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Meddelelser om Gronland.

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Carlsbergfondets Expedition
a
Ost-Grenland,
udført i Aarene 1898—1900
sbi onal af
G. Amdrup.

Anden Del.

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Indhold.

. Notes on some specimens of rocks collected by C. Kruse on the

East coast of Greenland between lat. 65° 35’ and 67° 22’ N. By
SLURS A SN RC SES NRK ørene

. Samples of the sea-floor along the coast of East Greenland 741/>—

70 N.L. By 0. В. Bøggild. (Hertil Tavle I—IX)..................
The minerals from the Basalt of East-Greenland. By 0. В, Bøggild

. Contributions to the Anthropology and Nosology of the East-Green-

EC | оО te nen

. Оп the Geology and Physical Geography of East-Greenland. By

Otto Nordenskjöld. (Hertil Tavle X—XIV og et Kort).............

. The former Eskimo settlements on the East coast of Greenland

between Scoresby Sund and the Angmagsalik District. By 6. Amdrup
Ethnological description of the Amdrup collection from East-
Greenland comprising objects found in Eskimo house-ruins and
graves north of Angmagsalik between 68° and 75° lat. N. By
ВВ ке. (Hertil Tavle XV—XVI) .........................

Side

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En

Meddelelser om Grønland,

(
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Commissionen for Ledelsen af de geologiske og geographiske

Undersøgelser i Grønland,

Otte og tyvende Hefte.
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1904.

Pris: 2 Kr. 50 Øre.

Notes

on

some specimens of rocks

collected by ©. Kruuse on the East coast of Greenland
between lat. 65° 35 and 67 22° М.

By

Dr. Otto Nordenskjöld.

XXVIIL 1

Owing to his having started for the South Polar regions, the author
has had no opportunity of re-reading this translation in its final form, nor
has he been able to correct any of the proof sheets.

Our knowledge of the petrographical conditions of the East
coast of Greenland has hitherto been very scanty. H.Knutsen,
a member of the Holm Expedition of 1883—85, certainly gives
us some information as to the kinds of rocks which occur at
and south of Angmagsalik !), but no petrographical investigation
appears to have been made. _

А. Е. Térnebohm?), who described some of the material
collected at Tasiusak (King Oscars Harbour) during the
Nordenskiöld Expedition of 1883 must therefore be regarded as a
pioneer in these investigations, and the material he describes is
of great interest for several reasons. The specimens in question
include garnet-gneiss, pyroxene-gneiss, hypersthene-
gabbro, and bronzite-diabase in blocks, besides some — in
this connection less interesting — proterobase-aphanite
and flint. According to his short notes, the pyroxene-gneiss
consists of plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, biotite,
hypersthene, «omphacite», and exceptionally of horn-
blende and garnet. The gabbro consists chiefly of plagio-
clase, besides pyroxene and biotite and some diallage and
quartz. The bulk of the broncite-diabase is composed of
plagioclase and broncite besides magnetite and some
biotite and apatite.

*) Meddelelser om Grønland IX, р. 237 and following pp.
2) Geolog. Foren. i Stockholms Förh. VIII (1886), р. 439.

1*

The above-mentioned kinds of rocks are of great interest
on account of the rhombic pyroxene found in them, as the
presence of this mineral often indicates the probability of the
occurrence of rocks containing still more rarely associated
ingredients. The moment was thus eagerly awaited when a
more considerable material could be procured from this locality,
in order to ascertain how widely distributed these peculiar kinds
of rocks were in the district in question.

Only once since has a specimen of rock from the above-
mentioned district been examined, viz. a brown gneiss from
Angmagsalik brought by E. Bay in 1892 and very briefly
described by him!) as consisting of felspar, quartz, broncite
and biotite. Here again there is the same peculiarity, but:
thal is easily explained by the fact that the specimen is from
the very same locality as those, collected during Norden-
skiéld’s visit.

Under these circumstances I was very much interested in
getting the material collected by Mr. Kruuse for examination.
It is not considerable, but it contains specimens from a great
many localities about Angmagsalik, and also numerous small
specimens from different stations along the coast between Ang-
magsalik and lat. 67° 22' N.

The main result of the examination was, however, negative,
as none of the specimens which I have had for examination
exhibited any unusual mineralogical combination, nor more
particularly, did 1 find rhombic pyroxene in any of the speci-
mens”). The rock in question, consequently, does not seem
to be widely distributed even in the district of Angmagsalik,
or at any rate it does not appear to be so common on this:
coast as might be expected, judging from its frequent occur-
rence in the specimens previously examined.

') Meddelelser om Grønland, Н. 19, р. 176.

*) With the possible exception of the below-mentioned amphibolite-pikrite
from «the gravel-pit».

Another question of great interest is the nature of the
numerous dykes of basic rocks which traverse the main species
of rocks of this district. All earlier explorers have mentioned
them under the name of diabase. and Bay particularly em-
phasizes the fact that no basaltic dykes have been met with).
Kruuse, on the other hand, in his preliminary account of the
expedition ”) mentions both basalt and diabase in a manner which
seems to indicate that he is uncertain which of the names is
the more correct. From what follows it will, however, be seen
that this is not surprising, as petrology cannot always solve
this problem, some of the rocks seeming to approximate in
their characteristics to both the above-mentioned groups.

| shall now briefly describe some of the most important
localities in which these rocks occur.

The distriet of Angmagsalik.

The greater number of the specimens which I have had
for examination come from this distriet. The most complete
series is from a place called «the gravel-pit» (Grusgraven))
situated at about lat. 66° 5’ N. and long. 35° 35’ W., some 55
miles NE. of the trading-station. According to Kruuse it is
a valley surrounded by lofty gneiss mountains and partly barred
by a greenstone dyke. Among the specimens collected at this
place, of which some are loose fragments, which, however, can
hardly have been brought there from any great distance, the
following are noteworthy: — a light-coloured medium-grained

1) Geographisk Tidsskrift Bd. 15, р. 64.

*) |. с. р. 177. Nor did I come across any greenstone dykes in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of the colony itself, the nearest I observed being
about 16 miles ой. С. Kruuse.

Properly speaking, this lies outside the district of Angmagsalik, which
only extends to Sermiligak, but it is mentioned here in this connection
as being the northernmost point whence I was able to bring a fairly rich
collection. C. Kruuse.

3

6

biotite-gneiss with numerous stripes of red orthoclase; a
dark-green amphibolite; a micaceous gneiss with large «eyes»
of an impure garnet; a white pegmatitic rock rich in biotite; and
a garnet-gneiss where dark and light layers alternate ; the
former containing much hornblende, and the latter consisting
exclusively of garnet and quartz. There also occurs another
peculiar rock consisting largely of garnet, which is, however,
completely decayed and coloured by oxide of iron and therefore
indeterminable as is also the case with several other specimens
from this locality. On the whole it may be said that the rock
consists of biotite-gneisses very rich in hornblende and garnet,
the latter sometimes supplanting the other mineral ingredients.

‚These rocks when examined microscopically do not exhibit
any specially peculiar characters. The first-mentioned variety
consists chiefly of orthoclase besides microcline, quartz and
biotite. The quartz shows «myrmekitic intergrowths» !) in ortho-
clase, mostly in the smaller grains, but also here and there at
the edges of the larger individuals. The rock has distinctly been
subject to strong pressure, but the quartz hardly shows any
undulating extinction and its present structure is undoubtedly
due to re-crystallization.

“The amphibolitic variety consists chiefly of a compact,
somewhat bluish-green hornblende, besides some plagioclase
and garnet. The latter is, as in all the other varieties, isotropic,
and though it usually contains numerous interpositions of quartz,
the specimen in question is singularly pure. There occurs,
moreover, some iron-ore in skeleton-like crystals grown together
with felspar.

Another specimen contains besides the above-mentioned
minerals a great abundance of quartz interposed in garnet, and
also a very strongly refractive mineral in numerous greyish-

1) Term introduced by J.J. Sederholm, Bull. de la Comm, Géologique
de la Finlande Nr. 6, Helsingfors 1899.

—}

brown elliptie grains, which is probably titanite. Other varieties
contain biotite as well as hornblende. Apatite and zircon occur
more particularly as interpositions in biotite. On the other hand,
compact grains of ore are rarely found in these forms and a
distinct succession of crystallization between the minerals can
nowhere be traced.

Finally, a rather peculiar variety may be mentioned which
oceurs in a single piece and looks as if it had been found
detached, though it evidently had not been carried very far. It
consists of idiomorphic crystals of pale, yellowish-green horn-
blende with a perfect cleavage, lying in a mass that consists
chiefly of irregular grains of a still paler, green mineral, some-
times showing imperfect cleavages, sometimes much laminated,
and in the latter case showing a maximum extinction of about
18° towards the cleavages. The variety in question is doubtless
an actinolitic amphibole. There occur further irregular grains _
both of colourless, fresh olivine and of a dark-green variety of
spinel, besides a small quantity of a peculiar pink pyroxene
which appears to have an oblique extinction, but otherwise
bears a strong resemblance to the rhombic pyroxene in the
rock from Angmagsalik. The rock, which may most properly
be called amphibolite-pikrite, perhaps forms an ultra-basic
link in the series described by Térnebohm and mentioned
above, and it also reminds one strongly of the rock met. with
by N. Hartz at Kobberpynt in the interior of Scoresby Sound,
and described by Bay and Ussing’).

From the district of Angmagsalik — i. e. from a
more southerly part of it than the above-mentioned (lat. 55°
53’ N. and long. 36° 5' W.) — there are two specimens, viz.
from the graphite rocks at the entrance of Ikerasak. The

1) Meddelelser om Grenland, Н. XIX, р. 157. On the rock at «the gravel-
pit» a malachite-like covering also occurred, but so high up on the
extremely precipitous face that its characters could not be ascertained
with any certainty. C. Kruuse.

8

one is a coarse graphite schist') which when examined
microscopically was found to contain besides graphite a
quantity of biotite, quartz, and plagioclase. Approaching
close to this rock is an eruptive rock (probably a dyke) which
when examined microscopically proves to belong to the same
class of eruptive dykes as those reported below from some
places around Cape Dan. It consists of a basic plagioclase
in thin, elongated prismatic columns, particularly fresh and un-
broken and showing a zonal structure; a greyish brown augite
in the shape of somewhat irregular grains; crystals of magne-
tite; and a fine, fibrous mass of lamine of a green mineral,
doubtless chloritic, with a rather strong double refraction.
Olivine also occurs along the cracks turned into a substance
resembling or identical with the above-mentioned.

While, on the one hand, it is obvious that certain true
diabases, viz. in Sweden, forms of the so-called Asby type,
are as well-preserved as the specimens in question, yet, on the
other hand, it must be acknowledged that they are almost iden-
tical with the basalts occurring in numerous beds and dykes
in the interior of Scoresby Sound, among which may be men-
tioned the intrusive beds of basalt in the Jura sandstone in
the South-Eastern part of Jameson Land; and on comparing
these rocks one cannot but conclude that the dykes in the
district of Angmagsalik are undoubtedly nearly contemporary
with the immense massive basalts on the more northerly coast.

A similar rock occurs in the collection from the island
of Kumarmiut situated more to the south near Ingmikertok
(lat. 65° 45’ N. and long. 36° 55' W.). The plagioclase, augite
and ore resemble those described above; and here as there

7) The graphite schist lies about NE.—SW. and dips 70° due NW.; the
thickness is about 11 cm. The rocks are connected with the south side
of Ikerasak and consist alternately of crystalline schists and of a light-
coloured pegmatite gneiss (striped granite). The sides of the sound
show lofty sections of rocks consisting of the same successions of layers. |

С. Kruuse.

<>

the rock has always been poor in olivine of which only a few
fresh grains are left, while the rest has been altered into a
yellowish-brown serpentine substance. No chloritic scales have
been met with. I have also had an opportunity of examining
some specimens from Erkiligartek (NE. of Cape Dan). The chief
species is a very light-coloured biotite gneiss rich in garnet.
Microscopical examination shows it to consists mainly of ortho-
clase and quartz, sometimes forming «myrmekitic intergrowths» ;
the quartz occurs in the form common in gneisses, with un-
dulating, irregular and idented outlines. The species in question
does not contain much plagioclase; the biotite has no inter-
positions, and the garnet shows nothing remarkable. In this
rock there is a dyke similar in character to the above-mentioned
basalts. It is somewhat coarser, the magnetite is not conspi-
cuous, and | have not come across fresh olivine, but the ser-
pentic and chloritic elements occur more abundantly. Not-
withstanding this the rock has retained a comparatively fresh
appearance, and I may add that several of the true basalts of
this type from Scoresby Sound are more strongly metamorphosed
than is the case with this rock.

| have further had an opportunity of examining some in-
teresting specimens from the same district, from Anava, one
of the Cape Dan islands (lat. 65° 38’ N. and long. 37° 7' W.).
To judge from the label there should be in the neighbourhood
a granitic rock, but of this there are no specimens. Instead
of this I found a moderately coarse, green amphibolite consisting
of green hornblende with a centre or centres of a light-coloured
mineral undoubtedly a pyroxene, both forming regular inter-
growths with felspar; there are also specimens of quartz and
garnet, which latter is always found surrounded by the lighter
coloured minerals. Large individuals of titanic iron also occur.

This rock contains a vein of a pegmatitic rock, which
consists of peculiar, and as it seems regular micro-pegmatitic
intergrowths of singly-refracting garnet and quartz. In the

10

same vein are also parts containing crystals of muscovite, an
inch in length. Both these rocks are worthy of closer investi-

gation.

The district north of lat. 66° N.

The specimens from this district have been collected from
а few localities only, viz. Саре Wandel; Cape Jorgensen;
and Ikersuak (Steenstrup’s glacier) situated some 18 miles
further south; the promontory opposite Langø (Ikerasar-
ши; Lilleø, lying in the vicinity of the latter; and furthest
to the north, Nualik, lat. 67° 15’ N.

The rocks collected from Cape Wandel consist of a mode-
rately coarse, grey or reddish, granitic rock, and a greenstone
which has doubtless traversed the former and which when
examined microscopically proves to be a basalt of a type exactly
similar to those described above from Cape Dan.

Among the specimens collected to the north of this locality,
not a single typical granite or gneiss occurred, and of rocks
which are known for certain to be Archean, only the under-
mentioned peculiar granulites from Nualik were found. Kruuse,
however, particularly emphasizes the fact that these species of
rocks constitute the chief part of the base of the rocks, and
Lieut. Amdrup also mentions them from the districts lying
further northward up to 69° latitude. How far this may be
owing to a confusion with any of the under-mentioned species
of rocks, or whether their non-appearance is quite accidental

| cannot say for certain").

1) I have not met with true massive granites north of Cape Wandel, where
I found variously coloured (red, white, grey)’granites, traversed by 3
greenstone dykes. Crystalline schists occurred as the chief kind of rock
as far as I penetrated, but they were traversed by eruptive dykes so
numerous and of such great size as to constitute more than one-third
of the mass of the rock walls. As the expedition had also other objects
in view I was prevented from bringing any larger collections, and I

11

All the specimens from Ikersuak ") are of greenstone, viz.
both a collection labelled «Talus», and a light-grey, rather solid,
eruptive rock, probably a dyke. The latter has a strongly dia-
base-like appearance, and the bands of plagioclase are more
‚completely altered than is the case with the basalts of this
distriet; this also applies to the augite. Chlorite and epidote,
on the other hand, occur abundantly’); olivine I have not
observed. In the former collection there is another eruptive
rock which seems to be the margin of a dyke similar in type
to the one just described. It is an augite-porphyrite with por-
phyritic crystals of a somewhat prismatical plagioclase, and
augite in a mass so dense that its constituents cannot be dis-
tinctly separated from each other. Besides these rocks there
are others of a different appearance, one of them a diabase of
basalt-like type, but much altered, the augite being converted
to uralite, and the titanic iron changed to leucoxene, while the
presence of olivine cannot be identified with any certainty. Of
more interest is a true amphibolite consisting of dark-green

consequently chose to gather everywhere small specimens of such rocks
as appeared to me to be uncommon, and beyond this only to collect
minerals from the numerous greenstone and pegmatite dykes. In a
single case only I regret not having been able to collect specimens of
a remarkable rock, viz. a peculiar conglomerate which occurs along the
shore from Lange to Cape Christiansen and which formed the base of
the islets (Smaaholmene) and of several. promontories. It consisted of
a black, grained base, with light coloured grains, 5-30 cm. in diameter,
disseminated through it. С Kruuse.
The locality consists of a mighty wall of rock about 2000 feet in height
and parallel with the coast; the rock is on the north side of the pro-
montory between the two southerly glaciers and is traversed by erup-
tive dykes parallel to the wall, while at its foot in the shelter of a small
promontory — a block standing in the back-ground some 50 feet in
height — has been accumulated an immense talus of large sharp-angled
blocks which have tumbled down from the rock wall. The work of
demolition has been very violent, and many of the blocks have been
broken off recently. C. Kruuse.
2) The wall of rock is, as it were, powdered over with light-green dust.
С. Kruuse.

1

—

12

compact hornblende, plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, some garnet,
and ore, and titanite. The structure is that of the crystalline
schists, without any distinct chronological succession between
the minerals.

Some few specimens from Cape Jörgensen seem to be
variations of the above-mentioned rock, viz. an unusually coarse
crystalline diabase of the Ashby type, consisting of diallagic
pyroxene, plagioclase, comparatively fresh olivine, brown horn-
blende and large grains of ore without leucoxene, but surrounded
by brown mica.

The rock from Ikerasarmiut!) belongs to the basaltic type,
but has undergone considerable alteration. I could not as-
certain for certain whether it contained olivine.

A specimen of rock from the coast of Store?) belongs to
quite a different type, as it shows contact between a white
pegmatitic granite, containing elements of quartz and felspar,
which when occurring on large flats of druses are crystallo-
graphically well developed, and a dark-green porphyrite, which
may most properly be regarded as the main rock. The latter
consists of elongated prismatic crystals of plagioclase lying in
a mass of irregular-shaped individuals of hornblende and biotite,
which partly merge into the edges of the crystals of plagioclase ;
it also contains evenly disseminated grains of iron-ore. Mica
and hornblende, on the other hand, often occur crowded together
in compact masses, looking on the exterior of the rock like
homogenous crystals of some kind of basic mineral. The boun-
dary line between this rock and the granite is not very definite.

1) The promontory opposite Storø lat. 67° 4 N. and long. 33° 20° W.

*) Lat. 66° 55° N. and long. 33° 34° W. The northern coast of this island
consists of porphyrite in the form of a very large dyke, but very much
broken down, and well-preserved only where it is covered by pegmatite
which forms a small promontory. The main part of the island consisted
of crystalline schists. As far as I could judge from a distance, the
pegmatite occurred in situ on the mainland about 5 miles westward,
but only for a short distance (dyke}, С. Kruuse.

13

The latter is composed chiefly of orthoclase and quartz besides
some plagioclase. The quartz is mostly micro -pegmatitically:
intergrown with felspar.

The last and rather large and interesting collection of rock
comes from Nualik. Among the specimens collected in this
locality one approaches very near to those just described. It
is labelled «vein in the gneiss» and consists of a white pegma-
tite granite exactly similar in character to those just described,
only that the micro-pegmatitic structure is still more obvious.
This rock is traversed by a band of solid greenstone, 2 inches
wide. The latter is interesting: plagioclase appears to be its
chief constituent, but otherwise it consists of a decidedly homo-
genous mass of even-sized grains of felspar, and of almost
colourless pyroxene, besides some iron-ore and mica. As is
the case with the specimen from Lilleø, the biotite when ap-
proaching near to the pegmatite boundary increases both in
quantity and in the size of the individuals, and a fairly large
quantity of green hornblende occurs simultaneously.

Among the specimens collected are several pegmatites of
the same nature as the one described. One specimen shows.
a large druse with quartz crystals up to an inch in length,
besides felspar and some calcite. Besides these there occur
numerous peculiar types of rocks, among which may be men-
tioned a yellowish limestone, a drusy silica breccia, and two
stratified specimens of rock of the type of the crystalline schists.
One of these is a considerably weather-worn light-coloured rock,
the other resembles a dark schist and, examined microscopically,
is found to contain a very dense, granulitic mass of felspar
(orthoclase), besides distinctly marked plagioclase, small evenly
distributed grains of ore, and an abundance of a colourless
monosymmetrical mineral in irregular grains, undoubtedly a light-
coloured pyroxene. This mass occurs alternately with thin

layers consisting of light-grey rather fibrous hornblende through

14

which are dispersed grains of iron-ore, together with some
biotite. |

That these two last-mentioned detached !) pieces of rock
belong to the Archeean rock is very probable, though here too,
as in a previous instance, the absence of true, coarsely-crystalline
gneisses and granites is remarkable.

The other specimens consist of dark, diabase-like rocks.
One of them comes very near to the basalts described above,
though it is a good deal altered, and the presence of olivine
cannot be identified with any certainty. Another belongs to a
more particular type, as it contains porphyritic crystals of fresh
pyroxene, upwards of one centimetre in length, of which the
outermost sides only have partly changed to uralite. They
occur in a ground-mass, somewhat changed by weathering, rich
in ore, and also containing a great abundance of calcite, and
the most remarkable constituent of which is a brown, pleo-
chroictic hornblende in the shape of long needles (a light-yellow,
6 dark-brown, с dark-brown; c=b>.a).

The remaining specimens from this district are not of any
great interest.

1) The two specimens in question were certainly found detached, but
occurred in the immediate neighbourhood of and belong beyond doubt
to a series of very precipitous strata of strongly disintegrated schist.
The ravine formed by the disintegration of the above-mentioned preci-
pitous strata divided the peninsula of Nualik nearly parallel with the
large pegmatite dyke. Several such ravines divided the eastern part of
the tongue of land from the mainland, and at last broke it up into
several islets and rocks. The limestone and quartz occurred in several
places, but the specimens of druse and silica were collected from a
playground for children in «the dead house». Its late inmates no doubt
picked them up in the neighbourhood and brought them home as play-
things, as is customary among the Esquimaux. A schist containing
light-coloured mica and quartz was found in situ on the small islands
of Aputitik just off Nualik and the late inmates utilized them as paving-
stones for the floor in several tents as well as in the deserted house,
and they also served as roofing material for the entrance to the house.

C. Kruuse.

15

Resume.

As a summary of the petrographical conditions of the parts
of East Greenland with which we have been dealing, the fol-
lowing points may be noticed: —

The rocks between Angmagsalik and about lat. 66° 30’ N.
are chiefly composed of gneisses, generally rich in garnet.
Besides this there are several specimens of pegmatites, and it
is probable that true granites also occur, but this cannot be
proved from the material collected. The latter contains, on the
other hand, some greenstones (collected from dykes) of a nearly
related type, which from a petrographical point of view resemble
so closely some basalt dykes in the neighbourhood of Scoresby.
Sound that they ought doubtless to be classed with them. These
dykes, however, do not seem to be common here.

Of the rocks containing bronzite, of which several varieties
seem to constitute the bulk of the rocks around the trading
station of Angmagsalik there are no specimens in this collec-
tion and they are therefore probably not widely distributed.

One of the specimens, however, found some 55 miles NW.
of Angmagsalik approximates to them; it is an amphibolite-
pikrite containing pyroxene and spinel, and is related to the
rock from the interior of Scoresby Sound described by Bay
and Ussing.

In the northernmost part of the district between lat. 66° 33’
and 67°15’ N. the rocks seem to change their character. Of
granites, only pegmatites and micropegmatitic veins occur. True
gneisses are wanting in the collection, and from one locality
only there are a few specimens of a rather peculiar granulitic
schist. Basic rocks, on the other hand, are of much more
frequent occurrence, most of them being diabases which ap-
proach more or less to the basalt type, and may very well
belong to the same late- or post-mezozoic period of formation

16

as the dykes in Scoresby Sound. Others are still more altered,
and porphyrites of rather different appearance also occur.

Lastly, amphibolites are also met with among the specimens,
but no opinion can be formed of their geological appearance
from the material in hand.

From the district between lat. 69° 25’ and 65° N. traversed
by Lieut. Amdrup in the summer of 1900 there are no spe-
cimens, but from the short preliminary report!) it occurs, that
the southern part of this district, up to lat. 68° N., consists
of the same rocks that are found in the neighbourhood of
Nualik, viz. Archæan rocks with greenstone-dykes, the latter in
so great number that they almost surpass the former in mass.
To the north and east of the great fjord Kangerdlugsuak
basalts begin, which afterwards form a continuous mass all the
way up to Scoresby Sound.

1) Geogr. Tidsskr. 1901 —02, р. 34.

TE:

Samples of the sea-floor
along the coast of East Greenland 74/.—70 №. L.
By

0. B. Bøggild.

XXVIII. 2

op i

|

я

ly 328098

I, Introduction.

The samples of the sea-floor collected by the Danish
expedition to East Greenland, are in many respects of
very great interest. The physical conditions which generally
determine the nature of sea-floor deposits are here most char-
acteristic and peculiar, in comparison with those of all other
localities hitherto examined. The coast is rocky with great
deep bays into which large glaciers flow; outside this coast the
sea is generally covered by immense masses of ice, consisting
of an irregular mixture of sea-ice, coast-ice, and glacier-ice,
drifted on by a constant current along the shore; these peculiar
conditions combine to produce in the samples an appearance
widely different from that of all deposits hitherto known.

The most important characteristics of such deposits, and
those which together determine their nature are essentially of
three different kinds, viz. 1) The variation in size of the grains
found in the samples, 2) The mineralogical constitution of the
inorganic material, and 3) The number and nature of organisms
found in the samples. A few other characters may be named
which are not absolutely dependent on any of the above men-
tioned ones, but which are, nevertheless, of the greatest im-
portance in determining the general nature of the deposit, viz.
the colour and the greater or less degree of coherence in the

DAS

-

20

clay. These characters are generally very difficult to account
for by the conditions of the locality where the deposits have
been formed, even though important conclusions on that point
may often be drawn, as will be seen below.

With regard to the size of the various grains, it is of
course to be expected that the samples now under discussion
will belong to the more coarse-grained of those which have
been collected from the sea-floor. Both the coast erosion and
the ice-transport may supply a large quantity of clastic material,
whereto may still be added some derived from moraines or from
the solid rock at the bottom itself. A closer examination also
proves that the samples for the most part contain a very great
number of pebbly ingredients, such as will be found in greater
numbers scarcely anywhere, except in very shallow-water depo-
sits. In this connection, it is natural to draw a comparison
between these samples, and those from the Westcoast of Green-
land, which in many ways bear a great resemblance to them.
The transport-work of ice is however much less there, and
consequently the West Greenland deposits are a great deal finer
than those from East Greenland. The difference will be still
greater, if we compare the latter samples with those obtained
by the Fram from off the Northcoast of Siberia. Here there is
no glacier-ice, and the coast consists for the most part of rocks
such as sand and clay, which contain very few pebbles, con-
sequently these samples are very poor in that respect.

There is however amongst the individual samples a much
greater variation in the quantity of fragmental matter than
might be expected. Even if the proportion of this is, on the
average, very large, we find here and there a few samples where
it is quite insignificant, or where no pebbles whatever are found.
Such fine-grained deposits are sometimes found so situated in
relation to the others, that it is impossible to tell the reason
for this difference, but sometimes the variations may very well
be due to the situation.

21

If we examine а geological map of East Greenland as given
by Nathorst!) it will be seen that a number of different
formations are found all along the coast explored by this expe-
dition. This fact is of the utmost importance as regards the
mineralogical constitution of the deposits; for the greater the
difference found between the rocks of the various localities,
whence the deposits have derived their material, the greater
will be the possibility of determining the laws by which the
individual ingredients are distributed. A closer examination
now proves that, whereever a large tract of archean rocks or
of basalt extends to the coast, the samples which have been
taken in the immediate neighbourhood of these, consist either
exclusively or for the most part of these rocks. Somewhat
farther away from the coast, however, they will be mixed up
with a larger proportion of rocks derived from regions farther
north. Beside these two chief ingredients, there are also vari-
ous sedimentary rocks such as sandstones and slates, which
are very plentiful in this part of Greenland. They however have
not the same significance in the samples as the above men-
tioned rocks, as they are nowhere found in great tracts just
near the coast, and on that account will always be largely
mixed with other ingredients before reaching the sea. More-
over we are only able to determine sandstones and slates
among the coarsest ingredients of the samples, and on this
account a closer determination will always be somewhat un-
satisfactory.

') A.G.Nathorst: Bidrag til nordöstra Grönlands Geologi. Geol. Foren.
Forh. Stockholm Vol. 23, 1901, p. 275. Here and several other places
reference is made to:

Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt in den Jahren 1869 und 1870 unter
Führung des Kapitan Karl Koldewey Vol. II, Leipzig 1871, Ш, Geo-
logi p. 471.

Den ostgronlandske Expedition udført i Aarene 1891—92 under Ledelse
af С. Ryder. Part Ill, 5. Е. Bay: Geologi. Medd. om Grenl. XIX, 1896,
p. 145.

22

As has been proved, all the conditions are present which
would allow of the samples being as varied as possible, both as
to the size of the grains, and their mineralogical nature. With
regard to the third important feature which serves to charac-
terize the samples, the conditions for the preservation of orga-
nisms are very unfavourable. The amount of organic material
contained in the samples is therefore exceedingly small. As
the variation in appearance produced by the presence of large
numbers of organic ingredients in the samples is usually of
the most conspicuous nature — the samples being for the most
part classified according to their organic contents — it will be
seen that these particular ones must in any case have a rather
uniform appearance. The small number of organisms in these
samples is in the first place due to the great amount of inorganic
material which is deposited all along this tract, and which
perhaps nowhere else in -the world is laid down to such a
great extent. Moreover the number of small organisms, which
live in this sea, is probably very slight. There is a possibility,
however, that the organisms, as well as the inorganic ingre-
dients may be derived in somewhat large numbers from the
floating ice, being deposited at the bottom of the sea by the
melting of this ice. A closer examination of the samples,
however, proves clearly enough that the quantity of organisms
derived in this way is also proportionately insignificant.

II. Mechanical constitution of the samples.

Thirty-eight samples have served as material for examina-
tion, and these were almost all obtained at long intervals along
the East coast of Greenland, from about lat. 741/2° to about lat.
70°. The distance from the shore varied somewhat as will be
seen from the subjoined chart; as a rule it did not exceed a
few kilometers.

In the following table XI will be given a general account
of the situation of the deposits, the depth of the sea and the
colour and general properties of the clay. Beside the localities
of the above mentioned 38 samples, some have been mentioned
in the table from which no samples have been taken, but where
the nature of the sea-bottom is mentioned.

All the samples must, according to their nature, be classed
with the grey deep-sea clay, though it might perhaps be
correct to class some of them among shallow-water depo-
sits. The limit between these two varieties is not determined
by their petrographical nature, but is drawn as a rule at the
depth of a hundred Danish fathoms (c. 200 meter). This is also
approximately the depth at which the deposits begin to assume
a more purely clayey consistency, while those formed in more
shallow water often consist wholly or partly of gravel or sand.
If, however, we take a single area, such as the above men-

24

tioned by itself, it is not possible to distinguish sharply be-
tween the two designations, since the nature of the samples is

|
|

SA | sg
2 Е at N | PONS STE 2 Nature Jesus U) son Colour
Ehe of Grw. | S55 rence when dry
A A =
1 | 74° 18 15° 25 162 sandy and stony clay rather coherent pale brownish grey
2 | 74° 165 | 15° 58’ 152 — | — brownish grey
3 | 742 15 16° 29% 124 stone
4 | 74° 15’ 16° 50° 116 ‘coarse sandy and stony clay slightly coherent brownish grey
5 | 44° 15 17° 10’ 109 sandy clay rather coherent grey
6 | 74° 15 11e Dex 108 = — рае brownish grey
7 | 74° 15 18° 05° 79 stone
3 | 74° 22 189 20° 84 sandy clay rather coherent grey
Ро" 18° 40° 74 very sandy clay slightly coherent pale brownish grey
10 | 74° 03 19° 11 114 = Sin — very coherent =
ВХ, IG Toe 78 = = = = grey
12 | 73° 44-5 | 19° 15° 87 — = — | — pale brownish grey
151187 1S}? Byy 90 — — — exceedingly coherent —
14 | 73° 18 |19° 40 146 clay” very au grey
15 | 73° 13’ |19°55 215 fine clay exceedingly coherent =
16 | 73° 06'-5 | 20° 07:5 | 106 clay = = =
17 || 72° 58 | 20° 20-5 | 124 = = = ==
18 I 20° 39'’.5 | 124 sandy clay very coherent =
19 | 72° 45. | 20° 49° 159 clay exceedingly — =
20 || 72° 39-5 | 20° 50° 175 —
21 | 72° 29-5 | 21° 05’ 139 —
22 || 72° 18-5 | 21° 2% 106 — exceedingly coherent grey
23 | 72° 10-5 | 21° 25” 155 stone
24 | 72° 027-5 | 21° 27° 294. clay exceedingly coherent grey
25| 71°54 |21°27 | 226 fine clay = = u
26 71546’ 19199175! 161 stony and sandy clay rather == pale reddish grey
21| 712 38-5 |21°21°5 | 136 = — = pale reddish brown
28| 71° 31° | 21° 99" 114 stone
29| 71° 22) | 919 94’ 160 sandy clay rather coherent prey
30| 71° 17’ | 919 97’ 128 — exceedingly — =
31: | 71220902 912716; 128 | very sandy and stony clay slightly coherent —
32 | 71° 01:5 | 21° 13 241 fine clay exceedingly — —
33 | 710° 53 > KS 117 112 sandy clay very coherent —
34 | 70° 44/5 | 21° 10' 159 = = Fi Я
85| 709 35’ |919 15’ 94 stone
36 | 70° 99 91° 915 88 very stony clay slightly coherent grey
37 || 70° 21’ AICO 1 stony and sandy clay rather coherent —
38 |! 70° 17-5 | 21° 31’ 298 clay exceedingly coherent —
39 70° 13-5 | 21° 35 247 sandy clay rather = =?
40 | 709 04-5 | 21° 41’ 99: stony clay exceedingly — рае brownish grey
411 69° 52° | 22° 38-5 90 stony and sandy clay slightly coherent —
42 || 70° 00’ DOSE ll wis — — brownish grey
43 South off Kap | 135 sandy clay rather coherent —
| Hooker |
44 | 71° 50’ 1222 30"5 | 142 fine clay very — greyish brown
45 | 71° 35'°7| 22° 05! 202 = = >= Hi
46 The mouth of 70 exceedingly eoherent reddish brown

Hurry Inlet

5
or

largely dependent on other circumstances, which are not directly
connected with the depth. A brief survey of the above table
will show us, that there is no very direct connection between
the nature of the deposit and the depth of its formation. As
a rule it may be said that all the samples which contain the
largest amount of clay were obtained from a greater depth than
a hundred Danish fathoms, and thus may deserve the designa-
tion of grey deep-sea clay, but that the greater part of the
samples which contain a large proportion of sand and clay are
from very varying depths.

The character of the samples depends not only on the depth
from which they are procured, for the greater or lesser distance
from the shore at which they have been formed also exercises ап
influence on their composition. Generally these two influences
go pretty much together, so that it is not easy to make sure
whether one or the other plays the more prominent part, but
in many cases it is possible to see the direct effect of one of
these influences. It is thus fairly evident that the greater
number of samples from 14—22 are almost pure clays owing
to their having been obtained so much farther from the shore
than the other samples. The influence of the depth is seen
still more distinctly in some individual cases. Thus sample
No. 30, which was taken from the immediate neighbourhood of
the shore, is very fine-grained in comparison with its neighbours
and is consequently from a much greater depth.

That the depth and the distance from shore combined are
not always sufficient to determine the general nature of the
deposits is proved in a very striking manner by samples
No. 1—7, which were taken in a continuous line at right angles
to the coast-direction. Here both the depth and the distance
from shore decrease from Nr. I to 7, and in spite of this, the
samples are rather finer at the beginning of the series. From
this we may certainly conclude, that the greater number of the
coarser ingredients in the samples cannot have been transported

26

directly by the sea-water, for И this were the case, a gradual
sorting of the material must take place, as is seen in so many
other places. What other causes can have produced this
strange result I shall not here enquire; we can only imagine
two other ways in which the coarser ingredients can have got
into the samples, viz. either from the ice or from pre-existing
solid or loose rocks at the bottom of the sea; but which of
the two causes is the more likely can only be determined by a
closer examination of the mineralogical constituents of the
samples.

The consistency of the samples varies very much, as will
be seen by the table, and the same is the case with their
degree of coherence when dry. This last property is nearly
proportional to the amount of clay in the samples, as we have
been already led to expect. There are however a few rather
characteristic deviations from this rule, and even if the degree
of coherence cannot be directly measured, but is only founded
upon a rough estimate, these deviations are so conspicuous
that they may be considered as definitely proved. Thus sample
No. 28 which is designated «exceedingly coherent» contains a
large amount of sand, and shows, as will be seen from the
following table only 47.7 per ct. of its ingredients to be below
0.017. Neither does Nr. 22, which is about the most coherent
of all the samples, contain much clay; but it contains 49.1 per ct.
of finer ingredients. Let us on the other hand consider Nos. 26
and 27 which are only designated «rather coherent», and yet
they contain as many of the finer ingredients as the preceeding
ones viz. 42.4 and 47.5 per ct. respectively. Moreover No. 43
is designated very coherent, although it is about the finest
of all the samples with 76.6 perct. clay. As all the samples
were collected and kept in exactly in the same manner, the
variations of the degree of coherence cannot be due to these
circumstances, and must therefore be founded on the differences
in the nature of the clay itself. It is impossible to say for

27

certain wherein these variations consist, as they are probably
dependent on the physical nature of the finest clay-particles.
It is rather characteristic that two of the last-named samples
No.26 and 43, which have a slighter degree of coherence than
would be expected from their constitution, are of a distinctly
browner colour than the majority of the samples. This seems
to show that the degree of coherence of the samples has a
certain connection with the colour, though we are not yet able
to judge on what this first quality is really founded. Further
observations may possibly enlighten us on this point.

With regard to these samples the colours are unusually
homogeneous. For the most part they are either grey or have
a slight brownish or reddish tinge. Only 14 of the samples
are designated brownish-grey, and 3 greyish-brown, one with a
reddish tinge, and only one sample differs from the others in
having a very strongly pronounced reddish-brown colour.
Otherwise not a single sample comes nearer to. brown than
exactly half-way between grey and brown, and yet, in all
samples examined from other localities distinctly brown-coloured
ones have not unfrequently been found among the others. It
is generally difficult to tell the reason for the differences in
colour. They have no direct connection with the mineralogical
or mechanical properties of the samples, but depend partly on
the chemical nature of the clay; generally the samples of the
most pronounced brown colour contain most sesquioxide of iron.
There is every reason to suppose that the clay was of a grey
colour when originally deposited, but that gradually by oxida-
tion at the bottom of the sea, it becomes browner and browner.
If this oxidation takes place in all the deposits, the colour
must be in close connection with the rapidity with which they
are laid down, so that the ones which are deposited most
slowly will have the longest time in which to be subjected to
the oxidation, and will thus obtain the strongest brown colour.
The slowly-formed deposits will probably always be the finest,

28

as they must be formed in places where the ice cannot be sub-
jected to melting to any great degree, and where the coast ero-
sion and the currents have had no opportunity of conveying
coarser material. We must always expect to find that the
samples of the most pronounced brown colour also contain
most clayey ingredients. In other places this fact has been
very conspicuous, here however it is less pronounced. None
of the samples which are designated brownish-grey viz. No. 2,
3, 41 and 42 are finer than the average, nor is No. 26 of the
greyish-brown ones. It is not possible in the case of all these
samples to state anything which may explain their varying
colours. Then of the ones which have been designated greyish-
brown only the two samples No. 43 and 45 are left, and with
them the dark brown coloured sample No. 46; these three are
extremely fine compared with the others, they may therefore be
supposed to have been formed much more slowly. By looking
at the chart it will however be seen that these deposits have
a position which rather differs from that of the rest, viz. in
the bays Fleming Inlet, Carlsberg Fjord, and Hurry
Inlet, so there is here another possible way of explaining
the colours. The water here may have a different chemical
composition from that of the open sea, this difference being
due either to its containing a larger amount of oxygen or,
what is more probable, to its being less salt. It is a well
known fact that clay-particles are deposited much more
slowly in fresh than in salt water, there is then the possibility
that the greater part of the clay which is washed into the
water by the rivers may be transported farther out, and not be
deposited till it arrives outside the mouths of the bays. In
order to be able to understand the fact of the samples being so
exceedingly fine, we must suppose that not only has the greater
part of it not been deposited in the said place, but also that the
amount of coarser material conveyed thither must be exceedingly
slight.

Washing analyses.

In order to get an exact idea of the mechanical constitu-
tion of the samples, they were all subjected to a washing pro-
cess by the aid of Schéenes’s washing apparatus and were
sifted from the coarser ingredients.

First the ingredients larger than 0.57" were separated off
by means of a sieve; these were then again sorted by the aid
of coarser sieves, the meshes of which measured 1, 2, 4, 8™™
and so on. As these particular samples are for the most part
уегу rich in coarser ingredients, the sorting of these is of the
greatest importance in the examination of the mechanical con-
stitution. It is especially on this, that conclusions with regard
to ice transport and a great many other circumstances are based.

It is important to notice that the accuracy of the percen-
tages, which can be estimated by sifting, decreases, as the size
of the grains increases.

The percentages for the grains of more than 8™™ can
only be stated approximately, as only a very limited number of
these grains will be found in a sample of about a hundred
grammes, which is the amount that has usually been at our
disposal for this purpose. But a slight accident during the
hauling up of the material may cause a greater or lesser
number of stones to get into the sounding tube and affect the
result very considerably, so that the graphical representations
will also everywhere show great irregularities on the outermost
right side of the curve. If an exact determination of the
amount of these ingredients is to be made one would require
to have a very great quantity of each sample, and then still
larger ingredients, the determination of which would also be
very inexact, would enter into the samples. On the other hand
the percentages for the ingredients from 0°5 to 8™™ are exceed-
ingly accurate.

30

The parts of the samples which are below 0°5™™ in size
were separated by washing into three parts 1) containing the
ingredients below 0°01™, 2) those from 001—005 and
3) those from 0:05—0°5™™. The exactness which may be
attained by the washing is perfectly satisfactory between the
size-limits of the two last named ingredients, but not between
the size-limits of the two first sizes of grains. However re-
cently deposited the clay may be, it is always very difficult to
get it finely divided by boiling, and the various samples are
very unequal in this respect. By long and repeated boiling, one
may perhaps in most cases succeed in getting the clay sub-
stance broken up, but the results thus attained will certainly
not correspond exactly with the natural conditions under which
the deposits were laid down.

As mentioned above clay is deposited much quicker in salt
than in fresh water. The reason of this, as shown by experi-
ment, is, that the single particles of clay, by coming into salt
water, clot together into somewhat large, coherent masses,
which as a rule, however, do not attain the size of 1™™. This
clotting only takes place to a very slight degree or not at all,
if the clay is very finely divided, as will generally be the case
if the clay originates from coast erosion or from coast rivers.
Glacier-rivers, however, will often convey the clay in great quan-
tities, and when it is washed into the sea by them the greater
part of it will be deposited very quickly.

If we now take the samples singly, the clay in them will
originally have been deposited in somewhat different ways.
One part of it will have been deposited very slowly, and must
thus be classified amongst the very finest ingredients of the sample.
Another part has sunk to the bottom comparatively quickly, and
must therefore be classified among the somewhat coarser ingre-
dients, between 0°02 and 0°05™™, It is very doubtful whether
it is possible by washing, to separate even approximately the
various parts of the clay from each other. It is most probable |

51

Table of the proportions of the mechanical constituents in the samples.

|
|

= = et а a= ВОВЕ il = = ОМ
БОЕ Bil Fig its бо Do) ED ED pee
CEN FEER 38 | SER LT роте
aS >.| © > - с = ©

| per Ct | per ct. рег Ct. | per Ct. | perCt. | per Ct. | perCt. | per Ct. | рег Ct.
1 44:6 | 22:8 | 180 | 46 27 DEC 21 2:5
a | 312 | 306 | 210 | 41 31 2:5 4:5
29 "56:2. | 1410362) | 53 2:9 2:5 21 2:8
4 | 29:5 | 52'6 | 129 11 1:0 il .0:8 |
5 | 401 | 351 | 167 129 iil ILS, 22 10
6 | 498 | 106 | 338 | 29 iL 16 0:2 |
7 | 216 | 349 | 397 | 06 0:4 0:8 0:7 16 |
9. | 13:7 | 23:0 Gah) MOMIE 16 Hapınasızı | 2156
10 | 524 (45) 016,8 12:4 17 2:4 45, МТ,
11 15:9 295499224 65 | 63 | 100 75 19
817, 1.1054 8:66) 2:6 38 87 | 66 157
14 | 540 | 36:0 COPA ONE 0:6 01 |
Paleo oii 19:9 62) 00 | 00 |
SN 59:6 | 10:3 | 221 18 1:0 о zul ES
17 | 36:3 | 613 22 Odd 0:1 |
18 | 323 | 390 | 236 |. 07 0:4. 0:3 03 | 09 2:5
197 39:0) 17'59°7 152216 0:0 0:0 0:1 |
227,494 SEL, L 10:35 2.5 3:5 2-11: |
23 | 504 | 441 54| 01 0:0 0:0
24 | 748 | 254 | 03| 00 |
2313131160 | 317 ists 0:6 0:5 CNRS ON OZ
26 |.42-4 | 233 | 161 Hal 47 42 2 HO
р 325 | 3531 1131 0:6 0:4 0:9 |
ВА: | 93-7 | "920 527719 0:9 16
29 | 25:0 | 138 | 370 | 47 | TO 2:0 324.» CS
30 | 591 | 39:3 О 0:1 0:0 |
31 | 241 | 205 | 470 | 09 | 09 | 11| 14 | 41
32 | 495 | 122 | 351 0:4 0:5 0:9 1-4
1910,15 are) 5:0 6:0 | 27:5 tie
2501235 | 2077 | 256 |) ЭТ 37 3'2 2:0 41 9:8
85 | 141 оз 0:7 0:9 то 19 07
BEES KYST 146 49| or 2:4 ZA) REB
ory 448 | 299 | 68 | 1924 JA DANS OS
BEE. 365 WATT |) vo. Nh Bb, 4:3 2:8 8:0
41 || 24:9 | 185 | 195 | 42 | 30 4:2 8:2 ge 10:8
eee 5421275 | 108| 19 | 19 8:0 12
43 | 16:6 | 227 | 061.01 0:0 |
45 | 480 | 48:9 21| 04 0:2 0:4
46 901 82 09 08| 04 01

that the clay, Бу lying a long time at the bottom of the sea,
assumes in each place a uniform consistency, which, however,
varies very much in the different samples. Even if by repeated
boilings one could succeed in getting all the clay finely divided,

32

no great result would be thereby attained. On this account
these samples have only been subjected to a single boiling of
about one hour’s duration. The quantity of the clayey substance
itself in proportion to the other ingredients will be shown by
the graphical representations.

As is clearly shown by the table all the samples are
exceedingly rich in coarser ingredients over 0057”, The
average quantity of these is in all the samples 13-2 per Ct.,
while in the corresponding samples from the Ingolf-Expe-
dition along the coasts of Iceland and West Greenland,
it does not reach 5 per Ct., and in the samples obtained. by
the Fram-Expedition along the North coast of Siberia it is
far below I per Ct. With regard to the last place, the reason
of the fineness of the samples is probably for the most part
due to the fact that the coast is quite low, and formed of loose
rocks such as sand and clay. ‘On the other hand, the differ-
ence between the samples now described, and those from the
Ingolf-Expedition can only be ascribed to the much greater
quantity of floating ice found near East Greenland, as, in
all other essentials, the localities are alike.

If the average quantities of all the individual sizes of
grains are calculated, the following numbers are obtained:

below 10:01—0:0510:05—0:5|0:5—1| 1—2 | 2—4 | 4—8 | 8—16| above
0:01 mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. 16 mm.
49-6 | 26:9 | 173 | 2.9 | 17 | 1-9 | 2-1 | 35 | 1-3

Herein is shown that the clayey and sandy ingredients,
as was to be expected, are in decided majority in comparision
with the coarser ones in the samples. It is rather strange
that smaller quantities are found between I and 4mm of the
ingredients than of the somewhat coarser ones. This is mainly
owing to the circumstance that moraines at the bottom of the
sea probably supply large quantities of coarser ingredients,

33

whereas the sand and clay for the most part must have been
derived from the land.

It is rather interesting to compare the mechanical consti-
tution of these samples with that of till. The average com-
position of 9 samples from Funen is!)

below 0:01 —0°05 | 0°05—0°5 | Wal | Ds | above
0.01 mm. mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | 2 mm.
| |
a7 | 139 | 462 | 16 | 97 |.3

On the whole there is a rather strong likeness between
the samples and the till The most conspicuous difference
between the two is that the till is very rich in ingredients
between 0°05 and 0‘5mm, and has a correspondingly smaller
proportion of the finer ingredients. With regard to the coarser
parts, the samples contain much more than the till, yet we
must here notice that this larger proportion of coarse material
is almost confined to a few samples which are very rich in
pebbles, the remaining samples containing much less. The
9 samples of till on the other hand are unvaryingly homo-
geneous. This homogenous character alone 15 sufficient to
enable us to distinguish, with tolerable certainty, between till
and sea-floor deposits. If the latter were found to have а com-
position resembling that of till, they must have been deposited
in an icefilled sea, and we cannot but think that currents, and
many other circumstances would, in that case cause them to
vary very much in the individual localities. Besides the till itself
if deposited on rugged ground would probably show a somewhat
varying constitution.

1) Beskrivelse til geol. Kort over Danmark, Kortbladet Hindsholm by
N. V. Ussing and Victor Madsen. Danm. geol. Undersøgelse.
1.Rekke, Nr. 2, р. 77.

ХХУИ1.

co

34

Graphic representation of the mechanical constitution

of the samples.

In order to give a better general idea of the constitution
of the samples, a graphic representation of part of them has
been prepared. The different sizes of grains are taken as
abscisse , while the percentages are taken as ordinates. In
determining the units on the abscissa-axis the question of em-
ploying an algebraic or a geometrical progression might arise.
The former is inadequate for giving an exact representation of
the differences between the samples. As these contain ingre-
dients up to about 50mm we might for example mark off on
the abscissa-axis 50 units of 1™™ each, but it will easily be
seen that, as by far the greater number of the ingredients are
smaller than 1™™, the curve would rise to an inconveniently
great height at the extreme left; and if we further consider
that the majority of the ingredients is smaller than 0°05™™ it
will be seen, that the curve for the first twentieth part of amm.
must reach such a height, that it cannot be plotted on the same
sheet as will at the same time indicate the small quantities of
the larger ingredients present.

By employing a geometrical progression to illustrate the
series of the grains, we get a representation which gives a far
more distinct idea of the constitution of the samples. The
most simple way is with 1™™ as a basis to mark off equidistant
divisions toward both sides, those to the right being desig-
nated 2, 4, 8™™ etc., while those on the left stand for
(>, 1/4, Узтт etc. Such a curve system is unlimited in either
direction, and may easily be employed for all sorts of mechan-
ical rocks, even the coarsest grained.

The plotting of the curve for the ingredients greater than
05mm js easily accomplished by marking off as ordinates the
percentages of each size of grain. In washing, limits have been
employed, in the case of the finer ingredients, for the sizes of
grain which do not fit in with the numbers on the abscissa-

idl

35

axis viz. 005mm and 0'01mm, Their positions however are easily
ealeulated to be 4°32 and 6°64 respectively, to the left of the
starting point. Thus, as the percentages of the ingredients
between 0°05 and 0°5 extend from 4°32 to 1, it is necessary,
in marking them off, to divide by 3°32 and employ the value
found as ordinate. The ingredients between 0°01 and 0‘05mm
extend from 6°64 to 4°32, and the percentages for this size of
grain must therefore be divided by 2°32. The greatest difficulty
is met with in the representation of the finest ingredients below
0:Ojmm, If, we are to be able to mark off any definite height,
we must have a lower limit for this size of grain, and as we
cannot arrive at such a one in any empirical way, the choice
must be a somewhat arbitrary one. This circumstance however
will not influence us against the use of the curve, as our
attention must be specially directed to that part of the curve
which represents the finest particles; and if the lower limit
is the same for all the samples any differences will be
very conspicuous. Here */10000™™ is everywhere fixed as the
lower limit, so that, as this value lies 13°33 units to the left
of the starting point, the sizes of the grains below 0:01™™ will
extend over 6°69 units, and the percentages found, must be
divided by this number to determine the height the part of
the curve in question will attain.

Where the heights determined for the curves are marked
off as horizontal lines, the curves will have a very jagged
appearance. As this representation of the case would be mis-
leading the curve has been smoothed throughout its length. If,
for instance, the size of a grain comes between two others,
one of which is present in very large, the other only in very
small quantities, the curve must slope evenly down from the
former to the latter. If a considerable number of one size of
grain is found, and smaller numbers of the two sizes repre-
sented next to it, the curve must be highest at the middle,

and decrease gradually towards both ends. By actual examina-
3*

56

tion of the ingredients it will be found in all cases that the
real proportions are in accordance with the calculated ones.
The left side of the curve has everywhere been drawn evenly
downwards. It may be taken for granted that wherever the
lower limit for the size of the grains be placed, the quantity
must gradually decrease towards this limit.

The left part of the curves has been divided into two areas
of which the upper indicates the quantity of clayey substance,
while the lower which is connected with the main part of the
curve, indicates the finer sandv ingredients. The ratio between
the two parts has been found by direct microscopic examination.
The ratio of the ingredients between 0`01 and 0:05 can be
determined fairly correctly by counting the grains; that of the
finest ingredients can only be conjectured, as we cannot disting-
uish clearly between grains of clay and grains of quartz in the
case of such very fine particles.

The сигуез for the samples which are of special interest
will further be given below.

The deposits No. 1—7 lie, as will be seen from the chart,
in a series along the shore outside the Sabine О and Kap
Borlase Warren; we notice in these samples the very
peculiar fact that the outermost ones, as shown by the curves
for No. 1 and 3, are far coarser than the innermost ones
represented by No.4 and 7, to which also No. 5 and 6 bear a
very great resemblance. It has been mentioned above that
this fact is in contrast with the general rules by which the
fineness of the samples increases with the increasing distance
from shore and with the depth, and both distance and depth
are greater in the case of the first three samples. The di-
stance from shore is, however, too great for their coarser
ingredients to have been transported directly thence, so they
must have been derived either from icebergs or from the
bottom of the sea.

That the difference in the deposits should be due to ice-

37

bergs is not very probable; all the deposits have originated
from the so called Northbay in the floating ice, which during
summer forms a free passage from the open sea towards
the East-coast of Greenland. Generally speaking we may
suppose, that, in places where there is little ice during
the summer, less material will be deposited by the ice
at the bottom of the sea, than where there is closely
packed ice. Consequently throughout the region herein des-
cribed, the ice will be of no great importance as determining
the constitution of the samples. It might be imagined however
that the melting of the ice would be sufficient to explain the
great number of coarser ingredients found in these samples,
if the amount of finer material conveyed from the land is less
in proportion. We cannot so easily understand the reason
why the outermost samples are considerably coarser than the
innermost ones, for, as far as we can gather from all accounts,
there is no very great difference in the number of icebergs in
the outer and inner part of the tract.

Assuming then that the coarser ingredients of the three
first samples originated from the rocks at the bottom of the
sea, here we have again two possibilities, namely that they
have been derived either from solid, or from loose rocks. The
first supposition is not very probable; in the first place we
cannot thereby explain the circumstance that the samples be-
come finer nearer land. If the bottom of the sea has ever
been above sea-level, this must have been the case with the
whole tract, and many submarine rocks must then have been
found also nearer land, and would hardly have been entirely
covered by later deposits. Moreover we always notice that,
where the material of the samples originates from solid rocks of
the sea-floor, it will always be of a rather homogeneous nature
in each individual sample, and will often vary very much from
one sample to another, but this is not the case here as will
be proved later.

38

Then we have the possibility left that the richness of
coarser ingredients in the samples now under discussion is
due to the presence of loose rocks of earlier formation at the
bottom of the sea, these being most likely of the nature of till.
The theory of the presence of such a moraine has already been
propounded by Bay (Medd. om Grønland. XIX, р. 185) and is
founded partly on the belief that no deposit due to icebergs
is found north of Scoresby Sund, partly on the nature of
the rocks which have been brought to light by trawling. The
first evidence is not very convincing, as the occurrence of
icebergs must of necessity be very irregular, and very varying
from one year to the next, and even if the ice only deposited
small quantities of material, this would in the course of many
years, form very extensive deposits. The evidence which is
founded on the nature of the rocks is of far greater import-
ance, and will be given more fully later in the following. It
suffices here to mention that an examination of the rocks of
the samples in question almost always shows a remarkable
affinity to the solid rocks of the country nearest to them, so
it is quite natural to suppose that they must originate partly
from moraines at the bottom of the sea.

As the samples No. 1—7 are the only ones which have
been taken in a connected series at right angles to the coast
direction, we might expect more particularly from these samples
to find a proof of the presence of a moraine. With regard
to the depth, we have already seen that it decreases gradually
as we approach the shore. The conclusions arrived at will
however be different if we take into consideration locality 1)
(p. 186) mentioned by Bay. This is situated very near station |
of this expedition, being only about 2'/2 kilom. farther east,
and the depth is stated to be 127 Danish fathoms while that
of station No.1 is 162 D. fathoms. We have then here the
only really certain case in which the presence of a submarine
moraine is clearly proved by the relief of the sea-flor. We may

59

then conclude that the ice during the ice-age had its outermost
limit at Bay’s locality 1), then during its retreat, it remained
for a longer period over the tract occupied by the deposits
represented by the samples 1—3 of this expedition, and finally
retreated very quickly across the inner tract. This is the only
probable explanation of the strange phenomenon that samples
1—3 are much coarser than those obtained from the inner
tract. This evidence is however only based on the inference
that drifting ice only deposits a very small amount of material
in such localities as these, for the moraine formations would
otherwise very easily have been hidden. Morainic matter cannot,
like submarine rocks, continue for long periods to project from
the bottom of the sea, and maintain its influence on the
deposits. |

Samples No. 1—7 are otherwise of no special interest.
From the rather irregular shape of the curves for No. 1 and 3
can be directly seen, that their existence must be due to several
different causes. As, however, they consist in great part of the
morainic matter from the bottom of the sea which is itself of
a very irregular constitution, it is impossible to determine the
influence which other factors may have had upon them. The
curve of No. 4 is on the other hand of а much more regular
appearance, the whole giving the impression that it consists
of rather well-sorted material, most of the grains being between
1/32 and ват. The amount of the clayey ingredients is small
in proportion to that of the others. The extension of the curve
to the right, shows an influx of coarse material which is quite
independent of the chief bulk of the sample. Here the material
from the moraines at the bottom of the sea must be out of
the question, as these must have been covered by later depo-
sits. We must then suppose that these coarser ingredients
have been conveyed by icebergs, and we get thus directly from
the curve а good idea of the ratio between the two different
influences, that of the ice, and that of the land. The ice must

40

also have contributed a large quantity of the finer material,
but this will certainly be of less importance than that derived
from the land.

The sample No. 7 shows a very great resemblance to the
last-named; also here is plainly seen the influence of the ice
in the extension of the curve to the right. Moreover the curve
shows very distinctly, that this sample has been obtained from
nearer the shore, as the greater number of the grains attain
a size of about 1/20™™, viz. about double the size of those in
No. 4, besides the main part of the curve has a rather regular
shape, and thus suggests a like cause of deposition.

The samples No. 9—13, obtained in a continuous series
from the coast between Kap Borlase Warren and Kap
Broer Ruys, are characteristic as being some of coarsest of
all the samples. The curves are all very irregular, but have
two rather distinet maxima of which the one is situated far to
the right among the coarsest ingredients. The depth of depo-
sition is not very great in any of the samples, as it varies
from 78 to 114 Danish fathoms. The distance from shore is
however so great that the coarser ingredients can hardly have
emanated directly from there. Were this so the ingredients
must consist entirely of basalt which is far from being the
case, seeing that they have a very mixed constitution. For
the same reason we cannot well imagine that they have origi-
nated from rocks at the bottom of the sea. Then there only
remains, as in the samples 1—3, the choice between the
floating-ice and moraine-formations, and here the mineralogical
constitution cannot decide the question, as we must expect a
mixture of granitic, basaltic, and sedimentary material, such as
is found in these samples both from the icebergs of the far
north, and from the land-ice.

It is not at all probable that icebergs have conveyed the
enormous amount of coarse material in these samples, as
there is nothing to account for their having such great influence

41

here, in comparison with that which they exercise on most of
the other samples. As far as we know, this particular tract is
rather free from ice in summer, so that proportionately few
icebergs would melt here. We are then obliged to suppose,
that the above-mentioned moraine bends inwards along this
tract, which may perhaps be explained by the high coast lying
inside it. It is strange that deposits from the land or from
the ice have not completely covered this moraine since the ice-
age, but no other explanation is probable.

The complicated shape of the curves with respect to the
4 samples is thus connected with the fact that one part of the
sample originates from the original moraine — or stratified
material from the ice-age, the other and finer part, on the
other hand, from material conveyed hither at a later period.

No.9 is the most regular of all the samples. We cannot
imagine a better illustration of a sample consisting of two quite
different parts. The remarkable height of the curve between
8 and 16™™, and the great slope towards both sides, indicates
that originally a gravel with grains of an unusually uniform
size was deposited in this locality. After the ice-age finer
material was deposited here, partly by transport from land, partly
by icebergs, this being also of a rather regular constitution,
with maximum between 1/32 and вам. This material must
have been laid down among the coarser ingredients, or has at
any rate become mixed with them during the hauling up.

The three following samples Nr. 10—11 and 13, are far
more difficult to account for. It seems as if the originally-
deposited rock, in these cases was in itself of a rather
irregular constitution. If we draw up curves for morainic
rocks we always get a rather irregular figure with more maxima,
and this is especially the case with such rocks in mountainous
parts. It will be impossible to determine with regard to these
samples how great a part emanates from later deposits. Prob-
ably however at least half of the finer ingredients was thus

42

derived all the curves show a somewhat pronounced rise with
respect to these parts.

The curves for No. 10 and 13 are open to the right, and
seem to indicate that these samples contain a great deal of
still coarser ingredients, which the sounding tube has not been
able to take up. As mentioned above too many conclusions
must not be based on the shape of the curves for the coarsest
grains, as it depends on mere chance if more or less pebbles
are got at the same time, and even a single one may produce
a great difference in the appearance of the curve. It must
thus certainly be mere accident that No. 10 has no ingredients
over 16MM, as the shape of the curve seems to indicate a rather
considerable number of these ingredients.

With regard to the finer ingredients, there is a very
great resemblance between No. 10 and 13, as both these
samples contain a comparatively large quantity of clay-substance.
No. 11 on the contrary bears a greater resemblance to No. 9,
as the greater part of its finest ingredients are between 1/32
and вм. It will hardly be possible to find the cause
of this.

Samples No. 14—19, the deposits of which form a con-
nected series outside the bay between Kap Hold with Hope
and Kap Parry, are of quite a different type from the preceding
ones. As will be seen by the curves they are all comparatively
fine, as only a few percentages of the ingredients or sometimes
none at all are found to be over !/omm, The change is very
sudden, as the distance between No. 13 and 14 is not much
more than about 13 kilom., and the difference between the
constitution of these samples is, as will be seen by the curves,
very marked.

It is impossible to imagine that the greater distance from
shore can be of any importance in this matter, as the differ-
ence between the samples is not very great in this respect;
neither can the difference in the number of icebergs affecting .

43

them be very marked. After passing the projecting Kap Hold
with Hope, the ice-bergs have more room for spreading out,
and certainly obtain thereby more freedom of motion; this is
the reason for their not remaining any length of time above
each individual place and they cannot therefore deposit so much
material. Yet even this factor does not seem sufffcient to
explain the great difference in the constitution. Here we must
then again remember the above mentioned moraine, which, in
this locality, must be supposed to form a projection into the
sea, caused partly by the greater depth, partly by the greater
transport of ice which has taken place from Franz Joseph's
Fjord.

There are moreover variations in the individual samples, as
will be seen by the curves.

The contiguous samples No. 14 and 15 have a rather
similar constitution, and are both rather regular and fine.
No. 14 contains a number of ingredients over '/2™™, which are
absent in No. 15, and for this no other reason can be ima-
gined than that the former deposit is situated nearest the moraine,
from which it may have received a few ingredients. Moreover
the curve shows that the chief mass of the sample itself is
somewhat finer in No. 15 than in No. 14, and that a consider-
ably larger amount of clayey substance is found in the former.
This is due to the fact that No. 15 was obtained from a con-
siderably greater depth so that the finest parts had better
opportunities for being deposited. These finest parts must in
the case of both the samples have been derived directly
from land.

Sample No. 16 is somewhat coarser than the preceding
ones probably because it was formed right outside the Bontekoe
0. However it is hardly possible that a direct transport of
material from this island can have contributed in any great
degree to the formation of the deposit, as the distance is rather
great, i.e. about 35 kilom. It is more probable that the island

44

checked the movement of the ice somewhat during the ice-age,
so that the moraine approached slightly nearer the island; yet
the number of coarser ingredients in the sample is not so
great but that it might be explained in other ways, for example,
by icebergs.

With respect to the finer particles, the curve very charac-
teristically shows two maxima, viz. a smaller one at about
1/gmm and a larger one in the ingredients under }/ıoomm, It is
not easy to account for this circumstance. The mineralogical
constitution of the sandy ingredients plainly shows, as men-
tioned below, that they cannot have been derived in any quantity
from the Bontekoe Ø, their presence may then possibly also
be connected with the proximity of the moraine; the original
rock thus consisted of pebbly sand, in which case all the finest
ingredients have been introduced later by the sea. There may
also have been a morainic rock here originally which had
an almost similar constitution to the now existing sample. If
this were the case only a very small amount of clayey ingre-
dients can have been conveyed hither since the ice-age, which
is hardly probable.

The samples No. 17—19 are very regular, as will be seen
by the curves. This is especially the case with No. 17 and 19,
the composition of which is very much alike. Hardly any ingre-
dients over ‘/2™ are found, and very small quantities over
Y/oomm, so that these two samples belong to the very finest
of those procured by the expedition. The curves are very regular
with the maximum at about +/64™™. As the distance from shore is
comparatively great, the deposition cannot have taken place very
quickly. The lack of coarser ingredients plainly shows that
the ice must have had an exceedingly slight effect, and that
the moraine did not exercise the least influence here. The
curves also give us a good idea as to how sorted material
appears in graphic representation. The currents must in these
parts be very regular and permanent, so that just the size of

45

grain which is found in the greatest numbers in these samples
has time to be deposited, while the coarser ingredients sink to
the bottom nearer land, and the finer ones are transported
still farther away. If the currents change in direction and
force, it will be seen that several different sizes of grains
will appear in the samples, and thereby the curve will
become broader and lower. Something like this is the case
with sample No. 18, but as it is situated between two others
the difference between them is quite inexplicable, and likewise
the circumstance that in No. 18 is found a number of the coars-
est ingredients. This phenomenon can hardly be explained
otherwise than as a mere accident.

Sample No. 22 shows, as is seen by the curve, the same
phenomenon as so many of the former samples, viz. that
it consists of two rather well-separated parts, viz. a smaller
one with the maximum between 2 and 4™™ and a larger one
with maximum at about Yıoomm, As it is not probable that
the above-mentioned moraine comes so close to the shore, we
may suppose that the comparatively great amount of coarser
ingredients is due to icebergs, or possibly the two causes may
be acting in concert. The nature of these coarser ingredients
is rather mixed, and cannot explain anything for certain either
one way or the other.

Sample No. 24, situated outside the mouth of Davys Sund,
is of a very fine-grained nature. The curve has a very regular
and symmetrical form with maximum between !/128 and !/e56™™,
and there is a comparatively large amount of clay-substance.
The most characteristic feature in the sample is, however, the very
small amount of larger ingredients, as it only contains 0°3 per Ct.
over (05, which is less than in any of the other samples,
much less еуеп than in any of the samples from the Ingolf-
Expedition, which are on the whole considerably finer than
the ones described here, and a great number of which were
obtained in deep water at a great distance from land. The

46

depth is not especially great, viz. 226 Danish fathoms; the
sample No. 23, which was obtained near it, was at a depth of
294 Danish fathoms, and forms on the whole a transition
between No. 22 and 24, for which reason it has not been men-
tioned further. In order to bring about this remarkable con-
stitution all the different physical circumstances of the place
must have acted in concert to prevent the deposition of coarser
ingredients; but as most of these circumstances are not very
well known, it is impossible to account for the phenomenon
definitely. We can only say that the melting of icebergs must
have been almost out of the question here; in summer they
must therefore always pass outside this place. Moreover, all
the directions of the currents must constantly be such that they
cannot convey hither material from the rather near-lying tracts
of land, Van Dyk Rock and Canning Land. If just now
and again a somewhat powerful current came from one of these
places, much of the material formed by the coast erosion may
have been conveyed to the deposit, and it would thereby con-
tain a larger amount of sand. However it is hardly possible
that these causes alone would be able to produce a constitu-
tion like that of the sample, a very great amount of clay must
also have been conveyed into the sea at this place. The
colour of the sample, which is pure grey, indicates that it
cannot have been deposited very slowly. It is impossible to
say for certain if a very great amount of clay can be conveyed
out of Davys Sund, as most of the natural conditions of this
territory are very little known. In this connection it will be
of great importance whether the salinity of the water in the
bay is perceptibly less than in the sea; this may in itself be
the cause of the deposition of an especially large amount of
clay outside a large bay like this one.

By proceeding from No. 24 to No. 25, one of these sudden,
rather inexplicable changes in the constitution of the samples
again occurs, to which we have already drawn the attention

47

above. This sample was obtained at a somewhat less depth
than the former (relatively 161, and 226 Danish fathoms), and
the distance from shore is not much less, and yet the differ-
ence with regard to the constitution is very conspicuous as will
be seen by the curves. The great amount in the sample of ingre-
dients over 16mm js very striking, but may be due to chance cir-
cumstances, as a quite small number of pebbles of this size is
sufficient to bring about such a result. More characteristic is the
rather large amount of sandy ingredients viz. 31'7 per Ct., an
amount which is perhaps not very great in comparison with the
majority of the other samples, but which is very conspicuous when
compared with the 0:3 per Ct. in No. 24. Here we can scarcely
imagine any other reason than this, that a rather powerful
current runs direct from Canning Land above sample No. 25
without coming in contact with No. 24. It might also be ima-
gined that the difference of depth which distinguishes the two
samples, might cause the current to be so powerful above
No. 25, that the clayey particles cannot easily be deposited
there. Possibly the two causes act in concert.

Sample No. 26 which was obtained outside the mouth of
Carlsberg Fjord, differs from the last-named mainly by a
more even distribution of the larger ingredients, as from 0°05™™
and upwards there are found equal amounts which do not
decrease in quantity until from 4 to 16mm The coarser
ingredients may be supposed to have the same origin as in
the last-named sample, having been conveyed hither by the
current direct from land. It is not easy to explain why we
have here such a great quantity of the ingredients between 0*5
and 4@m jin comparison with those of the last-named sample.
Possibly the somewhat closer proximity to the shore, together
with rather less depth, may have enabled the same current
which only conveyed ingredients between 0:05 and 0°5™™ to the
above-mentioned to convey ingredients up to 4™™ or more.

The next samples No. 27—33, have been taken along the

48

Liverpool Kyst, rather near land. As their situation is
much alike with regard to the coast, they might be expected
to be of similar consistency and yet they are so different, as to
have scarcely any feature in common; they will therefore be
treated below separately.

No. 27 is rather fine as compared with the rest of these
samples, and the curve shows a very smooth, and symmetrical
shape with the exception of a smaller independent part with
maximum between 2 and 4™™ which was probably derived from
icebergs. The rest must have been derived directly from land,
and cannot have been conveyed very far, presumably it came
from the land near Murray @.

No. 29 has quite a different appearance from the last named.
The curve is of a specially irregular shape, and the great number
of sandy and pebbly ingredients is most conspicuous, while very
few clayey ones are found. The circumstance that the sam-
ples are situated at a comparatively slight depth, 128 Danish
fathoms, is presumably a sufffcient explanation of the finer
ingredients being so few in number; probably the current is
so strong that deposition cannot take place. If, however, we
want to account for the existence of so large a proportion
of coarser ingredients the case will be different; they are too
large to have been conveyed direct from land, and must there-
fore have had their origin in one of the three factors: icebergs,
morainic formations at the bottom of the sea, or solid rocks
from this same place.

To determine which of the three factors has been the
most important is rather difficult. It is not likely that the ice
has had any great influence. There is no special reason for
supposing that ice can have conveyed such enormous quantities
of material to this locality, and to others which will be men-
tioned below, seeing that its influence otherwise seems to be
somewhat slight Moreover the adjacent samples No. 27 and
30, have either no coarser particles, or only a very insigni-

49

ficant quantity of them, and they could probably not have failed
to contain such, if a great number of icebergs had melted in
these parts.

That the presence of the coarser ingredients in the sam-
ples may be due to morainic material is more probable. During
the ice-age a number of glaciers may have flowed out from the
Liverpool Kyst in various directions, and large ice-streams
from Davys Sund and Scoresby Sund may have spread
over the whole territory herein described. By this means, great
variations in the constitution of the loose rooks of the ice-age
may very well have been produced, even in adjacent places. It
is, however, scarcely probable that these, being so near land
could escape being covered over by later deposits. On an open
coast like the Liverpool Kyst, a rather considerable amount
of erosion must take place, and a corresponding transport of
material into the sea, so that it is not at all probable that we
should be able to obtain in the samples any material directly
connected with the ice-age.

We must then suppose that at any rate a great proportion
of the coarse material has been derived from the rocks of the
sea-floor. Even if deposition of the finer ingredients takes place
on a comparatively large scale, these rocks will only be covered
during very long geological periods, and will always be able
by their weathering to provide for a deposition of material in
their neighbourhood. This material can have all sizes of grains
from the finest clay to the largest pebbles, the size depend-
ing on the proximity of the solid rock. It will thus be
understood that even adjacent samples may be rather different
in their mechanical constitution, where an essential part of
their material has this origin. ‘There is however another cir-
cumstance which must also be taken into consideration here,
viz. the petrographical nature of the coarser ingredients of the
sample. If they originate from the solid rocks of the sea-floor

each individual sample will have a comparatively homogeneous
XXVIII. 4

50

constitution, as several different kinds of rock will not generally
be found assembled in one small area. This is also partly the
case with this sample No.29, as will be seen later, for, out of
29 rock-fragments over 4™™, this has 23 consisting of granite
or gneiss, the remaining ones being sedimentary. We then
arrive at the result that the greater part of the granitic material
has its origin in the sea-floor, while the rest together with
the sediments originates from icebergs or moraine-formations.
Even supposing this last-named material be covered over by
later deposits, wherever it is situated in a somewhat flat place,
yet, wherever it was originally deposited in a somewhat more
undulating tract, it may still project in some places and con-
tribute its share to the constitution of the samples.

Sample No. 30 deviates in its constitution greatly from
the surrounding ones, as it is almost devoid of coarser ingre-
dients over 0°5™™, and has very few ingredients between 0:05
and 0°5™™. This peculiarity is directly connected with its
occurrence at a greater depth viz. 241 Danish fathoms. Owing
to this unusually large quantities of finer material are depo-
sited, the conditions for such deposition being less good in
places at a higher level, where the deep-seated currents some-
times may be very strong. Hence what may originally have
existed of morainic deposits is covered, while those derived
from icebergs are so slight compared with the amount of finer
material that they cannot be noticed in the sample. For the
sample to be so fine as is the case here, it is also necessary
that no solid rocks should exist in the neighbourhood, as the
presence of such will always bring about the deposition of
coarse ingredients in large quantities. The very regular curve
shows that the deposit or at any rate the greater part of it,
must have originated from one single source; the greater part
of it was evidently derived directly from land.

The samples No. 31 and 32 are of a quite different appear-

ance. Compared with the last-named sample they are of much.

u

Be NT

nr ee

ae es ae

N en ee

51

coarser consistency, the maximum size of the ingredients being
between 0'05 and 05%. This is most easily explained by the
fact that the lesser depth of deposition viz. 112 and 150 Danish
fathoms respectively} may produce a current which is strong
intermittently, and which will prevent the finer ingredients from
being deposited, whereas at other times other circumstances
may prevail. Though most of the material in the samples is
of a somewhat variable nature, we must yet suppose that it
originates for the most part directly from land. The coarsest
ingredients on the other hand seem to form a strongly marked
separate maximum to the right of the curve. These ingredients
are of a very different nature in the two samples, №. 31 con-
taining a mixture of granitic material and sediments, while
No. 32 contains only the former. This might indicate that the
material for the most part has its origin in rocks at the bottom
of the sea, at any rate it is unlikely that icebergs would be
able to deposit material of such a different nature in adjacent
places. At the same time part at least of the coarser material
may originate from moraines at the bottom of the sea. The
influence of this factor is, however, very difficult to account
for here, as also in several of the other samples.

Sample No. 33 was obtained from very near the shore out-
side Kap Hodgson, and at a very small depth viz. 88 D. fa-
thoms. We should therefore expect the sample to be of a very
coarse consistency as is clearly shown by the curve to be the
case. This curve breaks up very conspicuously into two parts,
the left part somewhat flattened with maximum at about Ysomm,
and a very steep part on the right with maximum between 8 and
16™™, Possibly this last maximum ought to be placed even
farther to the right, as ingredients of over 16™™ very rarely
enter into the samples.

The finer part of the sample originates for the most
part directly from land. The small quantity of the ingredients

under 0°01™™ is partly due to the proximity of the shore, which
4*

52

causes sandy particles to be washed into the sea in propor-
tionately large numbers, and partly to the slight depth at which
deposition took place. This in conjunction with the current
prevents the clay which has been washed into the water from
having any chance of being deposited. The pebbles in the
sample have been derived almost exclusively from the rocks at
the bottom of the sea, as is also seen by their very uniform
petrological nature, 70 out of 74 consisting of granite or
gneiss. This circumstance entirely excludes the possibility of
transport by icebergs, and also makes it very improbable that
moraines at the bottom of the sea can have had any great in-
fluence. It is not likely that moraines formed in this locality
so near the mouth of Scoresby Sund would contain so
homogeneous a collection of rock-fragments.

The samples No. 34—36 were obtained outside the mouth
of Scoresby Sund in rather deep water. It might therefore
be expected that their constitution would somewhat resemble that
of No. 24, found at the same depth outside the mouth of Davys
Sund. There is however a very great difference, for No. 24,
as has been shown, was the finest of all the samples, while
those mentioned here are rather coarse, and contain great quan-
tities both of sandy and of pebbly ingredients. The former
ingredients are probably due to the closer proximity of land,
and especially to the circumstance that the three deposits are
so situated at the southern end of the Liverpool Kyst,
that a strong southward current would transport material from
the land directly to the three localities. The material thus
transported will be sorted according to size, and the curves also
show that No. 34 contains far less of the finer ingredients than
the other two. Of these No. 36 contains somewhat less fine
material than No. 35, probably owing to the fact that the first-
named of these samples was obtained somewhat nearer land on
the southern side of Scoresby Sund.

With regard to the coarser ingredients of these three

53

samples, No. 34 and 36 contain a considerably greater amount
than No.35. The two first-named, which consist of rather
homogeneous material, mainly sediments and basalt, were prob-
ably derived for the most part from rocks at the bottom of the
sea. The small proportion of stones found in No. 35, as also
the still smaller quantities in the two other samples, have been
derived from icebergs. Whether these icebergs came from
Scoresby Sund itself, or from the ice-floes further north, is
not easy to determine. The circumstance that samples No. 42
and 46 which were obtained in Scoresby Sund itself, con-
tain so exceedingly few rock-fragments makes it appear that the
ice from this bay cannot convey great quantities of these ingre-
dients. Bay also says (Medd. om Gronl. 19, p. 182), that the
icebergs and the ice in Scoresby Sund can hardly be con-
sidered important as a means of transport along the outer
coast, as but little ice seems to pass out of the mouth of
the bay.

Sample No. 37, was obtained from the south-east of Kap
Brewster in rather deep water (223 Danish fathoms), and as
would be expected from this greater depth of deposition, the
main part of the sample is also rather fine, with maximum at
about Ys,mm, Yet some coarser material is also found in it,
namely, a small amount of sandy material, which we may
presume emanates directly from the not far distant shore, and
also a larger proportion of rock-fragments, which, on account
of their homogeneous basaltic nature, must be supposed to
have originated from rocks at the bottom of the sea.

Sample No. 40, obtained very near land, southwest of the
preceding station, was found at a depth of 90 Danish fathoms.
The main mass of the sample, viz. the part originating from land,
is not, however, of a particularly coarse nature, though percep-
tibly larger-grained than the last sample. No very great amount
of rock-fragments is found; these may have been derived either
from rocks at the bottom of the sea or from some small rocks

54

in the immediate neighbourhood of the deposit. They consist
exclusively of basaltic material.

Sample No. 41 was obtained even nearer the main-land than
the last, and belongs therefore to the very coarsest of the sam-
ples. The shape of the curve is rather characteristic, as there
is an almost equal amount of the different sizes of grains, yet
with an indistinctly marked maximum between 0°05 and 0:01,
and an indication of a pronounced rising on the extreme right.
On account of the evenness of the curve throughout its length,
it is impossible to distinguish its various ingredients; their
origin is essentially similar to that of the last-named sample.

The four last samples are of special interest as they were
obtained in the bays themselves, where the conditions for
deposition are very different from those of the open sea. The
coast-erosion especially, which generally produces most of
the material in the samples, is considerably less here than in
the open sea. For the rest, there is naturally a very great
difference between the [individual samples according to their
different situations.

Sample No. 42 was obtained in Scoresby Sund, south
of Kap Hooker, at a depth of 135 Danish fathoms; further
details with regard to its position are not known. The main
part of the sample consists of rather fine material with maxi-
mum of the curve at about 0°01™™, to this is added a pro-
portionately large amount of coarser ingredients right up to
ши, which must have a different origin from the rest, and for
this we can scarcely imagine any other cause than that of drift-
ice. According to Bay (Medd. om Gronl. 19, p. 182), the flat
icebergs inside Scoresby Sund are sometimes quite covered
with stones, and since they very seldom seem to come out into
the open sea, they may become the cause of a plentiful depo-
sition of this material. He does not mention whether the ice-
bergs in the bays convey any great amount of clay, but this
is hardly likely, as, everywhere along the coast, rocks are

55

found, which cannot cause any great deposition of clay on the
coast-ice, and something the same will probably be the case
with the glacier-ice. Consequently we may suppose that only
the especially-developed right part of the curve has its origin
in ice-transport, and that by far the greater part of the
material originates from the coast erosion. This curve, as also
many of the others, must only be considered as a somewhat
imperfect representation of the sea-floor, as all the larger stony
ingredients are entirely absent, and these must necessarily have
occurred here in great quantities, as so many of them have
been observed on the icebergs. With regard to this sample,
we are thus better able than in any of the others to determine,
by direct observation, that the coarser ingredients must have
been deposited in very great quantities from a geological point
of view; moreover as an examination of the sample shows that
a comparatively considerable amount of finer ingredients is
deposited, we may conclude that the coast erosion, and the
thereby-ensuing transport of material, must also take place with
great force inside the bay. As the deposition takes place
comparatively quickly, it can scarcely be supposed that any
material of the sea-floor can have originated from the forma-
tions of the ice-age.

The three last samples No. 43, 45 and 46, have a quite
different appearance, but they were obtained from smaller,
shut-in bays, where no icebergs, or hardly any, ever came
and where the current must have been rather slight. All three
samples are of the very finest description, as they contain only
very little sandy or stony material. The absence of the last-
named material must be due to several concurrent causes. In
the first place no ice-masses, or hardly any, come into the bays
from without, otherwise greater quantities of stony material
would have been conveyed hither, especially in the case of those
currents coming from Scoresby Sund. Moreover special cir-
cumstances must be called into play with regard to the ice

56

which is formed in the bays themselves. It is clearly impossible
that stones and gravel should come down on the ice from the
shores, which are often steep. Either the ice thus formed in
the immediate neighbourhood of the shore cannot be loosened,
by the surf, and so will melt in the same place, or, if the ice
really comes out into the bay, it will only stay there a com-
paratively short time before it is conveyed farther out; if this
were not so the sea bottom would be much richer in stones
than is really the case. Finally, no projecting stones and rocks
can be found at the bottom of the sea, at any rate not in
the immediate neighbourhood of the samples in question.
Whatever the explanation of this absence of stones may be, it
will at any rate prove one of the most striking phenomena in
the samples from these parts. One would never have expected
beforehand that the samples nearest land, and in the places
which do not seem to be very well protected against the surf,
would be considerably finer than the great majority of samples
from the open sea.

It is not only the slight amount of stony material which
characterises these samples, but also, to an even higher degree,
the almost entire absence of sandy ingredients, so that No. 43
and 46, in this respect, are only exceeded by the above men-
tioned No. 24 obtained outside the mouth of Davys Sund.
This is a case which probably only occurs elsewhere in shut-in
and quiet bays, while No. 43 and 45, obtained from the mouths
of Fleming Inlet and Garlsberg Fjord respectively, are
rather exposed to the influence of the open sea.

There is also a probable explanation of the slight quantity
of larger ingredients in the samples if we suppose that the
clayey ingredients would be deposited in especially large quan-
tities in these bays. Even if the coast-erosion in such places
were less important than it would be right out in the open sea,
the rivers would nevertheless be able to convey clay into the
sea, and, the amount would be approximately alike for a tract of

—1

or

coast of equal length, whether this tract is situated in the bays
or out in the sea. It will thus easily be seen that the water
in the bays must contain comparatively very large quantities
of clay. Even if now a fair proportion only of this clay is
deposited in the bay itself, it is evident that the deposition
here will take place much more quickly than in the sea. This
explanation however gives rise to the great difficulty, that it is
impossible to find any reason why the sandy particles should
not be deposited in corresponding quantities. As the above-
mentioned localities are situated very near land, even fairly
coarse sand-particles would easily be washed out together with
the elay. Moreover the colour of the samples is against the
supposition that they are formed especially quickly. The brown
colour is, as mentioned above, generally a sign of slow deposi-
tion, even if it may be due to other circumstances, and of all the
samples herein described, No. 46, is particularly distinguished
by a very pronounced brown colour. We shall hardly be able
to decide these questions without a closer acquaintance with
the natural conditions of these localities. Moreover, as shown
by the curves, there is some difference between these samples
as regards details. No. 43, which came from near the mouth of
Fleming Inlet, is the finest as it has no ingredients at all
over jmm, and only 0:7 per Ct. between 1/20 and imm, The
curve forms a quite regular arch with maximum between 1/128
and */256™™, Very characteristic is the large amount of clay-
substance found in the sample, larger indeed than is found in
any of the other samples. This seems to indicate that the
transport of material to the locality in question must be very
slight.

No. 45 was found at the mouth of Carlsberg Fjord. It
differs from the last-named by having a very small quantity of
sandy and stony ingredients, but as the sample came from very
near land, as is seen by the chart, it is very remarkable that

55

these ingredients are not present in far larger quantities. The
main mass of the sample is also somewhat coarser than the
last-named with maximum at about !/s.mm, This is in agree-
ment with the fact that the sample was found in closer proxi-
mity to land, but also nearer the open sea.

No. 46, which came from the mouth of Hurry Inlet,
without any closer indication of the locality, resembles the last-
named sample in the small amount of its ingredients between
1/20 and 4mm, This sample contains the largest amount of
the ingredients under 0:01™™ viz. 90:1 per Ct. The curve is an
exceedingly regular and symmetrical figure, with the exception
of the small quantity of material over 005 which was
derived probably from the ice. The regular shape indicates a
uniform and regular conveyance of the ingredients. The colour
of the sample is very characteristic compared with that of the
others, as it is of a very pronounced reddish-brown colour.
This is probably in some way connected with its fineness as
the two last-named samples were also of a brownish colour;
but no real explanation of the difference in colour has been
given as yet.

The preceding pages will have shown that the various
samples differ greatly in their mechanical constitution. These
variations. are often very conspicuous, especially when they
occur in the case of two adjacent samples which we should
have imagined would be alike in everything. There can scar-
cely be many parts of the world where such great contrasts
are seen between adjacent deposits at the bottom of the sea.
In most cases therefore it will be very difficult to account
for the natural conditions which have determined the deposi-
tion of each deposit, moreover the various factors which must
be taken into consideration are only somewhat imperfectly
known. It is possible from the constitution of the samples to

59

draw various conelusions with regard to several of these con-
ditions, and in a later chapter the most important results
will be given. As, however, the mineralogical constitution of
the samples may also tend to account for the manner in
which the deposits obtained their material, it will be neces-
sary first to make this the subject of a closer examintion. =

ПШ. The mineralogical constitution of the samples.

As the samples of this expedition contain comparatively
large quantities of coarse ingredients, it has been possible to
determine the nature of the rocks that enter into the samples
with much greater accuracy than is generally the case. The
examination of the minerals contained in the sand, which is
generally of the greatest importance, is here of only secondary
moment. It is evident, that much more can be discovered by
an examination of the rocks, than by examining the sandy material.
Many rocks such as slate and limestone, are very rarely found
in the grains of sand, as they are very easily dissolved and
shattered when reduced mechanically to a very small size. The
same is the case with basalt, though in a much slighter degree.
With regard to this rock, an examination of the sand will al-
ways give good results, when only a comparison between the
different samples is wanted. Sandstone and quartzite, which in
these samples play a rather prominent part, will in the sand
become grains of quartz which cannot be distinguished from that
which originates from the granite. It is therefore only possible
to distinguish the sand formed by these rocks by the granitic
sand containing a small, but rather varied amount of other
minerals such as felspar, garnet, hornblende etc., which mine-

rals are found either not at all or only in quite insignificant .

Bi

61

quantities in sand originating from sandstone. All these шше-
rals have less power of resistance against mechanical and che-
mical influences than the quartz, and disappear in the course
of time, partly during the hardening of the sandstone, partly
during its later erosion. As the ratio between these minerals
and the quartz is somewhat variable (generally between 5 and
20 per Ct. in primary sand, i. e. sand formed directly from
granite or gneiss), it is difficult to distinguish the primary from
the secondary sand (formed from sandstone), even if they are
found unmixed, but if they are mixed up it is impossible, even
approximately, to determine the percentages of each.

Even if an examination of the sand does not give any
particularly good idea of the ratios between the individual rocks
which have contributed to the formation of the deposit, we may
yet obtain from it certain results, which would not be reached
by an examination of the rock-fragments in the sample. In the
first place these are abtogether absent in some of the samples,
or they are present in such small amounts that we cannot draw
any conclusions from them as to the ratio between the different
ingredients. Secondly it often happens that the sand has been
deposited in a quite different way from the stones, so that we
can draw no conjoint conclusion with regard to these. The
stones must have originated either from moraines or rocks at
the bottom of the sea, the sand must have been derived from
these same factors, or directly from land. The following statisties
will show that there is on the whole a close connection between
the different ingredients of the sample. The most essential differ-
ence is that the sandy ingredients are almost always particularly
rich in quartz, which circumstance is especially striking in the
samples in which the coarser ingredients consist totally of ba-
saltic material. In the samples from the south of Iceland
something of the same occurs, for quartz is hardly ever
quite absent in sand, even if it seems almost impossible for it
to be conveyed to the locality in question. The only explana-

62

tion is, that the ingredients of the basalt have а very great
difficulty in appearing in the form of sand, so that even a very
small conveyance of quartziferous material will be observable in
the sand. Hence arises the characteristic phenomenon, that in
the localities where the coarser ingredients would be expected
to be far richer in quartz than the finer ones, the opposite is
almost always the case.

Only two different sizes of ingredients in the samples
have been examined, viz. the stones over 4™™, and the sand
between 0°05, and 0511, The ingredients lying between
05, and 4™™ are not very well adapted for examination, as they
are too small for the rock to be determined by them, and too
iarge for a direct microscopic examination. Nor have the in-
sredients under 0°05™™ been taken into consideration, partly
because they are rather small for an exact determination, and
partly also because they have a constitution which is closely
related to that of the sand, the only difference being that the
amount of quartz is even larger for the reasons that have been
stated above. |

The stony ingredients of the samples.
(Over 4mm,)

№. 1.
Granite-Gneiss. 4.
Sediments 4. Consisting of: quartzite 1, finely grained
grey sandstone 1, loose sandstone-slate with mica 1, grey
slate 1.

No. 2.
Basalt 2. |
Granite-Gneiss 5.
Sediments 2. Consisting of: quartzite 1, sandstone-slate

with mica 1.

65

№. 3.
Granite-Gneiss 5.
Sediments 4: hard sandstone 1, loose sandstone 1, grey-
slate 2.
No. 4.
Sediments 3: hard, white sandstone 1, compact, fine-
grained red sandstone I, grey-slate 1.

No. 5.
Sediments 10: loose, greyish sandstone 1, grey slate 1;
and eight pieces of clay somewhat hardened with numerous
grains of sand up to 2™™, consisting almost exclusively of

quartz.
No. 6.
Granite-Gneiss 1.
No. 7.
Sediments 1 (grey slate).
Basalt 2.
No.9.

Granite-Gneiss 4.

Sediments 7: quartzite 3, compact grey sandstone 1, in-
coherent grey sandstone, grey slate 2.

Basalt 8.

No. 10.
Granite- Gneiss 6.
Sediments 9: quartzite 2, hard sandstone 2, loose sand-
stone 2, grey slate 3.
Basalt 5.

No, 44,
Granite-Gneiss 12.
Sediments 13: quartzite 4, hard sandstone 4, loose sand-
stone 1, grey slate 2, red slate 2.
Basalt 6.

64

№. 13.
Granite-Gneiss 7.
Sediments 5: compact sandstone 1, loose sandstone 1,
sandstone-slate with mica 1, grey slate 2.
Basalt 10.

No. 14.
Granite-Gneiss 1.

No. 16.
Granite-Gneiss 2.
Sediments 4: quartzite 1, compact sandstone 1, loose sand-
stone 1, grey slate 1.
Basalt 1.

No. 18.
Granite-Gneiss 1.
Sediments 2 (grey argillaceous sandstone with mica).
Organic 1 (bivalve).

No. 22.

Granite Gneiss 3.
Sediments 4 (hard sandstone).
Basalt 3.

No. 25.
Granite-Gneiss 1.
Sediments 1 (red, fine-grained argillaceous sandstone).
Basalt 1 (red, disintegrated).

No. 26.

Granite-Gneiss 7.

Sediments 13: white quartzite 2, grey quartzite 2, fine-
grained red sandstone 1, grey sandstone 3, white sandstone 1,
grey slate 1, black slate 1, reddish slate 2.

Basalt 2 (reddish).

65

№. 28.
Granite-Gneiss 4.
Sediments 5 (hard, grey sandstone 1, loose, reddish sand-
stone I, loose, greyish sandstone 3).

No. 29.
Granite-Gneiss 23.
Sediments 6 (reddish quartzite 1, hard, grey sandstone 3,
loose whitish sandstone 1, slightly hardened, reddish clay 1).

Nr. 31.

Granite-Gneiss 4.

Sediments 6 (quartzite 1, hard, reddish sandstone 1, hard
greyish sandstone 1, loose, white sandstone 1, reddish sand-
stone-slate 1, reddish slate 1).

Basalt 1.

No. 32.
Granite-Gneiss 7.

No. 33.
Granite-Gneiss 70.
Sediments 4 (hard, red sandstone 1, loose, grey sandstone |,
greyish sandstone-slate 1, reddish slate 1).

No. 34.
Sediments 5 (reddish quartzite 1, hard grey sandstone 1,
loose, grey sandstone 3).
Basalt 1.

No. 35.
Granite-Gneiss 2.
Basalt 12 (1 with a bluish radiated zeolite).

No. 36.
Sediments 1 (hardened clay).
Basalt 12 (black).

XXVIII.

66

№. 37.
Sediments 1 (loose, grey sandstone)
Basalt 13 (black or greyish, sometimes altered).

No. 40.
Basalt 17 (for the most part of a porous, or somewhat
loose consistency, greyish or brownish).

No. 41.
Granite-Gneiss 2.
Sediments 18 (8 black, or greyish-black, hard, and 10 loose,
greyish, much altered).

| №. 42.
Granite-Gneiss 1.
Sediments 3 (grey sandstone slate I, grey slate 1, grey
phyllite).
Basalt 5 (black, often rather loose).

The rocks found in the samples correspond on the whole
rather closely with the solid ones of the land near the sea,
and we may suppose that only a very small part of them at
most can have been derived from more distant parts, though
it cannot be proved that such rocks are quite excluded. The
geological conditions of this part of East-Greenland are very
various, and not a single fragment is found in the sample,
which may not have originated from known formations.

If we consider the nature of the fragments, the ratio
between the individual rocks of the samples will generally be
somewhat remarkable. The archean rocks are generally
present in comparatively small quantities, except in the samples
which were obtained in the immediate neighbourhood of the
Liverpool Kyst, these occupying, however, the largest areas
within the younger formations. This fact shows plainly enough
that the glacier-ice cannot play a very great part in the transport
of the fragments, for by far the greater part of the glaciers

67

in this part of the country are found within the territory of
the archæan formation. But, as has been mentioned before,
the glaciers from the large bays, probably, seldom reach out
into the sea, and the archæan rock fragments which are found
at the bottom of the sea must therefore have another origin,
being derived either from moraines or rocks at the bottom of the
sea itself, or from the drift-ice which comes from the north.
The moraines of the bottom of the sea will be especially
likely to contain a great quantity of rocks from the archæan
formation. During the ice-age the glaciers must everywhere
have reached the mouths of the bays, and perhaps even a
good way out into the sea, and the bottom — and surface —
moraines conveyed thither by them will therefore necessarily
contain an equal mixture of rocks from all the parts where
the ice passed through, as is seen in the moraines of Scan-
dinavia. And not only will much. material from the archæan
formation have become deposited in the terminal moraine from
the ice-age, but the ice-bergs which were formed at that time
will probably have conveyed the same rocks farther out to sea.
The result will therefore be, that most of the rock-fragments
belonging to the archean formation will occur either in or
outside the moraine which runs parallel with the coast. As
will be seen, a comparatively large amount of material from
the archæan formation was also found in the three first samples,
obtained rather far from the coast, as in No. 1, 4 fragments out
of 10 belong to this class, in No.2, 5 out of 7, and in No.3,
5 out of 9, whereas, in almost all the other samples found
nearer land, these are subordinate in quantity as compared
with the other ingredients. The rocks of the archean formation
which were found in the samples obtained from within the moraine
were derived from solid rocks at the bottom of the sea, or
from drift-ice whcih has came from more distant раз where
the archæan formation extends nearer to the coast. Of these
two factors now one, now the other predominates, and this point

es
J

68

must be examined separately in each individual sample. As
the rocks of the greater part of the coast which comes nearest
the sea, consist of basalt, probably those at the bottom of the
sea near the coast will also consist of this material.

With regard to the individual ingredients of the archæan
rocks, it is scarcely possible to distinguish different kinds, in
fragments of the size in question (4—32™™); they have there-
fore been treated collectively. |

In the case of the sedimentary rocks, the sandstone
and the quartzite play the most prominent part, as would be
expected seeing that they form by far the greater part of the
solid rocks on land. И is remarkable that а comparatively
large amount of slate is found in the samples, as very littie
of this rock is found on land. The Silurian formation is found
in the inner parts of Keiser Frans Joseph Fjord and
Kong Oscar Fjord, may contain a mixture of all the various
sedimentary rocks, but it is not very likely that any of this
formation would be able to get into the open sea, for reasons
which have been mentioned above. Moreover what came out
during the ice-age is found outside the territory from which the
samples of this expedition were taken. We have a proof that
this formation does not occur in the samples in the fact that
not a single limestone or dolomite has been found in
them, although these rocks according to Nathorst (p. 288)
contribute to form the Silurian formation. The Devonian, which
has a vide distribution in the outer parts of the two bays just
mentioned, and may therefore be supposed to have contributed
much more largely to the formation of the deposits, is not
stated to contain slate, and this rock was therefore probably
derived from the tertiary formation. This formation has only a
very limited extent in the country inside the territory explored
by the expedition, but is found in far greater amount north of
Hochstetters Vorland, and possibly still farther towards
the north. It therefore seems most probable that at least а

69

great part of the slate found in the samples was derived from
icebergs which came from the north though some part of it
may have originated from rocks at the bottom of the sea.
Nor is the possibility exeluded that greater masses of tertiary
existed formerly and were eroded during the ice-age, but these
rocks should, as shown above, be found only in the very
outermost samples.

The basalt is found solid near most of the samples, and
its presence is very easily accounted for, as it may either
have originated from coast-ice or from rocks at the bottom of
the sea.

The first ihree deposits occupy a peculiar position as
compared with the rest in as much as they are situated on, or
in the immediate neighbourhood of the moraine which must
exist at the bottom of the sea. We have already seen that
they contain, in consequence of this, a larger amount of frag-
ments than the deposits found further inland. It has also been
already mentioned that they contain much more granite than
the majority of the other samples, namely altogether 14 frag-
ments out of 26. Of the other 12, 10 are sediments, and only
2 basalt, which circumstance is rather difficult to explain, as
the basalt occupies a far larger area of the inland country than
is composed of the sedimentary formations. It is possible,
however, that much greater quantities of the latter existed
formerly, but were eroded during the ice-age. Of the 10 sedi-
ments, 4 are quartzite or hard sandstone derived probably
from the Silurian and the Devonian formations which must
extend towards the north inside Clavering ©. Three, are
loose sandstones probably derived from the Jurassic, and 3
are clay-slates from the tertiary formation, thus all the solid
formations from inland are represented in the fragments of
the three samples, which fact is well in accordance with their
having originated from the moraine.

70

Samples Nos. 4—7, which were obtained immediately on
the inland side of the preceding ones, show a quite different
constitution. If we leave out of consideration 8 pieces of clay
in No. 5, which may perhaps have been hardened at the bottom
of the sea, only 9 rock-fragments altogether are found in the
4 samples; of these only one is granite, while 6 are sediments
and 2 basalt. Most of these must be supposed to have been
conveyed hither by icebergs. The proportionately large quantity
of sediments is somewhat remarkable.

Samples Nos. 9—13 are, as above mentioned, some of the
coarsest of all, and contain a great number of fragments which
must be supposed to have originated from the moraine. The
composition also shows a certain analogy with that of the
three first samples, as 29 fragments out of 92, or about a
third part consists of granitic material. They also contain
fragments of 34 sediments, half of which are quartzite or hard
sandstone, the greater part of these originating from the De-
vonian; 6 are loose sandstone, and 11 slate. These samples
differ, however, from the first in containing a large amount of
basalt, 29 fragments in all, this being due to the wide distribu-
tion of basalt in the country inland from Kap Broer Ruys.

In samples 14—19 very small quantities of rock-fragments
are found, so that we can hardly draw any decided conclusion
from the ratio between them. Altogether in the 6 samples
there are 11 fragments, where of 4 are gneiss or granite,
6 sediments, and 1 basalt. These must presumably have been
derived from icebergs. They also show a somewhat similar
ratio in their rock-fragments as was seen in the samples 4—7,
the only difference being that these contain a somewhat smaller
amount of granite. The one bivalve found in sample 18 must
also have been derived from the ice, as it was found at a far
greater depth than that at which it could originally have lived.

Sample No. 22 shows an equal mixture of the different
ingredients and here, as before mentioned, we must imagine

71

that the fragments originated from icebergs for the most part,
though it is not possible to draw any certain conclusions from
their nature.

The samples obtained from along the Liverpool Kyst
show a somewhat characteristic mixture of rocks. As the
country inland from the coast consists as far as we know
exclusively of granite or gneiss, these rocks would be expected
to predominate in the samples, but this is not at all the case
in the greater number of these. The first few samples Nos. 26,
27, 29 and 31, show about the same composition as regards
rock-fragments; taken together they contain 38 of granite-
gneiss, 30 sediments, and only 3 of basalt. This last circum-
stance excludes the possibility that many of the stones were
derived from icebergs coming from farther north, as it has been
already proved that this being the case, the amount of basaltic
material would not be much less than the other ingredients.
Neither could it be imagined that the fragments originated from
moraines at the bottom of the sea, as, in that case, the depo-
sition of material at the sea-bottom must have taken place
much more slowly than we have otherwise reason to suppose
likely. If the fragments had been derived directly from land
or from rocks at the bottom of the sea, as it would seem most
natural to expect they probably would have consisted exclusively
of granite or gneiss. The sediments must therefore have a
different origin, and we can hardly imagine otherwise than that
they came with the coast-ice from the outer parts of Davys
Sund, and from Fleming Inlet and Carlsberg Fjord. If we
consider the constitution of the sedimentary rocks, this corres-
ponds very well with the geological conditions of these parts.
Out of 30 rock-fragments, 17 are quartzite or hard sandstone
which may have been derived from the Devonian, 7 are loose
sandstone from the Jurassic, 6 are slates, the origin of which
cannot be closer determined, seeing that the geological condi-
tions at Fleming Inlet and Carlsberg Fjord are not as yet

12

known. Moreover the three fragments of basalt indicate that
at least some ice-drift must have taken place from distant
parts, and that an equal amount of the other rocks must be
ascribed to this cause.

In the two samples from the southern part of the Liver-
pool Kyst i.e. Nos. 32 and 33, the above-mentioned transport
of sediments decreases perceptibly, at least these rocks dis-

appear entirely from among the rest. Out of 81 stones the
two samples contain only 4 sediments, the remaining ones
granite and gneiss, and not a single basalt.

Sample No. 34, which was obtained from the northern part
of the outlet of Scoresby Sund, has a very remarkable
constitution, as, out of 6 rock-fragments, 5 are sediments and
1 basalt, while not a single granite fragment is found and this
in spite of the fact that the deposits were situated just at the
southern point of the Liverpool Kyst. If any conclusion
can be drawn from the proportionately small number of frag-
ments, it would be that, at the bottom of the sea, in the
neighbourhood of the sample, solid sandstone must be present.

De ee eee ee

There is, however, always the possibility that this rock may

ШИ

have come with the ice from the bay, even if, as has previously
been mentioned, ihere is good reason to suppose that such a
transport was very slight. :

Nos. 35 and 36, which were found in the southern part of
the outlet of Scoresby Sund have a constitution which
corresponds perfectly with their place of origin, as, out of 27
fragments, 24 are basalt, while only two are granite and 1
sediment. These last named ones may have been conveyed
hither by the ice, while the basalt was derived from land or
from rocks at the bottom of the sea.

Samples Nos. 37, 40 and 41, which came from the south
of Kap Brewster, are as might be expected still richer in
basalt; out of 51 stones, 48 consist of this rock, while 2 are
granite and only one, sandstone.

M. .

73

Sample No. 42, south of Kap Stewart, contains 9 frag-
ments, 1 of which is granite, 3 sediments, and 5 basalts, which
is just such an admixture as would be expected when we
consider the surrounding formations.

2. The sandy ingredients in the samples.
(0:05—0:5mm,)

The examination was carried out in the following way: А
preparation in Canada balsam was made of each sample; then,
by a gradual shifting of the object-glass 100 consecutive grains
were counted off. The result is given in the following table.

The numbers in the above table cannot claim to be abso-
lutely exact in detail as it is often very difficult or even im-
possible in sand-preparations to distinguish one mineral from
another, and several of the different kinds pass into each
other. Quartz and felspar are together very easily disting-
uished from all other minerals though it is rather difficult to
distinguish them from each other. As it would be a quite
endless task to find axial images for the individual grains, re-
fraction has been chiefly employed in the separation: the grains
with a slighter refraction than the Canada balsam are classed
under felspar, those with stronger-refraction under quartz, and
those in which twin-striation or cleavage cannot be seen are
probably so small in number in proportion to the quartz and
the rest of the felspar, that they can have no appreciable in-
fluence on the result. The optically homogeneous felspar is
certainly orthoclase in most cases, though a few grains of
albite or oligoclase may also enter into this division.

While the ordinary green hornblende cannot easily be mis-
taken for other minerals, augite and olivine are very difficult
to distinguish. The augite is almost always of a quite pale
violet or brownish-grey colour. The olivine is colourless, or
of a quite pale greenish colour. The augite has a somewhat

74

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a ze - © = = 2 = = = =
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lol SE чмо ela) ES
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|=” | а
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aa) 7 28 Aal eee 2 Qld ion. et 089
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18 169111 | . 1 А ЦЕ . | 1] 4) 4) 4
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2311501 1421 21° PA RS ASC PR EIRE Зея 23 laid
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37/16) 5 44011. 19
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41 |101 4 2146 2]. 1 4) 1D) 299 3
42 |33| 4 Е 100) ONE RE
43 | 48 | 16 ПКЕ GEM 214 3/14) 7
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46 |561 15 | 1 21 412 Zu] READ er] Re rec
hi

less double-refraction, but there does not exist any convenient
way to distinguish between them in rounded grains of sand.
The consequence is that the numbers given for these minerals,
especially for the olivine, which is always found in small
quantities, must be considered as rather inexact; the total

—!

or

sum however is of much greater importance. As they must
both have been derived mainly from the basalt their separation
is of no very great importance.

It is very difficult to distinguish between the opaque grains
and the basalt. A great part of the first mentioned consist
certainly of magnetite, while another part must be supposed
to consist of basalt, which is very rich in iron. Generally
most of the basalt grains are translucent in several points of
their edges and are of a dark brown colour, in some of them the
whole grain is also somewhat translucent. Grains of transparent
brown glass have not been found in any of the samples, but
a very large number of the grains which are classified as basalt
have certainly a glass-like ground-mass, sprinkled with a great
many small dark particles.

Under the heading clay or slate, have been classed grains
of greyish colour and of a very smooth, fine-grained consi-
stency. Their number does not play any very prominent part
in the determination of the origin of the sand, as they may
largely originate from more or less coherent clayey particles
in the sample, which it has been impossible to separate by
boiling, partly perhaps owing to the fact that concretions
rich in iron and manganese have already begun to form in
the clay.

Under the last heading: «aggregates or uncertain», are
classed a number of different fine-grained rocks, which it is
impossible to separate in the preparations. These are gen-
erally found in somewhat small quantities or not at all, in
samples which contain few sedimentary rock-fragments, as is
the case with most of the samples from No. 30—40. This may
perhaps indicate that some of these grains are fine-grained
sandstone, or sandstone-slate, but this coincidence may be
more or less accidental.

With regard to the ratio between the individual minerals,
there are several striking peculiarities.

76

It has been seen that quartz has a special tendency to
appear in great quantities in the samples, even where one would
expect it to be almost absent. In samples Nos. 37, 40, and 41
from the south of Kap Brewster, though the sample seems
to consist almost exclusively of basaltic material we see that
there is from 10 to 16 per Ct. of quartz present. This is con-
nected with the wellknown tendency which quartz has to appear
in grains of sand, so that the percentage of it in a sand
deposit is always many times greater than its percentage in
the rocks from which it was derived. Sand which originates
from granitic material will thus contain 60—70 per Ct. of
quartz, while much less than half of the granite consisted of
this mineral. If we determine the ratio between the different
rocks which have contributed to the formation of the sand in
a sample, we must always reduce the amount of quartz very
considerably, and must also make smaller changes with regard
to the ratio between the other minerals. In the three samples
above-mentioned we should probably come very near to the
real ratio if we fixed the quartz at 3—5 per Ct., then the
total amount of quartz, felspar and hornblende would become
about 10 in these samples, which number would about represent
the amount of granitic material contained in them.

For the rest, the amount of quartz is fairly equal through
out the samples; it culminates at 70 per Ct. in No. 2; and
thus corresponds pretty closely with the amount in some of
the samples obtained during the Ingolfexpedition to the
West-coast of Greenland. There the collective mass of quartz
and felspar reaches 80 per Ct., while it here, in No. 2, amounts
to 82 per Ct., which is perhaps the highest percentage generally
reached in granitic sand. It must, however, be remarked that
the ratio for the East-Greenland samples is somewhat difficult
to determine, for on the one hand the proximity of basalt,
slate etc. will diminish the amount of quartz, on the other
hand the presence of sandstone will augment it, as sand

77

originating from this rock will probably contain very nearly
100 per Ct. of quartz.

With regard to the felspar, this is found in all the samples
in less quantities than the quartz. The ratio between the two
minerals is generally between !/s and !/s. As might be expected,
the proportionately smallest amount of felspar is found in the
samples, where part of the material originates from sandstone.
In the case of samples, where the quantity of granite and
gneiss among the coarser ingredients, far surpasses that of the
sediments as is the case in Nos. 30, 32 and 33, the amount
of felspar will become much larger, viz. from half the amount
of quartz up to about the whole amount. This last ratio,
which occurs in No. 33, is very striking and rare, and cannot
be explained altogether by the absence of sandstone, but the
solid rocks which are found nearest this deposit either on land
or at the bottom of the sea, must be very poor in quartz,
as would be syenite or hornblende-schist.

The felspars with distinct microcline structure have no
great distribution in the samples, though somewhat more $0
than in the samples of the Ingolfexpedition, where never
more than 1 per Ct. was found. Here the microcline is missing
in the greater number of the samples, but in a few it is found
in comparatively large amount, chiefly in No. 19. This fact
might perhaps have been considered accidental, were it not
subsequently found to obtain also in samples Nos. 25—33 from
along the Liverpool Kyst in which about two grains are
found in each sample. This circumstance must here be con-
nected with the nature of the rocks.

The total amount of grains of plagioclase is about as large
as that of microcline, but they are found to be more evenly
dispersed in all the samples. И is strange that none of this
mineral is found in the samples consisting mainly of basaltic
material. This feature which was also noticed in the samples
of the Ingolfexpedition, is caused by the fact that the

18

labradorite, though it is found as chief-ingredient in the basalt,
must very rarely appear in the sand, owing chiefly to its small
size and its form, like flat tables. Not a single grain of
labradorite with twin-striation has been found in any of the
samples.

The hornblende is found in very varying amounts in the
samples; as a rule there is remarkably little of this mineral
compared. with what is generally found in quartz-sand, this
appearing especially in all the samples up to No. 27. In the
following samples obtained along the Liverpool Kyst to
Кар Brewster, we find, on the contrary, very large amounts,
a fact which indicates that the country lying inland from the
coast must contain a considerable amount of rocks rich in
hornblende, syenite, diorite or hornblende schist. In the last
samples, smaller amounts are again found, yet more than in
the first samples. In samples 37—41, found south of Kap
Brewster, this characteristic is even more striking, as the
chief mass of the samples originates from basaltic material.
This indicates that the contributions coming from the north,
must mainly have originated of the rocks of the Liverpool
Kyst, from which they were probably conveyed by coast-ice.

The amount of augite also varies, but generally much
larger than the amount of hornblende. It naturally bears a
certain relation to the amount of basalt in the fragmental
stony ingredients of the sample, but it generally only reaches
half the percentage of this rock. The great inclination of this
mineral appear as grains of sand is remarkable, and it does
not seem, in this respect, to be much inferior to quartz.

In samples Nos. 1—6, which in 40 fragments contain only
2 of basalt, the augite in the sand is also present in smaller
amount than in any of the other samples, namely on the
average 2?/з per Ct. In the samples No. 7—15 on the contrary
the basalt was found in rather large quantities, namely 31 out
of 96, and here augite is found to an amount averaging

79

14 per Ct. In samples No. 16—25, very few fragmental in-
gredients are found for instance as in 23, where 4 are basalt,
thus about 17 per Ct. From 3 to 9 i.e. an average of about
5 per Ct. of augite is found in these samples, so that the
amount of basalt in the samples is perhaps not so large really
as would be imagined from the comparatively few frag-
ments.

In the following samples the amount of augite seems to
increase somewhat in proportion to the amount of basalt, in
samples Nos. 26—80, only 2 fragments out of 60 are found
to consist of basalt; here the amount of augite in the sand
reaches an average of about 5 per Ct., thus an even larger
percentage than the basalt. The ratio of the next samples
Nos. 31—34, undergoes still greater variation, as, in them,
only two basalt fragments are found out of 98. The augite
here is found in an average amount of about 10 per Ct., and
we must thus suppose that at any rate a great deal of it has
its origin in various other rocks, which however cannot be
accurately determined in the comparatively small fragments.
These are the same samples as those which contain very large
amount of orthoclase and hornblende, and a closer geological
examination of the rocks of the Liverpool Kyst will pre-
sumably be of great interest.

In the samples rich in basalt near Kap Stewart, the
old ratio between the basalt and the augite reappears, and here
it can be stated with greater certainty, as only a very small
amount of foreign rocks can have entered into these samples.
In samples Nos. 35—41, out of 78 stones, 72 are basalt, thus
about 92 per Ct. Of augite about 37 рег Ct. is on the average
found in these samples, hence we may conclude that about
40 per Ct. of pure basaltic sand will be augite; in sample 40,
the amount of augite mounts to 51 per Ct., so that we may
be somewhat justified in terming the sand Augite-Sand.
This amount is larger than in any samples of the Ingolf-

80

expedition, a fact which does not prove the Icelandic basalt
to be of another nature than the Greenland one, but merely
admits that in most of the Icelandic samples an unusually
large amount of volcanic glass is found, which has probably
fallen down as ash for the most part, and this changes the
percentage of the augite.

In the sample No. 42, were found 5 basaltic stones out of
9, thus about 55 per Ct., while the amount of augite in the
sand is 35 per Ct. In the three last samples (Nos. 48—46) по
fragmental ingredients are found, so that it may be possible,
from the amount of augite, to form a judgment of the part
which the basalt has played in the formation of these deposits.
No. 43, which is situated in Fleming Inlet, has 4 per Ct.
of augite; we should thus expect that about 10 per Ct. of the
ingredients of the sample were of basaltic origin, probably
originating from the country near Kap Moorsom. No. 45,
situated in Carlsberg Fjord, has 9 per Ct. of augite, but
probably only a part of it originates from the basalt, while the
rest must come from the above-mentioned rocks at the Liver-
pool Kyst. The same is probably the case with the augite
in No. 46, obtained from Hurry Inlet. )

The olivine is found everywhere in smaller quantities than
the augite, and generally stands in a certain relation to it with
regard to amount, wherefore it is of no special interest.

Rutile, Zircon and Tourmaline, are, as might be expected,
only found in very small quantities in the sand, and the same
is the case with the mica which is even strikingly sparsely
represented.

Nor is garnet present in very great amounts in any of the
samples at the highest the percentage is 6, while in a single of
the West-Greeniand samples from the Ingolfexpedition it was 17,
and in the next East-Greenland one taken near Angmagsalik,
it was 9,5 per Ct. A Jarge amount of garnet in the samples
generally indicates that these for a great part must have their

81

material from crystalline schists while smaller amounts of
garnet, or none at all, indicate an origin from eruptives or
sediments. If we look at the table, rather conspicuous differ-
ences between the individual samples will be noticed. The first
seven contain, on the whole, small amounts, such as an average
of 1 perCt., while the next eight (Nos. 9—17) contain on an
average 3!/> per Ct. This must correspond with some differ-
ence in the nature of the rocks of the country inland. On
examining the chart it will be seen that deposits Nos. 9—17 can
get material from Clavering-@ and its neighbourhood, whereas
the deposits above mentioned cannot, there will therefore be
found in this part some rocks rich in garnet. If we proceed
we shall see that samples No. 18 to 31, contain very small amounts
of garnet, only 1 рег Ct. on an average. With regard to the
first of these, this circumstance is connected with the large
amount of sediments that enter into it; in the deposits along
the northern part of the Liverpool! Kyst on the other hand,
the small amount of garnet must have - originated in some
special way with the archæan territory on land.

Along the southern part of the Liverpool Kyst, a larger
amount of garnet suddenly appears (2—5 per Ct.), and there-
fore some crystalline schists must occur here. As might be
expected, absolutely no garnet is found in the deposits south
of Kap Brewster.

The amount of opaque grains is obviously connected with
the amount of basalt in the samples; only in the samples from
along the Liverpool Kyst is a comparatively larger amount
found, a fact which is probably due to special conditions in
the rocks of the country.

XXVIII. 6

IV. General view of the factors which contribute
to the formation of the deposits.

А brief survey will now be given of the degree in which
the various factors already mentioned contribute to the forma-
tion of the deposits. The different ingredients in these must
have been mainly derived from one or other of the following
four sources, 1) the land, 2) the drift ice, 3) moraines at the
bottom of the sea and 4) solid rocks at the bottom of the sea.
It is impossible to say for certain which of these factors plays
the most prominent part in the district now under consider-
ation, we can only say that they have each contributed con-
siderably to the formation of the deposits. The material they
supply is of a very diverse nature.

|. The transport direct from land which, in other parts
of the earth, is by far the most important of the factors which
supply the bottom of the sea with mineral material is here
subordinate to the other factors mentioned. The mode of
origin of the material belonging to this class is somewhat
varied; probably only a small amount is loosened directly by
the waves lashing against the rocks of the coast, the greater
part being conveyed hither by larger or smaller rivers; some-
times the wind will also be able to convey a considerable
quantity of material into the sea. At any rate the particles.

33

which have been conveyed direct from land soon become
sorted by falling through the water. Even if only a slight
eurrent is present, the finest particles will be conveyed several
miles from the place where they were washed into the sea,
the rock-fragments will sink to the bottom almost immediately,
while the medium sized grains will be deposited in the space
between. If the current runs parallel with the shore, the in-
gredients from the different places will be mixed up with one
another, so that nearest land will be formed a very mixed
deposit, whereas some of the finest material will be conveyed
some distance away from the shore. И, on the contrary,
the current flows at some distance from the shore, as is espe-
cially the case near projecting points, the ingredients will be
far more completely sorted, so that almost exclusively coarse
material will be deposited near land while all the finer material
will be conveyed far out sea.

Various circumstances may however influence deposition
which is thereby rendered very complicated. Thus, instances
have been given above of the influence on the fineness of the
deposits exercised by differences in depth, which may some-
times be very great. If there is a somewhat straight coast-line
along which runs a fairly constant current as is the case with
the Liverpool Kyst, the difference between adjacent depo-
sits at the same distance from land will be very great, provided
there is a great difference in the depth. When the current
runs over a comparatively deep place, the speed will be slight
and the finest particles will have time to get deposited in
such great quantities that the sample will be almost pure
clay, whereas in the less deep parts, the current will be so
rapid that sand and stones will be almost exclusively depo-
sited.

in the bays it is rather different, especially in the smaller
ones, where the area is not large enough for the tide to pro-
duce currents. There almost all the ingredients will be able

6*

84

to be deposited on the spot, a fact which causes very fine
deposits, especially as also the other formerly above-mentioned
factors will be of no great importance here. The samples which
were found in Garlsberg Fjord, Fleming and Hurry Inlets
belong, as has already been shown, to the very finest, while, on
the contrary, a sample obtained from Scoresby Sund is
of much coarser consistency.

Generally speaking, it will be very difficult te determine
what proportion of the ingredients of a sample have been
deposited by transport direct from land. We have here
two things to go by, namely the size of the grains, and
the mineralogical constitution. With regard to the size of
grains, it has already been explained what the size will be in
deposits which have been formed exclusively in this way. The
other factors which contribute to the formation of the deposits
will in most cases produce a very mixed deposit with finer
and coarser ingredients intermingled. In almost every case
we can, therefore, only be sure that the material conveyed from
land will form a certain part of the finer ingredients of the
deposit; how great a part, it is often impossible to determine.
Ice-transport, for instance, may deposit large quantities of clay
_ at the bottom of the sea, which cannot in any way be disting-
uished from other clay; we have therefore hardly any facts to
go by except that there must probably be a certain proportion
between the finer and the coarser particles in the material conveyed
by the ice, this proportion being tolerably persistent every-
where. If in a sample very few rock-fragments are found
we may suppose that only an insignificant part of the clay in
the same sample can have been transported by ice. But the
circumstances are rendered still more complicated by the fact
that part of the material may have originated from the bottom
of the sea, and this part may consist of all sizes of grains,
and we have no means whereby we can determine the quan-
tities of each of these beforehand. Only afler a close examina-

85

tion of the curves for each individual sample can any con-
elusions be drawn.

The case will be somewhat altered if we take the mine-
ralogical nature of the ingredients of the sample into consider-
ation also. Here, more specially with regard to the deposits lying
nearest land, we can draw fairly certain conclusions as to the
nature of the material transported direct from land. That is
to say it must be rather closely related to the rocks of the
country inland, whereas ingredients transported in other ways
have as a rule a very mixed constitution.

Speaking generally it is most probable that, in the case
of deposits nearest land (inside of 20—30 kilom.) the greater
part of the sandy and part of the clayey ingredients have ori-
ginated direct from land. In the case of more distant deposits
however, the portion which has been transported by the cur-
rents will always be less the farther we get from land, and will
only consist of the finest ingredients.

2) In order to realise the value of the second of the above-
mentioned factors viz. the deposition of material at the bottom
of the sea by the ice, the samples of this expedition offer facts
of considerable interest. We should have expected that a very
large number of the deposits were formed in this way, but
the more the samples are examined in detail, the more is it
proved that the influence of ice must on the whole be some-
what slight.

The question as to how great a quantity of material was
transported by ice to East-Greenland, has been discussed already
by Nordenskiöld, Eberlin and Bay, and I shall not enter
further into this matter here as no further observations for
the elucidation of this question have been made. 1 shall there-
fore only discuss the part played by ice-borne material in the
formation of the deposits. Even if ever so little material may
be observed on the icebergs, yet, in the course of very long

86

periods, this would form enormous deposits, provided the other
factors which contributed to their formation worked on a still
smaller scale.

The material conveyed by ice is, as far as has been
observed, of somewhat different kinds. The sheet-ice, which
forms by far the greater part of the whole ice-mass, transports
almost exclusively the finest ingredients, while the icebergs and

the coast-ice must certainly be able to convey some rock-frag-

ments, although according to Bay, such material is very
insignificant in amount in the water north of Scoresby
Sund. The comparatively few expeditions which have pene-
trated into these parts are however insufficient for the purpose
of determining anything with certainty in this respect. In
other parts of Greenland, icebergs have frequently been ob-
served to be quite laden with rocks and gravel, and some such
may very well exist in these parts, though they have not been
observed.

It is impossible to tell how a deposit formed exclu-
sively by ice would appear in these parts, as long as we do
not know anything about the ratio between the amounts of
the pebbly and clayey material conveyed. Nor does an exa-
mination of the samples furnish us with a definite answer to
this question, as not a single sample is found in which we
can suppose that the material deposited by the ice forms the
chief mass. There may possibly be some difference between
the different localities owing to the fact that in a few places is
a comparatively large number of icebergs found, while in other
places they are perhaps rarely found; but on the whole the
material deposited by the ice must be rather homogeneous.
Especially may we be justified in concluding that if we have
two adjacent deposits whereof one is exceedingly fine while
the other contains large amounts of pebbly ingredients, then
a great part of these deposits cannot have been formed by ice.

87

But, as has been shown above, in the samples of this expedi-
tion a number of cases have been found in which adjacent
deposits differ very widely with regard to their mechanical con-
stitution, which differences must certainly be due to purely local
relations of the bottom of the sea.

If we consider the mineralogical nature of the samples,
we shall be able to draw from it certain conclusions with re-
gard to the depositing power of ice. As icebergs have their
origin in so many different localities, the material they convey
must also be very mixed; if therefore the samples show pro-
nounced mineralogical differences directly connected with the
geological nature of the nearest tracts of land then in such
cases the influence of the ice must have been rather slight.
These considerations prove plainly that in the samples nearest
land the deposition of ice has played no great part. In the
deposits lying farther from land the case is somewhat different,
for these will generally contain a very mixed material conveyed
in other ways, and which cannot be easily distinguished from
that which has been conveyed by ice; there is, however, as
has often been mentioned above, sufficient reason to suppose
that in these also the influence of the ice is comparatively
slight.

On the other hand, merely from the mineralogical nature
of the samples we can conclude that the drift-ice must be of
some importance with regard to deposition, and that, in these
parts, at least some transport of pebbles must take place.
For, it will often be seen that beside the chief ingredients of
the sample, which plainly show by their homogeneousness that
they have originated in rocks of the neighbouring land or of
the bottom of the sea, there will be found a few others, which
cannot have been derived from any neighbouring place, and
must thus have been conveyed hither by icebergs. For instance,
if, out of 100 grains, we have 90 granite, and the rest sedi-

85

ments or basalt, which last is not found solid in any place in
the neighbourhood, we may conclude that these, together with
a corresponding amount of the granite, have been conveyed
hither by ice, while the chief mass of the granite has origi-
nated in the solid rocks of the immediate neighbourhood. It
has been proved in this way that in none of the samples
can a greater part than about Y/s ог № be supposed to
originate from the ice, this is stated in reference to the
samples that were found nearest land; with regard to the
others, it is impossible to state anything with corresponding
accuracy.

3) The third source of those mentioned above from which
the deposits may have derived material is the moraines, or
other ice-deposits at the bottom of the sea. Such deposits
can sometimes be obtained directly by aid of the sounding-
tube, in which case we have not to do with a true sea-floor
deposit. In the case of moraine-derived material we must
suppose that deposition at the bottom of the sea took place
exceedingly slowly, and near land we cannot suppose that such
could be the case, while at a greater distance from land it will
appear more likely. If moraine-ridges are left at the bottom of
the sea from the ice-age, there is some probability that they
may be quite uncovered by later deposits for their greater
height in proportion to the surrounding territory will generally
cause a fairly strong current to run above them, so that the
finer ingredients which generally form the greater part of
the deposit cannot be laid down. If, on the contrary, the mo-
raine material is not found at any specially great height, the
whole tract will propably have been covered over since the
ice-age by a thin layer of deposits through which large
quantities of ice-borne pebbles may project, and these later
on by their disintegration will produce material for the
samples.

89

With regard to the mechanical constitution of the ingred-
ients which the deposits get from moraines at the bottom of
the sea, it will be clear from what has been said that they
will be the coarser ones contained in the samples. All original
moraine-material is as a rule coarser than the material of
the samples, and from moraine-ridges where the currents are
strong part of the clay will always be washed away, so that
we must imagine such parts at the surface almost exclusively
covered by larger or smaller pebbles, and in the spaces between
them sand and clay will be found. If the sounding-tube rests
on one of the pebbles no sample will be taken up, but, as
a rule, we may suppose that it will be dragged some distance
along the bottom of the sea or, will of its own accord slide
down from the projecting pebbles. Such samples will be of
a very varying constitution, but are as a rule rather coarse.
The best proof of the fact that we have to do with mo-
raine-deposits is that, when we find a row of coarser
deposits away from land, and others nearer land consider-
ably finer, such a difference can hardly be explained in any
other way.

An examination of the nature of the pebbles which have
been taken up may tell us a great deal with regard to the pre-
sence of morainic material at the bottom of the sea. By look-
ing at the geological map we can draw fairly certain conclu-
sions as to what the constitution of the moraine-material will
be in each locality, and, in the places where the real facts
correspond with these conclusions we are somewhat justified in
supposing that the coarser ingredients of the samples were
derived from the moraine. As a rule, the moraine-material in
the samples now under discussion will be of a very mixed
nature, as each ice-current will have passed through several
different formations, but still there are some characteristic
features by which it can be distinguished from other material

90

especially that which has been ice-borne. The База Мог-
mations north of Scoresby Sund are only found at the
outmost parts of the country, and consequently the icebergs
of the present day cannot contain basaltic material; the coast-
ice may perhaps convey some, but this will only be a small
quantity. The ice from the ice-age, which filled up the bays
right to the mouths, must on the contrary have eroded a
large amount of the basalt territory, and this accounts for
the fact that, although the basalt occupied all the outer-
most tracts except in the case of Liverpool Kyst, com-
paratively little of it is found in the samples nearest
the coast but much more in deposits farther out. When
we come very close to the shore larger quantities of basalt
will again be found, which have their origin direct from
the coast.

4) The 4 factor whereby material is conveyed to the
deposits is the solid rock of the зеа-Йоог. Where we have
to do with such, the mechanical constitution of the samples
is most varied, according as they have been obtained in close
proximity to some rock or at some distance from it. The
existence of submarine rocks is often shown by just such
a seemingly unreasonable variation between adjacent deposits.
Something the same is the case with regard to the miner-
alogical nature of the samples. As each mountain consists
as a rule of only one kind of rock, a deposit which gets
its material from such will be of a very homogeneous con-
sistency. We have a still more certain sign of the presence
of submarine rocks, when the fragments vary suddenly from
one sample to another, if, for example, we have two adjacent
samples, one of which consists of basalt, and the other of
granite, we may conclude with certainty that they must pro-
cure their material from rocks at the bottom of the sea,
unless they have been obtained so close to the shore that the

91

appearance of various rocks in the samples can be explained
thereby.

The existence of rocks at the bottom of the sea can now
be proved in many different paris of the territory herein
described, but still only in the neighbourhood of the shore.
The presence of such rocks indicates that those tracts were,
in a comparatively late geological period, higher situated than
al present, so that the rocks could be worn away by the atmo-
sphere, and by the erosion of the water. Otherwise we can
hardly imagine any power which would produce rocky ground
at the bottom of the sea itself, where the deposition of loose
material tends to level the floor. We can on the other hand
state with equal certainty, that if no submarine rocks are found
the territory cannot have been raised at any late geological
period.

It is impossible to determine with certainty how great
has been the sinking which has taken place in these parts.
The fact that a few of the deepest-lying deposits (over 200 D.
fathoms) contain a large amount of material derived from
rocks at the bottom of the sea, does not prove that the
locality from which the sample was taken has been raised
above the sea, it is sufficient if one or more rocks in the
neighbourhood have been raised. It seems probable that
the sinking may have been about 100 D. fathoms, which is
somewhat less than the sinking which has taken place round
Iceland.

It is impossible to say for certain, to what part of the
quaternary period this higher situation of the country must
be reckoned; the phenomenon itself can only be conjectured
from the conditions prevailing at the bottom of the sea and
can probably not be connected with other geological phe-
nomena. Both in Greenland and Iceland raised layers of
shells are found showing that the country at times has been

92

considerably lower than now, but we cannot at present draw
any conclusions as to the order in which these different
changes of level succeeded each other in either country. In
southern Scandinavia, sinking of the country has taken place
twice since it was covered by ice, and in the interval it has
been raised above the present level of the sea; possibly the
same changes have taken place in Greenland.

У. The organic ingredients of the samples.

An account of the third characteristic feature of samples
is still wanting, viz. their organic contents; but whereas these
contribute in the highest degree to the character of samples

generally the case is quite different in the samples now under

| discussion, they being almost devoid of organisms. This fact
may arise from one of two causes, either that inorganic ingre-
dients have been deposited in uncommonly large quantities or
that remarkably few organisms live in these waters. Probably
both factors worked in concert. The result is that only in
comparatively few of the samples have organic remains been
found, and these belong to comparatively few groups of animals
viz. bivalves, echini, sponges and foraminifera.

The bivalves have been found only in very small numbers
namely one whole bivalve with both shells’) in No. 18, and a
few small indeterminable fragments in №. 19. Both have a
certain interest in that they were found at greater depths than
those at which these animals can have originally lived, viz. at
124 and 159 D. fathoms, and must therefore like the bivalves
and snails mentioned by Jensen?), serve either as а proof
that the sea-floor was formerly situated at a higher level than

}) Astarte crenata, Gray; determined by Jensen.
?) Om Levninger, af Grundvandsdyr etc. Vid. Medd. Nat. Foren. 1900, р. 229.

94

now, or they must have been transported to this place by
ice or by some other means of transport. The first supposi-
tion is, as has been shown above not so very improbable for
there is sufficient reason to suppose that the bottom of the
sea was situated formerly at a considerably higher level than
now. We have only here the difficulty which also seems to
exist with regard to the mollusca in deeper water, that it is
not probable that they should have been able to avoid having
been covered over by later deposits during the long period
which must have elapsed since the sinking began. As, however,
Bay!) has observed shells on the ice in these very parts, we
may suppose that the bivalves found in the samples were con-
veyed thither in this manner.

A small number of spines of echini have been found in
a single sample (No. 13), and are of no special interest.

The foraminifera have the greatest distribution of all

the organisms, although they are not found in great numbers
in any of the samples. The most common ones are:

a. The sand-tube foraminifera have been found in eight
different samples (No.1, 7, 18, 27, 30, 35, 43 and 45) distrib-
uted over the whole territory; in each sample only one or two
specimens are found.

b. The rotaliform foraminifera have been found in four
samples; in two of these (No. 23 and 30) occur only 1—2
specimens which are therefore of no great interest; in No. 40
more have been found, and in 33 they even amount to 11 per Ct.
of the ingredients between 0°5 and 1™™. Both these samples
were obtained much nearer the coast than most of the others,
and only a single other sample (No. 41) was obtained as far in.
This proves that these foraminifera must be deposited in spe-
cially large numbers near land, seeing that we have every

1) Medd. om Grönl. XIX. 1896. р. 179.

Bi.

95

reason to suppose that Ше deposition of inorganic material
must here take place much more quickly than in the open sea.

се. Of nodosarine foraminifera only I specimen has been
found (in No. 50), and the same is the case with

d. Haplophragmia one specimen of which has been found
in No.42 in a rather significant place, namely in Scoresby
Sund; otherwise these two forms are of no special interest.

Sponge spicules are only found in five samples from
along the southern part of the Liverpool Kyst; they occur
in comparatively large numbers, yet not so as to influence
the general appearance of the sample. These five samples are
No. 30, 32, 34, 35 and 36. As the deposition of inorganic
material so near the coast takes place very quickly, unusually
large numbers of sea-sponges must grow at the bottom of the
sea in this region.

Explanation of the tables ПХ.

The area, bounded by the curve, represents the percentage of
the different sizes of grains in the samples; of the two lots wherein
each of the figures is devided the upper one, to the left, shows
the amount of clay substance, the rest represents the amount of
the other mineral ingredients, and herein is also included the very
small number of organisms. Further explanation is to be found on
pages 34—36.

Indhold.

Side
Notes on some specimens of rocks collected by С. Kruse on the
East coast of Greenland between lat. 65° 35’ and 67° 22’ N. By
Le ИН OP GRR emia ene es FRISERNE Mel 1

. Samples of the sea-floor along the coast of East Greenland 741/:—

70 М.Г. By 0. В. Boggild. (Hertil Tavle I—IX) .................. 17

А Darel: 3
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HEE SEP 17 1909

LA.

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udgivne af
Undersøgelser i Grønland,

Otte og tyvende Hefte.
2den Afdeling.

Med 7 Tavler og 1 Kort.

Kjøbenhavn.

I Commission hos С. A. Reitzel,

Bianco Lunos Bogtrykkeri.

Sm 1909.

Риз: 7 Kr. 25 Øre.

-

mmissionen for Ledelsen af de geologiske og geographiske

Ноз С. А. Reitzel faas folgende af Commissionen udgivne Skrifter:

Gieseckes mineralogiske Rejse i Grönland (Bericht einer mineralogischen Reise
in Gronland, 1806—1813) med biografiske Meddelelser om Giesecke af
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=

Ш.

The minerals from the Basalt of Kast-Greenland.

0. B. Bøggild.

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Amongst other material of scientific interest brought back
by the Carlsberg expedition to East-Greenland, were
a variety of zeolites and other minerals, obtained from cavities
in the basalt. It was proposed to me that I should undertake
the examination of this material. At first I thought it would
be desirable to wait until the Geologist of the expedition, Dr.
О. Norpensxsétp, had published an account of the Geology of
the district explored, thinking that I might thus become
acquainted with the mode of occurrence of the minerals and
the conditions of their formation. In the mean time, however,
Dr. Norpensxs6tp undertook to be at the head of a South Polar
expedition and some considerable time may therefore elapse
before the publication of his results. Moreover, I am now
engaged in working out a general description of Greenland
minerals and cannot therefore omit from such a work an essen-
tial part, such as the description of the minerals in question,
| have therefore decided to undertake the examination of these
minerals now, confining myself, in the present treatise, mainly
to an account of their crystallographic properties.

In addition to the minerals brought back by the above-
mentioned expedition, I have also examined a collection of
zeolites made by Harz and Bay, who were members of the
Ryder expedition in 1891—92. Further, I have collected and
restated facts already recorded in literature, with regard to the

minerals of the East-Greenland basalt, so that the account con-
7*

100

tained in the present treatise may be complete. Finally, I shall
also mention a few zeolites, found in basalt, fragments of
which have been obtained at various times from drift-ice off
the south coast of Greenland being probably derived from the
basalt region of East Greenland. Although many of these zeo-
lites have a very characteristic crystallographic development,
yet, in no case, has it been possible to discover definitely
whence they originated, and that in spite of the fact that one
would consider them to be very easily recognisable. The basalt —
territory of East-Greenland is, however, so extensive and has
been so little explored, that it would be the merest chance if
one were able to indicate any locality whence the fragments
would have been derived with absolute certainty. Moreover,
there is always the possibility that they may have originated
from unknown Arctic regions situated even further north.

Our knowledge of the Geological structure of East-Green-
land has been rendered fairly complete by the various expedi-
tions that have been sent out during the last century"). The

1) Here and in the following is referred to the following works:
SCORESBY, Journal of a voyage to the northern whalefishery etc. Edin-
burgh 1823, with App. I. Jameson, List of specimens of rocks brought
from the eastern coast of Greenland with geognostical Memoranda, p. 399.
Die 2te Deutsche Nordpolarfahrt in den Jahren 1869 und 1870, Leipzig
1874, together with the following treatises in I]. Bd.: TouLA, Allgemeine
Uebersicht der geologischen Beschaffenheit Ostgrönlands, р. 475, and
Lenz, Specielle Darstellung der geologischen Verhältnisse Ostgrönlands,
p- 481.

Den östgrönlandske Expedition udfert i Aarene 1891—92 under Ledelse
af С. RYDER with the paper of Е. Bay, Geologi. Meddelelser om Grön-
land 18, 1896 p. 145.

NATHORST, Bidrag til nordöstra Grönlands geologi. Geol. foren. förh.
Stockholm. 23. 1901, p. 275.

Carlsbergfondets Expedition til Östgrönland, 1898—1900, under Ledelse
af С. Amprup with the following papers in Meddelelser om Grönland.
27, 1902: Ш. Harrz Beretning om Skibsekspeditionen til Grönlands
Ostkyst 18. Juli til 12. Sept. 1900. р. 153. IV. G. Amprur, Beretning om
Kystexpeditionen langs Grönlands Östkyst 1900 р. 183. У. J. Koch, Ве-
merkninger vedrörende de paa Expeditionen opmaalte Kyststrekninger
р. 273.

101

results obtained show us that the basalt covers a considerable
tract of country, but that it is not continuous, as it occupies
two regions some distance apart.

1) The northern basalt-area stretches from Shannon
O to Davys Sund, a distance of about 300 kilometres, in a
SSW. to NNE. direction. It forms quite a narrow belt, embracing
all the outermost islands and peninsulas along the coast-line in
that region. The basalt presents immence plateau like surfaces
and somewhat higher basalt cones project but rarely. Basalt-
veins occur here also fairly frequently and follow, as a rule,
the direction of the coast-line.

The rock-samples examined were proved, with very few
exceptions, to consist of different varieties of typical basalt.

2) The southern basalt-area covers an extensive tract of
country. It begins, on the north at Scoresby Sund, the
southern side of which consists almost entirely of basalt, as
do also a great part of Gaaseland and Milnes Land. It
also exists in the form of horizontal veins between the Rhaetic
Lias beds of Hurry Inlet. From Scoresby Sund, basalt
extends all along the coast down to Kangerdlugsuak, а distance
of about 400 kilometres and it most probably stretches far inland
in this region, as no other rocks can be seen anywhere from
the coast.

Very little is known as regards the nature and occurrence
of the basalt.

Jan Mayen is fairly well known geologically and was
also examined by the members of this expedition. With very
few exceptions, only basaltic rocks are found here, varying,
however, considerably in their nature.

It is impossible to obtain a very reliable estimate of the
nature of the minerals contained in the basalt cavities or of
their relative abundance. Generally speaking, only a few more
or less isolated localities have been examined, and the choice
of these has, for the most part, depended on the condition of

102

the ice or on other chance circumstances. When an unusually
large quantity of minerals has been obtained from any place, it
is generally due to the fact that the expedition stayed there
some considerable time. On the other hand, there may be many
places, exceptionally rich in minerals, from which we have only
a few specimens or none at all, simply because the expedition
did not stay there long enough for collections to be made. All
along the coast, from Kap Dalton southward to Kanger-
dlugsuak, no minerals were obtained, as the boat-expedition
had neither sufficient time nor room for collecting rocks and
minerals. Another entirely unknown region is the south coast
of Scoresby Sund, between Kap Brewster and Sydbræ;
this coast is very difficult of access and has never been visited
by any expedition. — |

Moreover, the description by Lenz of the zeolites found in
the northern basalt region, is very incomplete.

As far as can be judged from the material at my disposal,
the minerals of the basalt are distributed in the various districts
as follows:

The district from Kap Dalton to Kap Brewster is
rich in various minerals, none of which can be said to predo-
minate.

No zeolites have been obtained from Kap Dalton, but
small quantities of quartz, calcedony and caleite have been
found there.

In the large, conspicuous medial moraine of Henry Gla-
cier, various minerals were found, such as stilbite, heulandite,
chabazite, levynite, thomsonite and calcedony.

Henry Land is fairly rich in minerals, laumontite and
stilbite having been obtained thence in comparatively large
quantities; most of the other East-Greenland zeolites have also
been found there in smaller quantities.

The district around Turner Sund is also fairly rich in
minerals, especially stilbite; in lesser quantities analcime,

103

natrolite, mesolite, scolezite, thomsonite, calcedony, quartz,
calcite and aragonite were found to occur.

On Manby Peninsula no minerals were collected and,
on Stewart 0, only small quantities of calcedony.

The district round Kap Brewster is fairly rich in
minerals and various zeoliles were found but none in large
quantities ; calcedony and quartz were present. Jameson quoted
from this locality: calcedony, cacholong, grey and white ame-
thyst and a fibrous zeolite.

The basalt along Scoresby Sund contains large quan-
tities of chabazite and differs in that respect from that of the
district mentioned above; thomsonite and levynite are widely
distributed here, but stilbite, heulandite, apophyllite and calcite
occur only in insignificant quantities.

Very few zeolites have been found in the regions further
north. The expedition brought back very small quantities of
scolezite and stilbite from Sabine O. Lenz mentions other zeol-
ites, chiefly chabazite as being conspicuous in the rock of
Pendulum О and minerals such аз quartz, calcedony, calcite
and aragonite, which were found in various localities, will be
treated of later.

No zeolites have been seen in Jan Mayen up to the
present time; the expedition brought back, however, small
quantities of calcile and aragonite.

Owing to our very slight knowledge of the East-Greenland
minerals, it is difficult to draw a comparison between them
and those of the other basalt-regions situated nearest to them,
namely West-Greenland and Iceland.

Both of these regions have been carefully examined and
considerable quantities of different minerals have been obtained
from them, also a very much greater number of specimens
of the individual minerals. The basalt of the northern regions
and that of Scoresby Sund seem to agree most closely as
regards the minerals with that of West-Greenland. This agree-

104

ment consists in the small size of the zeolites and the predo-
minance of the mineral chabazite. On the other hand, the
basalt south of Scoresby Sund resembles more the Iceland
basalt, the distance from Iceland being also inconsiderable.
The zeolites in this basalt, more especially the stilbite attain
a considerable size and, possibly, by a closer examination of
the country, we might discover that zeolites were present in
comparatively large quantities. |

A description of the places where the various minerals
were found will be given later, as also an account of the more
prominent characteristics of the minerals belonging to each
1осашу. For the position of the localities, reference should be
made to the maps accompanying the various accounts of the
expedition given in the Meddelelser om Grönland vol. 27. Maps
of the northern territory will be found in the account of the
German North Polar expedition and in Млтновзт’з treatise.

Quartz.

In the basalt-region of East-Greenland, quartz was found
in few localities and generally in small quantities. It was
either in very small crystals or amorphous.

Kap Dalton. A fairly large quantity of quartz was ob-
tained from the walls of a cavity in the basalt on the slope of
Station-mountain. The walls of the cavity were thickly
studded with quartz-crystals to the length of 1 centimetre.
Form of crystals a short prism of the ordinary combination of
faces: m{1010}, r{1011}, 2{0111}. The faces, especially the
rhombohedral faces are well developed and bright. The cry-
stals are semitranslucent and of a whitish colour.

From the same locality was obtained a quartz fragment,
which filled a cavity. This is covered on the outside by im-
pressions of disintegrated calcite-crystals.

Henry Glacier. The specimen is a fragment of the wall
of a fissure, consisting of calcedony covered with small quartz

105

erystals of very irregular shape; the most prominent form is:

r{1011}; e{o111} is quite insignificant. As a rule no prism-

faces are developed.

Turner Sund. At Turner Sund or its immediate neigh-

bourhood, various fragments of quartz were obtained, which

have no particular relation to one another.

1)

3)

4)

From the Sound itself, — no further particulars as to
locality being stated —, was obtained the in-filling of a
cavity, the outer part of which was formed of a thick layer
of calcedony, covered inside with quartz crystals. The cry-
stals were about 5™™ in length and were of the ordinary
combination: m {1016}, » (1011), 2 (0111); they were fairly
clear and transparent.

Another specimen from Turner Sund consisted of а cavity,
quite filled with quartz, without any distinctly developed
crystals.

Оп the mountain-slope by the Sound a larger cavity (ca. 2
dm.) was found. The walls of the cavity are lined with
a thin layer of greenish calcedony and inside this are small
(1—2™™) transparent quartz-crystals. All the interior of the
cavity is filled with fibrous aragonite. The quartz crystals
are of a very characteristic form namely r {1011} with very
well-developed bright faces; at the lower end each of these
is bordered by two symmetrically-situated faces, which re-
semble scalenohedral faces, but are of compound nature and
rough surface, so as not to produce the least reflection.
The prism and negative rhombohedron are not developed.
From Turner O was obtained a smaller fragment, consisting
of a crust of calcedony and opal, on which groups of
minute quartz crystals of the ordinary from are developed.
On the mainland, from the north-west extremity of Turner
Sund, another specimen was obtained. This is a cavity
(са. 12 cm.) lined with calcedony and filled in with quartz,
having no distinct crystal form.

106

Flache Bay and Sabine О From these localities Lenz
quotes (page 486, 489) numerous cavities containing quartz

erystals.
Calcedony.

This mineral, like quartz, has only been found in small
quantities in East-Greenland and is not very characteristically
developed. It has already been mentioned as occurring in con-
junction with quartz. It was found most plentifully in the fol-
lowing places:

Kap Dalton. Оп Depot mountain, a few cavities (up to
8 cm.) were found filled with white and grey agate. In some
cases the cavity is quite filled in with quartz.

Mount Henry; east side. A few quite small cavities
in a grey dolerite are filled with finely banded bluish or greyish
agate.

Turner Sund. The specimen shows,a bluish-grey, very
translucent calcedony, forming a layer on the walls of a cavity
of about 2 centimetres thickness. This is coated over on the
inner side with quartz crystals.

Stewart O This is a smaller fragment of blue trans-
lucent calcedony, with small quantities of white opal.

Kap Brewster. Jameson quotes from this locality: botry-
oidal calcedony, ordinary calcedony, agate and several other
forms of quartz.

Sabine О and Pendulum 0. Lenz mentions аз occur-
ring here ordinary calcedony and ‘“blutjaspis”.

Calcite.

Calcite has been found in most of the localities in East-
Greenland where zeolites occur, but generally in rather small
quantities. It is sometimes found in the form of crystals,
which are usually small and insignificant, sometimes it occurs
as a granular mass or, again, И may be an individual crystal

107

filling all the space between the zeolites. Wherever calcite has

been found with zeolites it is younger than these.

Kap Dalton. Оп Station mountain a single fragment
was found consisting of granular quartz; all over the outer
surface of this are distinct impressions of calcite crystals, to
the size of 4 cm., the calcite itself having completely dis-
appeared. ‘The crystal form is that of acute rhombohedra
f {0221} with bright, well-developed faces.

Mount Henry. In a few cavities, some small (2—10™™)
bright, colourless crystals are found, associated with laumontite,
embedded in coarse-grained masses of whitish calcite. The
crystals are all acute rhombohedra f {0221}; the faces of the
larger ones are irregular and curved, but those of the smaller
are generally bright and well-developed.

Turner 0. Optically-continuous masses of calcite are
found filling the spaces between stilbite and natrolite in the
cavities. Also loose cleavage-fragments of about 4 cm. occur;
these are semi-transparent and of a pale yellow colour.

Kap Brewster. Calcite appears here in various forms:
1) As small crystals (1—3™™) on the walls of a fissure in a

grey fine-grained basalt. The crystals are acute rhombohedra

d {0881}; the faces being very rough and dull and the

colour a dark yellowish-brown.

2) As the infilling of a cavity, between columnar masses of
mesolite and penetrated by fine mesolite needles. Here the
calcite is for the most part fine-grained, but sometimes
crystals 2 cm. long are found, in the form of acute rhom-
bohedra f {0221} with rough, dull faces. The colour is a
light-brown.

3) In small quantities calcite occurs as the infilling of cavities,
in association with small heulandite crystals. There is
usually only a single calcite individual in each cavity and
the colour is greyish.

108

The south side of Gaasefjord. Among the incoherent
masses found here was a single fragment of a breccia, con-
sisting of black vesicular basalt, with a cementing material of
white, granular calcite. In cavities in the latter, many small
crystals (1—3™™) were found in the form of acute rhombo-
hedra f {0221} with rough and dull faces.

Danmarks O. Cavities in a solid reddish basalt were
filled in with calcite together with small chabazite crystals. The
calcite forms a single individual of about 5 cm. and also extends
into several adjacent cavities.

Кар Broer Ruys and Sabine Ö. Lenz mentions calcite
scalehonedra as occurring here, but gives no details as to the
mode of occurrence.

Pendulum 0. Lenz mentions the occurrence of calcite
here in different forms:

1) A rhombohedron (size 5 cm.) white in colour with fine
twin-striations.

2) Somewhat large crystals of a pure yellow colour in amygda-
loidal basalt.

3) A yellow, opaque, calcareous tufa.

Shannon 0. Lenz mentions from here also an yellow,
opaque calcareous tufa.

Jan Mayen. Here, very small indefinitely-shaped calcite
crystals were found in the cavities of basalt and basalt-breccia.
These were unaccompanied by other minerals, with the excep-
tion of aragonite crystals, which were found in one cavily.
The crystal-form was that of irregularly formed rhombohedra
r {1011}; in a few cases scalenohedra occurred, presumably
v {2131} with strongly-curved faces.

Aragonite.

This mineral has been found in many places in East-
Greenland and also in very small quantities at Jan Mayen. In
the latter place, however, it was crystallised, whereas, in all

ere

Page > aire a ааа at

109

the others, it was found in the ordinary form of columnar
aggregates.

Turner Sund. А single rather large infilling of a
cavily (about 2 cm.) was obtained from here. The outer lining
consists of a layer of small quartz crystals, while the inner
part is quite filled with columnar aragonite of a brownish
colour.

Flache Bay. According to Lenz, whitish aragonite was
found here, both in the fibrous form and in masses with
radiating structure.

Sabine 0. Lenz mentions from this locality very fine
amygdaloids of whitish, prismatic aragonite.

Shannon О. According to Lenz, a radiating group of
aragonite crystals, with a strong vitreous
lustre was found here.

Jan Mayen. Small, colourless arago-
nite crystals (size 2—3mm) partly arranged
in radiating groups, were found in one
cavity in a grey fine-grained basalt, the
other cavities containing calcite crystals.
The crystal form is that of longish prisms,
in the combination 6 {010}, m {110}, {011},
i {021}. Most of the crystals are twinned,
often repeatedly so. One of the most com-
monly occurring forms is seen in figure 1.

The crystals are rather irregularly developed Fi& р ies wel
an Mayen.
and the faces are generally very rough.

Thomsonite.

This material has been found in a few localities in East-
Greenland. The crystals are very small as is usual with this
mineral, and the crystalform is, with one exception, badly
defined. — The localities are:

110

Henry Glacier. In а bloch of brown basalt from the

medial moraine numerous cavities were seen, containing various

zeolites, such as chabazite, levynite and thomsonite. This last-

mentioned mineral was found partly as lining in a cavity in

which no other zeolites were present and partly as a globular

mass on the levynite crystals. In both places exceedingly small

crystals were found on the surface, projecting freely and flat-

tened parallel to a {100}; any more accurate determination of

the faces was impossible. The colour was greyish or brown.
Henry Land.

1) From the east side of Mount Henry was obtained a single

fragment of grey basalt, the cavities of which are almost

Fig. 2. Thomsonite; Fig. 3. Thomsonite;
Henry Land. Henry Land.

entirely filled with snow-white columnar thomsonite. The
crystals generally radiate from a single point on the side
of the cavity. A few of the cavities contain crystals in the
form of very thin rectangular plates parallel with a {100}.
The breadth of the crystals is about 2™™. The commonest
form, represented in fig. 2, consists of a {100}, m {110} and
e{801}. A few of the crystals show narrow faces of f {601},
r {101}, с1001} and 6 {010}. The combination of all the

111

faces is shown in fig. 3. The form f {601} which has not
been found before in thomsonite is determined by!)

Average eae Number of Calculated
value Variations measurements value

f:a = (601) :(100) = 9°12’ 8°45'—9°53’ 4 9°20!

The faces of the crystals are generally dull and coated over
by a brownish film; occasionally they are quite bright.

2) From the hot spring a specimen was obtained which seemed
to be an incrustation, without any of the rock. This con-
sisted mainly of stilbite crystals, interspersed with a number
of small, spherical bodies formed probably of thomsonite.
The surface is rough and striated, without distinct crystals.
Colour, a brownish white.

Turner ©. Among larger masses of columnar scolecite
are found a few, small (up to 1 cm.) radiating masses of thom-
sonite. In one cavity there occurred small (1—2™™) projecting
crystals in the form of very thin plates, the faces of which
could not be more closely determined.

The north coast of Gaasefjord in Scoresby Sund.
Here thomsonite is found in very large quantities and is, with
the exception of chabazite, the most common zeolite obtained
from the isolated basalt blocks in the moraine. It is found in
two somewhat different forms:

1) In a reddish-coloured basalt, all the walls of the cavities
were found to be lined with a crust of thomsonite about
jmm thick. The internal surface of this crust has a well-
marked velvety appearance, due to some minute, closely-
packed crystals, the breadth of which does not exceed
0:11, The crystals have the form of thin, rectangular
plates and are very regularly developed, but the marginal

1} Here, as elsewhere in this paper, the value of angles is calculated
according to the axial ratios given by Dana (System of Mineralogy
1892) unless otherwise stated.

112

faces cannot be determined because they are so very small.
The colour is brownish or greyish. In addition to thom-
sonite, only a few chabazite crystals were found in these
cavities.

2) Other blocks consist of a reddish grey basalt, in the cavi-
ties of which about equal quantities of chabazite and thom-
sonite crystals are seen. The thomsonite here has the form
of small regular spheres (about 1™™ diameter) from the
surfaces of which numerous crystals project. The form of
these crystals cannot be definitely determined; the colour is

brownish.
Natrolite.

This mineral has only been found in a few places and in
rather small quantities. The crystals are always small and very
badly developed.

Mount Henry. Natrolite was found here fin radiating
masses of 2—3 cm. without any surrounding rock and unac-
companied by other zeolites. In one cavity needle-shaped
crystals were found, projecting freely. These were all much
decomposed and had no determinable faces.

Turner О. Radiating masses of natrolite were found in
cavities here, associated with stilbite. Freely-projecting crystals
are also occasionally found, similar to those mentioned above,
being also decomposed and without determinable faces. In some
of the cavities free calcite was also found.

Kap Brewster. A few radiating masses of natrolite were
found in a cavity which was almost filled with stilbite. The
masses measured about 1 dm.

Mesolite.

Mesolite was only found in two localities.
Turner 0. A small detached fragment was found, con-
sisting of a crust of about 3™™ thickness. The mineral was

113

fibrous mesolite studded on the inner surface by numerous
short needle-shaped crystals. The mesolite was much disinte-
grated and of a brownish colour.

Kap Brewster. The specimen found here was a block
with a single cavity, the walls of which were covered with
radiating groups (about 2 cm.) of snow-white mesolite. The
central part of the cavity is almost filled with calcite, into
which fine mesolite needles project everywhere. When the
calcite is dissolved out with hydrochloric acid, the hair-like
radiating crystals are very distinctly seen,

Scolecite.

This mineral has only been found in a few localities in
East-Greenland and in rather small quantities. Well-developed
crystals are not found.

Mount Henry. The specimen is a loose block con-
sisting wholly of scolecite, without any surrounding rock and
unaccompanied by other zeolites. The scolecite is found in
crystals arranged in radiating groups; the length of the crystals
may reach 6 cm. and the breadth 1—2mm The faces devel-
oped are m{110} and 6 {010}; no terminal faces are developed.
The crystals, generally speaking, are somewhat decomposed,
opaque, white on the inside and brownish outside. The faces
are quite dull.

Turner 0. A few pieces of scolecite without any sur-
rounding rock, are accompanied by small masses of columnar
and crystallized thomsonite. The scolecite forms radiating mas-
ses to the size of 5 cm. More rarely, freely projecting crystals
are found bordered by m{110} and b {010} without terminal
faces. The colour is generally snow-white, sometimes reddish.

Sabine O. A couple of small fragments have been ob-

tained from here, of about 3 cm. in diameter. They consist
XXVIII. 8

114

of scolecite, the crystals of which are arranged parallel to one
another. The surface of the fragments is worn and disinte-
grated.

Apophyllite.

Apophyllite is very rare in East-Greenland as it has only
been found on three fragments from two different localities. It
varies very much in its development in the different places; as
a rule the crystals are of a fair size.

Kap Brewster. From here we have a single amygda-
loid, without surrounding rock. The
apophyllite fills the greater part of
the cavity and is not accompanied
by other minerals. The size of the
crystals varies from 1 to 15™™. The
crystal form is almost cubical (fig. 4), :
with с {001} and a {100} most pro-
minent; on the corners are little
faces of » {111}. The faces are
rather badly developed and dull. The crystals are brownish-

Fig. 4. Apophyllite;
Kap Brewster.

white and semi-transparent.
Sydbræ, in Scoresby Sund.

1) In one of the basalts with cavities containing thomsonite
and stilbite, which are so frequent in these parts, a few
crystals of apophyllite were found. These were developed
on the thomsonite crystals, some singly and some in groups.
The size of the crystals is about 157. The form is that
of acute pyramids, with p {iii} and a {100} predominant.
Very small faces of c{oo1} and у {301} are also developed.
The faces are curved and very rough. ‘The crystals are
semi-transparent and of a greyish colour.

2) A fragment of basalt was found, having no connection with
the specimens mentioned above and with regard to which
it is expressly stated that it was found in situ. Within it
are columnar masses of apophyllite without crystal-faces.

115

The length of the individual crystals may be as much as
_4 сш. They are semi-transparent and of a greyish-white
colour.
Analcime.

This mineral has been found only in very few. fragments
in East-Greenland, from three different localities. As a rule,
the erystals are fairly large. They have not been found in
association with other zeolites.

The east side of Henry Land. Here the analcime was
found crystallized in cavities in grey basalt. The crystals
usually fill the greater part of the cavity so that distinct faces
are rarely seen. The crystals are always icositetrahedra and
may attain a length of 1'/2 cm. The part nearest the basalt
is clear and translucent, the rest of the crystals is whitish and
semi-transparent.

Turner Sund, opposite the landing-stage. From here
was obtained a small fragment of a grey, compact basalt con-
taining numerous cavities, the walls of which are thickly
studded with crystals, the smaller cavities being quite filled up
with them. The size of the crystals is somewhat insignificant
i.e. up to 4™™. The crystal form is that of the icositetrahedron
with fairly well-developed, bright faces. The crystals are semi-
transparent and whitish.

Kap Brewster. Numerous cavities were seen to occur
here in a dark-grey compact basalt, the walls of the cavities
being covered with analcime crystals varying in size from 1 to
10™m. The smaller cavities are usually quite filled up. In one
of the larger cavities, the spaces between the chabazite crystals
are partly filled with calcite The crystals are exclusively icosi-
tetrahedra. The faces are usually very well-developed and
bright in the case of the smaller crystals, in the larger ones,
however, they are rather strongly curved. The smaller crystals
are semi-transparent and greyish, the larger ones are white

and opaque.
8*

116

Stilbite.

Stilbite is the most widely-distributed zeolite in East-Green-
land. -It has been found in especially large quanties iu the
district south of Scoresby Sund, in which locality the crystals
are of comparatively large size. In the Sound itself and to the
north of it, this mineral is less plentiful and occurs in much
smaller crystals. Stilbite is most commonly found in isolated
crystals, or in masses consisting of few individuals. Well-
developed sheaf-like or cauliflower-like forms are very rare.

Bartholins Bre. Stilbite was found in the smaller
cavities of a brown dolerite rock, in which were also cavities
containing chabazite and levynite. The crystals were small
(2—3™m) and plate-like, they were bounded by the faces
b {010}, c{001}, e {011}, the last-mentioned being somewhat
narrow; m {110} and f {101} are almost equally developed. The
crystals are colourless rather bright and translucent.

Henry Land.

1) On the east side of Mount Henry, a small fragment of an
amygdaloid was found, the walls of which consisted of very
small quartz crystals on which were a few stilbite crystals,
to the size of 15™™. The form here is very different from
that of any other East-Greenland stilbite specimens, as the
crystals are very sheaf-like, with f {101} well-developed and
m {110} insignificant or absent; e {001} and e{o11} are also
found. The colour is almost pure white and the crystals
are semi-transparent.

2

—

Also on the east side of Henry Mountain, but rather near
the shore, some more stilbite was found, this being the
most important occurrence of stilbite as yet known in
Greenland. The diameter of the cavities in which it is
deposited varies up to 2 dm. The walls are coated with
layers of dark, cloudy lithomarge; inside this are large
quantities of small quartz crystals (about 1™™ long), which

117

form, in a few places, а layer
of several centimetres in thick-
ness. The quartz layer is some-
times deposited on the stilbite
erystals themselves. The length
of the stilbite crystals is from
3—4 cm. and they fill the grea-
ter part of the centre of the
cavities. They are flattened
parallel to 6 {010} and show the
combination: c {001}, 5 {010},
e {011}, m {110} and ¢ {130}
(Fig. 5). The last mentioned form is rare in stilbite, but

Fig. 5. Stilbite;
Henry Land.

occurs very commonly here. It is determined thus:

Average Variafibns Number of Calculated
value measurements value

- #:b = (130):(010) = 28°53’ 27°40'—29°53' 4 — 995591!

The accuracy of the calculation is very close, considering
that stilbite, on account of its curved faces is, as a rule,
not at all well adopted for measurements. The crystals are
of a light reddish colour and slightly transparent.

3) On the beach, at the foot of Mount Henry, stilbite crystals
have been found. They cover the walls of a fissure in grey
basalt. The crystals are covered, especially on one of sides,
with a layer of rounded, grey, calcite crystals. The stilbite
crystals are about 5" long; their form is rather broad with
e {001} about as large аз 5 {010}; т {110} and f {101} are
also found. The surfaces of the crystals are cloudy and
of a brownish colour; the inner part is whitish and semi-
transparent.

4) From the hot spring some rather small stilbite crystals of
the ordinary flattened form were obtained, in association
with small spherical masses of thomsonite.

118

Turner Sund. The specimens were derived from the
vicinity of the mainland. One label was marked «opposite the
landing-place», the others bore no definite statement of loca-
lity. They consisted of partly coherent amygdaloids of an
irregular shape and without. surrounding rock, numerous stilbite
crystals occurring in them. The rock, which is now quite
disintegrated was probably tufa. The stilbite is unaccompanied
by other zeolites, though sometimes irregularly formed crystals
of clear calcite are found in the cavities. The length of the
crystals is generally 2—8™™, and they occur in plates flattened
parallel to 6 1010}. Other forms which also occur are: c{oo1}
and m {110}; more rarely е{011} as very narrow faces. The
erystals are rather cloudy and their colour is whitish, tinted
slightly with brown or red.

Turner Ö.

1) The inner wall of Fyrböderdal. From here we have
‘small bright crystals, size 1—2™™, in the cavities of a
black basalt. The crystals are in flattened plates of the
ordinary form.

2) The summit of Fyrbéderdal (700 metres above sea-level).
Here the stilbite occurs in irregular cavities, probably in
tufa. It is associated with natrolite and a few irregularly-
formed calcite individuals. The stilbite crystals may attain
a size of 2 сш. but are rarely at all freely developed, as
the cavities are, as a rule, completely filled up by them.
The crystals are in the form of plates, flattened parallel
with 6 {010}. Other predominant forms are c {001} and
т {110}; generally also е{011} and t {130} in the form of
narrow faces. The colour is a pale reddish-white; the
degree of transparency slight.

Kap Brewster. In a single tufa cavity some large (up
to 3 cm.) stilbite crystals were found, together with some small
heulandite crystals. The stilbite crystals are somewhat sheaf-

119

like, with à {010} and f{101} about equally developed. The
erystals are semi-transparent and of a greyish colour.

Gaasefjord in Scoresby Sund.

1) The south coast. A few small amygdaloids were found here

2)

isolated from their surrounding rock. The interior was al-
most completely filled with stilbite, so that crystals faces
(d {010}, e {001}, т {110}) were only found in а few places.
The length of the crystals was about Г cm.; they were
cloudy and of a greyish colour.

A few loose fragments of basalt were also found here,
which contained almost exclusively chabazite. One fragment,
however, had a few stilbite crystals developed on the cha-
bazite crystals. The stilbite crystals are of the same form
and size as those mentioned above and are also very irre-
gularly developed.

In addition to these, a pale grey dolerite rock had some
of its cavities filled with levynite, but others contained both
levynite and small (1—2™™) stilbite crystals, or, in some
eases, stilbite crystals only. The form of the crystals differs
from the ordinary one, as 5 {010}, c {001} and f {101} pre-
dominate and m {110} is only seen as small faces at the
corners. The crystals are clear and transparent, with
irregular curved faces.

Gaaseland. In a single block obtained from a moraine and
perhaps of identical origin with the specimens mentioned
above, a few cavities were found containing, in addition to
chabazite, small stilbite crystals of the ordinary form, The
erystals are small, semi-transparent and colourless. Most
of the cavities in the rock were filled exclusively with
chabazite.

Sabine ©. Stilbite was found here only as a single

small fragment. It seems to be partly columnar and partly in
the form of small sheaf-like crystals (1—3™™), of the combi-

120

nation 61010}, c{001}, f{101} and m{110}. The last-men-
tioned occurs only occasionally. The erystals are cloudy and ofa
reddish colour.

Heulandite.

This mineral is found only in a few localities in East-
Greenland and in rather small quantities. The crystals vary
very much being often very differently developed even in speci-
mens from the same locality. |

Henry Glacier. Heulandite was found in the medial
moraine of the glacier in two, very different forms:

1) A brownish-grey dolerite rock was found to contain several

cavities, the greater number of which were devoid of zeol-
ites, while a few contained heuland-
Це erystals. The length of the сту-
stals is 3—6™™; their form somewhat
resembles the pseudo-tetragonal com-
plex (represented in fig. 6), which

= this mineral has also been observed
Fig. 6. Heulandite;

i to assume in other localities. Com-
Henry Glacier.

bination 61010}, c£{001}, #1201},
s {201}, m {110}. The faces are generally bright and well-
developed, occasionally somewhat curved. The crystals are
semi-transparent and of a whitish colour.

2) Other specimens consist of a breccia-like rock in which

fragments of an exceedingly compact basalt

are cemented together with zeolites. In
only a few places do these take the form
of freely-developed crystals. The main mass
of zeolites consists of cbabazite, on which
are grouped small heulandite crystals (length
1/9mm), which are developed as shown in
fig. 7. The crystals form plates parallel to

Fig. 7, Heulandite: $1010}, the edges of which are bordered

Henry Glacier. by e {001}, t {201}, s {201} and r {501}:

121

the last-mentioned face, which is always very narrow, has not
been observed before in heulandite; it is determined by the
angle:

verag PE
Average Variations Number of Calculated
value measurements value

r:c— {501}: {001} = 77°54’ 76°53’—78°53 4 779581)

The comparatively large variations in this angle are mostly
caused by the faces both of r {501} and e {001} being usually
somewhat broken and facetted so that, as a rule, several di-
stinet reflexes are produced by them; the form must, however,
be considered to have been definitely determined.

These small crystals are perfectly clear and transparent
with very bright faces.

Mount Henry, east side. Grey fine-grained basalt, which
was found here, contains a few cavities almost completely filled
with heulandite. Very few crystals are found, their length
being about 2mm, The following combinations occur: 6 1010},
с{001}, ¢{201}, s{201}, m {110}. The colour is a deep red.

Kap Brewster. Here the heulandite is found in two very
different forms:

1) It occurs with stilbite in a single amygdaloid, probably
obtained from tufa. The heulandite crystals are small
(1-—2™™), few in number and are interspersed among the
large stilbite crystals. They have the form of plates parallel
to {100}, bordered by ¢ {001}, ¢{201} and s {201}. The
faces are bright and fairly well-devel-
oped; the crystals are of a pale reddish = =~.» =)

colour. 5 |
2) Many heulandite crystals were found in | 2 I 7
CPE P : m <m! : €
cavities in a dark brownish very fine- N ”
grained basalt. The crystals are small s

(1—2), well-developed and unaccom-

panied by other zeolites. Sometimes На:

the space between the crystals is filled Kap Brewster.

122

with calcite. The crystal form is shown in fig. 8. Combin-
ation: b{010}, с{001}, #12011, s{201}, т{110} and 44711).
The faces are generally bright and well-developed. The
crystals are greyish and semitransparent.

Gaaseland in Scoresby Sund. In the brownish basalt
of this district, the cavities of which contain almost exclus-
ively chabazite and thomsonite, a single fragment was found
with cavities containing heulandite, associated with the chabaz-
ite. The heulandite crystals are 2—3™™ long and of the
ordinary heulandite form 6 {010}, c{001}, ¢ {201}, s {201} and
m {110}. They are fairly clear and transparent.

Float ice near lluilek in South-Greenland. Heulandite
is the particular kind of zeolite which has been found in largest
quantities in the loose blocks obtained from floating ice. This
fact is remarkable as heulandite is of only secondary import-
ance in East-Greenland. It is found on the ice in three dif-
ferent forms, none of which is exactly identical with those
mentioned above, nor can the varieties of basalt, in which it
occurs, be identified with any of the heulandite-containing
basalts of East-Greenland. Another remarkable feature is that
all the basalt-fragments with heulandite that were found on the

ice were accompanied by a soft, bluish or

С

greenish mineral, perhaps celadonite, which
has not been found in East-Greenland proper.
1) In the cavities of a small fragment of
compact, reddish-brown basalt, small heu-
landite crystals were found, of about 2™™
length. The walls of the cavities are
covered with a thin layer of bluish cela-
donite. The crystal-form, which is rather
characteristic, is shown in fig. 9. Com-
bination 5 {010}, #{201}, m {110} s {201},
Fig.9. Heulandite; {111}, {021} and c {001}; the two last

Float ice near К
Iluilek. forms are very small, especially c {oot}.

å
x

123

The erystals have bright faces and are rather well-devel-
oped. They are of a pale reddish colour.

2) Heulandite crystals were also found in the cavities of a
reddish-brown compact basalt, enclosed in a thin layer of
pale-green celadonite. The length of the crystals is about
som, The form mostly resembles that shown in fig. 8. The
faces are bright, well-developed, and the crystal fairly clear,
transparent and colourless.

3) In a pale-grey dolerite rock numerous cavities were found
with quite small heulandite crystals (length about Imm), The
walls of the cavities are covered with a thin layer of bluish-
green celadonite. The form closely resembles that shown
ш fig. 8, but с {001} is far less developed. The faces are
rather curved; the crystals are clear and colourless.

Chabazite.

Chabazite has only been found in a few places, but in one
of these, namely in Scoresby Sund it is found in such large
quantities, as to far exceed, in total amount, all the other zeol-
ites. The chabazite crystals, however, are always of rather
insignificant size and crystallographically very simple.

Henry Glacier on the medial moraine. Here chabazite
was found in the cavities of a brownish-coloured basalt, which
also contained several other zeolites such as stilbite, heulandite,
levynite and thomsonite. The length of the crystals is gener-
ally about 2™, but may be as much as 5mm, The crystals
consist, as a rule, exclusively of the fundamental rhombohedron,
r {1011} but а few crystals also have narrow faces of a{1120},
s {0221} and ¢ {0112}. Penetration twins occur twinned about
e{0001}; in a few cases, twin formations about 7 {1011} are
also found. The crystals are usually colourless and rather
transparent; the faces are, as a rule, well-developed and bright.

Henry Land east side. The specimen found here con-
sists of a single small fragment of basalt, with a cavity con-

124

taining small chabazite crystals (length 2™™). The crystal form

is that of the fundamental rhombohedron: r {1011}, rarely with

narrow faces of e{0112}. There are occasional twin form-
ations about e {0001}. The crystals are greyish-white and
semi-transparent.

Sydbre in Scoresby Sund. A few fragments of basalt,
obtained from here, have chabazite in their vesicular cavities,
this mineral being sometimes accompanied by apophyllite and
thomsonite. The crystals are 2—s™™ long and are all in the
form of the fundamental rhombohedron; there are a few twins
about e {0001}.

Gaasefjord in Scoresby Sund. Many fragments of
rock were found both on the north and south sides of Gaase-
fjord, all containing chabazite, either by itself or in association
with other zeolites. The fragments were all obtained from
detritus-cones or moraines and, in the latter case, it naturally
is difficult to determine whence they originated. The specimens
obtained from the different sides of the bay seem to differ from
one another and will, therefore, be described separately.

1) The north side of the bay: — the numerous fragments
obtained from the north side were found in a moraine.
Most of these contain mainly thomsonite in the form of
spheres or incrustations, the surface of the mineral in the
latter case being studded with a few chabazite crystals. In
other blocks are cavities filled exclusively with chabazite.
The length of the crystals varies from 3—8™™. The fun-
damental rhombohedron r {1011} is the commonest crystal
form; the other forms with the narrow faces mentioned
above occur more rarely. Twins occur about c {0001} and,
less commonly, about r {1011}. The crystals are usually
semi-transparent and greyish.

2) Southside of bay. The fragments from the south side of
the bay contain as a rule chabazite only. This mineral is
sometimes found in crystals, resembling exactly in form and

.125

size, those mentioned above. In a few cases it is seen in
smaller crystals, 1—2™™ in length, which, in addition to
r {1011}, almost always exhibit well-developed faces of
a {1120} and s {0221}. One fragment contains very small
crystals (about ‘/2™™) together with stilbite; here r {1011},
s {0221} and e {0112} are almost equally developed.
Danmarks O in Scoresby Sund. A few loose blocks
of basalt were found here containing small chabazite crystals
unaccompanied by other zeolites, but sometimes associated with
calcite crystals. The form is almost exclusively that of the fun-
damental rhombohedron. The crystals are semitransparent and
greyish.
Floating ice near Iluilek in South-Greenland.
On the drift-ice a fragment of a grey fine-grained basalt was
found. This has numerous cavities, some of which contain
chabazite crystals, others levynite, while others are lined with
a quite thin layer of a soft, sky-blue mineral: celadonite or
lithomarge. The basalt is not quite like any variety found in
East-Greenland and the minerals also differ from those of
known localities. The chabazite occurs in rather small crystals
of 2—5™™ in length. The only form is that of the fundamental
rhombohedron: r {1011}. Twin formations are very common,
especially about r {1011}. The same crystal may be twinned
about different faces of the rhombohedron. The crystals are
colourless and semi-transparent.

Levynite.

Levynite has been found in a few localities in East-Green-
land, though not in large quantities.

As however this mineral is, generally speaking, rarer than
the other zeolites, we must suppose that on the whole it is
more common in East-Greenland than elsewhere.

Henry Glacier, the medial moraine. A brown fine-grained
basalt was found here with numerous cavities containing various

126,

zeolites, chiefly levynite, chabazite, thomsonite and stilbite.
Only one zeolite is found, as a rule, in each cavity, but, in
one case, thomsonite was found on crystals of levynite. The
length of the latter crystals is 1—2™™; the form varies some-
what. In some cavities they are thin and plate-like, in others
rather thick. The form comes close to the ordinary levynite
form with c {O01}, {1011} and s {0221}. Penetration-twins
twinned about с {0001} are almost always found, so that
r {1011} is only developed in the re-entrant angles.

Measurements of the better-developed crystals of the thicker
type reveal a circumstance which is probably also to be noticed
in other levynite crystals, but which is here very marked.
From the positions where the two rhombohedra should be
situated no reflex, or hardly any, is seen, but, on the other
hand, reflexes appear from two scalenohedra which are situated
not very far from the rhombohedral faces. Owing to the stri-
ation, the angles vary considerably, but the forms can, with fair
certainty, be determined as being two new ones v {2 LOSE 1}
and w{10.2.12.11.} The faces s {0221} and r{1011} are
very small and give only very feeble reflexes. The axial-ratio
generally employed for levynite, namely с = 0'8357 (Hammer)
is not applicable to the crystals from this locality, for which
С = 0°8010! has been calculated.

The following angles have been measured:

Number Calcur-

Average Variation of meas- ated

value urements value
z:c == (1011) : (0001) — 42°46" 42°42'—42°54’ 5
s:c == (0221): (0001) — 61°28’ 60°49'—61°53' 3 61036.
r:s — (1011): (0221) — 49°12’ 1 49937
и:с = (10.2.12.11): (0001) — 43° 6 42055 —43015 4 439 7
и: т == (10.2.12.11): (1011) — 6°14 ti 21695
v:c = (2.10.12.7 ): (0001) — 55049 55°26’—56°25’ 4 55°48’
0:4 = (2.10.12.7 ):(10.2.12.11) = 33°50’ 33°20'—34°15’ 3 3395573

As will be seen from the indices, the scalenohedral faces
v and и are both situated in the zone rs — (1011, 0221}.

127

They are striated parallel to their intersections with the faces
of this zone. Moreover since the zone cv = {0001, 2.10.12.7}
contains the face и (2. 10.12. 11), the two scalenohedra % and v
lying in this and in similar zones meet in horizontal edges.

А penetration-twin with the above-mentioned scalenohedral
faces is represented in fig. 10. The twin formation is however,
not always equally per-

fect, so that sometimes

Aa EN
ns

the larger part of the

crystal may belong to AN |
Е snaivianaı MN

The thinner crystals

Y

Fig. 10. Levynite; Henry Glacier.
are partly developed

in the same way, but here the forms r{1011} and s {0221} are
generally more prominent; the exact relations are not easily
made out owing to the very narrow faces.

Gaasefjord. On the south side a single fragment of a
light grey dolerite rock was found. This is labelled «main
rock» and contains several cavities with small levynite crystals
from 1—3™™ in length. Small stilbite crystals are also present,
sometimes in the same cavities as the levynite, sometimes in
separate ones. The levynite has the form of flat plates, with
curved irregular faces. The form is almost the same as that
mentioned above, as both rhombohedra and scalenohedra are
developed. The crystals are transparent and colourless. On
the north side of Gaasefjord, among many fragments of basalt
with chabazite, a few were found with the cavities containing
levynite. These crystals are quite small about 1—2™™ in length,
and of approximately the same crystal form as the preceding
ones. In a few cayities, a peculiar kind of crystal was found,
which has been observed before in West-Greenland, but which
I do not think has as yet been described. Both basal planes
are covered with a thin layer of threads of a silk-like lustre,
placed perpendicularly to the plane. In transverse sections of

128

the crystal these look like stripes with a well-marked silky
lustre, surrounding the central, vitreous part of the crystal.
The crystals of this nature, which have been found in this
locality, are situated in special cavities and have no marginal
faces, but, as typical levynite crystals with the same silk-like
layer have been found in West-Greenland and on the drift-ice
(as is mentioned below), it is probable that the erystals described
above are composed of this mineral.

Float ice near Iluilek in South-Greenland. In the
rock that has already been described under the heading of
chabazite, cavities containing levynite also eccur. These cry-
stals are of rather insignificant size (2—3™™ in length) and are
in the form of very thin plates. They consist of the combin-
ation: c {0001}, r {1011}, s {0221}, without development of the
above-mentioned scalenohedra. Twins about c {0001} occur, as
shown in fig. 11; pene-

tration-twins which, as

a rule, are common in

this mineral are not
Fig. 11. Levynite; Float ice near Iluilek. ола ее море
bohedral faces are well-developed and bright, almost without
any trace of striation. The base is quite plane, but always
velvet-like and dull and gives no reflex on the goniometer.
The reason for this is that the face is overlaid by the very

thin layer of silk-like threads above-described.

Laumontite.

This mineral has been found only in a single locality in
East-Greenland.

Henry Land. A basalt-breccia is found near the hot-
spring ') consisting of fragments of a disintegrated greyish-black
compact basalt, cemented by a rather incoherent aggregate

1) Mentioned by Harız 1. ©. page 159.

129

of laumontite crystals. There is no trace of other zeolites, but
the cavities are sometimes filled by large calcite individuals. It
is not as yet known whether this development of laumontite is
connected in some way with the presence of the hot spring,
in which case it might be of comparatively recent origin, or
whether the fact that it occurs near the spring is accidental.
The only fact recorded about the water is that it contains
sulphuretted hydrogen and that the temperature is 38° C.; we
know nothing with regard to the occurrence of any mineral
deposits.

The laumontite crystals which, in a few of the cavities,
are rather well-developed, may attain a length of | cm. and are
of the ordinary form. They are usually bordered by m {110}
and e {001}; more rarely by quite small faces of a {100} and
e {201}. A few twins about a {100} occur. The crystals are
incoherent as is usually the case and crumbling; their colour
is a reddish-white.

XXVIII. 9

Due ford, ‘ah io, so oat Ay, vow ans. ai, M
Mi gige: loony, gia АА to, ad ок sana th a
Aginsbhisog al, зада, ‚our a UN. AL, щи. НЙ ‚Hill RENTEN
(EN FUEN Ai) Wad, Bf, 00H sl, nous +9610 зай. Ни |
LAN BE Ab aug moi; Mt, ЗА bas hanesbyd Боя Å
ironi: vib aD SAU as ol, bangen Wi; ан wo 4
RVR ea ar i | FCN mente ira
АО, bah 0. eer fe м Ги и, а A оне
sin has, 045. 10. dienst влом ул чом: и
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pus ТОО 10 anne, Mitte se) AE ‚land San SNE hit 5
ocean. sde tune {NOU », Hi eu), ait, Hy A108 ae
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в. Эми BERN re

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ТУ.

Contributions

the Anthropology and Nosology
of the East-Greenlanders.

Knud Poulsen.

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| | anoidudinsnod

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;
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2 2
7 V Å

The small tribe of Eskimaux — counting 350 to 400 mem-
bers — at Angmagsalik on the East-coast of Greenland about
6531/29 lat. N. has in so far special interest in physical respect,
as it in contradistinction from the West-coast Eskimaux is
known free from European intermixture and is the only surely
unmixed Greenland group of Eskimaux.

During the second Danish expedition to East-Greenland,
conducted by lieutenant Amdrup in 1898—99, I made during
the wintering of the expedition at Angmagsalik some anthro-
pological measurings and put down some notes on the structure
of the population. I found opportunity of examining 40 grown-up
individuals, 29 men and 11 women, besides a few children.
All these visited our wintering station during the winter. The
material though not great may still possibly be of some interest
when compared with and supplying the measurings and exa-
minations made by the head of the Danish woman-boat expe-
dition, the present captain G. F. Holm. Then 46 grown-up
individuals from the district of Angmagsalik were examined, and
besides 45 individuals from the southern part of the East-coast
— by the then lieutenant Garde — together with a similar
number from the southern part of the West-coast. On the
basis of these examinations the police-surgeon, doctor Soren
Hansen, gave a representation of the structure and other phy-
sical properties of the East-Greenlanders!), а representation,

') Seren Hansen: Bidrag til Ostgrenlendernes Anthropologi, Meddelelser
om Grønland. X. Bd. Pg.1—41. Kbv. 1886.

134

which contains the substance of our knowledge of this question,
our former acquaintance with it being based on spread and
little informing notes in different travels (Clavering—Graah).

-The named representation gives a full portrait of the
appearance of the East-Greenlanders, and when I nevertheless
think that the following remarks may be of some interest, it is
essentially because the material has been added to by my
measurements — from 46 to 86 — and my material, the
measurements having been made according to the same prin-
ciples, may be compared with the former.

The greater the number of examined individuals, the better,
of course, the chance of a reliable result.

Г have not measured individuals already measured by cap-
tain Holm in 83—85. It might certainly have been tempting
to measure just the same individuals again to examine how the
nearly 14 years had influenced the development of the structure
of their bodies. But partly 1 believe that by so small differences
that would be in question here, no guarantee could be obtained
of sufficient exactness with the employed systems of measure-
ment and two different examiners, partly it would certainly have
been possible to examine only very few of the formerly mea-
sured. — Having had opportunity to examine only the Angmag-
salik-Eskimaux, the following remarks will of course only refer
to these. The representation is based solely on the examina-
tion of living individuals. -A collection of craniums and some
bones of the pelvis brought home by the expedition will namely
later on be revised by another together with the very conside-
rable and interesting material of Greenland craniums in the
possession of our anatomical Museum.

The average size of the 40 measured is for men 1611. for
women 1477mm, But excluding respectively 3 men and | woman
the average numbers become 1624 and 1491 (max.: 1745 and
1550, min.: 1490 and 1398). These 4 are mentioned аз 17—18

years old, but in my notes as not yet wearing natit, an article

135

of dress that covers the sexual organs and is applied by the
young East-Greenlanders when they, he or she, think them-
selves and are thought by their cognates to be full-grown.
Seren Hansen found for 31 men and 15 women the average
size to be 1647 and 1551 (max.: 1760 and 1650, min.: 1540
and 1450), thus 23 and 60mm more. If the average size is cal-
culated according to all measurements in hand from Angmagsalik,
the result is seen to be about 1631 and about 152 cm. The
average size of grown-up West-Greenlanders calculated on a
very great number of individuals from the whole of the West-
coast is stated to be 162 and 152 cm.!). After this there
seems to be no reason to insist on the theory of the East-
Greenlanders being taller than the West-Greenlanders, provided
that the collected number of individuals from Angmagsalik is
thought sufficiently great, what it likely must, when it is taken
into consideration how considerable a fraction it forms of the
whole population.

In the treatise of Soren Hansen on the anthropology of
the West-Greenlanders, he also remarks that the difference of
size found according to the measurings then in hand, is so
small, that it is. doubtful if any importance may be ascribed to it.

As substantiated by Seren Hansen, it also appears from my
measurements that the size of the East-Greenlanders is some-
what, but not much smaller than the established size of the
European nations (16501), and that they, as little as the
Greenlanders altogether, can be stated to be very small people.

As to the proportions of the body Seren Hansen writes
the following according to the examinations of Holm and Garde:
“The arms strong and muscular; the length between the out-
stretched hands nearly the same, most frequently a little smaller
than the size of the body; but the chest being very much

7) Seren Hansen: Bidrag til Vestgrenlendernes Anthropologi. Meddelelser
om Grønland, УП. Bd Pe. 163—250. Kbhvn. 1893.

136

developed and the breadth of: the shoulders taking up therefore
a proportionally great part of the length between the outstret-
ched hands, the arm itself must certainly be stated to be short,
if anything. The nether extremities short; the muscling slightly
developed. The chest very strong. The abdomen well propor-
tioned, not very prominent”.

I have made measurements of the length between the out-
stretched hands (measured over the back), of the stature in
sitting posture, of the distance from the spinal process to
tubera ischii and of the extent of the chest. These measure-
ments as well as my general notes on the circumstances
appertaining here, lead to the very same result, wherefore I shall
not tire with recounting of numbers. But in this connection
] presume to draw the attention to a hypothesis set up by
Soren Hansen in: Bidrag til Vestgronlændernes Anthropologi,
in the section of the proportions.

He writes here: ‘Starting by the theory that a series of
races may develop themselves in a similar way as a series of
species of the animal or vegetable kingdom, there is a reason
to believe that this development is analogous with the deve-
lopment of the single individual in the way that the lowest link
of the series corresponds with a more childish or at least
juvenile degree of development and the highest one with the
most developed phase. Starting by the supposition that the
place of the Eskimaux in physical respect is in the lowest end
of the system we must — if the hypothesis is right — look
for juvenile features in their structure’. After having discussed
the influence of the occupation on the proportions, he arrives
at the result that the proportions of the West-Greenlanders in
several particulars offer juvenile traits — thus the small feet
and the relatively short arms. As to the nether extremities it
might be expected according to what has been set up that they
also were shorter in the Eskimaux than in all other human
races because they — as the upper extremities — are relatively

137

shorter in children than in grown-up people. According to the
measurements of Seren Hansen on the West-Greenlanders their
nether extremities are slightly developed, if anything, but still
not so short as might be expected.

Their relative length seems to be smaller in the East-
Greenlanders. This appears partly from the general remarks
on this circumstance in Seren "Hansen's: Bidrag til Ostgron-
lendernes Anthropologi, partly from my measurements.

The hands and feet of the East-Greenlanders are practically
always remarkably small and well-formed.

As to the form of head and face my measurements are
very consistent with the former in hand, as may be seen from
the comparison undernoted. The main race-character of the
head is its breadth-index, the proportion between its greatest
breadth and greatest length. It stands thus:

Men Women

Average | Maxim. | Minim. Average| Maxim. | Minim.

According to Seren Han-
зеп’з measurings...|| 769 | 84:2 11:8 15:6 81-2 69:9
According to mine.... | 165 | 80:2 13:2 TNC 18:9 720
The greatest length of the head is:
Men Women

| Average | Maxim. | Minim. Average | Maxim. | Minim.

According to the mea- |
surings of S. H.... | 19:2 20:1 18:5 18-1 19:5 178
According to mine... | 192 20:5 18:1 18:4 19:3 11:8
The greatest breadth of the head is:
Women

| Men

Average | Maxim. | Minim. Average | Maxim. | Minim.

According to the mea-
surings of $. Н....| 147 | 157 | 140 14-1 153 13:1
According to mine... || 147 | 156 142 14:0 146 13'4

138

Тре congruity between the two groups of measurings is,
as may be seen, even surprisingly great which is not quite
without importance, I presume. The fact is, that when as here
two different examiners at different times have arrived at so to
speak the same result by measuring a number of individuals,
not quite small in proportion to the whole population, and not
the same individuals the two times, it may surely be said to
prove that the result is correct, not only that the measurings
have been fairly correctly executed both times, but also that
the number has been sufficiently great to give a trustworthy
expression of the real facts. The result, then, becomes this,
that the form of the head of the East-Greenlanders, as also
stated by Søren Hansen, is pronounced mesaticephalous, yet
more particularly tending to dolicocephalism and not pronounced
dolicocephalous as formerly stated for the Eskimaux generally
by Broca, Virchow and Girard de Rialle among others. |

To determine the length of the face I have like the former
examiners measured the length of the face viz. the distance
from glabella to the kin, the ‘‘breadth of the zygoma” or more
correctly the distance between the two zygomata and the breadth
of the nether jaw viz. the distance between the angles of the
nether jaw, measured when the mouth was open. From these
measures Seren Hansen has calculated three indices, namely:

index facialis superior, viz.lthe proportion between breadth
of zygoma and length of face.

index gonio-zygomaticus, viz. the proportion between breadth
of zygoma and breadth of nether jaw, and

index facialis inferior, viz. the proportion between length

of face and breadth of nether jaw.

The averages of these indices are:
According to According to my

Seren Hansen measurings
Index. заса Sup. , sts 00% 103:8 100:9
index gonio-zygomat...... 82:3 80:4
index facial. Ant. 2.400 85'4 81:1

be Ak

139

My indices correspond with the following average measures:

Beneth* Gr face... 2!) MID 140°5
Breadth of zygoma ...... 1417
Breadth of nether jaw... 113:9

which is in good conformity with the statement of Soren Hansen
that the length of the face is a little smaller than its breadth
and that this is about 5 greater than the breadth over the
angles of the nether jaw. The differences of the found indices
are also so small that scarcely any significance can be ascribed
to them; at any rate, Søren Hansen remarks in full conformity
with my measures and observations that the form of the face
is oval or perhaps rather elliptic on account of the lower part
of the face being relatively broad.

To determine the form of the nose 1 have measured the
distance from the root of the nose to the place of meeting be-
tween septum nasi and the upper lip, and the distance between
the outermost points of the wings of the nose. This measure,
stated by Broca, has been used by Søren Hansen on the West-
coast and is recommended in preference to the distance between
the bottoms of the furrows behind the wings of the nose (Vir-
chow), a measure, used by Holm on the Woman-boat expedi-
tion. In this point then Holm’s and my measurements cannot
be compared, my average index becoming higher: 70'2 against
628. The form of the nose is besides individually very dif-
ferent in the East-Greenlanders, so different that an average
index after all does not give any impression of it. According
to my measurements index varies between 884 and 59°3,
according to those of Holm even between 811 and 40°3.
According to the measurements of Holm a considerable diffe-
rence of sex is found, index being for men 63°9, for women
60°9; according to mine there is a similar difference of sex,
but in opposite direction, index being for men 69:2, for women
72:9. According to the very extensive measurings of Seren
Hansen on the West-coast the average index is there for men

140

762 and for women 77'3 (the measures after Broca) — thus
greater for women and on the whole not little greater than that
found for the East-Greenlanders. But so great differences be-
tween the results of the different observers and so great
distances from maximum to minimum in the series of exami-
nations of the same observer partly indicate very great individual
differences, but also that measuring of the dimensions of the
nose is a difficult thing, perhaps on the whole scarcely possible
to execute with sufficient exactness to give a trustworthy im-
pression of the form of the nose.

The measures are also so small that errors in themselves
insignificant may give quite misleading results, and to him who
has tried a few times it will soon appear, how difficult it is to
measure exactly the distance between the outermost points of
the wings of the nose. Partly the wings of the nose are very
easily pressed together, and partly with many people an invo-
luntary play of the wings of the nose is found, so that these
do not take up the same position in a constancy. At any rate
I have often by repeated measurings of the same individual
obtained different sizes of the breadth of the nose, certainly
only slight differences, but yet sufficient to influence the result.
Though not believing that any greater significance may be
ascribed to the measurings of the позе, I will just mention
the considerably higher nasal index, found by Seren Hansen for
the West-Greenlanders than by me for the East-Greenlanders,
of measurings executed in the same way. Certainly my mea-
surings are less numerous, but yet sufficient to make it impro-
bable that the great difference might be due to a mere accident,
and as the crossing of the West-Greenlanders with European
elements must be thought to have worked towards a lower nasal
index, it is not quite out of the way to think that the found
fact might suggest a difference of tribe. — In my notes I
have everywhere to the measures affixed short remarks on the
form of the nose. According to these it is very variable as

141

has been said. In about the half part of the cases is noted:
Prominent, straight, well-formed or nearly straight, rather well-
formed or the like. In about 1 is found noted: Great, curved,
slightly hunched or beautifully formed, slightly curved and in
the rest broad, flat or retrousé. But there are all forms of
transition from pronounced Mongolian nose to pronounced
Indian nose.

That which characterizes the eyes of the East-Greenlanders
the most is their Mongolian shape produced by the forming of
the so-called Mongolian fold — the fold of the skin imme-
diately over the upper eyelid prolonging itself and covering the
inner angle of the eye. Thus Soren Hansen describes the
Mongolian fold of the West-Greenlanders in whom it is often
found, though less developed than in the Mongols. Being very
general in the East-Greenlanders it was only missed in hardly
10°/o of the observed and was often very strongly developped.
But the palpebral fissure itself is nearly always horizontal. Its
presence suggests kinship with the Mongols and its more rare
appearance in the West-Greenlanders is probably a consequence
of the crossing. The colour of the iris of the eye is brown in
different shades, most frequently dark-brown. I have not seen
a single East-Greenlander with blue eyes, and if it appears on
the whole it is certainly a very uncommon thing.

The hair is black or dark-brown, always straight. The
growth of the beard is scarce as the hairiness on the whole.
Yet the hairiness of pubes is often rather well developped.
The colour of the skin on the covered parts is light tawny or
light olive. On the lumbar region darker, often with a rather
strongly bluish tint that seems to be strongest in young indi-
viduals, perhaps being a rest of the blue spot found on the
cross of infants. This much mentioned spot was present in
the few infants I saw. As to its importance | refer to Soren
Hansen. The uncovered skin is tawny or reddish brown. The
skin of genitalia pronounced bluishly pigmented.

142

The teeth are on the whole strong, but much worn. Only
once I saw a carious looth. They are often rather misplaced,
but holes in the series of teeth are so to speak never seen,
not even in old people in whom they are nearly worn away.
The eye-teeth are often chisel-formed.

As to the outer ear I shall lead the attention to an
anomaly of form which I found in the great majority of the
individuals observed. The ear being else well-formed, not less
than 36 of 44, examined on this question, were found to have
the little lobulus auris grown fast with its front edge in its
whole extent to the skin of the face, and lobulus was in most
cases moreover so small that there really was no one at all.
Only in one individual, a grown-up man, it was found tolerably
well developped on both sides; in one it was present on the
right side, but not on the left, and in the resting 6 it was only
present by way of suggestion.

As is well known, the want of lobulus auris like anomalies
of form of the outer ear on the whole have been looked upon
as one of the outward signs of intellectual or moral degene-
ration by many anthropologists and criminalists. Starting by this
hypothesis numerous statistics have been collected in prisons
and lunatic asylums to show the special frequency of such
anomalies in criminals and deranged persons. But the material
was collected starting by a preconceived hypothesis, and later
examinations and comparisons with. the outward ear of normal
individuals have shown that the examination is utterly doubtful.

But it is a fact that heredity asserts itself very much in
this domain, the same anomaly of the form of the ear being
very generally seen to repeat itself generation after generation.
That the said peculiarity of the outward ear of the East-Green-
landers might be due to a mere accident, is scarcely probable;
it is too frequent for that. That it might have any relation
whatever with what is called with one word degeneration is
naturally excluded, and its exceedingly frequent presence in

143

the East-Greenlanders not at all degenerated, neither mentally
nor bodily, might almost prove the untenability of the said
theory. Possibly one might imagine the inhabitants of Angmag-
salik, at any rate those examined by me, being descended from
‚ some very few families in whom the abnormity had accidentally
been present and descended by heredity from generation to
generation. How far it may be thought to have any importance
as race-character for the East-Greenlanders or Eskimaux on the
whole can naturally only be decided by far more extensive
examinations on this point, also of other races of unmixed
Eskimaux. Such are not in hand, as far as I know. However,
the great variability of the fact in other races rather tells
against the possibility of ascribing such an importance to it.

As may be seen from the preceding, there is on the whole
a rather exact'coincidence between mine and the former mea-
surings and observations, so exact, that it must be thought
permissible in most points to take all measurings together and
use the mean of the averages of the former measurings and
mine as an expression of the real facts.

If the main characters of the bodily structure of the East-
Greenlanders should be named in a few words the characteri-
zation would be as follows: People strongly built; somewhat
but not much under the average tallness; muscular; arms a
little short, if anything; rather tiny and short legs; a very
strong, arched and broad chest; a rather well-formed abdomen;
small, well-formed hands and feet. The head mesaticephalous,
almost amounting to dolicocephalism, the length of the face
a little shorter than its breadth; the lower part of the face
broad. The nose very variable in form; most frequently of an
average breadth, rather often broad, as a rule straight, rarely
slightly curved. The eyes dark-brown with the Mongolian fold,
but not “oblique”. The ears well-formed, but with fast-grown
or missing lobulus auris. The hair dark and straight. Growth
of beard and other hairiness rather scarce. The teeth strong,

144

worn. Colour of skin tawny or light olive, darker оп the parts
not covered by clothes. Genitalia and the lumbar region with
a more or less bluish tint.

The measures employed for the examination are:

The stature.

The length between the outstretched hands (measured over
the back).

Height of the seat.

Distance from vertebra prominens to tubera ischii.

Extent of the chest (just over the papilla); for grown-up
women also beneath the mammae.

The length of the head (from glabella to the most promi-
nent point of the nape of the neck). |

The greatest breadth of the head.

Length of the face (from the kin to glabella).

Breadth of the zygoma.

Breadth of the forehead (vertical over the outer angle of the eye).
Breadth of the nether jaw (by open mouth).

Height of the nether jaw (from kin to row of teeth).
Length of the nose (from the root of the nose to the place
of meeting between septum nasi and the upper lip).
Breadth of the nose (between the outermost points of the
wings of the nose).

List of the measures.

ры М. М. М. М.
Ages с. 40 | в. 25 | с. 45 | с. 22

M.
c. 18

M.
с. 28

Measures

ИННА 1'562 | 1:586 | 1'745 | 17
ah er 1-600 | 1'594 | 1'710 | 1:6
Zea Ned lai 0:802 | 0:836 | 0:966 | 0:9

6 | 1'645 | 1-568 | 1'684 | 1'682 | 1'652
5 | 1:670 | 1554 | 1'642 | 1'704 | 1-643
"949 | 0 865 0-908 | 0:905 | 0902
Arte 0:552 | 0:592 | 0:688 | 0:677 | 0 598 | 0:554 | 0:628 | 0-630 | 0:624
А 1'002 | 0-912 | 0:975 | 0932 | 0'890 | 0'846 | 0:986 | 0:936 | 0:940
O2 0:194 | 0188 | 0:196 | 0:188 | 0193 | 0:191 | 0:198 | 0‘186 | 0:200

AUS ae 0:153 | 0150 | 0:150 | 0:148 | 0‘149 | 0‘147 | 0‘148 | 0145 | 6152

SEERE 0:150 | 0:140 | 0142 | 0:134 | 0150 | 0138 | 0:148 | 0140 | 0139
RO Bi cts « 0:150 | 0:145 | 0:154 | 0:148 | 0:148 | 0‘138 | 0:146 | 0 146 | 0145 °
VORE Ea 1128 | 0:121 | 0:129 | 0124 | 0:118 | 0114 | 0114 | 0122 | 0116
19 PME 0122 | 0:112 | 0:120 | 0‘110 | 0:125 | 0110 | 0:112 | 0‘118 | 0‘114
IDE 0:048 | 0:046 | 0:046 | 0046 | 0:054 | 0 044 | 0:047 | 0:043 | 0:047
an. SE 0:059 | 0 054 | 0.052 | 0:042 | 0:053 | 0'044 | 0:050 | 0:053 | 0 043

rr) -. 151 0:037 | 0:032 0:035 | 0:030 | 0 033 | 0:033 | 0084 | 0:036 | 0:038°

Measures

Measures

Measures

Sex .. 0% M. M. M. M. M. M.
Age...... с. 25 |c.25 | ©. 18 | c.25 | c.50 | c.40
] FREE 1:612 | 1:490 | 1:530 | 1'640 | 1:638 | 1:614 | 1:670 | 1:670 | 1'458
MRS 1'610 | 1:510 | 1'488 | 1'658 | 1'664 | 1'598 | 1'680 | 1'624 | 1'412
AES 0:816 | 0°774 | 0:815 | 0°864 | 0 863 | 0:856 | 0°825 | 0-908 | 0762
BER 0:568 | 0:534 | 0°580 | 0584 | 0 610 | 0:606 | 0:574 | 0:635 | 0:597
Browns 0:896 | 0:807 | 0:876 | 0:980 | 0:952 | 0:968 | 0:822 | 0:955 | 0736
Biel... 0:184 | 0181 | 0:192 | 0:198 | 0:193 | 0:188 | 0:182 | 0:205 | 0:187
DIV, 0:144 | 0:142 | 0'142 | 0:145 | 0:147 | 0:149 | 0-146 | 0:156 | 6142
SAV 0:141 | 0:137 | 0:138 | 0:140 | 0:149 | 0:141 | 0:148 | 0:150 | 0:148
У 0:140 | 0:139 | 0:136 | 0143 | 0:145 | 0:140 | 0:144 | 0 146 | 0:134
В 0:112 | 0:110 | 0:114 | 0:114 | 0'114 | 0-111 | 0:114 | 0:115 | 0:110
il RUE 0:111 | 0:104 | 0107 | 0:115 | 0116 | 0114 | 0:113 | 0:114 | 0109
В.И 0:049 | 0:045 | 0:048 | 0050 | 0:044 | 0 050 | 0:043 | 0:054 | 0'046
Ban PR 0:047 | 0:049 | 0050 | 0:049 | 0:052 | 0.049 | 0:048 | 0.052 | 0'048
HANSE 0'032 | 0:030 | 0:032 | 0:037 | 0:038 | 0'035 | 0:032 | 0:032 | 0'035
Sieger M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M.
EO es ©. 23 0.20.76. 32916. 23) | ©.123 16:40 |*C. 35 ©. 29° ©. 45
Е. 1-620 | 1:580 | 1'663 | 1'610 | 1-662 | 1'517 | 1'636 | 1594 | 1-606
7 ÉYESE TR 1:558 | 1:590 | 1:630 | 1:545 | 1'624 | 1'492 | 1-622 | 1:602 | 1:620
2 SCORE 0°835 0:885 | 0:926 | 0°887 | 1'850 | 0:882 | 0:875 | 0.834
BEN 0:650 | 0'905 | 0:610 | 0:628 | 0:580 | 0:602 | 0'620 | 0:650 | 0:572
à SONT 0 975 | 0:926 | 0:973 | 0:922 | 0:920 | 0:984 | 0:935
DENN, 0:187 | 0:194 | 0:195 | 0:198 | 0:197 | 0:195 | 0:192 | 0:190 | 0194
gik ha 0:145 | 0:145 | 0:149 | 0:146 | 0:147 | 0:149 | 0:145 | 0:142 | 0143
Her... 0:130 | 0:140 | 0151 | 0:154 | 0:148 | 0:143 | 0:139 | 0:155 | 0:149
te TE 0:128 | 0:144 | 0143 | 0:146 | 0:146 | 0'152 | 0'142 | 0:154 | 0:141
LL OP 0‘115 | 0:136 | 0:117 | 0120 | 0:122 | 0‘122 | 0 111 | 0:118 | 0:112
model 0:106 | 0118 | 0-116 | 0:122 | 0119 | 0-121 | 0‘112 | 0125 | 0:112
Аа 0:042 | 0:050 | 0:049 | 0:050 | 0:044 | 0:044 | 0:042 | 0:052 | 0:044
LE ANR 0 055 0:056 | 0 052 | 0:050 | 0:044 | 0:048 | 0:050 | 0:049
Mors... 0:035 | 0 034 | 0:035 | 0:034 | 0:034 | 0:036 | 0:036 | 0:035 | 0:034
В. М. М. W. W. W. W. W. W. | W.
MRS... с. 17 de с. 19 | e.23 | с. 30 | с. 35 | ce. 22)| ©. 30| c. 28
Ут. . 1'484 | 17545 | 1'542 | 1-540 | 1'467 | 1:516 | 1:514 | 1'434 | 1'398
Ms) : 1:462 | 1 562 | 1:560 | 1:568 | 1:442 | 1-550 | 1:544 | 1:398 | 1420
LATE 0788 0'814 | 0799 | 0:818 | 0815 | 0:810 | 0:808 | 0:810 | 0:750
#60125. 0:545 | 0:575 | 0:575 | 0:598 | 0:590 su 0:564 | 0:576 | 0'538
| La: Го. 0:900 | 0:923 | 0 900 |.
Mitta. 0s 0:866 | 0:917 | 0870 | 0'950 0:908 0:820 | 0'814 | 0-846 gravid
Вал. - 0180 | 0:189 | 0182 | 0:193 | 0:180 | 0:178 | 0:182 | 0:186 | 0:183
в... 07142 | 0 146 | 0140 | 0139 | 0146 | 0 141 | 0:137 | 0:136 | 0‘134
ates 0136 | 0:138 | 0:130 | 0:136 | 0°136 | 0139 | 0:132 | 0:184 | 0‘132
ae 0134 | 0141 | 0:138 | 0:137 | 0144 | 0‘141 | 0:134 | 0182 | 0:180
Кора 0111 | 0:117 | 0:116 | 0.118 | 0120 | 0126 | 0:118 | 0-112 | 0109
Da: 0110 | 0116 | 0110 0:119 | 0:115 | 0:115 | 0:110 | 0:108 | 0:105
zen... 0048 | 0:044 | 0:040 | 0045 | 0.046 | 0:049 | 0:044 | 0.048 | 0'042
sid: 0:046 | 0:043 | 0 042 | 0 043 | 0:039 | 0:043 | 0'042 | 0:044 | 0.044
D... 0:031 | 0'033 | 0:030 | 0084 | 0'030 | 0082 0:030 | 0:032 | 0'034

10

146

Sex. uw | | ve Тм м uw! wi me m. m

Age 2х: с. 40 | с. 19| e.17!ec.16|c.15 | с.14|с.12 | е.10| с. 14| с.10| c.9
1... |1-492l1:550|1-460|1-334]1-330|1-33011-16011-143|1-246 1-278|1-152
iD wens 1-452|1-485 1-445 11-303 1-290 1-330 1-182|1-132]1 295/1-27011-060
3.2... | 01660856 0-166 0102 0:618 0674 0.658 0°628|0-660|0°682|0-600
Krane 0:590 0:602 0-542 0500 480 0-465 0-442 0405 0:450 0:460 0:378
EU 0-815 ee pee 0:728'0-724|0-685|0-652/0-57010-71010-7121 0-602
06 tte 0:1800:189 0189 0:176 0:171 0:174 0170/0171 0-179|0-18|0-172
5) 7 | 014001148 0.143 0141 0:137 01480138 |0-197 0-139|0-142 0141
Е ово! 0:131 0:38 0136 0181 0:120/0-13010:120/0:115|0-198|0-195| 0150
BAG a4 bc, 0:138/0:137 0:137 0:130)0:124/0-126/0:117/0:112|0-11910-127|0-115
она 01130116 0111 0:113]0:103]0-116/0:09610:103/0-106|0:106|0-104
11... 101110118 01120-13 0:104 0-101 0:095 0094 0-098|0-102 0-094
en 0-042 0:052 0047 0-040 0-041 0-040 0-043 0-088 0-040 0 044 0-082
ана 0:050 0:043|0:044 0:04210:049 0:0410:0380:040|0:0390:040 0-037
Le 0:03410:030/0-030 0030/0029 0-028 0:028 0027 0:025/0:030 0-026

To the above remarks on the structure of the East-Green-
landers I shall attach a few notes on their nosological and
hygienic conditions. One cannot obtain a very complete im-
pression of their illnesses by living among so small and scat-
tered a tribe one single winter — during the whole of the
summer the expedition travelled outside the inhabited district —
few illnesses of course appearing within so short time.

My notes originate therefore partly from verbal com-
munications, from the East-Greenlanders themselves, and from
the Danish people living at the station. That all resorted to
me to consult me in old and new, considerable and incon-
siderable cases of illness when the population had begun
to realize what a doctor is, and that I was a doctor, is no
wonder, there having been no one before on the coast. The
East-Greenlanders are on the whole a sound and strong race,
well adapted to hold their own in the rough climate and under
the bad hygienic conditions caused by the stowing of the rela-
tively great number of persons in the small winter-houses
where ventilation and cleaning are so to speak unknown. The
temperature will often rise to more than 30°C. in the afternoon
and evening in such a winter-house when all inhabitants are
at home and all train-oil lamps are lighted, while the tempe-

147

rature is outside + 15 to + 30° С. Inside the house both
grown-up people and children wear as a rule so to speak
nothing, and it does not inconvenience them to walk out into
the cold in the same light dress — only increased by a pair
of leather boots; thus I remember once to have seen two quite
young girls walking almost naked on the beach at about
15 minutes’ walk from the house, gathering sea-weed, though
the temperature was about — 15° С.

That the East-Greenlanders on the whole are such a sound
and strong race, and that individuals of a delicate health are
so rarely found among them, is mainly due to the selection of
the nature, the delicate individuals most often perishing during
the first years of life; the art does nothing here as in civilized
countries to keep them alive; on the contrary it is not rare at
all that children thought at their birth to be less capable of
living, are immediately drowned by their parents or housemates.
All the same, illness is no rare guest, and the East-Greenlan-
ders are very anxious about all that may be called internal
illness in contradistinction from their strongly marked hardiness
towards toils and outward injures.

As has been told, many children perish during the first
years of life, because nothing is done, and perhaps nothing can
be done to preserve the delicate. The disturbances of digestion
of infants, so general and often dangerous with us, yet seem to
be rather rare which finds its natural explanation in the fact
that every mother of course suckles her child. If it happens
that the mother dies in childbed, or while the child is still an
infant it must die, if no other woman can overtake the suckling.
No other domestic animals than dogs being kept, milk is not
known, and artificial nourishment therefore so to speak an im-
possibility. The suckling is as a rule continued fora long time,
often even till the third or fourth year of life, but then certainly
in connection with other food. It is besides rather astonishing

what is offered to the stomach of such a little Greenlander.
10*

148

At any rate I believe that flesh of soals and blubber would
agree very badly with our domestic shoots of one year. I
remember to have seen a boy of 3 years one day sucking his
mother and a few days afterwards smoking tobacco from his
father’s pipe. It is not very much in accordance with our
principles of education and hygiene of children but the boy
looked nevertheless all the better for it.

Acute catarrhs of the stomach or intestines are general
in greater children and grown-up people; they appear not rarely
as house-epidemics and are certainly most often due to the
eating of flesh of soals or sharks, rotten in whole or in part.
It seems to be an exception when these poisonings have a fatal
issue; at any rate I could not find any certain instance of it.
I shall remark nevertheless that the expedition found an aban-
doned place of residence far outside the inhabited district,
where numerous skeletons of Greenlanders were found in a
winter-house; they were according to what we learned later on
certainly rests of some families that had gone northward from
the inhabited district 20 years before. Most probably they had
died of hunger; but it is in no way impossible that illness and
then most likely poisoning from rotten flesh may have been at
any rate a concurrent cause. Small epidemics of furunculosis
sometimes appear, certainly another manifestation of the named
poisoning. Bronchitis ‘as well acute as more chronic is a rather
general illness both in children and grown-up people. If pul-
monary inflammation in the form of our croupous pneumonia
is found I don't know. Phtisis certainly appears. I have seen
myself a female patient offering at any rate clinically undoubted
signs of this illness, and according to what has been told to
me, a pulmonary suffering with hemoptysis, lingering cough,
expectoration and emaciation is not rare. But its course seems
to be milder than our phtisis generally is. It happens for
instance that the Greenlanders the day after such a hemoptysis
unpunished go to their kayaks, and the illness is said to pass
often and relatively quickly into recovery. The patient, I saw,

149

having clinically a rather extensive phtisis, had walked some
miles in high snow, having hemoptysis while walking, and
returned the next day the same way. Half a year afterwards
I heard that she had recovered. The illness having a fatal issue
is not at all rare. I had unfortunately no opportunity of
examining microscopically the expectoration. It might be inte-
resting to see if the illness is really due to the same substance
of infection as phtisis.

Every Greenlander housing no end of lice, it is no wonder
that scratchings and in consequence eczematous skin-affections
are general. Also extended — most frequently acute — eczemas
are found rather often. I did not see other cutaneous diseases,
for instance not scabies. Sexual diseases are unknown.

Snow-blindness is general, though snow-spectacles made
of wood are known and used.

It is certainly a great misconception to believe that people
of nature should not be nervous, as it is generally thought.
Not only slight nervous cases are found very frequently among
the East-Greenlanders, but also real hysterics with so serious
hysterical symptoms as palsies and convulsions. These latter
cases were told me to be undoubtful and not quite rare. Really
it is no wonder either that the monotonous and during very
long periods inactive life led especially by the women, may give
opportunity of excessive personal observation and consequently
overestimation of their small perceptions. These become, which
is not quite unintelligible, the most interesting thing they have
to think of and speak about, and women are also in East-
Greenland thus made that the one will not be behind the other,
no more so, when the question is whether which is the more
ill. I have seen no case of proper mental disease, but such
are mentioned by the natives, for instance, as appearing in
connection with confinements. I saw one pronounced case of
puerperal fever with a fatal issue, which does not seem to be
very rare. It is really wonderful, if anything, that births on the
whole can pass away without infection, no measure of cleaning

150

whatever being known during the birth and the hygienic con-
ditions of a Greenland cottage being the worst imaginable.
That it is not more frequent is certainly because the substance
of infection is not brought into the parts of generation by
internal examination or artificial delivery; when it does take
place I think that the birth-giving woman herself infects her
parts of generation with her own dirty fingers. Assistance of
others is namely not used during the birth; when this has been
gone through, the navel string is cut over with a mussel-shell
or a similar blunt instrument. Ligature of the navel string is
not known, so the bleeding must be thought to stop on account
of the blunt cutting. There is no doubt that mechanical dis-
proportions may оссиг during the birth. Instances are known
of the mother dying during the birth without being delivered.
Having not seen nor heard about any case of rachitis, I do
not believe that rachitic deformations of the pelvis are the
causes of the mechanical disproportions.

More considerable deformities are certainly very rare,
children with such being as a rule undoubtedly killed shortly
after having been born. The only one [ saw was a young man
whose left hand was somewhat deformed, being first nearly
4 сит. shorter than the right one; the outermost points of the
three middlemost fingers were besides stiff, and between these,
being very delicate, a web was distended reaching nearly the
outermost point. — |

The East-Greenlanders do not know anything of cure of
illness beyond the magic arts of the Angekoks. Yet they have
during the last years sought medical aid from the missionary
of the colony, and they were very anxious to get medicine
from me. I vaccinated a considerable part — about ?/s — of
the popoulation which they highly appreciated. Though I tried
to explain to them the meaning of the vaccination, yet they
certainly ascribed supernatural powers to it. And then it was to be
like the Europeans, something, they preferred to all in the world.

On the Geology and Physical Geography
of Kast-Greenland.

By

Otto Nordenskjöld.

1907:

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The expeditions under Koldewey and Payer, Ryder
and Nathorst, which had previously visited the parts of East-
Greenland in question, returned with a number of observations
on the geology and geography, the main characteristics of which
were thus already known before our visit. In consequence, 1
considered that the time I spent up there as a member of the
Danish expedition of 1900, should be devoted in the main to
observing phenomena that had not up to that time been the
object of special study.

Among my chief aims I took upon myself to collect a
considerable petrographic material from a number of interesting
rocks, the occurrence of which in this region has already been
known since Scoresby’s time. He mentioned the occurrence
of a series of porphyritic rocks, but little was known about
their age and nature at the time of our expedition. Then there
are a series of syenites and of peculiar basic eruptives, that
were first met with by Nathorst. Although we only worked
in the outskirts of the districts where these occur, while the
time that could be devoted to their study was also extremely
short, yet I succeeded in collecting a not inconsiderable ma-
terial for a petrographic examination, calculated to clear up,
in some degree at least, the nature, age and distribution of
these rocks. Then there is the study of the archæan rock,
which has not hitherto been the object of special investigation
in these parts of the world; and, finally, the basaltic rocks,
which occur in very large masses with rich petrographic varia-

154

tion, and the study of which proved specially interesting owing
to the important contribution our expedition succeeded in making
to the question of the age of the whole group of the North-
Atlantic Basalts.

Not less interesting is the study of East-Greenland’s sedi-
mentary fossiliferous beds, of which a comprehensive material
was collected during the expedition. In this work I received
most valuable assistance from mag. sc. N. Hartz, the leader
of the expedition at that time. In the main each has devoted
himself in the same degree to the work, but the collecting of
fossils from the Rhaetic and Jurassic deposits in the SE. part
of Jameson Land has been carried out by Hartz alone. The
collections brought back have already been described in part,
viz. the marine Jurassic Fossils Бу У: Madsen‘), Sauria Бу Е.
Fraas?) and tertiary marine fossils by J. P. J. Ravn”), while
the triassie fossils will later on be described by К. Grönvall,
and the plant fossils that were brought home by Hartz himself.

I shall touch on various points bearing on the results of
these investigations in the following pages.

Besides these questions, special attention was devoted
during the expedition to another point, which, especially in
Polar regions, should be of great interest, viz., the morpho-
logical study of these regions from a dynamico-geological point
of view, the characterising of their varied, often peculiar, sur-
face features, and the study of the forces that have produced
them, some of which operate here with an intensity that finds
no parallel elsewhere. In these respects the district under
consideration is of remarkable interest by reason of the ex-
ceptional variations it offers, and by reason of its great free-
dom from ice, despite its proximity to the mighty sheet of
land-ice.

1) Meddelelser om Gronland XXIX: 157.
*) Meddelelser om Grønland XXIX: 277.
3) Meddelelser om Gronland XXIX: 93.

sit

155

А particular interest attaches in this respect to the study
of Jameson Land, which is covered with Quaternary beds.
Even if, as will be shown later, the work that has been carried
out here has not yielded the contributions to the question of
the glacial formations in general that might have been expected,
it has, however, given rise to various interesting interpretations
of the geological development of the district.

Some of the results of these investigations are contained
in the following pages. That these investigations are incomplete
is willingly admitted; they necessarily suffered from the same
difficulties that always attend expeditions of this nature: the
splitting up of the time upon various tasks, the comparatively
short time available for each of those (during the summer there
were in all about 35 days on which any considerable time
could be devoted to work on land along the Greenland coast,
and some of these, moreover, under unfavourable circumstances),
and the impossibility of remaining on one spot and carrying
out special investigations there. But at the same time it is
incumbent on me to give expression to the exceeding kindness
which the leader of the expedition extended to me, and which
enabled me to pursue my investigations with a freedom that is
not usually within reach of those who take part in expeditions.

The district, the examination of which is the chief basis
of the description that follows, is composed of the stretch of
coast between Cape Dalton at 69° 25’ N. and Scoresby Sund,
of the tracts round the 3 large fjords, Scoresby Sund, Fleming
Inlet and Davy Sund, and Kong Oscar Fjord with its southern-
most forks, Segelsällskapets (Royal Yacht-Club) Sund and Fors-
blad Fjord. A few days were also spent on Sabine O situated
considerably further north (74° 30’ N.), besides which a landing
was made at C. Borlase Warren. Observations taken at these
places may serve to amplify the remaining results. The same

156

is true to some extent of the observations taken in the course
of the journey at a few other arctic and subarctic spots, namely,
on Jan Mayen and in the NW. territory of Iceland between
Dyrafjord and Onundarfjord, observations which are referred to
here only in so far as they supply further knowledge of phe-
nomena investigated in Greenland.

The mapping-out of the first-named territory, begun by
Ryder and continued by Nathorst, was proceeded with during
the recent expedition and completed in its main features; I
may, therefore, refer in this place to the maps that have now
appeared. The best maps of the more northerly stretches of
coasts will be found in the account of the Second German
North Polar Expedition’). Up to the present time we are in-
debted, for our knowledge of the geological formation of the
district in question and of the contiguous tracts, to the ex-
peditions mentioned below”). Geological maps of different lo-

1) The most important chartographic material will be found in the following
works:

Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt in den Jahren 1869 und 1870
unter Führung des Kapitan Karl Koldewey. Bd. I und II. Leipzig
1873— 74.

J. Payer: Die oesterreichisch-ungarische Nordpol-Expedition in den
Jahren 1872—74 nebst einer Skizze der zweiten deutschen Nordpol-Ex-
pedition 1869—70. Wien 1876.

С. Ryder, Meddelelser om Grønland XVII: 1.

A. G. Nathorst, Tvä somrar i norra Ishafvet. II. Stockholm 1900,
and Ymer, 1900, р. 145. —

For the Danish Expedition of 1900: Meddelelser om Grønland XXVII.
Of works on the geology of East Greenland which are referred to in
this paper, the most important are:

William Scoresby jr.: Journal of a voyage to the northern
whale-fishery, ete. With an appendix: Jameson: List of specimens of
the rocks brought from the Eastern coast of Greenland. Edinburgh 1823.

Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt — — unter Führung des Kapitän

Koldewey. Bd. Il. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse. 3. Geologie
(Papers by Е. v. Hochstetter, F.Toula, 0. Lenz, ©. Heer och A.
Bauer). Leipzig 1874.

Meddelelser om Gronland. Bd. XIX. (Papers by E. Bay, B. Lund-
gren och N. Hartz).

A. С. Nathorst: Bidrag till nordöstra Grönlands geologi. Сео].

nw
—

157

ealities will be found in the words of Hochstetter and Bay;
a comprehensive geological map of the whole littoral was pub-
lished after our return (1901) by Nathorst!). This latter is
in several respects supplemented by the results of the Am-
drup-Hartz Expedition and therefor I have considered it
useful that a new general geological map of the district should
be appended to this paper to which I refer in the following
pages.

To the best of our knowledge, the whole interior of Green-
land in this region is composed of a mighty mass of primary
rock, broadly speaking quite monotonous, though in detail, as
far as I know it, built up of a richly varied series of gneisses
and other crystalline schists. All the large fjords extend with
their inner branches into this district, most of which is, as far
as we know, covered by a mass of inland-ice.

Outside this central mass lies a coast-belt of varying
breadth — averaging from about 50 to 70 Eng. miles — con-
sisting of a rich alternation of greatly divergent rocks, chiefly
of more recent formation. One would be inclined to think
that these rocks constitute the remnants of a huge, sunken
area, the central mass remaining as a vast ‘Horst’; but this
view is scarcely borne out at present by the observations taken
though by this I will not deny that a great part of the rocks
of the littoral zone may owe their present state to dislocation.

In this coast-belt can be distinguished, from S. to N., four
sections, each about 2 degrees of latitude in length. The two

Foren. i Stockholm forh. XXIII (1901): 275 (with petrographic descrip-
tions by H. Bäckström).

0. Nordenskjöld: Notes on some specimens of rocks collected
— — on the East coast of Greenland between lat. 65° 35° and 67° 22’ N.
Meddelelser om Grønland ХХУШ: 1.
The geological map published by 0. В. Bøggild in his paper “on the
samples of Ше зеа-Йоог”, Meddelelser om Gronland ХХУШ: 17, must
be regarded as founded exclusively on this older map, as on account
of my abcence in the South Polar regions no results of this last ex-
pedition could be included.

—

158

southernmost of these areas were first made known in detail
through the Ryder Expedition, the third through Nathorst,
the fourth through the German Polar Expedition.

The most southerly of these areas, which according to
Amdrup’s observations may be considered to begin in the
region of Kangerdlugsuak Fjord (32° У. long.) and stretches
north to Scoresby Sund, consists chiefly of a mighty mass
of basaltic rocks of the same kind as those already known
from Iceland and the Faroes. It was our expedition that first
discovered in these basalts large isolated pieces and intervening
layers of tertiary sediments, generally of inconsiderable extension
but specially interesting because, together wich plant fossils,
they contain a well preserved marine fauna.

The next two areas resemble each other in that they consist
for the most part of sedimentary rocks, and from a topogra-
phical point of view in that they are traversed by perhaps the
most magnificent system of fjords in the world. In other re-
spects they are quite dissimilar. In the south lies, as a pro-
tection against the sea, the mass of primary rock of Liverpool
Land, and the tract within, which is comparatively low, is built
up almost exclusively of Jurassic rocks, with an underlayer of
older formation in the NE. only.

No rocks as recent as this are to be found, as far as we
know at present, in the third area, which may be said to begin
in the region of Davy Sund. Almost the whole of this section
of the coast-belt consists of paleozoic rocks. These, first dis-
covered by the German Polar Expedition, were held by Toula
to correspond to the Hekla Hook formation of Spitzbergen.
They were afterwards examined by Nathorst, who found in
them traces of Silurian fossils, and could also indicate the
presence of beds of Devonian age. At the extremity of the
coast here occurs, in a state of fairly considerable develop-
ment, a series of more recent eruptive rocks, already found by
Scoresby and examined later by Bäckström from specimens

159

brought home by the Nathorst Expedition. I shall return to
these rocks later. se

The extent of distribution of the various types is not
yet known.

The fourth area consists of the tracts N. of Mackenzie Bay.
Here the primary rock everywhere approaches much closer to
the outer coast-line, the littoral zone having at the most only
a breadth of nearly 20 miles. Just as in the southernmost
area, it is composed chiefly of basalt with intervening ‘‘layers”
of partially fossiliferous tertiary rock; however, there are also
strata belonging to the Jurassic system, somewhat more recent
than those at Scoresby Sound. Beside the true basalt also acid
porphyritic surface-rocks occur at Саре Broer Ruys.

The Danish Expedition has brought back new material of
general interest from only the two southerly of these areas,
although in the two others as well observations and collections
were made which amplify our previous knowledge and help to
give a picture of this part of the East Coast in its entirety.

I will now pass on to a petrographic description of the
rocks of the district, confining myself in the first place to the
erystalline types of rock and to some hitherto little known
non-fossiliferous or only slightly fossiliferous sedimentary for-
mations. A brief survey of the stratigraphy of the district will
also be included. I will then proceed to give an account of
the topography of the district and the witness it bears to the
history of its development.

Petrographico-geological Description.

I. Archæan rocks.

As already stated, the archæan rocks constitute the bulk
firstly of all the Greenland central mass, and secondly, within
the tract with which we are here concerned, of the isolated
and elongated peninsula north of Scoresby Sund, called Liver-
pool Land. Already by reason of their position, far from each
other, each of these tracts must be dealt with separately, and
the same applies to the various districts situated far from one
another at the bottom of the great fjords, where up to now
opportunity has been afforded of getting to know the structure
of the central mass. The following description will therefore
be an account of the different localities.

A. Structure of the Central Mass within Scoresby Sund. During
the Expedition of 1900 we never penetrated so far into this
fjord that Г had an opportunity of studying the features of the
primary rock in situ. The Ryder Expedition of 1891—2, on
the other hand, brought back from here a considerable collec-
tion of rocks, which I had an opportunity of examining both
as specimens and in thin sections, and on these, as well as on
the description given by Bay"), the following summary is based.

The material in question, taken from a considerable area,
shows that the rocks there are unexpectedly uniform and consist
almost everywnere of gneiss, usually grey micaceous gneiss,

1) Medd. om Grønland. XIX, 147 seq.

161

very often containing garnet. Incomparably the most common
are coarse biotite gneisses with pronounced schistosity; in these
layers of hornblende schists were frequent, so, for instance,
on Danmark I., and, according to Hartz, inside Gaase Fjord,
there together with chlorite and tale schists, and traversed by
dikes of a peculiar amphiboline peridotite!). Not rarely the
gneisses are fine-grained, at times the mica retires, and now
and then we find garnet-bearing, compact, finely banded forms,
the appearance of which strongly reminds one of the true Saxou
granulites. Nor are rocks similar to mica-schists wanting. From
Danmark 1. a small mass of archean limestone is reported.
It is especially remarkable that granitic rocks seem to be very
зсагсе. From Bregne Point on Milne Land comes a specimen
which may be a coarse biotite granite, while a fine specimen
of coarse red granite (according to Hartz, a ‘‘dike-formation
in gneiss’) was met with in Hjörnedalen inside the fjord. More-
over, pegmatitic veins were found in some places, but otherwise
such kinds of rock seem to be lacking, in contrast to the state
of things in the coast-belt, where granites together with red
gneisses and hornblende schists play the leading part.

In Nordostbugten (North-east Bay) I myself collected a
series of blocks, among which were several grey gneiss-granites,
but along with these also limestone and a more recent-looking
syenite; it is conceivable that the latter was brought in by
drift-ice from outside the coast-belt, and this may possibly be
the case with the former as well.

Under the microscope, too, these rocks show the same
uniformity; they are destitute of any characteristics unusual in
gneisses. They often contain microcline and garnet, the struc-
ture is the typical one, with pronounced lobate limitation in
the grains, which, perhaps by reason of secondary growth,
often poikilitically enclose lesser individuals. Вейс structures

*) For the petrographic description of this rock cfr. Bay loc. cit. р. 159.
XXVIII. 11

162

indicating that the rocks were originally composed of normal
granites, have not come under my notice; indications, too, of
porphyritic structures are rare.

A strongly weathered biotite-gneiss from the interior of
West Fjord contains, besides garnet, a mineral that seems to
be a rhombic pyroxene. In the same fjord lies a locality called
“Black Point” (Sorte Pynt), the hornblende rock of which also
has a peculiar appearance; it has probably been originally a
pyroxene rock. Noteworthy are also the rings of garnet that
here surround hornblende individuals.

A remarkable quartzite formation appears in the middle of
the archæan rocks, on Milne Land right opposite Råde I.
One is inclined to connect it ‚with the peculiar conglomerate
that appears on this island, and, as a matter of fact, it presents
an appearance that is very young for a quartzite of archæan
age, but microscopically it reveals itself as entirely crystalline,
and no proof can be produced that we have here a deposit
younger than the youngest primary rock. If only for the help
this rock might offer to the understanding of the tectonics and
the problem of fjord formation of the district, a closer examina-
tion would be of interest!).

В. The Central Mass within Kong Oscar Fjord. Here I had an
Opportunity myself of collecting a series of specimens at the
bottom of Forsblad Fjord.. The rocks here show very striking
dissimilarities to those appearing at Scoresby Sund. The chief
rock is a medium grained biotite-hornblende gneiss, often finely
striped, with now the one and now the other mineral predo-
minatingly or exclusively present, and alternating with lighter
layers where both retire. More or less plentiful in the rocks
is garnet, which sometimes collects into lumps of more than

1) A thin-slated quartzite of youthful appearance was found by Nathorst
in Alp Fjord, within the district inside Kong Oscar Fjord, to be des-
cribed presently.

163

5 cm. in section. Fine-grained granulite or hornstone -like
varieties are also to be found.

Besides stratifications of amphibolite, we find in these rocks
dikes of dioritic rocks, of which a few that were examined
microscopically proved to be garnet- and pyroxene-bearing rocks
of amphibolitic appearance, while in another case amphibole is
practically the only component present, with only traces of
biotite and felspar. Whether some narrow dikes of a black
compact rock, which occurred high up in the mountain
traversing the gneis, belong to this or to some other more
recent series, has not been determined. Limestone also occurs
in blocks.

Furthermore, I here came across irregular veins of a light
pegmatite, which possibly is connected with some lenticular
masses of light granite that could be observed further out in
the fjord. From these granites derive presumably a number of
blocks collected in part right inside Forsblad Fjord, in part in
Polhem’s Dale, further out within the Cambrian-Silurian terri-
tory. One of these rocks, apparently corresponding to the light
pegmatite veins, is almost free of mica, contains some garnet
and has a fairly gneiss-like structure, as several of the mineral
individuals show markedly laciniated outlines. Another, again,
is a fine biotite granite, with ore and zircon and large felspar
individuals, with their idiomorphic outlines very clearly defined.
This is less the case, on the other hand, with the smaller in-
dividuals in the mass proper, as secondary accretions here play
a much greater part; and yet it is still observable that the
quartz, as the last crystallized mineral, fills up irregular spaces
between the other individuals.

Here were also found blocks of coarse rocks rich in horn-
blende, of somewhat divergent type.

The district in question resembles Scoresby Sund in that
grey gneiss forms the chief rock in each, but differs from it

in the very varying appearance that the rocks display in so
11”

164

limited an area. In how far the same is true of the other
parts of the central mass inside the system of Kong Oscar and
Franz Joseph Fjords, is not easy to decide from the descriptions
that are to hand. We only find that the gneisses, here too,
are often garnet-bearing and that granites do not seem to play
any great parl.

It is from a fjord system situated far further north that
we presumably have a series of blocks that were collected by
me on the shore at Саре Borlase Warren. The rock in place
is coarse basalt. Amongst the boulders brought home are
coarse, almost pegmatitic rocks which most often have clearly
been subjected to pressure. Characteristic is a coarse, grey
hornblende-granite, also a coarse red granite in contact with
a lighter, striped gneiss rock. Also more recent rocks, clay-
slates and sand-stones, occurred abundantly as blocks on
the shore.

As regards the character of the archæan rock on the stretch
of coast 5. of Scoresby Sund, I may refer to the description
of the rocks collected by Kruuse which I have published on
a previous occasion’).

С. Liverpool Land. As far as we know, all this district,
too, is formed, in its bulk, of archæan rocks. Still, it is at
once evident that these are of quite another kind and ap-
pearance than those that occur within the known and. neigh-
bouring parts of the central mass. This is true not only of
the west side and especially the tract nearest to the inmost
creek of Hurry Inlet, where the great variation may be bound
up with other factors, but also of other parts of the district.
So far, however, we have only material from a few places, i. e.
(apart from the west side) from a point on the southern ex-
tremity (Cape Tobin), and a spot on the east coast (Cape Greg)?).
I will first describe these places.

1) Meddel. om Grønland. XXVIII, 1.
*) Still further north on this coast, on the northernmost point, Nathors

165

Саре Greg is a sheer spur at the extremity of a penin-
sula, situated about midway up the east coast of Liverpool Land.
A short landing was made here; but, already by reason of the
sheerness of the cliff, it was impossible for me to penetrate
inland. Vegetation was very scanty; hence the variation in
eolour at the base of the rock, from red to dark green and
white, was remarkable from a distance. The main rock seems
to be a medium-grained, ruddy or green gneiss, which in the
samples examined proved to have a fairly granitic appearance:
large felspar individuals (perthite or microcline) show sharp
outlines with indications of crystalline form, and it is only in
the fine-grained intervening mass that the re-crystallization has
gone further on. Here the individuals often very actively invade
one another with their laciniated border-lines, and numerous
individuals of beautiful ‘‘myrmekite” are to be seen. The rock
has been subjected to pressure, and at times one could almost
speak of a ‘‘mortar-structure”’.

In this rock lie large and small lumps and lenses of a
dark biotite-hornblende-rock, with some garnet, microscopically
developed as a typical amphibolite. The lenses are sometimes
drawn ont into long, plicated bands, in which the rock often
runs into a fine, pure biotite schist.

Interspersed among both the rocks just described we find,
following the strike of the schists, numerous layers or dikes
of light, often ruddy pegmatite, now quartziferous, now almost
free from quartz and then composed almost exclusively of per-
thitic felspar and large areas of biotite. Pegmatite rocks with
large hornblende individuals also occur. I did not see any
typical granites here, but do not doubt that the rocks described
are composed of injected, strongly metamorphosed eruptives.

collected a series of rocks from Murray |. They are formed of horn-
blende gneiss, diorite schists and pegmatite, and thus seem to resemble
those at Cape Greg.

166

Aeruginous weatherings on the mountain-walls indicate the
presence of copper pyrites or cupriferous iron pyrites.

Gape Tobin. The southernmost part of Liverpool Land
is low and easy of access; broadly speaking, the rock is fairly
monotonous, while in detail it reveals abrupt changes. Predom-
inant is a coarse crystalline gneiss, in part grey granitic, in
part, and this is the commonest, a banded form, where in the
grey gneiss we find irregular, often undulated bands soon

Fig. 1. Sample of the rock from С. Tobin, showing irregular red
bands in the head-mass of grey gneiss.

pinched out and consisting of a red, rather coarse crystalline
mass, which is often purely pegmatitic and then occasionally
rich in hornblende, often in the form of large, well developed
crystalline individuals. Besides these rocks there are fine-grained
hornblende schists; the different varieties often show alter-
nating stratification. |

A coarse, red pegmatite granite corresponds perhaps to
the rock which forms the red bands in the grey gneiss, already

167

described. Numerous blocks of basalt occur, as also of a dark,
coarse crystalline rock, which seems to consist largely of
pyroxene.

Microscopically I have only examined a slide of the typical,
banded grey gneiss. It reveals nothing remarkable except the
combination, characteristic of the whole district, of hornblende
and biotite in about equal quantities. For the rest it is rich
in epidote of a fairly primary appearance. No distinctly granitic
characteristics are to be found; the secondary re-crystallization
reveals itself in the abundant presence of myrmekite.

The West Coast of Liverpool Land, near the
southernmore of the two large glaciers that push on towards
Hurry Inlet. It is interesting to see how much more varied
the rocks appear on the west than on the east side of the
country. The rocks at the landing place indicated above consist
mainly of a series of gneisses in quickly varying layers, chiefly
a grey mica gneiss, and also amphibolite and mica-schist-like
forms. Curious is a type met with somewhat further inland,
which there seems to have a by no means inconsiderable distri-
bution. Macroscopically a marked schistosity presents itself in
close rows of small, red felspar eyes, and in a streakily ar-
ranged green mineral. Microscopically it can be seen that the
rock has been subjected to very strong pressure; porphyritic
erystals of both orthoclase and very strongly dismembered pla-
gioclase (?) lie in a groundmass, which together with biotite and
chlorite is almost exclusively formed of irregular stalk-like quartz
individuals extended in the direction of the schistosity. What this
rock originally was, it is hard to say; in any case it shows what
strong transforming powers have been at work in this locality.

In one spot a dike of fine, fresh basalt was met with.
Besides this there occurred, in the same district, two rocks
that deserve special mention. One is a limestone, part white
with mica and some tremolite, part malacolitiferous and some-
what greenish, and occuring in the gneiss in rather small quan-

168

tities. Interspersing thin irregular veins and stripes of а red
quartziferous and feldspathic rock may possibly be connected
with more recent granite injections.

The other series of rocks is composed of true granites,
which were not observed by me with any degree of certainty
on the east coast, and even here they occur only in small
quantities. That they are really granites, however, can be seen
partly by the manner in which they often intersect like true
dikes the stratification of the gneiss, partly by the fact that
they sometimes contain sharpedged inclusions or fragments of
basic rocks.

Another rock from the same locality shows microscopically a
fairly gneiss-like appearance, the mineral grains having through
secondary growths assumed an irregular, lobated limitation,
while large plagioclase individuals have kept their idiomorphic
form. The rock is somewhat pressed and disintegrated and
shows a number of curious intergrowths of quartz and felspar-
whose nature — if they are to be considered as micro-peg-
matite or as myrmekite — I could not determine.

To this series belong also some rocks, that attracted my
attention owing to their almost ‘‘mealy” appearance, which I
attributed to chemical weathering. Under the microscope it
can be seen that they are very strongly crushed, in reality it
is possible that a part of the rock-meal that penetrates it is
directly due to mechanical crushing. Still, it is more probable
that ordinary felspar weathering, combined with the crushing
of the rock, may here have gone rather far. In any case, the
rocks deserve a more detailed examination.

A block of a coarse sandstone conglomerate, collected by
Kruuse in this district, seems, according to information re-
ceived, to indicate that here too more recent sedimentary rocks
occur in place, possibly corresponding to those described below
from the innermost part of Hurry Inlet.

Liverpool Land at the innermost part of Hurry

169

Inlet. Both petrographically and also in other respects, this
tract offers a unique geological interest, and it is much to be
regretted that, although two expeditions stayed here for several
days, it is not yet possible to draw up a geological map of
the district, on which the various crystalline rocks and the
quaternary phenomena could be entered. Even now the topo-
graphical basis which could make this work possible for a
future expedition, is wanting. Nathorst has furnished a short
survey of the geology of the district"). The sweep of the fjord
is continued along a broad deep valley, which, broadly speaking,
divides the two chief formations: in the west, Jurassic with an
underlayer of Rhaetic, and a series of still older sedimentary
rocks; in the east, chiefly primary rock and some curious
strata, to which I shall return later. Moreover, on the Fame
Islands as well as on the mainland, basic eruptive rocks of the
labrador-porphyritic type were met with, besides which Nat-
horst had already found blocks of the alnöitic rock that I
shall describe later on.

In this place we will only dwell on the archæan rocks.
The district in so far reminds one of that just described, as
both limestone and granite occur here too, and moreover in
far greater quantities than there; above all it is granite, at
least in places near the shore, that is the predominant. rock,
while gneiss retires. Here we find a red, coarsely crystalline
even-grained granite, consisting almost exclusively of felspar
and quartz. Microscopically it reveals considerable pressure:
the different grains are sharply defined, but with sinuous
outlines which are scarcely primary. The plagioclase is strongly
weathered, while microcline and, as a general rule at least, the
orthoclase are quite fresh.

The granite that forms in a mixture with basalt the curious
breccia which is described later, is more strongly pressed, and

*) Geol. foren. i Stockholm förh., 23 (1901), рр. 282—285.

170

at the border between the larger individuals а new mineral
mass seems to be on the point of forming. Several intergrowths
between quartz and felspar remind one of micropegmatite.

Deserving of mention is also a macroscopically gneissoid rock,
which was collected further north. It is more strongly crushed
and presents in.its best preserved parts an almost granulitic
appearance, but at the same time characteristics that remind
one of true granites, e. g. micro-pegmatitic intergrowths.

The other chief rock in this district is only come across
further inland at a height of about 500 m. It is a grey, gar-
netiferous gneiss, rich in felspar, quite unlike the other types
known to me from this coast. Microscopically it looks as if
the large, sharp, often crystallographically rectilinearly bordered
feispar individuals (mostly plagioclase) were, so to speak, ce-
mented together by a mass of strongly pressed quartz; more-
over, in the intermediate mass garnet and some altered biotite
occur plentifully. We also find in the rock beds that pass
over into true garnet-rock; the rounded, completely isotropic
grains of garnet are cemented together by quartz, micaceous
substance and ore.

Just as at the spot further south, described above, so here
in the primary rock there occurs limestone in the form of large,
apparently lenticular masses. These limestones are of special
interest owing to their close connection with young alnditic
rocks. It is well known that such a connection could apparently
be pointed out wherever similar eruptive rocks occur, and for
this several explanations have been adduced, among others,
that the limestone might constitute a direct crystallization pro-
duct of this extremely basic magma. However at the place
here described it does not seem probable that this has been
the case, at least not to any large extent.

The limestone forcibly reminds one in its appearance of
the corresponding rock from Alnén in Sweden, for instance, in
its richness of foreign minerals, which, however, also applies to

171

the more southerly occurrences on this coast where по alnöite
has been pointed out. We find, particularly, in close connection
with the pure limestone veins, lenses, or irregular patches, of
a green rock-mass, that consists principally of a pyroxene
mineral, partly in orientated penetration with green hornblende.
Furthermore, both the limestone and the green rock are tra-
versed by red, granitic masses, and it was my opinion that
this was a young intrusive granite that had broken through the
limestone and in some places had penetrated into it, forming
in part a breccia (exclusively with the green pyroxene rock),
in part narrow injected veins.

But these questions demand a closer examination from
nature, and at the same time the question as to whether this
light rock is a true granite or simply a curious development
of other rocks, should be solved. What I have seen of it
microscopically resembles the other granites of the district:
apparently an old, pressed, almost gneiss-like rock. When
large masses of it come in contact with limestone its appear-
ance is altered, and it gives a more basic impression.

In addition to what has been mentioned, even the purest
limestone contains a number of foreign minerals, which for
the most part could not be recognized under the microscope
without a close examination. Particularly noticeable is a mineral
with the interferential colours of titanite, but, as it seems, with
still stronger refraction. Then we come across a sap-green
hornblende, that sometimes appears implicated with quartz; and
in particularly abundant quantities a light malacolite-like pyr-
oxene mineral. One of the balls resembling a concretion con-
sists of iron pyrite (or markasite).

I have had at my disposal neither the time nor the material
for comparison necessary for a more exact study of those min-
erals, but hope that they will later be subjected to examinalion
by some specialist’).

1) Cfr. the appendix at the end of this paper.

172

So much is clear from the foregoing description, that the
rocks of Liverpool Land, in a comparatively restricted area,
show far greater petrographic variations than those we know
from neighbouring parts of the central mass. This is true already
of the Е. and S. parts of the Land, with their pegmatites and
very pronounced hornblende rocks, but especially of the area
nearest the inner part of Hurry Inlet, where granite occurs in
greater quantities than anywhere else in the known parts of E.
Greenland, and where both limestone and curiously developed
erystalline schists contribute to make the rock formation varied.

Later on in this paper I shall give a more detailed descrip-
tion of the very interesting alnöite-like eruptive rocks which
appear in the same region as dikes and small masses, but will
pass on now to describe the more recent sedimentary rocks
of the district.

II. Post-archaean sedimentary Rocks.

Thanks to the labours of the last Expedition we have now
got so far in our knowledge of the geological formations of
East-Greenland that, even if an immense amount of detail work
still remains to be done, the time seems to have come for us
to attempt to offer a complete survey of what we know. Little
by little we have got to know a large number of series of form-
ations, the majority of which, however, are either entirely
lacking in, or are only very scantily supplied with fossils. It
is, consequently, only through careful stratigraphic studies that
one can hope, where indeed it is possible at all, to elucidate
the question of their age, and such studies have not been
carried out hitherto. And so, as a rule, we must confine our-
selves to descriptions of certain localities, although we shall
see that, notwithstanding this, we can go a good way towards
drawing conclusions as to the age and reciprocal relations of
the sedimentary rocks.

173

Within the area in question the following systems are
clearly proved to occur: Silurian, Devonian, Triassic, Jurassic,
(Rhaetic-Liassic as well as Middle and Upper Jurassic) and Ter-
tiary (Eocene). Except that the series of strata characterized by
Silurian fossils perhaps overlaps, in its lower part, into the
Cambrian, the following non-fossiliferous local series, arranged
in the order I consider they were most probably formed, may for
the present be distinguished: Cape Fletcher series, Hurry Inlet
series, Cape Brown series, and Cape Leslie series’).

To the result of the paleontological examinations of fossils
from this district, I shall only refer very briefly in the following,
but, on the other hand, I shall dwell more exhaustively on a
petrographically descriptive account of the different systems
and series, setting out from those rocks whose age can be de-
termined from the fossils they contain. I will divide them here
into two main divisions: the reason for this classification will
be gone into more fully when I come to formulate my views
of the stratigraphy of the district.

A. The older Prae-Rhaetic series.
(Mottled Rocks.)

1. Silurian and Devonian (with possibly Cambrian strata).
These rocks, which occur within the system of Kong Oscar
and Franz Joseph Fjords, have been described in detail by
Nathorst, who was also the first to point out fossils in them,
and thus determined their age. However, they are very poor

1

To these must be added the so-called Röde 0 (Red I.) conglomerate,
described by Bay, which occurs quite isolated and about the age of
which nothing can be said, but which I prefer to consider as prae-
Rhaetic. The specimens of conglomerate pebbles seen by me seem to
consist chiefly of gneiss and quartzite, also quartz; the matrix consists
of splinters of quartz and felspar, joined together and coloured by iron
oxide, besides which calcite is not altogether lacking. Iron pyrites,
even in large lumps, seem to be common, and to their disintegration
the red colour, which gives the locality Из name, presumably owes
its origin.

174

in fossils, though their petrographic variation is unusually strong.
Nathorst, to whose description!) I refer, mentions, among
other varieties, white, yellow, grey and black limestones and
dolomites, red, green, and dark schists, and red, green, grey,
and yellow sandstones.

Within the area of these rocks I myself only landed at
one spot, viz., in Polhems Dale, (Segelsällskapets Fjord), quite

Fig. 2. Akerblom I., near the entrance of Segelsällskapets Fj., showing
folded manycoloured silurian rocks. (C.Kruuse phot. 38: 8: 1900).

near the limits of the primary rock. The fact that we
were so close to the base of the formation gives the ob-
servations taken a certain value. Although Г had no op-
portunity, except at a distance, of observing the line of
junction itself, yet it was evident that, as Nathorst has

1) Op. cit. pp. 288—298.

i:

175

pointed out from other places, we have to deal with а super-
stratification, not with two series of rocks separated by a
fault. Possibly, therefore, the rocks I collected here belong
to the Cambrian System. They have, as a matter of fact, a
very old appearance. At the very bottom, on the shore, is found
a green, dense, hard schist, quite different from the one we
shall describe later as typical at Cape Brown and in Hurry
Inlet. Above that we find quartzite and hard limestone in huge
banks, of a fairly crystalline appearance; also a dark clay-
slate. Among the rocks was observed a fine violet-red quartz-
ite, but for which it really looks as if here, at the bottom
of the series, the red divisions of the formation had retired

to some extent).

2. The Older Triassic System (Fleming Inlet Series). Fleming
Inlet. which was first made known in detail through the Danish
Expedition, is a comparatively broad, open bight between sheer,
often perpendicular shores, the cliffs of which shine out in
glaring red colours mixed with yellowish white, green, grey, etc.
In a few places broad, deep side-valleys open, of which Orsted
Dale is the chief.

The expedition stayed here two days and made several
landings, especially on the west shore and at the inmost part
of the fjord. In both places were found, partly by me, partly
by Hartz, traces of fossils, of which, however, only the last,
taken from the slope opposite Pingels Dale, have so far proved
determinable. They have not yet been described, but according
to a preliminary communication, kindly supplied by Dr. K.
Grénwall, they derive from the Triassic Period, of which
hitherto no fossiliferous strata are known from Greenland >”).

1) In the adjacent Berzelius Mountain, however, the mottled and red colours
appear most brilliantly (cfr. Pl. XJ, also Fig. 2 above, showing the
bright-coloured, folded layers on Akerblom I, at the entrance of Segel-
sallskapets Fjord).

*) If we look aside from the Rhaetic beds.

176

Further information cannot yet be given, but for the present
account this is sufficient, even if an examination of the material,
which is very desirable, should change our opinion in some
details.

Broadly speaking, the strata here are fairly horizontal, and,
however variable their petrographic character may be, there is
no reason to assume that a continuous series does not exist,
though from this it does not follow that dislocations cannot
occur further off in the same district.

The rocks themselves have, in the main, a rather young
appearance. We find yellowish, grey, and more or less bright
red sandstones, red, green and black schists, and dense, hard,
grey and red, also dark, limestones. The latter are often de-
veloped as fine oolites and varieties appear that consist entirely
of balls, several centimetres in diameter and consisting of con-
centric layers. In a grey-green clay-slate I saw a ball of dark,
flint-like mass. In these respects the rock forcibly recalls the
one at Cape Fletcher. Among the schists the lustrous types,
so characteristic at Cape Brown, are as a rule wanting, yet at
times there occur both red and green, loose, very likely cal-
cereous, sandstone schists, which at the surface of the strata
are resplendent with mica-scales.

It is unfortunately impossible for me to show any sections
of these rocks"). The sequence of beds seems to be such
that at the shore, at least towards the bottom of the fjord,
bright red rocks predominate, while it seems as if the light,
coarse sandstone prevailed higher up. So, for instance, I found
on the W. shore at 180m. a fine lustrous red schist, at 240 m.
partly a narrow intervening layer of a green thinly laminated
rock, partly loose, light sandstone, recalling the Jurassic series.
But above these, as can be seen in several places, red schists
again crop out, while, conversely, down by the shore at Cape

1) Partly because a number of notes made at the time were lost through
an accident.

177

Seaforth a coarse, yellowish sandstone crops out, with pebbles
of quartz and of a green slaty rock, up to a centimetre in length.
It does not look, therefore, as if the division of the series on
purely petrographical lines was possible. Also in Pingel’s Dale
at the S.E. corner of the fjord, at 300 m. above the sea-level,
a dark-green, lustrous schist, not unlike the one from Gape
Brown, was found by Hartz. At 380 m. a fairly coarse, light
sandstone with intervening layers of schists cropped out, and
at 570 m. a red, non-lustrous, thinly laminated rock was met
with. It was in blocks of sandstone schists from this series
that the best preserved fossils were found. And still higher
up, at circa 800—900 m., Koch found a black, bitumenous or
(in other layers) a greenish schist, partly also a reddish con-
glomerate that recalls very closely what is described below from
Vargudden in Hurry Inlet. The rock is loose, the intermediate
mass is very calcareous and contains numerous rounded mineral
grains which, however, are frequently combined so as to show
that they derive from older rocks, as well as true rock-fragments,
among which some that derive from porphyritic surface rocks.
To decide from the single sample I saw whether the rock is
related to the similar conglomerates from Gape Brown and
Hurry Inlet, is of course impossible, but a suggestion as to
how the order of the strata may ultimalety be settled is con-
tained in the similarity just pointed out.

Almost at the same spot, close to the shore, in a little
river, | came across several blocks of a curious limestone,
which both at the surface of the cleft and, as it seems, in
connection with concretionary formations, contains a fairly rich
quantity of a dark metallically lustrous copper mineral, according
to the determination of Böggild cuprite (red copper-ore), and
interesting as being the first occurrence of this mineral in
Greenland. Green, malachitish disintegration products give the
rock a striking appearance.

XXVIII. 12

178

3. Cape Brown and Hurry Inlet series. Cape Brown is the
most northerly headland on the E. shore of Fleming Inlet. The
Expedition here landed but for a very brief space, which only
enabled me to collect what was cropping out nearest the shore.
There were mighty banks of red and green schists, sometimes
compact and more hornstone-like, but as a rule well charac-
terized by the plentiful presence of a micaceous mineral which
gives the surface of the strata a vivid sheen. From this I
got an impression that the rock was rather crystalline, which
is however disproved by the microscopical examination. The
green rock here seems to consist of angular grains of quartz,
while plagioclase and other minerals are less abundant, with
lamina of muscovite and green chlorite or chloritic biotite,
cemented by a strongly doublerefractive carbonaceous mass.
The structure is thus purely clastic. The schist is sometimes
shattered and cemented into a breccia by crystalline limestone or
it contains veins of calcite of a few centimetres in breadth.

Furthermore I here came across, near the shore, a still
more remarkable rock, viz. a coarse, firm conglomerate with
an intermediate mass of red, green and dark grains the size
of a pin’s head and very many rounded balls of the most
varied petrographic character, granites of varied appearance,
some of them coarse; further, grey quartzite, and a mixture of
different kinds of many-coloured porphyries and porphyrites.
I have microscopically examined both the matrix and a number
of the balls. The former consists of a fine-grained, micaceous
mass in which lie now angular, now rounded grains of quartz,
felspar and heterogeneous fragments of rock. Among the balls
the porphyries offer most interest. There are varieties both
with and without porphyritic quartz, while all the specimens 1
examined contain phenocrysts of green chloritic mass which
in its often regular hexagonal form shows that it is the pseu-
domorph of biotite, very like those described from the eruptive
rocks at Cape Fletcher. The ground-mass is now dense,

179

microgranitic, now а splendid granophyre. We also find
balls whose ground-mass seems to consist of individualized
eryptopegmatitic intergrowths, and the small grains show
great variety, but it was impossible for me to set up any well
defined types. It is true that I found no analogy to the basic
tephritic forms of the Gape Fletcher series, but these even
there occur in subordinate mass, and on the whole the resem-
blance to the rocks of the area mentioned, distant only about
12 miles, is too great for us not to be able to assume with
certainty that the balls derive from that group of eruptive rocks.
To this question I will return when describing the conglomerates
in Hurry Inlet.

To settle the very interesting question of the age of this
series of rocks in relation to the Triassic bed further in in the
fjord, it would be necessary not only to be acquainted with the
nature of the superposed bed but also to examine the E. coast
of the fjord. Koch stayed some time at this place and climbed
the highest mountain, from the top of which (850—900 m.
above the sea) he brought back, it is true, some red lustrous
schists of the same kind as those from the shore. But as
similar schists, even if subordinate, are also met with in the
Upper Triassic series it is by no means precluded that the
conglomerate cropping out on the shore can be at the base
of this formation and itself belong to the same epoch. This
is also the opinion to which | most incline, but until a de-
tailed examination has been undertaken the possibility is always
present that we have to deal with an older, Paleozoic series,
which by dislocation is separated from the more recent beds.

The oldest Hurry Inlet series. Nathorst, on his
visit, already came across, in the innermost part of Hurry
Inlet, at the foot of the archaean hills of Liverpool Land,
firstly a coarse gneiss conglomerate, and secondly, nearer the
shore, a black or grey clay-slate. However, he had no chance
of determining their relations either to one another or to the

12*

180

series of non-fossiliferous, red, white and green sedimentary
rocks which here underlie the Rhaetic strata, and to which he
also referred a ruddy sandstone and a calcareous conglomerate,
which was met with on the Fame Islands underlying a sheet
of Labrador porphyrite.

By reason of their stratigraphic situation and petrographic
character Nathorst hesitatingly classed these last-mentioned
rocks as Keuper. I had no opportunity myself of examining
the strata on the W. side of Ryders River, but on the shore
| collected a few samples during a single, short tour. From
the Fame Islands Dr. Deichmann brought back a few samp-
les, about which I shall have something to say below.

During my own wanderings I came across, on the W. slope
of Liverpool Land, a curious conglomerate that is probably
identical with the one pointed out by Nathorst and mentioned
above. In the main it forms a firm mass, the pebbles of which,
it is true, stand ont plainly against the matrix, but yet are so
firmly connected with it that they cannot easily be isolated
even with the hammer. Since the matrix itself both prepon-
derates in bulk and presents a tolerably compact appearance,
while the fragments show angular shapes, the whole strongly
reminds us of a volcanic breccia. But we have none such
here; firstly a stratification can already be seen macroscopically,
and secondly the microscope shows conclusively that we have
here a clastic rock consisting of numerous grains, mostly
quartz, but also felspar, and besides, in certain thin ledges,
much garnet and iron-ore. As a rule these grains are sharp-
edged, and as a typical cementing material is only sparsely
present, the rock has a fairly crystalline look. But there occur
also numerous grains, often well rounded, of rock-fragment,
among them even micro-pegmatitic intergrowths of quartz and
felspar, and their shape already shows that the whole is, after
all, a clastic mass. That this is the case appears still more
plainly in some intervening layers of green or red true clastic

181

schists, of the same appearance as the one met with at С. Brown.
The green colour is probably caused principally by thin mica-
ceous and chloritic scales; moreover, there is a dense, sericitic
mass; nor is calcite lacking as a matrix.

I also came across similar schists at another spot underneath
the conglomerate rock. There were both green and red schists
of the same appearance as those just described and, in ad-
dition, lighter, hard, granulite-like layers which create a fine
banded texture, while certain layers swell out into small lenses
which may cut off the adjacent ones. In this series I also
found veins or irregular layers of a dense, dark-grey limestone.

The conglomerate that here rests on the schist, differs
from that just described in having a much looser character,
which, as shown under the microscope, is closely allied to a
well-marked crushing structure, and unless the foreign, well
preserved pebbles were there one would be inclined to consider
it a dislocation breccia rather than a clastic conglomerate. As
it is, no other explanation can be given than that a dislocation
has really taken place, chiefly affecting the conglomerate along
the contact where it rests on the Archaean rock. In this con-
glomerate, too, I found an intervening layer of schist, whose
intense red colour was created by a fine dust of iron-oxide
which transverses the cementing mass, whilst the numerous
splinters of quartz which constitute the bulk of the rock are
pure and uncoloured. In its structure the rock is exactly like
the green schist just described.

Of great interest are the pebbles in this conglomerate, which
I tried to examine somewhat closer. True crystalline schists
play no part, the chief mass is made up of red granites, of
which, however, many, by their general habitus or their passing
over into syenites, show that they do not belong to the normal
archaean rock series, but to the more recent series of eruptives
which are found cropping out further north on the coast and
which are later to be described, chiefly from the specimens

182

brought home from C. Fletcher. Besides, already macroscopi-
cally, red porphyries, mostly poor in quartz, are very prominent,
and further bind together these rocks with those just named.

Microscopically we can distinguish several varieties of por-
phyries among the pebbles, with often a very dense, aphanitic
though not really micro-felsitic ground-mass. Among the phen-
ocrysts we very often find chlorite accompanied by apatite and
ore, andin a distinct crystal form that seems to derive from biotite,
even if occasionally hornblende should suggest itself. The re-
semblance to the acid extrusive rocks of C. Fletcher and the
conglomerate pebbles of С. Brown is striking. Then | came
across a fine granophyre granite. | have also examined a red,
rather porphyritic granite. It is hard to determine where this
rock should be classed. The quartz is fairly hard pressed and
shows no crystallic shape, but is sometimes intergrown with
plagioclase in a way that reminds one of a very coarse micro-
pegmatite structure. The plagioclase itself usually shows idio-
morphic outlines, and microcline is absent, through which the
rock differs from the red granites, already described, which
crop out in the district and with which in other respects a
certain resemblance is to be seen.

The rocks in the valley between Liverpool Land
and Jameson Land (Ryder’s Valley). These rocks, just de-
scribed, were met with a little way up the slope towards the
higher gneiss-area. Down in the valley itself the rocky foun-
dation is not often exposed, but where it is to be seen, for
instance near Vargudden, it consists, just as it does on the
Fame Islands, for the most part of a coarse ruddy conglomerate
which differs from the one just described in its looser con-
sistency, and in that the pebbles and grains are mostly com-
posed of quartz. Besides these, grains of granitic rock occurred,
while in the specimen examined by me only a few small pebbles
of micro-granite were seen, though their type could not easily
be determined. The matrix chiefly consists of calcareous mass.

183

In the rock оссиг in many places rather large intrusive sheets
of a basic eruptive rock with large porphyritic plagioclase сгуз-
tals. In one place, on the border of the sedimentary rock,
here strongly metamorphosed, it touches on a glassy structure,
otherwise it scarcely differs from the tertiary olivine basalts of
the district, with which it may presumably be closely allied.
‘On one of the Fame Islands Dr. Deichmann came across,
according to the report in situ, a curious greenish rock,
which, as it appears, is completely crushed. It looks very
much as if the original material had been a conglomerate, but
both the pebbles and the mass are changed beyond recognition.
Age of the conglomerate rocks. Thus, at four spots
within a somewhat restricted area we come across curious
conglomerate rocks which have this common characteristic,
that their material includes porphyritic surface rocks, which
are otherwise very rare in Greenland, but occur just here,
though very likely not to any great extent. These conglomerates
strikingly resemble one another by twos; on the one hand
Fleming Inlet and the lowland round Ryders Elv, on the other
C. Brown and Liverpool Land. This does not enable us, of
course, to establish any safe comparison between them, but
everything points to the conclusion this if ever a comparison
by their petrographic characteristics alone of sedimentary
rocks of tolerably settled age is possible — they are all younger
than the С. Fletcher eruptives and older than Rhaetic — this
may be applied to these rocks. The conglomerate at Fleming
Inlet is older than Rhaetic and more recent than the Triassic
fossils met with there. To the strata in Ryders Dale one is most
inclined to assign the same older Triassic age, if only because of
its stratigraphic situation. The rocks at C. Brown are probably
somewhat older than those at Fleming Inlet, yet in point of
age we cannot give them a place among the older Paleozoic
epochs; we are inclined to think that they belong to the oldest
Triassic or possibly to the Permian. There is no reason to

184

believe that the conglomerate and the schists on Liverpool
Land do not belong to the same period, situated as they are
on the level immediately below the Ryders Dale rock men-
tioned above and not far from it.

The crushed rocks that occur on several places in the same
district, indicate that the boundary between the Archaean rock
and the more recent fossiliferous formations on the west ‘side
of Liverpool Land is marked by a zone of dislocation.

4. The sedimentary rocks of С. Fletcher. As we have already
seen, the beds cropping out at C. Brown, in the most north-
easterly part of Fleming Inlet, apparently belong to a somewhat
older series than the Triassic inside the fjord. Still further
along the coast-band, about 20km. SSE. from C. Brown, the
expedition made another landing at Cape Fletcher, the SE. cape
of Canning Land at the entrance of Carlsberg Fjord (cfr. fig. p. 197).
As the district between these two capes is still unknown it is not
possible to express any opinion about the series of rocks at that
place. The series at Cape Fletcher, however, it could easily
be shown, must be older that those at C. Brown, traversed as
they are by several dikes or bosses of the same porphyry rocks
that are represented amongst the pebbles of the conglomerate
at the foot of C. Brown.

During our landing | devoted myself chiefly to studying
and collecting these porphyry rocks, which shall be described
in a later chapter. But I also got some conception of the
sedimentary formation, though I cannot report on the strati-
graphic conditions. The types of rock alternate very considerably ;
there are firstly hard, undoubtedly dolomitic limestones of a
grey or black colour, and often of a very fine oolithic structure.
The limestone alternates at times in thin bands with chert or
silicious schists, and often contain small, rounded lumps of
flint. Characteristic is a coarse, light-grey dolomite breccia.
Furthermore, we came across, as a more irregular mass, a
black, hard chert- or flint-like rock which, however, under the

185

microscope proves to be quite crystalline, even if extremely
compact. Then | found a violet coloured, phyllitic schist, that
revealed at the same time a conspicuous alternation of strata
and a very apparent cleavage. Nor were red rocks lacking:
there was both a coarse, vermilion sandstone with bright spots,
and a fine-grained, red, micaceous sandstone, the grains of
which, now rounded, now angular, consist largely of felspar,
while a red pigment colours the not very abundant inter-
mediate mass.

The petrography of the series is obviously sufficiently un-
like the Fleming Inlet series, even if there were no other
reasons for believing it to be older, for us not to group
them together without further investigation. Nathorst men-
tions a loose stone of black chert from the Silurian area inside
the fjord, but beyond this I do not know of the recurrence
there of silicious rocks. In other respects, however, the petro-
graphic conformity with these formations is sufficiently marked
for us to be able to assume that we may possibly have here
a recurrence of the Silurian-Devonian series. In any case this
С. Fleteher formation is probably paleozoic.

B. Rhaeto-Liassic and more recent sedimentary rocks.
(Sandstone and schists without conspicuous colour.)

5. Rhaeto-Jurassic formations. In contrast to the rocks I
have described above, which are always extremely poor in fossils
but which, despite their greatly varying ages, must all be
brought together in one petrographic group, characterized partly
by the frequent occurrence of dolomitic, often oolithic limestones,
partly by the variegated, often red colours so frequently re-
curring in strata of the most heterogeneous character, we find
in these parts of East-Greenland also formations, most com-
monly richly fossiliferous, in which limestones are of insigni-
ficant occurrence, and the sandstones of which are always
light-coloured or colourless, while the more retiring schists

186

can also be grey or greenish, but never red. These rocks
belong partly to the Rhaeto-Liassic, partly to more recent sub-
divisions of Jurassic, partly to the Tertiary.

Strata belonging to the Jurassic system were first pointed
out from East-Greenland by the German North Pole Expedition,
viz., from Kuhn I., situated somewhat N. of Sabine I., and thus
rather far from the districts where the Amdrup-Hartz Ex-
pedition had its proper field of work. The rock here consists
partly of brownish sandstone with small coal-seams belonging
to the Dogger, partly of light sandstone and marls of the most
recent Jurassic, the Aucella-beds. The petrifactions dis--
covered have since been described by Toula.

From the material collected during the Danish Expedition
of 1891—1892 by Hartz and Bay, it was also shown that the
rocks, that build up the SE. part of Jameson’s Land, and in
a steep escarpment (the so-called Neill’s cliffs) form the shore
of Hurry Inlet, belong to the Rhaetic and Jurassic systems.
At C. Stewart, where the oldest strata are visible, there lies at
the very bottom a mighty series of grey, sandy clay-slate with
numerous, well-preserved fossil plants, deriving from the Rhaeto-
Liassic. Above this lies light sandstone in which was found
an intervening layer, about 2 metres thick, of very impure
greyish limestone, rich in not particularly well preserved petri-
factions, “classed by Lundgren with the older strata from
Kuhn I. (Kelloway). Then follow schists and light sandstones
with banks of basalt. About the strata further north, Nat-
horst has communicated a number of notes; he also found
new fossiliferous horizons.

I made no collections or examinations myself of the sea-
cliffs at Hurry Inlet’). However, I succeeded in making some
interesting contributions to our knowledge of the Jurassic beds
of Greenland, during my excursion to the inner and northern

1) Hartz, who carried out the work here, has published a few notes of
his observations in Madsen's work, quoted below.

er

187

parts of Jameson’s Land together with Dr. Deichmann and
during excursions from our landing places during a boat-
journey along the W. and S. coasts of the same land. In the
former case I could establish the fact that within the whole
district traversed by me, up to the so-called Fossil mountain"),
the rock consists of monotonous, light Jurassic sandstone, in
which fossiliferous banks are not rare, and ammonites are now
and again so plentiful that the ground at the weathering of the
rock is thickly strewn with them for long stretches”). In the
W. parts of Jameson Land the rocky foundation is covered by
such deep quaternary beds that it could not be observed any-
where, but we may presume that the Jurassic beds continue
here and on the SW. side of the land they were also found,
though only in a few places in the banks of large rivers. Only
in one place did I find fossil remains, which are, however, of
great interest and consist chiefly of Aucella Pallasii Keys;
close by occurred also badly preserved ammonites.

The petrifactions collected by Hartz and myself, have been
described by Victor Madsen*), to whose work I need only
refer. It appears that the Cape Stewart beds, which have long
been known, belong to the Callovian and are found the higher
up the further N. one reaches; here belong presumably the
ammonites (among others Macrocephalites Pompeckji
Mads.), which | found at a height of about 500 metres above
the sea, right inside the innermost bay of Hurry Inlet. Under-
neath this series were found in Nathorst Mountain fossil remains
that are assigned to upper Bajocian or Lower Bathonian. On
the other hand the beds | came across, both furthest SW. and
NW., are essentially younger; the former (Aucella- beds)
belong to the Lower Volgian, the latter are considered by

1) Cf. Koch's map, Meddel. om Grønland, XXVII, plate 8, also the map
in the paper by V. Madsen cited below.

*) Owing to the difficulty of carrying specimens during this long excursion,
very little material could be collected, unfortunately.

®) Meddel. om Grønland, XXIX, 157—210.

188

Madsen, if his determination of a Simbirskites is correct,
to belong to the youngest Jurassic or possibly the Lower
Cretaceous.

Nothing is known as to the continuation of the formation
further north. Nathorst’s observations at Antarctic Harbour
are characterized by himself as uncertain, no distinct fossils
having been noticed, but the petrographic descriptions tally
with a continuation of both the monotonous Jurassic beds and
the motley Triassic series. However, the statement quoted
above shows that one must by no means exclude the assumption
that still more recent beds, of the cretaceous formation, may be
met with in this district on some future occasion.

As to the petrographical character of the Jurassic bed
there is not much to add. At the shores of Hurry Inlet nu-
merous blocks of a Scolithus sandstone, already observed by
Bay, were seen. It may be mentioned that red formations are
not altogether lacking, So, in the interior of Jameson Land,
I found, for instance, a glaring brick-red sandstone alternating
with the normal or light-coloured. But the colour is very un-
like that found in the older formations and points rather to a
secondary colouring in later times.

Finally I may mention that conglomerates do not seem
to be unusual, but that, in sharp contrast to the older for-
mations, the pebbles most usually — exceptions may occur —
are composed of quartz. This, too, most probably is connected
in some way with the obviously divergent conditions under which
these strata were formed, a knotty problem into which I cannot
enter here.

The new plant fossils from Hurry Inlet district will be de-
scribed later by Hartz.

6. The Cape Leslie sandstone. During the expedition of 1891,
in the most easterly part of Milne Land, i. e. opposite Jameson
Land, Bay came across a fairly large series of sandstone resting

189

оп gneiss, with intervening layers of coarse conglomerate, but,
so far as known, without any fossils. He expresses no opinion
as to the age of the rock. Both from Bay’s own description’)
and from the specimens collected by him which I have seen,
it is clear, however, that the rock recalls, petrographically,
certain strata in the Jurassic beds of Jameson Land: a loose,
greyish yellow sandstone, consisting of grains of both quartz
and felspar, of a youthful appearance. That the rock is more
recent than Triassic seems probable to me from every point
of view. It is, of course, possible that it is even more recent
than Jurassic, i.e. that it belongs to the Tertiary or Cretaceous
system. Yet there seems to be no reason to assume this, and
on the map I have therefore marked it with the general colour
of the Jurassic beds.

From the sea Bay thought he noticed a rock recalling the
Cape Leslie sandstone at a spot on the W. side of Jameson
Land. Гат not quite sure that the rock in situ is visible
at all in that part from the sea, and, as we have seen, it be-
longs to the Jurassic formation. But if the opinion expressed
by me above is correct, then Bay is also right, even if ша
way be did not mean.

7. The Tertiary Sedimentary Rocks. I am not going to enter
into the history of our knowledge about these deposits. For nearly
all we knew about the Tertiary rocks of E. Greenland prior to the
last Danish expedition we have to thank the German Polar Expedi-
tion, which discovered Tertiary fossiliferous strata at several places
near the most northerly part, then known, of the east coast.
On Sabine I., in the so-called Hasenberg, were found plant-
bearing strata, whose not very well preserved flora was shown
by Heer to be identical with the common Arctic Tertiary flora,
usually classed as Miocene. On Hochstetter Land there oc-
curred mighty banks with remains of marine mussels, of which,

1) Medd. om Grenland, XIX, 162.

190

however, only very few specimens could be brought back and
these were so badly preserved that only their genus could be
determined.

The Tertiary rocks in this district are closely bound to
the basalt, which has certainly contributed to protect these
easily destroyed rocks. As a result of our work in 1900 it
could be proved that also in the large basalt territory S. of
Scoresby Sund Tertiary sediments occur. I shall return to
these investigations directly; meanwhile a few words about our
observations in the N. basalt region, where I only visited
Sabine I.

The Tertiary rocks have a very considerable distribution
here, in comparison with the S. region. In many places low
mountain ridges occur, formed exclusively of sandstone, and
also huge layers between the sheets of basalt. So for instance
Hasenberg is formed, to a considerable extent, of Tertiary beds,
and here I succeeded in finding leaves of plants, which, though
badly preserved, were of interest in enabling me to determine
positively the age of the sedimentary rocks of that place.

Incomparably better preserved fossils were found by Hariz
in Germania Bjerg, in a piece of dark clay-slate of about 12 m.
in length, inclosed in the basalt and somewhat burnt by it.
This find is described by him in ‘‘Medd. om Grønland”, Vol.
ХХУП, pag. 156. The Йога, however, seems to be very poor
in species. |

As to the petrographic character of the rock, it is сот-
posed everywhere of loose, yellow or grey sandstones, very
subordinately of dark schists. Conglomerate also occurs at
times with pebbles of foreign rocks, granite, etc. On the other
hand limestones and all rocks of red colours are lacking, even
more consistently than in the Jurassic beds.

Our most resultful investigations into the Tertiary beds of
Greenland were carried out within the southern basalt-region.
From here, from Cape Brewster, Scoresby had already brought

191

back brown-coal, but since the rock here is evidently made up
for the most part of basalt, the conclusion was drawn that his
material was only composed of еггайс pieces. Our landing at
this spot has shown that this was not the case, in that the
basalt here really, and richly, in particular in one horizon,
contains pieces of charred or petrified wood, and, apart from
that, of indurated sediment of probably Tertiary age. But no
connected layers were come across in this spot.

However, this was the case at a few more southerly places.
Thus, for instance, at several spots on Turner Sound we could
see far extended but not very broad intervening layers in the
basalt of schists and light sandstone, in which, however, despite
a careful search, we were unable to discover definite petrifac-
tions. Hartz, ор. cit. р. 162, has already given some account
of these investigations.

What I saw of these rocks was in general strongly meta-
morphosed by basalt, yet the stratification seemed to me to
point to an intervening layer contemporaneous with it. This
applies still more obviously to the most important and largest
of these southern occurrences which I found on a terrace-like
plateau about 300 m. above the station at C. Dalton. Besides
the plant remains, not very well preserved, which have not yet
been described, but according to Hartz belong to the ordinary
Arctic Tertiary flora, there occurred here numerous remains of
Pelecypoda, Gastropoda and Crustacea, which have been de-
scribed by J.P.J. Ravn”); he classes these beds among Eocene,
comparing them more exactly with the London Clay, Bagshot
Beds and Sables de Cuise.

The petrographic types of rock are reported on in Ravn’s
work. He distinguishes a coarse whitish sandstone, a brown
argillaceous shale with numerous concretions, greenish sand-
stone and dark calcareous sandstone, rich in fossils.

1) Medd. om Grønland XXIX, 95—140.

192

It is not easy to determine exactly the stratigraphic relation
of these rock to the basalt. We do not get the impression of
a normal layer between the eruptive sheets, but they are ob-
viously not older than the lower basalt-banks. Should that
have been the case the only possibility would have been that
the whole sandstone area was a mighty fragment broken off
by the basalt, but this theory cannot be supported by one who
has visited the place; moreover, it is evincibly wrong. Pro-
fessor N. V. Ussing, in conjunction with Ravn’s work, has
examined the different varieties of Tertiary rocks petrographic-
ally, and has shown that certain of.them are wholly or partly
formed of basaltic material, which must consequently be older
than these sedimentary rocks }).

In two respects the investigation of this locality is of con-
siderable importance for our understanding of the geology of
the Arctic North Atlantic region. In the first place for a more
exact knowledge of the age of the Arctic Tertiary flora; as this
will be dealt with by Hartz, I will not enter into the question
here. Secondly, because here for the first time it has been
conclusively shown that volcanic activity in this large basalt
area was in full swing already in the Eocene time, while it has
usually been assigned to the Miocene period. Е shall return
to this question when [ come to describe the basalts of this
territory. |

Retrospect of the Sedimentary Rocks of
E. Greenland.

Our knowledge of the geological conditions on the E. coast
of Greenland is not yet sufficiently extensive for it to be pos-
sible to show the exact sequence of the formations there in
sections. If, despite this, I have ventured to draw up and here
present a few strictly schematized sections?), [ have done so
chiefly in order to make clear the opinion I myself hold to be

1) Cfr. the description in Ravn’s paper.
?) On the geological map accompanying this paper.

193

the most likely. A general survey of the district lies behind
us; we now come to the point when detailed stratigraphic ob-
servations should be made. For those who will in the future
devote themselves to this work it will probably be an advantage
to set out from the view presented here as a working hypothesis.

Perhaps the most interesting feature about the sedimentary
rocks of the distriet is the very considerable dissimilarity in
appearance between the older, pre-Jurassic and the more recent
rocks. This is most marked in the occurrence of huge, inten-
sively red strata in the former series, but also in its scarcity
of fossil remains and the common occurrence of limestones
(probably dolomitic); possibly also in the character of the in-
cluded conglomerates.

For the present I can offer no satisfactory explanation of
these decided differences and the subject is too specialistic for
me to enter into it here. It does not seem as if it were bound
up with a formation of the rocks at different depths of the sea
during different periods. As to the red colour, its presence in
the older strata could be attributed to the formation of laterite
in the polar areas only being able to take place during these
periods. It would be interesting if something of the sort could
be proved, but the conditions seem to point rather to the cause
of the differences being of a more local nature.

What is said here applies, of course, in the first place
only to the strata whose age has been determined with cer-
tainty. Yet it seems to me that there is no great doubt
that the non-fossiliferous series here described, those at least
examined by me, really belong in any case to the main division
in which I have placed them. Аз to their reciprocal ages, |
refer to the detailed account.

As far as the stratigraphic conditions are concerned, it is
difficult to be more precise about the area N. of Davy Sund.
Nathorst himself lays stress on the possible occurrence at
Traill 1. of more recent (and perhaps also older) strata than

XXVIII. 13

194

those given in the map!). It is not until we reach the districts
examined by the Danish Expedition that the facts relating to
the eastern frontiers grow clearer, though still a good deal is
left to be done. In the extreme E. we have Archaean rock.
On this, at С. Fletcher, rest Paleozoic strata. Then, if we follow
the boundary southward, we shall find that in the contact to
the Archaean rock more and more recent rocks appear. This
may partly be connected with faults and with the erosion which
was at work in connection with the origin of Hurry Inlet; be-
sides, this circumstance depends on a general though very slight
inclination of the rock towards the S. It looks as if the same
dip should assert itself on the W. frontier towards the Archaean
rocks of the central mass, since even here furthest south the
older formations seem to be lacking on the boundary between
Jurassic and Archaean rocks. But here the real facts are too
little known to allow of any conclusion being drawn.

Above the C. Fletcher formation, at Fleming Inlet, lie
strata of the Triassic system, and between the two the forma-
tion at Cape Brown, which in age should be nearest the latter.
How the Triassic strata appear to the west, we do not know,
no observations having been made; possibly they are covered
by Jurassic, but still farther west we should most probably come
to older and older strata, dipping to the E., as Nathorst’s
map also shows. In the interior of Hurry Inlet, between Jur-
assic and Archaean, we find formations which should correspond
to the strata at C. Brown and Fleming Inlet, which were classed
аз Triassic.

III. Post-Archaean Eruptive Rocks.

Scoresby’s investigations already intimate the occurrence
in the coast-belt of both basalt and acid porphyries. The former

1) Op. cit. p. 295.

195

rock has since had its distribution and its character made
known through Koldewey’s and Ryder’s Expeditions. As
to the occurrence here of other eruptive rocks, it was the
Swedish Expedition under Nathorst that first enlarged our
knowledge. The material collected during this expedition and
afterwards described by Bäckström, consists partly of а rhyolitic
quartz-porphyry from C. Broer Ruys, partly of quartziferous
aegirine syenite and a tinguaite from C. Parry, partly of an
alnöitic rock of the monchiquite group, a block of which was
found on the Fame Is.

The discovery of the last series of rocks was of great
interest, but the material collected did not suffice to give a
survey of their appearance in this area. The Danish Expedition
collected a fairly extensive material both of these as also of
the basalt rocks, though not so extensive as the interest in
these rocks advocated. As we shall see, formations are not
altogether lacking which seem to connect the basalts with the
remaining rocks, but in the main these two groups must be
regarded as essentially separate, since, at least in their bulk,
the former must be considered much younger than the other.

A. Older Eruptive Rocks.
(Age presumably Paleozoic.)

With the material before him Bäckström felt justified in
connecting the monchiquite, found on the Fame Is., with the
rocks from С. Parry, bringing forward as a possibility that the
block in question had been carried by the ice from the more
northerly area. Since then I have succeeded in coming across
the rock in situ on Liverpool Land. I do not know the rocks
from С. Parry except from Bäckströms description, but, in
return, I found a new occurrence at С. Fletcher, from where
an extensive series of samples was brought back. These rocks
differ from those at C. Parry in that plutonic rocks with a

granitoid structure are entirely wanting, but otherwise there
18:

196

can be по doubt that they belong to the same eruptive series
of rocks rich in alkali.

On the other hand, I do not dare to express an opinion
as to the connection with the rock from Liverpool Land. A
certain relationship is undeniably present, but when we see,
for instance, in Scandinavia how the eruptions of alkaliferous
magma have taken place during different periods, and that it.
is not possible to directly compare with regard to their age
the various occurrences in, let us say, the area of Christiania,
Alnön, Ragunda, etc., I, for my part, prefer to describe these
groups of occurrences apart from each other.

1. The Eruptives of the С. Fletcher Series. Canning Peninsula
is only known to us through the short landing that the Ex-
pedition made at C. Fletcher. The series of probably paleozoic
sedimentary rocks that we have here has already been de-
scribed by me. Down by the shore we can see how these are
interspersed with several broad dikes, consisting for the most
part of a grey granite-porphyry with large, red orthoclase eyes
and smaller, porphyritic phenocrysts of green plagioclase. Very
closely connected with this rock — as far as I could see, passing
over into it in the same dike — is a red porphyry, obviously
more basic than the former, with which we may connect the
fact that it is rich in dark, basie enclosures of varying appearance
and texture, which point to a strong differentiation in the
original magma.

Somewhat further from our landing-place the rocky wall
rises steeply to a height of about 600 m. Already from a
distance can be seen, some way up the cliff, a huge, lenticular
mass in the shape of an intervening layer of porphyritic eruptive
rocks, which have undoubtedly intruded into the sedimentary
beds. I had no time to make the ascents that would have
been necessary in order to closely examine this mass in place
and at its contacts, but | managed to collect a large material

197

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198

of undoubtedly local blocks, which, petrographically, should
represent all the most important varieties. The appearance
varies very considerably, even if the main mass consists of
moderately acid porphyries. As for the many divergent forms,
it is, unfortunately, impossible as a rule to decide whether they
are formed as a kind of endogenous magmatic precipitations,
or whether in this case there have been several different epochs
of eruptions.

That to some extent at least, the latter has been the case,
is indicated by some dikes of dark rock which were observed
to penetrate the sedimentary beds. I shall describe them
below; at least one of them, a true basalt, is presumably much
more recent than the remaining rocks.

We will pass on to a description of the various main types
that I saw on the spot.

a. Coarsely crystalline, syenite-like rocks. In the material
collected, we come across a single specimen of a plutonic
rock, macroscopically a deep-red granite without anything espe-
cially peculiar in its appearance. Microscopically, however, one
can see that the quartz occurs exclusively as rounded, sharply
defined aggregates, often surrounded by or in close connection
with areas rich in chlorite and of an appearance that is foreign
to the ordinary mass of the rock. Ш is not easy to decide if we
are in the presence of remains of an older rock, destroyed by fusion,
or secondary secretions in a kind of miarolitic cavities. For
the rest, the rock consists of large individuals of strongly red-
dened orthoclase, which embraces small fresh crystal individuals
of plagioclase. However this rock may have originated, it is
evidently no normal plutonic rock; undoubtedly it must be re-
garded as a local type, closely related to the following sur-
face rocks.

b. Acid orthoclase-bearing porphyries. The specimens in
this case derive to a large extent from the above-named dikes
in situ, which, already macroscopically however, show great

199

variation in colour and appearance, and contain both endogenous
and exogenous inclusions. We can distinguish quartziferous
forms and forms devoid of quartz, which again can be more
or less rich in orthoclase, plagioclase and ferromagnesian
minerals.

First among these may be mentioned a variety, collected
as a block, of brick-red colour, with small, inconspicuous por-
phyritic crystals, among which felspar is predominant; yet,
especially in certain areas, a larger quantity of quartz stands
out. Microscopically we can see numerous little dihexahedra
of quartz, while the larger individuals are composed of felspar,
predominantly of plagioclase, which is strongly weathered and
kaolinized. The ground-mass is microgranitic, yet it is quite
pessible that what seems to be individuals consists really of
intimate intergrowths between quartz and feldspar.

This variety has been analyzed by Miss Naima Sahl-
bom, B. A., and the following is the result of her analysis:

25 TOUR Е 75°14 per cent
ИТТ O16, ayes:
PIO A u muni 19:50
De nine. Палм: 1:20 =
Mu. Hamon. de. 0:87 —
MO) ТЫ traces

ER TO TEURER РУТА 0838 —
лица dss. . 043 —
blue. aus 3150 melee
ПО hes nid gas; si 300 —
Loss at ignition ....... 9:55 er

100:18 per cent
Thus, in its chemical constitution the rock reveals nothing
especially striking. The considerable loss at ignition seems to
stand in connection with a radical decomposition of the felspars.
The proportion of soda is high, just as seems to be the case
with the more basic formations of the series.

200

The remaining varieties examined by me contain, at least
somewhat more abundantly, ferro-magnesian minerals. As a
type I should choose the main rock in the large dike already
spoken of. It is a grey or, further inside the dike, a ruddy por-
phyry, with large reddish orthoclase crystals and numerous little
individuals of greenish-white plagioclase together with a dark
sreen mineral. The ground-mass itself rather retires, but the dike
in several places contains sections which are indistinguishable
from the main rock, except in that here the porphyritic cry-
stals recede, and possibly in their somewhat more basic con-
stitution. Under the microscope we see that both orthoclase
and plagioclase are considerably kaolinized; the orthoclase occurs
in large, not very numerous individuals, often as Carlsbad twins.
Phenocrysts of quartz, much corroded, only occur subordinately.
Sometimes we come across irregularly bordered areas of cal-
cite, which seem to fill up miarolitie cavities. Small crystals
of iron ore abound. The green mineral is entirely composed
of chlorite, and its appearance here seems to indicate that it
is pseudomorphous from biotite. The ground-mass is a not
especially well developed granophyre.

From the same dike I examined a specimen of a divergent
appearance taken at the line of contact. Porphyritic felspar
(probably orthoclase, but strongly weathered) occurs only very
subordinately; the ground-mass is very compact and stands
midway between granophyre and felsophyre. In it occur nu-
merous thin lamine of chlorite, pseudo-morphs from biotite,
while on the other hand other large porphyritic individuals
consist of a serpentinic mass. They usually sbow rounded
outlines, at other times we find laths or vestiges of hexahedral
borders. The original mineral cannot have been mica; most
likely it was an amphibole mineral.

While these contact facies occur rather isolated, we find,
among the blocks collected, many that correspond to the main
type. Orthoclase is never predominant, but always occurs in

201

rather large individuals. It is lacking altogether at times, even
where quartz occurs. Remarkable is, that fresh mica so rarely
occurs and that more hornblende or augite is not to be found;
it is often difficult to decide from what mineral the chloritic
pseudomorphs, often associated with carbonaceous mineral,
derive, though biotite seems here to have been the predominant
mineral. Calcite of very primary appearance is common in
many types, through which they ally themselves with the well-
known Swedish calcite-granites. The ground-mass is some-
times very compact, but never vitreous; in fact, it is rather of
such a kind that in polarized light it resolves itself into sec-
tions which themselves seem to constitute cryptopegmatitic
quartz-felspar intergrowths, as is the case with certain of the
Swedish porphyries from Elfdalen.

But in the main these types are not specially noticeable
petrographically. They are quartz-porphyries, which, however,
in their abundance of alkalies and — among the minerals —
biotite, show that they correspond to the basic rocks described
below. We find more curious developments especially in strongly
differentiated varieties, a few of which may be mentioned here.

On the one hand, then, we have varieties whose main mass
consists of the same type of rock as has just been described.
One of them is a splendid, somewhat orthoclasiferous mica-
porphyrite, almost the freshest of the varieties I saw. The
ground-mass is plainly holocrystalline, with a tendency to pass
over into micropegmatite. The porphyritic plagioclase crystals
seem to have a moderately basic constitution corresponding
roughly to labradorite or andesine. This rock contains a frag-
ment of a black porphyritic rock with phenocrysts of quartz,
plagioclase, biotite and green chloritized pseudomorphs, which
must have originated from pyroxene or hornblende. The ground
mass is extremely compact and entirely interspersed with a fine,
black powder which, curiously enough, shows a pretty fluidal
arrangement. That the rocks are, however, closely related to

202

one another is obvious, but in the light rock, where it borders
on the dark, lies what seems to be a fragment of a foreign
gabbro-like rock. A mass enclosed in another sample must
derive from some almost completely assimilated fragment of a
foreign rock; in it we find several large grains of garnet to-
gether with large felspar individuals. The surrounding mass
is curious, partly micropegmatitic, partly consisting of large
individuals which are perfoliated, with a certain regularity, by
a fine powder and, moreover, embrace thin needles or scales
which appear to consist of chlorite.

A curious enclosure, met with in another slide, consists
of a single individual, some centimetres in length, of a colour-
less mineral, entirely intergrown with biotite, yet without cry-
stallographic orientation. Nepheline it is not, and I can only
class this mineral as orthoclase, though with uncertainty.

Of a somewhat different type is another of the samples
collected. The main mass looks more basic and externally forms
a transition to the group of rocks immediately following. In it
lie numerous, rounded balls or pebbles of red porphyry, but also
of other rocks, among which are such as recall in appearance
clay-slate. One is inclined to call the rock a volcanic con-
glomerate. Microscopically, the main mass shows nothing
remarkable, save that it is more disintegrated than usual;
this holds good especially of the felspar phenocrysts, which
are usually entirely transformed. There are moreover mica,
generally converted into chlorite, and a little quartz. The por-
phyry ‘‘pebbles” are of several types: some contain quartz,
some do not; biotite, more or less well preserved, is almost
always present, and the felspar is strongly disintegrated. In
one piece there are some peculiar pseudomorphs, forming in
the transverse section very pointed rhombohedra; I cannot
recall any certain interpretation, but possibly these were am-
phiboles that appeared in an unusual crystalline form. Interesting
is the ground-mass, which must have been very compact, but

203

is now very strongly polarizing, and in the transformation
seems to have gone over into a carbonaceous mass. Obviously
these rocks when fresh had an unusual chemical constitution,
showing their affinity with the more divergent types, to which
{ will now pass on.

с. Basic rocks of lamprophyric type. The group of rocks
to which I have now come is closely connected by means of
intermediate links with the last-named group. Yet its consti-
tution is throughout more basic: most of the rocks contain
normally neither orthoclase nor quartz, and in some varieties
no porphyric felspar occurs at all. As the samples were
mostly collected as blocks it is possible that some of the
varieties do not appear as independent forms but as subordinate
transition forms or small differentiated sections in the main
mass. However, it is impossible to give a certain proof of
this; I shall therefore describe the most interesting forms without
expressing an opinion about their reciprocal connection.

One of these rocks shows macroscopically large — up to
a centimetre in length — isolated crystals of felspar (orthoclase)
and of green chloritic mass, as well as numerous irregular
miarolitic cavities filled with calcite, surrounded by a ring
of small red quartz individuals; elsewhere, too, quartz occurs
as the last product of crystallization. Under the microscope
can be seen, moreover, of large individuals only chlorite, whose
origin I could not determine; the rock also contains а good
deal of apatite. The ground-mass itself consists to a great
extent of irregular lath-shaped felspar and of minute scales of
chlorite which in thin sections vividly recall the aegirine needles
in certain tinguaites. It is possible that this rock should be
referred to bostonite.

Here belongs another variety with solitary felspar crystals,
completely transformed, with numerous areas in which calcite
and often idiomorphic individuals of quartz occur together in a
way that suggests an origin associated with the last period of

204

the solidification of the rock; with phenocrysts of altered biotite
and also large green individuals that are secondary either after
amphibole or pyroxene, and with a compact ground-mass per-
foliated with calcite, chlorite and fine micaceous scales.

A somewhat dissimilar appearance is presented by two
other varieties of rock. Of large felspar crystals only plagio-
clase occurs; then we find a light-coloured serpentinized mineral,
surrounded by dark grains of iron-ore, which mineral either
represents an old rhombic pyroxene or possibly sprang from
an amphibole mineral; in one of the rocks biotite is also
present. We may also mention pseudomorphs which now al-
most entirely consist of carbonate. In addition to this, the
rock is altogether traversed by irregular, amygdaloid, light-green
secretions which seem to consist of serpentine and some thin
needles (zeolite?). The.ground-mass is extremely compact and
strongly altered, but it looks as if it had originally been formed
of large sections which possibly consisted of intimately inter-
grown individuals.

Furthermore, we must mention a greenish basic rock,
which is interesting because the felspar or any corresponding
mineral is almost completely absent among the porphyritic cry-
stals. On the other hand it is rich in large biotite crystals, partly
transformed into chlorite, and also in green serpentinized masses
mostly devoid of regular crystal shape; I can express no opinion
about their origin. The ground-mass is closely perfoliated with
the same serpentinized substance; for the rest it is quite cry-
stalline and seems to consist mostly of a comparatively fresh
(new-formed?) felspar-mass.

Lastly we can add to this series another, more divergent,
rock which in certain respects forms a transition to the group
following. It contains some large individuals of rounded hexa-
hedral form, which now consist of serpentine and a carbonate
mineral, but otherwise it consists mainly of biotite and lath-
shaped felspar; in addition to this quartz (secondary?) occurs as

205

a last product of crystallization, the whole mass of rock being
densely penetrated by calcite. The biotite is interesting because
it shows, especially in large individuals, a marginal zone of the
usual brown colour, while the core is very light, almost colour-
less. The felspar seldom shows twin formation, but often a zonal
extinction; the borders, too, often consist of fresher substance
than the middle zone. Of the rocks I have seen this one
reminds me most of some forms of bostonite, but I presume
that its constitution is more basic.

d. Dike rocks of nepheline-tephritic type. Besides the al-
ready described lenticular or boss-shaped rocky mass with its
various types, and the red or grey porphyry dikes that belong
to the same, the sedimentary rock at С. Fletcher is interspersed
with some darker dikes of a different appearance, and of which
one proved to consist of ordinary basalt and is therefore men-
tioned among the basalt rocks. Two other, fairly narrow dikes,
belong, on the other hand, to another and interesting type,
which is described herewith +).

Two of the specimens, in spite of their macroscopically
divergent appearance, form such an obvious transition to the
one last described that they ought certainly to be classed with
it. We find, porphyritically, now biotite partly discoloured
and bleached, and rich in inclusions of regularly arranged fine
needles, now light pseudomorphs, entirely transformed into
serpentine and carbonate, from a mineral which I hesitatingly
hold to have been amphibole. In addition there are areas that
can very well have been composed of olivine. True felspar
phenocrysts seems to be lacking. The ground-mass consists chiefly
of lath-shaped, strongly altered felspar, while it is interwoven
with a carbonate mass; ore (titanic iron ore?), apatite, and fine
micaceous scales also occur. To what extent a pyroxene or am-

1) The samples examined are, it is true, not taken from the dikes in situ,
but were found in such a position that their origin from them can
scarcely be called in question.

206

phibole mineral has originally entered into the composition
cannot be determined.

Finally we come to what is perhaps the most interesting
of all these types!), and which was the object of detailed ex-
amination, though even now its nature cannot be quite deter-
mined. Macroscopically it is a grey, compact, almost hornstone-
like rock, with numerous porphyritic crystalline agglomerations
of a light, bronze-coloured mica; other phenocrysts, whether
lighter or darker, only appear on the polished surface.

Under the microscope we can distinguish now biotite of
the ordinary appearance, often in the form of hexagonal scales,
now a yellowish green, not especially pleocroitic, fresh horn-
blende with maximal extinction of 16°, then furthermore one
or two light, much transformed minerals, the nature of which
is more difficult to determine. Some of them are individuals
with idiomorphic outlines of approximately hexagonal form and
consisting partly of a carbonate mineral, partly of an almost
isotropic, serpentinic mass. I do not think it possible that
here a felspar was originally present. However, it looks as if
this mineral were connected by transitions with others which
by their weak, flamy, varying double refraction indicate that
they consist of sub-microscopic intergrowths; as a rule they
do not contain carbonate, but they contain other inclusions or
decomposition products, which in part make them almost iso-
tropic. The shape is often rectangular or rectangular with
blunt truncations on two sides. The double refraction recalls,
in the purest sections, felspar, and as felspar we should class

1) While on a visit to Heidelberg I had an opportunity of showing a few
of the specimens here described to Professor H. Rosenbusch, and
in the main he confirmed the opinions I had myself arrived at. I was
especially interested in hearing from a scientist of such ripe experience
an opinion about these particular rocks; he compared them to certain
trachy-dolerites and tephrites, and especially to nepheline-tephrites from
the area of the large East-African depressions. I seize this opportunity
of expressing my sincere thanks to Professor Rosenbusch for so
kindly placing his time at my disposal.

207

lath-shaped individuals which are plentifully scattered about in
the mass and sometimes show twinning. The extinction forms
an angle of some few degrees on the length of the laths.

The minerals just described belong most nearly to the
ground-mass against which they only stand out in polarized light.
This is, moreover, very weakly doubly refractive; I am inclined
to think that also the main mass of it is formed of the minerals
mentioned, which only appear, however, when unusually pure
and free from inclusions. Whether, and to what extent nephe-
line occurs in the rock I have not been able to ascertain with
certainty. An attempt to etch the rock with cold hydrochloric
acid showed, unexpectedly enough, little effect; no strong gelatine
formation could be observed.

Miss Naima Sahlbom, who has analyzed this rock, found

it to be constituted as follows:

2) Si CUE oo tn. 44°43 per cent
Pe Otro atalino a 1:40 —
ЕО Не. garde, „an 17°89 —
BONN act 10008: au 4:00 wo —
PORTA ALA, Gi Ur ce 494 —
ВОИ) tenes tel yl an traces
BORN VENA. DOOD 12:60!) —
ВВФ Ани але... 2°40 —
Bee anbauen: 3:02 —
Or. A4, ами... Hm
Loss at ignition ....... 6:25) —

99°48 рег cent

1) I have not had an opportunity of comparing these figures with the

original analysis journal.
CaO 240 "lo and MgO 12°60 °Io.

In the copy I made myself the figures run

But it seems very probable that

there is some mistake in the latter figures and that the result should

be as given above.

remainder 1°09 °/o, presumably CO ,.

*) From this H,O, determined according to Penfeld's method, 5°16 ‘lo,

208

Ц cannot be concluded with any certainty that all the rocks
here described are connected, but their appearance as well as
their character makes it highly probable. We have then a
peculiar series, intimately connected by transitions, alternating
between very acid up to ultrabasic formations, but all distinguished
by certain mineralogic peculiarities — among other things the
common occurrence of biotite, often as large phenocrysts, com-
pletely transformed into chlorite — and by chemical analogies,
in that all are evidently rocks that are rich in alkali. We have
here probably a strongly differentiated effusive analogy to the
aegirine-syenite from С. Parry’) described by Backstrom.

As to the age of the rocks we only know that, as has
already been shown, the conglomerate at C. Brown, which is
presumably of paleozoic age or belongs to the oldest triassic,
contains boulders which seem to correspond to the medium
acid forms described above. On the other hand, they are
younger than the C. Fletcher beds, which must, however, also
derive from the paleozoic age. During what epoch of that
period the eruption took place cannot be determined at present.

2. Alnöitic rocks from the Hurry Inlet coast of Liverpool Land.
As has been already mentioned, Bäckström, from a block
found on the Fame Islands, described as monchiquite a dark
rock with large porphyritic hexagonal biotite slabs, brown horn-
blende and violet-red augite, together with a ground-mass of
the same minerals embedded in a colourless, almost isotropic
mass which has been interpreted as nepheline. He also calls
attention to the really striking resemblance to the alnöite from
Alnö, from which, however, the specimen examined differs in
that melilite, olivine and perowskite are wanting.

| came across the same rock in situ right opposite the

1) A block of a grey aegirine-syenite rock was found by me on the shore
of Jameson Land a good way inside Scoresby Sund. Similar rocks,
consequently, seem to occur in several areas along this coast.

209

Fame Islands, а few km from the coast, inside а little valley,
the topography of which will be described later in this paper.
The rock oceurs here in close connection with the limestone
referred to the archaean formation and already described, partly
as dikes, partly — at least in one place — as a smallish
lenticular mass bordering on a somewhat disintegrated, light
granite, from which it is separated by a curious mixed breccia.
The granite itself has already been mentioned (p. 169). It is red
or reddish yellow, fairly rich in quartz, with considerably wea-
thered orthoclase, and moreover it has been subjected to strong
pressure. Nearer the line of contact, as far as | could see
without any sharp border against the typical breccia, the rock
is still more altered, traversed by zones that consist of com-
pletely recrystallized crushed mass, which abundantly contains
beautiful little rhombohedra, strongly refractive and doubly re-
fractive, evidently a carbonate mineral. The felspar, here too,
is strongly disintegrated; besides orthoclase there occurs much
plagioclase, partly as perthitic intergrowths.

It is not easy to explain how these changes in the ap-
pearance of the granite stand in connection with the basaltic erup-
tions. It is not precluded that, connected with these, disloca-
tions have taken place. However, that the rocks are not directly
divided by a line of dislocation is clear from the two quite dissimilar
transition forms which are herewith described. The one is a
true fusion rock, acid and fairly rich in quartz; in its mass
can be observed numerous angular fragments of green-
coloured rocks. Under the microscope one can see that the
rock chiefly consists of large crushed quartz and felspar indi-
viduals, which show by their appearance that they derive from
the surrounding granite; between them there is often a mass
which to a great extent consists of needle-shaped felspar indi-
viduals and resembles the products of re-fusion and solidification
often found at magmatic contacts. In other places a similar,
curious mass of limited and local origin is perfoliated by thin

XXVIII. 14

210

biotite scales, and biotite with iron-ore and apatite seem also
to be abundant in the dark, irregular masses and veins
with which the rock is interwoven, and which, in my
opinion, derive from basalt mass that has penetrated into
the granite.

It appears to me almost as if the rock just described
passed over into the true breccia which is extensively met
with on the border between granite and the alnöitic basalt rock.
In it we find everywhere numerous angular fragments which
presumably derive from the latter, besides which there is a
more or less abundant mass of a lighter colour, which evidently
eonsists to a great extent of the granite minerals. In the only
one of these varities that Г examined closely this mass retires;
that it is not a normal granite can be seen from this, among
other things, that it now and then contains large crystallized
biotite individuals of the same appearance as in the alnôite. On
the other hand, granite occurs as well as basalt in the form of
angular fragments. A small piece of this kind, which was
examined microscopically, was almost destitute of quartz and
very violently crushed. For the rest, one can see, under the
microscope, that the matrix consists of a really new formation
and is largely composed of a compact mass rich in carbonate,
in which lie a number of fragments of crystals and rocks, which
must mostly come from the granite, but to a great extent also
from the basalt or rocks closely allied to it. The larger frag-
ments of basic rock show no specially remarkable qualities and
are described along with the main type.

This however does not yet exhaust the breccia rocks of the
district. The alnöitic rock itself in the little mass, whose
contact | have described here in the first place, forms a true
breccia, in that it contains exceedingly numerous pieces of
varying size and character, belonging to the most varied types
of rock: granite, gneiss, basic rocks, quartzitic forms, and,

211

from notes I took at the time, also limestone. АП these forms
of rock appear, when seen under the microscope, greatly
metamorphosed by contact: the granites are surrounded by a
fusion zone of new-formed rock with felspar in the shape of
thin needles, such as has already been mentioned from another
contact-rock. Interesting are the basic rock forms which must
originally have consisted of lath-shaped plagioclase and augite,
ore and some large crystals, now perfectly transformed, and
which must consequently have had a diabasic appearance.

Remarkable is a new-formed mineral which occurred at the
contact with a large fragment of gneiss. It recalls titanite, but
seems to have stronger interference colours than that mineral,
and in comparison with material from Alnön it is impossible
not to be struck by the likeness with the curious mineral
baddeleyite, which occurs there. Yet it is scarcely conceivable
that this should be met with at the contact with an acid rock,
and I have been unable to decide what mineral it is that we
are in presence of.

We will pass on to the description of the pure eruptive
rock, which is best revealed in the two dikes. Its appearance
is somewhat variable. The ground-mass is dark, basaltic, and
in it we come across large crystals, up to an inch in length,
of augite and brown mica. But these are somewhat irregularly
distributed, now forming the main part of the rock, now solitary,
and in the one dike both forms of large crystals are rare,
while especially thin scales of mica give rise to a fine por-
phyry structure, somewhat recalling the lamprophyric minette
rocks from C. Fletcher. In the little mass, too, the very large
erystals play a minor part, the whole rock here looking more
compact.

It is the last described dike that was the object of the
most detailed study, and of which Miss Naima Sahlbom
has made an analysis that resulted as follows:

14*

И ibn: 36:29 рег cent
HO au gaaanz. ab. sehen. aan am 4760 —
AbbOxiuoriue. ока амер re 10:91 —
Row alton) nage ddr Фито 75d =
Bao mot binoteen. matt hose asd. Sa ЧЕ
Mot Osteen, Aas. ARO ei. SR 0:23 —
CO звон, bansdaerltel.taiket: 13°48 —
Моя ноу pa ани 9°29 ==
К gOuiasnqncavotat добавив er en А
Na пони ий дно уток, 342 —
Hy OR рва asian Yo Hentai 3°65 (i eS

Further loss at ignition (Probably СО.) 3-85 —

10019 per cent

Microscopically this rock corresponds closely to the one
already described by Bäckström. The phenocrysts consist of
a dark-brown, strongly pleochroitic mica, which was not closely
examined, and may be partly an anomite, and also brownish
pyroxene, the extinction on (010) being about 38°, absorption
colour | a brownish, | 6 yellowish-green. At times a contrast
can be noticed between a light core and a darker outer border.
In contrast to these larger individuals we see a ground-mass
consisting of stalk-like pyroxene, abundance of ore and also
apatite; furthermore a not insignificant quantity of calcite,
sometimes occurring with primary appearance, but usually pseu-
domorphically replacing some other mineral; finally there is a
compact, brownish, almost isotropic mass, which may very well
be rich in nepheline, though no proof of it can be adduced.
By cold diluted hydrochloric acid it is only slowly decomposed.
Olivine seems to be lacking in the slide examined; melilite has
not been proved to be present, though it by no means follows
that it could not be met with in fresh parts of the rock; a few
almost opaque crystal individuals might possibly be perowskile.

1) Determined according to Penfield's method.

de

213

Already the somewhat strong decomposition of the material
before us makes it difficult to decide how to class this rock.
However, so much seems to be certain, that it is closely related
to the true alnöite, though we cannot give it this name as long
as melilite is not proved to occur. Of all the rocks known to me
from literature it seems to me to stand closest to the ouachitite
from Arkansas, described by Williams and Kemp. The ana-
lysis also recalls Keimp’s, the higher percentage of soda here
only showing a still closer relationship with alnöite.

The rock in the other dike is somewhat more holocry-
stalline, but in other respects shows really only the difference
that it is rich in small iserpentinized crystals which are un-
doubtedly secondary after olivine. Round these individuals there
are accumulated brown mica-scales. The ground-mass itself
consists chiefly of elongated individuals of pyroxene, together
with ore and some biotite; besides this there is a brownish,
strongly polarizing mass, but it was impossible to prove with
any certainty the presence of any felspathic mineral whatever.
The rock evidently belongs to the monchiquite group; whether
it should be regarded as olivine-ouachitite or receive another
appellation is a question that can only be decided when more
abundant material has been collected and examined.

Also the volcanic breccia in the little mass of rock is closely
allied to the preceding types. I could not point out olivine
with any certainty: fine grains of ore perfoliate the mass still
more abundantly, and the real, compact ground-mass, presumably
rich in calcite, is so weakly double refractive that one is in-
clined to think it to be partly vitreous. Large isolated rounded
grains of felspar probably derive from melted abyssal rocks. —
In this connection may be mentioned the large round grains
of brown mica that occur here and there: here it is evidently
the rock’s own large crystals which have afterwards been partly
melted or corroded.

It is impossible to say anything more precise about the

214

age of these rocks ог about their relationship to some others in
the same district. But I think we may assume with great pro-
bability that they are connected in some way with the rocks
at С. Parry and С. Fletcher, and, consequently, like the latter
are of paleozoic age. In any case it must have afforded some
interest to have given a somewhat more detailed account of
this curious group of rocks than has been offered before. It
was of interest to observe that it not only occurs in dikes, but
also in greater masses, and that like the rocks at Alnön, it
occurs in combination with limestone and, to a very great
extent, constitutes a true breccia. A more exact geological
examination of this district will undoubtedly lead to very in-
teresting results 1).

B. Tertiary Basalts.

Around the NW. parts of the Atlantic basin, as has long
been known, a monotonous series of basaltic surface rocks
present themselves within an immense area. They have their
greatest distribution on Iceland, the 100,000 km? of which
rest, as far as we know, throughout on these rocks. The Faroes,
too, though much smaller, are built up entirely of basalts.
Along the W. coast of Scotland and the N. coast of Ireland
we again find the same rock predominant in extensive tracts,
and if we go in the opposite direction it has already been
pointed out by Scoresby that within the most projecting and
accessible parts of E. Greenland basalt is almost the pre-
dominant rock in the coast-belt.

The three first of these areas have been made known by
numerous researches, in the first place by James Geikie’s

1) Professor А. G. Högbom in Uppsala has most kindly placed at my
disposal, for purposes of comparison, the rich material of alnôitic and
nepheline-syenitic rocks which he collected from Sweden and elsewhere;
moreover, he has examined and expressed an opinion about several of
the most interesting rocks described above. For this kindness I beg to
express to him in this place my warmest thanks.

classic investigations!). This is not the place to enter into the
many questions, among others the history of the origin of the
sheeted lava rocks, which are dealt with there. We will simply
recall that all these areas are generally considered, if not at
one time united, at least to have been much more extensive
than now, and that consequently the question of the origin of
the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean is most closely bound
up with the study of these basalts. As to the time of the for-
mation of the rock-mass itself, we know it was spread over a
long period; on Iceland the volcanic activity and formation of
basaltic rocks continues to this very day. But generally
speaking, the supposition is accepted that the bulk came into
existence during the Miocene period, the same epoch as that
from which, as we have seen, it has been assumed that the
bulk of the Arctic Tertiary plants derives. Our discovery at
C. Dalton of marine Tertiary formations of the Eocene age
(probably corresponding to the London clay and Bagshot Beds),
younger than a part of the true basalt formation, is thus not
less important for the question of the age of the basalts than
for that of the plant fossils. In this area at least the basaltic
eruption was in full swing already in Eocene times, an inter-
esting result, the application of which will be of the highest im-
portance for many geological questions touching the latest geo-
logical periods. However, I will not dwell on these points here,
but pass on to a short petrographic description of the rocks
and the different localities.

As we already know, the basalt occurs in two large areas
in E. Greenland, divided by Davy Sund and Scoresby Sund
and the gneiss mass of Liverpool Land lying between the two.
Both areas, as far as we know, are confined exclusively to the
coast, which they follow, put together, for a distance of at least
ten degrees of latitude. The southern area takes in a widely

1) J. Geikie: The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain.

216

extended peninsula, and thus stretches further inland than the
northern, which latter Г will now describe.

The Northern Basalt Area is only known to me per-
sonally from our visit to Sabine I. and from a short landing
at C. Borlase Warren. Up to now our knowledge of this
area is chiefly indebted to the second German Polar Exp.,
which wintered there; since that Nathorst has also published
a number of notes about it. I shall therefore confine myself to
a few observations. Sahine I. is characterized chiefly by the
huge and extensive stratifications of Tertiary sandstone found
in the basalt; nowhere in the basaltic area of Е. Greenland
south of Hochstetters Land are they so extensive as here.
That the basalt is in part more recent than the Tertiary strata,
whose age is not exactly fixed, is proved by the dikes that
intersperse it, as also by the traces of contact metamorphism
I spoke of before. , Still, the basalt itself is the prevailing rock,
and round Germania Harbour it can be seen in its typical
development, formed of apparently horizontal sheets piled on
each other. Towards the interior of the island numerous dikes
appear, and in Hasenberg, built up for a good part of schists and
sandstone, we find also intervening layers of tufaceous rocks and
volcanic scoriæ. Microscopically viewed, the forms I examined
are only noteworthy in their being considerably better preserved
and more thoroughly crystalline than the sheeted rocks in the
southern area, but I do not know whether this can be said of
such forms as, for instance, those around Germania Harbour,
which are of similar appearance as in the region mentioned.

Also the rocks at С. Borlase Warren are coarsely crystalline,
doleritic, and slightly porphyritic. No fresh olivine is to be
found in them at the present moment.

The Southern Basalt Area. This has never before
been the object of detailed observation. From the southern
side of Scoresby Sund to Kangerdlugsuak, where the coast
makes its bend to the south, and where its southern boundary

217

has been fixed by Amdrup, basalt is everywhere predominant;
to the west it appears as far as the ‘South Glacier” (Syd
Bre), directly $. of Danmark I., after which its substratum,
gneiss, rises higher and higher. Around the whole of Gaase
Fjord, however, according to Bay, this rock is covered by
basalt. More detailed observations as to the course of the
boundary line between these two rocks do not seem to have
been taken, and yet an investigation ‘into the matter in this
area, where the boundary for stretches of many miles lies ex-
posed, would be extremely valuable and might contribute to the
solution of a number of important questions of geological and
early topographical interest. Dikes may also occur at greater
distances from the true basaltic mass, thus, for instance,
occasional ones on Liverpool Land and on Jameson Land, in
the N. part of which we even find basaltic rocks in large
masses and of different appearance (see below), while the most
northerly dikes | saw were at C. Fletcher and could be looked
upon just as well as belonging to the N. area as to the one
in question’). Whether the sheets of porphyrites from Fame
I. and Fleming Inlet can really be classed among this series,
is a question that cannot be answered at the moment. In the
W. dikes, still from the innermost part of West Fjord, have
been described by Bay, in the NW. dikes from the NE. part
of Milnes Land, but not from North-West Fjord. In the South,
Amdrup has described similar conditions: basalt as a covering,
and at the contact an Archaean rock, interspersed with ex-
ceedingly numerous basalt dikes). As to the presence of basaltic

1) The $. part of the N. basalt area is moreover little known, and it looks
as if certain divergences from the usual types should occur here, so
for instance at C. Broer Ruys, described by Toula and Nathorst.

An excellent idea of the great contrast between the Archæan rocks,
rounded by the erosion by water and ice, and the steep and rugged
basalt cliffs, is given by figures 4 and 5, reproduced from photographs
taken by Amdrup not far from one another, near the southern boundary
between the two formations.

2

sø

218

dikes further 5. on the same coast, I may refer to my former
description of these rocks").

Within this mighty area — the district where basalt
forms the rock bed, in the 5. area alone, can be estimated
at 40,000 km? — the basalts, in splendid development, show
the marked stratiform alternation of variously constituted sheets
which have so often been described from other places. My
investigation have not been extensive enough for me to con-
tribute anything to the problem the origin of similar basalt

Fig. 4. Rounded gneiss hills (the first seen on the way southward from
Scoresby Sund) on the E. side of Kangerdlugsuak.
С. Amdrup phot. 8: 8: 1900.

plateaus. Nowhere did I come across transitions to the true
volcanic type. While dikes of basalt are very common,
even in the basalt itself, I could never with certainty point to
one so connected with a superposed sheet of basalt that one
could be sure that it had served as an eruptive canal for
the same. On the other hand in the dikes themselves there
often occur irregularities that point to the lava not having

1) Medd. om Grenland. XXVIII, 1—16.

fur Ros +

eee aS - OO ee +

K

219

flowed evenly but having lumped itself in some places. In the
hope of being able to contribute to the question of the fjord
formation, and possibly to that of the occurrence of faults in
these districts, I made several attempts to follow a connected
sheet in the basalt throughout its length. When I had to do
with stretches up to several kilometres, there were always great
diffieulties, as either the sheets pinch out, or they are cut off
by smallish faults, which are evidently not rare, though I never
saw that they were connected with the formation of the fjord.

Fig. 5. Steep basalt cliffs at the entrance of Jensens Fjord.
G. Amdrup phot. 6: 8: 1900.

Of foreign rocks within the basalt area there occur, as far
as we know, only Tertiary sandstones, and even these very sub-
ordinately. I have already dealt previously with their origin
and appearance: they remind us, generally speaking, mostly of
enclosed fragments; only at C. Dalton is there a real inter-
vening layer. Enclosed fragments of other foreign rocks were
not noticed by me anywhere.

In a few places I took vertical sections at accessible parts
of the sequence of rock varieties, in order to be able to compare

220

the different sheets with one another. Macroscopically, the
following main types can be distinguished:

1) Compact, aphanitic, dense, black basalts, often showing
columnar structure, while spheroidal structure and weathering
are to be looked for rather in diabasic forms that are transitions
to the next type.

2) Coarse crystalline, doleritic forms.

3) Porphyrites, which however seem to play only a small
part among the sheet-like basalts.

4) Red basalts, coloured by iron ochre, often of slaggy
structure.

d) True amygdaloids, perhaps the commonest form of all,
very varied in appearance.

To give a more exact account of any of these vertical
sections would scarcely be of interest. However, the rock at
C. Brewster is remarkable. It looks, as if we had here two
main divisions in the basalt series. The lower consists mostly
of a rather dense, even grained, somewhat yellowish grey mass,
with indistinct amygdaloidal structure. Above it lies a real tufa,
with black scoriae in a yellow vitreous mass. Above this, at the
point of contact with the upper division, there is a grey, dense
basalt, a red burnt amygdaloid, and an intensively red, sandstone-
like rock. Whether it is to this middle zone that we can also
assign the numerous fragments of foreign, presumably Tertiary,
sandstone, metamorphosed by contact, and also the different-sized
pieces of petrified wood-trunks, which characterize this locality,
is not certain, but seems to me probable.

On this follows a huge upper zone, which at the line of
contact and in its lower part is made up of a dense, greyish
yellow rock. Further W. this zone sinks more and more, until
finally it reaches down to the shore. The rock here is a fine,
thoroughly crystalline, normal basalt, without prominent surface
structures.

To what extent the sequence of rocks observed here is a

bo
wo
—

local phenomenon, or is be continued over a large district, I
could not decide from a single landing. Anyhow, the volcanic
zone with tuffs and scoriae is very conspicuous.

Volcanic surface forms in the basalt are also to be found
in other places, for instance, on Dunholm, a little further S.,
where the lava sheets show splendid flow-forms.

Interesting is also a locality on the S. of Henry Peninsula.
Here lies a very fine series of varying, partly very irregular
sheets of basalt, mostly amygdaloidal. А very prominent, yellowish
zone proved to be а crushed breccia, cemented together mainly
by zeolites, especially laumontite (see below). In the breccia
are also to be found veins of a lighter, presumably silicious
mass, also green efflorescences, which are perhaps coloured
by a copper-salt. Under it lies a compact basalt without
visible scoriaceous structure. I was much interested to find,
at the boundary between both these forms of rock, a hot
spring containing sulphuretted hydrogen and with a temperature
of 38° C., julting out of the perpendicular mountain wall, ex-
pelling a quantity of vapours, and strongly marked also by the
rich green algous vegetation, which thrives in the warmish
water running down to the shore in the form of a little brook’).

Microscopically examined, it turns out that all these varieties
are very closely related. All, without exception, are basalts,
composed of augite and lath-shaped plagioclase, often with
some ore, the minerals contained showing great variation in
quantity when compared with one another. Already macros-
copically one is struck by the rarity of fresh, doleritic or
coarsely crystalline forms, andsthis is confirmed microscopically ;
in none of the samples of the basalt sheets that I examined did
| find fresh olivine, althougt green transformations show that

1) The only warm spring hitherto known iu Greenland is situated on the
Island of Unartok in SW. Greenland; its temperature is about 40° C.

222

it existed, nor glass. Really porphyritic structure is rare, but
both augite and plagioclase often appear in an older generation
of large individuals; possibly the rock tried to assume doleritic
structure in an intratelluric epoch. The rocks are traversed and
coloured in a very variable degree by a red ferric oxide mass.

It cannot be denied that, though this is true to some
extent also of other districts with fine sheeted basalts, it is
very curious that a rocky mass of such immense extent, formed,
in all probability, during a very long period and during numerous
separate eruptive epochs, can show, mineralogically viewed, such
great uniformity. Whether this is equally great chemically, is
a question that in any case demands closer investigation.

Strongly divergent rocks are very rarely to be met with.
On the other hand, considerable variations in the same basalt-
sheet often appear. It can frequently be noticed that the lower
part of a well developed sheet is plainly crystalline, while the
structure upwards becomes ever compacter and more aphanitic,
until the mass finally passes over into amygdaloid or scoria. The
upper part of a bank not rarely shows red colouring, and once
at least I noticed a bank of this kind pass over at the top into
an intensive red, jaspidean, compact rock.

Worth mentioning are also the minerals which in great
variety fill the amygdaloidal spaces. I myself have only observed
them in so far as I collected specimens of them wherever they
were fine enough to seem suited to a mineralogical analysis.
Nowhere are they so finely developed as in the famous localities
on Iceland and the Faroes, but at a few spots really well
developed crystals were found, and a mineralogist with plenty
of time at his disposal would probably reap a good harvest
there. The most important of these places are Henry Land
with environs up to Bartholins Glacier!) and С. Brewster. The

1) Also called Henry Glacier in BOggilds work.

223

samples collected have been described by Böggild!), following
whom I add the following list:

Henry Land: Quartz, Chalcedony, Thaumasite, Chabazite,
Levynite, Desmine, Scolecite, Analcite, Heulandite, Laumontite >).

Turners Island: Quartz, Chalcedony, Thaumasite, Des-
mine, Scolecite, Natrolite, Mesolite, Analcite.

С. Brewster: Chalcedony, Desmine, Natrolite, Mesolite,
Analcile, Apophyllite, Heulandite.

Moreover, we may mention that on Sabine I. within the N.
basalt area, Scolecite and Desmine were found.

It still remains for me to deal with the qualities of the
basalts when they appear as dikes or in contact with other
rocks. Such dikes within the gneiss are in many places ex-
ceedingly common, for instance, in certain parts inside Scoresby
Sund, and also, according to Amdrup, at the S. boundary of
the basalt area. These dike basalts are, to judge from the
samples I saw of them, fresh, clearly crystalline, typically
developed plagioclase-augite rocks, and it is especially charac-
teristic that, in contrast to the sheeted basalts, fresh olivine
almost always was observed here.

From Danmark I. Вау?) brought back a specimen of the
contact itself between gneiss and a basalt dike. The former
at the point of contact is almost irrecognizibly transformed
and forms a mass that reminds one somewhat of a porphyry
breccia; the “matrix”, probably through fusion of basaltic
material, has received a basic composition, while the irregular
“fragments” lying in it are composed of the strongly changed
remains of the original rock: quartz in individuals strongly
corroded by fusion and showing sinuous outlines (the bottle-

1) Medd. om Grønland, Vol. XXXII.

*) Laumontite, which is by no means common in Greenland, and was
not seen before on the E. coast, occurs very plentifully in the breccia
in the hanging wall of the hot spring mentioned above.

3) Medd. om Grønland, МХ, р. 152.

224

shaped curves characteristic of the corroded phenocrysts of quartz-
porphyries do not occur) surrounded by rings of thin, strongly
refractive prisms, and felspar interspersed with a compact, fine
pigment, and in spots quite transformed through new mineral for-
mation. The basalt dike itself at the point of contact is a true
olivine-bearing augite-porphyrite, with a hyalopilitic ground-mass.

In the isolated gneiss area of Liverpool Land, out by the
coast, the basalt dikes seem, curiously enough, to be very
scarce, which seems to indicate that the two large basalt areas
were not connected earlier. The dikes I saw showed nothing
remarkable.

In the sedimentary formations basalt dikes occur both in
the Réde O conglomerate and the C. Leslie sandstone, according
to Bay, and also in the Jurassic strata of Jameson Land.
Here, however, it is almost exclusively in the shore cliffs at
Hurry Inlet that one has a chance of noticing them; we find
both dikes, and stratified, not lens-like, banks, so splendidly
regular that one is tempted to look upon them as volcanic
sheets contemporaneous with the surrounding Jurassic strata.
This, however, is not the case: occasionally one can observe
how they suddenly cut off the sandstone strata, or even that two
basalt strata cross over each other (cf. the fig. Pl. XIV). A finer
example of typically intrusive sheets would be hard to find
elsewhere’). A specimen which I examined microscopically was
remarkable in that the augite, to an even greater extent than
usually, forms a kind of matrix, in which the lath-shaped
felspar-individuals swim, as it were. Fresh grains of olivine
were still visible).

!) The eircumstances must have been observed already by Bay; cf. the
figure in Medd. om Gronland, XIX, p. 166.

*) The interior of Jameson Land is so completely covered by post-tertiary
strata that one rarely has an opportunity of observing the basalt dikes.
On the other hand, I found in the N. part, as dikes and even small
masses in the Jurassic sandstone, curious alternatingly light and dark,
compact rocks recalling basalt; similar types are also found as blocks

225

Lastly, аз has already been mentioned, a basalt dike of
normal appearance"), macroscopically as well as microscopically,

was found interspersing the sedimentary rocks and the curious

år

eruptive series at С. Fletcher. At С. Brown, too, basalt seems
to occur. Here, however, we are already nearer the N. basalt
area.

Topographical Description.

As has been hinted above, two main types, topographically,
can be distinguished in the parts of Greenland under con-
sideration, viz. an inner central mass, to which only the
larger fjords with their deeper forks extend, and which can be
characterized as a kind of plateau-land in which distinct ridges
and for the inner regions also peaks may be lacking or un-
obtrusive, and an outer, more or less sharply broken up coast
border. This latter, in its turn, may be divided into two main

in the river inside Fleming Inlet, and thus seem to be charactistic of
this area. The few specimens I could bring along from these remote
parts belong to a curious type, characterized by the mineral combination
of plagioclase-augite-biotite with iron ore and a green chloritic or ser-
pentinoid mass, derived perhaps from olivine. One specimen (block)
contains phenocrysts of plagioclase, augite and ore, while the ground-
mass has an almost granophyric appearance and contains, besides
biotite, felspar and the green decomposition products just men-
tioned, a good deal of quartz and hornblende. Another slide shows a
light, plagioclase-augite mass with the former mineral dominating, a
somewhat disintegrated diabase, but also dense dark fragmentary patches,
which consist chiefly of the first mentioned, characteristic minerals.
These rocks cannot be older than Jurassic, but it seems difficult to
group them together with the usually monotonous basalts; nor is there
any reason to class them with the syenite and monchiquite series
which have already been described. Perhaps they fall under the class
of the curious porphyrite rock from the interior of Hurry Intet (Fame
Islands).
*) But with large prominent plagioclase phenocrysts.

XXVIII. 15

226

divisions, viz. an inner part, including chiefly the surroundings
of the fjords, and an outer, the real coast with its islands.
While the central mass, presumably quite independent of the _
generally very monotonous nature of the rock, is rather uniform
in its configuration, the districts that are occupied by the two
latter divisions vary very much topographically, in which re-
spect, as we shall see, they show that they are largely dependent
on the variations of the rock.

In consideration of this variation, we can set out in our
description from a somewhat divergent and more detailed classi-
fication, and herewith distinguish the following types:

The coast-border: Liverpool Land Type (Archaean rock).
i Basalt Territories.
Type of sedimentary rocks.
Jameson Land Type (Quaternary).
The central mass.

1. Liverpool Land"). We will begin with the description
of the part, the topography of which shows Ше strongest con-
trasts, а type which, in these districts, recurs especially in Liver-
pool Land or the large ‘island’ of Archaean rock that forms
the stretch of coast between Scoresby Sund and Davy Sund.
This tract, discovered and described by Scoresby, has since
been visited by Nathorst, who gives a characteristic picture
of its external coast”), which is also seen on the picture op-
posite, from a sketch by Ditlevsen (Fig. 6), as well as on the
attached painting Pl. XII.

No words could describe the wonderful wildness of this coast
as it first strikes the eye as you approach it from the sea, and in this
respect it is scarcely excelled by any other stretch of coast, and that

1) In all previous descriptions this tract has been called by the name
given by Scoresby, Liverpool Coast. This designation, however, is
evidently inappropriate for the whole peninsula, and should be changed
to Liverpool Land.

?) In his “Tvä somrar i norra ishafvet‘“, II, 194.

despite the fact that the mountains do not exceed 1000—1200 metres
in height. The dip to the sea is usually very sheer, often impossible
to climb, but not very high. At about at right angles to the
coast-line a number of valleys intrude, rather short but com-
paratively very deep and broad, and often filled with huge
glaciers. Islands outside the coast only occur in small num-
ber; the tendency to develop longitudinal valleys has obviously
been very weak'). The highest peaks lie somewhat inland, but

Fig. 6. Liverpool Land, Eastern coast, a little N. of С. Greg. Typical
appearance of the steep, pointed, archean mountains.
(From a sketch by Е. Ditlevsen.)

only at a short distance from the shore, and rise in strange
wildness, often almost perpendicularly, as, for instance, the
Church Mountain mentioned by Scoresby. They are separated
from one another by deep corries and giddy, bold ridges. The
ice-covering is very extensive but not prevalent even inland.

It is plain that we have here a particularly fine example
of the type of pointed mountains which, in their contrast to
other, usually lowish districts with rounded hills, are described by
$ 1) Even C. Greg is situated on a peninsula; Scoresby's map is then correct
also in this point.

“LSI

зиезипой JSIOUJUN wo 099$ ‘pur [JoodıaAı jo 19809 M pue Jajug Аман

(yooy ‘4 ‘Г Aq Yyovoys в шодя)

228

Nansen from SE. Greenland, and
which are adduced by him as a proof
that the parts have never been covered
by inland ice. Whether this inter-
pretation is right, or whether we
must be content to assume that the
period that has passed since a pre-
sumable ice-cover retired was suffi-
ciently long for the tops to be chis-
elled out, is a question to which I
may possibly return elsewhere.

In contrast to the parts here
described stands the type of land-
scape which one finds on the S. side
of the same Liverpool Peninsula.
Here the whole country is lower
and at the same time all the hills
are rounded, approximating to the
other Nansen type, just mentioned.
Already on the SE. coast we have
an interesting configuration in the
contrast between the level, rounded
plateau land and a very steep dip
towards the sea, quite typically mar-
ked, pretty much as is common in
the fjord distriets of the W. coast
of Greenland as described by: у.
Drygalski!). Where any peaks
rise above the average level, they
are gentle, much as those in the
№, in the sandstone territory. A
few large, broad corries descend
right down to the sea-level, filled

| 1) Grånland-Expedition, 1,145.

229

with а beautifully stratified, typical névé ice (as seen from the ship);
their steep, parabolically curved walls form a contrast to the
abrupt, steep dips to the sea, and also to the rounded hillocks
of the plateau.

Before returning to the 5. coast, I will first describe the
W. slope of the land forming the coast of the fjord-like but
probably shallow longitudinal valley, Hurry Inlet. That this
stretch of coast differs materially from not only the E. coast,
but also from most fjord coasts is obvious at once in its utter

Fig. 8. Western slope of the foreland hills of Liverpool Land, seen from
the shore of Hurry Inlet. (Nordenskjöld phot.)

lack of harbours, as already Ryder showed. Topographically
we may distinguish here three different longitudinal zones, that
may be seen on fig. 7, viz. 1) the Nunataks, situated furthest
in, steep and often very pointed, surrounded by masses of ice,
and presumably all situated rather far E. and mostly identical
with the peaks already spoken of as visible from the E. coast;
2) a long sloping foreland, beginning at a height of about
600 metres, quite devoid of all peaks and from a distance giving
the impression of a plateau, while in detail the slopes appear

230

with the rounded forms of ‘‘roches moutonnées”, with typical
lee-side to the W., and partly covered with débris formed by
disintegration of the rock in place, partly with true, somewhat
washedgiout moraine-débris, whose connection with the ice-
masses soon to be met with in the Е. is apparent. The “‘hillocks”
themselves attain a height of 50 m or more above the level of
the plateau. [

The foreland that is shown on fig. 8 and which may also be seen

Fig. 9. The coast of Liverpool Land opposite the Fame 1. Young deposits
of clay and sand, in the middle of the bluff shell-bearing.
(Nordenskjöld phot.)

on the painting Pl. X, passes over gradually to the W. into 3) the
true shore-land, a zone of a breadth of up to a few km, where
solid rock either does not appear at all or only in the deeper cuttings,
while for the rest the ground is chiefly composed of rounded
gravel and sand. The latter sometimes forms perpendicular walls
facing the sea, rising to 25 m in height; in this sand, at a
height of 10 m and right opposite Fame Islands, Hartz found
clayey intervening layers with shells of Mya and other genera
(efr. fig. 9). Beginning on the precipice we come across an

231

even gravel terrace, 20—40 m above the sea. Above this ter-
race there rise in many places, especially as one proceeds in-
land, numerous more or less irregular, often steep ridges or
banks, rising to a height of 30—40 m or more above their
surroundings. These long banks, which occur especially at the
NE. corner of Hurry Inlet, often misleadingly recall moraines;
however, they consist of gravel composed of local rocks, and
large blocks are lacking. They are presumably a kind of river
terraces; at the same time it must be observed that real mo-
raine ridges seem to occur under similar conditions, especially
further south. A characteristic view of the surface of this
shore-land is given on the picture pl. XIII.

That harbours and bays are lacking on this coast depends
exclusively on the presence of this area of deposition, the
reverse of the usual denudation areas on such coasts. For the
highland itself is interspersed with transverse valleys, whose
fjord-type is unmistakable, and which are clearly distinguished
from the usual steeply sloping valleys of river erosion, which
latter are numerous here also. I have visited two of these
valleys, viz. one opposite Fame Islands (‘‘Kalkdalen”, or ‘‘Lime-
stone Valley”, the same valley in which the dikes and masses
of monchiquite rocks were found), and the southernmore of
the two valleys situated about half way up the fjord, the glacier
valleys that are plainly marked on the maps. The former!)
continues about 5 km in a N. 40° E. direction, the same
direction in which one of the here prominent systems of joints
runs; broadly speaking, however, it is more or less “5” shaped.
At the mouth itself, where it meets the shore terrace, the
valley is shut off by a rocky wall, through which the river has
made its way in a narrow canyon, over 10 metres in depth.
We have here an exceptionally fine example of a barrier of a
true rock-basin, now changed into a supra-marine fjord valley,

1) Koch’s map, which shows the mouth of the river, unfortunately gives
us no idea of the topography of this area in detail.

232

and situated just at the spot of the former mouth of the fjord,
where, theoretically, one would expect to find it. Above this
rock barrier the valley opens out abruptly, and the river runs
in many shallow branches over a broad sandy level plain.
probably a deep, now filled-up hollow. Above this again the
side walls approach each other, whereupon the real river valley
begins, closed farther inland by a not inconsiderable glacier
which with a broad tongue shoots down into a hollow between
higher mountain masses (cfr. fig. 32). The walls of the valley
here are steep, though scarcely insurmountable, and practically
free from weathering debris; they show the characteristic form
of valleys that have got their shape independent of the activity
of running water (cirques, glacier valleys and fjords), and which
has been called the U-form, though a better comparison would
perhaps be with the parabolic. Especially fine here is the
contrast between these valley-walls and the flat rounded table-
land on the heights of the hills, and it seems curious that
both should have arisen through the same kind of ice-erosion.
To explain this we must assume that the valley in its origin is
older than the ice-erosion, and the contrast must be ascribed to
the great difference in the activity of the ice in a narrow cleft
or on an open plateau-land and on the top of the hills.

The southern valley in general shows great resemblance
with the one described, but does not offer the same interest’).

On the other hand the tops of the lower, western Nunataks,
surrounded by glaciers and masses of ice, which I had an ор-
portunity of examining more closely in the heart of these val-
leys, are quite interesting. As far as Г could push forward 1
found that they still contained traces of a plateau shape, which
however when viewed from a height showed itself to be con-
siderably affected by an incipient corrie formation, which has

1) On Koch’s map one can see in this valley, as well as in another im-
mediately N. of it, a broad lake-area, corresponding to the wide plain,
filtered by the numerous river-branches that I described above.

233 .

changed the whole surface of the plateau into rounded crest-
walls, alternating with broad deep valleys, which serve as col-
lecting areas for the masses of ice (cfr. the description of the
glaciers on p. 269, and also fig. 32).

A specially interesting view of a part of this territory I
got from the heights at С. Brewster on the $. side of Scoresby
Sund. The S. coast of Liverpool Land is highly cut up by
rounded bays, in which respect it is distinguished from both
the coasts we considered above. The land rises slowly from
the shore, with a shallow inclination. The distant mountains
in the E. are quite high and wild, with deep valleys of
all the types that are usual in such mountainous districts.
Towards the W. this mountainous landscape passes over gra-
dually into the level plateau-like foreland, which from a con-
siderable height slowly sinks towards the W. The slope to the
$. is fairly steep; the valleys short, steep and deep, ending in
comparatively gentle, deep chasms. Down against the lowland
at the coast extend ridges with gentle, rounded crest; between
these must lie, or must have lain, glaciers. — Furthest to the
SE. the land gets lower, flat and covered by a huge, dome-
like mass of ice. The low foreland at the extreme headlands
was fairly free of snow at this time of year, and was decked
by a mighty cover of weathering debris, almost entirely devoid
of vegetation, and lying practically in situ.

Among the most interesting phenomena in this area are
the small indentations in the coast line that Г came across in
the district of С. Tobin. From the wide, rounded bays which
alone appear on the older maps, several fjord-like inlets with
steep sides penetrate into the low land. One of these I made
a special object of study: it is situated to the NW. of С. Tobin,
and in the event of a wintering would probably offer a service-
able harbour. It is connected with the outer bay by means of
a narrow channel, but opens out suddenly further in to a little,
almost circular, bowl-shaped valley, surrounded by steep walls.

234

On the N. side of the fjord, at a height of 50—80 metres,
there is a level terrace with some fine rocky lake-basins; from
these the land rises in short, steep terraces. On the S. side
there is a low terrace-land, only 15—30 m in height. It is
this boundary line, which must represent a fissure, but probably
not a fault, that determines the direction of the fjord. The
inner basin-wall is about 50 m high and very sheer. Above
this there is a narrow terrace; then again a steep wall, and
then a more gentle sloping valley, which continues to run in
the direction of the fjord, and, like the whole of this inner
part, is surrounded by high, steep walls. This valley ended at
a large field of snow, which descends from a low depression,
probably direct from the great highland ice mentioned above.
At its foot there is a small lake, from which a little river runs
into the fjord, in a small though evident canyon. As usual,
one can see here how the river erosion has had nothing to do
with the actual shape of the large valley, whose shape it
rather seeks to deface.

2. The Basalt Areas. Essentially unlike the districts
described above are the areas where the rock consists of basalt.
As has been already mentioned, this is the case in the most
northerly part of the coast region visited by the Expedition,
and also in all the large territory south of Scoresby Sund.
Though the character in each case is very similar, we will
describe these territories separately.

Within the northern basalt area I visited practically only
Sabine 1., while a short landing was also made at С. Borlase
Warren. In comparison with the southern area, this one offers
a certain interest by reason of the comparatively narrow distri-
bution of the basalt in the direction from E. to W. and of the
abundant variation of archaean and later sedimentary rocks in
its neighbourhovd.. A view from, let us say, Hasenberg on
Sabine 1., as in the picture fig. 10, clearly shows the varied
character of the landscape accompanying each of these rocks.

If, in this place, we only touch on the basalt type itself, it
appears to be very fine on Pendulum I., which forms a gently
dipping, monotonous plateau. Sabine I., too, is similarly rather
monotonous, although the numerous intercalated beds of Tertiary
sandstone in the basalt make its contours softer, and in any
case it never assumes the appearance of а true plateau. There
are various steep walls and ridges, both towards the sea and to-

wards some rather deep valleys, which, however, are not typical

Fig. 10. Scenery from Hasenberg, Sabine 1., to the West (Basalt; Archean
and Jurassic Rocks). (Nordenskjöld phot. 12: 7: 1900.)

cirques. On the other hand, pointed peaks are entirely lacking;
the highest tops only form gently rounded eminences, which
rise from the upper part of the mean level wich is always
about the same height, whether it be situated in plateaus or
ridges. The coast line is tolerably uniform, and Germania
Harbour, known from the German wintering, is only a rounded
creek, surrounded by low, steep walls, in a low gravel covered
basalt plateau, closely recalling a peneplain resulting from
supramarine erosion. The picture on fig. 11, also from а pho-

236

: ; Hvalros I.
Germania Berg. Germania Harbour

Fig. 11. View from Hasenberg to the East, across the valley that separates it from Germania Berg.
intercalations of tertiary sediments. (Nordenskjüld phot. 12: 7: 1900.)

Mostly basalt, with

tograph taken on Hasenberg, gives us а fairly good view of
this landscape.

That the whole stretch of the coast is rather cut about
and rich in islands, may be attributed to the great variety of
rock, rather than to any peculiar qualities in the basalt.

We now pass on to the S. area, which is particularly
interesting and typical; here too, I have had a far better op-
portunity of closely examining its coast-line. We have here,
as far as we know, the largest and most uniform basalt area
in Greenland — the area can be calculated to more than
40,000 km? or somewhat less than the half of Iceland — and
it therefore offers а good opportunity for the study of the topo-
graphic phenomena of a glaciated region of comparatively recent
and uniform rocks. No other rocks than basalt were known, prior
to our visit, to exist here; the Danish Expedition certainly
came across small intervening layers and enclosed fragments
of Tertiary sediments in several places, but with the exception
of the occurrence at C. Dalton, which is not very extensive
either, they do not affect the topography.

A fine view over this area is obtained from the N. side of
Scoresby Sund. (Cf. the description and drawings of Scoresby's,
and fig. 12 from Ditlevsen’s sketch, also plate V in Ryder's
work). As appears from the [map, this transversal coast is very
uniform, without indentations or islands. The mountains form
a fairly connected wall, with very few deep valleys, and those
filled with ice. The shape of the mountains is the one charac-
teristic of basalt rocks, i. e., with pyramid shaped peaks and
fine stratification, especially prominent when snow covers the
otherwise scarcely noticeable terraces. The peaks are often
extended into ridges, but extensive plateaus rarely occur here
on the coast border. The valleys that divide the ridges are
certainly not typical corries, but are evidently due to ice erosion.
On a small scale we find, as often in basalt mountains, a very
Sharp splitting up into small summits and pinnacles.

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The extreme penin-
sula at С. Brewster is
comparatively low and
plateau-shaped with steep
walls towards the sea.
The E. coast of Brewster
Land (the NE. peninsula
of Christian IX Land)
shows a great variation
in appearance compared
with the one described
above. However I did not
succed in getting a com-

-plete survey of the land.

Islands are not so nume-
rous as the old maps make
out; in the work of the
Expedition only Turner I.
remains as such; while
other large tracts, looked
upon as islands, proved
to be connected with the
mainland, though at times
only by very low necks
of land. Still, the coast
is much cut up by nu-
merous fjords, which, even
if they never attain a
greater length than 10—
15 miles, are in any case
very typical examples of
fjords in their every cha-
racter. In both these re-

spects they recall the

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239

generality of the Icelandic fjords, though they are probably а
good deal deeper. Especially fine is Römers Fjord, where we
sounded a depth of 128 fathoms, while at the mouth we found
111 fathoms, though neither figure!) can claim to be a maximum.
The average height of the surrounding mountain walls is about
800 metres, and they vary but slightly; nor is there here any
plateau landscape, but rather an interchange of ridges and
peaks, separated by valleys, to be described later on. The
inclination towards the fjord is almost perpendicular and the
banking of the rocks may be well seen in the walls. The
Henry Peninsula, too, is bordered by such sheer walls that it
can only be scaled with great difficulty at a few spots from the
ravines of small rivers.

I obtained a view over the interior of the land mainly
during a short tour across the ice on the so-called Bartholins
Glacier, which lies in a fjord-like, deeply eroded valley with
steep walls; it is a huge glacier, about 3 km broad at its
front. At first these mountains are broken up by cleft valleys,
and, when viewed in detail, split up into irregular summits and
peaks; but further in, everything closes in and seems to pass
over into broad plateaus, covered by but small masses of snow
(cf. also fig. 30 оп р. 268). I received the impression that the
land, already at a short distance from the coast, converges into
a few similar, level plateaus, as is the case in Iceland (NW.
Land), though possibly here, under the protection of the snow
and ice, of far greater extent and uniformity than there.

Characteristic of the basalt area, in contrast with the area
of Archaean rock, is consequently, in the first place the absence
of fjords of any length, and then the wall-like even if some-
what echinate boundary of the mountains, without any large,
pointed masses rising above the mean level. In this respect it
recalls the sedimentary areas described below, though these,

1) Quoted from the corrected figures on Kochs map.

240

by reason of the variation of the rock, show far greater
irregularities and variations in detail, at least in the outer
coast land.

Of particular interest within this area are the valleys: in the
same kind of rock, under the same natural conditions I have
not seen a finer variety, save only in Iceland, where on the
other hand the ice-cover is actually more retired. Of least
interest are the large valleys ending in glaciers, which end up
a number of fjords (for instance, the NW. bay from Turner
Sund) and evidently owe their origin to the combined effect of
ice and water. Otherwise the fjords end up (for instance, the
bay N. of C. Dalton) in true cirque walls where the rock bed,
as it was exposed after the retirement of the eroding glacier,
is visible everywhere, while a river flowing through in some
canyon-like crevice tries to form a lower valley level.

A splendid opportunity of studying these types of valleys
occurs in the interior of Turner Sund. Between the very
steep, slightly defined, but typically V-shaped river chasms,
and the long, often magnificent cirques with their sheer sides
and gentle slope outwards, there is a vast difference, and yet
the former probably only represent an early stage in the deve-
lopment that results in the latter, and the transition is marked
by the insignificant ‘‘niche” depressions, which at the top so
often end up the valleys of the former class, where snow and
ice have begun their work of first forming a corrie with its semi-
circular, steep border, and then incessantly depressing and
elongating the same.

Especially on Turner Island, on the E. side of the sound
in question, there are some very fine examples of such cirques,
which, divided only by narrow walls, run out at right angles

1) In Iceland, in the same kind of basalt rock, one finds similar finely
developed fjords, ending in cirques, for instance, in Dyretjord, in the
inner wall of which one can easily see that the fjord is not continued
by any fault-line.

241

to the sound from Е. to W. (cf. fig. 13). I had an opportunity
of examining a few of them. In all these the bottom at the
entrance lies at about the same height, about 200 m, and in front
of this level there is a slope towards the sea, which only forms
a continuation of the normal fjord wall. Possibly the sea stood
at about this level when the main formation of the cirques took
place. Through this slope the river from the cirque has cut
its way down in a deep chasm, and in front of at least one of

Fig 13. Cirque valley in basalt mountains on the SE. shore of Turner
Sund. To the left is seen the river chasm ending another similar
eirque valley. (Nordenskjöld phot. July 1900.)

the valleys we find a kind of delta formed by the masses of
gravel that the river has carried down and discharged. In all
the valleys we find a tendency to turn off from the SE. direction
towards the 5. Supervening side-valleys, also cirque shaped,
only оссиг subordinately; one of the valleys is split up into
two digital arms by a long projecting spur.

The length of the valleys seems to vary between 3 and 8 km;
in the valley | examined most closely it was 5 km, while the

XXVIIL 16

242

breadth reached about 1 km. The river gorge, which at the
mouth must have had a depth of about 50 m, becomes shall-
ower and shallower at the top and finally the river runs over
a couple of not insignificant falls, but the rise is comparatively
little until one reaches the inner ice-mass and its terminal
moraine, the foot of which lies about 100, and the upper sur-
face about 200 metres above the level of the valley bottom at
the opening of the valley. The walls of the valley are very
steep, even if not always quite unsurmountable, and have the
‘‘parabolic” shape characteristic of these valleys; there is по
difference in this respect between the side-walls and the front-
wall. The ice-mass, which is now inconsiderable in proportion to
the extent of the valley, but which was probably once the cause
of its formation, was not examined. Against the front wall
itself lie some very steep masses of snow, probably consisting
of ice in the interior. To these is attached, at the bottom of
the valley, a mass of ice which was now covered by snow that,
even at this time of year (July 22), was quite clean and free
from gravel, while on the other hand the ice itself, where it
appeared, was covered with masses of foreign substance. It is
interspersed with fissures in two directions, partly narrow, sharp
ones (magnetic E.-W.), partly hook-like ones, corresponding
most closely to structure bands (‘‘Blaubänder”).

I climbed the front wall in a little river cleft and found
there that only a narrow crest, very steep and as sharp as a
knife, separated the valley here described from another of similar
type, running in the opposite direction. This crest must ne-
cessarily break down gradually and then give rise to an “eid”,
arising exactly in conformity with Hellands well-known ex-
planation. The whole of Turner I. seems in this way to be
divided up into similar corries separated by narrow ridges. It
is interesting to note that nothing similar occurs on the corre-
sponding mainland, where the mountains are far more closely
joined and plateau-shaped.

wre

243

Since corries of such typical development rarely occur in
a rock with such evident alternation of strata as this, | took
particular trouble to follow some characteristic basalt banks
round the front wall in order to see whether any faults had
contributed to the formation of the valley. It turned out that
really a few small irregularities occurred, pointing to some
minor dislocations such as are common everywhere in these
basalts. But it seems to be equally certain that no large faults

occur here, and while the first foundation of the valley as

usual must have stood in connection with the weakness of the
rock along a dislocation line, the possibility of the whole actual
valley originating in connection with a depression or a large
fault seems to be entirely excluded.

To deduce from this any direct conclusions as to the
problem of the formation of the fjords is scarcely justifiable,
since no real analogy with the rock barriers at the entrance
of the fjords occurs here, but on the other hand it can scarcely
be doubted that numerous typical fjords, occurring in the same
kind of rock, have assumed an analogous stage during their
formation, for which reason every contribution to the history
of their origin is of great moment’).

3. The Region of the Sedimentary Rocks. Between
Scoresby Sund (W. of Hurry Inlet) and about 74° N. lat. appears a
broad zone of sedimentary rocks of an age, as far as we know,
varying between Silurian and Jurassic, and which was made known
by Scoresby, Koldewey, Ryder and Nathorst. These

1) In this paper I can unfortunately not enter further into the question of
the formation of fjords and corries, but must content myself with re-
ferring to an earlier paper of my own in the Bull. of the Geol. Instit.
of Uppsala, Vol. IV (1899), and to Richter, Geomorpholog. Untersuch.
in den Hochalpen, Peterm. Mitt., Erg.-Heft 132 (1900). — Sunk below the
sea, these cirque-valleys seem to me to correspond to certain typical
lateral fjords without entrance barriers (sills). On the other hand most
fjords are true basins and must have originated from the direct erosion
of moving ice, be it with or without discharge of loose material.

16*

244

rocks give rise to a particularly interesting and varied topo-
graphy. In our description we will, for the present, omit Ja-
meson Land with its Jurassic formations covered with Quaternary
strata, and proceed to deal with these parts that were visited
by the Expedition, viz. Fleming Inlet, Davy Sund and its south-
ernmost fork (Forsblads Fjord). The variation in the age of
the rocks is thus reduced; all the rocks may now be classed
as Paleozoic or Triassic.

All the interior of this part of Greenland, at and inside
the inmost fjords, is made up of a more or less connected
plateau. To encounter these plateau types one must retire a
long way from the coast line in the Archaean rock areas, while
the more pronounced the horizontal stratification or banking of
the rock is, the sooner we come across them: thus, in the
inmost parts of Fleming Inlet with its Mesozoic strata, and
still more plainly in Jameson Land, which already forms a true
plateau near Hurry Inlet.

Along the extreme outerjstrip of coast, however, it is just
these loose sedimentary rocks, on a large as on a small scale,
that show an exceptionally rich variation and strong splitting
up in a topographical respect. To understand the connection
between these two extreme types it is best to start from some
of the intermediate forms that stamp the character along the
main extension of the shores of the fjords.

In this case we can find two types. In Fleming Inlet there
is a series of gentle mountains, rising in terrace-like plateaus
according to the hardness of the various banks of rock; through
the often considerable thickness of these banks the type is
well distinguished from the basalt rocks. The peaks that rise
above the mean level are, as a rule, flat pyramid shaped. The
valleys here are not entirely fjord-like, not even the very con-
siderable Örsted Valley, which however I did not get a chance
of examining closely. They are certainly often eroded down
deep, but are short and broad, probably emptied glacier valleys,

————— линий

with lateral valleys which end somewhat abruptly, but so that
the innermost gorges are more angular and relatively more
broad at the top than usual in the corries. If there were really
corries here once, their shape has been рагИу destroyed. The
numerous minor valleys are wild and deep, with sheer slopes
and end in narrow clefts, of the true mountain river type. A
dissimilarity to the fjords in harder rocks arises in territories
such as these already by reason of the sides of the valleys not
being rounded off, but being either more gently sloping, or, owing
to breaking up through erosion and abrasion, angular or even
precipitous, which is easily explained by the nature of the rock
itself. A very narrow foreland outside the coast-steep is usu-
ally present; before every river it widens considerably owing
to the masses of gravel carried down.

The gentle impression made by this coast is most closely
connected with the uniform nature of the rock, which is without
any specially hard or divergent strata. We come across a very
different character at Davy Sund. On the S. side rise the high
Pictet Mountains; the country in front of them is comparatively
low and gentle. In the N., on Trail 1. the country is similarly
soft, though the shores are steep and somewhat wall-like, and
also the smaller crevices are deep, while the larger valleys are
broad and end in gently sloping cirques. Not until we ap-
proach “‘Drémbukten” do the valleys become more and more
important and at the same time closer to one another; they
almost go down to the base-level, and the crest that distinguishes
them from their closest matches is often low. What once existed
of a plateau-form is now quite destroyed.

In this region four different areas may be distinguished,
which we will briefly characterize.

Traill Island consists of isolated rounded masses divided
by deep valleys and themselves cut up by numerous small
valleys and chasms. Real peaks are generally lacking except
perhaps furthest out towards C. Simpson.

246

Fig. 14. Southern shore of Davy Sund, W. from С. Biot (Strata possibly
triassic). (G. Kruuse phot. 24: 8: 1900.)

Fig. 15. С. Brown, seen from N. (Nordenskjöld phot. 24: 8: 1900.)

The exact nature of the rock on this island is unluckily
not yet known. Fig.19, on p.250, from a sketch by Ditlevsen,
gives us an idea of the scenery of the east coast of the island.

The south coast of Davy Sund, towards C. Biot, pic-

247

tured on fig. 14, is more connected, soft and low, without pro-
minent peaks, but sometimes broken up into crest-shaped hills.
Also here it will be necessary to verify the nature of the rock,
which is on the map pictured as belonging to the Triassic,
though older rocks may occur, especially farthest out towards
C. Biot. Here, in fact, the topography reminds one somewhat of
the peninsula E. of Fleming Inlet, the region of C. Brown (see
fig. 15), forming with its harder rocks (cf. р. 178) a real transition to

Fig. 16. Mountains at the interior of Fleming Inlet (Triassic strata).
(Nordenskjold phot. 25: 8: 1900.).

the Canning Land type mentioned below. What is seen on the
picture is evidendly a narrow crest, not gentle in any place,
but without any prominent peaks and broken up by the for-
mation of transverse valleys. Connected with the almost hori-
zontal stratification is a partition in narrow terraces, which from
a distance alinost recalls a basalt coast.

Somewhat different is the scenery around Fleming Inlet.
The nature of the generally soft, triassic rock has already been
described. On the NW. the fjord is bounded by an almost
plateau-shaped wall, the isolated peaks everywhere showing a

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248

strong tendency to
assume pyramidal
shape, as shown on
fig. 16 and also on
the typical fig. 17.
Canning Land
(formerly ‘‘Canning
Island”) presents in
the extreme SE.near-
est Liverpool Land
a very different ap-
pearance and at
least in details al-
most vies with Li-
verpool Land in its
wild and broken to-
pography. The whole
peninsula consists
of a number of nar-
row, isolated ridges
and cones, not of
true peaks, divided
by deep and very
typical corries, and
also by ordinary
crevices. The slope
towards the sea is
very steep, and in
detail all the heights
are sharply moulded
out in peaks and
ridges (cfr. also fig.3).
This topography is
connected with the

249

rich variety ofrocks, in the formation of which huge, almost massive
banks of calcareous sandstone enter, as also not inconsiderable
quantities of the surface-eruptives that have already been described.
The beds dip rather abruptly and the emanating strata-tops of
harder beds produce peaked points projecting from the ridges,
as is beautifully shown on fig. 18, while fig. 20 gives us a
general idea of the aspect of the country, seen from a distance.

The landscape character of the areas just described is

Fig. 18. NW. Peninsula of Canning Land, seen from N.
(C. Kruuse phot. 24: 8: 1900.)

typical of the comparatively low, violently broken up districts
nearest the coast-line. Further inland, at some distance from
the forks of Kong Oscar Fjord, we find very high mountains,
which, however, were seen only at a distance. The character of
this mountainous landscape is best seen in the series of good
pictures that Nathorst reproduced in his work “Tvä somrar
i norra ishafvet”. Where the mountains consist of horizontal
sedimentary beds, they have most often a tendency to a plateau-
shape. The wildest mountains | had an opportunity of seeing
are the so-called ‘‘Syltopparne” (reproduced on р. 300 of op.

ET NEE À
Mountnorris Inlet. С. Parry.

‚ С. Simpson.

D LE MR
GET. NDS

au så

Fig. 19. Traill I., seen fromthe Е.

K.' Fletcher.
K. Allen.

Fig. 20. Canning{Land seen from NE, distance 15 miles. To the left, entrance of the Carlsberg Fjord,
(From sketches by E. Ditlevsen.) 3

251

cit.), whose topography recalls what I described from Canning
Land, the sharp, characteristic peaks probably owing their.
origin to the same phenomena, the resistance to erosion in
certain hard banks of the folded sedimentary rocks. Ber-
zelius Mountain, situated right opposite, with an almost
horizontal stratification, is pronouncedly plateau-shaped; the
same is splendidly reproduced, together with the vivid colours
of the rock, on the attached picture PI. XI, from a painting by
Ditlevsen.

| Su "så
BS

Fig. 21. Neill’s Cliffs, the Е. border of Jameson Land.
(C. Kruuse phot. 12: 8: 1900.)

The large, deep valleys that are met with here probably
stand in connection at times with irregularities in the rock,
but I noticed no true dislocation valleys; not even has Polhem
Valley, which follows so near to the boundary between archaean
and sedimentary rocks, originated in that manner.

4. Jameson Land (Jurassic and Quaternary Type).
This name indicates the territory to the N. of Scoresby Sund,
and situated between Liverpool Land, from which the greater part
is separated by Hurry Inlet, and the ice-covered interior N.
of Nordvestfjord; in its configuration it differs strongly from

à 252

both these areas. It is low, even and free from ice, especially
.in the southern part. It is known to me partly from a lengthy
excursion I made towards the NW. from the inmost part of
Hurry Inlet, partly from studies made along the whole of its
coast on Hurry Inlet and Scoresby Sund. As far as I could
see, all the rocky bed of the territory consists of Jurassic de-
posits’), which in the N. rise to peaks of 1000 metres and

Fig. 22. South coast of Jameson Land, near C. Hooker, with a large
stranded iceberg.: (G. Kruuse phot. 15: 8: 1900.)

more, and on Hurry Inlet form a steep wall of up to 600 metres
in height, (cfr. the typical pieture in fig. 21 and the painting
PI. XII), while towards the SW. they grow lower and lower, so
that they only exceptionally emerge, the whole country down
to the sea-level being formed of Quaternary deposits.

Both from a geological and a topographic point of view
the territory may therefore be divided into three main divisions,

1) Cfr. also the remark on p. 188.

|
i

|
|

253

viz. the N. highland area, the coast land on Hurry Inlet and
the lowlands in the S. and W.

The N. highlands consist mainly of isolated rocky mountain-
hills, separated by deep valleys with rather steep sides, though
not by real canyons. These mountains are also sometimes
covered by ice. But already a little further south these elevations
close up, so that one can speak of a true plateau, which slowly
rises from Ryders Dale from 150 to about 900 metres, and is
only interrupted here and there by shallow river-valleys. In
these valleys the rocky bed, mostly of light non-fossiliferous
quartz sandstone, is often visible. The slope, too, reveals nothing
remarkable, but the more interesting are the real plateau-
elevations of a mean height of about 800 metres. These are
covered everywhere by a large, level, connected cap, usually of
some metres in depth, of coarse, very well rounded and washed
out gravel, consisting of the greatest variety of rocks: granite,
syenite, pegmatite, quartzite, etc. I did not notice any basalt.
Already the variation in the blocks shows that they undoubtedly
derive from Ihe W. Large blocks, of more than about 2 metres
in length, are exceedingly rare. Up here the gravel is evenly
distributed; further south, however, one can often observe an
arrangement according to the type of shore-gravel, in that the
coarser material is gathered up into low hillocks, which are
surrounded by a ring of larger blocks, of which one measured
аз much as 5 metres in length. Here are also huge layers of
fine sand, which are lacking in the upper plateau. Sometimes
there even occur extensive fields of blocks of well rounded
stones, mostly covering lower districts. Finally, we may mention
some curious ridges (in several places, though not numerous)
of 4—5 m in height and 10—30 m in length, formed of well
washed pebbles, up to the size of nuts, with numerous blocks,
up to half a metre in length, scattered.around, at least on the
surface. These formations recall estuary terraces of glacial
rivers, or “озаг” in the making. А general view of this re-

254

markable country, аз seen from the northern hills, is shown
on fig. 23.

The same well rounded gravel, though in less quantity,
occurs up on the plateau heights right down to Саре Stewart,
and exceptionally I found even here on one of the highest
points, about 540 metres above the sea, a number of the same,
large, exceedingly well rounded and almost smooth polished
gravel-stones, so numerous in the N.

Fig. 23. Jameson Land, seen from the northern hills, in the direction
facing Scoresby Sund. (Nordenskjöld phot. August 1900.)

How this most peculiar formation, spread over so large an
area, came about, is not an easy question to answer. But it
shows such a remarkable resemblance to another, well-known
formation, the Patagonian gravel-formation, that we can scarcely
get away from the idea of an at least similar origin. In another
place!) I have dealt with the question of this probably quater-
nary gravel in detail, and proposed the theory that it was de-
posited by large glacier-rivers. In the present case, it is true,

1) Uber die posttertiiren Ablagerungen der Magellansländer; Svenska Exp.
till Magellansländerna Vol.J, no: 2, р. 43.

2

255

the facts, and especially the distribution of the gravel itself,
seem to speak with far greater emphasis in favour of a sub-
marine formation. But, on the other hand, one hesitates to
assume that the sea can so recently have stood nearly 1000
metres higher than now, and in any case it is difficult to ex-
plain the absence of correspondingly huge, fossiliferous deep

sea formations. As matters now stand, we may very well
imagine that there was here a large inland sea basin, though
this interpretation scarcely holds good of Patagonia. A few
small finds of sand that were examined for micro-organisms
proved to be sterile. |

The conditions along the coast at Hurry Inlet have partly
been touched on above, and it only remains for us to speak
of the coast profile itself. The Jurassic beds here usually
form a steep, often unsurmountable rocky wall, at the foot of
which are terraces and often extensive moraine-like formations
deserving of closer study than I could give them. It is most
probable that here under the lee of the high, perpendicular
wall, huge abruptly dipping drifts of snow and ice have lodged
for certain periods of time. Under the influence of wind and
thaw water, gravel and dust have been carried out onto their
surface, and then, when the snow melted, collected at the foot,
where they still lie, like embankments. The same phenomenon
can often be observed in full activity in the Polar regions. — The
interior of the territory forms part of the large plateau described
above, and, just as the beds dip, it gently sinks towards the S.

Of some interest are the river valleys one comes across
here, and whose type is common in both the areas described.

1) Far in the interior of Jameson Land, at a height of at least 300—400 m
above the sea, I made an interesting find, viz. a large piece of drift-
wood; according to Hartz, probably from a pine-tree. This undoubtedly
endorses the opinion that the sea in a late time reached so high, since
no other agent, even human, seems possible. — As well known, driftwood
has been found at still greater heights, on Ellesmere Land, by the
Nares Expedition,

256

Nearest the shore of Hurry Inlet there is a number of very
short and deep, steep chasms, which, as one gets higher up
to the verge of the plateau itself, widen out and are continued
in gentle, not conspicuous depressions. The large valleys, too,
belong to the same type, and in their lower part form wild, often
impassable chasms. Up country these suddenly come to an end, like
a sack, against a steep wall which is often roofed by a mass of .
ice, usually in an almost ‘‘dead” condition. These are the only
occurrences of glaciers to be found in these parts. And should
there be any continuation at all of the valley further inland, it
only forms a shallow, flat depression in the plateau, usually
filled with snow; nothing analogous to the canyon-like chasm
valleys of the coastal area is to be found in this part of the
interior of the country.

What we see here is evidently a polar type of valley in
a plateau area. On a lower level, rivers of thaw water have a
very erosive effect in the summer, whereas higher up, where
the snow does not melt, but only evaporates, almost every erosive
activity somewhat suddenly ceases.

Not less peculiar and interesting than these districts is
the SW. lowland territory. A foundation of solid sandstone
rock, of the kind already described, is only visible in a few deep
river valleys in the S. part of this territory. Here, on the
coast in the neighbourhood of C. Hooker we find, as a rule,
over this sandstone a clay with numerous stones, which at
times forcibly recalls a morainic boulder clay, but undoubtedly
consists of a stratified formation, having originated in a water
where at the same time blocks of ice had drifted about. I did not
come across it on a higher level than about 60 m above the
sea. Above the clay one usually finds moderately fine sand,
and above this a cover of coarse gravel similar to that just
described from the mountain plateau. Further towards the NW.,
on the other hand, the soil is formed exclusively of sand and
fine gravel, only exceptionally with narrow intervening layers

257

of clay, in which are sometimes found marine shells; these,
however, have not yet been classed. Along the coast, for-
mations of dune-sand are extensive. Foreign boulders occur
here and there, but are rather subordinate. Further inland,
10 km and more from the coast, they seem to be wanting
altogether. Noteworthy was a very large boulder lying near
the shore, 15 m long, 10 m broad, and 5 m high in the part
above the ground (fig. 24, “уапаге ок” on the map).

Fig. 24. Big boulder on the W. coast of Jameson Land, probably trans-
ported by an iceberg. (C. Kruuse phot. 17: 8: 1900.)

The topography here is as simple as it is interesting.
Outside the coast-line lies a broad plateau, which is so shallow
and shelving that a landing is only possible at high water.
At the shore itself there is usually a 5 to 15 m declination,
consisting of sand. This type of coast is very conspicuous on
fig. 25. Within this embankment there is now and again a
depression, or else a terrace plateau begins at once, rising
very slowly, scarcely 100 m in 5 to 10 kilometres. This terrace,
save furthest in towards the NE. bay, where the land is lower
and more connected, is cut up nearest the coast by innumerable
short, deep, sheer river valleys, which — at least at that season

XXVIII. 17

258

of the year (August) — were usually almost empty of water. |
Several of these valleys are very short, some only a few hundred
metres in length; others are widely forked and reach far in-
land; but all show a strong tendency to come to an abrupt
termination against a steep wall. This is the same peculiar
type of valleys that has often been described from certain desert
regions. Here the explanation I offered just now for the valleys
at the E. plateau precipice, does not hold good; it seems to

Fig. 25. The quaternary coast on the W. side of Jameson Land.
(С. Kruuse phot. 17: 8: 1900.)

me most likely that here the streamlets that we now see in
the valleys rise from springs which have gradually succeeded
in carrying away the masses of earth lying before and over them.

But few watercourses reach the interior of the land. Their
valleys are usually broad, not specially marked, and show no
unusual characteristics.

Already in Scoresby’s time Jameson Land hadfattracted
attention because of its freedom from snow and ice, and nev-
ertheless it lies between the inland ice and Liverpool 'Land,
which — at least in part — is so rich in glaciers and ice.
That permanent ice is not altogether wanting has already been |!

259

pointed out, but it only occurs in the more pronounced moun-
tains in the N., in the highest parts of the land, close upon
1000 m above the sea, and in some deep chasm valleys. The
plateau itself is in the summer, even at a height of 800—900 m,

almost free from snow. A good picture of this remarkable
country is shown in fig. 23. A satisfactory explanation of the
absence of snow has not yet been offered. Very probably the
plateau character has been unfavourable to the formation of
ice, both because it discourages atmospheric precipitation, and
because the snow that falls here is easily carried away by the
wind; and it is possible that the precipitation at the level that
the plateau reaches here within the fjord is, apart from this,
less than out by the coast. But this does not seem to be a
sufficient explanation. Polar explorations have now shown us
that in different regions tracts of land, whose rocky bed consists
of horizontally lying, loose sedimentary rocks, are unfavourable
to ice formation, even if they lie on an open coast. A short
resume of the observations connected with this has been
furnished by J. G. Andersson"), who has promised to return
to the question. Without, therefore, going into the matter
here, I will merely suggest as a possibility — applicable to
the present case — that the freedom from snow is directly
attributable to the loose nature of the soil, to its porosity.
"On projecting rocks of sandstone specks of snow can still be
| found, though not nearly to the same extent as in the areas
of primary rock; on a soil of gravel or sand there is not a
“trace of ice, save a few snow-drifts down in the valleys, which
“probably melt before the arrival of winter. Why the nature
of this soil should have this effect is harder to explain. Per-
haps, by letting the thawed water from the snow above sink
down, it prevents the formation of a crust of ice on the ground,
or in some other way prevents the snow turning into ice, which,

*) Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala, Vol. VII, р. 24.

260

if allowed to remain some years — the easier as the ice is
better able to resist melting than the snow — can form the
basis of a general glaciation.

It seems as if the same peculiar state prevailed in Jameson
Land even in earlier periods. I had expected, in this territory
covered by loose post-tertiary deposits and situated so close
to the inland ice, to find what has never yet been met with,
a district with a mighty ground-moraine corresponding to that
which we find, for instance, in Denmark or other South-Baltic
lowland tracts, but in direct connection with formations de-
posited by recent ice before our eyes. In this, however, I was
deceived: Г saw no true ground-moraine anywhere in this
territory, nor, indeed, any proof that it had ever been covered
by land-ice even in conjunction with the widest extension of
the ice. Nevertheless, this territory is of considerable interest
for the study of the quaternary history of Greenland through
its masses — just described — of gravel and, nearer the shore,
ofsand and clay which, in parts to a thickness of at least 100 m,
form its soil. That these loose masses are to some extent
marine is certain, and hence they point to a late upheaval of
the land, but how great it was is not yet known. Samples of
clay from highish levels have, unfortunately, all turned out to
be sterile; only up to a height of about 30 m above sea-level
did I find indisputable marine shell remains. Neither could
typical shore lines be detected in the region on a higher level’).

However, strong arguments, above all, the very nature of
the deposits, speak in favour of their having been deposited
in the sea up to a far greater height. But, as I have just said,
I do not venture to extend this hypothesis to the gravel and
boulders of the highest plateaus. These are most easily ex-

1) Compare what was said above about the conditions on the west coast
of Liverpool Land, where Hartz, as we are informed, has made un-
expected and interesting observations which speak in favour of a higher
water-level.

dés

261

plained by discharge from glacier rivers which, like those we
know from the south of Iceland, have often changed their bed,
and, undoubtedly, large portions of the district were once covered
by lagoons, where icebergs laden with blocks of stones floated
about. These lagoons must have been shut off partly by the
ice itself, partly, perhaps, by the mountain mass of Liverpool
Land. Still, it is striking that with the present climate of these
altitudes it is impossible to imagine either lagoons or well
watered streams. Either the land once lay much lower, which,
as we have seen, is probable for other reasons‘), or we here
have traces of some interglacial period with a warmer climate
than the present.

A more detailed study of this interesting district and its
loose deposits, as well as of its temperature and atmospheric
precipitation, is strongly to be recommended to every expedition
that finds its way to these parts.

5. The Inner Central Mass of ArchaicRocks. There
is, of course, no detailed description of the topography of the
surface of the land in the interior of Greenland, since the whole
territory is covered with ice. It is, however, probable that the
territory forms а mountainous country intersected by valleys,
which may be inferred from observations taken at the borders.
At the same time, already Nansen has expressed the opinion
that it is “indisputable that the topography in the interior of
Greenland is at least as cut up and varied as in the Norway
of to-day”. I can scarcely subscribe to this opinion, and the

1) | have also come across deposits at other places at а considerable
elevation, which recalled old gravel beaches, as for instance at Cape
Borlase Warren in an open position out towards the sea at close upon
300 m in height. The rocky bed here consists of basalt and also
some sandstone of presumably Tertiary Age. On the slope there are
numerous boulders of chiefly archæan rocks; to assume that these have
been transported by the activity of running water is not easy. However,
the district is too little known for a definite explanation to be given;
one possibility is that these stones derive from conglomerates that might
be found in the tertiary sandstone.

262

observations taken in the interior of the fjords here described
point to a different conclusion. For, irrespective of the rocky
bed, which may consist either of primary rock, basalt or sedi-
mentary rocks, all the highlands here tend to assume a pro-
nounced plateau shape. This appears already very characteri-
stically in the central parts of Scoresby Sund (Renland and
Milne Land, cfr. fig. 26), and still more plainly in the interior
of Forsblad Fjord. The same observations can be made at
other parts of East Greenland, e. g. on the reproductions in

Fig. 26. Renland and the entrance to Nordvestfjord, filled with icebergs,
seen from Jameson Land. (C. Kruuse phot. 15: 8: 1900.)

the already cited work of Nathorst’s, ‘“‘Tva somrar i Norra Is-
hafvet”, Vol. И, pp. 257, 264, 268, 326, etc. Some isolated
masses of mountains may of course assume bolder outlines,
but in the main the phenomenon is striking. Naturally, in the
neighbourhood of the fjords it nowhere reaches the development
of a continuous plateau; the innermost point of the whole territory
known to us is the interior of Franz Joseph Fjord, of the nature
of which we can get a conception from the picture on p. 246
of Nathorst’s work. The phenomenon appears much less

263

distinctly, without doubt, in landscape pictures from the У.
coast, yel indications of it are not wanting even here, though
I have not had an opportunity of seeing any pictures from the
innermost parts of the fjords in a sufficient number for entering
nearer into the question. Now it is true that the same phe-
nomenon is very evident also in the inner parts of the Norwegian
fjords, and, broadly speaking, Norway is, as we know, itself a
plateau land, whose peaks and mountain masses often show,
within the same district, a striking correspondence in their
height. So far a comparison between Greenland and Norway
may be justified. But Greenland forms a far broader mass
than either Norway or the whole Scandinavian peninsula, while
again erosion and valley-forming forces, following on the re-
tirement of the land ice, have, at least in the coastal districts
of W. Scandinavia, contributed greatly to render the contrast
still greater between mountains and valleys. With the impression
I received of the topography of Greenland, with respect to the
quick transitions from the peaks of the coast strip and the
plateau shaped mountain masses of the territory within the fjords,
it seems to me most probable that the country still further
inland rather forms a fairly continuous high plateau, though it
must in any case be imagined as cut up by a number of deep
main valleys. For various reasons I think we may assume that
this plateau type is here even more widely extended than in
other similar stretches of old mountainous country, which were
once covered with land ice, as, for instance, Labrador and
Scandinavia.

This brings us to the question of the origin of such high
plateaus and of the effects of the land ice in the interior of
an extensive mountainous district. — If the valley systems
were not strongly developed before the advance of the ice, and
the ice-cover therefore from the beginning embraced large parts
of the land, while only the higher peaks stuck out as nunataks,
such land ice should have a great levelling tendency on the

264

topography. A strong erosion can only take place at the
districts at the edge, where in this way deep lakes and
fjords are formed. On the other hand, frost weathering
soon attacks the higher peaks, which are not protected by
any ice-cover, and the pieces that break away are carried off
with the moraines of the ice. Such a mountain plateau differs
entirely from a peneplain resulting from river erosion, in that
deep valleys are by no means lacking, and have certainly been

Fig. 27. The inner part of Forsblad's Fjord, seen from the W. slope of
Polhem Dale. Gneiss mountains, approaching the table shape.
(Nordenskjöld phot. 28: 8: 1900.)

present at every phase. Taking them all round these plateaus
form a special type among the land forms, probably limited to
areas that are or have been covered with ice. On the other
hand, to explain them as a direct result of the erosion of the
ice, does not seem to me to be possible. In real mountain-
chains, formed by late folding and upheaval, corresponding
plateau-areas do not seem to occur.

The pictures fig. 27 and 28, though not very good, will
give us an idea about the scenery of those plateau-shaped
mountains in the inner fjord-regions.

Sea

re

265

The present ice and its effects on the nature of
the region.

Glaciers and inland ice. I had but little opportunity,
during the expedition, of studying the present ice, and have, in
consequence, only a few observations to make on this score.

That the central ice reaches the innermost branches of
Scoresby Sund, was already known through Ryder’s Expedition,
but some doubts have been raised as to whether this ice fully

Fig. 28. View towards the interior of Polhem Dale. Mountains of
horizontal silurian strata, covered by highland ice.
(Nordenskjöld phot. 28: 8: 1900.)

tallies with the inland ice of У. Greenland’). Our expedition
did not penetrate so far that any decisive observations bearing
on this could be taken, but I believe it is indisputable that it
is true inland ice that debouches into the interior of the NW.
fjord. At the entrance of this fjord, and in the NE. bay
our ship was surrounded by hundreds of large icebergs, of
which several must have been many hundred metres in length,

1) Е. у. Drygalski, Gronland-Expedition, Vol. I, 164.

h
i

>
5

; 266

Fig. 29. Hanging glacier coming down from the highland ice on the
southern side of Forsblad Fjord. Height of the wall about 1500 m.
(C. Kruuse phot. 29: 8: 1900.)

kon ада. ЬЦЬд

267

and by their comparatively regular shape (cf. fig. 26) showed
that they derived from a large ice-stream. Even if we agree
with Drygalski in confining the appelation “inland ice” to
such masses of ice as force their way in a mass into a — to
them — new district, it can be open to no doubt that that is
the case here, such large ice-streams being of necessity derived
from a very extensive collecting-area.

On the plateau-shaped mountains at the shore of the fjords,
and also on the basalt masses on the peninsula to the S. of
Scoresby Sund, we find, as a rule, local caps of highland ice,
which are often spread over the mountain plateaus like even
and comparatively thin coverlets, as is shown in the photograph
fig. 28 from the environs of Polhem Dale, and also on fig. 29.
Such highland ice often sends down towards the deep valleys
narrow ice-belts which incline so abruptly that it is hard to
understand how a glacier under such conditions can retain its
continuity. Fine examples of this can be seen, for instance, in
Forsblad Fjord, of which the same fig. 29 gives us a picture;
the ice cap is here at least 1500 m above the sea.

Of the larger coast glaciers I only visited one, namely
Bartholin Glacier, somewhat to the S. of Scoresby Sund (с.
fig. 30). According to Koch’s measurements, the glacier at its
front has a breadth of some 31/2km and its perpendicular wall
rises from 15—20 ш above the sea. Its surface is even, almost
without fissures, at least on its eastern side, on which I walked;
towards the interior of the land it rises very slowly to begin with.
Further inland it seems to branch into two arms that appear to
rise more steeply in order to converge with the highland ice that
covers this district. A dark, central moraine wall, formed by pieces
of a scoriaceous basalt, whose cavities are filled by fine zeolite
crystals, runs inland as far as the eye can reach. Still larger is
the E. side-moraine, which forms a whole broad zone with
ridges and valleys and real small ice-lakes (fig. 31), and runs
along Henry Land right up to the valley which here debouches

268

Detached
ice island.

Fig. 30. Bartholin Glacier seen from the northern lateral moraine

(

Nordenskjöld phot. 20: 7

1900.

)

ims) ee 5

won

269

from the north. A large block of ice, evidently detached from
the glacier and showing a part of its central moraine, lay,
probably on the ground, in front of the ice"), but the movement
of the glacier can scarcely be rapid.

The Steno Glacier, which bears an evident resemblance to
the one described, and which lies somewhat further north, has
been briefly described by Koch‘).

Liverpool Land, as has often been pointed ont, is largely

Fig. 31. Small hole in the ice of the N. lateral moraine, Bartholin glacier.
(Nordenskjöld phot. 20: 7: 1900.)

covered with ice, but it is impossible to speak of real highland
caps here, as the country is too much intersected by valleys,
and the ice may be said to be mainly collected in these and
in depressions between the high peaks — not unlike the

1) This piece of ice is also visible on the left of the annexed photograph,
which was taken from the outer edge of the N. side-moraine at a place,
the situation of which is shown on a photograph specially taken.

*) Medd. om Grønland. XXVII, р. 277.

270

Alpine ice-masses. Here too, again, I only reached the ice in
one spot, viz.in the already described (p. 231) valley opposite the
Fame Islands (‘‘Limestone Valley’ or Kalkdalen). A considerable
glacier here descends in a narrow passage from the inner highland
district, widening out into a broad, fan-shaped tongue (see fig. 32)
from which a river takes its rise. Conspicuous moraine embank-
ments are not to be seen in front ofthe ice, but the glacier evidently

Fig. 32. Glacier tongue, at the upper end of Kalkdalen, Liverpool Land.
(Nordenskjöld phot. Aug. 1900.)

filled the whole valley at an earlier epoch, in any case as far
as the remarkable “sill” at its entrance, already described.

The adjoining picture also shows us that plateau-shaped
mountains are not lacking either in the interior of Liverpool
Land, although they may only appear to the W. of the
ice-divide.

The influence of the ice on the configuration of the country.
I can curtail the remarks I have to make on this head, and
need only refer to the descriptions already given. In this district,
as presumably in the whole of Greenland, we can distinguish 3

271

different types of surface-features of the solid rock, viz., the upper
mountain-plateau, the mountainous country with sharp peaks
and ridges and, finally, the lower, rounded, and gently rolling
stretches of country. A description has just been given of the
first-named plateau; its existence, since the withdrawal of the ice,
depends on the fact that at this height, where the temperature
seldom rises above the freezing point, the erosive power of the
water is reduced to a minimum. Between these and the lowland
regions round the coast the intermediate type, the Alpine region
with its pointed peaks, inserts itself. Here ice and water have
combined to excavate deep valleys, and under the influence of
frost weathering the tops, which in the ice appeared as nunataks,
have assumed bolder shapes, without, however, suffering destruc-
tion. However, in other districts, with a very broken topo-
graphy and with lower summits, this has sometimes been the
case, and then we get the regions of the third type — a low
rolling country that gently slopes outwards, and from which
rounded hillocks rise. If from this level some isolated rocky
mass rises to any height, it shows angular, rugged contours
of the second type, and consequently appears as an ancient
nunatak that has been left undestroyed by the acting forces. Of
this the often described and reproduced!) Umanak Rock in West
Greenland is a fine example.

Within this district a higher plateau-land reaches almost
out to the sea in the basalt territory on the S. side of Scoresby
Sund. In general the region nearest the sea is a cut-up
Alpine country, while the district where the third type appears
best in its contrast to it is the S. ог S. W. part of Liverpool
Land.

In sharp contrast to all these types, cutting through them with
steep mountain walls, without very much altering their character
at the variations of country, are the fjords and the deep valleys

1) Drygalski, Grönland Expedition, I, Pl.3; also Medd. om Grønland, IV, Pl. 7.

202

that correspond to them on land. They show here an extra-
ordinary development, and few places on earth, should their origin
be made a subject of special investigation, are better suited to
the purpose; the opportunities are especially fine for observing
to what extent the character of the fjords is changed hand in
hand with the variations of the rocky bed. It is only a pity
that at present hardly anything is known about their submarine
relief. That sills occur at the entrance of several of the fjords
seems to be certain; at the inner arms, such as NW. fjord, that
is evident from the number of icebergs stranded at their mouth.
On the other hand it looks as if the larger fjords, at least
Franz Joseph Fjord and Davy Sund, were continued some way
into the sea by deepish channels.

Theoretically very interesting are the considerable longi-
tudinal valleys, or ‘‘channels” (in the terminology applied to
other coasts), connected with the fjords and apparently showing
that they are not exclusively indebted for their origin to the
erosion of ice. It is at least hard to imagine that this should
have moved forward with any force in the inner connecting
branches of Scoresby Sund (Rédefjord, Rypefjord, and others)
while it is easier to understand why Kong Oscar Fjord, in spite
of its direction, should have succeeded in forming the outlet
channel for a huge glacier.

That dislocations in the crust of the earth have here played
a certain part is beyond. doubt. Smallish faults can often be
observed along the shores of the fjords, but to what extent these
have been of any importance in the formation of the valleys
cannot be shown. Both the outer, broad part of Scoresby Sund,
and Hurry Inlet owe their shape — which differs, especially in
the former case, from that usual to fjords — as well as their
position, to the boundary between the loose, Mesozoic rocks
within the Jameson territory and the adjacent, hard basalts and
archaic rocks.

With reference to the details in the topography of the _

a Ne ee

273

district, we have already made acquaintance with the imposing
formation of corries that sometimes occur, especially within
the basalt territory, where a whole district may be so cut up
that only narrow ridges remain. Where these corries , as
is the case at Turner Sund, all have their mouths at the
same level — about 200 m above the sea — one would be
inclined to think that they were formed at a period when the
sea-level was considerably higher than to-day. To prove this,
however, observations would have to be extended to a far wider
area than I was able to survey.

“Striate land”. Although this phenomenon is not di-
rectly caused by the ice, we will, however, speak of it here.
Statements!) occur in old works to the effect that observations
in polar regions have shown that the loose gravel and clay
sometimes are arranged in regular hexagons, without this ob-
servation having been the object of detailed investigation. On
the other hand, a similar but probably not identical phenomenon,
“rutmark” or ‘‘chequered land”, where the surface is broken by
hexahedral fissures, has attracted the attention of the botanists.

During his expedition to Beeren Island in 1899 J. G. An-
dersson observed a phenomenon which he afterwards described
under the name ‘solifluction’’?) and which seems to be of great
importance for the origin of certain details in the topography
of such territories. By saturation with thaw-water, large masses
of earth on a slope may assume a semi-migrant structure, and,
under favourable conditions, start slowly moving down the slope.
These ‘‘mud-streams” may give the gravel on the hill-sides
a band-like arrangement on a large scale; at other times
several streams may combine from various directions into a
main furrow, like a river and its branches.

In Greenland I made several observations that seem to point

1) Th. Fries och С. Nyström: Svenska Polarexpeditionen 1868. Stock-
holm 1869, р. 30. |
2) J. С. Andersson: Journ. of Geology, XXIV (1906): 91.

XXVIII. 18

274

to a combination of Ше two phenomena just mentioned. In
several places, most distinctly in Turner Sund, at the loose
layers on some of the slopes I noticed а fine striate arrangement
on а small scale: coarse and fine gravel or even clay alternated
in long, regular, narrow strips, sometimes covering extensive
tracts. The steeper the slope was, the more regular were the
strips, and while in general the clayey strips, at least, were

Fig. 33. ‘‘Striate earth”: sand and gravel arranged by solifluction in
regular strie. Turner Island, in the background Turner Sund and
the mainland. (Nordenskjöld phot. 26: 7: 1900.)

moist, the phenomenon was also observed on dry ground. A
somewhat indistinct picture of the appearance of this ‘‘striate
land” is given in fig. 33. There was no further chance during
the Greenland Expedition of taking other observations touching
its origin, but I have since continued these observations in
other places. Here I need only mention that I fully subscribe to
Andersson’s explanation of solifluction, but for the origin of
the narrow regular strips described I consider it necessary for

=

the gliding to take place upon a layer of frozen ground near
the surface).

On the nature of the sea-bottom off East Greenland and on
the former extension of the ice. One of the most interesting
questions to be solved inside the polar circle is to know what
particular forces are active here in forming the marine sedi-
ments and to what extent, moreover, under different circum-
stances they differ in the polar regions from those of other
regions. In his description of the samples of the sea-floor of
our expedition, О. В. Boggild has given us some extremely
valuable contributions to these enquiries’). The author shows
us how the coarse material in the sea-floor sediment near the
shore shows an intimate dependence upon the rocks cropping
out in the neighbourhood, which is not the case to the same
extent further out to sea. I can only confirm this. When, in
dredgings, considerable masses of loose material were often
brought up, [ examined hundreds of stones and pebbies, though
without being able to make exact determinations or calculations.
But the general impression is precisely the same as that arrived
at by Bøggild after examining smaller but much more numerous
samples. Near land at the basalt coast to the S. of Scoresby
Sund, the stones consisted almost exclusively of basalt; in the
sea off Sabine I. was found a rich alternation of rocks, among
which grey gneiss was predominant.

It is unnecessary to refer in detail to the contents of
Boggild’s work, and though I should like to touch upon
several points, [ must content myself with the following general
remarks. On the whole the matter is perhaps more complicated
than Boggild supposes. There is no doubt that a large
number of icebergs even now drift out from the inner arms of

1) A short account of some of the phenomena connected with this appears
in my article, “Über die Natur der Polarländer”; Geogr. Zeitschr., 1907,
р. 563.

*) Medd. om Grønland, XXVIII, 17.

276

the fjords and carry with them a considerable material of gravel
and clay, although in order to pass the fjord-sills they have first
to be somewhat reduced in size. But for all that, Boggild’s
investigations, as well as earlier observations taken by Bay"),
seem to show that this material does not, in the main, play
an especially great part among the sea-sediment, though this
may not hold good for all regions, and it is very hard to form
a conception of what the distriets are where such ice-berg
sediments may be expected. So for instance it seems to me that
it by no means follows that when the sea ice in one district,
as in the ‘North Вау”, is less compact, melting of icebergs
cannot take place there on a large scale. Again, Bøggild,
in my opinion, undervalues the carrying power of the shore-ice
(bay-ice). In the polar regions it is easy to observe that the
winter ice nearest the shore — at a distance of a hundred
metres and even more — is dark coloured, and covered with
a thick layer of fine dust as well as gravel and small stones
which have been carried out by wind and streams of thaw
water. Here no doubt is possible; though such ice, and especially
the pieces on which a coarse gravel is found, is extremely
rare out to sea and probably is mostly carried by the coast
currents along the shore and soon melts, yet during geological
periods it must in favourable places deposit considerable layers.
— We may add that it scarcely seems probable that the coast
between Gael Hamke Bay and Davy Sund consists of basalt to
the same extent as Boggild’s map indicates; it is possible
that the sample of bottom-sediment from this region indicates
better than he assumes the corresponding rocks of the outer
coast-belt.

It seems to follow from Boggild’s investigations, as one
of the most important general results, that the sea-bottom off
this part of East-Greenland, over extensive tracts and up to a

1) Meddelelser om Grønland, XIX, 186. Especially interesting is sample
no. 3 from 69° 41’ N. and 19° 20’ W., in which only basalt occurs.

277

distance of over 100 km from land, is covered by moraine layers
from an older period of much greater ice expansion than now;
these moraines are even still in some places said to be deter-
minative for the configuration of the sea-bottom, and the exi-
stence of a true terminal moraine is said to have been proved
by Ryder and Вау at 74° 17' N. and 15° 20' W.!), from which
it bends ‘‘inwards along Hudson’s Land”, while at Franz Joseph
Fjord it again turns further seaward. If this view is correct,
the whole district in the ice age must have been covered with
a mighty mass of land-ice which, with a continuous front, as we
know it to-day only from South Polar regions, forced its way
— far out to sea. The proof for these far-reaching conclusions
is found by Boggild mainly in the very nature of the bottom
samples and in the just mentioned soundings of Ryder and
Amdrup off C. Borlase Warren.

sk ah al en

It is open to no doubt that during a period of the ice age
the fjords were filled up to their mouths with tongues of ice
that possibly extended some way out to sea, where they gave
rise to icebergs which, as they melted, deposited their moraine
material on the sea-bottom to quite a different extent from to-
day. It is certainly surprising that this material has not been
covered since that time by newer layers, but on this score Bog-
gild’s investigations seem to be conclusive. But from this it
: is a long step to assume that а land-ice which was rather ш-
dependent of the local topography of the country should have
covered the whole district far out to the sea, a supposition that

seems to me highly improbable from other points of view as well.

From reasons I have just mentioned I consider it to
be probable that the greater part of Jameson Land was not
covered with ice even in the ice age. The topography of
Liverpool Land proves that no huge land-ice forced itself across

1) Le. circa 120 km ой С. Borlase Warren. The depth is here 127 Danish
fathoms, whereas Amdrup at 74° 18’ N., 15° 25° W., that is to say only
2'/s km farther west, nearer to the land, came upon 162 Danish fathoms.

278

it from the west. The bulk of its primary rock evidently formed
the centre of a particular ice-covering but it has not been
overflowed by masses of ice from the west. Again, the surface
features of the whole district are rather the reverse of any
proof of an ice-covering of so general and comprehensive a
nature. I do not, it is true, consider that the old maximum
extent of the ice was necessarily determined by the boundary
between the peaked outlines and the lower country with its
rounded hillocks, but many of the more pointed peaks are of
such a kind that one can scarcely doubt that if they were
ever covered with ice such a long time has passed since then
that the submarine moraine deposits of such a period should
now as a matter of course be generally covered with younger
layers.
Now it is true that the observations to which I am now
chiefly referring were taken in the district south of Franz Joseph
Fjord, but it is scarcely imaginable that neighbouring tracts
should be markedly dissimilar in this respect. Nor do I hold
Boggild’s proofs to be altogether convincing. From the dred-
gings referred to outside C. Borlase Warren, no sure conclusions
can be drawn, since they are derived from various expeditions:
a week’s journey amid drift-ice is always enough to make the
ships position an uncertain quantity to a few nautical miles, and
therewith the whole existence of the above-mentioned submarine
wall (end-moraine) is uncertain. Nor is it possible to draw any
farreaching conclusions if, in a single series of dredgings, at right
angles to the coast, the bottom gravel proves to be coarser out
to sea than off the coast. That can be explained in several
ways, e. g. that once upon a time the ice-bergs within the
former coast-belt discharged a more abundant material of coarse
gravel somewhat further off the land, or that a covering of moraine
gravel was during an ice-period deposited and rather evenly di-
stributed upon the shallow coastal shelf by melting ice-bergs
broken off from the glaciers that filled the fjords and which,

219

as а rule, could not get very far away from the place of their
origin, but was later covered towards the shore by more recent,
finer-grained sediment, which may perhaps derive to a large
extent from coast-ice of a more or less local origin.

In these complicated questions a clear result can only be-
gained by studying a much more comprehensive material than
that brought home by the last expedition, but every definitive
elucidation must pay regard to the two factors I have just
mentioned, viz. the coast ice, and the ice-bergs: and as for
the latter, to their utterly dissimilar natures in different periods.
It cannot have been so very long ago, after all, when for instance
the Nordvestfjord of Scoresby Sund was filled with an arm of
inland ice, and while nowadays only a small number of ice-bergs
pass its sill, there is no doubt that during a by-gone period this
glacier sent out numerous ice-bergs which in the open sea
unloaded masses of moraine material which derived exclusively
from primary rocks.

Summary.

The parts of East Greenland that were visited by the Ex-
pedition of 1900 are of unique interest by reason of the variations
in the formations that present themselves, and because of the
excellent opportunities they offer for the study of the effects
of the forces that give the polar scenery its characteristic
features.

The main part of Greenland — whether we regard it as
a continuation of the American continent, or ;as a territory that
is to a certain extent independent — obviously consists of a
very old mass, which since the earliest times has bounded
the Atlantic depression. It is therefore probable that it is
chiefly the coast-belt where we may expect occurrences of
younger formations. And accordingly we find there from the

280

Paleozoic and from the older Triassic time a series of rocks
over 2000 m thick, whose characteristic qualities have been
described in the foregoing pages. Several formations can be
distinguished, but it seems probable that more exact investiga-
tions in this respect would take us much further, for though
the fossils here are both scarce and badly preserved, experience
teaches us that they are not so uncommon as was first as-
sumed and special investigations carried out by an experienced
paleontologist should render possible a good exposition of the
stratigraphy of the district, especially as the formations in
question to a great extent show but comparatively unimportant
disturbances and irregularities. For the present, however, it
is only possible in the main to distinguish local formations,
whose mutual relations cannot be determined with certainty.
The strong analogy that all these rocks show in their
appearance, goes to prove that the physical conditions during
all these periods were somewhat similar. To what extent al-
ready then a shore was present could not be determined.
Litoral deposits occur at several levels, but in addition there
are formations that must have come into existence in fairly
deep water. It is not proved and scarcely likely that any large
fault divides the coast-belt from the inner mass, but yei I
consider it probable that the occurrence here of these younger
formations stands in connection with the appearance of a large
fracture line that still marks the coast of E. Greenland. Large
disturbances occur, as far as is known, only among the oldest
strata, the Silurian formation, and only within certain parts of
these. Fresh investigations are required to decide whether we
are here in the presence of the traces of an old, folded moun-
tain-chain, or of disturbances in the way of flexures induced
by the subsidence of the strata. The sinking, during certain
periods, has been accompanied by considerable volcanic erup-
tions, among the products of which may be noted not only a
series of porphyries, but also augite-syenites with appendant

Eee

CE Owe a ae

281

dike rocks, among them also alnöite-like eruptives, all forms
that have their striking analogies among the eruptives of the
Paleozoic epoch on the opposite side of the Atlantic Ocean.

The rocks that date from the Rhaetic age or younger
periods until the Eocene, possess quite another character than
those just described (cf. p. 185). Throughout it clearly appears
that all these rocks are shore formations, with which, too, the
occurrence of plant remains at several levels should be con-
nected. From the beginning of the Tertiary period a renewed
epoch of volcanic activity entered, which as far as East Green-
land is concerned, seems to have been confined to the coast-
belt, and there chiefly to the broad mass which at its centre,
S. of Scoresby Sund, projects towards the east, an outward
bend that seems to owe its existence to just that same cause.
Moreover, as is well known, traces of this volcanic activity are
found along a broad strip straight across the North Atlantic
Ocean. A last trace of the same is afforded in Greenland by
the hot spring I came across at Henry Peninsula, in the course
of the Expedition.

It was specially interesting to be able, through finds of
marine fossils and plant remains occuring together in Eocene
beds, to settle not only that this volcanic activity, so important
for the North Atlantic areas, was already in full swing at the
period mentioned, but that the Tertiary (so-called Miocene) flora,
known through numerous finds in different Polar regions, already
existed at that time.

It is probable that the land at that or about that period
had a far greater extent than at the present time. The country
has been subjected to a very extensive valley-formation. Several
of the chief valleys can be proved to stand in connection with
faults, viz. for instance Hurry Inlet, on the E. side of which
friction breccias can be pointed out at several places. That
the valleyformation is in part older than the eruption of the

282

basalt sheets is proved by the fact that the latter are not nearly
so broken up as the older rocks.

As to the development of the distriet in other respects
during the latter part of the Tertiary age, we know nothing.
At its close the ice, as in other areas, pushed forward and
gradually covered at least the greater part of the land; along
the main valleys it even pushed its way beyond it. During this
phase the fjords received their shape, and in the foregoing we
have also tried to show to what extent the topography of the
country bears traces of the activity of the ice.

Very curious is the area occupied by the southern part
of Jameson Land. I have described it in the foregoing (p. 251);
it seems as if it had never been covered with connected
masses of ice.

During a phase of the post-tertiary period the land was
sunk much below the present level. It can be shown that this
submergence reached at least 50 to 70 metres!), but there is reason
to believe that it was even considerably greater than this, in
any case several hundred metres. But before we can be quite
clear upon this point, fresh investigations are required.

On the whole it cannot be doubted that very important
geological and geographical results may be obtained in this
territory, where we are now beginning to achieve a charto-
graphic basis, and a general knowledge of the district that
shows how many interesting questions here await their solution.
It is to be hoped that the Danish expedition now sojourning
in those parts may return with material contributions to our
knowledge of a region surpassed by few in Ше interest it
affords.

!) It was already pointed out by Nathorst that the climate during a
period of this submergence was milder than at present, since shells
of the Mytilus edulis, now extinct in that part, are found at a height
of 25 m and above.

2 ee Se

283
Appendix.

For a more detailed examination of the curious minerali-
ferous limestones mentioned on pp. 167 and 170, I addressed
myself to Dr. O. B. Boggild, from whose valuable exposition
I quote the following’):

“Even the purest limestone of which samples were brought
back (from the southern valley) contains tremolite and pale mica.
As a rule the limestone is very rich in minerals: orthoclase,
diopside, chondrodite, titanite, spinel, and possibly quartz, while
furthermore biotite, hornblende, and a few minerals that could
not be determined, occur. Sometimes the calcite retires and
we get large masses consisting of hornblende, pyroxene, biotite
and even quantities of scapolite. Pyroxene and hornblende
sometimes occur in parallel intergrowths.

In both occurrences the limestone is traversed by granitic
veins which, however, have not given rise to any contact-meta-
morphosis, though on the other hand the rock-mass is exceedingly
varied and peculiar just in the neighbourhood of these. A vein
of granite with strongly weathered plagioclase is surrounded
on both sides by a narrow belt of similarly strongly disintegrated
plagioclase, with its boundary lines well marked against the
granite. In this plagioclase there are numerous grains of horn-
blende, pyroxene, and titanite, and the whole passes over
gradually into a mass of predominating pyroxene, though with

_ traces of the other minerals mentioned. Still further out we

come across a strip of hornblende, and finally a laminated mass
of mica. Peculiar is especially this as it were symmetrically
stratified arrangement, which can scarcely be explained by
contact-metamorphosis from the granite.”

I may add that | am by no means convinced from what 1
saw that we have to deal here with a young granite. However,

1) For this valuable assistance J here express to Dr. Bøggild my sin-
cere thanks.

284

in one place, in contact with the limestone, I came across what
looks like a pyroxeniferous syenite of youngish appearance.
Then too there were found veins that may possibly derive from
a greatly transformed basic volcanic rock.

Unfortunately I had no opportunity of dati citing to a closer
examination those peculiar rocks that I found during an ex-
cursion far from the shore, at a place where my attention was
greatly struck by the alnditic dikes and their curious contact
phenomena. Still, it may be of interest that attention has been
called to these occurrences.

Meddelelser om Gronlard АКИ.

4. !
Jameson L. Trail 0.

ñ NS

\ En Fleming. i =

| A.
Crown

Guvung L si
9 Akoray 0

Antarctic Amy» Fleming Ц Carlsberg Е
A \ = А SE

г
NW. 1.

ee „ Liverpool),

Jameson I а
zZ

Liverpool I
ии.
We E.
IT.

Generalized Geologic Sections along lines shown on the mar.
Scale 1:1000,000; vertical scale exaggerated about 10 tres.

GEOLOGICAL MAP
OF A PART OF THE EAST COAST OF GREENLAND

From the work of the Second German Polar Esxzuedition,
the Hapeditions of Ryder and Nathorst and the obser-
vations during Ce Amdmigi-Hartz Greenland Exuedition.

Comyaled. by Otto Nordenskjöld.

EXPLANATION

I. Archean Rocks.
Gress, Horrnblendegneiss, Graute etc
I. Older Sedimentary Rocks
Palzozoic Rocks.
Cambro -Süuriae.
Devonian

C Fletcher - Series.

С Brown Тоту Inlet-Series. (possibly Iriassie)
Triassie Rocks.
Older Triassic Rocks.
Date » » (Heuer of the тар of Matkörst | И

|
| HUMAN

Rode O Series (age urcrtain)
Il. Later Sedimentary Rocks.
Rhatic and Jurrassic
CLeste Sarndstone
Tertiary

Quaternary Deposits.
ТУ Postarchæan Eruptive Rocks.

Won-Basaltic Erupiive Rocks.
(Syerate, Porphyries, Илле Где, Maite etc.)

Basalt

Section lies.

А \ SFatuterjuir

У
WON) РА
[pies АД

Мия 0 300

QO Louis Ussi

à Sondre Aprutitehe
С. Christiansen

CBegemann
X Warming
"Klytaarsøerne 610
SE KIALINEK
Sknekkens В.
NAnjarsuk
Glldebrundt 750
от,
h

ulsch D

EX VE G Holm 950

S Dunholm
Stewart 0 950

fanby Halve
mann Fj

Turner 0 1045
Rømer Ву
Henry Halrö 1005

CDalton 400
С Bwart
Knighton В,
x с. Barclay
LJ ma. Barclay В,

Ryder

D'Aunuy В
С. Coster 700

pi В.
SÅR Beaupre

у Stor Bra

qe: 900
aye
CRavn 800

Nansen 600
С LAD Jensen 750

Tsafjord

- x
a 3 Г “
и = ‚
x

3 3

pr -

+

wa =
-
ao
à
Ё ,
j
Dr
. р
er.
’

= 22а

VI.

The former Eskimo settlements on
the East coast of Greenland

between

Scoresby Sund and the Angmagsalik District.

By

G. Amdrup.

1909.

XXVIII 19

Se

2800 :

One of the many interesting tasks that were allotted the
«Carlsbergfondets Expedition til Øst-Grønland»”) commanded
by C. Amdrup and carried out in the years 1898—1900, was
that of completing our knowledge of the Eskimo habitation of
the East coast of Greenland, and, if possible, gathering
ethnological information and making ethnographical collections.

Our knowledge of the Eskimo habitation of the East coast
of Greenland is of comparatively recent date. It is true
there are allusions in some of the Eskimo tales which might
seem to indicate that some of the old Northeners came down
to the coast by chance, but no reliable information as to the
Eskimo can be obtained through this channel.

The various ship expeditions which were despatched right
from the year 1579 (James Allday) down to 1787 (Egede
and Rothe) did not add one jot to our knowledge of the East
coast of Greenland, inasmuch as none of them reached the coast.

On the other hand the Dane, Peder Olsen Wallse,
who went on an expedition in the years 1751—52, succeeded
in making his way in an wmiak*) from Godthaab round to
the East coast and up along it to 60°56’ latitude 3).

Here Walloe came across Eskimo in several places, and
so he is the first to give us any reliable information about
the population of the East coast, just as he is the first white
man whom we know for certain to have set foot on the East
coast of Greenland.

1) Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. XXVII.
*) Eskimo skin boat.
3) Pingel: «Nyere Rejser til Grønland». Grønlands historiske Mindes-
mærker. Vol. 3. P. 741—749.
19”

288

Next in order comes the well-known English whaler- ~
captain William Scoresby-jun.!).

Almost everywhere where Scoresby landed in 1822 on
the stretch between Scoresby Sund (circa 70114?) and Kap
Parry he came across indications that the coast either was,
or had formerly been, inhabited by Eskimo. However, he did
not come across any living Eskimo.

But when the Englishman Clavering*) in 1823 came
across Eskimo in Clavering O (circa 741/45), it was but a |
step to the assumption that the whole coast between Scoresby
Sund and Clavering Ö, and probably also the parts to the
north, must be inhabited by Eskimo.

The second German North pole expedition”) in 1869 —70,
one of whose vessels, the Germania, overwintered in
Germania Hafen (74°30') in Sabine O did not meet any
living Eskimo on the stretch between Kaiser Franz Joseph
Fjord (73°10') and Kap Bismarck (77°00)).

Thus when the Danish naval officer С. Ryder in 18914
set out to explore Scoresby Sund the chances were not
much in favour of his meeting living Eskimo; and as a matter
of fact he met none. But on the other hand in all parts of
the vast nexus of fjords he came across numerous indications
that these regions had once a fairly large Eskimo population.

And the same holds good of the large nexus of fjords
around the Kaiser Franz Joseph Fjord which was care-
fully explored in 1899 by the Swede Prof. A. G. Nathorst?).

As has already been mentioned, the second German North

1) Journal of a voyage to the Northern-Whale-Fishery; including researches
and discoveries on the Eastern coast of West-Greenland, made in the
summer of 1822 in the ship "Baffin" of Liverpool, by William
Scoresby-junior.

*) Petermanns Mittheilungen. Vol. XVI. 1870. P. 520.

3) Die zweite Deutsche Nordpolarfahrt.

4) Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. XVII.

5) А. С. Nathorst. Två Somrar i Norra Ishafvet. Senare Delen.

289

pole expedition penetrated up to Kap Bismarck (77°00).
But in 1905 Duke Philippe of Orleans!) with his ship
“Belgica” succeeded in penetrating past Kap Bismarck
and landing at Kap Philippe (77° 36'). Here, like the other
explorers, Duke Philippe found Eskimo house ruins etc. but
no living Eskimo.

It remains only to mention Mylius-Erichsen’s expe-
dition, called: “The Danmark-Expedition to the north-east
coast of Greenland, 1906 — 1908”. Mylius-Erichsen
succeeded in reaching the East coast and placing the «Dan-
mark», the ship of the expedition, in winter harbour at 76°46’
Lat. With the winter harbour as а starting-point sledging
expeditions were with splendid audacity and indomitable courage
undertaken northwards along the entirely unknown north-east
coast. Koch's sledging party reached Kap Bridgeman
(circa 83° 30’), while Mylius-Erichsen’s sledging party
entered Independence Bay at circa 81°58’ Lat. and
32° 30° W. Long, three or four Danish miles NE. of Kap
Glacier, thus forming a connection with Peary’s journeys
from the west. The last unknown stretch of coast of the whole
extensive coast-line of Greenland had thus been explored,
and the last stone laid to a work in which Denmark had
taken a prominent part for centuries. But Mylius-Erichsen
and his two faithful companions won the prize at the cost of
their lives, for they perished on the sledging expedition of
which we have already spoken. But the results — in part at
least — were saved from destruction. And we thus know that
Mylius-Erichsen met with remains of former Eskimo settle-
ments right up at Hagens Fjord (circa 82° 08).

Whereas previous expeditions had thus shown that living
Eskimo were no longer to be found along the stretch of coast
from Scoresby Sund and northward, quite different and

1) Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin. 1905. Р. 563.

290

far more favourable results had been reached on the southern
part of the East coast.

Following in the wake of Peder Olsen Walloe the
Danish naval officer W. A. Graah had in 1828—1831 made
an expedition!) from Nanortalik at the extreme south point
of Greenland along the East coast to Dannebrog 0.
(65° 15’). Along the whole coast he found a scattered Eskimo
population, as to which he collected a great deal of interesting
information.

But the man who has done more than any other to en-
large our knowledge of the East-Greenland Eskimo is the
still living Captain G. Е. Holm whose well-known expedition was
made in the years 1883—1885?). — Like Walløe and Graah
he made his way in an wmiak up along the East coast to
about 66° latitude, and here in the so-called Angmagsalik
District he came across an Eskimo tribe numbering 400 or
more souls which had never at any time come into contact
with Епгореапз 3). Holm wintered amongst these Eskimo and
he spent ten months together with them. Не returned home
with a magnificent ethnographic collection, and his ethnogra-
phic and ethnological studies*) will always secure him a place
in the front rank of Greenland explorers.

It fell to our expedition to form the connecting link bet-
ween Holm’s and Ryder’s researches, as the stretch of
coast we were to explore, viz. between circa 66° latitude and
Scoresby Sund, had never been trod by a white man.

As regards the southern part of this stretch of coast, viz.
right up to circa 68° lat. N., a considerable amount of in-

1) W. А. Graah. Undersegelsesrejse til Østkysten af Grønland.

2) Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. IX P. 53.

3) We find mentioned Cranz ‘Historie von Grønland” р. 342 $ 10 that
rumours about this tribe had spread as far back as the eighteenth century
down the East coast. On the other hand it must be mentioned that
no information whatever as to this tribe had been obtained by Graah.

4) Meddelelser om Grenland. Vol. X.

291

formation had been collected by Holm while he wintered at
Angmagsalik; for the Eskimo that lived here had in former
times gone on hunting expeditions up along the coast.

But the country from the 68th° of latitude to Scoresby
Sund was a terra incognita, at least as far as the Eskimo
population was concerned. It might be that the conformation
of the coast here was such as to offer particularly favourable
conditions for Eskimo existence. In this case it was possible
that descendants of the Eskimo who had disappeared from the
distriet north of Scoresby Sund were living here. But if,
on the other hand, the coast was uninhabited, it was possible
that indications might be found that the Eskimo had wandered
down the coast until the attractions of the Angmagsalik
District, which to an Eskimo must appear a perfect paradise,
had caused them to settle here for good.

However, as a matter of fact, we met no living Eskimo
on the whole stretch between the Angmagsalik District
‘and Scoresby Sund. But in many places along the coast
we met in the form of ruins of houses, tent encampments,
graves etc. indications that the Eskimo had been there.

These ruins of houses, tent encampments, graves etc. now
formed the objects of our research. We were fortunate enough
at Nualik (67° 15’ 32”) to light upon a house the inhabitants
of which were extinct, whereby a large collection of Eskimo
implements etc. fell into our hands. And in Skergaards
Halvöen (68° 07' 20") we discovered some graves which
yielded an uncommonly rich collection. Besides this, smaller
discoveries were made in other isolated coast places, as e.g.
in Dunholm (69° 549). Altogether the collection which
we took home with us was, thanks to the piece of good
fortune just spoken of, a fairly rich one, when due allowance
is made for the short time the Expedition had at its disposal,
the many other tasks allotted to it, and the mode of travelling

292

we were obliged by the nature of the country to adopt —
throughout the greater part of this stretch of coast. '

All the investigations from the Angmagsalik District
to Kap Dalton (69° 24'-6), which were carried out on the
various boat excursions I made along this coast in 1898, 1899
and 1900, were superintended by myself. The investigations
from Kap Dalton to Scoresby Sund were undertaken by
the ship Expedition, which, during my absence on boat excur-
sions, was conducted by Dr. Hartz.

In the following pages I shall proceed to give a detailed
account of these investigations.

Moreover, I shall give some account of a dwelling-place
discovered and examined by lieutenant Koch at Kap Tobin
(70° 24'6), as it presents several points of interest, augmenting,
as it does, our stock of knowledge as to the settlements on
Scoresby Sund with fresh facts, whereas the more nor-
therly settlements at Kap Borlase Warren and in Sa-
bine Ö did not furnish any new data, and therefore shall only
receive a passing mention here.

Now that the whole East coast from Kap Farvel to
Kap Bridgeman has been examined, it is no longer a
matter for wonder that a large Eskimo population is to be
found in the Angmagsalik District, whereas it has
completely disappeared from the stretch of coast to the north,
and only a scattered population is found along the stretch of
coast to the south. For the Angmagsalik District is
unquestionably that part of the coast which presents the best
conditions for the Eskimo in their difficult struggle for exist-
ence’). Here we find the largest group of islands of the whole

1) See «Meddelelser om Grønland». Vol. XXVII. Р. 148.

293

East coast, leading to the formation of numerous straits and
sounds, while large fiords cut deep into the land. The “inland-
ice” is thereby forced away from the coast, and, though the
large islands are pretty high and rocky, there are numerous
points and many small islets which almost seem to call for
Eskimo habitation. Moreover, the rushing stream which flows
between the numerous islands and through the narrow sounds
often keeps them open, even when the great ice lies frozen
outside the coast. In this way natural air-holes are formed for
the seals, thus facililating hunting in a high degree, while the
eurrent which issues from the sounds and straits assists the
“great-ice” to scatter outside the Angmagsalik Fjord quicker
than either north or south of it.

Hence it is possible to conclude from the orographic
nature of a stretch of coast whether or no it is adapted for
Eskimo habitation. And, as a matter of fact, we shall see in the
following description of the coast from Angmagsalik to
Scoresby Sund that wherever along this line of coast we
meet districts resembling that of Angmagsalik, ме will
find numerous proofs of a former Eskimo habitation, the more
numerous, the greater the resemblance, while the proofs get
scantier and scantier as the resemblance is smaller.

The coast from Sermiligak!) (the most northerly ш-
habited place) to Vahls Fjord resembles the Angmagsalik
District in a number of ways. Here we have the great
fiord Kangerdlugsuatsiak, besides a number of smaller
fiords, numerous islands off the coast, and the ‘‘inland-ice”
does not reach out to sea. And as a matter of fact this
stretch of coast has been thickly populated up to quite recent
times. Between Vahls Fjord and Poulsens Fjord lies
the great Steenstrup Bre, and the stretch of coast

7) For the description of the coast which follows, consult the map т
«Meddelelser om Grønland». Vol. XXVII. Plates IV, VI, УП and VIII.

294

between Кар G. Holm and Kap Jorgensen, sloping
steeply down to the sea. Here we do not find any Eskimo
remains. The stretch between Kap Jørgensen and Sgndre-
Aputitek again presents tolerably favourable conditions for
Eskimo existence, and in fact we find here a number of ruins
of houses, tent encampments, graves etc., yet by no means so
numerous as further south. From Sondre-Aputitek right
up to Kangerdlugsuak the «inland-ice» reaches right out
to sea and we could conceive of Eskimo living only on the
islands of Patuterajuit and Nordre-Aputitek; and we
actually found ruins of houses in the latter island. On the
other hand it is improbable that Eskimo have ever lived in
the interior of the great fiord Kangerdlugsiuak. On the
9th Aug. 1900 we made an attempt to penetrate into the fiord,
but a little inside the mouth we were prevented from carrying out
our enterprise by icebergs, calf ice, ice-floes and ‘‘small-ice”. At
the mouth of the fiord and outside it we found favourable con-
ditions as regards ice; hence we must assume that the fiord is
as a rule filled with masses of ice. On the other hand, on the
East side of the fiord close by the mouth we lighted upon quite
a large Eskimo settlement on the so-called Skergaards
Halvö. On the stretch of coast from Kangerdlugsuak to
Kap Dalton the coast as a whole presents very unfavour-
able conditions for the Eskimo. The fiords here are as a rule
not particularly deep. Many of them are filled with calf ice
from the mighty glaciers which flow into them, proceeding, no
doubt, from the ‘‘inland-ice”. And along the whole stretch of
coast there is only a single little island — and that inaccessible.
Nor did we find during our travels along this coast a single
vestige of the Eskimo having lived here or travelled along it.
It ought, however, to be borne in mind that we had no op-
portunity of making anything like a thorough investigation of
the fiords, many of which looked by no means uninviting, as
the short time at our disposal and the circumstances of the

295

case left us no alternative but to follow the outer line of coast.
Thus it is by no means unthinkable that a more thorough
investigation would have disclosed traces of Eskimo settle-
ments. But, considering the nature of the coast, I am
convinced that only very scattered traces, if any, would be
discovered. The coast from Kap Dalton to Scoresby
Sund presents rather more favourable conditions for Eskimo
settlements, as it possesses several straits and islands. And
in fact we discovered the isolated ruins of a house in
Stewart 0, and an entire little settlement in the island of
Dunholm.

The following table gives an exact conspectus of the
house ruins, tent encampments, graves etc., discovered by us
(see pag. 296).

Before | now proceed to give a detailed description of the
different settlements, I must begin by stating that, at any rate
as regards the settlements examined by myself in person, the
time seldom permitted of a thorough-going excavation of the
houses. As a rule, we had to confine ourselves to excavating
round the place where the lamp had stood, this being the most
likely spot for small objects to have got lost for good, men
and women having been sitting round here at their work. And
in houses where the inhabitants had not died out, we could
only expect to dig up objects which had accidentally disap-
peared. This part of the work fell, as a rule, to Soren
Nielsen, as I myself was generally occupied in surveying.
After the excavation we examined in common the objects that
had been found and deliberated upon what to take and what
to reject, considerations of space in the boat compelling us
to be very particular in our selection. In this regard I received
invaluable assistance from Seren Nielsen, who had lived
three years among the Eskimo at Angmagsalik before he
joined our expedition, and thus had an opportunity of becoming
thoroughly acquainted with the life and ways of this tribe.

296
Approximate Number of
NO: PRE House | Tent
Lat Long ruins | rings Graves }
Jærne SE TS IE: Ake ee eee 65°57':2 | 3595470 ” 1 M
Smalsund SW. point............ 65°59-1 | 35°50-9 1 т "
Smalsund NW. peint............ 1652597 1356506 " 1 D
Point close north of Smalsund... | 65°59-8 | 3593076 ” 1 "
Grusö NW. side................ 66°01°’8 | 35°44°5 " 3 "
1. Depotö,,SW. point......….......…. 66°06’:8 | 35931'-7 4 "
I Depoio, Nec pointy tea 66°07Т’2 | 35°31:0| 2 1 | om
III | Eskimo NE. side . ............ 66°14"-5 | 35915'-3 3 several "
TV \oStonoeNWiside res ae. Bag: 66°15°0 | 35°22/-0 7 several | several
У | Kangerdlugsuatsiak, East side ofinlet | 66918'-5 | 3592778 1 2 1
У! Nord Fjord, West side of ше... | 66°18’-6 | 3592230 3 " sever
VII | Nerd Fjord, East side of inlet.... | 66°18°8 | 35°19'-3 4 2 8
MIT ØSarkarm int ее se torsk 66918-2 | 352917'-1 3 several | several
Island just opposite Sarkarmiut .. | 66°17”6 | 35°18-1 и 2 "
IX | Nigertusok North side of inlet.... | 66°17:6 | 34°52’-0 il 3
| Kap Wandel SW. side........... 66°18-8 | 3494770 " 3
| Point on the south side of the gulf
north of Kap Jørgensen ....... 66°47'-0 | 33°485 " 8
Kajarsak W. side ............... 66°48'°5 | 33°42’-5 ” 2
NIE В а ne 66°57’.8 | 33°40°7 il 2 å 3
XI | Kap Warming $. point .......... 6702-17 1535395826 1 SN |
ХИ | East point of island between Kap
Warming and Langôen ........ 67°03-4 | 33°26’-4 3 2 зеуега
Bangoen W. ромео. 67°04°0 | 33°25 2 " 2
AUT EI ET ee CHEN | "aa lowe 4 8
XIV | Nordre-Aputitek ................ 67247'-5 | 32°06’:0 3 "
ХУ | Skærgaards Halvöen ............ 682073 | 31°34:0 8 6 many
RV DOOM FRE oe as SPEER ..... | 695549 | 22°38" 7 2
XVII Stewart бо. OURS. A ... | 69°57:2 | 229580 | several wo
ХУ Кара, sara. irites 70°24'°6 | 21°57'-6 7 " са. 2

Besides the above, the settlemenis оп Kap Borlase Warren and tn Sabine Ö were
investigated. See p. 292.

Nor did time permit of an excavation of the kitchen-
middens — except in a few instances. On the other hand we
opened and examined almost all the graves we came across.

I. The settlement on the SW. point of Depotö was
built on a little point jutting out into the sea. Several small
rocky islets lay off this point at a distance of about 100

297

yards, and the point itself was cut off from the rest of the
island by a ravine descending with precipitous sides to a
depth of from three to six metres. The passage-way from
one of the ruined houses came to an abrupt end just where
the ravine lay, which shows that the ravine did not exist at
the time when the house was inhabited.

This circumstance, however, did not give us any clue to
the age of the house, as the ground crumbles away with
extraordinary rapidity along this coast !).

In the settlement there were four houses with the following

dimensions.
| г |
s | Inner length of (Inner breadth Magnetic direction of
=. | |
Ei 7 I from back | Length of р
= | Back | Front | wall to passage-way Back | eh
= | wall | wall | passage-way | wall from within
| m | m m m
1 | 53 | 49 || 3:5 5:8 NNE-SSW| ENE
2 | nu 22 ll as 5-5 | E—W 5
3 | 47 | 44 5:5 56 E—W | SSW
4 | | | 22 50 | NW—SE NE
i | 1 1 1 |

All the houses wore the appearance of age, especially No.
4, which was so dilapidated that the length of the front and
back wall could not be measured.

The house must at any rate have been very small.
Amongst the houses we discovered a number of carved pieces
of wood, but nothing of particular interest. House No.1 was
excavated, and yielded the following objects: an ellipsoid
stone such as the Eskimo use as a hammer, a Dutch bead, a
few pieces of a whalebone, and a few carved pieces of wood.

The surrounding graves all consisted of a stone chamber.
One of them, which was situated on a little high rock close

1) С. Kruuse. «Naturforholdene paa Østgrønlands Kyst mellem 66° og
67° 22° Br.» Geografisk Tidskrift. 15. Bd. 3—4. Hefte. Pag. 64.

298

by the point, was particularly neat. It was rectangular, and Из
dimensions were: 1°6 metres in length and 0'6 metres in
breadth. The walls, which were built up of flat stones, had a
height of 46 centimetres. The grave was covered over with
flat stones, and one of its longitudinal walls was partially
formed by a fall in the rock. In the grave there were four
skeletons. In one corner there were two carved pieces of
wood stuck into the ground. Opposite the end of one of the
longitudinal walls and along it, there had been built a little
square chamber with sides measuring 0:6 metres and with a
height of 31 centimetres. At the bottom of the chamber lay a
nondescript remnant of bone.

II. The settlement on the North side of Depotö was
situated on the point between Depot Fjord and the sound
which separates Depotö from the mainland. We made only a
brief landing here. Seal bones in a high state of decomposition
and a few carved pieces of wood lay about the houses and in
the immediate vieinity of the houses lay the graves.

Ш. The island, Eskimoö, about 200 metres in height,
on the NE. side sloped down towards a strip of low-lying and
rather fertile ground, which shot a number of small, gently
sloping, smooth points out into the water; better spots for
hauling up wmiaks and kaiaks could hardly be conceived.
Thus the place was excellent for Eskimo settlements. However
there were only three houses; on the other hand, traces of
numerous tent-rings indicated that the place must once have
been a favourite summer resort. The dimensions of the house

were as follows:

S Inner length of |Inner breadth} Length Magnetic direction of
Deal | from back of Ip
in : a assage-way
5 Back Front wall to passage Back ddan О
= wall wall | passage-way way wall within

| m m m m
1 | 47 4:1 38 6:0 ESE—WNW NE
2 | +78 63 41 4-4 ENE—WSW N
3 3:8 3:1 47 NE—SW E

299

All the houses were rather old, No. 3 being in fact of
considerable age. An excavation of the houses yielded nothing
but some mouldering woodwork. Outside one of them there
lay remains of bones of whales.

IV. The settlement on the NW. side of Storö lay at the
end of a valley which extends across the island. There were
no less than seven houses. Their dimensions were:

$ | Inner length of | Inner breadth| Length Magnetic direction of
ог. from back of Fr
= Back | Front wall to passage- Back PASH Be way
= seen from
= | wall | wall | passage-way way wall within

| Ты m m
1 | 56 5'3 3'5 | 5:6 NNW—SSE SW
2 2-5 25 | 3:5 5:6 NNW—SSE SW
3 at |141 2°8 41 N—S W
а | 31 | 28 3:5 5:3 E—W N
5 | 6:9 66 | 35 6:6 ENE—WSW SSW
pui 28 2:2 8:5 6:6 ENE—WSW SSW
7 | Impossible to measure

All the houses looked very old, though No. 5 and 6 did
not appear to be so old as the others. House No. 2 was built
within No. 1 and house No.6 within No.5. The way in which
this was done was that two side-walls, almost parallel with
the original side-wall, were built within the original house;
while the old front and back wall and passage-way were used
for the new house. House No.7 was so old and tumble-down
that it could not be measured. It looked as if it had been
divided into two rooms; it seems to have been built in two
stages, the larger room having been built first, and the smaller
опе subsequently built within it. Bones and pieces of wood
lay scattered about among the houses.

V. The ruined house on the east side of the mouth of
the great Kangerdlugsuatsiak Fjord was built on a
little rocky point. This house, too, looked to be of a con-

300

siderable age. Close by it there was а play-ground for

children. The dimensions of the house were:

Length back ас 4-4 m
EN ek front walls ee mern SES 38 -

Breadth from back wall to front wall .... 38 -

Length of passage-way.................. 44 -

Direction of back wall.................. NW—SE
= - passage-way seen from within SW.

VI. On a narrow strip of ground at the foot of the high

rocks on the peninsula between Kangerdlugsuatsiak and
Nord Fjord there lay three houses close to the mouth of the
fjord. On the hill slopes behind the houses and in the
vicinity there was an unusually luxuriant vegetation. The di-
mensions of the houses were: |

2 Inner length of |Inner breadth; Length Magnetic direction of
5 from back of =
a Г À assage-way
= Back Front wall to passage Back eo
= wall wall | passage-way way wall within

m m m m
И 2-8 1-9 2:8 4-1 ESE—WNW SSW
2 I 8-1 4-7 1:2 ESE—WNW SSW
3 2°8 2°5 2°8 5-3 ESE—WNW SSW

The excavation of houses No.1 and 2 brought to light a
number of well-preserved pieces of wood and fragments of
iron which had almost rusted away. As the soil was extremely
damp from the water which poured down from the hill slopes,
the presence of these fragments of iron show that the houses
cannot be particularly old, as in fact is also indicated by their
On the other hand house No.3 looked to be of
considerable age.

appearance.
In house No.1, there were remnants of a
little toy pot made of a mica-slate and in house No.2 the
remnants of a pot and a few carved utensils of bone, none
of them, however of particular interest.

301

УП. А little inward of the barren rocky point on the East
side of the Nord Fjord there lay four ruined houses, the di-
mensions of which were:

5 | Inner length of ‚Inner breadth Length | Magnetic direction of
| from back of re р
= | | | assage-way
= | Back | Front | wall to passage Back om
= | wall wall | passage-way way wall within

m m | m m
1 38 38 | 41 6:0 ENE—WSW N
2 5°6 5:6 4-1 5-6 E—W N
3 8:0 28 | 31 3'8 ENE—WSW N
4 1:9 Bet || 1:9 dl NE—SW N

Houses Nos. 1 and 2 looked to be in extraordinarily good
preservation, and yet they were undoubtedly of a considerable
age, as the stones in the walls were everywhere covered with
black lichens. House No.3 looked to be very old, while No. 4
had a fairly new appearance. Nos. 2 and 4 were of a peculiar
construction: The passage-way did not start as usual from
the middle of the front wall, but away from the East end of
the house.

Vill. The houses at Sarkarmiut were all very large,
but were not measured. In one of the numerous surrounding
graves was discovered a little wooden box with pieces of bone
more or less roughly carved, and in another grave a little
stone pot (child’s toy).

IX. The ruined house on the north side of Nigertusok
close to the mouth of the fjord presented the appearance of
considerable antiquity, but was not investigated in detail.

X. In Lilleö there was a house the building of which
had evidently been abandoned, for some reason or other, soon
after it was commenced. The walls, which were about half a

XXVUL 20

302

metre in height were constructed entirely of stone. The house
was a very small one:

Inner length of the back wall........... 19 m
Breadth from back wall to passage-way... 2°2 -
Length of passage-way.................. 20 -

Fig. 1. The house at Nualik, where the Eskimo became extinct.
(Phot. by G. Amdrup.)

XI. On the southernmost point of Kap Warming there
were very well-preserved remains of an Eskimo house of un-
usually large dimensions:

Inner length of back wall............... 11 m

— Е, Оле Wall пе deen 10 -
Breadth from back wall to passage-way... 41 -
Length of passage-way.................. 56 -

Longitudinal direction of back wall

The house looked uncommonly new, and about the two
blubber-tanks outside the house there were still some not

entirely coagulated remains of blubber which had flowed out
over the stones.

303

ХИ. On the other hand, the three houses on the East
point of the island between Kap Warming and Langöen
were undoubtedly of some antiquity. One of them was fairly
large and the two others pretty small. One of the two tent-
rings which we saw here was somewhat peculiar, as it was
formed like a stone rampart.

XIII. The settlement at Nualik is of unusual interest,
as we here chanced upon an extinct Eskimo colony. Among
the four houses which were found here, there was one which
was in such a good state of preservation, that with a few slight
repairs it might almost immediately have been used to live in
(Fig. 1). All the walls were completely preserved, and likewise
the passage-way, except the first metre of it. Only the roof had
partially fallen in. The house lay in a valley extending across
the little narrow peninsula between the Kruuses and Solos
Fjords. И was built up along an evenly sloping surface of
rock, and the mode of construction was quite the same as
that which is used in the Angmagsalik District‘! The
walls were of stone and sods. From one of the side-walls to
the other there lay a heavy block of drift-timber resting on
wooden supports in the interior of the house. Between this
cross-beam and the front and hind walls there lay other
beams of drift-timber. Above the whole rafter-work had been
laid thick sods covered with skins. In the front walls there
were three window openings. The passage-way struck out
almost at right angles to the front wall, somewhat nearer to
one of the side-walls than to the other.

The entrance to the house lay through the passage-way,
which was 7 metres in length and 1 metre in height and the
bottom of which lay about half a metre below the floor of
the house.

1) Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. X. P. 66.
20*

304

The inner dimensions of the house were:

Length “of back ‘wall LU 6). Wr. „28 81 т
aii < front alles вена re.) 6:5 -
Breadth from back wall to passage-way... 3`6 -

Along the whole length of the back wall extended the
wooden platform, divided into 7 compartments. On each side
wall there was a little platform, and outside the window
openings there were likewise platforms.

The very appearance of the house struck us at once.
But when among the big heap of bones outside the house
amid the skulls of narwhals, bears and dogs we found also
human skulls, it dawned upon us that this settlement must
have been the scene of a terrible tragedy. All the inhabitants
must undoubtedly have fallen victims to some awful catastrophe
— famine or poisoning. When we entered the house our mis-
givings received only too true a confirmation (Fig. 2—3).

On the platform along the backwall there lay skeletons or
parts of skeletons, and along the outer edge of it there were
remains of the long black hair of the Eskimo’s heads. There
were still in several places so many remnants of skin that we
were able to picture to ourselves how the inhabitants had
once lain comfortably between two bearskins, the upper one
with the hair downwards; for the bones lay between these skins.

On the five lamp platforms stood the lamps and the stone
pots. The drying-hatches above them had fallen down, but
remains of bear-skin clothes still lay on them. Under the
platform there were chip-boxes and square wooden cases, and
on the stone-paved floor large urine and water tubs. In front
of one of the small side platforms there was a blubber board,
and a large well carved meat trough, and scattered about the
floor there lay wooden dishes, blood-scoops, water-scoops, and
large and small wooden cases. And besides this, there were
specimens of practically all the bone and wooden utensils
which belong to an Eskimo house.

er
nn

RE
-

506

Fig. 2,

307

(Phot. by С. Kruuse.)

3. The interior of the house at Nualik, where the Eskimo become extinct.

=
Fig. 2

za regen
ое ре

nenn

= =

309

Near the house, sheltered by an perpendicular wall of
rocks, two metres high, there stood four long heavy stones
placed edge-wise. It was on top of these stones that the
umiak had rested. Fragments of the wooden frame still lay
round the props. Between these and the rock walls there lay
the remains of at least three kaiak frames. Scattered among
these there were bone mountings for kazaks and for all kinds
of hunting implements. Further there lay remains of sledges,
parts of tent-frames etc.

Round about, carefully covered up with stones, there lay
wooden pieces, more or less carved, which were to have been
parts of new kaiak frames, hunting implements, or other kinds
of implements and utensils.

Now, how many individuals did this colony number?
Probably at least thirty, for inside the house there were at
least eleven skeletons and outside it we found nine skulls, all
of which appeared to belong to adults. And this number seems
to agree with the size of the house.

And how did they perish? Doubtless by poisoning. For
when we excavated one of the surrounding blubber-tanks we
discovered large pieces of still fairly fresh blubber and under
one of the stone pots a dried ringed seal flipper. The
poisoning may have been brought about by semi-putrid meat,
which the Eskimo regard as a delicacy. Instances of such
cases of poisoning with a fatal termination are well-known
among the Eskimo at Angmagsalik. It is also conceivable
that the inhabitants may have eaten poisonous things cast up
by the sea. Thus inside the house there was an old conical
tin box which had been opened at the narrow end, а proof
that this had been done by hands unfamiliar with such objects.
But it is by no means out of the question that they may have
died of starvation. For famine often weakens and emaciates the
people to such an extent that they die even if they still have
some blubber left, and we know from G. Holm that in the

510

winter of 1881—82 and again in 1882—83 famine prevailed at
the various places along the East coast of Greenland!).

Another far more interesting question is: Where does this
colony come from? Could they possibly be descendants of the
Eskimo from the north who had met their death on their
southward journey? In that case the discoveries would be of
great interest. But the very appearance and arrangement of the
house militated against this supposition. Moreover, all the utensils
and implements that were found were exactly like those used
in the Angmagsalik District. Far more probably they
were the sad remains of the little group of about thirty souls,
mentioned by G. Holm, who in 1882 had travelled north
from Angmagsalik and had not been heard of since?). This
supposition received confirmation when we returned to Ang-
magsalik after completing our boat-trip. For here there were
still many surviving who had known the Eskimo who had set
forth in 1882. We showed the ethnographic collection with
which we had returned to four of them, and they each re-
cognized several of the objects. There was particularly a
blood-stopper, with a neatly cut man’s head, which they all
assigned to a particular person whom they all called by the
same name. And yet I had given none of them a chance of
conferring together before | cross-examined them.

Although I am thus quite convinced that the extinct
colony was identical with the little band of Eskimos that
started out from the Angmagsalik District in 1882, 1
nevertheless consider it right that scientists who are interested
in the question shall have a fair chance of judging themselves
as to the ethnographic materials brought back from Nualik.
The greater part of this collection will therefore be reproduced
in illustrations in connection with the general description of

1) Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. X. Р. 162—164.
2) do. do. Vol. Х. P. 56.

311

the ethnography of the Angmagsalik District. It will
then be possible to compare the representations of objects
from "the dead house” with the representations of G. Holm's
excellent collection from Angmagsalik!).

Unfortunately the scanty space at our disposal in the boat
did not allow of our returning with the whole rich collection
which was to be found at Nualik. We had to confine our-
selves to taking with us all the objects carved in bone, most
of the smaller, and a few of the larger, objects carved in wood.

XIV. Nordre-Aputitek is, according to G. Holm’),
the northernmost place which the Angmagsalik Eskimo
are known to have inhabited. Holm’s informant was an
Eskimo of the name of Kunak, who had lived three years in
those parts as a boy. When I reached Angmagsalik in
1900 after having visited Nordre-Aputitek, Kunak was
still alive. He was then an old man, well over sixty, from
which I was able to conclude that the ruined house in
Nordre-Aputitek must be between fifty and sixty years
old. For on the whole island there was only one ruined
house, situated on a little fertile point on the SW. side of the
island. Its size precluded the possibility of its having been
inhabited after Kunak by Eskimo from the North. The
appearance of this settlement has thus served me as a guide
in estimating the age of other settlements.

The ruined house itself lay on a site on which two other
houses had previously stood, so that the island must have
been successively occupied by different sets of inhabitants. A
luxuriant coat of verdure mantled the whole ruin. Outside it
there were a large number of bones of bears, seals, dogs and
narwhals, pieces of wood lay strewn about, and one of the frag-
ments of skin which we found had the hair still adhering to it.

1) Meddelelser om Gronland. Vol. X. Tavler. New edition in preparation.
2) do. do. Vol. X. P. 222.

312

XV. The barren Skjærgaards Halvö, which is about
125 metres in height, is connected by a rather narrow low
tongue of land with the high mountanous country that lies
behind it. Numerous small promontories jut out from the
west side of the peninsula. Off it there lie a number of small
skerries and islands.

Here ihere were no less than eight ruined houses, six
tent-rings, and numerous graves. The state of the houses
showed clearly that they had not all been simultaneously in-
habited. Four of them were so dilapidated that they could
not even be measured.

The dimensions of the remaining four were:

= Inner length of || Inner breadth Length Magnetic direction of
4 from back of р
2 ty assage-way
5 Back Front wall to passase Back seen from
== wall wall passage-way way wall within

m m т
1 31 de 3:8 6:6 \
2 2-8 к. 81 ol W
3 3°6 = 3-1 5:0 W
4 1:9 = 2:8 3:8 У

&

These four houses were constructed throughout of stones
which the builders had fitted together as best they could. No. 1
was in an unusually good state of preservation (Fig. 4). Here
the platform along the back wall was built up of large flat stones:
presumably they did not possess any great abundance of wood.
Nos. 2 and 3 were built together, one of the side-walls being
common to them both.

The excavation of the houses yielded no result whatever.
The graves, on the other hand, gave a rich harvest: we found
a good many different implements in four different graves. In
two of them the objects lay in a little chamber built outside
the grave, but forming part of it, being joined to the side of
the graves where the legs lay. In the third grave the objects

Е = о ist és,
D Cr) CS ei core lex

ts

Sk

313

lay within the grave itself: at the fourth, which evidently was
a child's grave, there lay a child's sledge on the top of
the grave under some flat stones. Several of the graves
were very neatly constructed. In one of the graves we
examined, the corpses seem to have lain fully dressed. We
found remains of hairy bear- and seal-skins and of dried

Fig. 4. Ruins of an Eskimo house (No. 1) at Skjærgaards Halvö.
(Phot. by G. Amdrup.)

skins. To the heads, which in other respects were mere
skeletons, long black hair still adhered.

Round about the houses there lay bones in a high state
of putrefaction, and a number of old pieces of wood, all of
them of such an appearance as to leave no doubt that it must
have been much longer since human beings lived in Skjer-
gaards Halvö than in Nordre-Aputitek.

XVI. On the little island of Dunholm, which was only
about 30 metres high, there were on the top of the island
not less than seven ruined houses, grouped in a ring about a

314

little water-wheel. Down by the shore there lay, besides, a
couple of tent-rings.

Two of the houses were excavated and yielded, considering
the circumstances, a comparatively rich harvest. Measure-
ments, however, were not taken!)

XVII. At the spot where Stewart О pushes a spit of
land into the glacier which shoots out from the mainland in
the direction of the island, were observed on a little point
some ruined houses almost right out by the glacier’).

XVIII. All the previously mentioned settlements lie on
the stretch of coast explored by the expedition and hitherto
unknown, while the settlements on Kap Tobin lie in the
Scoresby Sund District, which had been visited on
several previous occasions. The settlement itself, however,
had never been visited before, and as it presents several
points of interest which add considerably to our previous
knowledge of Scoresby Sund, it shall, as was promised
above, receive a particular notice here.

As to this settlement Lieutenant Koch has furnished me
with the following information: —

‘ЧЕ had more or less the shape represented below (Fig. 5).
About 200 metres north of the settlement there was an extensive
burial-ground. The graves were not counted, but there were
certainly over twenty of them. The measurements of one of
the best preserved graves were: length 1°6 metres, breadth
0-6 metres, depth 0°35 metres (inner measurements). The
graves were built up of stones which fitted well together. The
roof was formed of flat stones resting on two drift-timber
logs. Ш contained a number of human bones scattered about

1) Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. ХХУИ. P. 164.
2) do. do. Vol. XXVII. P. 280.

ww

315

pell-mell, and a few animal bones, among them a bone of a
whale. The bottom seems to have been covered with gravel.
Out of the houses Il and IV were particularly well preserved,
while the two smallest houses V and VII looked to be the
oldest. The roofs, however, had sunk in, while the walls
remained throughout their whole length above the ground (the
foundation granite). The passage-way in IV was completely

i:

Fig. 5. Sketch of the settlements on Kap Tobin.
(Drawn by J. P. Koch.)

preserved, in II only partially. In I and Ill the passage-ways
curved towards the south (cf. Scoresby’s sketch of the
settlements at Kap Stewart!).

Huts II and Ш were measured; in the accompanying sketch
(Fig. 6) the measurements are given in metres. The broken
line ABC in Ш is a well-built wall, which did not seem to
give access to the interior of the house. In the corner D
there was a distinct recess.

') Journal of a voyage to the Northern Whale-fishery by William
Scoresby-junior. P. 210.

516

An excavation of house II brought only a few trifles to
light; on the other hand, more considerable discoveries were
made in and near three kitchen-middens east of the settle-
ment, viz: 2 human skulls, 2 almost intact three-legged chairs,
1 wooden tub, 1 iron knife with a wooden haft, 1 iron harpoon
point in a bone setting, various bone implements and
harpoon points, 1 kaiak scraper, a number of carved pieces

Fig. 6. Sketch of house No. II and III on Kap Tobin.
(Drawn by Т.Р. Koch.)

of wood, and finally a few toys, such as a bear and a bird
carved in wood, 1 walrus, 1 duck, seals, and a couple of toy
harpoon points in bone. The kitchen-middens were filled with
large quantities of reindeer hair; on the other hand the wool
of musk-oxen and other remains of these animals were not
to be seen.

About 1 kilometer east of the settlement there were two
cairn-like stone buildings (bee-hive shaped); (cf. Scoresby's
observations at Kap Swainson’). In the best preserved of

1) Journal of a voyage to the Northern Whale-fishery by William
Scoresby-junior. P. 210.

317

these only the upper stone had fallen down and lay in the
interior of the building. The inner dimensions of the whole

cairn were:
Diameter at the bottom................. 15 m
— 1 metre over bottom........... 18 -
LOC RENE NAS ee 19 -

In the interior of the cairn there lay a few fragments of
bone, probably animal bones.

Dr. Nordenskjöld, who also landed at Kap Tobin,
believed from Koch’s description of the cairns that they were
analogous with three others which he had found further
north.

In the vicinity of the two cairns close to the settlement
there were ten fox-traps, about 1 metre in length and 15 cm
in depth and width (inner measurement).” —

It will be seen that house No. Ш presents the peculiar
characteristic that there were two passage-ways, a short and a
long one, and that a kind of little front chamber was formed
by the wall ABC. Koch observes that this wall did not
seem to lead to the interior of the house, but that an excava-
tion might possibly have brought such a thoroughfare to
light.

My personal opinion, however, is that the house must
originally have had only one passage-way, viz. the long one,
while the short passage-way and the wall ABC must have been
constructed after the house had ceased to be lived in. The little
chamber that was thus formed was presumably used as a
cache, or as a work-shop, and accordingly had no thoroughfare
to the interior of the house.

Thus at Nualik I found close to the ‘‘dead house” (men-
tioned above) a small covered chamber built up the side of a
perpendicular rocky wall, having about the same dimensions as
the above. On the floor there lay a number of comparatively

fresh and unbleached shavings of wood, as well as a few newly
XXVI. 21

518

carved accessories for wmiaks and kaiaks, so that the room
probably was used as a kind of work-shop.

Koch observes that the passage-way in houses I and Ill
curved towards the south, and refers us to the settlement at
Kap Stewart found and described by Scoresby, where
the passage-ways in three of the ten houses discovered curved
towards the south, while that in the other seven houses faced
south without curving.

Scoresby’s idea was that the Eskimo always made the
passage-way face south in order to obtain the greatest possible
amount of the sun’s heat, and at the same time have it facing
away from the direction of the prevailing wind.

My experience, however, has been that the direction of
the passage-way has nothing to do with the four points of
the compass, but that the determining factor is the desire of
having the easiest possible access to the sea, while at the same
time consideration must be paid to the lie of the plateau on
which the house is built.

Thus, when the longitudinal wall in house I is built at
right angles to the longitudinal wall in house Ш, this is
probably due to the lie of the plateau, and the passage-way is
curved in order to give ready access to the sea.

The recess which Koch found in one of the corners of
house Ш was probably a store-room in which meat and
blubber were kept. In two of the houses examined by Ryder
store-rooms of this kind were found under the stone pavement!).

Another interesting discovery in this settlement were the
bee-hive-shaped cairns, quite the same kind as those found by
Scoresby at Kap Swainson. They were probably used as
store-chambers.

Finally a few there are among the ethnographical objects dis-
covered which had not previously been found in Scoresby Sund.

1) Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol XVII. Р. 298.

319

Thus on the stretch between the Angmagsalik
Distriet and Scoresby Sund we found about 60 winter
houses. The following general description holds good of them
all with a few exceptions.

The houses are rectangular with parallel back and front
walls. The front wall is almost always a little shorter than
the back wall, which causes the side-walls to converge slightly.
All the walls are perpendicular. The passage-way strikes out
as a rule from the middle of the front wall, perpendicular or
nearly perpendicular to it. The length of the passage-way
given above for each house merely indicates that the passage-
way must have had at least that length; but in many of the
houses we measured it must undoubtedly have heen longer.

The lie of house is never determined according to the
four points of the compass; the decisive factor for the in-
habitants seems always to have been ready access to the sea.
The building materials are stone and turf, in a few places only
stones; in the latter case, however, the interstices have perhaps
been bunged up with moss or snow.

In the above particulars the construction of the houses is
in complete accordance with that employed both at Angmag-
salik!) and at Scoresby Sund and to the north of it?).

But if we consider the dimensions of the houses, we shall
find that on the stretch of coast from Angmagsalik to
Nordre-Aputitek there are houses of very varying size,
ranging from the size employed in the Angmagsalik
Distriet to that employed at Scoresby Sund and to the
north of it. Out of the fifty houses Ryder found at
Scoresby Sund the largest was 2°7 > 3°8 metres, the
smallest 1°6 >< 2°5 metres, being thus houses only intended for

1) Meddelelser om Gronland. Vol. Х. P. 66— 69.

*)-Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. XVII. P. 296. — A. С. Nathorst. Två
Somrar i Norra Ishafvet. Senare Delen. P. 342. — Die zweite Deutsche
Nordpolarfahrt. Vol.l. P. 520.

21%

320

one family, while Holm gives the length of the houses oc-
cupied in 1884 as ranging between 7`5 and 15'7 metres, and
the width between 3°8 and 5`0 metres, several families living
in each of these houses. I must observe, however, that during
my stay in the Angmagsalik District I have come
across Tuined houses of smaller dimensions than the above,
though none of such small dimensions as in Scoresby
Sund.

Ryder believes that the Eskimo are not extinct in
Scoresby Sund and the districts to the north of it, and
he therefore upholds the theory that the population little by
little have journeyed further south, and that these people or
their descendants have reached Angmagsalik and the
southern part of the East coast. We know from G. Holm
that the inhabitants of Angmagsalik have made journeys
right up to Nordre-Aputitek, whereby the occurrence of
large houses on this stretch of coast receives a ready ex-
planation. But it seems to me that the existence of the small
houses right away from Scoresby Sund to the Angmag-
salik District to some extent confirms Ryder s hypothesis,
although it is possible that small bands of Eskimo may have
died out in the district about Scoresby Sund. Thus, in
the settlements at Kap Tobin the inhabitants have in all
probability died out. In a kitchen-midden east of the settle-
ment Koch found two human skulls and, in spite of the short
time at his disposal, made a comparatively rich haul of ethno-
graphic objects.

It is necessary, however, to be very cautious in drawing
conclusions from the size of the houses as to the peregrina-
tions of the Eskimo; for the size of the houses is no doubt
determined by local circumstances and not by any peculiarity
of the different tribes. Everywhere where it is feasible we
find several families living in one house. For it is evident to
the practically-minded Eskimo that it is in every way best for

321

several families to live together in one house. The individual
will not be so much subject to chance in the way of bad
hunting luck, as the housemates go share and share alike,
while it is also more economic as regards light and warmth.
Again from a social point of view life is certainly more
pleasant when several families are gathered together in one
house.

Thus among the Point Barrow Eskimo as a rule two
families, and often more, live together in one house’).

Similarly, in the stone houses of the Central Eskimo
there live two or three families together. In their snow-
houses there always live two families, and two snow-houses
have often the same passage-way, so that, properly speaking,
four families live together’).

Among the Smith Sound Eskimo we frequently find that
two stone huts are built so close to one another that by
means of a wide opening in the common partition wall they
are joined into one‘. And finally the West Greenlanders
used always to live several families in the same house‘), and
the East Greenlanders do so to this very day.

But in order that several families may be able to find
room in one stone house, it must be fairly large. But in this
case a comparatively large rafterwork will be required for the
construction of the roof, whereas for a small house only a
few rafters will be necessary; in fact rafters can be dispensed
with altogether, and the house can be built entirely of stone.
Examples of this latter are the old Eskimo stone houses on
Lake Hazen in Grinnell Land’), the stone houses in

1) Ethnological results of the Point Barrow Expedition by John Murdoch.
P.772.

2) The Central Eskimos by Dr. Franz Boas. Р. 539.

3) E. Astrup. Blandt Nordpolens Naboer. P. 235.

*) H. Egede. Det gamle Grønlands nye Perlustration. P. 63.

$) Greely. Three years of Arctic Service. Vol. I. Р. 379—380.

322

Northumberland Island!) off the Gulf of Inglefield
and in Karnah on the same fjord!), as well as several other
places on Smith Sound. It is in fact the want of wood
which has undoubtedly been the determining reason why the
Eskimo in many places have had to resort to stone houses’).

That the Eskimo in Scoresby Sund did not possess
any great amount of drift-timber will be gathered, amongst
other things, from the fact that the rafter-work in most
of the houses examined by Ryder was partially composed of
whale ribs and large whale bones. Moreover, it is patent that
the longer the ice lies frozen in the fjord and along the coast,
the less drift-timber will be washed ashore. This circumstance
by itself is sufficient to account for the fact that the drift-
timber will be found in larger quantities at such places as
e. g Angmagsalik than further north. Another important
factor is that the main arm of the stream which flows from
the Polar Sea runs in a curve a little west of Spitz-
bergen down towards Jan Mayen, until just south of that
island it is forced closer in to the East coast of Green-
land’). It is a well-known fact that large quantities of drift-
timber are to be found on the island of Jan Mayen, and
when in the year 1900, we entered the ice-belt, at circa 74°
lat., we came across a great deal of drift-timber in the edge
of the pack-ice, while only a small quantity was seen inside
the ice-belt. |

Thus, if we imagine the present inhabitants of Angmag-
salik to have migrated northwards, the houses must by the
force of circumstances inevitably get smaller and smaller; but,
on the other hand, we should hardly expect to find the quite

1) Robert Е. Peary. Northward over the great ice. Vol. I Р. 108 and Vol. И
P. 269—272, respectively.

?) H. Rink. The Eskimo tribes. Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. XI. P. 11.

3) See the author's observations on this head in Meddelelser om Grøn-
land. Vol. ХХУИ. Р. 141.

323

small houses of the Scoresby Sund pattern right out at
Angmagsalik. The occurrence of these houses seems to
me, therefore, to furnish a proof, however slender, of the
Scoresby Sund Eskimo having migrated south. Further
we find an isolated indication that this movement went on
little by little, in the fact that in the settlement on the NW
side of Storö we find two of the small houses built within
the sites of the larger houses.

As to the motives for this movement, Ryder writes: ‘In
spite of the fact that Scoresby Sund, and to some
extent, its interior ramifications, during a great part of the year
afford the Eskimo good opportunities of acquiring the means
of subsistence, there will nevertheless be a long period, viz.
from the time the ice gets thick and is covered up with snow
till the seals begin to appear upon the ice, that is from De-
cember to May, during which it will certainly be difficult for
an Eskimo to procure the game necessary for the support of
his family; and this circumstance, taken in conjunction with
the Eskimo’s innate love of travelling, may account for the fact
of their having once more moved out to the outer coast and
thence further south”.

If we add to this that the Angmagsalik District is
unquestionably the best district for seal-hunting on the whole
East coast, as the hunting can go on there practically the
whole year round, and that the drift-timber which is of such
vital importance to an Eskimo, is found here in far larger
quantities than further north, and further that the climate is
far milder here than in the stretch from Scoresby Sund
to the north, it seems to me that it is almost a matter of
course that a movement of the Eskimo from the north to the
south must take place in the course of time, whereas a move-
ment in the opposite direction would be far less conceivable.

It might be added in further proof that the accounts
which G. Holm received from the inhabitants of Angmag-

324

salik as to musk-oxen and reindeer having lived in the
Angmagsalik District in former times!) must certainly
be regarded as a tradition which has its origin in the fact
that their forefathers had once lived in districts where these
animals occurred”). It is true that the stone-wall at Kulusuk
mentioned by G. Holm as being intended for the purpose of
stalking reindeer, and subsequently photographed by W. Thal-
bitzer, seems to make against this theory. But, for the
present, [ am inclined to doubt whether this wall was really
used for stalking reindeer. For during the fifteen years
during which the colony at Angmagsalik has existed,
in the course of which time it has been visited by several
expeditions, not the slightest trace has been found that might
seem to indicate that these animals had lived in the Ang-
magsalik District, whereas in practically all the kitchen-
middens in the Scoresby Sund district, reindeer bones,
pieces of reindeer horn etc. were discovered*). But if this
view is correct, it likewise points to the conclusion that the
forefathers of the Angmagsalik Eskimo must once have
lived in the district from Scoresby Sund to the north.

In conclusion [ shall mention just one factor which may
also be supposed to have been at work in the Eskimo’s south-
ward migration. As Ryder has pointed out, the musk-ox can
hardly have occurred in very large numbers when the Eskimo
were living at Scoresby Sund, whereas reindeer must at
that time have been found in great multitudes. But as regards
the reindeer it has been ascertained by the expeditions sent
out during the last ninety years that there has been a con-
siderable fluctuation in their numbers. And there are various

1) С. Holm. Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. Х. P.53 og 84.

*) This possibility has already been broached by Ryder in Meddelelser
om Grønland. Vol. XVII Р. 304 and later by H. Winge in the same
work. Vol XXI Р. 474.

3) Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. XVII. Р. 324.

325

eircumstances which seem to indicate that the same fact holds
good of the musk-oxen}).

This fluctuation in the numbers of the reindeer took place
at a period where at any rate the great mass of the Eskimo
must have left these regions, and is thus not due to human
pursuit.

The cause of this fluctuation, as Winge points out, has
not been fully elucidated. Nathorst?) believes that the de-
crease in the numbers of reindeer which has taken place in
recent times, is due to the appearance in these regions of the
polar wolf from the North, who is practically exterminating
them. S. Jensen, on the other hand, holds the view that
though the decrease is certainly due to the polar wolf, the
animals are not being exterminated, but merely driven into the
mountain regions in the interior of the fjord. And in fact an
actual extermination of them is hardly conceiveable, but we
may imagine such a large decrease that the polar wolf
gradually passes over to other districts for want of game, in
order perhaps to return again when the numbers again begin
to increase. An interaction of this nature is by no means
unthinkable.

But if we suppose that such an invasion of wolves took
place while the Eskimo were living at Scoresby Sund,
this fact, in conjunction with the chase, would soon cause the
reindeer to become a rarity to the Eskimo, and the migration
southwards to the far better sealing grounds would then be
still more easily intelligible.

And perhaps we do not need to have recourse to the
polar wolf at all to explain the serious decrease in the numbers
of the reindeer while the Eskimo were still living in these
parts. For the mere hunting of them may perhaps have been

1) $. Jensen. Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. XXIX. Р. 24—27 and 35. —
В, Winge. Same work. Vol. XXI. Р. 458.
*) Tvä Somrar i Norra Ishafvet. Senare Delen. P. 329.

326

sufficient to decimate them severely or drive them away, as
has happened on the West coast.

But whereas, according to what has been set forth above,
everything goes to prove a movement of the East coast Eskimo
from north to south, we are compelled to assume that the
immigration to the East coast of Greenland must have taken
place from the North.

This view was originally tentatively put forth by Rink!),
but has afterwards been backed up with several weighty proofs
by С. Holm, С. Ryder and У. Thalbitzer, all of whom,
as is known, have visited both the East coast and the West
coast.

Thus Holm pointed out that the East Greenlanders
(the Angmagsalik tribe) in artistic skill approach much
more nearly to the West Eskimo than to the West
Greenlander?).

Ryder comes to the conclusion from an examination of
the ethnographic objects discovered in 1891—92 that the
former inhabitants of Scoresby Sund must have most in
common with the north-west Eskimo tribes, the Eskimo of
Point Barrow’).

Finally W. Thalbitzer has shown by his admirable
linguistic studies that the northernmost dialects on both sides of
Greenland resemble one another more than they resemble
the dialects on the West coast of Greenland between 71°
and 60° lat. (or 71°—64° lat.) 4).

Among the authors who support the theory that the

1) H. Rink. Om Grønlands Indland og Muligheden at berejse samme. P. 1. —
do. Eskimoiske Eventyr og Sagn. P. 44. — do. Eskimoiske Eventyr
og Sagn med Supplement. P. 153.

2) Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol. X. P. 153.

à) — — Vol. XVII. Р. 343.

*) == — Vol. XXXI. Р. 40—43 and 186. — W. Thal-
bitzer. Eskimo dialects and wanderings. Р. 109—10 in XIV. Internatio-
naler Amerikanisten-Kongres 1904.

327

immigration to the East coast of Greenland took place from
the North may be mentioned Schultz Lorentzen’), H.Sim-
mons*) and А. Hamberg), while Fridtjof Nansen main-
tains the opposite view").

That neither Lockwood?°) nor Реагуб), the only two
explorers who have visited the North coast, have found traces
of Eskimo habitation proves nothing, as both of them travelled
on the sea-ice along the outer coast. For, if a journey
was made in a similar manner, e. g. from Sabine-Ö to
Scoresby Sund, a stretch which is quite as long as
Peary’s longest sledge-journey, no traces of Eskimo habitation
would be found. And yet we know that in the fjords along
this stretch a busy Eskimo life has prevailed.

I shall now conclude with a few words as to the tent-rings
and graves which we found on the stretch between Angmag-
salik and Scoresby Sund.

The tent-rings did not present any points of interest. On
a flat and even site there lay in a circle the stones which had
once served as weights to keep down the part of the tent-skin
which lay on the ground. Only one of the tent-rings on the
East point of the island between Kap Warming and
Langö formed an exception, being built in the form of a low
rampart of earth and stones. G.Holm mentions that this form
of tent-ring is occasionally used in the Angmagsalik District.
It will thus be seen that the tent-rings we discovered were
of exactly the same nature as those in the Angmagsalik
District’) and Scoresby Sund), as indeed might have
been expected.

1) Meddelelser om Grenland. Vol. ХХУ]. P. 289.

2) Ymer 1905. P. 186.

3) Ymer 1907. P. 22.

4) Е. Nansen. Eskimoliv. P. 12.

5) Greely. Three years of arctic service. Vol. I. Р. 295—347.

8) Bulletin of the geographical society of Philadelphia. January 1904.
7) Meddelelser om Grønland. Vol.X. P.71.

d — = Vol. XVII. P. 302.

328

The graves invariably lay in the immediate vicinity of the
houses, and in no place did we find the graves lying some
distance out towards the mountains, as is occasionally found
on the West coast!).

The graves discovered by Ryder likewise lay hard by
the houses. The graves were as a rule quite detached, so that
they could easily be perceived. They were sometimes built up
along a rock wall, or one of the walls were formed by a
terraced ledge in the surface of the rock?). As a rule they
were constructed with great care.

In most cases several persons had been buried in the
same grave. In several places we found utensils buried with
the согрзе. These lay either within the grave itself, between
the stones which formed the covering of the grave, or in a
little chamber in one of the sides of the grave.

Finally there remains to be mentioned a highly remarkable
stone construction in the Morzneö.

A rectangle, 7°5 metres long, and 4°4 metres broad, had
been formed with 27 stones. The interstices between the stones
were nearly of the same length. This construction lay in the
extinct glacier bed on the NW. side of the island, not far
from the coast line, and with its long side parallel to the
coast. Gould it be some Eskimo or other who had commenced
building a house there but afterwards abandoned the project?
Not far from it we found a number of putrefied seal bones.
The stones were too large for the construction to have been
erected by children.

!) Meddelelser om Grenland. Vol. V. P. 21—25.
2) — — Vol. XVII. P. 339.

21—5—1909.

УП.

Ethnological description

of

The Amdrup Collection From East Greenland

comprising objects found in
Eskimo house-ruins and graves
north of Angmagsalik between 68° and 75° lat. N.

By

W. Thalbitzer.

1909.

пою

Table of Contents.

Preface and Introduction.
Harpoon heads.
Other weapon heads made of bone.
Stone implements.
Finds from Sk&rgaardshalvö,
southernmost part of North East Greenland.

Finds from Dunholm and Cape Tobin,
central part of North East Greenland.

. Finds from Саре Borlase Warren and Sabine island

between 74°—75° lat. N. on the East coast of Greenland.
List of objects collected north of the Angmagsalik district.
Appendix.
List of authorities.

1. Preface and Introduction.

The maxim, “Where there's a will there's
a way”, is quite true among the Eskimo.
О. T. Mason").

The ethnographical collection which the Carlsberg Fund
Expedition to East Greenland which was made in the years
1898—1900 under the command of Lieutenant G. Amdrup,
brought to Copenhagen, comprises a series of ‘finds’ of artefacts
from the coast between Ammassalik (on the map Angmagsalik?)
and Sabine Island, or between 651/2° and 74° 30' lat. N. on the
East coast of Greenland.

On those parts of the coast which were visited for the
first time by a European expedition, were discovered the ruins
of several Eskimo settlements, the inhabitants of which had
deserted them long since, or else had died out. These places
were subjected to a thorough investigation for archaeological
purposes, in accordance with the plan of the Expedition. А
number of the settlements were discovered within the Ammas-
salik district, only some few to the north of it. 1 reckon the
Ammassalik district to extend as far to the north as the coast
is known by the sole surviving Eskimo of this coast, the in-
habitants of the neighbouring fjords, Ammassalik and Sermilik
(at about 651/2° lat. N.) — namely to Kangerdlugsuak, ‘the great

1) Mason IM, 242.

2) The East Greenland form of this name is Ammattaling, but in the
West Greenland dialect the name is pronounced thus: Ammassalık, in
the misleading rendering of Kleinschmidt's orthography Angmagsalik.

"332

fjord’, at about 68° lat. N., 31° 35' long. W. (opposite to Iceland).
The barrenness of the stretch of coast, which extends 300 miles
to the north of this district, between Kangerdlugsuak and Cape
Brewster (at the entrance to Scoresby Sund), is illustrated by
the fact that only 3 former Eskimo settlements with about 20
houses were discovered here; while further to the north, in the
vast fjords of Scoresby Sund and Franz Josephs Fjord and north-
wards to Shannon Island, which lies 300 miles to the north of
Cape Brewster, 25 settlements with over 100 houses are known
through the discoveries of earlier expeditions; so that it would
seem that the population was in former times larger to the
north, where the coast of Greenland (about half-way up it)
curves round in a due northerly direction than South of Cape
Brewster, where it falls away in a NE/SW direction.

As regards the distribution of the former population south
of Cape Brewster, I must refer the reader to the tables given
by G. Holm and Amdrup in ‘‘Meddelelser om Grønland” vol. X,
183—200, and XXVIII, 296 (this volume); as for Scoresby Sund,
detailed information will be found in Ryder’s paper (Medd. om
Gronl. Vol. XVII, 286). In the table that follows (pag. 333) I have
put together the facts which I have been able to glean, on the
basis of the reports of previous expeditions, with regard to the
distribution of the population north of Cape Brewster.

Geographically, as well as from the point of view of its
contents, the Amdrup collection falls into two parts. One part
consists of objects found north of the Kangerdlugsuak fjord;
the population is considered to have become extinct only a few
generations back. The second part consists of objects excavated
within the Ammassalik district itself, and for the most part
belonging to the same culture which we know from the present
inhabitants of this district.

The commander of the Expedition, G. Amdrup, lieutenant
(now captain) in the navy, conducted in person the excavations of
the house-ruins, graves, and rubbish heaps in which the objects

333

Ruins and relies of the former population
discovered by earlier expeditions in М. Е. Greenland between Cape Brewster
(70° lat. N.) and Shannon Island (75° lat. N.).

Locality of Settlements North Number of | Number of Grates
and authorities quoted. Lat. | winter-huts | tent-places
N. 2.2.2.2... 70?
Ryder: 7 winter settlements!)... u 50 many many
Amdrup: 1 winter settlement, Саре
CULL? ь.... SE 7 several
Amdrup: Cape Brewster?) ...... x Sir several
Scoresby: Саре Swainson‘) ..... |. Se several
Саре Hope‘) ......... + be: several
— :CapeStewart®)(cf.Ryder) | ..
о ee REDDE 128
Scoresby: Cape Mewburn ©) ..... VE <4 2
— : Cape Simpson’)...... sg over 50
— : West of Cape Simpson) | .. foul dozens of old
King Oscar's Fjord and Franz His paride оо a
Joseph's Fjord:
Se 2. 6 6
Cape Broer Ruys (Hold -with-
LE HEN ee Meat 25530!
Koldewey*°); Nathorst™)........ LG several several
Clavering Island.............. 74°
Koldewey: Cape Mary?) ........ i: several several several
— : South-western side of |
Clavering Island*)......... 1 23
Cape Borlase Warren ......... 74° 20°
оса: a 2 several several
Nathorst: between Borlase Warren
and Flache Bay!) ......... д I several
Sabine Island ................ 74° 37
Koldewey: Southern side '5)..... ve 3 or 4 many
— :South-eastoftheruins!)| .. N ия 10
— : Southern side!) ..... (444 , many
Klein Pendulum Island....... 74° 40
en re, or 3
Shannon Island .............. | 75°
Koldewey: Southern 314е?°)..... | og many de many
=="): Western side*1): /:.:. sc 10 many
— =: Northern side?) ..... | = ” many

1) Ryder 286. *) Amdrup, Medd. om Gronl. 27, 175. 3) Scoresby 185. +) Id. 203. 5) Id.
205, 208 PI УТ. 9) Scoresby 247. 7) Id. 247. 3) ld. 266, °) Nathorst 254, 256—258, 263,
— 292, 294; the шар. 1) Koldewey 685. 1) Nathorst 172. 12) Koldewey 610—615. 13) Id.
616. =) Id. 607. 15) Nathorst 154. 18) ee 589—590. 17) Id. 594. 18) Id. 606. 1) Id.
597, ef. 335. =) Id. 330. 2) Id. 330. =) Id. 598

xxvıi. 22

334

were found. The excavations of the more northerly localities,
where Amdrup himself was not present, were conducted by Dr.
Deichmann, the doctor and entomologist of the Expedition.
After the return of the Expedition, №. Ditlevsen, painter and
draughtsman, supplied a series of designs of the objects found.
A detailed report of the Expedition will be found in ‘‘Med-
delelser om Grønland” ХХУП (Copenhagen 1902).

On my return home in 1906 from Ammassalik, where I
had wintered for the purpose of collecting linguistic and folk-
loristic material, I was called upon by the Commissionen for
Ledelsen af de geologiske og geographiske Undersøgelser 1 Grøn-
land to prepare not only the results of my own journey, but
also a description of the Amdrup collection, for publication in
"Meddelelser om Grønland”. I hesitated at first to undertake
work of a kind which lay outside the special line of study 1
had hitherto pursued. On the other hand, I was moved by the
consideration that the publication of the Amdrup collection had
already been sufficiently delayed. This interesting collection
surely deserved a better fate than to be forgotten. Further
than this, in my capacity of linguist, I was sensible of the
advantage of obtaining a better insight into the forms assumed
by the material culture of the East Greenlanders; for changes
in the implements often run parallel to changes in the language,
and the Ammassalimmiut, in fact, have their own particular
designations for many of their Eskimo implements and utensils.
An exact knowledge of the objects and their modifications will
always come in useful in studying a people’s linguistic desig-
nations of these objects. ;

During my two journeys to the West and East coast of
Greenland, I had had an opportunity of acquiring a first-hand
knowledge of the implements and mode of life of the Green-
landers. When | was now shown the highly weathered objects

335

from North East Greenland which lay on two tables in the
building of "Det kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab”, arranged
and docketed by Amdrup according to the localities where they
were found, they presented to me a familiar appearance. The
lifeless objects seemed to me in their dumb language to call
upon me to furnish a solution to the following problem: —- In
what relation do these objects, which testify to a primitive cul-
ture of seemingly great antiquity in the arctic regions of East
Greenland, stand to the present Eskimo culture which you know
from the southern part of the same coast? Is there in the
peculiar forms of implements and the peculiar designations of
the Ammassalimmiut any reminiscence of a culture which can
be interpreted only in the light of this northern culture?

‚ The Amdrup collection was particularly well adapted for a
study conducted with the solution of this problem in view, as it
comprises characteristic samples of both cultures, the northern
and the southern. The task undeniably appeared easier then
than it eventually proved to be, after I had begun to get into
the subject and make comparisons in details and in essentials
with the implements of the Western Eskimo and the neigh-
bouring tribes. The task grew in magnitude in proportion as
| succeeded in extending my knowledge in theory of the
ethnology of the Eskimo and Indians, especially by visits to
the ethnographical museums at Berlin, Vienna, Stockholm, Chri-
stiania and Copenhagen. In all these museums there are con-
siderable collections from Greenland, the largest being in Co-
penhagen and Stockholm. I have studied the following collec-
tions from North East Greenland: that of the ‘‘Second German
North Pole Expedition” (Germania, commanded by Koldewey)
in the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin; that of the Swedish
Expedition (under Nathorst) collected by Dr. Hammar, in the
Stockholm Riksmuseum; the objects collected by Norwegian
Whalers in the Ethnographical Museum at Christiania; and С.

Ryder's collection from Scoresby Sund in the National Museum
22°

336

at Copenhagen. Among the collections of the latter museum is
now included that of Amdrup from the southern distriets of
North-East Greenland.

Г hope that the following description of the objects found
may, in part at least, contribute to elucidate the position of the
East Greenland types of implements in the Eskimo ethnology
as a whole.

The objects of the Amdrup collection, which are published
here for the first time, exhibit the North East Greenlanders as
participators in the same extreme Arctic culture as that which
we know especially from the most northerly West Greenlanders
and from the Point Barrow Eskimo in Alaska.

The particular correspondences between the North East
Greenlanders and the Point Barrow Eskimo which Ryder")
deemed himself, on the basis of his material from Scoresby
Sund, to have detected and proved, turn out partly to be
due to error (his fragment of a “‘throwing-stick” is not a
throwing-stick at all; cf. nv. Amdrup No. 99) and partly, in
my view, to have no signification beyond the fact that the two
cultures both have their seat high up in the arctic regions,
and have been evolved under the same natural conditions.
Thus there are no adequate grounds for assuming any special
relationship between these two Eskimo ‘tribes’, or а direct
immigration in olden times of the Point Barrow Eskimo to
East Greenland. Furthermore our knowledge of the past culture
of the Eskimo races which dwelt between these two remote
regions is far too slight to warrant such an assumption.

There exists no connected account of the material culture
of the great group of Eskimo dwelling at about the same
latitude, around the mouth of the Mackenzie River. Still more
meagre is our knowledge of that extinct Eskimo culture of which

337

the sole witness are the numerous ruins in the islands in the
North Canadian Archipelago’); these islands form the most
northerly bridge between the western Eskimo and Greenland.
An archaeological investigation in that region might possibly
throw light on several obscure points: thus e.g. the remarkable
resemblance between the drum- handles (in the Amdrup collection)
of the North East Greenlanders and those of the Alaska Eskimo
seems to call for an explanation. My own theory is that the
North East Greenlanders and their forefathers long after their
severance in the remote past from the common Eskimo race,
must have numbered families and individuals for many gener-
ations who were particularly conservative in their manner of
working certain objects.

The conservatism of the North East Greenlanders is not
incompatible with their participation in certain innovations (i. e.
typological peculiarities which distinguish them from other
Eskimo), which are also met with in West Greenland and
especially to the north: е. g. the special varieties of woman’s
knives, ice-scrapers, needle-cases, bodkins, combs, wooden
buzzes, harpoon heads used in sealing on the ice (inv. Amd.
10), perhaps also the winged harpoons (with a bone weight at
the butt end of the wooden shaft, formed like two feathers), a
small toy model of which was found by Ryder’).

These points of correspondence might seem to indicate
that the north-easterly group of Eskimo in Greenland must have
belonged to the same mother tribe as that from which the
northern West Greenlanders (Upernawik, Oommannaq, Disko
Bay) derive their descent. But the time when the groups lived
together and could exert an influence on one another must lie
very far back in the past; for within the population of the
West coast, nay within the three northerly districts on the

*} See “Мар of the territories occupied by the Eskimo now and in earlier
times”, in Meddelelser om Grønland, Vol. 31 (1904).
2) Ryder, L с. 314, Fig. 14.

338

West coast just mentioned, pronounced differences, both liguisti-
cally and anthropologically, are observable, particularly between
the Upernawik Eskimo and those further south.

On the other hand, we find in North East Greenland cer-
tain forms of implements which differ in certain particulars
from the West Greenland types, and seem to point further to
the west. This is the case with the sledges, the bone foreshafts
of the larger weapons, the drum handles made of bone, perhaps
also the ornamental teeth used as belts and necklaces. In
the remarkable preservation of these types, we see a decided
manifestation of conservatism, more so in this part of Greenland
than on the West coast, where the immigrated Eskimo probably
soon came into contact with Europeans (the Icelanders in the
Middle Ages), or for other reasons modified at an early date
certain of those implements which were typically common to
the whole race.

Side by side with these indications of great antiquity in
the culture of East Greenland, there are others which point to
independent innovations. We find here a quaint wooden im-
plement (inv. Ата. 99) the nature and use of which is un-
known, probably some kind of boring or stabbing instrument,
which is found only in North East Greenland, though in a
sufficient number of specimens to allow of its being set down
as a fully developed form of implement invented within this group
of Eskimo during the time when they were settled on the East
coast. The loose bone points on the shaft of the bird-dart have
also a characteristic feature, a lateral barb on the outer side,
which is peculiar to the North East Greenland type. The low
key-shaped ridge which passes across the under side of the
sealing-stools, nay the whole form of this implement, seems to
have been characteristic for this region of the Eskimo world.
The pattern of the buckle used by the kaiaker for holding the
skin skirt round the man-hole in the kaiak tight about his body
is found in several places within this stretch of coast, but not

339

elsewhere. These things are characteristic of the material cul-
ture of the North East. Let alone such purely individual features
as the peculiar form of the large, elegant, ivory comb (inv.
Ата. 86), the ornamented bone handle of a woman’s knife
(inv. Amd. 45), and several of the carved bone animals. By
such manifestations of originality these objects testify that this
north-easterly Eskimo group, after having been isolated from
the rest of mankind, passed through a vigorous development
of its own.

Finally, in the implements from this corner of Greenland
we meet with certain features which point to a special con-
tinuity between the northern and southern culture of the coast,
an ancient connection long since broken off between the Nor-
theners and the inhabitants of the south i. e. the population of
the Sermilik and Ammassalik fjords at 65!/2° lat. N., or the
Ammassalimmiut. The highly developed culture of this in-
tensely isolated group, which was discovered for the first time
25 years ago, and soon afterwards was made known to the
world by its discoverer’s, G. Holm’s, account of ‘‘Konebaads-
expeditionen” and ‘‘Skitse af Angmagsalikerne”, occupies а
position apart in the Eskimo world. A number of the types
of implements, ornaments, and traditions which in their main
features they have in common with all other Eskimo, have been
individualised and transformed by them in accordance with their
own personal taste and requirements, so that their culture has
thereby received a stamp of its own which distinguishes it from
all others. As it cannot possibly have been influenced from
without, it is with all its peculiarity genuinely Eskimo. However,
we know that from past times (the Egedes actually mention the
Easterners) up to the present day there have been restless
Spirits among them, individuals of roving temperament, by whose
journeys this heart of the East coast has been brought into a
remote connection with the most southerly Eskimo of the coast,
nay even with the West Greenlanders in South Greenland. Thus

540

the people of Ammassalik have in recent times adopted a
modern form of kaiak (with perfectly straight stern) which has
superseded their old-fashioned type (with upturned stern); simi-
larly they have modified certain implements used in connection
with the kaiak, for instance the receptacle for the harpoon line
on the kaiak deck, perhaps also the types of their harpoon
heads. It is, at any rate, a matter of certainty that the typical
harpoon heads which the people of Ammassalik now use, differ
considerably from those which have been found in the ruins
and graves in the northerly districts of the East coast; as to
this the Amdrup collection gives distinct testimony. The same
is true respecting the base end of the loose foreshaft (env.
Amd. 11 and 12).

But what is of particular interest to us here, is that, in
spite of these and other divergences, certain of the individual-
ising features which characterize the culture of the people of
Ammassalik are found recurring in implements from the northern-
most part of the coast. А crucial case are the three small
specimens of ivory ornaments for attachment, which were found
in Sabine Island, 9 degrees of latitude north of Ammassalik.
For this kind of ornamentation is otherwise not known at all
from any Eskimo district other than Ammassalik”). But the
‘wing-harpoon’ (iny. Ryder), the characteristically jointed woman’s
knife (270. Amd. 45), the urine tub (inv. Amd. 52) the flat bodkin
(inv. Amd. 32), the round ivory pearls, (inv. Amd. 111—112),
the wooden toy buzz (inv. Amd. 113), perhaps also the drill
with its accessories (270. Amd. 77—78), and the thimble-guards
(nv. Amd. 46—45) all exhibit such surprising similarities to
the corresponding implements used at Ammassalik, that the
resemblance cannot be accounted for by a mere coincidence.

Comparison seems to show that there is a continuity in
the material culture along the whole of this coast, though, to

1) С. Holm in «Meddelelser om Grønland» X, 151—153; Pl. ХХХ sqq.

341

be sure, but а partial one. For most of the features which
are peculiar to the northern culture are at present unknown
to the people of Ammassalik. Out of the old-fashioned and to
some extent characteristic harpoon heads of the Northeners,
there is only one, the specimen assumed to be a harpoon head
for sealing on the ice, which has a near relation to the south.
The mysterious wooden implement with harpoon-shaped head,
the club-shaped bone foreshafts for harpoons (inv. Amd. 73—
75), the needle-cases, the drum handles of bone, the old-
fashioned patterns of the ornaments incised in ivory are not
known at Ammassalik. Nor indeed, for obvious reasons, are
the bows and arrows, which have been found frequently to the
north; however, the Ammassalik Eskimo refer to these weapons
in their tales. The other implements accentuate a difference
which exists between the culture of the north and south, and
which is presumably due to the circumstance that the two
Eskimo groups were separated for a considerable length of
time, to some extent owing to the natural obstacles which lay
between them. Amdrup was the first European to experience
the serious character of these obstacles on his expedition.
The Ammassalik Eskimo have indeed in their traditions only
a very dim recollection of other Eskimo north of the northern-
most point of the coast which they know by personal experience.
И their ancestors once immigrated to their present district from
the north, this must have taken place so long ago that their
eonnection with the families they left behind them in the
northern fjords, in Scoresby sound, Franz Joseph’s fjord, and
further to the north, must have long ceased to exist. After
that time each of these groups must have gone their own way,
and new accessions may have taken place from the west coast
to either of the groups south and north of the great island.
Archeological investigations in the Ammassalik district itself
will perhaps one day reveal whether the inhabitants of this
region in older times were more closely in touch with their

342

brethren along the north coast than their present form of
culture might lead one to suppose. ;

The discovery of the above mentioned bone ornaments for
attachment high up towards the north on the coast and the
other criteria which argue for the continuity, might in them-
selves be explained by an immigration from the south, i. e. from
Ammassalik. I have heard — as G. Holm too did when he was
there — old folks tell of families in the previous generation,
parties of wmiaks, who moved northwards ‘long ago’, never
to return. Amdrup lighted at Nualik, two degrees of latitude
north of Ammassalik, on a very ancient ruin, where over thirty
persons had met their death by starvation or poisoning; the
implements he picked up in the house were recognised as
coming from Ammassalik. Other parties may previously have
been more fortunate and slipped past the awkward places up
to the great fjords in the north. Here they must have met
their unknown kinsmen, and an isolated feature such as the
ornaments for attachment may have reached up to these regions
in this way. For the present I prefer this explanation, the said
find being quite isolated, rather than to assume that this idea
of ornamentation should have arisen up there in the high north
without striking root, and by chance have been transplanted
southwards to Ammassalik.

The Amdrup collection from the regions north of Ammas-
salik belongs on the whole to a homogeneous culture; the
objects found convey the impression that the people who in-
habited this part of the coast must have belonged to the same
tribe as the West Greenlanders. If some few of the pieces
seem to point in a contrary direction, this fact may be ex-
plained in the light of a natural conservatism within this isolated
group which has made them preserve some implements of high
antiquity. For the present, let it remain an open question
whether they arrived all at once or in several detachments,
and whether the varying use of stone, bone and iron for the

343

blades of the weapon heads and knives indicates different stages
of development in their material culture. The numerousness
of the house ruins in Scoresby Sund, in Traill Island (72° lat. М.),
in Clavering Island (74° lat. N.) and still further to the north
render it probable that the history of this population must
have extended over many centuries. The old-fashioned types
of the harpoon-heads and several of the other implements
seem to tell us that this group must have belonged to the
oldest stock of the Greenland Eskimo’). They may have im-
migrated into Greenland anterior to, or simultaneously with,
the northernmost West Greenlanders. However, the sole his-
torical fact we possess as to these Greenlanders is, after all,
only Clavering’s account of his meeting with 12 Eskimo on
the south-west side of Clavering island, as it would seem, the
last surviving Eskimo of North East Greenland. This was in
the year 1823. They were seen for three days, then they fled
away. No one understood them. No records were made of
their language, legends or traditions. We know nothing about
them beyond what the traces they have left on the deserted
coasts can tell us. —

These ‘finds’ have recently been added to. From more
northerly districts of East Greenland than ever before Mylius-
Erichsen and his companions on the Danmark Expedition
brought back a collection of antiquities. I have not yet had
an opportunity of seeing this collection, which immediately after
its arrival was lodged in the National Museum at Copenhagen.
It is to be hoped that it will not be long before we get a
description of it by a competent hand.

As I have already mentioned, the following pages will deal

1) Ryder's view of the high antiquity of the ruins of North East Greenland
(Meddelelser om Grønland XVII, 343) has been opposed by 0. Solberg
(Beitrage zur Vorgeschichte der Osteskimo, pp. 18—19), but, in my
opinion, without convincing grounds. Cf. my review. of Solberg’s book
in Dansk Geografisk Tidskrift 1909 (XX, рр. 11—15).

344

with that portion of the Amdrup collection which belongs to
the ancient culture, north of the Ammassalik district from 68
lat. N. northwards. The publication of the second part (objects
found within the Ammassalik distriet itself, south of Kanger-
dlugsuak) will ensue later in connection with an English edition
of G. Holm’s ‘‘Sketch of the people of Angmagsalik”, and a
new reproduction of his ethnographical collection of objects
from those parts.

2. Harpoon Heads,

Inv. Ата. 1 (Fig. 1 and Pl. XV) is a beautifully worked
and well-preserved harpoon head, made of bone all in one piece
(without inserted blade), in form conoidal. The blade part of
the head is flat and slender, bi-
сопуех in cross section, narrowing
and flattening towards the point,
with sharp, convexly curved edges.
It increases in breadth and thick-
ness towards the centre of the
body, whence the thickness con-
tinues to increase, till at the base it
attains I’5cm. The body is a little
more broad than thick, being broadest
in the middle (2cm). The sharp edges
of the head curve slightly inwards
towards the centre of the butt, thus

giving the head a graceful slen- Fig. 1. Harpoon head.
derness. Both the upper and under Cape Tobin.

side show, particularly towards the point, a marked ridge; but
the one on the under side disappears towards the base. The
line hole pierces the head from either side of the butt in a
plane parallel to the blade, forming a slightly curved channel.
The line grooves (side grooves extending backwards from the
mouths of the hole and intended for the countersinking of the
harpoon line so that it may not hinder the head from pene-
trating into the animal) are deep and carefully worked, and they

346

extend almost entirely to the edge of the base. The butt end
of the head is bevelled concavely in such a way that the two
basal barbs formed by a cut in the back taper away into two
flat tips with very sharp edges, while at the same time they
diverge from each other more and more. The slit between
them penetrates a little distance into the distinct edge of the
shaft socket. Length 9°6 cm.

This head may be compared with inv. Pfaff No. 52!) from
the northern part of West Greenland and with Ryder’s fig. 13a,
from Scoresby Зипа?).

Inv. Amd. 2 (Pl. ХУ, 2) which was found in the same place
(Саре Tobin) аз 20. Amd. 1, has in contradistinction from it
an undivided basal barb, but in other respects these heads
belong to the same type. The manner in which the inner
channel of the line hole is curved (in the horizontal plane of
the head), and in which the outer line grooves are formed, the
edge lines of the body itself and the ridges of the upper and
lower surface, in short all the details of the workmanship in
the two heads bear such a close resemblance to each other,
that the idea involuntarily suggests itself that they both proceed
from one and the same hand. Inv. Amd. 1 viewed from the
side, is a little flatter than inv. Amd. 2, the upper and lower
surfaces of which bulge over the part which lies nearest to the
butt. The side edges of inv. Amd. 2 are straighter, being
without the slight curvature near the rear part of the body
which distinguishes nv. Amd. 1. The tip of its undivided
basal barb is (just as the tips of the barb in No. 1) slightly
bevelled from the upper side and tapers to a sharp point.

Like inv. Amd. 1 this harpoon head is carved out of the
hard substance of a marrow-bone, but while the inner softer
substance of the bone in the former appears on the upper
side, in the latter it is situated on the under side. The bone

1) Swenander Pl. 2, No. 52, cf. pag. 40, fig. 5.
*) Ryder 314.

347

has retained its whiteness more perfectly in these two heads
than in any other in this little collection.

Inv. Ата. 3 (Fig. 2 and PI. ХУ) is a short and dumpy har-
poon head, almost rectangular in cross-section, but with rounded
angles. The upper side, which is perfectly plane, is a little
broader than the belly, which in front is slightly convexed.
Both sides taper slightly towards the curved front edge,
where in a broad slit an iron blade is still sticking. The
openings of the line-hole in the side of the head are large,
the line grooves cutting deep inte them. Just as in the heads
described above, the line grooves extend backward right out to
the edge of the basal socket. The butt end is cut off with a
short and concave bevel. The edge of the
socket for the shaft is sharply defined, on
the other hand the outermost edge of the
concave basal surface is rounded, running
over into the lateral surface and the under
side. The basal barbs are separated by a
curved slit, whereas in inv. Amd. 1 they
meet at an acute angle.

The front part of the head is pierced

Gr

from the upper to the under side by two Fig. 2. Harpoon head.
holes, which lie in the median of the body; Gape Tobin:

in the foremost of these two holes there is still sticking а пай
which holds the blade, which latter, as is seems, was also
wedged into the slit with small pieces of iron. The two nail-
holes both оп the upper and on the lower side of the body
are united by a fairly deep narrow gutter, as if the intention
had been to form a countersink for a lashing through the two
høles. And in fact the innermost nail-hole and one of these
eountersinks are filled with а substance which looks as if it
were the remains of a narrow skin thong. The iron blade is
in parts corroded by rust, or broken. — This piece resembles
very much a West Greenland type of harpoon head").

1) Swenander 40, fig. 4.

348

Inv. Amd. 4 (Fig. 3 and Pl. XV), like all the following har-
poon heads, was found on the Skærgaardshalvô.

It is a harpoon head, in front flattish, rhomboidal in cross
section, with sharp side edges which curve inwards at the
middle giving the head a characteristic indenture; rear of the
centre it is approximately cylindrical, widening out conically
towards the base. The rear part of the upper side exhibits
a marked ridge which extends down to the base of the
head. There is one barb terminating the back, and slightly
bifurcated. The base of the head is bevelled concavely; the
shaft-socket, which opens out into it with sharp edges, is about
15cm deep (at the opening about 0:7 cm in diameter).

This harpoon head is distinguished from
the types no. I and 2 by having, instead of
one laterally situated line-hole, two line-holes
which pierce it vertically (from the upper to
the lower side) and straightly. They lie close
to one another in the median of the body.
They are bored slantwise and diverge in a
downward direction; on the upper side of the
head the openings lie scarcely 3 mm from

each other, sunk in a common oblong groove

Fig. 3. (cf. inv. Ата. 3), an arrangement whereby
Harpoon head.

’ the line could run round without forming any
Skergaardshalvo.

hindrance on the surface of the head.

On the under side of the head the openings are about
5 mm distant from each other, sunk like the former, only that in
this case each has its own depression, the one in front being
formed as a circular countersink, intended for the reception
of a knot at the end of the line for fastening it. Thus the line
must have run round from this front depression through the
hole and back through the other hole, the inner channel of
which is of exactly the same width as that of the front hole.
In the illustration the latter looks larger on account of its

349

being widened out above. From the inner hole extends on the
under side of the head a distinct, but not particularly deep,
longish groove, which must have formed a bed for the line
with which the head was connected with the bladder.

The prineiple in accordance with which the line was fast-
ened in the case of this harpoon head must have been different
from the usual one. Here the line can not, as in Nos. 1 and 2,
have held the head in a noose formed by its being drawn through
the line-hole and the end of the line fastened further down on
it; but the end of the line must
have been twisted into a knot which
was sunk in the countersink at
the mouth of the hole, and in this
way held the head tight. By this
device the line ran singly throughout
its whole length.

I have not found this type of
harpoon head anywhere, although
a harpoon head from North West
Greenland in the Stockholm Riks-
museum (Inv. Pfaff No. 41!) resembles

it as regards the position of the
line-holes (No. 41, however, has

Fig. 4. Harpoon head.
Skærgaardshalvô.

three holes instead of two), and the

two heads also resemble one another in having the butt end
eut off with an angular bevel, and in the basal barb being
median and slightly bifurcated at the end.

Inv. Amd. 5 (Fig. 4 and Pl. XV) is a very high and nar-
row harpoon head made of bone, all in one piece, the front
part nearly rhomboidal in cross section, with four faces, so that
the sides meet in an upper and nether acute angle (only at the
rear of the body is the nether edge rounded instead of sharp)
and in two lateral obtuse angles which appear as oblique

1) Swenander, 11.
XXVIII. 23

350

lateral ridges — thus an entirely different type from the foregoing
flat harpoon heads. The upper edge of the harpoon head is
slightly concave from the middle towards the butt; whereas
the rest of it curves convexly towards the point of the head.
The head has one spur for a barb. The line-hole, which is of
considerable breadth, is cut straight across the vertical plane
of the body; behind the aperture on the right side is seen a
very short line groove; on the left side there has also probably
been a corresponding groove, but the whole of this side is
highly decayed. A large piece of the rear part of the left
side is missing, so that one side of the basal socket for
the foreshaft is quite open; on the whole of the other side
is seen a slanting groove, evidently the bed of a lashing which

has been carried through the little perforation at the root of.

the basal barb to complete the shaft socket. This groove cuts
in deeply particularly at the lower edge of the head in order
that the wrapping might not hinder the head from penetrating
the animal.

+ This harpoon head in its whole shape, in fact in its very
details, resembles inv. Pfaff No. 71), a harpoon head from
Disko Bay in West Greenland; Swenander defines the head
from North West Greenland in terms which apply perfectly to
this head from North East Greenland.

I also find heads which remind one of this type, from more
remote Eskimo regions. The Gjöa Expedition (Amundsen) brought
back from King William's Land some specimens of harpoon
heads of a similar type (Christiania Ethnographic Museum, in-
ventorial Nos. 16038 and 16035), made entirely of bone, one of
them 9:3 cm, the other 6'8 cm long; the latter with undivided
basal barb, the former with eight small notches in the rounded
edge of the basal barb. This latter feature is also found in
one of Nathorst’s heads from North East Greenland), the basal

1) Swenander, Pl. I, no. 7.

351

barb of which has three small notches, or is trifurcated. Apart
from these ornamentations, the types are sufficiently closely
related to one another to suggest the thought of a continuity
in tradition.

Inv. Amd.6 (Fig.5 and PI. XV) is noticeable, in the first place,
for its inserted bone blade which is still sticking in it. G. Holm
also brought back from Ammassalik a harpoon head with a bone
blade, but it was lashed tightly with rawhide, whereas this blade
was fastened with a rivet of wood or bone. The slit in which
it is jammed is unusually deep (3 cm)
and the blade is very securely fastened
in it, which result has partly been at-
tained by the aid of pieces of whalebone
(or wood) wedged in. There was found
also a loose harpoon blade of bone (env.
Amd. 8) with two nail holes in it; it
does not fit any of the harpoon heads
with a slit for the blade which have been
found. The blade of tv. Amd. 6 is
comparatively large and heavy. In other

respects they are of similar shape, ground

along the edges on both sides and sharply
Е Fig.5. Harpoon head.
pointed; only the short basal edge is blunt. Skærgaardshalvô.
The body of this harpoon head is also
remarkable, resembling in front inv. Amd. 5 in being high and
laterally flattened, the upper side having a median ridge;
at the rear it is unusually slender and narrow (without
lateral ridges); in cross section it is oval. The upper side of
the body is also, like 170. Amd. 5, slightly concave from the
middle towards the basal spur. The line-hole lies laterally in
the same plane as the blade. There is а short but distinct
line groove on the left side. The right side of the harpoon

1) шу. Nathorst (Hammar) in the Stockholm Riksmuseum.
RE

352

head and the greater part of the lower side is broken off and
is missing, so that the shaft socket is completely opened; the
bottom of the socket lies only 3 mm apart from the line-hole.
— As in inv. Amd.5, the rear part has been lashed round, but
the lashing on this head has not been carried through a hole
in the upper part of the barb, but merely sunk in a groove which
runs the whole way round. The end of the barb is undivided.

Finally, a peculiarity of this harpoon head is its twisted
form; its body is bent in its back part sideways to the right,
when looked at from above, and the under side somewhat more
bent than the upper side.

Inv. Amd. 7 (Fig. 6 and Pl. XV) resembles to
some extent the harpoon head just described, but
is still narrower, still more flattened laterally.
The lateral surfaces are slightly arched; the
cross section of the front part of the body is
elliptical. The narrow upper side is rounded
in front, and is sharper behind. A twist of the
back end like that in No. 6 is also observable
here, but turning to the left instead of to the
right. There is a slit for a blade (of bone, or
stone) 2 cm deep, 0:5 cm broad, but the blade

Fig, 6.
Harpoon head. is missing. A hole which pierces the head at

Skergaardshalvö. right angles to the plane of the slit, shows that
the blade has been riveted. The basal barb is slightly bifurcated.
This head has suffered severely from frost and damp. At the

rear the whole of the right side is missing, so that one of the
sides of the shaft socket is open. There has been a lashing
on this part of the head to remedy this defect; this lashing
lay in a groove, and was carried through a hole in the upper
part of the root of the barb.

Inv. Amd. 8 (Pl. ХУ, 8). Bone blade for a harpoon head,
about 4cm in length, of the same shape as the iron and stone
blades that are known (cf. e. g., the iron blade in No. 3, the

353

bone blade in №. 6), with sharp polished edges and two curved
bevels which follow the edges. There are two fairly large per-
forations for rivets close to the base of the blade in its me-
dian, one of them near the edge, the other towards the centre.

Inv. Amd. 9 (Pl. XV, 9) is a fragment of a harpoon head,
apparently of a similar type to @nv. Amd. 1, probably with a
bifurcated double basal barb, for the stump which has been
preserved which forms the centre part of the original body,
broadens out behind, and the inner part of the shaft socket is
still seen at its base. The line-hole is laterally situated, and
distinet line grooves extend from its openings,
rearwards. The under side of the body must
have been much narrower behind than the upper
side, so that the cross section is almost triangular.

The upper side seems to have been almost
plane, possibly however with a ridge right be-
hind. Around the line hole the body is a little
flattened laterally.

Inv. Amd. 10 (Fig. 7 and Pl. XV, 10) is a
peculiar little head, the fore part of which is

high and narrow, nearly elliptical in cross sec- Fig. 7.
tion, with a slit of 2cm in depth in which а „Harpoon head.
Skærgaardshalvô.

loose blade has been fixed with а пай (1 nail-hole).

There is a ridge on the under side from the nail-hole
rearwards, while the upper side is slightly rounded. The whole
of the hind part from the middle backwards is cut off on both sides
by two similar cuts of equal size, which have left lateral oblique
shoulders, running parallel to one another on both sides of the
head. As a result of this cutting, the hind part has assumed
the shape of a flat tang near the centre of which a transverse
hole is seen. This part of the harpoon head works as a
lever which can be rotated round a horizontal axis in the
perforated hole. The longest side-edge must be regarded to
be the upper one. The base of the head is cut off aslant,

354

in a direction opposed to that of the shoulders. One of the
corners is sharp, the other slightly rounded. The head has
no barbs at all.

This harpoon head is of a different type from the others.
Г presume that it must have been used in the kind of ice-
hunting which is called stwartin. This method of hunting has
been described, as far as West Greenland is concerned, by Вшк')
and, for Ammassalik,jby G. Holm?), who was the first to observe
and define the particular form of harpoon head used for this
kind of sealing.

But the ztwartin harpoon heads which Holm brought back
with him were longer and more slender than this northern
type, and were pointed at the back end like a prong and provided
with a small БагЬ 3).

However, the harpoon head which was found by Amdrup
in Skergaardshalvé, 140 miles north of Ammassalik, is similar
in principle to the ztwartin heads. It is movable round an axis
which lies horizontally. As the centre of gravity of the body
lies a little further forward in the direction of the point than
the axis, the head would assume a vertical direction, were it
not held in the direction of the harpoon shaft by the aid of
a strap which catches its rear end. The head is fitted on to
the axis (a bone peg) in a deep slit at the end of the harpoon
shaft, and its oblique shoulders rest close up against the cor-
responding narrow surfaces of the end of the shaft (on either
side of the slit), when it is held down on them by the aid of
the strap. At the moment when the strap slides off as the
head pierces the animal, the head turns crosswise like a toggle.
Inv. Amd. 10 diverges in details from the iöfuartin type of

1) Rink, De danske Handelsdistrikter i Nordgrenland I (1852), р. 115 ef.
also D. Granz I, 206—207.

?2) Holm, Meddelelser om Grønland X, 78.

3) Holm, Plate XVI. Cf. Mason, Ш, 237—38, and fig. 23 (‘‘Hinged toggle
head”).

355

the Ammassalimmiut: its entire length is 7 cm, the narrow end
(the tang) being only 3 or 4cm long; the fore part of it is
comparatively dumpy, while the tang is flat and slender, broad-
ening out in the vertical median plane.

The strap which held the head in its recumbent position
in the direction of the harpoon shaft, must apparently have
held down the projecting corner of the basis of the tang. But
there is no trace of a notch for the strap in the upper
edge at this corner; nor is there anything of the kind to
be found on the corresponding heads from Ammassalik. It is
possible that this thin back part of the head may have been
somewhat longer, as it seems to be worn away or weathered
just around this corner. In the thick part we notice a crack,
which extends from the slit right down to the oblique shoulders.

Harpoon heads of this type used for hunting seals have
hitherto been known only from East Greenland. Mason men-
tions in ‘‘Aboriginal American harpoons” that the Eskimo of
Point Barrow in the northernmost parts of Alaska also use a
special kind of harpoon in hunting on the ice: — ‘‘In hunting
through the ice the Eskimo of Point Barrow used a different
shaped harpoon, with a long ivory piece on each end and a
smaller head. As the seal comes up to blow they hurl this
spear through the hole, then they drown the seal. After the
animal is dead they haul it through the ice, picking the ice
away until the hole is large enough to get the seal out”).
But among the illustrations of American harpoons in Mason's
paper the ‘hinged toggle head’ is only found from East Green-
land. On the other hand we have evidence from West Green-
land that the hinged toggle head was used there in former
times; see Appendix, figs. 78 to 81 (inv. Pfaff).

1) Mason Ill, 237; 271.

356

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE HARPOON HEADS. The
eight intact heads which were found turn out to belong to entirely
different types. Nos. 1 and 3 were found at Cape Tobin. Nos.
4 to 10 were found on the southernmost of the places, viz., in
Skærgaardshalvô. They all diverge from the type most in use
at Ammassalik. In most of them the height of the body is
greater than the breadth. The interior of the line-holes is in
most of them straight and laterally situated (i. e. they debouch
on the sides of the head), whereas the harpoon heads which
the Ammassalimmiut now employ have curved line-holes, the
openings of which lie on the under side of the body.

Inv. Amd. 4 occupies a place by itself, having two line-
holes which have been bored vertically in the median line of
the head from the upper to the lower side at right angles to
the plane of the blade; this arrangement reminds one very much
of the orsseg, an oblong ivory button with two holes for fastening
the dog traces to the sledge (cf. Inv. Amd. 102).

It is also worthy of remark that the basal barb in two of
these heads is quite undivided, and in two others has only a small
notch, whereas the heads which are typical of Ammassalik have
two-forked bases, or two barbs flanking the base and shaft
socket; inv. Amd. 1 and 3 have also forked bases, but the two
barbs both lie in the plane of the upper side.

None of the harpoon heads of the Amdrup collection have
lateral barbs towards the point.

Most of these types of harpoon heads from North East
Greenland are also known from West Greenland. The West
Greenland types have been described by Mason and more re-
cently by Swenander. The latter has classified them in the
plates and in the text in the manner that the presumably oldest
types are placed first, the more recent and more differentiated
last. Among the harpoon heads of the Amdrup collection, Nos.
1, 2 and 5 resemble the oldest type in Swenander, in so far as
they consist of an entire piece of bone (without inserted blade)

357

and have no lateral barbs; Nos. 2 and 5 as well as No. 6, moreover,
approach closely to the old type by having an undivided basal
barb lying in the median line, and No. 5 also agrees with it
in having the whole shape of the body flattened laterally,
so that it is higher than it is broad; the line-hole is bored
across the vertical plane of the body. Nos. I and 2, on the
other hand, approach to a younger type (Swenander, inv. Pfaff
Nos. 37—40) in having their breadth greater than their height.
The two heads have lateral line-holes, but the inner path of
the line-hole is curved, a feature which seems to point to a
more recent type. Thus it appears as if older and younger
characteristics were blended in these two heads. In No. 3 the
transition to a curved pathway is traceable, and its body is
more dumpy than any of the others. In this particular it ap-
proaches more than any of the others to the Ammassalik type.

Provided that in these differences of type we are justified
in seeing different stages of development‘), we find, as Swen-
ander in fact observes”), in the North East Greenland harpoon
heads the original type entirely unchanged, and side by side
with them types marking the transition to more recent forms.
Inv. Amd. 5 represents the oldest stage in the Greenland
harpoon heads; when it is held in such a position that the
line-hole lies horizontally, it is seen to have greater height
than breadth, and the basal barb, which is undivided, lies in
the vertical plane, at right angles to the line-hole; the blade
of the head is also placed at right angles to the line-hole. It
is made of bone all in one piece, and is without lateral barbs.
If we compare it to the general Eskimo types established by
Murdoch, without keeping too narrowly to his special represen-
tation of the development of sealing harpoon heads (where great
stress is laid on the lateral barbs of the heads), we discover
the interesting fact that this type in its main features cor-

1) Murdoch I, 218—222; Swenander 39—42.
”) Swenander 41.

558

_ responds to the harpoon heads which are used in Alaska for
hunting whales, walruses and the larger kinds of seals. Within
this type, too, some variation occurs (note particularly the -
varying use of blades placed at right angles to the line-hole,
and blades which lie in the same plane), but it is just the
whale harpoon head, which Murdoch!) regards as having pre-
served certain antique features to a greater extent than any of
the others, which has as a general rule a high and narrow
body flattened laterally with a basal barb in the median line,
at right angles to the line-hole, and without lateral barbs
— on the other hand always with an inserted blade, but in-
variably and obligatorily a stone blade, not a metal blade. The
basal barb of the whale harpoon head appears always to be
undivided; the walrus harpoon head on the other hand often
has its spur bifurcated, but in other respects resembles the
larger whaling harpoon. The model of whaling harpoon from
Baffins Land given by Boas”) combines most of these features
with some new ones.

The harpoon heads found in North East Greenland and
now in the possession of European museums amount up to
date, as far as I know, to 30 in number. In Amdrup’s col-
lection there are 9 in all, in Ryder’s 3, in Nathorst’s 15, in
Koldewey’s 3. But of these there is only one which has a
barb on the fore part of the head (belonging to inv. Ryder),
and what is more, this barb is quite unlike the lateral barbs
of the heads from West Greenland. All the other North East
Greenland heads are without lateral barbs, having only basal
barbs, undivided or two-pronged, always placed on the upper
side of the head and produced by a concave bevelling in the
lower part of the base.

Out of the 30 heads only 10 have a slit for the insertion

1) Murdoch I, 239—240; Mason Ш, 273.
?) Boas I, 500, fig. 436.
5) Ryder 314, fig. 13 b.

359

of a blade, 15 are carved entirely out of a single piece of bone
without a slit for a blade, and the remaining 5 are doubtful.
In inv. Nathorst (Hammar) 3 heads are quite of the whaling
harpoon type. In view of the great number of West Green-
land heads which are to be found in the museums with lateral
barbs in innumerable variations, it is extremely remarkable to
find in North East Greenland exclusively heads of a type without
these lateral barbs. Is it conceivable that the development of
harpoon heads here has been unaffected by a differentiation
of the implement which is otherwise found in all other
Eskimo districts, so that the original whaling harpoon (walrus
harpoon or great sealing harpoon) here is to be regarded as
the local archetype of a quite isolated line of development ? or
how is this one-sidedness in the development of this implement
in North East Greenland to be explained?

Among the above described objects found by Amdrup there
are two harpoon heads of peculiar types, which convey a notion
of their function: viz., Inv. Amd. 4 (without slit for the blade),
the line-hole of which points to a peculiar mode of attachment:
the line cannot have taken the form of a noose with a double pull
from both sides ofthe head round a transverse axis, but ofa single-
running pull in the median axis (acting about at the centre of
gravity of the head); — and Inv. Amd. 10 (with a slit for
the blade), which is of quite another type than any of the rest,
а pure toggle harpoon without either lateral or basal barb. If
my conception of it is right, it must have been used in sealing
on the ice. Whereas the former head is merely an accidental
variation (just as inv. Pfaff 8, West Greenland)?), the peculiarity
of Inv. Amd. 10 is due to the special function of the head;
this confirms what one might naturally have been led to expect,
viz., that the inhabitants of these northern coasts must have
been acquainted with the same special methods of hunting as

1) They are delineated by Stolpe PI. IV. fig. 114.
*) Swenander 16, PI. 11.

360

are practised by the Eskimo in the other Arctic highlands, in
North West Greenland, and at Point Barrow. — As for the other
heads of the collection, it is, of course, hazardous to make any
categorical assertion as to the function of each singly — beyond
the general remark that they must have been used for hunting
the different kinds of seals; but the circumstance that some of
the North East Greenland heads resemble very closely the
whaling and walrusing harpoon heads known from other places,
seems to indicate that they must have been used in hunting
whales and walruses, or at any rate that they were used in
hunting these large marine mammals besides in hunting seals.
A similar conclusion must probably be drawn with regard to
those of the West Greenland harpoon heads which belong to
this type, e. g., the greater part of inv. Pfaff 1—32}).

In other words, the typological variation of the heads must
not be judged merely from the point of view of form, but also
with reference to their function. |

1) Swenander Pl. I.

3. Other weapon heads made of bone.

Inv. Ата. 11 (Plate XVI) is the loose bone shaft which
belongs to a harpoon (or lance). It is a piece of white bone,
part of a narwhal tusk, much corroded and overgrown with
sea-weed; it seems to have been carefully carved, but it is
broken off at both ends. It is 33'5 cm long, slightly curved,
rhomboidical in cross-section, but the upper and lower angles
of the section are fairly blunt, towards the basis almost rounded,
so that this part of the bone is biconvex. The hole for the
strap is double, the bone having at its lower part in two places
along the median axis a transverse, direct perforation. The two
perforations are alike and parallel to each other. Under (or
behind) three of the apertures is seen on the surface of the
bone a shallow groove, pointing towards the basis, to receive
the strap which attached the bone head to the end of the
wooden shaft. This strap must, of course, have been double-
running. The edges of the apertures are blunt. The fourth
aperture is broken off underneath, a fairly large piece out of
the side of the bone having been destroyed. The interior of
the line-holes has been widened out, owing to their crossing the
interior channel of the tusk. — It is impossible to determine
whether the weapon in its fore part had a slit for the insertion
of a blade, or whether the bone itself was pointed. Its having
a socket at its basis is due to the interior channel of the tusk
having been opened by the basal bevelling. In any case we
must assume that the butt end was pointed sufficiently for it
to fit into the socket of the fore-shaft (the bone head of the
wooden shaft).

562

The German North Pole Expedition of 1869—70 found in
Klein Pendulum Island north of Franz Joseph’s fjord a partially
carved narwhal tusk in the bevelled base of which is seen a
narrow hole, but the form of the base militates against the
supposition that the piece was used as a detachable bone-shaft.
In contradistinction from Inv. Amd. 11, the cylindrical form of
the tusk has been retained; the front part really seems to have
been left quite rough. Stolpe") mentions a similar find made
by the Swedish Expedition to North East Greenland in 1899,
and the leader of the expedition,- Nathorst?), has in his book a
reproduction of this narwhal tusk; it is only worked at its butt
end, where three or four holes are seen in the median line of
the side, as well as a bevel at the very bottom, on the surface
of which is seen a little hole ‘‘as if it (the tusk) was to be
fastened to a shaft”. These implements seem to have had а
somewhat different function from the narwhal-bone shaft dis-
covered by Amdrup, the double line-hole of which relegates it
to a place among the well-known detachable forepieces of
harpoons or lances. The two previously discovered narwhal
tusks must have been firmly attached weapons heads (foreshaits
of whale harpoons?). |

I might here take occasion to observe that one of the
legendary heroes of East Greenland, 07479, according to the
traditions of the Ammassalik people°), is said to have had ‘an
arrow-head (?) made out of an entire narwhal tusk’, just as his
companion had one of ‘walrus tusk’.

Inv. Amd. 12 (Pl. XVI) is the loose bone shaft of a lance,
31cm long. It is made of a heavy piece of the hard substance of
a bone, probably of the bone of a whale, which is fairly spongy.
The shape of the jpiece is uniform, biconvex, the cross-section
almost elliptical, the lower part towards the butt being thicker

1) Stolpe 105.
2) Nathorst II, 344.
3) Holm 255.

363

than the middle. The upper (front) end narrows-in slightly
from two sides, while on the two other sides it increases, rather
than decreases, in thickness; but towards the extreme point it
tapers away, the sides being severely rounded off. The butt
end of the piece is conically pointed.

In the head there is a slit, 2 or 3 mm in breadth, to receive
a blade of stone or bone, which must have been pressed home
into it. As the extreme end has been worn away or broken
off, it cannot be determined with certainty whether there was
a nail-hole or not; probably not. The blade (and the slit) has
a horizontal position, at right angles to the two line-holes,
which have been bored transversely through the lower part of
the shaft. These holes are similarly shaped and parallel; under
each of the four openings there is a distinct but short groove,
being a continuation of the inner path of the hole. Through
these holes must have passed two straps with which this bone-
shaft was fastened in the usual way to the wooden shaft of
the lance, at the upper end of which there is generally a
firmly attached piece of bone (the foreshaft) with a socket into
which the conically tapering end of the bone-shaft fits.

It should be noted that the base of this loose shaft is
not cut off flatly with a tang-like projection in the middle, as
is usually the case in the modern lance and harpoon shafts
from Ammasalik and West Greenland’), but merely conically
pointed. However, we know of several specimens, found in
graves from North West Greenland, which have the same basal
form as that of the shaft which we have just described”); and
vice-versa, a loose bone-shaft has also been discovered (by the
Nathorst Expedition)*) in North East Greenland with the tang-
like projection known from Ammassalik and West Greenland.

Inv. Amd. 13 (Pl. XVI) is a flattish weapon head, 35 cm

1) Holm, PI. XIV. Nansen 31; Fabricius I, 135 and fig. 1.
2) Swenander, Pl. У, fig. 168.
3) Stolpe, Pl. IV, fig 14.

364

in length, made of a reindeer horn, broadest just behind the
point and in the parts around the strap-hole. The dark-brown
upper side is smooth and hard, unevenly convex, the spongy
under side is highly weathered. Originally the piece seems to
have been thicker and more rounded, as the lower end, which
still retains its thickness, attests. The head is not quite straight;
the fore end curves slightly upwards, and the same is the case
with the middle. Not only the point, but also the foremost
part of the side edges, is sharp like a lancet. About the point
marks of a cutting tool are perceptible. The pointing seems
to have been made with a knife, after which the upper surface
has been smoothed.

The strap-hole, which is single, has under one of its mouths
what appears to be a faint trace of a groove; perhaps, however,
it is merely the mark produced by the rubbing of the strap.
The edge of the other mouth of the hole is weathered away.

At the lower end is seen a cross scratched awry on the
surface between the hole and the conically pointed base,
but it has been so carelessly executed that no importance can
be attached to it. If Swenander is right in his assertion that
the lances of the Greenlanders usually have a double line-
groove (two line-holes), Inv. Ата. 13 must either be one of
the rare lance heads of the old type, with only one hole, of
which he has a few reproductions (inv. Pfaff 163, 164, 165), or
must have been part of another implement, probably an arrow-
head. It deserves to be noted that it has no barb, nor is there
any slit for the insertion of a blade in the head. The pointed
head of the antler has apparently been used for the point of the
weapon. In form and material it bears a slight resemblance to
the small arrow heads which figure next to it in plate XVI.

Inv. Amd. 14, 15 and 16 (Plate XVI). The three small
flat bone-heads from Dunholm, from 15 to 16 cm. in length,
two of which are illustrated here, must have been inserted in
the fore-end of wooden arrow shafts. One of them is perhaps

365

of reindeer horn, the two others are carved out of the side
of nondescript bones. None of them are quite plane; they
have seemingly preserved the original bendings of the material
(reindeer antler ?).

They have on their upper surface elongated facets, evidently
the traces of the tool with which they were cut. Only in one
of them is there a faint trace of a ridge on the upper side;
the two others are quite flat. The edges of the sides, and
indeed even of the points, are blunt in all of them.

Two of them have a little incision in the base — a circum-
stance which seems to indicate that the bone was driven with
some force into the socket at the end of the wooden shaft, in
order to drive it home.

Similar arrow-points were discovered by Ryder in Scoresby
Sound’). Several of them have at the butt-end a conical tenon
or tang on the upper surface of which there are distinct
traces of screw-threads winding to the left, a feature which is
also found in old arrow-heads from West Greenland. In the
Riksmuseum at Stockholm there are seven arrows from East
Greenland (inv. Nathorst)?) with spiral screw-threads of this
kind about the tenon; one of these heads, which in other
respects closely resembles those discovered by Amdrup, is
22 cm in length. In one of the smaller heads (9 cm long) in
the same collection (inv. Nathorst), there is in the place of a
tang an ineision in the base of the head similar to that in the
arrows of the Amdrup collection. Both in the Nationalmuseum
at Copenhagen and in the Riksmuseum (inv. Pfaff) at Stock-
holm, there are bone-arrows from West Greenland with screw-
threads on the tenon; and screw-threads are also known to be
found in other bone implements from West Greenland (cf. the
inventory of Pfaffs collection, sect. 29). Perhaps the uneven-

1) Ryder 309—310, fig. 9.
?) Stolpe, Pl. У.

XXVIII. 24

366

nesses at the rear end of inv. Amd. 17 are a crude attempt to

represent a worm of this kind.

Fig. 8.
Bone head of a spear
or arrow (Same as in
PI. XVI) Dunholm. 17.

Inv. Amd. 17 (Fig. 8 and Pl. XVI) is a
weapon head, 21°5 cm in length, worked out
of the hard substance of a hollow bone, on
one side hard and smooth and on the other
somewhat spongy; its form is peculiar. In
front, it has a head shaped like the head of
a snake, with a slit at the point for the inser-
tion of a blade (without nail-hole). To the rear
its body is narrower and more slender, flattened
from the upper and under side. One of the
edges runs out into a wingshaped lateral barb,
found on the left side of the head when what
is presumably the upper side is turned up-
wards; this lateral barb is flat, sharp-edged
and pointed. The whole body from the lateral
barb to the rear end, on the other hand, is
more rounded, being elliptical in cross {section.
Seen in profile, the central part of the head
curves considerably. The lower part of the
piece has an incision running half way round
and producing a tenon, whittled off towards the
point. and 1'5 cm in length; this tenon bears
traces of arbitrarily carved figures and rough-
nesses, as if it had been meant to be lashed
or inserted in a socket, the roughnesses serving
to give a firmer purchase. |

| have not been able to find either in
Mason, Murdoch, or Nelson any arrow the
head of which resembles this specimen from
East Greenland.

In Boas!) is seen an arrow-head from

') Boas I, 505, fig. 444.

367

Boothia with two lateral barbs on the same side and with a
pointed butt. Arrow-heads of the Central Eskimo type (Baffin
Land etc.) are, according to Boas, always ‘slanted and lashed to
the shaft’, whereas those of the western type (Boothia, Mackenzie
River) are ‘pointed and inserted in the shaft’. The arrow-heads
from King William Land in the collection jof the Gjoa expe-
dition in the Ethnographical Museum at Christiania have, one
and all, a bone head which at its butt is held in place
by a lashing on the cylindrical wooden shaft, presumably
inserted in a hole at the end of it (the lashing conceals the
junction); these heads are either pointed at the fore end, ог
have a slit for the insertion of a blade; several of them have
lateral barbs. Inv. Amd. 17 might be regarded as a similar
arrow head of the more western type, i.e. ‘pointed and inserted
in the shaft’ (Boothia, King William Land; also Alaska, cf.
Nelson’), though no exactly corresponding specimen is known
to us from the west. However, among the numerous varieties
of bone arrows in the National Museum at Copenhagen there are
several which resemble that treated of here pretty closely. ?)

It is, however, by no means out of the question that we
have to do with the head of a bird-dart. The point of the Eskimo
bird-dart was originally made blunt, in order to avoid piercing
the skin of the bird, but is found from early times in two
varieties, one with a blunt point”), and the other with a pointed
bone head and three barbed lateral points, placed a little behind
the middle of the wooden shaft.

Swenander gives reproductions from the Pfaff collection
from West Greenland) of a series of dart-heads with conically
pointed ends and lateral barbs. Most of them are designated
as harpoon heads (i. e. bone fore-pieces), or lance heads, though

1) Nelson Pl. 61; Mason II, PI. 52 to 56.
*) Solberg 73.
3) Mason IJ, Pl. 54 and 57; Nelson Pl. 61.
4) Swenander Pl. 4.
24"

368

with the qualification that ‘‘it cannot be determined with cer-
tainty to what use any of them were applied; besides, it is
obvious that, with weapons applied to such similar uses as the
dart and the lance, transitionary types must necessarily arise” 4).
Practically all of them have in the median of the butt three, two,
or one, line-holes pierced through them. These heads are fol-
lowed by a series of lances without lateral barbs. It is only the
last of these in his series, inv. Pfaff no. 169 from the Egedes-
minde district in West Greenland, which need interest us here.
It is somewhat larger (29:7 cm) and more clumsy than no.
Amd. 17, from which it differs also by being without a slit
for the blade, but it has, like the latter, at the fore end a
head-like expansion tapering away in front and thus producing
a fairly blunt tip; and it has no line-hole. It has по lateral
barb, but resembles inv. Amd. 17 in having its butt pointed
and provided all the way round with irregular indentations to
hold it fast in the socket in the shaft into which it is intended
to fit. Swenander suggests that it (as well as the foregoing
number in Inv. Pfaff, which has a line-hole) either must have
been used as a lance-head, fitted in the kappout (the small
lance), or else as a bird-dart. Inv. Amd. 17, as I have already
remarked, might be thought to have been used as a bird-dart.

Another, though less probable, supposition is that this
bone head may have been used as a salmon spear, for fishing
on the ice?); cf. Nelson (Alaska)?). In the Gjea collection at
Christiania there are some fish-spears (nos. 16002— 16006) from
King William Land with heads of reindeer horn and shafts
of wood. The heads, which have pointed butts and lateral
barbs, are detachable, being fastened to the wooden shaft in

1) Swenander 27.

2) At Ammassalik salmon is cought in the summer in rivers, with a three-
pronged pitch-fork, during the winter through holes in the ice with a
harpoon (Holm).

3} Nelson Pl. 67 and 68.

569

harpoon fashion by а rawhide-line through а line-hole. A spear
of this kind (fore-piece and wooden shaft) is about two metres
long. Besides this kind of spear, which according to Amundsen
is used for salmon-spearing from a kaiak, the Gjoa collection
has also some salmon spears of the ordinary well-known type
(two-pronged or three-pronged forks on either side of a bone-
point at the end of a shaft). However, аз inv. Amd. 17 is
not arranged so as to form a detachable fore-piece, it is not
quite justifiable to compare it with these western fish-spears;
especially, as fish-spears with detachable heads, as far as I
know, are not known from any district in Greenland.

A quite similar weapon-head was found in North East
Greenland by the Swedish Expedition (Inv. Nathorst in the Riks-
museum at Stockholm). It is 19'5 cm long. The slit for the
blade is very narrow and deep, and a transverse hole has been
pierced through the head, to receive a nail. The centre of
the piece is flatter than its fore part, and just here a lateral
barb with a sharp tip is placed. The back part, again, is more
or less cylindrical in cross section. At its rear extremity, this
head is carved in the shape of a tang with a knob-like exten-
sion at the tip. The upper side is smooth, the under side
spongy.

There is another quite similar bone head in Vienna (in
the К. К. Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum, inv. no. 4905, see
Appendix fig. 82); it belongs to a small collection of stone and
bone implements which in 1876 was presented to the Museum
at Vienna by the late Steinhauer, custodian at the National
Museum at Copenhagen. It probably comes from West Green-
land. The end of it is partially broken off, being split length-
wise. Viewed from the side, the knob-shaped head is hardly as
broad as in inv. Amd. 17, and the lateral barb is placed at
right angles to the blade slit, whereas in inv. Amd. 17 it lies

1) Stolpe Pl. У, fig. 15 (‘‘arrow-head”).

370

in the same plane as the slit; in other respects they resemble
each other perfectly.

A bone-head from Scoresby Sund found by Ryder!) may
perhaps also be placed in the same category as these two
specimens, but it should be noted that it has no lateral barb.

Inv. Amd. 18 and 19 (Fig. 9). These two heads of white
bone (or narwhal tusk) are of similar shape, 21-5 and 19-5 cm in
length respectively, cylindrical, and tapering towards the ends,
with a very long bevel at the butt end.

No. 18 (Fig. 91) is a hollow bone; at the upper edge of
the bevelling is bored a hole which reaches up to the medullary
canal without piercing the bone right through; the medullary
canal, moreover, is seen not merely at the lower part of the
implement, almost throughout the whole length of the bevel,
but also at the thin end, where it emerges along one side of
the head as a very narrow elliptical aperture, stopped up with
a wedged-in piece of wood.

№. 19 (Fig. 9?) is carved out of the hard substance of a
bone, the spongy layer of which is seen extending along one
side. This bone, too, has a transverse hole in the same place
as in the former, but here it runs right thorough, and its
mouth on the side opposite to the bevelling is widened out as
if to receive a knot. |

Both pieces are so well finished that the natnral form of
the bone is quite disguised. The upper surface is carefully
polished.

At first sight they look like weapon heads, but what kind of
weapon heads? They cannot have been detachable, loose, har-
poon heads belonging to the common sealing harpoons, or
agdligak harpoons?), or to the somewhat heavier walrusing
Вагроопз 3); against both these possibilities militates the position

1) Ryder 314, fig. 13 а.
2) Murdoch I, 212, fig. 197; Boas I, 494, fig. 429 a and b.
3) Murdoch J, 224, fig. 214.

371

of the hole (which runs right through only in one of them),
and especially the very long bevelling at the butt end; the be-
velling must have been intended for fastening them to another
piece of bone, or to a shaft. They have no slits for blades,

Fig. 9. Miniature bone fore-pieces of whaling harpoons.
Cape Tobin. 7/9.

and thus cannot have been the fore-pieces of sealing lances.
Nor do they look like the fixed bone heads of bird-darts !):
a partial resemblance to the head of an arrow from Alaska

1) Murdoch J, 211, fig. 195: Nelson PI. 51 and 59.

372

(illustrated in Masont)) which is inserted in the end of the
shaft and wrapped round with sinew, must be regarded as a
coincidence.

On the other hand, the resemblance of these heads to the
firmly secured bone heads at the end of whaling-harpoons of
the type known from Alaska and from Baffin Land, is unmis-
takable. But a remarkable point about them is their small size,
which might lead one to suppose that they were only used as
toys, or as models for boys to practise with.

Мовросн?) describes а foreshaft of a whaling harpoon from
Alaska in the following terms: “Is of walrus-ivory and 15:8 inches
long, with a diameter of 11/2 inches at the butt. The oblong slot
at the beginning of the chamfer is to receive the end of the lashing
which secured this to the shaft.” Boas?) gives the following brief
description: “To this wooden shaft a bone point tapering towards
the end is firmly attached.” The illustration shows it to be cylin-
drical. It seems to me by no means improbable that the two nar-
whal tusk heads found by the German Expedition and by Nathorst
(Hammar) in North East Greenland and mentioned by me under the
heading of inv. Amd. 11, must have had the same function, namely
of being fore-pieces for whaling harpoons. —

Inv. Amd. 20 is the only one of the three-fold set of
bone points fixed back of the centre of the shaft of a bird-
dart, each in its plane around it, intended to catch the bird,
when the point of the spear has eluded it — an ingenious
contrivance which is found, executed in much the same manner,
in all Eskimo districts. It is cut out of the side of a non-
descript bone, greyish-white and spongy, especially on the flat
under side, the upper side being slightly convex. The tip of
the point is sharp, and the inner edge of it is cut particularly
sharp round the two barbs.

Several quite similar points have been discovered in North

1) Mason II, Pl. 53, fig. 1.
2) Murdoch Г, 239, fig. 237.
3) Boas I, 500, fig. 436.

318

East Greenland by ‘Die zweite Deutsche Nordpolarexpedition” 1),
by Ryder*), and by Nathorst >).

Aside from the latter’s find, the three other points are
characteristic in so far as their barbs are not unilateral (i. e.
placed only on the inner edge of the points), but that they
have a barb also on the outer edge, and that this barb is -— in
all alike — situated a little further from the tip than
the barb on the inner edge. The lowest of the
inner barbs in the point found by Amdrup, as
well as in Nathorst’s point, are placed unusually
far down (about at the middle of the point), and is
less sharply marked than the corresponding barb
in the two other points from East Greenland. For
the rest, all the points which have been discovered
are more or less of a pattern; thus e. g., all
of them have a little notch on the outer edge
just where the edge forms the greatest outward
eurve; this notch being intended to receive a
lashing which held this part of the point in its
proper position on the wooden shaft; the butt of the
point lies close up against the latter, and is secured
with another lashing. Whereas the point discovered

by Ryder was broken off at the base, the lower Fig. 16.

part of inv. Amd. 20 is well preserved, and the Lateral point of
а bird-dart.

same is true of that found by the German Expe- Cape Tobin.

dition; both of these latter are marked by the

oblique cut in the butt end, characteristic of these imple-
ments, which gives the lower edge a slanting shape, adapting
it well for resting close up against the wooden shaft, and
the equally characteristic reflexed or hooked end, which
makes it possible with the aid of a tight lashing to turn the

1) Koldewey I, 605, fig. 18.
*) Ryder 316.
”) Stolpe, Plate 5, fig. 15.

374

point a little away from the shaft, to which it is secured solely
along its basal edge; the lashing nearer to the middle counter-
acts this tendency of the basal lashing by exerting centripetal
force. This manner of attaching these lateral points, which
may be safely deduced from their form, seems different from
the usual manner, where the two lashings work in the same
direction, the position of the point depending solely on its
form as soon as the base of it has been secured to the
shaft, the lower part bending outwards and the middle part
curving inwardly (cf. Appendix Figs. 83 and 84). In the bird-
spears of Baffin Land the two separate lashings of the lateral
points are placed around the elongated slanting butt’); the
points of the bird-spears of Alaska?) have either two separate
lashings round the lower part, or a single broader one; the
reflexed base is also found in some points from Alaska, but is
lacking in others). It is particularly interesting to find the
barb on the outer edge of the point, just as in the point from
East Greenland, recurring in one of the lateral points of the
bird-spears illustrated in Nelson, from St. Lawrence island in
the Bering тай“). Finally, it may be mentioned that the
Chukchee°) employ bird-spears with lateral points, of a some-
what different type, it would seem, from those of the Eskimo.

Peculiar to inv. Amd. 20 are the two comparatively large
perforated holes, which were presumably used for securing the
lashings.

GENERAL REMARKS. Most of the long weapon heads of
the collection come from Dunholm, the little island bardly twenty
miles south of the entrance to Scoresby Sund, where an old

1) Boas I, 496, fig. 433.

2) Nelson Pl. 59; Murdoch J, 211, 213, figs. 195, 199.
3) Nelson 150, fig. 42.

4) Nelson fig. 42, по. 6.

5) Bogoras, 146.

375

Eskimo tent-place was discovered out in the open, though always
ice-filled, sea. In Skergaardshalvé, which lies two degrees further
to the south, there was only found a very defective fore-piece
of a harpoon or lance (inv. Ата. 11). The latter has, like the
well-preserved loose bone-shaft of a lance which was found in
Dunholm (inv. Amd. 12), a double line-hole, and must thus have
been secured to the wooden shaft by a double-running line.

The longest weapon head of bone (inv. Ата. 13) which
was found in Dunholm has, on the other hand, only a single
line-hole. The flat form of the head and its light weight render
it doubtful whether it can have been a part of a lance; and
the line-hole and the form of the butt are hardly in favour of
its having been attached to a dart; all things considered, there
is more to be said for the first possibility; in this case it be-
longs to a primitive type of the Eskimo lance.

Finally, there was discovered in Dunholm a curious shaped
weapon head with a slit for the blade, one lateral barb, and basal
tenon, which must, in my view, have been the head of an arrow,
or of a bird-dart (inv. Amd. 17).

At the north corner of the mouth of Scoresby Sund, at
Cape Tobin, was discovered the lateral point of a bird-dart,
which in its main features represents the type common to all
Eskimo tribes. One feature of this point (inv. Amd. 20) — the
barb placed on its outer edge — confirms the impression we
had formed of two points with lateral barbs previously found
in North East Greenland, namely that there must have existed
a peculiar form of this bird-dart accessory in this part of the
Eskimo world, characterized especially by the barb on the
outer edge.

Further inv. Amd. 18 and 19 were also found in these
parts, a fact which seems to indicate that the whaling-harpoons
from the more westerly Eskimo districts, with a fixed fore-piece
of bone, must have been known in North East Greenland.
This find confirms our impression that the former inhabitants

376

engaged in whaling in these parts. — | must also make men-
tion here of the three quite similar foreshafts for harpoons or
lances which were found in Dunholm (inv. Amd. 73, 74, 75),
and which will be described more in detail when I come to
describe the other objects found there. These implements,
moreover, when compared with the flat, square ‘caps of bone’ +)
which are otherwise used as foreshafts throughout the whole
of Greenland, will be seen to be of a type foreign to that
country. They approximate much more closely to the foreshafts
of the West Eskimo pattern.

1) Murdoch J, 223.

№

4, Stone Implements.
(Figs. 11 to 16, pag. 381.)

Inv. Amd. 21 (Fig. 11) is a finely polished piece of light-
gray clay-slate, triangular, with convex faces, and two slightly
curved edges. It was found in a kitchen-midden outside the
ruins of a house in Skergaardshalvé. It is 3-2 cm at its greatest
length, but is merely the fragment of a larger, probably elong-
ated blade. The sharp pointed end might lead one to suppose
that it is the blade of a weapon head, but the objection to this
is that one of the edges is cut sharp, while the other is blunt
or broad like the back of a womans knife (w/o); weapon heads
are generally two-edged and are cut alike on both faces. One
of the faces of this specimen has traces of an oblique ridge,
or what is possibly the edge of a ground facet; the edge line
fades away towards the part which has been broken off.

The specimen has no perforated hole, which fact, however,
does not militate against the supposition that it might be the
end of a woman's knife, as the holes in a knife of this kind,
or at any rate one of them, may well be situated 3 cm within
the end of the blade (cf. inv. Amd. 23). It is also possible
that it is to be reckoned as the stone-blade of a ‘crooked
knife’ (Murdoch)') a specimen of which was found in Scoresby
Sund by Ryder’).

Whatever kind of cutting or boring implement this speci-
men is a part of, it is remarkable to notice the care with

1) Murdoch J, 157.
*) Ryder 322, fig. 21d; cf. Solberg 60.

378

which the polishing has been executed over the whole surface
(so far as the latter has been preserved unbroken), rendering
it perfectly smooth and bright.

Inv. Amd. 22 is an oblong, flat stone (in linear measure-
ment circa 6°5 cm x 2 cm) of reddish (iron-holding) clay-
slate, found in a grave in Skærgaardshalvô. Like the foregoing
specimen, it is truncated at one end, and has probably been 2
or 3cm longer. Its sides are perfectly flat and smoothly pol-
ished; one of its edges is shaped like the edge of a knife, but
is blunt (worn away?); the other is 4 or 5mm in thickness.
The stone is of the material out of which the Greenland grind-
stones are usually made; in form it resembles the blade of a
woman’s knife (wlo).

The hole which has been preserved at one end has been
perforated from both sides, two conical openings, one of
which is bored rather crookedly, having been arranged to meet
half way. The German North Pole Expedition’) found in North
East Greenland a woman’s knife of reddish clay-slate. It is
probable that inv. Amd. 22 was the blade of a knife of
this kind.

Inv. Amd. 23 is a blade belonging to the bone handle
of a woman’s knife (w/o); the handle will be described in detail
under the heading of inv. Amd. 42. The blade, which was
found firmly stuck in the basal slit of the bone shaft is a
short, silicious, fairly soft, stone (clay-slate), 8°5 cm in length,
quite flat, or with very slightly convex sides, which have been
rather roughly polished, only the two converging surfaces (bevels)
on either side of the sharp edge being smoothly polished. The
back of the blade is flat and unwrought. One of the ends of
the blade has been broken off.

The two holes in the blade have been bored from two
sides. In one of them is still sticking part of the twisted sinew

1) Koldewey I, 601, fig. 5a.

379

thread with which the blade has been secured to the haft
through two corresponding holes in its lower part. The upper
part of the blade has been driven home into a slit on the
lower side of the haft; but even if the blade could go right
to the bottom of this slit, its two holes can never have
come down far enough to tally with those in the haft, the slit
not being deep enough for this. The two holes in the blade
must accordingly have lain outside the slit, and been visible
under its lower edges, and the sinew cord must have run
from the holes in the blade up along both outer sides of the
bone haft to the holes in the latter in which it was secured.
Traces of the tautening of the lashing can still be seen in two
grooves in the upper surface of the bone under one of the
holes (cf. fig. 21a).

The form and appearance of this blade correspond more
or less to the blade in one of the «los which Ryder!) brought
home with him, where it was found fixed in a wooden haft
and secured with a sinew lashing in a similar manner to the
knife found by Amdrup, namely with exteriorly fastened straps
passing from the holes in the blade to the holes in the haft.

Most of the «lo blades hitherto found in North East Green-
land are of a somewhat different type, having the shape of a
section of a circle in which the edge describes the arc and the
two blunt side edges form the radii. Both Ryder”) and Nathorst?)
found women’s knives of this type, made entirely of stone,
without a haft of bone or wood. The curved edge, however,
isno doubta feature which the two types have in common. For
the rest, several specimens of the type of a circular section
are imperfectly cut, the upper part (i. e. that nearest to the
centre) being broken off, and the quadrilateral blade thus formed
being perforated and inserted into a haft. As for other details

1) Ryder 331, fig. 29c.
*) Ryder 331, fig. b.
°) Stolpe Pl. VI, fig. 19; Pl. Ш, fig. 10; the same in Solberg 55, fig. 48.

580

regarding the types of the «lo, the reader may be referred to
the excellent papers of О. Mason"), and my occasional remarks
under the heading of inv. Amd. 45 and 80.

Inv. Amd. 24 is a thin flake of gray clay-slate found in
Dunholm, 8'5 cm in length and 2 cm in breadth, with a clearly
marked, though blunt, median ridge on one of its surfaces,
and with sharp edges. The terminal edges, which have
been broken off, are on the other hand, not sharp. The spe-
cimen shows no trace of polishing or finishing so that it is
uncertain whether it is an artefact at all, and whether it has
ever been in use.

Inv. Amd. 25 is a more or less globular stone of circa
375 cm in diameter, with a segment broken away on one side,
and hollowed out. The mouth of the kettle-shaped cavity thus
produced is 2cm in diameter. The interior of the cavity is
globular, like the exterior surface of the stone. The specimen
does not correspond to any part of any known Eskimo im-
plement, and it is by no means easy to say whether it has
been used as toy (a pot), or as an amulet, or as a tool. Per-
haps it was only the curious globular form of the natural stone
(a form extremely rare in Greenland) which gave occasion to
the fabrication of this artefact.

Inv. Amd. 26 is a thin piece of gray clay-slate (circa
2°5 >< 2°5cm) with flat, roughly polished sides, and a sharp
turned up edge fringing it on two sides. On the two other
sides the stone is broken off, in such a manner that one of
the two perforated holes which lie close to one another at
a distance of 2cm, has been broken in half. These two holes
are bored obliquely and from both sides.

There is a slight vestige of polishing along one part of
the curved edge, but only on one side of the blade.

Probably the fragment of a knife-blade («lo).

1) Mason, I and VI, 585.

381

Fig. 11 (inv. Amd. 21). Fig. 15 (inv. Amd. 25).

Fig. 13 (inv. Amd. 23).

Fig. 12 (inv. Amd. 22).

Fig. 16 (inv. Amd. 26). Fig. 14 (inv. Amd. 24).

Figs 11—16 (inv. Amd. 21—26). Stone implements. 11—13 from
Skzrgaardshalvö, 14—15 from Dunholm, 16 from Sabine Island. ?/s.

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383

GENERAL REMARKS. Few, and to a great extent frag-
mentary as these stone implements from North East Greenland
are, they nevertheless add their fresh testimony to the stone
artefacts previously known from these parts. In the Museum
für Völkerkunde in Berlin there are 9 wrought stones brought
from East Greenland by ‘Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt”,
among them 2 «lo stone blades, 2 arrow-heads, 1 or 2 knives
of pronounced Eskimo stone age type (the same type as those
from Point Barrow illustrated in Murdoch), as well as some
nondescript specimens. Further, Ryder declares himself to
have found 3 arrow-heads*), and 3 lance stone-heads*), all
of slate, triangular, pointed and two-edged, one man’s knife
of stone‘) and 9 women’s knives (ulos) of stone’), and a
scraper of flint?) (all of them in the National Museum at Co-
penhagen). The Swedish Expedition under Nathorst has in its
collection at least 2 women’s knives‘) of stone and 4 one-
edged kniyes*). In the Ethnographical Museum at Christiania
there is a fragment of a woman’s knife’), and a one-edged
stone knife from North East Greenland, 17'5 cm in length.

Taken together, these stone implements from North East
Greenland convey the impression that the Eskimo who first
arrived on this coast were merely treading in the steps of their
forefathers of the stone age. То form any conclusions as to
how long this stone-age culture held its own in these regions,
would now be premature. It may be a mere coincidence that,
comparatively speaking, so little light :is shed on this point

1) Murdoch I 154, fig. 107 a and b.

*) Ryder 309, fig. 8.

3) 14. 316; 315, fig. 15.

*) Id. 322, fig. 21.

5) Id. 330, fig. 29.

8) Id. 333, fig. 31.

7) Stolpe, Pl. 3; Solberg 55, figs. 46 and 48.
*) Solberg Pl. 9, figs. 4 to 8; Stolpe Pl. 4.
”) Solberg Pl. 9, fig. 3.

584

by the. collections hitherto made of stone objects from this
part of Greenland. As a rule, it is the largest and best-
preserved houses which have been excavated, while the older
and much dilapidated houses have not received so much atten-
tion. Moreover, the rubbish heaps in front of the houses, par-
ticularly the oldest ones, have only here and there been thor-
oughly ransacked. I am inclined to believe that it is as yet
premature to speak — as О. Solberg!) does — of the rapid
decay and disappearance of the stone-age culture in North
East Greenland, and from the temporary scantiness of stone
implements discovered there, to draw conclusions as to the
short life of the Eskimo culture now extinct in those parts.

I particularly disagree with Solberg’s general statement that
the one-edged stone knives found in North East Greenland only
to a very slight extent resemble Eskimo implements, and can
only be explained as the result of European influence. It may
possibly hold good of some few knives with iron blades and
wooden hafts, which may have had their origin in Clavering’s
Expedition to the coast in 1823 (see under inv. Amd. 79), or
have been washed on to the ice from whalers, or have been
brought there by immigrants from the south in times past.
But Murdoch mentions, as typical of the western Eskimo cul-.
ture in Alaska, not only stone-knives, both two-edged and one-
edged, but also crooked knives with wooden hafts*). There
is thus nothing remarkable in our finding similar types of im-
plements in North East Greenland (cf. also under inv. Amd. 69).

The stone artefacts brought home by Amdrup have there-
fore a claim on our interest (except perhaps one specimen, the
artificiality of which is doubtful), Three of the objects are
from Skergaardshalvé, which for the present I choose to regard
as the southern boundary of the North East Greenland culture;

1) Solberg 59—60.
2) Murdoch I, 151—161.

385

| may add that also among the objects found in the Ammas-
salik distriet there are some few stone implements. I shall leave
it to specialists on Eskimo archeology to determine what the
objects found have to teach us as to the stone craftsmanship
of the North East Eskimo. Their art as a whole can scarcely
be said to be of the most primitive kind. As for the types of
the implements, it can hardly be denied that several of the
stone implements found in North East Greenland are charac-
teristic samples of the prehistoric Eskimo culture.

5. Finds from Sk&rgaardshalvö (68° lat. №), the most
southerly part of North Kast Greenland.

The foregoing sections have treated of three kinds of Eskimo
implements which have hitherto been the object of particular
attention on the part of ethnographers, and which are all re-
presented in Amdrup’s collection from North East Greenland, _
without taking into account the particular locality on the coast
where they were found.

The rest of the collection will be described in the geo-
graphical order, the sections beginning from the southernmost
place of former habitation and proceeding gradually north. As
I have mentioned before, I reckon the southern boundary of
North East Greenland to lie where the Ammassalik district
begins, namely at Kangerdlugsuak, at about 68° lat. N. and
31° 56’ long. W. On the coast just north of this fjord was
discovered an extinct Eskimo settlement, where the expedition
made a comparatively rich haul of archeological relics and
remains.

I shall here quote Lieutenant Amdrup’s own description,
translated into English. He was coming at that time from the
north. On the 29th July 1900 he had left Cape Dalton, the
most northerly starting point of the Expedition, in an open boat,
whence with three companions he made his way southwards
along the coast, following the polar current, towards Ammas-
salik. On the 8th August they had reached Kangerdlugsuak,
where the peninsula of Skergaardshalvé lies.

> bat me ра биение ОБО нони

387

“On the south side of Skergaardshalvö, where we landed,
Eskimo had previously lived. On the whole stretch of coast from
Cape Dalton up to here, we had not found a single trace of
Eskimo having travelled or lived there. But here we found no less
than 8 house ruins, 6 tent places, 11 fox traps, 1 bear trap, and
numerous graves. It was quite apparent from the nature of the
houses that they had not been inhabited simultaneously. Owing
to the lack of turf the houses had been built mainly of stones,
fitted together awkwardly. Several of the houses were very old,
and some of them had quite tumbled to pieces. One of them
was apparently of more recent date, and unusually well preserved.
In this house the platform along the back wall was built of flat
stones, so that it seems as if the inhabitants did not possess parti-
eularly large quantities of wood. But there must be excellent op-
portunities for hunting in the Kangerdlugsuak fjord, for there were
plenty of seals, several bears and narwhals were seen, and in Sker-
gaardshalvö itself there were numerous traces of bears.

We set to work at once to excavate and examine the houses
and graves. Several of the graves were extraordinarily well con-
structed. On the Expedition of 1898—99, we had found in Depotö
Island (66° 07’ lat. N.) a grave which had a feature that marked
it off from all others we had seen, viz., that a little chamber
was constructed by the side of it. In Skergaardshalvö we dis-
covered several graves of this kind, and at the same time lighted
upon the explanation of what the chamber was used for. It was
intended as a repository for all the implements etc., which were
put in along with the dead, whereas in the graves without a chamber
these were placed in the graves themselves.

In one of the graves examined the corpses seem to have lain
fully clad upon a bedding of bear-skin, for we found remains both
of hairy seal-skin and hairless skin, and on the skulls, which were
otherwise complete skeletons, the lanky black hair of the head was
still adhering. The excavations of the houses gave no result at all,
while the graves, on the other hand, yielded what under the circum-
stances may be called an unusually rich collection of ethnographical
objeets, most of which we took with us. We had also room in
the boat for three of the best-preserved skulls.”

The objects from Skærgaardshalvô are thus, with a single

1) Meddelelser om Gronland Vol. XXVII, 240—241.

388

exception (nv. Amd. 21), all grave finds. Besides the objects
brought home, there were found in the graves 1 wooden tray,
1 wooden ladle, a number of worked pieces of wood, 1 frag-
ment of a soapstone pot, and two fragments of lamp bowls,
one of them of soapstone, the other of a soft kind of gneiss;
these objects were not taken in the boat owing to lack of room.
In the enumeration of the objects found four graves in all are
mentioned, one of which was considered to be a child’s grave;
above it a toy sledge (inv. Amd. 27) was found. Most of the
objects were discovered in a little stone chamber built by the
side of the three adult's graves. To judge by the nature of
the objects, one of these must have been a man’s grave and
another a woman’s. For the finds consist in the one case of
man’s implements, harpoon heads, a drill, part of a lance, in the
other of woman’s paraphernalia (woman’s knife, bodkins and
bead ornaments).

Inv. Amd. 27 (Fig. 17) is a model of a sledge made of wood,
found above one of the children’s graves under some flat stones.
It consists of two runners, 30cm in length, and 3°5cm in
height (without bone shoes or vestiges of them), and four
loose cross-bars, averaging 9 cm in length, 3°5cm in breadth,
which have been secured by a lashing on to the runners. Without
doubt, one or more of the cross-bars are missing. There were
no traces of the uprights. The upper edges of the two runners
are straight, without upturned tips; their basal edges curve
upwards towards the fore end, and the curve begins at a dis-
tance of 8 or 9cm from the end of the tip, which practically
means that about two-thirds of the runner glides over the firm
snow, while the remaining third does not touch it. At the rear,
the runner is rectangular. The wood is of uniform thickness
behind and in front, so that the under surface of the runners
is of the same breadth at either end.

Both the upper and under edge of each runner is cham-
fered obliquely, which shows that the vertical planes of the

389

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391

runners must have inclined towards each other, the distance be-
tween them being less above than below. The distance between
them above, to judge by the length and form of the cross-bars,
must have been 5"5 cm; if the runners are now placed in such
a position that their chamfered under-surfaces rest entirely upon
the ground, the distance below will be about 7 ст. When they
are placed in this position, the cross-bars will also rest entirely
on the chamfered upper surfaces. This, however, would be an
exaggerated divergence of the runners, and it can only be ex-
plained by the fact that the sledge is merely a toy or an in-
complete model.

‘The cross-bars (which in the accompanying illustration
have been placed at a venture in the position they are presumed
to have occupied on the runners) must have protruded a little
beyond the runners on both sides of the sledge; before they
became weathered, they must all have been more or less uni-
form, notched at both ends so that a kind of neck is produced
at either side of the broader body. Each of the cross-bars
has towards each end of its body two holes pierced to receive
the lashing. As in each runner, a little below the upper edge,
there is a row of 7 holes, it is uncertain whether there were
one, or two holes in the runner corresponding to each cross-
bar; if we suppose there was one for each, there must then
have been seven cross-bars on the sledge, and these must have
lain close to one another.

One of the cross-bars has an extra hole a little within the
centre of one of the edges. In the larger sledges there is
generally a hole of this kind in one of the back cross-bars
near the uprights where the baggage is placed, to receive the
lashing wherewith the latter is tied. But in this toy sledge,
where the runners have not the usual hole pierced in front to
receive the cross line which holds the dog-traces, this hole may
possibly have been bored in the first cross-bar in front, for
the reception of a cord wherewith the sledge was drawn.

392

Particular interest attaches to the two holes pierced right
up in the upper edge of the back part of the runners. They
are placed higher than the other holes, so much so that in
one of the runners the hole has been bored from the inner
side of the runners obliquely upwards, so that it debouches on
the narrow upper surface of the runner (in the other runner
the wood has been partially splintered at this spot). It may
be permitted to assume that these two holes must have been
used for lashing one of the missing uprights (if the sledge
possessed any’). If we consider the distance between these
holes and the back edge of the runners, we get the impression
that the feet of these uprights must have been comparatively
long.

Almost all the previous expeditions to North East Green-
land speak of having found sledges, or parts of sledges.

Scoresby made a similar find in Traill Island (72°12', in
the south part of the big Franz Joseph Fjord complex?). ‘One
large piece of main-keel was found entire. It was composed
of fir-wood (probably drift-timber) and defended by a row of
pieces of bone, fastened to it by wooden pegs inserted in
holes 4/10 of an inch in diameter.”

Besides this, in several places a number of sledge keels
were found. Whereto Scoresby makes the comment, that this
great number of fragments of sledge parts indicates that the
population must once not merely have been numerous, but must
also have made extensive use of sledges.

Of special interest here is the sledge which was discovered
and brought home by “Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarexpedition” 3),
and which now reposes in the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin

1) Murdoch (I, 355) designates as characteristic of sledges of the Greenland
type “two upright posts at each side of the back of the sled, often
connected by a cross rail, which serves to guide the sled from behind”.

*) Scoresby, Journal 267.

3) Koldewey 685.

393

(see Appendix, fig. 85). It was found on the same day that the
Expedition was about to leave the country to return home (16th
August 1870) near an old Eskimo settlement at Саре Hold-
with-hope (Cape Broer Ruys) at 73°30', just north of the mouth
of Franz Joseph’s Fjord"). It is both larger (208 cm long),
more unwieldy, and more clumsily fashioned than the ordinary
Greenland sledges. Clumsy as the sledge is, when we consider
the hardness and weight of the logs of drift-wood out of
which it was fashioned, and the big holes, most of them rect-
angular and on an average 7 or 8cm in length, which they
have managed with their primitive tools to pierce in the run-
ners, one cannot refrain from wonder at what they have ac-
complished.

Doubts might well be entertained as to whether this sledge
is of the Eskimo type, for it is widely different from the Green-
land sledges with which we are familiar. I believe, however,
that along with the picture one will be obliged to form of
the North East Greenland sledge, it will be necessary to modify
to a certain extent one’s conception of the East Eskimo type
of sledge. The sledge model found by Amdrup corresponds in
all essential details with this complete sledge found by the
German Expedition at 5!/2 degrees of latitude further to the
north on the same coast; and the sledge runner found in 1899
by the Swedish Expedition (illustrated in the Appendix, fig. 86 ?))

1) Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt, Vol. I (1874), page 685: “The still
well-preserved and almost entire pieces of an Eskimo dog-sledge which
were found further to the east, by the shore, lying by each other in
the right order. They consisted of both of the runners, roughly fashioned
out of drift timber, on the lower surface of which the holes and to
some extent the wooden nails with which the rails of bone or ivory
had been fastened to them, were still in preservation. Besides this,
there lay by them some of the connecting cross-pieces, as well as one
of the pieces of wood which are fastened on behind as uprights. The
circular and square holes through which the dog-traces and the rawhide
straps for fastening them were passed were distinctly preserved, but not
a vestige of the leather itself was to be seen”.

*) This sledge is in the Nathorst collection in the Stockholm Riksmuseum.

394

gues to confirm the picture we have formed, viz. a broad heavy
sledge, one meter or more in length, the two runners of which
are quite straight along their upper edge, not curving up in
front like those of the West Greenland sledges; with irregularly
cut cross-pieces, which have at either end two holes through
which have passed the straps with which they have been fastened
to the runners through large, often rectangular holes; with a
keel of flat pieces of bone or ivory, which are nailed to the
under surface of the runners by means of wooden pegs. Whether
it had uprights or not, is not quite clear. It is true that a
pair of uprights have been fathered on the sledge of the Ger-
man Expedition, but it is by no means certain that the function
of the comparatively narrow wooden sticks which were found
lying together with the other parts, has been rightly under-
stood }).

We find a quite similar sledge among the central Eskimo
in King William Land, from which Amundsen brought three
large sledges, two of which are now in the Ethnographical
Museum at Christiania, and the third in the Ethnographical
Museum at Bergen (Appendix fig. 90); these three are entirely
without uprights.

In contradistinction to the above, the sledges of the Smith
Sund Eskimo (at Саре York) have uprights resembling those of
the central West Greenlanders (in Umanak fjord and Disko Bay).
The sub-arctic Eskimo in West Greenland between Holstensborg
and Саре Farvel, as we know, do not make use of sledges. At
Ammassalik, in the central part of the East coast, the sledges
. are comparatively small and narrow and the uprights are of a
peculiar type (Appendix fig. 89), being several times broader at
the foot than above, their upper parts being rounded and having
an indentation as a rest for the hands in steering them down

1) In any case there are reason for supposing that the uprights, if they
existed, were fastened to the inner side or on the upper surface of the
runners, not to the outer side.

395

a slope or between the hummocks on the sea ice. The use of
uprights made of wood seems to be confined to Greenland.

Among the central Eskimo the use of uprights is only
spoken of among the Baffin Land Eskimo’), and they use as
uprights reindeer horns, adhering to the skulls. It is con-
ceivable that it is this latter contrivance which Баз given
rise to the use of the wooden uprights which are characteristic
of the East Eskimo sledges in Greenland.

The East Eskimo type of sledge, however great its varia-
tions in detail, corresponds only to one of the two types
which, according to Murdoch”), are in use among the West
Eskimo, particularly in the north of Alaska. One of these
Arctic Alaska types, which is unknown to the eastwards, is
common to the Alaska Eskimo and the Chukchee in North
East Siberia*). The other, smaller type (unia = “the one which
is dragged’) which is low and flat, without rails or uprights,
is used mainly for transporting game, or the women’s boat
(umiak) across the land or solid ice. ‘Both kinds are made
without nails, but are fastened together by mortises and lashings
and stitches of thong and whalebone; both kinds are made of
drift-wood and shod with strips of whale’s jaw fastened on with
bone treenails.” As Murdoch") goes on to remark, it is the
unia type which corresponds to that of Greenland, except in
the fact that it is without uprights. It is this type of sledge
which must apparently be regarded as typical of the Eskimo,
which is found recurring variouly fashioned, but on a large, and
in fact the very largest scale among the Eskimo in King William
Land and in North East Greenland. Jnv. Ата. 27, a little toy
sledge, found on a child's grave in the extreme east of the
Eskimo lands, is probably an imitation of this type.

1) Boas I, 529.

*) Murdoch J, 353.
”) Bogoras 105—106.
*) Murdoch I, 355.

396

Inv. Amd. 28, 29 and 30 (illustrations of which are found
in figs. 47, a,b,c) are three small bones of similar nature
(knuckle-bones or tarsi of a mammiferous animal?) which are
used as drill caps (head-pieces) in boring. In the centre of
each is seen a fairly deep cavity due to the wearing action of
the upper end of the revolving drill-stock. The head-piece is
placed lengthwise in the mouth, in such a manner that the
teeth tightly grip the elongated crest of the bone, while the
knob-shaped thick part of the bone sticks out from between
the teeth and forms a support for the upper end of the drill.

At one end of each of them there is a transverse hole,
intended for a strap for hanging up.

Ryder?) found in Scoresby Sund a similar ‘mouthpiece’
of a drill made of the tarsus of a reindeer. Quite similar
mouthpieces (kimmiän), made of the knuckle of a seal’s paw, are
used at Ammassalik.

Inv. Amd. 31 (Fig. 19) is a slender bodkin, 9 cm in length,
in the middle oval in cross section, but flattened towards both
ends, gradually tapering towards the point, where both side
edges are sharp, just as the point is quite sharp, in contra-
distinction to the other bodkins in the collection. Through
the flat knob of the thick end an eye (to receive a strap for
hanging up) has been bored: the part under the knob has a
concave indentation.

Several bodkins of a similar nature were found by the
Nathorst Expedition in North East Greenland*). Some of them
(like the bone needles found by Ryder“) may be compared with
the marline-spikes described by Murdoch®), the use of which

1) Ryder 323.

2) Nelson 81, and Pl. 37; Hough J, 562 —: “The small wooden and
bone mouth-pieces of the Eskimo east of Point Barrow to Cumberland
Gulf (Alaska) seem to be copies of the deer knuckle-bone”.

3) Stolpe, Pl. IV, fig. 13.

4) Ryder 319—320 (cf. Boas 1, 523, fig. 472).

5) Murdoch 1, 292: “This implement is used in putting on the backing of

397

is well known from Alaska. But the nail found by Amdrup
is so well adapted for piercing with, that it must, no doubt,
have been used as an awl for piercing holes for stitches in
skin”).

It is worth noticing that the Eskimo at Ammassalik use a
similar kind of implement (a ‘bone plug’) for closing up the
wound of the seal they have killed’).

Inv. Ата. 32 (Fig. 20). This needle is remarkable for its
short, broad, and flat form; it is only 7°5cm long and 1 cm
broad in the middle. The ring-shaped head, which is now
highly weathered, must originally have measured circa 1°8 cm
in diameter. The needle from the middle tapers off towards
both ends; at the pointed tip, moreover, it is quite thin, so
that the edges both at the broad end and some distance up
along the sides are sharp.

The implement does not seem to be adapted for piercing
hard material or hides. The broad tip renders it more probable
that it was used for making folds in skin (e. g. at the edge of
the large upward-turned kamik soles which are well known
further southwards along the East coast), or have been used
in some way in women’s needlework, though not directly as
a needle.

It resembles some of the boot-sole creasers described
by Nelson”).

Inv. Amd. 33 to 44 (Fig. 18). There were found, in all,
12 entire bodkins of this type and 1 fragment in Skergaards-

a bow to raise parts of the cord when an end is to be passed under,
and in tucking in the ends in finishing off a whipping”.

Nelson Pl. 46, figs. 13—16 (bodkins with knob-like heads without eye).
— Two bodkins of a similar kind are found in the Amundsen collection
(the Gjöa Expedition) at Christiania, No. 15711, length 12'7cm, quite
pointed, without eye; and No, 15712, length 99cm, with a blunt point
and an eye (to receive a cord loop for hanging up).

?) Holm PI. 15.

3) Nelson 108 and PI. 44, fig. 50.

XXVIII. 26

~
—

398

halvö. They have а length of from 8:5 to 13cm. Ten (eleven)
of them resemble each other closely, being cylindrical in cross
section, tapering towards the point, which in all of them is
blunt, except in the fragment which has a point formed by
four short oblique cuts. Around the head end (the thick end,
circ. 1 cm broad in cross section) in most of them, has been
cut a series of from four to eight independent rings. Three of
the bodkins are without these rings.

An eye for a thread is found on the flattened top of 10
of them (in that furthest to the left in the figure it has been
broken and replaced by a lateral eye); the eye is carefully per-
forated through a low projection on the flat top of the head;
a very fine and sharp drill must have been used in this per-
foration, which has been made from two sides, obliquely down-
wards, so that the perforated holes meet under the foot of
the projection. The hole thus curves a little downwards in the
middle. )

Only one of these bodkins (the next but one on the right
in the illustration) is of a somewhat different variety, being
flat like a lancet, though without sharp edges, and the eye is
produced by a simple lateral perforation through the broad end.
Cf. inv. Amd. 106.

In North East Greenland, a needle similar to those first
mentioned, with a cylindrical body and with six rings in the
thick end, was found by Ryder’) in a child’s grave. The upper
part of it is flattened laterally, and the eye produced by a
transverse perforation.

In the National Museum at Copenhagen there is a little
collection of 10 bodkins found by К. I. V. Steenstrup at Eqaluit,
near Ikerasak on the Umanak fjord in West Greenland. These
ten bodkins correspond to those from East Greenland both as
regards the rings round the thick end and the cacuminally

1) Ryder 333, and fig. 32a (National Museum at Copenhagen, Le. 1426).

Fig. 18 (inv. Ата. 33 to 44).

Fig. 19 (inv. Ата. 31).

Needles and bodkins.

Fig. 20 (inv. Amd. 32).

Skærgaardshalvô. 1/2.

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401

placed eye. From the same quarter come 5 bodkins of quite
the same type (5 to 9cm in length), now at the Ethnographical
Museum at Christiania (inv. Nos. 5947—5950). — This type
seems to be peculiar to Greenland. It is true, we occasionally
meet with annular incisions in bodkins or marline-spikes
outside Greenland, but there they are more richly ornamented
and have knob-shaped heads, which are often representations
of animals heads’). In Pfaff’s collection from West Greenland,
in the Riksmuseum at Stockholm, there are two so-called ajagak
sticks (sticks for the ring-and-pin game) which have these
annular incisions round the upper thicker part, and the upper
ends of which are cut in the form of human faces (see Appendix
figs. 92 and 93).

Inv. Ата. 45 (Fig. 21) is a bone haft belonging to the
blade of stone described under the heading of inv. Amd. 23;
they are the parts of a woman’s knife (w/o) of a highly differenti-
ated type. The haft consists of four pieces, which are grooved
into and partially nailed to one another.

At the bottom is the blade-holder (see fig. 21) or the ‘haft
proper, an elongated thinly cut bone with two parallel side
surfaces and two diverging end surfaces. In the under edge
of this haft there is a comparatively broad open slit, into
which the stone blade fits. At the bottom of the slit are seen
two holes, which might indicate that a blade other than
that which is there now was once inserted there, and fastened
in a different manner. This perhaps also serves to explain
the large aperture (8 mm in diameter) which is seen at one
side of the holder, just where one of the legs of the upper

1) See е. в. Nelson 193; cf. Pl. 46 and 48 (description рр. 106—107). For
simpler types see Murdoch J, 318, fig. 325 (flat, without rings, with la-
teral eyes). Another type of needle, triangular in cross section, thickest
in the middle, where the eye has been pierced, tapering towards the
tip at both ends, was found by Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarexpedition
(1, 605, fig. 195); the same type is known from the Central Eskimo
(Iglulik). See Boas, J, 523, fig. 472 and IJ, 94, fig. 136.

402

part of the м/о has been grooved in, so that its foot is exposed
in the opening (there is a break in the haft just underneath in
which the lower end of the leg is visible). A little higher up,
over the two small holes in the side of the ‘haft proper’, which
are intended to be used in fastening the blade by means of a
sinew lashing, are seen the nails in two other holes in the side
which hold this bottom piece (the ‘haft proper’ along with the
inserted blade) fixed to the legs of the handle.

The legs are elliptical in cross section (with the broad
side in the same plane as the blade), very slightly tapering
above to enable them to fit into the holes in the top piece of
the 140. The lower ends of the legs are whittled off into two
flat, thin tangs, the shoulders of which are chamfered in such
a manner, that when they are pressed firmly down, the legs
are supported in the position in which they are seen in the
illustration, resting against the upper edge of the blade-holder
and at the same time fitting exactly into the slots on the under
side of the top piece. These slots in the under side of the top
piece are very deep, one of them, probably owing to an error
in the working, having passed right out to the opposite side of
the piece, where the upper end of the leg is seen sticking up
in an elongated, irregular opening (cf. fig. 215).

The ‘top handle’, or the upper piece of the wlo, is like
the ‘haft proper’, an oblong, slightly curved bone, elliptical
in cross section, placed horizontally and with the broad side
at right angles to the plane of the blade. The surface of this
interesting piece is specially characteristic in view of the three
rows of holes (not bored through) which extend along it, and
the two slightly concave grooves, which are cut across them at
either end, more or less parallel to the concavely cut terminal
surfaces of the piece (the concave chamfering of the end sur-
faces expands infundibularly downwards towards the under side
of the bone). These regularly disposed holes in the upper
surface of the piece must be considered to have been nail-

403

Fig. 21 (inv. Ата. 45). Bone handle of а woman's knife. 7/10.
An illustration of the stone blade belonging to this knife
is found in fig. 13.

Fig. 22. Three thimble-guards of bone. 14/1. Skergaardshalvo.

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405

holes for securing attached ornaments of ivory (ef. inv. Ата.
107—109), such as we are familiar with in the implements
from Ammassalik, or else have been intended for a lashing of
whalebone like that mentioned by 0. Mason!) in «lo handles
from the mouth of the Mackenzie River (inv. Amd. 86, pag. 473).

In this w/o two types are blended or joined into one; the
ulo which consists of a stone blade inserted into a simple bone
or wooden haft, and the «lo the stone blade of which
is attached to a handle formed by two legs united
by a cross-piece?).

The last of these types no doubt occurs only
in Greenland, where perhaps a chance formation of
a piece of reindeer horn used for a haft — as in the
specimen from West Greenland (inv. Pfaff in the Riks-
museum, Stockholm) illustrated in the Appendix,
fig. 94 — may have given rise to its invention. It
is extensively used for «los particularly at Ammas-
salik*), whence О. Solberg") holds that it perhaps
originally came from East Greenland and was brought
thence by traders to the West coast at a later date.
At any rate it is interesting that this type has been
found so high to the north on this coast аз Skær-
gaardshalvö. (Cf. another «lo type in inv. Amd. 80).

Inv. Amd. 46, 47, 48 (Fig. 22). These are three
thimble-guards of the usual Greenland type, which
is also found in Alaska°). Е of

This type consists of a double hook with barbs bone. Sker-

gaardshalvö.
back to back, made of a flat piece of bone which by 15.
two incisions is formed like two hooks back to back. The upper

1} Mason I, Pl. 56 and 57. Cf. Stolpe I.

*) Mason (VI, 585) does not give these varieties, as he is chiefly occupied
with the differences in the type of handle within the West Eskimo district.

”) Holm Pl. 19.

*) Solberg 52.

°) Nelson 110, and Pl. 44, figs. 16 and 18.

406

end of the centre part in these pieces has a hole pierced in it
so ag to enable it to be hung by a loop over the place where
the woman works on the platform in the hut. These thimble-
guards, which were found on Skærgaardshalvôü, are very small
(from 3°8 to 48cm in length), when compared with those used
by the people of Ammassalik, but the West Greenland specimens
in the National Museum at Copenhagen!) are, taken all round,
not larger than these from North East
Greenland.

On these double hooks the Eskimo women
hang their sewing-rings of skin?) which they
place on their fingers while sewing. A sewing-
ring of this kind was found by Ryder°) in
the same part of Greenland.

Inv. Amd.49 (Fig. 23) is a one-pronged
fork for meat or blubber. It is a thin piece
of bone, 21 cm in length, triangular in cross
section, slightly curved. At one end there
is a fairly large hole (for hanging up), in the
‚other it is irregularly bevelled or worn away.
The best-preserved parts of it have still
fairly smooth sides.

Inv. Amd. 50 and 51 (Fig. 24) are two
i wooden hooks, evidently intended to be hung
Fig. 24. Blubber hooks UP, probably over the lamp in the house,
of Ne ee or over a fire-place, as they are thickly

| sooted. One of them has at the pointed end
two barbs, like those of an arrow, back to back, with sharp
points, whereas the point proper is blunt.

1) There are many old specimens of this type of thimble-guards from West
Greenland in the National Museum in Copenhagen (Nat. Mus. cabinets
84, 91 and 92).

2) Skin thimbles of this kind are found illustrated, for instance, in Boas
I, 524, Вс. 473.

3) Ryder 334.

407

The one of these hooks which is entire is 15°5 cm in
length; the little fragment has a length of 45 cm.

Similar wooden hooks are used at Ammassalik for hanging
over the lamp, with a piece of blubber stuck on them so that
the train-oil can run down on to the lamp and feed the flame.

Murdoch") speaks of blubber hooks of wood, but with
barbs of ivory attached to them, as being very common on the

Fig. 25 (inv. Ата. 52). Four pieces of a child's urine-tub.
Skærgaardshalvô. 1/2.
coast of Alaska, but merely mentions that they are used for
moving pieces of blubber from one place to another.
Inv. Ата. 52 (Fig. 25) is a little collection of 9 concave
pieces of wood which, when joined together, will be seen to
form a little vessel, which in fig. 27 is illustrated in natural

1) Murdoch I, 310.

ur”

408

size byE.Ditlevsen, the artist of the Expedition. Two of the pieces
form the round bottom of the vessel, the diameters of which are
41 and 48 cm; the remaining pieces build up the curved sides;
the height of the vessel is 8:1 cm. There is one of these side-
pieces (staves) in the vessel which is formed in a different way
than the other pieces, being more straight, and moreover ap-
parently made of a different kind of wood; perhaps it did not
originally belong to the whole, but was fitted in later.

Inside, at the bottom, there runs round the side of the
vessel a deep groove into which the edges of the bottom fit,
and under which a circular foot has been carved out in the
lower part of the staves.

On the side of the vessel, exteriorly, is seen, a little above
the middle, a broad shallow groove which passes right round
and was apparently intended for a hoop for holding the pieces
together. There are no holes, or vestiges of nails having been
employed.

This little work of art was probably carved as a model
of a urine-tub for the house, to be given as a present to
a child.

Inv. Amd. 53 (Fig. 26) is a whalebone-dish of the usual
type known from all Eskimo districts (Murdoch?), and called
by the Greenlanders pertag (cf. Appendix, fig. 95). It consists
of a piece of whalebone bent double, and fastened with tree-
nails on to a wooden bottom.

The oblong elliptical bottom made of wood of fir or pine,
circ. 29 cm long, 12°5cm wide, is carved out of one piece, and
is absolutely flat. In its edge are seen six holes for pegs, and
four of these pegs are still sticking in them. All these holes
lie on one half of the edge of the bottom; on the other half
the whalebone rim has not been pegged on to the bottom, but
merely secured by the force of the pressure. The flat surface

1) Murdoch I, 88, figs. 18 and 101. Cf. Nelson 71. Boas ll, 44 and 73.
Holm, Pl. 25.

409

Fig. 26 (inv. Ата. 53). Whalebone-dish.

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Fig. 27 (inv. Amd. 52). Child's urine-tub.
E. Ditlevsen del.

1!

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Se =< SN) D

411

of the bottom has also pierced in it eight holes, which must
have been made with a very fine drill. They are disposed in
two parallel rows. The object of these holes is uncertain. ? As
one side of the bottom bears traces of blubber, the dish may
perhaps have been used as a repository for blubber, and the
holes in the bottom have been intended for the discharge of
the liquid part of the blubber. — Ryder found several bottoms
of whalebone-dishes in Scoresby Sund!).

The ends of the whalebone piece which form the sides
have been made to interlap, and have been sewed together

Fig. 28 (inv. Amd. 53). The interlapping ends of the
whalebone rim. 5/7.

with whalebone cord (fig. 28). Ryder”) also speaks of having
found samples of whalebone lashings in Scoresby Sund, plaited
or unplaited. Those which were found here are unplaited thin
strips. In the piece where the whalebone rim has been doubled
over, the holes traverse both its ends, and along the top
edge they lie in two rows, eight (or nine) in each. The cord
is drawn from each hole in the upper row through the cor-
responding hole in the lower one, so that it connects one pair

1) Ryder, 334.
2) Ryder, 326.

412

of holes with the next only at the inner side of the rim. One
of the vertically disposed lines of holes is also double; but here
one of the rows of holes lies outside the jointing of the
ends of the rim, thus passing through only a single layer of
whalebones.

The seam forms а rhomboidal figure (circ. 7x 5:5 cm) on
the side of the rim. That part of the rim which faces the
bottom, as can be seen from a few nail-holes which have been
preserved at the nether edge, was no doubt without a seam.
Most of the stitches have been broken; at the upper edge a
few intact stitches are still to be seen.

Inv. Amd. 54 (Fig. 30) is an oblong bone button, or toggle,
42 cm long, flat on one side, convex on the other, with rounded
edges and corners. One of the side edges which run length-
ways is straight, the other is slightly curved. Close to the
middle of the curved edge has been pierced a hole, with ellip-
tical circumference.

One end of the button has been partially worn or frayed
away, forming a sharp edge.

The button may be one of the belt-fasteners described
by Nelson”). “The belt-buttons are passed through a cord loop
on the opposite side of the belt and thus hold it in place”.
Inv. Ата. 57, found in the same spot, is probably part of a
belt of this kind.

Inv. Ата. 55 (Fig. 29b) is a bone handle, 13°5 cm long,
made of a yellowish-grey hollow bone (narwhal tusk?), the medul-
lary channel of which is visible at both ends of the handle.
The lower part of one of the side surfaces has been broken
off. This heavier end of the handle is rhomboidal in section,
nearly double as high as broad, whereas the cross section of
the handle towards the other end is almost quadratic. The
extreme end of this part of the handle is notched off to form

1) Nelson 59, PI. 27.

a (inv. Ата. 56.)

b (inv. Amd. 55.)
Figs. 29 а and Ъ. Drum-handles(?) made of bone. ?Is.

b (inv. Amd. 60).

Fig.30 (inv. Figs. 31 a and b. Interlinked beads.
Amd. 54).
Toggle button Bear's tooth.
of bone. 3/10.
Figs. 29—32. Bone objects from Skærgaardshalvå.

11. Fig. 32 (inv.
Amd. 58).

XXVIII.

NS A

i

415

а round knob. Particularly characteristic are the four notches
for finger-rests which lie in a row along the under side of
the handle.

On the back of the handle there is a distinetly carved
ornament, half of which, however, is weathered or worn away
(see Fig. 33 a).

From the underside of the knob-like head a hole has been
bored obliquely into the medullary channel, so that its path lies
in the longitudinal direction of the handle, one of its mouths
looking towards the finger-rests, while the other faces the end
of the handle within the medullary channel (see Fig. 33 b).

I am of the opinion that this piece is the old handle of
a drum. As far as I know, this is the first time that a drum-
handle of this type, and made of bone, has been found in
Greenland. In type it approaches very closely to the handles
from Alaska described by Murdoch and Nelson. The former’)
states that the Point Barrow Expedition brought home 8 handles
for drums which exhibit but slight variations. The commonest
material for the handle is walrus ivory; only two out of twelve
were of antler. Their length is from 46 to 5°4 inches. Mur-
doch gives illustrations of several specimens, two of which,
like inv. Amd. 55, have four notches for the fingers; all of
them have at the end a knob carved either as a human or
an animal head. Nelson?) also speaks of the ornamentation of
the drum handles: “Опе of these handles (number 43807), which
was obtained at Shaktolik, is of walrus ivory, and is six inches
long by an inch and a half in diameter. It is carved in the
form ofa walrus, the well-made head being placed at the inner
end; on the lower side are four diagonal grooves for finger-
rests, and sat the rear the animals flippers are represented.
The back is etched with short lines to indicate bristly hairs’.
This last feature reminds one of the ornament found on the

1) Murdoch I, 386—387, figs. 384 and 385. Cf. Wilson Ц, 561—562.

2) Nelson 351.
21:

416

back of the handle from North East Greenland, and which might
possibly be a stereotyped ornament of the same kind.

The question now is to what end of the handle the hoop
of the drum, over which the membrane was extended, was
secured. If we suppose that it was secured by a lashing to
the knob-like head at the narrow end of the handle, where the
oblique hole lies, the finger-rests would, if the handle were
grasped in the usual manner, with the left hand, be brought
to lie transversely to the fingers, as they are cut in a direc-
tion obliquely to the longitudinal direction of the handle, and,
besides, they would lie too close up to the drum ring. I feel
convinced that it is the broad end of the handle which carried
the drum, though I am not clear as to the mode in which it

Fig. 33 (inv. Amd.55). Parts of the drum-handle (a) orna-
ments carved in the surface, (b) the knob-shaped end.

E. Ditlevsen delt.
was secured. It is just at this end that a piece on one side
of the handle has been broken off. The mouth of the marrow
pipe forms at this end a very large square hole (about 1'5
by 0`8 cm), which may possibly have been used in securing it.
Otherwise both in Greenland (e. g. at Ammassalik) and in Alaska
there is generally a notch at the back of the handle, in which
the drum ring is stuck, and under it one or two transverse
holes for the lashing with which it is secured. These features
are missing here. But it would be in accordance with the
usual practice with regard to drums, that the drum-ring was
placed at the broader end of the handle, at a distance of three

417

Fig. 34. Belt consisting of pierced teeth (fragment). 1.

or four centimetres from the nearest finger-rest. — The oblique
hole in the narrow end of the handle must then have been
intended to receive a strap for hanging up the drum.

Inv. Amd. 56 (Fig. 29 a) is a handle similar to the foregoing,
likewise made of a hollow bone (but probably of another animal)
somewhat smaller and more slender, scarcely 11°5 cm long,
having at the thick end a height of 2:2 cm, and a breadth
of tem. It has suffered severely from climatic action, and is
almost entirely decayed at the narrow end. The drum-handle
type, however, is unmistakable; we see the finger-rests and
the remains of the knob-like head; whether a hole was pierced
in the latter, cannot be decided. On the other hand, there is,
in contradistinction to the foregoing, a transverse hole in the
broad end, to which the hoop of the drum was probably-secured
by a lashing.

Inv. Amd. 57 (Fig. 34) is a collection of 53 teeth of a
mammiferous animal, which were found lying loose, all of them
pierced in a similar manner at the tip. In the case of some
of the holes it can be seen that they have been bored from
two sides. — I have strung the teeth on a cord, as is shown
in the illustration; the chain, when stretched taut, measures
23 cm in length.

These teeth have, without doubt, been used for some kind
of ornaments, as a primitive kind of beads, as part either of

418

a necklace or of a belt. Ryder!) also found at ‘Hekla Havn’
in Scoresby Sund a collection of small carved bone beads,
which may have formed a necklace. A necklace consisting of
perforated teeth from West Greenland is in the National Mu-
seum at Copenhagen?).

Whole teeth of this kind used as ornaments are as a rule
fastened to and hung from the lower edge of skin girdles
which are worn round the women’s waists. Nelson?) makes
mention of belts of this kind among the Alaska Eskimo.
‘Throughout the Eskimo country from the lower Kuskokwim
to the Arctic coast, a favorite waist belt worn by the women
is made from the incisors of reindeers ..... These rows of
teeth are sewed along a strap of rawhide, one overlapping the
next in scale-like succession, so that they form a continuous
series along its entire length . . . . when worn, the belts are
brought loosely round the waist and held in place by a toggle
or button”.

In the Gjöa collection (Amundsen) in the Ethnographical
Museum at Christiania, there are several belts of a similar kind
from King William Land and Boothia. Some of them consist
of narrow, double strips of skin, others are broader; all of
them are richly hung with teeth or other objects, used as
ornaments, but always in such a way that the ornaments on
each belt are similar in kind: in No. 16153, for instance, 26
teeth of the same kind are strung in the sinew-cord loops at the
lower edge of the belt, and all the teeth have their tips pierced.
In No. 16167 about 100 teeth (of seal?) have been fastened to a
quite narrow girdle, each tooth having been strung on a loop,
the ends of which are sewed in at the upper edge of the belt
in the intervening space between the double layer of skins; the
teeth here are pierced at the roots, and hang in such a manner

1) Ryder 338.
*) København Nationalmuseum, Ethnographical section. Vitrine 77, №. 54.
3) Nelson 59.

419

that the tips are turned inwardly towards the body of the person
wearing the belt. In other belts in this collection bear's
teeth, bodkins, animal bones of one kind, or talons of birds
are hung.

Inv. Ата. 58 (Fig. 32) is a bear's tooth (7 cm long) with
a hole pierced in the part nearest the root, but otherwise un-
wrought. As it was found isolated, there is no ground for as-
suming that it has hung in a chain of bear’s teeth.

“Die zweite Deutsche Nordpolarfahrt”!) mentions a similar
find from North East Greenland of a bear’s tooth with a hole
pierced at the root. — The Fram Expedition likewise found a
bear’s tooth with a similar hole at Leffert Glacier (Ellesmere
land? ?)).

The use to which these isolated teeth were applied is not
quite certain. According to Boas, a bear’s tooth was used as
bait in spearing salmon (just as carved ivory fish are used for
the same purpose) among the Baffin Land Eskimo?). And with
regard to the Eskimo from Southampton Island, he says ‘‘knives
are carried in seal-skin pouches, provided with a bear’s tooth,
which may be used for whetting”*). There are, however, no
grounds for supposing that this is the use to which the tooth
we are speaking of was applied.

Occasionally a bear’s tooth of this kind is found hanging
among the different objects which generally depend in a bunch,
attached to the women’s needle cases’). Inv. Amd. 58 is per-
haps rather to be taken to be a pendent ornament of this kind.

In conclusion, | must remind the reader that the Lapps
used to employ bear’s teeth pierced at the root as amulets‘).

1) Koldewey I, 603.

*) Christiania Ethnographical Museum No. 12377.

5) Boas I, 513, and Fig. 454.

*) Boas И, 71, Fig. 94.

5) Nelson 104, PI. 44, figs. 23 and 25.

©, 8 pieces of this kind are in the Nordiska Museum, Lapp section, at Stock-
holm.

420

Inv. Ата. 59 and 60 (Fig. 32 а and b) consist of five
‘beads’ carved in bone, belonging to different ornaments or
implements.

Two of them are elongated, circular in cross-section, at-
tached to each other by the aid of two eye-forming clasps
which grip each other. The mode of the attachment seems to
have been that one eye was pressed through a slit in the other.
There appears to have been a third link, as one of the two
has the remains of an eye at the free end.

Inv. Amd. 60, on the other hand, is complete, as neither
of the two clumsy beads which are attached by their eyes to
the quaintly formed central link, have terminal eyes at their
free ends. The body of the central bead has been flattened
laterally, and almost has the form of a thick disk the edge of
which is cut straight on two opposite sides, which are con-
nected by a bored hole.

Quite similar beads were found by Nathorst (Hammer) at
Cape Franklin in North East Greenland, in a grave in which
the body of apparently a little girl was buried’).

Interlinked bone beads, or short bone chains of this
kind have hitherto been known only from Alaska, where they
are frequently attached to the thick end of bodkins, as orna-
mental means for hanging up. At all events, I have not suc-
ceeded in finding any objects more closely resembling them).

It is interesting to note that the art of linking together
fine bone objects of this kind was known among the Eskimo
of the north-east part of Greenland, as well as among those
of the Bering Strait.

Inv. Amd. 61 (Fig. 35). This curious object is a shaft-like
tube made of bone, with two thick and two thin opposite walls,
the implement being oval in cross section, while the cavity of

1) Stolpe, Pl. 6, Fig. 19.
2) Nelson 107, and Pl. 46; cf. Pl. 43 and 52. — Hoffman PI. 55, Fig. 1 and
especially Pl. 41.

421

the tube is cylindrical (0°7 cm) in diameter. The implement is
made of a single hollow bone (narwhal tusk?), its length
85cm; its cross section at the thickest end 3 cm by 175 cm.
There are no holes pierced in the walls of the tube, but about
at the middle of the body four conic sections have been re-
moved, whereby its upper surface has been divided in the
curious manner shown in the figure, bringing to light an inner
layer of the bone with convex edges, which appear in the two

Fig. 35. Needle-case of bone. Skærgaardshalvô. 71.

bow-shaped incisions between the intact parts of the outer
layer, or between the upper and lower ends of the tube; these
last are connected on either side by a narrow bridge in the
outer layer, narrowest in the middle, expanding uniformly above
and below.

It is interesting to find in this part of North East Green-
land this extinct type of implement, which has often been found
before in graves in the north of West Greenland, but which is

422

otherwise unknown in Greenland, and has never been met with,
for instance, at Ammassalik; there are several specimens of it
both in the National Museum at Copenhagen and in the Riks-
museum at Stockholm, (the Pfaff collection contains 6 of them)
the latter being unusually beautiful and partially ornamented (see
Appendix, Figs. 96 and 97). Now to what use can it have been
applied? In the records of the above mentioned museums
has been embodied an explanation of native Greenlanders to
the effect that this implement was part of an old-fashioned
ring-and-pin toy (a curious kind of ajagag), a game which, in
another form, is to this day very commen among the Eskimo
of all parts). This, however, is the sort of explanation which
a Greenlander might very easily be induced to give when
questioned about matters which are no less a puzzle to him
than to his questioner. Г venture therefore to cast a doubt
on the correctness of the explanation, and shall hazard an-
other hypothesis.

From all Eskimo regions outside of Greenland is found as
an accessory to the women’s sewing-apparatus a needle-case
of bone, formed like a tube, from 6 to 10 cm in length, through
which a long rawhide thong is drawn. At the ends of this
thong, which project out through both the ends of the tube,
the women fasten various small implements or knicknacks, such
as needles, bodkins of various forms, small carved bone or
wood objects, which perhaps are to be collected for a future
girdle, pierced bear’s teeth etc. The thin sewing-needles are
stuck into the thong and can be drawn along with it into
the tube in order to protect them?). The collection of these
objects from Alaska exhibit, as usual, the greatest number of
variations and the richest ornamentation®). Whereas the types
of tubes from the western regions, to judge by the illustrations

1) Culin 544.
*) Murdoch I, fig. 328b.
3) Nelson 103, and Pl. 44; Murdoch J, 318—392.

423

in Nelson and Murdoch, appear to be preponderatingly circular
in cross section, the more easterly types, from the coasts of
Hudson Bay and Baffin Land, illustrated in Boas!) and Turner),
are more flattened from both sides.

Exclusively cylindrical needle-cases are found also in the
Gjéa Expedition’s (Amundsen’s) collection at Christiania; the
leather thong, which is drawn through the tube, is here se-
сигед by one of the ends of the thong being fastened with a
knot to a thin bone handle, which toggles towards the end of
the tube; at the other end of the thong are stuck needles and
bodkins, beads, animals’ teeth, etc.

This type of implement is not confined to the Eskimo; an
exactly similar implement is also found among the Laplanders;
in the Nordiska Museum at Stockholm there are over 30 similar
needle-cases, which have belonged to the Laplanders, consisting
of ornamented bone tubes through which a rawhide thong is
drawn, held in place with the aid of a knot at one end (quite
like the thongs in the needle-cases described by Murdoch from
Point Barrow in Alaska), while the needles are stuck in the
other end of the strap. — The same implement has probably
been in use in several places in the north of Siberia; Г know
it only among the Chukchee).

No proofs have so far been forthcoming that this implement
was used in the domestic culture of the Greenland Eskimo,
but there are grounds for believing that it must once have
existed there. It may, however, easily be imagined that, owing
to the introduction of new sewing implements from Europe,
it passed out of use at an early date, and was superseded by
other kinds of repositories, so that the object of it, when
found in graves or ruins, is no longer known. The Greenland
specimens which supplement inv. Amd. 61 with a consider-

1) Boas I, 523 II, 94.
*) Turner 254.
3) Bogoras 224.

424

able number both from the east (cf. inv. Ата. 87) and the
west coast, represent, in my view, the special Greenland type
of this otherwise so widely diffused implement. These flattish
bone tubes, quaintly carved and often ornamented, are old-
fashioned needle-cases, the other accessories which originally
went along with them having been lost or destroyed in the
earth. Inv. Ата. 61 тот North East Greenland is particularly
interesting, as corresponding exactly in type to the form known
from West Greenland. | ;

Inv. Amd. 62 (Fig. 36) is a piece of carved
wood, in form like a shaft, cylindrical, 11°5 cm
in length, cross section 2-5 cm in diameter. At
both ends there was originally a rounded knob,
a little thicker than the centre part, whittled off
all round at the inner side so as to form a well-
marked shoulder. Both the knobs are highly
weathered, one of them being quite corroded,
though the traces of its shoulder are still visible.
The object can therefore not have been very
much larger than it now appears to be.

Fig. 36. sae The implement bears a resemblance to the
handle (object Cross bars (as a rule made of ivory), mentioned
unknown).Sker- hy Nelson!) and Murdoch?), belonging to large
ОИ floats, and which serve as a handle for raising
them. Nelson also tells us of an isolated cross bar of this
kind from St. Lawrence Island in Bering Strait, which is made
of wood’). This parallel is, of course, extremely dubious.
On the other hand there seems to be no grounds for hesitating
to compare this object with certain ‘cylindrical pieces of wood
from West Greenland in the Riksmuseum at Stockholm (inv.

Pfaff, sect. 48). These are a little thicker in the middle

1) Nelson 145.
2) Murdoch I, 247 (Fig. 249).
5) Nelson, Pl. 56a, fig. 31.

425

than at the ends, where the knob-like heads are shouldered
off from the centre parts. The length is 15°5 and 14 cm re-
spectively. The use to which they were applied is unknown.
Indv. Amd. 63 and 64 (Fig.
37a and b).. Two very thin, tri-
angular pieces of bone, one 5cm
long, sawn off with the aid of
drilled holes, whereby jagged edges
have been produced; the other
5`8 cm long with smooth edges.
The first piece is quite flat; the
a second curved, spoon-shaped,
Fig. 37. Fragments of bone being, in fact, probably the frag-

1 ts. Sk dshalvö. 315. -
Е “Ts. ment, of a: little spoon).

1) Holm PI. 24. Boas И, Fig. 145. Also Kumlien (pag. 21) states that
among the Baffin Land Eskimo he found “а little spoon, or rather a
miniature scoop, made of ivory, which they used to drink soup with.”

6. Finds from Dunholm (69° 54’ lat, N.) and Cape Tobin
(70° 24 lat. N.), The central part of North East Greenland.

The objects described below were found at two settlements
about 500 kilometres to the north and east of Skergaardshalvé,
namely right up at the mouth of Scoresby Sund. The section
of the Carlsberg Fond Expedition which in the summer of 1900
was sent out to reconnoitre here, was led by the botanist N.
Hartz, who in his report of the Expedition gives the following
description of Dunholm, which lies about 20 English miles
south of the entrance of the vast fjord of Scoresby Sund.

“It is quite a little, low basalt holme, the highest top of which
lies about 100 feet above the sea-level .... Eider-fowl and black
guillemots brooded here in numbers, and up at the top stood no
less than 7 Eskimo winter-houses, grouped in a ring about a little
water-wheel, which was quite over-mantled with green sea-weed
and teemed with swarms of gnat larves. Dr. Deichmann super-
intended the excavation of a few houses and found various well-
preserved objects, a comb, weapon heads etc. Down by the shore,
moreover, a few tent-rings were seen ').”

Only a day’s journey to the north lies the other settle-
ment, Cape Tobin, from which the same number of found ob-
jects, namely 20, was brought home, as from Dunholm. The
territory around Cape Tobin was surveyed by Dr. Nordenskjöld
and Lieutenant Koch‘). This place received its name during

1) Meddelelser om Gronland 27, 164.
2) Ibid) 175.

eS ЧР EEE

427

Scoresby's Expedition, like Cape Stewart, — which lies a
little further in by Hurry Inlet —, where Scoresby in 1822 dis-
covered an extinct Eskimo village of 10 tents‘). The settlement
at Cape Stewart was afterwards more thoroughly investigated
by Ryder (in 1891—92)°), and then again in 1899 by Nathorst.
The settlement at Cape Tobin, which lies on the point of land
which projects furthest out into the sea at the mouth of the
great fjord, in the interior of which, as Ryder has proved, the
Eskimo lived in ancient times in many different places, had
not been previously investigated, when the Carlsberg Fond Ex-
pedition in 1900 made this find there.

The settlements at Dunholm and at Cape Tobin lie so
close to each other, and the objects found supplement each
other so well, that I have not deemed it needful to keep the
descriptions of them apart. Taken together, they give —
particularly when we bear in mind the harpoon heads (nv.
Amd. 1, 2, and 3, from Cape Tobin) and the longer weapon
heads (inv. Ата. 12, 13, 14, 15 from Dunholm, inv. Amd. 16,
17, 18 from Cape Tobin) described above — a fairly complete
picture of the hunting life of the Eskimo, the men’s hunting
expeditions on the fjord ice, the work, finery and games of the
women and children in the hut or in the tent, by the hearth
fire or outdoors.

Inv. Ата. 65 (Fig. 38) and 66 (Fig. 39). It is most charac-
teristic of the manner in which the Eskimo carried on their
seal-hunting in this fjord, that two fine specimens of sealing-
stools, of the kind the Eskimo use in hunting seals out on the
ice, were found at the very mouth of the fjord. We gather
from this that the method of sealing adopted during the long
and dreary winter season was to repair to the зеаГз air-hole

1) Scoresby, Journal 1822, р. 208.
?) Ryder 285—288.

428

in the fjord ice, and to watch patiently hour by hour for the
favourable moment when the animal stuck its nose up through
the hole to breathe — for the last time, before the Eskimo
buries his harpoon in its head.

The two stools, which are complete, are essentially of a
pattern. Each of them has three loose short legs for sticking
in the holes in the under side of the seat. The one of the
stools is thereby lifted about 10 cm above the ground; the
other a little less. As the holes narrow conically upwards,
the pointed ends of the legs, when thrust home into them,
are caught in a tight grip.

The form of the stool is flat, with a broadly curved outline,
like an imperfect half-moon, or a rough triangle with one
concave and two convex sides. The measurements are as
follows: —

Inv. Amd.65: 39-5 cm, direct length from corner to corner,
23:5 cm, breadth between the centres of the
concave and the convex sides.

Inv. Amd. 66: 42 cm length,

24 cm breadth, _
3 cm thickness.

Each of the seats is carved out of a piece of wood (red
fir or larch, with the probability in favour of red fir).

They have evidently been made out of a section of the
stem of a big tree; the broad log of wood has been cut in
two and dressed so as to peel off the bark (the convex side)
and remove the marrow (the concave side). It must have been
an enormous labour to produce these large objects of carved
wood with primitive stone implements; they testify to a highly
developed skill in wood-working.

Instead of a handle for carrying the stool there is just in-
side the middle of the concave edge a semi-circular cutting,
the curved side of which is bevelled off conically, so that the
section is larger on the under side than on the upper side of

ar

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480

b

Fig. 38. Sealing-stool from Cape Tobin. 15.

a. The stool in natural position. 6. Under side of the stool.
e. One of the legs of the stool.

431

b

Fig. 39. Sealing-stool from Cape Tobin. 1/5.

a. Upper side of the stool. b. Under side. с. One of the three
legs of the stool.

28”

433

"the 51001. Through this hole the hand can be stuck in, and
‘the fingers grip the narrow bridge which has been left behind

between the edge of the stool and the semi-circular hole, as a
handle wherewith to carry the stool on its way to. the hunting-
ground.

The two stools resemble one another even in such a detail
as the following: across the under side of the stool, from the
handle-forming section just described to the opposite point on

the convex edge of the stool, has been carved in relief on the

wood, a low ridge, narrow at the inner end but expanding like
the head of a key towards the other end; the expanding end
encloses one of the holes intended for the legs of the stool.
Presumably this wooden ridge serves to strengthen the bearing
strength of the stool. The form of the relief is so charac-
teristic that it can scarcely be a caprice of individual taste,
but must be the result of experience which has crystallised
into a tradition. The weight of the Eskimo, as he sits or
stands on the stool, has its greatest effect on the middle part
of its surface. The one of the stools (inv. Amd. 65) in fact
exhibits at this place one or two fractures and a menacing
crack, which it has been endeavoured to counteract by pegging
across the cracks some narrow oblong patches of bone, four
in all, of which, however, only one has been preserved. These
patches of bone have, with the ‘exception of one, not been
laid on top of the wood, but have been sunk about 2mm in
grooves of the same size on its surface, and have been riveted
with tree-nails which are still sticking in the holes. The large
truncated segment in the convex edge goes across through one
of the holes which are intended to receive the legs of the stool.
Another, lesser segment, which had been broken off on the
other part of the convex edge, has been pegged on directly
with the aid of tree-nails which pierce the edge transversely
and penetrate into the intact part of the wood. While this
last segment has been replaced by a piece of a different kind

434

of wood from that of the stool, the part with which the larger
fracture has been repaired undoubtedly belongs to the stool’);
for the ribs in it fit in exactly with those on the other side
of the crack.

A stool of the same type, but less beautifully worked, was
found a little further up the fjord by the Nathorst Expedition”).
Considerably higher to the north (at 74° 20’ lat. N.) two legs
(about 12 cm in length) of a sealing-stool which are now in the
Ethnographical Museum at Christiania (inventorial Nos. 10293
and 10399) were found by whalers.

Not far from Greenland, in Depot point in Heibergs Land
(79° 8’ lat. N., 86° 10’ long. W.), the Fram Expedition (Sverdrup)
found a sealing-stool of a similar type, but without the above-
described relief ridge on the lower side, with three conical
holes for the legs, and two smaller holes besides, near the
edge on each side of the ‘handle’. Between the three holes
the under side of the stool has been scooped out. The side |
edges are bevelled. The greatest length of the stool from
corner to corner is 40cm. This stool also is in the Ethno-
graphical Museum at Christiania.

At Ammassalik towards the southern part of the East coast
of Greenland sealing-stools of an almost similar type, but with
longer legs are extensively used. They more closely resemble
the type used in the northernmost part of Alaska, which is thus
described by Murdoch’): — “The upper surface is flat and |
smooth, the lower broadly beveled ой оп the edges and deeply
excavated in the middle, so that there are three straight ridges
joining the three legs, each of which stands in the middle of
a slight prominence. The three legs are set into holes at each

!) This piece has, to be sure, a different colour than the rest of the stool,
but this can be explained by the fact, that after it had been broken
off for the second time it lay better shielded from climatie agencies
than the rest of the stool, till the Expedition found it.

?) Nathorst 347.

3) Murdoch 1, 255—256.

435

corner, spreading out so as to stand on a base larger than the
top of the stool. They stand on this and thereby escape
getting cold feet”.

In Hans Egede's “Det gamle Grønlands nye Perlustration”
(1741), we find (pag. 35) an illustration of a Greenlander sitting
with hunting weapons on a chair which is only provided with
one leg, fairly long and pointed at the bottom; his feet rest
on a low stool of the usual sealing-stool form with quite short
pointed legs. This picture agrees with David Cranz’s descrip-
tion!) of hunting on the ice in Disco Bay: “А Greenlander
sits down by the seal’s air-hole on a one-legged stool, and, in
order not to catch cold, rests his feet on a three-legged foot-
stool”. This differentiation of the original single stool into a
chair plus a stool, seems to be peculiar to West Greenland.
The long-legged stool used at Ammassalik, however, is equally
well adapted for sitting on as for standing on.

As compared with these types, we find in the northernmost
part of East Greenland a very low-legged stool, adapted for standing
on, the features of which, taken in conjunction, bespeak a marked
type of development from this part of the Eskimo world.

Inv. Amd. 67 (Fig. 40 a) and 68 (Fig. 40 b) (Dunholm),
give evidence of another aspect of hunting-life in the winter-
time. They are two pieces of sledge keels made of bone, of
about the same size: 30cm by 5cm in surface measure.

The nail-holes are all of a pattern, from 5 to 6mm in
diameter, and pierced to the same length. The width of the path
of the holes is the same at both mouths, being only in the
case of a very few holes slightly larger on the inner side
(upper side) of the shoe than on the outer (under) sur-
face; the holes seem thus to have been perforated from the
inner side. They are disposed fairly regularly in such a man-
ner that in no part of the keel are there two holes in the

1) Cranz 206. Cf. Mason Ш, 239 and 210, fig. 8. А foot-stool of this kind
from West Greenland is in the National Museum at Copenhagen.

436

same transverse line; they are placed two and two in lines
obliquely to the longitudinal direction of the keel (with one
single exception), the advantage of which arrangement is that
'the frietion which the edges of the nail-ends must produce, as
the sledge glides over the snow, is evenly distributed, being alter-
nating and in no transverse line produced by more than one nail-
end at a time. At the same time the holes form two long rows,
which extend almost parallel to each other from one corner of
the rhomhoidal figure formed by the outline of the keel tow-
cards the opposite corner at the other end, whereby is, further

013412 а 5

Fig. 40. Pieces of sledge keels made of bone. Dunholm.. 113.

ensured that the friction under the runner of the sledge is
distributed eveniy and in an advantageous manner; for other-
wise the sledge would receive an uneven side pressure at the
bottom of the track formed by the shoe which would tend to
make it run off the track. Furthermore, it is of interest to note
that not only the placing of the holes but also the boring of
them has been made on definite principles, they being bored
obliquely to each other (Ryder, too, has observed this)*) so
that the mouths of the two rows on the upper side of the shoe
lie a little closer to one another than on the under side?).

1) Ryder 305.
2) I convinced myself of this by sticking two pencil handles into the holes
from above; their upper tips met each other at an acute angle.

.

437

Only the isolated unpaired holes at one end of the piece, lying
in the median of it, are bored exactly vertically. No doubt,
the advantage of giving the nails an obliquely diverging posi-
tion is that they hold the keels better in place, and that the
friction of the snow or of the ground in travelling does not
tend so much to loosen them. Only in one of the holes is
there still sticking a tree-nail; its bottom has been cut in a
plane with the under surface of the keel; its protruding top
end has been broken off roughly.

The under side of both these pieces of keels are very
smooth, without being much worn. The upper side, on the
other hand, is rough, or less carefully smoothed. Both have
been warped by the agency of climate, but could presumably
be straightened out with the aid of water or heat.

All the previous Expeditions which have landed in North
East Greenland have found sledge keels. The first who set
his foot in the country, Scoresby’), tells us in his journal that
he found some in Traill Island (72° 12’ lat. N.): “Our people
found the keels of sledges. These consisted of slices of bones
of whales, and of the horns of teeth of narwals. One piece
of the latter was nearly two feet in length; and another frag-
ment, not quite so long, measured 21/2 inches in diameter.
These bones were all flat on one side, and convex or semi-
cylindrical on the other”. Не observes that the great number
of fragments betoken not only that the population must once
have been numerous, but also that they must have made an
extensive use of sledges. This impression of Scoresby’s derives
further support from the German Expedition’s find of a sledge
(see under heading inv. Amd. 27), from Ryder's find in Sco-
resby Sund of 28 pieces of sledge keels made of the bones of
whales and narwhals, and the not much smaller number of
these latter which Nathorst and Hammar brought home with

1) Seoresby 266.

438

them from a locality a little more to the north (now in the
Riksmuseum at Stockholm). |

Similar sledge keels of bone are also known from the
more westerly Eskimo distriets. In Baffin Land the Eskimo
shoe their sledges with keels consisting of
several pieces of flat whalebone, which is fast-
ened under the runners with tree-nails!). The
same thing is true of the Point Barrow Eskimo
in North Alaska, whose sledges in other re-
spects are pretty different in type from the
Greenland ones?).

Inv. Amd. 69 (Fig. 41) from Dunholm is
a fragment of a kaiak-scraper of bone (cf. the
following number). It is a long, flat, thin piece
of bone from 16 to 17 cm in length, of a dark-
Fig. 41. Ice scraper hrgwn colour. One of its edges is bevelled,

of bone. Fragment.
Dunholm. 13. probably due to wear. The pointed tip is un-

common in this kind of implements.
Inv. Amd. 70 (Fig. 42) from Cape Tobin is a very typical,
beautifully worked kaiak-scraper, or bone knife for scraping the

Ole ÆDT ween ED
SSeS

Fig. 42. Ice scraper of bone. Cape Tobin. !Is.

ice off the kaiak skin, and thus an accessory for the kaiak.
It is 31 cm long and 8:5 cm broad at the back end of the blade
It is made of a single heavy piece of bone, of a light-grey
colour.

1) Boas I, 530; Turner 242.
2) Murdoch I, 353; Nelson 206.

= <

439

One side of the blade is slightly concave, the other convex;
thinner towards the edge than in the middle; none of the edges
are sharp.

Two holes have been pierced in it, one of which passes
through the back and upper part of the blade; the other, at
the extreme end of the handle, is particularly remarkable, as it
diverges from the nether edge of the handle in two directions,
one branch of the hole leading out on the under side of the
projection, right by the point, the other on its upper edge
a little further in. Perhaps the .craftsman wished on account
of the heaviness of the knife thus to obtain a firmer hold for
the loops with which the knife was hung up or fastened to the
kaiak, than a single hole would afford.

The type of this implement from Саре Tobin corresponds
exactly with four kaiak-scrapers from the more northerly parts
of the same coast found by Nathorst (Hammar)!). One of them
even has a hole pierced in the upper corner of the blade, and
the end of the handle curves in a downward direction, just as
in inv. Ата. 70. — From the same region as these there is in
the Ethnographical Museum at Christiania (inv. No. 10039),
a kaiak-scraper of the same type, a very beautiful specimen,
carved out of white (grey) bone, the blade rounded at the tip,
broadest at the butt; flat, or slightly bulging, sides, with a
slightly concave upper edge and a slightly convex under edge;
the handle, rhomboidal in cross section, unevenly cut on the
two sides, curving downwards and ending in a downward in-
clined projection, wherewith the hand obtains a better purchase
on the handle. At the rear of the upper edge there is a
straight section cut off which has been replaced by a piece of
bone or wood (which has been lost) held in place by means of
rawhide thongs through three holes under the section; side
grooves lead from the holes up towards the empty space.

1) Stolpe Pl. 4, fig. 12.

440 É

There is a single hole in the lower corner at the back of the
blade, presumably intended for a strap. i} al f

It is a striking circumstance that the characteristic handle
with the downward bent projection recurs in several of the
stone-knives found in North East Greenland").

This approximation in type between these two kinds of
implements, which are not known from other Eskimo districts,
gives us the impression that in North East Greenland the one-
edged stone knife, which is otherwise well-known from other
districts, has been influenced in this respect by the form of .
the kaiak ice-scrapers. |

Fig. 43. Wooden bottom? Dunholm. 113.

We find in the northern part of West Greenland ice-scrapers
of the same type as those in North East Greenland. Here |
again we come across a special Greenland variety of an imple
ment?) otherwise common to all the Eskimo tribes. +

Inv. Amd. 71 (Fig. 43) from Dunholm. Part of a wooden —
implement of unknown use. It is a flat piece of wood, oval —
in circumference, longest diameter 21 cm, shortest 15 cm; the |
thickness of the wood is about 3mm. One side of this piece

1) See the illustrations of both types side by side with each other in Stolpe, —
pl. 4, figs. 11 and 12. р
2) Cf. the snow knives of the more westerly districts, Boas I, 539; II 23
and 95; Nelson pl. 94; Murdoch I, 305.

441

is slightly convex, the other quite flat. There are two holes
pierced near the edge, lying transversely to each other, and
there are no traces of holes in the edge itself, which fact might
argue that the piece did not form the bottom of a box ora
dish, as in that case there would have been nail-holes in it
(ef. inv. Ата. 53). There are, however, examples of bottoms
having been grooved in without nails being used, so that this
possibility is not excluded (cf. env. Amd. 52).

Could it be the blade of an wmiak oar? In one of the
ends of the umiak oar, a loose flat piece of wood is generally
grooved in as a blade, which at Ammassalik is sometimes
ovally rounded in the free part of the edge; only the grooved
or nailed part of the blade is formed otherwise, more in the
manner of a tongue’). The two holes in zmv. Amd. 71 must
in this case be thought to have been used in binding the
blade to the shaft of the oar, certainly, one would think, a
clumsy method, which can hardly have been generally prevalent.

No unimpeachable piece of an wmiak oar or of ап umiak
(large skin boat) has been found in North East Greenland; but,
as Ryder remarks’), the great number of tent-places betoken
that the use of umiaks must have been known.

Inv. Amd. 72 (Fig. 44) from Dunholm is a hammer-like
piece of wood, apparently the fragment of a branch, which
has grown naturally at right angles.

The length of the legs of the angle is 23 cm, and 13 cm.

The thinner, slightly tapering part of this object is almost
circular in cross section; the circumference of the cross section
increases continuously towards the corner of the angle, but
diminishes where the rounding of the outer line begins. At
the same spot there is also a change in the form, the inner

1) Oval oar-blades are also found in Baffin Land; see Boas I, 529; cf.
Nelson 224, fig. 70; Cranz 149, Pl. 6.
*) Ryder 306.

442

surface: of both legs near the corner being cut almost flat.
This is also eminently the case with the inner side of the
thick part of the piece, the cross section of which might almost
be said to be triangular. The stump end of it is slightly convex.

The wood, which was intact and solid when it was found,
has warped a good deal and has formed deep cracks. It is of

Fig. 44. Hammer-like implement (fragment?) made of a crooked branch.
Dunholm. “Iss.
а red fir or larch, ‘the probabilities being in favour of its being
a larch’.

The only visible traces of workmanship appear in the
corner of the inner angle, where the natural rounding of the
branch has been cut away, and in the uniform rounding of the
rest of the surface. Whether it was part of an implement, and
if so, what part, it is hardly possible to decide with certainty.

443

It bears some slight resemblance to the post!) at the
bottom of the stern of an wmiak; but the latter generally con-
sists of two pieces and has holes bored in it. Moreover, the
object here would be rather small for this purpose. There is,
however, a warrant for the comparison in Turner’s description
of the umiak of the West-Labrador Eskimo?): — “The ends
are nearly perpendicular . . . . the stem and stern posts are
nearly alike, the latter having but little slope, and are cut
from curved or crooked stems of trees. A tree may be found
which, when hewed, will form the stern-post and keel in one
length. Otherwise the fore and aft posts have places cut out
for the insertion of the respective ends of the keel, and are
fastened firmly by stout thongs of sealskin thrust through
holes bored in the wood and ingeniously lashed”.

Inv. Amd. 73, 74 and 75 (Figs. 45a, b and c), found at
Dunholm, are three heavy bone foreshafts, for nailing and lashing
firmly to the top of the wooden shaft of the harpoon, with
sockets in the free end for the insertion of the loose bone shaft
which forms the first joint of the harpoon and carries the
harpoon head. The biggest of them measures 14 cm in length,
its elliptical cross section at the top is about 4-2 cm by 3:4 cm.

In order to permit of their being fastened to the wooden
shaft, the lower part of these foreshafts have been given the
form of semi-cylindrical wedge-like tangs, rounded on one side,
cut to a bevel on the other, so that the bottom edge is sharp.
A little above this edge there is a transversely bored hole
which seems intended for a nail. Only in the largest of the
pieces is there, about in the middle of the plane of the bevel,
a transverse, upward-turned shoulder which is meant to rest

1) Boas (1, 527, fig. 479) calls (using the Baffin Land dialect, or erroneously?)
a post of this kind kiglo. The Greenlandic word kizzo (Kleinschmidt
kigdlo) designates a flat cross-piece resting upon the post, to which the
ends of the gunwale are lashed and used as a seat in the stern.

*) Turner 235: ef. Murdoch I, 335—336.

444

against an oppossitely facing shoulder on the main shaft. But
in all of them there is at the root of the tang a downward
facing shoulder, which runs round it and is only interrupted
by the upper part of the tang bevel which narrows here.

The upper part of the pieces is a somewhat flattened cy-
linder, 4 to 45 cm long, with а slightly convex end surface in
which there is a deep oval socket -(2'5 to 3 cm deep), into

а a b
Fig. 45. Bone foreshafts of harpoon. Dunholm. 1/2.

which the loose harpoon shaft fitted. This cylindrical part has
in all three pieces, a smooth, almost polished surface. The
largest of the pieces is also fairly smooth on the flat surface
of the bevel, but its convex back has long facets which are
the traces left by a cutting tool; there will be seen, moreover,
on the same side of the implement, in the sharp edge of the
nail-hole, a cavity which has been cut in half! in boring, pres-
umably the result of an error. The two smaller pieces have
on both sides of their tangs very evident traces of the knife
or chisel with which the rough cutting was made, and only in

- = аа eee

445

one of them are there slight vestiges of an attempt at smooth-
ing. These two implements have probably not been quite
finished off.

Compare with these implements inv. Amd. 104 and 105.

As to the form and use of foreshafts in general, I beg to
give a quotation from O. Mason”): —

“The foreshaft of a barbed harpoon is a more or less cylin-
drical or pear-shaped piece of heavy material, bone or ivory, fitted
on to the shaft, and having a socket in front to receive the tang
of the barbed head . . . .. the attachment of the foreshaft to the
shaft is by means of a splice, a wedge-shaped tang and kerf, a
socket in the shaft fitting a projection on the foreshaft, or a socket
in the loose shaft fitting a projection on the shaft”; after which he
refers to two figures of foreshafts in Е. W. Nelson’s work on “The
Eskimo about Bering Strait”?), one of which is of a type exactly
corresponding to the three from Amdrup’s collection which have
just been described. Further on he speaks of foreshafts of toggle
harpoons®): “The foreshaft of a harpoon is the working end of
the shaft, and is usually a block of bone or wood neatly fitted on.
Foreshafts vary in material . . . .. , in size and shape, from the
delicate point of the sea-otter harpoon to the clumsy variety on the
Greenland whaling harpoon”.

Murdoch’s description of the various foreshafts of the point
Barrow Eskimo fits in well with the form of inv. Amd. 73, 74,
75, except in the feature that the Alaska (Point Barrow) fore-
shaft ‘is kept from slipping out by a little transverse ridge
on each side of the tang’*), from which it is evident that the
tang is bevelled from both sides (not as in those from North
East Greenland only from one side), and the transverse ridge
which connects the two slanting surfaces of the narrow sides
of the tang takes the place of the transverse shoulder I men-
tioned in the flat surface of the bevel of one of the tangs.

1) Mason III, 199

2) Nelson Pl. 57, b, figs. 33, 34.

3) Mason Ш, 204.

4) Murdoch I, 216, cf. fig. 204; cf, Mason Ш, 302, fig. 92.

XXVIII. 29

446

The description is about the same for foreshafts of seal-darts
and for foreshafts of walrus harpoons!); the latter are of course
the largest. The following description is appended to the
typical walrus harpoon: ‘‘In the tip of the foreshaft is a deep,
round socket to receive the loose shaft. The shaft and fore-
shaft are fastened together by a whipping of broad seal thong,
put on wet, one end passing through a hole in the foreshaft
one-quarter inch from the shaft, and kept from slipping by a
low transverse ridge on each side of the tang”). In this passage
Murdoch, as we see, alludes to a hole in the foreshaft, like those
in foreshafts from North East Greenland, but with the difference
that it lies higher up than the wooden shaft and over the lash-
ing*), whereas in the Greenland foreshafts, it lies right down
on the thin end of the bevel, round which the lashing is
wrapped, and seems to have been used for riveting rather than
for catching the end of the lashing.

Except for the peculiarities just alluded to in the three
foreshafts from North East Greenland, unilateral bevelling and
the hole pierced at the bottom of the tang, they bear the most
striking resemblance to the West Eskimo foreshafts, as these
have been described by American ethnographers*). We find
in them a type which diverges widely from the small flat
square ‘cap of bone no larger than the shaft, the tip of which
it protects’ (Murdoch) of the eastern harpoons, which in Green-
land take the place of the foreshaft of the western Eskimo.
There is nothing to indicate that they correspond to an older
form of the harpoon in Greenland; it still remains a riddle
how they came to North East Greenland at all.

Inv. Amd. 76 (Fig. 46), from Dunholm, is the bone head

1) Murdoch figs. 204 and 223.

2) Murdoch I, 224.

3) Ibid. id. fig. 214.

4) Murdoch’s general definition of this implement is as follows: “а heavy
bone or ivory foreshaft, usually of greater diameter than the shaft and
somewhat club-shaped” (Murdoch I, 223).

447

of an adze with a slot in the lower end for the insertion of a
stone blade, or celt. The celt is missing, as also the wooden
handle wherewith the centre part of the block of bone was
attached.

It is a heavy bone of a dark-brown colour, probably of a
whale, 14`5 cm long, the lowest half having the greatest breadth
(5 cm) and thickness (2°5 cm), while the centre part, which pro-
jects like a shaft up from the bevelled shoulder which runs
almost the whole way round is of lesser breadth (3°5 cm) and
thickness (2cm). The upper part of this shaft again is formed
like a broad flat head, which expands out on either side in the
latitudinal plane of the shaft.

The back of the lower half of the implement (fig. 46 b) is
semicylindrical, being rounded on one side edge which thus
merges into the front side, while on the other edge (fig. 46 с)
it is marked off at the bottom from the front side by a blunt
edge which expands upwards into a distinct side surface. The
back of the centre part (the shaft) is flat and separated by two
sharp edges from the lateral surfaces, thus merging by imper-
ceptible gradations (fig. 46 a) into the front side over a double
row of facets, cut in the longitudinal direction of the shaft; the
cross section of this part of the implement is a rectangle, in
which two of the angles tend rather towards the obtuse. This
part of the bone has unfortunately been severely damaged by
the elements, so that a large splinter has flaked off.

The upper head-like part of the shaft (one side of which
has crumbled away) seems to have had a convex back like the
lower piece, but an oblique cut (or the natural form of the
bone) has deprived one half of the side of its curvature and
made it flat. As the front side, which otherwise keeps
uniformly flat over the whole piece, has here also been bevelled,
the back and front sides meet at the top in a comparatively thin,
slightly curved edge.

The lower part of the front side has an aperture, the

29°

448

irregular form of which is due to its being the result of ап
accident. Originally, the front side must, of course, have con-
tinued right down to the bottom of the implement, and the
opening ınerely debouched in the surface of the base, forming
а slot. To judge by the part which remains, the base, must
have had a narrow surface of 3:5 cm in length and 0`8 cm in
breadth; into this debouched the aperture of the slot, rect-
angular in cross section, for the insertion of the stone celt of
the axe. If this celt filled the opening, it must have penetrated
a little over 2:5 em up into it. The two inner surfaces of the
slot converge into one another at the bottom, so that its area
is hardly 1°5 cm by 0'6 cm, whereas the mouth of the hole
is 22cm Бу 0'6cm in cross section.

This implement may be compared with an adze, with stone
blade attached, from Niagornak in Umanak fjord in North
West Greenland, in the National Museum at Copenhagen (Le.
780—781), illustrated in Solberg’s “Beiträge”, Pl. 7, which
according to this author is ‘one of the most interesting of
Greenland antiquities’. The block of bone has been cut out
of a reindeer horn, just as is the case of an adze from the
lower Yukon in Alaska described by Nelson’). There are several
finds from West Greenland of adzes belonging to two or three
different types, which in the main resemble those known from
Alaska; and another adze from West Greenland, which exactly
corresponds to inv. Amd. 76, of a slightly different type from
the foregoing, is likewise illustrated in Solberg”), who also gives
illustrations of a series of stone-blades (celts) for adzes. He does
not mention the three bone heads of adzes in Pfaffs collection
in the Riksmuseum at Stockholm, of which I give illustrations
in the Appendix figs. 100, 101 and 102.

It may be gathered from all these illustrations that the
adzes in general use in Greenland had the cutting edge at

1) Nelson 92, and PI. 39, fig. 1.
2) Solberg 48—49, Pl. 7, fig. 2; id. Pl. 8.

449

— a

b

Bone

head

1
1
Г
}

of an adze. Dunholm.

8х.

——

*

451

right angles to the handle, and were of three different types
as regards the manner of attaching the head to the wooden
handle. It is true that the latter is missing in all the adzes
found in Greenland, but a comparison with the adze types from
the West described, as far as Alaska is concerned, by Mur-
doch?) and Nelson?) reveals its original existence. We under-
stand from these descriptions that the groove in the middle
part of inv. Amd. 76 is a bed for the lashing, which passed
through holes in the broader end of the handle; in this bed, the
thong is held in place, and the handle, moreover, as explained
below, is supported by the horizontal shoulder which borders the
top of the lower part of the bone in which the celt, or stone-
blade, was inserted. — Murdoch sees in this elaborate con-
struction of the adze a substitution for a simpler form
which is only known from Alaska, where the stone blade was
attached immediately to the handle. Inv. Amd. 76 thus ans-
wers to the first type of the second stage of development and
has an exact counterpart in Alaska”); the second type within
this stage we find in the already mentioned adze from North
West Greenland (National Museum, Copenhagen, Le 7147) cf.
inv. Pfaff, Stockholm, see Appendix fig. 102), and this type also
is well known from Alaska°); in place of a groove the bone
head has two (or more) transverse perforations from the back to
the front side, through which the lashing passed. The third
Greenland type (Appendix fig. 101), has a single perforation from
the back to the front side, besides a deep round aperture (like
a socket) at the top of the head; how it was fastened to the
shaft, can not be determined with certainty.

This find of the Carlsberg Fund Expedition at the mouth

1) Murdoch I, 165—172.

2) Nelson 91—92: as for the West coast of Hudson Вау of Boas II, 88,
fig. 128.

3) Nelson 88, Pl. 38, fig. 5.

*) Solberg Pl. 7, fig. 3.

5) Murdoch I, figs. 135 and 136.

452

of Scoresby Sund thus forms an interesting contribution to our
knowledge of this prehistoric implement in Greenland. It is
the bone piece of an adze of a true Eskimo type. Only a very
few specimens of the same type have been found in Greenland,
and none intact or complete. A sharp blade (of stone or iron?)
must once have been inserted in the aperture at the bottom,
and the whole piece attached to a curved haft (of wood?) in
such a manner that, while the bone piece was lashed to the
broad end of the haft, the thin end served as a handle, lying
cross-wise to the edge of the blade. — Perhaps it is a wooden
haft of this kind, for a small adze, which was found in East
Greenland by die Zweite Deutsche Nordpolarexpedition (in the
Museum für Völkerkunde, IV A, 205, Berlin)+); it is made of
wood, 145 cm long, with four holes in the broad end, and
line-grooves from the holes out to the edge?).

As far as North East Greenland is concerned, inv. Ата.
76 is an interesting addition to our knowledge of the tools of
this primitive population. Ryder°) also found in Scoresby Sund
five worked whale bones, which he pronounced to be parts of
adzes, and one of which (National Museum Lc. 1401) is of a
similar type to this one, while the others approach more close-
ly to the other types (the 274 type: National Museum Le. 1388
and 1401). But inv. Amd. 76 is the most beautiful and ela-
borate specimen we possess.

Inv. Amd. 77 (Fig. 47 4) from Cape Tobin, is a drill con-
sisting of a cylindrical stick of wood (23 cm in length), tapering
towards the upper end. Ап iron point (the remnant of а nail?),
2cm in length, has been stuck in a crack-like slit in the

=
—

Koldewey, 603, fig. 14.

The same kind of hafting of adze-blades also prevails among the Coast
Indians south of Alaska; see Niblack Pl. 23.

Ryder 325-—326. Scoresby also believed himself to have found two
axes at Cape Stewart: “Two axes made out of bone were picked up”.
(Journal 214). 1 do not know where these axes are now.

rw

=
—

453

lower end. A low shoulder-like projec-
tion, which passes right round at the
lower end close by the slit, indicates
that there used to be a wrapping round
this part.

The implement is common in all
Eskimo districts"), but has not been previ-
ously found in North East Greenland. Ёп

Inv. Ата. 78 (Fig. 47e) from Cape
Tobin, is a drill bow of white bone with
holes in both ends for fastening the strap
with which the drill was set in motion.
The length from point to point is 47 cm;
the thickness of the bone in the middle
of the curve is 1'5 ст. The bow is a
little thicker at one end than at the other.
It is very carefully worked and smoothly
polished. I shall describe it, imagining
it lying flat on the ground. At the thin
end (pointing up in the illustration) a flat
segment has been cut off in the horizontal
plane, through which a hole has been
bored in a vertical direction; a short
oblique groove, probably due to the fric-
tion of the taut strap, points towards the
inner side of the bow downwards. A
little within this groove there is a small
hole, probably the commencement of a
perforation. At the other end of the bow
a concave segment has been cut off in
the vertical plane, executed by removing
the soft mass of the bone. The two

1) Nelson Pl. 37; Me. Сане 1, 719 ff.; Murdoch
I, 176 to 179 and 189.

Fig. 47.
Set of a bow drill. Ча. '
a-b-c (inv.Amd.28,29,30).
Drill caps of bone.
Skærgaardshalvô.
d (inv. Amd. 77). Wooden
drill stick with iron
point. С. Tobin.
e (inv. Amd. 78). Drillbow
of bone. С. Tobin.

transverse holes which have been bored here, the outer-
most of which is broken open at the extreme point of the
bow, have thus horizontal paths. The inner hole has been
perforated obliquely inwards, so that its path points in the
direction of the other end of the bow, this having been done
in order to obviate the strap rubbing against the edge of the
hole in which it was fastened. At this end also there is a
smaller hole within the larger ones, pierced through, but stopped
up with a bone plug.

The drill strap was held fast by a knot on the inner side
of the outer hole, and was carried from it through a shallow
groove in the outer side of the bow, then drawn through the
inner hole directly over to the upper end of the bow and fastened
in the hole. Every trace of the strap itself has disappeared. It
is generally a leather thong, which is so loose that it can be
passed once round the drill shaft; the latter is set in revolution
alternately to the right and to the left, the drill bow moving to
and fro in the manner of a horizontal saw. The drill shaft
(fig. 47 d) is held in a vertical position by the upper end resting
against a head-piece of bone which the workman holds fast
between his teeth, and in which there is a cavity sufficiently
deep to prevent the shaft from slipping out!) Inv. Amd. 28,
29, and 30 are head-pieces (or ‘drill caps’) of this kind.

Ryder?) found in Scoresby Sound both a fragment of а
drill bow and a head-piece (a bone from a reindeer’s #0013). —
Inv. Amd. 78 is an intact specimen of a drill bow; and a very
fine piece of work too.

Inv. Amd. 79 (Fig. 48), from Cape Tobin, is a knife, 20 cm
in length, consisting of a thin wooden haft tapering towards
the top, in which has been inserted a still thinner iron blade,

1) Holm PI. 18, Me Guire I, 707, 720.

2) Ryder 323.

3) А mouth-piece of deer’s knuckle-bone is also mentioned as belonging
to a fire-making set from Point Barrow, Alaska. See Hough I, fig. 31.

PT ey

+ RE

nn

Fig. 49.

Fig. 50.

Fig. 48.

Man's knife with wooden handle and iron blade. Cape Tobin. 1}.
Wooden handle of а woman's knife (scraper). Dunholm. 1/2.

Part of a kindling set with drill-hole. Dunholm, 1

Wooden tray for meat Cape Tobin. 114.

457

which seems to be a piece of a European iron hoop. The
blade has been wedged into a slit at the end of the haft and
secured with whalebone or sinew cord; for this purpose two
holes have been bored in the rear corner of the blade within
the edge of the slit in the haft; and the latter has two grooves
running right round and forming a bed for the lashing, each
covering one of the two holes in the blade.

Doubt might arise as to whether this be a genuine Eskimo
knife. The blade is seemingly made of hoop iron, and the
form of the handle is, except for the pointed end, about like
the wooden haft of an European knife. The mere fact that the
haft is of wood seems in itself a suspicious circumstance. On
this very ground Solberg’) cast doubt on the primitiveness
of a knife with a stone blade with a wooden haft, found by
_ the Nathorst Expedition in North East Greenland (now in the
Riksmuseum at Stockholm), urging that mens’ stone knives with
wooden handles are never found in West Greenland. More-
over, as has been mentioned before (pag. 384), he sees traces of
European influence in the curious form of the stone knife, a
view which I endeavoured to combat by referring to the types
of knife among the Western Eskimo and the stereotyped ice-
knife common to all Eskimo tribes (cf. pag. 488—440).

The western parallels will apply in this case as well. The
Eskimo of the West have from olden times used knives both
with bone hafts and wooden hafts. Boas?) gives instances
from the isolated Southampton Island in Hudson Bay actually
of snow-knives which have bone blades inserted in wooden
hafts. He mentions a similar form, but with bone haft, from
the West coast of Hudson Bay”): — ‘models of the ancient
form of snow-knife, which was similar to that of Southampton
Island. In one specimen, figured here, the joint between the

1) Solberg 59 (Fig. 6).
*) Boas Il, 69, fig. 91, b, с.
3) id. 94, fig. 138.

458

ivory handle and the bone handle is slanting, while in another
specimen the ivory extends some distance along the bone
handle to which it is sewed”. It is really a slanting joint
of this kind we find here in inv. Amd. 79, where the blade
is of iron and the handle of wood. The two parts form an
angle towards each other. The type is the well-known Eskimo
crooked knife!), and as for the joining of the two parts, it is,
at any rate, just as genuine Eskimo as the knives of the same
type known in Alaska?), with a handle now of bone and now
of wood.

Now as for the iron, both knives and harpoons heads with
iron blades have been previously found in North East Green-
land (cf. also inv. Amd. 3 and 77). So early an explorer as
Scoresby*) found at 70° 31’ at Cape Swainson (near Cape Lister)
‘the head of an arrow or small dart, rather neatly made of .
bone, armed with a small piece of iron’, and adds that “‘it is
difficult to say whether this iron was native, or whether it
was carried on shore in the timbers of some wreck”. The
manufacture was a good deal similar to that of the iron imple-
ments of the Arctic Highlanders, discovered by Captain Ross.
The state and situation in which it was found, indicated that
it had not long been out of use”. It was found in a pool of
water. down by the shore and was hardly at all rusty. Glav-
ering*), who in the following year came across the Eskimo
themselves in these regions, also observed that several of their
weapons had iron points which ‘‘seemed to be of meteoric
origin.” “Die zweite Deutsche Nordpolarexpedition” 5) found in
Klein-Pendulum Island a knife (or chisel) of iron with a wooden
handle; the iron blade is inserted in a slit at one end and

1) Murdoch I, 157-161; Boas Il, 87, fig. 126.

*) Murdoch I, fig. 118; Nelson 85—86, Pl. 38, figs. 19 to 31
3) Scoresby 187.

4) Quoted in Petermann's Mitteilungen 1870, р. 326.

5) Koldewey 605, fig. 20; and 623.

459

secured with a lashing of sinew. The author expressly declares
that the iron cannot be derived from iron ore found in the
the land itself, but that it is really iron wrought, and the
supposition is advanced that it is a piece of the iron which
Clavering gave as a present to the natives in 1823, in the
form of knives and other objects, as he himself has related.
Ryder") found two man’s knives with blades of iron, of which,
however, only one piece is extant; he also comes to the con-
elusion that it is not of Greenlandic origin, but has been
washed ashore with wreckage or drift timber. Finally Nathorst
(Hammar)*) also found a knife (length 20 cm) with an iron blade
and a haft of ivory, as well as a chisel with an iron point and
a haft of reindeer horn. All these implements, however, by
no means belong to the same type, and there is no denying
that several of them diverge from the types of knives we know
from the West Eskimo distriets. The divergences, however,
at least as far as a number of them are concerned, do not
seem to me so great as to preclude our explaining them as
varieties within the original type, and to these we must reckon
inv. Amd. 79, even if the separate parts of this knife, both
the blade and the handle, were brought to this coast from
Europe”).

Inv. Amd. 80 (Fig. 49), from Dunholm, is a flat block of
wood, length 6'5 cm, with downwardly diverging side edges
and an oval head; the base is about double as broad as the
slenderer centre, but only half as thick as the latter, the lower

1) Ryder 321—322.

2) Nathorst 347, figs. a and b; Stolpe Pl. 4, fig. 11.

3) | have no grounds for supposing that the iron in this knife is of telluric
(Greenlandic) origin. But in this connection I wish to point out that
K. I. V. Steenstrup has shown on the basis of objects found in
graves from West Greenland that the Eskimo have occasionally used
for their implements genuine iron of tellurie origin, occuring in the
basalt. May not this apply also to some of the implements from North
East Greenland, in which iron is found used? Cf. Steenstrup's reports
in "Meddelelser om Grønland” 2, 215 and 4, 121.

460

part of the side surfaces being bevelled, зо that the surface
of the base is only 0:‘7 to 1 cm broad, whereas the breadth
of the median cross section of the block is 1.7 cm. The form
of the cross section all through the implement approaches to
the form of an ellipse, which is thus broader in the upper
part of the block than in the lower part.

The original form of the implement must have been sym-
metrical, but the symmetry has been destroyed by the breaking
off of one of the bottom corners. On the other hand, the
considerable slit which extends from the base up through
the whole breadth of the shaft, to the knob-like head, is an
integral part of the implement; quite narrow at the top, it expands
downwards, until, where it debouches into the basal surface,
it attains a breadth of 0:2 ст. It is probable that a blade of
some other material (iron?) has been wedged into the mouth
of the slit, and that the object before us is really the wooden
handle of a woman'’s knife, or skin-scraper (wlo).

An ulo, or skin-scraper made of stone, of the same charac-
teristic form was found in North East Greenland by the Swedish
Expedition under Nathorst (Hammar)!). The form in this, as
well as in Amdrup’s haft, is perhaps an imitation of a common
type of skin-scrapers of bone, the form of which in turn was
conditioned by the natural form of the bone. А skin-scraper
from Baffin Land made of bone and of the same form is figured
in Boas?), who also figures a series of scrapers the handles
of which are of wood, while the blades are of stone, bone,
or metal. These handles all have a knob-like expansion at
the upper end. Also from Alaska (St. Michael’s) an example
is extant of this type of wooden handle for a scraper, which
is figured in Mason’), who describes it as follows: ‘Handle
of wood, grip cylindrical, shaft triangular, expanding downward

1) Solberg 55. fig. 47; Stolpe Pl. 3, fig. 10.
2) Boas Il, 33, fig. 40 b; fig. 41 с and d.
3) Mason VI, Pl. 83, fig. 1.

Le

461

to fit neatly the blade of slate, which lies in a cut on the
under side and is held in place by a neat lashing of a fine
rawhide string”. Except for this last feature (the lashing),
the implement is of quite the same type as inv. Amd. 80.
Finally, we find this type carved in ivory in a handle of a
scraper from Gape Darby in Alaska, illustrated in W. J. Hoff-
man‘), who in the form sees an imitation of a whale’s tail: —
‘the front end has a deep incision in which was placed one
time a flint scraper.’ The form of the handle
is quite like the North West Greenland type,
only that it is made in ivory instead of in
wood. Most of the other skin-scrapers from
Alaska which have been described are of a
peculiar form, unknown from Greenland”), and
yet not so different from the type figured here
as to disguise the continuity between the forms.

Inv. Amd. 81 (Fig. 52), from Dunholm.
This is the most notable needle or bodkin in
the collection, very beautifully worked in ivory,
polished, elegant, and symmetrical, and withal of
a peculiar type. It is 14 cm long, cylindrical

in cross section, tapering from the middle to-
wards the point (which is much worn or broken j
off) and having a concave narrowing around the Fig: 52. Bodkin
middle of the upper part, so that the top again 4 ou LL
is thicker, still thicker than the middle of the

needle.

The eye is particularly remarkable; it is placed laterally
and bored in a curve, or formed by two independent conical
borings which meet at their bottom. The mouths of the path
are elongated (1 сш high) and placed edgewise, facing almost
towards the same side, near each other on either side of a

1) Hoffmann, PI. 35, fig. 8.
?) Murdoch I, 294—299

XX VIII. 30

462

narrow bridge. The hole seems to have been large enough
to permit of a narrow thong being drawn through it. The
nail has probably been intended for the sewing of large boat-
skins.

Inv. Amd. 82 (Fig. 50) from Dunholm. A block of red pine-
wood, 12:5 long, which has been used for making fire. In the
middle of the upper flat side there is a conical aperture about
1 ст in depth (the diameter of the mouth is about 7 mm).
There are no traces of side-grooves. The interior of the aper-
ture is black with combustion. It is in fact the hole in which
the wooden drill rotated, the heat generated by the friction
causing sparks. Compare G. Holm’s!) description of fire-making
among the Ammassalik Eskimo.

The only remarkable point about the piece is that the
under side of it is so narrow that it has to be gripped firmly
when the drill stock is to be moved in the hole, to prevent
its overturning; this indicates that the fire-making set when
used in conjunction with this block must have been served by
two men in drilling.

Inv. Amd. 83 (Fig. 51), from Cape Tobin, is a wooden
vessel, made of an elongated wooden block of spruce fir or
larch, which has been hollowed out. Its upper’ edge forms
approximately a rectangle (about 30 by 16 cm), while the sharply
marked bottom edge (about 21 by 13cm) approaches more to
the form of an ellipse. The side walls, which thus converge
downwards towards each other (and the two narrow ones more
than the two broad ones), have a thickness of about 1 cm; the
bottom is not much thicker, so that it is evident that the
hollowing has been very thoroughly carried out. The interior
of the vessel is in places very rough, and by its numerous
scratches and grooves shows manifest traces of the cutting
implement with which the excavation was performed. The long

1) Holm 70—71, Pl. 24; Hough I, 555 fl. Il, 396—399; Nelson Pl. 34.

463

sides are smoother than the two end sides of the vessel, the
grain of the wood lying in the longitudinal direction of the
vessel. The upper edge has two or three fractures, probably |
due to rough usage. Along one of the two narrow sides the
upper edge projects about I cm out over the side surface; this
projection, which is somewhat irregularly cut, was perhaps in-
tended as a rest for the hand in carrying the vessel, or else as a
lip through which the content might be poured out. In the
middle of one of the long sides near the upper edge, there is
a minute hole.

The vessel was probably a tray on which meat was served,
like the hollowed wooden blocks used by the Ammassalik Eskimo
as meat-bowls!), although it differs somewhat from them in
form. It more closely resembles the vessels, likewise hollowed
out of a piece of wood, in the Gjea collection (Amundsen) from
King William Land (in the Ethnographical Museum at Chri-
stiania). There are similar trays and dishes from West Green-
land also (National Museum at Copenhagen, cabinets 31 and
92). Boas”) gives an illustration of а dish made of wood, of
a quite similar type, from the west coast of Hudson Bay.
‘They are sometimes edged with ivory either all round or only

» at the ends’. They also occur in Alaska, аз we are informed

by Murdoch”), who gives a figure of a meat bowl with flat
bottom and rounded sides, and by Nelson“): ‘cut from a single
piece of wood..... to hold meat, fat etc., both raw, and
cooked.”

Inv. Amd. 84 (Fig. 53), from Cape Tobin, is a bone stick,
cylindrical in cross section, 30°5 cm long, curved, tapering
towards one end, with a handle irregularly cut at the thick
end. The handle is separated from the other part by an annu-

1) Holm 69.
*) Boas II, 99. fig. 143 b.
3) Murdoch I, 89, fig. 19.
*) Nelson 70.
30*

Fig. 53. Blubber —
fork (?) of bone.

С. Tobin.

Ile.

464

lar ridge, which, however, is broken through on
both sides, on one side by a groove which runs
along the lower part of the implement, on the
other side by a narrow cut. On either side of
this cut and this groove, which lie along the
side surfaces of the handle, are seen some irre-
gular facets left by cuts, alternating with hacks
and low knobs. In the handle there are two
transverse holes converging from the upper side
towards each other, and meeting in a common
large hole on the under side. Is this curious
aperture meant for a looped strap into which the
person holding the stick as a fork stuck his hand,
thus obtaining a better purchase on it? The end
which points upwards in the illustration would
easily hold a piece of blubber or meat stuck on
it, and the small transverse grooves rifled on
the inner side of this end would serve to
strengthen the hold.

If it is a fork, it may be compared to nv.
Amd. 491), which, however, it far surpasses in
elegance. However, it is quite possible that it
may be intended for a different object (‘feather
setter’, or ‘seal indicator’, cf. Murdoch)’).

Inv. Amd. 85 (Fig. 54), from Cape Tobin.
A lyrate buckle of white bone. A thin hexa-
gonal flat piece of bone. The lower part is
bounded by five straight sides; the upper part
forms a corner, separated from the other part
by two fin-shaped wings, and edged by a line
which curves round three times. The buckle is
43 cm in length, 3°2 cm in breadth, and of

1) Also Boas I, 563, fig. 517.
2) Murdoch I, 255, fig. 255.

465

exactly the same thickness (0°5 cm) all over. At the bottom of
the buckle there is an elongated narrow horizontal slit, parallel
with the basal edge, large enough to permit of a flat thong
being drawn through. It was made by first boring two holes
in the same line and then cutting away the intervening piece
of bone. In the middle of the buckle there is a large hole
(filled up with dried clay or mud), the irregular form of which
is probably merely due to its having first been bored wrong
in the buckle, and the error having been rectified by boring a
fresh hole which ran into the edge of the first. Above it there
are three smaller holes, the nether-
most of which is connected with the
main hole by a little groove for the
eountersinking of the thong which was
passed through from hole to hole.
This buckle is much like those
which are attached to the upper edge
of the circular kaiak skirt used by the
kaiakers both in West Greenland and
at Ammassalik"), and which below is

lashed round the ring in the man-hole
of the kaiak, while above it reaches
about to the height of the man’s mid-
riff, when it is drawn tight; for this latter purpose there is

Fig. 54. Buckle of bone.
Ge Тома.

either a pair of braces (a chain of bone beads) over the man’s
shoulders attached at the back to the border of the kaiak skirt
and in front carried through one or two buckles in the front
of the skirt; or two strings of beads hang down from the man’s
shoulders, fastened under the neck on his kaiak jacket; in some
kaiaks these strings are gathered together in the buckle at the
upper edge of the kaiak skirt; in others they are kept apart and
altached each to a separate buckle, in which case each of the two
buckles is fixed in front of the skirt on either side of the centre.
1) Holm Pl. 20.

466

In analogy with the buckles I saw in the National Museum at
Copenhagen (Cabines 76 and 66, Nos. 98—99), inv. Ата. 85 must
rather be thought to have belonged to a kaiak skirt which was
held up by two buckles, and been attached to its border by a
little loop through the elongated horizontal slit at the bottom
of the buckle. The single brace string must have passed
through the large central hole. The smaller holes are perhaps
reserve holes for use in the case the brace got wet before it
was attached, and therefore required different degrees of tight-
ening according to the different degrees of contraction and
expansion due to the wet.

A bone buckle of exactly the same form was found by
Nathorst (Hammar) further to the north; it has the same elon-
gated horizontal slit at the basal edge; on the other hand the
larger round hole lies right out at the opposite end, between
the fin-like wings, and two small apertures are seen across the
middle.

The same Expedition also found in a young girl’s grave
(at Cape Franklin)*+), a fairly similar buckle which is ornamented
with numerous dots (minute holes). As it is hardly likely that
an implement belonging to the man’s kaiak accessories was laid
in a woman’s grave, we must cast about for another explanation
as to the purpose for which this buckle was used. Boas?)
describes some buckles of a similar character, serving to carry
needle-cases or similar implements at the girdle. This resem-
blance to a woman’s buckle, if it really exists, need not alter
our view of wv. Amd. 85 as а buckle belonging to a mans
kaiak dress.

Inv. Amd. 86 (Fig. 54), from Dunholm, is an ornamented
comb of yellowish-brown bone (the shoulder-blade of a large
mammiferous animal?) Length 12 to 12°5cm; breadth 3°9 to
4 cm; thickness 4 to 5 cm.

1) Stolpe Pl. 6, fig. 19; Nathorst 364.
2) Boas I, 560, fig. 514.

467

It consists of a flat handle of considerable length (over
half of the comb) which by the edge curving well in from both
sides is divided into two sections which together form some-
thing like an 8 upside down. The larger section is crowned by
a flat blade-like projection, at the top of which there is a
broken eye, in which a looped thong for hanging the comb
may have been fastened. The long teeth of the comb have
been cut out from the lower part of the second section; at
the root these teeth are flat like the handle itself, but they
soon become cylindrical like bodkins, tapering towards the
point. There seem originally to have been eight teeth, but the
extreme tooth on both sides has been broken off. The teeth
are not equally sharp, nor equally long; the shorter ones have
been much blunted by wear; a very thin slit in the blunt point
of them leads one to imagine that the wear was due to the
friction of the hair. Also higher up, on the upper part of the
teeth of the comb, where hairs generally collect, is seen a
horizontal groove, running from tooth to tooth, and probably
due to wear. The spaces between some of the teeth at the
root are still filled with dirt from the hair.

What strikes one at once about this comb is the ornamen-
tation, identical on both sides of the comb, which is more
luxurious than we should expect to see in Greenland. We
see the interlacing ornamentation at the edge, consisting of
two parallel lines which follow the border of the handle in all
its sinuations, the intervening spaces of which are filled up
with small triangular dots placed alternately along the two lines;
and the two crosses which are incised each in its section and
filled with ornamental straight lines which cross one another
and form small squares. The ornaments of the two faces of
the comb actually correspond with each other in such minute
details as that the two upper crosses are inscribed in rect-
linear, very weakly designed figures (perhaps lines to guide the
drawing of the cross?) and that the two smaller ones in the lower

468

section are both placed on a sharply marked, continued basal
line. | Ку

The work as a whole has been carefully and artistically
executed; a critical eye will, of course, easily perceive several
inaccuracies and crookednesses in the outer lines of the comb
as well as in the ornamentation. But, as I shall presently show,
the Eskimo craftsman certainly set himself a most unusual task
in this little work of art.

For while the construction of the comb, the broad flat
handle, and the thick bodkia-like teeth are found in combs from
North West Greenland, the size and special form of the handle
of this comb are quite unique, as far as [ know, not merely
among the combs which are found in the collections from
Greenland, but among Eskimo combs as a whole. It is so
much the more surprising, as no comb has previously been
found in the north-east of Greenland.

I know from the collections a number of West Greenland
combs, found in graves. The ordinary type is a flat, square
handle of bone, expanding a little downwards, where the teeth
are cut out of the same piece without much art, being as a
rule comparatively short. In Pfaffs collection in the Riks-
museum at Stockholm there are a few varying types, which
have a faint resemblance to 270. Amd. 86. Two of these combs
have a handle with a curving edge, at the top of which projects
a circular blade, like a human head. Another has the simple
square handle, but longer, cylindrical teeth — curiously enough
originally 8 teeth, the two outermost of which on each side
have been broken off, just exactly as in this specimen from
North East Greenland. (With regard to one or two other combs
from West Greenland, it is stated that they were presumably
used in plaiting sinew cord, just like those Nelson describes
from West Alaska).

1) Nelson 110, Pl. 48a, figs. 1 to 6.

Fig. 55.

469

Comb made of bone (front and back)

Dunholm.

112

471

The simple square handle and the flat teeth are also found
in the types which are described from Baffin Land, from the
west coast of Hudson Bay"), all of which, however, in contra-
distinction to those from West Greenland, are ornamented either
with indentations along the edges, or with etched designs on
the faces. The simple type occurs also in North Alaska, side
by side with more elaborate forms, the one where the top of
the handle is formed as a ring being apparently the most
common. None of the combs figured in Murdoch?) are orna-
mented.

It turns out accordingly that this specimen from the en-
trance of Scoresby Sound in North East Greenland is cut upon
a bolder design than any other known Eskimo comb. The
boldly curved outline, the division of the handle into two sec-
tions, which is a development of the known type from West
Greenland with a circular blade projecting from the top of the
comb, are in themselves a new departure. The artisan had a
further exercise for his originality and imagination in the orna-
mentation of the frame. A study of the ornaments shows that
he was familiar with Eskimo ornamentation, as he has employed
one or two of its typical forms in the execution of his task.

The ornamentation consists of incised figures. The motif
of the border ornament is two parallel lines each of which is
decorated with a regular and unilateral row of small transverse
bars, in such a manner that the row of bars in each line
faces that of the other line, each bar in the one line pointing
towards a space between two bars on the other line. ‘The
ornament is thus a combination of two simpled ones, or rather
a duplication of the single line, decorated with bars.

Although ornaments on bone work from West Greenland
are extremely rare, I have found both these forms of orna-
mentation on bone implements from that region. The simple

1) Boas 1, 559, fig. 513; II, 107, fig. 156 (cf. 75, fig. 103).
?) Murdoch I, 150.

472

form, a single line with unilateral transverse bars is found in
a needle-case from Karsok (Ikamiut, Disco Bay?) in West Green-

Fig. 56. The comb from Dun-

holm (same as fig. 55).
Ditlevsen delin.

land, where two oppositely curved
lines on the face along each lateral
edge of the needle-case correspond
to each other, just as the upper
edge is followed by a line of this
kind (see Appendix, fig. 96); the
combined form is seen in the
larger needle-case from Iginiarfik
(Egedesminde district), Appendix
fig. 97, and оп а swivel, likewise
from West Greenland, the upper
part of which is bordered by the
ornament; the narrow convex sides
of this little implement are deco-
rated with a second ornament
running along them. These Шгее
ornamented bone implements, all
of which belong to the Inv. Pfaff
in the Riksmuseum at Stockholm,
are the only ornaments carved in
bone which I know from West
Greenland. The type of this orna-
ment, both isolated and combined,
is very common in bone imple-
ments from Alaska!) (in a skin-
dresser, a grass-comb, a buckle, a
pipe-stern, a seal drag, bag handles,
a comb, mouthpieces, needle-cases,

kantag handles, drill bows, belt fasteners, buckles etc.) and is

designated as ‘the fish trap or seal tooth pattern’?).

1) Hoffman 805—806; PI. 18, 23, 32, 52; 20, 26, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37, 50,
51, 52; Nelson Pl. 38, 43, 44; Mason 1, Pl. 63.

2) Hoffman 806.

473

Н. ЭтогрЕ in “Studier öfver amerikansk Ornamentik’’, discusses
these and other Eskimo ornaments at some length; he broaches a
hypothesis that this zig-zag pattern, and another, consisting of lines
crossing one another, has arisen as an imitation (owing to ‘expec-
tancy’) of the cross wrapping of whale-bone cord with which the
stone blade in the original type of the wlo was fastened to the
wooden handle, viz. by holes pierced in its upper part. Later on
they found it sufficient to join the blade into a slit in the under
side of the handle, but retained for some time the whalebone cord
lashing on the upper back of the shaft merely as an ornament (cf.
inv. Amd. 45). The last stage was that this veritable wrapping
was abandoned, but that the craftsman cannot help marking it in
its old place, thus producing the incised ornament of lines crossing
one another. — It is however hardly probable that the very widely
diffused zig-zag pattern on bone implements should have this same
special origin.

In each of the two fields of nv. Amd. 86 which are pro-
duced by the connection of the inward curving ornamental
lines at the point where they approach most closely to each
other, the craftsman has incised a cross, thus four crosses
in all.

The cross ornament had, as we know, developed in Ame-
rica even before the time of Colombus, and is found in the
ornamentation of the Indians in various forms!) On the other
hand, I find no traces of its naturalization in the ornamentation
of the Eskimo. In the illustrations on books I have only
found it in a few cases: as far as Alaska is concerned, on
a wooden spoon in Murdoch”), which is designated as new,
in a couple of ivory ear pendants, and on a wooden box
in Hoffman*), who, however, expressly states with regard to
the latter that the cross on it must be ascribed to Russian

1) See, е. в. Handbook of American Indians, article cross (Bur. Am. Ethnol.
Bulletin 30, p. 365—367); Wilson: The Swastika; Stolpe: Amerikansk
Ornamentik; Hein: Maander, Kreuze etc. in Amerika.

*) Murdoch I, 104, fig. 42,

3) Hoffman 806, Pl. 32 and 34.

474

influence. Three small crosses are seen on one of the combs
from Baffin Land illustrated in Boas). Finally two crosses
are found incised in inv. Amd. 87 from the same place as the
comb, but all these crosses are of the simplest possible form,
viz. two short lines crossing each other at right angles. The
cross in the comb, on the other hand, is of a form which is
most striking in an Eskimo district. The type is known as
genuine within the Indian districts in North America, as ‘the
cross formed by the ornamental arrangement of three tips
figures’ ?); but the discovery of a cross of this type in the
ornamentation of the Eskimo is quite isolated and unexplained.

There is no reason to doubt that iv. Amd. 86 is a
product of Eskimo industry. The details of the border orna-
mentation are of unmistakable Eskimo origin; the whole form
of the comb can easily be explained as an independent variety
of an Eskimo comb, with the stamp of individuality; but the
cross ornament in its four fields tells another tale, or rather
speaks a language which it is more difficult to conceive as pure
Eskimo.

But this old Eskimo implement is not the less interesting
and valuable for having the riddle of the cross written on

its face.

I find in G. Mazrery (“Picture Writing of the American
Indians’’®) the following mention of the cross having been adopted
as a symbol by some of the Eskimo in the south-western corner
of Alaska. “Among the Kiatéxamut [= Kiatagmiut?], an Innuit-
tribe, a cross placed on the head, as in Fig. 1231, signifies a
shaman’s evil spirit or demon. This is an imaginary being nnder
control of the shaman to execute the wishes of the latter.‘ The
figure shows on a small scale a crudely drawn man, above whose
head the Greek cross (an upright cross with limbs of equal length)
is placed. Wicsox (“The Swastika’’)*) cites this passage, but makes

1) Boas I, figs. 513 a.

2) Handbook of American Indians р. 366 (W. Holmes).
8) Mallery 728, fig. 1231.

') Wilson Ш, 939, fig. 328.

475

the error of writing: “Among the Kiatéxamut and Innuit tribes,
a cross placed on the head signified a shaman’s evil spirit or
demon ete.”, where the simple fact that the cross occurs in a
single drawing in southern Alaska has been generalised to hold
good of all Eskimo. As a matter of fact the drawing brought to
light by Mallery, who does not inform us on what implement or
object it was found, is a quite isolated product of an Eskimo’s
imagination and, of course, does not prove anything as to the
eross having been known as a symbol or ornament among this
people as a whole.

The eross on the comb brought by Amdrup from East Green-
land is of quite another type than the isolated ornamental crosses
which, as has been mentioned above, are found here and there
on Eskimo objects from different places. It is a pronounced Maltese
cross, a type which in Europe is of mediæval origin’): in North
America it occurs now and then as an ornament. I have only found
it in a medicine-case lid”), illustrated in Kroeber, from the Arapho
Indians (Algonkin family), in a Siouan awl from Nebraska illustrated
in Mac Guire*), and on a ‘mantle of invisibility’, illustrated in Mal-
lery*) made by Apache Indians (the most southerly group of the
Athapascan family); on this mantle it occurs six times as an
ornament. Finally, Mallery®) referring to Keam’s manuscript informs
us that this type of cross was used by the Moki Indians (= Mo-
quelumnan?) as an ornament. “The Maltese cross is the emblem
of a virgin; still so recognized by the Moki. It is a conventional
development of a more common emblem of maidenhood, the form
in which the maidens wear their hair arranged as a disk of 3 or
4 inches in diameter upon each side of the head. This discoidal
arrangement of their hair is typical of the emblem of fructification
worn by the virgin in the Muingwa festival”. So among these
Indians this peculiar form of cross has been developed as an
imitation of the women’s head-dress.

Inv. Ата. 87 (Fig 56), from Dunholm, is а flattish tube

1) Wilson Ш, 760 and 950 (Fig. 7) “The Maltese Cross was the symbol
of the knights of Malta, and has become, in later years, that of the
Masonic fraternity.

*) Handbook Amer Ind. 1, р. 366.

3) Mac Guire I, 676, fig. 60.

*) Mallery Pl. XXXIII.

3) Mallery 728--729, fig. 1232.

476

of yellowish-brown ivory (narwhal tusk), length 8'1 cm; greatest
‚ breadth 2°5cm, narrowest in the middle, expanding towards
both the mouths of the tube, but most upwards. On both sides
of the narrowest part a flat wing has been carved out.

A piece of the edge both of the upper and of the lower
mouth has been broken off. iy

The ornaments are: — a little incised cross on the front
of each wing; a little circular aperture on the back of them;
four similar apertures (thus not holes bored through) a

geil, N
Un

Cm.

. Qi hd}
. SED” $
а b

E. Ditlevsen delt.

Fig. 56. Needle case. Dunholm. “js.

quarter turn from each other a little below under the upper
edge of the tube; finally both on the front and on the back
of the tube are carved two symmetrically curving pairs of lines,
which follow the line where the wings join the sides of the
tube. The surface of the implement is beautifully polished and
carefully worked. The implement must be compared with inv.
Amd. 61, which I set down as a needle-case. Its form diverges

477

a little from that of the latter, which was seen to be parti-
cularly typical of the Greenland fashion of needle-case; but the
divergence rather goes to lend support to the view, as this
somewhat slenderer form, which in Greenland is only found
in the north-east, and only in this one specimen, really con-
stitutes a transition form which fills up the gap between the
Greenland and the West Eskimo type of this implement.

Inv. Amd. 88 and 89 (Fig. 57 a and b), from Cape Tobin,
are two animals carved in wood, and attesting the usual skill
of the Eskimo in characterising animals.

Fig. 57. A bear and a swimming bird, carved in wood. Саре Tobin. !lı.

(a) A polar bear standing in a watchful attitude, or as
if ready to pounce on his ргеу. Though not very carefully
worked (the snout and the mouth are not finished, nor are
the claws or paws indicated, and there is only a faint indication
of ears), it is nevertheless easy to recognize by the broad back,
the thick thighs, the short stumpy tail, which lies closely along
the flat rump, the low hanging belly, and last but not least,
the stooping position of the head (cf. Appendix fig. 106).

(6) A large bird, swimming, either a goose or an eider-
fowl; its breast and belly right up to the tail are covered with
a greyish crust, probably the remains of a piece of bird’s skin
Which has been drawn over it to render it more true to life;

xxvıll. 31

478

on the breast there are several long hairs adhering to the
crest. This idea of covering the carved animal with feathers
or hair in imitation of nature is a feature which [ have not
met with before or seen mentioned as to any Eskimo toy animal.

Carved animals of wood have been previously found in
Scoresby Sound: Ryder!) found three figures representing seals,
two of them lying on their backs, just as when they are
dragged home from the ice by the Eskimo. Further to the

Fig. 58. Animals carved in ivory. Cape Tobin. 4/1.

north, at Cape Weber, the Nathorst Expedition (Hammer) ?)
likewise found three figures of animals carved in wood, a polar
bear, a seal, and a musk ox, several times larger than the figures
found by Amdrup and Ryder; the bear, for instance, measures
from snout to tail between 13 and 14cm. The second German
North Pole Expedition?) also found in these regions a few wood
carvings of this kind: several of the expeditions, moreover,
found carved human figures of wood. It is very significant

1) Ryder 337, fig. 38.
*) Nathorst 348, figs. b, с, а; Stolpe, Pl. 5, fig. 18.
3) Koldewey 601, figs. 2 and 3.

479

that the Eskimo’s representations of themselves, the only race
of men they know, appear to us less characteristic than their
animal figures.

Inv. Ата. 90—95 (Fig. 58), from Cape Tobin. Six animals
earved in ivory. All of them have a hole pierced in them
either at one end or in the middle. They were used as
hanging ornaments, perhaps attached to needle-cases. They are
very small, very finely worked.

The first figure represents a swimming bird (without trace
of its legs). To the right is seen a blown-up bladder, a seal-
skin float, for which, as we know, a whole sealskin is used,
with the skin of the head, the swimmers, and the tail intact
and well sewn together, so that the air which is blown in
distends the whole skin, making it assume the form of a
whole seal.

In the middle row are seen a walrus and a whale.

In the bottom row to the right (under the whale) we see
a plump seal of the smallest variety, lying on its belly. The
drawing (Fig. 59) gives a better impression of
how this little work of art is to be conceived.
The animal is evidently to be looked upon as

lying on its back, in the position in which
after killing it is dragged ashore over the ice
by the hunter.

As all the animals just mentioned are Fig. 59 (inv. Ата.
94). Seal carved in

rendered in a very lifelike manner in the Bae
У .

carvings, there are no grounds for supposing

that the sixth, inv. Ата. 95, should not also give a faithful
representation of some animal or other. However, it is by no
means easy to identify it. It can not be any kind of seal, as
it has no swimmers, and the shape of the head with the small
pointed ears is very unlike that of a seal. The imagination
recoils from conceiving it as a land mammifer. And yet we

Вауе no other recourse, and we shall discover, to our surprise,
31*

480

that the realistic sense of the Eskimo has not failed him this
time either. The drawing fig. 60, shows how the figure is to
< be conceived; not with the head in front and
the tail behind, but with the head erected: a
polar bear walking on its hind legs. The pointed
ears are then found to have a significance; the

у fore paws are pressed closely to the body and
Fig. 60 (inv. Amd. Are not visible; on the other hand, the hind
95). Bear carved legs are distinct enough. The upright position

in ivory. js peculiar to the polar bear when it is sur-
rounded by the attacking hounds and stands at bay, ready
to defend itself with-its teeth and front paws. The little work
of art is in its way quite unique; the carver has endeavoured
to represent an animal figure which departs from the common
stereotyped forms of Eskimo art, like those of the watching
bears or swimming seals. That is perhaps why the result has
not been very ‘satisfactory from an artistic point of view; but
it bears evidence of a personal sense of humour and a live-
liness of imagination. It is once again a little manifestation
of the same delight in striking out new lines which we have
on several occasions observed in useful objects made by one
of the most isolated tribes of human beings in the world, which
none the less has evidently not lacked the impulse to carry
the traditions of their fathers a step further in the new regions
to which they have immigrated.

Fig. 61. Bone split by borings. 1.

Inv. Amd. 96 (Fig. 61), from Cape Tobin, is a bone
15°5cm in length, which has been split by means of drilling
from opposite sides, This has resulted in a flat side, where
the remains of the spongy soft interior of the bone are clearly

481

seen. A whet-stone ог scraper seems to have been used over а
small part of this surface, which otherwise is rough. The inten-
tion has evidently been to use the piece for some implement
or other. In the thick end there is a transverse hole.

The previous expeditions!) often found similiar half-finished
bones, which show that drill-boring has been used instead of
a saw to split off the blocks of bone
which were to be used for bone imple-
ments or utensils. The same procedure
was in older times also adopted on the
West coast. It must have demanded no
little patience.

Inv. Amd. 97 (Fig. 62), from Dun-
holm, is a curiously formed flat piece of
— wood (about 12 cm long), which looks

something like a weapon head. It is split
— (by the action of frost or as the result
of pressure?) into two pieces. Its sides
are slightly convex; the edges are roun-
ded, even at the extremity of the blunt
end. The resemblance to a weapon-head

is due to the two indentations which have
been made obliquely opposite to each =

other. Close behind them is the com- Fig. 62. Fragment of a
wooden implement.

mencement of a fracture which has per- Dusholm. ae

haps carried off the lower part of the
implement.

It is difficult to decide to what kind of implement this
fragment can have belonged. A weapon head of wood is other-
wise quite an unknown thing, and I do not know any Eskimo
implement of this kind, unless it be related to the kind of im-
plement I am going to describe presently, inv. Amd. 99.

1) Ryder 324; Koldewey 601; Nathorst 258—260.

482

Inv. Ата. 98 from Dunholm, is a piece of а whale’s ver-
tebra, a circular flat piece of spongy bone, circa 23 cm in
diameter. In the centre is seen a square hole, which has been
cut obliquely through from one side to the other.

According to Ryder”), the passage-ways in the settlement
he found at Sydkap at the mouth of Nordvestfjord in Scoresby
Sund were partially covered with the vertebrae of whales, the
rib-bones of whales being likewise used there as rafters.

1) Ryder 289.

7. Finds from Cape Borlase Warren (74° 18' lat. N.) and
Sabine Island (74°45' lat. N.), North East Greenland.

-

Between 4 and 5 degrees of latitude further towards the
north, about fifty miles north of the mouth of Franz Joseph’s
fjord the Expedition landed at two points and made excavations
with the object of searching for Eskimo remains. In both
these places earlier expeditions had landed previously.

Clavering discovered and gave the name to Саре Borlase
Warren, which lies at the extreme point of a peninsula north
of Clavering Island. Also in his time (1823) traces of the
natives were found; stone chambers built up of stones were
found everywhere along the coast, containing blubber, and
several old graves were opened. — The members of the second
German North Pole Expedition!) camped twice at this spot and
likewise found numerous traces of the previous Eskimo popu-
lation. Besides the graves opened by Clavering, they found
further to the west an unopened grave, the interior of which
was found to have been divided into two chambers by means
of a little partition. Among the rocks here there was also
found the half of a kaiak paddle. — In this spot Lieutenant
Amdrup”) made quite a short landing, during which he was
fortunate enough to find some few Eskimo objects; a number
of these are connected with the Eskimo’s dog-sledges.

Only a few miles further to the north lay Sabine Island,
where the Expedition made a similar landing after having made

1) Koldewey 607—608.
2) Amdrup, Meddelelser om Grönland XXVII, 148.

484

their way through the belt of ice in July 1900”). Here Lieu-
tenant Amdrup, together with Seren Nielsen, excavated an old
Eskimo winter house and found a few extremely interesting im-
plements, or fragments of them. The place, by the way, is
one of the places which have. been most visited by Europeans
on this part of the coast. Clavering and Sabine had landed
here in their time. One of the vessels of the German North
Pole Expedition, Germania, wintered afterwards in a little bay
off this island. In the report?) of this Ex-
pedition we find a sketch of the Eskimo
settlement, the ruins of which still exist
here, and it is mentioned that on the south
side of the island east of the ruins 10
graves lie. Half of them at that time had
not been tampered with, the stones of the
others were scattered all about. ‘‘The fact
that the graves had been opened and robbed
of their contents seemed to us”, so the
report runs, ‘to indicate the former pre-
sence of civilized men”. The English Ex-
pedition had presumably already made exca-
vations here. However, the only traces of

Europeans which were found was the half
Fig. 63. Fragment À
of a wooden im- ‚of a, porter bottle”). — Thirty years later,
plement. Sabine the Swedish Expedition under Nathorst

a landed on this island, the year before the

Danish. It is thus evident that even in the places in East

Greenland previously visited by the Expeditions, an archæolo-

gical investigation would have some prospects of discovering

still more Eskimo remains.
Inv. Amd. 99 (Fig. 63), from Sabine Island, is a shaft-

1) Amdrup, ibid. 146—147.
*) Koldewey 589 and 590.
NL ВО.

"ON

485

like fragment of а wooden implement, length 13 cm, greatest
breadth 4`5 cm. At the broad end it is flat and thin, over
the middle it attains its greatest thickness, at the narrow end
it is circular in cross section. All the edges are rounded, and
there is no ridge on any of the side surfaces. On the flat
upper side is seen a conoid depression, deepening inwardly;
its outer edge follows quite closely along the side edge of the
shaft, while the opposite border, which is deeply cut and
almost hollowed, is slightly curved and has a ridge between
the depression and the neighbouring edge of the shaft. The
bottom of the depression is flat, but slants evenly up at the
bottom corner towards the base of the implement, where a
broad ridge between the depression and the basal edge of the
implement is likewise produced; this basal ridge forms a
rounded angle, less than a right angle, with the lateral ridge
just mentioned. This latter is bevelled and rounds off into
the under side of the shaft. In the middle of the same edge
of the shaft there is a shallow incision, which may be con-
sidered to be a finger-rest. The under side of the implement,
as far as can be seen in the rather damaged wood, must have
been slightly convex, but in the part between the finger-rest
and the basal edge its surface has a characteristic slant where-
by this corner of the shaft is rendered thinner than the middle.

In this fragment we recognize the same implement which
Ryder”) found further to the south, in Scoresby Sund, and of which
he gives an illustration. It was only natural that he should inter-
pret it to be the handle of a throwing-stick of the type which
is employed for bird-darts, especially of the type which is
“nown from North Alaska, for there is really a resemblance
between the fragment found by him and the corresponding
part of a throwing-stick (though not the Greenland form of it)
and no other Eskimo implement with a handle of this kind was

1) Ryder 318, fig. 17 b.

486

known. Ryder has supplemented his drawing of the fragment
with some imaginary dotted lines, which bring out the resem-
blance to the Alaska form of a throwing-stick.

However, this correspondence is a mere coincidence, as I
am now going to prove. The proof, however, was not derived
from the specimen found by Amdrup, which is broken at about
the same place as that of Ryder's, although this stump, which
is longer than Ryder’s fragment, did not bear out his hypothesis.
In the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin my attention was
first drawn to an elongated wooden implement from North East

Greenland, which I had not seen before from Eskimo districts, :

but the expanding shaft end of which was formed like the
handle of a throwing-stick and like the object found by Am-
drup. In the inventories of the museum it is designated as a
“Dolch ohne Spitze” (inv. No. IV А 198), brought home by
the German North Pole Expedition, but it is not figured among
the illustrations of the report of the Expedition. It will be
found illustrated here in the Appendix, fig. 103.

As to the use to which it was applied, it must be admitted
that as the type is not.known from elsewhere, and as we cannot
obtain any information from the people itself, which is extinct,
we are thrown upon guess-work. The designation of the spe-
cimen in the museum as a dagger can only be taken into
consideration, if special grounds should be found to argue for
it. The implement has a point, in so far as at the narrow
end it is bevelled from two sides, and by means of two inden-
tations two small lateral barbs not far from the end have been
formed. It is just as long, or longer, than a throwing-stick,
but it is not a throwing-stick.

When I found in the ethnographical section of the Riks-
museum at Stockholm among the objects brought. home from

1) Stolpe Pl. 5, fig. 17; cf. р. 104 “ein eigentümliches Gerät dessen Bedeut-
ung noch nicht ermittelt ist’.

2

487

North East Greenland by Nathorst, some wooden implements
which must be referred to the same type, I realized at once that
the form of this object was no mere accident. Here I came upon
a fully intact specimen of exactly the same type as that found by
the Germans, which I had seen at Berlin. It is 39cm long,
with an expanding shaft end of about the same form as the
handle of a throwing-stick, and with a flat, pointed end, the
head of which is marked by two lateral indentations (illustrated
in the Appendix fig. 104). There are, besides, several fragments
of the same kind of implement in the Nathorst collection.
After this discovery I no longer entertained any doubts
that the two similar handles found by Ryder and Amdrup at
two different places along this coast, were parts of the same
kind of implements as those with which I became acquainted
in the museums. The next question then is only what it was
used for. It will certainly not be easy to answer this question,
as the implement, as far аз I know, is not known from any
other group of Eskimo than that in North East Greenland. I
have never seen it in West Greenland, nor yet at Ammassalik.
| do not know whether the question is brought nearer to
its solution by the fact that in the Nathorst collection from
North East Greenland there is a wooden implement with a
handle of precisely the same form and size as the implements
just described, but with a heavy club-shaped head at the other.
end instead of a point. This implement, too, is otherwise un-
known, but it is at any rate possible to form an opinion
as to its use (compare my comments on the illustrations of
it, Appendix fig. 105). It may have been used as a blubber-
beater, or in general as a mallet. The implement with the
wooden point might be assigned a similar purpose in domestic
life; we must suppose that it was an implement in which it
was necessary to have a firm grip of the handle in order to
force the flat, blunt wooden point at the other end into the
substance or the space in which it is made to work in. It is

488

worth noting that the implement seems to have been very
liable to break just above the handle.

Inv. Amd. 100 (Fig. 54), from Sabine Island, is a little
cylindrical or conical pipe of bone (length 2-2 cm) with а cir-
cular indentation at the top and a deep slit running all the
way round at the bottom. = |

It is a pipe-shaped nozzle, or mouth-piece for
inflating the sealskin float, of a similar kind to that.
known from the southerly part of the east coast
and from the west coast. They use it in this way.
i The lower part of the pipe is stuck through a hole
Fig. 64. Nozzle
of bone for in- in the bladder, which consists of a seal-skin which

flatingtheseal- has been flayed off entire, in which the necessary
ing float. Sa-

bine Island. 1/1.

slits have been sewn up again, so that it can hold
the air when it is blown up. The place of the
nozzle is in the snout of the seal (or in the genital opening)’).
The edges of the hole are gathered up with a thin strap in the
slit, so that the rest of the pipe sticks outside the bladder;
the latter is blown up through the pipe, the mouth of which
is stopped up with a plug of wood.

The implement is found everywhere as an accessory of
the Eskimo’s sealskin floats), The Alaska forms, however,
seem to diverge а good deal from the Greenland ones. Inv.
Amd. 100 was possibly meant to go along
with the little bladder which is attached to
the shaft of a spear. Fig. 65. Ivory but-

Inv. Amd. 101 (Fig. 65), from Cape Bor- ton Cape Borlase
Warren. ?Is.

lase Warren, is a curved cylindrical piece of
ivory (length from point to point 3°5 cm), a little thicker in
the middle than at the ends, with a transverse hole in the
same plane as that of the сигуе. It is ornamented with three
pairs of annular slits.

1) Murdoch I, 247.
2?) Boas I, 492—493; Nelson 142, Pl. 56.

489

The implement is a toggle belonging to а buckle, or
belonging in some other way to a garment. The toggle is
perhaps best conceived on the front of a woman's frock (anorag),
which is gathered up in front at the breast. Only a few details
as to these toggles among the western Eskimo
are given in the standard works on them!).

Inv. Amd. 102 (Fig. 66), from Cape Borlase
Warren, is the fragment of a kind of buckle of
yellowish ivory (42cm by 2'8 сш); fairly thick,
flat on both sides, with rounded edges; the lower

edge double as thick as the upper. In both the fig ee. dry
broken off ends are seen the remains of several button belong-
holes; those at the broadest end are of the kind 15 to a dos-
trace. С. Bor-
produced by sawing off the bone with drills, jase Warren. 2/s.
which indicates that an attempt has been made
to modify the original form of the implement. The frag-
ment of the hole at the thinner end, which is connected by
shallow grooves on both side surfaces with the well-preserved
central aperture, taken in conjunction with the whole form of
the implement, shows that the object must be one of the bone
holders (orsseg) which attach the ends of the
dog-traces to the cross-line of the sledge.
Inv. Amd. 103 (Fig. 67), from Cape Bor-

lase Warren. A short ivory ring, or short

broad bone pipe (of a hollow bone), 2 cm high;
la ‚Ferne of the diameter of the cross section is 1°5 cm to
Warren. 32/4. 2cm. Round the lower part has been made
by means of borings a broad slit running all

the way round (partially broken ой). The upper edge of the
pipe also bears traces of the borings whereby the bone has been
sawn off. The slit below is produced by two converging rows
of holes bored closely above and below each other, the boring

1) Perhaps a similar toggle to that figured in Boas II, 20, fig. 16h.

490

having been made obliquely towards the axis of the bone; the
narrow walls which have been bored out might easily have
been cut away. Only the surface of the narrow bottom edge,
which projects round the lower mouth of the pipe and runs
all the way round forming the bottom side of the groove, is.
completely rounded.

I conceive it to be a ferrule placed on the lower end of the:
handle of a whip. The lower part of this wooden handle must.
have been cut in the form of a tang to fit into the pipe; the
shoulder of the tang must have rested up against one of the
edge surfaces of the pipe (that which on the figure faces up-
wards). At the other narrower mouth of the pipe was inserted
a loose pike (1009) of bone, which may perhaps have been
wedged in a hole at the end of the wooden shaft. In order to
strengthen the point of junction the ferrule (9499) was prob-
ably also wrapped round with a thong in the said 311).

The people of Ammassalik still constantly use a bone
pike fastened to the bottom end of a whip handle”), which
is often of great use in cutting away the corner of a hum-
mock which bars the way, or for knocking hard frozen
snow from the sledge runners, or to dig hard into the snow
in sledging on land, as a kind of brake in coasting down steep
slopes.

Inv. Amd. 104 and 105 (Fig. 68a and b), from Cape Bor-
lase Warren). Two small roughly worked bones, 4°5 and 5°5 cm
long respectively, cylindrical at the top, but throughout the
greater part of their length bevelled from four sides, with
two sides more oblique than the other two, so that they are
flattish at the bottom; thus the whole of the lower part is
formed like a tang. In the upper circular end surface is seen

1) In a similar manner the ivory head (gatirn) at the end of the shaft of
the large harpoon is stuck so closely on to it, that it sticks without
being either riveted or tied together. (Boas I, 490.)

*) Holm Pl. 15.

491

the mouth of a hole, 2cm deep. In the lower of the large
piece (b) there is a semicircular indentation. The bevelled
surfaces (on the sides) bear traces of the cutting tool, just as
there are marks of borings in the upper edge of one of the
specimens.

I imagine that these specimens are toy miniatures of the
same implement аз nv. Amd. 73, 74 and 75, thus representing
foreshafts of harpoons. It must be observed that the tang
here has been cut from opposite sides and is without any

Fig. 68. Miniature foreshafts of harpoons. Cape Borlase Warren. 11.

bored holes; it may have been intended to be wedged into the
end of the wooden shaft. Perhaps these specimens have never
been inserted in any shaft, but are unfinished fragments. —

They should thus correspond in function to the ivory head
from Baffin Land described by Boas"), which, however, is attached
to the shaft in a different manner from these toy objects.

Ryder”) discovered a similar specimen in Scoresby Sund,
which he pronounced to belong to a walrus harpoon.

1) Boas I, 489, fig. 419—420.
*) Ryder 336, fig. 36 b.

492

Inv. Ата. 106 (Fig. 69), from Саре Borlase Warren), is a
sewing-needle of ivory, with a cross section of varying shape,
being flat and lancet-shaped at the broad end, just like the
single exception (42) in the group of bodkins mentioned under
the heading of inv. Amd.33 to 44, and circular in cross section
at the pointed end. The point itself is rather blunt, in which
respect the piece resembles the good-sized plump type of bod-
kins (or needles) described above.

The eye is placed laterally at the extremity of the broader

end.

Although this is the only specimen of this type
which is known to me from Greenland, I am never-
theless inclined to see in it the normal type of a needle,
the ordinary bone nail before the time when, with the
introduction of iron, modern nails came into use. It
corresponds well with the old bone nails from Alaska,
described by Murdoch"), which were kept in a quill
case. Two of these are described as round-pointed,

‚ 18 to 1'9 inches long, one of them is more slender,
flattened and expanded at the butt. (The third is 2-4

ee inches long and has ‘a four-sided point like a glover’s

lase War- needle’, cf. inv. Amd. 44, fragment.)

ren. "le: This find of Amdrup’s, like so many of his other

finds, goes to attest the primitiveness of the culture of the North

East Greenland Eskimo and its close affinity with the original
Eskimo culture between Point Barrow and Greenland.

Inv. Amd. 107, 108 and 109 (Fig. 70), from Sabine Island,
are three flat pieces of ivory carved in the form of marine
animals (a seal, two whales) each with two holes bored in the
median of the piece.

These pieces correspond exactly to those which the Am-
massalik Eskimo use (or used till recently) for the ornamenta-

1) Murdoch I, 318, figs. 325 and 326.

493

tion of their wooden implements, as for instance, throwing-
sticks and eye-shades !).

The discovery of these objects of the same type of orna-
mental art as at Ammassalik so far to the north on the East
coast of Greenland, is extremely interesting as a fresh attestation
to the continuity in the material and ideal culture of this coast.
At any rate it can be said that as regards this settlement, and
thus as regards one or more families who have lived so high up
in the north, we find a continuity with the Ammassalik Eskimo.

d e ik

Fig. 70. a, b, c. Bone ornaments for attachment. — d, е, f. Ornamental
tooth and beads. Sabine Island. !lı.

For ornaments for attachment of this kind are otherwise not
known in Greenland; not from the west coast, and certainly
not from any Eskimo district outside Greenland either’).

Inv. Amd. 110 (Fig. 70), from Sabine Island, is the tooth
of a mammiferous animal, pierced at the root, analogous to
those which belonged to the belt or necklace described under
the heading of inv. Amd. 57.

Inv. Ата. 111 and 112 (Fig. 70e, f), from Sabine Island,
are two round, somewhat flattened beads of white bone, nearly

1) С. Holm 150—153; Pl. XXX to ХХХУ.
2, There is no reference to this form of ornamental art in Hoffman's work
on the graphic art of the Eskimo.

XXVIII. 32

494

cylindrical in form, which without doubt belonged to a chain-like
ornament. They are both pierced through. The smaller one
particularly is very accurately worked. The mouths of the hole
lie somewhat sunk into the concave end surfaces of the bodies,
which in form resemble short cylinders. In the larger blade
the hole is elliptical in cross section; that of the smaller one
is circular.

Ryder!) found a number of similar beads, the forms of
which were all through more distinctly cylindrical.

Inv. Amd. 113 (Fig. 71), from Sabine Island, is a buzz of
the ordinary Greenland type, consisting of an elongated flat
piece of wood (length 12 cm), flattest in the middle, with slightly
convex sides. The edges curve inwardly towards the centre,

Fig. 71. Buzz made of wood. Cabine Island. 2/4.

where they are rounded off, whereas those at both ends of
the buzz are sharp. The workmanship is rather rough and
hasty, without any attempt at polishing. ;
In the middle of the object, in the median line, there are
two transverse holes, very fine, so that it can be gathered that
they were made with a very thin awl. Through these holes a
piece of sinew cord must have been drawn in a loop; its two
loose ends were then tied together. A sudden tautening of
this double line, which causes the piece of wood to hang ver-
tically between the lifted hands, sets the implement moving with
a short rotatory motion, whereby the lines are made to make
a whole or a half turn round themselves, especially if the
tautening is immediately slackened off; an immediately repeated

1) Ryder 338.

LS Pre

495

tautening of the line sends the buzz swinging back in the
opposite direction at an increased speed, and the lines are
made to perform one whole turn or two turns round each
other, as the tautening is slackened. By a deft
continuous movement of the hands, alternately taut-
ening and slackening the lines, the whirling to-and-
fro motion of the buzz is rapidly increased, whereby,
when it revolves at its greatest speed, а buzzing
sound is produced. — At Ammassalik the children
to this day still play with buzzes of quite the same
type !).

This toy has often been found in North East
Greenland. The second German North Pole Expedi-
tion brought home two buzzes of this kind”); Ryder
likewise found two of them. There is quite a similar
one), made of ivory, from Cape York at the extreme
north of West Greenland; it is illustrated in Culin{),
who has collected a series of tops and buzzes from
the western regions’). These latter, however, differ
from the Greenland type, having a square or circular
form. Throughout Greenland, from Саре York to
Ammassalik, an independent and marked type of this

toy is found.
Inv. Amd. 114 (Fig. 72), from Cape Borlase Fis. 72.

Piece of
Warren, is a fragment (length 19 cm) of a small ponemoun-

bone mounting, with fine holes for the nails. The ting. С.
Borlase

holes are placed reciprocally to each other as they Warten. tis

are generally placed in sledge shoes (in pairs,
obliquely to each other in zig-zag fashion, but with one

1) Holm, Pl. 27.

*) These two buzzes are in the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin, regi-
stered IV, A, 192.

3) Free Museum of Science and Art, University of Pennsylvania (Cat. по. 18391).

*) Culin 752, fig. 1013.

$) Nelson 378: Boas II, 53 and 112.

496

ог two breaches in this regularity (cf. inv. Ата. 67—68). Can
it be the keel of a miniature sledge for a child (in that case
a fairly large toy)? Or may it possibly have been the bone
mounting on the edge of a kaiak paddle, ог on the edge of a
throwing-stick ?

Inv. Amd. 115 (Fig. 73), Cape Borlase Warren, seems to
be the fragment of a thick ivory mounting, rather finely worked.
In its well-preserved, smoothly polished surface a few oblique
scratches are visible. A transverse hole for a nail, Smm in
diameter, shows like an indentation at the edge of the broken
piece.

Inv. Amd.116 and 117 (Figs. 74 and 75), from Cape Bor-
lase Warren, are fragments of sledge shoes with the usual
holes bored for nails. Most of the wooden pegs are still stick-
ing in the holes in the larger piece. The holes are, as usual,
bored obliquely to each other; the distance between the mouths
of each pair of holes is about 3cm on the under side of the
shoe, of the same holes on the upper side (that which faces
towards the under surface of the sledge runner) 2 to 2°5 cm.

The larger fragment is highly decayed, and only a small
part of the smooth bottom surface has been left undamaged.
The ends of the two tree-nails which are stuck in it have
been worn smooth, the rest being frayed, as if the bone had
been broken with violence. The under side of the smaller
fragment is well-preserved, quite smooth, with some slight
scratches along it.

Cf. Amd. 67 and 68.

Inv. Amd. 118 and 119 (Figs. 76 and 77), from Cape Bor-
lase Warren, are two hollow bones, split by drill-boring, which
it was probably intended to use for some implement or other.

One of the bones (of narwhal tusk) shows traces, not
very marked, of the boring, and the bored holes lies from "a
to 1 cm apart from each other. The boring of this bone must
have required more force than that of the other (fig. 76), where

497

Fig. 73. Fig. 74.

| Fig. 76. Fig. 77.

Figs. 73 to 77. Fragments of worked bone. Cape Borlase Warren. 1/2

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the bored holes are quite close to each other. With regard
to this latter piece, it should be observed that the boring must
have been performed with two drills of different size, as
the diameters of the holes are different. Can it be a mere
eoineidence that it is the thinnest drill point which has
been used for the splitting of the thickest wall of the bone?
The longest of these fine drill holes is 1'1 cm in length. The
side surfaces produced by the splitting are, of course, more
regular where the thin drill-point was used, than where the
thick one penetrated. |
СГ. inv. Ата. 96 (and 77—79).

Appendix,

Fig. 78. Bone head of a harpoon, of unusual type, un-
finished. The height of the body greater than its breadth. The
back half very thin with flat sides terminating in an undivided
tang-like basal barb; no lateral barbs. The point without any
slit for blade. The front half oval in cross section, divided
from the back half by two steeply inclined shoulders. Probably
an unfinished head of an ice-harpoon for sealing on the ice.

North West Greenland.
Inv. Pfaff. Stockholm Riksmuseum, Ethnographical Section.

Figs. 79 and 80. Two toggle-harpoons without barbs, flex-
ible round a horizontal axis, which lies in a transverse hole
through the centre of their bodies. The axis is attached to the
end of.a loose bone shaft. The body of the heads, which are
formed like a conic section with the lower part bevelled, has
in the middle of the under side a deep slit, which lies in the
longitudinal plane, and the innermost bottom of which opens
out on the opposite side of the head. Into this slit the end
of the shaft fits, while the head moves round the axis on which
it rides. The holes in the lower part of the shafts (three trans-
verse holes through the middle of one, one hole immediately
above the base of the other) are intended for the line which
connected these bone shafts with the longer wooden shaft of
the harpoon. |

Intended for sealing or salmon-spearing on the ice.

North West Greenland.

Inv. Pfaff. Stockholm Riksmuseum, Ethnographical Section.

Fig. 79.
Fig. 78—81.

501

Fig. 80. Fig. 81.

Bone toggles from West Greenland.

Riksmuseum, Stockholm.

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Fig. 83. Fig. 84.

Two pairs of lateral points of bird-darts, West Greenland. 315.

Riksmuseum, Stockholm.

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Fig. 81. A little bone-toggle of a similar type to the two
previous ones, fixed on a short bone shaft with a key-hole-
shaped expansion at the bottom. It can hardly have been used
as a harpoon, but must have been employed for holding a
seal-skin float in the kaiak. The float (bladder) has at one end
a nozzle of bone; in the latter there is a loop, just large
enough to allow the toggle (fig. 80), which is attached itself to
the kaiak by means of strap, to be passed through it, when
turned lengthwise; but, when it is drawn back in the opposite
direction it turns crosswise and catches, and in this manner
holds the bladder in position.

West Greenland.

Inv. Pfaff. Stockholm Riksmuseum, Ethnographic Section.

Fig. 82. Weapon head of bone, shaped like the head of
an arrow or a bird-dart, with expanded head, in which there
is a slit for the insertion of a blade. A single lateral barb at
right angles to the blade. Cf. inv. Ата. 17.

West(?) Greenland.

From a little collection of Greenland stone and bone implements which
in 1876 was presented to the ethnographical museum at Vienna by the late
Steinhauer, Superintendent of the ethnographical museum at Copenhagen’).

K. k. naturhistorisches Hofmuseum, ethnographische Abteilung. (Inv.
No. 4905.) Vienna.

Fig. 83 and 84. Two pairs of lateral bone points for
placing on the wooden shafts of bird-darts. They are of the
ordinary Greenland type, slightly curved, with unilateral barbs
on the inner side, and one or two transverse holes for lashing,
and a notch in the outer edge right at the bottom for a basal
lashing. — On each bird-dart shaft are fixed three bone heads
of this kind, with their bases resting against the shaft, so that
the projecting heads form an equilateral triangle.

The sixteen specimens of this implement which are found
in Шу. Pfaff (Stockholm) from West Greenland all have unilateral

1) Е. Heger 17.

508

barbs; none of them have the little barb on the outer edge
towards the middle which is characteristic of the North East
Greenland type. Three of them have two holes quite close to
one another in the middle where the body expands; most of
them have only one hole here. In one of them the hole lies
near the base. Cf. inv. Amd. 20.

North West Greenland.

Inv. Pfaff. Stockholm Riksmuseum.

Fig. 85. Sledge from North East Greenland, consisting of
two very heavy, crudely worked runners, which are connected
with six cross-pieces. It is uncertain in which order these
pieces lay on the runners, to which they have only temporarily
been fastened with nails. It is likewise uncertain whether the
two poles which are erected at the rear of the sledge as up-
rights are really to be considered as such.

Along the upper part of each runner there are 11 large
square holes for the rawhide lashings with which the cross-pieces
were secured to them. In one of the holes in the cross-pieces
a bit of a hide thong is still sticking. The broadest of the
cross-pieces has a hole bored in it in the middle close to one
of its side edges; this piece then probably was fixed a little
behind the middle of the sledge, or right in the rear, as the
said hole was intended to receive one end of the line or lines
with which the baggage of the sledge is generally lashed. At
the end of each cross-piece there are one or two pairs of
holes, connected in pairs with grooves for the lashing. In the
side of each runner, towards the front, and a little below the
row of square holes, there is a large round hole for fastening
the strong common cross-line of raw-hide to which the single
traces for each dog are fixed.

Under the right runner there still adheres a little fragment
of a bone shoe, riveted to the under side of the runner with
tree-nails.

The length of the sledge is 2m 8cm. The height of the |

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runner 15 cm, the breadth of the runner at
the under surface 5 to 7 cm. The distance
between the runners is about 93 cm.

The uprights (?) are 49cm in length.

Found in the North East Green-
land by the second German North Pole
Expedition (Germania) in 1870, near
Cape Broer Ruys, on the north side
of the mouth of Kaiser Franz Joseph's
Fjord. Cf. inv. Ата. 27.

Museum für Völkerkunde (inv. 4 a 229),
Berlin.

Fig. 86. Sledge runner and two
eross-pieces from North East Green-
land. The length of the runner Im
67 ст. Breadth 6 cm.

The length of the cross-pieces
about 95 cm.

Found in North East Greenland
by the Swedish Expedition under Nat-
horst in 1899.

Stockholm Riksmuseum.

Fig. 87 and 88. Sledge and minia-
ture sledge (toy) from Smith Sound.

The runners, the cross-pieces, the
uprights are of wood, the keel of bone.

All joints are made by the aid of
hide thongs.

The length of the large sledge (Fig.
88) 2m 37 cm.

The height of the runners 18°5 cm.
The distance between the runners 54 ст.

The length of the uprights 69 cm.

Museum für Völkerkunde (inv. 1Уа 7362),
Berlin.

Fig. 86. Fragments of a
sledge from North East
Greenland. ?/25.
Stockholm Riksmuseum.

33"

512

The length of the sledge model (Fig. 87) 42-5 cm.

The breadth (in front) 12:5 cm; (at the back) 12:8 cm. The
length of the uprights 15 cm.

Museum für Völkerkunde (inv. 1Уа 7363), Berlin.

Fig. 89. Miniature sledge from Ammassalik, typical of the
present sledges of the Ammassalik Eskimo, except for the tips
of the runners, which as a rule are not bent up as in this toy
sledge. The runners diverge from each other downwardly.
Both their upper and their lower edges are bevelled, to allow
of their lying flat against the cross-pieces of the seat and
flat on the ground. The distance between them at their
bottom is 6`2 cm in front, 77cm at the back. The cross-
pieces are lashed with hide thongs passing through a double
row of holes; each cross-tree has at each end four holes.
Along the upper part of each runner transverse holes have
been bored to receive the lashing of the cross-pieces, two
holes for each cross-piece. The corners of the cross-pieces are
cut off concavely, so that the narrower end parts with which —
they rest on the runners are separated from each other by
semi-circular notches, which form a bed for the lashings. Like
the runners, the uprights also diverge from each other up-
wards, the distance between them being 7 cm below and 8 cm
above. Their characteristic form is peculiar to the Ammassalik
sledges. Each of them is lashed firmly to the runner through
two holes. The left one has on the outer side three loops,
attached to three pairs of holes in which various hunting
weapons are stuck while sledging. In front there is a similar
loop in the foremost cross-piece to the left side of the sledge,
into which the other end of the long weapons (harpoon and
lances) are inserted. — The cross stick between the uprights which
supports them above has ornamental notches on the under side.

Length of the runners 29`2 cm. Height of the runner
behind 3°9cm (a little lower in front). Distance between the
runners 6'2 cm in front, 7°77 cm behind. Breadth of the cross-

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pieces 3°5 to 45cm. Breadth of the uprights at the foot 7 cm,
at the top, at the broadest part of the grip, 2'2 cm (at the
bottom of the curvature 1-8 cm). |

The Royal Greenland Trading Department's collection from Ammassalik.

Fig. 90. Sledge from King William Land.

The front ends of the runners curve very slightly up;
behind they are cut obliquely downwards. The holes through
which the cross-pieces are lashed are square (2 x 2 cm).
Only the two holes for the raw-hide cross-shaft in the front
of the runners are circular. Most of the cross-pieces are of
bone (reindeer?). The foremost cross-piece is of wood, cut in
the same fashion as in the Greenland sledges. The lashing is
made everywhere with the aid of leather thongs. Only the
bone shoes under the runners are riveted with bone nails!).

Length of the sledge 3"8 т. Height of the runners 22 to
23 cm, thickness of the runners 5°5 to 6cm. Distance be-
tween the runners (in front) 45cm. They diverge downwards.

The Ethnographical Museum at Christiania. The Gjöa collection
(Amundsen).

Fig. 91. A little chest (for keeping tools, clothes etc.)
from North East Greenland, found at Ostkap in Jackson Island

” by the second German North Pole Expedition 18707). On the

1) The sledges which have been discovered farthest to the North on the
arctic Archipelago west of Greenland, are mentioned by Feilden in
Nares: Narrative of a voyage to the Polar Sea (pag. 188). They found,
near Cape Sabine on Ellesmere Island, ‘remains of several ancient
Eskimo encampments, as well as an old sledge made of walrus bone,
with cross-bars of narwhal horn, completely lichen-covered and of such
antiquity that the bones were friable, and also fragments of a stone
lamp ...’; furthermore (pag. 190): “Close to Cape Beechy, and about
six or seven miles from the 82 parallel of latitude, we came across the
most northern traces of man that have yet been found; these consisted
of the framework of a large wooden sledge, a stone lamp in good pre-
servation, and a very perfect snow-scraper made out of walrus tusk”.
Koldewey 649. “The removal of the stones led to the discovery of
several small boards with many fine holes at the edge; near them was
found a well-preserved human skull, as well as several human arm and
leg bones. Small leather straps (for keeping the lid closed), doing duty
for a lock, were still in existence.”

2

—

520

left of the illustration is seen a part of the lid (the rest is
missing), by it one of the longer sides of the chest, next to it
the bottom piece (fragment, fig. 91c), and -at the extreme right
the highly weathered other side. We observe the nail-holes
along the bottom edge of the side piece (b), which match exactly
with corresponding holes in the edge of the bottom piece. The
movable part of the lid (a) has also two single holes near the
edge, which correspond to two isolated holes in the upper
edge of Ше side; through these holes must have passed hide
thongs for fastening down the lid. The end walls of the chest
are missing. Wooden nails have been used for the joints.

а b с а

Fig. 91. Part of а wooden chest. North East Greenland. °/47.
Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.

This beautifully worked chest is interesting in the first
place as an evidence of the skill with which the Eskimo
knew how to work the drift timber washed in from the coast;
in the second place as a testimony that these northerly inhab-
itants of the coast used chests in their houses such as are
to this very day in use at Ammassalik, under the name of
tumargat'). Finally it is worth while to observe the little
remnant of a hide thong sticking in a hole in the lid; it has

1) Holm Pl. 24.

Fig. 92. Fig. 93.

Two bodkins of bone. West Greenland. ‘ls.

Fig. 94. Bone handle of a woman's knife.
Riksmuseum, Stockholm.

West Greenland.

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525

been prevented from slipping through the hole by а knot at
one end; this knot is made in the true Eskimo fashion by a
slit having been cut at the end of the line and the end then
doubled back through the slit!).

Length of the bottom piece 23-5 cm. Из breadth 7.1 to
7.4 cm (fragment). Height of the side 10 cm?).

Museum für Völkerkunde. Berlin.

Figs. 92 and 93. Two bodkins, or pins for the “ring and
pin” game, made of bone. Both have a human face carved
out in the thick head. A little further down there are four
or five annular cuttings. Cf. inv. Ата. 33—44.

Length about 14'5 cm. North West Greenland.

Inv. Pfaff. Stockholm Riksmuseum.

Fig 94. Bone haft of a woman’s knife, made of a block
of bone, all in one piece. At the bottom of the thin legs
holes have been bored to receive the lashing for the stone
blade (missing). Cf. inv. Ата. 45.

Length of the handle (horizontal measurement) 7 cm;
length of the legs 8'5cm. North West Greenland.

Inv. Pfaff, Stockholm Riksmuseum.

Fig. 95. Wooden dish of the same type as the ordinary
whalebone dishes (pertag), consisting of an elliptical bottom
bordered with a flange, and a thin strip of wood bent in a
correspunding form. The two overlapping ends of the strip
have been connected with the aid of two double rows of wooden
nails. The bottom has no holes perforated in it, but in the
shoulder above the elliptical flange on which the strip which
forms the sides of the dish reposes, there are nine holes for the
nails which secured the strip to the bottom piece. Cf. nv. Amd. 53.

The size of the bottom: 144 cm to 184 cm. The height
of the side: 4 to 475 cm.

1) СГ. description in Mason Ш, 206.
*) The measurements given in Koldewey р. 648 are based on a miscon-
ception of the way in which the parts found fitted together.

XXVIII. 34

526

Found in a grave in the island of Umanaitsiaq in the

Umanak (Oommannag) fjord. North West Greenland.
Inv.E. у. Drygalsky. Museum für Völkerkunde (regist.1V. A. 7069). Berlin.

Figs. 96 and 97. Two needle-cases of bone, particularly
remarkable for their ornamentation, a border of incised lines
running along the curved edges on both sides. In the larger
specimen the small cross-lines are placed in the interval be-
tween two parallel lines and disposed in two rows vis-a-vis
each other, each standing on its own line so that the intervals
between them produce a raised zigzag line; in the smaller
specimen they are arranged unilaterally on a single line. Cf.
inv. Amd. 61 and 87.

Size: length 6°5 cm (fig. 96), 10°4 cm (fig. 97).

Fig. 96 from Karsok, Ek. (= Ikamiut?) North West

Fig. 97 from Iginiarfik south of Egedesminde
Inv. Pfaff. Stockholm Riksmuseum.

Figs. 98 and 99. Two swivels of bone for preventing the

Greenland.

strings or the tether from getting out of order or tangled.
Fig. 98, which is a double-swivel, is particularly interesting on
account of its ornamentation. |

Size: 6 cm (fig. 98) and 3°5 cm (fig. 99). North West

Greenland.
Inv. Pfaff. Stockholm Riksmuseum.

Figs. 100, 101 and 102. Three bone heads of adzes from
West Greenland representing three types, with slits at the
bottom ends for stone blades and with different arrangements
for fastening onto the wooden hafts. Cf. inv. Ата. 76.

Size: 14°5 cm (fig. 100), 14 cm (fig. 101) and 15 cm (fig. 102)
in length respectively.

North West Greenland.
Inv. Pfaff. Stoekholm Riksmuseum.

Fig. 103. Curious implement of wood from North East
Greenland, with a head at one end like the head of an arrow
and a handle like that of a throwing-stick at the other end
(a finger- rest at the edge).

VX.

527

Fig. 96. Fig. 97.
| Two ornamented needle cases. North West Greenland. 315.

Fig. 98. Fig. 99.

Fig. 98. Ornamented swivel. — Fig. 99. Ordinary swivel.
North West Greenland. le.

Riksmuseum, Stockholm,

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Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. Riksmuseum, Stockholm.

Wooden implements of an unknown type.

Fig. 105.

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Found by the second German North Pole Expedition (бег-
mania) in 1870.

Museum für Völkerkunde (regist IV. A. 198). Berlin.

Fig. 104 is the same kind of implement as the foregoing,
likewise from North East Greenland. The use to which these
implements were put is unkown. Cf. inv. Ата 99.

Length 39 cm.

Inv. Nathorst (Hammar). Stockholm Riksmuseum.

Fig. 105 is an implement of wood, from the same district,
which has a similar handle to the two others, while the other
end is formed like a mallet. The natural bend or knee of
the branch has been turned to account in carving this imple-
ment, which is quite unique. The hammering surface of the
mallet has deep scars, as if it had been used against some-
thing sharp. The handle is narrowest in the middle; in cross
section it is circular in front (nearest the head), triangular in
the middle, while at the back it flattens out and assumes the
form of the handle of a throwing-stick.

Mallets or mauls of bone or wood are spoken of as com-
mon among the western Eskimo’), being used in the prepara-
tion of food, or as implements for hammering in wooden nails
etc. In the Gjoa collection at Christiania there are several
implements of this kind (of horn or bone) which have been
used to beat train-oil out of (frozen?) blubber. One of them
has a handle with three finger-rests. The West Greenland
designation for an instrument of this kind is kauarsit (< kau-
arpaa ‘beats frozen blubber, to get train-oil from it, when it
thaws’). Cf. inv. Amd. 99 and 72.

Length, 30cm. North East Greenland.

Inv. Nathorst (Hammar). Stockholm Riksmuseum.

Fig. 106. There belong to the Amdrup collection some
few fragments of bone and wood implements which were dis-
covered in some of the places mentioned in the foregoing

1) Nelson 79; Murdoch 98 (Figs. 31, 32 etc.); Bogoras 188.

534

pages, north of 68° lat. N., but which were not immediately
docketed with the name of the place where they were found.
None of them are of any ethnological importance (fragments
of sledge keels, split reindeer horns, or other bones, sticks or
nondescript parts of wooden implements). |

The polar bear figured here, which is carved in wood and
is 15cm in length, is interesting for a trait which is yet an-
other testimony to the continuity between North East Green-
land and the Ammassalik di-
strict. This trait is the man-
ner in which the legs of the
bear are made; the upper
parts of the fore legs are

carved so as to form two
square projections; in the
centre of the flatly cut un-

Fig. 106. Inv. Ата. 121. Polar bear der side there is an aperture

carved in wood. in which a thin cylindrical
Nonty Pag Gigenland. pede tree-nail has been inserted
to a considerable depth, so that a part of it projects thus for-
ming the lower thin part of the animals leg. Similar tree-nails
have been stuck in the thigh portions of the hind legs. The
body of the bear must thus have rested on four cylindrical pegs,
of which, however, only the stumps are seen in the holes. It thus
comes to resemble the so-called angakok bear from Ammassalik
described by G. Нот“), a toy which has hitherto been found only
in one single specimen. The resemblance, however, is not
great enough to warrant us in definitely pronouncing this
object to be an angakok bear; but the similar manner in which,
— at two different places in East Greenland, and doubtless
also at different times (Amdrup’s bear is highly weathered) —
artificial legs have been inserted in a polar bear in order to
adapt it better for use as a toy by children, can hardly have
been a more coincidence.

1) Holm, Pl. XXVI.

Authorities quoted.

Amdrup, @. С.: I. Carlsbergfondets Expedition til Østgrønland 1898
— 1900. Første Del. — Meddelelser om Gran-
land. Vol. 27. Kobenhavn 1902.
1. Beretning om Expeditionen til Grønlands Øst-

| kyst 1898— 99.

2. Beretning om Skibsexpeditionen til Gronlands
Østkyst. For Tidsrummet fra 14. Juni til 18.
Juli og 12. September til 4. Oktober 1900.
| 3. Beretning om Kystexpeditionen langs Gron-

lands Østkyst 1900.

II. The former Eskimo settlements on the East coast

| of Greenland between Scoresby Sund and the

| Angmagsalik District. — Meddelelser om Gren-
land Vol. 28 (рр. 285—398). Kebenhavn 1909.
Amerikanisten-Kongress, XIV. internationaler. See Stolpe.
Amerikanisten- Kongress, XVI. internationaler. Festschrift, see Heger.
| Bahnson, Kristian: Etnografien. (Vol. 1, рр. 223—262). Koben-
havn 1900.

| Boas, Franz: I. The Central Eskimo. — 6th annual report of the

В Bureau of Ethnology (Smithsonian Institution)

2 1884—85. Washington 1888.

II. The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Вау. —
Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History.
Vol. 15, part 1. New York 1901.

Bogoras, W.: The Chukchee. I. Material Culture. — The Jesup
North Pacific Expedition. Memoir of the Amer. Museum of
Natural History Vol. 7. Leiden and New York 1904.

Clavering, D. C.: Journal of a voyage to Spitzbergen and the east
coast of Greenland in Н. М. S. Griper. — Edinburgh Philo-
sophical Journal. 1830.

536

Cranz, D.: Historie von Grönland. Drittes Buch: Von der Grön-
ländischen Nation. I. Abschnitt 88 6—12 = 1. Bd. pp. 193 — 207.
— 2nd edition. Barby 1770.

Culin, S.: Games of the North American Indians. 24th annual
report of the Bureau of American Ethnology (Smithson. Inst.)
1902—03. Washington 1907.

Die zweite Deutsche Nordpolarfahrt in den Jahren 1869 und 1870
unter Führung des Kapitän Karl Koldewey, herausgegeben von
dem Verein für die Deutsche Nordpolarfahrt in Bremen. Erster
Band. Leipzig 1874.

Fabricius, Otho: I. Nøjagtig Beskrivelse over alle Grénlendernes

Fange-Redskaber ved Sælhunde-Fangsten. —
Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrivter
Vol. 5, 1807—1808. Kidbenhavn 1810.

II. Nøjagtig Beskrivelse over Grünlændernes Landdyr-
Fugle- og Fiskefangst med dertil hörende Red-
skaber. — Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs
Skrivter Vol. 6, 1809—1812. Kiöbenhavn 1818.

Hartz, N.: Beretning om Skibsexpeditionen til Grønlands Østkyst.
For Tidsrummet fra 18. Juli til 12. September 1900. — Carls-
bergfondets Expedition til @st-Gronland 1898—1900. Med-
delelser om Grønland Vol. 27. Kobenhavn 1902.

Heger, Franz: Die archäologischen und ethnographischen Samm-
lungen aus Amerika im k. k. naturhistorischen Hofmuseum
in Wien. — Festschrift herausgegeben anläszlich der Tagung
des XVI. Internationalen Amerikanistenkongresses in Wien 1908,
vom Organisations-Komitee. Wien 1908.

Hein, А. R.: Mäander, Kreuze, Hakenkreuze und urmotivische Wir-
belornamente in Amerika. Wien 1891.

Hoffman, W. J.: The graphic art of the Eskimos. — Report U. S.
National Museum 1895. Washington 1897.

Holm, G.: Ethnologisk Skizze af Angmagsalikerne. Den gstgron-
landske Expedition 1883—85. Anden Del = Meddelelser om
Grønland Vol. X. 1888 (with 42 Plates). 1)

Hough, W.: 1. Fire-making apparatus in the U. 5. National Museum.

— Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. (Smithsonian Inst.) 1887—88.
Washington 1890.

1) An English translation of Holm’s book together with a new illustration
of the ethnologic material collected at Angmagsalik is in preparation.

537

Il. The methods of fire-making. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus.
(Smithson. Inst.) 1890. Washington 1892.

Ш. The lamp of the Eskimo. Report of U. S. National
Museum. Washington 1896.

Koch, J. P.: Bemærkninger vedrørende de paa Skibsexpeditionen til
Grønlands Østkyst 1900 opmaalte Kyststrekninger mellem
69° 20' N. Br. og 72° 90' N. Br. — Carlsbergfondets Expedition
til Øst-Grønland 1898—1900. Første Del. — Meddelelser om
Grønland Vol. 27. København 1902.

Koldewey, K., see Die zweite Deutsche Nordpolarfahrt.

Krause, L.: Sling contrivances for projectile weapons. — Ann. Rep.
Smithsonian Inst. 1904. Washington 1905.

Kumlien, L.: Contributions to the natural history of Arctic America
made in connection with the Howgate Expedition 1877—78. —
Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum, 15. Washington 1879.

Mallery, Garrick: Picture Writing of the American Indians. —
10th Ann. Rep. of the Bur. Ethnology. 1888—89. Washington
1893 [1894].

Mason, Otis: I. The Ulo, or woman’s knife, of the Eskimo. —
Report of the National Museum (Smithsonian In-
stitution) 1890. Washington.

II. North American bows, arrows, and quivers. Smith-
sonian Report. Washington 1893.

Ш. Aboriginal American Harpoons, a study in ethnic
distribution and invention. Report of U. S. National
Museum 1900. Washington.

IV. Throwing-sticks in the U. 5. National Museum. —
Report of Nat. Mus. 1890. Washington.

У. The man’s knife among the North American Indians.
study in the collections of the U. 5. National
Mus., 1897. Washington.

VI. Aboriginal Skin Dressing. — Rep. of the National
Museum 1888—89. Washington.

УП. Pointed bark canoes of the Kutenai and Amur. —
Report of the National Museum, 1899. Washington.

Me Guire, J. D.: 1. А study of the primitive methods of drilling.

— Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1894. Washington
1896.

Il. Pipes and ‘smoking customs of the American
aborigines, based on material in the U. S.

538

National Museum. — Report of the National
— Mus., 1897. Washington.

Musa John: I. The Point Barrow Eskimo. Ethnological results _
of ‚the Point Barrow expedition. — 9th annual
report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Smithsonian
Institution) 1887—88. Washington 1892.

II. A study of the Eskimo bows in the U. S. National
Museum. — Report of the National Mus. (Smith-
sonian Institution) 1890. Washington.
Nansen, Fridtjof: Eskimoliv. Kristiania 1891. Be
Nares, G. S.: Narrative of a voyage to the Polar’ Sea during
1875—6. — Vol. II. Appendix: Feilden, H. W.: я —
London 1878.
Nathorst, А. @.: Två somrar i Norra Ishafvet (etc.), see efter
Andrée i nordöstra Grönland. Vol. IL — Stockholm 1900.
Nelson, Е. W.: The Eskimo about Bering Strait. — 18th annual
report of the Bureau of American Ethnology - (Smithsonian In-
stitution) 1896—97. Washington 1899.

Niblack, A.: The Coast Indians of southern Alaska and northern
British Columbia. — Rep. Nat. Mus. 1887—88. Washington

1890.
Nielsen, Yngvar: Universitetets ethnografiske Samlinger 1857—1907.
En historisk Oversigt. — Meddelelser fra det ethnografiske

Museum Nr. 1. Christiania 1907.

Ryder, C.: Om den tidligere eskimoiske Bebyggelse af Scoresby

Sund. Den ostgronlandske Expedition 1891 —92. — Meddelelser
- om Grønland Vol. 17. Kjøbenhavn 1895.

Scoresby, W.: Journal.of a voyage to the northern Whale-Fishery:
ineluding researches and discoveries on the Eastern coast of
West-Greenland, made in the summer of 1822. Edinburgh 1823.

Solberg, O.: Beiträge zur Vorgeschichte der Ost-Eskimo. Mit 12
Lichtdrucktafeln etc. — Videnskabs-Selskabets Skrifter. II. Hist.-
Filos. Klasse 1907. No. 2. — Christiania 1907.

Steensby, H. Pl: Om Eskimokulturens Oprindelse. En etnografisk
og antropogeografisk Studie. Kebenhavn 1905.

Steenstrup, К. I. V.: Beretning om Undersogelsesrejserne i Nord-
Gronland i Aarene 1878—80. — Meddelelser om Gronland
Vol. 5 [рр. 21—26].

Stolpe, H.: 1. Studier öfver Amerikansk Ornamentik. Ett Bidrag till

Ornamentens Biologi. Stockholm 1896.

539

II. Über die Forschungsergebnisse der schwedischen
Grönland-Expedition vom Jahre 1899 (mit 6 Tafeln).

— XIV.internationaler Amerikanisten-Kongress. Stutt-

gart 1904, Vol. I (pp. 101—105). Stuttgart 1906.

Swenander, G.: Harpun-, kastpil- og lansspetsar från Väst-Grönland.

Med 5 taflor etc. — Kgl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens
Handlingar. Ny följd, 40 Bd. 1906, Nr. 3. Uppsala & Stock-
holm 1906.

Turner, Г. M.: Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay
Territory (The Hudson Bay Eskimo). — 11th annual report of
the Bureau of American Ethnology (Smithsonian Institution)
1889—90. Washington 1894.

Wilson, Thomas: 1. Arrowpoints, spearheads, and knives of pre-

historie times. — Report of National Museum.
Washington 1899.

II. Prehistoric art. — Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1896.
Washington 1898.

Ш. The Swastika. The earliest known symbo.,
and its migrations etc. — Ann. Rep. U. S.
Nat. Mus. (Smithsonian Institution) for 1894.
Washington 1896. |

I wish to thank the following men of science who by so ob-
ligingly placing their expert knowledge at my disposal aided me to
determine the material of several of the objects found: Dr. phil. K.
I. V. Steenstrup, at the Mineralogical and Geological Museum (the
stone implements), Prof., Dr. phil. O. G. Petersen, at the Kongelige
Landbohøjskole (several of the wooden implements) and the inspector
. of the Zoological Museum H. Winge (several of the bone implements).

Finally, I desire to express my thanks to the directors of the
ethnological museums in which I have studied the ethnology of the
Eskimo, for the ready complaisance I have everywhere met with,
and for the special facilities which have been accorded to me, to
obtain access to the objects I desired to study.

I have mentioned the museums I visited, in the Preface

(pag. 335).

8. List of the objects in the Amdrup collection discovered

north of the district of Ammassalik.

Objects from Skaergaardshalve (68° 07’ lat. N., 31° 34’ long. W.)

Inv. Nos.
4

5
6

28—30

38—44

46—48

Pag.
Harpoon head of bone, all in one piece (Fig. 3 and

PL ХУ): m I EN ee 348
Harpoon head.of bone (Fig. 4 and Pl. ХУ, 5)...... 349
Harpoon head with inserted point of bone (Fig. 5 and

Plax Ver oes a HE er 351
Harpoon head with inserted (lost) point (Fig. 6 and

ВЕЧЕ КТ) aaa u Male ee ЗЕЕ 352
Detached bone point of a harpoon head (Pl. XV, 8).. 352
Fragment of а harpoon head (Pl. ХУ, 9).......... 353
Harpoon head for sealing on the ice (Fig. 7 and Pl.

VE. TO). see. ао зат. ЗАО Oy a 353
Loose bone shaft (foreshaft) of a {harpoon (Pl. XVI, 11) 361
Stone blade of a knife (Fig. 11) ................. 377
Stone blade of a woman’s knife (Fig. 12) ......... 378
Stone blade of a woman’s knife (Fig. 13) ......... 378
Wooden toy sledge (Fig. 17) act. 0. saree). Ar 388
Drill caps (head-pieces), 3, of bone (Figs. 47 a-b-c).. 396
Bodkin, or marline-spike, of bone (Fig. 19) ........ 396
Boot-sole creaser of bone (Fig. 20) ............... 397
Bodkins and needles, 13, of bone (Fig. 18) ..... 10808
Bone haft of а woman’s knife (Fig. 21) ........... 401
Thimble-guards, 3, of bone (Fig. 22) ............. 405
One-pronged fork of bone (Fig. 23)............... 406
Two-pronged blubber-hook, of wood (Fig. 24) ...... 406
One-pronged blubber-hook, of wood (Fig. 24)....... 406
Fragments, 9, of a miniature urine-tub (Figs. 25 and 27) 407
Whalebone-dish with wooden bottom (Fig. 26) ...... 408

541

Inv. Nos. Pag.
54 Toggle button of bone (Fig. 30) .......,..:...... 412
55—56 Drum Вапез, 2, of bone (Fig. 29a and b)........ 412
57 Ornamental teeth, 53, belonging to a belt (Fig. 34).. 417
Soon) (EIS. 383 ul). und is чения... 419
59—60 Ornaments, 2, made of interlinked bone beads (Figs.
ВОВА НВ) re Ф.Я). onod. ta ed hia... 420
61 Needle-case of bone (Fig: 35). ......:.......,.... 421
62 Wooden handle (Fig. 36) ........ У . :. 424

63—64 Fragments of bone implements, 2 (Figs. 37 a and b). 425

Objects from Dunholm (69° 54! lat. N., 22° 38’ long. W.)

Inv. Nos. Е Раз.
12 Loose bone shaft of а lance (Pl. XVI, 12)......... 362
13 Bone head of a lance ог an arrow (Pl. XVI, 13)... 363

14—16 Bone-heads, 3, of arrows (Pl. XVI, 14 and 15)..... 364
17 . Bone head of a spear or arrow (Fig. 8 and Pl. XVI, 17) 366
ПЕ maplement (Hig. 14)... 20. 380
25 Stone implement or toy (Fig. 15)................. 380

67—68 Sledge-keels, 2, of bone (Fig. 40a and b) ......... 435
69 _ Fragment of an ice-scraper of bone (Fig. 41)....... 438
Е DWooden bottom ?:(Pig. 43): 2.1... udn CO 440
72. Wooden hammer-like implement (blubber-beater?)

BER URN лы ae. A 441

73—75 Bone foreshafts, 3, of walrus or whaling harpoons

ПА Ey, Шах „oh 10 ионы а 443
76 . Bone head of ап adze (Fig. 46)................,. 446
80 Wooden handle of a skin-scraper (Fig. 49)......... 459
ER D) ER ENT 461
82 Part of a kindling-set, with drill-hole (Fig. 50)...... 462
MUN 55)... 466
ПЕ age (710.96), il ee ee еже nehm 475
97 Fragment of a wooden implement (Fig. 62) ........ 481

mee ЕО vertebra Of a wilalé’..... 200s ce cee eves 482

Objects from Cape Tobin (70° 24’ lat. N., 21° 59’ long. W.)

ту. №3. - - Pag.
1—2 Harpoon heads, 2, of bone (Fig. 1 and Pl. ХУ, 1
о д ира OP еее А 345
3 Harpoon head of bone with iron point (Fig. 2 and
des a но ern ee ae 2 347

XXVIII.

542

Inv: Nos. © Pag.
18—19 Bone fore-pieces, 2, of whaling harpoons (Fig. 912?).. 370
_ 20 ‘Lateral point of a bird-dart (Fig. 16) ...::......... 372
65—66 Sealing) stools, 2, made of wood (Figs. 38 and 39).. 427
20. . „lee. seraper of. bone .(Fig.. AP) 26" 900 Baal. заза. 438
77. ‚Drill stick of ‘wood with iron point (Fig..47,d)..... 459
#8: ; „Drill. bow. ‘of bone (Fig... 47, е).. 2.64. bas. а. 453
79 Crooked knife with iron blade (Fig. 48) ........... 454
83 | Wooden vessel, or tray, for meat (Fig. 51) ........ 462
84 :. Blubber. fork..of bone (Fig. 53) .........:........ 463
83 Buckle ог bone (Me и 464
88 - Bear carved in wood (Fig. 57 a) ................. 477
oo” bird carved m? wood (is Du ee eee 477
90—95 Different animals, 6, carved in bone (Fig. 58) ...... 478
2965 POS =, by means ON drill- I Do åg (Bier OD) re 480

Objects: from ce Borlase Warren (74° 18’ lat. М.)

Inv. Nos. - - : Pag.
101 ren bation of bone (Fig. бо) поданы ST 488
102. . Button belonging to a sledge trace (Fig. 66)...... 489
103. ...Еетщечой Боде (еб юз, Aare ar: 489

104—105 Miniature foreshafts of harpoons, 2 (Fig. 68 a and b) 491
106"): Needletof bone (Ее. 69) SAL euren. RME OR 492
114 .. Piece of bone.mounting (Fig. 72) ....…........… 495
115 . Piece of bone mounting (Fig. 73) .............. 496

116—117 Fragments of sledge keels, 2 (Figs. 74 and 75)... 496
118—119 Bones split by means of drill-boring (Figs. 76 and 77) 496
120 Bear’s tooth.

. Objects from Sabine Island (74° 45’ lat. N.)

Inv. Nos. Pag.
26 Stone blade of a knife. Fragment (Fig. 16)...... 380:
99 Shatt- like fragment of a wooden implement (Fig. ne he.
100 Bone nozzle for inflating the skin float (Fig. № 488

107—109 Bone ornaments for attachment (Figs. 70 a-b-c) ... 492
110. Pierced tooth for ornament (Fig. 70d).......... 493

111—112 Beads, 2, of bone (Figs. 70 e and f) ........... 493

113 Toy: buzz made of wood (Fig. 71).............. 494

ХУ. Bidrag til Vest-Gronlands Flora og Vegetation af №, Hartz og L. Kolderup
Rosenvinge. Mosser fra Ost-Gronland af ©, Jensen. Diatoméer af Е, Østrup.
Forekomst af Cohenit i tellurisk Jern ved Jakobshavn af Dr. Е, Cohen,
Med 2 Tavler. 1898. Kr. 8.

XVI. Undersøgelser i Julianehaabs Distrikt 1893 og 1894. Skjærgaardsop-
maaling, Undersøgelse af Indlandsis og Brewer, Misvisning m. m. ved
У. Garde, С. Moltke og А, Jessen. Arkæologiske Undersøgelser af №. Bruun,
F. Petersen og У. Boye. Med 20 Tavler. 1896. Kr. 10.

XVII—XIX. Den ostgronlandske Expedition i Aarene 1891—92 (Scoresby-
Sund) ved €. Ryder, Il. Vedel, N, Hartz, Е. Bay, I. Deichmann, €. Christiansen,
Willaume-Jantzen, Rørdam, У. Hausen, Børgesen, Rostrup, Deichmann Branth,
Østrup, Posselt, Lundbeck, I, Hansen, Wesenberg-Lund og Lundgren. Med
40 Tavler. 1895—96. Kr. 25.

ХХ. Grønlands Alger, Flora og Vegetation af L. Kolderup Rosenvinge. Om
Steenstrupin af Joh. Chr. Moberg. Grønlands gamle Topografi af Finnur
Jonsson, Brade Ransons Forde af годе Petersen. Med 3 Tavler. 1899. .Kr. 6.

" XXI, iste Afdeling: Grønlands Fugle af Herluf Winge. 1899. Kr. 4,50.
2den Afdeling: Grønlands Pattedyr af Herluf Winge. 1902. Kr. 3.

ХХИ. Under Udarbejdelse.

XXII, 15 Afdeling: Grønlands Brachiopoder og Bløddyr af Henr. J. Posselt
udgivet efter Forfatterens Død ved Ad.S. Jensen. Med 2 Tavler. 1899.
Kr. 4,50.

XXIV. Undersøgelser af Mineraler fra Julianehaab af 6. Flink, N. В. Bøggild
og Chr. Winther med indledende Bemærkninger af №, У. Ussing. Untersuch-
ungen an den eisenführenden Gesteine der Insel Disko von Dr. Th. Nicolau.
Beretning om en Undersogelsesrejse til Øen Disko 1898 af К. J. V. Steen-
strup. Med 20 Tavler og et særskilt heftet Farvetryk. 1901. Kr. 6,50.

XXV. Om Bestemmelse af Lysstyrke og Lysmængde af К, J. У. Steenstrup.
Fra en Vaccinationsrejse til Kap Farvel af G Meldorf. On Ilvaite from
Siorarsuit by 0. В. Bøggild. Skildring af Vegetationen paa Disko af M.
Pedersen Porsild. Med 6 Tavler. 1902. Kr. 6.

XXVI. Undersøgelser og Opmaalinger ved Jakobshavns Isfjord af M. €. Engell

— og Ш. Schjerring. On some Minerals from the Nephelite-Syenite at Juliane-
haab by 0. В, Bøggild. Planktonprover fra Nord-Atlanterhavet (с. 58°—
60° N. Br.) af С.Н, Ostenfeld og Ove Paulsen. Tuberkulosens Udbredelse
i Gronland af Gustav Meldorf. Eskimoernes Indvandring i Grønland af
Schultz-Lorentzen. Оп the Tension of Carbonie Acid in Natural Waters;
the abnormal CO-Percentage in the Air in Greenland, etc., by August
Krogh. Descriptions de quelques espéces nouvelles de Bryacées de l'île de
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Danish Greenland plants by Herman 6. Simmons. Med 15 Tavler. 1904. Kr. 8.

ХХУЦ. Carlsbergfondets Expedition til Ost-Gronland i Аагепе 1898—1900,
ved G. Amdrup, N. Hartz, J.P. Koch, Willaume-Jantzen og I, Ravn. Med
8 Tavler. 1902. Kr. 10.

XXVIII, iste Afdeling: Notes on some specimens of rocks collected by С.

Kruuse on the East coast of Greenland between lat. 65° 35’ and 67° 22! à

by Dr. Otto Nordenskjöld. Samples of the sea-floor along the coast of Ea

Greenland 74'/2—70 N. Г. by 0. В. Bøggild. Med 9 Tavler. 1904. Kr. 2,:

2den Afdeling: The minerals from the Basalt of East-Greenland by 6. в.

Bøggild, Contributions to the Anthropology and Nosology of the East-

Greenlanders by Knud Poulsen. On the Geology and Physical Geography

of East-Greenland by Otto Nordenskjôld. The former Eskimo settlements
on the Hast coast of Greenland between Scoresby Sund and the Angmagsalik
District by G. Amdrup. Ethnological description of the Amdrup collection
from East-Greenland comprising objects found in Eskimo house-ruins and
graves north of Angmagsalik between 68° and 75° lat. N. by W. Thalbitzer.
Med © Dawler og 1 Kort: 909) 2 SR MRS:

XXIX. iste Afdeling: Mammals observed on Amdrup’s journeys to Hast-
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land by Th. Mortensen. The Tertiary Fauna at Kap Dalton in East-
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On Jurassic Fossils from East-Greenland by Victor Madsen. The Fishes
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Tavler og 1 Kort. 1904. Kr. 5.50.
2den Afdeling: On the Mollusca of East-Greenland: Lamellibranchiata
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Becker. Note on the Crustacea by И. J. Hansen. The Porifera of Hast- =
Greenland by William Lundbeck. Med 1 Tavle. 1909. Kr. 4.50.

XXX. iste Afdeling: Botanical exploration of the East-Coast of Greenland
between 65°35'’—74° 30! lat. №. By Chr. Kruuse. The Marine Als® of
East-Greenland. By Helgi Jonsson. The Freshwater Algæ of East-Green-
land. By Е Larsen. Fungi Groenlandiæ orientalis in expeditionibus G.
Amdrup 1898—1902. Determ. B. Rostrup. Lichenes expeditionis G. Amdrup
(1898—1902). Enumeravit Edv. A. Wainio. List of the phanerogams
and vascular cryptogams found on the coast 75°— 66° 20! lat. N. of East-
Greenland. By Chr. Kruuse. List of Phanerogams and Vascular Crypto-
gams found in the Angmagsalik-District on the Hast-coast of Greenland
between 65° 30! and 66° 20’ lat. №. By Chr. Kruuse. Species nova Marsu-
pellae, muscorum generis. Auctore ©. Jensen. List of the Hepaticae —
and Sphagnales found in East-Greenland between 75° and 65°35! lat. Na
in the years 1898—1902. Ву 6. Jensen. 1907. Kr. 4.

XXXI. A phonetical study of the Eskimo Language based on observations
made on a journey in North-Greenland 1900—1901 by William Thalbitzer.
Med 4 Tavler. 1904. Kr. 8.

XXXII. Mineralogia Groenlandica af 0. В. Bøggild. Med 1 Kort. 1905. Kr. 10.

XXXII. Kan Tagranden benyttes til Bestemmelse af Forandringer 1 Vand-
standen? ДЕК, J. У. Steenstrup. Contributions to the Study of the Eskimo
language in Greenland. By Poul Vibek. A List of Flowerings Plants from
Cape York and Melville-Bay (NW.-Greenland), collected by the Rev. Knud
Balle and Mr. L. Mylius-Erichsen in 1905—05, determined by
6. I. Ostenfeld. De i Grønland brugte Fuglenavne og deres Betydning.
Af А. Bertelsen. On some minerals from Narsarsuk at Julianehaah, Green-
land. By 0. В. Böggild. Om Grønlands Areal. Beregninger, udførte paa
det af Kommissionen i 1906 udgivne Kaart i Maalestokken 1:2000000.
Af И, Prytz Epidemiske Sygdomme i Grønland: Influenza og epidemiske
katarrhalske Affektioner af Luftvejs-Slimhinderne. Ved Gustav Meldorf.
" Ferskvandsalger fra Vest-Grønland. Af E. Larsen. Med 8 Tavler. 1907. Kr. 8.

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Harpoon Heads from North East Greenland.
(Inv. Amd. 1 to 10, see pp. 345—360).

Place where discovered:

Nos. 1—3. Cape Tobin.
„ 4—10. Skergaardshalvö.

Materials:

Nos. 1, 2, 4 and 5 entirely bone.
No. 3 bone with inserted iron blade.
„ 6 bone with inserted bone blade.
Nos. 7 and 10 bone with groove for the insertion of a blade (lost).
No. 8 a detached bone-blade. |
„ 9 fragment of a harpoon head of bone.

Length:
№. 1 90 cm.
Biss О
- 979 the body 58 em).
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Plate XVI.

Longer Weapon Heads from North East Greenland.

No.

Nos.

(Inv. Ата. 11 to 17, see pp. 359—376).
Place where discovered :

11 Skærgaardshalvô.
12, 13, 14 and 15 Dunholm.

Material: bone.

Length:
11 33°5 cm.
12 31
18 35

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| MEDDELELSER ОМ GRØNLAND. XXVIII TAVLE XVI

17 14—15

Dansk Керг. Anstalt for.

3 2044 118 635 267

Date Due

aue-25-6?