extend-
ing from one end of the creature towards the opposite. Such
an arrangment is evidently adequate to the production of all
needful movements, and capable of giving rise to all the mo-
tions connected with the elongation, contraction, or lateral
inflexions of the body used in progression.

At each extremity of the animal, the muscular coat expands
into a flattened, fleshy disc, composed of circular and radiating
fasciculi, which when applied to a smooth surface perform
the office of suckers, and thus become important instruments
of prehension. There are no vestiges of external limbs ; never-
theless, with the simple mechanism above described, the leech
is able to crawl with considerable rapidity along the surface
of subaquatic plants, or even to swim with much facility
through the water. The first method of locomotion is accom-
plished by means of the terminal suckers, supposing the pos-
terior disc to be attached ; the animal elongates its body to
the utmost, and then fixes the sucker placed at the opposite
extremity ; this done, the hinder parts are drawn forward and
again fixed preparatory to a repetition of the process. In
swimming, the whole body is elongated, and, by some partial
contractions of the muscular integument, not precisely under-
stood, assumes the appearance of a flattened band, and in
this condition the leech makes its way through the element
which it inhabits by successive undulatory movements of the
body, performed with much grace and elegance.

The mouth of the leech is an exceedingly perfect appara-
tus, not only adapted to the destruction of those minute
aquatic animals which constitute its usual food, but, as is
universally known, admirably fitted to extract blood from the
higher animals, combining in its operation the offices both of
the cupping-glass and the scarificator.

The mouth is situated near the centre of the anterior sucker,

3

SANGUISUGA.

so that the oval aperture is firmly applied to any surface upon
which this part of the animal is fixed. Around the entrance
of the oesophagus are disposed three minute cartilaginous
teeth, imbedded in a strong circle of muscular fibres. Each
tooth has somewhat of a semicircular form, and when accu-
rately examined with a microscope, is found to have its free
margin surmounted with minute denticulations, so as to
resemble a small semicircular saw. On watching a leech
attentively during the process of biting, the action of these
teeth is a-t once evident ; for as the skin to which the sucker is
adherent is rendered quite tense, the sharp serrated edges of
the teeth are pressed firmly against it, and a sawing movement
being given to each cartilaginous piece by the strong contrac-
tions of the muscular fibres around the neck, these instru-
ments soon pierce the cutis to a considerable depth, and lay
open the cutaneous vessels, from which the creature sucks the
fluid which its instinct prompts it to seek after with so much
voracity. The position of the teeth around the opening of
the mouth will at once explain the cause of the tri-radiate
form of the incision which a leech-bite invariably and con-
stantly exhibits.

On contemplating this singular dental apparatus found in
the medicinal leech, and considering the nature of the food
upon which it usually lives, it is difficult to avoid arriving at
the conclusion that such a structure, which is indeed only
met in one or two species, is rather a provision intended to
render these creatures subservient to the alleviation of human
suffering, than necessary to supply the wants of the animals
themselves. In the streams and ponds which they usually
inhabit, any opportunity of meeting with a supply of the
blood of warm-blooded Vertebrata must be of rare occurrence,
so that comparatively few are ever enabled to indulge the
instinct which prompts them to gorge themselves so vora-
ciously when allowed to obtain it ; neither does it appear that
the blood which they swallow with so much avidity is a ma-
terial properly suited to afford them nourishment ; for although
it is certainly true that it will remain for a considerable time
in its stomach without becoming putrid, yet it is well known
that most frequently the death of the leech is caused by such
inordinate repletion, provided the greater portion of what is
taken into the body is not speedily regurgitated through the
mouth.

4

SANGUISUGA.

The internal digestive apparatus is evidently adapted in the
construction of all its parts to form a capacious reservoir for
the reception of fluids taken in by suction ; the stomach, in-
deed, with the numerous lateral appendages opening from it
on each side, would seem to fill the whole body, and, being
extremely dilatable, allows the animal to distend itself to a
wonderful extent, so that it is not unusual to see a leech when
filled with blood expanded to five or six times the dimensions
which it presented in an empty state.

The stomach itself occupies about two thirds of the visceral
cavity ; on opening it, it is seen to be divided t>y delicate
septa into nine or ten compartments, which communicate
freely with each other. In each compartment there are two
lateral orifices leading into as many wide membranous pouches,
which, although shrunk and flaccid when in an undistended
state, are easily filled with fluid introduced into the stomach,
and are then swelled out into very capacious bags. Perhaps
the simplest way of obtaining a correct idea of the relative
sizes and general arrangement of these organs, is to make a
cast of their internal cavities when in a state of distention ;
this is readily effected by placing a dead leech in warm water
until it is slightly heated ; in this state, the pipe of a small
injecting syringe can be introduced into the oesophagus so as
to fill the stomach and cseca with common wax injection, and
if the body be immediately removed into a vessel of diluted
muriatic acid, the soft parts will be speedily destroyed, leaving
an exact model of the interior. It will then be seen that the
lateral caeca increase gradually in size as they approximate
the posterior extremity of the body, until the last pair become
so large as nearly to fill up the space intervening between the
end of the stomach and the anal boundary of the visceral
cavity. What is the exact nature of these capacious sacs
which thus* open into the stomach of the leech? Are they
prolongations of the digestive surface, or are they glandular
caeca provided for the secretion of some auxiliary fluids poured
into the stomach ? These are questions which admit of con-
siderable discussion. On the one hand, there can be little
doubt 'that, when the leech is filled with blood, the various
caecal pouches become likewise distended, and they are appar-
ently as well calculated to effect the digestion of their con-
tents as the stomach itself. Those physiologists, however,
who embrace a different opinion, support their views by refer-

5

SANGUISUGA.

ring to the structure of analogous parts found in other Anneli-
dans. In Aphrodita aculeala, for example, the representatives
of the wide pouches met with in the leech are narrow and
branched tubes, terminating in blind extremities, to which it
is usual to assign the office of separating a biliary secretion ;
and according to this view the caeca of the leech may be re-
garded as the simplest rudiments of the assistant chylopoetic
glands; the first pair, from their proximity to the mouth,
may be destined to furnish a salivary fluid, and the succeeding
ones may be intended to perform the functions of biliary
follicles.

The small size of the intestine, when compared with the
capacious stomach described above, is remarkable; it com-
mences by a minute orifice from the termination of the diges-
tive cavity, and, becoming slightly enlarged, passes in a straight
line, lodged between two posterior caeca, to the anus, which is
an almost imperceptible aperture placed at the .root of the
posterior sucker ; four small and apparently glandular masses
are appended to this short canal, but their nature is unknown.
The entire alimentary apparatus is retained in situ by numer-
ous membranous septa, passing between its outer walls and
the muscular parietes of the body.

The operation of digestion is extremely slow, notwithstand-
ing the rapid and excessive manner in which the leech fills its
stomach ; a single meal of blood will suffice for several months,
nay, more than a year will sometimes elapse before the blood
has passed through the alimentary canal in the ordinary man-
ner, during all which period so much of the blood as remains
undigested in the stomach continues in a fluid state. This
accounts for the reluctance of the leech, after being used to
abstract blood, to repeat the operation ; it not only being
gorged at the time, but provided with a sufficient supply for
so much longer. Indeed, the true medicinal leech does not
seem to take any solid aliment, but subsists on the fluids of
frogs, fish, &c. •

The organs provided for respiration are a series of mem-
branous pouches, communicating externally by narrow ducts
or spiracles, as they might be termed, into which aerated water
is freely admitted. These respiratory sacculi, in the leech,
are about thirty-four in number, seventeen being visible on
each side of the body ; they are extremely vascular, and in
connection with every one of them there is a long glandular-

6

SANGUISUGA.

looking appendage, represented until recently as being in-
tended to furnish some important secretion, bat which late
discoveries have shown to be connected with the propulsion
of the blood over the walls of the breathing-vesicle, in a man-
ner to be explained immediately. It would seem, however,
that the respiratory function is not exclusively carried on by
the agency of the lateral sacculi ; the entire surface of the
body is permeated by innumerable delicate vascular ramifica-
tions, and from the thinness of the integument it is evident
that the blood which traverses the cutaneous net-work thus
extensively distributed rmist be more or less completely ex-
posed to the influence of oxygen contained in the surrounding
medium ; nay, it would even appear from careful examination
of the movements of the blood, as seen in the transparent
bodies of some of the Hirudinidce^ that a kind of vicarious
action occurs between the capillary vessels of the skin and
those of the respiratory sacs, so that when the circulation pro-
ceeds languidly through one set of vessels, it is carried on
with greater activity in the other.

The vessels appropriated to the distribution of the circu-
lating fluid in the leech come now under consideration.
There is no heart, but the movements of the blood are entirely
due to the contractions of the canals in which it flows. The
principal vascular trunks are four in number, which, although
they all communicate extensively with each other, perform
distinct offices in effecting the circulation ; two of them being
specially connected with the supply of the general system,
while the other two seem subservient to the distribution of
the blood over the respiratory sacculi.

The two systemic trunks run along the mesian line of the
body, one upon the dorsal and the other upon the ventral as-
pect. The dorsal vessel seems to be arterial in its character,
and no doubt corresponds in function with the heart of more
perfect forms of the Articulata, receiving the blood from all
parts of the system, as well from the respiratory vessels as
from the venous capillaries, and by successive undulatory con-
tractions, which may be observed to proceed from the tail
towards the anterior extremity, propelling it through all the
arterial branches derived from it. The ventral vessel, on the
contrary, seems to be venous, collecting the blood after its pas-
sage through the systemic capillaries, and returning it partly
into the dorsal artery from which it set out, and partly to the

7

SANGUISUGA.

lateral vessels for the necessary purpose of undergoing respi-
ration.

The two lateral vessels are appropriated to the supply of
the respiratory system, and in them the blood moves in a
circle quite independent of that formed by the dorsal artery
and ventral vein, although they all communicate freely by
means of cross-branches, those passing from the lateral vessels
to the dorsal being called by M. Duges dor so-lateral (Annales
des Sciences Nat., Vol. XV.), while those which join the lat-
eral trunks to the ventral canal are the latero-abdominal
branches of that observer. The movement of the blood in
the lateral or respiratory system of vessels is quite distinct
from that which is accomplished in the dorso- ventral, or sys-
temic trunks ; sometimes it passes down the vessel from the
head towards the tail, and in an opposite direction on the
other side of the body, but in a short time the movement of
the currents will be seen to become completely reversed, so
that an undulatory motion, rather than a complete circulation,
is kept up. By this action of the lateral canals, the blood is
made perpetually to pass and repass the respiratory sacculi,
and opposite to each of these, branches are given off which
form so many independent vascular circles, representing very
closely the minor or pulmonary circulation of the higher ani-
mals.

On examining attentively one of the respiratory pouches,
its membranous walls are seen to be covered with very fine
vascular ramifications, derived from two sources ; the latero-
abdominal vessel gives off a branch, which is distributed upon
the respiratry sacculis, and there is another very flexuous vas-
cular loop derived from the lateral vessel, which terminates
by ramifying upon the vesicle in a similar manner. The walls
of the loop are extremely thick and highly irritable, but on
tearing it across, the internal cavity or canal by which it is
perforated is seen to be of comparatively small diameter, so
that it is not surprising that, although such appendages to the
respiratory sacs were detected and well delineated by former
anatomists, their nature was unknown, and they were supposed
to be glandular bodies appropriated to some undiscovered use.
From the arrangement above described, it is evident that
small circular currents of blood exist, which are independent,
to a certain extent, of the general circulation, since opposite
to each membranous bag a portion of the fluid contained in

8

SANGUISUGA.

the lateral vessel is given off through the muscular tube, which
thus resembles a pulmonary heart, and after being distributed
over the walls of the respiratory vesicle, and in this manner
exposed to the influence of oxygen, the blood returns into the
general circulation.

The nervous system of the leech consists of a long series of
minute ganglia joined by connecting filaments; of these about
twenty-four are situated along the ventral surface of the body.
The anterior pair, or that immediately beneath the oesopha-
gus, is larger than the rest, forming a minute heart-shaped
mass, which is united, by a delicate nervous collar embracing
the gullet, with two small nodules of neurine situated upon
the dorsal aspect of the mouth. The two minute ganglia last
mentioned form that portion of the nervous system most inti-
mately connected with sensation ; for while the nervous fila-
ments given off from the abdominal ganglia are distributed to
the muscular integuments of the body, the nerves which issue
from the supra-cssophageal pair supply the oral sucker, where
the organs of the senses are situated. In all the Homogan-
gliata, indeed, it is exclusively from this cephalic pair of gan-
glia that the nerves appropriated to the instruments of the
senses are derived, and therefore this part of the nervous sys-
tem of the Articulata is not improperly called the brain, and
considered by most naturalists' to be strictly analogous, in
function at least, with the cerebral masses of more highly
organized beings.

When the minute size of these as yet rudimentary nervous
centres are regarded, it cannot be expected to find them asso-
ciated with any very perfect apparatus of sensation. The
oral sucker, indeed, seems to possess a more delicate sense of
touch than the rest of the body, adapting it to examine the
surface to which it is about to be fixed, and probably the leech
may enjoy in some measure perceptions corresponding with
those of taste and smell. These senses have been found to
exist in many animals, but in the Hirudinidce there are, in
addition, distinctly formed organs of vision, exhibiting, indeed,
the utmost simplicity of structure, but nevertheless correspond-
ing in the perfection of their development with the condition
of the cerebral masses in relation with them.

The eyes of the leech are eight or ten in number, and are
easily detected by the assistance of a lens, under the form of a
semicircular row of black points, situated above the mouth,

9

SANGUISUGA.

upon the sucking surface of the oral disc ; a position evidently
calculated to render them efficient agents in detecting the
presence of food. The structure of these simple eyes does not
as yet present any apparatus of transparent lenses adapted
to collect or concentrate the rays of light, but each ocellus or
visual speck would seem to be merely an expansion of the
terminal extremity of a nerve derived immediately from the
brain, spread out beneath a kind of cornea formed by the del-
icate and transparent cuticle ; beh'ind this is a layer of black
pigment, to which naturally the dark color of each ocular point
is due.

Leeches, like the generality of the Annelida, are hermaph-
rodite, every one possessing two complete systems of gener-
ative organs, one subservient to the impregnation, the other
to the production of the ova ; nevertheless, these animals are
not self-impregnating, but the congress of two individuals is
essential to fecundity.

Commencing with the male organs, it is not surprising to
find the testes divided into numerous distinct masses, or rather
repeated again and again, in conformity with a law to which
allusion has already been had. The glands which appar-
ently secrete the seminal fluid are about eighteen in number,
arranged in pairs upon the floor of the visceral cavity. Along
the external edge of each series there runs a common canal,
or vas deferens, which receives the secretion furnished by all
the testicular masses placed upon the same side of the mesian
line, and conveys it to a receptacle where it accumulates. The
two reservoirs or vesiculce seminales communicate with a mus-
cular bulb situated at the root of the penis. The penis itself
is frequently found protruded from the body after death ; it is
a slender filament, which communicates by its origin with the
contractile bulb, and when retracted is lodged in a muscular
sheath. The male apparatus is thus complete in all its parts ;
the fecundating secretion derived from the double row of
testes is collected by the two vasa deferentia, and lodged in
the receptacles ; it is thence conveyed into the muscular cavity
situated at the root of the male organ of excitement, through
which it is ultimately ejected.

The ovigerous or female sexual organs of the leech are
more simple in their structure than those which constitute the
male system ; they open externally by a small orifice situated
immediately behind the aperture from which the penis is pro-

10

SANGUISUGA.

truded, the two openings being separated by the intervention
of about five of the ventral rings of the body. The vulva, or
external canal, leads into a pear-shaped, membranous bag,
which is usually, but improperly, named the uterus. Append-
ed to the bottom of this organ is a convoluted canal, which
communicates with two round whitish bodies ; these are the
ovaria. The germs, therefore, which are formed in the ovarian
corpuscles escape through the tortuous duct into the uterus,
where they are detained for some time prior to their ultimate
expulsion from the body. The exact nature of the uterine
sacculus is imperfectly understood ; some regard it as a mere
receptacle wherein the seminal fluid of the male is received
and retained until the ova come in contact with it as they pass
out of the body, and thus are subjected to its vivifying influ-
ence ; other physiologists believe that the germs escape from
the ovaria in a very immature condition, and suppose that
during their sojourn in this cavity they attain to -more com-
plete development before they are ripe for exclusion ; while
some writers go so far as to assert that leeches are strictly
viviparous, inasmuch as living young have been detected in
the interior of this viscus. But all these suppositions are easily
reconcilable with each other ; there is no doubt that the semi-
nal liquor is^deposited in this reservoir during the copulation
of two individuals ; neither would any one dispute that the
ova are collected in the same cavity before they are expelled
from the body. As to the discussion whether the young are
born alive or not, or, as it is generally expressed, whether
leeches are oviparous or viviparous, it is in this case merely a
question of words ; for in a physiological point of view, it can
make not the slightest difference whether the ova are expelled
as such, or whether, owing to their being retained by acci-
dental circumstances until they are hatched internally, the
young leeches make their appearance in a living state.

The increasing scarcity of leeches renders their preservation
and propagation objects of primary importance. The death
of a vast number of leeches is occasioned by errors in the
method of keeping them. Though aquatic animals, it is not
enough that they be supplied with water. They breathe by
their entire surface, and are accustomed to change their skins
every four or five days. Their body is covered, like that of
all animals and plants which inhabit the water, by a shiny or
mucilaginous fluid, which not only enables them to glide

11

SANGUISUGA.

through the water, but keeps an aerial stratum in close con-
tact with their respiring surface. When present in a limited
degree, this mucous secretion is highly serviceable to them ; in
excess it is destructive. It is impossible for them to diminish
*it when it has accumulated, or to denude themselves entirely
of their old skin in water only. They must have some resist-
ing body to creep over or through, in order to accomplish this
object. The most effectual method of preserving them appears
to be that recommended by Fee, which is as follows : — " Into
a marble or stone trough, a layer of seven inches of a mixture
of moss turf and charcoal of wood is to be put, and some
small pebbles placed above it. At one extremity of the trough,
and midway between the bottom and the top, place a thin
plate of marble, pierced with numerous small holes, upon
which there should rest a stratum of moss or portions of the
Equisetum palustre, or horse-tail, firmly compressed by a stra-
tum of pebbles. The trough to be replenished with water
only so high that the moss and pebbles should be but slightly
moistened. A cloth is to be kept over the mouth of the
trough. This is imitating as near as possible their natural
condition, and the charcoal not only aids in keeping the water
sweet, but appears to prevent the leeches being attacked by
parasitic animals, to which they are very liable.^ The water
should be changed about once a week, and more frequently
in warm weather." To judge of the vast number of leeches
that are required for medical use, and of the great impor-
tance it is to ascertain the best method of preserving them, it
is only necessary to state, that four only of the principal deal-
ers in London import between seven and eight millions
annually.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

LEECHES derive their principal interest from the use that is
made of them as a remedial agent; but it should be observed
that there are only two species so employed, and these are
principally derived from the South of France, Sweden, Poland,
and Hungary. It is common for the leech-dealers to drive
horses and cows into the ponds, that the leeches may fatten
and propagate more abundantly by sucking their blood.
Children are also employed to catch them by the hand, and
grown persons wade into the shallow waters in the spring of
the year, and catch the leeches that adhere to their naked

12

SANGUISUGA.

legs. In summer, when they have retired to deeper waters, a
sort of raft is constructed of twigs and rushes, by which a few
are entangled. They are also taken by laying baits of liver,
to which the leeches resort and are then caught ; but this last
method is thought to make them sickly. A leech may be
known to be in good health if it be active in the water and
plump when taken out. The most certain method of indu-
cing leeches to bite is to cleanse the skin thoroughly ; and they
should be exposed to the air for a short time previous to their
application, as by this means they will bite more freely. If
they are voracious, they may be applied to the part by being
held lightly in the fingers, or they may be placed in a leech-
glass, which is a preferable mode. They should not be dis-
turbed whilst sucking, nor the patient be exposed to too great
warmth, or they will fall off; this they should always be per-
mitted to do of their own accord. When the feech has
dropped off, it should be seized by the tail and drawn between
the finger and the thumb so as to cause it to disgorge most of
the blood ; or this may be effected by putting it into a weak
solution of common salt. It should then be placed in many
successive fresh waters, and if not injured, it may be used
again at a future time.

The corium, or true skin, which displays the rings of which
the body of the leech is composed, seems to be semi-cartilagi-
nous, and capable of expansion to nearly three times their nat-
ural magnitude ; hence the quantity of blood which the leech
can draw is greatly disproportionate to its natural size. Mr.
Kennedy has stated, on the authority of experiment, that it is
equivalent to the weight of the animal. M. Moquin Tandon
affirms that a small lively leech will take twice its weight,
a middle-sized one one half its weight, and a large one its
weight. Derheim says six times its weight. The average,
however, is considered about two drachms. This, neverthe-
less, is no criterion of what is obtained ; for the blood contin-
ues to flow after the leech falls off, and by applying a poul-
tice or warm water to the orifices, or a cupping-glass over the
place, a considerable quantity may be afterwards abstracted.

There are some circumstances connected with the applica-
tion of leeches that require to be noticed. An erysipelatous
inflammation sometimes follows their application, which has
been referred to a peculiar irritable state of the skin of the
patient, but which has been ascertained by M. Derheim to

13

SANGUISUGA.

proceed from taking off the -leech by force when it is sucking,
thus causing the teeth to separate from the animal and remain
in the wound.

The leech should therefore always be permitted to drop off
spontaneously; and when it drops off, it should be thrown
into water slightly salted, till it disgorges the blood, after
which it should be thrown into clean water. It is curious that
the circumstance of the leech dropping off when it is gorged
has never suggested the question, What causes the leech to
drop off? The usual reply to this question is, that the leech
has had sufficient ; or that it drops off from the uneasiness of
distention. This, however, is not the fact ; it drops because
it falls into a state of asphyxia, from want of respiration, and
this is founded upon the following grounds. The respiratory
organs of the leech are a number of vesicles in immediate
contact with the lateral longitudinal vessels, small twigs of
which communicate with these vesicles, to submit the blood
to the action of the air, which is admitted by stigmata or spi-
racles, which are arranged on each side of the under surface
of the animal between every fifth ring. As the vesicles con-
tain a whitish fluid, they are supposed not to be respiratory
organs ; that they are, however, breathing organs, is proved,
for on closing these pores with viscid oil, the leech dies in a
few days. Now, these vesicles communicate with the air;
and although the leech can live for some days under oil, and
in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, yet, from an experi-
ment made by Dr. Edwards, it is evident that the leech re-
spires and consumes the oxygenous portion of the air ; and it
may be inferred that the animal, by filling these vesicles with
air, can exist for some days without a fresh supply ; but it by
no means follows that they can exist if these vesicles be en-
tirely emptied. It is therefore considered that the animal
continues capable of exerting the function of sucking as long
as these vesicles contain a sufficiency of air for the respiration
to be carried on ; but as the body becomes greatly distended
with blood, the cavities of these vesicles are obliterated ; no
respiration can consequently take place ; and, as in animals
that breathe by lungs, asphyxia occurs as soon as air ceases
to be retained in these vesicles, and the muscular energy
depending on volition being no longer exerted, the leech drops
off. If it be true that, when the tail is punctured or is cut
off, the leech continues to suck, it is because no asphyxia

14

SANGUISUGA.

occurs ; for the vesicles are not compressed, and therefore the
leech continues to suck.

Various means have been suggested to facilitate the appli-
cation of leeches ; the part should not only be made clean
and dry, as already directed, but the leech itself should
also be dried in a clean cloth before applying it. Then place
the leech in a glass or in the lid of a pill-box, and invert it
upon the affected part ; or if this fail, scratch the surface
of the skin with the point of a lancet, and apply the leech on
the spot moistened with blood. Perhaps the best and sim-
plest method is, to fold up a clean, soft towel like a napkin,
and make a small hollow in it with the point of the fingers,
into which the dried leeches are to be placed. On applying
the towel, it is to be held over the part by placing the hand
on it until the leech bites, after which it is to be removed. If
the skin be much inflamed and hot, a little tepid water should
be poured into the water containing the leeches before they
are taken out of it to be applied ; and this should also be
done, if it be requisite to apply them within the mouth, on the
verge of the anus, or within the vagina. If the patient be
taking sulphur internally, or externally applying it, leeches
will not bite ; neither will they bite if tobacco-smoke, or vin-
egar in vapor, or sulphur, or any foetid odor, be diffused through
the apartment of the patient.

When leeches are applied to soft parts, — for instance, to
the abdomen, — a large quantity of blood is sometimes ob-
tained, particularly when a poultice is laid over the bites, and
the patient is kept warm in bed ; to prevent, therefore, inju-
rious symptoms of exhaustion from such a circumstance, the
poultice should be frequently examined. Danger from this
cause is more likely to occur in children than in adults, and
in children it not unfrequently happens that the bleeding can-
not be stopped without much trouble. The best method of
stopping the bleeding, when ordinary means fail, is to crush
to powder a small piece of nitrate of silver, and to melt the
salt in a watch-glass over a candle, and then to dip into the
melted salt the triangular pointed end of a silver probe, previ-
ously heated. The point becomes thus coated with the nitrate,
and on introducing it into the leech-bites, they instantly cease
to bleed. The bleeding may be stopped by encircling the
orifice with a ligature. On this account, leeches Should never
be applied late at night on children, for as the application of

15

SANGUISUGA.

leeches in infancy must be regarded as a species of general
blood-letting, the precise number which will regulate, not only
the quantity, but be equivalent to rapidity in the detraction of
the blood, should be determined; and the bites should be
instantly closed on observing that the system is brought under
the influence of the loss of blood. Instances have occurred
in which death has followed the application of leeches to
children, and sometimes even to adults.

By whatever means blood is abstracted, if the quantity be
more than the constitution can bear to lose, morbid effects
result. Thus, the delirium which frequently occurs has in
some instances continued, and has worn out the patient. The
first or second bleeding may be well borne, but a repetition of
it may produce sudden dissolution ; the pulse falls, becomes a
mere flutter, and the person rarely survives more than a few
hours. And this may happen whether leeches or the lancet
be employed. Effusion into the ventricles is not an unfre-
quent consequence of an extreme degree of vascular exhaus-
tion. Sometimes when reaction occurs, it is feeble and con-
tinues so, causing fainting on the slightest exertion, and
sometimes terminating in sinking to a hazardous degree. In
other cases the reaction produces symptoms resembling those
of inflammation of the meninges of the brain, — a hard-beating
pulse, particularly in the 'carotids, throbbing in the head, pal-
pitation of the heart and pulsation of the aorta ; and these
symptoms in children lead us to suspect hydrocephalus, when
nothing but exhaustion demands attention. Instead of blood-
letting, light cordials, a mild and nutritious diet, rest, and qui-
etude should be enjoined.

When the quantity of blood to be taken from any part is
considerable, and especially if it be requisite to abstract it
quickly, so as to produce an immediate effect, then cupping is
preferable to the application of leeches. From the manner in
which the blood is taken by cupping, syncope rarely occurs,
unless from fear; consequently this method .of abstracting
blood is ill-calculated to produce a sedative effect upon the
habit, although, in cases where the lancet has been previously
employed, a degree of sinking occasionally occurs which is
alarming. This, however, is less likely to happen than when
leeches are employed, as, from the nature of the incision made
by the scarificator, the bleeding is more under control than it
is from the orifices produced by the bites of leeches.

16

HETEROGANGLIATA.

Invertebrated Animals.

No. 18.
SEPIA OFFICINALIS.

CUTTLE-FISH.

Os Sepice.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Cuttle-fish Bone.

Geog. Position. Europe.

Quality. Absorbent.

Power. Antacid.

Use. Tooth-powder, forming moulds, polishing, pounce.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
2. DIVISION Heterogangliata. CLASS Cephalopoda.

Brandt and Ratzeburg, Med. Zoolog. II. 299. Jones, An. King. 441. Pereira,
Mat. Med. II. 770. Thomson, Mat. Med. *71. U. S. Disp. 1322. Wyatt, Nat.
Hist. 103.

GENUS SEPIA.
Seche (Fr.), Der blackfisch (Ger.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Head rounded and provided with two large eyes, sessile. Ap-
paratus of hearing situated in two little cavities, one on
each side, without external meatus or semicircular canal,
and inclosing a membranous sac in which is suspended a
small stone.

Body inclosed in a bag, mantle.

Mouth armed with strong horny jaws, like the beak of a par-
rot ; about its opening, long fleshy arms, extremely vigor-
ous, capable of being flexed in every direction, and provided
with suckers.

Branchice receive the venous blood under the influence of the
contractions of two fleshy ventricles situated at the base of
each. Aortic heart, composed of one ventricle only.

Stomach extremely complicated ; a peculiar gland secretes a
blackish humor, which is kept in a pouch, diversely situated
according to the species.

1

SEPIA OFFICINALIS.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

SEPIA. Body contained in a sac, bordered throughout its
length by a narrow fin, and inclosing in the back a shell
formed of an infinity of very small, fine, calcareous laminae.
Mouth surrounded with ten arms, of which two are much
longer than the rest, and have suckers at the extremity only.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

SEPIA OFFICINALIS. Arms small, with serrated cups. Ten-
tacula two, longer than the arms. Mouth in the centre of the
arms, horny, hooked like the bill of a hawk.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The CUTTLE-FISH, also called the Ink-fish (from the juice
which the animal ejects, and which was used as ink by the
ancients), is of an oblong form, about six inches in length and
three and a half in breadth. The body is somewhat oval, but
it is broadest near the head, and grows smaller towards the
extremity, where it is obtusely pointed. The head is divided
from the sac on all sides by a neck. The sac is furnished
on each side, throughout its whole length, with a narrow fin.
The suckers are irregularly scattered on the arms and feet.
The back is strengthened by a complicated calcareous plate,
which plate has been long known in the stores of the apothe-
cary under the name of Cuttle-fish bone, and was formerly
much prized in medicine as an absorbent, but is now chiefly
sought after for the purpose of polishing the softer metals.
The superior half, or the one next the head, is the longest,
rounded at the extremity, and thin. The inferior portion be-
comes suddenly narrow, and ends in a point. .It may be con-
sidered as consisting of a dormal plate, concave on the central
aspect, having its concavity filled up with layers which are
convex on their central aspect. The dormal plate consists of
three different lamina?, arranged parallel to one another. The
external or dorsal layer is rough on the surface, and marked
by obscure concentric arches towards the summit, formed by
minute knobs, which become larger towards the base, where
they appear in the form of interrupted transverse ridges. It
is uniform in its structure, and the tubercles possess a polish
and hardness equal to porcellaneous shells, although they
blacken speedily when put in the fire, and contain a good
deal of animal matter. On the central side of this layer is

2

SEPIA OFFICINALIS.

one flexible and transparent, similar to horn, and smooth on
the surface. The third layer is destitute of lustre, and in hard-
ness and structure resembles mother-of-pearl shells. The
term bone has been improperly applied to this complicated
plate, for this substance in composition is exactly similar to
shell, and consists of various membranes, hardened by carbo-
nate of lime, without the smallest mixture of phosphate. The
cuttle-bone is formed in the same manner as other shells, by
the continued addition of calcareous laminee secreted by that
side of the containing capsule which is interposed between the
shell and the abdominal viscera, and these layers, being succes-
sively added to the ventral surface of the shell, thus gradually
increase its bulk as the cuttle-fish advances to maturity.
Neither in the mode of its growth nor in its texture, therefore,
does the os sepice resemble bone, properly so called ; it receives
neither vessels nor nerves, but is in all respects a dormal secre-
tion embedded in the mantle and formed in the same manner
as the dorsal plate of the slug.

In all the CEPHALOPODA, with the exception of the Nautilus
Pompilius, there is an orifice in the immediate vicinity of the
anus, through which a colored secretion, generally of a deep
brown or intense black color, can be poured in astonishing
abundance, and, becoming rapidly diffused through the sur-
rounding water, thus provides a means of defence ; for no
sooner does danger threaten, or a foe appear in the vicinity of
the cuttle-fish, than this ink is copiously ejected, and the ele-
ment around rendered so opaque and cloudy that the Cepha-
lopod remains completely concealed from its pursuer, and not
unfrequently insures its escape by this simple artifice. The
organ wherein the inky secretion is elaborated is a capacious
pouch lodged near the bottom of the visceral sac. On open-
ing it and carefully washing away by copious ablution the
ink within, the cavity of the ink-bag is seen to be filled up
with a spongy cellulosity, wherein the blacking material had
been entangled ; and from this cellular chamber a duct leads
to the outward orifice, through which the dark secretion is
ejected at the will of the animal, and squirted from the ex-
tremity of the funnel.

The most remarkable species of the genus is the SEPIA
OFFICINALIS, 'which is distinguished from the others by its
smooth skin. It inhabits the British seas, and although sel-
dom taken, its " bone " is cast ashore on different parts of the

SEPIA OFFICINALIS.

coast, from the South of England to the Zetland isles. It is
said that the cuttle-fish is considered a luxury by all classes
of the Sandwich-Islanders, and that when fresh and well
cooked it is excellent, being in consistence and flavor not un-
like the flesh of a lobster's claw.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

The substance called Os SEPIJE, or Cattle-fish bone, is an
oval or oblong calcareous bone (sometimes termed a shell) de-
posited in the mantle of the Sepia officinalis. It has a cellular
texture, and is lighter than water, of a white color, a feeble
odor of sea-plants, and a saline taste. It contains, according
to John, from 80 to 85 per cent, of carbonate of lime, besides
animal matter, a little common salt, and traces of magnesia.
Reduced by levigation and elutriation to a fine powder, it
may be given as an antacid, like chalk or oystei-shell. It is
sometimes used as an ingredient of tooth-powders. Small
pieces of it are often put into bird-cages, that the birds may
rub their* bills against them, and the powder is employed for
polishing. A powder is also made from it called pounce^ to
prevent ink from spreading upon paper after erasures. It has
been supposed that the celebrated paint so universally known
as Indian Ink is made by the Chinese from the inky fluid of
some animal of this kind.

Another useful product of the cuttle-fish is the blackish-
brown fluid ejected by the animal. This is dried and used
in the preparation of the water-color called SEPIA. That this
juice was used as ink by the ancients, is well known.

" Tune qucritor, crassus calamo quod pendeat humor,
Nigra quod infusa vanescat sepia lympha ;
Dilutas queritur geminet quod fistula guttas." — Pers. Sat. III.

Compare Pliny (Nat. Hist. Lib. II. cap. 29), where he says
that it was the property of this fish, when it was inclosed by
a net, to shed a black juice, which so darkened the water that
the fishermen could not see it. It is insoluble in water, but
is extremely diffusible through it, and is very slowly deposited.
When prepared with caustic ley, it forms a beautiful brown
color, with a fine grain, and has given name to a species of
drawing now extensively cultivated for landscapes and other
branches of the fine arts. The honor of the invention of the
sepic drawing is due to Professor Seidelmann, of Dresden,
who discovered it at Rome in 1777.

4

HETEHOGANGLIATA.

Invertebrated Animals.

No. 19.
HELIX POMATIA

THE EDIBLES SNAIL,.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Geog. Position. All parts of the world.
Quality. Slimy.
Power. Demulcent, restorative.
Use. Diseases of the lungs.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
2. DIVISION Heterogangliata. CLASS Gasteropoda.

Thomson, Mat. Med. *71. Jones, An. King. 397. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 104.

GENUS HELIX.
THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Head more or less distinct and situated anteriorly, furnished
with very movable appendages, tentacula, placed above the
mouth, which are the seat of touch) perhaps of smell.

Eyes very small, sometimes entirely wanting, sometimes ad-
hering to the head, sometimes fixed at the base, side, or point
of the tentacula.

Respiratory organs of various forms, upon which depends the
division of these animals into orders.

Locomotion effected by the aid of a fleshy disc, placed under
the abdomen.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

HELIX. Shell complete, apparent, and globular. The open-
ing a little encroached upon by the projection of the penulti-
mate turn of the spire, and circumscribed in the form of a
crescent. Respiration effected in a cavity, the narrow orifice
of which they open and shut at pleasure. No branchice.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

HELIX POMATIA. Head prominent, with four tentacula. At
the end of the larger pair are the eyes> minute, perfect. The

1

« HELIX POMATIA.

tentacula can be drawn inwards by a process resembling the
reversion of the finger of a glove. On the back, a turbinated
calcareous shell of sufficient capacity to allow the whole body
of the animal to be lodged in its interior.

NATURAL HISTORY

The common garden snail of this country, and the edible
snail of Europe, are well-known examples of a family of ter-
restrial and air-breathing Gasteropoda. In tropical climates,
however, more striking ones are to be found. They are
equally adapted to the hottest and the coldest climates, the
most cultivated and the most barren situations. The work of
Dr. Pfeiffer is the latest and the most elaborate on this group.
In the works of Wood, Sowerby, Reeve, and others, a great
number of species are figured. An inspection of the cases
containing them in the British Museum will show how varied
their forms are, and how beautifully colored are many of the
species. There are some brought from the Philippine Islands,
by Mr. Cuming, which when wet lose their color, but regain it
when dry. This is owing to the nature of the epidermis.

The garden snail, Helix aspersa, and its allies, constituting
the family Helicidce, are closely allied to the slugs in organi-
zation, and differ from them in little else than in their being
inclosed in a shell, which is univalve, spiral, sub-pellucid, and
brittle, and has a semilunar aperture. Its head is furnished
with four tentacula ; on the superior pair the eyes are placed,
while the inferior pair have no visual organs, but seem more
exclusively adapted to the perception of tactile impressions.
Both the upper and lower tentacula are retractile, and can be
completely inverted, so as to be withdrawn into the interior of
the body. Each tentacle is a hollow, flexible cylinder. When
partially retracted, the extremity of the organ is drawn in-
wards, and two cylinders are thus formed, one within the
other ; if the outer cylinder is elongated, as in protruding the
tentacle, it is at the expense of the inner one, and, on the con-
trary, the inner cylinder, when the organ is retracted, is length-
ened as the other becomes shorter. Snails are hermaphro-
dites, and consequently they are all capable of laying eggs,
which they carefully bury in the ground. These eggs are very
numerous, and there have been found eighty in one heap.
They are round, semi-transparent, about the size of a small
pea, and covered with soft shells ; they are also united to each

2

HELIX POMATIA.

other by an imperceptible slime. When the snail leaves the
egg, it is observed with a very small shell on its back, having
only one whorl ; but in proportion as it grows, the shell in-
creases in the number of its spiral turns. The addition is
always at the mouth, the first centre still remaining, the ani-
mal sending forth from its body that slime which hardens into
a calcareous substance, and is still fashioned into similar con-
volutions. Thus fitted with its covering, which is light and
firm, the snail finds itself well defended from external injury;
and it has only to retire into its fortress to escape impending
danger. It derives its chief subsistence from the leaves of
plants and trees, and, although very voracious, is extremely
delicate in its choice. When in quest of food, it moves for-
ward by means of that broad, muscular skin which is some-
times seen projecting beyond the mouth of the shell ; this is
expanded before and then contracted with a kind of undulat-
ing motion. It is also able to ascend in a perpendicular
direction, and has its progress facilitated by means of that
viscous excretion which it emits whenever it moves. On this
glutinous matter it can proceed slowly and in safety along a
rugged path, or ascend trees and fences for the purpose of
feeding, and it also descends by the same aid, without danger
of falling and injuring its shell.

At the approach of winter the snail buries itself in the
earth, or retires to some hole, where it continues in a torpid
state during the severity of the season : thus it sometimes lies
torpid for six or seven months, till the genial warmth of spring
awakens it to a state of activity; when it quickly makes
amends for its long abstinence by feasting on every vegetable
substance that falls in its way. Before, however, they com-
mence this inactive state of existence, snails close the mouth
of their shells with an epiphragma (or covering not attached
to or forming a part of the animal), which, stopping it up,
entirely protects it from every external injury ; it is composed
of a whitish substance, somewhat resembling plaster. In the
centre is an exceedingly minute orifice, communicating with
the lungs ; and this minute hole, though not large enough to
admit a drop of water, is of sufficient capacity for the passage
of air. The multiplication of snails is at times prodigious,
and it is uniformly observed that a rainy season contributes
much to their increase. It has been asserted, and on appar-
ently good authority, that snails have been known to revive

3

HELIX POMATIA.

after remaining in torpidity a number of years ; and they also
possess extraordinary powers of reproduction, being able to
renew almost any part of the body that has been amputated,
or of the shell that has been broken. This species of Mollusca
is universally diffused throughout the continents of Europe,
Asia, and Africa, (in America it is not so abundant,) in the
hottest and coldest climates; in the forests of Guiana and
Brazil, at the foot of Chimborazo, and even in the great des-
ert of Zahara, the common snail will be found.

Among the members of the family HELICIP/E, one genus
deserves especial notice, from its structure. There are only
two species known, Anastosma depressa and Anastosma glo~
bulosa. " The peculiarity," says Mr. Sowerby, " which distin-
guishes this genus from all the other Heliciform Univalves is
so extraordinary, that it appears to us to be deserving of par-
ticular notice, inasmuch as it evidences a considerable altera-
tion in the habit and economy of the animal which produces
it, at the time of its arrival at the last period of growth, when
it forms the reflected' outer lip and the teeth in the aperture.
Until then the animal must crawl about like other snails, with
the spire of its shell uppermost ; but as soon as it arrives at
maturity, and is about to form its complete aperture, it takes
a reverse position, and afterwards constantly carries its spire
downwards." It is rare, and brought from the East Indies.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

The HELIX POMATIA, Edible Snail, was considered by the
ancient Romans one of their table luxuries, and such great
attention was paid to the mode of feeding them, that they
frequently attained an immense size. On the shores of the
Mediterranean they are still regarded as a valuable article of
food when boiled in the shell, and eaten with rice. In some
countries, as Switzerland and parts of France, they form a
considerable article of commerce. They are fed by thousands
in places called escargatoires, which are made on purpose for
them. They are used boiled in milk for diseases of the lungs,
and were sent to England from Italy as a great delicacy. Sir
Kenelm Digby transported them from the South of Europe,
and placed them on the grounds in the neighborhood of Box-
hill, Kent, where they may still be found ; but they do not
attain to the size they often display in Italy.

4

HOMOGANGLIATA.

Invertebrated Animals.

No. 20.
TEGENEKIA MEDICINALIS.

SPIDER, HOUSE-SPIDER.

Tela aranece.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Cobweb. Spider's web.

Geog. Position. Europe, America.

Quality. Sedative.

Power. Febrifuge, antispasmodic.

Use. Intermittents, spasmodic and nervous diseases.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
3. DIVISION Homogangliata. CLASS Arachnida.

Henz. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. II. 53. Jones, An. King. 308. U. S. Disp. 1316.
Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 118. EC. Disp. U. S. 398.

GENUS TEGENERIA.

Toile d'araignee (Fr.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Skin like bark, but neither horny nor calcareous.

Head and thorax coalesce, leaving only two divisions of the
body recognizable externally, viz. the cephalo-thorax and
the abdomen.

Eyes invariably smooth, from two to twelve, grouped in vari-
ous ways, never composite.

Abdomen distinct, short, and globular, and furnished near its
posterior termination with spinnerets, by means of which
is constructed what is usually named the spider's web.

Feet generally four pair, inserted at the thorax, and terminated
by two, sometimes three hooks.

Respiration by pulmonary sacs, placed under the abdomen, or
by ramified tracheae, communicating with the external air
by fissures or apertures called stigmata or spiracula ; there
are from two to eight of them.

Blood white, circulation in accordance with the mode of res-
piration.

1

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

TEGENERIA. Never more than two pulmonary sacs placed
under the abdomen, and communicating with the exterior air
by spiracula. Heart consisting of a large cylindrical vessel,
sending the blood through the arteries to the different parts
of the body, and receiving by the veins that which has trav-
ersed the respiratory organs. Feet always four pairs.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS. Eyes arranged in a slightly
curved line. These construct in the interior of our houses, in
angles of walls, &c., an angular web, at the upper part of
which is a tube in which they remain motionless.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The genus Aranea of Linnaeus has been divided by sub-
sequent naturalists into several genera, of which the Tegene-
ria of Walckenaer is the one that includes the medicinal
species of spider. The Tegeneria domestica of Europe and
Teg-eneria medicinalis of this country are the particular species
which have attracted most attention. These well-known an-
imals, if not among the most admired, are undoubtedly
among the most interesting of the annulose world from their
habits and mode of life. They differ essentially in their in-
ternal structure from insects proper, and their external form
is so peculiar that they are easily recognized. The family of
spiders is not always arranged among insects, and, strictly
speaking, their structure is different in some important par-
ticulars. The body is composed of two pieces only, the head
being united with the thorax, and the feet are always eight
in number. The cephalo-thorax appears as if composed of
but a single segment, and is covered with a sort of horny
buckler, generally oval, to which the abdomen, consisting of
a soft and tumid mass, is appended. Generally they have
eight eyes, though sometimes only six, variously disposed in
the different genera, but always simple. The mandibles ter-
minate in a very short movable hook, having near its ex-
tremity a small aperture, which serves as a passage for the
poison. The legs are inserted almost in a circular manner
around the cephalo-thorax ; they are all nearly of the same
form, and each is composed of seven joints, the last being

2

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

armed with two hooks. The pulmonary sacs are placed
near the base of the abdomen, and indicated externally by a
brownish or whitish spot. They are now arranged into
groups or families, according to the arrangement of the man-
dibles and eyes, which correspond very remarkably with
their respective modes of life.

The spider being formed for a life of rapacity, and incapa-
ble of living on any other than insect food, all its habits are
calculated to deceive and surprise ; it spreads toils to entangle
its prey; it is endued with patience to expect its approach,
and possesses power sufficient to destroy it when captured.
For the purpose of constructing its web, Nature has supplied
the spider with a large quantity of glutinous matter within
its body, and with five papillae or teats for spinning it into
thread.' This substance is contained in a little bag, and at
first sight resembles soft glue, but when more accurately ex-
amined is found twisted into many coils of an agate color,
and on breaking it the contents may easily be extended into
threads from the tenacity of the substance, — not from those
threads being already formed. The machine by which wire
is drawn will furnish some idea of the manner in which this
creature forms the thread of its little net ; the orifices of the
five teats through which the thread is drawn contracting or
dilating at pleasure. The threads which are seen, and which
appear- so fine, are, notwithstanding, composed of five joined
together, and these are repeatedly doubled as the work pro-
ceeds. When a house or a common spider is about to form
a web, it first selects some commodious and secure spot,
where insects appear to be in sufficient abundance. It then
distils a small drop of its glutinous liquor, which is very
tenacious, and, creeping up the wall, and joining its thread as
it proceeds, darts itself in a very surprising manner to the
opposite station, where the other end of the web is to be
fastened. The first thread thus spun, drawn tight, and fixed
at each end, the spider runs on it, backwards and forwards,
still assiduously employed in doubling and strengthening it,
as on its force depends the strength and stability of the whole.
The scaffolding being thus completed, the spider draws a
number of threads parallel to the first in the same manner,
and then crosses them with others ; the adhesive substance
of which they are formed serving to bind them together
when newly spun. After this operation, the wary architect

3

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

doubles and trebles the thread that borders its web, by open-
ing all its papilla at once ; and so secures the edges as to
prevent the wind from displacing the work. The edges being
thus fortified, the retreat is next to be attended to, and this is
formed like a funnel, where the little workman lies concealed.
To this there are two passages or outlets, one above and the
other below, very artfully contrived, to allow the animal an
opportunity of making excursions at proper seasons, of ex-
amining every corner, and clearing those parts which become
foul or encumbered. It often happens, also, that from the
main web there are several webs extended at. some distance
on each side ; these may be considered as outworks of the
fortification, which, whenever touched from without, the spi-
der prepares for attack or self-defence. If the insect infring-
ing happens to be a fly, it springs forward with great 'agility ;
but if, on the contrary, some enemy stronger than itself, it
then keeps within its fortress, and never ventures out till the
danger is past. The spider also exhibits an instinct of a very
uncommon nature. When put in terror by a touch of the
finger, the spider runs off with great swiftness ; but if he
finds that, whatever direction he takes, he is opposed by an-
other finger, he then seems to despair of being able to escape,
contracts his limbs and body, lies perfectly motionless, and
counterfeits every symptom of death. In this situation spi-
ders have been pierced with pins, and torn to pieces without
their discovering the smallest mark of pain. The simulation
of death has been ascribed to a strong convulsion or stupor,
occasioned by terror. But this solution of the phenomenon
is erroneous and not satisfactory, The experiment has re-
peatedly been tried, and it is uniformly found, that, if the
object of terror be removed, in a few seconds the animal
runs off with great rapidity. Some beetles, when counter-
feiting death, suffer themselves to be gradually roasted with-
out moving a single joint.

The garden spider, Epeira diadema, appears to work in a
different manner from that of the above. It spins a large
quantity of thread, which, floating in the air in various di-
rections, happens, from its glutinous quality, at last to adhere
to some object near it, — a lofty plant or the branch of a tree.
The spider is anxious to have one end of the line fixed, that
it may be enabled to secure and tighten the other ; it accord-
ingly draws the line when thus fixed, and then, by passing

4

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

and repassing on it, strengthens the thread in such a manner
as to answer all its intentions. The first cord being thus
stretched, the spider walks along a part of it, and there fas-
tens another ; and, dropping thence, affixes the thread to
some solid body below, then climbs up again and begins a
third, which it fastens by a similar contrivance. When these
threads are thus fixed, it forms a figure somewhat resembling
a square, and in this the animal is generally found to reside.
It often happens, however, when the young spider begins
spinning, that its web becomes too buoyant, and not only the
web floats in the air, but the spinner also. The struggles of
an entangled insect communicate an undulatory motion to
the whole web, which gives notice to the spider, who imme-
diately sallies forth, and, if his victim be small, seizes it at
once and sucks its blood ; if, however, it is too large to be
thus disposed of, the spider rolls it with his hinder foot, encir-
cling it with a new thread at every turn, until sometimes the
insect is completely coated, and it may be devoured at pleas-
ure. Some spiders spin an irregular web, consisting of
threads intersecting each other at every angle ; others, again,
make a horizontal, closely matted web, having a funnel-
shaped retreat, into which they convey their prey ; while
others make only a retreat by binding a few leaves together,
from which they sally forth and seize insects which approach
them. Some of these seem to be extremely venomous, for it
is observed that no insect that has been once bitten by them
ever recovers, even though it be many times larger and more
powerful than its adversary. Some are aquatic and spin a
cup-like web, which answers the purpose of a diving bell,
under which they disengage the air they bring down from the
surface, and pass their lives feeding on aquatic insects. Some
spiders spin no web, but take their prey by running; others
by approaching quietly till within a certain distance, when
they suddenly leap upon their prey ; other spiders form per-
pendicular and cylindrical holes in the ground, into which
they retreat on the approach of danger.

The female spider generally lays nearly a thousand eggs in
a season, which are separated from each other by a gluti-
nous substance. These eggs are small or large in proportion
to the size of the animal that produces them. In some they
are as large as a grain of mustard-seed, but in others they
are too minute to be distinctly visible. The female never

5

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

begins to lay till she is two years old, and her first brood is
never so numerous as when she arrives at full maturity.
When the eggs have continued to dry for an hour or two
after exclusion, the spider prepares a bag for their reception,
where they remain to be hatched till they leave the shell.
For this purpose she spins a web four or five times stronger
than that intended for the catching of flies. This bag, when
completed, is as thick as paper, smooth on the inside, but
somewhat rough without ; in this the eggs are deposited, and
nothing can exceed the concern and industry which the parent
manifests in the preservation of it. By means of the glutinous
fluid it is stuck to the extremity of. her body, so that when
thus loaded she appears as if double. If the bag should hap-
pen by any accident to be separated from her, all her assi-
duity is employed to fix it again in its former situation ; and
this precious treasure she seldom abandons but with her life.
When the young are excluded from their shells within the
bag, they remain for some time in their confinement, till the
female, instinctively knowing their maturity, bites open their
prison and sets them at liberty. But her parental care does
not terminate with their exclusion ; she receives them on her
back from time to time, till, having acquired sufficient strength
to provide for themselves, they leave her to return no more
and each commences a web for itself. The young ones begin
to spin when they are scarcely large enough to be discerned,
and discover their propensity to a life of plunder before na-
ture has conferred on them strength for the conquest.

Spiders, it is said, though somewhat disgusting in their ap-
pearance in many other countries, are in Borneo of quite a
different nature, and are the most beautiful of the insect
tribe! They have a skin of a shell-like texture, furnished with
curious processes, in some long, in others short, in some few,
in others numerous, but are found of this description only in
thick woo4s and shady places. Their colors are of every
hue, brilliant and metallic as the feathers of the humming-
bird ; but are, unlike the bright colors of the beetle, totally
dependent on the life of the insect which they beautify, so
that it is impossible to preserve them.

In the Excursions to Arran^ by the Rev. D. Landsborough,
is an account of the persevering labors of an Epeira, "who
had pitched his tent by the way-side," which is sufficiently
interesting to warrant extracting nearly the whole of it. " The

6

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

spider is in kings' palaces," and kings and queens too may
learn a lesson from it, as well as others. Spiders have not
had justice done to them ; they are a much more interesting
race than many suppose. They improve on acquaintance ;
the better they are known, the more they are admired. At
that time a whole colony of them were encamped by the
road-side, within the compass of half a mile. " As he was
rather a gigantic spider, his tent, instead of being on the
ground, was elevated like the house of a giant of whom in
early life most have been made acquainted. It was built on
the tops of the common grass, Holcus lamatus, more than a
foot above the ground. Had he built his house on the top of
one stalk of grass, the house and its inhabitant might have
borne down a single slender stalk. But he had contrived to
bring together several heads whose roots stood apart, and
with cordage, which he could furnish at will, had bound them
firmly together, so that his elevated habitation was anchored
on all sides. From whatever airt the wind blew> it had at
once hawser and stay. Not only did he bind the heads to-
gether, but he bent, doubled, and fastened them down as a
thatch roof, under which his habitation was suspended. As
he was a larger spider than usual, his house was large ; the
more capacious department appeared to be the nursery, being
below, and the smaller one his observatory or watch-tower,
being above, from which he could pounce on his prey, or, in
case of hostile attack, could make his escape by a postern
gate, so as to conceal himself among the grass.

" During my visit in June last, on my return from Whiting
Bay," says the reverend gentleman, " I was anxious to ascer-
tain whether this interesting colony of tent-makers was still in
a thriving state, and, not seeing any at first, I began to fear that
a Highland clearance had taken place. But when I at last
discovered a few of them, I saw that, as there are times of low
trade among our industrious two-footed artisans in towns, so
are there occasionally hard times among our six-footed oper-
atives in the country. The field in which they encamped had
probably become over-stocked. The stately Holcus had been
eaten down, but these shifty children of the mist had availed
themselves of the heather, — doubling down the tops of some
of the heath-sprigs, and under this thatched canopy forming
their suspension-tabernacles. As yet, however, it was too
early in the season. The house had only one aperture, the

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

web of which it was formed was as yet thin, so that through
it the spider could be easily seen, which, being but half
grown, had not yet got in perfection its fine tiger-like mark-
ings. Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; go also to the spider.
He who taught the one taught the other, and, learning hu-
mility, let both teach thee."

It is said that kings might learn of the spider, and one of
the greatest of Scottish kings, some five hundred years ago,
disdained not to learn of an Arran spider, in the very district
to which allusion is here made. The tradition still lingers in
Arran', that King's-cross Point was so named because from this
point in Arran, King Robert the Bruce sailed for Carrick,
his own district in Ayrshire. When he was by a train of
adverse circumstances almost driven to despair, it is said that,
after a sleepless night in a humble cot on this rocky point,
he in the morning observed from his lowly bed a spider ac-
tively employed in weaving her silken thread, for the purposes
of a web. To make it firm and extensive, she endeavored
to fasten her filmy threads on a beam projecting from the
roof, but in attempting to reach this beam she fell down to
the ground. Six times she repeated the attempt with no bet-
ter success; but instead of being discouraged, she made a
seventh attempt, — reached the wished-for point, fastened her
adhesive cords, and went triumphantly on with her work.
On observing this, the king sprang up with reviving hopes
and fresh resolution. " Shall I," said he," be more easily dis-
couraged than this reptile? Shall she, in spite of repeated
failures, persevere till crowned with success, though her ob-
ject is to enslave and destroy ? And shall I leave any thing
untried that I may deliver from thraldom my oppressed sub-
jects ? " He hastened to the beach, launched a fishing-boat,
sailed from King's-cross Point for Ayrshire, which he reached
in safety, secretly assembled his liegemen in Carrick, made
a bold and sudden and successful attack on his own castle
of Turnberry, which he took from the vanquished English
garrison, and following up this auspicious blow, he advanced
on the side of victory, till at Bannockburn he drove the cruel
invaders from the land, and once more set beloved Scotland
free.

As has been already noticed, the species of the spider are very
numerous, some differing widely from others ; but the space
we have already occupied compels us to confine ourselves in

8

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

the present instance to the general description already given
of their structure, habits, &c. One particularity, however, in
the history of spiders, remains to be noticed, which is their
power of flight. This is chiefly exercised by those of minute
size. It is principally in the autumnal season that these di-
minutive adventurers ascend the air, and contribute to fill it
with that infinity of floating cobwebs, which are so peculiarly
conspicuous at that period of the year. When inclined to
make these aerial excursions, the spider ascends some slight
eminence, as the top of a wall or the branch of a tree, and
turning itself with its head towards the wind, darts out sev-
eral threads from its papillae, and, rising from its station, com-
mits itself to the gale, and is thus carried far beyond the
height of the loftiest trees. During their flight, it is probable
that spiders employ themselves in catching such insects, mi-
nutely winged, as may happen to occur in their progress ; and
when satisfied with their peregrinations and their prey, they
suffer themselves to fall by contracting their limbs and grad-
ually disengaging themselves from the thread that supports
them.

" We read in various works," says Vincent Kollar, " that
spiders often eject a corrosive poisonous juice, in consequence
of which the joints become inflamed and swelled; and even
that the crawling of a spider is sufficient to cause inflamma-
tion in the parts which it touches. It might, perhaps, be too
much to contradict the assertions of many writers," but our
author .says, " I have never found these observations adduced
by men who have been exclusively occupied with the study
of spiders, nor have I ever experienced any thing of this kind
myself, throughout the many years in which I have been en-
gaged in studying insects and spiders." All spiders are insects
of prey, and feed on other insects, which they catch alive, kill,
and then suck out their fluids. For this end they are mostly
provided with very strong choice or mandibles. These choice
are of a horny substance, bent inwards, hollow, and provided
with an opening at the top, and are connected with glands
which secrete a corrosive juice. They discharge this juice
into the captured insects they have wounded, apparently to
kill them sooner. The same thing happens when they
wound a person who has caught one and gives it pain. Pain
will naturally be the consequence of the wound, and the cor-
rosive juice communicated to it, the wounded part becoming

9

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

inflamed and swelling. The larger the spider, the warmer
the climate or season of the year, and the more susceptible
the wounded individual, so much worse will the effects be;
and it is therefore no wonder that people who would have a
fester from a simple prick with a needle should feel more
violent effects from the bite of a spider. Thus the bite of
the Tarantula in Southern Italy, according to late observa-
tions, is said not to be nearly so dangerous as it was consid-
ered formerly, and the disease attributed to the bite of the
Tarantula is said to be more the consequence of the climate
and manner of life of the people. It is, however, an indis-
putable fact, that spiders defend themselves when they are
persecuted and captured, bite with their choice, and drop into
the wound a more or less poisonous juice, although the con-
sequences are of little importance and the wound is very sel-
dom dangerous.

There is a small Tick, so commonly called the Red Spider,
Acarus telarius, that it may be described here. It is scarcely
visible to the naked eye, and does considerable injury to vari-
ous plants in warm, dry summers. It is also called the Plant
Mite. Like most of the Arachnidce, it has eight legs, its
color changes from yellowish to brown and reddish, and on
each side of the back is a blackish spot. In the open air it
usually attacks kidney beans. Among trees the young limes
principally suffer, and the mites are found in thousands on
the under side of the leaves. These leaves assume a dirty
yellow or brownish appearance, and in the middle of summer
the trees acquire an autumnal hue. In hot-houses the red
spider feeds during the whole year, and is a great pest to
nurserymen and gardeners. It spins a sort of web over the
leaves, particularly on the under surface, and sucks the juice
of the plants with its rostrum, which completely enfeebles
and defoliates them. Sprinkling the plants frequently with
cold water has been found efficient as a means of destroying
these insects ; fumigating the hot-house repeatedly with strong
tobacco smoke also injures them in some degree. They are
most abundant when the plants are kept too warm in sum-
mer, and as most hot-house plants thrive well when placed in
the open air in July and August, placing them out will almost
entirely free them from these insects. When hot-house plants
are placed in the open air, the precaution must be taken of
sinking the pots in a warm dung or tan bed, to keep the roots

10

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

warm. The roots being preserved in this way, the plants
will defy the coldest weather they are ever likely to be ex-
posed to in the summer. For kidney beans, where they are
trained on sticks in the open air, it is necessary in autumn
and winter to cleanse the sticks from all loose rind, as the
mites take up their winter quarters within it in whole fam-
ilies, and if they are not effectually destroyed, proceed from
it to the young plants in the ensuing spring, and continue
their devastations.

The Diadem Spider, Epeira diadema, so common in the au-
tumn, belongs to Walckenaer's genus Epeira. Its body, when
full grown, is nearly as large as a hazel-nut, is of a deep
chestnut-brown color, and the abdomen beautifully marked
by a longitudinal series of round milk-white spots, crossed by
others of a similar appearance, so as to represent, in some
degree, the pattern of a small diadem. It is chiefly seen
during the autumnal season in gardens, where, in some con-
venient spot or shelter, it forms a large, round, close web of
yellow silk, in which it deposits its eggs, guarding this web
with a secondary one of a looser texture. The young are
hatched in the ensuing May, the parent insects dying towards
the close of autumn. At the top of the abdomen are placed
five papillae or teats, through which the spider draws its
thread. The eyes, which are situated on the upper part of
the thorax, are eight in number, placed at a small distance
from each other. The fangs, with which the animal wounds
its prey, are strong, curved, sharp-pointed, and each furnished
on the inside near the tip with a small oblong hole or slit,
through which is discharged a poisonous fluid into the wound
made by the point itself. The feet are of a highly curious
structure, the two claws with which each is terminated being
furnished on their under side with several parallel processes,
resembling the teeth of a comb, and enabling the spider to
manage with the utmost facility the working of the threads
in its web, &c.

The History of Spiders by Baron Walckenaer is the best
work on the subject that has yet been published.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

The medicinal species of spider from which cobweb or
spider's web is obtained, is the Tegeneria medicinalis of this

11

TEGENERIA MEDICINALIS.

country. These webs are found in cellars, barns, and other dark
places ; they are of a brown or blackish color. They are re-
puted to possess extraordinary medical virtues, while those
of the field spider are said to be inefficacious and of no ac-
count. Several very respectable authors speak in very de-
cided terms of their powers, and recommend them as febri-
fuge, sedative, and antispasmodic. There are, however, vari-
ous opinions among medical men as to the modus operandi
of cobweb, some attributing it entirely to the control of the
imagination, while others view it in a quite different light,
and entertain favorable opinions of it as a powerful thera-
peutical agent.

According to Dr. Robert Jackson, tela aranecR is superior
even to bark and arsenic in the cure of intermittents, and is
moreover highly useful in various spasmodic and nervous dis-
eases, controlling and tranquillizing irregular nervous action,
exhilarating the spirits, and disposing to sleep, without pro-
ducing any of the narcotic effects of opium on the brain.
Among the complaints in which it has been found useful, be-
sides intermittent fever, are periodical headache, hectic fever,
asthma, hysteria, and nervous irritations attended with mor-
bid vigilance and irregular muscular action. The dose of
spider's web is five or six grains, to be given in the form of a
pill, and repeated every three or four hours. Dr. Jackson
states that its influence is not in proportion to the quantity
administered, and that he obtained the same effects from ten
as from twenty grains.

It will naturally be observed, that many of the complaints
enumerated above are for the most part affections over which
the imagination has much control, and if the supposition be
allowed that the chief operation of this medicine is through
the imagination, the observations of Dr. Jackson may well
be accounted for.

Spider's web has also been used with asserted advantage
as a styptic in wounds, and as a healing application in super-
ficial ulcers.

Spiders themselves were formerly employed in the treat-
ment of intermittent fever, and this application of the web is
not of recent origin. The small silver-headed spider, given
in a dough pill, is said to be a prompt and efficacious cure
for ague, and has been very . frequently and advantageously
employed in domestic practice.

12

VERTEBRATA.
Vertebrated Animals.

No. 21.
ACIPENSER HUSO.

STURGEON.

Ichthyocolla.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Isinglass.

Geog. Position. Ocean, Northern rivers of Europe and

America.

Quality. Gelatinous, nutritive.
Power. Emollient, demulcent.
Use. Aliment for invalids, agent for clarifying or fining

coffee, wines, beer, &c.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
1. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Pisces.

Ballard and Garrod, Mat. Med. 487. Pereira, Mat. Med. II. 799. Thomson,
Mat. Med. 1173. U. S. Disp. 400. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 98. EC. Disp. U. S. 218.

GENUS ACIPENSER.

Ichthyocolle, Colle de Poisson (Fr.), Hausenbleu, Fischleim (Ger.), Colla di
Pesce (It.), Cola de Pescada (Sp.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Skull and vertebral column for the protection of the brain and
spinal marrow.

Blood cold and red, respiring by gills or branchia?, and mov-
ing in' the water by the aid of fins.

Ventrals attached under the pectorals.

Pelvis immediately suspended to the bones of the shoulder.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

ACIPENSER. Body elongated, angular, and more or less
covered with bony plates, implanted upon the skin in longitu-
dinal rows. The exterior portion of the head well mailed.
Snout pointed, conical. Mouth placed on the under surface
of the head, tubular, and without teeth. Branchice free at

1

ACTPENSRR HUSO.

their external edge. A single orifice, very open, in each oper-
culum. No rays to the membrane.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

ACIPENSER HUSO. Mouth placed under the snout, small, and
without teeth. Eyes and nostrils in the sides of the head.
Cirri under the snout. Dorsal behind the ventral, and beneath
it. Caudal surrounding the extremity of the spine, and hav-
ing a salient lobe beneath shorter than its principal point.

NATURAL HISTORY.

STURGEON, Acipenser. A genus of large cartilaginous fish,
allied somewhat to the shark and ray, but differing essentially
in structure as well as in habits. There are several species
of the Acipenser, from all of which, however, isinglass is read-
ily obtained.

The COMMON STURGEON, Acipenser sturio, is generally about
six feet long, but sometimes attains to the length of eighteen.
It inhabits the Northern European and American seas, mi-
grating during the early summer months into the larger rivers
and lakes, and returning to the sea again in autumn, after
having deposited the spawn. Its form is long and slender,
gradually tapering towards the tail, and covered throughout
the whole length by five rows of strong, large, bony tubercles,
rounded at the base, and terminated above by a sharp curved
point in a reversed direction. The body of the sturgeon is
more or less covered with bony plates arranged in longitudinal
rows, and the head is armed in a similar manner ; the snout
is long and slender, obtuse at the tip, and furnished beneath
at some distance from the end with four long, worm-shaped
cirri ; the mouth, placed under the elongated muzzle, is small
and toothless, and the palatal bones form the upper jaw; the
air-bladder is very large, and communicates by a wide open-
ing with the gullet. The pectoral fins are oval and middle-
sized ; the dorsal small, and situated very near the tail ; the
ventral and anal fins are also small, and placed nearly opposite
the dorsal. The tail is lobed or slightly forked, the upper lobe
extending far beyond the lower. The general color is cine-
reous above, with dusky specks, and yellowish-white beneath,
and the tops of the tubercles are of a similar cast. Though
generally considered as a fish of slow motion, it is sometimes
seen to swim with great rapidity, and also to spring out of the

ACIPENSER HUSO.

water with great force at intervals. It is rarely taken at any
great distance from shore, but frequents such parts of the
sea as are not remote from the estuaries of large rivers. In
North America they appear in great abundance during the
early summer months. The flesh of the sturgeon is white,
delicate, and firm ; it is said to resemble veal when roasted,
but is generally eaten pickled, and the major part of that which
comes to market in that state is either from the Baltic rivers
or those of North America. It annually ascends the large
rivers, but not in any quantities, and is occasionally taken in
the salmon nets. From the roe, when properly salted and
dried, is prepared the substance known by the name of ca-
viare, but a very superior sort is made from a smaller species
called the Sterlet.

STERLET, Acipenserrulhenus, is the smallest species of Stur-
geon, being from two to three feet in length : it is found in
the Volga and some other Russian rivers, and is considered a
great delicacy. The caviare made from this fish is confined
almost exclusively to the use of the royal table, and is es-
teemed a great luxury.

The largest species of Sturgeon, called the ISINGLASS STUR-
GEON, Acipenser huso, is chiefly found in the Black and
Caspian seas, ascending the tributary streams in immense
multitudes. It frequently attains the length of twenty or
twenty-five feet, and some have been taken weighing nearly
three hundred pounds. It enters the rivers in the middle of
winter, while they are still covered with ice, is very voracious,
and pursues all the smaller fishes, but feeds likewise on vege-
tables. The fishery of this species is vastly important in the
South of Russia, upwards of a hundred thousand being taken
yearly.

The Sturgeon was a fish in high repute among the Greeks
and Romans, and according to Pliny was brought to table
with much pomp and ornamented with flowers, the slaves
who carried it being also adorned with garlands and accom-
panied by music. Its flesh has indeed been esteemed in all
ages, but modern nations do not consider it so great a luxury
as the ancients. Its fishery, however, is an object of impor-
tance.

There is a membranous bag, placed in the anterior part of
the abdomen of most fishes, communicating frequently, though
not always, by means of a duct, with the oesophagus, and

3

ACIPENSER HUSO.

containing usually a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in vari-
ous proportions. This has been denominated the swimming-
bladder, because by its expansion or contraction it is sup-
posed to enable the fish to rise or fall in the water. It is of
different shape in different fishes, and consists of three coats,
of which the two interior are thin and delicate, the outer
tough and of a silvery whiteness.

The species of sturgeon from which THE BEST ISINGLASS
is procured is particularly the Acipenser huso of Russia ; but
others, as the Acipenser sturio, Acipenser ruthenus, &c. (already
noticed), furnish large quantities to commerce. Immense
quantities are annually caught and consumed as food. The
air-bags are removed from the fish, and, having been split
open and washed in water in order to separate the blood, fat,
and adhering extraneous membranes, are spread out, and
when sufficiently stiffened are formed into cylindrical rolls, the
ends of which are brought together and secured by pegs. The
shape given to the roll is that of a staple, or more accurately
that of a lyre, which it firmly retains when dried. Thus pre-
pared, it is known in commerce by the name of staple isinglass,
and is distinguished into the long and short staple. Some-
times the membranes are dried in a flat state, or simply
folded, and then receive the name of leaf or book isinglass.
The scraps or fragments of these varieties, with various other
parts of the fish, are boiled in water, which dissolves the gela-
tine, and upon evaporation leaves it in a solid state. This is
called cake isinglass, from the shape which it is made to
assume. It is sometimes, however, in globular masses. Of
these varieties the long staple is said to be the best, but the
finest book isinglass is not surpassed by any brought to mar-
ket. It is remarkable for its beautiful iridescence by trans-
mitted light. Cake isinglass is brownish, of an unpleasant
odor, and employed only in the arts. Inferior kinds, with the
same commercial titles, are sometimes prepared from the peri-
toneum and intestines of the fish.

Isinglass little inferior to the Russian is made in Iceland
from the sounds of the cod and ling. Considerable quantities
of isinglass are manufactured in New England from the intes-
tines of the cod, and of some of its allied fishes. This sort is
in the form of thin ribbons, several feet in length, and from
an inch and a half to two inches in width. Isinglass of a
good quality has also been made in New York from the

4

ACIPENSER HUSO.

sounds of the common hake, Gadus merlucius, which is
thrown into water to macerate for a little while, and is then
taken out and pressed between two iron rollers, by which it
is elongated to the extent of half a yard or more. It is then
carefully dried, packed, and sent to market.

An article called refined or transparent isinglass is made by
dissolving the New England isinglass in hot water and spread-
ing the solution to dry on oiled muslin. It is in very thin and
transparent plates, and is an excellent glue, but retains a
strong fishy odor. A preparation called Cooper's gelatine has
been introduced as a substitute for isinglass in making jellies.
It appears to be the dried froth of a solution of pure bone
glue.

BRAZILIAN ISINGLASS is imported from Para and Maranham,
but it has not hitherto been ascertained from what fishes it is
procured, though it is obvious, from a superficial examination
of the commercial specimens, that they must have been ob-
tained from several species or genera. It comes to market
in the form of Pipe, Lump, and Honeycomb.

Pipe Brazilian Isinglass must have been procured from a
large fish. It is prepared by drying the swimming-bladder
unopened. In some cases this bladder is imported distended
with air. The dried bladders or pipes are from ten to twelve
inches in length, and from two to two inches and a half broad.
Their weight is about five ounces. Their shape is somewhat
conical, tapering at one extremity, and broader at the other,
where on either side is a conical csecal prolongation. It is
devoid of smell, and is on that account less objectionable than
the lump variety.

Lump Brazilian Isinglass consists of two swimming-blad-
ders placed side by side, considerably separated at one end
and communicating at the other extremity with each other.
When perfect, each lump somewhat resembles in shape a tor-
pedo. Its size varies.

Honeycomb Brazilian Isinglass appears to be the largest
portion of the lump kind split open. The lump variety is
sometimes softened and rolled out into thin ribbons. On ac-
count of its deeper color and inferior solubility, Brazilian
isinglass is not in demand for domestic use, though as it is
sold in the cut state it is probably intermixed with the finer
kinds of Russian isinglass, and sold as such. As it is moder-
ately cheap and soluble, while it is free from any fishy smell,

5

ACIPENSER HUSO.

it is in extensive use for fining by brewers, who prefer it to
either of the other sorts, and are the principal consumers of
isinglass.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

ISINGLASS. Ichthyocolla is not officinal, but it is still much
used. The sounds of the perch, some species of the cod, and
some other fishes, afford isinglass. The sturgeons, Acipenser
sturio, A. ruthenus, A. Guldenstadtii, A. stellatus, and A. huso,
from which the best is prepared, are caught in the rivers of
Russia, in the Nile, and in the Caspian Sea, and occasionally
elsewhere.

The isinglass is the prepared sound or swimming-bladder.
It is taken from the fish, slit open, well washed, and freed from
the thin membrane which covers it, then beaten, exposed to
stiffen a little in the air, rolled and fixed in a peculiar shape
by means of wooden pegs, or folded into leaves like a book,
or simply dried without any care. The best isinglass is gen-
erally that which is rolled up and called staple ; the next best
kind is the book isinglass ; there are inferior kinds, which are
chiefly used for no other purpose than to adulterate the better
kinds.

Isinglass of good quality is dry, whitish, semi-pellucid, and
inodorous. One hundred grains of it should afford ninety-
eight of matter soluble in water, which is gelatine and albumen,
and scarcely two parts of solid, insoluble matter, which consists
chiefly of phosphate of soda and phosphate of lime. It also
contains osmazome, according to the analysis of Mr. E. Solly.
M. Thenard has given this name to an extractive matter, con-
tained in muscular flesh and in the blood of animals, which
he considers of a peculiar nature. It has an agreeable smell
and taste, and is found in bouillons of meat in the proportion
of one part to seven of gelatine. Vanquelin discovered it in
some fungi. It is the substance which gives the flavor of
meat to soups, and hence its name, from 6^, smell, and fapos,
soup.

The same objections apply to isinglass as to gelatine as a
therapeutical agent, and it is surprising that, while this gela-
tine is expunged from the last edition of the London Pharma-
copeia, that of hartshorn is suffered to remain. It was for-
merly regarded as an antacrid, lubricating, and incrassating

6

ACIPENSER HUSO.

remedy, but the experience of modern medicine has demon-
strated it to be worthless as a remedy. It is useful for
forming sticking-plaster, and it is also used for making gela-
tine capsules for copaiva.

As a nutrient, a solution of isinglass, acidulated with lemon-
juice, and, when it is admissible, flavored with wine, is a very
proper and agreeable food for the convalescent; but it is
much less nutritive than the muscular parts of animals, and
also less easily digested. In animal broths, gelatine is com-
bined with oil, and if it can be regarded in the light of a rem-
edy, it is in this form, in which it is ordered as an enema in
the tenesmus of dysentery, and in ulcerations or abrasions of
the lower portion of the intestinal canal.

The caviare of commerce is chiefly made from the eggs
of the sturgeon, which exist in such abundance as to consti-
tute nearly one third of the total weight. This is a very
common aliment in Turkey, Russia, Germany, Italy, and es-
pecially in Greece, and forms an important article of com-
merce very profitable to Russia. The flesh of the sturgeon is
nutritious, wholesome, and of an agreeable flavor. The fat
may be used as a substitute for butter or oil.

EMPLASTRUM ADH^SIVUM ANGLICUM. Court-plaster. It is
made by brushing, first, a solution of isinglass, and then a
spirituous solution of benzoin, over black sarcenet or silk. An
excellent sticking-plaster, and which, when spread on white or
pale-colored silk, allows the surgeon to see the progress of
wounds, cuts, etc.

GELATINE is found in the skin, membranes, tendons, carti"
lages, and bones of land animals, and the sound or swimming-
bladder of fishes, but not in any healthy animal fluid. It is
a semi-transparent, brittle substance ; it dissolves in cold wa-
ter, but more readily in hot water, and in cooling assumes a
semi-diaphanous, tremulous appearance. If in this state it be
agitated for some time with cold water, a complete solution
takes place.

Gelatine when freed from water by evaporation, so as to
become brittle, is not susceptible of change, and may be kept
for any length of time. For medicinal use it should therefore
always be kept in a dry state. But when it is united with so
much water as to render it tremulous, it soon undergoes
decomposition, first becoming acid, then exhaling a fetid
odor, and putrefaction takes place. Exposure to the air is

7

ACIPENSER HUSO.

not necessary to effect this change in gelatine. When ex-
posed to a high temperature, gelatine first' whitens, then
shrivels, and is carbonized; tremulous gelatine melts before
it undergoes these changes. When tincture of galls or any
astringent vegetable solution is dropped into a solution of
gelatine, an insoluble precipitate takes place; this is tanno-
gelatine^ a compound of the gelatine and tannic acid ; and it
is this combination that produces leather. Gelatine, like
gum, renders oils miscible with water, forming emulsions.

Alcohol and ether do not dissolve gelatine, but they sepa-
rate it from the water of its solution ; in a thin solution, how-
ever, neither alcohol nor ether produces any obvious change.
All the concentrated acids- decompose gelatine, but diluted
acids dissolve it unchanged. When chlorine gas is mixed
with a solution of gelatine, a white solid matter, in filaments,
is separated, which Bouillon la Grange has named oxygenized
gelatine, but the nature of this change is unknown. The
alkalies, assisted by heat, dissolve gelatine, but do not produce
soaps. None of the earthy salts, with the exception of those
of baryta, precipitate its solution ; phosphate of soda, how-
ever, causes a slight milkiness in it. Among the metallic
salts, nitrate of silver only precipitates the solution of pure
gelatine.

According to the analysis of Gay-Lussac and Thenard, the
components of gelatine are, carbon 47.881, + oxygen 27.207,
+ hydrogen 7.914, + nitrogen 16.998, = 100.000. Such are
the chemical characters of gelatine, but these differ in some
particulars, according to the nature of the substances which
yield it.

Gelatine is a nutritious article of food, though probably less
so than fibrine and albumen. Notwithstanding it is readily
digestible, it is not always suited to the digestive powers of
many dyspeptics.

Gelatine may be considered as the least perfect kind of
albuminous matter existing in animal bodies ; intermediate, as
it were, between the saccharine principles of plants and thor-
oughly developed albumen. Indeed, gelatine in animals may
be said to be the counterpart of the saccharine principle of
plants, it being easily distinguished from all other animal
substances by its ready convertibility into a sort of sugar,
by a process similar to that by which starch may be so con-
verted.

8

HOMOGANGLIATA.

Articulated Animals.

No. 23.
ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

EARTH-WORMS.

The animal substance. A medicinal agent.

Geog. Position. Abundant everywhere.

Quality. Softening.

Power. Emollient, lubricating.

Use. Inflammations, ulcerations, phlegmasia dolens.

SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
3. DIVISION Homogangliata. CLASS Annelida.

M. Duges, Annales des Sciences Nat.. Vol. XV. Willis <le Anima Brutorum,
4to, 1672. Sir E. Home, Lectures on Comp. Anat., 4 vols. 4to, 1823. Hist. In-
sects, 202. Wyatt, Nat. Hist. 111. Jones, An. King. 201. Farmers' Encyc., Article
Earth-worms. Neligan's Med. 38. Smellie, Phil. Nat. Hist. 80. «S'

GENUS ANNELIDA.
THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Body always considerably elongated, and composed of a suc-
cession of rings or segments, which, with the exception of
the first and last, scarcely differ from each other except in
size. Each ring is generally found to be furnished with a
set of short spines or setae, calculated to assist in locomo-
tion ; in no instance are articulated legs provided.

Head, the first segment of the body, contains the mouth,
sometimes provided with a formidable apparatus of jaws;
and is also generally furnished with eyes and variously
shaped tentacula, which are apparently instruments of
touch.

Tail, the last segment of the body, is generally the smallest,
and occasionally presents setiform appendages, and occa-
sionally a prehensile sucker, used as an organ of pro-
gression.

Blood remarkable for its red color, and circulating in a double
system of arteries and veins.

1

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

Respiration effected either in membranous sacculi contained
within the body, or by means of arborescent tufts appended
to various parts of their external surface.

Mode of reproduction, almost all hermaphrodite, and generally
requiring the congress of two individuals for mutual impreg-
nation.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

ANNELIDA. Body long, cylindrical, and formed by a great
number of rings. Eyes, tentacula, or branchice, none. Mouth
without teeth. Instruments of attachment totally wanting, the
only external appendages to the body being a number of mi-
nute and almost imperceptible bristles, which project from the
different segments and assist in progression.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA. Body soft and compressible. No
external organs of respiration. They attain sometimes to the
length of a foot, and have as many as a hundred and twenty
rings, each of which is furnished with little bristly projections
which answer in some sort the purpose of feet. They live in
general beneath the surface of the ground, perforating the soil
in all directions.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The term VERMES, or Worms, has been used with great
vagueness in natural history, and employed to designate
animals to which the name is not appropriate. It is now,
however, more restricted in its application, and is made to
include only a small class of animals which have some cir-
cumstances in common, but still not exactly alike. They are
sometimes called, by way of distinction, Worms with red
blood, as they are the only invertebrated animals which have
red blood; and sometimes Annelides, from the structure of
their body, which is of a cylindrical, elongated shape, divided
into a great number of rings.

The nervous system of the Annelidans resembles that of
the Insects and Crustacea. Their organs of sense consist
merely in some fleshy tentacula, which surround the mouth
and answer the purpose of feeling and touching. Their blood
is nearly of the color of that of the vertebral animals, but not
of so bright a red. It circulates in a double system of vessels,
but there is no distinct, fleshy heart to give it motion. They

2

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

breathe by means of branchiae, which are sometimes within
and sometimes without their bodies. They have no limbs,
but a great number of rings, each of which is furnished with
little bristles or spines for the purpose of locomotion. They
emit through certain pores a slimy fluid, which lubricates their
bodies and thus gives them an easier passage through the
earth, which they traverse in every direction. They feed upon
roots, woody fibres, and the remains of animal and vegetable
matter.. They swallow earth, also, in considerable quantity,
but this is probably on account of the animal or vegetable
matter which it may contain. When cut through the middle,
each portion becomes a distinct individual.

The appearance of earth-worms is familiar to all, and in
conformity with their habits, their entire structure is adapted
to a subterranean existence, and their bodies so organized as
to enable them to burrow with facility through the dense and
unyielding materials in which they are usually found. Who-
ever has attentively watched the operations of an earth-worm
when busied in burying itself in the earth, must have been
struck with the seeming disproportion between the laborious
employment in which it is perpetually engaged, and the means
provided for enabling it to overcome difficulties apparently
insurmountable by any animal, unless provided with limbs of
extraordinary construction, and possessed of enormous mus-
cular power. In the mole and burrowing cricket at once are
recognized, in the immense development of the anterior legs,
a provision for digging admirably adapted to their subterra-
nean habits, and calculated to throw aside with facility the
earth through which they work their way ; but in the worms
under consideration, deprived as they appear to be of all exter-
nal members, feeble and sluggish even to a proverb, where is
to be found that mechanism which enables them to perforate
the surface of the ground, and to make for themselves, in the
hard and trodden mould, the pathways which they traverse
with such astonishing facility and quickness ?

The structure of the outer fleshy integument of the earth-
worm resembles, in every respect, that of the leech (No. 17),
both in the annular arrangement apparent externally and the
disposition of the muscular strata. The suctorial discs, how-
ever, which in the leech formed such important instruments
of progression, are here totally wanting; and the annular
segments of the body, as they approach the anterior extremity,

3

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

become gradually diminished in size, so as to terminate, when
the worm is fully stretched out, in a fine point. But there is
another circumstance in which the external anatomy of the
terricolous Annelides differs materially from what is seen in
the suctorial Abranchia. In the latter the tegumentary seg-
ments are quite naked upon their outer surface, but in the
Lumbrici, now under consideration, every ring, when exam-
ined attentively, is found to support a series of sharp retractile
spines or prickles. These, indeed, are so minute in the earth-
worm, that, on passing the hand along the body from the head
backwards, their presence is scarcely to be detected by the
touch, but they are easily felt by rubbing the animal in the
opposite direction ; a circumstance which arises from their
hooked form, and from their points being all turned towards
the tail. These differences between the external structure of
the suctorial and setigerous Abranchia, minute and trivial as
they might seem to a superficial observer, are, however, all
that are required to convert an aquatic animal into one
adapted to a subterranean residence, as is evident on carefully
observing the manner in which the earth-worm bores its way
through the soil in which it lives. The attenuated rings in
the neighborhood of the mouth are first insinuated between
the particles of the earth, which, from their conical shape, they
penetrate like a sharp wedge ; in this position they are firmly
retained by the numerous recurved spines appended to the
different segments. The hinder parts of the body are then
drawn forward by a longitudinal contraction of the whole
animal ; a movement which not only prepares the creature for
advancing further into the soil, but, by swelling out the ante-
rior segments, forcibly dilates the passage into which the head
had been already thrust. The spines upon the hinder rings
then take a firm hold upon the sides of the hole thus formed,
and, preventing any retrograde movement, the head is again
forced forward through the yielding mould, so that, by a repe-
tition of the process, the animal is able to advance with the
greatest apparent ease through substances which it would at
first seem impossible for so helpless a being to penetrate.

The alimentary canal of the earth-worm is straight and very
capacious. Its great size, indeed, is in accordance with the
nature of the materials employed as food, for it is generally
found distended with earth ; and, indeed, by the older physi-
ologists, these creatures were generally regarded as affording

4

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

proof that the nourishment of animals was not exclusively
derived from animal and vegetable substances, since in this
case they supposed nutriment to be obtained from matter be-
longing to the mineral kingdom. This supposition, however,
has been long since exploded, for it is not from the earth that
nourishment is afforded, but from the decaying animal and
vegetable particles mixed up with the soil taken into the
stomach ; so that the exception to the general law of nature
supposed to exist in the earth-worm, has no foundation in
truth. The whole intestinal tract of one of these animals
consists of a wide oesophagus, which terminates in a crop-like
dilation ; to this succeeds a muscular gizzard, and a long sac-
culated intestine, which passes in a direct line to the anus.

The circulation of the blood in the terricolous Annelidans
has been the subject of much discussion, and until recently
was but very imperfectly understood. In the earth-worm
there are three principal trunks connected with the vascular
system. First, a dorsal vessel runs along the whole length of
the back, in close contact with the intestine, upon which it lies ;
this vessel is tortuous, and exhibits constant movements of
contraction and dilatation, by which the blood is propelled in
continuous undulations from the tail towards the head. Two
other large vessels occupy the ventral region of the body ; of
these, one, which we shall call the ventral vessel, runs immedi-
ately beneath the alimentary tube ; while the other, which is
situated close under the skin, and consequently beneath the
ventral chain of ganglia composing the nervous system, by
which it is separated from the last, may be distinguished as
the sub-ganglionic vessel. These three great trunks are united
by important branches, and form two distinct systems ; one
of which is deeply seated, being distributed to internal vis-
cera ; the other is superficial, giving off innumerable vessels to
the integuments of the body, which, by ramifying through the
skin, form an extensive vascular surface adapted to respiration.

The ventral vessel, like the dorsal, may be traced quite to
the anterior extremity of the worm, where numerous small
anastomosing branches unite the two trunks; but these inos-
culations are of little consequence in describing the circular
movement of the blood, a more important communication
being established, through which the blood passes freely from
one to the other, by the intervention of seven or eight pairs of
large canals, situated in the immediate neighborhood of the

5

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

generative apparatus, with which, indeed, they are interwoven.
Each of these voluminous vessels is composed of a series of
swellings, or rounded, bead-like vesicles, endowed with con-
siderable contractile power, and they form together a kind of
heart of remarkable construction, which propels the blood
received from the dorsal trunk into the ventral tube.

Along the rest of the body the communication between the
dorsal and ventral trunks is repeated at each ring, by canals,
which are much smaller than the bead-like or moniliform ves-
sels, and have no vesicular arrangement ; they run perpendicu-
larly upwards, embracing the alimentary canal, and giving off
branches at right angles, which divide into innumerable rami-
fications so as to cover the whole intestine with a delicate vas-
cular network. These may be called the deep-seated abdomino-
dorsal branches.

The sub-ganglionic vessel may be looked upon as arising
from the termination of the dorsal vessel, with which it is evi-
dently continuous at the anterior extremity of the body. At
the posterior edge of every segment, a delicate branch is given
oft' from this sub-ganglionic tube, which, running upwards in
the same manner as those derived from the ventral trunk, joins
the dorsal, and receives in its course a large anastomosing
branch from the deep abdomino-dorsal canal which corresponds
to it. From this system of superficial vessels arises a cuta-
neous network, analogous to that described above as covering
the digestive viscera, which traverses the skin in all directions.

Now let the blood in its circulation be traced through this
elaborate system. In the dorsal vessel the sanguineous fluid
passes from the tail towards the head ; at the anterior extrem-
ity of the body it passes partly into the sub-ganglionic vessel,
through the anastomosing branches, and partly into the ventral
vessel, into which it is forcibly driven by the contractions of
the moniliform canals. In both the ventral and sub-gangli-
onic trunks, therefore, the course of the blood is necessarily
from the head towards the tail ; and the circulating fluid is
continually returned to the dorsal canal by the deep and super-
ficial abdomino-dorsal vessels completing the vascular circle.

On reviewing the above arrangement, it is immediately per-
ceived that, notwithstanding the similarity observable in the
distribution of the ventral and sub-ganglionic systems of ves-
sels, in a physiological point of view, they are subservient to
very different functions ; the former representing the systemic,

6

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

the latter the pulmonary circulation. The blood derived from
the dorsal trunk by the moniliform hearts is supplied by the
ventral vessel, which may be "compared to an aorta, over the
surface of the viscera, and the remnant of this blood, after fur-
nishing materials for nutrition, is returned to the dorsal canal
by the deep vessels ; but that portion of the circulating fluid
which passes from the termination of the dorsal tube into the
sub-ganglionic trunk, not only serves for the nourishment of
the skin and muscular integument, but at the same time is
brought in contact with the air as it passes through the cuta-
neous network, and is thus more or less replenished with
oxygen before it is again returned to the general circulation.
The sub-ganglionic canal is therefore a kind of pulmonary
artery, and the dorsal drives to the moniliform vessels a mixed
fluid, composed partly of venous blood derived from the vis-
cera, and partly of arterial, derived from the superficial or sub-
cutaneous system.

Thus, therefore, the extensive diffusion of vascular canals
immediately beneath the surface of the skin must undoubt-
edly contribute materially to effect those changes in the blood
which are analogous to those produced by respiration in the
higher animals ; but it would seem that this is not the only
provision made for the aeration of the circulating fluids. It is
long since Willis (1672) described the existence of a series of
pores upon the back of the earth-worm, which he regarded as
stigmata, and had remarked that air blown into these open-
ings is dispersed between the muscular integument and the
intestine, so that it passes readily from one segment to an-
other. Duge's repeated these experiments with the same
result, and found that the pores alluded to, instead of termi-
nating in muciparous follicles, as they were supposed to do
by many, penetrate into the interior of the body, so that air
injected into one of them passes freely along the membra-
nous compartments which surround the intestine, and escapes
through other neighboring orifices. In like manner, water is
found to be taken into the body through the same apertures,
from which it is often given out in great abundance when the
animal is too rapidly dried by exposure to the sun, or irritated
by external stimuli. Aerated water, thus taken into the system,
and brought immediately in contact with the deep-seated
vascular net- work dispersed over the intestinal parietes, must
therefore necessarily contribute to the respiratory function.

7

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

Nevertheless, in addition to all this is found in every segment
of the body a pair of membranous vesicles communicating ex-
ternally by lateral orifices, apparently analogous to the respi-
ratory vesicles of the leech ; and in fact, by many they have
been described as constituting the breathing apparatus. Their
real office, however, is but imperfectly understood ; they evi-
dently have not the same relation with the circulatory system,
which the lateral sacculi of the leech are found to exhibit. Are
they then merely secreting follicles, destined to furnish a mu-
cosity for lubricating the external surface of the body, or are
they aquiferous tubes adapted to introduce water into the
interior ? Future observations must determine.

Few points connected with the history of the earth-worm
have given rise to so much speculation as the manner of their
reproduction. The generative organs have long been known
to be lodged in the anterior part of the body, their position
being indicated externally by a considerable enlargement or
swelling, which extends from the seventh to about the four-
teenth segment, counting from that in which the mouth is
situated. On opening this portion of the animal, a variable
number of white masses are found attached to the sides of the
crop and gizzard, which have long by general consent been
looked upon as forming the reproductive system. Some have
been regarded as representing the testes, others the ovaria : yet
so delicate are the connections which unite these glandular
masses, and such the difficulty of tracing the ducts whereby
they communicate with the exterior of the body, that the
functions to which they are individually appropriated have
given rise to much discussion. The Lumbrici have been gen-
erally acknowledged to be hermaphrodite, that is, possessed
of organs adapted both to the formation and fertilization of
ova, and it is likewise well understood that the congress of
two individuals is essential to the fecundity of both. In the
earlier summer months, two of these animals are found to
come partially out of the ground from contiguous holes, and,
applying together those segments of their bodies in which the
generative glands are situated, are observed to remain for a
considerable time in contact, joined to each other by a quan-
tity of frothy spume, which is poured out in the neighborhood
of the sexual organs. No organs of intromission, however,
have ever been distinguished ; neither until recently had the
canals communicating between the sexual orifices and the tes-

8

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

ticular or ovarian masses been satisfactorily traced ; so that
Sir Everard Home was induced to believe that, in the kind of
intercourse above alluded to, there was no transmission of im-
pregnating fluid from one animal to the other, but that the
excitement produced by mutual contact caused both the ovaria
and testes to burst, so that the ova escaping into the cells of
the body became there mingled with the spermatic secretion,
and being thus fertilized, the ova were hatched internally, and
the young, having been retained for some time in the cells
between the intestine and the skin, were ultimately ejected
through apertures which were supposed to exist in the vicinity
of the tail. There is, however, little doubt that what Sir E.
Home conceived to be young earth-worms were in reality
parasitical Entozoa, and that in the mode of their propaga-
tion the animals under consideration exhibit but little devia-
tion from what is seen in the leech.

Besides the ordinary mode of propagation by ova, it has
long been ascertained that some of the Annelida at least are
reproduced by spontaneous division. Bonnet, Miiller, and
Duges all agree that this is the case with certain species of
Nais ; and in Nais filiformis the process of separation has
been witnessed from its commencement to its termination.
The division was seen to occur near the middle of the body
of the animal, the posterior half remaining motionless upon
the mud of the bottom of the vessel, whilst the anterior por-
tion buried itself as usual ; after some days the truncated
extremity of the hinder part was observed to become swollen,
transparent, and vascular, and ultimately to assume the com-
plete structure of the mouth of the perfect animal ; it then
buried itself in the mud, and no doubt there completed its
development.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

EARTH-WORMS may be used to diminish the vital tone or
cohesion of the solid tissues of the body, and thereby render
them more lax and flexible. They very effectually diminish
acrimony, and protect the sensible surface of the body from
the action of acid matter. The immediate advantage of these
medicinal agents has been stated by many to act merely me-
chanically, by lubricating and softening the parts to which
they are applied, or by sheathing them from the action of

9

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

matters which are capable of irritating them. They therefore
seem to act either directly on the part to which they are ap-
plied, or indirectly through the medium of the circulation.
Annelida terricola have not been analyzed. Their constitu-
ents, as well as their effects and uses, are doubtless as yet not
well understood. They are principally employed in the treat-
ment of inflammations, either general or local, and in painful
ulcerations. Great advantage, however, has been obtained
by their use in obstinate cases of phlegmasia dolens and %-
darlhrus. Take a handful of earth-worms and stew them in
lard. With this mixture rub or bathe the legs or hips two or
three times a day. This may be repeated until relief is ob-
tained.

There is no topic upon which the profession is so justly
chargeable with uncertainty and palpable error, as it is with
reference to the treatment of 'diseases attributed to worms in
the alimentary canal, by remedies denominated anthelmintics,
to which the specific property of destroying worms is ascribed.
It is well known that the existence of living worms in the
stomach and bowels is often found to be consistent with oth-
erwise sound health, and that they often spontaneously es-
cape from the body per os and per anum when no previous
evidence of their existence has been discernible, and when no
other disturbance of health can be detected. This is often
observed in school-boys who partake freely of unripe fruit;
and these worms are of the variety under consideration, and
they are often found in the bowels of persons who have been
killed when in high health. Still, however, this same kind of
worm is found in children and persons of bad general health,
and sometimes accumulating in such numbers as to become
a source of disease, and require remedies for their destruction
and removal. In most cases, however, even of this character,
the worms are often the effect of preexisting disease, and by
no means its primary cause, notwithstanding their presence
may now be the only apparent source of mischief. Especially
will it be found in children, that their digestive organs have
been impaired for a long time, and their health frail and
feeble, before any suspicion of worms could be gathered from
the symptoms. And in a multitude of examples, anthelmin-
tics, supposed to be specific in their action, are given for
weeks and months, when there is not only no proof of the
existence of worms, but when the ultimate history of the

10

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

patient proves that he has only suffered from the suspicion
of being troubled with worms, while his malady has been all
the while of another and a different character. This discov-
ery is, however, very often delayed until all the articles of this
class, and many more, have been tried in vain, and until
mothers, nurses, doctors, and quacks have drugged the patient
to surfeiting with worm nostrums and vermifuges of every
variety.

It has been judiciously stated, in the preceding paragraph,
that the action of all anthelmintics is "merely temporary"
even when they act at all. This is true so far as the worms
are concerned, when there happens to be any in the case ; but
the patient who has taken " an ounce of garlic swallowed
whole," or an equal quantity of "tin filings," and followed
these with a drachm of cowhage or a draught of " two ounces
of spirits of turpentine," will be slow to confess that their
action upon his stomach and bowels has been " merely tem-
porary," and is often condemned to find the results disas-
trously permanent; even when taking these worm medicines
has only proved, as it often does, to the satisfaction of the
physician, that there are no worms in the case, and that an-
thelmintics are uncalled for.

The truth is, that no certain diagnosis of worms, other than
their appearance in the discharges, is worthy of confidence,
and hence, without this ocular proof, the use of anthelmintics
is of equivocal propriety. And even where the symptoms of
intestinal irritation lead to the suspicion of worms, to " re-
store the healthy action of the digestive organs" and correct
the morbid state which " promotes the generation of intestinal
worms," these are the true indications. It need scarcely be
said that the medicines arranged under this class are not those
best adapted to this purpose, but are correctly pointed out in
the last sentence of the preceding paragraph.

It is only when the presence of worms is definitely ascer-
tained, that any of the specific anthelmintics, as they are here
called, are at all adapted to the case, and then only for merely
"temporary" purposes, and quickly followed by cathartics,
unless they possess this property in common with their spe-
cific virtue. The turpentine will be found to be the most
successful of any, especially in tape-worm and in ascarides,
in which latter case it should be used as an enema, as this
species only infest the rectum.

11

ANNELIDA TERRICOLA.

White, in his Natural History of Selborne, speaking of the
effects of earth-worms on the soil in promoting vegetation,
says, " The most insignificant insects and reptiles are of
much more consequence, and have much more influence in
the economy of nature, than the incurious are aware of; and
are mighty in their effect from their minuteness, which ren-
ders them less an object of attention, and from their numbers
and fecundity. Earth-worms, though in appearance a small
and despicable link in the chain of nature, yet, if lost, would
make a lamentable chasm. For, to say nothing of half the
birds, and some quadrupeds, which are entirely supported by
them, worms seem to be equal promoters of vegetation, which
would proceed but lamely without them, by boring, perforat-
ing, and loosening the soil, and rendering it pervious to the
rain and the fibres of plants, by drawing straws and stalks of
leaves and twigs into it; and most of all, by throwing up
such infinite numbers of lumps of earth, called worm-casts^
which, being their excrement, is a fine manure for grain and
grass. Worms probably provide new soil for hills and slopes,
where the rain washes the earth away, and they affect slopes
probably to avoid being flooded. Gardeners and farmers ex-
press their detestation of worms ; the former because they
render their walks unsightly, and make them much work, and
the latter because, as they think, worms eat their green corn.
But they would find that the earth without worms would
soon become cold, hard-bound, and void of fermentation, and
consequently sterile; and besides, in favor of worms it should
be hinted, that green corn, plants, and flowers are not so
much injured by them as by many species of Coleoptera (sca-
rabs) and Tipulce (long-legs) in their larvae or grub state, and
by unnoticed myriads of small shelless snails called slugs,
which silently and imperceptibly make amazing havoc in the
field and garden. Worms work most in the spring, and are
out every mild night in the winter. They are very pro-
lific.

Worms are readily destroyed by the application of com-
mon salt, sown broadcast, at the rate of five or six bushels
per acre; or on grass plats, by the application of lime-water,
or rather milk of lime, which is readily made by stirring for
ten minutes a pound of hot lirne in four or five pailfuls of
water. But, for the reasons already given, they should not
be destroyed.

12

aaf

VERTEBRATA.

Vertebrated Animals.

No. 24.
CROTALUS HORBJDUS.

THE RATTLESNAKE.

The animal substance. Lachesis. A medicinal agent.

Geog. Position. United States, Guiana.
Quality. Infectious, malignant.
Power. Alterative.

Use. Sufferings of drunkards, from the abuse of mercury,
fainting-fits, erysipelas, hydrophobia, &c.

i SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.
1. DIVISION Vertebrata. CLASS Reptilia.

Dr. Barton, Memoirs, &c., 1796. Owen, Zool. Trans., Vol. I. Annales des Sc.
Nat, Tom. XXVI., par M. Duvernay, M. D. Jones, An. King. 558. Wyatt,
Nat. Hist. 84. British Journal of Homeopathy, Jan. 1853.

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

Body extremely elongated, entirely without limbs, moving
itself by means of the folds it makes while in contact with
the ground.

Vertebral column very movable, composed of a vast number
of vertebrae supporting themselves ; a great number of ribs
employed in respiration. No sternum, nor movable eyelids,
nor tympanum.

Tongue very extensible, terminated by two long, movable
points, of a consistence nearly like horns, and contained,
while at rest, in a membranous case ; the mouth furnished
with teeth fit only to retain the prey.

Heart with two auricles and only one ventricle ; only one
lung, extending far towards the posterior portion of the
body.

Voice, when any, consisting in a dull hiss.

Method of reproduction by eggs, agglutinated in the form of
a chaplet, and quite soft, although enveloped in a calca-
reous substance.

1

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

CROTALUS. No sternum nor vestige of shoulder. No third
eyelid nor tympanum. Jaw so arranged as to permit a wide
opening of the mouth ; the two branches are not soldered,
and can separate laterally ; the tympanal bone, to which they
are attached, is itself suspended to another bone articulated
to the cranium ; the two upper maxillary bones preserve also
their mobility ; besides the teeth of the jaws, there is a double
range in the palatine arches.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

CROTALUS HORRIDUS. A gland placed under the eye se-
cretes a poison, and discharges it by a canal, whose extrem-
ity opens into a duct or gutter channelled in certain teeth of
the upper jaw called movable fangs. The animal at will can
conceal them in a fold of the gum ; besides these, there are in
the upper jaw two ranges of palatine teeth. Rattles at the
extremity of the tail, as many as seven or eight, rarely ten.
A small rounded pit behind each nostril.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The RATTLESNAKE, Orotalus horridus, is one of the most
deadly of poisonous serpents. It is sometimes found as thick
as a man's leg. and six feet in length, but more usually from
four to five feet long. Till the discovery of the Western hemi-
sphere, the knowledge of these serpents was concealed from
the rest of the world, and naturalists then first beheld with
amazement a reptile of the most fatal nature, furnished, as if
by a peculiar institution of Providence, with an instrument
capable in general of warning mankind of their danger in too
near an approach. There are several species, two of which
are well distinguished, viz. the Crotalus horridus (or banded
rattlesnake) of the United States, and the Crotalus durissus
of Guiana. The former is of a yellowish-brown color, marked
throughout its whole length with several transverse and some-
what irregular fascice of deep brown, and from the head to
some distance down the neck run two or three longitudinal
stripes of the same color; the head is large, flat, and covered
with small scales, the rest of the upper parts with moderately
large oval ones, all furnished with a prominent line down the
middle; the under parts are of a dingy yellowish-brown color,
marked here and there with numerous dusky variegations

2

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

and freckles. At the extremity of the tail is situated the rattle,
consisting of several hard, dry, bony processes. It consists,
in fact, of a number of hollow, hard, dry, and semi-transpar-
ent bones, nearly of the same size and figure, resembling in
some degree the shape of the human os sacrum, for although
only the last or terminal one seems to have a rigid epiphysis
joined to it, yet have every one of them the like ; so that the
tip of every uppermost bone runs within two of the bones
below it ; by which they have not only a movable coherence,
but also make a more multiplied sound, each bone hitting
against two others at the same time. The rattle is placed
with the broad part perpendicular to the body, and not hori-
zontal, and the first joint is fastened to the last vertebra of the
tail by means of a thick muscle under it, as well as by the
membranes which unite it to the skin ; all the remaining
bones are so many extraneous bodies, as it were, or perfect-
ly unconnected to the tail by any other means than their cu-
rious insertion into each other. These bony rings increase
in number with the age of the animal, and it is said that it
acquires an additional one at each casting of the skin.

The habits of the rattlesnake are sluggish ; they move
slowly, and only bite when provoked, or for the purpose of
killing their prey. They have two kinds of teeth, viz. the
smaller, which are seated in each jaw, and serve to catch and
retain their food; and, secondly, the fangs or poisonous teeth,
which kill the prey, and are placed without the upper jaw.
These fangs constitute perhaps the most terrible weapons of
attack met with in the animal creation. The poison-teeth are
two in number, one fixed to each superior maxillary bone ;
when not in use, they are laid flat upon the roof of the mouth,
and covered by a kind of sheath formed by the mucous mem-
brane of the palate ; but when the animal is irritated, or about
to strike its prey, they are plucked up from their concealment
by muscles inserted into the upper maxillary bone, and stand
out like two long lancets attached to the upper jaw. Each
fang is traversed by a canal, not, as it is generally described,
excavated in the substance of the tooth, bat formed by bend-
ing, as it were, the tooth upon itself, so as to inclose a narrow
channel, through which the poison flows. The canal so
formed opens towards the base of the tooth by a large tri-
angular orifice, but at the opposite extremity it terminates
near the point of the fang by a narrow longitudinal fissure.

3

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

The gland wherein the poison is elaborated occupies the
greater part of the temporal fossa, and is inclosed in a white
and tendinous capsule ; the substance of the organ is spon-
gy, and composed of cells communicating with its excretory
duct, by which the venom is conveyed to the opening at the
base of the fang. The poison-gland is covered by a strong
process of the temporal muscle, which is attached to a thin
aponeurotic line. The greater portion of the fibres of this
muscle take their origin from* the capsule of the secreting
apparatus, which they partially envelop, and then, winding
round all the posterior part of the gland, and passing behind
the commissure of the lips, the lower part of the muscle is
firmly implanted into the lower jaw very far anterior to the
angle of the mouth. The process of the temporal muscle
which thus surrounds the gland is very thick and strong, so
that it is easy to imagine with what force the poison will by
this mechanism be injected into the wounds inflicted by the
fangs, seeing that the same muscles which close the jaw at
the same time compress the bag of venom with proportion-
ate energy.

M. Duvernoy, who has devoted much time to the study of
the organization of venomous serpents, has ascertained, that,
besides the venomous teeth in front, the existence of which
has long been known, they have, in the hinder part of the
jaw, longer and stronger teeth, of as great malignity. He is
also inclined to the opinion, that the secretions of the lachry-
mal glands, in some descriptions of venomous serpents, do not
go to moisten the eyeballs, but enter the mouth, and assist in
communicating saliva to the food.

Behind the large poison-fang in use, the capsule that in-
closes it generally contains the germs of several others, ready
to supply its place should the former be broken off; and in
the event of such an accident, one of these supplementary
teeth soon becomes consolidated with the superior maxilla,
and adapted in all respects to take upon itself the terrible
office of its predecessor.

Dreadful as are the means of offence thus conferred upon
the poisonous serpents, it is impossible to avoid noticing in
this place that admirable provision of Nature, which, in one
genus at least, serves to give timely warning of the vicinity
of such dangerous a'ssailants. It is only necessary to men-
tion the rattle of the animal under consideration ; an organ

4'

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

the intention of which is so obvious, that the most obtuse
cannot contemplate it without at once appreciating the beau-
ty of the contrivance. This singular rattle is formed of nu-
merous horny rings, that are in fact merely modifications of
the general scaly covering of the reptile, so loosely articu-
lated together that the slightest movement of their formida-
ble possessor is betrayed by the startling noise produced by
the collision of the different pieces composing the organ ;
even when at rest, the creature announces, by rapid vibra-
tions of the tail, the place of its concealment, apparently to
caution the inadvertent intruder against too near an ap-
proach.

These animals feed principally upon birds, squirrels, and
other small animals, which it is believed they have the power
of fascinating. Whatever may be the nature of this power,
it is certain that its effects on the little animals are irresistible.
When the piercing eye of the rattlesnake is fixed on them,
terror and amazement render them incapable of escaping;
and while involuntarily keeping their eyes fixed on those of
the reptile, birds have been seen to drop into its mouth, as if
paralyzed, squirrels descend from their trees, and leverets run
into the jaws of the expecting devourer. Dr. Barton of Phila-
delphia published in 1796 a " Memoir concerning the Fasci-
nating Faculty which has been ascribed to the Rattlesnake
and other American Serpents," in which he maintains that
this supposed power of fascination does not exist, and offers
some ingenious explanations of the origin of what he consid-
ers a popular mistake.

" In conducting my inquiries into this curious subject,"
says Dr. Barton, " I endeavored to ascertain the two follow-
ing points, viz. first, What species of birds are most frequently
observed to be enchanted by the serpents ? and secondly, At
what season of the year has any particular species been the
most commonly under this wonderful influence ? I supposed
this would furnish me with a clew to a right explanation of
the whole mystery.

" Birds have an almott uniform and determinate method of
building their nests, whether we consider the form of the nest,
its materials, or the place in which it is fixed. Those birds
which build their nests upon the ground, on the lower branch-
es of trees, and on low bushes, (especially on the sides of
rivers, creeks, &c., that are frequented by different kinds of

5

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

serpents,) have most frequently been observed to be under the
enchanting faculty of the rattlesnake, &c. Indeed, the be-
witching spirit of these serpents seems to be almost entirely
limited to these kinds of birds. Hence we so frequently hear
tales of the fascination of our cat-bird, which builds its nest
in the low bushes on the sides of creeks and other waters, the
most usual haunts of the black snake and other serpents.
Hence, too, upon the opening the stomachs of some of our
serpents, if we often find that they contain birds, it is almost
entirely those birds which build in the manner I have just
mentioned.

" The rattlesnake seldom if ever climbs up a tree. He is
frequently, however, found about their roots, especially in wet
situations. It is said that it is often seen curled round a tree,
darting terrible glances at a squirrel, which after some time is
so much influenced by these glances, or by some subtle emana-
tion from the body of the serpent, that the poor animal falls
into the jaws of its enemy. Is the animal's fear and distress
a matter of any wonder ? Nature has taught different ani-
mals what animals are their enemies ; and as the rattlesnake
occasionally devours birds and squirrels, to these animals he
must necessarily be an object of fear. Sometimes the squirrel
drives away the serpent, but occasionally, approaching too
near the enemy, he is bitten or immediately devoured. These
hostilities, however, are not common.

" In almost every instance, I have found that the supposed
fascinating faculty of the serpent was exerted upon the birds
at the particular season of their laying their eggs, or of their
hatching or their rearing their young, still tender and defence-
less. I now began to suspect that the cries and fears of birds
supposed to be fascinated originated in an endeavor to protect
their nest and young. My inquiries have convinced me that
this is the case.

" I have already observed that the rattlesnake does not
climb up trees ; but the black snake and some other species
of the Coluber do. When impelled by hunger, and incapable
of satisfying it by the capture of animals on the ground, they
begin to climb up trees or bushes upon which a bird has its
nest. The bird is not ignorant of the serpent's object. She
leaves her nest, whether it contains eggs or young ones, and
endeavors to oppose the reptile's progress. In doing this she
is actuated by the strength of her instinctive attachment to

6

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

her eggs, or affection to her young. Her cry is melancholy,
her motions tremulous. She exposes herself to the most im-
minent danger. Sometimes she approaches so near the rep-
tile that he seizes her as his prey. But this is far from being
universally the case. Often she compels the serpent to leave
the tree, and then returns to her nest.

" It is a well-known fact, that, among some species of birds,
the female at a certain period is accustomed to compel the
young ones to leave the nest ; that is, when the young have
acquired so much strength that they are no longer entitled to
all her care. But they still claim some of her care. Their
flights are awkward, and soon broken by fatigue ; they fall to
the ground, when they are frequently exposed to the attacks
of the serpent, which attempts to devour them. In this situa-
tion of affairs, the mother will place herself upon a branch of
a tree or bush in the vicinity of the serpent. She will dart
upon the serpent, in order to prevent the destruction of her
young; but fear, the instinct of self-preservation, will compel
her to retire. She leaves the serpent, however, but for a short
timej" and then returns again. Oftentimes she prevents the
destruction of her young, attacking the snake with her wings,
her beak, or her claws. Should the reptile succeed in cap-
turing the young, the mother is exposed to less danger. For
while engaged in swallowing them, he has neither inclination
nor power to seize upon the old one. But the appetite of the
serpent tribe is great ; the capacity of their stomachs is not
less so. The danger of the mother is at hand when the young
are devoured ; the snake seizes upon her, and this is the ca-
tastrophe which crowns the tale of fascination.

" Some years since, Mr. Rittenhouse, an accurate observer,
was induced to suppose, from the peculiar melancholy cry of
a red-winged maize-thief, that a snake was at no great dis-
tance from it, and that the bird was in distress. He threw a
stone at the place from which the cry proceeded, which had
the effect of driving the bird away. The poor animal, how-
ever, immediately returned to the same spot. Mr. Ritten-
house now went to the place where the bird alighted, and to
his great astonishment he found it perched upon the back of
a large black snake, which it was pecking with its beak. At
this very time the serpent was in the act of swallowing a young
bird, and from the enlarged size of the reptile's belly, it was
evident that it had already swallowed two or three other

7

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

young birds. After the snake was killed, the old bird flew
away. Mr. Rittenhouse says that the cry and actions of this
bird had been precisely similar to those of a bird which is
said to be under the influence of a serpent. The maize-thief
builds its nest in low bushes, the bottoms of which are the
usual haunts of the black snake. The reptile found no diffi-
culty in gliding up to the nest, from which, most probably, in
the absence of the mother, it had taken the young ones ; or it
had seized the young ones after they had been forced from
the nest by the mother. In either case, the mother had come
to prevent them from being devoured."

This tribe of animals love to reside in woods, and on lofty
hills, especially where the strata is rocky or chalky. Being
slow of motion, they also frequent the sides of rills, where
frogs, &c. resort. They are generally found during the sum-
mer in pairs, in winter collecting in multitudes and retiring
under ground beyond the reach of frost. The rattlesnake is
viviparous, producing its young (generally about twelve in
number) in the month of June, and it is said to practise the
same extraordinary mode of preserving them from danger
which is attributed to the viper in Europe, viz. of receiving
them into its mouth, and retaining them in its stomach till
the danger is past, when they issue forth again uninjured.
It is well known that in the Western States of North Amer-
ica, where rattlesnakes are plentiful, the hogs kill and eat
them, nor is their bite formidable to their swinish enemy, on
whom its venomous fangs seem to produce no effect. It is
owing to this well-known fact, that families resident in those
parts of the country conceive that hog's lard must be a kind
of antidote to their poison, and frequently use it successfully
as a remedy.

The Striped Rattlesnake, Crotalus durissus, may be distin-
guished from the preceding by the different disposition of its
colors, being of a deep brown above, with pale yellow streaks
forming a continued series of large rhombs or lozenges down
the back, the stripes growing less distinct as they descend on
the sides. The neck is marked by a longitudinal streak on
each side, and the under parts of the body are of a dusky
yellowish brown, with numerous small dark spots and patch-
es. It is a native of the same parts of America as the one
already described, resembling it also in size and general pro-
portions, as well as in the fatal effects of its bite.

8

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

There is also the Wood Rattlesnake, Crotalus dryinus,
which is of a paler color than either of those previously men-
tioned, and more particularly distinguished by its having a
much longer rattle. The Ground Rattlesnake, Crotalus mili-
arius, is a small species, which inhabits the Southern and
Western States of America. It has but two or three rattles
on the tail, and is much dreaded, as its small size and the
slight noise of its rattle render it more liable to be overlooked.

The remains of an extinct genus of serpents, indicating
species of from ten to twenty feet in length, have been dis-
covered in the Eocene tertiary formations in Suffolk, Kent,
and Sussex, England. (See Owen's paper in the Geological
Transactions, 2d Series, Vol. VI. p. 209.)

In antiquity the serpent played an important part. By
some nations it was regarded as the emblem of cunning, de-
ceit, and wickedness (compare the narration of the fall of
man, in Genesis, with the Persian saga of Ahriman and Or-
muzd) ; by others, such as the Egyptians and Phoenicians, it
was looked upon as a good genius (dyatfoSai'/zcoi/), and wor-
shipped as the emblem of fertility ; while by the Greeks and
Romans, whose mythology originated undoubtedly from
Egypt and the East, it appeared under a variety of symbolic
representations. With the latter, the serpent was the well-
known emblem of the healing art ; and in the present time a
serpent with its tail in its mouth is regarded as an emblem
of eternity. The serpent appears also to have held a place
in the Scandinavian mythology, where it was regarded as a
symbol of the human passions. In the early ages of the
Christian Church, a sect of the Gnostics also worshipped the
serpent, whence they were called Ophites (from ofas, a ser-
pent). See Mosheim's Geschichte der Schlangenbruder der
ersten Kirche.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

Ail medicines possessing sufficient activity to be of much
value, are always poisonous in inordinate or excessive quan-
tities ; and every thing poisonous is capable of proving me-
dicinal in suitably reduced quantities. The ancient Greeks
employed the same word both for a medicine and a poison.
There are as many different modes in which poisons operate,
as there are different and distinct medicinal powers of any

9

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

material activity.- According to the popular notion, those
articles only are poisonous which are capable of producing
morbid, noxious, or dangerous effects in comparatively small
quantities ; but there is no just foundation for such a distinc-
tion.

In the treatment of wounds inflicted by venomous snakes,
and of their immediate or distant consequences, there exists
yet a great deal of uncertainty and diversity of opinion. It
becomes necessary, therefore, to promote further investigation
on the subject, and to encourage those who may discover the
best means to shorten the labor in discussing the merits of
any proposed remedy. Experience, however, in this class of
diseases, occurs so rarely, that most probably observations and
opinions will be very slow in forthcoming.

The best remedy against the bites of venomous serpents is
the application of dry heat AT A DISTANCE. Whatever is at
hand at the moment, a red-hot iron or live coal, or even a
lighted cigar, must be placed as near the wound as possible,
without, however, burning the skin, or causing too sharp
pain ; but care must be taken to have another instrument
ready in the fire, so as never to allow the heat to lose its in-
tensity. It is essential, also, that the heat should not exer-
cise its influence over too large a surface, but only on the
wound and the parts adjacent. If oil or grease can be read-
ily procured, it may be applied round the wound, and this
operation should be repeated as often as the skin becomes
dry ; soap, or even saliva, may be employed where oil or grease
cannot be obtained. Whatever is discharged in any way
from the wound ought to be carefully removed. The applica-
tion of burning heat should be continued in this manner until
the patient begins to shiver and to stretch himself; if this
takes place at the end of a few minutes, it will be better to
keep up the action of the heat upon the wound for an hour,
or until the affections produced by the venom are observed to
diminish. v

Internal medicines must be judiciously administered at the
same time. In case of a BITE FROM A SERPENT, it will be
advisable to take, from time to time, one or two gulps of salt
and water, or a pinch of common salt, or of gunpowder, or
else some pieces of garlic. If, notwithstanding this, bad
effects manifest themselves, a small quantity of wine or
brandy, administered every two or three minutes, will be the

10

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

most suitable remedy ; and this should be continued until the
sufferings are relieved, and repeated as often as they are re-
newed.

If the shooting pains are aggravated, and proceed from the
wound towards the heart, and if the wound becomes bluish
marbled, 01 swollen, with vomiting, vertigo, and fainting, the
best medicine is arsenic. It should be administered in a dose
of four globules in a teaspoonful of water ; and if, after this
has been taken, the sufferings are still aggravated, the dose
should be repeated at the end of half an hour; but if, on the-
contrary, the state remains the same, it should not be repeat-
ed until the end of two or three hours ; if there is an amelio-
ration, a new aggravation must be waited for, and the dose
ought not to be repeated before its appearance.

In cases in which arsenic exercises no influence, though
repeated several times, recourse must be had to belladonna ;
senna has also been known frequently to prove efficacious.

The poison may also be sucked out. This can do no harm,
•unless the person who sucks the wound should have a sore
on the lips, or in the mouth. It is however well, at any rate,
to take a little garlic or salt in the mouth. The sucking must
be strong and continuous, and the wound must be drawn
well asunder. Whilst sucking, press the hand hard toward
the wound over the adjoining parts, particularly from the side
next the heart. Immediately after the wcomd has been sucked,
rub into it fine salt as long as it will receive any, or gunpow-
der, tobacco-ashes, chewing tobacco, wood-ashes, or whatever
of this kind is at hand ; salt, however, is the best. At the
same time, let the patient keep as quiet as possible ; the more
motion, or the greater the agitation, the greater will be the
danger.

It is almost impossible to become familiar with cases of
hydrophobia without their suggesting the possible analogy
between the poison of such cases and that of snakes ; and in
reference to this most important possibility it may be men-
tioned, that, some months ago, a man bitten by a mad dog,
and ill of hydrophobia, in Italy, was attempted to be cured
by the bite of some venomous snake, probably the common
viper; and that, according to the newspaper report (for it
never appeared in any scientific journal), there was a marked
improvement for some time after the bites, although the ter-
mination was ultimately fatal; but the symptoms were en-

11

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

tirely changed, so that the death was attributed to the bites
of the snakes, rather than to the original wound inflicted by
the dog. How far this inference was just, it is impossible to
determine.

The following case, quoted by Lenz from Latreille, is more
curious as illustrating the habits of the time and people
where it happened, than as an example of the effects of the
poison. " At the time that Dillon, in the seventeenth century,
was on a visit at Cananer in Malabar, the private secretary
of the prince was bitten by a snake. The wounded man was
brought to town, and along with him the snake, well secured
in a vessel. The prince was much distressed by the accident,
made the Brahmins be sent for, who ordered the snake into
their presence, and explained to it how important to the state
was the life of the wounded statesman. They used both
entreaties and threats. They clearly told the snake, that, if
the wounded man died, he, the snake, should be burned in
the same funeral pile ; but the snake was inflexible, and the
secretary died of the wound. The prince was sore depressed;
yet he reflected, that perhaps the dead man had committed
a deadly sin, and the anger of the gods had overtaken him.
Upon which he had the vessel containing the snake carried
out of the house and the reptile set free, and with much fer-
vor and many profound obeisances apologized to it for what
he had done. See A^ts xxviii. 3, 4."

For the following experiments, made by inserting the poi-
son into a wound, we are indebted to Dr. Stokes of Stroud,
to whom all must feel under obligation for having exposed
himself to what might have been, for all that he knew, very
serious danger. The result proves that a considerable quan-
tity may be thus inserted without producing decided symp-
toms ; and it is hoped the courageous example set by Dr.
Stokes will find many imitators, and that before long such
a body of evidence may be produced as to turn this powerful
agent to a useful account.

" First Experiment.

" Nov. 7, 1852. A. S., stout, robust male, thirty-seven
years of age, brown hair and eyes ; temperament bilio-
sanguine and lymphatic; has undergone an antipsoric treat-
ment of two and a half years.

Received a drop of the poison, and as it was mingled

12

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

with a scruple at least of fine sac lac, made a paste of this
with about a dozen drops of filtered rain-water, and intro-
duced on a clean vaccine point some of the poison thus pre-
pared into three punctures made by a lancet on the front of
the left fore-arm ; also rubbed some minute portions of the
sac lac, hardened by the poison, into one of the wounds :
this was done at 9.30 A. M.

Indefinable sensation of all-overishness (sorte (Penvahisse-
ment), with a lightness in the head (entreprise generate) , slight,
lasting perhaps half an hour.

11.15 A. M. Slight aching in fourth and little finger of
right hand, followed in a quarter of an hour by peculiar sen-,
sation as of thumbing (fouillement) in the middle of triceps,
left arm.

12.30. Again inoculated the fore-arm, and made a new
wound in upper arm (left).

Fine tingling in legs and feet while standing.

Slight aching in the back part of thighs : afternoon.

Tired feel in the cervical and dorsal vertebrae, with the
peculiar burning often attendant on exhaustion, all day.

Kind of burning pressure on a point at back of pharynx
several hours this afternoon.

Pressing and drawing sensations on points in lower limbs
and feet several times.

Nov. 8. 2d day. Hard pressure on chest just above right
nipple, afternoon.

3d day. Rheumatic drawing in left shoulder, morning.
10 A. M. Inoculated thoroughly well a puncture in left up-
per arm with the poison paste and felt immediately :

The same all-overishness as on Sunday, lasting half an
hour.

Dull shoots up occiput.

Very fine prickling in left eyebrow.

Is affected easily by a very little wine or alcoholic drink
during the week.

Sleep broken and disturbed, — during the week.

" Second Experiment.

« Nov. 8, 1852. 1st day. Rosa, tall, robust, of full form,
sanguine temperament, aged nineteen, menses normal.
This morning, inoculated in the right upper arm.

13

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

Complained of great aching all up the arm to the shoul-
der, all day.

Frontal headache, present in the morning, disappeared
after inoculation.

Temper quicker than usual.

Face flushed in the evening, and burning hot.

2d day. Throat dry on waking.

Face red on rising, and covered with hard knots as in
erysipelas ; this disappeared after washing.

Appeared at breakfast with the point of the nose deco-
rated with small papules on a slightly inflamed base; nose
sore in consequence.

5th day. Cutting pains in nape of neck.

Temper good, very excitable and playful, oftener than
common.

6th day. Pimples going away from nose.

No more symptoms."

From the Water- Cure Journal, August, 1853.
BITE OF THE RATTLESNAKE.

The following communication, which contains some in-
teresting statements, has been sent us for publication : —

" Jacob Price's Saw-mill,
17 miles N. W. of Stroudsburg, Monroe Co., Pa.

" Jacob Price, a hunter and lumberman, says, when he was
about eight or nine years of age, some thirty-eight or thirty-
nine years ago, in the month of May, he and some other boys
were rolling stones down a hill, and he was bitten by a rattle-
snake of the yellow kind, which they afterwards killed. The
bite was in the left arm, through a flannel shirt and linsey
roundabout lined with linsey. It made a scratch like a brier-
scratch.

" In two or three hours it swelled up so he could not close
his fingers. ,

" It happened half a mile from home. He was carried to
his father's house, and they applied herbs and various reme-
dies ; among others they used a poultice of snake-root, and^
he drank new milk, arid they applied salt and indigo. This <
was done for two or three days, when the arm became black
up to the shoulder, and his body swollen down over his heart,
and the black streaks were extending down over his body;

14

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

and during the last day those remedies were used he knew
nothing, and they gave him up to die.

" His father concluded to try how it would operate to cut
the wound open and apply cold water. He cut the wound
open three fourths of an inch in depth, and one cut above
also, and poured cold water on it from a coffee-pot.

" In about two hours consciousness returned, and in three
or four days he was running about again, entirely recov-
ered.

"Isaac Gruber, at Paradise (a few miles above), was
bitten about twenty-two years ago in the leg, just above the
ankle. 9(to

. " They bound his thigh very tight, and doctored him with
all the remedies they knew for four or five days. The limb
swelled up "as large as a barrel," and burst open in forty or
fifty places in a kind of blisters, from which the yellow water
was running. He fainted about every half-hour. At length,
hearing of J. Price's father, they sent for him. He arrived
about noon. He cut the limb open in more than fifty places,
half an inch deep, and poured on cold spring-water, and be-
fore night the fainting ceased, and the man was soon entirely
restored.

" The same man was bitten once afterwards, and cured in
the same way by J. Price's father.

" The little son of Wm. Bodhead, who keeps the hotel at
the Delaware Water Gap, was bitten by a pilot snake and
was very ill ; and they had the doctors and applied their usual
remedies for two or three days, but without success. They
then sent for his father, who, on account of the boy being
quite young, and the case a bad one, feared to make the in-
cisions at first, but at length did so, and the boy is now well.
Thinks this was seven or eight years ago.

" Jacob Price further says, and I give his own words, as I
have done very nearly in the preceding statements : —

" * George Sears was bitten in the big toe about seven
years ago, and I was there, happening to be passing with my
team. The swelling was passing up his leg, and was about
half way to his knee when I arrived, being, an inch thicker at
the swollen part, and advancing up the leg in the form of a
ring.

" ' I cut the toe open and applied water, pouring it on
from a height out of a coffee-pot. The swelling stopped its

15

CROTALUS HORRIDUS.

progress up the leg at once, and the next day the man was
well and at work.'

" The above are the worst cases I can remember. I have
known many others which were not so bad, and all cured by
the application of cold water. Among the lumberers and
others in this and the neighboring counties, it is the common
remedy, and being entirely successful with it, they use no
other, at least in our neighborhood. If a dog or a cow is bit,
and they can get the animal to a stream, they are made to
stand in it, and are certain to be cured. I heard, when in
Monroe County in 1849, of a cow being found with her neck
swollen, as the narrator said, so as to be i nearly as large as
her body.' She was made to stand in a stream, and recov-
ered.

" I give the above, hoping that, if published, it may be of
use to some.

"SAMUEL E. GRISCOM."

16

GLOSSARY.

A.

Abbreviate. Disproportionately short in
a part.

Abdomen. In vertebrated animals, the low-
er belly, or that part of the body which
lies between the thorax and the bot-
tom of the pelvis. In the invertebrated
animals, the lower part of the body,
united to the thorax.

Abdominal. Pertaining to the abdomen.

Aberrant. Wandering, or deviating from ;
a term applied to those species which
deviate most from the type of their
natural group.

Abnormal; Abnormous. Irregular, de-
formed.

Abranchiate. Devoid of gills.

Acanthocephalous. Pertaining to an order
of intestinal worms, which have the
head armed with spines or hooks.

Accessory. Additional; subordinate to
the principal.

Acclivous. Inclining by a gentle ascent.

Acephalous- Having no apparent head :
a term to denote those animals in
which a distinct head is never de-
veloped.

Acerons. A term applied to insects that
have no antennae.

Acetabula. The fleshy sucking-cups with
which many of the invertebrate ani-
mals are provided.

Achatine. Marked with various concen-
tric, curved, or parallel lines, resem-
bling the veining of an agate.

Aciculce. Small spikes, spines, or pric-
kles with which many animals are
armed ; as the hedgehog, severalof the
Crustacea, &c.

Acinaciate. Falchion-shaped. Curved,
with the apex truncate, and growing
gradually wider towards the end.

Acinaciform. Whose horizontal sections
are acute-angled triangles gradually
increasing in diameter from the base
to the apex, and propagated in a
curved line.

Acini. The secreting parts of glands,
when they are suspended like small
berries to a slender stem.

Aciniform. Being in clusters like grapes.

Acuducted. Scratched across very finely,
as if with the point of a needle or pin.

Aculeated. Furnished with prickles, as
the body of a hedgehog ; or ending in
a sting, as the abdomen of a female
wasp or bee.

Aculeiform. A term applied to the ovi-
positors of Hymenopterous insects.

Acuminate; Acuminated. Terminating
gradually in a sharp point.

Acute. Terminating in an acute angle.

Adductor (Muscle). A muscle which
draws one part of the body towards
another. In shells that which closes
the two pieces of a bivalve together.

Adeniform. Of a gland-like shape.

Adeps. Fat; a concrete oily matter con-
tained in the cells of the adipose tis-
sue.

Adernata. A term applied to the pupa of
an insect when the prior skin is thrown
off, and the eyes, antennae, legs, and
wings of the future perfect insect ap-
pear through the case.

Adiaphanous. Not transparent in the
least degree.

Adipocire. A substance of a peculiar
nature, being intermediate between

GLOSSARY.

fat and wax, and bearing a close re-
semblance to spermaceti.

Adipose. Fatty ; as the adipose or cellu-
lar membrane, containing the fat in
its cells ; the adipose ducts, &c.

Adnate. Adhering or growing together.
Applied to insects, when the under
jaws adhere to the lower lip through
their whole length.

Aduncous. Crooked.

jEneous. Resembling the metallic splen-
dor of brass.

Aerial. Inhabiting or frequenting the
air.

Aeriducts. Respiratory organs, often fo-
liaceous, with which the sides of the
abdomen, the tail, and sometimes the
trunk of aquatic larvae and pupse are
often furnished.

Affinity. That tendency which different
species of matter have to unite and
combine with certain other bodies, and
the power that disposes them to con-
tinue in combination.

Agglutinated. United by some viscous
fluid.

Aigrette. A pointed tuft of feathers.

Air-bladder. An organ possessed by
most fishes, which gives to them the
faculty of increasing or diminishing
their specific gravity, and assists their
powers of locomotion.

Alee. The wings of birds or insects.

Alar. Belonging to a wing.

Alate ; Alated. Winged ; a term applied
to the expanded lips of certain shells ;
and to the dilated sides of the thorax,
&c. in some insects.

Albinism. The change from a dark color
to perfect whiteness, which (from some
accidental cause) is occasionally seen
in the fur of quadrupeds and in the
plumage of birds.

Albuminous. Consisting of albumen, or
the substance which forms the white of
an egg.

Aliform. Shaped like a wing; in form
and substance like the membranous
wings of insects.

Alimentary Canal. The great duct or in-
testine, in animal bodies, by which the
aliment (food) is conveyed through
the body, and the useless parts evacu-
ated.

Aliped. A wing-footed animal, or one
whose toes are connected by a mem-
brane, and serve for wings ; as the
bat.

Alliaceous. Having a scent of garlic.

Altivolant. Flying high in the air.

Alula. A little wing.

Alula spuria. The bastard wing : three
or five quill-like feathers, placed at a
small joint rising at the middle part of
the wing.

Alveolar. Containing hollow cells or
sockets.

Alveolate. Deeply pitted, so as to re-
semble a honeycomb.

Ambient. When the prothorax (in in-
sects) is so large as to receive the
whole head.

Ambitus. The circumference or out-
line.

Ambulacra. The perforated series of
plates in the shells of the echinus or
sea-urchin.

Ambulatory. Peculiarly well formed for
walking.

Ametabolic. A term applied to those in-
sects which do not undergo any meta-
morphosis.

Amethystine. The purple splendor of the
amethyst.

Amorpha. Insects in which the pupa is
unprovided either with a mouth or the
organs of locomotion, and bears no re-
semblance to the perfect state; in-
stanced in Lepidoptera and Diptera.

Amorphous. Having no determinate
form ; devoid of regular form.

Amphipodal. Having feet adapted both
for swimming and walking.

Amplected. When the head of an insect
is received into a sinus of the tho-
rax.

Ampliate. Disproportionately wide at
the end.

Anadromous. A term in ichthyology, to
denote such fishes as have their stated
periods of going from the fresh water
to the salt, and again returning; of
which kind is the salmon, and many
of the trout family.

Anal. Pertaining to the anus: the anal
fin is that between the vent and the
tail.

Analogue. A part or organ in one ani-

GLOSSARY.

mal which has the same function in
another part or organ in a differen
animal.
Analogous. Bearing some proportion or

resemblance.
Anastomose. When the mouths of two

vessels unite or blend together.
Anatiferous. Producing ducks.
Anatomy. The art of scientifically sepa
rating the different parts of an anima
body, to discover their situation, struc
ture, and economy. Comparative anat
omy is that branch of anatomy which
treats of the anatomy of other animals
than man, with a view to compare
their structure with that of human be-
ings, and thus to illustrate the animal
functions.

Androgynous. Hermaphroditical, or the
combination of male and female or-
gans in the same body.
Anenterous. Pertaining to those infuso-
rial animalcules which have no intesti-
nal canal.

Aneurose. Applied to the wings of insects
that have no nervures besides the mar-
ginal ones.

Angui/liform. A term applied to a very
large class of fishes, which are soft arid
lubricous, like the eel, and destitute of
scales.

Anguloso-undulate. When lines, fascias,
&c. go in a zigzag direction, or with
alternate acute sinuses.
Angustate. Disproportionately narrow in
part ; applied to the antennae of insects
when the setigerous joint is not con-
spicuously larger than the preceding
one, beginning with a narrow base,
and growing broader.
Annelidous. Belonging or pertaining to
the Annelida, a division of the class
Vermes.

Annulata. Those invertebrated animals
in which the covering or envelope of
the body is divided by transverse folds
into rings, whose teguments may be
either hard or soft, the muscles being
situated internally.

Annulate. When a leg, antennae, &c. of
an insect is surrounded by a narrow
ring of a different color.
Annulatcd. Formed of, marked with, or
divided into, distinct rings.

Annulose. Furnished with or composed
of rings.

Anomaliped. When the middle toe of a
bird is united to the exterior by three
phalanges, and to the anterior by one
only.

Anomalous. Deviating from a general
rule or system ; different from con-
generic species, &c.

Anourous. Destitute of a tail.

Anserine. Pertaining to the genus Anser ;
resembling a goose.

Antennae. Organs of touch situated near
the mouths of insects, having many
joints.

Antennal. Eclating to the antennae of
insects.

Antenniform. Having the form of, or be-
ing shaped like, antennae.

Anterior. The fore part ; as the anterior
limbs, opposed to the posterior. In bi-
valve shells, the side opposite to that on
which the ligament is situated: of a
spiral univalve, that part of the aper-
ture which is at the greatest distance
from the apex : of a symmetrical conical
univalve (such as Patella), that part
where the head of the animal lies, in-
dicated by the interruption of the mus-
cular impression : of Cirripedes, that
part where the cilia protrude.

Antiperistaltic. A term applied to the
vermicular contractions of a muscular
tube when they follow each other in a
reverse direction to the usual mode.

Antiquated. A term in conchology to
denote that a shell is longitudinally
furrowed, but interrupted by transverse
furrows, as if it had acquired new
growth at each furrow ; i. e. each fresh
deposit or layer of calcareous matter,
forming a new margin, being replaced
by its successor, no longer constitutes
the margin, and is consequently an-
tiquated (out of date).

Antlered. Furnished with antlers, or
branching horns, as the head of a stag.
Antlia. The oral instrument of Lepi-
dopterous insects, in which the ordi-
nary trophi are replaced by a spiral,
bipartite, tubular machine for suction,
with its appendages.
Antorbilal. Opposite the orbits.
Anus. The termination of the rectum.

GLOSSARY.

In entomology, the last two segments
of the abdomen. In conchology, a de-
pression of the posterior side near the
hinge of bivalves.

Aorta. The great artery, or trunk of the
arterial system, in animal bodies. It
proceeds from the left ventricle of the
heart, and gives origin to all the arte-
ries except the pulmonary.

Aortal ; Aortic. Pertaining to the aorta.

Aperture. A hole, cleft, or chasm ; any
opening, as the mouth of a shell, from
which the head of the animal pro-
trudes.

Apex. The top or termination of any
part. In conchology, the top or point
of the spiral cone. The term has no
regard to the natural position of a
shell, but is used mathematically to
express the nucleus or first-formed
part : from this point the shell rapidly
or slowly enlarges as it descends, and
takes a spiral, arcuated, straight,
oblique, convolute, or irregular course.

Aphidian. Pertaining to the Aphis or
plant-louse.

Aphid ivorous. Subsisting on the Aphis,
or plant-louse : a term applied to the
larva and imago of many insects.

Apiary. The shed, stand, or other place
where bees are kept.

Apical. Belonging to the apex or point-
ed end of a cone-shaped body.

Apiculate. Terminating suddenly in a
small, filiform, truncate apex.

Apodal. Without feet or locomotive or-
gans : fishes are so called which have
no ventral fins.

Apopkysis. An execresence.

Appeiidicula. A small piece sometimes
appended to the upper lip of an insect.

Append 'iculate. When from one of the
joints of an insect there issues an ac-
cessory joint or appendage ; when the
appendages have one or two antenni-
form processes at their base.

Applicant. Applied to insects' wings
when at rest they are parallel with the
abdomen.

Approximate. When the teeth of insects
are so arranged in the jaws that there
is no intervening vacancy ; or when
their legs are near each other at the
base.

Apterous. Wingless ; applied to insects
which have no wings.

Aquatic. Pertaining to water: applied
to animals which live in water, as
fishes; or to such as frequent it, as
aquatic birds.

Arachnoid. Formed like a spiders web.

Arboreal; Arboreous. Belonging to trees ;
resorting to, or dwelling in, trees.

Arborescent. Branched, or bearing some
resemblance to a tree.

Arctic. Pertaining to northern regions ;
as the arctic pole or sea.

Arcuate. Linear and bent like a bow.

Arcuated. Bent in the form of an arch.

Area. The surface between given lines
or boundaries.

Areate. When the mesothorax of an in-
sect is larger than the prothorax, and
terminates towards the wings in two
oblique areas, inclosed by a ridge
often crowned anteriorly with little
teeth.

Arenose. Sandy ; having the appearance
of being sprinkled with sand.

Areolar. Consisting of, or marked with,
numerous small circles.

Areolate. Marked with lines which in-
tersect each other in various directions,
so as to exhibit the appearance of net-
work ; when the surface of the wings
is divided into various areolets.

Arcola. A small area or circle.

Areolet. An extremely small circle.

Argent. The splendor of silver ; as the
spots on the under sides of the wings
in Argyanis Lathonia, &c.

Arislate. Antenna} terminated by a va-
riously shaped flat joint, longer and
usually larger than the preceding one.

Armature. Horns, spinous processes, or
whatever else animals are furnished
with for their defence.

Armillate. When a leg, antenna, &c. of
an insect is surrounded by a broad
ring of a different color.

Aromatic. Having a pungent scent of
spices.

Artlirium. The fourth joint of the tarsi
of insects.

Arthroidtd. A term denoting that form
of joint, or species of articulation, in
which the head of one bone is received
into the shallow socket of another.

GLOSSARY.

Articulate Fascia. A band consisting of
contiguous spots.

Articulated. Jointed : applied to animals
•with external jointed skeletons, or
jointed limbs. The term is also ap-
plied to distinct parts of shells that
are fitted or jointed into each other.

Ascending. Inclining upwards by a some-
what steep ascent.

Asper ; Asperated. Rough ; denoting a
rough or uneven surface.

Asphyxiated. In a state of suspended
animation, but life not extinct.

Assimilate. To change into a like sub-
stance.

Asterialite. Fossilized asterias or star-
fish.

Atrous. Pure black of the deepest tint.

Attenuated. Of a thin and slender form ;
made slender, thin, or less viscid ;
gradually tapering to the apex; dis-
proportionately slender in a part.

Aurate. Of a color resembling gold.

Aurelia. The chrysalis of an insect.

Aurelian. Like or pertaining to the au-
relia.

Auricle. The external ear, or that part
which is prominent from the head. In
anatomy, the auricles of the heart are
two muscular bags, situated at the
base, which in form resemble the auri-
cle of the ear, and cover tbe ventricles
of the heart, like caps : they receive
the blood from the veins, and commu-
nicate it tb the ventricles. Also, an
appendage resembling an ear.

Auricled ; Auriculated. Having ear-like
appendages. These terms are used in
describing certain bivalves which have
a flat, angulated projection or process
on one or both sides of the umbones
or bosses.

Auriculars. The feathers which cover
the ears of birds.

Auriculate. Expanding on each side into
two processes resembling ears.

Auriform. Ear-shaped.

Austral. Lying or being in or inhabiting
the south; as, they dwell in austral
lands.

Automatic. Possessed of the power of
motion independent of the will.

Aviary. An inclosure for keeping bird
confined.

Axillar. Belonging to the axilla (the
arm-pit) : the term is also applied to
other parts of the body forming a simi-
lar angle.

Axis. In conchology, the imaginary line
round which the whorls of a spiral
shell revolve.

Azure. A pale but clear and brilliant
blue color.

B.

Baccivorous. Feeding or subsisting on
berries.

Barbate. When any part is clothed with
longer hairs, resembling a beard.

Barbed. Furnished with cirri or with
filaments resembling a beard ; armed
with jagged hooks or dart-like points.

Barbules. Filamentous appendages, or
barbs, attached to the mouths of cer-
tain fishes.

Basal. Pertaining to or constituting the
base.

Base. The lower termination of any
part.

Bat-fowling. A mode of catching birds at
night, by holding a torch or lantern,
and beating the bush where they roost.
The birds, flying to the light, are then
generally caught with nets.

Batrachian. Pertaining to frogs : an
epithet designating an order of reptiles
which includes frogs, toads, and other
allied animals.

Bay. Of a bright red brown, inclining to
a chestnut color.

Bee-bread. The pollen of flowers col-
lected by bees as food for their young.

Beetle-browed. Having prominent brows.

Belting. When the eyes of an insect
nearly meet both above and below the
head, so as to form a kind of belt
round it.

Biarticulate. Composed of two articula-
tions or joints : applied to the antennae
and the abdomen of insects.

Biangulated. Having two corners, or
angles.

Bicaudate. Having two tails.

Bicarinated. Having two elevated or
sharp ridges.

Bicipital ; Bicipitous. Having two heads
I Applied to the muscles, it signifies

G

GLOSSARY.

having two heads or origins ; nnd any
such muscle is denominated biceps.

Bicolligate. In ornithology, the connec-
tion of all the anterio*r toes by a basal
web.

Bicornate ; Bicomous. Having two horns.

Bicuspid. Having two points.

Bidental. Having only two teeth.

Bidigitate. Having two fingers or finger-
like appendages.

Bifariotts. Parting in opposite directions.

Bijid. Divided by having a deep notch
down the centre, opening with a cleft.

Biform. Having two forms, bodies, or
shapes.

Bifurcated. Divided into two prongs or
forks. In entomology, denoting that
the antennas are composed of three
pints, of which the apical one is bent
double, and attached to the second
joint by its centre.

Bilabiate. Furnished with two lips.

Bilateral. Having two symmetrical sides.

Biliary. Belonging to or conveying the
bile ; as a biliary duct.

Bilobed; Bilobate. Divided into two
lobes.

Bilocular. Divided into or containing
two cells.

Bimarginate. Furnished with a double
margin ; as the lip of certain shells.

Biocellnte. When the wing of an insect
is marked with two eye- like spots.

Bipalpate. When an imperfect mouth
has only labial or maxillary palpi.

Biparous. Bringing forth two at a birth.

Bipartite. Divided into two correspond-
ing parts. Applied to the antenna, it
signifies that they are divided to the
hase into two nearly equal branches.

Bipectinate. Relating to some part which
has two margins toothed like a comb.

Biped. An animal having two feet, as
man.

Bipedal. Having two feet.

Bipeltate. Relating to any part having
a defence like a common shield.

Bipennate. Having two wings.

Bi/mpillate. When" an eye-like spot on
the wing of a butterfly has two dots
or pupils within it of a different color.

Biradiate. Having two rays; as a bi-
radiate fin.

Bisect; Bisected. When the head and

trunk are not separated by a suture* so
that an insect consists only of two
pieces.

Biserrate. When the antennae are on
each side serrate or toothed like a saw.

Bisexual. Partaking of the nature of
both sexes.

Bisulcous. Cloven-footed ; as swine or
oxen.

Bitubercnlate. Having two knobs or tu-
bercles.

Bivalve. A shell consisting of two parts,
which open and shut; as the oyster.

Bivalve ; Bivahnlar. Having two valves
or shells which open and shut.

Biventral. Having two bellies.

Blood. The nutritive fluid which circu-
lates through the arteries and veins of
an animal body, and which is essential
to the preservation of life. All the
other animal fluids are derived from
the blood by secretion.

Blubber. The fat of whales and other
large marine animals, of which is made
train-oil. It lies immediately under
the skin and over the muscular flesh.

Bombycinous. Of the color of the silk-
worm ; transparent, with a yellow tint.

Boom. To cry as the bittern.

Boreal. Pertaining to the north or north-
ern regions.

Boss. In bivalve shells, the projecting
point in each valve, near the hinge.

Eossed. Studded or knobbed; covered
over with protuberances^

Botrylli. A little cluster of berry-shaped
bodies.

Botryoidal. Having the form of a bunch
of grapes.

Bovine. Pertaining to animals of the
genus Bos, or ox.

Brachial. Belonging to the arm.

Brachiopodal. Relating to the Bracliio-
poda, a class of acephalous Mollusca,
with two long spiral fleshy arms con-
tinued from the side of the mouth.

Brachypterous. Short-winged.

Brachyurous. A term applied to the
short-tailed Crustacea.

Brackish. Salt in a moderate degree ;
as brackish water.

Bmnchilce. The respiratory organs which
extract the oxygen from air contained
in water; the filamentous organs of

GLOSSARY.

fishes by which they breathe in the
water.

Branchial. Relating to the branchiae, or
respiratory organs of fishes.

Branchiopodous. Belonging or pertaining
to the Branchiopoda, an order of Crus-
tacea in which the feet support the
gills.

Branchiostegous. Having gill-covers, as
a branchiostegous fish ; or covering the
gills, as the branchiostegous membrane.

Breed. A race or progeny from the same
parents or stock. Also, to have birth,
or be produced; as, fish breed in riv-
ers.

Breeding. The raising of a breed or
breeds ; as, the farmer attends to the
breeding of sheep.

Breviped. A fowl having short legs,
short-legged ; applied to certain birds.

Brindled. Variegated with spots of dif-
ferent colors.

Bristle. The stiff, glossy hair of swine,
especially that growing on the back.

Brocket. A red deer two years old.

Bronchial. Relating to the bronchia, or
ramifications of the windpipe in the
lungs.

Brow-antler. The first branch that grows
on a deer's head.

Browse. To feed on the tender branches
or shoots of shrubs and trees, as cattle,
sheep, and goats.

Brumal. Belonging to the winter.

Buccal. Belonging to the mouth.

Baccate. When the nasus and anterior
part of the head of an insect are in-
flated.

Burnished. Having the appearance of
being polished or made glossy.

Burrow. A hollow place or excavation
in the earth formed by various small
animals for the purpose of dwelling
there in security, and sometimes for
depositing their provisions. To lodge
in a hole excavated in the earth, as
rabbits, &c.

Buti/raceons. Having the qualities of, or
resembling, butter.

By ss! for in. In shape and appearance
like the byssus.

Byssine. Made of the silky filaments
hereunder described.

Byssus. The name of a long, lustrous,

and silky fasiculus of filaments, by
which some of the conchiferous mol-
lusks are affixed to submarine rocks,
&c.

C.

Caducous. Falling off at a certain sea-
son, as the hair of animals, &c.

Cceca. Minor stomachs, thrown off from
the principal one ; particularly observ-
able in the voracious herbivorous in-
sects, which have the anterior portion
of a stomach in the form of a gizzard.

Caecum. A blind tube, or a tube perfo-
rated at one end only.

Cozsious. Very pale blue, with a little
black; the color of what are termed
blue eyes.

Calcarate. When the tibia is armed with
one or more spurs.

Calcareous. Partaking of the nature of
lime.

Calcareum. A spur or sharp-pointed
process to the tail.

Calcaria. The stiff spines with which
the tibia in most insects is furnished ;
the spurs on the legs of some of the
males of Gallinaceous birds.

Calceoliform. Oblong, and somewhat co-
arctate in the middle.

Callosity. Any hard, horny tumidity,
formed in the skin of some animals
(such as the dromedary, for instance),
in those parts which are subject to
most use. By conchologists, it is used
to denote those undefined tumidities
or bumps which appear in the inner
surface of some bivalve shells.

Callous. Hardened ; indurated ; of a
horny or cartilaginous substance.

Callow. Destitute of feathers ; unfledged.

Callus. Any corneous or bony excres-
cence ; an indurated knob or protuber-
ance.

Calotte. A covering of feathers on the
head of a bird, bearing a fancied re-
semblance in shape to the cap or coif
worn in Popish countries as an eccle-
siastical ornament.

Campanufate. Bell-shaped.

Canal. A grove or channel observable
in different parts of spiral shells, be-
longing to carnivorous Mollusca, and
is that part fitted for the protrusion of

8

GLOSSARY.

the cylindrical siphon possessed by the
animal.

Canaliculated. Made like a groove, ca-
nal, or furrow.

Canaliform. Having an elongate depres-
sion, channel, or furrow.

Cancellate ; Cancellated. Cross-barred ;
marked with cross lines, or transverse
lines crossing longitudinal ones at
right angles. In conchology, it de-
notes that the surface of a shell is
marked by lines which cross each
other.

Cancerite. A petrified crab.

Canine. Pertaining to dogs. Canine
teeth are two sharp-pointed teeth in
each jaw of an animal, one on each side,
between the incisors and molars.

Canthus. An angle of the eye ; a cavity
at the extremity of the eyelids; the
greater is next to the nose, the lesser
near the temple.

Capillary. Fine, minute ; small in diam-
eter, though long, resembling a hair ;
as a capillary vessel or tube. Applied
to the antennae of insects, nearly as
slender as a hair.

Capistrate. When the anterior part of
the head of an insect is attenuated and
subelongated into a kind of flat ros-
trum or muzzle.

Capistrum. A word used by Linnaeus to
denote the short feathers on the fore-
head just above the bill. In some birds
these feathers fall forward over the
nostrils : they quite cover those of the
crow.

Capitate. Terminated in a knob ; when
antennae suddenly end in a knob of
one or more joints.

Capriform. Having the form of a goat.

Caput. The head, or first segment of
insects.

Carabidous. Belonging to the group of
insects of which the genus Carabus is
the type.

Carapace. The upper shell of a crab or
other crustaceous animal. The hard
covering or shell which protects the
upper part of the body of the Chelo-
nian reptiles.

Cardinal Teeth (in shells). Those teeth
which receive their full development
close to the umbones.

Carince. Keels; when the surface is
raised into elongated lines.

Carinate; Carinated. Having, as is the
case with certain shells, a longitudinal
prominence like the keel of a boat.

Carious. Corrupted; ulcerated, as a
bone.

Carneous. Fleshy; having the qualities
of flesh.

Carnijication. A turning to flesh.

Carnivorous. Subsisting wholly on flesh.
The Carnivora form a family in the
order Carnaria. The word is also
used to denote a family of coleopterous
insects which pursue and devour
others.

Carnose. Of a soft and fleshy substance.

Carpus. The wrist.

Cartilage. A smooth, solid, elastic sub-
stance, softer than bone, and of a ho-
mogeneous texture. Applied to shells,
it denotes the ligament, a flexible,
fibrous substance by which the valves
are united, situated near the beak.

Cartilaginous. The term applied to those
fishes whose muscles are supported by
cartilages instead of bones, or whose
skeleton is cartilaginous.

Caruncle. The fleshy comb on the head
of a fowl ; a soft wart-like eminence.

Carunculated. Having a fleshy excres-
cence ; or soft fleshy protuberance.

Caseous. Having the qualities of cheese.

Casque. A helmet-shaped tuft on the
head of a bird.

Castaneous. Of a rich deep brown, —
the color of a horsechestnut.

Catenate. A term used when the surface
between impressed lines on elytra, &c.
is divided into oblong elevations, and
is supposed to resemble a chain.

Catenulate. Consisting of little links or
chains ; having a series of elevated
oblong tubercles resembling a chain.

Cauda. A tail : applied to parts re-
sembling a tail. In shells, the elon-
gated base of the ventre, lip, and colu-
mella.

Caudal. Belonging or pertaining to the
tail.

Caudate ; Caudated. Having a tail ;
when the wings of insects terminate in
a tail-like process.

Caudulce. Tail-like appendages to in-

GLOSSARY.

9

sects, as in cockroaches and crick-
ets.

Cavernvlons. Full of little cavities.

Cellulce. The divisions into which the
membranaceous wings of insects are
divided by the nervures.

Cellular. Consisting of cells, or contain-
ing cells. The cellular membrane, or
cellular tissue, in animals, is composed
of an infinite number of minute cells
communicating with each other, and
serving as reservoirs for fat.

Celluliferous. Bearing or producing lit-
tle cells.

Cementitious. Agglutinating, having the
quality of cementing.

Cephalic. Belonging to the head.

Cephalo-thorax. The anterior division of
the body in spiders, scorpions, &c.,
which consists of the head and chest
united.

Cephalopodous. Belonging to the Cepha-
lopoda, the class of molluscous animals
in which long prehensile processes,
called feet, project from the head.

Cephalophorous. Belonging to one of the
three orders of the class Cephalophora ;
the first consisting of cuttle-fish, &c.,
which are destitute of shells ; the sec-
ond composed of those microscopic
cellular bodies which are regarded
as shells by some authors ; and the
third containing the true chambered
shells.

Cercce. The feelers which, in some in-
sects, project from the hind part of the
body.

Cercarice. Those insects whose body is
terminated by a tail appendage.

Cercariiform. Shaped liked the cerca-
rise.

Cere. The naked skin which, in some
birds, covers the base of the bill.

Cereal. Relating to the cere, or naked
skin that covers the base of the bill in
certain birds.

Cerebellum. The hinder part of the head,
or the little brain.

Cerebral. Pertaining to the cerebrum,
or brain.

Cerebrum. The brain.

CerebroidcR. The knots in which the dif-
fused brain of insects is centred.

Cereous. Partaking of the nature of wax.

2

Cernuous. "When the head of an insect
forms downwards an obtuse angle with
the horizontal line, or trunk.

Cervical. Belonging to the neck.

Cerviculate. When the prothorax is
elongate, attenuate, and distinguished
from the antepectus by no suture; so
as to form a distinct and unusually
long neck.

Cetaceous. Pertaining to the whale kind.

Cetoloc/y. The natural history of ceta-
ceous animals.

Chalybeous. The blue metallic splendor
of the mainspring of a watch.

Chambered. 'A term in conchology, de-
noting that the cavity of a shell is not
continuous, but is divided by shelly di-
aphragms or septa.

Chamfered. Cut into furrows, or cut
sloping ; as a chamfered shell.

Chap. The upper and lower part of the
mouth in animals; the jaw.

Characteristic.. That which characterizes,
or constitutes a character.

Chatoyant (Fr). Having a changeable,
undulating lustre, like that of a cat's
eye in the dark.

Cheek Pouches. The hollow recesses in
the cheeks of certain rodent and quad-
rumanous animals, which they use as
receptacles for food.

Chelce. The bifid claws of the Crusta-
cea?, scorpions, &c.

Chelate. When the upper jaws are fur-
nished at the end with a chela or
thumb.

Chelicera. The prehensile claws of the
scorpion, which are the homologues of
antennas.

Cheliferons. When the cauda, or tail, is
terminated by a very thick process
somewhat resembling a lobster's claw.
Furnished with claws.

Cheliform. Having the form of a claw.

Clielonian. Belonging to or having the
properties of an order of reptiles which
includes the tortoises and turtles.

Chilopodous. Belonging to the Chilopoda,
an order of many-footed insects, typi-
fied by the Centipede.

Chitine. The peculiar chemical princi-
ple which hardens the integuments of
insects.

Choroid. In anatomy, a term applied to

10

GLOSSARY.

several parts of the body that resemble
the chorion, or exterior membrane
which invests the foetus in utero ; as
the inner membrane investing the
brain, &c.

Chyle. The nutrient fluid extracted from
the digested food by the action of the
bile.

Chylifactive. Forming or changing into
chyle; having the power to make
chyle.

Chyliferous. Transmitting chyle.

Chyme. The digested food which passes
from the stomach into the intestines.

Chrysalis. The particular form which
butterflies, moths, and some other in-
sects assume, before they arrive at
their winged or perfect state. It is
also called Aurclia, from aurum, gold.

Cicnlricose. Having elevated spots of a
different color from the rest of the sur-
face, resembling scars.

Cicatrisive. Tending to promote the
formation of a scar or cicatrix.

Cicatrix; Cicatrice. A scar; a little
seam or elevation of flesh remaining
after a wound is healed.

Cilia. The microscopic hair-like bodies
which cause, by their vibratile action,
currents in the surrounding fluid, or a
motion of the body to which they are
attached.

Ciliary. Belonging to the eyelids.

Ciliate ; Ciliated. Furnished with cilia,
or vibratile hair-like filaments resem-
bling the hairs of the eyelids ; when
the margin is fringed with a row of
parallel hairs. When the tongue is
fringed with fine bristles, as in ducks,
it is said to be ciliated.

Ciliwjrade. Swimming by the action of
cilia.

Cimicine. Having an offensive scent, like
that of the bed-bug.

Cincture. An apparent band or girdle
encompassing the body of an insect,
bird, &c.

Cinereous. "White with a shade of brown ;
having the color of wood-ashes.

Cinyulate. When the abdomen or the
trunk of an insect is wholly surround
ed by one or more belts of a different
color.

Circlet. A little circle, or annular mark

Circular. Having the diameter every
way equal.

Circulate. To run; to flow in veins or
channels.

Circumambient. When the sides of the
prothorax are elongated anteriorly and
curve inwards, their ends lapping over
each other and the head, so as to form
a circle round the posterior part of the
latter, and leave a space open for the
eyes to see objects above them.

Circumfluent. Flowing round.

Circumgyrations. Motions in a circle.

Circumsepted. Wings whose margin is
everywhere strengthened by a nervure.

Circumvolution. The act of flying round.

Cirrate. Terminating in a pair of curl-
ing, hairy branches resembling tendrils.

Cirri. Curled filamentary appendages ;
as the feet of the barnacles.

Cirrigerous. Supporting cirri.

Cirriyrade. Moving by means of cirri.

Cirrose. Having one or more cirri.

Cirrus. A lock of curling hair.

Citrine. Of a lemon-color ; a greenish-
yellow.

Class. A primary division of the animal
kingdom.

Classification. The act of forming into
classes or sets.

Classified. Arranged in classes.

Clathrate. Having several elevated lines
which cross each other at right angles.

Clathrose. When striae or furrows cross
each other at right angles.

Clavate. Club-shaped : linear at the base,
but towards the base growing grad-
ually broader.

Claviform. Whose vertical section is
cuneate, and horizontal circular.

Cleft. Cut into equal and deep seg-
ments, but not reaching the base.

Climatic. Pertaining to, or limited by,
a climate.

Cloaca. The cavity common to the ter-
mination of the intestinal, urinary, and
generative tubes.

Cloven-footed. Having the foot or hoof
divided into two parts, as the ox ;
bisulcous.

Clypeiform. Shield-shaped ; applied to
the large prothorax in beetles.

Clypeate. When the prothorax quite
covers and overshadows the head ; or

GLOSSARY.

11

when a concavo-convex plate is af-
fixed to the outside of the cubit.

Coalite. When parts usually separate are
distinguished neither by incisure, seg-
ment, nor suture.

Coarctate. Enveloped closely by a case,
as the pupa of an insect which gives
no indication of the parts it covers.

Cochlite. A fossil shell having a mouth
like that of a snail.

Cocoon. An oblong ball or base in which
certain insects involve themselves and
pass their pupa state of existence ; as,
the silk-worm involves itself in a co-
coorc, by forming threads of which its
silk is afterwards composed.

Cocldeated. Spiral, resembling a turbi-
nated shell.

Coleopterous. Belonging to the Coleop-
tem, an order of insects in which the
first pair of wings serves as a sheath to
defend the second pair.

Collapse. To close, by falling together.

Collateral. Descending from the same
stock or ancestor.

Colliform. When the prothorax is short
and rtarrow^ and not so conspicuous as
the other pieces of the trunk.

Colligate. Adhering, or so fixed to any
part as to have no separate motion of
its own.

(Mum (the neck). In entomology, the
constricted posterior part of a pedun-
culate head, by which it inosculates in
the trunk.

Colon. In anatomy, the largest division
of the intestinal canal.

Colnbrine. Relating to serpents.

Columella. The central column, taking
its rise from the basal centre.

Columellar. Pertaining to or resembling
a columella.

Columnar. Formed like the shaft of a
column; the vertical section cuneate,
the circular horizontal.

Comate. The surface thickly covered by
very long flexible hairs.

Coinmigrate. To migrate together, or in
a body, from one country to another.

Commissure. Articulation; a joint, seam,
or closure ; a suture in the cranium or
skull. Also, certain parts in the ven-
tricles of the brain, uniting the two
hemispheres.

Comparative Anatomy. See Anatomy.

Complanate. A convex or irregular sur-
face having a plain, light depression.

Component. Forming a compound ; as
the component parts of a fossil sub-
stance, &c.

Compositus (ventriculus). The upper part
of a stomach of an insect, having a
long, pear-shaped cell for the reception
of blood sucked from animals.

Complicant. When the elytra lie a little
over each other.

Compound Eyes. Those eyes of insects
which consist of an aggregate of hex-
agonal lenses.

Compressed. Flatted at the sides verti-
cally.

Concamerated. Arched over ; vaulted.

Concave. Hollow, and arched, or round-
ed, as the inner surface of a spherical
body.

Concavo-concave. Concave or hollow on
both surfaces.

Concavo-convex. Concave on one side
and hollow on the other.

Concentric. Having a common centre.
Surrounding a centre ; applied to the
direction taken by the lines of growth
in spiral and other shells.

Conchce. Shells consisting of two or
more pieces or valves, bivalves or mul-
tivalves.

Conchifer. A bivalve shell with unequal
valves.

Conchiferous. Pertaining to the Conchtf-
erce, a class of invertebrated animals,
or Mollusca inhabiting bivalve shells.
Producing or having shells.

Conchiform. When the base-covers of
an insect are a semicircular concavo-
convex scale, something resembling
the valve of a bivalve shell.

Conchite. A fossil or petrified conch or
shell.

Conchoidal. Resembling a conch or ma-
rine shell ; having convex elevations
and concave depressions, like shells.

Conchological. Pertaining to conchol-
ogy.

Conchology. The science which treats of
shells and their included animals.

Conchylaccons. Pertaining to or resem-
bling a shell ; as conchylaceous impres-
sions.

12

GLOSSARY.

Concolorate. Of the same color with an-
other part.

Concretion. The act of growing togeth-
er, or of uniting, by other natural pro-
cess, the small particles of matter into
a mass. A solid substance formed in
the soft parts or in the cavities of ani-
mal bodies.

Condensative. Having a power or ten-
dency to condense.

Condi/loid. The projecting soft end or
process of a hone.

Conflyure. To dispose in a certain form,
figure, or shape.

Confluent. Flowing together ; when
spots, &c. run into each other.

Conformation. The particular structure
of a body, or disposition of the parts
which compose it.

Congeneric. Being of the same kind or
nature.

Congeners. Animals of the same kind
or nature.

Congenial. Partaking of the same genus,
kind, or nature; agreeable to the na-
ture.

Congenital. Of the same birth; born
with another.

Congeries. A collection of several par-
ticles or bodies in one mass or aggre-
gate.

Conglobate. Formed or gathered into a
ball.

Cbnirostral. Having the beak shaped
like a cone.

Connate. When parts that are usually
separated are, as it were, soldered to-
gether, though distinguished by a su-
ture.

Connatural. Participating of the same
nature ; connected by nature.

Connecting Nervures. Nervures that,
running transversely or obliquely, con-
nect the longitudinal ones, and so
form the areolets.

Connivent. The meeting of two lines so
as to form an angle. When erect
wings are so closely applied to each
other that the corresponding margins
touch.

Conoid. In anatomy, a gland in the
third ventricle of the brain, shaped
like a cone or pine, and called the
pineal gland.

Conoidical. Having the form of a co-
noid.

Consanguineous. Related by birth ; de-
scended from the same parent or an-
cestor.

Consecutive. Uninterrupted in course or
succession.

Consperse. Thickly sprinkled with mi-
nute irregular dots often confluent.

Constrict. Suddenly and disproportion-
ably smaller at one end.

Consute. Having very minute elevations
in a series at some distance from each
other, of a different color from the
rest of the surface.

Conterminous. Nearly allied ; as conter-
minous groups, &c.

Contorted. Twisted, or incumbent on
each other in an oblique direction.

Contractile. Having the power of short-
ening or of drawing into smaller di-
mensions.

Convex. Rising or swelling on the ex-
terior surface into a round or spherical
form.

Convolute ; Convoluted. Twisted spirally,
or rolled regularly one over the other ;
when the wings of an insect so envelop
the body as to give it a cylindrical
form.

Convolvolent. When the anal area is hor-
izontal, incumbent on the back of the
insect, and forms a right angle with
the rest of the tegmen, which is verti-
cal and covers the sides.

Coracoid. Shaped like a crow's beak.

Corbiculate. When the tibia or shank of
an insect is fringed with incurved hairs
calculated for carrying kneaded pollen.

Corcula. The reservoir in the dorsal
channel through which the blood of
insects flows. Each corculum is some-
what pear-shaped, and has a distinct,
tough, and elastic coat like that of an
artery ; and the anterior appears to be
wholly filled with blood.

Cordate ; Cordiform. Heart - shaped.
Ovate or sub-ovate, and hollowed out
at the base, without posterior angles.

Coriaceous. Of a tough, flexible, and
leather-like consistence.

Cornea. The transparent membrane in
the fore part of the eye, through which
the rays of the light pass.

GLOSSARY.

13

Corneous. Horny; of a horn color; or
resembling horn.

Corneo-calcareous. A term in concholo-
gy, used to express the mixture of
horny and calcareous matter which
enters into the composition of some
shells. It is also applied to those
opercula which are horny on one side
and testaceous on the other.

Cornets. The hard, scaly processes which
move and rattle at the end of a rattle-
snake's tail.

Corniijerous. Having horns ; as, cornige-
rous animals.

Cornua. Horns, or horn-like processes.

Corolla. A little crown; a kind of
wreath.

Coronal. Pertaining to the crown or
top of the head.

Coronate Prolegs. Prolegs that have an
entire coronet of crotchets.

Coronated. Crowned towards the apex,
as some shells are, by a row of spines,
tubercles, &c.

Coroniform. Having the form of a crown.

Corpus. In conchology, the body of the
shell; the last or great wreath, in
which the aperture is situated.

Corpuscular. Relating to corpuscles, or
small particles supposed to be constit-
uent materials of all large bodies, or
the elementary principles of matter.

Corrugate; Corrugated. When a surface
rises and falls in parallel angles more
or less acute ; wrinkled.

Corselet, or Thorax. That part of
winged insects which answers to the
breast of other animals.

Cortex. A thin membrane covering the
skin; the epidermis.

Corticated. Resembling the bark or rind
of a tree.

Corvine. Relating to the crow kind.

Cosfa, or Costalis (cellua or nervura).
The cell or nervure nearest the upper
margin of each wing in insects.

Costal. Pertaining to the sides of the
body or the ribs ; or to the costa in the
wings of insects.

Coslate. Having several broad, elevated
lines.

Coverts, or Wing-coverts. The lesser cov-
erts of the wings are the small feathers
that lie in several rows on the bones of

the wings ; the under coverts are those
that line the inside of the wings ; and
the greater coverts are the feathers that
lie immediately over the quill-feathers
and the secondaries. Tail-coverts are
the feathers which cover the tail on the
upper side, at the base.

Coxa. The first or basal joint of the
legs in insects.

Cranial. Pertaining to the cranium or
skull of an animal.

Cranium. The skull of an animal.

Craw. The crop, or first stomach, of
fowls ; an expansion of the gullet.

Crenate; Crenated. Marked with small
notches, not sufficiently raised or de-
fined to be compared to teeth.

Cremastrce. The anal hooks by which
many pupae suspend themselves.

Crejiulated. Notched at the margin ;
having the edge cut, as it were, into
very small scallops.

Crepera. A gleam of paler color upon a
dark ground.

Crepitation. The act of bursting with a
frequent repetition of sharp and abrupt
sounds.

Crepuscular. Pertaining to the twilight ;
as, certain birds and insects are crepus-
cular ; thereby denoting that they are
seen on the wing late in the evening
and before sunrise.

Crest. A tuft of feathers on the head of
certain birds.

Crested. Adorned with a crest or plume.

Crestless. Without a crest.

Cretaceous. Abounding with chalk;
having the quality of chalk.

Cribriform. Resembling a sieve : a term
in anatomy, applied to the lamina of
the ethmoid bone, through which the
fibres of the olfactory nerve pass to the
nose.

Crinite. Covered with long, thin hair;
having the appearance of tufts of hair.

Crinoid. Belonging to the Crinoideans,
or Echinodermata, fossils which resem-
ble lilies.

Crispated. Curled, or rough with waving
lines.

Cristate. Having one or two very ele-
vated lines, usually crenate.

Crocodilian. Relating to the crocodile or
ofher Saurian reptiles.

14

GLOSSARY.

Crop. The first stomach of a fowl ; the
craw.

Cruciate. Divided to the middle into
four opposite arms, the angles being
either four right ones, or two obtuse
and two acute.

Cruciato-coinplicate. When the wings (of
an insect) are crossed and folded.

Cruciato-incumbent. Wings crossed, but
not folded, and covering the back.

Cruciform. Disposed in the form of a
cross.

Crura. Processes resembling legs.

Crural. Belonging to the leg.

Crustaceans. Belonging to the class of
articulated animals termed Crustacea,
having a soft and jointed shell ; as
the crab, lobster, shrimp, &c.

Crustaceology. That part of zoology
which treats of crustaceous animals,
arranging them in orders, tribes, and
families, and describing their forms
and habits.

Cryptobranchiate. Pertaining to those
molluscous and articulate animals
which have no conspicuous gills.

Crystalline. The white splendor of crys-
tal or glass.

Cubical. Six-sided, with sides quadrate.

Cuboid; Cuboidal. Having the form of
a cube, or differing but little from it.

Cucullale. When the prothorax is ele-
vated into a kind of ventricose cowl or
hood which receives the head.

Cucuwiform. Cucumber-shaped: whose
longitudinal section is oblong, and
transverse circular.

Culiciform. In form resembling a flea.

Culmen. That part of the upper man-
dil>le of a bird which runs along the
middle and often slopes on each side.

Cultrate ; Cultrated. Straight on one side
and curved on the other. ' Sharp-
edged and pointed ; as, the beak of a
bird is convex and cultrated.

Cultriform A three-sided body with two
equal sides large and the third small.

Cuneate; Cuneated; Cuneiform. Shaped
like a wedge. Having the longitudinal
diameter exceeding the transverse,
and narrowing gradually downwards.

Cupreous. Of the bright color of new
copper.

Cursorial. Adapted for running.

Cuspidate. Terminating in a long seti-
form point.

Cutaneous. Existing on, or affecting, the
skin.

Cuticle. A thin pellucid membrane cov-
ering the true skin.

Cuticulnr. Pertaining to the cuticle, or
external coat of the skin.

Cyclobranchiata. Those molluscous ani-
mals which have the gills disposed in
a circle.

Cylindrical. A mathematical form,
which, like many others, is used by
conchologists with great latitude, and
applied to any shell the body of which
is somewhat straight, with the ends
either rounded, flat, or conical.

Cylindriform. Having the form of a cyl-
inder.

CynMform. Shaped like a boat. When
the margins of the thorax and elytra of
an insect are recurved so as to give
a body the resemblance of the inside
of a boat, they are said to be cyinbi-
form.

Cyst. A bag or tunic which includes
morbid matter in animal bodies.

D.

Decapodous. Pertaining to those crusta-
ceous and molluscous animals which
have ten feet.

Decaton. The tenth segment of in-
sects.

Deciduous. Parts which are annually
shed, or do not last the lifetime of the
animal. A shell is described as de-
ciduous where there is a tendency in
the apex of the spire to fall off.

Decollated. The term applied to uni-
valve shells in which the apex or head
is worn off in the progress of growth.

Decorticated. Divested of the epidermis
or skin.

Decussated. An epithet generally ap-
plied to strife, or lines which are
crossed, or which intersect each other
perpendicularly or horizontally.

Dedentition. The shedding of teeth.

Deflexed; Deflected. Bent down; bent
or turned aside. When the wings of
insects at rest, covering each other, are
so bent downwards as to imitate a

GLOSSARY.

15

roof, of which their interior margin
forms the ridge.

Dehiscence. The splitting open of the
hag containing the insect's eggs.

Dehiscent. When the base-covers diverge
a little at the apex.

Deltoid. Triangular.

Dendritic. Branched like a tree.

Dentarj). Relating to dentition,' or to the
teeth ; as, the dentary system.

Dentate ; Deviated. Toothed ; having
tooth-like processes.

Denticle. A small tooth or projecting
point, like the tooth of a fine saw.

Denticulated Set with small teeth.

Dentoid. Having the form of teeth.

Denuded. Divested of covering ; laid
bare.

Depressed. Pressed down or flatted hori-
zontally ; low, shallow, flat.

Deplumed. Stripped of feathers or
plumes.

Dermal. Belonging to the skin.

Desiccative. Having a tendency to ex-
haust moisture.

Detersive. Having power to cleanse
from offensive matter.

Dextral. Right-handed. Spiral shells
are said to be dextral when the aper-
ture faces the right hand of the observ-
er, the shell being held with the apex
upwards.

Diameter. The thickness of a body,
known by a right line passing through
its centre.

Diaphanous. Clear and transparent.

Diaphragm. A muscular membrane
placed transversely across the trunk
of the human body, at about its middle
portion, dividing it into two pretty
nearly equal portions : it is one of the
chief organs of respiration, its chief
function consisting in alternately in-
creasing and diminishing the capacity
of the thorax and abdomen. This
term is also applied to the septa, by
which the chambers of multilocular
and other shells are divided from each
other.

Dicerous. A term for any insect that has
two antennae.

Dichotomous. Dividing regularly in
pairs.

Didactylous. Having two toes.

Didymous. When areolets are nearly
divided into two by a nervure.

Diffused. Dispersed, or extended in all
directions.

Digitated. Branched out into long points,
or having finger-shaped processes.

Digitigrade. Walking on the tips of the
toes.

Dilatability. The quality of admitting
expansion by the elastic force of the
body itself, or of another elastic sub-
stance acting upon it.

Dilatate. Disproportionably broad in
part.

Dilatation. A spreading or extending in
all directions.

Diluvial. Effected or produced by a
deluge, more especially applied to the
general deluge in the days of Noah..

Diluvium. A deposit of superficial loam,
sand, gravel, &c., caused by the del-
uge.

Dimerous. When the trunk of an insect
consists of two greater segments.

Dimidiate. When the base-covers are
about half the length of the abdomen.

Dimidiated. Divided into two equal
parts.

Dimyary. A bivalve whose shell is
closed by two muscles.

Dioptric; Dioptrical. Relating to that
part of optics which treats of the re-
fraction of light passing through dif-
ferent mediums, as through air, water,
or glass.

Dipterous. Having two wings only
Pertaining to the Diptera, or those in-
sects which have two wings.

Disc. The middle of a surface. The
middle part of the valves of a shell, or
that which lies between the umbo and
the margin.

Discoid ; Discoidal. Disc-shaped ; much
flattened. A spiral shell is said to be
discoidal, when the whorls are so hori-
zontally convolute as to form a flat-
tened spire.

Discolorate. Of a different color from
the other part. When the upper and
under sides of Lepidoptera are of a
different color.

Discontinuous. Where parts which are
usually connected are suddenly inter-
rupted.

16

GLOSSARY.

Dixubitory. Inclining sideways; fitted
to a leaning: posture.

Discursive. Moving or roving about.

Disgorge. To eject or discharge from
the stomach, throat, or mouth.

Dishevelled. Spread out loosely and in
disorder.

Dishorned. Stripped of horns.

Disinfected. Cleansed from infection.

Disintegrated. Separated into integrant
parts without chemical action.

Disjunct. When the head, trunk, and
abdomen of an insect are separated by
a deep incisure.

Dislocate. To put out of joint. In ge-
ology, the displacement of parts of
rocks, or portions of strata, from the
situations which they originally occu-
pied.

Dismemberment. The act of severing a
limb or limbs from the body ; separa-
tion of the members ; mutilation.

Disorganize. To break or destroy organ-
ic structure.

Displumed. Stripped or deprived of
plumes or feathers.

Distichous. When the joints of the an-
tennae generally terminate in a fork.

Distinct. When spots, &c. do not touch
or run into each other, but are com-
pletely separate.

Divaricate; Divaricated. Standing out
very wide ; spreading out widely.
When wings of insects at rest are
somewhat erect, but diverge from each
other.

Divarication. A crossing or intersection
of fibres at different angles.

Diverging. Tending to different parts
from one point.

Doe. The female of the fallow-deer.

Dormant. Sleeping ; in a state of rest
and inaction.

Dorsal Pertaining to the back; adher-
ing to the back ; as the dorsal fin of a
fish. A dorsal shell is one placed on
the back of the animal. The dorsal
part of a bivalve shell is that on which
the hinge is placed ; the opposite mar-
gins are termed ventral: the dorsal
surface of a spiral univalve is that
which is seen when the aperture is
turned from the observer.

Dorsibranchiate. Having gills attached

to the back, as in Mollusca belonging
to the Dorsibranchiata.

Dorso-intestinal. A part which is on
the dorsal aspect of the intestines.

Dorsum. In conchology, the back or up-
per outward surface of the bodv of the
shell, when laid upon the aperture or
opening.

Dove-cot. A small building or box in
which domestic pigeons breed.

Drake. The male of the duck kind.

Dredge. A drag-net for taking oysters
and other Mollusca.

Duodenum. The first portion of the
small intestines.

Duplicate-pectinate. When the antennae
are bipectinate with the branches on
each side alternately long and short

Duplicatile. Folded transversely, as the
wings of some coleopterous insects.

Duplications (generally of the skin). Reg-
ular wrinkles or folds.

E.

Ecdysis. A sloughing or moulting of
the skin, as in serpents and caterpillars.

Echinated. Set with spines, or bristled,
like a hedgehog ; when the surface is
covered with pustules produced into
spines.

Echinite. A calcareous petrifaction of
the echinus or sea-hedgehog.

Edentulous. Toothless.

Edentate; Edentated. Destitute or de-
prived of teeth.

Edriophthalma. The Crustacea with ses-
sile eyes.

Efflorescent. Shooting into white spicu-
lag, forming a white dust on the sur-
face.

Effuse. Having the lips (of a shell) sep-
arated by a groove or channel.

Egest. To void, as excrement.

Egg. A body found in the females of
birds and certain other animals, con-
taining an embryo or foetus of the
same species, or a substance from
which a like animal is produced. The
eggs of fish and some other animals
are united by a viscous substance,
and called spawn. Most reptiles and
insects are oviparous.

Eject. To discharge through the natural

GLOSSARY.

17

passages or emunctories ; to evacu-
ate.

Elaborating. Improved by successive
operations.

Element. The substance which forms
the natural or most suitable habitation
of an animal ; as, water is the proper
element of fishes ; air, of man.

Elephantine. Pertaining to or resem-
bling the elephant ; huge.

Ellipsoid. Having the longitudinal sec-
tion elliptical, and the transverse cir-
cular.

Elliptic. Oval, but having the longitu-
dinal diameter more than twice the
length of the transverse.

Elongated. Lengthened; extended to a
considerable length.

Elytra. The external wings, or wing-
cases, of coleopterous and other in-

Emarginate; Emarginated. Notched or
hollowed out ; applied to the edges or
margins of shells, when, instead of be-
ing level, they are hollowed out.

Embossed. Having several parts of a
different shape and higher than the
rest of the surface.

Embryo. The first rudiment of an ani-
mal in the womb.

Emunctories. Parts which serve to carry
out of the body noxious particles or
excrementitious matter.

Encephalous. Having a distinct head ; as
the molluscous animals termed En-
cephalce.

Ennaton. The ninth segment in insects.

Ensate. Gradually tapering till it ends
in a point.

Ensiform. Shaped like a sword.

Entire. Not interrupted ; not emargi-
nated.

Entomolite. A fossil or petrified insect.

Entomological Pertaining to entomol-
ogy, or that part of natural history
which treats of insects.

Entomology. That branch of natural sci-
ence which treats of insects.

Entomostraceous. Pertaining to an order
of small Crustaceans, many of which
are inclosed in an integument, like a
bivalve shell.

Entozoa. Those parasitical animals
which exist within other animals.

3

Entrochite. A kind of extraneous fossil,
usually about an inch in length, and
made up of round joints, which, when
separated, are called trochites. They
are striated from the centre to the cir-
cumference, and have a cavity in the
middle.

Eocene. In geology, the older tertiary
period, in which the extremely small
proportion of living species indicates
the commencement of the present ex-
isting state of animate creation.

Ephemeral Beginning and ending in a
day ; as the ephemera or day-fly in its
imago or perfect state.

Epidermal. Belonging to the cuticle, or
scarf-skin.

Epidermis. The outer covering, or scarf-
skin. The membranous covering,
or fibrous horny coating of some
shells.

Epigastric. Pertaining to the upper part
of the abdomen; as, the epigastric
region.

Epimeral. Pertaining to the segment of
an articulated animal which is above
the joint of the limb.

Epiphragm. The membranaceous or cal-
careous substance by which some spe-
cies of Molluscs close the aperture of
the shell when they retire within to
hibernate.

Epiploon. The fatty membrane which
covers or occupies the interspaces of
the entrails in the abdomen.

Epistoma. The space between the an-
tennae and oral cavity in Crustacea.

Episternal. Pertaining to that part of
an articulate animal v/hich is imme-
diately above the sternum.

Epithelium. The thin epidermal mem-
brane which covers the mucous mem-
branes.

Epizoa. The class of imperfectly organ-
ized parasitic Crustaceans which live
upon other animals.

Epizootic. In geology, an epithet given
to such mountains as contain animal
remains in their natural or in a petri-
fied state, or the impressions of ani-
mal substances. Also, an epithet for
a disease which prevails among cattle,
in the same manner as an epidemic
does among men.

18

GLOSSARY.

Equate. Without larger partial eleva-
tion's or depressions.

Equicrural. Having legs of equal length.

Equilateral.. Having all sides alike : ap-
plied to bivalve shells, when a line
drawn perpendicularly from the apex
would divide the shell into two equal
parts.

Equilibrity. The state of being equally
balanced ; equilibrium.

Equine. Pertaining to a horse or to the
genus.

Equipendent. Hanging in equipoise.

Equivalve. Having both valves of equal
dimensions.

Equivorous. Feeding or subsisting on
horse-flesh.

Erect. Nearly perpendicular.

Erectile. A term applied to a tissue pe-
culiar to some part of the animal
body ; and which is formed of veins,
arteries, and nervous filaments.

Erect ro-patent. When the primary wings
of an insect at rest are erect and the
secondary horizontal.

Erose. Irregularly notched, as if gnawed.

Erubescence. Redness of the skin or sur-
face of any thing.

Eruginous, or sEruginous. Green, with a
blue tint : the color of the rust of cop-
per, verdigris.

Escargatoire. A nursery of snails.

Escharotic. Having the power of sear-
ing or destroying the flesh.

Esculent. Eatable, or that may safely be
used by man as food.

Estival. Pertaining to summer, or con-
tinuing during the summer.

Ethmoidal. Pertaining to a bone at the
top of the root of the nose, called the
ethmoid.

Eupeptic. Having good digestion.

Eviscerated. Deprived of the intestines.

Exarticulation. The dislocation of a
joint.

Excavate. A depression the arc of which
is not the segment of a circle.

Exscinded. When the end has an angu-
lar notch taken out.

Excision. A cutting out or cutting off
any part of the body.

Excoriated. Abraded ; the skin or cuti-
cle rubbed or worn off.

Excrementitious. Consisting of matter

evacuated, or proper to be evacuated,
from the animal body.

Excrescence. Any tumor, wart, or pre-
ternatural enlargement or superfluous
part.

Excretory ; Excretive. Having the quali-
ty of excreting or throwing off excre-
mentitious matter by the glands.

Excurved. When curved outwards.

Exfoliated. Separated in thin scales, as
a carious bone.

Exosseous. Without bones ; destitute of
bones.

Exotic. Produced in a foreign country.

Expalpate. When an imperfect mouth
has no palpi.

Expanded. When wings at rest are hori-
zontally extended and do not cover
each other.

Explanate. When the sides of the pro-
thorax are so depressed and dilated as
to form a broad margin.

Exsanguinous. Destitute of red blood.

Exscutellate. When an insect has no visi-
ble scutellum, it being wholly covered
by the prothorax.

Exserted. When the head of an insect is
quite disengaged from the trunk.

Extended. When wings at rest do not
lie upon the body.

Extensor (muscle). A muscle which
serves to extend or straighten any part
of the body, as an arm or finger : it is
opposed to flexor.

Extinct. Having ceased to exist, and,
when discovered, only found in a fossil
state.

Extraocular. Applied to the antennae
when they are inserted on the outsides
of the eyes.

Extrageneoux. Belonging to another kind.

Extravasated. Forced or let out of its
proper vessels ; as, extravasated blood.

Exuvice. Cast skins, shells, or coverings
of animals, or any parts which are
shed or cast off. Also, the remains of
animals which at some period long
antecedent were deposited in the earth.

Exuvial. Pertaining to the spoils or re-
mains of animals found in the earth,
supposed to have been deposited there
at the deluge, or some great convulsion
which the terraqueous globe has un-
dergone.

GLOSSARY.

19

F.

Facet. A small surface : applied to the

composite eyes of insects.
Facial. Pertaining to the face ; as the

facial artery, nerve, &c.

Faeces. Excrement.

Falcate ; Falcated. Bent or hooked like

a scythe; curved, with the apex acute.

Falciform. Long and curved, in the
shape of a sickle : a word applied to
the mandibles of insects.

False Legs (of insects). Certain prehen-
sile appendages on the lower segments
of the body of the larvae.

Fang. A tusk, or long, sharp-pointed
tooth ; a claw or talon.

Farinose. Covered with a fine mealy
powder resembling flour.

Fascia. A broad transverse stripe, or
colored band. A word much used in
describing the paintings or markings
of insects ; as, Pyramidate fascia, a
band which juts out into an angle on
one side ; Macular fascia, a band con-
sisting of distinct spots ; Articulate fas-
cia, a band consisting of contiguous
spots ; Dimidiate fascia, a band trav-
ersing only half the wing ; Abbreviate
fascia, a band traversing less than half
the wing ; Sesquialterous fascia, when
both wings are traversed by a contin-
ued band, and either the primary or
secondary by another; Sesquitertious
fascia, when a wing or elytrum con-
tains a band and the third of a band.

Fasciated. Filleted, or covered with
transverse bands.

Fascicle; Fasciculus. A small bundle,
bunch, or tuft.

Fasciculate. When antennae have several
bundles of hair.

Fasciculated. Consisting of little bundles.

Fascicule. A bundle of thick-set hairs,
often converging at the surface.

Fastigiate. When the base-covers are of
equal or greater length than the ab-
domen, and transverse at the end.

Fauces. A cavity behind the tongue,
from which the pharynx and larynx
proceed.

Fauna. The animals indigenous or pe-
culiar to any country.

Fawn-colored. A reddish-brown.

Feathered. Clothed or covered with

feathers, as a bird.

Fecifork. The anal fork, on which the
larvae of certain insects carry their
faeces.

Fecundated. Rendered prolific; impreg-
nated.

Felim. Pertaining to cats, or to their

species ; as, the feline race, £c.
Femoral. Belonging to the thigh.

Femur. The second joint of the legs in
insects.

Fenestrate. When one or two definite
spaces in a Lepidopterous wing are
denuded of scales.

Ferine. Wild; untamed; as lions, ti-
gers, and other predatory animals.

Ferruginous. Of the color of rust ; a yel-
lowish brown with some red.

Festucine. Being of a straw color.

Fibre. A fine, slender, filiform body,
which constitutes a part of the frame
of animals. Some are soft and flex-
ible, others more hard and elastic :
some are nervous and fleshy, while
others appear to be composed of still
smaller fibres. They constitute the
substance of the bones, cartilages, lig-
aments, membranes, nerves, veins, ar-
teries, and muscles.

Fibril. An extremely slender fibre, or
the branch of a fibre.

Fibrine. A soft, solid, white, slightly
elastic and inodorous substance, con-
stituting the principal part of animal
muscle ; it exists in the chyle, the
blood, &c., and may be regarded as
the most abundant constituent of ani-
mal bodies.

Fibrous. Composed or consisting of
fibres ; as, &Jibrous body or substance.

Fibula. The outer and lesser bone of
the leg, much smaller than the tibia.

Filamentous. Consisting of thread-like
filaments.

Filiform. Thread-shaped : slender and
of equal thickness.

Fimbriate; Fimbriated. Fringed ; i. e.
when a part is terminated by hairs or
bristles that are not parallel.

Fin-footed. Palmated ; having feet with
toes connected by a membrane.

Finlet. A very small fin or process to
assist a fish's motion.

20

GLOSSARY.

Fissiparous. Capable of being multiplied
by the voluntary cleavage of the indi-
vidual into two parts.
Fissiped. Having the toes unconnected

by a membrane.

Fissirostral.. Belonging to the Fissiros-
tres, a family of passerine birds of
which the beak is short, broad, slightly
hooked, and the opening of the mouth
very wide. This family comprises the
swallows and goat-suckers.
Fissure. A little cleft, or narrow chasm.
Fistula. The intermediate subquadran-
gular pipe, in insects, formed by the
union of the two branches of the antlia,
which conveys the nectar to the pha-
rynx.

Flubdlate. When the antennae on one
side send forth from the joints, except
those at the base, long, flat, flexile
branches, which open and shut like the
sticks of a fan.
Flabelliform. Fan-shaped.
Flaccid. Soft and weak ; hanging down

by its own weight.
FlageUum. An appendage to the legs of

Crustacea resembling a whip.
Flame-color. Of a bright color.
F/ammiferous. Producing flame.
Fledged. Furnished with feathers, as a

bird.
Fleeced. Furnished with a fleece ; as, a

sheep is well fleeced.
Flexile ; Flexible. Yielding to pressure ;

that may be easily bent.
Flexor (muscle). A muscle whose office
is to bend the part to which it belongs :
it is opposed to extensor.
Flexuous. Bending; changing its course
in a curved direction ; with angles
gently winding.

Flirt. A sudden jerk ; a darting motion.

Flocculate. When the posterior coxae are

distinguished by a curling lock of hair.

Flocculent. Coalescing and adhering in

small flakes.

Flushed. Suddenly aroused and on the
wing ; as a covey of partridges when
surprised.
Fluviatile. Of or belonging to rivers, or

to fresh water ; living in fresh water.
Foetus. The young of viviparous ani-
mals in the womb, and of oviparous in
the egg, after it is perfectly formed ;

before which time it is called an em-
bryo.

Foliaceous. Leaf-like ; shaped or ar-
ranged like leaves ; scarcely thicker
than a leaf.

Foliated. Bent into laminse ; composed
of thin plates, lying on each other, as
in the shell of the oyster.

Foliolce. Appendages of the telum of in-
sects.

Follicle. A minute gland, or little bag,
in animal bodies, serving the purposes
of secretion.

Foraminous. Perforated ; full of holes.

Forceps. An instrument formed some-
what after the manner of a pair of
pincers or tongs, and used in surgery.

Forcipated. Formed like a forceps, to
open and inclose.

Fore-legs. The first or anterior 'pair of
legs.

Fornic (acid). The acid of ants.

Fornicate. Concave above and convex
beneath.

Fossiliferous. Having the quality of, or
tending to produce, fossils : applied to
the strata which contain the remains
of animals and plants.

Fossilize. To become or to be changed
into a fossil.

Fossils. Bodies of animal or vegetable
origin, as shells, bones, and other
substances, accidentally buried in the
earth, and become petrified.

Fossorial. A term applied to animals
which dig -their retreats and seek their
food in the earth.

Fossorius. A term for the leg of an in-
sect when with either palmate or digi-
tate tibiae.

Fossulate. Having one or more long and
narrow depressions.

Foveolate. Having one or more rounded
and rather deep depressions.

Frugivorous. Feeding on fruits, seeds,
or corn, as birds and other animals.

Frumentarious. Pertaining to wheat or
other grain.

Fry. A swarm or crowd of little fish.

Fulcrant. When the trochanter merely
props the thigh below at the base, but
does not at all intervene between it
and the coxa.

Fiilyid. Of a bright fiery red color.

GLOSSARY.

Fuliginous. Of opaque black, or sooty.

Fulvous. Of a tawny or dull yellow
color.

Fumous. Colored as if tinged with
smoke.

Function. The peculiar or appropriate
action of a member or part of the body
by which the animal economy is car
ried on ; as, the functions of the brain
and nerves, &c.

Fungus. A spongy excrescence in ani-
mal bodies ; any morbid excrescence.

Funicular. Consisting of a small cord
ligature, or fibre.

Funiculate. When the post-fraenum
forms a narrow ridge.

Furcate. Divided at the end into two
prongs or branches.

Furcula. A forked bone in the upper
part of the breast of a bird, familiarly
called the merrythought, when speaking
of the joint of a fowl at table.

Furfuraceous. Scurfy; scaly.

Fuscous. Of a dull dark-brown color.

Fusiform. Spindle-shaped; swelling in
the middle, and rather tapering to each
end: whose vertical section is lanceo-
late or lineari-lanceolate, and horizon-
tal circular.

G.

Galeated. Having feathers on the head
which in shape appear like a hel-
met.

Gallinaceous. Belonging to the order
Gallince, which includes domestic poul-
try, pheasants, &c.

Galloway. A sm all-sized species of horse,
bred in Galloway, in Scotland.

Ganglion. A mass of nervous matter,
forming a centre from which nervous
fibres radiate.

Gangrene. Mortification of some part of
a living animal body.

Gangrenescent. Tending to putrefaction,
as living flesh in a diseased state.

Gaping. When the margins of bivalve
shells do not meet all round, they are
said to gape.

Garous. Resembling pickle made of
fish.

Gasteropodous. Belonging to the Gaste-
ropoda, a class of molluscous animals

distinguished by having the locomo-
tive organ attached to the under part
of the body.

Gastric. Belonging to the stomach ; as
the gastric juice, which is the principal
agent in digestion.
Gazehound. A hound that pursues by

the sight rather than by the scent.
Gelatine. A concrete animal substance,
transparent, and soluble slowly in cold
water, but rapidly in warm water.
Gelatinous. Composed of a jelly-like
substance ; being moderately stiff and
cohesive.

Gemilliparous. Producing twins.
Geminated. Marked with a double ele-
vated stria connecting the wreaths, as
in certain shells.
Geminous. When there is a pair of

spots, tubercles, puncta, &c.
Gemmiparous. Endued with the power
of propagation from the growth of the
young, like a bud from the parent.
Gemmules. The embryos of the radiated
animals at that stage when they re-
semble ciliated monads.
Generate. To procreate ; as, every ani-
mal generates his own species.
Generic. Pertaining to a genus or kind,
as distinct from species or from an-
other genus ; thus, a generic name is
the denomination which comprehends
all the species ; Cam's, for example, is
the generic name of animals of the dog
kind ; Felis, of the cat kind ; Struthis
is the generic name of birds of the
ostrich kind ; Hirundo, that of swal-
lows.

Geniculated. Having joints like the
knee, bent so as to form a knee or
angle.

Jenus (pi. Genera). An assemblage of
species possessing certain characters
in common, by which they are distin-
guished from all others. It is subordi-
nate to class and order, and in some
arrangement, to tribe and family. A
single species, possessing certain pecu-
liar characters which belong to no
other species, may also constitute a
genus ; as the giraffe.
reognostic. Pertaining to a knowledge
of the structure of the earth.
Geological. Relating to the substances

22

GLOSSARY.

of which the earth is composed, their
formation, structure, &c.

Gestation. Pregnancy ; the act of carry-
ing young in the womb from the pe-
riod of conception to the birth.

Gibbose. Having one or more large ele-
vations.

Gibbous. An elevation whose arc is not
the segment of a circle. In anatomy,
it denotes any unnatural protuberance
or convexity of the body, as a person
humpbacked.

Gill. The organ of respiration in fishes.

Ginglymus. A species of articulation re-
sembling a hinge.

Glabrous. Having a smooth surface : a
term which, either applied to quadru-
peds or insects, denotes those parts of
the surface which are naturally devoid
of hair or pubescence.

Glacial; Glacious. Consisting of or like
ice.

Glareous. Viscous and transparent, like
the white of an egg.

Glaucous. Of a pale grayish-blue color ;
that fine, dull green-blue passing into
blue, which is seen on certain bodies,
is described by the word glaucous.

Glirine. Belonging to that order of
Mammalia which includes such ani-
mals as have two fore-teeth, a cutting
one in each jaw, no tusks, and feet
with claws ; comprehending guinea-
pigs, rabbits, hares, squirrels, mice,
beavers, &c.

Globiferous. When the setigerous joint
of the antennae is larger than the pre-
ceding one, and globose.

Globose. Orbicular; globe-shaped.

Globule. A small particle of matter of
a spherical form : a word applied to
the red particles of blood which swim
in a transparent serum, and may be
discovered by the microscope.

Glossarial. Explanatory ; containing ex-
planations of scientific or technical
terms.

Glottis. The narrow opening at the up-
per part of the windpipe, which, by its
dilation and contraction, contributes to
the modulation of the voice.

Gluten. That part of the blood, in ani-
mals, which gives firmness to its tex-
ture.

Glutinous. Viscid ; having the quality
of glue ; tenacious.

Gossamer. A fine, filmy substance, like
cobwebs, floating in the air, in calm
clear weather, especially in autumn.
It is probably formed by a species of
spider.

Grallatorial Belonging to the Gralla-
tores, an order of birds having long
legs, naked above the knees, which fit
them for wading in the water.

Graminivorous. Feeding or subsisting
on grass: an epithet applied to ani-
mals which subsist wholly on vegetable
food, to distinguish them from carniv-
orous animals.

Granivorous. Feeding or subsisting on
grain or seeds ; as granivorous birds.

Granular; Granulous. Consisting of
grains.

Granulated. Covered with minute grains ;
feeling or appearing as if formed of
small grains or granular substance, as

Granule. A small particle ; a little
grain ; a very minute elevation.

Gregarious. Having the habit of assem-
bling or living in a flock or herd.
Cattle and sheep are gregarious ; so are
many species of birds.

Griseous. White mottled with black or
brown.

Ground-bait. Bait for fish which sinks
to the bottom of the water.

Grumous. Thick ; clotted ; as, grumous
blood.

Gullet. The passage in the neck of an
animal by which food and liquor are
taken into the stomach.

Gum-lac. The produce of a homopte-
rous insect which deposits its eggs on
the branches of a tree called bihar, in
Assam, and elsewhere in Asia.

Gutta. A very small round dot, inter-
mediate in size between an atom and a
macula.

Guttate. Sprinkled with guttce, or minute
round spots.

Guttulous. In the form of small drops.

H.

Habitat. The natural place or perma-
nent abode.

GLOSSARY.

23

Habitude. Customary manner or mode
of life.

Haliotoid. Ear-shaped.

Halteres. Two small club-like appen-
dages which occur in Diptera, and
which are supposed to be identical
with the hind wings of other insects.

Hamate. Hooked, or set on with hooks.

Hamiform. Curved at the extremity.

Hamstring. To cut the tendons of the
ham, and thus to lame or disable.

Hare-lipped. Having a divided upper
lip, like that of the hare.

Harengiform. Shaped like a herring.

Harpooned. Struck or killed with a har-
poon, which is a kind of spear, thrown
by the hand, used for taking whales.
It consists of a long shank, with a
broad, flat, triangular head, sharpened
at both edges for penetrating the whale
with facility.

Hart. A stag or male deer.

Hartshorn. The horn of the hart or
male deer, the raspings of which are
used medicinally ; hartshorn jetty is
nutritive and strengthening ; and the
salt of hartshorn yields a pungent vol-
atile spirit. It is composed of muriate
of ammonia, with a little animal oil.

Hastate. Halberd-shaped : triangular,
hollowed out at the base and sides
with the posterior angles spreading.

Haustellate. Pertaining to those insects
the structure of whose mouth is adapt-
ed for drinking or pumping up liquids-

Haustellum. The instrument of suction
(in insects) contained in the theca.

Helical. Spiral ; winding.

Heliciform. Shaped like the Helix or
snail-shell.

Helicite. Fossil remains of the Helix.

Helminthoid. Worm-shaped.

Helminthological. Pertaining to worms
or to their history.

Hemelytra. A wing, of which one half is
opaque and firm like the elytra of co-
leopterous insects.

Hemidactyle. Having an oval disc at the
base of the toes, as is the case with
some species of Saurian reptiles.

Hemipteral. Having wings or wing-
cases like the Hemiptera.

Hemipterous. Belonging to the Hemip-
tera, an order of insects in which the

anterior wings are half crustaceous
and half membranaceous.

Hemorrhage. A flux of blood, proceed-
ing from the rupture of a bloodvessel,
or some other cause.

Hepatic. Pertaining to the liver.

Uerbicarnivorous. Subsisting both on
vegetable and animal food.

Herbivorous. Feeding or subsisting on
grass and herbaceous plants.

Herculean. Of extraordinary strength
and size.

Hermaphrodite. An animal in which
male and female characteristics are
combined.

Hermaphroditic. Partaking of both sexes.

Herpetic. Pertaining to the herpes, or
subject to cutaneous eruptions.

Herpetology. The natural history of rep-
tiles.

Hesperian. Western ; inhabiting a west-
ern country.

Heterodyte. Anomalous ; deviating from
the ordinary form.

Heterodactyle. Having the toes irregular,
either as to number or formation.

Heterogangliate. Having the ganglion ic
nervous system, and the ganglions
often unsymmetrically scattered.

Heterogeneous. Dissimilar or different in
kind or nature.

Heteromorphous. Of an irregular or un-
usual form.

Heteropodous. Pertaining to the Hetero-
poda, an order of the class Mollusca.

Heterostrophe. Eeversed: a term ap-
plied to shells whose spires turn in a
contrary direction to the usual way.

Hexadactylous. Having six toes.

Hexaped. Having six feet.

Hexapod. An animal with six legs, such
as a true insect.

Hide. The skin of an animal, either
raw or dressed.

Hidebound. When the skin sticks so
closely to the ribs and back of an ani-
mal as not to be easily loosened or
raised.

Hind. The female of the red deer or
stag.

HippopJiagous. Feeding on horse-flesh.

Hinge. The part where the valves of a
bivalve shell are united, consisting of
ligament and teeth.

GLOSSARY.

Hirsute. Thickly set with long, stiffish,
rough hairs ; shajriry.

Hispid. Beset with bristles or stiff hairs.

Histological. Pertaining to the doctrine
of the tissues which enter into the for-
mation of an animal and its various
organs.

Hive. A hox or kind of basket for the
reception and .habitation of a swarm
of honey-bees ; or the bees inhabiting
a hive. Also, to collect into a hive.

Hoary. White or gray with age; cov-
ered with a whitish pubescence.

HoJosericeous. Covered with thick-set,
short, decumbent hairs, a kind of pu-
bescence resembling satin.

Homogangliate. Pertaining to the gan-
glionic nervous system in animals,
and symmetrical arrangement of the
ganglions.

Homogeneous. Of the same kind or na-
ture.

Homologue. The same organ in different
animals under every variety of form
and function.

Homologous. Proportional to each other.

Uomomorphous. Of similar form.

Homoptera. A section of the hemipte-
rous order of insects, whose four wings
have a similar structure.

Honey-bag. The stomach of a honey-
bee.

Honey-comb. A thick, viscid, tenacious
substance, formed by bees into hex-
agonal cells for repositories of honey,
and for the eggs which produce their
young.

Hoof. The horny substance that covers
the feet of certain animals, as horses,
oxen, deer, &c.

Hoof-bound. A term denoting that the
horse or other hoofed animal has a
pain in the fore-feet, occasioned by the
dryness and contraction of the horn,
which often occasions lameness.

Humbles; Untbles. The entrails of a
deer.

Humeral. Pertaining to the humerus or
shoulder ; as, the humeral artery.

Hunter. A man who, either for sport or
for food, pursues wild animals with a
view to take them. A horse used in
the chase.

Hyaline. Glassy; thin; transparent.

The pellucid substance wliioh deter-
mines the spontaneous fission of shells.

Hybernaculum ; Hybernacle. A. place
chosen by an animal for its winter re-
treat.

Hybemate. To pass the winter season
in close quarters or in seclusion, and
sometimes in a dormant state.

Hybrid. Produced from the mixture of
two species. A mongrel.

Hybridize. To procreate by the mixture
of two different species ; to propagate
mongrels or mules.

Hydatid. A little transparent vesicle
containing serous fluid, sometimes
found detached in the body of an ani-
mal, and sometimes adhering to the
different viscera. Some have an or-
ganized Read and neck, possess an in-
dependent vitality, and are considered
as constituting distinct animal*.

Hydriform. Formed like the fresh-water
polypes to which the name of Hydra is
given.

Hydrophobia. A preternatural dread of
water; a symptom of canine madness,
or disease itself.

Hydrozoa. The class of polypes organ-
ized like the Hydra.

Hyemal. Belonging to winter.

Hymenopterous. Pertaining to the ITy-
menoptera, an order of insects having
four membranous wings, including the
wasp, bee, &e.

I.

Ichthyology. That part of zoology which
treats of fishes, their structure, form,
and classification, their habits, uses,
fte,

Ichthyophagous. Feeding or subsisting on
fish.

Idiopathic. A term indicative of a dis-
ease peculiar to a part of the body,
and not arising from any preceding
disease : opposed to sympathetic, when
it is the consequence of some other
disorder.

Imago. The last and adult state of in-
sect life, i. e. the third or perfect state
of insects, when they appear in their
proper shapes and colors, and undergo
no more transformations.

GLOSSARY.

Imbibition. The act of drinking in or ab-
sorbing.

Imbricated. Lapping over each other,
like the tiles of a house, or as the
scales of some fishes and insects.
Tmmaryinate. Being without a margin.

Immiscible. Not capable of being mixed.

Immature. That has not acquired its
perfect form or full color.

Impennates. Swimming birds having
short wings, as the penguin.

Impermeable. Not to be passed through
the pores by a fluid.

Imporous. Close or compact in texture ;
perfectly solid.

Impotent. Deficient in natural power,
animal or intellectual.

Impregnated. Rendered prolific or fruit-
ful.

Inarticulated. Not jointed.

Inaurate. When strise or other impressed
parts have a metallic splendor.

Incised. Cut into equal marginal seg-
ments.

Incisors. The fore-teeth ; the teeth used
for cutting or separating the food ; an
important generic character in zoolog-
ical science.

Incisure. A deep incision between the
segments of an insect, when they re-
cede from each other.

Inconspicuous. Not to be perceived by
the sight.

Incrassate. Disproportionally thick in
any part.

Incruental. Not attended with blood.

Incubation. The act of sitting on eggs
for the purpose of hatching young.

Incumbent. Lying over another.

Incurcated. Turned from a rectilinear
direction.

Incurved. Turned inwards or bent for-
wards. The apex of a shell is said to
be incurved when it is bent inwards,
but not sufficiently so to be described
as spiral.

Indeciduous. Not falling off; lasting.

Indented. Exactly the reverse of dentat-
ed ; meaning a series of small cavities,
such as might be formed by the en-
trance of teeth.

Indigenous. Produced naturally in a
country ; not exotic.

Individualize. To distinguish the pecu-

4

liar properties of one from another:
the word individual and its derivatives
are, however, rarely applied to any but
human beings.

Inequilateral. When the anterior and
posterior sides of a bivalve shell are
unequal in length.

Inequivalve. When one valve is more
convex than another, or dissimilar in
other respects, as in the common oys-
ter.

Infecundity. Unfruitfulness ; barrenness.

Inferior Valve (applied only to attached
bivalves). The valve that is attached
to submarine bodies.

Inflected. Bent inwards.

Inflexed. When the head of an insect
forms inwards an acute angle with the
trunk.

Infundibuliform. Funnel-shaped. Whose
horizontal sections are circular, at first
equal and then progressively larger
and larger.

Infuscate. To darken. When a color is
darkened by the superinduction of a
brownish shade or cloud.

Inguinal. Pertaining to the groin.

Innocuous. Harmless ; producing no ill
effect. This word is applied only to
things, not to persons ; as, there are
some poisons used as medicines, which,
if taken in small quantities, prove not
only innocuous, but beneficial.

Inocular. When the antenna? are insert-
ed in the canthus of the eyes.

Inodorous. Wanting scent ; having no
smell. ,

Inopercular. A term applied to univalve
shells which have no operculum, or lid.

Inorganic. Not formed with the organs
or instruments of life.

Inosculation. The union of two vessels
of an animal body at their extremities,
by means of which a communication
is maintained and the circulation of
fluids is carried on.

Inscribed. When the surface is marked
with the resemblance of a letter of any
language.

Insect. A small invertebrate- animal,
breathing by lateral spiracles, and fur-
nished with articulated extremities and
movable antennae.

Insectile. Having the nature of insects.

GLOSSARY.

Insectivorous. Subsisting on insects.

Instinct. The operation of the principle
of organized life, independent of all
instruction or experience, but by which
animals are unerringly directed to do
spontaneously whatever is necessary
for the preservation of the individual
or the continuation of their kind.

Instinctive. Prompted by instinct; act-
ing spontaneously, without reasoning,
instruction, or experience.

Instrumenta Cibaria. The parts of the
mouth in insects concerned in the ac-
quisition and preparation of the food.

Intertable. Not perceptible to the touch.

Integument. A covering which naturally
invests the body, as the skin of an ani-
mal or the shell of a Crustacean ; or a
membrane that invests a particular
part.

Intellect. The understanding ; that facul-
ty of the human mind which receives
or comprehends the ideas communicat-
ed to it by the senses or by perception,
or by other means.

Intellectual. Pertaining to the intellect;
perceived by the understanding, not
by the senses.

Intelligence. Understanding; skill.

Interambulacra. The im perforated plates
which occupy the intervals of the per-
forated ones, or ambulacra, in the shells
of Echinoderma.

Intercostal. Placed between the ribs ; as,
an intercostal muscle, artery, or vein.

Inter -ganglionic. Belonging to the ner-
vous chords in the intervals of the gan-
glions, which they connect together.

Intermaxillary. Situated between the
jaws.

Intermigration. Reciprocal migration.

IntermuKcular. Between the muscles.

Internodal. Having a space between one
knot or joint and another.

Interocular. When the antennae of an
insect are inserted anywhere between
the eyes.

Interorbital. Situated between the orbits.

Interosseous. Situated between bones ;
as an ijiterosseous ligament or muscle.

Inter scapular. Situated between the
shoulders.

Intersected. Cut or divided into parts by
being crossed.

Intel-slice. In insects, the space between
elevations and depressions running in
lines.

Interstitial. Relating to the intervals be-
tween parts.

Intertropical. Pertaining to those coun-
tries which lie between the tropics.

Interval. An entomological term denot-
ing the space between irregular and
scattered elevations and depressions.

Intestinal. Pertaining to the intestines
of an animal body ; as, the intestinal
tube or canal.

Introtnit. To enter or to allow to enter ;
to be the medium by which a thing en-
ters or is admitted.

Introsusception. The passing of one part
of an intestine within another, causing
a duplicature of it.

Intruded. When the head of an insect is
nearly withdrawn within the trunk.

Invertebrate. Destitute of a backbone or
vertebral chain.

Involute. Rolled inwards. Where the
exterior lip of a shell is turned inwards
at the margin, as in the Cyprsea.

Iridescent. Having colors like the rain-
bow.

Iris (pi. Irides). The colored circle which
surrounds the pupil of the eye, by
means of which that opening is en-
larged and diminished.

Irradiated. Made luminous, bright, or
shining.

Irrespirable. Unfit for respiration.

Irrigate. To water, as land, by causing
a stream to flow upon it and spread
over it.

Irrograted. Sprinkled or moistened with
atoms, as the earth with dew.

Isaltel or Isabella-color. A brownish-
yellow color, with a shade of dark-
red.

Ischiadic (from ischium, the hip). Per-
taining to a rheumatic affection of the
hip-joint, generally termed sciatica.

Islet. In entomology, a spot of a differ-
ent color, included in a plaga or
macula.

Isopoda. An order of Crustaceans in
which the feet are alike and equal.

Isolated. Detached from others of a like
kind ; standing alone.

Itinerant. Wandering ; not settled.

GLOSSARY.

27

Jubate. Having long, pendent hairs in a

continued series, as in some insects,
Jugular. Pertaining to the neck or

throat ; as, the jugular vein.
Juncture. A joint or articulation ; a

seam or line at which a union between

two bodies is effected.

K.

Knag. The shoot of a deer's horns.

Knee-brushes. The tufts of hair on the
knees of some antelopes ; also, the
thickest hairs on the legs of bees,
with which they carry the pollen to
the hive.

Labiodental. Formed or pronounced by
the cooperation of the lips and teeth.

Labipalpi. The labial feelers in insects :
two jointed sensiferous organs, which
emerge, one on each side, from the
labium, mostly near its summit.

Labium. The lower lip of insects, to
which the labial palpi are attached : it
is often biarticulate. Also, the inner
lip of a shell, or that side of the aper-
ture which is nearest the axis, and
generally contiguous to the body
whorl.

Labrum. The upper lip, when applied
to insects. Also, the outer lip of a
shell ; or the edge of the aperture at
the greatest distance from the axis.

Lac, or Gum-lac. A kind of resin de-
posited on different species of trees in
the East Indies, by an insect called
Chermes lacca. It is variously com-
bined, and much used in the arts.

Lacertlne. Resembling a lizard in form
or habits.

Lachrymal. Generating or secreting
tears.

Lacfnia. The blade of the maxillae, be-
ing the fourth or apical portion.

Ladniate. Jagged, or cut into irregular
segments.

Laciniform. When the base-covers of an
insect are long, of an irregular shape,
and appear like lappets on each side of
the trunk.

Lacteal. Pertaining to certain vessels in
animal bodies for conveying chyle
from the intestines to the common rc-
servatory.

Lacteous. White, less intense than nive-
ous.

Lactescent. Producing or abounding
with milk or white juice.

Lactiferous. Bearing or conveying milk
or white juice ; as a lactiferous duct.

Lacunose. Having the surface covered
with pits or shallow excavations.

Lagoon; Lagune. A fen, moor, marsh,
shallow pond or lake j as, the lagunes
of Venice.

Lamb. The young of the sheep kind.

Lamellar. Consisting of films or thin
plates.

Lamellated. Divided into distinct layers,
plates, or foliations.

Lamellibranchiate. Belonging to the
class of Acephalous Mollusca with
gills in the form of membranous
plates.

Lamelliform. Shaped like a thin plate
or 'leaf.

Lamince. Thin plates, laid one coat
above another. Hence also laminated,
disposed in layers, scales, or plates ;
and lamination, arrangement in layers.

Laminate. When the posterior coxae of
insects form a broad thin plate which
covers the trochanter and the base of
the thighs.

Lanate. Covered with fine, very long,
flexible, and rather curling hairs, like
wool.

Lanceolate. Flat, oblong, and gradually
tapering to a sharp point, like the head
of a lance.

Laniariform. Shaped like the canine
teeth of the Carnivora.

Laniferous. Bearing or producing wool.

Lanuginose ; Lanuginous. Covered with
longish, very soft, fine down.

Larva. The first active stage in an in-
sect's life ; the caterpillar state, or that
which precedes the chrysalis and per-
fect insect.

Larval. Pertaining to larvae, or insects
in the caterpillar state.

Larvate. Masked, as a larva or cater-
pillar.

Larviform. Shaped like a larva.

28

GLOSSARY.

Larviparous. Kelating to the Larvipara,
viz those insects which produce their
young in the condition of larvae, in-
stead of eggs.

Laryngeal. Pertaining to larynx.

Larynx. The upper part of the wind-
pipe or trachea.

Isitei-al. Placed at the side, or extend-
ing from one side to the centre.

Lateral Teeth (in shells). Those teeth
which, taking their rise near the um-
boncs, proceed to some distance to-
wa.ds the sides of the shell.

Lateritious. Of the color of brick-dust.

iMtescence. Tendency to milk; milki-
ness or milky color.

Latitude. The distance of any place on
the globe, north or south of the equa-
tor.

Latticed. Formed with cross-bars or open
squares like network.

Lay. To produce eggs.

Leguminous. Pertaining to pulse, as
peas, beans, &c.

Lemniscus (a riblvn, Lat.)- A term ap-
plied to the minute ribbon-shaped ap-
pendages of the generative pores in
Entoaza.

Lenticular. Doubly convex, of the form
of a lens : i. e. having the opposite
sides convex and meeting in a sharp
edge.

Lepidopterous. Pertaining to the Lepi-
doptera, the order of insects in which
the wings are clothed with, fine scales,
as butterflies and moths.

Leporine. Pertaining to, or having the
nature or qualities of, the hare.

Lethargic. Preternaturally inclined to
sleep.

Levigate. Without any partial elevations
or depressions.

Libidinous. Lustful.

Ligament. A strong, compact substance,
softer than a cartilage, but harder than
a membrane, serving either to bind one
bone of an animal to another, or to
connect the valves in bivalve shells.

Ligamental; Ligamentous. Of the nature
of a ligament; as a ligamentous mem-
brane.

Ligneous. Composed of a hard, unelastic
substance, like wood.

Ligniform. Resembling wood.

Lignite. Fossil or bituminous wood.

Ligula. The terminal or apical portion
of the labium in insects.

Liguliform. When the tongue of an in-
sect emerges from the labium, is short,
flat, and not concealed within the
mouth. Ex. Vespa and many Hyme-
noptera.

Lilac. Of a color resembling the flowers
of the lilac.

Liliaceous. Lily-like, or pertaining to
lilies.

Limb. A projecting member of the
body ; as an arm or a leg. Also, a
term used for the disc of bivalve
shells.

Limbless. Destitute of limbs.

Lineal. Allied by direct descent. In the
direction of a line.

Linear. Narrow and of the same width
throughout.

Lineated. Having lines on the surface.

Lines of Growth (in conchology). The
concentric striae or lines formed by the
edges of the successive layers of shelly
matter deposited by the animal, by
which it increases the shell.

Lingua. The tongue of insects, attached
to the inner surface of the lower lip.

Linguadental. Formed or uttered by the
joint use*of the tongue and teeth.

Linguaform. In the shape of a tongue.

Linguiform. When the tongue of an in-
sect is quite distinct from the labium,
usually retracted within the month,
short, and shaped something like a
vertebrate tongue.

Lips (in conchology). The two sides of
the aperture of spiral shells : that
which joins the columella is the inner,
and that part of the circumference op-
posite is called the outer lip.

Liquefiable. That may be melted, or
changed from a solid to a liquid state.

Liquescent. Becoming fluid.

Lithocarp. Petrified fruit.

Lithodendron. A name sometimes given
to coral on account of its resembling a
petrified branch.

Lithoxyle. Petrified wood; wood con-
verted into stone.

Littoral. Belonging to, or growing on,
the shore.

Lituite. A fossil shell.

GLOSSARY.

29

Livid. A pale purplish-brown ; the colo

of a bruise.

Lobatcd. Rounded at the edges.
Lobed. Having lobes, or broad finger

like divisions.

Lobule. A small lobe.

Loins. The space on each side of the

vertebras, between the lowest of the

false ribs and the upper portion of the

haunch-bone (os ilium).

Lortgeval; Longevous. Long-lived.

Longevity. Great length of life.

Lonyimanous. Having long hands.

Longitude. The distance of any place
on the globe from another place, east
ward or westward.

Longitudinal. Extending in length.

Looming. Appearing above the surface
or indistinctly, at a distance.

Lophobranchiate. Belonging to the Lo-
phobranchia, an order of bony fishes
mostly of a small kind, distinguished
by their gills being in tufts, and gener-
ally also by the body being covered by
shields or small plates, which give it
an angular form.

Lore. The space between the bill and the
eye, which in some birds is bare, but
is more generally covered with feathers.

Loricate; Loricated. Covered or plated
over; covered with a double series of
oblique scales like a coat of mail.

Lubricate. To make smooth or slippery.

Lubricous. Slippery, as if lubricated.

Lubrifaction. The act of making smooth.

Luciferous. Giving light.

Ludform. Resembling light.

Lumbar. Pertaining to the loins. The
lumbar region is the posterior portion of
the body between the false ribs and
the upper edge of the haunch-bone.

Luminous. Bright ; shining ; emitting
light.

Lunar. Measured by the revolutions of
the moon.

Lunated ; Luniform. In the shape of a
crescent.

Lunisolar. Compounded of the revolu-
tions of the sun and moon.

Lunule. A crescent-like mark or spot,
situated near the anterior and poste-
rior slopes in bivalve shells.

Lurcher. A dog that lies in wait and
watches for his game.

Lurid. Of a dirty-yellow color : yellow
with some mixture of brown.

Lustrous. Of a shining or glossy appear-
ance, like silk.

Lutarious. Living in mud : pertaining
to, or being of the color of mud.

Luteous. Deep-yellow with a tint of red.
The color of the yolk of an egg.

Lutulent. Muddy ; turbid ; thick.

Luxated. Put out of joint ; dislocated.

Lymnite. A kind of fresh-water snail
found as a fossil.

Lymph. A colorless fluid in animal
bodies, separated from the blood and
contained in certain vessels called
lymphatics.

Lympheduct. A vessel of animal bodies
which contains the lymph.

Lyrate; Lyrated. Divided transversely
into several jags, the lower ones small-
er and more remote from each other
than the upper ones.

M.

Maceration. The process of making thin
or lean by wearing away ; or the oper-
ation of softening and almost dissolv-
ing by steeping in a fluid.

Macrocosm. The universe, or the visible
systems of worlds ; opposed to micro-
cosm, or the world of man.

Macrodactylous. Furnished with long
toes adapted for traversing floating
leaves and aquatic herbage.

Macroura. The tribe of decapod Crus-
tacea which have long tails, as the lob-
ster.

Macrourotts. Pertaining to the Crusta-
ceans above designated.

Mac.ular Fascia. A band consisting of
distinct spots, as seen on the wings of
some insects.

Macula. A roundish but indetermi-
nately-shaped spot, not elongated in
any direction.

Maculate. Marked with macula, as above
described.

Maculated. Spotted; stained.

Malacology. The science which de-
scribes molluscous animals, whether
defended by a shell or entirely naked.

Walacopterygious. Belonging to the Ma-
lacopterygii, the name given to the sec-

30

GLOSSARY.

ond great division of Osseous Fishes;
the species of which are distinguished
by the fin-rays being soft and cartilag-
inous. They are divided into three
sections : 1. Abdominales, in which the
ventral fins are situated in the abdo-
men, far behind the pectorals, as in
the carp, salmon, and herring tribes ;
2 Subbrachiales, in which the ventral
fins are situated immediately beneath
the pectorals, and the pelvis is sus-
pended to the bones of the shoulder,
as in codfish, haddock, flounder, &c. ;
3. Apodes, in which the ventrals are
wanting, as in the eel.

Malacostomous. Having soft jaws with-
out teeth : a term applied to several
extensive genera of fishes which are
wholly destitute of teeth in their jaws,
but have them placed in their throats,
near the orifice of the stomach.

Malacostracous. An epithet applied to
soft-shelled insects : from Malacostraca,
the name of a division of the class
Crustacea, including those which are
covered with a crust softer than the
shell of a mollusc, but harder than the
homy integument of the Entomostracoa.

Mammce. The paps or bfeasts.

Mammalia. The class of animals which
give suck to their young.

Mammalogy. The science which has for
its object the study and classification
of all animals belonging to the class
Mammalia.

Mammiferous. Having breasts and nour-
ishing the young by the milk therein
secreted.

Mammifwm. Having the shape or form
of paps.

Mammillate. When the last joint of the
palpi is very short, smaller than the
preceding one, and retractile within it.

Mammillated. Having little globes like
nipples. A term applied to the apex
of a shell when it is rounded like a
teat. This epithet is also applied in
anatomy to two small protuberances,
like nipples, found under the fore ven-
tricles of the brain, and to a process of
the temple-bone.

Mandibles. The upper and under parts
of the bill, in birds. The instruments
of chewing ; applied to birds and in-

sects. The term mandible is restricted
in entomology to the upper and outer
pair of jaws.

Mandibular. Belonging to the jaw.

Mandibulata. The insects whose mouths
are provided with jaws for the purpose
of mastication.

Mandibuliform. When the under jaws of
an insect are hard and horny, and
shaped like the upper jaws.

Manducation. The act of chewing or
eating.

Mange. The scab or itch in dogs, cattle,
and other beasts.

Manners. Habits and mode of life.

Mantle. The external soft contractile
skin of the Mollusca, which covers the
viscera and a great part of the body
like a cloak.

Maniform. When the palpi or feelers of
an insect are chelate, or furnished with
a finger and thumb.

Maritime. Bordering on, or situated
near, the sea.

Mare. The female of the horse, or
equine genus of quadrupeds.

Margaritaceous. Pearly.

Margaritiferous. Pearl-bearing: applied
to shells which form pearls ; as Melea-
grina Margaritifera, or pearl- bearing
oyster.

Marginal. Near the margin or edge.
When applied to the wings of insects,
it denotes open areolets that terminate
ih the margin.

Marginate ; Marginated. Having a prom-
inent margin or border.

Marigenous. Produced in or by the
sea.

Marine. Belonging to, or found in, the
sea. '

Marmorate. So painted with veins,
streaks, and clouds as to resemble
marble.

Marmorean ; Marmoraceous. Made of, or
incrusted with, marble.

Marsupial. A term designating those
animals which are provided with a
tegumentary. pouch, in which the em-
bryo is received after birth, and pro-
tected during the completion of its de-
velopment.

Marsnpialian. Belonging to the class
Marsupialia.

GLOSSARY.

31

Masculine. Robust; strong; having the
qualities of a man.

Masticate. To chew food ; to grind food
with the teeth, and prepare it for swal-
lowing and digestion.

Mastigia. Two anal organs in the larvae
of Cerura Vinula, exserting from their
apex a retractile flexible thread, with
which they endeavor, by lashing their
sides, to drive away the Ichneumons.

Mastoid. Resembling the nipple or
breast ; as, the mastoid muscles.

Mate. The male or female of animals
which associate for propagation and
the care of their young.

Matrix; Matrice. The womb or cavity
in which the foetus of an animal is
formed and nourished till its birth.

Matter. The substance of which all
bodies are composed ; and which is of
two kinds, solid and fluid.

Mature. Perfected by time or natural
growth.

Maxillae. The second or lower pair of
jaws in insects, distinguished by bear-
ing feelers.

Maxillary. Pertaining to the jaw.

Maxipalpi. The feelers of the maxilloz.

Medial. Placed in the middle.

Median. Having reference to the middle
line of the body.

Medicated. Prepared or furnished with
any thing medicinal.

Medicament. Any healing application.

Medipectoral. Pertaining to the mid-legs
of insects, which are affixed to the
medipertus.

Medulla Oblongata. The oblong medul-
lary column at the base of the brain,
from which the spinal chord or mar-
row is continued.

Medullar ; Medullary. Consisting of mar-
row.

Melicerous. Consisting of matter like
honey.

Melliferous. Producing honey.

Membranaceous ; Membranous. Composed
of delicate, transparent membranes, as
the wings of insects : consisting of
membranes.

Membraniform. Having the form of a
membrane.

Mentum. The anterior part of
immediately adjoining the labium.

Mephitic. Foul; pestilential; destruc-
tive to life.

Meretricious. Having a gaudy but de-
ceitful appearance.

Mermaid. A fabulous marine animal,
said to resemble a woman in the upper
parts of the body, and a fish in the
lower part.

Mesogastric. The term applied to the
membrane by which the stomach is
attached to the abdomen.

Mesonotum. The upper surface of the
mesothorax^ or middle part of that half
of the segment which covers the back.

Mesopleura. The lateral surfaces of the
mesothorax.

Mesopodes. The middle pair of legs.

Mesosternum. The sternum of the meso-
thorax, or middle part of that half of
the segment which covers the breast.

Mesothorax. The intermediate of the
three segments which form the thorax
of an insect, bearing the posterior
wings and legs.

Metacarpus. In anatomy, the part of the
hand between the wrist and the fingers.

Metamorphosis. Change of form or
shape ; as, the metamorphosis of an in-
sect from the chrysalis state into a
winged animal.

Metamorphot.ic. A term employed to de-
note those insects which, during their
state of existence, undergo one or
more changes or transformations.

Metanotum. The upper surface of the
metathorax.

Metapedes. The hind legs of an insect.

Metapleura. The lateral surfaces of the
metathorax.

Metapodeon. The seventh segment in in-
sects.

Metasternum. The under surface of the
metalhorax.

Metathorax. The hindmost of the three
segments which form the thorax in in-
sects.

Meticulous. Very timid.

Microscopic. Visible only by the aid of
a microscope ; as, a microscopic insect.

Migrate. To pass or rem6ve from one
region or climate to another ; as, cer-
tain species of birds migrate in autumn
to a warmer climate for a temporary
residence.

GLOSSARY.

Migratory. Removing or accustomed to
remove from one climate to another;
as, migratory birds.

Milleftore. A genus of Lithophytes, of
various forms, which have the surface
perforated with little holes or pores,
or even without any apparent perfora-
tion.

Milleporite. Fossil millepores.

Mind. An essential element in the com-
position of every animal. Though it
can neither prevent the existence or
change the characters of matter, motion,
or sensation, (the other essential ele-
ments,) it takes cognizance of causes,
and provides for consequent effects,
before the other elements can obey its
behests.

" Of the connection of mind with
the organs which it commands," says
Mr. Newman, " we know nothing :
mind itself is only known by its ef-
fects; its commands are carried by the
nerves, — a fact ascertained by separat-
ing a nerve, after which separation, the
mind no longer controls the parts to
which that nerve extended its branch-
es." (See Nerves.)

Minialous. Of the color of red lead.

Miocene. The tertiary period, in which a
small portion of fossil shells are of the
recent species.

Molares Denies. The molar teeth, or
grinders.

Molares Glandulce. The molar glands :
two salivary glands situated on each
side of the' mouth, the excretory ducts
of which open near the last molar
tooth.

Molecule. The smallest particle into
•which a mass can be conceived or di
vided.

Molecules. Microscopic particles.

Molehill. A little hillock or elevation of
earth thrown up by moles working
underground.

Molluscous. Pertaining to, or partaking
of, the properties of the class of ani-
mals termed Mollusm, which form the
primary division of the animal king-
dom.

Momentum. The quantity of motion in
a moving body.

Monad. The genus of the most minute

and simple microscopic animalcules,
which are shaped like spherical
cells.

Mongrel. An animal of a mixed breed.

Moniliform (antenna). Having each joint
oval or globose, resembling a neck-
lace.

Monocular. Having but one eye.

Monocule. An insect with onlv one eye.

Monodactulous. Having one ringer or
toe only.

Monogamous. Living with one mate or
partner ; opposed to polygamous.

Monograph. An account or description
of a single thing or class of things.

Monomerous. A term denoting that the
trunk of an insect has no suture or
segment ; or that the troclianter consists
of only one joint.

Monomyary. A bivalve whose shell is
closed by one adductor muscle.

Monothalamous. One-chambered ; an epi-
thet applied to shells when the cham-
ber is not divided by partitions.

Monster. An animal produced with a
shape or parts that are not natural.

Morphological. Relating to the modifica-
tions of form which the same organ
undergoes in different animals.

Mortal. Subject to death ; destructive to
life.

Moschate. Having a scent resembling
musk.

Moss-clad. Covered or overgrown with
moss.

Motatorious. Pertaining to the mota-
torii, those legs which, when an insect
is at rest, are in a perpetual vibratory
motion.

Motory (nerves). The nerves which con-
trol motion.

Mottled. Clouded or spotted with vari
ous colors.

Mouse-colored. Black, with a small pro-
portion of yellow: the color of the
common mouse.

Mucilage. The liquor which moistens
and lubricates the ligaments and car-
tilages of the articulations or joints in
animal bodies.

Mucilaqinous. Moist, soft, and lubricous ;
partaking of the nature of mucilage.

Macro. A short, stout, sharp-pointed
process.

GLOSSARY.

33

Mucronate. Ending in a sharp, rigk

point.
Mucronate (antennae]. When they termi

nate in a short point or macro.
Mucus. A viscid fluid secreted by the
mucous membrane, which it serves to
moisten and defend. It covers the
lining membranes of all the cavities
which open externally, as the mouth
nose, lungs, intestinal canal, urinary
passages, &c. The word mucus is
also sometimes applied to other an
imal fluids of a viscid quality, as the
synovial fluid which lubricates the
joints.

Mulatto. The offspring of a negress by
a white man, or of a white woman by
a negro.

Multangular. Having many angles.
Multiarticulate. Consisting of many

joints.
Multicavous. Having many holes or

cavities.
Multifid. Cleft into many divisions by

linear sinuses.
Multiform. Having many shapes, forms

or appearances.
Multifjenerous. Consisting of many kinds.
Multilocular. Having many cells or
chambers : consisting of several di-
visions.

Multiparous. Producing many at a birth.
Multiparite. Divided into more than

four parts.

Multisect. When an insect appears to
have no distinct trunk or abdomen, but
is divided into numerous segments.
Multivalve. A shell composed of many

pieces or valves.

Mnltivalvular. Having many valves.
Multocular. Having many eyes.
Muricate; Muricated. In insects, when
the surface is covered with sharp,
thick, but not close, elevated points or
pustules. In shells, when clothed with
sharp spines.

Murine. Pertaining to the genus Mus.
Muscle. An animal tissue composed of
little bundles of fibres, inclosed in a
thin circular membrane, and serving
as the organs of motion.
Muscular Impressions. The marks or in-
dentations in the shells of acephalous
bivalves, which indicate the insertion

5

of the muscles, by which the animal is
attached to its shell.

Musteline. Pertaining to the weasel, or
animals of the genus Mustela.

Mutilate. When the base-covers of an
insect appear unnaturally short or cur-
tailed, as if mutilated.

Mutilated. Deprived of a limb or some
essential part.

Muzzle. The mouth and parts imme-
diately adjacent to it.

Myelencephala. The primary division of
animals characterized by a brain and
spinal marrow.

Myography. A description of the mus-
cles.

Myriad. An immense but indefinite
number.

Myriapod. Having two hundred legs or
more ; an insect belonging to the
order Myriapoda, which are character-
ized by their numerous feet.

Mytilite. A petrified shell of the genus
Mytilus.

N.

Nacre. Mother-of-pearl ; the white, shin-
ing substance which constitutes the in-
terior surface of a shell producing a
pearl.

Nacred ; Nacreous. Having a pearly
lustre ; like mother-of-pearl.

Nascent. Beginning to exist or to grow ;
coming into being.

Natant. Swimming, or floating on the
water.

Natatorious. When the legs of insects
are compressed and ciliated, and
formed for swimming. Also, when
the abdomen is terminated by flat foli-
aceous appendages, or the tail is ciliated
on each side with dense parallel hairs,
which assist the insect in swimming.

Natatory. Formed for swimming ; ena-
bling to swim.

Natural. Produced by, or derived from,
nature.

Naturalist. One that is versed in Natu-
ral History.

Nature. This word is variously used in
works on Natural History. It some-
times denotes the qualities which a be-
ing derives from birth, in opposition to

34

GLOSSARY.

those which it may owe to art ; at oth
er times, the aggregate of beings which
compose the universe ; and sometimes,
again, the laws which govern these
beings. In this latter sense, it has be-
come customary to personify Nature,
and to employ the name for that of its
Great Author.

Nautilite. A fossil nautilus.

Navicular. When two sides meet and
form an angle like the outer bottom of
a boat ; boat-shaped.

Necromorphia. Insects in which the pupa
has the mouth and organs of locomo-
tion detached from the body, but so
enveloped in a case or sheath that it
can employ neither. This group con-
tains the Hymenoptera and Coleoptera.

Nectareous. Kesembling nectar; very
sweet and pleasant.

Negro. A native or descendant of the
black race of men in the more south-
ern parts of Africa.

Neigh. To utter a sound, like the horse,
expressive of want or desire.

Nematoidea. The intestinal worms,
which are long and filiform.

Nematoneura. A name applied to the
higher division of Cuvier's Radiata by
Professor Owen.

Neologist. One who introduces or em-
ploys new words in any science.

Nerves. The nerves are the organs of
sensation : they originate in the brain,
and are prolongations of the medullary
substance of the brain, which ramify
and extend over the whole body ; and
they consist of fine tubular filaments,
which are arranged nearly parallel to
sheaths of fibrous tissue.

Nervures. The delicate framework of
the membranous wings of insects.

Neurilemma. The membrane which sur-
rounds the nervous fibre.

Neurology. The science of the nervous
system, or a description of the nerves.

Neuropterous. Belonging to the Neurop-
tera, an order of four-winged insects
characterized by their numerous nerv-
ures, like those of the dragon-fly.

Neurose. Wings of insects that have
nervures besides the marginal ones.

Neurotomy. The art or practice of dis-
secting the nerves.

Nibble. To bite at; as, fishes nibble at
the bait A little bite, or seizing to
bite.

Nictating (membrane). The thin mem-
brane that covers and protects the
eyes of some animals, without entirely
obstructing the sight.

Nidamental. Relating to the protection
of the egg and young, especially ap-
plied to the organs that secrete the
material of which many animals con-
struct their nests.

Nidijlcation. The act or operation of
building a nest, and the hatching and
feeding of young in the nest.

Nidulation. The time of remaining in
the nest.

Nidus. A nest or repository for the eggs
of birds, insects, &c.

Noctidial. Comprising a night and a
day.

Noctilucous. Shining in the night.

Noctivagant. Wandering or prowling
about by night.

Nocturnal. Pertaining to the night ; as
the nocturnal habits of certain animals
which usually come forth from their
retreats and obtain their prey during
the night.

Nodose. Having one or more knobs or
swellings. The word Nodose is also
applied to the antennce of insects when
they have one, two, or more joints lar-
ger than those which precede or follow
them.

Nodular. Pertaining to or resembling a
nodule, or little knotty lump.

Nodule. A little knot-like eminence.

Nomadic. Wandering for the sake of
pasturage; pertaining to a pastoral
life, and roving from place to place
with herds of cattle.

Nomenclature. The names of things
which are appropriated to any branch
of science.

Nonage. Under adult age.

Nondescript. Any thing that has not
been described. Thus an animal new-
ly discovered is called a nondescript.

Non-fossiliferous. Not producing fossils ;
of a nature not to convert into fossils.

Normal. According to rule ; natural.

Nostrils (of birds) are said to be linear
when they are extended lengthwise in

GLOSSARY.

35

a line with the bill, as in divers, &c.
pervious, when they are open, and may
be seen through from side to side, as
in gulls, &c.

Noted, Belonging to the back.

Nucleated. Having a nucleus or centra
particle; applied to the elementary
cells of animal tissues, the most im-
portant properties of which reside in
the nucleus.

Nudibrachiata. The Polypes whose arms
are not clothed with vibratile cilia.

Nudibranchiata. An order of Gastero-
pods in which the gills are exposed.

Nummulite. Fossil remains of a cham-
bered shell of a flattened form, former-
ly mistaken for money.

Nutrient. Nourishing ; producing growth.

Nymph. The pupa, or chrysalis; the
second state of an insect, passing to its
perfect form.

O.

Obese. Unnaturally large and distended,
as if from disease or too much food.

Oblique. Running sideways : when the
longitudinal line is cut through at acute
angles.

Obliterate. A term in entomology ap-
plied to impressions and elevations
when almost effaced.

Oblong. Longer than broad: the longi-
tudinal diameter being more than twice
the length of the transverse, and the
ends varying, dr rounded.

Oblong-ovate. Between oblong and egg-
shaped.

Obscure. A surface which reflects the
light but little.

Obsolete. Partially indistinct; not well
defined; not fully developed; as the
joint striae on certain shells.

Obtruncated. Lopped off; deprived of
a limb.

Obtuse. Blunt ; not pointed or acute ;
dull ; obscure : terminating bluntly,
but within the segment of a circle.

Obumbrant. When the scutellum of an
insect overhangs the metathorax.

Obverse. When an object is viewed with
its head towards you.

Occiput. That part of the skull which
forms the hind part of the head.

Ocellated. A term applied to eye-like
spots ; formed with the figures of little
eyes.

Ocellus. An eye-like spot in the wings of
many Lepidoptera, and consisting of
annuli of different colors, inclosing a
central spot or pupil. Blind Ocellus is
one without the pupil. Spurious Ocel-
lus, a circular spot without any defined
iris or pupil. Simple Ocellus, when the
ocellus consists only of iris and pupil.
Compound Ocellus, when it consists of
three or more circles. Nictitant Ocel-
lus, when the ocellus includes a tumu-
lar spot of a different color. Fenestrate
Ocellus, when an ocellus has a trans-
parent spot. Dioptrate Ocellus, a fenes-
trate ocellus divided by a transverse
line. Double Ocellus, when two ocelli
are included in the same circle or spot ;
and when such ocelli join each other
they are termed twin ocelli. Sesquial-
terous Ocellus, an ocellus with a smaller
near it. The simple eyes of insects are
small, transparent, semi-globular lens-
es, generally three in number, and ar-
ranged in a triangle on the crown of
the head. Though their use has never
been satisfactorily proved, enough has
been ascertained for entomologists to
agree in considering them organs of
vision. The eyes of larvae, spiders,
and some other Annulosa are simple
ocelli, arranged in groups. They are
also called stemmata.

Ochraceous. Of a dull brownish-yellow
c6lor ; approaching to the color of
ochre.

Octodentate. Having eight teeth.

Octofid. In entomology, separated into
eight segments.

Octonocular. Having eight eyes.

Octopod. Having eight legs.

Octoradiated. Having eight rays.

Oculi (oculus). The eyes of insects are
generally composite, i. e. formed of fa-
cets or minute lenses, which are hex-
agonal, and vary from fifty to twenty
thousand in a single eye ; every one of
them receiving the image of an object,
and appearing to correspond with the
crystalline lens of the human eye.

Oculiform. Shaped like the eye.

Odoriferous. Diffusing fragrance.

36

GLOSSARY.

(Esophageal. Pertaining to the gullet.

(Esophagus. The anterior extremity of
the alimentary canal ; the gullet.

Officinal. Pertaining to drugs, perfumes,
&c., usually kept in apothecaries' shops.

Oleaginous. Unctuous ; having the qual-
ities of oil.

Olfactory. Relating to the sense of smell-
ing ; as olfactory nerves.

Olivaceous. Dull olive-green, or green
tinged with brown.

Olive. A brownish green, the color of
olives.

Omnigenous. Consisting of all kinds.

Omnivorous. Feeding indiscriminately
or subsisting on all kinds of food.

Onychotenthis. The genus of Calamaries
armed with hooks or claws.

Oolite. Egg-stone ; an extensive group
of secondary limestones composed of
rounded particles, like the roe or eggs
of a fish.

Opalescent. Reflecting a colored lustre
from a single spot.

Opaline. A bluish white reflecting the
splendor of the opal.

Opaque. Impervious to the rays of light ;
not transparent ; a surface which does
not reflect the rays of light at all.

Operculate. When the eyes of insects
are covered by an operculum.

Operculated. Furnished with a lid or
cover.

Operculum. A lid or cover; applied to
the horny plate which closes certain
univalve shells ; also to the covering
of the gills in fish.

Ophidian. Resembling or pertaining to
serpents ; designating an order of ver-
tebrate animals destitute of feet and
fins.

Ophiologist. A person versed in ophiology,
or the natural history of serpents.

Ophiology. That part of Natural History
which treats of serpents.

Ophiomorphous. Having the form of a
serpent.

Ophiophagous. Eating or feeding on ser-
pents.

Orange. A color composed of equal
parts of red and yellow.

Orbicular. Spherical ; in the form of an
orb.

OiUculate. A depressed globe, whose

horizontal section is circular, and verti-
cal oval.

Orbit. The skin which surrounds the
eye. It is generally bare, but particu-
larly in the parrot and the heron.

Orbital. Pertaining to the orbit of the eye.

Order. A subordinate division of the an-
imal kingdom, bearing the same rela-
tion to a class which this latter does to
a kingdom ; so that a class is made up
of orders, in the same manner as a
kingdom is made up of classes.

Ordinate. When spots, puncta. &c. are
placed in rows : thus we say ordinato-
punctate, ordinato-maculate. &c.

Organ. A natural instrument of action
or operation, or by which some process
is carried on.

Organic Bodies. Such as possess organs,
on the action of which depend their
growth and perfection ; as in the case
of animals and plants.

Organic Remains. All animal and vege-
table substances which are dug out of
the earth in a fossilized state.

Organization. Structure j suitable dis-
position of parts which are to act to-
gether in a compound body.

Organology. That branch of physiology
which specially treats of the different
organs of animals, but more particu-
larly those of the human species.

Orichalceous. A splendor intermediate
between that of gold and brass.

Orifice. An opening ; the mouth or
aperture of a tube orwther cavity.

Ornitholite. A petrified bird.

Ornithologist. A person who is skilled in
the natural history of birds, who un-
derstands their form, structure, habits,
* and uses.

Ornithology. The science which teaches
the natural history and arrangement
of birds ; or, to use the definition of
Cuvier, of vertebrated oviparous ani-
mals, with a double circulation and
respiration, organized for flight.

Orthocera. Extinct Cephalopods which
inhabited long, conical, chambered
shells, like a straight horn.

Orthoceratite. The name of certain fossil
univalve shells, straight, or but slightly
curved, arranged by Cuvier in the ge-
nus Nautilus.

GLOSSARY.

37

Orthopterous. Belonging to the Orthop-
tera, an order of insects with elytra and
longitudinally folded wings.

Oryctography. That part of Natural
History in which fossils are de-
scribed.

Oryctology. That part of physics which
treats of fossils.

Osseous. Bony.

Ossification. Change from a soft ani-
mal substance into bone, or into a sub-
stance as hard as bone.

Ossivorous. Feeding on bones.

Osteological. Pertaining to a description
of the bones.

Ostracite. An oyster-shell in its fossil
state ; or a stone formed in the shell,
the latter being dissolved.

Oval. Having the longitudinal diameter
twice the length of the transverse, and
the ends circumscribed by equal seg-
ments of a circle.

Ovaliform. Having the longitudinal sec-
tion oval, and the transverse circular.

Ovarious. Consisting of eggs ; as ovari-
ous food.

Ovary ; Ovarium. That part of a female
animal in which the eggs are formed
or lodged ; or the part in which the
foetus is supposed to be formed.

Ovate. Shaped like the longitudinal sec-
tion of an egg.

Ovate-oblong. Oblong in the shape of an
egg, or with the end lengthened.

Ovate-subulate. Having something of the
form of an egg and an awl, but most
tending to the latter.

Ovicular. Pertaining to an egg.

Oviduct. A passage for the egg from the
ovary.

Oviform. Egg-shaped ; having the form
or figure of an egg.

Ovigerous. A term applied to the parts
containing or supporting eggs.

Ovine. Pertaining to sheep.

Oviparous. That mode of generation
which takes place by the exclusion of
the germ from the body, in the form
of an egg, and which is hatched after
such exclusion.

Oviposition. The act of excluding eggs
from the abdomen, as an insect.

Ovipositor. The organ in insects, which
is often large and complicated, for the

transmission of the eggs, during ex-
clusion, to their appropriate place.
Ovoid. Approaching to the shape of an

egg-

Ovoviparous. A term denoting that the
eggs are hatched within the body of
the animal, and that the young are ex-
cluded alive. The marsupial animals
are examples of ovoviparous mammif-
erous quadrupeds ; and the viper, rat-
tlesnake, and lizard among reptiles.

P.

Pabular; Fabulous. Affording food or
aliment.

Pachydermatous. Having a thick skin ;
an epithet applied to an order of ani-
mals, called Pachydermata, embracing
all the hoofed quadrupeds which do
not ruminate.

Palceontographical. Pertaining to the de-
scription and illustration of fossil or-
ganic remains.

Paleontology. The history of ancient ex-
tinct organized beings.

Palceozoic. A term to denote those rocks
which contain the fossil remains of the
earliest inhabitants of the globe. They
are divided by geologists into the Cum-
brian, Silurian, and Devonian systems.

Palatal. Pertaining to the palate.

Palate. The roof or upper part of the
mouth.

Palatiform. When the tongue of an in-
sect forms the inner surface of the la-
bium, but is not separate from it.

Paleous. Resembling chaff.

Palleal. Pertaining to the mantle of the
Mollusca.

Palleal Impression. The mark or groove
formed m a bivalve shell by the mus-
cular attachment of the mantle, which,
being always found near the margin of
the shell, is sometimes termed the mar-
ginal impression.

Palmated. Entirely webbed ; as the pal-
mated feet of certain aquatic birds.

Palmiped. Relating to the Palmipedes,
an order of birds having the toes con-
nected by a web or membrane, and
thus the feet fitted for swimming.

Palpi. The organs of touch developed
from the maxilla and labium of insects.

38"

GLOSSARY.

Palpiform. Resembling in shape the pal-
pi or feelers of insects.

Papaverous. Of the nature or quality of
poppies.

Papilla. Small dots or soft eminences,
generally adapted for delicate sensa-
tion.

Papillary ; PapiUous ; Papillose. Having
the surface covered with dots, pimples,
or small tubercles.

PapUlulate. Beset with many papillules.

Papillule. A tubercle or variole with an
elevation in its centre.

Papyraceous. Of the consistency of paper.

Parallelism. Resemblance, equality of
state.

Parasitic; Parasitical. Existing on or
inhabiting some other body.

Parenchyma. A spongy substance con-
tained in the interstices between the
bloodvessels of the viscera.

Parenchymous. Spongy, soft, porous.

Parietal (bones). The bones which form
the sides and upper part of the skull.

Parotid. Denoting certain salivary
glands below and before the ears, or
near the articulation of the lower jaw.

Paroxysm. An exasperation or exacer-
bation of a disease.

Partite. Divided to the base.

Passerine. Pertaining to the Passeres,
the order of birds to which sparrows
belong.

Pasture ; Pasture Land. Ground cov-
ered with grass appropriated for the
food of cattle.

Patellate. Dilated and shaped something
like a patella or platter.

Patdliform. Shaped like a dish.

Pateriform. When the joints are some-
what dilated and very short, shaped
something like a shallow bowl.

Pavonine. Resembling the tail of a pea-
cock.

Peahen. The hen or female of the pea-
cock.

Pectinal. Pertaining to a comb.

Pectinated. Resembling the teeth of a
comb.

Pectinibranchiata. The order of Gaste-
ropods in which the gills are shaped
like a comb.

Pectiniform (antennae). When the joints
are furnished on one side with slender

processes resembling the teeth of a
comb.

Pectoral. Pertaining to the breast ; as
the pectoral muscles. The pectoral fins
of a fish are situated on the sides of
the fish, behind the gills.

Pedunculate. A term applied to the
maxillae of insects, when the stipes
below the feeler has a row of minute
spines set like the teeth of a comb.

Pedicle. The support of the Lepas
anatifera and its corresponding spe-
cies, by which they are attached to
wood, &c.

Pediform. Shaped like a foot.

Peduncle. A footstalk or tube on which
any thing is situated.

Pedunculated. Attached to external ob-
jects by a hollow fleshy tube, called the
peduncle. The term pedunculated is
also applied to insects when they have
the sixth segment slender and thread-
like, as the wasp, &c.

Pelagic ; Pelagian. Belonging to the
deep sea ; as, pelagian shells.

Pellicle. The skin or film.

Peltate. Shield-shaped ; orbicular and
attached by a central pedicle.

Pelvis. The lower part of the abdomen.

Pendulous. Hanging ; fastened at one
end, the other swinging ; as, the dew-
lap of an animal.

Pencil. A small bundle of diverging
hairs.

Penicillate. An epithet for a part which
supports bundles of diverging hair.

Pensile. Hanging ; suspended.

Pentacrinite. A pedunculated star-fish
with five rays : they are for the most
part fossil.

Pentangular. Having five corners or an-
gles.

Percolated. Filtered ; passed through
small interstices.

Perennibranchiate. Relating to a family
of reptiles (the Protei, Sirens, £c.)
which are organized to live either on
land or in water, by possessing at the
same time both lungs and gills.

Perforatce (antenna?) . When a portion
of each joint is dilated and flattened,
and the remaining portion, being cylin-
drical, appears like a thread on which
the dilated parts are strung.

GLOSSARY.

Perforated. Having holes, as if borec

by a sharp instrument.
Pergameneous. Of the texture of parch
ment: a thin, tough substance, in tex
ture resembling parchment.
Pericardium. The membranous bag
which surrounds the heart, and th
arterial and venous trunks connected
with it.

Pericranium. A membrane covering the
outside of the cranium, and corre
sponding to the periosteum of other
bones.

Periosteum. A nervous vascular mem
brane immediately investing the bones
of animals.
Periostracum. The membrane anala

gous to scarfskin which covers shell.
Peristaltic. The vermicular contractions
and motions of muscular canals, as
the alimentary and the circulating
tubes. The peristaltic motion of the
intestines is performed by the contrac-
tion of the circular and longitudinal
fibres composing their fleshy coats, by
which the chyle is driven into the ori-
fices of the lacteals, and the excre-
ments are protruded towards the anus.
Peritoneal. Belonging to the peritoneum
Peritoneum. A thin, smooth, lubricous
membrane investing the whole internal
surface of the abdomen, and, more or
less completely, all the viscera con-
tained in it.

Peritrema. The raised margin which
surrounds the breathing-holes of scor-
pions.

Petaloid. Having the form of petals.
Petiolate. Supported or suspended by a

slender stalk.
Petrescence. The process of changing

into stone.

Petrifactive ; Petrific. Having power to
convert animal or vegetable substan-
ces into stone.
Pharyngeal ; Pharyngal. Belonging to

the pharynx.

Pharynx. The opening into the gullet.
Phenomenon (pi. Phenomena). Any thing
which has existence in the natural
world ; as, the phenomena of heat, the
phenomena of the heavenly bodies, or of
terrestrial substances.
Phocenic. Appertaining to the dolphin.

Phosphorescent. Shining in the dark,

like the glowworm.
Physiological. Relating to the properties

and functions of living beings.
Phytivorous. Feeding on plants and

herbage.

Phytophagous. Feeding on plants.
Piceous. Shining reddish-black, the

color of pitch.

Pilose. Covered with a thick down.
Pinion. To confine by binding the
wings. The joint of a fowl's wing, re-
motest from the body.
Pinnate. Shaped like a feather, or pro-
vided with fins.
Pinnated. Fin-footed ; having the toes

bordered by membranes.
Pisciform. Having the shape of a fish.
Pisiform. Having the form of a pea.
Pistillaceous. Growing on the germ or

seed-bud of a flower.
Pituitous. Consisting of mucus, or re-
sembling it in qualities.
Placenta. The substance that connects
the foetus to the womb, and by which
the circulation is carried on between
the parent and the foetus.
Placental. Pertaining to the substance

that connects the foetus to the womb.
Plane. Perfectly level. When there is

neither elevation nor depression.
PlanorUcular. Flat and circular.
Piano-subulate. Smooth and awl-shaped.
Plantigrade. When the whole or part of
the sole of the foot is placed flat on
the ground in walking, as is the case
with certain carnivorous Mammalia.
Plasma. The liquor sanguinis, or fluid
part of the blood, in which the red
corpuscles float.
Plastron. The under part of the shell of

the crab and tortoise.
Pleiocene. The more recent tertiary stra-
ta, in which the major part of the fos-
sil Testacea belong to recent species.
Pleistocene. The newest of the tertiary
strata, which contains the largest pro-
portion of living species of shells.
Plexiform. In the form of network;

complicated.
Plexus. A bundle of nerves or vessels

interwoven or twined together.
Plicce. Folds of membrane.
Plicate; Plicated. Plaited; folded like

40

GLOSSARY.

a fan : applied to spiral plaits on the
columella of some shells ; also to the
angular bendings in the margins of
some bivalve shells.

Plumbeous. The color of lead.

Plumiped. Having feet covered with
feathers.

Plumulose. When the hairs branch out
laterally like feathers.

Plumose. Feathery ; like a plume of
feathers ; or, having hair of a feathery
appearance.

Pneumatic. Belonging to the air and
air-breathing organs.

Podeon. The sixth segment in insects.

Podophthalma. The tribe of Crustacea
in which the eyes are supported upon
stalks.

Pollen. In botany, the fecundating dust,
or farina, contained in the anther of
flowers, which is dispersed on the pistil
for impregnation.

Polliniferous. Producing pollen.

Pollinose. Covered with a loose, mealy,
and often yellow pollen, resembling
the pollen of flowers.

Polygamous. Not confined to one mate,
but pairing promiscuously ; as is com-
mon with certain birds.

Polygastria. The class of infusorial ani-
malcules which have many assimila-
tive sacs or stomachs.

Polygenous. Consisting of many kinds.

Polymorphous. Having many forms.

Polyphagous. Feeding indiscriminately;
all-devouring.

Polypi. The class of radiated animals
which have many prehensile orgarts
radiating from around the mouth.

Polythalamous. Divided into several
chambers.

Porcate. In entomology, a term denot-
ing the presence of several parallel
elevated longitudinal ridges.

Porcellaneous. Pertaining to or resem-
bling porcelain ; as, porcellaneous shells.

Porcine. Pertaining to swine.

Pore. A minute interstice in the skin of
an animal, through which the perspir-
able matter passes to the surface, or is
excreted.

Porrected. When the head is prominent
and elongate.

Postdiluvial; Postdiluvian. Living or

happening posterior to the universal

deluge.
Posterior. The hind limbs, £c. The

side in bivalve shells opposite to that

in which the ligament is placed.
Postorbital. Pertaining to whatever is

situated behind the orbits.
Postscutellum. The fourth section of the

upper surface of each segment in in-

Prcescutum. The first section of the
upper surface of each segment in in-
sects.

Prcesternum. The name of the plate
nearest the head in the lower surface
of each segment in insects when it is
divided into four plates.

Prasinous. Green with a mixture of yel-
low.

Precipitous. Very steep ; as a precipitous
hump on the back of an animal.

Predatory. Plundering ; practising ra-
pine.

Preen. To clean and dress the feathers,
as birds, to enable them to glide more
easily through the air or water.

Prehensile. Seizing ; grasping ; as, tho
tails of some monkeys are prehensile.

Premorse. Terminating in an irregular
truncate apex, as if bitten off.

Preternatural. Beyond the ordinary
rules of nature, or different from what
is natural, but not supernatural.

Pretypify. To prefigure.

Primaries, or Primary Quills. The lar-
gest feathers of the wings ; they rise
from the first bone.

Primitive. Original; primary; not de-
rived.

Primordial. Existing from the begin-
ning.

Prismoidal. Having more than four
sides, and whose horizontid section is a
polygon.

Proboscidiform. Applied to any elongat-
ed appendage about the head.

Proboscis. The name given to the flex-
ible muscular tube, or prehensile organ
formed by the prolongation of the
nose, as is seen in the elephant. It is
also an entomological term : the pro-
boscis of insects being used by some to
suck the juice from plants, and by
others to suck the blood from animals.

GLOSSARY.

41

Process. Series of motions or changes
in growth, decay, &c. in physical bod-
ies ; as, ti^process of decomposition.
It is also used to denote any natural
appendage or adnascent part of an
animal for which there is no definite
name.

Procreate. To engender and produce.

Procreative. Having the power to beget.

Producted. Disproportionately long.

Progeny. Descendants of the human
kind, or of animals in general.

Projectile. A body impelled forward by
force.

Prolapse. To fall down or out.

Prolegs. The wart-like tubercles which
represent legs on the hinder segment
of caterpillars.

Prone. When an object lies upon its
belly.

Pronotum. The upper surface of the
prothorax.

Propedes. The forelegs of insects.

Propodeon. The fifth segment in insects.

Prosternum. The under surface of the
prothorax.

Prostrate. Lying with the body extend-
ed on the ground or other surface.

Protelum. The eleventh segment in in-

Prothorax. The first of the three seg-
ments which constitute the thorax in
insects.

Protruded. Thrust forward or out.

Protuberance. Any thing swelled or
pushed beyond the surrounding sur-
face ; as, a swelling or protuberance on
any part of the body.

Pruinose. When the splendor of the sur-
face is somewhat obscured by the ap-
pearance of a bloom upon it, like that
of a plum, but which cannot be de-
tached.

Pruriginous. Having tendency to itch.

Pseudo-morphous. Not having the true
form.

Psychical. Relating to the phenomena
of the soul, and to analogous phenom
ena in the lower animals.

Pteropodous. Pertaining to the Pteropo-
da, an order of the class Mollusca
whose organs of locomotion consist ol
a pair of wing-shaped fins.

Puberty. The age at which animals are

6

capable of procreating and bearing
young.

Pubescent.. Covered with very fine de-
cumbent short hairs.

Pulmograde. The tribe of Medusae which
swim by contractions of the pulmonary
disc.

Pulmonary. Pertaining to the lungs;
affecting the lungs.

Pidmonata. The order of Gasteropoda
that breathe by lungs.

Pulverous ; Pulverulent. Consisting of
dust or powder.

PulvUli. The soft cushions on the under
surface of the joints of the tarsus in
some insects.

Pulvinate. When, in consequence of the
prothorax being depressed in one place,
it seems to puff out in another.

Pulvinuli. A soft ball which some in-
sects have at the end of the tarsi.

Punctate ; Punctated. Full of small
holes, or beset with many points.

Puncto-striated. When the longitudinal
impressed lines are punctured.

Punctulated. When the surface has the
appearance of having been thickly
punctured with a pointed instrument,
but which has only made impressions
on it.

Punctured. Pierced with -a sharp point.

Pupa. An insect in the second stage of
its metamorphosis. It is synonymous
with aurelia or chrysalis, — words for-
merly in more general use than they
are at present.

Pupil. A little aperture in the middle
of the iris and urea of the eye, through
which the rays of light pass to the
crystalline humor, to be painted on the
retina. The central spot on the ocellus
in the wings of many Lepidoptera.
It is called a hastate pupil when the
pupil is a halberd -shaped spot, and a
suffulated pupil when the pupil shades
into another color.

Pupiparous. Pertaining to insects which
bring forth their young in the pupa
state.

Pupivorous. Feeding on the larvae and
chrysalids of insects.

Purple. A color composed of red and
blue blended.

Purpurescent. Inclining to a purple color.

42

GLOSSARY.

Purulent. Consisting of or resembling
pus or matter.

Putrescent. Pertaining to the process of
putrefaction.

Pylorus. The aperture which leads
from the stomach to the intestine.

Pyramidal Whose vertical section is
triangular, and horizontal quadrangu-
lar.

Pyriform. Pear-shaped.

Q.

Quadrate. To agree or correspond with.
Square. Quadrilateral, with the sides
equal and the angles right angles.

Quadrennial. Occurring once in four
years.

Quadriarticulate. Consisting of four
joints.

Quadridental Having four teeth.

Quadrifid. Cleft in four parts.

Quadripartite. Consisting of four cor-
responding parts.

Quadriplicated. Having four plaits or
folds.

Quadrivalvular. Having four valves.

Quadrumanous. Having four hands.

Quadruped. Having four legs and feet.
An animal having four legs and feet,
as a horse, a lion, &c.

Quarry. In falconry, the game which
a hawk is pursuing or has killed.
Among hunters, a part of the entrails
of the beast taken, given to the Jiounds.

Quiescent. Being in a state of repose.

E.

Race. A particular breed.

Racemous. Growing in racemes or clus-
ters.

Radial. Pertaining to the radius or to
the fore-arm of the human body ; as,
the radial muscles.

Radiata. Animals in which the organs
of sensation and motion are disposed
like rays round a centre ; the lowest
primary division of the animal king-
dom.

Radiate. When a dot, spot, &c. appears
to send forth rays, as the large blue
area common to all the wings of Pa-
pilio Ulysses.

Radiated (areolets). When the areolets
are chiefly formed by radiating longi-
tudinal nervures.

Radicated (shell). When fixed by the
base to another body.

Radius. In entomology, a single subdi-
vision of a digitate wing ; i. e. when
the wings are cleft to the base into
several subdivisions.

Ram. The male of the sheep or ovine
genus.

Ramification. A shooting out into
branches.

Ramify. To. shoot into branches.

Ramose. Spread out into branches. An-
tennae are so called when setaceous or
moniliform, but having long branches
from several of the joints.

Rapacious. Subsisting on prey or ani-
mals seized by force.

Rarefy. To make thin and porous, or
less dense.

Reanimate. To resuscitate ; to restore to
life and action.

Reclined. Leaning towards any thing as
if to repose upon it.

Recondite. When the head of an insect
is wholly covered and sheltered by the
shield of the thorax.

Recrement. Superfluous matter separated
from that which is useful.

Recrementitious. Consisting of superflu-
ous matter separated from that which
is valuable.

Rectangular. Having right angles.

Rectum. The third and last of the large
intestines.

Recumbent. Leaning or reposing upon
any thing.

Recurrent. When a nervure, or a branch
of it, after running towards the apex
of the wing, turns back and runs to-
wards the base.

Recurved; Recurvated. Turned or curved
outwards.

Recurvirostral. Pertaining to those birds
whose beak or bill bends upwards.

Refracted. Abruptly bent, as if broken.

Rejected. Bent back or thrown back-
wards.

Reflex ; Reflexed. Turned or bent back
or upwards.

Refluent. Flowing back; as, refluent
blood.

GLOSSARY.

43

Refrigerate. To allay the heat of; to
refresh.

Region. A Jarge tract or space of coun-
try.

Regurgitated. Swallowed a second time ;
thrown or poured back.

Remastkate. To chew over and over, as
in chewing the cud.

Renascent. Springing or rising into be-
ing again.

Reniform. Kidney-shaped.

Reniculus. A small kidney-shaped spot,
as seen in the wings of some nocturnal
Lepidoptera.

Rennet. The concreted milk found in
the stomach of a sucking quadruped,
particularly of the calf.

Repand. Cut into very slight sinuations,
so as to run in a serpentine direction.

Repletion. Superabundant fulness.

Replicated. Folded or plaited, so as to
form a groove or channel.

ReptUia. The class of vertebrate ani-
mals with imperfect respiration and
cold blood. They constitute an order
of the class Amphibia, including all
such as are furnished with limbs or ar-
ticulated extremities, as tortoises, liz-
ards, and frogs.

Resilient. Leaping or starting back ; re-
bounding.

Resplendent. Reflecting the light in-
tensely.

Resupine. When an object lies upon its
back.

Rete Mucosum. The cellular layer be-
tween the true skin and the scarfskin,
which is the seat of the peculiar color
of the skin.

Reticulate; Reticulated. Formed like a
piece of network ; having distinct
veins or lines which intersect each
other in various directions, like the
meshes of a net. Applied to the areo-
lets of insects, when they are extreme-
ly small and infinitely numerous.

Retiform. Composed of crossing lines
and interstices ; as, the retiform coat of
the eye.

Retracted. When the head of an insect
is wholly withdrawn within the trunk.

Retractile. Capable of\ being drawn
backwards. The claws of the cat
tribe. When an insect can at pleasure

exsert its head or withdraw it within
the trunk.

RetroJJected. Bent backwards.

Retrograde. Going or moving back-
wards.

Retromingent. Discharging the urine
backwards.

Retrorse ; Retrorsed. Bent back.

Retuse. Ending in an obtuse sinus ; as,
when the inner whorls of a spiral shell
appear to have been pressed into the
body of the shell, and the apex is be-
low the level of the last whorl.

Reverse. When an object is viewed with
its anus towards you.

Reversed. The spire of a shell is said to
be reversed or sinistral, when the volu-
tions turn to the left, or the opposite
way to that of a common corkscrew.

Revivescent. Regaining, or restoring,
life and action.

Revolute. Rolled outwards or backwards.

Rhombiform. When the horizontal sec-
tion is rhomboidal.

Ribbed. Having longitudinal or trans-
verse ridges.

Rigid. Hard and stiff, so as not to bend
I or yield to pressure.

Rima. A chink or interstice.

Rimose. When any surface possesses
numerous minute narrow excavations,
running into each other ; chinkly, like
the bark of a tree.

Rivose. When furrows do not run in a
parallel direction and are rather sin-
uate.

Rorulent. Covered like a plum with a
bloom which may be rubbed off.

Rostrate. When the anterior part of an
insect's head is elongated and attenu-
ated into a cylindrical or many-sided
rostrum or beak.

Rostrum (of a shell). The beak, or its
extension, where the canal is situat-
ed.

Rotatory. When a body or a part of it
turns wholly round, or describes a
circle.

Rotifera. The name of the class of in-
fusorial animals, characterized by the
vibratile and apparently rotating cilia-
ry organs upon the head.

Rotund. Round, circular, spherical.

Rotundate; Rotundated. Blunted or

44

GLOSSARY.

turned at the- edge ; terminating in the
segment of a circle.

Rulwfacient. Making red.

Rubescent. Growing or becoming red.

Rubicund. Inclining to redness.

Rubineous. The red splendor of the
ruby.

Rudiment. An imperfect organ, or one
but partially developed.

Rudimentary. Small; imperfect; unde-
veloped.

Ruff. A tuft or collar of raised feathers
round the neck of certain birds.

Rufescent. Tinged with red.

Rufous. A pale red. Of a reddish or
dull copper color.

Rugged. When a surface is rough, as in
certain insects with spines and tuber-
cles intermixed.

Rugose. Rugged ; wrinkled. Intricate,
with approximating elevations and de-
pressions whose direction is indeter-
minate.

Ruminant. Chewing the cud : having the
property of again chewing what has
once been swallowed. The Rurninantia
or ruminating animals are the cloven-
hoofed quadrupeds, as oxen, sheep,
deer, goats, hares, and squirrels. Ru-
mination consists in a power of laying
aside the food for a time, in a recep-
tacle adapted for it, and afterwards
bringing it back into the mouth and
masticating it a second time.

Ruminate. To chew the cud.

Russet. Of a reddish-brown color and
rough, like the skin of the apple
called a russet or russeting.

Rutting Season. A term used to denote
the time of the year when animals of
the cervine genus follow the natural
instinct to copulate.

' S.

Sabulous. Sandy; gritty.

Sacciform. Shaped like a sac or bag.

Salacious. Lustful ; having a strong pro-
pensity to venery.

Salient. Moving by leaps, as frogs.

Saline. Partaking of the qualities of
salt

Saliva. The fluid which is secreted by
the salivary glands ; it serves to mois-

ten the mouth and tongue, and also to
promote digestion.

Salivary. . Secreting or conveying saliva ;
as, the salivary glands.

Saltatorious. When the ventral segments
or the anus (of an insect) are furnished
with elastic processes which enable the
animal to leap.

Salubrious. Healthful ; as, a salubrious
climate.

Sanative. Having the power to heal or
cure.

Sanguifluous. Flowing with blood.

Sanguineous. Of the color of blood or
resembling blood.

Sanguivorous ; Sanguinivorous. Eating
or subsisting on blood.

Sarcophaga. Flesh-eating animals.

Sarcophagous. Pertaining to those ani-
mals which subsist by eating flesh;
feeding on flesh.

Saurian. The epithet by which reptiles
belonging to the lizard tribe (Lacerta)
are distinguished.

Sauroid. An epithet used to distinguish
a group of fossilized fishes of the car-
boniferous and secondary formations.

Saxatile. Living among rocks.

Scabious. Rough from the effects of the
scab or mange.

Scabrous. Rough and rugged ; rough to
the touch from granules scarcely vis-
ible. *

Scalloped. Indented at the edges.

Scapular. Pertaining to the shoulders or
the shoulder-blades, scapula.

Scapularies. In ornithology, those feath-
ers which take their rise from the
shoulders of birds, and cover the sides
of the back.

Scarify. To cut or scratch the skin of
an animal, or to make small incisions,
so as to draw blood from the small-
er vessels without opening a large
vein.

Scatebrous. Abounding with springs.

Scattered. When simple spots or marks
are separate from each other and not
arranged in a certain order.

Scent. The power of smelling; to per-
ceive by the olfactory organs; as, to
scent game.

Sciatic. Pertaining to the hip; as, the

. sciatic artery.

GLOSSARY.

45

Scopiferous. Furnished with one or more

dense brushes of hair.
Scopifonn. Having the form of a hroom

or besom.
Scoria. Dross ; the recrement or matter

thrown off from metals in fusion.
Scoriaceous. Partaking of the nature of

scoria.
Scoriform. In the form of dross ; like

scoria.

Scraggy, Lean, with roughness ; rough
with irregular points, or an uneven
surface.

Scrobiculate. Having the surface filled

with small hollows or cavities ; pitted

Scrotum. The integument which con

tains the male organs of generation.
Scutibranchiata. The order of Gastero-
podous Mollusca in which the gills are
protected by a shield-shaped shell.
Scutiform. Having the form of a shield

or buckler.
Scurf. A dry scab or crust formed on

the skin of an animal.
Scutate. Covered or protected by large,

flat scales.

Scutelliform. Shield-shaped.
Scutellum. The third section of the
upper surface of each segment in in-
sects.

Scutum. The second section of the up-
per surface of each segment in insects.
Sea-green. The color of sea- water.
Sealing. The operation of taking seals

and curing their skins.
Seam (of a shell). The line formed by

the union of the valves.
Sea-serpent. A huge marine animal like
a serpent in form, and by some sup-
posed to inhabit the sea.
Sebaceous. Consisting of or pertaining to
fat ; as, the sebaceous humor, a suet- like
matter secreted by the sebaceous glands,
which are small glands seated in the
cellular membrane under the skin.
Secondaries, or Secondary Quills. Those
quills which rise from the second bone
of the wings. The posterior wings of
an insect are denominated secondary if
the superior wings, when at rest, are
not placed upon them.
Secretitious. Separated by animal secre-
tion.
Secretory. Performing the office of se-

cretion ; as secretory vessels. The or-
gans of secretion are of various form
and structure, but the most general are
those called glands. Mucus, perspir-
able matter, &c. are properly secretions.

Securiform. When the last joint of the
feelers (palpi) is triangular, and the
preceding joint is connected with the
vortex of the triangle.

Sedentary. Accustomed to sit much.

Segmentation. The act of dividing into
segments.

Segments. The parts into which the body
of an insect is divided, and which are
thirteen. The great inosculating joints
of the body.

Segregated. Set apart, separated from
others.

Seminal. Pertaining to seed, or to the
elements of production.

Semipalmate ; Semipalmated. A" term de-
noting that the toes are connected by a
web extending only half their length.

Semirecondite. When the head of an in-
sect is half covered by the shield of the
thorax.

Senile. Pertaining to old age.

Senocular. Having six eyes.

ion. The perception of external
objects by means of the senses.

Sensibility. The capacity of feeling or
perceiving the impressions of external
objects.

Sentient. Having the faculty of percep-
tion.

Septic. Proceeding from, or generated
by, putrefaction.

Septiform (Canthus). When the canthns
forms an elevated ridge or septum.

Serial. Pertaining to, or arranged ac-
cording to, a series.

Sericeous. Silky ; having a soft, smooth
u*rface, resembling silk.

Sericteria, The glands which secrete the
silk in the silkworm.

Series. An order or subdivison of some

class of natural bodies.
Serpentine. Winding; spiral; like a
serpent; running in a serpentine di-
rection.
Serrate; Serrated. Toothed or notched

with points like a saw.
Serrature. An indenture in the edge of
any thing, like those of a saw.

46

GLOSSARY.

Serricated. Covered with a short, thick,
and silky down.

Serrulate. Having very minute teeth or
notches.

Sesouialterous (Fascia). When both wings
of an insect are traversed by a con-
tinued band, and either the primary
or secondary by another.

Sessile. Attached to any substance by a
base, without a stalk or peduncle.
When the head of an insect does not
move in the socket of the trunk, but is
attached to it by a kind of ligament.

Setaceous. Bristly ; set with bristles.

Setce. Bristles, or parts resembling
bristles.

Setiferous. Producing bristles.

Setiform (Antennae). Short and rigid,
tapering from the base to the apex
like a bristle.

Setigerous. Bristly. When antennas
terminate in a bristle.

Setose. Covered with bristles ; furnished
throughout with irregular, harsh, bris-
tly hair.

Setulose. Setose, with the bristles trun-
cated.

Sexual. Denoting what is peculiar to
the distinction and office of male and
female.

Shagreen. A kind of grained leather pre-
pared from the skin of a fish, a species
of SquaJus.

Sheath-winged. Having cases for cover-
ing the wings; as, a sheath-winged
. insect.

Shell. The crustaceous or testaceous
covering of certain animals; as, the
shdl of a tortoise, the shell of a lobster,
the shell of an oyster, &c.

Shell-fish. An aquatic animal whose ex-
ternal covering consists of a afcell,
crustaceous or testaceous ; as lobsters,
crabs, oysters, &c.

Shining. Reflecting the light, but not
intensely.

Sibilant. Making a hissing sound.

Siccative. That which promotes the
process of drying.

Silicious. Partaking of the nature and
qualities of silex, one of the primitive
earths usually found in the state of
stone.

Siinious. Resembling an ape or monkey.

Simons. Having a very flat or snub
nose with the end turned up : concave ;
as the simous part of the liver.

Simple (Oculi). Eyes which do not con-
sist of an aggregate of hexagonal
lenses.

Simultaneous. Existing or happening at
the same time.

Sinew. A tendon; that which unites a
muscle to the bone.

Sinistral (as opposed to dextral). When
a spiral shell has the aperture on the
left side.

Sinistrorsal. Rising from left to right, as
a spiral line or helix.

Sinistrous. Being on or inclined towards
the left side.

Sinuate. Having large curved breaks in
the margin, resembling bays.

Sinuous. Wavy.

Sinus. A groove, channel, or depression.

Siphon. A cylindrical tube ; the pipe by
which the chambers of a shell commu-
nicate ; a fleshy sucker.

Siphonostomous. A term applied to
crustaceous and other animals fur-
nished with a suctorious mouth like a
tube.

Siphunculus. A cylindrical canal perfo-
rating the partitions in polythalamous
shells, as in Nautilus spirula.

Sizy. Thick and glutinous ; as, sizy
blood.

Skeleton. The bones of an animal body
separated from the flesh and retained
in their natural position. When the
bones are connected by the natural
ligaments, it is called a natural skele-
ton; when by wires or other foreign
substance, an artificial skeleton.

Smaragdine. The green splendor of the
emerald.

Socket. Any cavity which receives and
holds something else; as, the sockets of
the teeth or of the eyes.

Solids. In anatomy, the bones, flesh,
and vessels of animal bodies, in dis-
tinction from the blood, chyle, and
other fluids.

Soliped. An animal whose foot is not
cloven.

Solipedes. A family of Mammalia, of
the order Pachydermata, having only
one apparent toe and a single hoof on

GLOSSARY.

47

each foot. One genus only is known,
Equus.

Solivagant. Wandering alone.

Soluble. Susceptible of being dissolved
in a fluid.

Somniferous. Causing or inducing sleep.

Somnolent. Drowsy ; inclined to sleep.

Soporific ; Sopor if erous. Causing sleep,
or tending to produce it.

Soid. The spiritual, rational, and im-
mortal principle in man, which distin-
guishes him from, and elevates him
infinitely above, the brute creation.

Spasmodic. Affected with spasms, or
involuntary contraction of muscular
fibres in animal bodies.

Spathaceous. Having a sheath-like calyx.

Spathiform. Resembling spar in form.

Spatulate. Rounded and broad at the
top and becoming narrow like a spat-
ula.

Spawner. The female fish.

Spayed. Castrated, as a female beast.

Specific. Designating the peculiar prop-
erties of an animal, which constitute
its species, and distinguish it from oth-
ers. The specific name of an animal
is appended to the name of the genus,
and constitutes the distinctive name of
the species.

Species. The lowest link in the chain of
scientific classification, and that which
admits of no further division. A spe-
cies comprehends all those animals
which may reasonably be supposed to
be descended from one common, orig-
inal stock : thus, all horses compose
but a single species ; and in the same
manner, all oxen, sheep, goats, dogs,
&c. compose respective and appropri-
ate species ; and where a marked differ-
ence in any of them exists, they are
said to be varieties of the species.

Speculum. The bright spot on the wings
of ducks.

Spermatheca. A receptacle attached to
the oviducts of insects.

Spermatozoa. The peculiar microscopic
moving filaments and essential parts
of the fertilizing fluid.

Spermatophera. The cylindrical capsules
or sheaths in the Cephalopods which
convey the sperm.

Sphacelus. Mortification of the flesh of

a living animal : caries or decay of a
bone.

Sphenoidal. Resembling a wedge ; re-
lating to the sphenoid bone at the basis
of the skull.

Sphere. An orbicular body.

Spherical. Globular ; as drops df water
take a spherical form.

Spherulate. Having one or more rows of
minute tubercles.

Spherule. A little sphere or spherical
body.

Spicula. Fine pointed bodies like nee-
dles.

Spicular. Having sharp points.

Spine. A fine, long, rigid, pointed pro-
cess.

Spinigerous (Elytra). When the Coleopte-
ra have a spine common to them both.

Spinnaret. The articulated tubes with
which spiders fabricate their web.

Spinous ; Spinose. Armed with spines.

Spiracles. The external apertures of the
trachea in insects.

Spiral. Twisted like a cork-screw.

Spire (of a univalve shell). All the
whorls except the one in which the
aperture is situated, which is termed
the body.

Spissitude. The denseness or compact-
ness which belongs to substances not
perfectly liquid nor perfectly solid ; as,
the spissitude of coagulated blood, &c.

Spongiose. Pertaining to a soft elastic
substance resembling sponge.

Spontaneous. Acting by its own impulse ;
as, spontaneous motion.

Spumous. Consisting of froth or scum.

Spur. A.spine that is not a process of
the crust, but is implanted in it

Spurious. Not genuine or legitimate.

Spurious or Bastard Wing. (Alula spu-
ria.) Three or five quill- like feathers,
placed at a small joint rising at the
middle part of the wing in birds.

Squab. Unfledged ; young and unfeath-
ered ; as, a squab pigeon.

S<juamiform. Having the form or shape
of scales.

Squamose ; Squamous, Scaly ; covered
with minute scales.

Squarrose. Cut into lacinice, or deep seg-
ments, that are elevated above the
plane of the surface.

48

GLOSSARY.

Stamina. Whatever constitutes the
strength or support of any thing ; as,
the bones are the stamina of animal
bodies ; or, that man is likely to attain
longevity, his stamina is so good, i. e.
his frame is robust and his health is
unimpaired.

Stellated. Consisting of star-like figures.

Stemmata. In entomology, three smooth
hemispheric dots, generally on the top
of the head, chiefly observable in hy-
menopterous insects, sometimes called
ocelli. The simple and minute eyes
of worms, and those which are added
to the large compound eyes.

Sterelmintha. Intestinal worms, which
have no true abdominal cavity.

Sterile. Barren ; producing no young.

Sternal. Relating to the sternum or breast-
bone.

Sternellum. The third section of the
lower surface of the segments of in-
sects.

Sternum. The under surface of the seg-
ments of insects ; in vertebrated ani-
mals, the breast-bone.

Stigmata. The breathing-pores of in-
sects.

Stomach. A membranous receptacle in
animal bodies, in which food is pre-
pared for entering into the several parts
of the body for its nourishment.

Stomato-gastric. Pertaining to the nerves
which are principally distributed upon
the stomach and intestinal canal.

Strice. In conchology, fine, thread-like
lines in the exterior surface of many
shells, longitudinal, transverse, or ob-
lique.

Striate; Striated. Marked with lines or
stripes. Having rather slightly im-
pressed longitudinal parallel lines.

Stridulous. Making a small, harsh, creak-
ing sound.

Structure. Manner of organization.

Struthious. Pertaining to or like the os-
trich.

Siupeous. Covered with long, loose scales
. resembling tow.

Stnpulose. Covered with coarse, decum-
bent hairs.

Subaqueous. Living or being under water.

Subclavian. Situated under the clavicle
or collar-bone.

Subcordate. In shape somewhat like a
heart.

Subcutaneous. Situated under the skin.

Subereous. Pertaining to a soft, elastic
substance somewhat resembling cork.

Subgenera. Subordinate genera.

Subglobular. In form approaching to that
of a globe ; nearly round.

Subjacent. Lying nearly, but not direct-
ly, underneath.

Sublimated. Brought into a state of va-
por by heat, and again condensed.

Submerged. Put under water.

Submuscular. Placed beneath muscles or
muscular layer.

Subocular. Situated under the eye.

Suborbicular. Nearly spherical.

Subovate. Nearly in the form of an egg.

Subpedunculate. With a short pedicel.

Subprehensile. Holding in a moderate

Subsidence. The act of sinking or grad-
ually descending, as ground.

Subsist. To be maintained with food.

Subspecies. A subordinate species.

Subulate. Awl-shaped.

Succedaneous. Supplying the place of
something else.

Succulent. Full of juice ; juicy.

Suctorial. Living by means of, or en-
dued with the power of, suction.

Suctorious. When the upper jaws of an
insect have an orifice by which they
imbibe their food.

Sudorific. Exciting perspiration.

Suffraginous. Pertaining to the knee-
joint of a beast.

Sulcate ; Sulcated. Furrowed. Having
deeply impressed longitudinal parallel
lines.

Sulci. Furrows or ridges.

Supra-ciliary. Situated above the eye-
brow.

Supra-orbital. Being above the orbit of
the eye.

Suspended. When one part is joined to
another by a ligature, without being
inserted in it.

Sustentation. Use of food; support of
life.

Sutural. Appertaining to a suture.

Suture. A hollow line or division in
univalve shells, the spiral line of which
separates the wreaths. The seam or

GLOSSARY.

49

joint which unites the bones of the
skull. The line of separation of any
two parts of a crust which are connect-
ed only by membrane or ligament, but
do not inosculate. Spurious Suture,
an impressed line in any part of a
body, which resembles a suture, but
does not really divide the crust.

Symphysis. In anatomy, the union of
bones by cartilage : in surgery, a coa-
lescence of a natural passage.

Synarthrosis. Union of bones without
motion, as in sutures.

Synchondrosis. The connection of bones
by means of cartilage,

Syndactylous. Having the front toes
united, the terminal joint only being
free.

Synonyme. A word or name which has
the same signification as another. Sy-
nonymous Terms are names applied to
the same groups or species of animals
by different authors.

Synovia!. Pertaining to synovia, a fluid
secreted into the cavities of the joints,
for the purpose of lubricating them.

Systematic. Formed with regular con-
nection and adaptation or subordina-
tion of parts to each other, and to the
design of the whole ; as a proceeding
according to some methodical plan or
system.

T.

TcEnoid. Kibbon-shaped, like the Taenia,
or tapeworm.

Tardigrada. The name given to a
family of anomalous Mammalia (the
Sloths), differing widely from all other
quadrupeds in their habits, economy,
and osteological structure.

Tarsus. The terminal portion of the leg
in insects ; affording important charac-
ters for generical and family distinc-
tions. It is a jointed piece, armed at
its extremity with one or two slender,
curved hooks (ungues), and often ac-
companied by membranous or fleshy
cushions (pulvilli). The number of
joints varies from two to five.

Tawny. A pale, dirty orange color.

Tectibranchiate. Belonging to the order
of Mollusca in which the gills are
covered by the mantle.

7

Tegument. The skin or other natural
covering of an animal body; a sub-
stance serving to defend any otherwise
exposed part.

Tegumentary. Having the properties of,
or belonging to, a tegument ; consist-
ing of teguments.

Telum. The thirteenth or last segment
of insects.

Temporal. Pertaining to the temples;
as the temporal arteries, &c.

Tentacula. The feelers of snails, &c.

Terebella. The instrument or organ with
which many female insects bore holes
to deposit their eggs.

Terminal. Forming the extremity.

Terminology. That branch of the science
of Natural History which explains all
the terms used in the description of
natural objects.

Tertials. Those feathers in the wings of
birds which take their rise from the
second bone, at the elbow-joint, forming
a continuation of the secondaries, and
seem to do the same with the scapu-
lars, which lie over them.

Tertiary (in geology). Of the third for-
mation. The teriiary formation consists
of a series of horizontal strata, more
recent than chalk-beds, consisting
chiefly of sand and clay, and frequently
embracing vast quantities of organic
remains of the larger animals.

Tessellated. Checkered like a chess-
board.

Testacea. The third order of worms, in-
eluding those which are covered with
a testaceous shell.

Testaceous. Composed of the materials
which constitute shells, viz. carbonate
of lime and animal matter. Pertain-
ing to the Testacea. Also applied to
the color resembling a tile, a dull-red.

Testudinal; Testudinous. Pertaining to
the tortoise, or resembling it.

Testudinarious. Painted with red, black,
and yellow, like tortoise-shell.

Testudineous. Resembling tortoise-shell.
Tetrabranchiate. Belonging to the order

of Cephalopods with four gills.
Tetradactylous. Having four toes.
Tetragonal. Whose horizontal section is

quadrangular.
Tetrahedral. Having four sides.

50

GLOSSARY.

Tetrapod. An insect having only four
perfect legs.

Tetrapterous. Having four wings.

Theca. The sheath or case of the pro-
boscis in insects.

Theory. An exposition of the general
principles of any science ; or, the sci-
ence, distinguished from the practice,
of an art.

Thermal. Pertaining to heat; as, ther-
mal waters, warm or tepid mineral
waters.

Thoracic. Pertaining to the breast, or
thorax ; as, the thoracic arteries. Also
belonging to an order of bony fishes,
respiring by means of gills only, the
character of which is that the branchia
are ossiculated, and the ventral fins
are placed underneath the thorax, or
beneath the pectoral fins.

Thorax. The anterior mass in pedun-
culated insects.

Thrill. To feel a sharp tingling or shiv-
ering sensation running through the
body.

Throb. To beat rapidly, as the heart or
pulse, in consequence of agitation.

Tibia. The third portion of the legs in
insects.

Tibial. Belonging to the tibia; as the
tibial arteries.

Tiercel, or Tiercelet. In falconry, a name
given to the male hawk, as being a
third part less in size than the female.

Titillate. To excite by tickling.

Torose. Swelling into knobs or protuber-
ances.

Tomentose. Covered with short, inter-
woven, inconspicuous hairs.

Toneless. Having no tone ; unmusical.

Topazine. The yellow splendor of the
topaz.

Topical. Limited; local, as a topical
remedy.

Tortoise-shell. The shell or scales of the
. tortoise, a valuable article in various
manufactures.

Tortuous. Twisted, wreathed, winding.

Torulose (joints of insects). When they
are a little tumid.

Toxicology. A treatise or discourse on
the nature of poisons.

Tracheae. The air-tubes, which in in-
sects are the organs of respiration.

Tracheal. Pertaining to the trachea or

windpipe.
Trachelipods The Mollusca which have

the locomotive disc or foot attached to

the head.
Tracheotomy. The surgical operation of

making an opening into the windpipe.
Tractile. Capable of being drawn out in

length.
Train-oil. The oil produced from the

blubber or fat of whales by boiling.
Tramosericeous. The splendor of satin.
Transfigured. Changed in form.
Transformed. Changed in form or ex-
ternal appearance.
Transfused. Poured or transferred from

one vessel into another.
Translucent; Translucid. Transparent;

clear.
Transmarine. Living or being beyond

the sea.
Transmigrate^/. Passing from one place,

body, or state to another.
Transmitted. Caused or suffered to pass

through ; as, sound is transmitted by

means of vibrations of the air.
Transpire. To exhale; to pass off by

insensible perspiration.
Transude. To pass through the pores or

interstices of texture, as perspirable

matter or other fluid.
Transverse. Crossing each other: when

the longitudinal line is cut through at

right angles.
Trapezate. Quadrilateral with the four

sides unequal, and none of them per-
fectly parallel.

Trapeziform. Shaped like a trapezium.
Trapezoid. Quadrilateral, with two sides

unequal and parallel.
Tread. To step or walk ; to copulate, as

fowls.

Trematoda. The order of Entozoa char-
acterized by suctorial pores.
Trenchant. Sharp; cutting; as trenchant

claws.

Trichotomous. Divided into three parts.
Tridactyle. Three-fingered.
Tridactylous. Having three toes.
Tridentate. Having three teeth.
Triedral. Having three sides.
Triform. Having a triple form or shape.
Trigonal. Having three angles.
Trilobate. Divided into three lobes.

GLOSSARY.

51

Tripartite. Divided into three parts.

Tripedal. Having three feet.

Triquetrous. Whose horizontal sections
are equilateral triangles.

Triradiate. Consisting of three spokes
or rays.

Triradiated. Having three rays.

Triturate. To reduce to a very fine pow-
der by pulverization.

Trivalvular. Having three valves.

Troglodytical. Resembling, in mode of
life, the Troglodytes, a people of Ethi-
opia, whom the ancients represented
as living in caves.

Trophi. The parts of the mouth (in in-
sects) employed in acquiring and pre-
paring the food.

Tropical. Pertaining to or being with-
in the tropics; as, tropical climates,
winds, &c.

Truncate (elytra). When they are short-
er than the abdomen and transverse at
the end.

Truncated. Cut off short, or terminating
abruptly.

Truttaceous. Belonging to fish of the
trout kind.

Tubercle. A little pimple-like knob.

Tubercular : Tuberculous. Full of knobs
or pimples.

Tuberculate. Covered with small pro-
tuberances.

Tuberosities. Prominent knots or excres-
cences.

Tubicolar. Inhabiting a tube.

Tubular. In the shape of a tube ; hollow
and cylindrical.

Tubulate; Tulmlous. Hollow.

Tubulose. When the tongue of an insect
emerges from the labium, is long and
tubular, and capable of inflation.

Tuft. A bunch of feathers or hairs.

Tumid. Protuberant; enlarged or dis-
tended.

Tumular. Formed into a heap or hillock.

Tunioata. The class of acephalous Mol-
lusca which are enveloped in an elastic
tunic not defended by a shelL

Tunicated. Coated.

Turbinate. Top-shaped ; triangular, with
curved sides.

Turbinated. Wreathed conically from a
larger base to a kind of apex ; as t ur-
binated shells.

Turbinifonn. Whose vertical section is
turbinate, and horizontal circular

Turgid. Swollen.

Turretc.d. When the head of an insect is
producted into a kind of columnar re-
curved turret or rostrum, in the sides
of which, towards the end, the eyes
are fixed.

Turrilite. The fossil remains of a spiral
multilocular shell.

Tympanum. The drum of the ear.

Type. A general form, such as is com-
mon to the species of a genus, or the
individuals of a species.

Typijied. Figured, or represented by a
model form, or resemblance.

U.

Ubiquity. Existence in all places or ev-
erywhere at the same time.

Uliginous. Muddy, oozy, slimy.

Ulnar. Pertaining to the ulna ; as, the
ulnar nerve.

Ultramarine. Situated or beyond the
sea. Also, the name of a beautiful and
durable sky-blue color, formed of the
mineral called lapis lazuli.

Umbilical. Pertaining to the navel.

Umbilicated. Having a depression in the
centre like a navel.

Umbilicus. A hole, either deep or shal-
low, on the side of the inner lip in spi-
ral shells, formed by the inner edges of
the whorls not touching each other.

Umbles. The entrails of a deer.

Umbo (in bivalve shells). The promi-
nent part which turns over the hinge.

Umbonate. Bossed ; having a raised
knob in the centre.

Umbraculate. When there is upon the
head of insects an umbrella-shaped
process.

Uncinated. Set or covered with bent
spines like hooks.

Unctuous. Fat, oily ; having a resem-
blance to oil or grease.

Underground. Below the surface of the
earth.

Undiaphanous. Not pellucid.

Undose. Having undulating nearly par-
allel broader depressions which run in-
to each other, and resemble the sand of
the sea-shore when left by the tide.

52

GLOSSARY.

Undnluted. Having a waved surface.

Undulating. Waving ; rising and falling ;
vibrating.

Undulatory. Moving in the manner of
waves ; as, the ttndulatory motion of
the air is supposed to be the cause of
sounds.

Unfigured. Representing no animal
form.

Unfledged. Not yet famished with feath-
ers.

Ungues. Claws.

Unguiculated. Having sharp claws ;
armed with a claw.

Ungula. The terminal joint of the tar-
sus.

Ungulate. Shaped like a horse's hoof.

Unicornous. Having only one horn.

Unigenous. Of one kind; of the same
genus.

Unilateral. Being or existing on one
side only.

Unilocular. With a single chamber or
compartment.

Uniparous. Producing one at a birth.

Univalve. The name given to those
shells which consist of one 'valve
only.

Univalvular. Having only one valve.

Unnatural, Contrary to the laws of na-
ture ; not in conformity with natural
feelings or instincts.

Urceolate. Swelling in the middle, like
a pitcher.

Uropygial., Belonging to the rump.

Ursine. Pertaining to or resembling a
bear.

Uterine. Pertaining to the uterus or
womb.

V.

Vaccine. Pertaining to cows; as, the
vaccine disease, or cow-pox.

Vaginopennous. Having the wings cov-
ered with a hard case or sheath, as
coleopterous insects.

Valve. One of the pieces or divisions
in bivalve and multivalve shells. A
membraneous partition within the
cavity of a shell, which opens to al-
low the passage of a fluid in one di-
rection, and shuts to prevent its re-
gurgitation.

Valvular. Containing valves.

Varices. Longitudinal raised bands or
ridges, which occur at regular distan-
ces in some univalves. They are the
remnants of former apertures, and
mark the progressive enlargement of
the shell.

Varicose. Preternaturally enlarged; as,
varicose veins.

Variegated. Diversified in colors or ex-
ternal appearance.

Variety. The well-marked difference
which often occurs between animals of
the same species.

Variolous. Pertaining to or resembling
the small-pox.

Vascular. Composed of, or pertaining
to, the vessels of animal bodies, as ar-
teries, veins, and the like, which form
the vascular system.

Vent. That part of a bird near the anus;
that part near the extremity of the
abdomen in birds.

Venter. The abdomen or lower belly.

Vent-feathers. Those feathers that lie
from the vent, or anus, to the tail un-
derneath.

Ventral. Pertaining to the belly. The
ventral fins in fishes are placed be-
tween the anus and the throat.

Ventricose. Swollen in the middle; in-
flated.

Ventricular. Belonging to a ventricle.

Ventriculus. The second portion of the
alimentary canal in insects.

Vermes. A term for worm-like animals :
applied in a very extensive sense by
Linnaeus.

Vermicular. Resembling a worm, and
more particularly the motion of a
worm ; as, the vermicular motion of the
intestines, called also peristaltic.

Vermiculate; Vermiculated. Covered with
tortuous markings or excavations, like
worm-eaten wood.

Vermiform. Worm-shaped.

Vermilion. A delicate bright-red color.

Verminous' Tending to breed vermin.

Vermiparous. Producing worms.

Vermivorous. Feeding on worms.

Vernacular. Belonging to a person by
birth or nature.

Vernal. Belonging to the spring; ap-
pearing in the spring.

GLOSSARY.

Verriculate. Having one or more verri-
cules.

Verricule. A thick-set tuft of parallel
hairs.

Verruca. A small, flattish, wart-like
prominence.

Verrucose. Covered with tubercles re-
sembling warts.

Versicolored. Of various and changeable
colors.

Vertebrae. The joints of the spine or
backbone of an animal.

Vertebral: Vertebrated. Belonging to the
Vertebrata ; having a backbone or ver-
tebral column, containing the spinal
marrow.

Vertebrata. That large and important
class of animals distinguished by hav-
ing a backbone or vertebral column,
as man, quadrupeds, birds, amphibia,
and fishes.

Vertex. The top, or highest part.

Vertical. Erect ; perpendicular.

Verticulate. Arranged like the rays of a
wheel or spindle.

Vesicatory. Having the property of caus-
ing blisters.

Vesicle. A little bladder, or a portion of
the cuticle separated from the skin and
filled with some humor.

Vesiculce. Keceptacles like little blad-
ders.

Vesicular ; Vesiculous. Pertaining to ves-
icles ; having little bladders or super-
fifjial glands.

Vibratile. When there is a constant os-
cillation of any part.

Vibratory. Consisting in vibration or
oscillation ; as, a vibratory motion.

Vibrissm. The hairs that, in certain
birds, stand forward like feelers : in
some birds they are slender, as in fly-
catchers, &c., and point both upwards
and downwards, from both the upper
and under sides of the mouth.

Vicarious. Filling the place of an-
other.

Vigor. Active strength or force of body
in animals.

Villi. Small processes like the pile *of
velvet.

Vinous. Having the qualities of wine.

Violaceous. Of a violet color, or resem-
bling violets.

Viperous. Like a viper, or having the
qualities of one.

Viridity. Greenness ; verdure.

Virile. Belonging to the male sex.

Virulent. Very poisonous or venom-
ous.

Virus. Foul or contagious matter in an
ulcer, &c.

Viscera. The organs contained in any
cavity of the body, particularly in the
three venters, the head, thorax, and
abdomen.

Viscid. Glutinous ; not readily separat-
ing.

Viscous. Clammy ; adhesive ; tenacious ;
as a viscous juice.

Visual. Pertaining to sight ; • as, visual
rays are lines of light imagined to
come from the object to the eye.

Vitals. Parts of animal bodies essential
to life, such as the viscera. jj <&?}

Vitelline. Of or belonging to the yolk of
an egg.

Vitellus. The yolk of an egg.

Vitreous. Resembling glass 5 as, the vit-
reous humor of the eye.

Vitrescent. Tending to become glass.

Vitriform. Having the form or resem-
blance of glass.

Vivacious. Lively ; active ; spright-

iy.

Vivary. A place for keeping living ani-
mals in ; as a pond, a park, &c.

Vivid. Exhibiting the appearance of
life or freshness.

Vivify. To endue with life ; to ani-
mate.

Viviparous. Pertaining to those animals
which bring forth their young alive,
as distinguished from oviparous, produ-
cing eggs, as birds.

Vocal. Uttered or modulated by the
voice; as, the vocal music of the
woods.

Vociferous. Clamorous; making aloud
outcry.

Voided. Emitted; evacuated; as, he
voided worms.

Volatile. Flying ; passing through the
air on wings, or by the buoyant force
of the atmosphere; having the power
to fly. Also, capable of wasting away,
or of easily passing into the aeriform
state.

54

GLOSSARY.

Volute. A spiral turn in shells, &c.

Volatile. A petrified shell of the genus
Valuta.

Vomer. The palate or upper part of
the mouth of a fish.

Voracious. Rapacious; eager to de-
vour.

Vortex. A whirlpool ; a whirlwind.

Vulpine. Pertaining to the fox.

Vulturine. Having the qualities of, or
resembling, a vulture.

Vulva. A mark in several bivalve shells,
formed when the valves are united on
the posterior and anterior slopes.

W.

Wall-eyed. Having a ' disease in the
crystalline humor of the eye, which
gives it a white appearance.

Wattle. The fleshy excrescence which
grows under the throat of some fowls,
as the turkey, and also- of some
fishes.

Wean. To accustom and reconcile a
child or other young animal to a want
or deprivation of the breast.

Web. The membrane which unites the
toes of many water-fowls. Also, a
plexus of very delicate threads or fila-
ments which a spider spins from its
bowels, and which serves as a net to
catch flies and other insects for its
food.

Webbed. Having the toes united by a
\ membrane or web ; as the webbed feet
of aquatic fowls.

Web-footed. Palmiped; having webbed
feet.

Whelky. Protuberant and embossed ;
resembling the whelk, a marine uni-
valve shell.

Whine. To express murmurs by a plain-
tive cry.

Whir. To sound like a body passing
swiftly through the air.

Whistle. A call, such as sportsmen use
to their dogs ; a shrill sound made by
pressing the breath through a small
orifice of the lips ; the sound of winds
passing among trees or through crev-
ices, &c.

White (of the eye). That part of the

ball of the eye surrounding the iris or
colored part. It owes its whiteness to
the tunica albuginea or adnata, a partial
covering of the fore part of the eye,
formed by the expansion of the ten-
dons of the muscles which move the
eye-ball.

White (of an egg). The albumen, or
pellucid viscous fluid, which surrounds
the vitellus or yolk.

Whiz. To make a humming or hissing
sound, like a ball or arrow passing
through the air.

Windfall. A soft tumor on the fetlock
joints of a horse.

Wing-shell The shell that covers the
wings of certain insects.

Withers. The juncture of the shoulder-
bones of a horse, at the bottom of the
neck.

Wood-fretter. An insect or worm that
eats wood.

Wrinkled. Ridges and furrows formed
on the skin or any smooth surface.

Writhe. To twist with violence ; to dis-
tort.

Xiphoid (cartilage). A small cartilage
situated at the bottom of the breast-
bone, called also the ensiform car-
tilage.

Xylophagous. Destroying and feeding
on wood.

Y.

Yearling. A young beast one year old,
or in the second year of his age ; as,
a yearling heifer.

Yelp. To bark in a particular way ; as,
& yelping cur.

Z.

Zigzag. Having short turnings and an-
gles.

Zoned. Surrounded with one or more
girdles.

ZoOgraphy. Zoology, which latter term
is now generally used for the sci-
ence that describes and classifies ani-
mals.

GLOSSARY.

55

Zoology. That branch of Natural His-
tory which treats of all the beings
comprised in the term " Animal
World."

ZoOlyte. An animal substance, petrified
or fossil.

ZoOphytic. Pertaining to the Zoo-
phytes.

ZoGpkytology. That branch of Natural

History which treats of the structure,
habits, &c. of Zoophytes.

Zygodactylous. Having the toes joined
in pairs ; as in the parrot tribe.

Zygomatic. Pertaining to the zygoma, a
bone of the head, called also os jugate,
or cheekbone ; or to the bony arch
under which the temporal muscle

THE END.

LABIATE.

Labiate Plants.

No. 54.
MENTHA PIPERITA.

PEPPERMINT.

Geog, Position. Europe.
Quality. Penetrating, grateful.
Power. Stomachic, stimulant.

Use. Nausea, griping, flatulent colic, to disguise the un-
pleasant taste of other medicines.

BOTANICAL ANALYSIS.

Natural Classification.

ORDER LABIATE.

Linncean Classification.

CLASS XIV. Didynamia. ORDER Gymnospermia.

AUTHORITIES.— Willd. Sp. PL III. 74. Woodv. Med. Bot. 336. Lind. Flor
Med. 487. Raf. Med. Flor. II. 242. Whitlaw, Med. Disc. 116. Lond. Disp. 439.
U. S. Disp. 475. EC. Disp. U. S. 261 . Loud. Encyc. PI. 500. Ballard and Garrod,
Mat. Med. 355. Thomson, Mat. Med. *104. Pereira, Mat. Med. II. 288. Griff.
Med. Bot. 502. Carson, Illust. Med. Bot. IL 16. Gray, Bot. Text-Book, 840.
Beach, Fam. Ph. 6G3. Howard, Bot. Med. 269. Kost, Mat. Med. 329. Wood,
Class-Book, 416.

GENUS MENTHA.

Miv&a or («iV#77, in old Greek. The Poets feign that Mintha was a 'daughter of
Cocytus, transformed into the plant which bears her name ; an allegorical descrip-
tion of the terrible effects ascribed to the plant by the ancients.

SYNONYMES. — Menthe poivree (Fr.), Pfeffermunze (Ger.), Peperminte (Dutch),
Peparmynta (Swed.), Menta Piperita (It), Verbal nina de saper de Pimienta (Sp.),
Hortelaa apimentada (Port.).

THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERS.

CALYX. Tubular, regularly five-toothed or cleft or bilabiate,
persistent.

COROLLA. Bilabiate (rarely regular, five-toothed), the upper
lip bifid or entire, overlapping in aestivation the lower three-
cleft one.

STAMENS. Four, didynamous, or sometimes only two, the

1

MENTHA PIPERITA.

upper pair being abortive or wanting, situated on the co-
rolla tube. Anthers mostly two-celled.

OVARY. Free, deeply four-lobed, the single style arising from
the base of the lobes.

FRUIT. One - four hard nuts or achenia.

SEEDS. Erect, with little or no albumen. Embryo erect.
Cotyledons flat.

THE SECONDARY CHARACTERS.

MENTHA. Calyx equally five-toothed. Corolla nearly reg-
ular, four-cleft, the broadest segment emarginate. Stamens
four, straight, distant. Anthers cells parallel. Filaments naked.

Corolla nearly equal, four-lobed, broadest division emarginate. Stamens erect,
distant.

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.

MENTHA PIPERITA. Leaves smooth, ovate-lanceolate, ser-
rate, petiolate. Bracts lanceolate. Calyx quite smooth at
base.

Spikes obtuse; interrupted below. Leaves subovate, somewhat glabrous, petioled.
Stem glabrous at the base.

THE ARTIFICIAL CHARACTERS.

CLASS DIDYNAMIA. Stamens four, two of them longer than
the other two. ORDER GYMNOSPERMIA. Seeds naked. Ache-
nia four (or fewer) included in the calyx. Corolla mono-
petalous and labiate.

NATURAL HISTORY.

PEPPERMINT is a native of Europe, and has become natural-
ized in many parts of the United States. It is a perennial
herbaceous plant, and grows in wet and moist places, flower-
ing the latter part of the summer. It is occasionally found
growing wild along the fences and by-places of the country.
In many parts of New England, and especially in the west-
ern part of New York, in Ohio, and New Jersey, the plant is
largely cultivated for the sake of its volatile oil. All the spe-
cies are raised by the same methods, by parting the roots, by
offsetting young plants, and by cuttings of the stalks. The
cultivators of the plant observe that, to keep up its quality, the
roots must be transplanted every three years, otherwise it de-
generates into the flavor of Spearmint, Mentha viridis. If

2

MENTHA PIPERITA.

the plant be cut in wet weather it changes to black and is
little worth.

The root of the plant is creeping ; the stem quadrangular
and channelled, nearly upright, and about two feet high,
branching, purplish, and rather hairy with the hairs bent back-
wards. The leaves are of a dark-green color, opposite, peti-
olate, ovate, rather pointed, serrated, the upper side smoother
and less pubescent than the under, which is paler with white
and purple veins. The flowers are in terminal spikes, solitary,
almost capitate, interrupted beneath, with the lower whorl
more remote, and on a footstalk. The bracts are lanceolate
and ciliated. The calyx is furrowed, tender, studded with
glandular points. The base entirely naked, very smooth and
five-cleft, with the teeth of a blackish purple color, ciliated.
The corolla is purple, and conceals within its tube the anthers,
which are on short filaments. The germen is four-cleft, with
a filiform style longer than the corolla, and furnished with a
bifid stigma. The four-cleft germ is converted into four seeds,
lodged in the calyx.

Sir J. E. Smith supposes that this plant was* discovered -by
Dr. Eales, and says that what is called Peppermint in the
North of Europe is merely a variety of^Mentha hirsuta, hav-
ing a similar odor, and is the Mentha piperita of the Linnaean
herbarium.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES.

The whole plant is officinal. The odor of both the recent
and dried plant is peculiar and well known, aromatic, pene-
trating, and grateful, in some degree resembling camphor ; and
the taste pungent, warm, glowing, and bitterish, followed by
a sensation of coldness when air is drawn into the mouth. It
gives out its properties to alcohol and partly to water. It con-
tains volatile oil, a bitter principle, resin, tannic acid, and woody
fibre. The oil can be obtained separate by distillation. It is
colorless, but becomes yellowish or even reddish by age. It
has a powerful aromatic odor, and an extremely pungent taste.
The camphor it contains is isomeric with the oil.

Peppermint is employed in medicine for several purposes.
It is stomachic, stimulant, antispasmodic, and carminative.
It is chiefly used to allay nausea and griping, to relieve flatu-
lent colic, and in hysteria ; or as a vehicle to cover the nause-
ous taste of other medicines. It is, however, to many palates
extremely disagreeable. The fresh herb, bruised and applied
over the epigastrium, often allays sick stomach, and is

3

MENTHA PIPERITA.

cially useful in the cholera in children. The medicine may be
given in infusion, but the volatile oil, either alone or in some
state of preparation, is generally and almost always preferred.

There are several varieties, and all are herbaceous and odor-
ous, with verticillate flowers, either axillary or spiked. Several
of the species are officinal.

The following are the principal preparations of this medi-
cine, with their uses.

AQUA MENTHJE PIPERITA. Take of peppermint a pound
and a half, pour over it as much water as will prevent empy-
reuma during the distillation. Distil a gallon.

Peppermint water has the flavor and taste of the plant in a
very considerable degree. It is sometimes used alone as a
carminative and stimulant, but more generally for the purpose
of covering the taste of other medicines.

SPIRITUS MENTH^E PIPERITJE. Take of oil of peppermint,
by weight, six scruples and a half; proof spirit four pints and
a half; water, sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Add the spirits
to the oil, and pour on them as much water as will prevent
empyreuma, then distil with a slow fire one gallon.

Spirit of peppermint is a useful carminative in nausea and
flatulence, and as an adjunct to purgative remedies. This
spirit has no advantage over a simple solution of the oil in
alcohol, and may therefore with great propriety be substituted
for it. The solution is usually kept in the shops under the
name of essence of peppermint.

OLEUM MENTHJE PIPERITA. Obtained by submitting the
fresh herb to distillation with water. Its odor is strong and its
taste very pungent, but at the same time it impresses a sensa-
tion of coldness. The vapor of it applied to the eye causes
a feeling of coldness. Its color is greenish-yellow, or nearly
colorless, but it becomes white when exposed to the light, and
reddish by age. Four pounds of the recent plant yield from
one drachm and a half to three drachms and a half of the oil.
The product is generally less than one per cent. In a warm,
dry, and favorable season, the product of a given quantity of
the fresh herb is double that which it yields in a wet and
cold season.

Oil of peppermint is a stimulant and carminative, and is
used occasionally as an antispasmodic. It is a common do-
mestic remedy in cramp of the stomach, flatulent colic, and
anorexia, and as a corrigent or adjuvant of other medicines.
The dose is from one to three drops, and is most conveniently
given rubbed up with sugar and then dissolved in water.

Besides the above, there are other popular preparations of
peppermint extensively used. INFUSUM MENTHA PIPERITJE,
Peppermint tea ; ROTUL.E MENTHJE PIPERITJE, Peppermint
drops ; THE LIQUEUR sold at the spirit-shops as mint or pep-
permint is used as a cordial.

4

SPECIMEN OP

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA

AND

MATERIA MEDICA BOTANICA,

CONTAINING

FIFTY SUCH PLATES OF PLANTS YEARLY, WITH THE LETTER-PRESS
ACCOMPANYING EACH,

EMBRACING

ALL THAT IS IMPORTANT OR NECESSARY TO BE KNOWN ON THE

SUBJECT.

PUBLISHED IN PAMPHLET FORM IN JANUARY, MARCH, JUNE,
SEPTEMBER, AND DECEMBER, OF EACH YEAR.

Each quarterly part contains twelve numbers and plates, with the letter-press matte^ attached,

embracing the Botanical Analysis, Natural History, and the Chemical and Medical

Properties and Uses of each plant.

Terms, $ 3.00 a year, always in advance.

THE SECOND YEAR

IS NOW IN COURSE OF PUBLICATION, BUT ANT OF THE BACK NUMBERS
MAT BE HAD ON APPLICATION (INCLOSING THE PAYMENT) TO

PETER P. GOOD,

North Cambridge,

Middlesex County,

Mass.

#3° Patrons and Friends are particularly requested to circulate this publication. There is room for
MORE SUBSCRIBERS, and no effort shall be spared to make these works worthy of their acceptance.
The Family Flora can only be had of the Proprietor and Publisher.
£Ct=- Apply aa above.

PROSPECTUS

OP

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA

AND

MATERIA MEDICA BOTANICA.

A PERIODICAL.

Twelve Numbers form a Part, published Quarterly, in January, March, June, September,
and December of each year, and these Parts form a Volume. Subscription, Three Dol-
lars per annum, in advance.

THE first volume and several parts also of the second volume of the Family
Flora being now published, the public, as well as the profession, are, we trust, in
possession of sufficient materials to form a judgment of the character of the whole.
We cannot but feel exceedingly flattered by the expression of praise that has been
bestowed upon the work by those who are the most competent to form an opinion
on the subject. The approval of the press has also been highly gratifying.

The following plan has been adopted in describing the plants illustrated in this
work.

The botanic name of each plant, in large capitals, appears first; then the common
or vulgar name in italics ; next follows its place or habitation, and some of its most
prominent qualities, in smaller type, and after, a very short epitome of its power and
applicatidli. The whole of this division is intended to be terse and concise, exhib-
iting an appropriate head to the body of the matter.

The botanical description of each plant embraces those characteristics (essential
and secondary as well as specific characters) which botanists have fixed on as the
only means by which a plant, that is not familiar to the reader of an account of it,
can, with certainty, be known ; and these descriptions are given in the language
employed by modern botanical writers. This method of discovering a plant by
comparisons" derived from a few particulars, and these of the most striking kind, is
certainly an agreeable and noble exercise of the understanding.

The Natural History of each plant introduced in this publication embraces only
a general and familiar account of whatever does not properly come under the bo-
tanical analysis j and as this division of the subject is more particularly calculated
for the general reader, it is hoped, with the colored engravings, there will be no dif-
ficulty in identifying the several plants described. This study of plants possesses one
very eminent advantage ; it doubles the pleasure of every walk and journey, and
calls forth to healthy exercise the bodily as well as mental powers.

For the chemical and medical department recourse has been had to every work
of reputation to which access could be obtained ; and as much useful information
regarding each of the plants treated of has been brought together as could be con-
veniently crowded into a small space. We are often placed in situations in which
it may be highly important to be able to recognize the vegetable which yields a par-
ticular medicine, and we are so constantly liable to imposition from the collectors
of herbs, that the necessity of possessing the means of distinguishing by infallible
marks the various vegetable products of the earth will be readily recognized.

The extreme difficulty and great expense of executing the colored plates, at
once in an accurate and elegant style, can only be appreciated by those who have
actually attempted something of the same kind. It is gratifying, however, to find
that the general execution of the work has met with the public approbation, — a
fact of which the favorable notices of the press and the large subscription list afford
ample evidence. It is also encouraging to learn that the Family Flora has already
been adopted as a text-book in many of our most respectable seminaries of educa-
tion ; and in noticing this fact, it may be proper to remark that the student who
may so use this work will find his labors greatly facilitated by using, in connection
with it, the excellent " Class-Book of Botany," by Alphonso Wood, A. M., a new
edition of which has recently been published.

CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME OF GOOD'S
FAMILY FLORA.

EXTRA PART.

MM

TITLE AND FRONTISPIECE . i

PREFACE . . iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . v

GLOSSARY vii

MARCH, OR SPRING PART.

Eosa centifolia. Hundred-leaved, or Provens Rose. . . . . . .1

Sanguinaria Canadensis. Bloodroot, Red Puccoon. ..... 2

Statice Limonium. Thrift, Marsh Rosemary 3

Nasturtium officinale. Water Cress • . . . 4

Copaifera officinalis. Copaiva Tree. 5

Canella alba. White Canella. 6

Balsamodendron Myrrha. Myrrh. ?'.'.. ''",/1 . , . . . 7

Pryobalanops aromatica. Camphor. . . . ... . . 8

Helleborus niger. Black Hellebore, Christmas Rose 9

Chimaphila umbellata: Winter- Green, Prince's Pine. . ... . . 10

Lappa major. Burdock. .11

Liriodendron Tulipifera. Tulip-Tree, Poplar. 12

JUNE, OR SUMMER PART.

Maruta Cotula. May Weed, Wild Chamomile. tA»'.»TJ&»"?7.. ... 13

Prinos verticillatus. Winter Berry, Black Alder. . ... ;;.».- ix-fr 14

Erigeron Philadelphicum. Scabious, Philadelphia Fleabane 15

Sabbatia angularis, American Centaury. ....... 16

Cornus Florida. Flowering Dogwood .,f ..* . .17

Magnolia glauca. White Bay, Small Magnolia. * «, »\' •..».;<..»..•,. »">>*S§

Cornus seriacea. Red Osier, Swamp Dogwood 19

Symplocarpus foetidus. Skunk Cabbage. 20

Cassia Marilandica. American Senna. 21

Geranium maculatum. Spotted Geranium, Crane's Bill. .... 22

Comptonia asplenifolia. Sweet Fern. . . . ..-•-,. . . .23

Convolvulus panduratus. Wild Potato, Fiddle-leaved Bindweed. ... 24

SEPTEMBER, OR AUTUMN PART.

Phytolacca decandra. Poke, Garget. 25

Hamamelis Virginiana. Witch Hazel. ....... 26

Lobelia inflata. Indian Tobacco 27

Rhus glabra. Smooth Sumach. ......... 28

Taraxacum Dens-leonis. Dandelion. ........ 29

Asclepias tuberosa. Tuberous- Rooted Asclepias, Butterfly- Weed. . . 30

Quercus rubra. Red Oak. 31

Capsicum annuum. Red Pepper, Cayenne Pepper. 32

Atropa Belladonna. Deadly Nightshade. . 33

Myrica cerifera. Bayberry, Wax Myrtle. 34

Borago officinalis. Common Borage. 35

Euphorbia Ipecacuanhas. American Ipecacuanha 36

DECEMBER, OR WINTER PART.

Solanum dulcamara. Bittersweet, Woody Nightshade 37

Ulmus fulva. Slippery Elm, Red Elm 38

Sambucus Canadensis. Common Elder 39

Malva silvestris. High Mallow 40

In ula Helen ium. Elecampane. 41

Polygala Senega. Seneca Snakeroot 42

Ribes rubrum. Common Red Currant 43

Cypripedium pubescens. Ladi/s Slipper, Nerve Root 44

Nymphsea odorata. Water Lily 45

Digitalis purpurea. Foxglove. 46

Gaultheria procumbens. Checkerberry, Mountain Tea 47

Zanthoxylum Americanum. Prickly Ash 48

CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME OF GOOD'S
FAMILY FLORA.

EXTRA PART.

PAGE

TITLE AND FRONTISPIECE i

COMMENDATIONS, &c iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS y

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF BOTANY yii

MARCH, OR SPRING PART.

NO.

Podophyllum peltatum. May-apple, Wild Mandrake 49

Daphne Mezereum. Mezereon, Spurge Olive. . . . . . . 50

Eupatorium perfoliatum. Boneset, Thoroughwort 51

Asarum Canadense. Canada Snakeroot, Coltsfoot 52

Arum triphyllum. Dragon-root, Wild Turnip 53

Mentha piperita. Peppermint 54

Convolvulus scammonia. Scammony, Syrian Bindweed 55

Datura stramonium. Thorn-apple, Jamestown-weed 56

Coptis trifolia. Goldthread, Mint-root 57

Lilium candidum. White Lily 58

Apocynum androsaemifolium. Dogsbane, Bitter-root. 59

Gentiana lutea. Yellow Gentian. . . -± ^ 60

JUNE, OR SUMMER PART.

Spigelia Marylandica. Pink-root, Worm-grass 61

Vitis vinifera. Common Vine Grape. 62

Triosteum perfoliatum. Feverwort, Wild Coffee 63

Papaver somniferum. Poppy, White Poppy. . . . . . .64

Eugenia pimenta. Pimenta, Allspice. . . . . . . . 65

Punica granatnm. Pomegranate 66

Aristolochia serpentaria. Virginia Snakeroot, Birthwort 67

Ipomaea jalapa. Jalap 68

Hydrastis Canadensis. Turmeric-root, Golden Seal 69

Humulus lupulus. Common Hop 70

Conium maculatum. Hemlock 71

Euonymus atropurpureus. Spindle-tree, Wa-hoo (Ind.) 72

SEPTEMBER, OR AUTUMN PART.

Hyoscyamus niger. Henbane, Poison Tobacco, frc 73

Hedeoma pulegioides. Pennyroyal, Tick-week, Squawmint, frc. . 74

Aconitum napellus. Wolfsbane, Monkshood, Sf-c 75

Helonias dioica. Unicorn, Blazing Star, Ague-root, frc 76

Cassia fistula. Cassia, Purging Cassia, Pudding-pipe-tree, frc 77

Panax quinquefolium. Ginseng, Red-berry,, Five Fingers, frc. ... 78
Cimicifuga racemosa. Black Snakeroot, Black Coliosh, Squaw-root. . . .79

Chelone glabra. Balmony, Snake-head, Shell-flower, frc 80

Hypericum perforatum. Common St. Johrfs-wort. . 81

Guaiacum oflficinale. Lignum viice, Guaiacum 82

Tanacetum vulgare. Tansy, Common Tansy. . . . . . . .83

Nicotiana tabacum. Tobacco, Virginia Tobacco. . . . • • . 84

DECEMBER, OR WINTER PART.

Rheum palmatum. Rhubarb 85

Thea Chinensis. Tea, The Tea Plant 86

Frasera Walter!. American Columbo, Indian Lettuce 87

Ceanothus Americanus. New Jersey Tea. . . . . • .88

Drimys winteri. Winter's Bark Tree 89

Solanum tuberosum. Common Potato 90

Chelidonium majus. Common Celandine, Pilewort, Tetterwort. . . • 91

Cplchicum autumnale. Meadow Saffron, Naked Lady 92

Cissampelos Pareira. Velvet-leaf, Ice-vine 93

Capparis spinosa. The Caper Shrub, Capers 94

Coriandrum sativum. Coriander 95

Cocculus palmatus. The Columbo Plant, Columbo 96

COMMENDATIONS

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA

IT is by no means the intention of the author, in this advertise-
ment, merely to puff or extol his work, but simply to call public at-
tention to it. He only asks that persons examine the several numbers,
or semimonthly publications, of the FAMILY FLORA as they come from
the press ; and then, if they do not acknowledge, and are not con-
vinced, that it contains the choicest and most valuable matter as a
TEXT-BOOK, — notwithstanding it is also a most acceptable and appro-
priate PARLOR OR LADY'S BOOK, — and withal the cheapest PERIODICAL
extant, not being affected by age or fashion, but always new, popular,
and interesting, — he does not ask subscription or patronage ; for he
maintains that all claims to public favor or support must rest solely
upon the real merits of the work, and unless the work in this respect
maintains itself, and commands success, he would prefer abandoning
it altogether. As evidence, however, of the opinions of some of our
most eminent professors, who are lest able to judge on the subject, he
submits the following communications, taken at random from several
Correspondents who have favored him with their kind commendations.
He avails himself also of this opportunity to tender his most hearty
welcome to the new subscribers who are continually coming in, and
whose letters contain such flattering notices of the FAMILY FLORA.
There is room for them and their friends, and no effort shall be spared
to make the FAMILY FLORA more and more worthy of their high
encomiums.

From J. Brown, M. ZX, Professor of Chemistry and Scientific and Medieal Botany^
Botanical Medical College^ Ohio.

PETER P. GOOD: —

Dear Sir : Having examined the Family Flora and Materia Medica Botanica,
I am happy to say the scientific arrangement of the work is admirable ; giving both
the natural and artificial modes of classification.

The mechanical arrangement and execution is neat and attractive. No family
should fail 4o possess the work.

Very respectfully,

J. BROWN, Syracuse, N. Y.

From Edward E. Phelps, M. D., Lecturer on Medical Botany in Dartmouth College,

Hanover, N. H.

To WHOM TT MAT CONCERN : — The bearer, Mr. P. P. Good, is the editor of an
excellent work on Medical Botany, with which I have for some months past been
acquainted.

He is now wishing to obtain subscribers for it, and I would take this opportunity
to say to those physicians who would like to acquire a more perfect knowledge of
our own medical plants, that in my opinion they will never be able to do so on any
better terms than those offered by Mr. Good.

To those with whom I have had some conversation on Medical Botany I would
add, that nothing better than the present work (even if it could be obtained) is
needed to facilitate the study of Medical Botany.

EDWARD E. PHELPS, M. D.,
Lecturer on Medical Botany in Dartmouth College.

From A. Young, Jr., M. D.t (appointed by the Legislature) Botanist to the State of

Maine.
PETER P. GOOD: —

Dear Sir : Please accept my thanks for the numbers of the Family Flora and
Materia Medica Botanica, which you had the goodness to leave with me, and also
those you have mailed to me subsequently.

I have examined them with much pleasure and satisfaction, and indeed I know-
not how your work can be improved to answer the end for which it is designed.
As a cheap, popular, and instructive Flora it cannot be excelled.

The engravings are good and correct. The typography neat and agreeable to
the eye, and the subject-matter, relating to the uses of plants, sound and judicious.

I think the work finely adapted as a botanical guide for the physician and the
student who seek to obtain knowledge which they have not yet acquired ; in a
word, it merits my warmest and most decided praise.

I hope you will receive sufficient support to enable you to complete such an
agreeable publication.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,

A. YOUNG, JR.,
Botanist to the State of Maine.

From S. Pearl Lathrop, M. D., Principal of the Middlebury Female Seminary, and In-
structor in Botany, Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt.

PETER P. GOOD: —

Dear Sir : Permit me to express to you my unqualified approbation of your
very worthy and happy effort to introduce the heads of families, and thus the rising
generation, to a familiar acquaintance with the properties and uses of particular in-
dividuals of the several orders of the vegetable kingdom. Your work, illustrated
as it is with beautiful plates, drawn from nature, will not only enable them to dh^
cover the plants described, but awaken a taste for one of the most agreeable afro
useful branches of natural science. The chemical and medical properties and uses
of plants, brought to view in your work, are invaluable, and are peculiarly adapted
for the general as well as the scientific reader.
Very truly, &c.,

"s. PEARL LATHROP, M. D.,
Principal of the Middlebury Female Seminary.

From Joseph D. Friend, M. D , (Author of a Theory and Practice of Medicine,)
Middletown, N. Y.

To MT BOTANIC FRIENDS THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY : — From a careful ex-
amination of Mr. Good's Family Flora, already published, and the design of its
publication in future, I do most cheerfully recommend it to the patronage of my
botanic friends throughout the country. This work will fill a void which has always
existed in this department of science, and will enable the physician and student to
command in a concise form a thorough knowledge of the genus, history, and med-
ical and chemical properties of the entire vegetable kingdom.

Mr. Good has long been known as a most successful teacher, a ripe scholar, and
a gentleman in whose integrity the public may place the most implicit confidence.

JOSEPH D. FRIEND,

COMMENDATIONS OF GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. 5

From J. Barratt, M. D., Middletown, Ct.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — I have examined this cheap and excellent new work
by Mr. Good, and take pleasure in recommending it to students in Botany.

J. BAKRATT.

From the Eclectic Medical Journal, Cincinnati, Ohio.

FAMILY FLORA. — Among the various medical periodicals, there is none of greater
interest than the "Family Flora and Materia Medica Botanica," emanating from the
pen of Peter P. Good, of Cambridge. Mass.

I have perused this work with much satisfaction. It is confined (as its name im-
ports) to the subject of Medical Botany, and is designed for the use of both the
professional and non-professional reader. In neatness, style, and arrangement, a
more elegant and attractive botanical periodical is not to be found in the United
States. The engravings are of a superior character, and lend an unusual degree of
attraction and interest to its perusal.

So far as the medical properties and therapeutic uses of the agents which it em-
braces are concerned, they are also of a reliable character.

The " Family Flora" is well adapted to the use of the medical student and the phy-
sician who are desirous of acquiring a critical knowledge of Medical Botany. It is
likewise a highly instructive publication for the use of families, and none should be
without it.

I trust the gentlemanly author will meet with that encouragement which his zeal,
industry, and indefatigable energies justly merit at the hands of a liberal profession,
as well as an enlightened public.

L. E. JONES, M. D., Cincinnati, Ohio.

From the New Jersey Medical Reporter, Burlington, N. J.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA AND MATERIA MEDICA BOTAKICA, &c., &c. — This
work is now in its fourth year, and though we have never had an opportunity be-
fore of presenting it to our readers, we do so now with pleasure. It is a work pub-
lished at Cambridge, Mass., and offers to the profession, in a cheap and convenient
form, an account of the botanical, chemical, and medical properties, as well%s the
natural history, of indigenous and other plants, that may at all times be made avail-
able to the medical practitioner, and particularly to the country physician, in the
treatment of disease. Each part contains twelve colored plates, and a mass of val-
uable information is condensed in a compact form, which ought to be within the
reach of every physician. The proprietor is his own engraver, printer, agent, and
editor, and we cheerfully urge upon our readers the claims of his valuable produc-
tion, and hope that the " FAMILY FLORA" may increase its circulation at least tenfold.

Address (post paid) Peter P. Good, Cambridge, Middlesex County, Mass.

From the Medical Journal, Ohio.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA AND MATERIA MEDICA BOTANICA. — We have care-
fully perused the Family Flora, which the author, Peter P. Good, Cambridge, Mass.,
has had the kindness to forward to our address. This periodical is printed semi-
monthly, but distributed to subscribers quarterly ; twelve numbers being bound to-
gether in pamphlet form.

It is devoted to the botanical analysis and medical properties of both indigenous
and foreign medical plants.

Each number is embellished with one very superior drawing of some medical
plant, which tends greatly to beautify the work.

For neatness and elegance of style, we know of no pamphlet which exceeds this.

The drawings are colored, and true to the living plant, while the natural history,
botanical analysis, and chemical and medical properties, together with the adapta-
tion of the agent to the cure of many diseases, are very accurately and very syste-
matically presented. No similar production with which we are acquainted surpasses,
if, indeed, it equals this in the accuracy of its botanical descriptions ; the description
of the therapeutic virtues of many of the articles noticed possesses equal merit.

The author appears to be familiar with many of the plants not in use as remedial
agents in the allopathic school of medicine, but which are in very common use
amongst the eclectic class of physicians. This speaks well for his liberality, and
clearly manifests a disposition to keep up with the improvements of the science.

The work is interesting and instructive, and recommends itself to the notice of
every reformer in medicine.

L. E. J.

6

We take pleasure in submitting also the following notices, taken at
random from several hundred of the most popular newspapers and
other publications : —

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA has been received. It is, as usual, a neat and well-
executed work, and is replete with interest, and cannot be too extensively patron-
ized. We would recommend it especially to physicians. — Mercersburg Visitor.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — This periodical continues to maintain its character for
research and ability, and has strong claims on the patronage of a liberal and en-
lightened public. We think every family should possess it. — Bennington State
Banner.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — This interesting, valuable, and scientific work has
been received. We recommend it to all heads of families as well worth their pat-
ronage. No book more effectually combines pleasure with improvement. — Ohio
Democrat.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — We consider this decidedly one of the best, most val
uable, and cheapest publications of the day. — /Scion, Clarksburg.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — The March number has arrived. It fully sustains its
former reputation, scientific, and well adapted to the general reader. Its price
places it within the reach of all. — St. Clairsville Gazette.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — One of the most valuable works in which the med-
ical student can apply for assistance in the prosecution of his studies. — Medico-
Chirurgical Review.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — The drawings are executed with the skill of the most
accomplished copyist, and the coloring of the plates is done in such a manner as to
reflect high credit on the artist. — Medical Times.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — The indefatigable author seems to have explored all
the labyrinths of knowledge from which important facts and opinions could be
gleaned for the instruction of his readers. We most cheerfully commend the work
to those who are not already familiar with its merits. — Western Journal of Medicine
and Surgery.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — Each subject is considered in reference to its analysis,
its physical and chemical properties, preparations, uses, and doses. All of these
are briefly sketched in a concise and lucid manner, and in a way to show that a
master-hand was employed in the task. — N. Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — One of the few books which supply a positive defi-
ciency in our medical literature. The engravings by which the several plants are
illustrated are better than any thing hitherto attempted in Materia Medica, and
must prove a great assistance to the student, appealing as they do more powerfully
to the mind than the most careful verbal descriptions taken alone would do. —
Medical Gazette.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. —We had the pleasure of noticing in a former number
the first volume of this excellent work, and of expressing our high sense of its value.
We need say little more, therefore, of its continuation, than that it fully sustains
the character of its predecessor, both in regard to the value of the scientific matter,
especially interesting to the general reader, and the numerous illustrations of the
various subjects treated in the work. — Franklin Institute Journal.

GOOD'S FAMILY FLORA. — We have long known that Mr. Good was preparing
this work for the press, and have looked for its publication with a conviction that
we should derive much valuable information from its perusal ; an expectation that
has been fully justified by the result. This work is not one which can fall stillborn
from the press, as it is not one of those ephemeral productions that must sell at the
moment or never. — U. S. Monthly Review.

SPECIMEN OP

GOOD'S
MATERIA MEDICA ANBIALIA,

CONTAINING

A SPLENDID FRONTISPIECE, AN ACCURATE LIKENESS OF THE AUTHOR, AND A
HANDSOME PICTURE OF EACH SUBJECT TREATED OF IN THE WORK,

EMBRACING

THE SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS, NATURAL HISTORY, AND
CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES

OF THE

SUBSTANCES THAT ARE THE PRODUCTS

OF

BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, AND INSECTS,

AND INCLUDING

AN INTRODUCTION AND GLOSSARY.

The Introduction contains a brief and general view of animal life, and a sketch of the structure and

classification of the whole animal world. The Glossary explains the numerous terms used

in the work, of frequent occurrence in, if not peculiar to, the study of

Natural History.

PUBLISHED IN PAMPHLET FORM, IN JANUARY, MARCH, JUNE,
SEPTEMBER, AND DECEMBER OF EACH YEAR.

Terms, $ 3.00 a year, always in advance.

THE SEVERAL PARTS ARE NOW IN COURSE OF PUBLICATION^ AND MAT BE
HAD ON APPLICATION (INCLOSING THE PAYMENT) TO

PETER P. GOOD,

North Cambridge,

Middlesex County,

Mass.

S3- Patrons and Friends are particularly requested to circulate this publication. Th«re is room for
HORB SUBSCRIBERS, and no effort shall be spared to make these works worthy of their acceptance.

PROSPECTUS

OP

GOOD'S

MATERIA MEDICA ANIMALIA.

A PERIODICAL.

Five Numbers farm a Part, published Quarterly, in January, March, June, September,
and December, and these parts form, a Volume. Subscription, Three, Dollars a year,
strictly in advance.

OF all departments of science there is perhaps no single one capable of exercis-
ing such an advantageous influence on the mind of its cultivator as Natural History.
In consequence, therefore, of the very favorable reception given by the public to his
Materia Medica Botanica, the author now proposes to offer a work on the same
plan, a MATERIA MEDICA ANIMALIA, embracing the scientific analysis, natural
history, and chemical and medical properties and uses of the substances that are
the products of Beasts, Birds, Fishes, or Insects. The whole to be illustrated by
colored engravings of original drawings taken from nature.

Natural History has been too generally shunned as a science of hard names and
intricate classification for those who in the pursuit of knowledge seek a source of
refreshment and relaxation. In order, however, to become acquainted with the
structure and character of the living beings that furnish so many important sub-
stances useful and necessary to man, the naturalist arranges or classifies them,
placing together those which have most in common. for one class, and separating
those which are widely different for another. Classification, therefore, is not the
object of Natural History, but the means of gaining that object, and it is very easy
by the means of this first division (the Scientific Classification) of the work to enter
upon many interesting inquiries relating to the subject without the slightest knowl-
edge of it.

The Natural History of each subject introduced in this publication will lead those
•who may be disposed to approve and patronize our undertaking to a pursuit which
cannot fail to prove a source of interest and improvement. It will be adapted as
much as possible to the general reader who has little information on the subject,
and it will omit, therefore, those topics of high but less general interest which may
be found fully treated elsewhere.

For the Chemical and Medical Department, recourse has been had to every work of
reputation to which access could be obtained ; and as much useful information re-
garding each of the subjects treated of has been brought together as could be con-
veniently crowded into a small space. The descriptions are selected from the best
authorities, in some cases without alterations, but in others altered, corrected, or
condensed, so as to present as great a uniformity of phraseology as possible. As
the work is from its very nature a compilation, the only originality that can be
claimed by the author is in the selection and arrangement of his materials.

The extreme difficulty and great expense of executing the Colored Plates, at once
in an accurate and elegant style, can only be appreciated by those who have actu-
ally attempted something of the same kind. It is gratifying, however, to find that
the" general execution of the plates of the Materia Medica Botanica has met with
the public approbation, — a fact of which the favorable notices of the press and the
large subscription list afford ample evidence, and, it is hoped, a guaranty for what
may appear in future.

All communications should be addressed (postage paid),

PETER P. GOOD,
North Cambridge, Middlesex Co., Mass.

-
CONTENTS

OF

GOOD'S MATERIA MEDICA ANIMALIA.

FIRST PART, PUBLISHED IN JANUARY.

PAGE

FRONTISPIECE i

TITLE AND PORTRAIT . . . iii

PRKFACE v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

INTRODUCTION xi

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS ...... xi

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICINAL AGENTS .... xvi

CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE ANIMAL WORLD xvii
FAMILY FLORA OR MATERIA MEDICA BOTANICA. Advertisement. . .xvii

Isis NOBILIS. The Coral xviii

ASTACUS FLUVIATILIS. Tlie Cray-fish xxi

NO.

Spongia officinalis. The Sponge * . . . . .1

Gallus domesticus. The Domestic Cock and Hen. 2

SECOND PART, PUBLISHED IN MARCH.

Bos taurus. The Ox and Cow 3

Gad us morrhua. The Common Cod. ......... 4

Cantharis vesicatoria. The Blister Beetle, or Spanish Fly. .... 5

Apis mellifica. The Hive-bee, or the Honey-bee. ....... 6

Moschus moschiferus. The Musk Animal ....... 7

Physeter macrocephalus. The Spermaceti Whak, or Great-headed Cachalot. . 8

Sus scrofa. The Hog 9

THIRD PART, PUBLISHED IN JUNE.

Coccus cacti. The Cochineal Insect. 10

Castor fiber. The Castor B> aver. 11

Viverra civetta. The Civet Cat 12

Ovis aries. The Sheep 13

Ostrea edulis. The common Edible Oyster. 14

Cynips quercus folii. The Gall Insect 15

Cervus elaphus. The Stag -. .18

FOURTH PART, PUBLISHED IN SEPTEMBER.

Sanguisuga. Blood-sucking Leeches. ......... 17

Sepia officinalis. The Cuttle-Jinh. 18

Helix pomatia. The Snail. 19

Tegeneria medicinalis. The Spider 20

Acipenser huso. The Sturgeon. . 21

Isis nobilis. The Coral. (Introd., p. xviii.) 22

FIFTH PART, PUBLISHED IN DECEMBER.

Annelida terricola. Earth-worms. 23

Crotalus horrid us. The Rattlesnake. 24

GLOSSARY, explaining the numerous terms used in the work.

APPENDIX, containing a specimen of the Family Flora, together with the Prospec-
tus, Contents of the first and second volumes, and various commendations.

GOOD'S

FAMILY FLORA

AND

MATERIA MEDICA BOTANICA,

EMBRACING the three comprehensive and important departments which
include all that is necessary or useful to be known respecting PLANTS,
viz. : —

THE BOTANICAL ANALYSIS,

extensive and thorough, effectually perfecting those in BOTANY who
possess only the first principles of the science.

THE NATURAL HISTORY,

more particularly adapted for the general reader, and embracing the
cultivation and propagation of Plants.

CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL PROPERTIES AND USES,
showing in a popular form the importance and application of Plants
in the various diseases of the human family.

The WHOLE embellished with colored plates, painted by hand, from
original drawings copied from nature.

Cp3 These plates are excellent samples for young persons learning
drawing or painting.

Vol. I. contains an extensive glossary of botanic terms, forty-eight
plates of plants, No. 1 to No. 48 inclusive, each .colored (and inter-
leaved with writing-paper), separate, and independent, with the usual
letter-press matter to each, and an uncommonly striking likeness of
the late JOHN MASON GOOD, M. D., F. R. S., &c., &e., with a notice
of his life, writings, character, &c.

Over 400 pages, large octavo. Bound, price $ 4.00, colored.

Vol. II. (now in the course of publication in pamphlet form) will
contain a valuable introduction to Botany, forty-eight plates of plants,
No. 49 to No. 96, inclusive,, each colored (and interleaved with
writing-paper), separate, and independent, with the usual letter-press
matter to each, and two additional plates, accurately exhibiting the
Linnsean system of the vegetable kingdom.

Over 400 pages, large octavo. Bound, price $ 4.00, colored.

IdF3 EITHER OR BOTH of the above bound volumes will be forward-
ed to order (free of postage) to any part of the United States, on the
receipt of orders inclosing payment.

Money may be sent by mail at the risk of

PETER P. GOOD, Publisher,

North Cambridge, Middlesex Co., Mass.

University of Toronto
Library

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