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TRANSACTIONS

OF. fr HE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

Vi OL. Tk

EDINBURGH:

PRINTED FOR T. CADELL, IN THE STRAND, LONDON;
AND
J. DICKSON, ROYAL EXCHANGE, EDINBURGH:

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OF THE

SB. GON. D.*V..O- LUM E.

MLAs bh im ALS

HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Dr James Hutton on Written Language, - Page 5.
Letter relative to the Kraken, _- - 16..
Letter from the Tefboo Lama to Mr Haftings, - IQ.
Letter from the Prefident Virly, on the ufe of Cauftic Alkali in
the Cure of Gravel, . - aan
Report and Fudgment relative to Count de Windifchgratz’s
Problem, - -" 25
Mr, Hornby on the Difiillation of Spirits from Carrots, 28.

APPEND I X.

List of MEMBERS or FELLows of the Roya Society of

Edinburgh, continued from the firft Volume, - 31.
Office-bearers of the SociETy, - - 34.
MEMBERS DECEASED, - = 36.

, I. Bio-

*N.B. Part I. comprehending the Hisvory, is contained under one fet of pages; and.
Parr II. comprehending the Pargrs, is contained under two fets, viz. Parers of the

Puysrcau Cass under the one, and Parers of the Lirerary Crass under the other.
,

vi CC. 0:-Niim Eem.<T., 8:

I. Biographical “Account of the Right Hon. Robert Dundas

of Arnifton, Lord Prefident of the Court of Seffion, Page 37.
Il. Biographical Account of Sir Alexander Dick of Pre/fon-

jield, Bart. M. D. - - 53.
Ill. Biographical Account of the Right Hon. Sir Thomas Miller

of Glenlee, Bart. Lord Prefident of the Court of Seffion, 63.
List of Donations, continued from the firft Volume, Pai

PiA 2 Il.
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY.

I.
PAPERS OF THE PuystcAL CLASS.

I. Of certain Natural Appearances of the Ground on the Hill
of Arthur’s Seat. By Dr James Hutton, - df
Il. dn Account of the Method of making the Otter of Rofes,
as it is prepared in the Eaft Indies. By Dr Donald
Monro, - - 12.
lil. Defcription of a Mercurial Level. ByMr Alexander Keith, 14.
IV. Pathological Obfervations on the Brain. By Mr Thomas
Anderfon, - - 17.
V. Experiments on the Expanfive Force of Freezing Water,
made by Major Williams at Quebec, in the years 1784
and 1785. Communicated by Dr Charles Hutton, 23,
VI. Abfirad of Experiments made to determine the true Refift-
ance of the Air to the Surfaces of Bodies, of various Fi-
gures, and moved through it with different degrees of
velocity. By Dr Charles Hutton, - 29-
VII, 0b-

EonPENTS vit

VII. Obfervations on the Places of the Georgium Planet, made |
at Edinburgh with an Equatoreal Inftrument. By

Mr John Robifon, - cy)
? " :

VIIL. Anfwers to the Objections of M. de Luc, with Regard
to the Theory of Rain. By Dr James Hutton, — 39:

IX. Account of a Difemper, by the common People in England

vulgarly called the Mumps. By Dr Robert Hamilton, 59.
X. A Botanical and Medical Account of the Quaffia Simaruba,

or Tree which produces the Cortex Simaruba. By

Dr William Wright, - 73°
XI. On the Motion of Light, as affected by refra€ting and re-

flecting Subftances, which are alfo in Motion. By

Mr John Robifon, - 83.
XII. Demonjfirations of fome of Dr Matthew Stewart's Gene-

ral Theorems. By the Reverend Dr Robert Small, 112.

XIIl. Remarks on the Aftronomy of the Brabmins. By Mr John

Playfair, = - 135:
XIV. On the Refolution of Indeterminate Problems. By Mr
John Leflie, - - 19}:

KV. A Differtation on the Climate of Rufia. By Dr Mat-
thew Guthrie: With two Letters from M.Epinus, 213.

’ Il.
Papers OF THE LITERARY CLAss.
1. An Account of fome extraordinary Structures on the Tops

of Hills in the Highlands ; with Remarks on the Pro-
ares of the Arts among the ancient inhabitants of Scot-

land. By Mr Alexander Frafer Tytler, 3
II. Remarks on fome Paffages of the fixth Book of the Eneid.
By Dr James Beattie, - 333

Wl. 4x

Vili

ce oN. ZT-E N TS.

. An Effay on Rythmical Mea/fures.. By the Reverend Mr *

Walter Young, - - 55°

. On certain Analogies obferved by the Greeks in the ufe of

their Letters; and particularly of the Letter Xiype. |
By Mr Andrew Dalzel, - Til.

Account of the German Theatre. By Mr Henry Mac-
kenzie, - 5

15%

. Theory of the Moods of Verbs. By Dr James Gregory, 193.
Vil.

An Effay on the Character of Hamlet, in Shakefpeare’s
Tragedy of Hamlet. By the Reverend Mr Thomas

Robertfon, - - 25%.

TRAN S-

EELS 5 O10 Seb Fey.

-ITERARY Clafs. Myr Daze read a Philological Dif-

fertation on certain Analogies obferved by the Greeks in

the ufe of their Letters; and particularly of the Letter 5 ; which
is printed in this volume. [No. IV. Lit. C/.] .

Phyjfical Clafs. Tur Secretary read a Letter to the Society,
from the Reverend Dr Roserrson, inclofing one from Mr
Fraser, Under-fecretary of State, and one from M. Anisson
of Paris, with a Memoir on the fubjeé& of Printing.

Lit. Ci. Dr Grecory read a continuation of his Effay on
the general Notion of the Relation of Caufe and Effet. [See
Vol. I. Hift. Nov. 15. 1784. and March 21. 1785-1

(A 2) A

1785.
Dec, 19,
Mr Dalzel on

the Greek =,

;
1786.
Jan. 2.

Memoir on
printing.

Jan. 16.
Dr Gregory on
caufe and efftct,

1786.
Jan. 23.
General Meet-

ing.

Feb. 7.

Dr Home on
Amaurolis,

Dr Smatl’s de-

monitrations of

Dr Stewart's
theorems.

Feb. 20.
Prof. Young on
the Greek mid-
dle voice.

March 6.
Mr Robifon on
the Georgium
Sidus.

March 20.
Dr Macfarlan
on the land-
tax.

Prof. Young on
the Greek mid-
dle voice.

April 3.
Mr Playfair’s
‘life of Dr Mat-
thew Stewart.

ray HISTORY of th SOCIET).

A GENERAL Meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
eleion of Members. [See Vol. I. Appendix to the Hiftory of

the Society. ]

Phyf, Cl. Dr Francis Home read a paper on Amaurofis.

Tue Reverend Dr SmAtt read the Heads of a paper con-
taining Demonftrations of twenty-eight of the Theorems pu-
blithed in 1746, by the late Reverend Dr MaTrHew STewarr,
Profeffor of Mathematics in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. The
Demonttrations are printed in this volume. [No. XII. Phy/ C7.]

Lit. Cl. Mr Dazet, one of the Secretaries, read part of
an Effay on the Middle Voice of the Greek Verb, written by
Profeflor Joun Younc, of the Univerfity of Glafgow. On
account of fome additions intended to be made by the Author,
the publication of this Eflay is poftponed to a fubfequent volume
of the Tranfactions.

Plyf. Cl. Mr Profeffor Rosrson read a paper on the Orbit
and Motion of the new Planet, the Georgium Sidus ; which is
printed in the firft volume of the Tranfadtions of this Spmenye
[Vol. I. No. XI. Phy/. Cl]

Lit. Cl. Tue Reverend Dr Macraruan read a Differtation
refpe@ting an equal Affeffment of the Land-tax.

Mr Dauzet read a continuation of Mr Profeflor Younc’s
Effay on the Middle Voice of ihe Greek Verb. [See /upra,
Feb. 20. ]

Phyf. Cl. ‘The Reverend Mr Profeffor Prayrarr read an
Account of the Life and Writings of the late Reverend Dr Mar-
THEW STEWART, Profeflor of Mathematics in the Univerfity

of

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 5

of Edinburgh. This Account is publifhed in the firft volume
of the Tranfactions of this Society. [Hiftory of the Society,
Appendix. ]

Dr James ANDERSON read:an Effay, containing Obfervations
and Experiments on the Culture of Potatoes. He did not chufe
that any abftract of this Eflay fhould be publifhed.

Tue Secretary prefented to the Society two books, one in

Latin, De Herpete, and the other in French, Sur la Petite Verole,

written by M. Rousset, Royal Profeffor of Medicine in the
- Univerfity of Caen in Normandy, fent by him to the Royal So-
ciety of Edinburgh.

Lit. CL Mr. Dauzew read the remainder of Mr Profeffor
Younc’s Effay on the Greek Middle Voice. [See /upra,

March 20. ]

!
Dr Hutron read part of a Differtation on Written Language
as a Sign of Speech.

Ir is the purpofe of this paper to fhow, in what manner we -

arrive at the knowledge of fimple founds, by the analytical ex-
amination of our fpeech, or the refolution of it into its princi-
ples. Thefe fimple founds may be reprefented to the fight,
by means of certain figures, appropriated to thofe founds.
Such figures then become the principles, fiz/, of the writing of
our fpeech, and, 2d/y, of the reading of our written language.
TuereE being no lefs than four different methods of analyfing
fpeech for the purpofe of typifying language, thefe are ex-
amined with a view to underftand the advantages and difad-
vantages that may attend each of thofe particular methods, ac-
cording to the following order: jix/t, The analyfing of {peech
into parts, each of which is the fign of a diftin@ thought ;
~ gdly, into words, the conftituent parts of our exprefled thoughts ;
34ly,

17386:

April 3.
Dr Anderfon
on the culture
of potatoes.

Books prefent-
ed to the Soci-
ety.

_ April 14,
Prof. Young on
the Greek mid-
dle voice.

June Ip.
Dr Hutton on
written lan-
guage.

\

6 HISTORY of th SOCIETY.

3dly, into fyllables, or articulate founds, the conftituent parts
of words ; and, /afly, into letters, or inarticulate founds, the
conftituent parts of fyllables.

THERE are only two of thofe practicable methods of typi-
fying fpeéch, that have any peculiar advantage to recommend
their ufe. Thefe are the verbal method, on the one hand, and
the elemental, on the other. Each of thefe having their pecu-
liar advantages, are now to be mentioned.

Tue advantages of the verbal method confift in this, that
different nations, by this means, might communicate their de-
fires by writing, without the knowledge of each other’s fpeech.
But the neceffary difadvantage of this method is more than fuf-
ficient to counterbalance its great benefit ; becaufe, while there
would not be fufficient accuracy for thus exprefling every
thought in writing, it would require to make it the bufinefs of
a man’s life to read and write. Whereas the advantage of the
elemental ‘method will appear from this, that while the com-
mutation of our figures and our fimple founds is perfect, our
fpeech, which is compofed of thofe fimple founds, may be
written with facility, and our written language read with abfo-
lute perfection. The benefit of this method, therefore, far more
than compenfates for its lofs, in not ferving as a mean of cor-
refpondence between foreign nations.

Music and fpeech are next confidered, in order to fee their
neceflary conneétion and the difference of their principles.

Tue formation of articulate expreflion, by means of vocal
founds and confonants, is then illuftrated, in fhewing the na~
ture of our fpeech, as the foundation of our art of writing.

Tuus, an alphabet is reprefented as being the work of inge-
nuity and wifdom, and as being, with good reafon, the boaft
of fcience. The corruption, therefore, of this alphabetical
method of characterifing fpeech, is reprobated as an error pre-
judicial to fcience, and difgraceful to a nation that is wife and
learned.

ORTHOGRAPHY: ~

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. -

OrtTHoGRAPHY being thus a moft fcientific art, it is of much
importance, for the educating of a people in this art, to con-
form the praétice ftritly to the rules of fcience, and to have
the rules of that fcience comprifed in the knowledge of the
alphabet. The alphabet is therefore now made the fubjet of
a {cientifical difcuffion.

Aw alphabet being nothing but the figured elements of
fpeech, and fpeech confifting of articulated founds, we are to
- examine thofe diftinét founds which man has it in his power to
form for the purpofe of his fpeech, and alfo all the practicable
articulations proper for modifying his vocal founds.

THE vocal power of: man is, from experience, found to be
divided into feven diftin@ notes, and this power is reprefented
by a line divided into fix equal parts, which forms feven equal
diftinctions of his perfect founds.

Tue letter 7 is here affixed to the moft acute or higheft of
thofe notes of vocal found, and w is the written fign affixed to
the loweft, or the note which is naturally moft grave. In a
middle place between thofe two extremes, in this vocal capacity
of man, is placed the found, which is confidered as correfpond-
ing to the letter a.

Tuus, we have the radical alphabet, of the perfeét vocal
found in the letters 7, a, uz. All the other founds are then ne-
ceflarily comprehended between that middle vowel and the two
extremes. This determined fpace of vocal found is then fub-
divided, the upper half, or higheft fpace, into the vowels ¢ and
a, the lower, again, into thofe of o and ».

TuHus we complete the feven perfect notes of human. voice
or vocal founds ; and thefe are all defined or diftinguifhed, i
defcribing the gradual change or regular modification of ois
organ, which is neceflary in founding each.

Bur befides the feven perfect vowels which compofe what
may be termed the radical alphabet of human fpeech, there are
two femitones, placed fomewhere between the middle note,

and

8 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

and thofe on each extreme. This is exemplified in the ufe of ~
fpeech ; although hitherto no letter has been contrived for
thofe two diftin@tions of our voice, which are found in the words
this and thus.

Tue vocal powers of man being thus determined by nature,
and defined in fcience; it is neceflary, in order to complete the
alphabet, to have the various articulators of the vocal found ex-
amined, with a view to fee how far all the organical powers of
man have been praétifed for the purpofe of his fpeech, and
alfo to underftand the nature of thofe improper articulators
which may be occafionally employed.

As the diftinétions in the vocal found of man are fo limited,
and as the ideas to be exprefled in his fpeech are fo multifarious,
itis neceflary to compound thofe diftinét founds by means of
articulations, which are either prefixed or fubjoined to the ex-
preflion of vocal found.

ConsonanTs are thus formed; and thefe may be diftin-
guifhed in two different refpects; ji7/7, by the pofition. of the
organ in which they are formed ; and, 2dly, by the operation
of the breath which is employed to make them audible. It is
only in thus analyfing the fubject, that thofe confonants, or the
articulating powers, may be underftood.

TuereE are five pofitions of the organ by which the vocal
found is to be articulated; and thefe muft be underftood, be-
fore the operation of the founding organ in forming confonants,
can be explained. Thefe pofitions, with their refpeCtive modi-
fications, therefore, are now to be defcribed.

Tue fizf pofition is formed by the clofe junction of the
lips, fo as no breath is fuffered to tranfpire ; and this is the
firft modification of this pofition, when the paflage of the
breath or found, by the nofe, is ftopped, and may be termed
the oral modification, In this manner are formed the letters
pand 2. é

THE

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 4

Tue /econd modification of this firft pofition, which may be
termed the nafal modification, is formed by opening the com-
munication of exit by the nofe, and fuffering the found or
breath to pafs that way. In this cafe the letter is founded.

Tue /econd pofition is formed by the application of the
under lip to the fore teeth of the upper jaw, which doés not
form an abfolute interruption to the breath, but fuffers it to
pafs in an audible manner, by means of the reftraint with
which it is made to pafs. In this manner are produced the
letters f and v. } '

Tue chird pofition is formed by a fimilar application of the
tongue to the fore teeth, and a fimilar expreffion of the breath;
thus producing the two confonants 4 and 7b.

Tue fourth pofition is formed by the application of the point
or fore part of the tongue, to the root of the fame teeth, or fore
part of the palate. This forms a pofition that may be variouily
modified, by means of the great volubility of this member
which is thus applied.

In the fff of thefe modifications, the tongue is applied
clofely to the palate, fo as to form an abfolute interruption of
the breath, in a.fimilar manner to that of the firft pofition. It
may be therefore termed the mute modification of this pofition.
In this mute modification are formed the confonants ¢ and d.

In the /fecond modification, the tongue is not kept clofe fixed
to the palate, but fuffers the breath to be expreffed in an andi-
ble manner, fimilar to thofe of the fecond and third pofitions.
This, then, may be termed the fibilating modification, by which
are exprefled the / and z.

Iw the third modification, the paflage of the breath between
the point of the tongue and the palate is opened, and that by
turns, in a quick or tremulous vibration. It may therefore be
termed the vibratory modification, by which the letter 7 is
formed. ~ AES

Vou. IL (B) In

Io HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

_ In the fourth modification, the paflage of the breath or found
is not interrupted in any degree, but is made to pafs in a very
peculiar manner through the mouth. For this purpofe the
tongue is clofely applied to the fore part of the palate, but it is
retracted on each fide, fo as to leave an open fpace. A free paf-
fage is thus preferved for the breath which goes under the
tongue and out of the mouth. This may be termed the liquid
modification, in which is formed the fonorous letter 1. _

Tue fifth and laf modification is formed by fhutting thofe
lateral paflages for the breath which were opened in the laft mo-
dification, and at the fame time fuffering the found to pafs by
the nafal paffage, in the fame manner as in the fecond modifi-
cation of the firft pofition. Thus we produce the letter 2, in
what may be termed the nafal modification,

Tue fifth pofition is formed in all refpects like the fourth,
but only by a different part of the tongue and palate. There
are therefore the fame number of modifications in this pofition
as in the former; and thefe, correfponding in their nature,
may be denominated in the fame manner.

We have thus the letters £ and ¢ formed in the mute modifi-
cation; the /b and 7 in the fibilating modification; the gut-
tural or Northumbrian 7 in the vibratory modification ; the
Spanith 7, or the French / mouillée, in the liquid modification ;
and the guttural z, or Englifh mg, in the nafal modification.

Tue feveral pofitions of the organ, with their different mo-
difications, being thus underftood, the formation of the confo-
nants, and articulations of voice, by the ation of the breath
and found, may be now explained.

In all the pofitions of the articulating organ, there is either
employed the fimple afpiration of the breath, or a found pro-
duced in the windpipe, and modified in the articulating organ.
Thus, in all the pofitions, and in feveral of their modifications,
there are produced two diftin&t articulators, according either as
found is emitted along with the articulation, or only the breath

employed

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. iY

employed without any other found. Hence the diftinétion of
mutes and confonants among the articulators of voice.

But in each of thefe diftinétions of mutes and confonants,

there is to be made a fub-diftinction, according as the articula-
tor is either perfe& or imperfect, whether as a mute or asa
confonant. Each of thefe will now require fome explanation.
' Tue perfect mute can only take place in thofe pofitions, in
which the breath is abfolutely interrupted by the clofe or im-
pervious organ ; and this does not happen in the fecond and
third pofitions, and only in fome of the modifications of the
fourth and fifth.

Turs mute articulator is formed, either by interrupting the
vocal found with the clofe pofition, in which cafe it is a final
articulator ; or by beginning to exprefs the vocal found in this
clofe pofition, when it forms, upon opening the paflage, an ini-
tial articulator.

THERE are juft three articulators of this kind, correfpond-
ing to the three pofitions in which the organ may be abfolutely
clofed, in relation to the exit of the breath. Thefe are p in
the firft pofition, ¢ in the fourth pofition, and & in the fifth po-

* fition.

Tue imperfect mute is formed by emitting a guttural found,
or that of the windpipe, in thofe three pofitions of the mute
articulator. The found here is extremely limited ; for it is ne-
ceflarily reftri€ted to that quantity of breath which maybe ex-
pelled through the founding windpipe, in compreffing the air,
or diftending the cavity of the clofe organ. Thefe fhort founded
articulators may therefore be termed imperfect mutes.

Tue 4, dand g, are the three imperfect mutes, correfpond-
ing to the three abfolute mutes, f, ¢, 4, of the firft, fourth and
fifth pofitions.

In the fibilating articulators of the fecond and third pofitions,
and of the fecond modification of the fourth and fifth pofitions,
the breath may be continually emitted, either with the fimple

(B 2) * expiration,

12 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

expiration, or attended with the guttural found. This then
forms two cafes of articulation, differing from each other,
and alfo from the other two cafes of mute articulation; feeing
that in the prefent cafe, whether the confonant be formed with
a guttural found, or only an audible afpiration, it is a conti-
nued thing, and is not neceffarily terminated, as in the mutes,
by the clofe pofition of the organ. Now, as in the cafe of
mutes, we have the diftinétion of perfect and imperfedt, with
regard to that fpecies of letter, fo, in the cafe of confonants,
we have a fpecies which is perfect, and one which is imperfect.

Tue imperfect fpecies of confonant-articulators, is formed
in the four fibilating pofitions and modifications juft now men-
tioned, viz. the f in the fecond pofition, the @ in the third po-
fition, the / in the fibilating modification of the fourth, and
the /b in that of the fifth pofition.

To perfect thofe four confonants, we have but to add the
guttural found to the continued expiration ; and we then pro-
duce of the f the v, of the @ the #4, of the / the 2, and of the
jb the 7.

We have now only remaining the nafal modification of the
firft pofition, which gives the confonant m ; the vibratory mo-
dification of the fourth and fifth pofitions, which give two {fpe-
cies of the letter 7; the liquid modifications, which give two .
fpecies of the letter /; and the nafal modifications of thofe two
laft pofitions, which give two fpecies of the letter 7, In none
of all thefe, is there formed a diftiné articulator, by means of
the fimple afpiration ; confequently all thefe are perfect confo-
nants.

Tue alphabet is thus completed, in comprehending every.
poflible vowel and articulator which are proper for diftinct
fpeech, except the audible afpiration of the letter 2; and this
is a general articulator, which, is formed in many different pofi- _
tions of the vocal organ. 3

As

HISTORYFY of the SOCIETY. &3

As the perfe& vowels may be either prolonged with the ex-

‘ pirated breath, or cut fhort by a change in the modifying or-
gan, we have the means of ddding quantity to the fpecifying
founds of fpeech, whereby another diftinction is formed of our
vocal founds.

We have alfo the power of compounding vocal founds for
the increafe of the radical alphabet of vowels, which is fo li-
mited. :

Diputuoncs and confonant-vowels, or rather articulating
vowels, are formed in the following manner: The diphthong,
by founding both vowels equally in the time of one; the con-
fonant-vowel again, by an unequal divifion of this time, or by
fliding quickly from the pofition of the two extreme vowels i
and uw, to the vocal found which is to be thus articulated.

Havine thus fhown that there is in nature a perfect alpha-

-bet as the principles of fpeech, at leaft that there is an alphabet
which is perfectly definable in fcience, it is propofed to.adhere |
ftriétly to this alphabet as the principles of writing, with a
view to. perfect fpeech, in having diftin@ founds; and to per-
fe& writing, in having fteady principles for the commutation
of found and figure.

To give fome idea of this; there are juft two practicable
ways of writing fpeech with any manner of advantage. Thefe
are either by figuring fimple founds, which is the alphabetical
method, or by figuring compound founds, which is the verbal
method,.

Tue Englifh method, which fhould be alphabetical, is not
truly fo, feeing it has departed egregioufly. from its principles,
in. fo far adopting the other method; this is that of typifying
words. by means) of figns, which are’ not expreflive of the found,
but of the fenfe ; whereas it fhould employ only thofe figns
which have affixed to them, an unalterable expreffion, not of
the fenfe, but of the found. We write a word by a combina-
tion of letters, not: properly expreffive of the fpeech which we

pronounce,

14 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

pronounce, but conventionally fpecifying the word which we
then render into fpeech. ‘

Tue advantages arifing from a ftri€t adherence to the fcien-
tific method of the alphabet, are of two kinds; one relating
immediately to the people who would thus acquire great facility
in learning to read and write; the other relating immediately
to the language, which would thus become uniform and fteady,
and would avoid corruption.

Ir a perfon has learned to write every vocal found, and every
articulaticen which his organs form for the ufe of fpeech, all
which are comprifed within the compafs of the alphabet, he
has it in his power to write any fpeech which he is able to pro-
nounce. He would alfo write that {peech precifely in the man-
ner that every other perfon, who has learned the alphabet, muft
render it again in reading.

Now, if a language fhould be thus perfeétly reprefented in .
the writing, the perfection of our fpeech might be, in this man-
ner, communicated among the learned of the nation, and the
improvements of our fpeech would be difperfed with our wri-
tings, by means of the improvement of our fcience.

Bur if, in writing our language, any other method is pur-
fued, which is. different from the fcientific analyfis of our
{peech, and elemental chara¢terifing of our vocal founds, there
will then be no fixed relation between our writing and the pro-
nunciation of our language ; and, in that cafe, no literary per-
fection in our education, will have any tendency to improve the
language of the nation.

Wiru regard to a reformation of our prefent method, if, on
the one hand, the orthographical praétice of this nation has
only deviated from the truth of fcience in a fmall degree, it
may be eafily corrected by the exertion of literary men, when
they confider the danger of fuch a growing evil.

Now, that there is truly danger in the cafe, muft appear
by confidering how little apprehenfion there is in general of this

error

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 15

error in our practice, notwithftanding the length to which it is
arrived.

Ir, on the other hand, our writing has departed much from
the rules of juft orthography, in that cafe, however well dif-
pofed for a reformation, it is not in the power of a few indi-
viduals, to make fo great a change in the literary fyftem of the
country, as this reformation would require.

Bur if there is to be acknowledged any advantage in the al-
phabetical method, the very difficulty of undertaking fuch a
reformation, affords the ftrongeft argument for the expediency
of the meafure.

Tuis will appear by confidering, that in departing from the
alphabetical rule, we lofe the literary advantage of the elemental
method ; at the fame time, we do not derive from the verbal
method, then fo far purfued, that benefit which the Chinefe
have, in compenfation for their want of alphabetical ortho-
graphy.

‘Tue corruption of the Chinefe orthography may naturally
lead to the introduétion of the alphabetical method. But the
corruption of the alphabetical method, while it introduces a
real difficulty and confufion into our orthography, is attended
with no advantage, except perhaps the ideal pleafure of fome
fpeculative men, when in purfuit of the derivation of the lan-

guage.

Phyf. Gl. Dr Waxxer, Profeflor of Natural Hiftory, read
a paper on Petrifaction, by EverarDus JoaNnNnEs THOMASSEN
4 Turvssinck, of Zwoll in Holland. ,

Lir-Cl. Dr Hurron read a continuation of his Differta-
tion on Written Language as a Sign of Speech. [See Supra,
June 19.]

Phy.

1786.

July 3.
Thomaffen on
petrification.

July 17.
Dr Hutton on
written lan-

guage.

1586,
Novy. 6.
MajorWilliams’
experiments on

congelation,

Novy. 20.
Dr Hutton on
written lan-

guage.

Nov. 272
General Meet-
ing.

Dec. 4.
Dr Home on
the comparative
ftrength of dif-
ferent tonics in
dy{pepfia.

Letter relative
to the kraken.

16 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Phyf. Gil. Mr Rosison read a Letter from Dr CHARLes
Huron, Profeflor of Mathematics in the Military Academy of
Woolwich, containing an Account of fome Experiments on the
Force of Congelation, made at Quebec in 1784 and 1785, by
Major Epwarp WituiAms of the Royal Artillery. This let-
ter and account are printed in this volume. [No. V. Phy/. Cl.]

Lit. Cl. Dr Hutton read the remainder of his Differta-
tion on Written Language as a Sign of Speech. [See /upra,
June r9.]

A GENERAL Meeting of the Society was held for the annual
eleétion of the Office-bearers of the Society. [See Vol. I. Ap-
pendix to the Hiftory of the Society. ]

Phy/. Cl. Dr Francis Home read an Account of fome Ex-
periments on the comparative Strength of different Tonics in
Dyfpepfia.

Ar the fame Meeting, a Letter was read from JoHN RAMSAY
L’amy, Efq; one of the Juftices of Peace for the county of
Forfar, and Mr Joun Guiip, one of the Magiftrates of Dun-
dee, inclofing an affidavit made before them, of JENs ANDER-
SON, mafter, and Maps Jenson, mate of a Norwegian fhip,
relating to the appearance of a fuppofed kraken or fea-worm,
on Sunday, Auguft 5. 1786. about 15 leagues to the eaftward
of the coaft of Scotland, in north latitude 56.16. The appear-
ance was that of three low iflands or fand-banks of a grayifh
colour, within lefs than a mile’s diftance from the fhip, and ex-
tending about three miles from the one extremity to the other.
It remained in fight about fifty minutes, and upon the fpring-
ing up of a breeze, gradually funk into the water. The ac-
count contains no further particulars worthy of notice, and is

perfectly confiftent with the idea of this being nothing more
than

“HISTORY of th SOCIETY. 17

than a fog-bank, of which the appearances are familiar to ma-
riners.

Lit. Cl. Mr Joun Rostson, General Secretary, read part of
a Differtation by the Reverend Mr Watter Younc, Minifter
of Erfkine, on Mufic and Poetry. The Differtation is Printed
in this volume. [No. III. Lit. C/.]

Phyf. Ci. "Tue Secretary read an Account by Dr Cuarves
Hutton of Woolwich, of fome Experiments made by him to
determine the Refiftance of the Air to Bodies moved aint
ite This Account is publifhed in this volume. [No.
Phy/. Gi.J

Lit. Cl. Mr Rostson read a continuation of the Reverend
Mr Youne’s Differtation on Mufic and Poetry, printed in this
volume. [No. III. Lit. C2.]

A GENERAL Meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
election of Members. [See Lift in the Appendix to Vol. I.
Part I.] :

Dr Waker exhibited to the Meeting feveral fpecimens of
natural produ¢tions and artificial rarities which had been pre-
fented to the Society in the courfe of the Jaft year. Thefe were
ordered to be repofited in a proper place of the Mufzum of the
Univerfity, and a lift was directed to be made out, and printed
in the Appendix to the hiftorical part of this volume. [See
Appendix.]

At the fame Meeting, the Secretary prefented to vip: Society
the following works: Traité Analytique des Mouvemens apparens
des Corps Ceéleftes, par M. Dionis de Sejour; and Effai fur la
Fluide Electrique, par feu M. Le Comre de-Treflan; the former

Vou. II. (C) fent

1486.

Dec. 18.
Mr Young on
mufic and poe-
try.

1787.

Jan J.
Dr Ch. Hutton
on the refiftance
of the air.

Jan. 15.
Mr Young on
mufic and poe-~
try.

Jan. 22.
General Meet-
ing.

Donations to
the Society.

Donations to
the Society,

1787.

Feb. 5.
Mr Robifon on
the Georgium
Sidus. ~

Volcanic erup-
tions in Iceland.

Feb. ro.
Mr Young on
mufic and poc-~
try.

March 5.
Experiments by
Dr Home.

March Io.
Dr Beattie on
the fixth book
of the Eneid.

April 2.
Mr Wallace on
the eaft wind.

18 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

fent to the Society by the author, the latter by M. L’AsBe
TressAN, the author’s fon. The Secretary alfo prefented from
Dr Biane his Obfervations on the Difeafes of Seamen. Thefe
books are in the lift of donations printed in Vol, I. of the So-
ciety’s Tranfactions.

Phyf. Cl. Mr Profeflor Ropison read a Comparifon of the
Theory of the Motion of the New Planet, read by him laft
year, with fome additional obfervations made by him fince.
[See Vol. I. No. XI. Phy/. Ci.]

Art the fame Meeting, Dr Wacker read an Extra&t from an
Account of the Volcanic Eruptions in Iceland during the year

1783.

Lit. Cl. Mr Roxpison read the remaining part of the Re-
verend Mr Water Younco’s Differtation on Mufic and Poe-
try; which is printed in this volume. [No. III. Lit. C/.]

Phyf. Cl. Dr Francis Home read an Account of fome
Medical Experiments made by him upon the Digitalis.

Lit. Cl. Mr Daze read a Differtation by Dr James
Beatriz, Profeffor of Philofophy in the Marifchal College of
Aberdeen, entitled, Remarks on fome Paflages of the fixth Book
of the Eneid. This Differtation is printed in this volume.

[No Il Lit. CZ]

Phyf. Cl. Grorct Watract, Efq; Advocate, read a part of
a Differtation on the Caufes of the Difagreeablenefs and Cold-
nefs of the Eaft Wind. ‘The author did not incline that any

abftract fhould be given of this Differtation.
Lit.

HISTORY of th SOCIETY. 19

Lit. Cl. MrMaconoculz communicated from RoBERT BoGLE
of Daldowie, Efq; a copy of a letter, written.in 1773, by the
Tefhoo Lama of Thibet, toWarrEN Hastinos, Efq; Governor-
general of Bengal, while a brother of Mr Bocte’s was refiding
at the Lama’s court, as envoy from Mr Hastincs. Mr Maco-
NOCHIE remarked, that the turn of thought and expreffion ren-
dered the letter a very great curiofity ; but that it was ftill
more interefting on two accounts: /i7/7, That it eftablifhed be-
yond all queftion, that the Tefhoo Lama, though a Pontiff of
inferior rank to the Dalai Lama, is underftood to poffefs the
foul of faints, or divine perfonages that flourifhed in former
times, and to retain the remembrance of what happened to
them in thofe paft periods of exiftence. 2d/y, That the fame
places which are regarded in Bengal as peculiarly facred, are
likewife regarded by the religion of Fo as holy ; that the Tefhoo
Lama, in fome of his former ftates of exiftence, is fuppofed to
have refided in thofe places ; that the Ganges, fo revered among
the Brahmins, is alfo revered by the worfhippers of Fo; and
that the reference by the followers of that religion in Japan, to
fome region in India, as the origin and holy land of their
faith, is here afcertained to belong to Bengal. Thefe circum-
ftances, he thought, fuggefted very important refleGtions with
regard to the hiftory of the religions of Eaftern Afia.

Tue letter is as follows :

From TresHoo Lama to the Governor.

Received the 22d Fuly 1775.

“ Mr Bogie, whom, out of your kindnefs, you were pleafed
“to fend into this quarter, having (thank Gop) arrived here in
“ perfedt health, I had, at an aufpicious hour, the pleafure of an

‘ interview with him, and was rendered fo completely happy on
“the occafion, that it might in reality have been thought an in-
(C 2) _ “ terview

1787.
April 16.
Letter from the
Tefhoo Lama to

Mr Hatltings.

20 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

“ terview with yourfelf. The letter which you addreffed to me,
“ and the prefents you fent by Mr Boere, I have likewife re-
“ ceived fafe. May your happinefs and profperity daily in-
“‘ creafe. All the particulars which Mr Bocte verbally repre-
“ fented to me, I perfectly underftand. You were pleafed to
“ write me, that you had fent orders for eftablifhing peace with
‘€ the Debe Doria, agreeable to my requeft. True ; the pleafure
“ thefe particulars gave me, it is impoflible to.exprefs. When
* you, out of pure friendfhip, are induced thus readily to com-
“ ply with a requeft of mine, what return can I make you for
“ it, but offer you my prayers? You have laid me under an ob-
“ ligation to you for ever ; and [hope that you will every where
“ prove victorious and fuccefsful. What can I fay to you of my
“ own fituation? In former ages, I repeatedly received my ex-
“ iftence from Allahabad, Benares, Patna, Purnea, and .other
“ places in Bengal and Oriffa ; and having ever enjoyed much
“ happinefs from thofe places, I have imbibed a partiality for
“ them; and a fincere love and affection for their inhabitants
“ are ftrongly impreffed on my heart. The well known place of
“ Outragund gave me my laft exiftence; and thanks be to Gep,
“ the inhabitants of this quarter are all content and fatisfied with
“ me. Where my fpiritual effence will tranfmigrate to next, will
“ hereafter be feen. At prefent, here I fit in this icy country,
“ in obedience and fubjeCtion to the Emperor of China. I have
“Jong had a defire of feeing you, and the dominions and people
“ over whom you rule; but hitherto many caufes have occurred:
“ to prevent me, whatever may happen in future. My travelling fo
“* far as your country, to obtain a perfonal interview with you,
“ muft, however, be attended with many unfurmountable diffi-
“ culties, and Providence has decreed that we fhould be at this
“ neceflary diftance from each other. From this confideration,
* J am induced to requeft that you will grant me a piece of
“ sround near the fea-fide, that I may build a houfe of wor-
“ fhip thereupon; and for the expences of building it, I have

* fent

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 21

“ fent an hundred pieces of gold by Mr Boers, together with
«* fome carpets, cloths, and other neceflaries, which he will fhew
“you, for the decoration of it; and I requeft that you will do
« me the favour to let the houfe be immediately built, and the
“ things put up; and as foon as the cold feafon fets in, 1 will
“ certainly difpatch to you fome of my own people, if not fome
“ of the family of the Lama, who is patron of the Emperor of
“ China. I hope that you will receive them with kindnefs, and
“ fend fome of your own fervants with them, to vifit every place
of worfhip at Allahabad, Benares, éé¢. for the difcharge of their
religious duties. As this country is under. the abfolute fove-
“* reignty of the Emperor of China, who maintains an active and
“ ynrelaxed control over all its affairs ; and as the forming of any
connection or friendfhip with foreign powers is contrary to his
“ pleafure, it will frequently be out of my power to difpatch any
“ meffengers to you. However, it will be impoflible to efface the
“ remembrance of you out of my mind ; and I fhall always pray
& for the increafe of your happinefs and profperity, and, in re-
“turn, I hope you will frequently favour me with accounts of
“ your health. To avoid troubling you, and intruding longer
“upon your time with my incorreét ftyle, I fhall conclude this,
“ but-beg you will favour me with an anfwer; and I fhall take
an opportunity of addrefling you by every perfon who goes
“ from hence into your part of the world. Ihave reprefented all
“ particulars to Mr Bocte, who will communicate them to you,
“ and I hope you will confent to them.

[On a feparate piper)

“ Havinc, in compliance with my requeft, put ap end to

« hoftilities with the Debe Raja, and eftablifhed a peace with
“ him, you have thereby conferred upon me the greateft obliga-
“tion. As a teftimony whereof, I fend you a prefent of a few
“ things; and, although not worth acceptance, Il beg you will ac-
se cept

22 HISTORY of the SOCIETY:

1787. “ cept of them, merely upon this confideration, that a green leaf
“is a prefent from a hermit. :

“ Lift of Prefents.

“ 8 pieces of China fatin.
* 1 filver talent of China.
** 1 Pelong handkerchief.

“I can make no fuitable return for your friendfhip from this

“ part of the world, and I hope you will excufe it. PooruNn
** Ker Cusuoo will have the honour of paying his refpects to

“ you; and I hope you will grant him your favour and protec-
“ tion in the bufinefs with which he is entrufted.”

Test Lit. Cl. Dr Grecory read a Philological Differtation, en-
Dr Gregory on titled, Theory of the Moods of Verbs ; ah is publifhed in
woth. this volume. [No. IV. Lt. Cl]

July 2. Phyf. Cl. Mr Gzorcrt WALLACE read the continuation of

Mr Wallsce on his Differtation on the Caufes of the Difagreeablenefs and Cold-
nefs of the Eaft Wind. (See /upra, April 2.]

Letter from the Art the fame Meeting, the following Letter from the Prefident
Prefid d ° es
Vily. de Virly, at Dijon, was read :

A Paris ce 1ome Mars 1787.
On the ule of “ Tr fera peut étre agréable a la Societé d’apprendre que l’on

cauttic alkali in

the cure ofgra. “* a appliqué a Dijon, avec fuccés un remede que l’on doit a
velit diforders: ¢¢ un medecin de votre ifle: l’alkali cauftique pris intérieure-
‘* ment pour le calcul ou la pierre. M. Duranvez, medecin

* de cette ville a eu un malade qui avoit rendu beaucoup de
gravier par les urines, et avoit de grandes douleurs. Le ma-
“Jade, en méme tems, ne vouloit pas entendre parler de fe |
** faire

a

”~

iid

.

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 23

faire fonder. M. DuraNnDeE lui a adminiftré V’alkali caufti-
que dans un bouillon de veau, qui contenoit 4 peu prés une
livre d’eau. Il acommencé par dix gouttes, et a fini, en
augmentant la dofe, par l’adminiftrer jufqu’a quarante
gouttes. Au bout de fix femaines, les accidens avoient telle-
ment ceflé que le malade a dit n’avoir plus befoin de rien.
Il ya dix mois, et il fe trouve trés bien.

‘“ Un autre malade acommencé le méme remede.. Un verre
de fon urine le-cinquieme jour de traitement, tems auquel
il prenoit douze gouttes d’alkali cauftique, a été eflayé. Le
papier de Fernambouc s’eft trés legerement altéré. L’eau
chargée d’air fixe atroublé un verre de cette urine, et y a oc-
cafioné un trés leger dépot. On fait que l’eau gafeufe re-
prend l’alkali a la matiere du calcul.

“ On s’etoit affuré par le papier teint avec le jus de mauve
que le bouillon ne dénaturoit point alkali cauftique. I] faut
avoir foin que l’alkali foit bien cauftique, et n’aye pas perdu
fa vertu par le contact de lair. hk

“« Ix s’eft prefenté a moi un fait en Angleterre, qui, je crois,
n’a pas été encore obfervé. C’eft une éfpece de bafalte artifi-
ciel. En examinant, auprés de Sheffield, des matériaux pour
réparer la route, je caflai plufieurs de ces morceaux de terre
cuite dont on fe fert dans plufieurs endroits de I’Angleterre
pour réparer les chemins. Ces morceaux fe caffoient en
prifmes hexagones trés réguliers, tels que ceux des bafaltes.
Les differentes perfonnes a qui je les ai montrés, notamment
M. WatT, ne les connoiffoient pas. Je n’en avois jamais vu
non plus. Je vous ferai obligé Monfieur, de communiquer
ce fait 4 Monf. le Dr HurTon, quia fait beaucoup d’obfer-
vations, dont on verra furement la publicité avec grand plai-
fr. J’ai Vhonneur d’étre,” te.

Lit. Cl. Dr Grecory read the continuation of his Theory of

the Moods of Verbs, publifhed in this volume. [No. IV, Lit. C/.]

Phyf.

4

Of an artificial
bafaltes.

July 16.
Dr Gregory om
the moods of
verbs,

1787.
Augutt 6,
New fpecies of

cochineal.

Count de Win-
difchgratz’s
problem,

Nov. 5:
Mr Lochead on
the nat. hift. of
Madeira,

Nov. 19.
Mr Dalzel on
the Greek &.

Nov. 26.
General Meet-
ing.

Dec. 3.

Dr Hutton’s
anfwers to M,
de Luc.

24 HISTORY of th SOCIETY.

Phyf. Cl. Dr James AnpERsOoN laid before the Society a
f{pecimen of a new fpecies of cochineal, lately difcovered on the
coaft of Coromandel by JAmMEs ANDERsoN, M. D. Phyfician-
general at Madrafs.

At the fame Meeting, Mr Commiffioner Smitu acquaint-
ed the Society, that the Count de WInpiscucrATz had
tranfmitted to him three Differtations, offered as folutions of
his Problem, [See TranfaGtions, Vol. I. Hift. of the Soc. p. 37.
& 45.] and had defired the judgment of the Society upon their
merits. The Society referred the confideration of thefe papers
to Mr Smiru, Mr Henry Mackenzie of the Exchequer, and
Mr WititrAM Craic, Advocate, as a Committee to perufe and
confider them, and to report their opinion to the Society at a
fubfequent Meeting.

Phyf. Cl. Dr WAKER, Profeffor of Natural Hiftory, read
part of a Differtation, written by Mr Locueap, on the Natural
Hiftory of Madeira.

Lit. Cl. Mr Davzex read the continuation of his Dif
fertation on certain Analogies obferved by the Greeks in the
ufe of their Letters; and particularly of the Letter 3. [See
Jupra, Dec. 19. 1785+]

A GENERAL Meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
election of General Office-bearers for the enfuing year; when
all thofe of the preceding year were re-elected.

Phyf. Cl. Dr James Hutron read Anfwers by him to the
Objections of M. pz Luc, with regard to his Theory of Rain,
(publifhed in Tranfactions, Vol. 1. No. II. Phy/. Ci.) Thefe
Anfwers are printed in this volume. [No. VIII. Phy/. Cl.]

Litt.

HISTORY .of the SOCIETY. 25

Lit. Cl. Mr Dauzex read an Effay on the Standard of
Tafte, and on the Nature and Hiftory of Criticifm. He did
not incline that this Effay, or any abftra@t of it, fhould be
printed in this volume.

He alfo read a fhort Efflay by the Reverend Mr Ropertson,
Minifter of Dalmeny, on the Subjunétive Mode in Englith Verbs,
and on /hall and will. The author did not incline that any
account of this Effay fhould be given in this volume.

Plyf. Cl. Dr Waker read a continuation of Mr LocuEan’s
paper on the Natural Hiftory of Madeira. [See /upra, Nov. 5.1787. ]

Lit. Cl. Mr Maconocuie read a paper containing Obferva-
tions refpecting the Country, Religion, Political Inftitutions,
and Sciences of the Hindoos.

Ar the fame Meeting, Mr Commiffioner Smiru reported the
opinion of the Committee appointed to examine the three Dif-
fertations offered as Solutions of the Count de WinpiscH-
GRATZ’s Problem, [See /upra, Aug. 6. 1787.]; which was,
That none of the three Differtations amounted, either to a folu-
tion, or to an approximation towards a folution of that pro-
blem. The Committee, however, intimated their opinion, that
one of thefe Differtations, fuperfcribed with the following fen-
tence, Si guid novifti rectius iftis, &c. though neither a folution.
of the problem nor an approximation to it, was a work of great
merit. The Royal Society, hereupon, pronounced their judg-
ment in terms of the faid report; and they requefted Mr Fraser
TYTLER to tranfmit this judgment, and the opinion of the
Committee, by a.letter to the Count de WINDISCHGRATZ.

A GENERAL Meeting of the Royal Society was held. for the
election of Members. [See Lift.in the Appendix to the Hiftory
of the Society. ]

Von, II. (D) Phy/.

1587.
Dec. 17.
Mr Dalzel on
the ftandard of

taite.

Mr Robertfon
on the fubjunc-
tive mode in

Englith verbs:

1788.
Jan. 7-
Mr Lochead on
the nat. hift. of
Madeira.

Jan. 21.
Mr Maconochie
on. the Hindoos,

Report and
judgment rela-
tive to the
Count de Wine
difchgrata’s
problem.

Jan. 23.
General Meet-
ing,

1788.
Feb. 4.
Sir James Hall
on Lavoifier’s
theory of che-
mittry.

Feb. 18.
Dr Hill on fy-
norymous
words,

March 3.
Sir James Hall
on Lavoifier’s
chemiftry.

Spirits diftilled
from carrots.

March 17.
Biographical
account of the
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

Mr Ramfay on
the funeral rites
of the High-
landers.

April 7. »
Mr Robifon on

the motion of
light,

26 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Phyf. Cl. Sir James Haut, Baronet, read part of a paper
entitled, A View of M. Lavoisier’s new Theory of Chemiftry.
He did not incline that this paper, or any abftract of it, fhould
be printed in this volume.

Lit. Cl. Dr Joun Hitz read part of an Effay on Synony-
mous Words. As this Effay forms part of a larger work, which
is not yet completed, the author did not chufe that any abftract
of it fhould be given in this volume.

Phyf. Cl. Sir JAmEs Hatt read a fecond part of his paper
on M. Lavoirsrer’s new Theory of Chemiftry. [See /upra,
Feb. 4.]

At the fame Meeting, the Secretary read a communication
from Dr Hunter and Mr Horney of York, refpecting the
Diftillation of Ardent Spirits from Carrots. A fpecimen of the
Spirits had likewife been fent to the Royal Society. The So-
ciety appointed Dr Brack, Dr Hutton, and Mr JAmess Rus-
SELL, furgeon, to examine this account, together with the fpe-
cimen of the fpirits, and to report upon the fame.

Lit. Cl. Mr Fraser TyTeer read a Biographical Account
of the late Lord Prefident Dunpas ; which is publifhed in this
volume. [Appendix to the Hiftory of the Society. ]

Mr Profeffor FinrAyson read a Differtation by Joun Ram-
sAY, Efg; of Auchtertyre, on the Funeral Rites of the High-
landers,

Phyf. Cl. Myr Prayrair read a paper by Mr Joun Rosison,
Profeffor of Natural Philofophy, on the Motion of Light, as
affected by Refracting and Reflecting Subftances, which are
alfo in motion. This paper is publifhed in this volume. [No. XI.
Phyf. Gi.]

AT

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 29

At the fame Meeting, Sir James Hatt read the concluding
part of his View of M. Lavorsrer’s Theory of Chemiftry.
[See fupra, Feb. 4. and March 3. 1788. ]

Lit. Gl. Mr Henry Mackenzie read an Account of the
German Theatre, with Remarks upon Dramatic Performances
in general. This paper is printed in this volume. [No. V.
Lit. Cl.

Phyf. Cl. Dr Hutton read a paper on Phlogifton, in an-
fwer to the Obfervations of Sir James Hatt, in his Account
of M. LavoistEerR’s Chemiftry.

Phyf. Cl. Tur Society met this day extra ordinem. Dr Hur-
TON read fome further Obfervations on Phlogifton ; and Sir
James Hatt read a paper in reply to Dr Hurron’s former
Obfervations on that fubject.

A GENERAL Meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
ele€tion of Members. [See Lift in the Appendix to the Hiftory
of the Society. ] f

Plyf. Cl. An Account was read by Dr James ANDERSON,
of thirteen letters from James ANDERSON, M.D. Phyfician at
Madrafs, to Sir JosepH Banks, F.R.S. Lond. refpecting the
Difcovery of a new fpecies of Cochineal. [See /upra, Aug. 6.
1787. ]

Lit. Cl. Mr Dauzet read a Differtation by Mr Tuomas
Rosertson, Minifter of Dalmeny, on the Character of
SHAKESPEARE’s Hamiet. This paper is printed in this vo-®
lume. [No. VII. Lit. Ci]

(D 2) Phyf.

1788.
April 7.
Sir James Halk
on Lavoifier’s

chemiftry,

April 21.
Mr Mackenzie
on the German
theatre,

May s-
Dr Hutton oa
phlogifton.

May t2.-
Dr Hutton and
Sir James Hall
on phlogifton.

June 23.
General Meet-
ing.

July 7.
Dr Anderfon on
a new fpecies of
cochineal.

July 21.
Mr Robertfon
onthe character
of Hamlet,

1788.
Nov. 3.
Mr Small on

ventilation,

Spirits diftilled
from carrots.

28 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Phyf. Cl. Mr Dauzet read an Effay on Ventilation, by
ALEXANDER SMALL, Efquire.

At the fame Meeting, a Report was prefented from Dr
Brack, Dr Hutton, and Mr RussEti, on Dr Hunger and
Mr Hornsy’s procefs for producing an ardent fpirit from
carrots. [See /upra, March 3. 1788.] The report is as follows :

We have examined the fample of fpirits, which was fent by
Dr Hunrer of York to the Royal Society, and we have read
the account of the experiment on the fermentation and diftilla-
tion of carrots by which the faid fpirit was produced. The
experiment was made by Mr Tuomas Horney, druggift in
York, with one ton and eight ftone of carrots, which, after
being expofed to the air a few days to dry, weighed 160 ftone,
and meafured 42 bufhels ; they were wafhed, topped and tailed,
by which they loft in weight rr ftone, and in meafure feven bu-
fhels ; being then cut, they were boiled with the proportion of
24 gallons of water to one third of the above quantity of car-
rots, until the whole was reduced to a tender pulp, which was
done in three hours boiling. From this pulp, the juice was
eafily extracted by means of a prefs, and 200 gallons of juice
were produced from the whole. This juice was boiled again
with one pound of hops five hours, and then cooled to 66 of
FAHRENHEIT, and fix quarts of yeaft being added, it was fet
to ferment. The ftrong fermentation lafted 48 hours, during
which time the heat abated to 58 of FAHRENHEIT; 12 gallons
of unfermented juice, which had been referved, were then
heated and added-to the liquor, the heat of which was thus
taifed again to 66, and the fermentation was renewed for 24
hours more, the air of the brewhoufe being all this time at
46 and 44. The liquor was now turned, and continued to
work three days from the bung; and, laftly, it was diftilled,
and the firft diftillation was rectified next day without any ad-

dition.

HISTORY of the SOCIETY. 29

dition. The produce was twelve gallons, of the fame quality
with the fample.

In our examination of this fample, we found it refembled a .

corn fpirit in flavour, but was equal to a corn fpirit of the beft

kind, and it was a proof fpirit.
Tue refufe of the carrots weighed 48 ftone, hich added to

the tops and tails, made provifion for hogs, befide the wafh from
the ftill, which meafured, 114 gallons.

From this experiment, Dr Hunter draws the following
comparifon between the diftillation of carrots and that of grain:

20 tons of carrots, which will make 200 gallons of proof
fpirits, may be bought for L. 16.

8 quarters of malt, or rather the materials for diftillation,
confifting of malt, wheat and rye, may be bonght for L. 16,
and will alfo make 200 gallons of proof {pirit.

Tue refufe from the carrots will be g60 ftone, which, at 1d.
per ftone, will fell for L. 4.

Tue refufe or grains from the malt, tc. will be 64 buthels,
each bufhel weighing about 3 ftone, which, at 1d. fer ftone,
will fell for 16s.

TueE Doctor, however, fuppofes, that the manufacturing of
the fpirit from carrots may be attended with more expence than
the manufacturing of it from malt; but imagines that the greater
value of the refufe may compenfate for that expence, and that
the faving of corn for other purpofes, is an obje&t worthy of
attention and of encouragement.

; (Signed) Josrru Brack.
19th May 1788.. James RussELL.
James Hutton.

Phy. Cl. Dr Witttam Wricut, F.R.S. Lond. read a Bo-
tanical and Medicat Account of the Quaffia Simaruba; which
is printed in this volume. [No. X. Phy/f. Cl]

AT

1788.

Dec: x.

Dr Wright on
quaffia fimarv~
ba,

1788.

Dec. 1.
Sir Ja. Hall on
pumice ftone.

, MrLeflie on

the folution of
certain math.
problems.

Dee. Is.
Dr Hill on fyn.
words,

30 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

At the fame Meeting, Sir James Haut read a paper on the
Formation of Pumice Stone.

Mr Prayrair read a paper by Mr Joun Lesuiz, on the
Solution of certain indeterminate Problems in Mathematics.

This paper is printed in this volume. [No. XIV. Phy/ C/.]

Lit. Cl. Dr Joun Hitt read a continuation of his Effay on
Synonymous Words. [See /wpra, Feb. 18. 1788.]

APPEN-

Aspe er OUND De OB ox

January I. 1790.

LIST of MemBers or Fettows of the Roya Society of
Edinburgh, continued from Fanuary 1, 1788. when the firft Vo-
lume was publifbed.

OmITTED by miftake in the former List.

Robert Hamilton, M.D. Fellow of the Royal College of Phyfi-
cians, and Phyfician at Lynn Regis, in Norfolk. P.

Tue following were elected at the General Meeting, Jan. 28.
_ 1788.

I. RESIDENT.
Mr Robert Ker, Surgeon in Edinburgh. P.

_. 2. NON-RESIDENT.

William Hamilton, M. A. Fellow of. Trinity College, Dublin. Z.

Robert Adam, Ef{q; Archite@t to King Gzorce III. and Queen
-CuaroTre, F.R.S. & S.A. Lond, &c. ZL.

Caleb Whiteford, F{q; Lond. L.

Major-general William Roy, F. R.S. Lond. P.

George Dempfter, E{q; of Dunnichen. LL.

Charles Thomas Hope, M.D, Profeffor of Medicine in ‘the Univer-
fity of Glafgow. P.

Mr

Members cho-
fen, Jan, 23.
1788,

32 HISTORY of th SOCIETY.

Mr Yohn Rennie, Engineer, London. P.
Lieutenant Robert Arbuthnot. L.

3. FOREIGN.
M. L’Abbé Raynal.

Members cho- Tue following were elected at the General Meeting, June 23.
ees 35786: ;
1, RESIDENT.

Thomas Spens, M.D. Edinburgh. P.

Lewis Alexander Grant, E{q; of Grant, Advocate. J.

David Smyth, Efg; of Methven. ZL.

Charles Hope, E{q; Advocate. L.

Fohn Wilde, E{q; Advocate. L.

The Reverend Mr William Moodie, Minifter of St Andrew’s

Church, Edinburgh. JZ.

2. NON-RESIDENT:
Robert Cleghorn, M.D. Glafgow. P.
Robert Bogle, Efq; of Daldowie. L.. -
William Lifter, M. D. Lond.

Mesier cho- Tue following were eleéted at the General Meeting, Jan. 26..
fen, Jan. 26.
1789. 1789.

1. NON-RESIDENT...
Bartholomew Parr, M.D. of Exeter. P.
ohn Drummond, M. D. of Jamaica. P.
Yobn Ogilvy, D.D. Minifter at Midmar. L.
General Rodert Melvil. LL.
, 2. Fo-

APPENDIX. . 33

2. FOREIGN.

M. Guyot, of Paris.
Mr #efferfon, Minifter Plenipotentiary from the States of Ame-
rica, at Paris.

_ Tue following were elected at the General Meeting, June 29.
1789.

1. NON-RESIDENT.
Fobn Thomas Stanley, Ef{q3 of Alderley in Chefhire, F. A. S. Lond.

2. FOREIGN.

Henry Engelhart, M.D. Profeflor of the Practice of Phyfic in
the Univerfity of Lunden.
Foachim Ramm, M.D. of Riga.

~

Vo. Il. (E) OrrFice-

Members cho-
fen, June 29.
1789.

34 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

OrricE-BEARERS of the SociETY.

General office Orrick-BEARERS elected for the enfuing year, at the General
il Meeting held for that purpofe, Nov. 30. 1789.

Prefident.

His Grace the Duke of BuccLEuGH.

Vice-Prefidents.

Right Hon. Henry Dundas. | Lord Dunjinnan.
Secretary. | Treafurer.
Mr Fobn Robifon. | Mr Alex. Keith.
Counfellors.
Dr Fames Hutton. Lord Elliock.
Mr Geo. Ferguffon. Major-Gen. Fletcher-Campbell.
Mr Benjamin Bell. Mr Commiffioner Edgar.
Mr Dugald Stewart. Sir William Miller, Bart.
Dr Daniel Rutherford, Dr Adam Fergufon.
Dr James Gregory. Lord Dreghora.

OFFICE-

APPENDIX. 35

OFrFICcE-BEARERS of the two CLASSES.

Puysicat CLAss. E

Prefidents.
Dr William Cullen. Dr Alexander Monro.
Dr Francis Home. Dr Fofeph Black.
. Secretaries.
Dr Fohn Walker. —s_ | Mr Fohn Playfair *,

LITERARY CLAss.

Prefidents.

Mr Baron Gordon. Dr William Robertfon.
Mr Commiflioner Smith. Dr Hugh Blair.

—

Secretaries.

Mr Alex. Frafer Tytler. | Mr Andrew Dalzel.

~ # Who had alfo been eleGted at the General Meeting, June 29. 1789, on the refignation
of Dr Gregory.

(E 2) List

Office-bearers
of the claffes.

36 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

List of Memsers deceafed, continued from the firft volume.

Hary Spens, D.D. Profeffor of Divinity in the Univerfity of
St Andrew’s. November 27. 1787.

The Right Hon. Robert Dundas of Arnifton, Lord Prefident of
the Court of Seffion. December 13. 1787.

Fobn Dryfdale, D.D. one of the Minifters of Edinburgh, Dean
of the Chapel Royal, and Principal Clerk to the Church of
Scotland. June 16. 1788.

Fohn Macfarlan, D.D. Minifter of Canongate, and Almoner to
his Majefty. December 24. 1788.

The Reverend Mr Fohn Logan, formerly one of the Minifters
of Leith. December 28. 1788.

The Right Hon. Sir Thomas Miller, of Glenlee, Baronet, Lord
Prefident of the Court of Seffion. September 27. 1789.

ForEIGN MEMBERS deceafed.

M. le Comte de Buffon. April 16. 1788.
Petrus Camper, M.D. Holland. 1789.

Since the publication of the preceding volume, the follow-
ing BiocrAPHicAL Accounts have been read at different
Meetings of the Clafles.

I. Ac-

APPENDIX. 37

I. isle ounT of the Right Honourable ROBERT DUNDAS of
Arnifton, Lord Prefident of the Court of Seffion in Scotland,
F.R.S. Eoin. te.

[Read ly ALEX. FrasER TrTLeER; Eq; Advocate, March 17. 1788.)

OBERT DUNDAS of Arnifton, late Lord Prefident of

the Court of Seffion, was the defcendant of a family to
which the hiftorian and genealogift have afligned an origin of
high antiquity and fplendor *, but which has been ftill more .
remarkable for producing a feries of men, eminently diftin-
guifhed for their public fervices in the higheft civil offices of
this country. If the pride of anceftry is ever allowable, it is
where thofe anceftors have adorned the ftations which they
filled, by that genuine merit which, independently of rank,
muft have entitled them to the refpect and efteem of their fel-
low-citizens. Such were the progenitors of the late Lord Pre-
fident, whofe family has produced a fucceflion of men, who,
for four generations, have difcharged the higheft offices of the
law in this country with equal abilities and integrity.

As the merits of fome of thefe eminent perfons entitle them
to more than general eulogy, and as there are fome circum-
{tances of their lives and charaéters too honourable, and indeed
too exemplary to be pafled over in filence, I fhall here mention

a

* Sir James Duwnas, firft Baron of Arnifton, Governor of Berwick, and knighted
by King James VI. was the third fon of Gzorcz Bunpas of Dundas, (by Caruertne,
daughter of Laurence Lord Oliphant) the fixteenth in defcent from the Dunzars Earls
of -March, who, according to Sir Ja. Daraymeie, Crawrurp, NisBet, &c. derive
their origin from the Saxon Kings of England.

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

38 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

a few anecdotes refpeéting them, as introductory to the account
of His life, on whom I mean more particularly to enlarge.

Sir James Dunpas of Arnifton, eldeft fon of Sir James
Dunpas, Governor of Berwick, by Mary, the daughter of
Grorce Home of Wedderburn, had the honour of knighthood
conferred on him by Cuartes I. In the earlier part of his
life, and in the courfe of a very liberal education, he had
fpent a confiderable time abroad, and vifited the politeft of the
foreign Courts. On his return to his native country, he was
chofen Reprefentative of the county of Edinburgh in the Scot-
tifh Parliament; and, in the moft difficult of times, when pu-
blic virtue was put to the fevereft trials, uniformly maintained
the character of a fteady and fincere patriot. He difapproved,
as did many of the beft friends of their King and Country, of
thofe violent meafures by which CHARLEs, mifguided by Laup,
endeavoured to force this kingdom to fubmit to the Epifcopal
hierarchy. The ecclefiaftical and the civil liberties of the king-
dom were juftly regarded as moft intimately connected. with
each other. The Church of Scotland, in all periods of its hi-
ftory, whatever had been its form of government and difci-
pline, had uniformly rejected the idea of dependence on the
Metropolitan fees of England*; and at this time, even thofe
among the Scots who approved of the Epifcopal forms, could
not brook that rules of difcipline fhould be prefcribed to them
by Englith ecclefiaftics. They were juftly indignant at thofe
meafures which they confidered as a tyrannical endeavour to,
bring the National Church, hitherto independent, under a
difhonourable fubjeétion to that of England ; and they regarded,
the attempt to introduce an Englifh liturgy, as preparatory to
the introduétion of Englifh laws. This was the idea which
prevailed with many virtuous men to fign the National Covenant,

which,

* Tue conteft for the independency of the National Church of Scotland had begus
as early as the reign of Avexanper I.

‘APPENDIX. : 39

which, by prefenting a deliberate and a powerful oppofition to
that attack againft their religious and civil liberties, bad fair
to prevail with the Sovereign to abandon thofe unconftitutional
attempts, and thus might have been the means of preferving
the peace of the kingdom. In this idea, Sir James Dunpas,
‘ with many other fincere and virtuous patriots, figned the Co-
venant; though they faw afterwards, with regret, that the
fame affociation, which, with the well difpofed, might have
been an inftrument of peace, was converted into an engine of
tumult and fedition.

On the extinétion of the monarchical government, the fu-
preme court of judicature in Scotland, the Court of Seffion,
was converted by OLivER CROMWELL into a Commiffion for the
adminifiration of juftice, and partly fupplied by Englifh Judges.
Upon the Reftoration, that Court refumed its ancient form;
and among the new Judges appointed by the Sovereign, was Sir
James Dunpvas of Arnifton, whofe high charater, in point of
probity and natural abilities, was fuch as to balance the want
of an education to the law as a profeffion. He was appointed
a Judge of the Court of Sefflion in 1662.

In the end of the fame year, CuArues II. apprehenfive of
that fpirit of difaffection to the government, which very generally
prevailed in this country, found it neceffary, with the advice of
Parliament, to require all perfons holding offices in Scotland,
to fubfcribe a Declaration, importing that they held it unlawful
to enter into Leagues and Covenants on pretence of reformation,
or to take up arms againft the king; and, in particular, ,ab-
juring thofe bonds entitled the National and the Solemn League
and Covenant as illegal and feditious affociations.

Tuts meafure was complied with by fome from principle,
and by others from policy. The Chancellor of Scotland being
directed to require the Judges of the Court of Seffion to fubfcribe
the Declaration, under the penalty of lofing their offices, moft
of thefe,—it is to be prefumed, from Confcience,—manifefted

1 ; an

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

40 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

an eafy compliance. Others, however, from the fame honour-
able motive, refufed to renounce thofe obligations, of which,
though they regretted the abufe, they approved of the princi-
ple. Among that number was Sir James DunpaAs, who re-
fufed to fign the Teft-declaration, unlefs with a fubjoined claufe,
importing his abjuration of the Covenant, “ in fo far as it had
“ Jed to deeds of a€tual rebellion.” This qualified compliance
was rejected by the Sovereign, and the recufant Judges were
deprived of their offices. Their feats, however, were kept vacant
for fome time, in expectation, either that their f{cruples might
be relaxed by the fenfe of their fubftantial loffes, or that fome
medium of accommodation might be devifed for adjufting the
fubje&t of difference. One expedient was propofed, which, it
is probable, originated from the Sovereign himfelf, as it favours
remarkably of his code of eafy morality. This was, that fuch
of the Judges as fcrupled to give an unlimited declaration,
fhould, for the fake of example, fubfcribe /imply, as the law re-
quired, but fhould be allowed, in a private converfation with
the King, to explain the fenfe in which they underftood thofe
oaths.

On thefe fingular terms, fome of the deprived Judges were
willing to redeem their offices. They repaired to London, had
a private audience of his Majefty, and returned with new com-
miflions in their pockets *. But that conciliatory meafure was
propofed in vain to Lord ArNniston. He adhered refolutely
and inflexibly to thofe principles which he efteemed right. To
the folicitation of a friend, who earneftly intreated him, for his
own fake, for that of his family and of the public, to be fatis-

fied

* Tuey would juftify their condu& by the prudent reafoning which Cicero ufed to
Lentutus. ‘* Nam neque pugnandum contra tantas opes, neque delendum, etiam fi id
“ fieri poflet, fummorum civium principatum, neque permanendum in una fententia,
“ converfis rebus, ac bonorum voluntatibus immutatis; fed temporibus affentiendum.’*

Cie, Epift. ad fam. hi. tp. Qs

APPEND IX. 41

fied with the propofed expedient, he returned this memorable
anfwer: “ I have repeatedly told you that in this affair I have
' © a&ted from confcience. I will never fubfcribe that declara-
“ tion, unlefs I am allowed to qualify it; and if my /ub/cription is
“ to be public, I cannot be fatisfied that the /alvo fhould be /atent.”’

Hrs feat in the Court of Seflion was not filled up for three
years; during all which time, he was affailed in vain by the
folicitations both of his brethren on the Bench, and of the
King’s Minifters. Happy in the approbation of his own mind,
and honoured with the efteem of all men of worth, -he retired
to his family-feat of Arnifton ; and there, in the tranquil en-
joyments of the country, in the gratification of a tafte for po-
lite literature, and in the fociety of his friends, he pafled the
remainder of his days.

Sir JamegDunpas died in the year 1679. Rosert, his
eldeft fon, by Marion, daughter of Rosert Lord Boyd, was
bred to the profeflion of the law. He reprefented the county
of Edinburgh for many years in the Parliament of Scotland;

and was appointed a Judge of the Court of Seflion by King

WittraM in 1689. He filled that ftation, during the period
of thirty-feven years, with great honour and integrity ; and be-
fore his death in 1727, had the fatisfaction of feeing his eldeft
fon * fucceflively difcharging the moft important offices in the
law, and though a very young man, far advanced in that
f{plendid career in which he was deftined to arrive at the fum-
mit of his profeffion.

‘Tuts was RoBertT Dunpas of Arnifton, afterwards Lord
Prefident of the Court of Seffion, the Father of him who is the
proper fubjeét of this Memoir. Though in no period of his
life diftinguifhed for laborious application to ftudy, he had, in

Vot. IL. (F) his

* Born gth December 168 5 His mother was Marcarer, daughter of Sir Roszrr
Sinciarr of Stevenfon.

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

Account of
lord Prefident
Dundas.

42 HISTORY of th SOCIETY.

his earlier years, improved his mind by an acquaintance: with
general literature ; and he gained by praétice, aided by uncom-
mon acutenefs of talents, a profound knowledge of the law.

He had been but eight years at the bar, when his reputation
pointed him out as the fitteft-perfon to hold the office of Soli-
citor-general, to which he was appointed by King Georce lI. in
1717. The ftate of the country, recently the fcene of rebel-
lion, and ftill fecretly fermenting with the rancour of party-
contentions, was fuch, as to require, on the part of the law-offi-
cers of the Crown, the utmoft extent of political prudence; a
zeal firm and fervent in its aim, but cautious in its exertions,
and a humane moderation in the exercife of authority, which
has ever been found more efficacious than feverity, in extin-
guifhing difaffection to government. ;

THE office of Solicitor-general was preparatory to that of
Lord Advocate for Scotland, to which Mr DunpDAs was ap-
pointed in 1720. In 1722, he was elected Member of Parlia-
ment for the county of Edinburgh ; and, in that fituation, he
diftinguifhed himfelf by a moft vigilant attention to all public
meafures, in which the intereft of his country was concerned,
and by a fteady and patriotic regard for its interefts.

On the change of Miniftry, which took place in 1725, when
Sir RoperT WALPOLE and the Argyle party came into power,
Mr DunpbAs was removed from his office of King’s Advocate,
and refumed his ftation without the bar, diftinguifhed only by
the honourable title of Dean of the Faculty of Advocates, till
he was raifed to the Bench in 1737. For nine years, he filled
the feat of an ordinary Judge of the Court of Seffion, till the
year 1748, when, on the death of Mr Duncan Forses of
Culloden, he was appointed to fucceed him in the honourable
and important office of Prefident of the Court.

Wuite a barrifter, he fhone equally as a powerful pleader
and an ingenious reafoner. To the quickeft apprehenfion, he
joined an uncommon folidity of judgment; and embracing in

; his

APPENDIX. | 43

his mind all the poflible arguments which were applicable to his
caufe, he could, even in his unpremeditated pleadings, difcover
at once, and inftantly attach himfelf to fome ftrong principle
of law on which he built the whole of his reafoning. His
eloquence, though as various as the nature of the caufe re-
quired, was conftantly fubfervient to his judgment; and though
mafter of all the powers of expreffion, he rarely indulged him-
felf in what is properly termed declamation. A fine fpecimen
of his argumentative powers is to be found ‘in the defence for
Carnecié of Finhaven, on his indictment for the- murder of

the Earl of Strathmore, In that memorable trial, he had not ~

only the merit of faving the life of the prifoner, but of efta-
blifhing a point of the utmoft confequence to the fecurity of
life and liberty, the power of a jury, at that time queftioned in
this ee of returning a General Verdict on the guilt or in-
nocence of the perfon accufed.

In Scotland, though General VerdiGs appear to have been au-
thorifed by the moft ancient practice of the criminal court, it
had long been cuftomary to confider jurymen as tied down to
determine fimply, whether the facts in the libel were proved or
not proved. ‘This change from the ancient practice is fuppofed,
with much reafon, to have been introduced into this country in
the latter part of the reign of Cuarves II.; at a time when we
find the King’s Advocate ftrenuoufly contending, in his Sy/tem
of Criminal Law, for the entire abolition of juries *. The latter
was too ftrong a meafure, and would have been found of diffi-
cult accomplifhment ; the former was of eafier attainment, and
anfwered nearly the fame end. The accufed perfon, to fatisfy
appearances, and for the fhew of juftice, was {till to be tried by
his peers; but his guilt or innocence was rarely within their
cognifance : that was decided by the laws, or by their interpret-
ers, the Judges ; and the jury, tied down to determine folely on
the proof of facts, was compelled to furrender into the hands

F i2 of

* Mackenzie Crim, Law of Scotland, tit. 23.

Acecunt of
Lord Prefident
Dundas,

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

44 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

of thefe Judges, and thus often to facrifice the life of a fellow-
citizen, though convinced of his innocence, and earneftly defi-
rous of his acquittal.

Tuus matters ftood till the celebrated trial of CarNEGIE of
Finhaven, who, had the powers of a Scottifh jury remained thus
circumfcribed, muft have fuffered the punifhment due to the
fouleft malefaétor, for an act on which it is fcarcely poflible ‘to
affix a taint of blame *. The Court had found the facts in the
indi€tment relevant to infer the pains of law. The proof of thofe
facts was as clear as noon-day. There remained no hope for
the prifoner, unlefs the jury fhould be roufed to affert a right
which they had long relinquifhed, and vindicate the privilege
of deciding on the guilt or innocence of the accufed. And this
great point was gained by the powerful eloquence of the pri-
foner’s counfel. The jury found the prifoner Not Guilty. From
that time, the right of a Scottifh jury to return a General Verdict,
is acknowledged to be of the very effence of that inftitution.—
And Gop forbid ! a period fhould ever arrive, when that moft
valuable of rights fhall again be called in queftion.

As a Judge, Lord Anniston diftinguifhed himfelf no lefs
by the vigour of his talents, and his knowledge of the laws,
than by his ftriét principles of honour and inflexible integrity.
His own idea of the charafter, both of a Lawyer and of a
Judge, remains, penned by himfelf, in that admirable eulo-
gium on Lord Newuatt, which ftands upon the records of
the Faculty of Advocates ; and thofe who yet remember the
man of whom we now fpeak, know that many of thofe vari-

ous

* James Carnecte of Finhaven, was tried before the Court of Jufticiary in Scotland,
for the murder of Cuarves Earl of Strathmore, in 1728. Ata meeting in the country,
where the company had drank to intoxication, Cannecie of Finhaven having received the.
moft abufive language, and fuftained a perfonal outrage of the grofleft nature, from Lyon
of Bridgeton, drew his fword, and ftaggering forward to make a pafs at Bridgeton,
killed the Earl of Strathmore, a perfon for whom he had the higheft regard and efteem,
and who unfortunately came between him and his antagonift, apparently in the view of
feparating them,

APPENDIX. AS

ous talents and accomplifhments which he there applied to ano-
ther, were in a peculiar manner his own.

Tuis eminent and truly refpectable man, after a life devoted
to the public good, died-in the 68th year of his age, on the
26th day of Auguft 1753.

HE left by his firft wife, EL1zasetTu, the daughter of Ro-
BERT WaTsoN, Efq; of Muirhoufe, a fon, Rozert, the late
Prefident of the Court of Seffion, and two daughters. By his
fecond wife, ANNE, the daughter of Sir Roper Gorpon of
Invergordon, Baronet, he left five fons and a daughter. Of

this laft marriage, is the Right Hon. Henry Dunpas of Mel-

ville, Treafurer of the Navy; whofe various and fplendid abi-
lities, directed at firft to the profeflion of the law, and emi-
nently difplayed while he held the offices of Solicitor-general
and Lord Advocate for Scotland, are now equally diftinguithed
in the Legiflative Affembly, and in the Councils of his So-
vereign.

Rozsert DunpaAs of Arnifton, late Lord Prefident of the
Court of Seflion, was born on the 18th of July 1713. He re-
ceived the earlier parts of his education under a domeftic tutor,
and afterwards purfued the ufual courfe of academical ftudies
in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. In the end of the year 1733,
he went. to Utrecht, where the leftures on the Roman Law
were at that time in confiderable reputation. He remained
abroad for four years; and, during the recefs of ftudy at the
Univerfity, he {pent a confiderable time at Paris, and in vifiting
feveral of the principal, towns of France and the Low Countries.

RETURNING to Scotland in 1737, he was called to the bar in
the beginning of the following year ; and, in his earlieft pu-
blic appearances, gave ample proof of his. inheriting, in their
utmoft extent, the abilities and genius of his. family. His elo-
quence was copious and animated ; in argument, he difplayed
a wonderful fertility of invention, tempered by a difcriminating-
: judgment,,

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas,

46 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

judgment, which gave, even to his unpremeditated harangues,
a methodical arrangement ; in confultation, he poffefled a quick-
nefs of apprehenfion beyond all example; and his memory,
which was moft fingularly tenacious, enabled him to treafure
up, and to produce inftantaneoufly, every cafe-or precedent
which was applicable to the matter before him.

Tuus liberally endowed by nature with every requifite to
eminence in his profeffion, he had the honour of being ap-
pointed Solicitor-general for Scotland in September 1742, at the
early age of twenty-nine. This important office he held only
for four years. He had obtained it through the favour of the
Carteret adminiftration, which was then in power ; but, on the
change of Miniftry, which took place in 1746, when the Pel-
ham party regained its influence in the Cabinet, he, together with
the other friends of the former Miniftry, refigned their offices.

Burt the high confideration in which he then ftood with his
brethren at the bar, was not diminifhed by the lofs of an office
dependent on minifterial favour. In the fame year, 1746, he
was ele¢ted Dean of the Faculty of Advocates, and continued to
prefide over that refpectable body till his elevation to the Bench
in 1760.

In the beginning of the year 1754, Mr DunDAs was elected
Member of Parliament for the county of Edinburgh ; and, in

the following fummer, he was appointed his Majefty’s Advo-

cate for Scotland.

In Parliament, the fhare which Mr DunpAs took in public
bufinefs, and his appearances on many interefting fubjects of
difcuffion, which occurred in that important period during
which he fat in the Houfe of Commons, were fuch as fully to
juftify the character he had already attained for talents and
ability. Such was the complexion of the times, and fo high
the tide of party, that it was perhaps impoffible for human
wifdom to have pointed out a line of political condu@ which

could

GaP BN Dela Maines 47

could entirely exempt from tenfure. The Lord Advocate
fhared with the reft of his party in the cenfure of thofe who
followed an oppofite plan of politics ; but of him it may cer-
tainly with truth be afarmed, that in no inftance was he ever
known to fwerve from his principles, or to act a part in which
he had not the countenance of many of the firmeft friends to
the intereft of their country.

Tue oppofition which the Lord Advocate gave to the efta-
blifhment of a Militia in Scotland, afforded a topic of blame to
a great party in this country who warmly fupported that mea-
fare. But when the queftion is difpaffionately viewed, it will
appear to be one of thofe doubtful points, on which the wifeft
men and the beft patriots may entertain oppofite opinions.
Tue apprehenfion of an invafion from France, which, from
the commencement of the war in 1756, had been repeatedly
threatened upon the fouthern coafts of the ifland, occafioned
the pafling of various aéts of the Legiflature, for the eftablifh-
ment and regulation of the militia forces through the feveral
counties of England. In the beginning of the year 1760, the
fame apprehenfion had extended to Scotland. The fmall arma-
ment under THUROT committing adts of depredation on the
weftern coafts with perfect impunity, began to excite a very
alarming fenfe of the defencelefs fituation of the country. Meet-
ings were held in many of the counties, and refolutions pafled
for applying to Parliament to procure the eftablifhment of a
militia‘in Scotland, upon a fimilar plan with that which now
fubfifted in England. The political emergency appeared the
fame through the whole kingdom. The Scots were alike fenfi-
ble to the danger of their lives and properties as their neigh-
bours of the fouth. They juftly confidered themfelyes as
ftanding, by the Z7eaty of Union, on an equal footing with the
Englith, with regard to all the privileges of Britifh fabjects ; and
while the inhabitants of one part of the ifland were furnifhed
with

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

48 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Account of with arms for their own defence, it feemed but juftice to allow
Lord Prefident A «
Dundas. the other the fame means of fecurity and protection,

THESE arguments, which are of a general nature, or at beft
applicable only to a temporary emergency, and to an apprehen-
fion rather of eventual than of immediate danger, were an-
fwered by reafons drawn from the ftate of the country, from
the character of the people, and from a view of thofe confe-
quences which muft have been the certain refult of the propofed
e{tablifhment. Scotland, it was argued, is far behind her fifter-
kingdom in the ceconomical arts of induftry. The genius of
the people, particularly in the northern parts, is averfe to la-
bour and to all the arts of peace. But the Scots are warlike
from conftitution, and the military character of the nation has
been high in all ages. The artificial habits of difcipline and
regular exercife, are little neceflary in a country, where men
are by nature foldiers, attached with enthufiafm to their native
land, and prompt to defend themfelves with fpirit upon the
flighteft alarm of danger. But they need excitement to the
arts of induftry. Agriculture is, in many diftriéts, fhamefully
negleGted. Manufactures, through the whole country, are yet
in their infancy. The employment of our labourers can nei-
ther be fpared from their fields, nor of our mechanics from
their looms, their forges, or their anvils. To offer to thofe who
are naturally little difpofed to induftry, fuch allurements to
idlenefs as a national militia would prefent, would be, in the
higheft degree, impolitic and ruinous to the country.

Tuus, it appears, that the fcheme for the eftablifhment of a
militia in Scotland, admits of very oppofite views ; and men of
candour, equally endowed with good fenfe, and equally patrio-
tic, may be fuppofed, as was certainly the cafe, to have formed
different opinions on the fubjeét. What part the Lord Advo-
cate of Scotland, who, by his office, is one of the chief guar-
dians of the ftate, and bound by duty to a watchful attention
in all matters which regard the intereft of his country, ought

to

APPENDIX. 49

to have taken in that meafure, it would be prefumption in any
man to pronounce with confidence, while he muft admit, that
opinions, equally weighty and refpectable, are found on either
fide of the queftion. ,

Ir is not to be denied, that arguments of a very illiberal na-
ture were urged in Parliament by a few Members, who, with
a mean and narrow fpirit, reproached this country with difaf-
feGtion to Government, and inculcated the danger of allowing
the ufe of arms to thofe who had recently employed them in re-
bellion. It was no wonder that afperfions of this nature called
forth-the moft animated, noble and fpirited defence of their
country’s honour from feveral of the Scottifh Members, who
perhaps contended the more keenly in behalf of that meafure,
that they faw it oppofed from fuch unworthy motives. But
the queftion, viewed without prejudice, remains ftill difputa-
ble ; and the arguments of the Lord Advocate againft the efta-
blifhment of a militia in Scotland, were founded on the great
principles of national expediency, and a regard for what appeared
to him the real and fubftantial interefts of the country.

On the 14th of June 1760, Mr Duwpas was appointed Pre-
Gident of the Court of Seflion. ‘This was the zra of the {plen-
dour of his public charaéter. Invefted with one of the moft
important trufts that can be committed to a fubject, the fuper-
intendence and regulation of the higheft judicature of his
country, he acquitted himfelf of that truft, during the twenty-
feven years in’ which he held it, with fuch confummate ability,
wifdom and reétitude, as muft found a reputation as durable
as the national annals, and tranfmit his memory with honour
to all future times.

Ar his firft entry upon office, the public, though well affured
of his abilities, was doubtful whether he poffeffed that power
of application and meafure of afliduity, which is the firft duty

(G) . of

Account of
Lord Prefideat
Dundas.

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

50 HISTORY of the SOGIETY.

of the ftation that he now filled. Fond of focial intercourfe,
and of late engaged in a {phere of life where natural talents are
the chief requifite to eminence, he had hitherto fubmitted but
reluctantly to the habits of profeffional induftry. But it was
foon feen, that accidental circumftances alone had prevented
the development of one great feature of his character, a capa-
city of profound application to bufinefs. He had no fooner
taken his feat as Prefident of the Seffion, than he devoted him-
felf to the duties of his office, with an ardour of which that
Court, even under the ableft of his predeceffors, had feen no
example, and a perfeverance of attention which fuffered no re-
miffion to the lateft hour of his life.

Or all the grievances to which a free people can be fubjected,
one of the heavieft and moft fevere is the tedioufnefs of judicial
procedure, that delay of juftice which makes often oppreflion
itfelf more tolerable than the means to be purfued for obtaining
its redrefs. Senfible of this truth, and determined to remedy
(in as far as material juftice would permit) fo great an evil, the
Prefident applied himfelf immediately to the determination of
a long arrear of law-fuits, which, though in their laft ftage,
and ripe for judgment, had hung upon the rolls of the Court
during the period of five preceding feffions. Thefe, in the
courfe of the fummer-feffion 1760, and in the firft month of
the next feflion, were all decided, while the current bufinefs of
the term was likewife difpatched ; and thus a load, which had
been accumulating during two years and a half, was cleared
away in the fpace of three months. The Long Roll, which had
never been purged fince the inftitution of the Court, and of
which the very name was of evil augury, was thus annihilated
at once; nor was it ever revived while Mr DunpaAs fat in the
Prefident’s chair.

Tue primary caufe of this great reform in the difpatch of
bufinefs, is certainly to be found in the uncommon power of

-his

OP PB. Nop Eas gt

his own mental abilities. Amidft that multiplicity of fuits
with which the Court of Seffion is at times overwhelmed, no
party was ever heard to complain that the Prefident had treated
his caufe fuperficially, or with an imperfect intelligence of the
arguments which fupported it. But the truth was, he often
drew his knowledge of thofe arguments, lefs from the informa-
tion of the counfel than from the ftorehoufe of his own mind :
for it was peculiar to him, that he could make himfelf tho-
roughly mafter of a caufe, and form the foundeft judgment of

its merits, from the fimple perufal of the ftate of fats. His

memory enabling him to retain thefe fa@s with the utmott eafe,
he could, in the courfe of a very few hours, dedicated to the
perufal of the cafes, prepare himfelf upon the daily bufineds of
the Court. Stimulated by his example, the other Judges ex-
erted all their powers of application ; and thus the machine of
juftice moved with a conftant and equal celerity, while his re-

gulating influence operated on all its parts. é
Bur if the affiduity and diligence of Judges in ftudying the
caufes that come before them, is the firft requifite towards the
difpatch of bufinefs, the next eflential concern is, that thefe
caufes fhall be decided with brevity, and that the time which is
appropriated to giving judgment be not confumed in fuperflu-
ous reafonings, or that {pecies of wavering debate, which equally
retards procedure, and diminifhes the refpe& and dignity of
the Court. There is no doubt that the reafoning of Judges
upon the Bench, is of excellent effect, when feafoned by that
difcretion which is fitted to imprefs an audience with reverence
for the wifdom and folemnity of the tribunal. And of this we
have daily examples in the Supreme Court of this country.
The arguments of the Judges are often replete with inftruction
to the bar. In many cafes, to which, from their circumftan-
tiate nature, neither the written nor the confuetudinary law is
diretly applicable, thefe are the Re/ponfa Prudentum which fap-
G2 ply

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas,

52 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

ee ok it ply that unavoidable deficiency. They are, moreover, a cri-

Dundas terion to the public, both of the abilities of Judges, and of
their attention to the duties of their office. But ftill, it muft
be admitted, that there is much danger in allowing too great
latitude to judicial reafonings. _Befides the delay of bufinefs,
there is a hazard that that warmth of argument, again{t which
even the wifeft and moft difpafionate of men cannot at all
times guard themfelves, fhould diminifh the reverence due to
the Court, and even the authority of its decifions; for thofe
judgments can affuredly have but little weight which are known
to be the refult of a war of contraditory ideas. In a tribunal
compofed of many Judges, there muft of courfe be a frequent
diverfity of opinion ; but it is not always defirable that the
grounds of thofe different opinions fhould be publicly canvaf-
fed. It is with the wifdom of a Court, as it is with perfonal
beauty,: (the obfervation of one of the ableft judges of human
nature *) the form upon the whole, when furveyed at its proper
diftance, may be confummately graceful ; but it is not expedient
to examine it by too near an approach, or to analyfe too mi-
nutely its particular features. '

Sucu were known to be the fentiments of that great Judge,
whofe character we are now attempting to delineate ; and cor-
refponding to thefe fentiments was his own conduct upon the
Bench. He very rarely entered into a laboured argument on
the whole grounds of a caufe; much lefs into an examination
or confutation of the opinions delivered by his brethren... He
limited himfelf to a fhort and folemn enunciation of his own
opinion, which he generally fupported by a very few. reafons,
on which he apprehended the decifion ought to reft. His man-
ner of {peaking was firm and authoritative; his language for-
cible, though unadorned in its ftru€ture; and, feeking not to
pleafe, but to convince, he difregarded thofe graces of elocu-

tion

* Cranenpon,

—

APPENDIX. 53

tion which the orator may frequently find of ufe to palliate
error, but which the Judge needs feldom to employ, who is de-
firous only of inculcating truth. .

He maintained, with great ftrictnefs, all the forms of the
Court in the conduct of bufinefs. Thefe he wifely confidered
as effential, both to the equal adminiftration of juftice, and as
the outworks which guard the law againit thofe too common,
but moft unworthy artifices which are employed: to proftitute
and abufe it. e

To the bar, he conducted himfelf with uniform attention

and refpect. He liftened with patience to the reafonings of

the Counfel. He never anticipated the arguments of the pleader,
nor interrupted him with queftions to fhew his own acutenefs ;
but left every man to ftate his caufe in his own way : nor did
he ever interfere, unlefs to reftrain what was either manifeftly
foreign to the fubje@, or what wounded, in his apprehenfion,
the dignity of the Court. In this laft refpedt he was moft lau-
dably punétilious. He never fuffered an improper word to efeape,
either from the tongue or pen of a counfel, without the fevereft
_animadyverfion ; and fo acute was that feeling which he was
known to poffefs of the refpect that was due to the Bench, that
there were but few occafions when it became neceflary for him
to exprefs it.

THERE were indeed other occafions, on which his feelings
were moft keenly awakened, and on which he gave vent to a
becoming fpirit of indignation. He treated with the greateft
feverity every inftance, either of malverfation in the officers
of the law, or of chicanery in the inferior practitioners of the
Court... No calumnious or iniquitous profecution, no attempt

to pervert the forms of law to the purpofes of oppreffion, ever ©

eluded his penetration, or efcaped his juft refentment.
Tuus, perpetually watchful, and earneftly folicitous to main-
tain both the dignity and the rectitude of that Supreme Tribunal

over

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

54 HISTORY ofthe SOCIETY.

.

over which he prefided, the influence of thefe endeavours ex-
tended itfelf to every inferior court of judicature; as the mo-
tion of the heart is felt in the remoteft artery. In reviewing
the fentences of inferior judges, he conftantly exprefled his de-
fire of fupporting the juft authority of every rank and order of
Magiftrates ; but thefe were taught, at the fame time, to walk
with circumfpe@tion, to guard their condu@t with the moft
fcrupulous exa¢tnefs, and to dread the flighteft deviation from
the narrow path of their duty.

Wiru thefe endowments of mind, and high fenfe of the
duties of his office, it is not furprifing, that amidft all the dif-
ferences of fentiment which the jarring interefts of individu-
als, or the more powerful influence of political faction, give
rife to, there fhould be but one opinion of the chara¢ter of this
eminent man, which is, That from the period of the inftitution
of that Court over which he prefided, however confpicuous in
particular departments might have been the merit of fome of his _
predeceffors, no man ever occupied the Prefident’s chair, who
combined in himfelf fo many of the effential requifites for the
difcharge of that important office.

Bur it is not the intention of the writer of this account to
prefent a faultlefs picture. Nothing, in fad, is of fo little value
as indifcriminate panegyric ; nothing fo empty and infignificant
as his praife who {hews that he is blind to imperfections. If
we allow the merits of this great man, in pofleffing, in their
utmoft extent, the moft effential requifites for the {tation which
he filled, it is but a {mall derogation from the confeffed emi-
nence of his chara&ter, when we acknowledge a deficiency in
fome fubordinate qualities.

Or thefe, what was chiefly to be regretted, and was alone
wanting to the perfection of his mental -accomplifhments, was,
that he appeared to give too little weight or value to thofe ftu-

; dies

APPENDI X. 55

dies which are properly termed literary. This was the more
remarkable in him, that, in the early period of his life, he had
profecuted himfelf thofe ftudies with advantage and fuccefs.
In his youth, he had made great proficiency in claflical learn-
ing; and his memory retaining faithfully, whatever he had
once acquired, it was not unufual with him, even in his f{peeches
on the Bench, to cite, and to apply with much _ propriety
the moft ftriking paflages of the ancient authors. But for
thefe ftudies, though qualified to fucceed in them, it does not
appear that he ever poffeffed a ftrong bent or inclination. If he
ever felt it, the weightier duties of active life, which he was
early called to exercife, precluded the opportunity of frequently
indulging it; and perhaps even a knowledge of the fafcinating
power of thofe purfuits, in alienating the mind fromy the feverer,
but more neceflary occupations, might have inclined him at
laft to difrelifh from habit, what it had taught him at firft to
refift from principle.

Tuat this principle was erroneous, it is unneceflary to con-
fame time in proving. It is fufficient to fay, that as jurifpru-
dence can never hope for any material advancement as a {cience,
if feparated from the fpirit of philofophy, fo that fpirit cannot
exift, independent of the cultivation of literature.

Tuat the ftudies of polite literature, and an acquaintance
with the principles of general erudition, while they improve the
Jcience, add luftre and dignity to the profefion of the law, cannot
be denied. So thought all the greateft lawyers of antiquity.
So thought, among the moderns, that able Judge and moft ac-

complifhed man, of whofe character we, have traced fome im- '

‘perfect features, Lord Arnifton, the Father of the late Lord Pre-

fident ; of which his inaugural oration, as it ftands upon the

records of the Faculty of Advocates, bears ample teftimony *.
His

* “ From his firft entry into the Faculty, he could fay he knew, and obferved it with
“ pleafure, as it tended greatly to their honour, that there was no f{cience, or part of po-
ie “ lite

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

Accoun® of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

56 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

His fon, it is true, afforded a {trong proof, that the force of
natural talents alone may conduct to eminence and celebrity.
He was rich in native genius, and therefore felt not the want of
acquired endowments. But in this he Jeft an example to be ad-
mired, not imitated. Few inherit from nature equal powers
with his; and even of himfelf it muft be allowed, that if he
was a Great Man without the aids of general literature, or of
cultivated tafte, he muft have been ftill a greater, had he avail-
ed himfelf of thofe lights which they furnifh, and that im-
provement which they beftow.

Tus moft ufeful and valuable life was terminated on the
13th of December 1787. His laft illnefs, which, though of
{hort continuance, was violent in its nature, he bore with the
greateft magnanimity. He died in the 75th year of his age,
in the perfect enjoyment of all his faculties; at a time, when
his- long fervices might have juftly entitled him to eafe and
repofe, but which the {trong fenfe of his duty would not per-
mit him to feek while his power of ufefulnefs continued ; at that
period, in fhort, when a wife man would wifh to finifh his
courfe ; too foon indeed for the public good, but not too late
for his own reputation.

He left by his firft wife, HENRIETTA BAILLIE, the daughter
of Sir James CarMICHAEL-BaILuig of Lamington,. four

daughters.

lite and ufeful learning, for the knowledge of which fome in the Faculty were not di-
“ ftinguifhed, perhaps equally with thofe who made the feveral parts of thofe fciences
“¢ their principal and particular profeffion. And he hoped he would be excufed for re-
“ commending to them, and to all young gentlemen that might afterwards enter among
“ them, to be at pains to maintain and preferve that character and reputation they had
Jong held, and ftill poffeffed, not only for the knowledge of the Civil or Roman and
*© Municipal Laws, and the conftitution of their country, but of the other valuable
branches of learning, that are requifite to accomplifh and adorn the character of gen-
tlemen, and were indeed neéceflary to render them completely qualified for the exercife
of their profeffion.” Records of the Fac. of Adv. Nov. 3. 1748.

——

APPENDIX. 57

daughters. By his fecond .wife, JANE, the daughter of Wit-
L1AM GRANT, Efq; of Preftongrange, one of the Senators of the
College of Juftice, he left four fons and two daughters. Of thefe,
the eldeft fon is RoperT Dunpas, Efq; now of Arnifton, his
Majefty’s Solicitor-general for Scotland *; whom his country fees
with pleafure the heir of the abilities of his family, already
high in the efteem of all his cotemporaries, and purfuing with
ardour the honourable path which is marked by the footfteps of
his anceftors.

* Srncz the date of this Memoir, Mr Dunpas of Arnifton has been appointed his Ma-
jefty’s Advocate for Scotland, O&tober 31. 1789. The late Lord Prefident Dunpas was
fucceeded in that office by Sir Tuomas Miixer of Glenlee, who, to the eminent lofs
of. the public, and the fincere regret of all who knew him, died on the 2th day of Sep-
tember 1789. Upon that event, Inay Campnett, Efq; then Lord Advocate, was pro-
moted to the Prefidency of the Court of Seffion, and was fucceeded in the office of Lord
Advocate by Mr Dunpas.

25, | Ege! Sehgpbonseabageahiedbaabtbing £5 9p Il. Ac-

x

Account of
Lord Prefident
Dundas.

58 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Il. Account of Sir ALEXANDER Dick, Bart. of Preftonfield,
late Prefident of the Royal College of Phyficians of Edinburgh,
and F,R.S, Epin.

[Read by Dr Duncan, now Profeffor of the Theory of Medicine in
the Univerfity of Edinburgh, March 16. 1789.]

Irn ALEXANDER Dick of Preftonfield, was born on the
23d of October 1703. He was the third fon of Sir WiL-
LIAM CUNNINGHAM of Caprington, by Dame Janet Dick,
the only child and heirefs of Sir James Dick of Preftonfield.
While his two elder brothers fucceeded to ample fortunes, the
one as heir to his father, the other to his mother, the provifion
made for a younger fon was not fufficient to enable him to live
in a manner agreeable to his wifhes, without the aid of his own
exertions. His inclination led him to make choice of the pro-
feflion of Medicine ; and after being inftructed in the prelimi-
nary branches of education at Edinburgh, he began his aca-
demical ftudies in the fcience of Phyfic, at the Univerfity of
Leyden, under the celebrated BOERHAAVE, at that time the
moft eminent Medical Profeffor in Europe. After having com-
pleted the ufual academical courfe under BoERHAAVE and his
colleagues, he obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine from
the Univerfity of Leyden, on the 31{t of Auguft 1725; and,
upon that occafion, he publifhed an inaugural differtation De
Epilepfia, which did him much credit. Not long after this,
he returned to his native country, and had the honour of re-
ceiving a fecond diploma for the degree of Doctor of Medicine,
which was conferred upon him by the Univerfity of St An-
drews, on the 23d of January 1727; and on the 7th of No-

‘ vember

OE

—

APPENDYX. | 59

vember of the fame year, he was admitted a Fellow of the
Royal College of Phyficians of Edinburgh.

But after Dr CUNNINGHAM (for at that time he bore the
name of his father) had received thefe diftinguifhing marks of
attention at home, he was ftill anxious to obtain farther know-
ledge of his profeflion by the profecution of his ftudies abroad.
With this intention, he made the tour of Europe ; and although
medicine was uniformly his firft and principal objet, yet other
arts and fciences were not neglected. During this tour, he re-
fided for a confiderable time in Italy ; and there an elegant
claffical tafte, and extenfive knowledge of the hiftory and anti-
quities of the country, could not fail to afford him a very high
degree of gratification.

Upon his return to Britain, Mr Hooke, a gentleman with
whom he had formed an intimate friendfhip, and who poffef-
fed a large fortune in Pembrokefhire, perfuaded him to fettle as
a Phyfician in that country. For feveral years he practifed me-
dicine there with great reputation and fuccefs, and was much
refpeéted and admired, both as a Phyfician anda Man. But
his immediate elder brother Sir Witt1aM Dick, dying without
iffue, he fucceeded to the family-eftate and title, affuming, from
that time, in terms of the patent and entail of that eftate, the
name and arms of Dick. Wery foon after the death of his
brother, he left Pembrokefhire, and fixed his refidence at the
family-feat of Preftonfield in Mid Lothian, little more than a
mile from the city of Edinburgh.

AtTHOvGH he now refolved to relinquifh medicine as a lu-
erative profeffion, yet, from inclination, he ftill continued to
cultivate it as an ufeful fcience. With this view, he fupported

a friendly and intimate correfpondence with the Phyficians of

Edinburgh ; and he foon diftinguifhed himfelf, by paying par-
ticular attention tothe bufinefs of the Royal College, among
the lift of whofe members his name had been inrolled at a very
early period of his life. In the year 1756, he was unani-

(H 2) moufly

Aceount of
Sir Alex.Dick.

Account of
Sir-Alex, Dick.

60 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

moufly chofen Prefident. of the College; and as his fellow-
members were fully convinced of his zeal, as well as of his
abilities, they afterwards eleéted him ‘to that office for feven
years fucceffively. It was their earneft wifh that he fhould have
continued ftill longer as their head ; but this he pofitively de-
clined, as he thought that he fhould thus deprive other gentle-
men of a dignity, to which, from their merit, they were well
entitled. But after his refignation of the office of Prefident,
his attachment to the College, and his earneft endeavours to
promote its intereft, continued unabated. He not only contri-
buted liberally towards the building of a hall for their accom-
modation, but ftrenuoufly exerted himfelf in promoting every
undertaking in which he thought that the honour or intereft
of the College was concerned. As a teftimony of the fenfe
which his fellow-members entertained of his fervices, a portrait
of him was, by their unanimous fuffrages, hung in their hall ;
a mark of diftin€@tion which has never been beftowed, either
before or fince that time, upon any other member.

Burt the College of Phyficians were not the only fet of men
who were benefited by his exertions. He was long diftinguifhed
as a zealous and active member of the Philofophical Society of
Edinburgh. And when they refolved to join their influence as
a body, in feconding an application to the Crown from the Uni-
verfity, for the eftablifhment of a new Society under Royal
patronage, and on a more extended plan, having for its object
the cultivation of every branch of fcience, erudition and
tafte, he had an active hand in procuring the eftablifhment
of this inftitution. And accordingly, when his Majefty was
gracioufly pleafed to grant a charter for incorporating the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, the name of Sir ALEXANDER Dick
ftands inrolled as one of the firft in the lift. For many years,
he difcharged the duties of a faithful and vigilant Manager of
the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh. It was his conftant endea-
vour to render that eftablifhment at once fubfervient to the re-

lief

APPENDIX. 61

lief of the diftreffed, and to the advancement of medical edu-
cation. And while he fhewed himfelf a fincere friend to the
poor, he was alfo remarkable for the countenance and encou-
ragement which he gave to modeft merit, particularly among
the ftudents of medicine. Indeed, poffefling a high degree of
public fpirit, he took an active fhare in promoting every un-
dertaking which he thought would be beneficial, either to his
country in general, or to the city of Edinburgh in particular.
To him, its inhabitants are much indebted for many excellent

high roads in the neighbourhood ; and’ hardly one internal im- ~

_ provement was fuggefted or executed, during his refidence at
Preftonfield, which he was not inftrumental in promoting, with
an aétivity which did him the higheft honour.

WueEn the feeds of the true rhubarb were firft introduced
into Britain by the late Dr Mounsey of Peterfburg, he not
only beftowed great attention on the culture of the plant, but

alfo on the drying of the root, and preparing it for the market.
The fuccefs in thefe particulars was fo great, that the Society in
London for the encouragement of arts and commerce, prefented
him, in the year 1774, with a gold medal, which is infcribed
to Sir ALEXANDER Dick, Bart. for the beft fpecimen of Bri-
tifh rhubarb.

Sir ALEXANDER was twice married, and has left children by
both marriages. In April 1736, he married his coufin Mifs
Janet Dick, the daughter of ALEXANDER Dick, Efq; mer-
chant in Edinburgh, and reprefentative of the family of Sir
WituraM Dick of Braid. By her he had five children, but of
thefe two daughters only furvived him. In March 1762, he
married Mifs Mary Butier, the daughter of Davip BuTLer,
Efq; of Pembrokefhire. By this lady, who furvived him, he
had feven children, of whom three fons and three daughters
are ftill alive.

Ir would be a difficult matter to fum up his character in a few
words. But it may with juftice be faid, that while he was

fteady

Account of
Sir Alex. Dick.

Account of
Sir Alex. Dick.

62 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

fteady in the purfuit of every obje& which engaged his atten-
tion, his conduct in every tranfaction through life, was marked
with the ftricteft honour and integrity. This difpofition, and
this conduét, not only led him to be conftant and warm in his
friendfhip to thofe with whom he lived in habits of intimacy,
but alfo procured him the love and efteem of all who really
knew him. Notwithftanding the keennefs and activity of his
temper, yet its ftriking features were mildnefs and fweetnefs.
He was naturally difpofed to put the moft favourable conftruc-
tion on the conduét and actions of others. This was both pro-
duétive of much happinefs to himfelf, and of general benevolence
to mankind. And that ferenity and cheerfulnefs which accom-
panied his conduét through life, were the attendants even of his
laft moments; for, on the 1oth of November 1785, he died
with a fmile upon his countenance. Although he had already
paffed the 82d year of his age, a period at which the faculties
both of mind and body have in general fo far failed, that death
is rather to be wifhed for than otherwife, yet not only his judg-
ment, but his fpirit for exertion, {till remained unimpaired. His
death, therefore, even at that advanced age, was a great lofs to
fociety.

HI. Ac-

APPENDIX. 63

Wl. Account of the Right Honourable Sir THOMAS MILLER
of Glenlee, Bart. Lord Prefident of the Court of Seffion, and
F. R. S. Epin.

[Read by Davip Hume, E/q; Advocate, F.R.S. Epin. and Pro-
Sellar of Scots Law in the Univerfity of Edinburgh, Dec. 21. 1789.]

T. has often occurred to me, as a hard circumftance in the

lot of thofe who follow the active employments of life, that
however great their eminence, however ufeful their labours,
nay, however rare and excellent their talents, the remembrance
_ of them dies among their countrymen at large, almoft as foon
as they themfelves are gone ; and even with thofe of their own
profeffions fcarcely furvives for more than a fingle generation.
The records of the Royal Society are therefore in this refpeét
valuable, that they afford the means of refcuing from ob-
livion, thofe of our Members who, by their profeffional emi-
nence and fervices, have merited the gratitude and remembrance
of their country, though their line of life did not permit them
to attain diftinction of another kind, by any literary work or
difcovery in fcience.

I rHoucntT it would be univerfally felt and allowed, that
the late Sir Toomas MILuER, (at one time a Vice-Prefident of
this Society), moft juftly fell under the above defcription of a
fingularly ufeful man, and fit to) be commemorated. | And in
this perfuafion, I have prepared a fhort account.of him, now to
be fubmitted to your confideration.

é

Sir

Account of *
Lord Prefident
Miller.

64 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Sir Tuomas Mriuer of Glenlee, late Lord Prefident of the
Court of Seffion, was the fecond fon of Witt1am MILLeErR,
writer to the Signet, who was himfelf the fecond fon of Marr-
THEW MiLueR of Glenlee, and fucceeded to that eftate, along
with the lands of Barfkimming, on the death of his elder
brother.

Sir ToomAs was born on the 3d of November 1717. He
received the firft rudiments of his education at Glafgow, and
afterwards went through the ufual courfe of academical ftudies
in the Univerfity of that place; where he acquired a relith of
the purfuits of literature and fcience, that never forfook him,
and efpecially a fondnefs for the Greek and Roman claffics,
which, even in the bufieft periods of his’ life, he occafionally
found opportunities to indulge. Horace was almoft his con~
{tant companion and even in his laft years, ‘after his” promo-
tion to the moft laborious office in the law, Homer, during a
vacation, was often on his table.

ANnoTHeER branch of knowledge for wha he there imbibed
an early predilection, was that of Ethics, or Moral Philofophy.
This he had the advantage of ftudying under the celebrated
Dr Hutrcueson, of whom he was a favourite pupil. The
warmth of eloquence with which this Philofopher poured forth
his le€tures, attached to him extremely all thofe of his hearers,
who had any liking to the fubjec he treated, or were fufcepti-
ble of being moved ; and Mr Miter, in particular, contracted
not only a high admiration of his talents, but fuch love to
him as a man, that long after his death, and when he himfelf
had grown old, he could not mention his name but in terms
of gratitude and veneration, equal to thofe in which the difci-
ples of Socrates fpoke of their’ mafter. Like Socrarezs'too,
Dr Hutcueson taught his difciples to'value Ethics beyond all
other fciences ; and with Mr Mizier this’ preference was fo
ftrong, that he ufed habitually in converfation, when diftin-
guifhing it from the reft, to give it the appellation of Philo/ophy.

HaAvinG

APPENDIX. 65

Havine thus, by the improvement of his tafte, and the ac-
quifition of a philofophic fpirit, made the beft preparation for
eminence in any liberal employment, he decided for the Bar,
the profeffion to which thofe accomplifhments lend the moft
diftinguifhed luftre of any, and where they moft materially
contribute to the advancement of the perfon poffeffed of them.
For fome time he had hefitated between this profeffion and his
father’s ; and it is faid to have been in a great meafure owing
to the ftate of his health, that he gave up thoughts of the
latter. ‘ ;

Wuen he had refolved on going to the Bar, he fixed his re-
fidence at Edinburgh, and devoted himfelf to the ftudy of the
law, with that zeal and earneftnefs with which, during his
whole life, he was remarkable for following every objec that
had once determined his choice *. , Yet with all his diligence in
this neceflary occupation, as the turn of his mind led him to no
bafe or trifling purfuits, he was able to find time, and neglected
not to employ it, for cultivating the humaner and more liberal
ftudies. Even at this time, he continued to read the clafflics ex-
tenfively, particularly the better Greck authors, having for his
afliftant the late Mr Greorce MurruEAD, afterwards Profeffor
of Humanity at Glafgow, whofe reputation as a claffical fcholar
is well known.

‘In the month of July 1742, he was called to the Bar. Where
he had not long continued, before the moft favourable opinion
came to be entertained, among the perfons betft entitled to judge,
of the proficiency he had made in the knowledge of the law,
and of his excellent qualifications, both for counfel and debate.
His elocution was copious and eafy; his felection of argument
judicious, and his mode of prefenting it, in the higheft degree
perfpicuous and plain; and he accompanied it with a manner
of delivery fo weighty and fervent, as carried home to the

Vo. Il. : (I) - hearer

# His ufual hour of going to bed at this period was four of the morning.

Account of
Lord Prefident
Miller.

66 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Account of. hearer the impreffion. of his own belief in the doétrines he

fui pair maintained. Men there might perhaps be in the profeffion,
more eminent for invention of topics in a defperate caufe, or
who fhowed more verfatility of genius in placing the fame bu-
finefs in different lights, or turning it into all variety of fhapes ;
but there was none who better underftood the ftrength of a good
or a tenable caufe, or took his ground in one of that deferip-
tion with more judgment and difcretion,“or uféd its advantages
to better purpofe. Having found the foundeft or moft favour-
able part of his client’s plea, that he attached himfelf to, and
on it exerted all his ftrength; throwing afide, with juft and
proper confidence, all the more doubtful points and weaker
confiderations in the caufe. Captious and quibbling argu-
ment indeed, and all perverfion of an adverfary’s words .or
meaning, he held to be as foreign to the lawyer’s duty, as they
are derogatory to the honour of the Court where they are
heard; nor could he, on any occafion, be prevailed on to
attempt the aiding of his caufe, in a manner fo inconfiftent
with his own feelings of what was right and proper.

No wonder then, that thus qualified, and regulated by fen-
timents fo refpectable, he quickly rofe to a high degree of em-
ployment in his profeflion, though he had among his cotempo-
raries, for rivals in the public favour, men of the greateft
acutenefs and {plendour of parts.

Hence alfo he, at an early period of life, entered ‘the career
of public offices and honour in the department of the law.

In the year 1748, on the new arrangement of the office of
Sheriff, (which has been attended with fo many falutary confe-
quences) he was pitched upon as a fit perfon for one of thofe
appointments. ‘The county which Government had deftined
for him, was that of Invernefs, in thofe times of recent diforder
and rebellion, accounted the moft important of any, and what
required the fteadieft and moft able fuperintendence. But this

appointment, though more advantageous, he declined ; becaufe
his

SS —_

APPENDIX. ein

his friend the Earl of S—tKirRK had recommended him to Go- Accoumtot
~ vernment for the ftewartry of Kirkcudbright, and it had been “¥!*
underftood between him and the Earl that he was to accept it.

Tue duties of this office he performed with great pun@uality,
and to the entire fatisfaction of the diftrict entrufted to his
charge ; and he continued to hold it till the year 1755, when he
refigned, and was named Solicitor of Excife—an office in thofe
days generally held by a lawyer.

In the year 1759, on the promotion of Mr Princte (after-
wards Lord Atemore) to the Bench, he reaped the fruit of
the public favour, in being Tsesancuete his Majefty’s Solicitor- ~
General for Scotland.

In the year 1760, he fucceeded the late Prefident DunpAs as
hig Majefty’s Advocate for Scotland ; and in the following year,
he was chofen to ferve in Parliament fan the burgh of Dum-
fries.

Wuite in thefe ftations, Mr Mitier, whofe modefty and
difcretion were equal to his ability, did not think it fo much in-
cumbent on him to take an active fhare in the debates of the ~
Affembly, as to regulate his voice according to his opinion of
the public good. The fingle occafion that called him up asa
fpeaker, was indeed of a. very interefting kind, and became a
fignal proof of the independence of his fpirit, and fincere con-
cern in the grandeur and profperity of the Britifh empire. This
was the repeal of the American ftamp act; a meafure in which
Mr Mrtuer’s fagacity forefaw the miferable train of confe-
quences that have fince enfued from it, and which, though
fupportgd by all the influence of the then Miniftry, he accord-
ingly both voted againft, and gave his reafons to the Houfe for
oppofing :—A moft refpectable and truly patriotic piece of con-
duét, and of which he reaped a juft, but unlooked for reward,
in the friendfhip and efteem of the Marquis of RockiNGHAM;
who, however loath to have an opponent in the principal fer-
vant of the Crown for Scotland, yet, fatisfied that he had taken

(I 2) this

68 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Account of
Lord Prefident

this line from the pureft and moft difinterefted motives, conti-
Miller.

nued him in his public ftation, and ever after honoured him
with his particular attention.

In the year 1766, on the death of Lord Mino, he was ap-
pointed Lord Justice Crerk ; which office both beftows the
Prefidency of the higheft Criminal Tribunal, and a feat as an
ordinary Judge in the fupreme Civil Court.

In thefe high ftations, he fully juftified the choice that had
been made of him, .and foon, by his fcrupulous attendance on
the Court, and affiduous labour in the difpatch of bufinefs,
gained a high place in the efteem and confidence of the public,
as a man deeply impreffed with the importance of his duties,
and aétuated by a warm and fteady zeal confcientioufly to dif-
charge them. And this tafk he accomplifhed, in the civil de-
partment, in fuch a manner, as both added credit to the Court
of which he was a member, and was of the moft effential fer-
vice to the interefts of law and juftice. For befides the learn-
ing and experience, acquired by long ftudy and extenfive prac-
tice, he was pofleffed of many other more material qualifica-
tions, which added much to the power of thofe attainments,
and peculiarly fitted him for the important charge of deciding
on the rights of his fellow-citizens.

He was happy in a great natural temperance of difpofition
and foundnefs of judgment. Whence, though he was well
able to purfue an intricate and fubtile argument, and could, on
proper occafions, fuccefsfully pufh an abftra@ principle into all
its confequences, and was ever difpofed to beftow the due fhare
of praife on this fort of acutenefs in others, yet few were fo
little apt to be dazzled by new or fplendid notions, or lefs fub-
jet to the impofition of falfe refinement. His natural good
underftanding, joined to his knowledge of bufinefs, readily
pointed out to him the real fources and objects of our cuftoms
and ftatutes, and the confequences to be dreaded, if thefe were
at any time forgotten ; and thus, occupying on all occafions a

ftrong

APPENDIX. 69

ftrong and fure ground, he was not eafily tempted to abandon
it. :
To the fame conftitution of mind, he was indebted for his
particular. eminence in that article, wherein perhaps lies the
main difficulty of the Judge’s tafk,—the difcovering the pre-
cife application, or the inapplicability, of the general pre-
cepts of law to the particular cafe in hand. He was nowife
apt to haften to a fentence, but patiently fufpended his opinion
till the due inveftigations had fully ripened the cafe for judg-
ment; which neceflary preparation once made, he then earnett-
ly applied himfelf to underftand, and get pofleffion of, the pe-
culiar circumftances and proper complexion of that cafe.
Whence it came, that in the courfe of the many years he fat
upon the Bench, the number of his judgments as an Ordinary,
that were altered on review of the whole,Court, was almoft
incredibly fmall, and that, in a great proportion of the caufes
brought before him, the unfuccefsful party agqnicteed in his
opinion, and carried the fuit no farther.

Hence alfo, in the deliberatioris of the whole Court, it often
happened, (as many who now hear me remember), that, by
detailing the caufe to the Bench, (which he did with great
force and perfpicuity), and fixing upon fpecial circumftances
which others had overlooked, or lefs attentively confidered, he
was able to turn the tide of argument, and win his brethren
over to his opinion.

Yet, though this was perhaps his peculiar excellence, he was
the very reverfe of a minute or unfteady lawyer. He had, on
‘ the contrary, the firmeft hold of the -principles and {pirit of
the law in every department, and on all occafions that gave

{cope for general reafoning, ever drew his opinion, not from.

the authority of books and precedents, (which hardly any Judge
ever dealt lefs in quoting), but from the fource and fountain-
head of the law,—the ftrain of our ftatutes, and the reafon and
fubftance of the thing.

Bur.

Account of
Lord Prefident
Miller.

Account of
Lord Prefident
Miller.

970 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Bor in reciting his qualifications as a Judge, we muft not
forget one, which was in him amongft the moft eminent of any,
and on no occafion forfook or mifled him,—the natural recti-
tude and pure honour of his own mind,—which, in the nu-
merous clafs of caufes that depend on the judgment to be
formed of the charaéter and condué& of men, direéted him
with certainty to whatever was faulty in either, and enabled
him to fhow (which he did with much- energy and feeling)

. what the conduét of a truly honeft man would there have been.

Indeed, upon fuch occafions, where the intereft of morality,
or the purity of judicial proceedings, was concerned, he was
fometimes led to expatiate at a length which juft tafte might
perhaps have been difpofed to blame, had it been a lefs warm
and pleafing proof of his native integrity and cordial attach-
ment to the caufe of virtue.

Wirn all thefe powerful affiftances, which fo well qualified
him to judge with firmnefs and decifion for himfelf, he pof-
fefied the ftill more rare, and in a Judge ineftimable endow-
ment, of the moft perfect candour, in liftening to and weigh-
ing the fentiments of others ; which virtue was in him fo con-
fpicuous, that it might with truth be faid of him, that he had
no predilection for any opinion, -merely becaufe it had once

been his own: So ready was he to reconfider his judgment, the

moment he faw any caufe to doubt it, and with fuch perfec
opennefs and indifference did he abandon it, however firm his
former perfuafion, upon being (ffom whatever quarter) con-

_ vinced of an error.
TueseE were his acknowledged merits as a Civil Judge. And °

his zeal for the public fervice as Prefident of the Jufticiary, was
no lefs confpicuous and fuccefsful, as appears from more than
one reformation, which the forms and praétice of the Court un-

derwent, during the period of his fitting at the head of it. Of

thefe, the moft remarkable was the fuller eftablifhment of the
diftinétion in our law between culpable homicide and murder ;
a

APPENDIX. mI

Account of

- a diftin@tion which feems to reft upon the ftrongeft groundsin #7" e!
reafon and humanity, and even to be fupported by the lan- “¥*"
guage of our books and ftatutes, but which, neverthelefs, the —
older praétice of the Court could fearcely be faid to have tho-
roughly recognifed, and which now, in a great meafure, owed
its reception into libels and verdicts to the weight of Mr Mrt-

-LER’s opinion, who loft no proper opportunity to countenance

and inculcate fo juft a doArine.

We may alfo mention among the improvements by him fug- _
gefted, the late ftatutory difpenfation with the tedious, and
often unneceflary procefs, of reducing the teftimony of the wit-
neffes into writing. t ; !

Nor muft we pafs over his attention to the exterior decorum
of this tribunal, fo important to the maintenance of its au-
thority, and which he, in different ways, materially contri-
buted to fupport ; having abolifhed certain old, but unfeemly
practices, and introduced various becoming obfervances, not
before his time required; and, above all, having perfonally
added to the refpeét and.gravity of the Bench, by his rare and

: happy talent of furtable, :and earneft, and eloquent exhortation
ik eye the unfortunate convidts, which impreffed upon the byftand-
; ers, and rendered falutary to them, the examples of juftice
which thissduty conitrained him to make.

Mr Mitre ‘continued, thus honourably to himfelf, and
profitably to the public, to difcharge the duties of thefe fta-
tions, without interruption, till the year 1781; at which time,

“his health ‘being fomewhat impaired by fo long a courfe of
conftant «application to bufinefs, it was judged advifable for
him to difcontinue it, and make a fhort trial of a warmer
climate. He accordingly {pent fome months in vifiting. diffe-
rent parts of Prance ; and having thence pafled into Italy, he
had there the fatisfa@ion of contemplating the magnificent re-
mains of the grandeur of the people, for whofe language and
genius he-entertained fo high an admiration, and of furveying

with.

72 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Account of

Le Prefdene With his own eyes many of the picturefque fcenes which had fo

ee often delighted him in the defcriptions of their poets. He re-
turned in perfect health, after being abfent for about a year,
and refumed his former occupations with his wonted vigour
and a¢tivity.

_ In the month of January 1788, on the death of Prefident
Dunpas, he was, to the entire fatisfaction of his country and
the Bar, called to prefide in the Civil Court. His Majefty, at
the fame time, thought proper to requite his long fervices, by
beftowing on him the title of a Baronet of Great Britain.

Ir was a very difficult tafk for any man, the youngeft and
moft vigorous, to enter on the extenfive labours of this office,
after the Lord Prefident Dunpas ; whofe fingular powers for
the rapid difpatch of bufinefs will always be remembered with
regret, whoever the perfon be that fills his chair. Yet of his
fucceflor, during the fhort time he held it, we may with truth
fay, that he gained an acceflion of reputation, by his manner
of conduéting himfelf in this new ftation, though advanced to
the age of Seventy before he attained it. And if he fometimes
confulted with his brethren upon matters which he might have
fettled without fuch deliberation, this was almoft unavoidable
upon the firft entry into office; at leaft in a perfon like Sir Tuo-
mas Mixer, who, with the beft pretenfions to lead and di-
reét, was free from all defire to exert his influence. This mild- ©
nefs of difpofition fecured to him, in an uncommon degree,
the refpect and affection of the Gentlemen at the Bar; whom
he always heard with fuch patience, and treated with fuch at-
tention and good breeding, as fhould, more effectually than
the fharpeft animadverfion, reprefs all petulance and indecorum.

Havine thus then gained the fummit of his honeft ambi-
tion, in rifing fucceflively, by his own talents and ufeful la-
bours, to all the great offices of the law;—having obtained
them all without blame or envy, and held them with credit and
diftinétion ;—happy in retaining, at an advanced age, the full

poffeffion

APPENDIX. 73

poffeffion of health and of his faculties, and fortunate in his
' family and all his domeftic concerns ;—he had little elfe to pray
for, (fince Heaven had ordered that he fhould now be called
from the fociety of perfons fo dear to him) but an eafy diflo-
- Iution of his mortal ftate. And this Divine Providence thought
fit to grant him.

He died upon the 27th of September 1789, after an illnefs
of two days, at his feat of Barfkimming in Ayrthire, in the
72d year of his age,—leaving no good man his enemy, and at-
tended with that fincere and extenfive regret, which only thofe
can hope for, who have occupied the like important {tations,
and acquitted themfelves as well.

We have fpoken of him in his public capacity, and noticed
his great temperance and folidity of judgment. Now, thefe
qualities were in him the more to be praifed, that they did not
proceed from any coldnefs or tardinefs of nature, but were, on
the contrary, united to a very warm and feeling heart; which
was manifeft in his whole life and manners.

No man was perhaps a better citizen, or more genuine pa-
triot, than the late Prefident; if we are to efteem dim fuch,
who not only takes an intereft in the internal welfare and pro-
fperity of his country, but feels an honeft pride and warm
concern in its glory and confequence as a ftate, and in the
_ f{plendour of the peoples fame. Of all thefe, the Prefident had,
and continued to have, even in his lateft years, a moft lively
fenfe ; which was, at one period of his life, the fource of much
joy and fatisfaction, and at a later period, of fincere mortifica-
tion and regret, and caufed him often to lament to the rifing ge-
neration, during the misfortunes of the late war, that they had
only feen a glimpfe of the glory of their country. That part
too of the Britifh dominions which gave him birth, he was at-
tached to with all the partiality which a good man naturally
feels ; nor was there any fubjeét on which he dwelt more fre-

Vo. IL. (K) quently,

Account of
Lord Prefident
Miller.

Account of
Lord Prefident
Miller.

74 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

quently, or with more pleafure, than its growing ftate of im-
provement in his own time.

He was, in like manner, a very focial and hofpitable man ;
to his family, and conneétions, and indeed to all about him,
full of gentlenefs, and kindnefs, and cordiality : and this uni-
formly and without exertion ; infomuch that no perfon whom
he had reafon to efteem or think well of, could ever fay of him,
that he received him coldly, or treated him with referve *.
Good breeding indeed, (meaning by the term that kind and
open manner which fets a ftranger or inferior at eafe) was in
a manner natural to him; and he had it to all ranks and con-
ditions of men; fo that in a humane vifit to the honfe of a
fervant or dependant, he equally pleafed, and was as furely di-
rected to the very things that were fit and acceptable to be faid,
as in his intercourfe with thofe of his own rank. Among
whom too, and indeed in all fituations, he was diftinguifhed
for a rare fimplicity of manners and opennefs of fpeech ; which
flowed from a purity of thought and intentions, fo perfect that
it was not to be furpafled.

He retained through life the higheft relifh of the beauties of
nature, and every year fpent a confiderable part of the recefs
of bufinefs, in the enjoyment and improvement of the roman-

tic

* Here we mutt obferve, that however remarkable this gentlenefS and difpofition to
oblige, they were yet always confined to their proper {phere, and in no inftance fuffered
to interfere with what he efteemed his duty. This appeared, among other examples
that might be given, in his fpirited behaviour as Lord Advocate, on occafion of a que-
{tion that arofe touching the pre-eminence of his office. The late Mr Cuartes YorKe
had been honoured with a patent of precedence over his brethren at the Bar, with ex-
ception only of the Attorney-General; and) happening to be engaged as Counfel'in the
Houfe of Lords, on the fame fide with Mr Mruuer, he, under this privilege, claimetd
right to be heard before him. Mr Micver, though in habits of intimacy with Mr
Yorxe, and perfonally very indifferent about any fuch diftinétion, felt himfelf hgre in :
duty called upon to refift his friend’s pretenfions ; and accordingly maintained’ (nor
could be prevailed on to recede from it) that he, as his Majefty’s Advocate, was Attor-

ney-General for Scotland, and within the exception of the patent. ‘The point was in the
end referred to the opinion of Lord Mansrietp, which was given in favour of Mr Mitrers

APPENDIX. | 75

tic fcenes at his place of Barfkimming. It was not, however, to
the object of beauty alone, that his attention at thofe feafons
was directed, but alfo to the better management and fubftantial
melioration of his eftate. And this purfuit engaged him in very
numerous and extenfive operations, all of which he himfelf both
planned, and fuperintended the execution of, and fuccefsfully
conduéted ; though in the hands of moft other men, having the
fame avocations of bufinefs, without the fame activity, conftancy
and love of order, they were more likely to have proved abor-
tive, or even ruinous.

_ Sir Tuomas MILteER was twice married. By his -firft wife,
MarcGAret Murpocu, daughter of Joun Murpocu, mer-
chant in Glafgow, he left iffue; one daughter, and one fon,
now Sir Witi1AM Miter, who follows the fame profeffion in
which his father rofe to fuch diftinguifhed honours. His fe-
cond marriage (of which there is no iffue) was to ANNE
Lockuart, daughter of Mr Locxuart of Caftlehill, who has
the misfortune to furvive him. His eldeft brother Joun had
deceafed fome years before him, and he fucceeded, on that
event, to the family eftate of Glenlee, which, along with the
eftate of Barfkimming, has now devolved to his fon.

Payee Di OR I ME ATS FOR

Account of
Lord Prefident
Miller.

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be x é : 5 ¢ Ke i - ‘ ws : q ; a i ai i
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APPENDIX. 77

DONATIONS prefented to the Roya Society of Edinburgh,
continued from the preceding Volume.

By Fohn Macgowan, Efq; Edinburgh.
Anacardium Occidentale. Lin. The Fruit of the Cafhen Tree,
preferved in fpirits. No. 722.
Caftor Fiber. Lin. The Beaver, from Hudfon’s a No. 723.
Felis Lynx. Lin. The Hudfon’s Bay Lynx. No. 724.
Canis Lagopus. Lin. The Arctic Fox, from Hudfon’s Bay.
No. 725.
Crotalus Miliarius. Lin. The fmall Rattlefnake. No. 726.
Coluber Alternus. No. 727.

By the Right Honourable Lord Daer.
A number of articles, collected in the South Seas by Captain

BLIGH.

Two parcels of fine New Zealand Hemp. No. 728,

A Mufical Inftrument made of Reeds. No. 729. :

An Arrow-head, formed of a hard black Schiftus. No. 730.

Fifh-hooks of Mother of Pearl, and Lines, from the Friendly
Iflands. No. 731.—733.

Fifh-hooks, and Lines, formed of the Sinews of an Animal
from the coaft of America, in Lat. 49° N. No. 734.—736.

Capnias Auftralis,

Smetis Auftralis, fom the South Sea Iflands. No. 737.—7 39:

Catochites Auftralis,

By Fohn Davidfon, ¥{q; of Ravelrig.
A Lion’s Skin, with the. Head, Teeth and Claws, from the Cape
of Good Hope. No. 740.
Vou. Il. L Two

Lift of Dona-

tions,

78 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

Two Sea-weeds, taken out of the Atlantic, at a great diftance
from any land. No. 741. 742.

Six Arrows from Bengal. No. 743.

A Malay Poinard. . No. 744.

Lapis Judaicus, from the Eaft Indies. No. 745.

By ohn Learmonth, Efq; Merchant in Edinburgh.
Scolopendra Gigantea, Lrn. above fourteen inches long, from
the Weft Indies, preferved in fpirits. No. 746.

By Profeffor Da/zel.

A si a of Ivory, mounted with filver, given by the King of
Dachomy, in Africa, to Archibald Dalzel, Efq; formerly
Governor of Whydah, as a teftimony of friendthip.

No. 747:
The Horn of an Antelope, from Africa. No. 748.

By James Bofwell, E{q; of Auchinleck.

Some large Nodules of Flint, from Italy ; each having cryftalli-
fations in a large central cavity, fent from Leghorn by
Sir Fohn Dick. No. 749.

By Captain Lidde/.
A white Greenland Bear. No. 750.

By Francis Kinloch, Efq; of Gilmerton.

Colymbus Ar@ticus, Lin. fhot on the fhore of Eaft Lothian. .
No. 751.

By the Honourable Lord Hailes.
Trichechus Rofmarus. Lun. The Morfe or Sea Horfe; the
Skeleton of the Head entire, with the Tufks. No. 752.

By

APPENDIX. 79

By Mr John Macaulay, Town-clerk of Dumbarton.

The Horn of a Stag, of a fingular form, dug out of a ftratum
of Clay in Dumbartonfhire. No. 753.

By the Right Hon. the Lord Chief Baron Montgomery.
An Indian Canoe, of fine workmanthip, from the Ifland of St
John. - No. 754.

By Dr pila
A large Lizard, from the Weft Indies, preferved in fpirits.
No. 755.

By William Henry Charters, Efq; of Burntifland.
Lava Garnets, found in the Lava, which overwhelmed Pom-
peil. No. 756.
‘Two Copper Coins. No. 757. 758.
A Silver Coin of Henry VI. ftruck at Calais, and found in the
river Jed. No. 759.

By Dr Roxburgh at Madrafs.
A Cheft of Plants from Bengal and the Peninfula of India, con-
taining feveral hundred Plants, in fine condition, and ar-
ranged according to the Linnean fyftem.

By The American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, to
the end of the year 1783, Vol: I. 4to. Bofton, 1785.

By The Royal Iri/b Academy.
The Tranfactions of the ipsa Irifh Academy. 4to. Dublin,
ere
By

Lift of Dona-
tions.

Lift of Dona-

tions.

80 HISTORY of the SOCIETY.

By Adair Crawford, M. D.

Experiments and Obfervations on Animal Heat, and the In-
flammation of Combuftible Bodies, tc. The fecond edition.
8vo. London, 1788.

By Dr Carlyle.
The Hufbandry of the Ancients, by ddam Dick/on, A. M. late
Minifter of Whittingham. 2 Vols. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1788.
By E. Peart, M.D.
The Generation of Animal Heat inveftigated, &c. 8vo. Gainf-
borough, 1788.
By M. Lavoifier.
Traité Elémentaire de Chimie. 2Vol. 8vo. & Paris, 1789.

By Thomas Percival, M.D.

Effays Medical, Philofophical and Experimental, Vol. II. 8vo.
4th edition, revifed and enlarged. Warrington, 1789.

By the Reverend Archibald Alifon, A. B.
Effays on the Nature and Principles of Tafte. 4to. Edinburgh,
1790.

TRA NS-

a

——vi

nel?

PAPERS OF THE PHYSICAL CLASS.

I. Of certain NATURAL APPEARANCES of the Ground on
the Hill of Arthur's Seat. By FameEsS Hutton, M.D.
F.R.S. Eprn. and Member of the Royal Academy of Agri-
culture at PARIS *.

N fummer 1776, Profeflor Fercuson obferved a parti
cular appearance on the hill of Arthur’s Seat, near the fum-
mit, which drew his attention, and which he could not under-
ftand. He then carried Dr Buack and me to the place, :where
we found fomething which, at a diftance, refembled the wi-
thered grafs of a foot-path, but which traverfed a fhoulder of
the hill, in fuch a direction as correfponded to neither fheep-
track nor foot-path. Upon a near infpection, it appeared to be
a narrow ftripe of the grafs quite dead and withered. The
breadth of this {tripe was about nine, or, in fome places, twelve
inches ; the fides of this track were perfeétly defined, without
any gradation from green to withered grafs, all the plants in
the track being killed, without the contiguous part having fuf-
fered in the leaft. ‘The length of this track was confiderable, a
hundred yards or two, extending from the fouth-eaft fide of
a2 the

‘

* This Paper was read before the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh in June 1778.
It is now printed by order of the Committee for publication of the Tranfaétions of the.
Royal Society of Edinburgh.

4 NATURAL APPEARANCES

the fouthmoft hill through a hollow, and afcending obliquely
the fhoulder of the fummit of Arthur’s Seat on the fouth-eaft
fide.

Ar firft thunder fuggefted itfelf as having been the caufe of
this remarkable appearance; but the more we enquired into
the particulars of this phenomenon, the greater difficulties oc-
curred with regard to the proper correfpondence of that con-
jectured caufe, as well as for affigning any other with the leaft ~
degree of probability. It is with a view to make this appear,
that the following hiftory is made of the particulars which were
at that time, and have been fince obferved.

OBSERVATION I. THE appearance now defcribed was not
the only one of the kind; for, upon examination, I found fimi-
lar tracks, though of various extent, in all ‘the different afpects
and fituations, from the fouth fide of the fummit to the north
fide of the hill half way down to the plain; but none at the
bottom.

Oxss. 2, THESE appearances, though recent, or of that year’s
production, had not been the firft thing of that kind which had
appeared on the hill; for, parallel to each of thofe tracks of
withered grafs, there was another perfe@tly fimilar, which then
appeared to us as if it had been made the year before, and was
then black, the grafs having rotted. The diftance of this old
track from the new, was, in general, only a few inches, fometimes
exceeding near, but rarely or never contiguous.

Ozs. 3. THe tracks, now under confideration, have been
confidered as a thing continuous in its length; but this it is
only in general, or in certain portions where it is fo fometimes
for a confiderable extent. In other places, again, it is compofed
of feveral portions of various lengths, the grafs being unaffect-
ed betwixt thofe portions which make up the track ; fo that, in
fome places, the track is made as it were by fpots; and thefe
{pots, although in general longer in the direction of the track,
are not always fo, there being in fome places, generally at the

; extremity

lh i ei

soe

On the Hill of ART HUR’s SEAT. 5

extremity of the track, {pots whofe fears do not exceed their
breadth.

Oss. 4. Tue regularity with which thofe two tracks run pa-
Yallel and near to each other, is not more wonderful than is the
correfpondency that is in general to be obferved with regard to
the conftru@tion of thefe, as confifting either of a continuous
track or of feparate pieces ; and to fo great a degree is carried
this refemblance of the two tracks, that, where it is by fpots

the tracks are made, there the fimilarity, even of the fpots,

were fometimes remarked, fo that it feemed as if the one had
been a copy of the other.

Oss. 5. Brestpes the brown colour of thofe new made tracks,
which might be feen at a confiderable diftance, (two or three
hundred feet), there was another ftripe of a dark green, which
might be feen at a ftill greater diftance. Upon more clofe exa-
mination, this laft appearance was found to take its origin in
fome grafs of a very dark green, which, in fome places here
and there of the laft year’s track, began to grow in the black
ground and among the rotten grafs ; but the greateft part of this
deep green was behind the laft year’s track, and was evidently
owing to a fimilar growth of grafles in places which had been
formerly killed or withered, and were now almoft covered with
new plants, which gave a deeper fhade of green than the reft of
the hill.

Tus laft obfervation led to another; for here a queftion na-

_ turally occurred, That, fince this fucceflion of things had cer-

tainly taken place at leaft three years, how many {fucceflive
tracks might be detected from the examination of thofe appear-
ances? With this view I confidered attentively fome places
where the marks were moft diftinét, and could plainly count
five or fix fucceffions ; the number cannot be accurately afcer-
tained, becaufe thofe which have been made above three or four
years are much effaced, although the colour, and fome other
marks, evidently prove, that there had been feveral more.

Oss.

6 NATURAL APPEARANCES

“Oss. 6. Tue tracks which have been now defcribed, are not
{traight lines, but have all more or lefs of a regular circular na-
ture in them; that is to fay, they are fegments of circular fi-
gures, and only approach to the appearance of right lines, in
proportion as the figure of which they are the fegments is
large, or the fegment fmall; and in thofe refpects there appears’
to be great variety. There is, however, one appearance which,
at firft fight, might impofe upon an obfervator, and deftroy the
generality of this obfervation. It is an inftance or two that oc-
cur of a continued line in thofe tracks; but, in this cafe, the
line appears to be made up of feveral fegments, each of which
ought to be confidered by itfelf ; confequently, here will be ac-
knowledged the operation of the fame general principle by
which, in thofe appearances, a regular figure is produced, and
that this figure is in its nature circular.

Oss. 7. Tue production of thofe tracks being fucceflive in
its nature, or operating in different places at different periods of
time, fuggefts another fubject of enquiry, viz. How far any re-
gularity, or a certain order, may be obferved alfo with regard
to this operation, as well as with regard to that by which the
figure is produced ? And this, from obfervation, | think, is de-
termined in the affirmative, fo far as, from all the obfervations
I have made, this progrefs feems always to have proceeded in
the direction of « line, drawn from the centre, bifecting the
fegment ; that is to fay, thofe portions of concentric circles
are never infcribed, but always circumfcribed ; and, for this
reafon, it will appear, that thofe circles, of which fegments are
exhibited to our obfervation, muft be increafing, and not di-
minifhing, in their diameter.

Havinc thus given an account of what was concluded from
the firft feafon of thofe obfervations, before proceeding to give
the continuation of their hiftory, it may be proper to obferve,
that an unfuccefsful attempt was once made to inveftigate the

caufe,

On the Fill of ART HUR’s SEAT. 7

caufe, by the infpection of the turf cut up, and compared with
that immediately contiguous to the track; for, on that occafion,
nothing was found that could give any light into the nature of
the operation.

From the narration of appearances already made, the hiftory
of what has happened fince that fummer, 1776, will be extreme-
ly fhort, and may be comprehended in two or three words,

In the fummer 1776, there was prognofticated a fucceffion
of appearances fimilar to thofe which, from the obfervations
then made, had been concluded as having already come to pats,
and been tranfacted with a certain regularity in a former period
of time. The event has fully juftified the judgment which
was formed at that time, refpecting the order and regularity of
the appearances, and has alfo left us in the fame ftate of uncer-
tainty, or rather ignorance, with regard to the caufe.

In the fpring, about the month of April, the grafs begins
gradually to wither and decay. It is perfe€@tly dead in a little
time, that is, in a week or two, and then appears white or wi-
thered. Thus, every plant being killed in the new track,
thofe vegetable bodies, expofed to heat and moifture, gradually
decay, fo as next year to exhibit a dark or black, inftead of a
light or white track, which it had been the year before ; but
during the fecond year, the dead plants are ftill obferved in the
turf, which, as it begins to get new plants, lofes gradually the
appearance of the old ones, until at laft little more can be ob-
ferved, than a broad fhade of.a much deeper green, which,
on the one fide, is compared with the natural verdure into
which it fometimes feems gradually to terminate ; whereas, on

#the other fide, the deep green colour of the ground formerly

tracked, is contrafted with the yellow or light colour of the wi-
thered grafs.

From the infpection of the ground, and the hiftory of what
has been obferved to happen, nothing is more evident than that
this regular fucceflive operation has been now repeated, at leaft

in

8 NATURAL APPEARANCES

in fome parts of the hill, for eight or nine years. Here, there-
fore, is a piece of natural hiftory worth recording, and for
which a theory is wanted.

THE appearances which have been here defcribed are, fo far as
1 know, fingular and unconneéted with all others refulting from
known caufes. I know that fimilar circles have been obferved
by naturalifts, and by them afcribed to thunder ; as we fhould
certainly have done in this cafe, were it not for the regular an-
nual progreflion, which, if the effect of thunder, muft follow
rules not yet inveftigated, either in ele@tricity, vegetation or the
mineral fyftem ; for,

How comes it, that the electrical operation takes place regu-
larly in the {pring only, and that without any appearance of
thunder?

2dly, How comes it, that the ftripe of grafs deftroyed by one
operation, is always regularly progreffive in one particular di-
rection, in relation to the firft electrical operation ?

3dly, If this progreffive appearance fhall be confidered as an
electrical operation, and every fucceflive repetition as directed
by the one immediately preceding it; then, how was the firft
produced ; when was it; and when will be the laft?

THE next conjectural caufe that fuggefts itfelf as an explana-
tion of -thofe appearances, is the operation of infects. But
there feems to be no lefs difficulty in reconciling any known
animal- -ceconomy with the appearances under conttoranomy as
the only caufe of thofe appearances ; for,

How fhould thofe animals have been diftributed in thofe fe-
parated tribes upon the hill, and difpofed in the continuous
tracks, fo as to exhibit lines of long extent, traverfing ground*
and foil of various quality, as well as in tracks of very little
extent; but, whether great or fmall, formed upon the fame
principle, every part having a fimilar relation to a whole?

Are thefe large tracks to be confidered as the extenfion of
colonies which once had been fmall? or, Are thefe colonies

droppéd:

“Tee

On the Hill of ARTHUR’s SEAT. 9

dropped from the atmofphere upon the different parts of the
hill, in the fhape and extent in which we find thofe ftripes of
withered grafs? This laft hypothefis is not fupported by any
appearance that I know of in this country ; and the other is not
confiftent with the natural appeararices to which it muft be-
long ; for the folitary. or infulated {pots, which often form part
of a ftripe, feem to be reproduced, in nearly ‘equal quantity,
each fucceeding year, without any gradual extenfion in the
ftripe; which alfo feems to preferve its former extent, as well as
breadth and form.

THEREFORE, when we confider the various fituations and
extent of thofe narrow ftripes of withered grafs, the regularity
to be obferved in their fhape and progreffion, and the conftan-
cy which feems to take place with regard to their fucceffion, we
mutt, at the fame time, be perfuaded, that there is a natural
caufe which may be. inveftigated for the explanation of thofe
appearances, and reject the mere fuppofition of caufes:which do
not feem, of themfelves, adequate to the effect perceived.

GREAT attention would be required in making obfervations
with a view to difcover the caufe of thofe appearances ; and
the difficulty of this taflk is much increafed by an ambiguity
which occurs on certain occafions, where the breeding of in-
fe&ts in confequence of the death of plants, may be miftaken
for the death of plants in confequence of infects; but, on the
other hand, in the prefent cafe, great advantage, for an en-
quiry of this fort, may be derived from the opportunity that
there is of examining, not only what had been killed the pre-
ceding, but alfo that part which is, perhaps, to be killed the
enfuing feafon ; and where experiment may be made by cut-
ting off the communication betwixt thofe two parts as deep as
the foil may admit.

THE apparent production, or rather the multiplication of

fome fpecies of animals, in confequence of a certain deftrudtion
Vou. II. b of

10 NATURAL APPEARANCES

of the vegetable turf, is a thing eafily to be conceived, like what
happens in thofe ftripes the fecond year, when I have feen an
abundant crop of a certain fpecies of mufhrooms in the track.
Had animals of a particular fpecies been found there, in the exa-
mination of the foil in thofe withered tracks, a rafh conclufion
might have been formed, in erroneoufly attributing as a caufe
for the appearance, what was truly an effect or confequence of
the thing in queftion.

Ir is always making a ftep towards the difcovering the caufe of
a phenomenon, when caufes which, with fome degree of pro-
bability, have been afcribed to an event, are found to be uncon-
nected with, or to have no affinity to it; for this is the natural
method of inveftigation, by examining the affinities or rela-
tions of things, and reje@ting thofe as properly related, where
there is found a difcrepancy. Thus, as there is no effet with-
out its proper caufe ; fo, in proportion as a greater number of
events are found to be unconnected with an appearance, fome
kind of approach is made towards that by which the natural
appearance is to be explained; but in cafes where events are
multiplied or numberlefs, every approach of this kind is only
negative; and fuch a method of inveftigation, while it may be
the means of difcovering the thing in queftion, only fhows
that what we want is not attained. This, however, if made
with full convi€tion, is no contemptible {tep in natural philo-
fophy, where, next to the inveftigation of the proper order in
events, it is of the higheft importance to avoid, or to correct,
the improper connection of them.

Tue explanation of the phenomena, in the prefent piece of
natural hiftory, either by thunder or the operation of infects,
without having obferved the atual connection of thofe diffe-
rent events, is merely conjectural, as would be equally the re-
fufing to admit for explanation a known caufe, which, though
not actually obferved as connected with the event in queftion,

had,

On the Hill of ARTHUR’s SEAT. _ Il

had, in other refpeéts, the requifites for producing a fimila
effect. :

Bor all that is known at prefent of electricity, or the ope-
ration of infeéts, is far from being fufficient to be confidered as
the explanation of the appearances in queftion ; for,

Tuoucu the growing plants, or the vegetation of a portion
of the living turf, may be killed either by means of electricity
or infeéts, thefe are not the only means by which that effect
_may be brought about; at the fame time that this is the only
circumftance, in the natural appearance, explainable by the fup-
pofed caufe: Therefore, as every circumftance in an appearance
mutt be properly related to a caufe, by which it is to be ex-
plained, fo the many circumftances here found, without any af-
finity to, if not inconfiftent with the conjectured caufe, will
- Jeave no room for admitting fuch an explanation, according to
the prefent view which has been given of the fubject.

~

II. 4n Account of the Method of making th OTTER of
ROSES, as it is prepared in the Eaft Indies, Communicated
in a Letter from DoNALD Monro, M.D. of London, to
Mr Foun RoBison, Profeffor of Natural Philofophy in the
Univerfity of EDINBURGH *.

S TR, London, ‘Fermyn Street, Fuly 10. 1783.

Hap the following receipt for making the Oster of Rofes, as

it is prepared in the Eaft Indies, from Major MAcKENZIE
of Coull, in the county of Rofs, who told me he got the ac-
count from an officer of his corps, who was up in the country
where it is prepared, and affifted in making it himfelf.

TAKE a very large glazed earthen or ftone jar, or a large
clean wooden cafk ; fill it with the leaves of the flowers of rofes,
very well picked, and freed from all feeds and {talks ; pour on
them as much pure {pring water as will cover them, and fet the
veflel in the fun in the morning at funrife, and let it ftand till
the evening, when take it into the houfe for the night; expofe
it in this manner for fix or feven fucceffive days, and, at the
end of the third or fourth day, a number of particles, of a
fine yellow oily matter, will float on the furface, which, in two
or three days more, will gather into a fcum, which is the Otter
of Rofes. This is taken up by fome cotton, tied to the end of
a piece of {tick, and fqueezed with the finger and thumb into
a {mall phial, which is immediately well ftopped ; and this is

repeated

* Read in the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh in 1783 ; and publifhed by order

of the Committee for publication of the Tranfactions of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh.

Of making the OTTER of ROSES. baal bas

repeated for fome fucceflive sliateatent or while any of oa fine

effential oil rifes to the furface of the water.

_N.B. I wave been.informed that fome few drops of this ef.
fential oil have been more than once colleéted by diftillation, in
the fame manner as the effential oils of other Baa here in

_ London. - Lam,»
‘SIR,

Your moft obedient humble fervant,

D. Monro.

IIE.

II. DescRiIPTION of a MERCURIAL LEVEL, invented by
ALEXANDER KEITH, Efg; ¥.R.S. & A.S. Epin.*.

IcurE I. is a fection of the inftrument formed of maho-

gany or boxwood. AA are two oblong fquare cavities
connected together by a narrow clofe channel, running from
the bottom of the one to the other. BB are two grooves hol-
lowed out of the wood, in order to contain the fights, tc,
They are fhut up by a lid, which turns upon a fcrew-nail at the
centre C, as may be feen more diftin@lly from fig. 4.

Fic. 2. DD are the two fights, the one with a {mall hole,
the other with a crofs-hair. Thefe fights are erected upon two
pieces of ivory or hard wood, which are fhaped nearly of the
dimenfions of the cavities A A, but fo much fmaller as to enter
without touching or rubbing on the fides. Mercury is poured
into the two holes A A till they are about half full; the two
pieces of ivory which fupport the fights, are put into the cavi-
ties, and float on the furface of the mercury.

Fic. 3. is a perfpective view of the inftrument when the
fights are floating upon the mercury; and fig. 4. is another
view of it, when the fights are taken out and the lid is open.

As the two cavities communicate with each other, the fur-
face of mercury in both are always upon the fame line of level;
and confequently, if the two fights are once accurately adjufted,
they will ever after point out the true level, without requiring
any after adjuftment.

WueEN this inftrument is to be ufed, it may be laid on any
horizontal furface, and the fights will immediately become an

exact

* This Paper was read before the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh in December
1778; and is now priated by order of the Committee for publication of the Tranfactions
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Defrription of a MERCURIAL LEVEL. tg

exact level. It may alfo be fixed on a tripod as the {pirit-level ;
or it will anfwer equally well, if it is affixed to the top of a
fingle {take, which is fharpened at the point fo as to be pufhed
into the ground. If it is to be ufed as a pocket-inftrument, it
may be made of feven inches length, being about double the
dimenfions of the annexed draught. A common walking cane
forms a very convenient fupport. It is affixed to the cane by
means of a brafs pin E, which paffes through the hole G, and
through the eye or hole of the walking ftick; and a brafs nut
F, {crewing to the male-fcrew of the brafs pin, keeps them firm
together. The two grooves BB, contain the two fights and
brafs pin, when not in ufe. Two corks, covered with thin lea-
ther, fitted into the holes AA, confine the mercury, when the
inftrument is to be tranfported; or, in cafe the mercury is
found to efcape, it may be poured into a fmall cafe, made of
lignum vitz, like a tooth-pick cafe; and this may be ftopped.
with a cork, and made to fit into one of the grooves;

Tue advantages of this inftrument over the fpirit-level are ::
if, It requires no adjuftment, confequently two obfervers,
though otherwife not equally accurate, muft make the fame ob-
_ fervation. 2dly, With this, the level of twenty different places
may be taken during the time required to adjuft the fpirit-level
for one obfervation. 3d/y, The nicety of the fpirit-level depends.
upon the {mall curve of the glafs-tube, in the choice of which
no rule can be laid down ; neither is any thing gained, in point
of exactnefs, by lengthening the fpirit-tube above three or four
inches. But every inftrument of this kind is of one ftandard ;
and the further the two fights are removed from one another,
the more any error is diminifhed. 4¢h/y, This inftrument can:
be made perfectly juft, without taking any obfervation, or com-
paring it with another level. In order to do this, let the floats:
on which the fights reft, be of the fame dimenfion and weight,,
and let the crofs-hair and eye-hole be of one height, and, with-
out farther adjuftment, they will point out the true level.

THE

16 _Defeription of a MERCURIAL LEVEL.

Tue following is a proof of the exactnefs of this method. Joun
MILLER, the mathematical inftrument-maker, has a line drawn
upon the oppofite fide of the Parliament-fquare, fronting his fhop,
by which he has been in ufe to adjuft his fpirit-levels. We placed
the mercurial level upon the {pot known to be upon an exact
level with the line. Both he and I looked through the fights ;
but could not perceive the line. We fufpected there was fome
fault in the fights ; but, on making them vibrate, we found that
the hair had covered the line; fo foon as they fettled, the line
was again covered by the hair.

Wuen there is a {trong wind, the fights vibrate too fnuch.
In order to remedy this, there is a cafe of tin’d plate or pafte-
board made to inclofe the inftrument when not in ufe. Vid. fig. 5.
When ufed, the cafe covers only about one half of it, leaving
room for the fights to float within the cafe. There are two oval
holes at each end of the cafe through which the obfervations
are made.

IV.

bint ont oan Shedeeten

a +
a

| nl

ir

ree

—~

~

ietaeeg ame ty

IV. PATHOLOGICAL OBsERVATIONS on the BRAIN.
By Mr THomas ANDERSON, F.R.S., Evin. Surgeon at
Leith, and Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons *.

HE following obfervations may ferve to illuftrate and
confirm the opinion now very generally adopted by Ana-
tomifts and Phyficians, That an affection of one hemifphere of
the brain, whether from internal difeafe or external accident,
produces its morbid fymptoms on the oppofite fide of the body.

Case 1. A LADY about forty, whom I attended along with
Dr Monro, was for many years affected with violent headachs;
fhe complained of the pain being moft violent in the crown of
her head, which at laft brought on convulfive tremors of the left"
arm and leg; thefe often continued half an hour, and would
return three or four times a-day ; the fits grew more fevere and
frequent, and the right fide became affected, and frequently
fhe was comatofe for twenty-four hours, till, quite worn out,
fhe died in November 1770.

Ow opening her head, when the dura mater was taken off,
on the right hemifphere of the brain, there was a lofs of fub-
ftance, for about two inches and a half in length, one and a
half in breadth, and about the middle near an inch deep, the
length of which was in the direction of the falx: In the middle
of this, immediately under the coronal future, and on the fide
neareft to the falx, within an inch of it, there was fome foft

Vor. II.. c brownifh:

* Read before the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh in 1781; and now printed
by order of the Committee for publication of the Tranfa¢tions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh.

18 PATHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

brownifh matter in the bottom, on touching of which with the
knife, I difcovered ftony concretions, which were taken out and
wafhed. Several of them broke into fand on the {flighteft
touch; but four or five of them, each about the fixth of an
inch in length and breadth, and a little thicker than the fhell
of an egg, I faved, and afterwards gave to Dr Monro, who was
not then prefent.

Case 2. Wittram C. about forty-five, of a corpulent ha-
bit, was, for feveral years, fubje& to epileptic fits, which com-
monly returned every three or four weeks, and any irregularity
in eating or drinking would immediately bring them on; but
when cautious, living fparingly, and taking fome laxative, he
-was often free from them for four or five months.

Tue fits always came on with convulfive motions in the right
arm and leg, which, in a few minutes, were fucceeded by ftu-
por, in which he continued above half an hour. In November
1775, he received a ftroke on his head, which brought him to
the ground ; was inftantly feized with one of the fits; and, in
twenty-four hours, had ten or twelve of them, in all of which
the only parts convulfed were the right arm and leg ; the fits
became more frequent, a total ftupor came on, and he died
fourteen days after.

On opening his head, on the left hemifphere, immediately
under the coronal future, and an inch from the falx, the dura
mater adhered to the brain, for about the fize of a fhilling, and
was fo much thickened and hardened as to be in a cartilaginous
ftate; the brain, for the fize of a large walnut, was much
hardened, and the under part of it adhered flightly to the falx ;
on the outer fide of this hardnefs, on that fide furtheft from the
falx, and in the middle of the fubftance of the cerebrum, there
was about an ounce and a half of extravafated blood, which -
was foft, and of a black colour.

CAsE

On th BRAIN. 19

Case 3. Ropert H. a failor, about forty, when on board
of fhip, ftooping down, received a violent ftroke on the back
part of the parietal bones by the falling of a boom; there was
no wound, but the parts were much bruifed. Some months
after, he complained of a pain immediately under the part on
which he received the ftroke, which gradually grew worfe, and
in a year and half the pain was moft excruciating, and brought
on violent convulfions in both upper and lower extremities of
both fides, the violence of which, in fome months, put an end
to his life.

On opening the head, the pofterior part of both hemifpheres of
the brain was found greatly inflamed and much hardened; and
adhered firmly to the dura mater and the falx ; the left fide was
more difeafed than the right, and the dura mater, in fome
places where it adhered firmly, was much thickened, and almoft.
cartilaginous.

Case 4. Mr L. by a fall down a ftair, fractured the left pa-
rietal bone. I faw him in half an hour, when he was in a ftu-
por. He was immediately bled very plentifully, and then
carried home. The fracture extended from the middle of the
bone downwards and backwards, and was traced near to the
maftoid procefs ; but I could not carry the incifion any further.
A piece of the bone was taken out by the trepan; a confidera-
ble quantity of extravafated ferum and blood was found. pref-
fing on the dura mater, which was got out; the wound. was
dreffed, and he was bled very plentifully a fecond time; af-
ter which he became fenfible, and anfwered diftin@ly when
fpoken to, and, after fleeping fome hours, was greatly relieved,
but at times the right leg and arm were attacked with convul-
five tremors, which continued for three days, and, on the:
fourth day, every fymptom appeared very favourable, and he
had the appearance of doing well; but he frequently complain-
ed of a pain in his head. On the twentieth day, he was feized

c 2 with

20 PATHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

with rigor, which was fucceeded by a feverifh paroxyfm, that
frequently returned for three days; his pulfe became conftantly
quick, and he died the twenty-eighth day. His friends would
not confent to his head being opened.

Cases. ALEXANDER H. a lad of eighteen, fell into the hold of
a fhip about fifteen feet down, and was carried home in a ftupor.
A tumefaétion was obferved on the top of the right parietal
bone. After a plentiful bleeding, he recovered of the ftupor ;
a laxative was given, and he was bled again in the evening.
On the third day, the ftupor returned ; and, on the evening of
that day, I was called in, when there was every fymptom of
compreflion of the brain, and next morning Dr Monro and
Dr AusTINn were fent for. It was then judged proper to exa-
mine the ftate of the right parietal bone, where the tumefaction
was at firft obferved. No fra&ture could be found ; but a piece
of the bone was taken out by the trepan. Nothing was feen that
could occafion any preffure. The ftupor, &%c. continued, and
he died the thirteenth day. Eighteen hours after his death, I
went to open his head; but fuch a degree of putrefaction was
come on, that a great part of the brain had come out of the
hole in the bone, quite diffolved and putrid. The teguments were
taken off, but no fracture was found in any part of the head.

Case 6. A failor boy of fourteen fell into the hold of a fhip.
He was carried afhore in a ftupor. There was a {welling on
the middle of the right parietal bone, without any wound.
He was bled, and put to bed; and, in half an hour, was fo
much recovered, that it was thought unneceflary to infpect the
{tate of the bone. He was ordered a laxative to take in the
night; but next morning it had not operated. It was then re-
peated ; and in the evening he appeared very well; but there
feemed to be a degree of torpor in the inteftinal canal, from the

laxatives

On th BRATIN: 21

laxatives not operating. A clyfter was given, and the laxative
again repeated. Next morning, his left arm and leg were quite
paralytic, the pupil of the left eye was dilated, and did not
contract when a lighted candle was brought near it, nor was he
fenfible of its being there; but he could read diftin@tly with
the other eye, and the right leg and arm were very well. In
the afternoon, juft forty-eight hours from the time that he met
with the accident, the bone was laid bare,and in the middle of the
right parietal bone, a piece was found to be broken off more than
an inch fquare. The upper fide had pierced the dura mater, and
gone into the fubftance of the cerebrum. ‘The broken piece
was eafily taken out, and the wound drefled. Immediately af-
ter, the pupil of the left eye contracted, and he could diftin-
guifh large objeéts with that eye, and the leg and arm were
lefs affected. He had a good night, and next morning could
read when the right eye was fhut. On the third day after the
operation, when the wound in the dura mater inflamed, and a
confiderable tumefaction came on, his left eye, leg and arm be-
came again paralytic, with frequent convulfions in the left leg
and arm, but without the fmalleft complaint in the other fide.
In this ftate, he continued for feyeral days ; a fuppuration came
on ; the {welling went off; after which he continued well, and
the wound healed up in eight weeks.

From thefe cafes, I fhould infer :

1. THAT when one hemifphere of the brain is affected, it
generally produces its morbid fymptoms on the oppofite fide of
the body.

2. THAT when both hemifpheres are affected, the whole bo-
dy fuffers.

3. THAT though one hemifphere only is affected, when the
injury is great, the whole body will fuffer.

4. THAT

22 PATHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, &c.

4. Tuat though the cerebrum alone is hurt, it produces
morbid fymptoms in all mufcles of voluntary motion, whe-
ther their nerves take their rife immediately from the cere-
brum, from the cerebellum, or from. the medulla oblongata.

5. THAT, in cafes of external accident, where one fide is.
affected, it is more favourable than when both fides fuffer.

Vv.

V. ExpERIMENTS on the EXPANSIVE FORCEOf FREEZ-
ING WATER, made by Major Epwarb WILLIAMS of
the Royal Artillery, at Quebec in Canada, in the years 1784
and 1785. Communicated in a Letter from CHARLES
Hutton, LL.D. F. R.SS. Lonp. & Epin. and Profefor
of Mathematics in the Royal Military Academy of Woolwich,
to Profefor FoOHN ROBISON, General Secretary of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh.

[Read by Mr ROBISON, Nov. 6. 1786.]

SIR,

HE following is an extract of a letter to me from Major
Epwarp WittiAms, of the Royal Artillery, a learned
man, and of great profeflional merit. Being at Quebec in fome
very cold winters, among various other ingenious experiments,
it occurred to him to try the force of congelation in fome of
the iron bomb-fhells, which are ufually fired out of mortars in
the practice of artillery ; by filling the cavity of the fhell with
water, and then, having plugged up the fuze-hole, expofing it
to the cold to freeze the water, in order to find whether the ex-
panfion of the ice would be capable of burfting the fhell.
Tue dimenfions of the 13 inch fhell are as follow:

Inches.
Outer diameter of the fhell, 2 12.8
Inner, or diameter of the cavity, - 9.1
Thicknefs of metal at the fuze-hole, 155
Ditto at the bottom or oppofite part, ne
Diameter of the fuze-hole, ends 1.7

And the dimenfions are Similar in the other fhells.) The fuze-
hole is conical, the oppofite fides of which, when produced,
meet

24 On the EXPANSIVE FORCE

meet at the extremity of the diameter, which paffes through
the middle of the. hole.

He found, that the iron plug could hardly ever be driven fo
firmly into the fuze-hole as to refift the force of the expanfion
of the ice, which pufhed it out with great velocity, and a bolt
or cylinder of ice, of a confiderable length, immediately fhot
up from the hole. But when the plug was fixed in with fprings,
which laid hold of the infide of the cavity, fo that the plug
could not poffibly be pufhed out, the force of expanfion then
fplit the fhell, and a fin or plate of ice fhot out quite around.

EXTRACT from Major Wititam’s Letter.

THESE experiments were made on iron-fhells, from the
13 inch-fhell to the cochorn, of 4.4 inches diameter, by filling
the fhell nearly with water, and driving in an iron plug with a
fledge hammer.

Time. | | Elev. of | Wt of
1784. Hour. | Barom.| Ther. | Wind. | thefuze | plug.oz

Diftance.

Dec. 21. | 12 night.) 29.66 | — 10) Wefterly. go 35 “Unknown.
22.10 A. M.| 29.69 | — 3 | Eatfterly. go 37.25 | 22 feet.
23.| 9 P. M.| 29.80 | — 16 | Ww. go 34-5 Unknown,
24.|11 A.M.| 29.25 | — 6 Ww 80 39-25 | 62
3t-| 11 A. M.| 29.60 | — 18] W 45 39-25 | 387
1785 :
Jan. 2. | 5 A. M. | 29.96 | — 19 W. 45 | 4175 | 415
4 | 7 A. M. | 29.46 | — 12 Ww. 45 | 42 Burft.
g-' 9 A.M-! 29.35 | — 4! W- 45 | 405 | 325

REMARK &

Dec. 21.—TueE fuze-axis of the fhell lay nearly perpendicu-
lar to the horizon. On examining the effect, about g o'clock
the following day, I obferved the plug gone, and a cylinder of
ice, of 44 inches high, rifing perpendicularly from the fuze-
hole, and of equal diameter. I fearched carefully for the plug,

but

em
3

Of FREEZING WATER. 25

but could not find it, as there was about 34 feet of fnow on the
ground.

22.—I watcHED this fhell about an hour, when, being
called out on bufinefs, I found, on my return, three hours af-
ter, the plug gone, and the icy cylinder 24 inches high. Plug
loft.

23.—I HAD a plug made, and jagged or notched along the
fides, to prevent its being forced out fo eafily ; and watched
this fhell for upwards of three hours, going into the houfe at
intervals to warm myfelf. The laft time I went in was about
half an hour after twelve, when, after a few minutes, I heard
a fort of hiffing found, upon which running out, the plug was
gone, and a cylinder of ice fhot up, exceeding any of the for-
mer, being 64 inches high. Plug loft.

24.—A SIMILAR plug to the laft. I watched this with more
fuccefs ; for although abfent at intervals; yet at half paft four
in the afternoon, (therm. at 6°) I faw the plug fuddenly forced
out by the column of ice, accompanied by the hifling noife ;
and, obferving its fall, I found it at 62 feet from the fhell.
The icy cylinder was 4 inches high, and the fuze-axis of the
fhell I found lay nearly at an angle of 80° with the horizon.

31.—ConcLupineG from the foregoing experiments, that no
plug could be fo fixed, as to render the refiftance at the fuze-
hole greater than at the weakeft part of the fhell, in which cafe
I fuppofed it would burft, (which was the primary objeé& in
thefe experiments) I thought it might be worth while to obferve
how far the force of congelation would project a plug of a given
weight and figure, and forced in with the fame number of
ftrokes of the fledge hammer. For this purpofe, I placed the
fuze-axis of the fhell at an angle of 45° with the horizon, and
on the 3rft of December 1784, being the coldeft day of this
year, the plug was projected whilft I was abfent, a cylinder was
fhot out, in the direétion of the axis, of 7} inches, and not in-

Vo. II. a clining

26 On th EXPANSIVE FORCE

clining in the leaft from that direction to the horizon. The
plug was loft. 1

‘Yan. 2. 1785.—Beine colder than 31ft December, in order
to haften the effeét, I put a mixture of common falt and fal
ammoniac to the water, and tied a long pack-thread, with a
piece of red rag at its end, to the fuze, in order to find where
it fellin the fnow. This plug made its efcape, like the reft ;
for at half paft fix it was flown, and a cylinder of 8+ inches of
ice ftanding over the fuze-hole. The plug was loft; for the
red rag appeared no where on the furface of the fnow.

4,—TRIED a plug made with fprings, in the manner of a
fearcher, only very fhort and ftrong. Added the freezing mix-
ture. The fhell gave a fudden crack at a quarter after nine,
and inftantly fhot from its furface two thin plates of ice, re-
fembling fins, about 2 inches in the higheft parts. On exa-
mining the fhell I found it burft, and the plug forced up about
half an inch; and, on breaking the fhell, the fprings were con-
fiderably bent, fo as not to have recovered their firft fituation.

g-—RepeaTep the laft experiment, with a fimilar plug and
the freezing mixture. It was thrown out, as before, and the
projecting icy cylinder was 33 inches high.

SIMILAR experiments were afterwards made with all the leffer
fhells; yet, though one or more of each fort were actually
burft, more plugs were projected than produced that effect.
As foon as the fnow began to difappear from the furface, I
fearched carefully for the plugs, and found fix of them ; which,
being all marked with notches after the firft experiment, I eafily
formed from them the following table.

Plug,

ag ny My acm = a

Of FREEZING WATER. 27

Plug, No. 1. Dec. 22. 22 feet. 34 to the right of the
line of direétion.

on 24. 62 5 left.

4. Bi 387 2+ right.
5: Jan. 2. 415 34 right.
6. 4. Shell burft.

7. 9: 325 4+ left.

Sucu was the refult of thefe experiments, from which I leave
it to you to draw conclufions. I intend to purfue them again
this winter; and, if you can fuggeft any ideas on the fubjec&
that can reach Canada before March 1786, I fhall be glad to
avail myfelf of them.

Ep. WILLIAMS.

REMARKS on the preceding Extra& by Cua. Hutton, LL. D.

From thefe ingenious experiments, we may draw feveral
conclufions. As, t

Firf, We hence obferve the amazing force of the expanfion
of the ice, or the water, in the act of freezing ; which is fuff- ©
cient to overcome perhaps any refiftance whatever ; and the con-
fequence feems to be, either that the water will freeze, and, by
expanding, burft the containing body, be it ever fo thick and
ftrong ; or elfe, if the refiftance of the containing body exceed
the expanfive force of the ice, or of water in the aé of freez-
ing, then, by preventing the expanfion, it will prevent the
freezing, and the water will remain fluid, whatever the degree
of cold may be.

THE amazing force of congelation is alfo obvious from the
diftance to which the iron plugs were projected. For, if we
confider the very {mall time that the force of expanfion aéts on
the plug in puthing it out, and that the plug. of 23 lb. weight,

was projected with a velocity of more than 2o feet in a fecond

d 2 of

28 On the EXPANSIVE FORGE, &c.

of time, and thrown to the diftance of 415 feet by this force 5
fo ating, the intenfity of the force will appear to be truly afto-
nifhing.

2dly, We may hence form an eftimate of the quantity which
the water expands by freezing. For the longeft cylinder of ice
was obferved to be 84 inches without the hole ; to this add 14,
the thicknefs of the metal, or length of the hole, and the
fam, or 10 inches, is the whole length of the cylinder of ice,
the diameter of which is 1,75 inches; and hence its folid con-
tent is 1.7?7X1I0x.7854 cubic inches.

Bur the diameter of the {pherical cavity, filled with water,
is 97's inches; and therefore g.1°x3x.7854 is the content of
the water in cubic inches.

Hence then the content of the water is to the increafe by
expanfion, as 3 of g.1* to 10 times I.7*, or as 502.4 to 28.9,
or as 174 to 10. So that the water, in this inftance, expanded
in freezing, by a quantity which is between the 17th and 18th
part of itfelf.

Cc. H.

Vi.

VI. ABSTRACT of EXPERIMENTS made to determine the
TRUE RESISTANCE of the AtR to the SURFACES
of BODIES, of various figures, and moved through it with
different degrees of velocity. By CHARLES HUTTON, LL.D.
Profeffor of Mathematics in the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, and F.R.§. Lonn. & Epin.

[Read by Mr RoBISON, ‘Fan. 1. 1787.]

om HE experiments from which the following are extratt-
ed, make part of a courfe, inftituted at the Royal Mili-

tary Academy, for determining the refiftance of the air to a fur-
face of any form whatever, either plane or curved, moved
through it with any degree of velocity. I was induced to un-
dertake thefe experiments, both for the improvement of my
ftudents in the Academy, and with a view to apply the conclu-
fions derived from them towards perfecting the theory and
practice of military projectiles, as well as other branches of na-
tural philofophy, in which the preffure or refiftance of fluids
is concerned: Circumftances, concerning the laws of which,
authors on the theory have widely differed; fome making the
preffure or refiftance equal to the weight of a column, whofe
altitude is equal to the whole height due to the velocity, while
others make the altitude very different, either the half or the:
double of that. This altitude, however, it is evident, will be va-
rious, according to the nature of the fluid, whether elaftic or
non-elaftic, c. or according to its different degrees of com-
preflion. I have, therefore, confined thefe experiments to the
preffure and refiftance of the air only, being that which affects
the

30 On th RESISTANCE of the AIR

the accuracy of the branch, for the improvement of which I
am more particularly folicitous at this time; and therefore the
laws here deduced are not meant to be extended to other fluids
of a different nature.

2. THE machine with which thefe experiments were per-
formed, was made after the pattern of, and by the fame work-
man as that which is defcribed by the late excellent Mr Ro-
BINS, in the firft volume of his works, as publifhed by Dr
Witson, and of which a view is inferted in that volume, at
leaft of the principal parts of it. Suffice it, therefore, in this
place, juft to obferve, that it confifts of a fmall vertical axis,
with a long horizontal arm connected with it. A body of any
form is fixed on the extremity of the arm; then a fine, but
ftrong filken thread, or cord, is wound about the axis, with a
given {mall weight at the end, which is paffed over a vertical
pully, and left to defcend by its weight, and fo turning the axis,
gives motion to the arm and body at the end of it. Hence it is
evident, that a flow motion of the axis, or of the actuating
weight, will give.a very quick motion to the refifting body at the
end of the arm; this latter being to the former indeed, as the
length of the arm, meafured to the centre of the body, is to
the radius of the axis, which, in thefe experiments, was as
517 tol.

3. THE actuating weight would defcend continually with an
accelerated velocity, were it not for the friction of the axis, and
the refiftance of the air to the arm and the body placed at the
end of it. But this refiftance always increafing with the velo-
city, and indeed as the fquare of it, it muft needs happen,
that, by the refiftance conftantly gaining on the velocity, this
will foon arrive at its maximum, and after that proceed with
a uniform motion, the refiftance neither gaining on the ve-
locity, nor the velocity on the refiftance, but each mutyally
balancing the other. As foon as this happens, then the ac-

tuating

To the SURFACES of BODIES. 31

tuating weight is the meafure of the refiftance of the air on the
body and the arm, and of the friction of the axis.

4. Next, to find what part of the retardation is owing to
the friction on the axis, and the refiftance of the air againft the
arm, both the actuating weight and the refifting body were ta-
ken off, and, inftead of the latter, a very thin bit of lead of
the fame weight was put on; then various fmaller actuating
weights were employed, till at laft fuch a one was found as
gave to the machine the very fame degree of uniform motion
as it had before, when the refifting body and the larger aQtuating
weight were employed. Then, the degree of velocity being the
fame in both cafes, the fmaller aCtuating weight will be the
meafure of the fri@tion on the axis, and the refiftance of the
air to the arm; both of which, however, were reduced to as:
fmall a quantity as poflible, the former by means of friction-
wheels, and the latter by being made thin and feather-edged.

5- SUBTRACTING now the lefs weight from the greater, the
remainder is the meafure of the refiftance of the air againft the
body alone; that is, when reduced for the different lengths of
lever, namely, by diminifhing the remaining weight in the ra-
tio of the length of the arm to the radius of the axis, meafured
to the middle of the thread. Thus, then, we obtain a weight
which is the meafure of ‘the refiftance of the air againft a given
furface, moving with a given velocity ; that is, a weight which
is equal to the preffure of the air againft the furface, or which,
if it were laid upon and uniformly diffufed over the furface
when it isa plane, would prefs the furface juft as much as
the air does.

6. THEN, laftly, finding what altitude a column of air mutt
have, which is of the weight of the aforefaid remaining weight
reduced, and whofe bafe is the plane of the refifting furface ;
it will be the altitude of the column of the fluid whofe weight -
orpreflure is equal to the refiftance, and which preffure would :
confequently generate the fame velocity in the fluid.

9. THE

32 On the RESISTANCE of the AIR

7. TuE body ufed to affix to the end of the arm, in the fol-
lowing abftraét, was a hemifphere of pafteboard, the hollow
part being covered with a flat circle of the fame, that either
the round or the flat fide might be made to go foremoft againtft
the air. The diameter of the hemifphere was 63 inches; and
confequently the area of its great circle, or flat fide, was 32
fquare inches or 7 of a fquare foot, and it weighed 40z. 3 dr.
avoirdupois. ‘The hemifphere being fixed on the end of the
arm, with either fide foremoft, by a medium of feveral times,
and different ways of meafuring, it was found, that the radius
of the axis, including half the thicknefs of the thread, was
1.043 inches, and the length of the arm, meafured to the centre
of the hemifphere, was 53.34 inches; fo that the two radii,
namely of the path of the body and of the axis, are to each
other as 53-34 to 1.043, or as 51.14 to 1: And therefore every
experimented actuating weight muft be divided by 51.14 or 513,
to reduce it to the equivalent weight acting at the centre of the
hemifphere.

8. THE times of revolutions of the arm were counted by a
peculiar pendulum clock, beating feconds, which was made for
the purpofe. The method was thus: The clock being placed
clofe by the machine, and the hemifphere and actuating weight
fixed in their places, an affiftant held the hemifphere in a parti-
cular fituation by his hand, while a fecond affiftant audibly
counted the beats of the clock, beginning at 50 feconds, and
counting on from I to 10, which confequently would end at
60 or o; and the inftant he pronounced ro, the firft affiftant
let the hemifphere go. The confequence was, it began at firft
to move very flowly, and gradually increafe for a fhort time,
and then to move uniformly. The firft afliftant, keeping his
ftation, called out at every time the body paffed him, in its re-
volution, and the other affiftant called out the correfponding
number of feconds and half feconds beat by the clock, which
I inftantly wrote down with a pencil on a paper held in my

hand,

Yo the SURFACES of BODIES. 33

hand, previoufly ruled for that purpofe. And thus we could
with eafe mark the precife time of every revolution. The num-
ber of revolutions was ufually continued to about 35; and as
the motion, with the hemifphere commonly became uniform
after two or three revolutions, and with the lead only, after
about 20 revolutions, I fubtraéted the time of the firft 25 revo-
lutions from that of 35, and the remainder was the mean time
of 10 revolutions ; and, confequently, dividing by 10 gave me
the mean time of one revolution very correétly ; and thence,
from the fpace of one circle or revolution, which is 27.93 feet,
the velocity of the hemifphere per fecond of time.

g- In this manner, then, by varying the actuating weight,
by 1dr. or 2 dr. &%c. at a time, I obtained a long feries of cor-
refponding times and velocities, both with the round and flat
fide of the hemifphere foremoft, and with the equivalent lead
only. After which I fubtra¢ted the numbers of this latter from
the correfponding ones of thé two former, and the remainders,
when divided by 51.14, gave the true meafure of the preffure of
the air at the centre of the hemifphere.

In the following table are feleéted only the velocities in
whole numbers of feet, namely, of 3 feet per fecond, of 4 feet,
of 5 feet, and fo on to that of 20 feet fer fecond of time, with
the correfponding actuating weights in all the three cafes, name-
ly the flat fide foremoft, the round fide foremoft, and without
the hemifphere, with the lead only; namely, fuch actuating
weights as were really experimented, and before dividing them
by 51.14, to reduce them to the centre of the body.

Vou. II. ¢ A B S-

34 On th RESISTANCE of the AIR

ABSTRACT of VetociTizs and AcTUATING WEIGHTs.

Diff. or true
refiftances. Ratios.
Flat. | Round.

Weights with
Velocity,} Flat | Round | Lead
per fec. fide. | fide. only.

OZ. OZ.
2.6 1.0 | 2.60
4.8 2.0| 2.40

3
4
Bi; |inalnai libs 75| 32| 2.35
7
8

12.8.| 6.7 | 2.0 || 10.8 4-7 | 2.30

6.4 2.30
21.9 |11.0 | 2.8 |} 19.1 8.2 | 2.33
3.3 || 24.3, 10.2] 2.38

IO 34.0 | 16.2 | 3.8 |] 30.2 124 2.44
II 41.0 |19.2 | 4.4 |] 36-6] 14.8 | 2.47
12 48.7 |22.6 | 5.1 || 43.6! 17.51 2.49
13, | 57+ 26.4 | 5.8 51.3 | 20.6] 2.49
14 66.2 | 30.6 | 6.5 || 59.7 | 24.1 | 2.48
15 76.0 |35-1 | 7.2 || 68.8) 27.9) 2.47
16 | 86.6. 40.0 | 7.9 || 78.7 | 32.1| 2.46
E7 l 98.2 |45-3 | 8.7 Il 89.5 | 36.6) 2.45
18 II1.0]/51.0 | 9.5 |xo1-5 | 41.51 2.45
1G [125.01 57-2 | 10.3 |) 114-7 | 46.9] 2.45
20 |140.0 | 64.0 | 11.0 | 129.0 | 53.0} 2.44

Here the firft column contains the velocity fer fecond; the
fecond column contains the experimented actuating weight,
with the flat fide foremoft ; the third column that for the round
fide foremoft ; and the fourth column that for the lead only:
Then the fifth column contains the difference between the fe-
cond and fourth, or actuating weights for the flat fide and lead;
and the fixth column the difference between the third and
fourth, or aCtuating weights, for the round fide and lead only ;
fo that the fifth and fixth columns, when divided by 513, will
be the true meafure of the refiftance of the air to each fide of

the

.

To the SURFACES of BODIES. 35

the hemifphere, moving with the correfponding velocity on the
fame line of the firft column ; and in the laft column are con-
tained the ratios of thefe two refiftances, or how often each
refiftance of the round fide is contained in that on the flat fide

of the hemifphere.

to. From a flight contemplation of the laft three columns of
this table, we may eafily draw feveral important confequences.
As, fir#, From the fifth and fixth columns, it appears, that the
refiftance to either furface, with different velocities, is always as
the fquare of the velocity, as near as fuch experiments can be
expected to fhow.

Tuus, in the fifth column, taking the refiftances Easeebioad:
ing to the velocities of 4 feet and 8 feet, which are as 1 to 2,
and their {quares as 1 to 43 the refiftances 4.8 to 19.1 are as
I to 4 very nearly; and the refiftances in the fixth column,
namely, 2 to 8.2, are alfo nearly in the fame ratio. And fo of
others.

11. 2d/y, From the laft column, it appears, that the refiftance
to the flat fide is to that on the round fide, on an average,
nearly as 2.45 to 1, or 2$ to I nearly, if a medium be taken
among all the numbers in the laft column. But, by the theory
of the refiftance of fluids, we are led to expect, that this ratio
would have been only that of 2 to 1, inftead of 24 to 1, as by
the experiment. Now, what this difference is owing to, may
be at prefent difficult to determine with precifion. The greater
part of it may probably arife from the air differing in its na-
ture from the perfect fluid which the theory contemplates ; but
fome {mall part of it may arife from the different figure of the
hinder parts of the hemifphere, though I hardly fufpe@ that
this may caufe any fenfible difference. I intend, however, foon
to try whether it be fenfible to experiments ; in which I intend
to employ a cylinder, to compare with the flat fide foremoft of
the hemifphere, and a whole fphere, each of the fame diameter,
to compare with the round fide foremoft of the hemifphere. I

€.2 propofe

36 On the RESISTANCE of the AIR, &e.

propofe alfo, at the fame time, to try the refiftance of fome other
figures.

12. 3dly, From any of the numbers in the fixth column, it
appears, that the altitude of a column of air, whofe preffure is
equal to the refiftance on the round fide of the hemifphere, is
half the altitude due to the velocity of the figure; that is, half
the altitude from which a body mutt freely fall by gravity to
acquire that velocity ; and, in this inftance, agreeing with the
theory. Thus, if we take the velocity of 10 feet per fecond,
whofe refiftance in the fixth column is 12.4, we fhall have as
327: 107::16:*¢f =1.56 feet, which is the altitude due to
to the velocity ro, and the half altitude is .78; but the weight
is 12.4 ounces, which being divided by 51.14, to reduce it
from the axis to the centre of the body, gives .2411 oz. for the
true refiftance to the convex fide. Now, a cubic foot of air
weighs 1} 0z. 3 therefore, as 1}: .2411:: 1.1929, whichis the
bulk of the column of air whofe weight is equal to the refiftance,
which being divided by } of a foot, the area of the bafe, we have
.86 feet for the altitude of that column, and which, therefore,
is nearly equal to the half altitude above found for the velocity,
exceeding it only by about the 13th or 14th part.

13. 4tbly, Bur, from the fifth column, it appears, that the
altitude of the column of air, whofe preffure is equal to the re-
fiftance on the flat fide of the hemifphere, is to the altitude due
to the velocity of the body, as 2 to 2, inftead of being equal,
as required by the theory.

VIL.

VIL OsservaTions of the Places of the GEORGIAN
PLANET, made at Edinburgh with an Equatoreal Inftrument.
By foun Rosison, A.M. F.R.S. Epin. and Profeffor
of Natural Philofophy in the Univerfity of Edinburgh.

[Read by the Author, March 7. 1787.)

M. T. Edin. Apt. Lon. Plan. Er.theor. Apt. lat.N. Compar.
ou cham oles role Nie hia wee " Bi toed tod
1787. Jan. 12. 06. 39. 24 3. 23. 35.17 +8 —.32. 20 4
15: 06. 05. II 3. 23-27:44 —7 —.32. 20 3
17. 06, 13. 16 3»23.22. 27 +5 —.32.19 2
18. 06. 05. 33 3- 23-19. 42 +2 —.32. 21 2
20. 06. 23. 04 3. 23.14. 24 +7 —.32.17 4

Hence it may be deduced, (by following the method de-
fcribed in a paper.formerly read to this Society*) that the planet
was in oppofition January 13%. 04°. 56° M. T. Greenwich, in
longitude, 3°. 23°. 32’. 24” from the mean equinox, with
—°. 30. 38” north heliocentric latitude.

Tue error of the theory in longitude is nearly +5”, and in
latitude nearly —18”.

IT arTriBurTE this error in latitude to the different manner
in which I obferved the declinations. I formerly obferved the
difference of declination between the planet and fixed ftar by
means of a common micrometer. But | was obliged to fubfti-
tute Dr BRADLEY’s rhombus for my micrometer, which had re-
ceived an injury which I could not get repaired in time. If
this be allowed, the error in longitude will be diminifhed
nearly 2”.

My telefcope has an achromatic object glafs of 44 inches focal
diftance, magnifies 194 times, and takes in a diftin& field of

De

* Tranfactions of the Royal Society of Edin. Vol. I. N° XI. Phyf. Cl. ;

38 OBSERVATIONS of the Places, &c.

92’. The planet was always compared with at leaft two ftars,
which paffed through the field without altering the pofition of
the inftrument. The interval between the tranfits of the fixed
ftars, compared with their difference in right afcenfion in the
tables, fhows the error of the pofition of the horary wire; and
the planet’s difference in declination fhows what portion of this
error is to be applied to the time of its tranfit. When the pofi-
tion of the horary wire was very oblique to the horizon, and
the altitudes fmall, a correction was made for the difference in
refraction.

Boru ends of the polar axis were firmly fupported in a
ftone wall. The telefcope turned round on a pin within two
inches of the upper pivot of the axis, and clofe by the object
glafs. The other end of the telefcope was fupported (at the
place of the wires) by a ftiff rod, which turned round a pin
within two inches of the lower end of the polar axis; fo that
the telefcope, axis and this rod, formed a triangle. Another
{tiff rod was faftened to the telefcope at the place of the wires,
with a double joint, and its other end paffed through a focket,
firmly fixed on the fide of the window, where it was held faft
by a fcrew-pin. The rod was in a plane, nearly parallel to the
equator. It is eafy to fee that, by this conftruction, each part
of the inftrument was expofed to a longitudinal ftrain alone,
and all effects of the tremor of its parts were avoided. It was
fo completely free from any inconvenience of this kind, that,
even in very boifterous winds, the image of the ftar was per-
fe@tly fteady, and free from every kind of quivering. I never
found any two comparifons of the planet with the fame pair of
{tars differ above half a fecond in time. As the inftrument was
fo exaét, and did not (exclufive of the telefcope) coft above
three pounds, I thought that this fhort account of it would be
acceptable to fuch as are not provided with thofe expenfive in-
ftruments which are thought effentially neceffary for making
good and ufeful obfervations.
Vil.

VII. ANsweERs to the Objeétions of M. DE Luc with regard
to the THEORY of Rain. By J4MEs HuttoN,M.D.
F.R.S. Epin. and Member of the Royal Academy of Agri-
culture at Paris.

[Read by the Author, Dec. 3. 1787. ],.

De Luc, in his Idées fur la Meétéorologie, has made

e fome objections to the Theory of Rain * which I had

the honour to lay before this Society. I fhall now endeavour

to anfwer thefe objections; and hope the Society will forgive

me for taking up a little of their time and attention with this

fubje&t. The reputation of M. pe Luc is fo well eftablifhed in

the republic of letters, that I muft. not neglect remarks which

have the fanction of fuch authority ; although, in the prefent

cafe, they appear to me to have come from a judge who was too:
much preoccupied with a different fyftem.

THE queftion between us, according to M. pe Luc’s own.
ftatement, is this, Whether or not, when two mafles of air of
different temperatures are mixed together, the humidity of the
new mafs is greater than the mean between the humidities
which the two mafles had feparately? This I maintain to be a
phyfical truth, and M. pe Luc refufes to admit it as a rule in
nature.

I nap eftablifhed this. propofition, That, upon the fuppofition
of the evaporating power increafing with heat, but increafing
at a greater rate, the mixture of two portions of air, of different
temperatures and fufficiently faturated with humidity, would
produce a condenfation of water which might then become vi-

fible:.
* Tranfactions of the Royal Society of Edin. Vol. I. N° IL. Phyf. Cl.

4° ANSWERS to the OBFECTIONS

fible. I then fay, That this cafe properly applies to the pheno-
mena of breath and fteam, which give a vifible condenfation in
mixing with the colder atmofphere ; and it explains the various
appearances that may occur in mixing together feveral portions
of air more or lefs faturated with humidity, and in different
temperatures of heat and cold. For,

Ir is not every mixture of the atmofpheric fluid, in different
temperatures, that fhould, according to the theory, form a vifi-
ble condenfation ; this effe€t requiring, in that atmofphere, a
fufficient degree of faturation with humidity. Neither is it ne-
ceflary for this effect, that the two portions to be mixed fhould
each be faturated with humidity up to the temperature in
which it then is found ; it is fufficient, that the difference in the
temperatures of thofe portions to be mixed fhould more than
compenfate the defect in point of faturation; but if a mixture
fhall be made of two portions of the atmofphere, both fully fa-
turated with humidity, then, however fmall may be the differ-
ence of their temperatures, there is reafon to believe, that a
condenfation proportionate to this difference will take place.

Here it is to be obferved, that I have made the rule abfo-
lute, or generalized the propofition to every fuppofable cafe ;
while, at the fame time, I appealed to familiar examples in two
cafes, that is, of humid atmofphere and of pure fteam, in gi-
ving the breath of animals in the one cafe, and the fteam of a
boiling kettle in the other.

Tue propofition being thus made perfectly general, and con-
cluded from experience to be a law of-nature, M. pg Luc has
endeavoured to refute this phyfical principle, by attempting to
explain, in another manner, the natural appearances upon
which it has been founded. It fhall now be my bufinefs to
fhow, that this explanation which M. pr Luc has endeavoured
to give of the fubjet, is founded upon nothing but inadverten-
cy or mifapprehenfion.

HE

i

es See

eriiceeres

= ie

Of M. DE LUC. . 41

He fays, (parag. 585.) “ Je me fuis point furpris que le
Dr Hutton ait été frappé de ce que ia refpiration des ani-
“ maux produit un brouillard dans lair, lorfqwil eft humide ou
“ froid; j’en ai été frappé auffi, comme d’un phénomene qui
ne s’explique pas par les loix ordinaires de |’évaporation :
* mais il m’a paru, en méme tems, qu'il étoit d’une toute autre
“ claffe ; qu'il n’appartenoit pas 4 ’hygrologie, mais 4 la phy-
fiologie ; en un mot, que les vapeurs qui s’y manifeftent, ne
procédent pas de l’évaporation d’une eau contenue dans les
poumons. Ceci étant lié 4 quelques idées fur la nature des
caufes de la pluie, j’en renvoie le dévelopement 4 une autre
lieu, parce qu’il formeroit ici une trop longue digreffion, et
que d’ailleurs, fi j’examine les faits rapportés par le Dr Hut-
TON, ce n’eft que relativement 4 hypothéfe fondamentale
elle méme, et non 4 fes conféquences dans la Théorie de la
Pluie; puifqu’on a vu, que cette hypothéfe pourroit étre ad-
“mife, fans que la pluie pit en étre la confequence, vu /’état
ordinaire de lair.”

As in this paragraph is contained all the objection that M. DE
Luc, fo far as I can perceive, is able to make again{t the Theory
of Rain, it will be proper to examine it particularly, and di-
vide it into the two different propofitions which it contains.
Thefe are, ff, a denial of the general principle, with regard
to the condenfation of humidity in the atmofphere; as not be-
ing a true principle, or properly founded ; and, 2d/y, a refufal
of the application of that general principle, fuppofing it true,
to the theory of rain. Of thefe, then, in their order.

With regard to the firf, M. pe Luc admits all that I could
poffibly propofe to draw from this example, viz. That moitft
air, breathed from the lungs of an animal into the colder at-
mofphere, produces a condenfation of water, in proportion to
the faturation of the atmofphere with humidity, and alfo to its
degree of cold below the heat of the breath; for he acknow-

Vo.t- Il. ‘a ledges,

42 ANSWERS to the OBFECTIONS

ledges, that he had alfo been {truck with that appearance, which
he thought inexplicable by the ordinary laws of evaporation and
condenfation. But, fays he, it is not to be admitted as a fact
to prove the fuppofed propofition. Why? Becaufe it does not
belong to hygrology, but to phyfiology.

I sHoucp have been at a lofs what to have replied to this ob-
jection, had not M. pe Luc, in fome meafure, explained him-
felf in the next fentence; where he fays, that the vapours
which are manifefted in this cafe, do not proceed from the eva-
poration of water contained in the lungs. Here, then, it is
evident, that M. pe Luc leaves the fubject in hand, the conden-
fation of the breath, to enquire after the caufe of its humi-
dity. But whatever be the caufe of this aqueous vapour in the
breath, there is certainly no queftion about its. effect; that is,
the humidity of the warm expired air, which is to be mixed .
with the atmofphere, and there to produce mift. I do not, there-
fore, fee how any argument can be founded upon this fuppofed
operation of the lungs, whatever it be, any more than upon.
that of the heart, the liver or the kidneys. In our meteorolo-
gical enquiry, we furely are no ways concerned about the com-
pofition or decompofition of water; a fubject of chemical en-
quiry : We only want to explain the condenfation of that hu-
midity which is on all hands allowed te be in the breath.

Tue queftion which, in. this cafe, fhould, according to the
rules of fcience, have been either acknowledged or denied, was
this, Does the moift air, expired in breathing, form a condenfa-
tion of water, in being mixed with cooler air fufficiently fatu-
rated with humidity? M. pe Luc has evaded making any di-
rect anfwer to that queftion, in propofing to develope the fub-
je@t upon fome other occafion. This may have fuited the con-
veniency of our author, who was bufy in forming a meteoro-
logical theory very different from. that which I had propofed ;
but he had undertaken to difprove my propofition, with regard
to the condenfation of vapour ; and this vifible condenfation of

the

ese a aoe

Of M. DE LUC. 43

the breath is the natural phenomenon which is to be explained,
or the fcientific experiment by which the theory which M. DE
Luc refufes, is approved.

Ir may be proper here to obferve, that I only confider the
diffolving power of air with refpeét to water, in order to con-
traft it with the precipitation of the diffolved fubftance, when
the action or effeét of heat has been diminifhed according to
the theory. It no ways concerns my propofition, whether it is
upon the principle of diffolution or fimple expanfion by heat,

-that the aqueous vapour is retained in the air, or preferved in

a tranfparent ftate. The expreflion of diffolution beft anfwer-
ed my purpofe, where the faturation of the atmofphere with
humidity was to be expreffed ; therefore I retained it, although
I had declared in this Society, when my firft paper was read
and converfed upon, that I did not mean in the leaft to enter
into that queftion which Profeflor Rogisow then put. In like

manner, it is abfolutely indifferent to the theory, whether the

infpired air or breath acquires its humidity by evaporation, dif-
folution, or chemical refolution and compofition: Therefore,
if this negation, with regard to the origin of water, be intended
by M. ve Luc as an objection to my propofition, which I
think has no relation with that fubje&t, it would be proper he
fhould fhow in what refpect that argument of his affects the
condenfation of the water contained in the breath, when that
breath is mixed with another portion of air.

I now proceed to the /econd propofition of M. pe Luc,
which is, That, fuppofing my hypothefis admitted, it does not
follow that rain happens in confequence of this caufe; the or-
dinary ftate of the atmofphere being, as he alleges, too dry to
admit of this effect. Now, this may be a very good reafon
why it fhould not always rain, or fhould noc rain in that parti-
cular ftate of the atmofphere which is moft ordinary; but I
believe it will be difficult to perfuade thofe who admit of the
hypothefis, that they fhould not apply this principle in the cafe

Sf 2 of

44 ANSWERS to th OB¥ECTIONS

of rain, which furely does not happen in the moft ordinary
ftate of the atmofphere, at leaft not in moft countries, thofe
particularly in which M. pe Luc has made his meteorological
obfervations.

Havine thus difcuffed the cafe of humid air or natural va-
pour, M. pe Luc next proceeds to confider the cafe of fteam,
or pure vapour, as he calls it. Here he fays, that the mift
formed above water boiling in the open air, may be explained
upon another principle than that of the hypothefis from whence
I had concluded that it-fhould be fo. It will be proper to give
his reafoning upon the fubje&:

“ La vapeur de l’eau bouillante (/feam) eft pure, parce
“* gu’au degré de chaleur de cette eau, les vapeurs font toujours
“* capable de fupporter feules la preffion de latmofphére. Des
vapeurs prefque pures, forment les bulles qui traverfent fans
ceffe l’eau bouillante ; et ces bouffées de fluide élaftique tranf-
“'parent, deplacent l’air en fe dégageant de l'eau. Si ces va-
“ peurs fe répandent dans un éfpace qui n’ait qu'une petite
“ iflue 4 Poppofite de leur entrée, en amenant cet efpace a leur
température, elles en chaffent tout lair, et y demeurent tran{f-
parentes ; mais des qu’elles l’ont dépaffé, et qu’elles fe repan-
dent dans lair exterieur, leur courant s’y décompofe bientot :
car dés la premiere perte fenfible qu’elles éprouvent dans le
degré de chaleur auquel eft attachée leur exiftence, ne pou-
vant plus fupporter la preffion de l’atmofphere, elles fe tranf-
forment en un brouillard, qui fe méle a l’air environnant.”’
Here M. pe Luc confiders the tran{parent fteam, when co-
ming in contact with the colder atmofphere, as cooled by the
air, without noticing, that it proportionably heats that air by
which it is cooled. This overfight in another perfon but M. DE
Luc, might have been natural; it might even in M. DE Luc
himfelf have been more excufable, had he been lefs converfant
with the important theory of latent heat which Dr Brack dif-

covered

«e

ce

“ce

ce

ec

ce

“

ac

“cc

co ee

Of M. DE LUG. 45

covered long ago. But firft to confine our attention to the
cooling of the fteam, and then to explain the appearance of
condenfation from this cooling alone, is a fpecies of reafoning
that one would not have expected from the author of the Mo-
difications of the Atmofphere.

THE queftion is not, if a body of fteam, in the 212th de-
gree of heat, mixed with a body of air, in the ordinary tempe-
rature of the atmofphere, fhould preferve its degree of heat,
that is to fay, fhould be cooled or not; the queftion is, If the
mean heat of this mixed mafs be fufficient to preferve all the
humidity im a tranfparent ftate; or, If there fhall be formed a
condenfation of vifible mift, in this cafe as well as in the other,
where moift and warm air was mixed with the atmofphere?
Had no condenfation in this experiment been formed, the prin-
ciple of condenfation, confequently of evaporation, could not
have been extended to the cafe of fteam, or the rule of evapo-
ration would not have been abfolute, as comprehending both
the cafe of the atmofphere and that of water by itfelf; but the
condenfation actually taking place in the experiment, genera-
lizes this law of nature with refpect to every poflible combina-
tion of water, air and heat. This condenfation does not hap-
pen in confequence of the fteam being expofed to any preffure
which it had not fuftained before, but becaufe the heat of the
mixed mafs, which is the medium between the heats of the two
mafles, is not fufficient to preferve all the water in the ftate of
vapour; and this is precifely what, according to the theory,
the experiment is meant to prove.

But M. pe Luc, though he has had recourfe to the cooling
of the fteam alone, to account for the mift which inftantly ap-
pears upon the mixing of the fteam and air, does not lofe fight
of the heat which he knows is not loft; but he brings it into
action again, for the evaporation of that mift which has ap-
peared. It is neceflary to give his reafoning in relation to that
fubject. ‘‘ Cependant ces vapeurs décompofées ont augmenté

6s la

46 ANSWERS to the OBFECTIONS

la chaleur de I’air, et bient6t par-la ‘elles y fubiffent une
nouvelle évaporation, qui les fait difparoitre de nouveau.
Ainfi ce phénoméne rentre dans le cas général, d’une preci-
pitation momentanée, fuivie d’une nouvelle évaporation,
“quand des vapeurs, ou pures, ou mélées a J’air, viennent 4
dépafler leur maximum, par V’a€tion d’un air moins chaud
qu’elles; fi du moins leur production n’eft pas aflez rapide,
pour furmonter la caufe de nouvelle évaporation qui nait en
méme tems de la nouvelle chaleur acquife par cet air.”

Tue fubje& at prefent under confideration is the evaporation
of that vifible mift which is formed by the mixture of the
{team and air; and it is to be obferved, that the general law of
evaporation which M. pe Luc attacks, has been inveftigated
by means of the vifible condenfation of water which had been
evaporated. M. pz Luc would make it appear, that, upon
this occafion of {team mixed with air, the vifible condenfation
in the atmofphere was not formed according to the rule which
here is generalized ; becaufe, fays he, that water is again eva-
porated by means of the heat which the fteam had communi-
cated to the air. :

Bur this explanation which M. pz Luc has offered to ac-
count for the evaporation again of the vifible mift, appears to
be inconfiftent with his theory refpecting the condenfation of
the fteam. For, if the condenfation of the iteam be the effect
of its being cooled by the air, while the air is neceflarily heated,
by it, How could the former ftate of things be reftored without
an affignable reafon, or any known caufe? that is to fay, How
could the air reftore to the water that heat which it had re-
ceived by communicating with the fteam? or, How could the
condenfed {team receive from the air any heat, or rob it of that
portion of heat which it had before imparted, and which is now
neceflarily required for its evaporation? Here, furely, would be

an effect without a caufe, or a caufe producing two oppofite
effects.

“

But

t

ee ee, ee

——_

Of MODE BUC. 47

Bur though not in -confequence of his theory, M. pE Luc
feems to adduce that explanation in confirmation of it. Now,
if this explanation fhould be admitted, it might tend to confirm
his fuppofition, that the fteam had been condenfed, not by the
medium temperature of the mixed air and vapour, as I con-
tend, but by the air abftracting the heat of the fteam, without
mixing with that fteam. It is, therefore, neceffary, that I
fhould anfwer that fuppofition with regard to the evaporation
of the mift. But it requires ftrié attention to many circum-
ftances, in order to fee, in a juft light, that atmofpheric’ opera-
tion, which had led a natural philofopher to make a fuppofition
of that kind.

StTeAM, before it canbe condenfed into water, muft communi-
cate or transfer its latent heat (equal to goo° more than the heat of
boiling water) to-the body by which it is cooled or condenfed ;
confequently, if the diflolving or evaporating power of heat
proceeded uniformly with its diftending power or fenfible heat,
the mixed mafs of air and {team fhould {till remain tranfparent,
without producing mift or condenfation. For the fteam lofes
no heat but what the air gains ; it is in: the conta&t of thofe
two fluids that this cooling happens ; and it is in this place pre-
cifely that the condenfation is produced. But there would be
no condenfation, if water could be retained tranfparent, elaftic
or diffolved, in the medium heat which is produced at the con-
tact of thofe two bodies. Therefore, the condenfation, which
actually happens, proves this phyfical truth, that when a: mafs
of fteam is mixed with a particular mafs of the atmofphere, or
with a certain portion of the atmofpherie fluid, the humidity
of the new mafs is greater than the mean between the humidi-

_ ties which the two united maffes had feparately.

I MIGHT now content myfelf with this obfervation, That it

is only with the produétion of mift or vifible vapour that my

propofition is concerned, and not with the diffolution of that
mift again, when it comes to be mixed with another portion of
; the

48 ANSWERS to the OBFECTIONS

the atmofphere which is not faturated with humidity. But I
have to fhow, that M. pe Luc has not reafoned accurately in
explaining the reaflumption of the vifible mift into the tranfpa-
rent atmofphere. For, though this fact has no immediate con-
nection with the queftion in difpute, the condenfation of va-
pour ; yet it might be brought in to affect that queftion, by a fort
of reafoning, which, though not fcientific, would be {pecious.

THE mitt or vifible vapour, according to that reafoning of our
author, is evaporated by the heated air: Therefore, that vapour
ought not tohave beencondenfed; but it was condenfed; therefore
it muft have been condenfed upon fome other principle than that
which I have alleged is general to all evaporation and conden-
fation of humidity. Thus, M. pr Luc would, in effect,
though not in terms, make this condenfation to be no conden-
fation, or not the condenfation in queftion, becaufe it is not
permanent. It is evident, however, that this precipitation of
the evaporated water is permanent, fo long as the conditions
of its condenfation are continued or remain. But in this cafe
of {team emitted into the open air, thofe conditions of conden-
fation cannot continue ; they muft be changed, and the con-
denfed vapour muft be again evaporated, fo foon as it meets
with a fufficient quantity of air under-faturated with humidity.
Therefore, M. pe Luc has endeavoured to explain the evapora-
tion of the vifible mift in this cafe, upon a falfe principle, by
not taking into confideration the quantity of under-faturated
air, which the afcending vapour meets with in the atmo-
{phere.

Tuus, whether we ‘confider the explanation which M. De
Luc has endeavoured to give, of the condenfation of mift in
the cafe of fteam mixed with a body of air, or of the evapo-
ration of that mift again when rifing in the atmofphere, there
appears to be no folid reafon for his objection to the theory ;
and I muft be allowed to maintain, that here alfo, in the cafe
of pure vapour, or fteam mixed with a portion of the atmo-

{phere,

Of M. DE LUC. 49

fphere, the rule is abfolute, or the aflumed principle with regard
to the particular modification of the law of heat, is perfectly
confirmed, at the fame time that it is generalized, in being ap-
plied to every {pecies of vapour and atmofpheric mixture.

I CONSIDERED the two examples of breath and fteam as fuf-
ficient to confirm the principle with regard to aqueous conden-
fation and evaporation, feeing that they comprehended every pof-
fible cafe, fo far at leaft as the theory was concerned. But, in

‘ thofe examples, the appearance was only that of mift, or vifible

condenfed vapour, which correfponded to cloud, and not im-
mediately to rain. I therefore thought it neceflary, in order to
overcome the ordinary prejudices of mankind, to give an ex-
ample feemingly more in point, although perhaps fuperfluous,
as it follows fo plainly from the principle. There is, however,
fomething fo convincing in the appearance, when a fhower of
rain is formed artificially in a chamber of experiment, that
even'a philofopher finds himfelf better fatisfied, after feeing
the fa@, than by many arguments, by which all the fteps of
the operation might be explained, and every effect foretold: I
therefore gave two examples of this fort, which had come to
my knowledge. It is concerning thefe that we are now to exa-
mine what M. pe Luc has faid, (parag. 587.)

* Le feul des phénoménes cités par le Dr Hurron, qui ait
“ un rapport immediat avec fa théorie, eft la précipitation nei-
“ geufe des vapeurs répandues dans l’air chaud d’une chambre,
“ lorfque cet air vient 4 communiquer a un air exterieur trés-
“ froid. Mais la preuve qui femble en réfulter en faveur de
“ cette théorie, n’eft qu’apparente ; car il n’y a pas lieu de pré-
“ fumer, que les vapeurs fuffent a leur maximum dans Vair ex-
** terieur, ni a Tornea, ni a Peterfburg: circonftance qui nean-
“ moins feroit néceflaire pour produire une precipitation d’eau
“ dapres Vhypothéfe ; 4 moins qu’on ne fupposat encore, que
“ quoique les vapeurs ne foient pas 4 leur maximum dans deux
airs qui fe mélent, elles peuvent le dépaffer fenfiblement dans
Vox. II. L file

iT

50 ANSWERS to th OBFECTIONS

“le mélange ; ce qui exigeroit toujours plus des expériences di-
“*. reétes.””

We have already feen how M. pe Luc has endeavoured to
explain the phenomenon, or rather to elude the queftion, when
the breath which is expired into the atmofphere is vifibly con-
denfed; but furely that was a phenomenon which had an im-
mediate relation to the theory. Therefore M. pr Luc is by’
no means warranted in faying, that this one, which he is now
examining, is the only phenomenon of thofe cited by me
which has an immediate relation to the theory; for, as the
experiment of the breath exhibits the formation of cloud, and
as cloud is generally confidered as the immediate caufe of rain,
the formation of cloud without rain, in our experiments, is as
immediately related to the theory, as the formation of raim
without cloud. We are now'to fee how M. pz Luc has endea-
voured to elude the force of this example of the formation of
rain.

Tue reafon here given by our author, why the proof, refult-
ing from thefe examples of actual rain, is not real, but only
apparent, is this, Becaufe, fays he, there is reafon to prefume,.
that the external air in thofe two cafes. was not fully faturated
with humidity or vapour. Now, for that very reafon, | fay,
circumftances were juft fo much the more unfavourable for
condenfation ; confequently, if condenfation a¢tually takes
place in this unfavourable cafe, @ fortiori it muft be allowed in
others where circumftances may be more favourable for that
operation. Ivis therefore evidently my intereft, fo far to al-
low M. ve Luc his fuppofition with regard to the ftate of the
external air. But how that ihould require more proof, or more
direct proof, on my part, I am at a lofs:to conceive ; as I think
that | have, on that very account, good) reafon to demand of
M. ve Luc better arguments, or more direct proof, againft the
theory. M. pe Luc, indeed, gives a reafon for this demand
of his, in.the next fentence ;. but it is a: very, different one from

that

Of M. DE LUG. St

that which he had already given. It is this, “ Car d’ailleurs,
** Jes phénoménes dont il s’agit peuvent sexpliquer fans avoir
“ recours a cette hypothéfe.” Here, indeed, is a very good
reafon for objecting to the application of thofe experimental
cafes ; and now we are to examine this explanation which M.
pe Luc is to give of the phenomenon.

He fays, “‘ La mafle (comparativement fort petite) de l’air de
la chambre, perdoit trés-promptement une quantité fenfible .
de fa chaleur par l’ouverture qu’on y faifoit, fans que l’air
* extérieure fe réchauffat fenfiblement a cette ouverture, auprés
de laquelle lair qui commencoit 4 s’échauffer, faifoit bientot
place a de lair froid, en s’élevant. Les vapeurs chaudes de-
voient donc fe précipiter en brouillard dans la chambre ; par-
** ceque l’air exterieur n’en recevoit prefque point.”

Tue explanation which M. pe Luc has here attempted,
either is not conceived with that diftinétnefs of idea which is
required for inveftigating the laws of nature, or is not expref-
fed in fuch precife terms as might make it eafy to bring his
propofition to a fcientific iffue, in applying principles. Let us,
however, endeavour to follow the argument of our author
through the obfcurity in which it is involved.

M. ve Luc fays, that the air of the chamber would quickly
lofe a fenfible quantity of its heat, without the external air being
fenfibly heated at this opening. Does he mean, that the air of
the chamber would fuffer any lofs of its heat upon this occa-
fion, befides what happened by the interchanging of the ex-
ternal and internal air? Such a fuppofition as that might truly
form the foundation of an argument; but this, it is found,
will not conform to the laws of hydroftatics. He, therefore,
mutt be obliged to fuffer fome of the heated air to efcape, and
its place to be fupplied with the cold air which comes in.
Things being in this ftate, our author fays, that the warm va-
pours ought to precipitate, in forming mift in the chamber, be-
caufe the external air receives fcarce any of them. This evi-

g 2 dently

“

4

”

“”
nw

“
o

a
.

52 ANSWERS to th OBFECTIONS

dently is to have again recourfe to the fallacious argument, al+
ready difcufled, of a cold body cooling a warm body, without
being warmed ; and it is to fuppofe a fhower of fnow produced
in the warm air of the chamber, by the introduétion of cold
air, without that cold air mixing with the warm. But how is
one body of air fuddenly to cool another body of air, without
their mixing together? At leaft, it is as natural for thofe two
bodies to be mixed together as to form a medium temperature ;
and if M. pe Luc is to found an argument upon any of thofe
events not happening in that manner, he fhould point out
fome other reafon for his fuppofing that they do not mix, than
that of their forming a condenfation of humidity; an event
which fhould happen, according to the principle we have en-
deavoured to eftablifh; a principle which M. pe Luc would
perfuade us to believe to be without foundation.

Our author then forms the fuppofition of another ftate of
the cafe, in order, no doubt, to put things in a clearer light;.

but, without more accurately attending to the circumftances of

the cafe than he has done, it has no other effect, in my opinion,
than to perplex the fubje€&t more and more. He fays, “ Si au.
“ lieu d’une fimple ouverture a la chambre, fes parois euflent
‘© été enlevés, et que la maffe de fon air eiit été ainfi en conta
tout le tour avec l’air exterieur, il s’y feroit auffi formé un.
“ nuage; mais alors il auroit bientot difparu en s’évaporant,
“ comme celui de l’eau bouillante difparoit dans lair qui len-

n

wn

“ yvironne.”

Here M. pe Luc does not feem to be fenfible that he is only
defcribing what fhould actually happen according to the theory..
But he had juft now given us to underftand, that he was to ex-
plain the formation of fnow or rain, in this cafe, upon fome
other principle than that of the propofition which has been
now fo fully confidered. How far he has performed that un-
dertaking, I would willingly leave to be decided by thofe who
maay be more impartial judges in this cafe. But left it fhould

be

Of M. DE LUC. 53

be thought that I omit to anfwer any thing which M. pe Luc
may propofe in relation to this fubject, I fhall now examine
this laft ftatement which he has given of the cafe, and endea-
vour to fhow, that every thing which he fuppofes to appear,
fhould truly happen according to the propofition which he has
been pleafed to queftion or deny.

In fuppofing the cafe of a body of warm and humid air en-
vironed by the cold atmofphere, M. pE Luc does not here
mention what degree of faturation or humidity he fuppofes in
the external air. Now, upon this will very much depend the
confequences of mixing the fmall portion of humid air with
an indefinite portion of the furrounding atmofphere. If we
fuppofe, as, from other parts of his writing, M. pe Luc in-
clines to do, that the atmofphere is not fully faturated, then all
the appearances muft follow which he has fuppofed ; that is to
fay, that there is firft to be a viftble condenfation in the mix-
ture of the two airs; but as this compound mafs, or warmed
air, mixes with the colder, by rifing and difperfing in the at-
mofphere, the condenfed humidity is at laft to be totally evapo-
rated or diffolved in the quantity of air which is not faturated
with vapour.

LET us now again fuppofe the furrounding atmofphere to be
fully faturated or impregnated with humidity, then, in mixing
with it the warm humid air of the chamber, there is reafon to:
conclude, that the condenfation of humidity would remain
permanent, although it might not remain vifible, if in fmall
quantity and greatly difperfed in. the atmofphere. But this will:
require fome explanation. .

AccorDINc to the principle affumed in my propofition, it-
is equal. portions of the unequally heated airs, that, upon mix-
ture, fhould produce the greateft condenfation of humidity ;-
and that, in proportion as a very {mall quantity of one or other
is employed, that is to fay, in proportion to the inequality of
the mixed. bodies, the fmaller quantity of condenfation will

be

54 ANSWERS to th OB¥ECTIONS

be produced. Now, the mixture, whether of fteam or moift
air, with the open atmofphere, in uniting with fo much air, muft
foon be brought to the moft extreme cafe of this kind, that is,
to the greateft inequality of the mixed bodies, and to the fmal-
left quantity of condenfed vapour. Neverthelefs, according to
the rigour of the rule, no portion of warm faturated air can
be mixed with cold air in the fame faturated ftate, without
there being produced a certain quantity of condenfation, which
will then remain permanent, fo long as the proper conditions
are preferved. In like manner, as two faturated folutions of a
faline fubitance, e.g. of nitre, in different temperatures with
regard to heat, when mixed and preferved in the fame tempera-
‘ture, precipitate a quantity of falt, which is never reaffumed
‘by the water, unlefs the heat of that fluid be increafed above
the medium temperature which the mixture had produced.
This laft is a definite and a practicable’ experiment; the other,
with the atmofphere, is an indefinite experiment which cannot
be made. And I am furprifed that M. pe Luc fhould not
have feen the fubject in the proper light.

In this cafe of warm and humid air mixing with the colder
atmofphere, as for example, the vapours coming out from the
vent of a malt-kiln, it is evident to obfervation, that the mift
which is delivered into the air difappears only in proportion as
it is difperfed in the atmofphere, that is to fay, as it meets with
unfaturated air by which it may be diflolved. Now, this diffo-
lution is proved by fome other obfervations, which it is ex-
tremely eafy to make. Thefe are, firf, that, ceteris paribus, it re-
quires very little difperfion of the mift or vifible vapours in the
atmofphere, in order that they may be diffolved when the air
is dry ; and that, on the contrary, when it is moift, the vapour
continues vifible long after it is fo difperfed. 2d/y, That it re-

uires a lefs difference in the temperatures of the two mixed
airs to produce a vifible mift, when the atmofphere is moift
than when it is more dry. So far, therefore, as this experiment

is

Of M. DE LUG. 55

is practicable, I think we may be allowed to fay that natural
appearances confirm our theory.

Lonc before writing the Theory of Rain which is now in
queftion, | had afcertained the diffolution of nitre in water, to:
proceed, not uniformly with the heat, but in a rate that was'
increafing. I had alfo accurately meafured feveral of the ordi-
nates of the curve which this progrefs formed, by carefully
evaporating folutions faturated in different degrees of heat ;
and I had once fome thoughts of corroborating the propofition,
with regard to the rule of vapour by the meafured curve, with
regard to the folution of nitre. But as fuch analogical reafon-
ing in phyfics is only proper to lead to conjecture ; and as, in
the cafe of vapour, we find the moft dire& proof that the rule
is to'increafe at a growing rate with the heat, I gave nothing in
my paper but what was neceffary to afcertain the principle fo
far inveftigated. M. pe Luc has indeed difputed it; but any
perfon who has read his later publications, will hardly expect,
that, with his meteorological ideas, our author fhould, on this:
occafion, be altogether free of partiality.

Havine thus anfwered’ every objection which M. pz Luc
has made, it may be proper farther to obferve, that it was
not for want of other examples to eftablih the principle of
heat and evaporation, that I-confined myfelf to thofe which:
M. ve Luc has now difputed. I confidered them as all un-
exceptionable, and as perfectly in point. I therefore thought
them fufficient to eftablifh the truth of the propofition which
had been affumed. I might have referred tothe mift formed
in a fummer evening upon meadows heated by the fun during
the day, and evaporating humidity when the air grows cool;

_ as alfo, to the vifible fmoak, in the winter feafon, from the

furface of water, a degree or two’ only above the freezing

* point, when the atmofphere upon that furface is about 15°

colder. Inlike manner, I might have cited the experiments
wherein:

56 ANSWERS to the OBFECTIONS

wherein condenfation of vapour is formed, by mixing the at-
mofpheric air with that which had been rarefied, or by emitting
into the atmofphere air which had been condenfed. In all
thofe cafes, there is the mixture of two portions of the atmo-
fphere, in fufficiently different temperatures, to produce con-
denfation of humidity, which actually happens. Thus, all
thofe appearances are properly explained .by the theory, or, as
experiments, they confirm the aflumed propofition.

Bur if thus every particular example is a proof, and if each
example is unexceptionable in its kind, what degree of evidence
mutt arife from the united teftimony of every poflible experi-
ment almoft which can be adduced in relation to the fubjet?
It is to be prefumed that M. pg Luc, with all his extenfive
knowledge of nature, could not adduce one fhadow of a fact
by which the alleged propofition could be called in queftion or
difproved.

M. vz Luc concludes in the following manner, (parag. 588.)
“ Je ne vois donc rien dans ces faits, qui contribue a éclaircir
“la queftion de la pluie; et par conséquent elle me paroit
refter au point ou je l’avois amené avant que d’entrer dans
ce nouvel examen. Je tire méme du memoire du Dr Hut-
TON, ces deux confequences, qui juftifient le travail que j’ai
enterpris. Quoiqu’il paroiffe s’étre beaucoup occupé des
phénoméenes de la pluie, aucune théorie a leur egard ne l’avoit
fatisfait ; et d’aprés ce qui lui etoit connu des loix de l’hygro-
logie, il avoit conclu, que la précipitation de l’eau fimple-
ment evaporée, ne pouvoit étre produite que par refroidiffe-
ment. Or, ce font, entre autres, ces deux motifs qui m’ont
conduit dans mes recherches.”’

M. ve Luc had no occafion to juftify his undertaking by
any opinions of mine. His writings will always contain
matter fufficient to intereft the public; and his ideas of hygro-
logy muft be fupported upon their own bottom. I therefore
with he had not given as my ideas expreffions which, however,

in

ce

se

€6

4c

Of M. DE LUC. ee

in fome refpects, fufficiently juft, may bear’perhaps another in-
terpretation. That the precipitation of water fimply evapo-
rated cannot be produced except by cooling, is an expreflion
which, though not contrary to my idea, does not contain pre-
cifely my opinion. Water is not precipitated from the atmo-
{phere in time of rain by the cooling of the air, in the ordinary
fenfe of that expreflion, that is, by the abftration of a certain
_ quantity of its heat, which is then communicated to fome other
body ; but it is becaufe the air is not able to contain fo great a
quantity of water, in proportion to its heat, when it is in a
lower temperature. The compound mafs of air, which in the
formation of rain precipitates water, is not cooled, fo far as I
know, below the mean temperature of the different mafles of
unequally heated air which have concurred to form it ; but this
mean temperature does not fuffice to evaporate all the water
which had been contained in thefe maffes feparately. This,
however, is only by the by; and I now proceed to the material
part of his conclufion, where he thus continues :

“ Quant a Vhypothefe que je viens d’examiner, elle étoit
“ trés naturelle dans l’état des faits connus; puifgu’il n’étoit
“ pas poflible de concevoir d’aucune autre maniére, que des
“ mélanges d’airs a differentes temperatures, puffent produire
“ des pluies abondantes: et la vraifemblance de cette hypothéfe
“ne pouvoit étre détruite, que par un genre d’experiences et
“ d’obfervations, qui ne fait que de naftre en phyfique avec
“ Vhygrometre.”

In anfwer to this, I have but to-obferve, that, had M. pe
Luc contented himfelf with faying, as he here has done, that
the probability of this hypothefis could not be overturned, but
by a fort of phyfical experiments and obfervations which have
juft taken their birth with the hygrometer, I fhould have waited
patiently until thofe experiments and obfervations had arrived
at that maturity which might enable them to confute my
theory. But M. pz Luc has undertaken to confute it upon

Voi. II. b other

58 ANSWERS to the OBFECTIONS, &e.

other principles, which do not require any profound knowledge
of that inftrument. It is only to thefe that I have anfwered ;
and I beg it to be underftood, that the theory which I have en-
deavoured to eftablith, is juft now as open to the experiments
of the hygrometer, whether for being fupported by them or
overthrown, as if nothing had been written upon the fub-
ject.

IX.

=

IX. 4n AccounT of a DisTEMPER, by the common Peo-
ple in England vulgarly called the MUMPS. By
Rogpert HAmILton, M.D. Fellow of the Royal College
of Phyficians, ¥.R.S. Evin. and Phyfician at Lynn Regis,
in Norfolk *.

HE mumps, or what I beg leave to call angina maxillaris,
is an epidemic difeafe of a very fingular nature. It has
appeared fometimes to be pretty general; but this has not been
the cafe for many years in this place. It feems to be analogous
to, if not the fame diftemper with that called the branks, by
the common people in Scotland. In the general account of epi-
demics, in the firft volume of the Medical Effays of Edinburgh,
a diforder is mentioned which feems to have been a flight de-
gree of that which is the fubject of the following paper. I
have had much practice in this difeafe, and indeed was once
reduced to the utmoft danger by it myfelf.
Iw the following paper, I fhall not pretend to give a fy{tema-
tic treatife on the mumps. I fhall relate what was the refult of
obfervation, both in regard to the hiftory and cure of this dif-

~eafe 3 and as I ‘hall faithfully detail what I actually faw, I

flatter myfelf, that this account will not be unworthy of the
perufal of future obfervers.

h2 THE

* This paper was read before the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh, Auguft 5. 1773.
It is now printed by order of the Committee for publication of the Tranfaétions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh,

t

60 ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

Tue hiftory of the mumps is as follows :

A LASSITUDE, a heavinefs, a general reftlefs uneafinefs, not
eafily defcribed, are perceived feveral days before the fwelling
which chara¢terifes the difeafe, begins to appear. Thefe difa-
greeable feelings are attended with gentle rigors, and fome
degree of fever, which, being flight, is commonly difregarded.
Then a ftiffnefs, with obtufe pain, is felt in one or both fides of
the articulation of the lower jaw, impeding its motion and of
courfe maftication; which fymptoms increafing, a fwelling
appears upon the parts the following day, and quickly extends
to the parotid glands, the neighbouring fkin, and cellular mem-
brane. Here, in fome, it ftops without difcolouring the {kin ;
and, by keeping the parts moderately warm, and cautiouily
avoiding the cold external air, the patient is foon freed from it,
without any medical affiftance. But, when this is not the cafe,
the parts affected generally redden the next day, the tumor be-
comes more diffufed, and fometimes increafes fo fuddenly in
fize, that, on the third day from its firft appearance, it occupies
the falivary glands and furrounding cellular membrane on that
fide; and, if both fides are affected, the parts are fo much
fwelled, and the tumor defcends fo low, that the countenance is
rendered of a frightful enormous magnitude ; and now deglu-
tition becomes more or lefs impeded. All this is frequently
without much pain; but moft commonly there is now a great
deal, and a confiderable degree of fever. When this happens,
the countenance appears florid, and a dufky eryfipelatous in-
flammation covers the tumor, which is deepeft in colour where
there is the greateft hardnefs, viz. on the parotid and maxillary
glands. In many fubjects here it ends. And it feems proba-
ble from the natural refolution of the difeafe, which now im-
mediately follows, that the tumor has attained its greateft mag-

nitude,

: - -
Foo ed SE ttre seein

Vulgarly called the MUMPS. 61

nitude, and the diftemper its acmé ; for, about the morning of
the fourth day from the firft appearance of the fwelling, a dif-
charge begins from the emunc¢tories behind the ears; a dew-
like fweat, frequently in large drops, iffues from every pore of
the extended furface of the tumor; a gentle diaphorefis covers
the body, if in bed; the inflammation abates, the fwelling

gradually leffens, and, with thefe favourable circumftances, the

fever goes off, and the diftemper totally difappears about the
fixth day, if nature is not interrupted in her bufinefs. But,
if the tumor fubfides fuddenly about the fourth day, and
one or both tefticles begin to fwell, fometimes with much
pain, heat, inflammation, new rigors, and a frefh exacerba-
tion of fever, much is to be apprehended from this new mor-
bid appearance, and much circumfpection is required in the
treatment of it. For the means employed by nature to promote
the refolution of the tumified teftes, are exactly fimilar to thofe
which take place in the termination of the tumors below the
ears; a fpontaneous difcharge iffues from the fkin of the parts.
affected, and, if this is copious and continued, and accompanied
with a free perfpiration from the furface of the whole body in
bed, the difeafe ends happily without farther trouble; but if
it is {canty, partial, or interrupted by accidental cold or impru-
dent treatment, the tumors of the tefticles fubfide fuddenly,
the patient becomes reftlefs, a frefh exacerbation of fever en-

fues, the head is affeCted, delirium follows, with convulfions

and other dreadful fymptoms, and fometimes death clofes the
{cene.

Ir may be afked, Whence does this train of fymptoms
arife? Is it from a tumefaction of the brain taking place in the
inftant of the fudden diminution of the tumors of the teftes ;:
as we have before feen happen to the tefticles, when the faliva-
ry glands fuddenly fubfided ?

An

‘62 ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

AN extraordinary circumftance took place in two cafes which
‘came under my notice. One tefticle in each perfon was found
to be wafted away after the difeafe had ended; fome particulars
of which {hall be mentioned in the fequel.

THE pathognomic figns of the mumps may be readily ga-
thered from the foregoing hiftory, and are the fame with little
variation. The chara¢teriftic tumor under one or both ears,
involving the falivary glands, with more or lefs of a concomi-
tant fever, is the firft. If the difeafe is mild, it foon ends by
a {pontaneous fweating from the furface of the tumor. If not,
that tumor (or tumors, if on both fides) fubfides fuddenly,
accompanied with a frefh exacerbation of fever, and the tefti-
cles fwell. And here it alfo fometimes goes no further, but
terminates by a difcharge from the fkin covering thofe parts. But
if the teftes fuddenly fubfide, and a frefh exacerbation of fever
appear at the fame time, the brain is immediately affeCted, at-
tended by a train of terrible fymptoms, and death fometimes
ends the conflict.

THE mumps, fo far as my obfervations extended, appeared
generally confined to young men, from the age of puberty up-
wards to thirty years. Not many between thirty and forty
fell under my care. I never knew above one man of forty at-
tacked by this difeafe, and he fuffered feverely. Very few boys
were affected, and thofe had the diftemper mildly.

I never faw any of the female fex above ten years old fubje@t
to this illnefs ; and thofe who fell under my care were not nu-
merous, and generally had the difeafe mildly. I do not remem-
ber one inftance of the mammz being affeéted. 1 have, how-
ever, heard of this circumftance ; but cannot fpeak as to the
authenticity of my intelligence. But from what happens in
men, it is, from analogy, moft natural to fuppofe, that the
ovaria are more likely to be affected than the mammz; al-
though there is undoubtedly a wonderful fympathy be-

tween

Vulgarly called the MUM PS. 63

tween the uterus, and we fuppofe its appendages, and the
mammz. On this matter, however, I fhall not pretend to
decide.

THE mumps made its appearance in an epidemic form at
Lynn in 1758, and remained feveral years afterwards. It was
chiefly confined to the fpring months. In the year 1761, it pre-
vailed very much. Two companies of the Norfolk regiment of
militia were quartered here, and put under my care. It raged
more among thefe foldiers, in proportion to their number, than
amongft the inhabitants of the town. I was very feldom with-
out feven or eight of thefemen upon my lift, ill of the mumps.
After 1761, it began to decline. It, however, made its appear-
ance in fpring and autumn, more or lefs as an epidemic, for
feveral years afterwards; but the number afflidted with it
became gradually lefs: And fome fporadic cafes were to be
met with many years after the epidemical appearance of it had
ceafed.

Ir muft be ingenuoufly confeffed, that on the firft appearance
of this (to me) new difeafe, I was much at a lofs how to treat
it. In vain I fearched in many authors for its hiftory and cure.
That fhort account given by Mr Gooeu, in his Cafes and Re-
marks in Surgery, publifhed firft about this time, was the only
one | could find ; and that was too defeftive to form from it
any general method of cure of a difeafe much more formidable
in its appearance here, than that mild fpecies of it which feem-
ed to have fallen under his care, and gave way fo readily to the
antiphlogiftic method of cure. Obfervation foon taught me
that this plan was not only infufficient, but hurtful; and that
large evacuations, with a view to reduce the tumors and. pro-
mote their difcuffion, did oftener harm than good ; the changes
which take place in a bad kind of this difeafe, from the falivary
glands to the teftes, and from thefe to the brain, appearing to
be more frequent and dangerous, when evacuations were freely

and:

64 ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

and copioufly employed, than when they were fparingly ufed,
or not at all. Thus difappointed by following the only method
of cure I had feen, I determined to ftudy the difeafe with at-
tention, and endeavour to imitate nature’s operations in re-
moving it; and had the fatisfaGiion to fee all my patients re-
cover. As the antiphlogiftic method had not been attended
with fuccefs, I avoided bleeding, unlefs it was indicated by an
uncommonly hard and full pulfe, attended with great inflam-
mation and pain ; and even then I bled but fparingly. Indeed, as
highly inflammatory fymptoms but rarely occurred, there was
feldom occafion for this evacuation. The bowels were kept
open by clyfters; and fometimes a gentle eccoprotic was necef-
fary for this purpofe, but the ftronger cathartics were never
ufed. As the difcharge behind the ears, and the fweating from
the furface of the tumor, feemed to point out nature’s princi-
pal refources in terminating this difeafe, thefe were carefully
encouraged, by wrapping the parts in flannel; and, if thefe
difcharges happened to ftop, or even to leffen, with an increafe
of feverifh fymptoms, blifters were applied behind the ears,
fufficiently large to defcend from thence over the whole furface
of the tumors, which, by opening a difcharge from the parts
immediately affected, imitated, in fome degree, that evacua-
tion from them which nature eftablifhes to relieve herfelf ; and.
by the influence of their irritation, the difeafe feemed to refume
afrefh its feat in the falivary glands, when it had in part left
them, and taken poffeflion of the teftes. It was curious to ob-
ferve this faét. Sometimes, after the fubfiding of the tumid
falivary glands, they have become {welled and _ painful again.
When this occurred, the tumors of the tefticles became lefs
painful, more relaxed, and leffened in fize, whilft the brain, at
the fame time, remained perfectly free from diforder. And
this happened more than once in the fame perfon. It was.
fometimes obferved, that, after the affeftion of the brain had

taken

Re et

“4 ot

rf Vulgarly called the MUMP'S. 65

taken place upon the fudden diminution of the tefticles, that
the latter have again become tumid and painful, and that the
brain, on this appearance of the difeafe in them, has been im-
mediately relieved. Of this curious circumftance, I have feen
feveral inftances ; but one was remarkably ftriking in a parti-
cular friend, to whom it occurred twice. He, however, did
well; but one tefticle wafted away. Reflecting, foon after
this paper was firft written, (which was feveral years after my
obfervations were begun) on the extraordinary aptitude of this
difeafe to flu€tuate in this manner, I conceived that it would be
an object of the firft confequence, to fix the diftemper, if poffi-
ble, in its firft fituation, the falivary glands, until it was per-
fedtly ended, and prevent this dangerous difpofition of it, to fhift.
its abode. An early irritation on the parts, and difcharge from
the furface, appeared, from what had been obferved of the dif-
eafe, and its mode of termination, naturally to be the moft
likely means of effecting this; and blifters, from what already
had been experienced, feemed:to be beft calculated for this: pur-
pofe. There could be no hazard in the trial. With this view,
blifters of a fize fufficient to cover the fkin of the tumors, fup-
pofing they fhould afterwards attain any confiderable magni-
tude, were applied’ over the falivary glands, before the fwellings
had arrived at their height, or any fpontaneous difcharge had
appeared ; and fo far was the experiment attended with fuccefs,
that I do not remember a fingle inftance of a fwelling of the
tefticles: taking place, where this mode of attempting to keep up
the tumefaction of. the falivary glands, and anticipating the na-
tural difcharge, was put in execution. Wherefore, it became
my conftant practice afterwards, to apply large blifters on the
tumors as foon as they were fufficiently formed to chara@erife’
the difeafe ; and I had great fatisfaction in: obferving their uti-
lity. From analogy, we may prefume, that a fimilar mode of
practice would be attended with the moft. beneficial effects, in

Wer. tl. - i cafes

66 ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

cafes where the tumefaétions of the tefticles fuddenly fubfide,
and the brain becomes affected. I never had occafion to try
this ; but I am fo convinced, that, in cafes of this kind, (where
there is generally danger), it would be of the greateft advan-
tage, that I fhould not hefitate a moment in covering the whole
{crotum with a blitter, or rather a bliftering cataplafm, as foon
as the leaft fymptom of the head’s becoming difordered appear-
ed, with a view to recal (if I may ufe the expreflion) the dif-
eafe from the brain to the tefticles, whilft, to relieve the latter,
epifpaftics fhould, at the fame time, be fully employed over the
tumefied falivary glands.

As the patients were generally relieved by a fpontaneous
f{weating in bed, diaphoretics of {piritus mindereri, t%c. with
warm drinks, affifted to keep up the difcharge for a day or two,
and the diftemper was foon at an end. If, about the third
day, the tefticles began to fwell, without any remarkable in-
creafe of fever, the fame method relieved them. But, if this
was accompanied with a low running quick pulfe, and reftlefs-
nefs or anxiety, more epifpaftics were applied, and the vis vite
kept up by neurotic cordials, befide fudorifics, with a neceflary
proportion of the beft of all cordials, wine, and a plentiful
fweating was encouraged. The medicines employed were va-
rious, according to circumftances ; and were compofed of cam-
phire, volatile alcali, fp. mindereri, vin. antimonial. decoét. fer-
pentar. &c. with a requifite proportion of opium to abate the
reftlefsnefs. The tumefied tefticles were fufpended in a bag-
trufs ; the colon was emptied by clyfters, if the patients were
coftive ; and, with this treatment, the patients generally got
well about the fixth, feventh or eighth day.

Ir is requifite here to obferve, that although the parts affect-
ed were kept warm, and the body covered fo as to encourage a
difcharge from the fkin, it was neceflary that the lungs fhould
have a frequent fupply of cool frefh air; for which purpofe,

the

ae as

et Pay —
“ene
nS a

Vulgarly called the MUMPS. 67

the curtains of the bed were kept open, and a free ventilation
occafionally admitted by the door and windows of the cham-
bers of the fick, which had very beneficial effects.

In the fpring of the year 1758, a gentleman of about twenty-
two years of age, (of this town), of a plethoric habit, was feized
with the mumps. The tumors of the parotid and maxillary
glands were large, hard and inflamed, and accompanied with:
much fever. He was bled copioufly, and took a brifk cathar-
tic, which produced very frequent and large evacuations. The
tumors fuddenly fubfided, and his tefticles as fuddenly {welled
to an enormous fize, attended with great pain and much fever.
Unfortunately, the laft tumefattion was fufpected to arife from
a venereal caufe. The event fatally proved the contrary. In
confequence of the opinion of its being venereal, plentiful eva-
cuations were deemed neceffary ; and accordingly bleeding and
brifk purging were again repeated. The cataftrophe was dread-
ful: For the fwelled tefticles fubfided fuddenly the next day,
the patient was feized with a moft frantic delirium, the nervous
fyftem was fhattered with ftrong convulfions, and he died:

_ raving mad the third day after. My affairs calling’ me abroad’

prevented my being prefent on this occafion; but, on my re~
turn, at the end of the fame year, I received this account from’
a late learned’ and worthy phyfician *, who attended the patient’
the three laft days of his difeafe.

I HAD not many inftances where the brain was affected.
One, however, of a gentleman, in April’ 1762, was marked
with a circumftance fo extraordinary, that I beg leave to give
fome account of it. This perfon was about forty years of age,
of a full habit, and had been: bled fome days before any fymp-
tom of the mumps appeared: He was obliged to travel a jour=
ney in a chaife, the fecond day after the parotid glands began to:
fwell. On-the day following this, the tumors: of the falivary:

3 2. glands:

- *®DrJos. Tarten.

'

68 ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

glands had greatly increafed, were inflamed, and the patient
had much fever. On the morning of the fourth day, the
fwellings were very much enlarged, and the tefticles began to
be affected with pain; on the evening of that day, the right
one {welled. On the fifth day, both tefticles were much tume-
fied ; but the right one was by far the moft fo, and foon became
twice the fize of the other ; and the falivary glands were found to
be very confiderably diminifhed. On the day following this, the
tefticles were found leffened in fize, and the patient was become
reftlefs, delirious, with much fever, and had pafled a very bad
night; yet the tefticles did not fpeedily, nor altogether, fubfide
after the delirium began. Large blifters, nervous, &c. medi-
cines, with ftri@ confinement in bed, agreeable to the mode of
cure before mentioned, foon relieved. this patient ; the tefticles
{welled again, the delirium _left him, the fever went off, and
the difeafe gradually ceafed. The moft remarkable circum-
ftance attending this cafe was, that the right tefticle, which
was twice the magnitude of the other, and was the firft attack-
ed, was found, after the tumors in both had fubfided, and the
difeafe was at an end, to be reduced to almoft half its natural di-
menfions, and kept gradually wafting, till at length a mere
empty bag, confifting of the coats, only remained. The glan-
dular body of the tefticle has been long gone; neither is the
epididymis at this time (April 1789) to be felt; the empty tu-
nics are moftly flaccid, but fometimes they contraét into a
flattened body of an oblong fhape, fomewhat like an almond.
This body is very tender, and gives pain when inadvertently
prefled, or touched with roughnefs ; which pain ftrikes in the
inftant up the fpermatic chord to the loins, and is exquifite for
a few feconds. This, however, feldom happens, as he is particu-
larly careful to defend this very fenfible and irritable part from
injury ; the fpermatic chord is contraéted and feels hard to the
touch ; but this alfo is extremely fenfible. From all which

circumftances,

She eet Raters

ett See e-

i.

Vulgarly called the MUM PS. 69

circumftances, it may be prefumed, that the veffels are much
leffened in diameter, and perhaps the fpermatic artery is be-
come impervious ; but the nerves have acquired more {fenfibi-
lity and ,irritability. After his recovery, he found no other
inconvenience from this extraordinary change than what we
have named ; has -had two children fince, one born in 1769,
and the other in 1772, who have both healthy conftitutions ;
and he now enjoys as good health as moft men at his time of
life.

ANOTHER cafe of a wafted tefticle in confequence of the
mumps, came afterwards under my infpection.

A yYouNG man, of twenty-five years of age, of a healthy
conftitution, was, in the end of the year 1769, attacked by this
diftemper. Upon the tumid falivary glands fubfiding fudden-
ly, the tefticles became affected. One of them was much more

{welled than the other, and was found, when the fwelling was

reduced, to be diminifhed more than one half of its natural
fize, at which it remained in Auguft 1771.

Or the great number that fell under my care, there was but
one cafe which terminated in fuppuration. This was a young
militia foldier, of about nineteen years of age, in the year 1761.
The tumor was on the left fide, of an enormous magnitude,
reaching from about an inch above the maftoid procefs to the
fhoulder. It was opened by incifion, and about two pints of
matter were difcharged. The feat of it was entirely in the cel-
lular membrane, no fuppuration having taken place in the fa-
livary glands themfelves. There were large floughs of the
morbid cellular membrane feparated from the vaft cavity of this
abfcefs ; the loofe integuments united after this very foon to the
parts beneath, and the man got well in a fhort time. —

AxzouT the end of the year 1762, the learned and ingenious
Dr RussEL’s Ciconomia Nature in Morbis Glandularum, fell

_ into my hands. There I was pleafed to find an account of the

mumps,

70 ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

mumps, and glad to fee my obfervations fomewhat corrobo-
rated by fuch an authority. He thinks it contagious,—“ An-
““ gina hxc ex epidemicis una eft, et contagiofa, et per totas
** domos graflari folet, nifi antea fortaffe juvenes eodem morbo
“ Jaboraverint,” The laft part of this fentence implies an opi-
nion that people are not liable to have this difeafe more than
once. I do not remember an inftance of a perfon’s having it a
fecond time. I have feen it go through a family of feveral’
children, which inclined me to think it contagious; but wher
I had the difeafe, not any one ele in my family, which con-
fitted of four children and fix adults, was attacked by it, al-
though my cafe was avery bad one. About twelve months
after my recovery, one of my daughters, about fix years old,
had the difeafe, and all the reft efcaped. And what is ftill
more remarkable, I do not remember an inftance, in the fa-
milies where the militia foldiers ill of this diftemper were quar-
tered, of a fingle perfon’s being infected by them,

Dr RusseL, p. 116. relates a cafe of a patient deftroyed by
the mumps, nearly fimilar to that given in this paper.

Hippocrares, fect. 1. book 1. of his Epidemics, appears to:
have defcribed the mumps. I fhall take the liberty to tranfcribe:
the paflage from Dr Frernp’s tranflation.

““ MouLtis vero aurium tumores fubnafcebantur, qui in al+
‘““ teram partem vergebant, plerifque etiam in utramque, ifque:
‘© febre vacuis et in erectum ftantibus nec decumbentibus, etfi:
“ nonnullis paulifper incalefcerent ; omnibus abfque noxa ex-
“ tincti funt, neque cuiquam, velut ii, qui alias fui ortus cau-
“ fas habent, fuppurationem fecerunt. Horum autem ea fuit
““ natura, ut molles et laxi eflent, magni, diffufi aut fparfi, fine
inflammatione et dolore. Omnibufque fenfim et fine ulla
“ fignificatione evanefcerent. Fiebant ifta quidem adolefcenti-
““ bus, juvenibus, ztate florentibus, atque horum plurimis qur
in paleftra, et gymmaftis exercebantur; mulieribus vero pau-

“*) eins

-
nw

Vulgarly called the MUMPS. | 71

“ cis contingebant. Multis tuffes aride et inanes, quibus cum
* tuffi nihil educebatur, nec ita multo poft voces raucefcebant.
* Quibufdam vero ex temporis intervallo inflammationes cum
dolore in alterum teftem erumpebant, quibufdam etiam in
utrofque. Alii quidem febribus corripiebantur, nonnulli’
vero fine febre perfiftebant. Atque adeo hzc ipfa plurimis
gravia et molefta fuere. De reliquo autem quod ad ea
attinet, que ad chirurgiam fpectant, in his inculpate habe-
F , Dant.

Tue fpring of the year 1761 was very cold and wet; and
thofe young militia foldiers, who were moft liable to this dif-
eafe, were out early and late in the low damp grounds adjoin-
ing this town, to learn their manual exercife ; which correfponds
with this paflage, ‘‘ Fiebant ifta quidem adolefcentibus, juve-
** nibus, ztate florentibus, atque horum plurimis, qui in pa-
*“ leftra, et gymnafiis exercebantur.”

Tissot, in his Avis au Peuple, when treating of dif-
eafes of the throat, mentions a diftemper which is common
in Switzerland, called by the French Les Oreillons, ou Les
~Ourles. This is a fwelling of the falivary glands, particularly
the parotids and maxillaries, and appears to be a mild fpecies of
the mumps. The tumor is fometimes fo large as to caufe a
difficulty in fwallowing, and alfo to prevent the mouth from
opening without pain. Children are more liable to it than
adults ; but as it is feldom attended with fever, no medicines
are required. All that is neceflary is, to protect the parts from
the air, apply a foft poultice, to live abftemioufly, efpecially in
_ refpect to animal food and wine, to drink a weak warm beve-
rage, and promote perfpiration. He fays he cured himfelf in
four days, with balm tea, one fourth of milk and a little bread
in it. He does not mention any {welling of the tefticles ; there-
fore this probably did not happen in Switzerland, as it never
does in very flight cafes of this difeafe.

“cc

wa

I

92 ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER, &e.

I BEG leave to conclude this paper with the following words
of CELsus :

“ SmpeE vero etiam nova incidere genera morborum in qui-
“ bus nihil adhuc ufus oftenderit. Ut ideo neceffarium fit ani-
- “ madvertere, unde ea ceperint ; ceu fine quo nemo mortalium
“ reperire poflit, cur hoc, quam illo potius utatur.”

*

X. 4 Boranicat and Mepicat AccouNT of the
QUASSIA SIMARUBA, or Tree which produces
the Cortex Simaruba.. By W1LL14M WricutT, M.D.
F.R.S. Lonp. & Epin. and Phyjfician-general in Ffa-
maica*.

An Hiftorical Account of the SimARUBA BARK.

HE firft knowledge we had of the cortex fimaruba was —
in the year 1713. Some of it was fent to France to
“M. te Compre DE PorcHARTRAIN, the Secretary of State,
as the bark of a tree, called by the natives Simarouba, which
they employed with good fuccefs in dyfentery.

In 1741, M. Georrroy, in fpeaking of this bark, fays,
Eft cortex radicis arboris ignotz, in Guiana nafcentis, et ab
“ incolis fimarouba nuncupatz : coloris eft ex albo flavefcentis,
“ nullo odore praditus, faporis fubamari, lentifcentibus fibris
conftans, candido, leviffimo, infipidoque, radicum, ftipitum,
truncique ligno hzrens, a quo facile feparatur.”

In 1753 and 1760, Linnzzus makes the fimaruba to be a
fpecies of piftacia, or the terebinthinus major, betulz cortice,
frudtu triangulari of Sloan. Jam. 289. t. 99.

In 1756, Dr Parrick Browne publifhed his Civil and
Natural Hiftory of Jamaica. At page 345. he defcribes the
terebinthinus, or birch and turpentine tree. The bark of

Vot. II. k the

* This paper was read before the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh, Auguft 6.
14778. It is now printed by order of the Committee for publication of the Tranfaétions
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

74 MEDICAL ACCOUNT of

the roots, (fays he), is thought to be the fimarouba of the
fhops.

In 1763, Linnzus makes the fimaruba to be the burfera
gummifera, and refers to the piftacia of former editions of the
Species Plantarum; and to SLoan and Browne, as above
cited. In the appendix, a reference is made to the terebinthi-
nus Americana polyphylla. Commelin. Hort. 1. p. 149. and to
CATESBY’s gum elemi tree.

M. Jacquin vifited all the Weft India iflands, and
made many difcoveries of new plants. He examined the roots
of the burfera gummifera, and found their bark very different
from the fimaruba bark.

In 1772, I employed all my fpare hours in examining the
plants of Jamaica. In this delightful walk of fcience, I difco-
vered and afcertained many hundreds of new plants which had
efcaped the diligence of former botanifts. Amongft others, the
tree which produces the fimaruba bark.

In 1773, fpecimens of the frudtification were fent in fpirits,
accompanied with a botanical account of the tree, to my late
worthy friend Dr Hopg, Profeffor of Botany in the Univerfity
of Edinburgh ; alfo fome dried bark from the roots. The fol-
lowing year, fpecimens, with fimilar defcription, were tranf-
mitted to my late learned and valuable friend Dr Jonn FoTHER-
citi of London; who fent them to the celebrated Linn us at
Upfal, as appears by Profeflor Murray’s Apparatus Medica-
minum, vol. iii. p. 458. *, article Simaruba. Dr FoTHERGILL
caufed elegant drawings to be made of this plant; and thefe
drawings I now have the honour of prefenting to the Royal So-
ciety of Edinburgh.

It

* Quatis vera ejufdem arbor fit, jamjam aubletii indagine cognofcimus, ut tamen et
mihi monere incumbat. b. Linnaam equitem, litteris jam anno 1776, ineunte mihi da-
tis, antiquam aubletii elegantiffimum opus illi innotefceret. fignificafle, Simarubam
Quaffiz fpecies a fe haberi. Ile autem fimarube cortex quo Cl. Wricut, arborem
in Jamaica, vulgarem veftitam efle innuit ; pariter in alvi profluviis efficaci, &e.

The QUASSIA SIMARUBA. 75

Ir is here proper to remark, that this paper was read before
the Philofophical Society of this place, and committed for pub-
lication in 1778. At the time when that Society obtained the
Royal Charter, I chanced to be abroad. On my return to Edin-
burgh, I withdrew the communication to correct and add to
my account of this important article of Materia Medica.

Defcription of the Tree.

THE tree now to be defcribed is common in all the wood-
lands in Jamaica. It grows to a great height and confiderable
thicknefs. The trunks of the old trees are black and a little
furrowed. Thofe of the young trees fmooth and gray, with
here and there a broad yellow {pot.

Tue infide bark of the trunk and branches is white, fibrous
and tough. It taftes flightly bitter. On cutting or {tripping
off this bark, no milky juice iffues, as has been mentioned by
various authors.

Tue wood is hard, and ufeful for buildings. It fplits freely,
and makes excellent ftaves for fugar hogfheads. It has no fen-

- fible bitter tafte.

Tue branches are alternate and fpreading.

TuE leaves are numerous and alternate. On the upper fide,
they are fmooth, fhining and of a deep green colour; on the
under fide, they are white.

TueE flowers appear about the beginning of April. They
are of a yellow colour, and placed on {pikes beautifully
branched.

THE fruit is of that kind called a drupa, and is ripe towards
the end of May. It is of an oval fhape, is black, fmooth and
fhining. The pulp is flefhy and foft; the tafte a naufeous
fweet. The nut is flattened, and on one fide winged. The ker-
nel is {mall, flat, and taftes fweet.

&2 THE

76 : MEDICAL ACCOUNT of

Tue natural number of thefe drupz is five on each common
receptacle; but, for the moft part, there are only two or
three ; the reft abort by various accidents.

Tue roots are thick, and run fuperficially under the furface
of the ground to a confiderable diftance. The bark is rough,
f{caly and warted. The infide when frefh is a full yellow, but
when dry paler. It has but little fmell. The tafte is bitter,
but not very difagreeable. ‘This is the true Cortex Simarube of
the fhops.

Tuts tree is known in Jamaica by the names of Mountain
Damfon, Bitter Damfon and Stave-wood. ‘The fhops are fup-
plied with this bark from Guiana; but now we may have it
from our own iflands at a moderate expence. i

On examining the frudtification, I found this tree to be a
fpecies of Quaffia. Under that name, I fent it to Europe, and
Linnzus adopted it into his fyftem.

THERE are male flowers on one tree, and female flowers on
another ; and this is invariably the cafe in Jamaica.

Senfible Qualities of Cortex Simarube.

I caw difcover no aftringency in the cortex fimarubz, either
by the tafte, or by the various tefts to which I fubjected it..
Nor is there any mucilaginous quality to be perceived in the
recent bark, or in the decoction of that which has been dried..

its Medical Virtues iw general.

Most authors who have written on the fimaruba, agree,
that in fluxes it reftores the loft tone of the inteftines, allays.
their {pafmodic motions, promotes the fecretions by urine and
perfpiration, removes that lownefs of {pirits attending dyfente-
ries, and difpofes the patient to fleep; the gripes and tenefmus
are taken off, and the ftools are changed to their natural colour

and.

The QUASSTA SIMARUBA. 77

and confiftence. Ina moderate doze, it occafions no difturb-
ance or uneafinefs ; but in large dozes it produces ficknefs at
ftomach, and vomiting. Negroes are lefs affected by it than
white people.

Preparation of Simaruba Bark.

Tue fimaruba bark yields its qualities to water, either in cold
infufion or in decoétion. I prefer the latter. Phyficians have
prefcribed the bark in different quantities; but it feems now
agreed that the following proportion is the beft: ;

Two drams fimaruba bark, boiled from twenty-four
ounces of water to twelve ounces, then {ftrained.

Tuts is divided into three equal parts, and the whole taken
in twenty-four hours.

WHEN the ftomach is reconciled to it, three drams may be
boiled in the fame quantity of water, and taken as above men-
tioned. Some join aromatics to the deco¢tion of this bark;-
others give a few drops of laudanum with each doze. The de-
coction is to be drank daily till the diforder is cured, which
fometimes happens in a few days, and at other times it may re-
quire weeks to perfect a cure.

Of the Effeéis of Simaruba in particular Difeafes.

-Havine thus treated of the fimaruba in general, I am now
to mention its ufe and effects more particularly in different dif-
eafes, and firft in the Dyfentery. In the years 1718 and 1723,
an epidemic: flux prevailed in France, and {wept off a great
numberof people of all ages and of both fexes. This diforder
not only refifted all the medicines given, but was aggravated by
fmall dozes of ipecacuanha, the mildeft purgatives, and all.
aftringents. The diforder was happily cured by the fima>
ruba.

M:

78 MEDICAL ACCOUNT of

M. Jussizu ufed this bark for fifteen years in obftinate
dyfenteries with great fuccefs ; and continued its exhibition,
although the catamenia in women, or hemorrhage from piles in
men, occurred during the cure.

Mop_ern phyficians have found from experience, that this
medicine is only fuccefsful in the third ftage of dyfentery, where
there is no fever, where too the ftomach is no way hurt, and
where the gripes and tenefnus are only continued by a weak-
nefs of the bowels. In fuch cafes, Dr D. Monro gave two or
three ounces of the deco¢tion every five or fix hours, with four
or five drops of laudanum ; and found it a very ufeful remedy.

Tue late Sir JoHn Princie, Dr Huck SaunpDeERs, and ma-
ny others, prefcribed the cortex fimaruba in old and obftinate
dyfenteries and diarrhceas, efpecially thofe brought from warm
climates. Fluxes of this fort, which were brought home from
the fieges of Martinico and the Havannah, were completely and
{peedily cured by this bark. The urine which, in thofe cafes,
had been high coloured and fcanty, was now voided in great
abundance, and perfpiration reftored. Dr James LIND at
Haflar Hofpital, fays, That the fimaruba produced thefe effects
fooner, and more certainly, when given in fuch quantity as to
naufeate the ftomach. Dr Huck Saunpers remarks, That if
the fimaruba did not give relief in three days, he expected little
benefit from its farther ufe; but others have found it efficaci-
ous in fluxes, after a continued ufe for feveral weeks. Authors
have cautioned us againft the ufe of this bark where the in-
teftines are ulcerated and difpofed to cancer after fluxes.

In diarrheeas, from abforption of pus, the fimaruba has given
relief ; the former difcharge from fuch ulcers was reftored, and
the pus meliorated.

LrenTeErta itfelf, and even hepatic fluxes, have been cured
by the fimaruba, after other medicines were tried without fuc-
cefs. Vide A&t. Natur. curiof. tom. ii. p. 80,—82.

In

picstus
(at of LSS

Tey

Se ay ey oe

Sco pede
v

e<—-

‘

The QUASSIA SIMARUBA. 79

In putrid fevers, (as we are told) attended with coldnefs of
_ the extremities, colliquative fweats and ftools, and great dejec-
tion of fpirits, this bark performed wonders, and many reco-
vered by its ufe. Vide Roupe de Morbis Navigantium, p. 311.
_ Hasirvat colics, with bloody ftools, attended with fever
and delirium, have been radically cured by the fimaruba bark.

IMMODERATE fluxes of the menfes and from piles, have been
happily ftopped by this medicine ; and it would appear from
fome late trials, that fluor albus has been remedied by the fame
bark.

De Haew found the fimaruba to be an excellent vermifuge ;
and ufed it with fuccefs in difeafes depending on worms, parti-
-cularly fluzes.

_ My own experience, and that of many living friends, are
convincing proofs to me of the efficacy of this medicine; and
I hope the fimaruba bark will foon be in more general ufe.

QUASSIA

80 MEDICAL ACCOUNT of

QUASSIA SIMARUBA.

Fros Mascutus.

Cal. Perianthium monophyllum, parvum, quinquefidum, denti-
culis ovatis, erectis.

Cor. Petala quinque, feffilia, zqualia, lanceolata, fubrevoluta,
calyce triplo longiora, calyci inferta. Neéfarium ex {quamis
decem, ovatis, villofis, bafi filamentorum interiori infertis.

Stam. Filamenta decem, filiformia, equalia, longitudine corollz.
Anthere oblonge, incumbentes ; in centro floris corpus carno-
fum, orbiculatum, decem-fulcatum.

Piftillum nullum.

Fros FEMINEUS.

Calyx et Corolla, ut in flore mafculo.
~ Piftillum. Germina quinque fubrotunda, introrfum coalita.

Stylus cylindraceus, erectus, quinque-partitus, longitudine
corolla. Stigmata fubulata, recurvata, perfiftentia.

Pericarpium. Drupe quinque laterales, diftantes, receptaculo
orbiculato, carnofo inferte.

Semina. Nux oblongo-ovata, acuminata, unilocularis. Nucleus
compreflus.

INFLORESCENTIA.

Panicula compofita. Pedicellis fubjicitur ftipula lanceolata, pe-
tiolata. Folia alternato-pinnata. Foliola oblonga, obtufa,
nitida, integra, bafi attenuata, fubfeffilia; coftis lateralibus
nervolis.

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PIVIME J opniviy 2 fou

The QUASSIA SIMARUBA. 81

EXPLANATION of THE PLATES.

Pa a eet

Quassta SrmaRuBA Mas.

_ A flower of its natural fize.
. The fame magnified.
The calix of the natural fize-
. The fame magnified.
5. The corolla.
6. The ten ftamina.
A Two ftamina, the infide of one, the outfide of another, pre-
_ fented to view.
8. The flefhy mafs in the centre of the flower.
The fame magnified, to fhew in what manner the ten fta-
mina and fquamz are placed.

ested ide .yidle

QuasstA SIMARUBA FEMINEA.

dg ;
1. 2. 3. 4. The fame as in the male flowers.
5. The piftillum.

The ftyle. —

The ten imbricated fquamz.

8. One pericarpium or drupa.

9. The horizontal fection of the fame.
The nut.

_A perpendicular fection of the fame.

_ The nucleus or kernel.

Ls
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;
‘
\
\
!

yy

a

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LG. xy :
i ae oe
1) ) Sartre ey
itr SEITE a8]
io wisn eal
J tet oth

eisai orl
sh, ye sift

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.|

, iy the aberration of light, or the effeé&t which is produced on ‘the
___ apparent place of vifible objects by the motion of the obferver.

3

XI. On the Motion of Licut, as affected by refraBing and
refiecting Subjtances, which are alfo in Motion. By fOHN
Rosison, M.A. F.R.S. Eoin. and Profeffor of Natural
Philofophy in the Univerfity of Edinburgh.

[Read by Mr PLAYFAIR, April 7. 1788.)

4° EW of the mathematicians and philofophers of the pre-
fent age have acquired a greater or better founded repu-

tation than the celebrated Abbé Boscovicu; and there is none

from whofe writings | have received fuch variety of inftru@tion
and entertainment. His Theory of Natural Philofophy will
ever be confidered by impartial judges, not only as one of the
boldeft, but alfo as one of the moft ingenious refearches into
‘the fecrets of nature. ‘There is hardly a branch of phyfico-
mathematical philofophy which he has not cultivated with fuc-
cefs ; and in this cultivation he has exhibited the moft acute pe-
netration and the greateft addrefs. In all his inveftigations too
he has given the moft beautiful f{pecimens of geometrical in-
vention and elegance, and greatly heightens the pleafure of his
readers, by marking out diftinlly the progrefs of his own

mind in his refearches.

- Mr Boscovicu has lately obliged the public with a collection
of feveral of his fmaller works in five volumes quarto, publifh-
ed at Baflano in 1785. In the fecond and fourth volumes of
this colle@tion, are two very curious papers, on what is called

12 There

84 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

There is one deduction which he makes from his premifes, ex-
tremely curious in itfelf, and having the moft furprifing confe-
quences. It is this: If a telefcope be conftructed, having its
tube filled with water, and be directed to a terreftrial object
properly fituated, it will be found to deviate from that object by
a certain determined quantity every day. It will follow from
this, that a perfon fhut up in a mine or dungeon, may, without
feeing the fun or heavens, difcover the motion of the earth
round the centre of the folar fyftem, and alfo whether this cen-
tre be in motion, and the velocity and diretion of this mo-
tion.

Tue contrivance of a telefcope filled with water, has been
long familiar to my thoughts, (as a means of difcovering whe-
ther light be accelerated when refracted towards the perpendi-
cular) in confequence of the fpeculations of my ingenious
friend Profeflor Witson of Glafgow. But all my attempts to
conftruct fuch a telefcope have hitherto proved abortive, for
want of a fubftance fufficiently tranfparent to admit of the
neceflary magnifying power. I faw that this rendered ufelefs
the beautiful theory of their conftruction which is contained in
this paper of Mr Boscovicu. But, at the fame time, I faw
that this aberration of terreftrial objects would enable us to de-
cide the fame queftion by means of a compound microfcope of
a very eafy conftruétion. If a cylindrical piece of glafs be
ground {pherical at one end, and piane at the other, and if the
plane furface be fituated a {mall diftance beyond the principal
focus of the fpherical furface, and a fcratch be made on the
plane furface, and confidered as a vifible object, an image of.
this fcratch will be formed in the conjugate focus of the fphe-
rical furface, which image may be viewed by means of a deep
eye-glafs, as in the ordinary compound microfcope. If this
image be formed on a frame of wires, like the wires of an aftro-
nomical telefcope, there muft be obferved the fame diurnal de-
yjation that Mr Boscovicu announces with refpect to his tele-

fcope,

On th MOTION of LIGHT. 85

{cope, but in the oppofite direction ; as in the microfcope, there
would be no want of light, we fhould have the moft fatisfacto-
ry decifion of this important queftion in optics, and alfo the
opportunity of deteéting any hitherto unknown motions of the
globe which we inhabit. It may alfo be fhown, that, if any
of thefe motions be very confiderable, we fhall determine ano-
ther very important queftion in optics, viz.* Whether the mo-
tion of light be affected by the motion of the luminous body.
On thefe, and many other accounts, I was eager to conftruct
this microfcope, and fet about it accordingly. But I happened
at that time to be engaged in that part of my courfe of lectures
where I had occafion to confider the apparent motions of bo-
dies. I confider it as the fundamental propofition on this fub-
ject, that “‘ the apparent motion of a body is compounded of its real
** motion, and the oppofite to the real motion of the obferver.”’ The
confequence is, that, fince the motions of the terreftrial object
and of the obferver are always nearly equal, there fhould be no
apparent motion in the objeét,and therefore no apparent diurnal
change of place. This ftartled me, and caufed me to confider the
Matter more minutely. Profeffor Witson, to whom I com-
municated my doubts, raifed other objections, founded on the
application of mechanical principles to that hypothefis, with re-

{pect to light, which the Abbé Boscovicu profefles to main-

tain. In my fubfequent fpeculations on this fubje@t, I found,
that the application of the above mentioned propofition was not
ftrictly juft with refpe& to the apparent place of the terreftrial
object ; but I was led by it to difcover the real ftate of the
matter, by applying it to the determination of the apparent
motion of the /ight by which the objeét is feen. I thus detect-
ed. the circumftance which Mr Boscovicu had overlooked, and
which unfortunately puts an end to the hopes which I had en-
tertained of many curious and important difcoveries. I flatter
myfelf that this Society will not think this fubje@ unworthy of _
their notice ; but am extremely forry that my infirm ftate of

health

86 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

health does not at prefent permit me to give fuch an account of
it as its importance deferves.. I propofe, however, to undertake ~
it as foon as I am able. This I am incited to. do, not merely
on account of the fingularity of this particular fubje@, but
more efpecially becaufe its difcuffion depends on a more gene-
ral, and hitherto unconfidered fubjeé& in phyfico-mathematical
{cience, the motion of light as affected by bodies which are alfo in mo-
tion. This I have confidered fome years ago, as far as I thought
neceflary for my elementary courfe of leCtures, and I then in-
veftigated the fundamental propofition which I fhall include in
this difcourfe. Perhaps I fhould offer fome apology for troubling
the Society with my thoughts on the fubjeét before I have put
them into a more perfect form. I fhall frankly tell my reafons
for this condué&t. This paper of Mr Boscovicu muft excite
the attention of philofophers. Other fpeculations alfo which
have lately been made by ingenious men, will turn the atten-
tion to the fubjeét, and enquiries will be inftituted, and their
refults made public. I fhould not chufe to be thought indebted
to the refearches of others for the refults of my own enquiries,
and therefore with to afcertain my claim to any thing which
may be valuable in my fpeculations, by this prefent imperfect
account of them.

I sua therefore lay before the Society a fhort account of
the experiment, as propofed and defcribed by Mr Boscovicn,
and of the refult which he expects from it, and fome of the
moft remarkable confequences which he deduces from this re-
fult. I fhall, in the next place, point out the overfight which
he has made in announcing the refult, and ftate what ought to ~
be the refult, on the phyfical principles adopted by him ; prin-
ciples which will be overturned if the refult of the experiment
fhould be what he expeéts, but eftablifhed if it fhould be what
Taffert. In the laft place, I fhall give the fundamental propo-
Gition for determining the refleCtion and refraction of light

ibs

agen ope ft

On the MOTION of LIGHT. 87

by moving furfaces, and briefly mention fome of the moft ufe-
ful corollaries.

Ler O, (fig. 1.) be a terreftrial objeét, whofe pofition is to
be determined by an obferver placed at B’, and furnifhed with
a common furveyor’s theodolite. He muft place the index of
his inftrument fo that the light coming from the objet in the
direction OB’, may pafs through the two holes A’, B’, which
conftitute the plane fights of his theodolite ; that is, the three
pomts O, A’, B’, muft be in a ftraight line. The inftrument is
fo conftruéted that the ftraight line pafling through: the holes
A’, B’, is parallel to a line NS drawn along the ruler or index
upon which the fights are placed, and the divifion upon the
arch, which is cut by the line NS, indicates the pofition of the
object.

Bur now let us fuppofe that, by the motion of the earth, the
obferver is uniformly carried along the ftraight line B’G perpen-
dicular to BO, while, in the mean time, the object is carried
with an equal motion along the line OD parallel to BB. It is
now evident, that, if the inftrument, without altering its po-
fition, be carried along in the direftion B®, the light which
enters the hole A’, in the direction OA’, will not pafs through
the hole B; for, when the light entered the hole A’, the other
hole was at B; but when the light arrives at B’, the hole B’ has
got to fome place R in the line B'8. Take the point B, fo that
the ftraight line O8 may be to B/B as the velocity of light to
the velocity of the earth. Through A’ draw the ftraight line
A’Az, parallel to B’®, cutting the line O@ in the point A. Draw
DAB parallel to OA’B’. Now, let the theodolite move from the
fituation A’B’ to the new fituation AB, while the light moves
from O to A. It is evident that the light will enter the hole A,
and proceed in the direction Af. In the mean time, the hole
B will have moved from.B to 6; for AG is to BG, as OF is to

_ BQ, that is, as the velocity of light to the velocity of the theo-

dolite.

88 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

dolite. Therefore an eye placed behind the hole B will receive
the light which paffes through it when in the fituation 6, and
the obferver will fee the obje&t through the fights of the inftru-
ment. He will fee it by means of light moving in the di-
rection OB ; but he will not imagine that the object lies from
him in the direétion GO; for he eftimates the direction of the
object by the pofition of the fiducial line of his inftrument,
which is always parallel to the line joining the centres of the
holes which are its fights. When he fees the object, thefe
holes are at 6 and «, and therefore the obferver afligns to the
object the dire&tion Ba. Let BA and @z« cut the line Od in the
points D and 0; it is evident, that, when the object is at O, D
and 9, the anterior fight of the theodolite, is at A’, A,and a, and
the other fight is at B’, B and 8; therefore, when the object is
feen through the inftrument, it is always feen in its real place,
and in its true direction, although not in the direction of the
_ light by which it is feen3; confequently, if the index be di-
rected fo that the objet may be feen through it, that is, if the
index be pointed to the object in the common way, and the whole
inftrument be kept firm in its pofition, it will a/ways point to
the object, although both the inftrument and object are conti-
nually changing their places by the motion of the earth round
the fun and round its own axis.

Bur now let us fuppofe, with Mr Boscovicn, that the in-
-terval between the two fights is filled with water contained in a
tube, and bounded by two plates of glafs at A and B, perpen-
dicular to the line AB, and covered externally with paper,
pierced with two fmall holes at A and B. Now, fays Mr Bos-
covicu, the light which enters at A will not be at B when the
hole B arrives there; for, if the velocity of light in water be
to the velocity of light in air, as the fine of incidence in air to
the fine of refraGtion in water, then, while the hole B comes.
to 8, the light will move from A to E, fo that AE is to Af as
four to three nearly ; confequently, when the light has come

to.

On the MOTION of LIGHT. 89

to 8, the hole B will have moved over By, which is three-
fourths of BG; therefore an eye, placed behind the hole B,
will not fee the object through the fights of the inftrument, but
will fee an object lying to the right hand of it, having its angu-

lar diftance equal to yA; or, if the inftrument, inftead of ha-
_.- ving a hole A for the anterior fight, has two fine wires crofling
_ each other in A, the object will appear on the oppofite fide of
_ their interfection from that towards which the earth is moving.

From this reafoning, Mr Boscovicnu concludes, that if this
inftrument be placed at the earth’s equator on the day of the
winter’s folftice, and the index be directed to the real place of
an obje&t due fouth of it, the object will not appear at the in-
terfeCtion of the crofs wires of the anterior fight, but, at noon,
will appear 5” to the eaft of that interfection, at fix o’clock in
_ the evening, it will appear 5” above it; at midnight, it will
appear 5” tothe weftward of it 5 and at fix o’clock next morning,
it will appear 5” below it. The object will, therefore, appear to
_ defcribe a circle round the interfection of the crofs wires in
_ twenty-four hours, the diameter of which will fubtend an an-
gle of 10”. - In other pofitions of the index, and other days of
_ the year, the apparent motion of the object will be different ;
but it will never appear in its true place, except in thofe in-
_ ftants that the fiducial line of the inftrument happens to be pa-
rallel to the line of the earth’s motion at that time.

Mr Boscovicu proceeds to fhow that, if the theodolite has
a common aftronomical telefcope, inftead of plane fights, the
appearances will be precifely fimilar. If the index be directed
~ to the real place of an object, the object will be feen at the in-
terfeCtion of the crofs wires of the eye-piece ; and if the inftru-
_ ment be firmly fixed in its pofition, the object will always ap-
pear at this interfection, notwithftanding the motion of the
earth. But if the telefcope be filled with water, and be di-
; _ rected to the real place of an object fituated as above mentioned,
onthe noon of the winter’s folftice, the object will appear 5” to
me i: VoL. II. m the

go On the MOTION of LIGHT.

the weft of this interfection, and, in twenty-four hours, will
defcribe round it a circle, whofe diameter fubtends an angle of
10”, but in a direction oppofite to that defcribed round the in-
terfection of the crofs wires of the plane fights. The intelli-
gent reader will eafily fee that thefe dedudtions are juftly made
from the premifes.

Mr Boscovicu, in the laft place, fhows that if light be re-
tarded in its paffage from air into water, the appearances with
the water telefcope will be diametrically oppofite to thofe above
defcribed, and therefore earneftly propofes this experiment to
philofophers, as a mean of deciding that important queftion in
phyfics. I call it an important queftion ; becaufe the accelera-
tion of light in the inverfe proportion of the fines of incidence
and refraction affords an inconteftible proof that the forces
which refract light towards the perpendicular are directed perpen-
dicularly toward the refracting furface, and nearly demonftrates
that light confifts of corpufcles emitted by the fhining body.
The retardation of light, in the direct proportion of the fines of
incidence and refraction, is totally incompatible with this hy-
pothefis concerning the nature of light; and, in my opinion,
with the hypothefis of thofe who maintain that vifion is pro-
duced by the undulations of an elaftic fluid, although it has
generally been fuppofed to be a confequence of that hypo-
thefis.

I HAVE already faid that my repeated attempts to conftruct
a water-telefcope of fufficient magnifying power have hitherto
failed, in confequence of my not being able to find a fluid fuf- _
ficiently tranfparent. Lime-water is the moft tranfparent fluid
that I know ; and I have filled with it a telefcope five feet long.
But, when I increafed its magnifying power to more than thirty
times, it was vaftly too dark, although the aperture was fo
great as to make it very indiftiné. I am therefore convinced,
that although I fhould employ Mr Boscovicn’s moft beautiful
and ingenious conftruction to remove the indiftinéinefs, there

would

On the MOTION of LIGHT. gt

would be a great deficiency of light; for a telefcope of this

length, magnifying thirty times, would not render 10” fuft-
ciently diftinguifhable.

Bur this aberration of terreftrial objets, announced by Mr
Boscovicu, muft be obferved in a compound microfcope filled
with water, or conftruéted in the manner defcribed in the be-
ginning of this difcourfe. In fuch a microfcope, we can have
abundance of light by external illumination, and little will be
loft in its paflage through the fhort column of lime-water or
glafs.

_ Tue intelligent reader will eafily fee that this aberration of
an object placed before the microfcope muft be obferved even
at the bottom of a mine. He will alfo fee that, if the fun,
with his attending planets, be carried along in any diredtion,
with a velocity much greater than that of the earth in its orbit,
another aberration will be obferved, greater than the former,
and diftinguifhable from it, although blended with it. Confe-

quently, we fhould be able to difcover, by means of this aber-
_ ration, fuch hitherto unknown motion of the folar fyftem. It
_ will readily be believed, therefore, that I engaged with eager-

nefs in preparations for this experiment, and in farther re-

_ fearches into its theory, and that I was greatly mortified when

I found my hopes of curious difcovery fruftrated by the detec-
tion of an overfight in Mr Boscovicn’s reafoning. This I
fhall now fubmit to the Society.

Mr Boscovicu fuppofes, that when the light, moving in the

dire@tion OA, enters the water tube at A, it moves on in the di-

re€tion AG, defcribing AE uniformly, while the hole A moves

_ from Atoa. But Mr Boscovicn, in the fame difcourfe, pro-
_ fefles to maintain the opinion advanced by Sir Isaac NewTon,

viz. That light is accelerated in water by forces which act per-
pendicularly to its furface. If this be the cafe, the light en-
tering the water at A, in the oblique dire@tion OA, will be re-

____ fracted towards the perpendicular, and will move in the direc-

m 2 tion

92 On th MOTION of LIGHT.

tion Ac, cutting the line «@ in the point «, fo fituated that A
is to Ac as the velocity of light in air is to its velocity in water.
This line Ae will cur the line BG in fome point i. Now, fince
the light moves uniformly along Az, while the hole B moves
uniformly along BQ, it follows that they will meet in i, where -
the light will pafs through the hole, and enter an eye placed
behind it. The obferver, therefore, will fee the obje& through
the water tube or water telefcope, having the fame pofition
with the plane fights or common telefcope ; and if the water
telefcope be directed to the real place of a terreftrial object,
however fituated, and be firmly fixed in its pofition, the obje&
will always be feen on the interfection of the crofs wires, and
no aberration will be obferved in confequence of the earth’s
motion.

I may here obferve, that this aberration of terreftrial objects
occurred to Mr Boscovicu but very lately, namely, while he
was writing for the prefs his Differtation on the ufe of the
water telefcope, for deciding the queftion concerning the acce-
leration or retardation of light, by means of the aberration of
the fixed ftars. It appears that Mr Boscovicu has long had
this ingenious thought; for M. p—E tA LANDE, in the fourth
volume of his Aftronomy, mentions his having received a let- -
ter to that purpofe from Mr Boscovicn in the year 1769. Mr
BoscovicH, in the firft volume of his Opufcula, publifhed at
Baffano in 1785, mentions his having heard that fome perfon
had publithed a differtation in the Philofophical Tranfactions of
London upon the fame fubject, and feems difpofed to think,
that the author had been indebted to Mr pE LA LANDE’s in-
formation, which had been publifhed fome time before. This
alludes to a Differtation by our worthy member Mr Witson,
now profeffor of Aftronomy at Glafgow. But this gentleman’s
ingenuity is too eminent to make him need any information
which his candour would not difpofe him to avow in the moft
public manner. In the prefent inftance, he is fortunately pro--

/ tected .

f/f
A

.
s On the MOTION of LIGHT. 93
i

tected againft every imputation of plagiarifm, as I fhall pre-
fently make appear, by returning again to the confidera-~
tion of the apparent place of objects viewed through a theo-
dolite.

Suppose that the objec O is a fixed ftar, and that, while a
ray of light proceeds from it in the direction OA@, with a uni-
form motion, the theodolite moves uniformly from the fituation
AB’ to the fituation #8. It is evident, that the light will enter
the anterior fight at A, and pafs through the pofterior fight at
f. An obferver, therefore, will fee the ftar by looking through
the theolodite. But he will judge. falfely of its place; for he
will imagine that it lies in the dire¢tion 69, while it is really in
the direction GO. ‘The angle Of? is called the aberration of
the ftar, and the proportion of the velocity of light to the ve-
locity of the earth is fuch that this angle is about 20”. Let us
now fuppofe that the water tube is ufed. Then, fays Mr Bos-
covicn, if the water tube have the fame pofition with the
_. plane fights, the ftar will not be obferved through it ; becaufe,
when the hole B has come to #, the light which entered at A
has got to E, and when this light has got to @, the hole has got
only to y: Therefore, in order to fee the ftar, the water tube
muft have a different pofition, which he thus determines :—
Make Bg equal to 6y, and draw Ag. This will be the proper
pofition of the tube. For, while the light which enters at A
moves from A to @, the pofterior fight of the theodolite will
have moved from ¢ to 8, where it will meet the light, and al-
_ _ low it to pafs through to the eye of the obferver. If the velocities
of light in air and water are as three to four, the angle BAg
will be about 5”, in the opinion of Mr Boscovicu, and the
gy _ aberration of the ftar will be about 15”, namely, three-fourths
of the aberration difcovered by the plane fights. In like man-
ner, when the aberration of the ftar is obferved with a tele-
{cope filled with water, by bringing its image to the interfe@tion
of the crofs wires in the eye-piece of the telefcope, it will

be:

94 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

be three-fourths of the aberration obferved in the fame manner |

with the common telefcope. This account of the experiment —
is precifely the fame with that given by Mr pE ra Lanpg, and
alfo with that given by Mr Boscovicu in the Differtation above
mentioned.

Ir is eafy to fee, that Mr Boscovicu has made the fame
overfight here as in the cafe of terreftrial aberration. For, in

. the /irf place, if the tube has the pofition AB, the light which
enters at A, in the direétion OA, will not proceed in the direc-
tion AE, but be refracted at A, and proceed in the direction Ae,
and will meet with the hole Bin the pointi. The ftar will,
therefore, be feen through the water tube, having the fame po-
fition with the plane fights; and if the aberration be obferved
with a common telefcope, and a telefcope filled with water, by
bringing the image of the flar to the interfection of the crof$
wires, it will be the fame in both. In the next place, if the
water tube have the pofition Ag, which Mr Boscovicu propofes,
the light which enters at A will not pafs through the pofterior
fight. For the angle BAf being 20”, and the angle BA@ being |
5, the angle of incidence will be 15”, and the light will ftill
be refracted towards the perpendicular, making with it an angle
fomewhat greater than 11”.

Tuus it appears, that the refult of this experiment, made in
the manner propofed by Mr Boscovicu, will be different from
what he announces upon the phyfical principles affumed by
him. What I have here determined to be the refult of this
experiment, perfectly agrees with Mr Witson’s determination
in the Philofophical TranfaGtions, where it is propofed by him
as a proof that light is accelerated by refraction out of air into
water, in the inverfe proportion of the fines of incidence and
refraction. Thus, thefe gentlemen differ fo widely in their
opinions, both with refpect to the refult of the experiment, and
the conclufions drawn from it, that the one cannot be fufpeéted
of having borrowed from the other.

I

On the MOTION of LIGHT. 95

~ IsHArt juft add here, that if the aberration of the fixed ,
ftars, obferved in Dr BRapDLzy’s manner, as above defcribed,
be different with the two telefcopes, as Mr Boscovicu expeds,
or if there be obferved that aberration of terreftrial obje@s
which he defcribes, light ts not accelerated, while refracted to-
wards the perpendicular, in the inverfe proportion of the fines
of incidence and refraftion. But if the two aberrations fhall be
Be found to be the fame, and if no terreftrial aberration fhall be
_ obferved, we have a dire& proof of the acceleration of Jight in
the above mentioned proportion, and of its refraétion being
produced by forces acting perpendicularly tothe refraing fur-
face, and almoft a demonftration that light confifts of corpuf-
cles emitted by the fhining body. There is indeed another
way of obferving ,the aberration of the fixed flars, viz. by a
micrometer within the eye-piece of the telefcope. This pro-
_ mifes a different aberration with the two telefcopes. But my
thoughts on this fubje@ are not yet ready for the examination
of the Society.

I now proceed, in the laft place, to give the fundamental
_Propofitions re{peCting the motion of light, as it is affeed by
i ‘refracting or reflecting fubftances, which are alfo in motion ;
propofitions which will afford an eafy and ready folution of eve-
: oy queftion which may be propofed.

‘THERE are two ways of eftablifhing the fundamental doc-
_ trines on this fubje@t. The firft and beft method is to ftate the
_ leading facts, or to announce the general phyfical laws as mat-
' ters of obfervation and experience, and then to give a theory
_ of all the fubordinate phenomena, in the order of their gene-
_ Yality, by fhowing in what manner they are comprehended un-
der the general laws already eftablifhed. But, in the prefent
~ eafe, this method cannot be followed. For, in the phenomena
which we obferve, the motion of light is blended with feveral
_ motions which we 4zow to obtain in the refleGting and refra@t-

14 ing fubftances which affect it, and perhaps with many other
motions

96 On th MOTION of LIGHT.

motions of which we are entirely ignorant. For this reafon,
we cannot fay what is the abfolute motion of light, nor afcertain
from fa& what changes it undergoes in its obferved refractions
and reflections. Since, therefore, we cannot fimplify the phe-
nomena which nature prefents to our view, we cannot eftablifh
thofe general laws which would be the foundation of a phyfical
theory.

Tue only other method which feems to remain, is to take
up fuch opinions concerning the nature of light, as feem moft
rationally deducible from the phenomena which we obferve,
and then to deduce, by the eftablifhed principles of mechanics,
fuch confequences as fhould arife from the action of refracting
and reflecting fubftances upon this hypothetical light. We
fhould then feleét fuch of thefe confequences as will admit of
a comparifon with obfervation. If thefe confequences fhall be
found inconfiftent with obfervation, the hypothefis concerning
the nature of light muft be rejected, and trial muft be made of
anew one. But if they fhould be found to agree with obferva-
tion, and at the fame time be fufficiently various, we may
then admit the hypothefis to have a degree of probability pro-
portioned to the extent of the comparifon which we have made
of its confequences with obfervation ; we may then difcover
by this means parts of a hypothefis which muft be admitted as
true, although the hypothefis cannot be demonftrated in its full
extent.

I am acquainted with two hypothefis only concerning the
mechanical nature of light, which, in the opinions of the
learned, feem rationally deduced from the phenoinena. The
firft is that which is advanced by Sir Isaac NEwrTon, in feve-
ral parts of his celebrated writings. He fays that light may
perhaps confift of {mall particles emitted by the fhining body
with prodigious velocity, which are afterwards acted upon by
other bodies, with attracting or repelling forces like gravity,
which deflect them from their reCtilineal courfes in refractions

and

s

; On the MOTION of LICHT. a

and refleftions. He fhows, if this be the cafe, that the com-
- bined forces of all the particles of a body which at at once on
oa particle of light, compofe a force whofe direction is perpen-
s dicular to the furface of the body. When, therefore, thefe
forces tend toward the body, the light, at its approach to that
body, is accelerated and is refracted toward the perpendiculat
to its furface. But when thefe forces tend’ from the body, the
light is retarded, refracted from the perpendicular, and fome-
times refieted with its former velocity, and in an angle equal to
the angle of incidence. When thefe confequences are com-
pared with obfervation, the moft complete agreement-is found
to obtain. Hence Sir Isaac Newron deduces, that when
light is ob/erved to be refracted toward the perpendicular, it has
4 really been a€tuated by forces tending toward the refracting bo-
_ dy, and that it is accelerated. But when the light is refracted
_ from the perpendicular, it has been actuated by forces tending
_ from the body, and is retarded. Alfo, when it is refle@ted on
_ its approach to a body at an angle equal to the angle of inci-
. dence, it has been actuated by forces tending from the body,
and moves with its former velocity. When thefe conclufions
. _ are combined with the former deductions from the hypothefis,
q and the refult is compared with obfervation, the moft perfec
“agreement is ftill difcovered. For thefe reafons, this hypothefis
_ has acquired great credit, and deferves to be examined on-the
_ prefent occafion.
_ Tue other hypothefis isthat of Mr Huycuens and Dr Hooke.
F _Thefe gentlemen fuppofe that, as hearing is produced by
Biscans of the tremulous motion of elaftic air, which affects the
ear, fo vifion is produced by the tremulous motion of elaftic
light, which affeéts the eye. This hypothefis was announced
and applied to the explanation of phenomena in very general
terms, and did not, for a long while, much engage the atten-
tion of the learned. The celebrated mathematician Mr EuLer
_ has lately brought it into credit, having made fome alterations
© Vot. II. n in

98 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

in it. He fuppofes, that vifion is produced by the tremulous
motion of an elaftic fluid which he calls ether, and which he
fuppofes to pervade all bodies. He attempts to fhow that the
propagation of this tremulous motion is analogous to the ap-
pearances in the reflection and refraction of light. I confefs
that I cannot admit his reafonings on this fubject to be agreeable
to the principles of mechanics ; and I am decidedly of opinion,
that the propagation of the tremulous motion of an elaftic fluid
is totally inconfiftent with thofe facts in vifion where no refrac-
tion or reflection is obferved. But I fhall referve my objections
till another opportunity, when I propofe to fubmit to this So-
ciety a mechanical examination of this hypothefis, and I fhall
admit for the prefent that Mr Evier’s explanation of refraction
and reflection is juft. It is an effential propofition in this hy-
pothetical theory, that the velocities of the incident and re-
fraéted light are proportional to the fines of incidence and re-
fraction, and therefore that light is retarded when it is refraéted’
toward the perpendicular. It feems a neceflary confequence
that, in this cafe, the particles of wxther are actuated by forces
tending from the refracting body. I {hall, therefore, confider
what effects muft refult from the combination of. this retarda-
tion with the motion of the refracting body. If time will
allow, I fhall confider what will be the effe€ts produced on the

motion of light by the motion of the vifible obje@t. Thefe are:

fo different in the two hypothefes, that it is very probable that
fome natural appearance may be found which will give us an.
opportunity of determining whether either of thefe hypothefes

is to be received as true. Dr Ropert Brarr, profeflor of

Aftronomy in this Univerfity, has pointed out a cafe of this
kind, in the rotation of the planet Jupiter round its axis, and
has fuggefted a method of inveftigation, exceedingly ingenious,
and which feems to. promife fuccefs. I think that another may.
be obferved in the planet Mercury, when in his greateft elonga-
tions from the fun.

I

On the MOTION of LIGHT. 99

I now ae with an examination of the Newtonian hypothe-
" fis. But I fhall content myfelf with one confequence of it on-
4 ly, viz. That in refractions and refleCtions, the light is a€tuated
____ by forces whofe direction is perpendicular to the furface of the
refracting or reflefting body. I fhall-here confider the effe@ of
fuch forces only as tend toward the body; becaufe it will be
_ evident that the fame reafoning will apply, without any varia-
_. tion, to the effects of forces tending from the medium. 4
Ler XZY (fig. 2.) be a plane furface which feparates a re-
_ fraéting medium, fuch as glafs, from a void, the medium be
ing fuppofed to be below the plane XY. Let it be fuppofed that
_ ZA, perpendicular to ZY, is the greateft diftanceat which a particle
_ of the medium acts upon light. Make ZB, on the other fide of
XY, equal ZA, and draw the planes AQ, BS, parallel to XY.
While the light is between the planes AQ and BS, it is affected
_ by the refra@ting forces. For while it is between the planes
_ AQ and XY, it is ated on by all the particles of the medium,
_ whofe diftance from it does not exceed ZA; and while it is be-
iy ‘tween the planes XY and DS, there are more particles below it
_ whofe diftance does not exceed ZA than there are above it. But
- when the light is below BS, it is equally a@ted on in all direc-
ons, and its motion through the medium 1 is not affected by the
| -tefracting forces.
Ler us call the fpace contained between the planes AQ and
BS by the name of the refracting ftratum ; and let us fuppofe,
1 at firft, that the refracting forces act uniformly through the
_ whole extent of the ftratum.
Ao Ler the light, moving in the direction HAF, enter the re-
"trading ftratum at A, while the medium is moving in the di-
' rection AI; and let AF, Al, be the fpaces which they would
es uniformly defcribe during the time that the refracting forces
would impel a particle of light, from a ftate of reft in -A,
through AB. Let the velocity which the light would acquire
_ by this acceleration acrofs the refracting ftratum, be called the
n 2 {pecific

100 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

{pecific velocity of the medium. It is known that, if it moved
uniformly with this velocity, it would defcribe AO, double of
AB, during the time of defcribing AB with the uniformly ac-
celerated motion. Therefore, (taking this for the unit of time)
AF, Al and AO, will exprefs the velocity of the incident light,
the progreflive velocity of the medium, and the fpecific velocity.
It is alfo known, that the light, in paffing through the refract-
ing ftratum, will defcribe a parabola ACL, which AF touches
in A, and of which AB is a diameter, having BL, equal and
parallel to AF, for an ordinate.

Propuce IA till Ai is equal to AI; complete the parallelo-
gram AFfi, and draw the diagonal Af. The motion Af, com-
pounded of AF, the real motion of the incident light, and Ai,,
the oppofite to the motion of the medium, is the relative mo-
tion of the incident light. This motion will be uniform, be-
caufe it is compounded of motions which are uniform. There-
fore Af will exprefs the relative velocity of the incident light.
Draw FL. It is evidently equal and parallel to AB. Let CR
be drawn from any point C of the parabola, parallel to AB)
cutting AF in P. Complete the parallelograms FLIf, fIBA:
Draw Cc parallel to Ff, and make Ff:Cc= AF: AP. I fay
that the point c is in a parabola Acl, of which AB isa diame-
ter, and Af a tangent, and which is the relative path of the
light, and that L andl, C and c, are contemporaneous places of
the light in its real:and relative paths. | Draw Pp parallel to Ff,
cutting Af in p. Draw the ordinate CK, and draw pe, Ke.
Then Ff: Pp = AF: AP, = LI: Cc. But FF is equal to Lh
Therefore Pp is equal to Cc, and pce is equal and parallel to PC
and AK, and Ke is equal and parallel to Ap. Therefore
Kc? BP Ap? wAf*,=IAP® -AF?,— KC?:: BL*; > AKy ABS
Therefore the points A, c, 1, are ina parabola, of which AB
is a diameter, Af a tangent, and Ke, Bl, are ordinates.. Alfo,
becaufe Ll: Cc, = Ff: Cc, = AF: AP, = T, AF: T, AP, (by
the fymbol T, AF, tc. is exprefled the time of moving along

AF,

ne

a |

eS ee ty ee

On the MOTION of LIGHT. 101

AF, &c.) it is evident that Cc is equal and oppofite to the mo-
tion of the point A, while the light defcribes the parabolic arch
AC, and that L] is equal and oppofite to the motion of A, while
the light defcribes the arch ACL. Therefore L and 1, C and c,
are contemporaneous places of the real and relative paths of
the light, and the parabola Ac] is its relative path.

We have feen that Af is the relative motion of the incident
light during the time of defcribing AB by the impulfe of the
refracting forces acting on a particle of light at reftin A. Let

- us now fuppofe that the medium is at reft, and that the light

enters the refracting ftratum at A, with the velocity and in the
direction Af. It muft defcribe a parabola, which Af touches in
A, and of which AB is a diameter and Bl an ordinate ; that is,
it muft deferibe the very parabola Acl, and it muft defcribe it
in the fame time that the light incident with the velocity, and
in the direction AF, defcribes the parabola ACL. Its motion,
therefore, both before and after refraction, is the fame with the
relative motion of the light having the velocity and direction
AF, incident on the medium moving with the velocity and i in:

the direétion AI.

- Ler c be the point of interfeftion of the parabola Ac’ and’
the plane BS. Draw cC parallel to Ai, cutting the parabola
ACL in CG. C muft be the point of that parabola, where the
refraction by the moving medium is completed. For Ll: Cc
ae Aptos Ab AP — IT) AL: F, AGS TT, AR: Ty cC.
Therefore, while the light moves from A to c, the point c moves

_ from c to C, where the light will pafs through it, and the re-

fragtion be completed, the plane BS having now gotten into the

fituation bs, and the-plane AQ into the fituation aq.
Draw the ordinates ADE, Ade, to the diameters PC, pc,

and draw mr, the direétrix of the parabola Acl, and join Dd..

' Tt is known that AF is to AE as the velocity in A to the velo-
‘eityinC. Now, AE: AD= AF: AP, = Af: Ap, = Ae: Ad.

Therefore, Dd is parallel to Cc. Therefore the velocity Ae,
compounded.

IO2 On th MOTION of LIGHT.

compounded of AE and Ee, which is equal and oppofite to Al,
is the relative velocity of the light in C, and Af, Ae, are the re-
lative velocities of the incident and refrated light. Now, Kc?
= AK X 4Am and Ad? = cd X.4cr, = AK X4cr. | There-
fore, Ad?— Kc? = AK X 4cr —4Am, = AK X 4AB. Now,
Ad? : Ae? =.Ap? »,Af?, = Ke*;: Bl*, = AK : AB... Therefore,
Ae? —Af? = AB X 4AB, = AO?. That is, when the light
has paffed through, and emerges from the refracting ftratum,
the difference between the fquares of the initial and final rela-
tive velocities is equal to the fquare of the fpecific velocity of
the medium.

Atso, (becaufe Qe* —Qf* = Ae? — Af”) the difference
between the fquares of the initial and final relative perpendicu-
lar velocities, is equal to the fquare of the fpecific velocity.

Bor it will not always happen that the light will emerge
from the refra@ting ftratum after pafling over it, and it may fre-
guently happen that it will not pafs over the whole extent of it.

Tuus, fuppofe the light to be within the medium, moving
towards the refracting ftratum, while the medium is moving
more flowly towards the fame quarter, or moving towards the
oppofite quarter ; and let the relative perpendicular velocity of
the light be equal to the fpecific velocity. Suppofe that the
light paffes through the refracting ftratum at A (fig. 3.) mo-
ving in the direction and with the velocity AF. It would de-
fcribe (by the action of the refrating forces) the parabola ALC,
of which AB’, equal to AB, is the abfcifla from a diameter, and
B'L, equal and parallel to AF, is an ordinate. Draw In paral-
lel to AQ, cutting FLinn. It is plain that dn is the perpen-
dicular velocity of the medium, dF the perpendicular velocity
of the incident light, and nF its relative perpendicular velo-
city. This is equal to twice AB by fuppofition. But FL is
equal to AB; therefore Ln is alfo equal to AB, and An is an
ordinate to FL. Alfo, LB, drawn from L to B, is a tangent at
LL, and bLs is the fituation of the plane BS, when the light

which

On the MOTION of LIGHT. 103

which entered the refracting ftratum at Ais at L. BL is the
velocity with which the light paffes through L, and Bb is its per-
pendicular velocity. This is evidently equal to dn, the perpen-
dicular velocity of the medium. Since, therefore, they have
the fame velocity in the direGtion LF, it is plain, that the light
will not pafs through the plane bL ; and becaufe it is fubjected
to the action of the refra@ting forces, it will be defle&ted towards
AQ, and will defcribe another arch LC of the parabola, and
will be met in C by the point c of the plane AQ, which has
moved in the mean time through cC parallel tolL. The point
lis the vertex of the relative path Alc, and the abfcifla 1g being
equal to BA, it is evident that fg, the relative perpendicular
velocity, is equal to twice BA, that is, to the {pecific velocity.
Ir, as in fig. 4. the relative perpendicular velocity of the
light be lefs than the fpecific velocity, it will not pafs through
the whole refracting ftratum: For draw In parallel to AQ,
cutting FLinn. Itis plain than dn is the perpendicular ve-
locity of the medium, and dF the perpendicular velocity of
the light, and nF the relative perpendicular velocity. Becaufe
this is fuppofed lefs than twice AB, Lm is lefs than FL, and An
is not an ordinate to FL. Let oVh, parallel to An, touch the
parabola in V, and draw hk perpendicular to AB. Then oK, or
nd, isthe perpendicular velocity of the light. Therefore, fince the
perpendicular velocities of the light in V, and of the medium, are
equal, the light is then the neareft poffible to the plane BS,
which has now obtained the fituation bs. It is therefore in
the vertex of the relative parabola, or, drawing Vv parallel to
Ff, v will be the vertex of the relative path Avl; therefore
the light, after pafling through V and L, will defcribe another
arch LC of its parabolic path, and it will be met in C by the
point c of the plane AQ, which has in the mean time moved
along cC. Fig. 5. exhibits the fame particulars in the cafe
when the light within the medium is moving /rom the refract-
- ing ftratum, but is overtaken by it.
Tuus

104 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

‘Tuus we fee that when the light within the refracting medi-
uum either meets or overtakes the refracting ftratum, or is over-
taken by it, and the relative perpendicular velocity is not
greater than the fpecific velocity, the light does not emerge
from the medium, but is refle¢ted back into it.

Ir is farther to be obferved, that in thefe cafes, the angle of
relative refleGtion is equal to the angle of relative incidence,
and the relative velocity of the light after reflection is the fame
as before refleGtion. For the tangents At, tc, (fig. 3.4.5.) are
equally inclined to the axis of the parabola Alc, and equal
portions of them will be intercepted by the diameters AB, FL,
and thefe portions exprefs the relative velocities of the light in
Aandc. Alfo, the relative perpendicular velocity of the re-
fleGted light is equal to the relative perpendicular velocity of the
incident light, but in the oppofite direction.

Ler us fuppofe, that the refrafting ftratum is divided into
feveral partial {trata, by planes parallel to AQ and BS, and that
the forces are different in each ftratum, but uniform through
its whole extent.

Tue relative motion of the light, emerging from the pofterior
furface of the firft partial ftratum, is the relative motion of the
light immerging into the fecond ftratum. Therefore, by the
preceding reafoning, the relative motion of the light emerging
from the pofterior furface of the fecond ftratum, is the fame as
if the medium had been at reft, and the light had approached
it with the fame relative initial motion. The fame mutt be
affirmed of all the partial {trata in fucceflion, and is therefore
true with refpect to the final motion of the refracted light.

FurTHER, the whole change which is made on the fquare
of the relative velocity of the incident light, in thofe cafes
where it paffes through and emerges from the refra¢ting {tra-
tum, is equal to the fquare of the velocity which a particle of
light would acquire if impelled by the variable refracting
forces from a {tate of reft through the whole refracting ftratum.

For

ies
pee se

Me
a

Ss
a

hag ak

ag A SATEEN

On the MOTION of LIGHT. 105

For if the medium were at reft, and the light approached it
with the fame relative motion, we have feen that the ab/olute
velocity with which the light enters any one of the partial
dtrata, is the fame with the relative velocity with which it en-
ters it when the medium is in motion. Now, when the medi-
um is at reft, the change made in the fquare of the abfolute

welocity (whatever this velocity be) is equal to the fquare of

the fpecific velocity of that ftratum. Therefore, if the velocity
with which the light enters this ftratum be that which it would

have acquired if impelled by the refra@ing forces from a ftate

of reft at A, in the anterior furface of the firft ftratum, the
change made on the fquare of this velocity would have been
full the fame, and the whole velocity would be that acquired
by the varied impulfe from a ftate of reftin A. This is true
with refpect to the laft ftratum and therefore if the light enter
the refracting ftratum.of the quiefcent medium with any velo-
city, and in any direction whatever, the change made in the
{quare of its velocity, when it has paffed through all the partial
ftrata, and emerged from the laft of them, is equal to the fum
of the fquares of their refpective fpecific velocities, and this
fum is equal 'to the fquare of what may be called the fpecific
velocity of the whole refracting ftratum. Now, the abfolute
velocity with which the light emerges from the refracting ftra-
tum of the quiefcent medium is the fame with the relative ve-
locity with which it emerges from the refracting ftratum of the
medium in motion. Therefore, the change made on the fquare
of the relative velocity of the incident light is equal to the
fquare of the fpecific velocity of the medium.

-WE need not employ any time to fhow that this is alfo true
with refpect to the relative perpendicular velocity. Nor will it

be neceflary to fhow that when the light, moving within the
medium, meets with or overtakes the refracting ftratum, or is

overtaken by it, and the relative perpendicular velocity of the
Vou. I. 0 incident

106 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

incident light is not greater than the f{pecific velocity of the me-
dium, it will not emerge from the refracting ftratum, but will
be reflected back again in the medium; nor to fhow that the
angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, and that
the relative velocity of the reflected light is equal to that of the
incident light, and that the relative perpendicular velocity of
the reflected light is equal to that of the incident light, but in
the oppofite dire¢tion.

Lofily, Ler the number of the partial ftrata be augmented,
and their thicknefs diminifhed, without end. The foregoing
demonttration will now be applicable to the motion of light
through refra@ting fubftances which are in motion, and which
act on it with forces, continually varyin® according to any law of
the diftances ; and it may be received as the fundamental pro-
pofition on this fubject, that,

If a ray of light, moving. in any direétion and with any velocity,
meet with the furface of a refracting medium, which is in motion, its
final relative motion will be the fame as if the medium had been at
reft, and the light bad approached it with the fame initial relative
motion. :

Ir is eafy to fee that what has been faid about the motion of
light within a medium which acts upon it with attractive
forces, will apply to the motion of light which is without a
medium that acts upon it with repelling forces. In fuch a cafe,
the light will not be refraéted into the medium, unlefs its per-
pendicular relative velocity be greater than the fpecific velocity
of the medium, but will be reflected with an equal relative ve-
locity, and at an equal relative angle on the other fide of the
perpendicular.

Ir is alfo eafy to fee that the foregoing demonftration
will apply to the motion of light through two contiguous
mediums. For there will be a refracting ftratum, where the
light will be affected by the fum or the difference of the

refracting

On the MOTION of LIGHT.

refraGting forces, ageontiing as they,aét in the fame or oppofite
directions *.

I

* Ir was about the beginning of 1784 that I inveftigated the foregoing demonftration,
which, as the reader will fee, is eonduéted after the method adopted by Sir Isaac New-
Ton, in his demonftration of the 94th propofition of the firft book of the Principia, 1
applied to my much efteemed colleague’ Mr Profeffor Prayrarr, for his afliftance in a
cafe to which the foregoing demonftration may perhaps be thought not to extend, namely,
when the motion of the light, and that of the medium, are perpendicular to the refracting
furface. Before I had obtained a demonftration which pleafed me, he favoured me with
the following elegant analytical demonftration.

Ler wv be the velocity of a particle of light when it has arrived at the diftance x with-
in the refraéting medium (x being counted from the point in’ which the particle began to
be acted on, and being lef than the diftance from that point at which the motion of the

‘particle again becomes uniform.) Let / be the force ating on the particle at the di-

ftance x. Leet a@ be the velocity of the incident light, and c the velocity of the me-
dium in the oppofite dire¢tion.

Ir is evident that the force f does not ag on the particle during its paflage through

the whole fpace x, but only during its paflage through the part 3 = x. Therefore,

Ux ‘ 2u fx . of x i : .
voat+a2 ff , and 2vv = f > or a That is, vu + 2c v
. utc ute Uke

= 2f%, and, taking the fluent, v* + 200 = 2ffa+C*. But when offi 0, we
have v® + 2c v = a* +-2ac, and therefore v* + 2c” = a* +2ac+ of f si» Let
the fluent of 2f x (affumed, fo that x fhall be the diftance at which the velocity of the
light again becomes uniform) be fuppofed = g*. Then v* + 2cv = a* + 2ac-+ 7.
Add c* to both fides of the equation. Then v? + 2vc--c? = a* + 2ac +c? +27;

and thereforev-to = ate’ +g*. But a +c is the relative velocity of the
‘incident light, and v +c is the relative velocity of the refraéted or accelerated light.

‘Therefore the fquare of the latter exceeds the {quare of the former by the conftant quan-

“tity g?. Now, g? = of, (fx 3: and is therefore (by the celebrated 39th propofition of the

firft book of the Principia) the {quare of the velocity which a particle of light would

acquire if impelled from a 8 of reft through the whole diftance at which the medium
acts on light.

02 Since

108 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

I now proceed to deduce fome of the moft ufeful corollaries
from the general propofition.

Corollary 1. Tue relative velocities of the incident and re-
fracted light are dire¢tly as the co-fecants, or inverfely as the
fines of the relative angles of incidence and refraétion. _ For it

was demonftrated, that Af and Ae (fig. 2.) are in the proportion _

of the velocities of the light in the points A and c of its relative
path. Now, if ef cuts the plane AQ in the point Q, and AQ
be confidered as the radius, Af and Ae are the co-fecants of the
angles BAf and BAe, which are the relative angles of incidence
and refraction. Alfo, Af is to Ae as the fine of the angle AeQ_
to the fine of the angle AfQ, that is, as the fine of the angle
BAe to the fine of the angle BAf, that is, as the fine of the
relative angle of refraction to. the fine of the relative angle of
incidence.

Cor. 2. Ir the relative velocity of the incident light be the
fame in all the relative angles of incidence, the relative velocities
of the refracted light will alfo be equal in all the relative angles
of refraction. For the fum or the difference of the fquare of
the relative velocity of the incident light, (which is a conftamt
quantity) and the fquare of the conftant fpecific velocity, con-

ftitute a furface which is alfo conftant, and’ which is equal to
the

Stxce the relative velocities, eftimated in a direétion parallel to the refracting
furface, are not changed by the action of the refraéting forces, it evidently fol-
lows from this demonftration that the difference between the fquares of the relative ve-
locities of the incident and refraéted light, is equal to the fquare of the {pecific velocity
of the medium, whatever may be the direétions of the meident and refracted light, and
therefore, that the final relative motion of the refracted light is the fame as if the medium
had been at reft, and the light had approached it with the fame relative motion. But
although this demonftration would have been much more elegant, and more agreeable to
the manner in which I have been accuflomed to explain the refra&tion of light, I chofe
to retain the demonftration which I have given in the text, becaufe I think that it gives me
a better opportunity of exhibiting to the mind the whole motion of the light during its re-
fraction or refle@ion. At the fame time, I thought it my duty to communicate, with.
Mr Prarrair’s permiffion, his demonftration to the public.

$req

Re ade eee

On the MOTION of LIGHT. 109

the fquare of the relative velocity of the refracted light. This
is therefore a conftant quantity, or the relative velocity of the
refracted light is the fame in all the relative angles of re-
fraction.

Cor..3. Ir the relative velocities of the incident light be the

fame in all angles of incidence, the fines of relative incidence

and refraction are in a conftant ratio, namely, the inverfe ratio
of the relative velocities of the incident and refracted light.
This appears by combining the laft corollary with the firft.
Cor. 4. WuEN light moving with the fame velocity in all di-
rections, is refracted by a medium at reft, the fines of incidence
and refraction are in the conftant ratio of the velocities of the

- refracted and incident light. ‘Fhis appears from the laft. co-

rollary.

Gor. 5. Ir the light moving in a medium A be refracted by
a medium B, which is in motion, and emerge from it into the
medium A, it will regain the relative velocity which it formerly
had when in this medium. For the fquare of its relative velo-
eity while in the medium B, differs from the fquare of each of
its relative velocities in the medium A by the fame quantity,
viz. by the fquare of the fpecific velocity of the medium B.
It is evident that the fame thing will happen when the light
paffes through feveral contiguous mediums in motion before it
emerges again into the medium A.

Cor. 6. Ir the relative: paths of the light before its entering
into the medium: B, and after its emergence from it, be equally
mclined to the direction of the medium, the abfolute velocities

of the incident and emergent light will be equal, but in no

other cafe. This is eafily feen by refolving the relative motions
of the incident and emergent light. Hence we learn, that if the
plane furface of a plano-convex lenfe be turned towards a fixed’

ftar to which the earth is approaching, or from which it is re-

ceding, the abfolute velocity of the lateral emergent rays will
be increafed or diminifhed.

Cor,

110 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

Cor. 7; WHEN the light is reflected, the relative angles of in-
cidence and refle@tion are equal, as alfo the relative velocities of
the incident and retlected light.

Cor. 8. Bur the abfolute angles of incidence and reflection,
and alfo the abfolute velocities of the incident and reflected
light, are unequal, except in the cafe where the motion of the
refleCting fubftance is in the direction of the reflecting plane.

Ir the plane be moving towards that fide from which the
light comes, the angle of reflection will be lefs than that of in-
cidence, and the perpendicular velocity of the reflected light
will exceed that of the incident light by twice the perpendicular
velocity of the reflecting plane. The contrary will happen if
the plane be moving towards the oppofite fide.

Tue application of the foregoing propofition to Mr Bosco-
VICH’s experiment is extremely fimple. When the telefcope is
fo directed that the image of the object is formed upon the
interfection of the crofs wires in the eye-piece, the relative mo-
tion of the light is performed along the axis of the telefcope ;
or the axis of the telefcope is in the direction of the relative
motion of the light, and indicates the apparent pofition of the
object. Now, when the water telefcope has the pofition AB,
(fig. 1.) the relative motion of the light in the telefcope is the
fame as if the telef{cope had been at reft, and the light had ap-
proached it with the fame relative motion. Now, the motion
DA is evidently the relative motion of the incident light. For
it is compofed of OA, the real motion of the light, and DO,
the oppofite to the real motion of the telefcope. Now, if the
telefcope had been at reft, and the light had entered it in the
direétion and with the velocity DA, it would have proceeded
in the direflion AB, and therefore the telefcope muft always be
directed to the real contemporaneous place of. the terreftrial
object, and there will be none of that diurnal deviation which
Mr Boscovicu aflerts.

Tuus

whe teeter

Pe

2 ace PW. Phys, Ct

Te

s

ae

+
v
4
FH

? Se OTS

——
pai ae
Sat ears

er. Sa

On the MOTION of LIGHT. IIT

_ Tuus it appears that the water telefcope muft have the fame
_ pofition with the common telef{cope, or that both of them mutt

always be directed to the real place of the terreftrial object.

__ Irwill alfo eafily appear, that when the image of a fixed ftar

_ is formed upon the interfection of the crofs wires in the eye-

F pieces of a common telefcope, and a telefcope filled with water,

_ the two telefcopes will have the fame pofition, and will indicate

_ the fame aberration of the fixed ftars. For, by the fame rea-

foning, it appears that the water telefcope at A muft have the
_ pofition AB, and the aberration OAD is the fame with that ob-

_ferved with a common telefcope.

__-Wiru this application of the general propofition I fhall con-

clude this paper, referving a farther account of the fubje@ for

_ another opportunity, if he aismics fhall think it worthy of
their attention.

XIE.

XII. DEMONSTRATIONS of fome of Dr MATTHEW STEW.
ART’s GENERAL THEOREMS. By ROBERT
SMALL, D.D. F.R.S. Evin.

[Read by the Author, Feb. 7. 1785.]

HAT excellent Geometer the late Dr MartuEew STEw-

ART, as long ago as the year 1746, publifhed his book
of General Theorems, all of them, except the firft five, without
the demonftrations. As Ido not find that any demonftration
of them has ever been made public, I may perhaps flatter my-
felf that what I now communicate to this Society will not be
wholly unacceptable. The demonftrations given are of the
propofitions relating to the fums of the fquares, and of the
fourth powers of lines drawn in a certain manner, and are
feleéted from the reft, as moft connected with one another. The
theorems that refpect the cubes and other higher powers, may
afford materials for another paper, fhould this meet with the
approbation of the Society.

A Few lemmas and corollaries have been introduced that are
not among Dr Stewart's Theorems, and which are therefore di-
ftinguifhed by afterifks. The references are to the edition of
thofe Theorems publifhed at Edinburgh, 1746, and the propofi-
tions are numbered as in that edition, beginning with the fixth
Theorem.

T HE

DEMONSTRATIONS of, &c. 113

THEOREM VI. Fic. I.

Let there be any number, m, of given points A, B, C, &c. a point X
may be found, fuch, that if from A,B,C, &c. there be drawn
frraight lines to any point D, and to the point X found, and if DX

be joined,
AD?+BD*+CD? &c. = AX?+BX?+CX? &c. +mDX°.
Let m be = 3.

Suppose the point X found, join DX, from the given points
A, B, C draw AE, BF, CG perpendicular to DX, and join AX,
BX, CX.

Since AD*+BD*+-CD* = AX?+BX*+CX’+3DX’, and

AD* = AX’?+-DX*— 2DX. XE, and

BD? = BX’+DX?+ 2DX. XF, and

CD? = CX*+DX?+ 2DX. XG, the point X in the line
DX mutt be fo taken, that the part EX, intercepted between it
and AE the perpendicular from the point A, be equal to FX
and GX, the fum of the parts intercepted between it and the
perpendiculars BF and CG, from B and C; and the parts FX,
GX mutt be in the oppofite direCtion to EX..

Tuis will be effected by the following conftruétion :

Join AB, and bifecét itm H; and join HG, and divide it in
X; fo that CK = 2HX; X will be the point required.

eis From H draw to DX the perpendicular HK.

Since AH = BH, we fhall have EK = FK; and fince

a = 2HX, we'fhall alfo have GX = 2KX. Therefore fince

. . FX = FK—KxX, and

ot " GX = = 2KX

> FX+GXK = FK+-KX =. EK+KX = EX, and
—2DX. XE+2DX. XF+2DX. XG =o.

Tue point X thus found is the centre of gravity of the three:
-points A, B,C. This propofition, and that which follows, are
well known, and are given here only for the fake of order:

Vor. II. p Dr

ri4 DEMONSTRATIONS of

Dr Simson, in his Reftoration of the Loci Plani, has deduced
them from a propofition of that book. Vid. Loc. Plan. lib. 2.
prop. §. cor. 1. & 3. The fecond and fourth of Dr STEWART’s

Theorems are particular cafes of this propofition, and are eafily
derived from i it.

THEOREM’ VII. Fie. II.

Let there be any number, m, of given points A, B, C, &c. and let
a, b,c, &e. be given magnitudes, as'many in number as there are
given points, a point X may be found, fuch, that if from A, B, C, &c.
there be drawn ftraight lines to any point D, and alfo to X the point
found, and if DX be joined,

a. AF?+4.BD?+¢.CD?&c, = a.AX?+b.BX*++c.CX*+-(a+b-+¢e)DX.

Let m be = 3. Suppofe the point X found. Join DX;
from the given points A, B, C draw AE, BF, CG perpendicular
to DX, and join AX, BX, CX.

SrncEa.AD?+4. Be. CD?=a. AX++0. BK+he, CX+(atb+e)
DX’; and

a. AD? = a.AX?+a.DX*—2a.DX. XE, and

5.BD? = 6.BX?+4.DX?+-26.DX. XF, and

¢.CD* = ¢.CX?+¢.DX*+2¢.DX. XG ; or
a. AD*-+).BD*+¢.CD? = a.AX?+-6.BX?+c.CX?+-(a+6-+¢)DX7+-
2DX (—a.XE+6.XF+¢.XG) 5 a.XE mutt be equal, and in the
oppofite direction to b.XF+c.XG,

Turs will be effe€ted by the following conftruction :

Jorn AB, and divide it in H, fo that 6.BH = a.AH; that is,
make AH: BH = 4:a, and join HC, and divide it in X, fo
that HX: CX =c:a+d3 or or?) HX =c.CX. Then X will
be the point required.

From H draw to DX, the pet ptinlateiiar HK.

of SINCE

Dr STEWART's THEOREMS. 115

Since 2.AH = 4.BH, we fhall have a.EK = 6.FK; and
fince (a+6)HX = c.CX, we fhall alfo have (a+6)KX = ¢.GX.
Therefore fince

6.XF = 6.FK—6. KX, and

c.XG = (a+) KX, we fhall have

6.XF+c¢.XG = b.FK+-a.KX = a.EK-+a.KX = a.XE, and

.2DX (—a.XE+d.XF+c.XG) = 0; therefore
a.-AD*+6.BD?+¢.CD? = a.AX?+5.BX?-+c. Bria teaND or

AD++—-BD+4+-—CD: = AX*+—Bx++ £ cx4 (=*)Bx:

The point X is the centre of gravity of weights, proportional to
the magnitudes a, b,c, &c.- placed at the given points A,B, C,
&e.

‘CGor,1. LET any number, m, of circles be given by pofition,
(Ag. 4.) and about every circle let an equilateral figure be de-
feribed} a point X may be found, fuch, that if from any point
C there be drawn perpendiculars to the fides of the figures, and
a ftraight line to the point found, twice the fum of the fquares

of the perpendiculars will be equal to the multiple.of the fquare
of the line drawn to the point found, by the number of the
fides of the figures, together with a given fpace.

Let mbe = 2; let a be the number of the fides of the figure de-
fcribed about the circle whofe centre is A, 4 the number of the
fides of the figure defcribed about the circle whofe centre is B,
CD, CE, CF, the perpendiculars to the fides of the firft figure,
and CG, CH, CK, CL, the perpendiculars to the fides of the
fecond.

Jorn the centres A, B, and divide AB in x, fo that AX: BX
=46:a, X will be the point required.

—2(CD*+-CE?++CF*) = 2a.AM*+a. AC? (theor. 3.). In like manner,
2(CG*+CH?+CK*+CL?) = 24.BN*+4.BC*.. Therefore,
2(CD:+CE*+CF:+CG? +CHE-+CK?+CL? ) = 2a,AM?-+26.BN?
“ba. AC:+-0.BC. But,

p2 a. AC?

116 DEMONSTRATIONS of

a.AC*+6.BC? = (a+b) AX.BX-+ (a+b) CX? (prop. 1.), and
2a.A\M?-+-25.BN*+ (a+) AX.BX are given fpaces. Therefore
2(CD?-++CE*+-CF*+-CG?++CH?+CK?+-CL*) = (a+) CX?++A?,
A? being a given fpace.

Cor. 2. LeT any number of femicircles be given by pofition,
and let an equilateral figure be defcribed about every femicircle,
a point may be found, fuch, that if from any point there be
drawn perpendiculars to all the fides of the figures, and a ftraight
line to the point found, twice the fum of the fquares of the
perpendiculars will be equal to the multiple of the fquare of the
line drawn to the point found, by the number of all the fides,
together with a given f{pace.

Cor. 3. Let any number of circles and femicircles be given
by pofition, and about every circle and femicircle let an equila-
teral figure be defcribed, a point may be found, fuch, that if
from any point there be drawn perpendiculars to all the fides of
the figures, and a ftraight line to the point found, twice the fum
of the fquares of the perpendiculars will be equal to the multi-
ple of the line drawn to the point found, by the number of the
fides, together with a given fpace.

THEOREM VII. Fic. IV.

Let there be any number, m, of given points A, B, C, &c. two
points X,Y, may be found, fuch, that if from any point D frraight
lines be drawn to A, B, C, &c. and to X, Y, -

2(DA?++-DB?+-DG*) = m(DX*+-DY’).

Tuls propofition follows directly from theor.6. Let m= 3, and
let E be the centre of gravity of the three points A, B,C. The
{quares of EA, EB, EC, are given, and confequently a fquare =
4(EA*+EB?+EC’) may be found. On E with the diftance EX

equal

-Dr STEWART’s THEOREMS. ey

equal to the fide of this fquare, defcribe a circle. The extremi-
ties X, Y, of any diameter, will be two fuch points as are re-
- quired. For
DA?+DB?+DC: = EA?+-EB?+EC?+3.ED?, (Theor. 6.).
But EA?+EB?+-EC? = 3.EX?’, therefore
2(DA?+DB?+DC?) = 6(EX?+ED?) = 3(DX?7+DyY’)
(Prop. 1.).

THEOREM IX. Fic. IV.

Let there be any number, m, of given points A, B, C, &c. and let
a,b, c, &c. be given magnitudes, as many in number as there are
given points, two points X,Y, may be found, fuch, that if from any

_ point D there be drawn frraight lines to A, B, C, &c. and to X, Y,

DA*+—DB'+--— DC &e. = (4) (Dx-+Dy").

TuIs propofition follows, in the fame manner, from theor. 7.

Let mbe = 3. Let Ebe a point fuch that DA++— DB*+
<pc = EA*+— EB + = EC++ (= )Ep:. OnE aa

. . 4a c
centre, with the diftance EX = V aa (EA*+ = EB: -++ — EC’)
defcribe a circle. The extremities X, Y, of any diameter, will

be two fuch points as are ah For

DA?+— DB*+-—£ DC: = EA*++ + EB EC+ (=) ED»,

and EA*+——EB*+—Ec: = (*)Ex:. Therefore,
. 2(DA:

118 DEMONSTRATIONS of

a(DA++ —DB*+ —DC:) = 2(7*) (ED+FEX?) =

a

(=) (px+4DY>), (Prop. 1.). Or,

DA++ —DB++—pe: = (4*)(px+py>.

2a

THEOREM X. Fic. V.

Let there be anynumber,m, of parallel fraight lines AB,CD, EF, &c.
given by pofition, a frraight line XY may be found parallel to them,
fuch, that if from any point G, perpendiculars GA, GC, GE, &c.
be drawn to AB, CD, EF, &c. and the line GX perpendicular to
XY,

GA?+GC?+GE? &c. = mGX?+A’, A? being a given fpace.

Turis propofition is one of the fimpleft cafes of theor. 6. A
line XY parallel to AB, drawn through X, the centre of gravity
of the points A, C, E, where a perpendicular from G meets
the parallels AB, CD, EF, will be the line required. For,

GA?+GC?+GE* = XA?+XC?+ XE*+ 3GX? (Theor. 6.), and
XA?+XC?+XE? is a given fpace.

THEOREM XI. Fic. VI.

Let there be any number, m, of ftraight lines AB, AC, AD, &c.
interfefting in a point A, fo as to make all the angles round it equal 5
and from any point E, let perpendiculars EB, EC, ED, &c. be drawn
to AB, AC, AD, &c. and let AE be joined, wy

2(EB*++-EC?+-ED? &c.) = m.EA?.
Tus

Dr STEWART’s THEOREMS. 119

Turs propofition follows directly from the firft cafe of theor. 2.
Let m be = 3. The points B,C, D, are in a circle of which
EA is the diameter, and therefore (lemma 2.) the arches BC, CD,
DB, are equal. Therefore,

2(EB?-+-EC?+ED’) = 4.3.R?. = 3.EA? +.

Cor. 1. Iz AB, AC, AD, interfe@ one another in a given point
A, and make all the angles round it equal; and if from any
point E there be drawn perpendiculars to AB, AC, AD ; and if
the fum of the fquares of the perpendiculars be equal to a
given fpace, the point E will be in the circumference of a given
circle.

THE double of the given fpace is m.AE?, therefore AE is
given in magnitude, and fince the point A is given, the point
E is in the circumference of a given circle.

* Cor. 2. Ir the circumference of a circle FGH, of which
the radius is R, be divided. into m number of equal parts, by
the femidiameters AF, AG, AH, &c. making with any diameter
EN the angles FAE, GAN, HAE, &c. twice the fum of the
_ fquares of the fines, or cofines of thefe angles will be = mR.

Let m be = 3.

FK = EB; GL=EC; HM=ED._ Therefore 2(FK? +
GL?+HM7?) = 3EA? =.3R?. In the fame manner, AK = AB;
AL = AC; AM=AD. Therefore 2(/AK?+AL?+AM?) =
Ben = 3R?:

* LEMMA TIL. Fic. VII.

Let there be a figure ABCD given in fpecies infcribed in a circle,

the fraight line EH drawn from E, the centre of the circle, to A,
the

+ Ris the radius of the circle ABC.

120 DEMONSTRAPIONS of

the centre of gravity of the figure, will have a given ratio to the
Jfemidiameter, and will make given angles with the femidiameters,
_ drawn to the angular points of the figure.

THE centre of gravity of the figure ABCD is found by bi-
fecting AB in F, by joining FC and dividing it in G, fo that
CG = 2GF, and by joining GD and dividing it in H, fo that
DH = 3HG. Hence, and by joining BD and CA, the lemma
will be manifeft. ;

For the triangle BFE is right-angled in F, and the angle BEF =
ADB, is given. Therefore the ratio of BE, or CE, to EF is
given.

AGAIN, in the triangle CEF, the angle CEF = BEC+BEF =
2BDC+ADB = a given angle ; and fince the ratio of CE to EF,
and of CG to. GF are given, the line EG will divide the triangle
CFE into two triangles given in fpecies. Therefore the angle
CEG, and the ratio of CE, or DE, to EG, are given.

LasTLy, inthe triangle DEG, the angle DEG,= 2DAC+CEG,,
is given; and fince the ratio of DE to EG, and of DH to HG,
are given, the line EH will divide the triangle DEG into two,
triangles given.in fpecies. Therefore the angle DEH, and the:
ratio of DE to EH will be alfo given,

THEOREM XU. Fic. VIII.

Let there be any number, m, of fraight lines AB, AC, AD, AE, &c:
given by pofition, interfeGting one another in the point A, two frraight
lines AX, AY, may be found, which will be given by poftion, fuch,
that if from any point F there be drawn the perpendiculars FB, FC,
FD, FE, &c. to AB, AC, AD, AE, &c. and FX, FY, perpendicu-
lar to AX, AY,

2(FB?-+-FC?+FD?-+-FE? &c.): = m(FX*+FY?*).
LEE

vo
pace op 8a ae ae pe
a >

ed

met hataegepbie sh eth

—

*
Se

dip

Dr STEWART’s THEOREMS. 121

Let mbe = 4. Let G be the centre of the circle which
paffes through A, B, C, D, E, F, and H the centre of gravity
of the figure BCDE. Join GH, and through H draw XHY .
perpendicular to GH, meeting the circumference in X, Y, and
join GB, GC, GD, GE; HB, HC, HD, HE, HF; AX, AY,
FX, FY. Then, by Theor. 6. GB?+GC?+GD:+GE? =
4GB: = HB+HC:+HD:+HE*++4HG".

But 4GB? = 4GX* = 4(GH’+XHz?). Therefore alfo,

- HB+HC?+HD:+HE++4HG: = 4(HG?+HX?); or,

HB?>+HC?+HD?+HE’? = 4HX*. Again, by Theor. 6.
FB?+FC?+FD?-+-FE? = HB*?+HC’+HD’?+HE?+4FR?, and
therefore, ;
FB?+FC?+-FD?+-FE? = 4(FH?+HX?*). That is,
2(FB*++-FC?+-FD?+-FE?) = 8(FH?+HX7) = 4(FX°+FY?),
(Prop. 1.).

But becaufe the lines AB, AC, AD, AE, are given by pofi-
tion, the angles BAC, CAD, DAE, BAE, are given; therefore
the angles BGC, CGD, DGE, BGE, which are the doubles of
them, are alfo given, and the ifofceles triangles BGC, CGD,

_DGE, BGE, are given in fpecies. Confequently, the ratio of

the femidiameter GB to each of the lines BC, CD, DE, BE, is
given, and therefore the ratios of BC, CD, DE, BE, to one ano-
ther, are given; and the angles of the figure BCDE are alfo
given, therefore the figure itfelf is given in fpecies. Therefore
(Lemma 3.) the ratio of GX to GH is given; and fince the

F angle GHX is a right angle, the triangle GHX is given in {pe-

cies. Therefore the angles XGH, YGH, are given. But BGH
is given, (Lemma 3.) ; therefore BGX, BGY, and their halves
BAX, BAY, are alfo given; and fince BA is given by pofition,
and the point A, the lines AX, AY, are alfo given by pofi-
tion,

Vou. II. g Bur

122 DEMONSTRATIONS of

Bur FX, FY, are perpendicular to AX, AY, and it has been
fhewn that 2(FB*+-FC?+FD?+-FE*) = 4(FX°+FY?). There-
fore AX, AY, are the two lines required to be found.

THE conftruction is obvious, by affuming a point F, which,
for the greater fimplicity, may be in one of the given lines, and
by defcribing the figure as above.

* Cor. Ir from any point parallels be drawn to AB, AC, AD,
AE, and:to AX, AY, cutting the perpendiculars FB, FC, FD,
FE, and FX, FY, in J, c,d, ¢, and in x, y,

2(FO+-Fe*-++Fa?+Fe?) = 4(Fx*-+Fy’).

* LEMMA IV. Fic. IX.

Let AB, AC, be two fraight lines given by pofition, interfecting one
another in the point A, and from any point D let DB, DC, be drawn
perpendicular to AB, AC; let CB be joined, and bifetted in B, and
from E let EF be drawn parallel, and equal to a given firaight line;
through F let GFH be drawn to meet DB and DC, fo as to be
bifeétted in F, and through G and Hi let GK, HK, be drawn parallel
to AB, AC: the lines GK, HK, will be given by pofition.

TurovuGu F draw LM parallel to BC, and through B-and C
draw BL and CM parallel to EF; join GL, HM; from A draw
AN parallel and equal to EF ; join LN, MN; through N draw
OP parallel to GL; and join AO, AP.

Because GF = FH, and LF = FM, GL will be equal -
and parallel to HM ; and becaufe AN is equal and parallel to
BL and to CM, the figures AM and AL are parallelograms.
Therefore NL is parallel to GK, and NMto HK. Therefore
NG and NH are parallelograms,and OG = NL = AB; hence AO
is perpendicular to GK; and, in the fame manner, AP is perpen-

dicular

Pee ee me

Dr STEWART’s THEOREMS. 123

dicular to HK. Therefore NO = LG = HM = NP. But
the angle OAP is given, being the fupplement of OKP; and
fince the point N is given, and NO = NP, the points O and P
are given ; andtherefore AO and AP. Therefore the lines GK,
HK, are given by pofition.

THEOREM XI. Fic. X. No. 1.

Let there be any number, m, of ftraight lines AB, BC, CD,
DA, &c. given by fpofition, neither all parallel nor interfeGling in
one point, two ftraight lines XY, XZ, may be found, which will be
given by pofition, fuch, that if from any point E, there be drawn per-
pendiculars EF, EG, EH, EK, &c. to AB, BC, CD, DA, &c. and
EY, EZ, perpendicular to XY, XZ,

2(EF?>+EG:+-EH?+-EK? &c.) = m(EY?++EZ*)+A’,

A? being a given fpace.

Let m = 4, and from C, one of the points of inter-
fection, draw Cf, C&, parallel to the lines given by pofition that
do not interfe@ in C. Let two ftraight lines CL, CM be found,
fuch, that 2(Ef?+EG?+-EH?+-E#’) = 4(EL*+-EM?), (Theor. 12.).
Let N be the centre of gravity of the four points F, G, H, K,
(Theor. 6.). Through N draw YNZ to meet EL, EM in Y, Z,
and fo as to be bifected in N. Through Y and Z draw YX,
ZX perpendicular to EL, EM, interfecting each other in X.
From X draw XP, XQ, XR, XS, perpendicular, and Xa, X4é,
Xc, Xd, parallel to AB, BC, CD, DA; let Xa, Xb, Xc, Xd, meet
EF, EG, EH, EK, ina, 4,c,d; join XF, XG, XH, XK; NF,
NG, NH, NK, NX; and let O be the centre of gravity of the
four points f, G, H, 4, where the parallels from C, to the lines
given by pofition, meet the perpendiculars from E.

g 2 By

124 DEMONSTRATIONS of

By theor. 6. 2(XF*+XG?+XH*-+ XK’) = 2(NF?4+-NG?+NH?
-+NK?)+8NX*. But 2(XF*>+XG?+XH?+XK?’) =
2(XP°-+XQ?4+XR++XS")+2(Xa*+Xs*4+Xe+Xd*). Therefore
2(NF*4+-NG?--NH?+NK’)+8NX? = 2(XP*+-XQ°?+XR*+XS?)-+
2(Xa*+Xo?+Xe?+Xa’). But fince,
2(Ef--++-EG?+EH?+E#) = 4(EL*+EM?’), and from the point
X parallels to Cf, CG, CH, Cé, and to CL, CM, are drawn,
cutting the perpendiculars from E, to thefe lines, in a, 4, c, d, and
in Y, Z, therefore, by Cor. Theor. 12.
2(Ea*+-Ed*+-Ec*+-Ea*) = 4(EY*+EZ*), and confequently
2(Xa*+Xo°4+Xc+Xa?) = 4(X¥*++XZ?) = 8(NY’+NX*),
(Prop. 1.). ‘Therefore,
2(NF?-+NG?+-NH?+NK?’) = 2(XP*++XQ?+XR*+XS")+
8NY?. But by Theor. 6.
2(EF*+EG:++EH?+EK’) = 2(NF++NG?+NH?+NK?’)+
8NE?. Therefore,
2(EF?+EG?+EH?+EK?) = 2(XP*+XQ?+XR*+XS")+
8(NY?+-NE’) ; or,
2(EF?+-EG?+EH?+EK?’) = 2(XP?+XQ?+XR?+XS’)+
4(EY?++EZ?), (Prop. 1-).

Ir remains to demonftrate that X is a given point, and that
XY, XZ, are lines given in pofition.

Tue point O may be found, by bifecting (Fig. X. No. 2.)
GH in g, joining gé, and dividing it in m, fo that gm = 3gé,
and joining fm and dividing it in O, fo that mO = jmf; and
in the fame manner the point N may be found by joining gK,
and making gv = 4gK, and joining #F, and making aN = 4nF;
let mu be joined, through O draw Of, and through N draw Ng,
both parallel to EF, and meeting mz in p, g; let EF meet ma in
r, join ON, and through O draw Os parallel to mm, meeting —
Ng ins.

Tuen becaufe gm = 3gh, and gn = 9K, the line mn is

parallel and equal to zK4. Becaufe alfo Nz = 3Fa, Ng = 4Frs
and.

Dr STEWART’s THEOREMS. 125

and for the fame reafon OP = $/r. Therefore fg. = Os =
3mn = 1K&. But the angle OsN is given, for itis equal to
REF; and fince Os is given, and Ns = Ng—sg, NO is alfo

given. But (Fig. ro. No. 1.) fince the lines CL, CM, inter-

feGting in the point C, are given by pofition, and from the

‘point E there are drawn to them the perpendiculars EL, EM,

and LM is joined, and bifected in O, and from O there is
drawn a ftraight line ON given both by pofition and magni-
tude, and YNZ is drawn through N to meet EL, EM in Y, Z,
and fo as to be bifeéted in N, and from Y and Z, YX, ZX are
drawn parallel to CL, CM; therefore, by Lemma 4.. YX, ZX
are given by pofition; and confequently the point X, of their
interfeGtion is given, and therefore alfo XP, XQ, XR, XS.
But EY, EZ, are perpendicular to XY, XZ; and it has been
proved that 2(EF?+EG?+EH?+EK?) = 4(EY?+EZ?)+
2(XP?+XQ’+XR?+XS?), and thefe four laft fquares. are
given. Therefore XY, XZ, are the two lines required to be
found, and 2(EF?+-EG?+-EH?+EK?) = 4(EY?--EZ?)+A?.
Tue point X, found in this propofition, is the centre of gra-
vity of the four points P, Q, R, S, where perpendiculars, drawn
from it, meet the four lines given by pofition. It is alfo a
point, fuch, that the fum of the fquares of the perpendiculars
drawn from it, to the lines given by pofition, is a minimum.

Cor. Ir the ftraight lines (Fig. 11.) AB, BC, CA, be fo fi-
tuated as to form an equilateral figure about a circle, or a femi-
circle ; or if the number of the lines given by pofition be even,
and every two and two.interfect each other at right angles, the
two lines XY, XZ, that may be found, will interfeé each other

at right angles.

Ler the lines AB, BC, CA, that are given by pofition, form
an equilateral triangle. Let X be the point in that triangle,
which is the centre of gravity of the three points K, L, M,

where:

126 DEMONSTRATIONS of

where perpendiculars drawn from it, meet the lines given by
pofition ; and from X let parallels be drawn to thefe lines,
meeting the perpendiculars from any point E in f, g, &

Since thefe parallels Xf, Xg, X4, interfect one another in
the point X, fo as to make all the angles round it equal, they
will divide the circumference of the circle which paffes through
X and E, into three equal arches /g, gh, bf, (Lemma 2.).
Therefore N, the centre of the circle, is the centre of gravity
of the three points 7, g, 4, and the line YZ, pafling through N,
and meeting the circumference, will be a diameter of the cir-
cle, and therefore YXZ is a right angle.

2HEOREM Aly. Fic. XII. tee.

Let any number, m, greater than 3, of ftraight lines be given by
pofition, three ftraight lines may be found, which will be given by .
pojition, fuch, that if from any point there be drawn perpendiculars
to the lines given by pofition, and to the three lines found, thrice the
Jum of the fquares of the perpendiculars to the lines given by pofition,
will be equal to the fum of the fquares of the perpendiculars drawn
to three lines found, multiplied by the number m.

Let mbe = 4.

Cafe1. WueEn the lines (Fig. 12.) AF, BG, CH, DK,
given by pofition, are all pasallel. Let a perpendicular from any
point E meet the parallels in the points A, B, C, D, and let L
be the centre of gravity of thefe points. Affume in AL any
point X, and let Y and Z, on the oppofite fide of L, be fuch, that
LY+LZ = LX, and alfo LX*+LY*+LZ? = }(LA?+LB*+
LC*+LD7’) ; then if the affumed point X be given, the points
Y and Z will alfo be given. Draw through the points X, Y, Z,
{traight lines parallel to AF, and they will be the lines required.

Ir

\ Dr STEW ART's THEOREMS. 127

Ir is plain that L is the centre of gravity of the points
X, Y, Z, and becaufe it is alfo the centre of gravity of the
points A, B, C, D,

3(EA2--EB*+EC*++ED") = 3(LA?+-LB*++LC:+LD*)+
3-4.EL?, (Theor. 6:); and, for the fame reafon,
A(EX*HEY*FEZ*) = 4(LX++LY+LZ/)+4.3-EL*

But by conftruction,

3(LA?+LB+LO*+LD*) = 4(LX?+LY?+LZ?). Therefore,
3(EA?+EB?-+EC’+ED*) = 4(EX?+EY?+EZ*).

Cafe 2. Wuew the lines (Fig. 13.) AB, AC, AD, AE, given
by pofition, interfect one another in the fame point A.

Let G be the centre of gravity of the four points B, C, D, E,
in the circumference of the circle of which AF is the diameter,
(Theor. 6.), and let AH, AK, be two lines, whofe pofition is
given, fuch, that 2(FB?+FC?+FD?+FE*) = 4(FH?+FK?),
(Theor. 12.). From any point X in the circumference draw,
through G, the line XGL, fo that XG = 2GL; and through
L draw YLZ to meet the circumference in Y, Z, and fo as to
be bifeG@ted in L. Join AX, AY, AZ, and FX, FY, FZ.

3(FB*+-FC?+FD*+FE*) — 6(FH?+FK’), (Theor. 12.), and

4(FX?+FY*+FZ") = 6(FH?+FK*) = 3(FB?--FC?+FD?

+-FE?). Therefore AX, AY, AZ, are the three lines required
to be found.

Cafe 3. Wuen the lines (Fig. 14. No. 1.) AB, BC, CD,
DA, are ‘not parallel, and do not interfect one another in the
fame point.

Ler X be a point fo related to the lines AB, BC, CD, DA,
that it fhall be the centre of gravity of the four points L, M,
N, O, where they are interfe@ted by the perpendiculars XL,
XM, XN, XO, drawn to them from X, (Theor. 13.) ; and let
XP, XQ, XR, XS, be drawn from X parallel to AB, BC, CD, DA,

and let them meet the perpendiculars to thefe lines, from E, in
P,

128 DEMONSTRATIONS of

P,Q. R, S. Let Xa, XS, Xe, be three ftraight lines, fuch,
that 3(EP?-++-EQ?+ER?+ES?) = 4(Ea?+-Es?+Ec?), (Cafe 2.
of this). Defcribe a triangle def, (Fig. 14. No. 2.) having the
angle def= aX, and the angle dfe = bXc. Let g be a point in
that triangle, fuch, as to be the centre of gravity of the three
points 4, &, /, where perpendiculars drawn from it meet the fides,
(Theor. 13.) Defcribe a fquare = 3(XL*+XM?+XN?+
HO’), and divide it into three fquares whofe fides Xm, Xn,
Xo, fhall have the mutual ratios of gh, gk, gl. Through X
draw Xm, Kn, Xo, perpendicular to Xa, Xd, Xc, and through
m, n, 0, draw mp,ng,qp, perpendicular to Xm, Xn, Xo, and
meeting Ea, Ed, Ec, in x, y, We have, by Theor. 13.
3(EF?+EG?+EH*+EK?) = 3(EP?+EQ’?+ER?+ES?)+
3(XL?+XM?+XN?+X07), and alfo
4(Ex?+Ey?+Ex?) = 4(Ea?+Eb?+Ec?)+4(Xm*?+Xn?+Xo?).
But by conftruction, :
3(EP?+EQ?*+ER?+ES*) = 4{Ea*+Es?+Ec?), and by Cafe 2.
of this, 3(XL*+XM’+XO?+XN?’) = 4(Xm?+Xn?4+Xo?),
Therefore,
3(EF?+EG?+EH*+EK?) = 4(Ex*+Ey?+Ez’). Therefore
mp, ng, 7p, are the lines required to be found.

Tue three lines found in this Theorem are determined, in their
pofition, only relatively to one another, and not abfolutely ;
becaufe, in the conftruction of each of the cafes, an arbitrary
fuppofition is unavoidably introduced, and of confequence there
are innumerable fets of lines, within certain limits however,
that all equally anfwer the conditions required in the propofi-
tion. When one of thefe is affumed as given in pofition, the
other two are neceflarily determined.

Tue four propofitions which follow in Dr SrEwart’s book
are extenfions of four that have already been demonftrated
here, viz. the roth, rath, 13th and 14th; and are related to
them juft as the 7th of the preceding is to the fixth, or the gth
to the 8th. The purpofe of them is to apply what has been

demonttrated

Dr STEWART’s THEOREMS. 129

demonftrated of the fquares of the perpendiculars in Prop. To.
&c. to any reCtilineal figures whatever, each given in fpecies,
defcribed on thofe perpendiculars.

THEIR demonftrations are all derived in the fame manner
from thofe of their correfponding propofitions, and it will there-
fore be fufficient, at prefent, to give the demonftration of one of
them. I have made choice of the 16th, as the 15th is only the
fimpleft cafe of the 7th, viz. when all the points given, in that
Theorem, are in the fame ftraight line.

THEOREM XVI. Fic. VIII.

Let there be any number, m, of ftraight lines AB, AC, AD, AE,
&c. given by pofition, interfetting one another in the point A, and
let a, b,c, d, &e. be given magnitudes, as many in number as there
are lines. given by pofition, two ftraight lines AX, AY, may be found,
which will be given by pofition, fuch, that if from any point F there
be drawn FB, FC, FD, FE, &c. perpendicular to AB, AC, AD,
AE, &c. and FX, FY, perpendicular to AX, AY,

FB — FC+ © FD SFE &e. = HE py py),

Let m = 4. Let G be the centre of the circle which paffes
through the points A, B, C, D, E and F; and let H be the cen-
tre of gravity of weights proportional to the magnitudes a, 4,
¢, d, placed at the points B,C, Dand E. Join GH; and let
XY, at right angles to GH in H, meet the circumference of
the circle ABDF in X and Y: AX, AY, are the lines required
to be found..

For it may be fhown, juft as in Theor. 12. by means of a
lemma fimilar to the 3d, that AX and AY make given angles

Vou. II. r with

130 DEMONSTRATIONS of

with AB, and are therefore given in pofition, But by Theor. J-
GB+—cc-+—cp4+2¢om = Hex, —

b c a c
HB} --HC:++—-HD+ HE = “Mor, Now,

atbtct+d at+b+e
“cx = SiWiericy) =

—
—; — (GH?+HX’), by Prop. 1. Therefore,

HB+--HO+—HD4+—HE: = tty.

Acatn, by Theor. 7. FB} FC FD?+-4 FE! =

b c d a c
HB:-+ oe HC+ ZAD*-+- "a HE?+ oF 3 therefore,

FB es FC? — FD {EE san nh (HX+-HF), or, fince:

HXHF = (FHF), FB e+ 9p 42 FE =

Se +FY’).

e.

Cor. Ir from any point, as F, ftraight lines be drawn in given
angles to the lines which are given by pofition, and which interfect
in one point, two ftraight lines may be found which will be given:
by pofition, fuch, that if perpendiculars from F be drawn to
them, the fum of the fquares of the lines drawn in given an-
gles, will be equal to the fpace to which the fum of the {quares.

of the perpendiculars bas a given ratio.
Tuis

Dr STEWARTs THEOREMS. 130

Turs corollary is evident, becaufe the lines drawn from F,
making given angles with AB, AC, &c. will have given ratios
to the perpendiculars FB, FC, &c.

'Tue 17th Theorem is, That if a, b, c, &c. be any magnitudes
as above, and if the figure be conftruéted as in Theor. 13. (Fig. 10.),
EF*+— EG: EH?4+- EK? &c, = SEES (py: 4
EZ?)+-A*, A* being a given fpace. This is demonftrated from
its relation to the 13th, in the fame manner with the preceding,
and fo alfo is the 18th from the 4th. The 18th is, That if a,
b, ce, &c. be any given magnitudes, and if the fame things be fup-
pofed as in Theor. 14. (Fig. 14.) three firaight lines mp, ng, 9p;

may be found, fuck, that EF+ —EG*+—+EH'+ © EK, &e. =
ee (Ee +Ey'+ Ex"),

WE proceed now to a propofition that relates to the fourth
powers of the perpendiculars.

THEOREM XXVII. Fic. XV.

Let there be any number, m, of given points A, B, C, &c. two
frraight lines may be found, which will be given by pofition, and like-
wife a point D, fuch, that if from any point EK, there be drawn EY,
EZ, perpendicular to the two lines found, and if EA, EB, EC, &c.
and ED be joined, then, (making A* = a given fpace, and B* =
the fourth power of a given line,)

AE‘*+BE*+CE* &c. = mDE*+A?(EY*++EZ’)+B*.
r2 LET

132 DEMONSTRATIONS of

Let mbe = 3. Let D be the centre of gravity of the three
points A, B, C; join AD, BD, CD; from E draw EF, EG, EH
perpendicular to AD, BD, CD; in AD take DK = $AD, in
BD take DL = 3BD, andia DC take DM = DC. Then,

AE? = DE?+AD?—2AD.DF

BE? DE’?+BD:+2BD.DG

CE? DE?+CD?—2CD.DH. Therefore,
AE* = DE*+2AD*,.DE?—4AD?.DF+AD*— 4DE*.AD.DF +
4AD?.DF?.
BE* = DE*+2BD?.DE?+4BD:.DG+BD*+4DE?.BD.DG+
4BD?.DG?.
CE* = DE*+2CD’.DE*-—4CD?.DH+CD*—4DE.CD.DH-+-
4CD?>.DH?. But becaufe D is the centre of gravity of the three
points A, B, C, AD.DF+CD.DH = BD.DG. Therefore,
making AE*+BE*+CE* = S*, we thall have

AD>.DE? —AD?}.DF
ja

$:=yDB"44{ DDE
CD>. DE? —CD*.DH CD:.DH? CD*
But DE? = EF*+DF? = EG?+DG? = EH*+DH’. There-
fore,

AD?.EF?

AD? DF? —AD?.DF pe
dnnswuiiiaa scseae Galaeet +44 BD?.DG p-+5 BD* ¢.
D4

cb.EH) lcp.pH) ‘l—cp:.pH) Ic
AD?. EF? AD*(6DF*—4AD.DF+AD*)
Or, S* = 3DE‘+4-2) BD*.EG? +) AD\GDG-+4D.DG+BD) i
lop ER CD:(6DH*—4CD.DH+CD’)
But 3DK = AD; 3DL=BD, and 3DM=CD;; and confe-
quently gDK? = AD’, 9gDL* = BD’, and gDM* = CD».
Therefore, S*= 3DE*+

ADE] {AD(6DP—12DK.DF+6DK’) ]_(3DK*-AD")
2] abn + BD:(6DG*++12DL.DG+6DL ) #50, \
cp.EH:)) lcp(6DH»—12DM.DH+6DM:)! (ypme.cpJ
Or,

ADDF) (AD*)
+ BD?.DG ete +4 BD*.

Dr STEWART’s THEOREMS. 133

AD>. EF? AD:.FK? AD*

Or,S*= sDE*+2)BD-EC+| +65] BDL: | [BD: \

CD?.EH? CD:.MH? CcD*

Jorn EK, and on it as a diameter defcribe the circle KFPENQ,
draw the diameter FN and divide it in O, fo that FO = 30N,
‘and through O draw PQ _ perpendicular to FN, meeting the
circumference in P, Q; and join KP, KQ; EP, EQ. In the
fame manner, join EL, and on it as a diameter defcribe the
circle GVLRTE, draw the diameter GR, and divide it in S,
_ fo that GS = 3SR; through S draw TV perpendicular to GR,
meeting the circumference in T,V; and join LT, LV, ET,
EV. In the fame manner alfo join EM, and on it as a diame-
ter defcribe the circle HZEXaM, draw the diameter HX, and
divide it in Y, fo that HY = 3YX; through Y draw Za per-
pendicular to HX, meeting the circumference in Z,a; and
join MZ, Ma, EZ, Ea. Then, FK = EN; LG = ER; and
MH = EX. Therefore,

AD+.EF? cap eel, ADs
8* = sDEt42) DEC +6 BD:.ER? t+ b+} But

CD:.EH? CD?.EX? lep*
2EF?+6EN’?=8FO.ON-+8EO*=8(OP?-+EO?)=4(EP*-++EQ’).
In the fame manner, 2EG?++6ER* = 8GS.SR+8ES? =
: 8(TS?++ES?) = 4(ET?+EV’). In the fame manner alfo,

2EH?+6EX? = 8HY.YX+8EY? = 8(ZY?7+EY?) =
4(EZ?+Ea?). Therefore,
AD?(EP?+-EQ?) fAD*
es SDE‘ D*(ET = HEV") +4 Bp*} Since then there
CD?(EZ?+-Ea?) CD*

are fix ftraight lines KP, KQ, LT, LV, MZ, Ma, given by pofi-
tion, and given quantities 4AD*, 4AD?, 4BD?, 4BD?, 4CD?,
~4CD?, as many in number as there are lines given by pofition,
therefore, by Theor. 17. two ftraight lines, xy, xz, may be
found, which will be given by pofition, fuch, that if from the

point

134 DEMONSTRATIONS of, &c.

point E, the perpendiculars EP, EQ, ET, EV, EZ, Ea, be drawn
to KP, KQ, LT, LV, MZ, Ma, and if the perpendiculars Ey,
Ez, be drawn to xy, xz, 4AD?.EP?+4AD?.EQ?+4BD?.ET?+4
4BD?.EN?+4CD?.EZ?+4CD?.Ea? =
8(AD?+BD?+CD?)(Ey?+Ex?)+e*. Therefore,

S* = 3DE*+A?(Ey?+Ex?)-+a*+3(AD*+BD*+CD‘). Or,
S* = 3DE*+A7(Ey?+Ez?)+B*.

Therefore xy, «z, are the lines, and D the point, required to be
found. if

THEOREM XXVIII.

Let there be any number, m, of given points A, B, C, tc. and let
a, b, c, &Sc. be given magnitudes, as many in number as there are given
points, two fraight lines, xy, xz, may be found, which will be given
by pofition, and likewife a point D, fuch, that if from any point E,
there be drawn perpendiculars Fy, Ex, to the two lines found, and
if EA, EB, EC, ED, be joined,

AE?+—-BE?+—CE*&e. = **"" pe 442 (Ey* Es?) +B.

Tue inveftigation is perfectly fimilar to the former; only the ©
point D is not the centre of gravity of the points A, B, C, &c.
but, as in Theor. 7. the centre of gravity of weights, fuppofed
to be placed in thofe points, and proportional to the magnitudes
Bil, Cy BOs

Tue univerfality of the preceding demonftrations is no way
affected by our having always fuppofed m equal to fome parti-
cular number, becaufe the reafoning is the fame, whatever va-
lue be affigned to it,

XI.

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Cole

XIII. Remarks on the ASTRONOMY of the BRAUMINS.
By Foun PLarFratR, A.M. F.R.S. Epin. and
Profeffor of Mathematics in the Univerfity of Edinburgh.

[Read by the Author, March 2. 1789. |

3. (‘INCE the time when Aftronomy emerged from the

- obfcurity of ancient fable, nothing is better known:
than its progrefs through the different nations of the earth.
With the era of NABoNASsAR, regular obfervations began
to be made in Chaldea; the earlieft which have merited the
attention of fucceeding ages. The curiofity of the Greeks
was, foon after, directed to the fame objet; and that ingeni-
ous people was the firft that endeavoured to explain, or connect
by theory, the various phenomena of the heavens. This
_ work was fuppofed to be fo fully accomplifhed in the Syntaxis-
of Protemy, that his fyftem, without oppofition or improve-
ment, continued, for more than five hundred years, to dire& the
Aftronomers of Egypt, Italy and Greece. After the fciences:
were banifhed from Alexandria, his writings made their way
into the eaft, where, under the Caliphs of Bagdat, Aftrono-
my was cultivated with diligence and fuccefs. The Perfian:
Princes followed the example of thofe of Bagdat, borrowing
befides, from Trebifond, whatever mathematical knowledge was:
ftill preferved among the ruins of the Grecian empire: The con-
quefts of Grneis, and afterwards of Timour, though they re-
tarded, did not {top the progrefs of Aftronomy in the eaft. The

gtandfons of thefe two conquerors were equally renowned for
their

136 REMARKS on the

their love of fcience: Huxacu reftored Aftronomy in Perfia,
and U.ucu-seicn, by an effort ftill more fingular, eftablifhed
itin Tartary. In the mean time, having paffed with the Arabs
into Spain, it likewife found, in ALPHONso of Caftile, both a
difciple and a patron. It was carried, foon after, into the north
of Europe, where, after exercifing the genius of CoPpERNicus,
of Kepier, and of NewTon, it has become the moft perfect
of all the fciences.

2. In the progrefs which Aftronomy has thus made, through
almoft all the nations, from the Indus to the Atlantic, there is
{carce a ftep which cannot be accurately traced ; and it is never
difficult to determine what each age, or nation received from
another, or what it added to the general ftock of aftronomical
knowledge. The various fyftems, that have prevailed in all
thefe countries, are vifibly connected with one another ; they
are all derived from one original, and would incline us to be-
lieve, that the manner in which men begin to obferve the hea-
vens, and to reafon about them, is an experiment on the human
race, which has been made but once.

Ir is, therefore, matter of extreme curiofity to find, beyond
the Indus, a fyftem of aftronomical knowledge that appears to
make no part of the great body of fcience, which has traverfed,
and enlightened the other countries of the earth; a fyftem that
is in the hands of men, who follow its rules without underftand-
ing its principles, and who can give no account of its origin,
except that it lays claim to an antiquity far beyond the period,
to which, with us, the hiftory of the heroic ages is fuppofed to

extend. :
3. We owe our firft knowledge of this aftronomy to M. LA

LouBERE, who, returning, in 1687, from an embaffy to Siam, —
brought with him an extra@t from a Siamefe manufcript, which —
contained tables, and rules, for calculating the places of the fun
and moon *. The manner in which thefe rules were laid

down

® Mem. de |’Acad. des Sciences, tom. 8, p. 281. &c.

s Wie a

4

gat

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 137

‘down, rendered the principles, on which they were founded, ex-
tremely obfcure ; and it required a commentator, as converfant
with aftronomical calculation as the celebrated Cass1N1, to ex-
plain the meaning of this curious fragment. After that pe-
riod, two other fets of aftronomical tables were fent to Paris,
by the miffionaries in HinpDostan ; but they remained un-
noticed, till the return of M. te Genrit from India, where he
had been to obferve the tranfit of Venus in 1769. ‘[his Aca-
demician employed himfelf, during the long ftay, which his
zeal for fcience induced him to make in that country, in ac-
quiring a knowledge of the Indian aftronomy. The Brahmins
thought they faw, in the bufinefs of an Aftronomer, the marks
of a Caf, that had fome affinity to their own, and began to
converfe with M. te GenTiL, more familiarly than with other
ftrangers. A learned Brahmin of Tirvalore, having made a
vifit to the French Aftronomer, inftructed him in the methods,
which he ufed for calculating eclipfes of the fun and moon, and

. communicated to him the tables and rules, that are publifhed

in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, for 1772. Since
that time, the ingenious and eloquent author of the Hiftory of
Aftronomy, has dedicated an entire volume to the explanation,

_-and comparifon of thefe different tables, where he has deduced,

from them, many interefting conclufions*. The fubjeét indeed
merited his attention ; for the Indian aftronomy has all the pre-
cifion neceflary for refolving the great queftions, with refpe@ to

_ its own origin and antiquity, and is by no means among the

‘number of thofe imperfect fragments of ancient knowledge,
which can lead no farther than conjecture, and which an Aftro-
nomer would gladly refign to the learned refearches of the An-
tiquary, or the Mythologift.
4. IT is from thefe fources, and chiefly from the elaborate
inveftigations of the laft mentioned work, that I have feleGted
Vou. Il, - JS the

* Traité de ?Aftronomie Indienne et Orientale, par M. Barnuy. Paris, 1787.

138 REMARKS on the

the materials of the paper, which I have now the honour to lay be-
fore this Society ; and it is perhaps neceffary that I fhould make
fome apology for-prefenting here, what can have fo little claim.
to originality. The faét is, that notwith{tanding the moft pro-
found refpect, for the learning and abilities of the author
of the 4/ronomié Indienne, | entered on the ftudy of that work,
not without a portion of the fcepticifm, which whatever is new
and extraordinary in fcience ought always to excite, and fet
about verifying the calculations, and examining the reafonings
in it, with the moft {crupulous attention. The refult was, an
entire conviction of the accuracy of the one, and of the folidity
of the other; and I then fancied, that, in an argument of
fuch variety, I might perhaps do a fervice to others, by pre-
fenting to them, that particular view of it, which had ap-
peared to me the moft ftriking. Such, therefore, is the ob-
je&t of thefe remarks; they are directed to three different
points: The firft is to give a fhort account of the Indian
aftronomy, fo far as it is known to us, from the four fets of
tables above mentioned; the fecond, to ftate the principal
arguments, that can be deduced from thefe tables, with refpeé.
to their antiquity ; and the third, to form fome eftimate of the
geometrical fkill, with which this aftronomical fyftem is con-
ftruted. In the firft, | have followed M. Barty clofely ; in
the fecond, though I have fometimes taken a different road, I have
always come to the fame conclufion 5 having aimed at nothing
fo much, as to reduce the reafoning into a narrow compafs, and
to avoid ‘every argument that is not purely aftronomical, and
independent of all hypothefis ; in the third, I have treated of a
queftion which did not fall within the plan of M. Bartry’s
work, but have only entered on it at prefent, leaving to fome:
future opportunity, the other difcuffions to which it leads.

5. THe aftronomy of India, as you already perceive, is ‘con
fined to one branch of the fcience. It gives no theory, nor

even any defcription of the celeftial phenomena, but fatisfies
itfelf

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 139

itfelf with the calculation of certain changes in the heavens,
"particularly of the eclipfes of the fun and moon, and with the
rules and tables by which thefe calculations muft be performed.
The Brahmin, feating himfelf on the ground, and arranging
his fhells before him, repeats the enigmatical verfes that are to
guide his calculation, and from his little tablets of palm leaves,
takes out the numbers that are to be employed in it. He ob-
tains his refult with wonderful certainty and expedition ; but
having little knowledge of the principles on which his
rules are founded, and no anxiety to be better informed, he is
perfectly fatisfied, if, as it ufually happens, the commencement
and duration of the eclipfe anfwer, within a few minutes, to
his prediction. Beyond this his aftronomical enquiries never
extend ; and his obfervations, when he makes any, go no far-
ther than to determine the meridian line, or the length of the
day, at the place where he obferves.

Tue objects, therefore, which this aftronomy prefents to us,
are principally three. 1. Tables and rules for calculating the
places of the fun and moon: 2. Tables and rules for calcu-
lating the places of the planets: 3. Rules by which the phafes
of eclipfes are determined. Though it is chiefly to the firft of
thefe that our attention at prefent is to be direCted, the two laft
will alfo furnifh us with fome ufeful obfervations.

6. THe Brahmins, like all other Aftronomers, have diftin-
guilhed from the reft of the heavens, that portion of them,
through which the fun, moon and planets continually circulate.
They divide this fpace, which we call the zodiac, into twenty-
feven equal parts, each marked by a group of ftars, or a con-
ftellation*. This divifion of the zodiac is extremely natural
in the infancy of aftronomical obfervation ; becaufe the moon
completes her circle among the fixed ftars, nearly in twenty-
feven days, and fo makes an actual divifion of that circle

fiz into

* Mem. fur l’Aftronomie des Indiens, par M. te Gentiz, Hift. de !’Acad. des

Scien. 1772, Il. P. 207. The phrafe which we here traullate conflel/ations, fignifies
the places of the moon in the twelve figns.

140 REMARKS on the

into twenty-feven equal parts. The moon too, it muft be re-
membered, was, at that time, the only inftrument, if we may
fay fo, by which the pofitions of the ftars on each fide of her
path could be afcertained ; and when her own irregularities
were unknown, fhe was, by the rapidity of her motion eaft-
ward, well adapted for this purpofe. It is alfo to the phafes of
the moon, that we are to afcribe the common divifion of time
into weeks, or portions of feven days, which feems to have
prevailed almoft over the whole earth*. The days of the
week are dedicated by the Brahmins, as by us, to the feven
planets, and what is truly fingular, they are arranged precifely
in the fame order.

7. WiTHu the conftellations, that diftinguifh the twenty-feven
equal f{paces, into which their zodiac is divided, the Aftronomers
of India have connected none of thofe figures of animals,
which are among us, of fo ancient, and yet fo arbitrary an ori-
ginal. M. ve GenrTix has given us their names, and configu-
rations |. They are formed, for the moft part, of {mall groups
of ftars, fuch as the Pleiades or the Hyades, thofe belonging to
the fame conftellation being all conneéted by ftraight lines.
The firft of them, or that which is placed at the beginning of
their zodiac, confifts of fix ftars, extending from the head of
Aries to the foot of Andromeda, in our zodiac, and occupying
a fpace of about ten degrees in longitude. Thefe conftellations
are far from including all the ftars in the zodiac. M. LE
GENTIL remarks, that thofe ftars feem to have been felected,
which are beft adapted for marking out, by lines drawn be-
tween them, the places of the moon in her progrefs through
the heavens.

At the fame time that the ftars in the zodiac are thus ar-
ranged into twenty-feven conftellations, the ecliptic is divided,
as with us, into twelve figns of thirty degrees each. This di-

vifion

* Mem. Acad. des Scien. 1772. I. P. 189)

+ Ibid. 209.

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 141

vifion is purely ideal, and is intended merely for the purpofe
of, calculation. ‘The names and emblems by which thefe figns —
are expreiled, are nearly the fame as with us *; and as there is
nothing in the nature of things to have determined this coin-
cidence, it muft, like the arrangement of the days of the
week, be the refult of fome ancient and unknown: communi-
cation.

8. TuaT motion by which the fixed ftars all appear to move
eaftward, and continually to increafe their diftance from the
place, that the fun occupies at the vernal equinox, is known to
the Brahmins, and enters into the compofition of all their ta-
bles +. They compute this motion to be at the rate of 54” a-
year ; fo that their annus magnus, or the time in which the fixed
ftars complete an entire revolution, is 24,000 years. This mo-
tion is too quick by fomewhat lefs than 4” a-year; an error
that will not be thought great, when it is confidered, that
ProLemy committed one of 14”, in determining the fame
quantity.

ANOTHER circumftance, which is common to all the tables,
and, at the fame time, peculiar to the Indian aftronomy, is,
that they exprefs the longitude of the fun and moon, by their
diftance from the beginning of the moveable zodiac, and not,
as is ufual with us, by their diftance from the point of
the vernal equinox. The longitude is reckoned in figns of
30°, as already mentioned, and each degree is fubdivided into
60’, &c. In the divifion of time, their arithmetic is purely
fexagefimal : They divide the day into 60 hours, the hour into
60 minutes, ‘c.; fo that their hour is 24 of our minutes,
their minute 24 of our feconds, and fo on..

9. THESE

* Mem. Acad. des Scien. 1772. Il. P. 200. The zodiac they call /odt-mandalam, ox
the circle of ftars.

+ Ibid. 194. Aft. Indienne, p. 43, &ee

142 REMARKS on the

g. THESE remarks refer equally to all the tables. We are
now to take notice of what is peculiar to each, beginning with
thofe of Siam.

In order to calculate for a given time, the place of any of
the celeftial bodies, three things are requifite. The firft is, the
pofition of the body in fome paft inftant of time, afcertained
by obfervation ; and this inftant, from which every calculation
mutt fet out, is ufually called the epoch of the tables. The fe-
cond requifite is, the mean rate of the planet’s motion, by
which is computed the arch in the heavens, that it mutt have
defcribed, in the interval between the epoch and the inftant for
which the calculation is made. By the addition of this, to the
place at the epoch, we find the mean place of the planet, or
the point it would have occupied in the heavens, had its motion
been fubjeét to no irregularity. The third is, the correCtion,
on account of fuch irregularity, which muft be added to the
mean place, or fubtracted from it, as circumftances require, in
order to have the true place. The correction thus made is, in
the language of aftronomy, called an equation; and, when it
arifes from the eccentricity of a planet’s orbit, it is called the
equation of the centre.

10. Tue epoch of the tables of Siam does not go back to any
very remote period. M. Cassini, by an ingenious analyfis of
their rules, finds that it correfponds to the 2: {t of March, in the
year 638 of our era, at 3 in the morning, on the meridian of
Siam *. This was the inftant at which the aftronomical year be-
gan, and at which both the fun and moon entered the moveable
zodiac. Indeed, it is to be obferved, that, in all the tables, the
aftronomical year begins when the fun enters the moveable zo-
diac, fo that the beginning of this year is continually ad-
vancing with refpect to the feafons, and makes the complete
round of them in 24,000 years.

From

* Mem. Acad. Scien. tom. 8. p. 312. Aft. Indienne, p. 11. § 14.

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMIWNS. 143

From the epoch above mentioned, the mean place of the fun
for any other time is deduced, on the fuppofition that in 800
years, there are contained 292,207 days*. This fuppofition in-
volves in it the length of the fydereal year, or the time that
the fun takes to return to the beginning of the moveable zo-
diac, and makes it confift of 3654. 64. 12’, 36’ +. From
this, in order to find the tropical year, or that which regulates
the feafons, we muft take away 21’, 55”, as the time which the
fun takes to move over the 54”, that the ftars are fuppofed to
have advanced in the year; there will remain 365d. 54. 50’,
41”, which is the length of the tropical year that is involved,
not only in the tables of Siam, but likewife, very nearly, in all
the reft {. This determination of the length of the year is but
1’, 53’, greater than that of De La Cais, which is a degree
of accuracy beyond what is to be found in the more ancient
tables of our aftronomy.

11. THE next thing with which thefe tables prefent us, is a
correction of the fun’s mean place, which correfponds to what
we call the equation of his centre, or the inequality arifing
from the eccentricity of his orbit, in confequence of which, he
is alternately retarded and accelerated, his true place being, for
one half of the year, left behind the mean, and, for the other,
advanced before it. The point where the fun is placed, when
his motion is floweft, we call his apogee, becaufe his diftance
from the earth is then greateft; but the Indian aftronomy,
which is filent with refpect to theory, treats this point as no-
thing more than what it appears to be, a point, viz. in the
heavens, where the fun’s motion is the flowe(ft poffible, and
about go° diftant from that, where his greateft imequali-
ty takes place. This greateft inequality is here made to

be

* Aft. Ind. p. 7. § 6.
+ Mem. Acad. Scien. tom. 8. p. 328.
t Aft. Ind. p.124. The tables of Tirvalore make the year 6” lefs.

144 REMARKS on the

be 2°, 12’*, about 16’ greater than it is determined, by the
modern aftronomy of Europe. This difference is very confi-
derable ; but we thall find that it is not to be afcribed wholly
to error, and that there was a time when the inequality in que-
{tion was nearly of the magnitude here affigned to it. In the
other points of the fun’s path, this inequality is diminifhed,
in proportion to the fine of the mean diftance from the apogee,
that is, nearly as in our own tables. The apogee is fuppofed
to be 80° advanced beyond the beginning of the zodiac, and
to retain always the fame pofition among the fixed ftars, or to
move forward at the fame rate with them +. Though this
fuppofition is not accurate, as the apogee gains upon the
{tars about 10” annually, it is much nearer the truth than the
fyftem of Protemy, where the fun’s apogee is fuppofed abfo-
lutely at reft, fo as continually to fall back among the fixed
ftars, by the whole quantity of the preceffion of the equi-
noxes {.

12. In thefe tables, the motions of the moon are deduced,
by certain intercalations, from a period of nineteen years,
in which fhe makes nearly 235 revolutions; and it is curious
to find at Siam, the knowledge of that cycle, of which the in-
vention was thought to do fo much honour to the Athenian
Aftronomer Merton, and which makes fo great a figure in our

modern

* Tue equation of the fun, or what they call the chazaa, is calculated in the Sia-
mefe tables only for every 15° of the mattezomme, or mean anomaly. Cassini, ubr

Supra, Pp» 299+
+ Aft. Ind. p. 9.

t+ Tue error, however, with refpeét to the apogee, is lefs than it appears to be;
for the motion of the Indian zodiac, being nearly 4’ fwifter than the ftars, is but 6”
flower than the apogee. The velocity of the Indian zodiac is indeed neither the
fame with that of the ftars, nor of the fun’s apogee, but nearly a mean between

them,

“4

Hi

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. TA5

modern kalendars*. The moon’s apogee is fuppofed to have
been in the beginning of the moveable zodiac, 621 days after
the epoch of the 21ft of March 638, and to make an entire re-
volution in the heavens in the fpace of 3232 days +. The firft
of thefe fuppofitions agrees with Mayer’s tables to lefs than a
degree, and the fecond differs from them only by 114, 14’, 3175
and if it be confidered that the apogee is an ideal point in the
heavens, which even the eyes of an aftronomer cannot direétly
perceive, to have difcovered its true motion, fo nearly, argues
no fmall correctnefs of obfervation.

13- From the place of the apogee, thus found, the inequali-
ties of the moon’s motion, which are to reduce her mean to
her true place, are next to be determined. Now, at the oppofi-
tions and conjunctions, the two greateft of the moon’s inequa-
lities, the equation of the centre and the evection, both depend
on the diftance from the apogee, and therefore appear but as
one inequality. They alfo, partly, deftroy one another; fo
that the moon is retarded or accelerated, only by their differ-
ence, which, when greateft, is, according to MAYER’s tables,
4°, 57, 42”. The Siamefe rules, which calculate only for
oppofitions and conjunctions, give, accordingly, but one ine-
quality to the moon, and make it, when greateft, 4°, 56’, not

2 \efs than the preceding. This greateft equation is A ine

when the moon’s mean diftance from the apogee is go°
in other fituations, the equation is lefs, in proportion as the
fine of that diftance diminifhes f.

14. Tue Siamefe MS. breaks off here, and does not inform

us how the aftronomers of that country proceed, in the remain-

ing parts of their calculation, which they feem to have under-

VoL. Il. t taken,

* Tue Indian period is more exact than that of our golden number, by 35. Aft. Ind.
p- 5. The Indians regulate their feftivals by this period. Iérd. Difc. Prelim. p. viii.

+ Aft. Ind. p. 11. & 20.

t Aft. Indienne, p. 13. Cassini Mem. Acad. tom. 8. p. 304.

146 REMARKS on the

undertaken, merely for fome purpofe in aftrology. M. Cassrnz,
to whom we are indebted for the explanation of thefe tables,
obferves, that they are not originally conftructed for the meri-
dian of Siam, becaufe the rules direct to take away 3’ for the
fun, and 40’ for the moon, (being the motion of each for 14,
13), from their longitudes calculated as above *. The meri-
dian of the tables is therefore 1°, 13, or 18°, 15°, weft of
Siam; and it is remarkable, that this brings us very near to the
meridian of Benares, the ancient feat of Indian learning +.
The fame agrees nearly with what the Hindoos call their firft
meridian, which pafles through Ceylon and the Banks of Ra-
manancor. We are, therefore, authorifed, or rather, we are
neceffarily determined to conclude, that the tables of Siam came
originally from HinposTAN. :

15. Anoruer fet of aftronomical tables, now in the poflef-
fion of the Academy of Sciences, was fent to the late M. DE
LIsLte from Chrifnabouram, a town in the Carnatic, by Father
pu CuaAmp, about the year 1750. Though thefe tables have an
obvious affinity to what have already been defcribed, they
form a much more regular and extenfive fyftem of aftronomi-_
cal knowledge. They are fifteen in number ; and include, be-
fide the mean motions of the fun, moon and planets, the equa-
tions to the centre of the fun and moon, and two corrections
for each of the planets, the one of which correfponds to its ap-
parent, and the other to its real inequality. They are accompa-
nied alfo with precepts, and examples, which Father pu CHamp
received from the Brahmins of Chrifnmabouram, and which he
has tranflated into French ¢{.

THE

* Mem. Acad. Scien. tom. 8. p. 302. & 309.

+ Aft. Ind. p. 12. It brings us to a méridian 82°, 34’, eaft of Greenwich. Benares:
is 83°, 11’, eaft of the fame, by RenneEL’s map.

{ Thefe tables are publifhed by M, Barry, Aft. Ind. p. 335, &c. See alfo p. 31, &es

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 147

Tue epoch of thefe tables is lefs ancient than that of the for-
mer, and anfwers to the roth of March at funrife, in the year
1491 of our era, when the fun was juft entering the moveable
zodiac, and was in conjunction with the moon; two circum-
ftances, by which almoft all the Indian eras are diftinguithed.
The places, which they aflign, at that time, to the fun and moon,
agree very well with the calculations made from the tables of
Mayer, and Dexa CaiLie. In their mean motions, they in-
deed differ fomewhat from them; but as they do fo equally
for the fun and moon, they produce no error, in determining
the relative pofition of thefe bodies, nor, of confequence, in
calculating the phenomena of eclipfes. The fun’s apogee is
here fuppofed to have a motion f{wifter than that of the fixed
ftars, by about 1” in nine years, which, though it falls greatly
fhort of the truth, does credit to this aftronomy, and is a {trong

“mark of originality. The equation of the fun’s centre is fome- -
what lefs here than in the tables of Siam; it is 2°, 10’, 30";
the equation of the moon’s centre is 5°, 2’, 47”; her path,
where it interfects that of the fun, is fuppofed to make an an-
gle with it of 4°, 30, and the motions, both of the apogee
and node, are determined very near to the truth.

16. ANOTHER ‘et of tables, fent from India by Father Patou-
ILLET, were received by M. DE t’IsxE, about the fame time
with thofe of Chrifnabouram. They have not the name of any
particular place affixed to them ; but, as they contain a rule
for determining the length of the day, which anfwers to the
latitude of 16°, 16’, M. Barty thinks it probable that they
come from Narfapour *.

_ THE precepts and examples, which accompany thefe ta-
bles, though without any immediate reference to them, are
confined to the calculation of the eclipfes of the fun and
moon; but the tables themfelves extend to the motion of the

_ planets, and very much refemble thofe of Chrifnabouram,

except that they are given with lefs detail, and in a form much
t2 more
* Aft. Ind. p. 49, &c.

148 REMARKS on the

more enigmatical *. The epoch of the precepts, which M. BAitrty
has evolved with great ingenuity, goes back no farther than the
year 1569, at midnight, between the 17th and 18th of March.”
From this epoch, the places of the fun and moon are computed,
as in the tables of Siam, with the addition of an equation,
which is indeed extremely fingular. It refembles that correction
of the moon’s motion, which was difcovered by Tycuo, and
which is called the annual equation, becaufe its quantity de-
pends, not on the place of the moon, but on the place of the
fun, in the ecliptic. It is every where proportional to the in-
equality of the fun’s motion, and is nearly a tenth part of it.
The tables of Narfapour make their annual equation only
7 of the fun’s: but this is not their only miftake; for they
direct the equation to be added to the moon’s longitude, when
it ought to be fubtracted from it, and vice verfa. Now, it is
difficult to conceive from whence the laft mentioned error
has arifen; for though it is not at all extraordinary, that the
aftronomers, who conftruéted thefe tables, fhould miftake the
quantity of a fmall equation, yet it is impoflible, that the fame
obfervations, which informed them of its exiftence, fhould
not have determined, whether it was to be added or fub-
tracted. It would feem, therefore, that fomething accidental
muft have occafioned this error; but however that be, an
inequality in the lunar motions, that is found in no fyftem.
with which the aftronomers of India can have had any com-

munication, is at leaft a proof of the originality of their tables.
17. Tue tables, and methods, of the Brahmins of Tirvalore,
are, in many refpects, more fingular than any that have yet
; been.

* Tury were explained, or rather decyphered by M. te Genvit in the Memoirs.
of the Academy of Sciences for 1784, p. 482, &c. ; for they were not underftood by the
miffionary who fent them to Europe, nor probably by the Brahmins who inftruéted him..
M. ve Gentit thinks that they have the appearance of being copied from infcriptions
on ftone. The minutes and feconds are ranged in rows under one another, not in vertical
columns, and without any title to point out their meaning, or their connection. Thefe
tables are publifhed, Mem. Acad. rhid. p. 492, and Aft. Ind. p. 414.

—

-

ey Bg
—h o megnl

miei ms

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 149

been defcribed *. The folar year is divided, according to them,
into twelve unequal months, each of which is the timethat the
fun takes to move through one fign, or 30°, of the ecliptic.
Thus, 4ny, or June, when the fun is in the third fign, and
his motion floweft, confifts of 314, 36°, 38’, and Margagy,
or December, when he is in the ninth fign, and his mo-
tion quickeft, confifts only of 29% 20%, 53’ +. The
lengths of thefe months, expreffed in natural days, are con-
tained in a table, which, therefore, involves in it the place of
the fun’s apogee, and the equation of his centre. ‘The former
feems to be 77° from the beginning of the zodiac, and the lat-
ter about 2°, 10’, nearly as in the preceding tables. In their
calculations, they alfo employ an aftronomical day, which is
different from the natural, being the time that the fun takes to
move over one degree of the ecliptic; and of which days there
are juft 360 in a year f.
18. Turse tables go far back into antiquity. Their e-
poch coincides with the famous era of the Calyougham, that
is, with the beginning of the year 3102 before Curisr.
When the Brahmins of Tirvalore would calculate the place of
the fun for a given time, they begin by reducing into days the
interval between that time, and the commencement of the
Calyougham, multiplying the years by 365%, 64, 12’, 30”;
and taking away 2%, 37, 32’, 30’, the aftronomical epoch
having begun that much later than the civil ||. They next
find, by means of certain divifions, when the year current be-
gan,

* Tirvarore is a fmall town on the Coromandel coaft, about 12 G. miles weft of Ne-
gapatnam, in Lat. 10°, 44’, and eaft Long. from Greenwich, 79°, 42, by Rewnex’s
map. From the obfervations of the Brahmins, M. re Gentiz makes its Lat. to be
10°, 42,13’. (Mem. Acad. Scien. II. P. 184.) The meridian of Tirvalore nearly
touches the weft fide of Ceylon, and therefore may be fuppofed to coincide with the firft
meridian, as laid down by Father pv Cuamr. There is no reduction of Longitude em-
ployed in the methods of Tirvalore.

+ Thefe are Indian hours, &c. :

+ Mem. Acad. des Scien. II, P. 187. Aft. Indienne, p. 76, &c.

| The Indian hours are here reduced to European.

150 REMARKS on the

gan, or how many days have elapfed fince the beginning of it,
and then, by the table of the duration of months, they re-
duce thefe days into aftronomical months, days, tc. which
is the fame with the figns, degrees and minutes of the fun’s
longitude from the beginning of the zodiac. The fun’s lon-
gitude, therefore, is found.

19. SOMEWHAT in the fame manner, but by a rule ftill more
artificial and ingenious, they deduce the place of the moon, at
any given time, from her place at the beginning of the Cal-
yougham*. This rule is fo contrived, as to include at once the
motions both of the moon and of her apogee, and depends on
this principle, according to the very fkilful interpretation of
M. Baixty, that, 1,600,894 days after the above mentioned _
epoch, the moon was in her apogee, and 7‘, 2°, o', 7”, diftant
from the beginning of the zodiac ; that after 12,372 days, the
moon was again in her apogee, with her longitude increafed,
9', 27°, 48’, 10’; that in 3031 days more, the moon is again
in her apogee, with 11‘, 7°, 31', 1”, more of longitude; and,
laftly, that, after 248 days, fhe is again in her apogee, with
27°, 44, 6”, more of longitude. By means of the three
former numbers, they find, how far, at any given time, the
moon is advanced in this period of 248 days, and by a table,
exprefling how long the moon takes to pafs through each degree
of her orbit, during that period, they find how far {fhe is then
advanced in the zodiac +. This rule is ftrongly marked with
all the peculiar characters of the Indian aftronomy : It is re-
markable for its accuracy, and {till more for its ingenuity and
refinement ; but is not reduced withal, to its ultimate fim-
plicity.

20. TuE tables of Tirvalore, however, though they differ
in form very much from thofe formerly defcribed, agree with

them

* Mem. Acad. des Scien. zbid. p. 229. Aft. Ind. p 84.
+ M. ve Genre has given this table, Mem. Acad. cbid. p. 26.

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. Isr

them perfe@tly in many of their elements. They fuppofe the
fame length of the year, the fame mean motions, and the fame
inequalities of the fun and moon, and they are adapted nearly
to the fame meridian*. But a circumftance in which they
feem to differ materially from the reft is, the antiquity of the
epoch from which they take their date, the year 3102 before the
_Chriftian era. We muft, therefore, enquire, whether this epoch
is real or fictitious, that is, whether it has been determined by
actual obfervation, or has been calculated from the modern
epochs of the other tables. For it may naturally be fuppofed,
that the Brahmins, having made obfervations*in later times, or
having borrowed from the aftronomical knowledge of other
nations, have imagined to themfelves a fictitious epoch, coinci-
ciding with the celebrated era of the Calyougham, to which,

through

* Tur accuracy of the geography of the Hindoos, is in no proportion to that of their
aftronomy, and, therefore, it is impoffible that the identity of the. meridians of
their tables can be fully eftablifhed. All that can be faid, with certainty, is, that the dif-
_ ference between the meridians of the tables of Tirvalore and Siam is, at moft, but in-
confiderable, and may be only apparent, arifing from an error in computing the difference
of longitude between thefe places. The tables of Tirvalore are for Long. 79°, 42’; thofe
of Siam for 82°, 34’; the difference is 2°, 52’, not more than may be afcribed to an error
purely geographical.

_ As to the tables of Chrifnabouram, they contain a reduction, by which it appears,
_ that the place where they are now ufed is 45’ of a degree eaft of the meridian for which
__ they were originally conftruéted. This makes the latter meridian agree tolerably with that
DB .of Cape Comorin, which is in Long. 77°, 32’, 30’, and about half a degree weft of Chrifna-
_ bouram. But this conclufion is uncertain; becaufe, as M. Barttiry has remarked, the
_ tables fent from Chrifnabouram, and underftood by Father pv Cuamp to belong to that
_ place, are not adapted to the latitude of it, but to one confiderably greater, as appears
; from their rule for afcertaining the length of the day. (Aft. Ind. p. 33.)

_ Tue charaéters, too, by which the Brahmins diftinguifh their firft meridian, are not
4 perfectly confiftent with one another. Sometimes it is defcribed as bilecting Ceylon ; and at

‘ _M. Baitty thinks that it is the lake ace the foures of the Goa laced by M. la
- NEL, as well as the middle of Ceylon, in Long. 80°, 42'; but, from a Hindoo map, in
_ the Ayeen Akbery, vol.iii, p. 25. Lanka appears to be an ifland which marks the
; I interfection of the firft meridian of the map, nearly that of Cape Comorin, with the equa-

_ tor ; and is probably one of the Maldivy illands. See alfo a note in the Ayeen Akbery,
ibid. p- 36.

152 REMARKS on the

through vanity or fuperftition, they have referred the places of
the heavenly bodies, and have only calculated what they pre- .
tend that their anceftors obferved.

21. In doing this, however, the Brahmins muft have fur-
nifhed us with means, almoft infallible, of detecting their im-
pofture. It is only for aftronomy, in its moft perfect ftate, to
go back to the diftance of forty-fix centuries, and to afcertain
the fituation of the heavenly bodies at fo remote a period.
The modern aftronomy of Europe, with all the accuracy that it
derives from the telefcope and the pendulum, could not venture
on fo difficult a tafk, were it not aflifted by the theory of gra-
vitation, and had not the integral calculus, after an hundred
years of almoft continual improvement, been able, at laft, to
determine the difturbances in our fyftem, which arife from the
action of the planets on one another.

Un ess the corrections for thefe difturbances be taken into
account, any fyftem of aftronomical tables, however accurate
at the time of its formation, and however diligently copied
from the heavens, will be found lefs exact for every inftant, ei-
ther before or after that time, and will continually diverge
more and more from the truth, both for future and paft ages.
Indeed, this will happen, not only from the neglect of thefe
corrections, but alfo from the fmall errors unavoidably com-
mitted, in determining the mean motions, which muft ac-
cumulate with the time, and produce an effect that be-
comes every day more fenfible, as we retire, on either fide,
from the inftant of obfervation. For both thefe reafons, it
may be eftablifhed as a maxim, that, if there be given a fyftem
of aftronomical tables, founded on obfervations of an unknown
date, that date may be found, by taking the time when the
tables reprefent the celeftial motions moft exa¢tly.

Here, therefore, we have a criterion, by which we are to
judge of the pretenfions of the Indian aftronomy to fo great an-
tiquity. It is true, that, in applying it, we muft fuppofe our

modern

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 153

modern aftronomy, if not perfe@tly accurate, at leaft fo exact
as to reprefent the celeftial motions, without any fenfible error,
even for a period more remote than the Calyougham ; and this,
confidering the multitude of obfervations on which our aftro-
nomy is founded, the great antiquity of fome of thofe objer-
vations, and the extreme accuracy of the reft, together with
the afliftance derived from the theory of phyfical caufes, may
furely be affumed as a very reafonable poftulatum. We begin
with the examination of the mean motions.

22. THE Brahmins place the beginning of their moveable
zodiac, at the time of their epoch, 54° before the vernal equi-
nox, or in the longitude of 10‘, 6°, according to our method
of reckoning. Now, M. Le Gentit brought with him a deli-
neation of the Indian zodiac, from which the places of the
ftars in it may be afcertained with tolerable exactnefs*. In
particular, it appears, that Aldebaran, or the firft ftar of Tau-
rus, is placed in the laft degree of the fourth conftellation, or
53°, 20, diftant from the beginning of the zodiac. Alde-
baran was therefore 40’ before the point of the vernal equinox,
according totheIndian aftronomy, in the year 3102 beforeCuRIsT.
But the fame ftar, by the’beft modern obfervations, was, in the year
1750, in longitude, 2°, 6°, 17’, 47”; and had it gone forward,
according to the prefent rate of the preceffion of the equinoxes,
50s annually, it muft have been, at the era of the Calyougham,
1°, 32, before the equinox. But this refult is to be corrected,
in confequence of the inequality in the preceflion, difcovered
by M. pe 1a Grancs f, by the addition of 1°, 45’, 22”, to
the longitude of Aldebaran, which gives the longitude of that
ftar 13’ from the vernal equinox, at the, time of the Calyoug-
ham, agrecing, within 53’, with the determination of the In-
dian aftronomy f.

Vou. Il. u THIs

* Mem. Acad. Scien. 1772, Il. P. 214. Aft. Ind. p. 129.

4 Mem. Acad. de Berlin, 1782, p. 287. Aft. Ind. p. 144.

t Aft. Ind. p. 130.

154 REMARKS on the

Tuts agreement is the more remarkable, that the Brahmins,
by their own rules for computing the motion of the fixed ftars,
could not have afligned this place to Aldebaran for the begin-
ning of the Calyougham, had they calculated it from a modern
obfervation. For as they make the motion of the fixed ftars too
great by more than 3” annually, if they had calculated backward
from 1491, they would have placed the fixed ftars lefs advanced
by 4° or 5°, at their ancient epoch, than they have actually
done. This argument carries with it a great deal of force;
and even were it the only one we had to produce, it would
render it, in a high degree, probable, that the Indian zodiac
was as old as the Calyougham.

23. LreT us next compare the places of the fun and moon,
for the beginning of the Calyougham, as deduced from the In-
dian and the modern aftronomy. And, firft, of the fun,
though, for a reafon that will immediately appear, it is not to
be confidered as leading to any thing conclufive. M. Baitiy,
from a comparifon of the tables of Tirvalore with thofe of
Chrifnabouram, has determined the epoch of the former to an-
fwer to midnight, between the 17th and 18th* of February
of the year 3102 before CurisT, at which time the fun was
juft entering the moveable zodiac, and was therefore in longi-
tude to", 6°. M. Barry alfo thinks it reafonable to fuppofe,
that this was not the mean place of the fun, as the nature of
aftronomical tables require, but the true place, differing from the
mean, by the equation to the fun’s centre at that time}. This,
it muft be confeffed, is the mark of greateft unfkilfulnefs, that
we meet with in the conftruction of thefe tables. Suppofing it,

however, to be the cafe, the mean place of the fun, at the time
of

* Aft.Ind. p. 110. The Brahmins, however, actually fuppofe the epoch to be 6 hours
later, or at funrife, on the fame day. Their miftake is difcovered, as has been faid,
by comparing the radical places in the different tables with one another.

+ Aft. Ind. p. 83.

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 155

of the epoch, comes out 10°, 3°, 38’, 13”. Now, the mean longi-
tude of the fun, from Dr 1a Carixe’s tables, for the fame time,
is 10’, 1°, 5’, 57°, fuppofing the preceflion of the equinoxes
to have been uniformly at the rate it is now, that is, 50” an-
nually. But M. p— ra GranceE has demonftrated, that the
preceffion was lefs in former ages than in the prefent; and his
formula gives 1°, 45’, 22”, to be added, on that account, to
the fun’s longitude already found, which makes it 1o*, 2°, 51’,
1g’, not more than 47’ from the radical place in the tables of
Tirvalore. This agreement is near enough to afford a ftrong
proof of the reality of the ancient epoch, if it were not for the
difficulty that remains about confidering the fun’s place as the
true, rather than the mean; and, for that reafon, I am unwil-
ling that any ftrefs fhould be laid upon this argument. The
place of the moon is not liable to the fame objection.

24. [HE moon’s mean place, for the beginning of the Caly-
ougham, (that is, for midnight between the 17th and 18th of
February 3102, A. C. at Benares), calculated from Mayer’s
tables, on the fuppofition that her motion has always been at
the fame rate as at the beginning of the prefent century, is
Io‘, 0°, 51, 16°*. But, according to the fame aftrono-
mer, the moon is fubject to a fmall, but uniform accele-
ration, fuch, that her angular motion, in anyone age, is
9 greater than in the preceding, which, in an interval of
4801 years, muft have amounted to 5°, 45’, 44”. This muft
be added to the preceding, to give the real mean place of the
moon, at the aftronomical epoch of the Calyougham, which is
therefore 10', 6°, 37. Now, the fame, by the tables of Tir-
valore, is to‘, 6°, o'; the difference is lefs than two-thirds of
a degree, which, for fo remote a period, and confidering the
acceleration of the moon’s motion, for which no allowance

ae could

* Aft. Ind. p. 142, &c. The firft meridian is fuppofed to pafs through Benares ; but
even if it be fuppofed 3° farther weft, the difference, which is here 37’, will be only in-
creafed to 42’.

156 REMARKS on the

could be made in an Indian calculation, is a degree of accuracy
that nothing but a@tual obfervation could have produced.

25. To confirm this conclufion, M.Barity computes the place
of the moon for the fame epoch, by all the tables to which the
{Indian aftronomers can be fuppofed to have ever had accefs *.
He begins with the tables of Protemy; and if, by help
of them, we go back from the era of NABoNAsSAR, to the
epoch of the Calyougham, taking into account the compa-
rative length of the Egyptian and Indian years, together with
the difference of meridians between Alexandria and Tirvalore,
we fhall find the longitude of the fun 10°, 21’, 15” greater,
and that of the moon 11°, 52’, 7” greater than has juft been
found from the Indian tables +. At the fame time that this
fhews, how difficult it is to go back, even for a lefs period than
that of 3000 years, in an aftronomical computation, it affords a
proof, altogether demonftrative, that the Indian aftronomy is.
not derived from that of ProLemy.

Tue tables of Utucu Brerc are more accurate than thofe
of the Egyptian aftronomer. They were conftructed in a coun-
try not far from India, and but a few years earlier than 7491,
the epoch of the tables of Chrifnabouram. ‘Their date is
july 4. at noon, 1437, at Samarcand; and yet they do not
agree with the Indian tables, even at the above mentioned epoch
of 1491 {. But, for the year 3102 before Curist, their dif-
ference from them, in the place of the fun, is 1°, 30’, and in
that of the moon 6°; which, though much lefs than the for-
mer differences, are fufficient to fhow, that the tables of India
are not borrowed from thofe of Tartary.

Tue Arabians employed in their tables the mean motions of
Proxiemy ; the Perfians did the fame, both in the more ancient
tables of Carysococca,and the later ones of NASSIREDDIN ||. Je

is.

* Aft. Ind. p. 1x4.

+ Ibid. p. 115.

+ Ibid. p. 117.

\ Ibid, p. 128.

tly

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 157

is therefore certain, that the aftronomy of the Brahmins is nei-
ther derived from that of the Greeks, the Arabians, the Per-
fians or the Tartars. This appeared fo clear to CassIN1,
though he had only examined the tables of Siam; and knew
nothing of many of the great points which diftinguith the In-
dian aftronomy from that of all other nations, that he gives it
as his opinion, that thefe tables are neither derived from the
Perfian aftronomy of Curysococca, nor from the Greek
aftronomy of Proremy ; the places they give at their epoch to
the apogee of the fun, and of the moon, and their equation for
the fun’s centre, being very different from both *.

26. Bur, to return to what refpects the moon’s acceleration ;
it is plain, that tables, as ancient as thofe of Tirvalore pretend:
to be, ought to make the mean motion of that planet much

flower than it is at prefent. They do accordingly fuppofe, in

the rule for computing the place of the moon, already defcri-
bed, that her motion for 4383 years, 94 days, reckoned in the
moveable zodiac from the epoch of the Calyougham, is.7‘, 2°,
°, 7, or 9’, 7°, 45, 1, when referred to the fixed point of
the vernal equinox. Now, the mean motion for the fame in-
terval, taken from the tables of MAYER, is greater than this,
by 2°, 42’, 4” ¢, which, though conformable, in general, to
the notion of the moon’s motion having been accelerated, falls,
it muft be confeffed, greatly fhort of the quantity which
MAveEr has afligned to that acceleration. This, however, is
not true of all the tables ; for the moon’s motion in 4383 years,
94 days, taken from thofe of Chrifnabouram, is 3°, 2’, To”
lefs than in the tables of Tirvalore {; from which it is reafon-
able to conclude, with M. Baiiiy, that the former are, in.
reality, more ancient than the latter, though they do not pro-
fefs to be fo: and hence, alfo, the tables of Chrifnabouram

make.
* Mem. Acad. Scien. tom. 8. p. 286.
+ Aft. Ind. p. 145.
} Ibid. p. 126.

158 REMARKS on the

make the moon’s motion lefs than Mayver’s, for the above
mentioned interval, by 5°, 44’, 14”, which therefore is, ac-
cording to them, the quantity of the acceleration.

27. Now, it is worthy of remark, that if the fame be com-
puted on Mayer’s principles, that is, if we calculate how
much the angular motion of the moon for 4383 years, 94. days,
dated from the beginning of the Calyougham, muft have been
lefs than if her velocity had been all that time uniform, and
the fame as in the prefent century, we fhall find it to be
5°, 43, 7”, an arch which is only 1’, 7”, lefs than the former.
The tables of Chrifnabouram, therefore, agree with thofe of
Mayer, when corrected by the acceleration within 1’, 7”, and
that for a period of more than four thoufand years. From this
remarkable coincidence, we may conclude, with the higheft pro-
bability, that at leaft one fet of the obfervations, on which
thofe tables are founded, is not lefs ancient than the Calyoug-
ham ; and though the poffibility of their being fome ages later
than that epoch, is not abfolutely excluded, yet it may, by
ftriét mathematical reafoning, be inferred, that they cannot
have been later than 2000 years before the Chriftian era *.

28. Tuis

* Tue reafoning here referred to is the following: As the mean motions, in all
aftronomical tables, are determined by the comparifon of obfervations made at a great
diftance of time from one another; if be the number of centuries between the begin-
ning of the prefent, and the date of the more ancient obfervations, from which the
moon’s mean motion in the tables of Chrifnabouram is deduced ; and if y denote the
fame for the more modern obfervations: then the quantity by which the moon’s mo-
tion, during the interval x—y, falls fhort of Mayer’s, for the fame interval, is
(oP y*)o

Iv, therefore, m be the motion of the moon for a century in the laft mentioned tables,
m(x—y)—9g' (x*—y?) will be the mean motion for the interval «—y in the tables of
Chriinabouram. If, then, a be any other interval, as that of 43.83 centuries, the mean

motion affigned to it, in thefe laft tables, by the rule of proportion, will be

jy ae id wee, 2
ee a) = ma—ga(«-+y). Let this motion, attually taken. from the ta-
w—S

bles

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 159

28. Tuts laft is one of the few coincidences between the aftro-
nomy of India and of Europe, which their ingenious hiftorian
has left for others to obferve. Indeed, fince he wrote, every
argument, founded on the moon’s acceleration, has become
more worthy of attention, and more conclufive. For that ac-
celeration is no longer a mere empyrical equation, introduced
to reconcile the ancient ebfervations with the modern, nor a
fact that can only be accounted for by hypothetical caufes, fuch
as the refiftance of the ether, or the time neceflary for the
tran{miffion of gravity; it is a phenomenon, which M. DE LA
Piace has*, with great ability, deduced from the principle of
univerfal gravitation, and fhewn to be neceffarily connected
with the changes in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, dif-
covered by M. pE tA GRANGE; fo that the acceleration of the
moon is indirectly produced by the action of the planets, which
alternately increafing and diminifhing the faid eccentricity, fub-
jects the moon to different degrees of that force by which the
fun difturbs the time of her revolution round the earth. It is
therefore a periodical inequality, by which the moon’s motion,
in the courfe of ages, will be as much retarded as accelerated ;
but its changes are fo flow, that her motion has been conftant-
ly accelerated, even for a longer period than that to which the

obfervations of India extend.
A

bles be = na, then ma—na = oa(«x-+y), or x-Fy = Bcsaadl = $2.19, in the prefent
&

cafe. It is certain, therefore, that whatever fuppofition be made with .refpect to the inter-
val between x and y, their fam muft always be the fame, and muft amount to 5219 years.
But that, that interval may be long enough to give the mean motions with exactnefs,
it can fearcely be fuppofed lefs than 2000 years; and, in that cafe, « = 3609 years,
which therefore is its leaft value. But if 3609 be reckoned back from 1700, it goes
up to 1909 years before Curist, nearly, as has been faid.

Ir muft be remembered, that what is here inveftigated is the limit, or the moft mo-
dern date poffible to be affigned to the obfervations in queftion. The fuppofition that
*—y = a, is the moft probable of all, and it gives x = 4801, which correfponds to
the beginning of the Calyougham.

* Mem. Acad. des Scien. 1786, p. 235, &c.

160 REMARKS on the

A FORMULA for computing the quantity of this inequality, has
been given by M. pE La PLAce, which, though only an approxima-
tion, being derived from theory, is more accurate than that which
Maver deduced entirely from obfervation * ; and if it be taken
inftead of Mayer’s, which laft, on account of its fimplicity, I
have employed in the preceding calculations, it will give a
quantity fomewhat different, though not fuch as to affect the
general refult. It makes the acceleration for 4383 years, dated
from the beginning of the Calyougham, to be greater by 17’, 39’,
than was found from Mayer’s rule, and greater confequently by
16’, 32”, than was deduced from the tables of Chrifnabouram.
It is plain, that this coincidence is ftill near enough to leave the
argument, that is founded on it, in poffeffion of all its force,
and to afford a {trong confirmation of the accuracy of the
theory, and the authenticity of the tables.

Tuat obfervations made in India, when all Europe was
barbarous or uninhabited, and inveftigations into the moft fub-
tle effects of gravitation made in Europe, near five thoufand
years afterwards, fhould thus come in mutual fupport of
one another, is perhaps the moft ftriking example of the pro-
grefs and viciflitude of fcience, which the hiftory of mankind
has yet exhibited.

29 Tuis, however, is not the only inftance of the fame
kind that will occur, if, from examining the radical places and
mean motions in the Indian aftronomy, we proceed to confider
fome other of its elements, fuch as, the length of the year, the
inequality of the fun’s motion, and the obliquity of the eclip-
tic, and compare them with the conclufions deduced, from the
theory of gravity, by M. pe tA Grance. To that geometer,
phyfical aftronomy is indebted for one of the moft beautiful of
its difcoveries, viz. That all the variations in our fyftem are
periodical; fo that though every thing, almoft without excep-

tion,

* Mem. Acad. des Scien. 1786, p. 260.

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 165

tion, be fubject to change, it will, after a certain interval, re-
turn to the fame ftate in which it is at prefent, and leave no
room for the introdudtion of diforder, or of any irregularity
that might conftantly increafe. Many of thefe periods, how-
ever, are of vaft duration. A great number of ages, for in-
ftance, muft elapfe before the year be again exactly of the
fame length, or the fun’s equation of the fame magnitude as at
prefent *. An aftronomy, therefore, which profefles to be fo
ancient as the Indian, ought to differ confiderably from ours in
many of its elements. If indeed thefe differences are irregular,
they are the effects of chance, and muft be accounted errors ;
but if they obferve the laws, which theory informs us that the
variations in our fyftem do actually obferve, they muft be held
as the moft undoubted marks of authenticity. We are to ex-
amine, as M. Baitiy has done, which of thefe takes place in
the cafe before us f.

30. Tue tables of Tirvalore, which, as we have feen, refer
their date to the beginning of the Calyougham, make the fy-
derial year to confift of 3657, 6%, 12’, 30°; and therefore the
tropical of 3654, 54, 50’, 35°, which is 13’, 46’, longer than
that of De ra Cartte ft. Now, the tropical year was in rea-
lity longer at that time than it is at prefent ; for though the fi-
derial year, or the time which the earth takes to return from
one point of fpace to the fame point again, is always of the
fame magnitude, yet the tropical year being affected. by the

_ preceflion of the equinoxes, is variable by a {mall quantity,

which never can exceed 3’, 40”, and which is fubject to flow,

_ and unequal alternations of diminution and increafe. A the-

orem, exprefling the law and the quantity of this variation, has
been inveftigated by M. DE LA GRANGE, in the excellent Me-
Nox, 11. * moir

* Mem. de I’ Acad. de Berlin, 1782, p. 170, &c.
+ Aft. Ind. p. 160, &c.
t Supra, § 18. and 10.

162 REMARKS on the

moir already mentioned *; and it makes the year 3102 before
CuristT, 40°} longer than the year at the beginning of the
prefent century +. The year in the tables of Tirvalore is there-
fore too great by 1’, 52.

31. Bur the determination of the year is always from a com-
parifon of obfervations. made at a confiderable interval from
one another ; and, even to produce a degree of accuracy much
lefs than what we fee belongs to the tables of Tirvalore, that
interval muft have been of feveral ages. Now, fays M. BarLiy,
if we fuppofe thefe obfervations to have been made in that pe-
riod of 2400 years, immediately preceding the Calyougham, to:
which the Brahmins often. refer; and if we alfo fuppofe the
inequality of the preceflion of the equinoxes, to increafe as we
go back, in proportion to the fquare of the times, we fhall find,
that, at the middle of this period, or 1200 years before the be-
ginning of the Calyougham, the length of the year was 365%,
5°, 50, 41”, almoft precifely as in the tables of Tirvalore.
And hence it is natural to conclude, that this determination of
the folar year is as ancient as the year 1200, before the Cal-
yougham, or 4300 before the Chriftian era {.

32. In this reafoning, however, it feems impoflible to acqui-
efce ; and M. Baitiy himfelf does not appear to have relied on
it with much confidence ||. We are not at liberty to fuppofe,
that the preceflion of the equinoxes increafes in the ratio above
mentioned, or, which isthe fame, that the equino¢tial points
go back with a motion equably retarded. If, by M. DE
GranGez’s formula, we trace back, ftep by ftep, the variation
of the folar year, we fhall find, that about the beginning of
the Calyougham, it had nearly attained the extreme point of

one

* Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1782. p. 289.

+ Aft. Ind. p. 160.

+ Ibid. p. 161.

|| He fays, ‘ Sans doute il ne peut réfulter de ce calcul qu’un appergu.”

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 163

one of thofe vibrations, which many centuries are required to
complete ; and that the year was then longer than it has ever
been fince, or than it had been for many ages before. It was
40" longer than it is at prefent ; but, at the year 5500 before
Curist, it was only 29” longer than at prefent, inftead of 2’,
50”, which is the refult of M. Baiziy’s fuppofition. | During
all the intervening period of 2400 years, the variation of the year
was between thefe two quantities; and we cannot therefore, by
any admiffible fuppofition, reduce the error of the tables to lefs
than 1’, 5”. The fmallnefs of this error, though extremely fa-
vourable to the antiquity, as well as the accuracy of the Indian
aftronomy, is a circumftance from which a more precife con-
elufion ‘can hardly be deduced.

33-. THE equation of the fun’s centre is an element in the
Indian aftronomy, which has a more unequivocal appearance

_ of belonging to an earlier period than the Calyougham. The

maximum of that equation is fixed, in thefe tables, at 2°, 10’,

2”. Itis at prefent, according to M. pe uA CAILLE, 1°, 55’,
that is, 15’ lefs than with the Brahmins. Now, M. pz tA GRANGE
has fhewn, that the fun’s equation, together with the eccentri-
city of the earth’s orbit, on which it depends, is fubject to al-
ternate diminution and increafe, and accordingly has been di-
minifhing for many ages. In the year 3102 before our era,
that equation was 2°, 6, 28”45 lefs, only by 4’, than in the
tables of the Brahmins. But if we fuppofe the Indian aftro-
nomy to be founded on obfervations that preceded the Calyoug-
ham, the determination of this equation will be found to be
ftill more exaGt. Twelve hundred years before the commence-
ment of that period, or about 4300 years before our era, it ap-

pears, by computing from M. pe ua Granee’s formula, that

the equation of the fun’s: centre was actually 2°, 8’, 16”; fo
that if the Indian aftronomy be as old. as that period, its error
with refpec to this equation is but of 2° *.

x2 34. THE
* Aft. Ind. p. 163.

164 REMARKS on the

34. Tue obliquity of the ecliptic is another element in which
the Indian aftronomy and the European do not agree, but
where their difference is exaétly fuch as the high antiquity of
the former is found to require. The Brahmins make the obli-
quity of the ecliptic 24°. Now, M. pe ra Grance’s formu-
la for the variation of the obliquity *, gives 22’, 32”, to be
added to its obliquity in 1700, that is, to 23°, 28’, 41”, in or-
der to have that which took place in the year 3102 before our
era. This gives us 23°, 51’, 13”, which is 8’, 47”, fhort of
the determination of the Indian aftronomers. But if we fup-
pofe, as in the cafe of the fun’s equation, that the obfervations
on which this determination is founded, were made 1200 years
before the Calyougham, we fhall find that the obliquity of the
ecliptic was 23°, 57’, 45”, and that the error of the tables did
not much exceed 2’ fF.

35. Tuus, do the meafures which the Brahmins affign to
thefe three quantities, the length of the tropical year, the equa-
tion of the fun’s centre, and the obliquity of the ecliptic, all
agree in referring the epoch of their determination to the year
3102 before our era, or to a period ftill more ancient. This
coincidence in three elements, altogether independent of one
another, cannot be the effet of chance. The difference, with
refpe& to each of them, between their aftronomy and ours,
might fingly perhaps be afcribed to inaccuracy ; but that three
errors, which chance had introduced, fhould be all of fuch
magnitudes, as to fuit exactly the fame hypothefis concerning
their origin, is hardly to be conceived. Yet there is no other
alternative, but to admit this very improbable fuppofition, or
to acknowledge that the Indian aftronomy is as ancient as one,
or other of the periods above mentioned.

36. Turs conclufion would receive great additional confirma-
tion, could we follow M. Baruty in his analyfis of the aftro-

nomy

* Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1782, p. 287:

+ Aft. Ind. p. 165.

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 165

nomy of the planets, contained in the tables of Chrifna-
bouram *; but the length to which this fafer is already ex-
tended, will allow only a few of the moft remarkable particu-
lars to be felected. ;

In thefe tables, which are for the epoch 1491, the mean mo-
tions are given with confiderable accuracy, but without an ap-
pearance of being taken from ProLemy, or any of the aftro-
nomers already mentioned. Two inequalities, called the /chi-
gram and the manda, are alfo diftinguifhed in each of the pla-
nets, both fuperior and inferior +. The firft of thefe is the ,
fame with that which we call the parallax of the earth’s orbit,
or the.apparent inequality of a planet, which arifes not from
its own motion, but from that of the obferver ; but whether
it is afcribed, m the Indian aftronomy, to its true caufe, or to
the motion of the planet in an epicycle, is a queftion about
‘which the tables give no direét information. The magnitude,
however, of this equation is affigned, for each of the planets,
with no fmall exa¢tnefs, and is varied, in the different points
of its orbit, by a law which approaches very near to the truth.

Tue other inequality coincides with that of the planet’s cen-
tre, or that which arifes from the eccentricity of its orbit, and
it is given near the truth for all the planets, except Mercury, by
which, as is no wonder, the firft aftronomers were, every where,

_ greatly deceived. Of this inequality, it is fuppofed, juft as

in the cafes of the fun and moon, that it is always as the
fine of the planet’s diftance from the point of its floweft mo-
tion, or from what we call its aphelion, and is confequently
greateft at go° from that point.

It were to be wifhed that we knew the etymology of the
Mames which are given to thefe inequalities, as it might ex-
plain the theory which guided the authors of the tables. The
titles of our aftronomical tables, the terms apbelion, heliocentric

or

* Aft. Ind. p. 173, &e.

} Ibid. p. 177.

166 REMARKS on the

or geocentric place, &c. would difcover the leading ideas of the
Copernican fyftem, were no other defcription of it preferved.

37. Iw the manner of applying thefe two inequalities, to cor-
rect the mean place of a planet, the rules of this aftronomy
are altogether fingular. In the cafe of a fuperior planet, they
do not make ufe of the mean anomaly, as the argument for
finding out the equation manda, but of that: anomaly, when
corrected firft by half the equation /chigram, and afterwards
by half the equation manda*. By the equation of the centre,
obtained with this argument, the mean longitude of the planet
is correéted, and its true heliocentric place confequently found,
to which there is again applied the parallax of the annual orbit,
that the geocentric place may be obtained. The only difficulty
here, is in the method of taking out from the tables the equa-
tion to the centre. It is evidently meant for avoiding fome
inaccuracy, which was apprehended from a more direct metho@
of calculation, but of which, even after the ingenious remarks
of M. Baitty, it feems impoffible to give any clear and fatis-
factory account. .

38. THe manner of calculating the places of the inferior
planets has a great refemblance to the former ; with this differ-
ence, however, that the equation manda, or of the centre, is
applied to correct, not the mean place of the planet, but the
mean place of the fun ; and to this laft, when fo corretted, is
applied the equation /chigram, which involves the planet’s elon-
gation from the fun, and gives its geocentric place+. This
neceflarily implies, that the centre, about ‘which the inferior
planets revolve, has the fame apparent mean motion with the
fun: but whether it be a point really different from the fun, or
the fame; and, if the fame, whether it be in motion or at reft,
are left entirely undetermined, and we know not, whether,
in the aftronomy of India, we have here difcovered a refem-

blance
* Aft. Ind. p. 194.
+ Ibid. p. 199, &e.

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 167

blance to. the Ptolemaic, the Tychonic, or the Copernican fy-
ftem.

39. TuEsE tables, though their radical places are for the year
1491 of our era, havean obvious reference tothe great epoch of the
Calyougham. For if we calculate the places of the planets from
them, for the beginning of the aftronomical year, at that epoch,
we find:them all. in conjun¢tion with the fun in the beginning
of the moveable: zodiac, their common longitude being 10', 6° *.
According to our tables, there was, at that time, a conjunction
of all the planets, except Venus, with the fun ; but they were,
by no means, fo near to one another as the Indian aftronomy
reprefents. It is true, that the exact time- of a conjunction
cannot be determined by direct obfervation: but this does not
amount to an entire vindication of the tables ; and there is rea-
fon to fufpect, that fome fuperftitious notions, concerning the

beginning of the Calyougham, and the figns by which nature

muft have diftinguifhed fo great an epoch, has, in this inftance
at leaft, perverted the aftronomy of the Brahmins. There are,
however, fome coincidences between this part of their aftro-
nomy, andthe theory of gravity, which muft not be for-
gotten.
“go. Tue firft of thefe refpects the aphelion of Jupiter,
which, in the tables, is fuppofed to have a retrograde. motion
of 15° in 200,000 years.f, and to have been, at the epoch of
1491, in longitude 5, 21°, 40’, 20’, from the beginning of
the zodiac. It follows, therefore, that in the year 3102 before
Curist, the longitude of Jupiter's aphelion was 3°, 27°, oO,
reckoned from the equinox. Now, the fame, computed from
M. pe LA Lanpe’s tables, is only 3°, 16°, 48’, 58” 3 fo that
there would feem to be an error of more than ro° in the tables
of the Brahmins. But, if it be confidered, that Jupiter’s orbit
is
* Aft. Ind. p. 181.

+ Ibid. p. 184. § 13.

168 REMARKS on the

is fubject to great difturbances, from the action of Saturn,
which M. pz ra LanbeE does not profefs to have taken into
account, we will be inclined to appeal once more to M. DE LA
GRANGeE’s formulas, before we pafs fentence againft the Indian
aftronomy *.

From one of thefe formulas, we find, that the true place of the
aphelion of Jupiter, at the time above mentioned, was 3°, 26°,
50’, 40”, which is but 10’, 40”, different from the tables of
Chrifnabouram. The French and Indian tables are therefore
both of them exaét, and only differ becaufe they are adapted
to ages near five thoufand years diftant from one another.

41. THE equation of Saturn’s centre is an inftance of the
fame kind. That equation, at prefent, is, according to M. DE
LA Lanpg, 6°, 23’, 19”; and hence, by means of one of the
formulas above mentioned, M. Barty calculates, that, 3102
years before CurisT, it was 7°, 41’, 22” +. The tables of the
Brahmins make it 7°, 39, 44”, which is lefs only by 1’, 38”,
than the preceding equation, though greater than that of the
prefent century by 1°, 16, 25”.

42. M. Baritty remarks, that the equations for the other
planets are not given with equal accuracy, and afford no more
fuch inftances as the former. But it is curious to obferve, that
new refearches into the effeéts,of gravitation, have difcovered
new coincidences of the fame kind; and that the two great
geometers, who have fhared between them the glory of per-
feCting the theory of difturbing forces, have each contributed his
part to eftablifh the antiquity of the Indian aftronomy. Since
the publication of M. BaiLty’s work, two other inftances of
am exact agreement, between the elements of thefe tables, and
the conclufions deduced from the theory of gravity, have been
obferved, and communicated to him by M. pE LA Puace, ina
letter, inferted in the Sfournal des Savans.

In

* Mem. Acad. Berlin. 1782, p. 246. Aft, Ind. p. 186.

+ Aft. Ind. p. 188.

iets

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 169

In feeking for the caufe of the fecular equations, which mo-
dern aftronomers have found it neceflary to apply to the mean
motion of Jupiter and Saturn, M. pe La Piace has difcovered,
that there are inequalities belonging to both thefe planets,
arifing from their mutual action on one another, which have
long periods, one of them no lefs than 877 years; fo that the
mean motion muft appear different, if it be determined from
obfervations made in different parts of thofe periods. ‘“ Now,
“I find,” fays he, “ by my theory, that at the Indian epoch
* of 3102 years before CurisT, the apparent and annual
“mean motion of Saturn was 12°, 13’, 14”, and the Indian
“tables make it 12°, 13’, 13”.

“In like manner, I find, that the annual and apparent mean
“motion of Jupiter at that epoch was 30°, 20°, 42”, precifely
as in the Indian aftronomy *.”

43. THus have we enumerated no lefs than nine aftronomi-
cal elements }, to which the tables of India affign fuch values
as do, by no means, belong to them in thefe later ages, but
fuch as the theory of gravity proves to have belonged to them
three thoufand years before the Chriftian era. At that time,
therefore, or in the ages preceding it, the obfervations muft
have been made from which thefe elements were deduced.
For it is abundantly evident, that the Brahmins of later times,
however willing they might be to adapt their tables to fo re-

-markable an epoch as the Calyougham, could never think of

doing fo, by fubftituting, inftead of quantities which they had
obferved, others which they had no reafon to believe had ever

_ exifted. The elements in queftion are precifely what thefe

Vor. Il. y aftronomers

* Efprit des Journeaux, Nov. 1787. p. 80. .

t+ Tue inequality of the preceffion of the equinoxes, ({ 22.) ; the acceleration of the
moon ; the Jength of the folar year ; the equation of the fim’s centre; the obliquity of
the ecliptic} the place of Jupiter’s aphelion ; the equation of Saturn’s centre ; and the
inequalities in the mean motion of both thefe planets.

170 REMARKS on the

aftronomers muft have fuppofed invariable, and of which, had
they fuppofed them to change, they had no rules to go by for
afcertaining the variations; fince, to the difcovery of thefe
rules is required, not only all the perfection to which aftro-
nomy is, at this day, brought in Europe, but all that which
the fciences of motion and of extenfion have likewife attained.
It is no lefs clear, that thefe coincidences are not the work
of accident; for it will fcarcely be fuppofed that chance has
adjufted the errors of the Indian aftronomy with fuch fingu-
lar felicity, that obfervers, who could not difcover the true
{tate of the heavens, at the age in which they lived, have fuc-
ceeded in defcribing one which took place feveral thoufand
years before they were born.

44. THE argument, however, which regards the originality
of thefe tables, is, in fome meafure, incomplete, till we have
confidered the geometrical principles which have been employed
in their conftruction. For it is not impoflible, that when feen
connected by thofe principles, and united into general theo-
rems, they may be found to have relations to the Greek aftro-
nomy, which did not appear, when the parts were examined
fingly. On this fubject, therefore, I am now to offer a few ob-
fervations.

45. Tue rules by which the phenomena of eclipfes' are de-
duced from the places of the fun and moon, have the moft
immediate reference to geometry ; and of thefe rules, as found
among the Brahmins of Tirvalore, M. LE GenTIL has given
a full account, in the Memoir that has been fo often quoted.
We have alfo an account of the method of calculation ufed at
Chrifnabouram by Father pu Cuamp*.

Ir is a neceflary preparation, in both of thefe, to find the time
of the fun’s continuance above the horizon, at the place and the -
day for which the calculation of an eclipfe is made, and the rule by
which the Brahmins refolve this problem, is extremely fimple

* and

* Aft. Ind. p. 355, &c. ’

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 171

and ingenious. At the place for which they calculate, they
obferve the fhadow of a gnomon on the day of the equinox,
at noon, when the fun, as they exprefs it, is in the middle of
the world. The height of the gnomon is divided into 720
equal parts, in which parts the length of the fhadow is alfo
meafured. One third of this meafure is the number of mi-
nutes by which the day, at the end of the firft month after the
equinox, exceeds twelve hours ;. four-fifths of this excefs is the
increafe of the day during the fecond month; and one third
of it is the increafe of the day, during the third month *,

46. Ir is plain, that this rule involves the fuppofition, that,
when the fun’s declination is given, the fame ratio every where
exifts between the arch which meafures the increafe of the day

- at any place, and the tangent of the latitude; for that tangent

is the quotient which arifes from dividing the length of the
fhadow by the height of the gnomon. Now, this is not ftrictly
true; for fuch a ratio only fubfifts between the chord of the
arch, and the tangent above mentioned. ‘The rule is, therefore,
but an approximation to the truth, as it neceflarily fuppofes
the arch in queftion to be fo fmall as to coincide nearly with
its chord. ‘This fuppofition holds only of places in low lati-
tudes; and the rule which is founded on it, though it may
fafely be applied in countries between the tropics, in thofe that
are more remote from the equator, would lead into errors too
confiderable to efcape obfervation |.

y 2 As

* Mem. Acad. des Scien. II. P. 175.

+ To judge of the accuracy of this approximation, fuppofe O to be the obliquity of
the ecliptic, and x the excefs of the femidiurnal arch, on the longeft day, above an arch
of go°, then fin.x = tan.O xtan.lat. Butif G be the height of a gnomon, and $

S 5
the length of its fhadow on the equinottial day, Gi fat. and fin. x = tan.O x remy

| tan.O} x §3 05x Ss
Therefore x = tan.O x Ss gn MLS tan.O* X

ri ie + Medica ++ &c. or in minutes of

time,

172 REMARKS on the

As fome of the former rules, therefore, have ferved to fix
the time, fo does this, in fome meafure, to afcertain the place
of its invention. It is the fimplification of a general rule,
adapted to the circumftances of the torrid zone, and fuggefted
to the aftronomers of Hindoftan by their peculiar fituation. It
implies the knowledge of the circles of the fphere, and of {phe-
rical trigonometry, and perhaps argues a greater progrefs in
mathematical reafoning, than a theorem that was perfedtly ac-
curate would have done. The firft geometers muft naturally
have dreaded nothing fo much as any abatement in the rigour
of their demonftrations, becaufe they would fee no limits to the
error and uncertainty, in which they might, by that means, be
involved. It was long before the mathematicians of Greece
underftood how to fet bounds to fuch errors, and to afcertain
their utmoft extent, whether on the fide of excefs or defe& ;
in this art, they appear to have received the firft leffons fo late
as the age of ARCHIMEDES.

; 47. THE

s
time, reckoned after the Indian manner, x» = 572.957 (tan.O x |= + tan.0? x

93
Gr + &e.)
Ir O = 24°, then tan.O = .4452, and the firft term of this formula gives « =
572.957 X “taste = 5s, which is the fame with the rule of the Brahmins..
: A 7205 ( I 4 I )
For th le, reduced into a fi ! ax = ——(—+ — + 3
or that rule, reduced into a formula, is 2x ra pt ae eS
= Ores = endl

Wuey have therefore computed the coefficient of = with fufficient accuracy 5 the

error produced by the omiffion of the reft of the terms of the feries will not exceed 1’,
even at the tropics, but, beyond them, it increafes faft, and, in the latitude of 45%,
would amount. to 9’.

nF

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. £73

47. Tue Brahmins having thus obtained the variations of
the length of the day, at any place, or what we call the afcen-
fional differences, apply them likewife to another purpofe. As
they find it neceffary to know the point of the ecliptic, which
is on the horizon, at the time when an eclipfe happens, they
have calculated a table of the right afcenfions of the points of
the ecliptic in time, to which they apply the afcenfional dif-
ferences for the place in queftion, in order to have the time
which each of the figns takes to defcend below the horizon of
that place*. This is exactly the method, as is well known,
which the moft fkilful aftronomer, in like circumftances, would
purfue. Their table of the differences of right afcenfion is
but for a few points in the ecliptic, viz. the beginning of each
fign, and is only carried to minutes of time, or tenths of a
degree. It is calculated, however, fo far as it goes, with per-
fe& accuracy, and it fuppofes the obliquity of the ecliptic, as
before, to be twenty-four degrees.

Sucu calculations could not be made without {fpherical tri-
gonometry, or fome method equivalent to it. If, indeed, we
would allow the leaft {kill poffible to the authors of thefe tables,
we may fuppofe, that the arches were meafured on the circles
of a large globe, or armillary fphere, fuch as we know to have
been one of the firft inftruments of the Egyptian and Greek
aftronomers. But there are fome of the tables where the arches
are put down true to feconds, a degree of accuracy which a
mechanical method can fcarcely have afforded.

48. In another part of the calculation of eclipfes, a direct
application is made of one of the moft remarkable propo-
fitions in geometry. In order to have the femiduration of
a folar eclipfe, they fubtra&t from the fquare of the fum of
the femidiameters of the fun and: moon, the fquare of a certain

Tine, which is a perpendicular from the centre of the fun on

the path of the moon; and from the remainder, they extract

the
¥ Acad, des Scien. 1772, II, P. 205.

174 REMARKS on the

the fquare root, which is the meafure of the femiduration *,
The fame thing is pra¢tifed in lunar eclipfes +. Thefe opera-
tions are all founded on a very diftinet conception of what hap-
pens in the cafe of an eclipfe, and on the knowledge of this
theorem, that, in a right-angled triangle, the fquare on the
hypothenufe is equal to the {quares om the other two fides. It
is curious to find the theorem of PyTHAGORAs in India, where,
for aught we know, it may have been difcovered, and from
whence that phtlofopher may have derived fome of the folid, as
well as the vifionary fpeculations, with which he delighted to
inftruct or amufe his difciples.

49. We have mentioned the ufe that is made of the femi-
diameters of the fun and moon in thefe calculations, and the
method of afcertaining them, is deferving of attention. For
the fun’s apparent diameter, they take four-ninths of his
diurnal motion, and for the moon’s diameter, one twenty-
fifth of her diurnal motion. In an eclipfe, they fuppofe the
fection of the fhadow of the earth, at the diftance of the moon,
to have a diameter five times that of the moon; and in all
this, there is confiderable accuracy, as well as great fimpli-
city. The apparent diameters of the fun and moon, increafe
and diminifh with their angular velocities ; and though there
be a miftake in fuppofing, that they do fo exactly in the fame
proportion, it is one which, without telefcopes and microme-
ters, cannot eafily be obferved. The fection of the earth’s fha-
dow, likewife, if the fun’s apparent diameter be given, in-
creafes as the moon’s increafes, or as her diftance from the

earth diminifhes, and nearly enough in the fame ratio to juftify

the rule which is here laid down.
so. Tue hiftorian of the Academy of Sciences, in giving an

account of M. rz GEenrTiL’s Memoir, has juftly obferved, that
the

* Mem. Acad. des Scien. 1772, II. P. 259.
+ Ibid. 241.

aah,
f

—

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 175

the rule defcribed in it, for finding the difference between the
true and apparent conjunction, at the time of a folar eclipfe,
contains the calculation of the moon’s parallax, but fubftitutes
the parallax in right afcenfion for the parallax in longitude * ;
an error which the authors of this aftronomy would probably
have avoided, had they derived their knowledge from the
writings of Protemy. From this fuppofed parallax in longi-
tude, they next derive the parallax in latitude, where we may
obferve an application of the doctrine of fimilar triangles ; for
they fuppofe the firft of thefe to be to the laft in the conftant
ratio of 25 to 2, or nearly as the radius to the tangent of the
inclination of the moon’s orbit to the plane of the ecliptic.
We have here, therefore, the application of another geometrical
theorem, and that too proceeding on the fuppofition, that a
fmall portion of the fphere, on each fide of the point which the
fun occupies at the middle of the eclipfe, may be held to coin-
cide with a plane touching it in that point.

51. Tue refult which the Brahmins thus obtain will be al-
lowed to have great accuracy, if it be confidered how fimple
their rules are, and how long it mutt be fince their tables were
corrected by obfervations. In two eclipfes of the moon,
calculated in India by their method, and likewife obferved

there by M. Le GenrTit, the error, in neither cafe, exceeded

hg 23 of time, (correfponding to one of 13 of a degree, in

the place of the moon); and in the duration and magni-
tude of the eclipfe, their calculation came ftill nearer to the

52. SINCE
* Hift. Acad. II. P. 109. Ibid. Mem. 253,—256.

+ In the language, however, of their rules, we may trace fome marks of a fabulous
and ignorant age, from which indeed even the aftronomy of Europe is not altogether
free. The place of the moon’s afcending node, is with them she place of the Dragon or

the Serpent ; the moon’s diftance from the node, is literally tranflated by M. re Genriz,
la

176 REMARKS on the

52. SINCE an inequality was firft obferved in the motions of
the fun or moon, the difcovery of the law which it follows,
and the method of determining the quantity of it, in the
different points of their orbits, has been a problem of the
greate{t importance ; and it is curious to inquire, in what man-
ner the aftronomers of India have proceeded to refolve it. For
this purpofe, we muft examine the tables of the chaiaa, or
equations of the centre for the fun and moon, and of the manda,
or equations of the centre for the planets. With refpect to the
firft, as contained in the tables of Siam, M. Cassinr obferved,
that the equations followed the ratio of the fines of the mean
diftances from the apogee ; but as they were calculated only for
a few points of the orbit, it could not be known with what
degree of exactnefs this law was obferved. Here, however, the
-tables of Chrifnabouram remove the uncertainty, as they give
the equation of the centre for every degree of the mean mo-
tion, and make it nearly as the fine of the diftance from the
- apogee.

Tuey do fo, however, only nearly ; and it will be found on
trial, that there is, in the numbers of the table, a fmall, but re-
gular variation from this law, which is greateft when the ar-
gument is 30°, though even there it does not amount to a mi-
nute. The fun’s equation, for inftance, which, when greateft,
or when the argument is go°, is, by thefe tables, 2°, to’, 32”,
fhould be, when the argument is 30°, juft the half of this, or
1°, 5°, 16’, did the numbers in the table follow exactly the

ratio

Ja lune offenfée du dragon. Whether it be that we have borrowed thefe abfurdities from
India, along with aftrology, or if the popular theory of eclipfes has, at firft, been every

where the fame, the moon’s node is alfo known with us by the name of the cauda dra- |

conis. In general, however, the fignification of the terms in thefe rules, fo far as we
know it, is more rational. In one of them we may remark confiderable refinement;
ayanang fam, which is the name for the reduétion made on the fun’s longitude, on account
of the preceflion of the equinoxes, is compounded from ayanam, a courfe, and ang/am,
an atom. Mem. Acad. II. P. 251. The equinox is almoft the only point not diftin-
guithed by a vifible obje€&t, of which the cour/é or motion is computed in this aftronomy.

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 177

Fatio of the fines of the argument. It is, however, 1°, 6, 3” 5
and this excefs of 47” cannot have arifen from any miftake
about the ratio of the fine of 30° to that of go°, which is
fhewn to be that of t to 2, by a propofition in geometry *
much too fimple to have been unknown to the authors of thefe
tables. The rule, therefore, of the equations, being propor-~
tional exadtly to the fines of the argument, is nof what was
- followed, or intended to be followed, in the calculation of
them. The differences, alfo, between the numbers computed
by that rule, and thofe in the tables, are perfectly regular, de-
ereafing from the point of 30°, both ways toward the begin-
ning and end of the quadrant, where they vanith altogether.
¥ Tuese obfervations apply alfo to. the tables of Narfapur +,
_ and to the moon’s equations, as well as to the fun’s, with a cir-
cumftance, however, which is not eafily accounted for, viz.
that the differences between the numbers. calculated by M. Cas-
siNi’s rule, and thofe in the tables, are not greater in. the cafe
of the moon than of the fun, though the equation of the latter
be more than double that of the former. They apply alfo to
the tables manda of the planets, where the equations are greater
than the ratio of the fines of their arguments requires, the ex-
_ cefgs being greateft at 30°, and amounting to fome minutes in
_ the equations of Saturn, Jupiter and Mars, in which laft it is:
_ greateft-of all:
53» Tuoucu, for thefe reafons, it is plain, that the rule of
__ M. Cassini is not the fame with that of the Brahmins, it cer-
_ tainly includes the greater part of it; and if the latter, what-
ever it may have been, were exprefled in a feries, according to
_ the methods of the modern analyfis, the former would be the
firft term of that feries. We are not, however, much advanced
in our inquiry in confequence of this remark; for the firft
terms of all the feries, which can, on any hypothefis, expre(s
' Vox. II. % the
_ * Eve. Lib. IV. Prop. 15.
_ + See thefe tables, Aft. Ind. p. 414.

178 REMARKS on the

the relation of the equation of the centre to the anomaly of a
planet, are fo far the fame, that they are proportional to the fine
of that anomaly; and it becomes therefore neceflary to fearch
among thefe hypothefes, for that by which the feries of
fmall differences, defcribed above, may be beft reprefented.
It is needlefs to enter here into any detail of the reafonings
by which this has been done, and by which I have found,
that the argument in the table bears very nearly the fame
relation to the correfponding numbers, that the anomaly
of the eccentric does to the equation of the centre. By the
anomaly of the eccentric, however, I do not mean the angle
which is known by that name in the folution of KEPLER’s
problem, but that which ferves the fame purpofe with it,
on the fuppofition of a circular orbit, and an uniform an-
gular motion about a point which is not the centre of that
orbit, but which is as diftant from it, on the one fide, as
the earth (or the place of the obferver) is on the other. It is
the angle, which, in fuch an orbit, the line drawn from the
planet to the centre, makes with the line drawn from thence to
the apogee ; and the argument in the Indian tables coincides
with this angle.

Turis hypothefis of a double eccentricity, is certainly not the
fimpleft that may be formed with refpeét to the motion of the
heavenly bodies, and is not what one would expect to meet with
here ; but it agrees fo well with the tables, and gives the equa-
tions from the arguments fo nearly, efpecially for the moon and
the planets, that little doubt remains of its being the real hy-
pothefis on which thefe tables were conftructed *.

54. OF

* Tue formula deduced from this hypothefis, for calculating the equation of the cen-—
tre from the anomaly of the eccentric, is the following: Let « be the equation of the
centre, @ the anomaly of the eccentric, e the eccentricity of the orbit, or the tangent of
2e3 fin. 2e%/in. 50

PORE fe 5
B)

half the greateft equation ; then w = 2¢/in.9+ + &e.

i

i

os

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 179

54. Or this, the method employed to calculate the place of
any of the five planets from thefe tables, affords a confirma-
tion. But, in reafoning about that method, it is neceflary to
put out of the queftion the ufe that is made of the parallax of
the annual orbit, or of the /:higram, in order to have the ar-
gument for finding the equation of the centre, which is evi-
dently faulty, as it makes that equation to be affected by 2
quantity, (the parallax of the annual orbit), on which it has
in reality nodependence. To have the rule free from error, it
is to be taken, therefore, in the cafe when there is no parallax
of the annual orbit, that is, when the planets are in oppofition:
or conjunction with the fun. In that cafe, the mean anomaly
is firft corrected by the fubtra¢tion or addition of half the
equation that belongs to it in the table. It then becomes the
true argument for finding, from that fame table, the equation
ef the centre, which is next applied to the mean anomaly, to:
have the true. Now, this agrees perfe@tly with the conclufion
above; for the’ mean anomaly, by the fubtraction or addition
of half the equation belonging to it in the table, is converted,.
almoft precifely, into the anomaly of the eccentric, and be-
comes therefore the proper argument for finding out the equa-
tion, which is to change the mean anomaly into the true *..

“There can be no doubt, of confequence, that the conclufion
we have come to is ftrictly applicable to the planets, and that
the orbit of each of them, in this aftronomy, is fuppofed to
be a circle, the earth not being in its centre, but the angular

ee velocity

* Turis method of calculation is fo nearly exaét, that even’ in the orbit of Mars, the
equation caleulated from the mean anomaly, rigoroufly on the principle of his angular
Motion being uniform, about a point diftant from the centre, as defcribed above, will-
Farely differ a minute from that which is taken out from the Indian tables by: this rule.
It was remarked, (§ 37.) that it is not eafy to explain the rules for finding the argument
of the equation of the centre, for the planets. What is faid here explains fully one part
of that rule, w/z. the correction made by half the equation manda ; the principle on
which the other part proceeds, viz. the correction by half the equation /chigram, is ftill

“uncertain.

180 REMARKS on the

velocity of the planet being uniform about a certain point, as
far from that centre on the one fide, as the earth is on’ the op-
pofite.

55. BETWEEN the ftru€ture of the tables of the equations
of the fun and moon, and the rules for ufing them, there is
not the fame confiftency ; for in both of them, the argument,
which we have found to be the eccentric anomaly, is ne-
verthelefs treated as the mean. So far as concerns the fun, this
leads to nothing irreconcilable with our fuppofition, becaufe the
fun’s equation being fmall, the difference will be inconfiderable,
whether the argument+of that equation be treated as the eccen-
tric or the mean anomaly.

Bur it is otherwife with refpect to the moon, where the dif-
ference between confidering the argument of the equation as
the mean, or as the eccentric anomaly, is not infenfible. The
authority of the precepts, and of the tables, are here oppofed
to one another ; and we can decide in favour of the latter, only
becaufe it leads to a more accurate determination of the moon’s
place than the former. It would indeed be an improvement on
their method of calculation, which the Brahmins might make
confiftently with the principles of their own aftronomy, to ex-
tend to the moon their rule for finding the equation of the
centre for the planets. They would then avoid the palpable
error of making the maximum of the moon’s equation at the
time when her mean anomaly is 90°, and would afcertain her
place every where with greater exactnefs. It is probable that
this is the method which they were originally directed to
follow.

56. From the hypothefis which is thus found to be the bafis
of the Indian aftronomy, one of the firft conclufions which pre-
fents itfelf, is the exiftence of a remarkable affinity between
the fyftem of the Brahmins and that of Protemy. In
the latter, the fame thing was fuppofed for the five planets,

that

: st

—

ca

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 181

that appears in the former to have been univerfally eftablifhed,
viz. that their orbits were circles, having the earth within
them, but removed at a fmall diftance fromthe centre, and
that each planet defcribed the circumference of its orbit, not
with an uniform velocity, but with one that would appear uni-
form, if it were viewed from a point as far above the centre of
the orbit, as that centre is above the earth. This point was, in
the language of Proxtemy’s aftronomy, the centre of the
Equant.

Now, concerning this coincidence, it is the more difficult to
judge, as, on the one hand, it cannot be afcribed to accident,
and, on the other, it may be doubted, whether it arifes necef-
farily out of the nature of the fubjeé, or is a confequence of
fome unknown communication between the aftronomers of
India and of Greece.

Tue firft hypothefis by which men endeavoured to explain
the phenomena of the celeftial motions, was that of a uniform
motion in a circle, which had the earth for its centre. This
hypothefis was, however, of no longer continuance than till
inftruments of tolerable exactnefs were directed to the heavens.
It was then immediately difcovered, that the earth was not the
centre of this uniform motion; and the earth was therefore
fuppofed to be placed at a certain diftance from the centre of
the orbit, while the planet revolved in the circumference of it
with the fame velocity as before. Both thefe ftepg may be ac-
counted neceffary ; and in however many places of the earth,
and however cut off from mutual intercourfe, aftronomy had ~
begun to be cultivated, I have no doubt that thefe two fuppo-
fitions would have fucceeded one another, juft as they did
among the Greek aftronomers.

But when more accurate obfervations had fhewn the infuffi-
“ciency even of this fecond hypothefis, what ought naturally to
be the third, may be thought not quite fo obvious ; and if the

- Greeks made choice of that which has been defcribed above, it
may

182 REMARKS ona the

may feem to have been owing to certain metaphyfical notions
concerning the fimplicity and perfedtion of a circular and uni-
form motion, which inclined them to recede from that fuppo-
fition, no farther than appearances rendered abfolutely necef-
fary. The fame coincidence between the ideas of metaphyfics.
and aftronomy, cannot be fuppofed to have taken place in
other countries ; and therefore, where we find this third hypo-
thefis to have prevailed, we may conclude that it was borrowed!
from the Greeks.

57. THOUGH it cannot be denied, that, in this reafoning, there:
is fome weight, yet it muft be obferved, that the introdu@tion
of the third hypothefis did not reft among the Greeks altoge-
ther on the coincidence above mentioned. It was one fuited to.
their progrefs in mathematical knowledge, and offered almoft
the only fyftem, after the two former were exploded, which
rendered the planetary motions the fubjeét of geometrical rea-
foning, to men little: verfed in the methods of approximation.
This was the circumftance then, which, more than any other,
probably influenced them in the choice of this. hypothefis,
though we are not to look for it as an argument ftated in their
works, but may judge of the influence it had, from the fre-
quency with which, many ages afterwards, the wyeanerenoim
of KEpLeR’s fyftem was objected to him by his adverfaries ; an
objection to which that great man feemed to pay more attention:
than it deferved.

THERE is reafon therefore to think, that in every country
where aftronomy and geometry had neither of them advanced’
beyond a certain point, the hypothefis of the equant. would fue-

ceed to that of a fimple eccentric orbit, and therefore cannot

be admitted as a proof, that the different fyftems in which it
makes a part, are neceflarily derived from the fame fource.
Some other circumftances attending this hypothefis, as it is:
found in the Indian tables, go {till farther, and feem: quite in-

confiftent with the fuppofition that the authors of thefe tables
derived

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 183

derived it from the aftronomers of the weft. For, fiz/?, It is ap-
plied. by them to all the heavenly bodies, that is, to the fun and
moon, as well as the planets. With Protemy, and with all
thofe who founded their fyftems on his, it extended only to the
latter, infomuch that Kepier’s great reformation in aftro-
nomy, the difcovery of the elliptic orbits, began from his
proving, that the hypothefis of the equant was as neceflary to
be introduced for the fake of the fun’s orbit, as for thofe of
the planets, and that the eccentricity in both cafes, muft be
bifeéted. It is, therefore, on a principle no way different from
this of Kepier, that the tables of the fun’s motion are com-
puted in the Indian aftronomy, though it muft be allowed, that

- the method of ufing them is not perfeély confiftent with this

idea of their conftruction. ,
2dly, Tue ufe made of the anomaly of the eccentric in thefe
tables, as the argument of the equation of the centre, is alto-
gether peculiar to the Indian aftronomy. PTroLEemy’s ta-
bles of that equation for the planets, though they proceed on

the fame hypothefis, are arranged in a manner entirely diffe-

rent, and have for their argument the mean anomaly. The
angle which we call the anomaly of the eccentric, and which is
of fo much ufe in the Indian tables, is not employed at all in
the conftruction of his *, nor, I believe, in thofe of any other
aftronomer till the time of KEpLer; and even by KEpLer it
was not made the argument of the equation to the centre. The
method, explained above, of converting the mean anomaly into
that of the eccentric, and confequently into the argument of
the equation, is another peculiarity, and though fimple and
ingenious, has not the accuracy fuited to the genius of the
Greek aftronomy, which never admitted even of the beft ap-
proximation, when a rigorous folution could be found ; and,
on the whole, if the refemblance of thefe two fyftems, even
with all the exceptions that have been ftated, muft ftill be afcribed

to
* Almageft. lib. XI. cap. 9. & 10.

184 REMARKS on the

to fome communication between the authors of them, that com-
munication is more likely to have gone from India to Greece,
than in the oppofite direction. It may perhaps be thought to
favour this laft opinion, that Protemy has no where demon-
ftrated the neceflity of afligning a double eccentricity to the
orbits of the planets, and has left room to fufpe@t, that autho-
rity, more than argument, has influenced this. part of his.
fy{ftem.

58. In the tables of the planets, we remarked another equation).
(fbigram) anfwering to the parallax of the earth’s orbit, or the
difference between the heliocentric and the geocentric place of
the planet. This parallax, if we conceive a triangle to be
formed by lines drawn from the fun to the earth and to the
planet, and alfo from the planet to the earth, is the angle of

that triangle, fubtended: by the line drawn from the fun to the —

earth. And fo, accordingly, it is computed in thefe tables ; for
if we refolve fuch a triangle. as is here defcribed, we will find
the angle, fubtended by the earth’s diftance from the fun, coin-
cide very nearly with the {chigram.

THE argument of this equation is the difference between the

mean longitude of the fun and of the planet. The orbits are
fuppofed circular ; but whether the inequality in queftion was
underftood to arife from the motion of the earth, or from the
motion of the planet in an epicycle, the centre of which re-
volves in a circle, is left undetermined, as both hypothefes: may
be fo adjufted. as to give the fame refult with refpedt to this in-
equality. The proportional diftances of the planets from the
earth or the fun, may be deduced from the tables of thefe equa-
tions, and are not far from the truth,

59. THE preceding calculations muft have required the af-
fiftance of many fubfidiary tables, of which no trace has yet
been found in India. Befides many other geometrical propofi+
tions, fome of them alfo involve the ratio, which the diameter
of a circle was fuppofed to bear to its circumference, but which:

we:

>

.
¥
i
a,
in

i

wh

ia
4
F

r
-

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 185

we would find it impoflible to difcover from them exadly, on
account of the {mall quantities that may have been neglected
in their calculations. Fortunately, we can arrive at this know-
ledge, which is very material when the progrefs of geo-
metry is to be eftimated, from a paflage in the Aycen Ak-
bery, where we are told, that the Hindoos fuppofe the dia-
meter of a circle to be to its circumference as 1250 to 3927,
and where the author, who knew that this was more accuraté:
than the proportion of ARCHIMEDES, (7 to 22), and believed it to
be perfeétly exact, expreffes his aftonifhment, that among fo fim-
ple a people, there fhould be found a truth, which, among the
wifeft and moft learned nations, had been fought for in vain.

. THE proportion of I250 to 3927 is indeed a near ap-
proach to the quadrature of the circle; it differs little from.
that of METIUS, 113 to 355, and is the fame with one
equally remarkable, that of 1 to 3.1416. When found in
the fimpleft and moft elementary way, it requires a poly-
gon of 768 fides to be infcribed in a circle; an operation
which cannot be arithmetically performed without the know-
ledge of fome very curious properties of that curve, and, at
leaft, nine extractions of the fquare root, each as far as ten

_ places of decimals. All this muft have been accomplifhed in
India; for it is to be obferved, that the above mentioned
. ?
_ proportion cannot have been received from the mathemati-

X

cians of the weft. The Greeks left nothing on this fubject more

accurate than the theorem of ARcHIMEDES; and the Ara-

_ bian mathematicians, feem not to have attempted any nearer
approximation. The geometry of modern Europe can much.
_ lefs be regarded as the fource of. this knowledge. Mertrus and:

* Virta were the firft, who, in the quadrature of the circle,
_ furpaffed the accuracy of ArcuimeEDEs; and they flourifhed
_ atthe very time when the Inftitutes of AkBAR were collected

‘

sebicie

“in India.
VoL. IL. aa : ; 60, Cx
* Ayeen Akbery, Vol. III. p. 32..

186 REMARKS on the

60. On the grounds which have now been explained, the
following general conclufions appear to be eftablifhed.

I, Tue obfervations on which the aftronomy of India is found-
ed, were made more than three thoufand years before the Chri-
{tian era ; and, in particular, the places of the fun and moon, at the
beginning of the Calyougham, were determined by actual ob-
fervation.

Tuts follows from the exact agreement of the radical places
in the tables of Tirvalore, with thofe deduced for the fame
epoch from the tables of Dz 1a CarLLe and Mayer, and efpe-
cially in the cafe of the moon, when regard is had to her acce-
leration. It follows, too, from the pofition of the fixed ftars in
refpect of the equinox, as reprefented in the Indian zodiac;
from the length of the folar year; and, laftly, from the pofi-
tion and form of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, as well as
their mean motions ; in all of which, the tables of the Brah-
mins, compared with ours, give the quantity of the change
that has taken place, juft equal to that which the action of the
planets on one another may be fhown to have produced, in the
{pace of forty-eight centuries, reckoned back from the beginning
of the prefent.

Two other of the elements of this aftronomy, the equation
of the fun’s centre, and the obliquity of the ecliptic, when
compared with thofe of the prefent time, feem to point toa
period ftill more remote, and to fix the origin of this aftronomy
1000 or 1200 years earlier, that is, 4300 years before the Chri-
ftian era; and the time neceflary to have brought the arts of
calculating and obferving to fuch perfe@tion as they muft have
attained at the beginning of the Calyougham, comes in fupport
of the fame conclufion.

Or fuch high antiquity, therefore, muft we fuppofe the ori-
gin of this aftronomy, unlefs we can believe, that all the coin-

cidences

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. 187

cidences which have been enumerated, are but the effects of
chance ; or, what indeed were ftill more wonderful, that, fome
ages ago, there had arifen a NEWTON among the Brahmins, to
difcover that univerfal principle which conneéts, not only the
moft diftant regions of fpace, but the moft remote periods of
duration; and a Dr 1A GRANGE, to trace, through the im-
menfity of both, its moft fubtle and complicated operations.

II. Tuouceu the aftronomy which is now in the hands of
the Brahmins, is fo ancient in its origin, yet it contains many
rules and tables that are of later conftrudtion.

Tue firft operation for computing the moon’s place from the
tables of Tirvalore, requires that 1,600,984 days fhould be fub-
tracted from the time that has elapfed fince the beginning of
the Calyougham, which brings down the date of the rule to
the year 1282 of our era. At this time, too, the place of the
moon, and of her apogee, are determined with fo much exact-
nefs, that it muft have been done by obfervation, either at the
inftant referred to, or a few days before or after it. At this
time, therefore, it is certain, that aftronomical obfervations
were made in India, and that the Brahmins were not, as they
are now, without any knowledge of the principles on which
their rules are founded. When that knowledge was loft, will
not perhaps be eafily afcertained ; but there are, I think, no.
cireumftances in the tables from which we can certainly infer
the exiftence of it ata later period than what has juft been
mentioned ; for though there are more modern epochs to be
found in them, they are fuch as may have been derived from.
the moft ancient of all, by help of the: mean motions in the:
tables of Chrifnabouram *, without any other fkill than is re-
quired to an ordinary calculation. Of thefe epochs, befide what
have been occafionally mentioned in the courfe of our remarks,
there is one (involved in the tables of Narfapur) as late as the

_ year 1656,:and another as early as the year 78 of our era,

yee which
* Aft. Ind. p. 307.

188 REMARKS on the

which marks the death of SatrvAGANAM, one of their princes,
in whofe reign a reform is faid to have taken piace in the me-—
‘thods of their aftronomy. There is no reference torany inter=
‘mediate date, from that time to the beginning of the Caly-

ougham. 7

THE parts of this aftronomy, therefore, are not all of the
fame antiquity ; nor can we judge, merely from the epoch to
which the tables refer, of the age, to which they were originally
adapted. We have feen, that the tables of Chrifnabouram,
though they profefs to be no older than the year 1491 of our
era, are, in reality, more ancient than the tables of Tirvalore,
which are dated from the Calyougham, or at leaft have under-
gone fewer alterations. This we concluded from the flow mo- -
tion given to the moon, in the former of thefe tables, which
agreed, with fuch wonderful precifion, with the fecular equa-
tion applied to that planet by Mayer, and explained by M.
DE LA PLACE.

Bur it appears, that neither the tables of Tirvalore or Chrif-
nabouram, nor any with which we are yet acquainted, are the
moft ancient to be found in India. The Brahmins conftantly
refer to an aftronomy at Benares, which they emphatically
ftyle the ancient *, and which they fay is not now underftood
by them, though they believe it to be much more accurate than
that by which they calculate. That it is more accurate, is
improbable; that it may be more ancient, no one who has duly

attended to the foregoing facts and reafonings, will think im-
poflible ; and every one, I believe, will acknowledge, that no
greater fervice could be rendered to the learned world, than
to refcue this precious fragment from obfcurity. If that is
ever to be expected, it is when the zeal for knowledge has
formed a literary fociety among our countrymen in Bengal,
and while that fociety is dire€ted by the learning and abi-
lities of Sir Witt1am Jones. Indeed, the farther difcove-
ries
* Aft. Ind. p. 309. M. ve Genrit, Mem. Acad. Scien, 1772. P. IL. p. 221.

ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 189

ries which may be made with refpect to this f{cience, do not in-
tereft merely the aftronomer and the mathematician, but every
one who delights to mark the progrefs of mankind, or is curious
to look back on the ancient inhabitants of the globe. Ik is
through the medium of aftronomy alone that a few rays from
thofe diftant objects can be conveyed in fafety to the eye of a
modern obferver, fo as to afford him a light, which, though it
be fcanty, is pure and unbroken, and free from the falfe co-
lourings of vanity and fuperftition.

Ill. Tue bafis of the four fyftems of aftronomical tables:
which we have examined, is evidently the fame.

Tuoucs thefe tables are fcattered over an extenfive country,
they feem to have been all originally adapted, either to the fame
meridian, or to meridians at no great diftance, which traverfe
what we may call the claflical ground of India, marked by the
ruins of Canoge, Palibothra and Benares.., They contain rules
that have originated between the tropics ; whatever be their
epoch, they are all, by their mean motions, connected with that
of the Calyougham ; and they have befides one uniform cha-
racter which it is perhaps not eafy to defcribe. Great ingenuity

has been exerted to fimplify their rules ; yet, in no inftance al-
moft, are they reduced to the utmoft fimplicity ; and when
it happens that the operations to which they lead are extreme- |
ly obvious, thefe are often involved in an artificial obfcu-
rity. A Brahmin frequently multiplies by a greater number than
is neceflary, where he feems to gain nothing but the trouble of
_ dividing by one that is greater in the fame proportion ; and he
_ calculates the era of SALIVAGANAM with the formality of as ~
many diftint operations as if he were going to determine the
moon’s motion fince the beginning of the Calyougham. The fame
{pirit of exclufion, the fame fear of communicating his knowledge,
feems to direct the calculus which pervades the religion of the
Brahmin ; and, in neither of them, is he willing to receive or
to impart inftruétion. With all thefe circumftances of refem-
blance,

390 REMARKS on the

blance, the methods of this aftronomy are as much diverfified
as we can fuppofe the fame fyftem to be, by pafling through the
hands of a fucceflion of ingenious men, fertile in refources, and
acquainted with the variety and extent of the {cience which they
cultivated. A fyftem of knowledge, which is thus aflimilated
to the genius of the people, that is diffufed fo widely among
them, and diverfified fo much, has a right to be regarded,
either as a native, or a very ancient inhabitant of the country
where it is found.

IV. Tue conftruction of thefe tables implies a great know-
ledge of geometry, arithmetic, and even of the theoretical part
of aftronomy.

In proof of this, it is unneceflary to recapitulate the re-
marks that have been already made. It may be proper, how-
ever, to add, that the method of calculating eclipfes, to which
thefe tables are fubfervient, is, in no refpect, an empirical one;
founded on the mere obfervation of the intervals at which
eclipfes return, one after another, in the fame order. It is
indeed remarkable, that we find no trace here of the pe-
riod of 6585 days and 8 hours, or 223 lunations, the Saros of

the Chaldean aftronomers, which they employed for the pre--""=—

dition of eclipfes, and which (obferved with more or lefs ac-
curacy) the firft aftronomers every where muft have employed,
before they were able to analyfe eclipfes, and to find out the
laws of every caufe contributing to them. That empirical me-
thod, if it once exifted in India, is now forgotten, and has
long fince given place to the more fcientific and accurate one,
which offers a complete analyfis of the phenomena, and calcu-
lates, one by one, the motions of the fun, of the moon, and of
the node.

But what, without doubt, is to be accounted the greateft
refinement in this fyftem, is the hypothefis employed in calcu-
lating the equations of the centre for the fun, moon and pla-
nets, that, viz. of a-circular orbit having a double eccentricity,

or

ASTRONOMY of th BRAHMINS. Ig

or having its centre in the middle, between the earth and the
point about which the angular motion is uniform*. If to this
we add the great extent of geometrical knowledge requifite to
combine

* Tr fhould have been remarked before, that M. Barty has taken notice of the ana-
logy between the Indian method of calculating the places of the planets, and Pro-
temy’s hypothefis of the equant, though on different principles from thofe that
have been followed here, and fuch as do not lead to the fame conclufion. In treating
of the queftion, whether the fun or earth has been fuppofed the centre of the planetary
motions by the authors of this aftronomy, he fays, “‘ Ils femblent avoir reconnu que les
‘ deux inégalités (l’équation du centre et la parallaxe de l’orbe annuel) etoient vues de
“¢ deux centres differens ; et dans l’impoflibilité of ils étoient de déterminer et le lieu et
‘* la diftance des deux centres, ils ont imaginé de rapporter les deux inégalités 4 un point
‘ qui tint le milieu, c’eft-a-dire, 4 un point également éloigné du foleil, et de la terre.
“ Ce nouveau centre refemble aflez au centre de l’équant de Protemez. (Att. Ind.
Difc. Prel. p. 69.) The fictitious centre, which M. Baitty compares with the equant
of Proremy, is therefore a point which bife¢ts the diftance between the fun and earth,
and which, in fome refpetts, is quite different from that equant; the fictitious centre,
which, in the preceding remarks, is compared with the equant of Prozemy, is 2
point of which the diftance from the earth is bifected by the centre of the orbit,
precifely as in the cafe of that equant. M. Barzty draws his conclufion from the ufe
made of half the equation /chzgram, as well as half the equation manda, in order to find
the argument of this laft equation. The conclufion here is eftablifhed, by abftracting
altogether from the former, and confidering the cafes of oppofitions and conjunétions,
when the latter equation only takes place. If, however, the hypothefis of the equant
fhall be found of importance in the explanation of the Indian aftronomy, it muft be
allowed that it was firft fuggefted by M. Baiuty, though in a fenfe very different from
what it is underftood in here, and from what it was underftood in by Prouemy.

For what farther relates to the parts of the aftronomy of Chaldea and of Greece,
which may be fuppofed borrowed from that of India, I muft refer to the roth Chap.
of the Affronomie Indienne, where that fubject is treated with great learning and
ingenuity. After all, the filence of the ancients with refpect to the Indian aftro-
nomy, is not eafily accounted for. The firft mention that is made of it, is by the
Arabian writers ; and M. Barxry quotes a very fingular paflage, where Massoun1, an

author of the rath century, fays, that Brama compofed a book, entitled, Sind-Hind, that

is, Of the Age of Ages, from which was compofed the book Magéi/i, and from thence the
Almageft of Proremy. Aft. Ind. Dife. prel. p. 175.

Tue fabulous air of this paflage is, in fome meafure, removed, by comparing it with
one from Asurraracius, who fays, that, under the celebrated At Maimon, the 7th

- Khalif of Babylon, (about the year 813 of our era) the aftronomer Hasasu compofed

three fets of aftronomical tables, one of which was ad regulas Sind Hind ; that is, as
Mr Costarp explains it, according to the rules of fome Indian treatife of aftronomy.
(Afiatic Mifcel. Vol. I. p. 34.) The Sind-Hind is therefore the name of an aftronomical
book that exifted in India in the time of Hasasu, and the fame, no doubt, which Mas-
soup fays was alcribed to Brama.

192 REMARKS on the, &c.

combine this, and the other principles of their aftronomy together,

and to deduce from them the juft conclufions ; the poffeffion of

a calculus equivalent to trigonometry ; and, laftly, their ap-
proximation to the quadrature of the circle, we fhall be afto-
nifhed at the magnitude of that body of fcience, which mutt
have enlightened the inhabitants of India in fome remote age,
and which, whatever it may have communicated to the weftern
nations, appears to have received nothing from them.

Sucgi are the conclufions that feem to me to follow, with
the higheft probability, from the fa€ts which have been ftated.

They are, without doubt, extraordinary ; and have no other — i

claim to our belief, except that, as I think has been fully
proved, their being falfe were much more wonderful than their
being true. There are but few things, however, of which the
contrary is impoffible. It muft be remembered, that the
whole evidence on this fubjeét is not yet before the public, and
that the repofitaries of Benares may contain what is to confirm
or to invalidate thefe obfervations.

,

XIV. On the Resotution of INDETERMINATE PRo-
BLEMS. By foun LESLIE, A.M.

[Read by Mr PLarFatr, Dec. 1. 1788.]

\

tions is equal to that of the unknown quantities. If fimple ex- .
“1, é %
_ preffions only occur, the anfwers will always be found in num-

concerned, the values of the unknown quantities will com-
only be involved in furds, which it is impoflible to exhibit on
vy arithmetical fcale, and to which we can only make a re-
I eated approximation. Hence the origin of that branch of
analyfis which is employed in the inveftigation of thofe pro-
blems, where the number of unknown quantities exceeds that of

of curiofity ; it can be applied with advantage to the
her calculus. Yet the doétrine of indeterminate equations
has been feldom treated in a form equally fyftematic with the
other parts of algebra. The folutions commonly given are de-
dof uniformity, and often require’a variety of aflumptions..
he object of this paper is to refolve the complicated expreffions

ptions, by help of a fingle principle, which, though ex-
tremely fimple, admits of a very extenfive application,
~ Vou. Il. bb Ler

194 On the RESOLUTION of

Ler AXB be any compound quantity equal to andthe
CxXD, and let m be any rational number affumed at plea- =
fure ; it is manifeft that, taking equimultiples, AXmB = CxmD. —
If, therefore, we fuppofe, that A = mD, it muft follow, that a

Cc : afte a
mB = C,or B=~—. Thus two equations of a lower dimen- ©

fion are obtained. If thefe be capable of farther decompofi-
tion, we may affume the multiples 7 and fp, and form four —
equations {till more fmple. By the repeated application of this —
principle, an higher equation, if it admit of divifors, will be
refolved into thofe of the firft order, the number of which ]
will be one greater than that of the multiples aflumed. Hence —
the number of fimple equations into which.a compound ex- |
preflion can be refolved, is equal to the fum of the exponents _
of the unknown quantities in the higheft term. Wherefore a —
problem can be folved by the application of this principle, only —
when the aggregate /um, formed by the addition of the expo- —
nents in the higheft terms of the feveral equations propofed, is a
at leaft equal to the number of the unknown quantities, aes ;
ther with that of the affumed multiples.
WE fhall illuftrate the mode of applying our principle, in
the folution of fome of the more general and ufeful problems
connected with this branch of analyfis. ee

tbe
eee
“ie
‘

PROBLEM I.

Let it be anit to find two rational numbers, the di iference ¢ ( p
the [quares of which shall be a given number.

Let the given number be the product of a and 4; then by
hypothefis, x7—y* = ab; but thefe compound quantities admit
of an eafy refolution, ree (x+y) (x—y) = axd. If therefore we

fuppofe x+y = ma, we fhall obtain x—y = = ; where m is r-

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 195

_ bitrary, and if rational,.« andy muft alfo be rational. Tranf
* .pofing the firft equation, x = ma—y, and reducing the fe-
_ cond, mx—my = b, and ey ate mx = b+my, and therefore,

. b \
ie es =; ; whence by equality — — =:
ae:

= ma—y, and reducing,
. qd b--ny = ma—my, and tranfpofing 2my = m*a—b, whence y =

TE 7200-4

Bp 4 2h
; but x = ma—y, confequently x = case ,

a ‘SupPose it were required to find a number which, increafed
01 diminifhed by 10, would produce fquares. It is obvious,
> hat the number may be denoted, either by x*—10, or y’+103
whente x*—10 = y*+10, and tranfpofing x*—y* = 5X4, and
Sin? +4

“applying the above formulz, x = ~~; u #2, then x = 6

an d the required number 26.

PROBLEM $I. 5

" i tee: hypothefis, alte = w+i, and tranfpofing *°—a? =
and, by refolving into factors, (x-+a)(w—a) =
y)(6—y); whence, by fubftitution, x+a-= mb—my, and

= Tranfpofing the firft equation, x = mb—my—a;
icing the fecond, mx—ma = poe tranfpofing, mx =

matb+y matby
eS Sp Te ole ree a7

boty, and therefore x =

mi b—my — a, and matb+ty = ihm) ma, and tranf-
. bb 2 pofing

196 On the RESOLUTION of

pofing my+ty = iii aie: that_is, y =a di 4

m*b—2ma—b

a ay ae = mb—my—a, and fubftituting, x = a

m?*a+2mb—a
m* +1

Thus, if @=5, andd= 10, andm=2; hid

4.10—4. 5—10 ~5-+4.10— ~
i= Fino 2, and « = SS#"S — 115 but (11)-F 9

5
(2)? = 125 = (r0)*-+(5)?.
Cor. Ir 6 = 0, we thall obtain two fquares, the fum of which

fhall be a given fquare. For y = — = Ort = and «=

m*a—a 4.1 a
=ai Thus, if@=1o, andm = 2, then y= sega and

4-10—10

§

Xs

= 6, but 644+36 = Ioo.

PROBLEM It. -

Fe

Zo find two rational numbers, the /quares of which, together with Hi.
ou sigs multiple of their product, fball be equal to a given fquare.

By hypothefis, «*-+-y*-+dxy = a*, and tranfpofing x*+dxy oa
@—y’, and refolving into factors, x(x-+édy) = (aty)(a—y); %
whence, by aflumption, x+dy = ma—my, and x = ty |
Tranf{pofing the firft aehion: x = ma—my—by ; confequen is :
ly, = ma—my—by, or aty = ma—m »y—mby, and “a |
by tranfpofing, my-+-mby+y = m’a—a; whence y = ; :

m*—t

ek aE inp ish
a tnbia *% But x= ——,wherefore x =

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 197

443°

4+6+1 22

SUPPOSE 4 = 22, b= 3, and m=.2, thenx =

vee X22 — 6. But 196+36+2 252 = 484

‘Cor. lr 6 = 5, the hypothefis will be x*-Ly?-++xy = a*; and

2m+1 m*—t 4,
as meme ees See Thus, if a= 13, and m
pon
i, hey = Sa ee th =, and y= Peat EBs

ut 49-+64+56 ssilr6g: =~(13)%

Bis. 7
hse: r Fok OB EM IV.
ua 4

To ‘ied two numbers, fuch, that each, increased by unit, foal bea
uare, and their fam, increafed by unit, a given fquare. ,

ET the numbers be denoted by «*—r and y’—1, and
firft condition will be obferved. The laft requires, that
-1-ty* bie: RD or w+y*—1 = a’. By tranfpofition, x7—1
a@—y*, and by refolution, ree fea yee = (at+y)(a—y) ;
wh nce x+1 = ma—my, and mx—m = a-+y. Tranfpofing the
firf t equation, x = ma—my—1; and tranfpofing the fecond, mx =

are

a+ytm
aes whence ————__ =

et “i and dividing, « =
my—t, and mune: aty-+-m = ma—my—m, or

m*a—2m—a

rr RR. But

Ry = ma—am—a, and therefore y= =

+y+m h gic m? -+-2ma—t
a Ww. cues x = ae

SUPPOSE

198 On the -RESOLUTION of

. 44+32—1 i
SupposE a = 8, and m = 2, thenx = Een and
4.8—4—8 =i
J=V =h4 and the numbers are 48 and 15; but —

48+I5+1 = 64 = (8).

PROBLEM Vv.

To find two Liars which, 3 a 4 unit, ‘slits beina ante
ratio.

By hypothefis, a:4::«°*—1:y*—13; whence the equation,
ay—a = bx°—b, and by refolution, (ayta)(y—1) =
(bx-+5)(x—1) ; wherefore by affumption, ay-+-a = mx—m, and
my—m_= bx+b. Tranfpofing the firft, ay = mx—m—a, and
dividing y = ahi: Tranfpofing the fecond, my =

_ @

mx—m—a

‘hx-+b-+m, and dividing, y = eae” wherefore,

4
bu-+-b+m

m

, and reducing mx—m—ma = abx-+ab-+-ma, that —

is, m’*x—abx = m*+ab+2ma, and therefore, x =

m* ee <a m?* +-ab+-2mb

; buty = , confequently y =

m*—ab

g+6+12

Suppose a4 = 2,6 = 3, andm = 3; thenx = ae

g+S+18_ "
9-6 = TTS but 2: 3:: 80: 120 ins).

7

and y =

Cor. 1. WueEn the numbers x and y are very great, it is ob-
vious that the ratio of «*—1 to y*—1, will be nearly equal to
that of x* to y*; and confequently thie ratio of ya to /b will — i
be ftill more nearly equal to that of wm toy. If a and 4, befidesiy
bey

INDETERMINA TE PROBLEMS. 199

_ be nearly equal, the approximation will be more accurate.
agi m = a; then the denominator m’—ab will be {mall, and
as herefore the fractions large ; 3; whence, by fubftitution,
4 Tis typo, ie, etch = 3a°-+ab: 3ab+ar aa
ath: 3b-+a, nearly. Fi,

‘ft THus /49: /50::197: 1993: 7: oe as whence 50 =
.... true to the laft place. :

SR VOL) ape +b —b
t) as 2. aE Bea terete ),

oy -+-ab+-a(a-+b) (ay. +ab-+-b(a+b)
Sees 7 7 \ 7. daeas 3 Ae DO
wi =) ab (‘) ee
mce, by proper reductions, ya : ¥d:: 5a*-+10ab+0* : 5b°-
_ This formula is more intricate than the former, but

Moore’ accurate. Thus, 9: ¥10:: 405-+g00+100 : 500+
_= 1405: 1481, and Y 10 = 3,16209, true to the laft,

Pik O BLiE:M © NI:

inal the poli mgx-+-mh = y, and tranfpo-
| fing

200 On the RESOLUTION of

jamb my—f __ y—mb
a 3 Whence, —> =e?

ducing, m-gy—mfe = ey—meh, and tranfpofing, m’sy—e =

fing and dividing, x =

: — me iy .
mfg—meh, and confequently, y = a Alfo x = TE :
fmth | bn:
m*g—e

SUPPOSE Pa a =. lf m= 2, then x= = = 95.

24—14
th
Cor. Ler e = 1, and g = 13; the hypothefis will become

(«+f)(#+4) = y. In this cake we obtain « =" andy = 7 %

and y = = 10; but 20X5 = 100 = (10)’.

mf—mh . ‘ %i%
mui Thus, if (x+12)(x+2), where f = 12, and b = 2, —
18 3 .
: 3 12—— pam Id
and m= +; thenx = i =6)and 7S ee but
—_—-—rI —-—lI :

10X68 = te = r2)*

PROBLEM . VII.

Let it be required to find rational values of x and y, in the general -
quadratic, Ax’+Bx+C = y’. ita

Case Il. When the firft term is a fquare.

= ye5 Dy. ee aisline bee = Y—ax’, and refolving into
factors, b(«-+ +)= (y-+ax)(y—ax) ; whence, by aflumption,

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 201

yean

. ++ = my—max, and b = Reducing the firft equa-

ic on bx-te = mby—mnabx, and y = ve . Again, redu-
Pine the fepbad. mb = y-+ax, and y = mb—ax ; confequently,

ee
= mb—ax, or mabx+be-te = m’b’—mabx, and

m*b*—c

therefore, % = Saba" But y = mb—ax; therefore, y =

m?ab* -mb* +-ac

UPPOSE eet ari4 = 7, and m= 23 then *%.=

1147-#2.40-6
= = 2, and y = he = 83 but 9.4+-7.2-+-14

ore 1. Ler a= t, the expreffion becomes x’++-bx-+-¢ = y?;
fe. m*h*——c m*b* -mb® +c
Was “aiid? andy = = Gibb Thus, if Wb hh g

y 6
*, and m = 2; thn« = a 3, andy =

6432-4
16-44
ota: 3+4 = 25 = (5)

16-4 = $53

is 2 WHEN the third term is wanting, the exieines be-
es an’ +bx =Je5 ind: in this cafe, the formule will be-

m*b bemb :
cary andy= 7" = Thus, if.

e by reduction, 7 =

cntie 52
Lea es, = — 439-4201
aid and m= 23 Meee st toute rs

ce Cask

202 On the RESOLUTION of

Case Il. When the third term is a fquare.
Suppose C= c’, and the expreffion is axr-tbute = Ute hd By .
tranfpofition, ax*+-bv = y*—c?, and by refolution, (ax+d)x =

(y+ce)(y—c) ; whence by affumption, x = as and ax+s =

F my—mc—b
my—me. But from the fecond equation, x = er. confe-
1 my—mc—b peace ‘ De tcemb-ene

\quently, ———-- = — 5 whence y= — and) ia
yee 2mc+b 4

m — m*—a

Suppose 3x°+5x+16 = y*, and m = 2; then « =:

16+ 7
oe AT, ane “ee = 38. But 3.(21)*+5.21-+16

==) raga oy (38)%: .
Cor. 1. Let 6 = 0; then the expreflion becomes ax?+c?
m* c--ac

4 bes 2mc
=e, and 2\ pe, and y=

> Thus, 2x*-+9. = ae

.
—a

if m= 2," = ne: == 6, “and roo = 9g. But 2.(6)*+9

= Seh= (9)
Gor. 2 Ip b'=.'0, and ¢= 1; then a*--1 = 9’, andi

2m m* +a ;
——, andy=——. Puta = m’*—d, and we fhall obtain x -
mo —a . m°—a *]
2m 2m*—d ehhh ‘: it
=, and y = —>—. Hence it is evident, that x and y

will be expreffed in whole numbers, when 2m is divifible by d.

Call the quotient~; thenx = 2, and y = mn—13; whence
y mn —1 I d 5 2 :
— = ——=m——, or m——, which are the two firft terms
x n n 2m

* of

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 203

of the continued frattion denoting “(m*—d), or ya. Thus, if
BY aed = y*3then¥12 =V(16—4) = 4—2 and

2

2 &e.

i It is to be oan that, when d = 1, the values of x ad
_ y may be difcovered from any given number of terms of the
fr et fraction. |

Taos, if 3x?++1 cad jy then 3 = V(4—1) = 2—2

——
ta 4 &c. $
whence x = 4, 15,56, 209 &c. and y = 7, 26, 97, 362 &c.
Ir a = m*+d, then x = —a”, and y = —mn—1 ; but the

- expreffion ax-+1 = y*, will not be altered by changing the figns
ial of, x and y; > whente x = = 4%, and y = mn-+1; i confequently,

iti denoting (+d). Thus, 20%7-+1 = y?3
4 Bi, n I ;

me: a + &e.

uy then 20 = ¥(16+4) = = 42 I and x = 2,and y=

Rpiey es

Bd 2+1 = 9; for 20. Jes = Sot == AOFe

. WE may obferve, that if d= 1, the values of x and y, in
the expreffion (m*+1)xi+1 = y*, may be found by taking
"am even or odd number of terms, according as the fign + or
is is to be adopted.

moa.) Let a= o, then ax’--bx = y?; and, in this cafe,

=: eer sy and y = ——. Thus, 7x*-+4x = y?3 if m = 3, ©

then # = = = 2, andy= a = | For 7.(2)*+4.2. =
6 = (6):

C Onn : CASE

204 On the RESOLUTION of a

Case Ill. When BB—4AC ts a /quare.
Let x7-+ aan — = DXE;; then the divifors of ax*+-bx-+e

will be — xD, and #XE. But it appears, from the dodtrine
of equations, that the excefles of x above the roots of the —

2 b . . id 7
quadratic, x?-++ —-« + — = 0, are the divifors of the expreffion

b+-/ (b*— 4ac)
2a

xr sate, Wherefore, D = «+ , and) Bee

Pel ems see 2) Hence, when Y (°—gac) is is a whole or fractional

24
number, the expreflion ax*+dx-+c admits of refolution, and 4
b b*—4ac b b?~-4ac ;
a and n(x xb —— 4 ’). Ane
when thefe are found, the folution will be seek from

Prob. VI.
Suppose 14x*+19x+6 = y*, then b°—4ac = -361—336 =

25, and D= “4 (xt 5), and E = n(e+ 54). Ifa = 2,

the divifors are—(x-+

6 ’
the divifors will be Ft 5) = 7x+6, and 2(x+ —) =
2x-+1 5 whence, from Prob. VI. » = 2, and y = Io. For if i!
14.4+19.2+6 = 100 = (I00)* a

4

CASE IV. When the general st es can be refolved into fabtors,
if diminifbed by a given /quare.

Let (ext+f)(gx+s) = y?—d*, then (ex+/) (gx+h) ail '
(y+d)(y—d); whence ex+f = aie and Seth it a at ei

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 205

ea ; and by reducing —

,

m*g—e

yt+d—mbh my—md— +-d—mb
e fecond, x = ne whence —— aS Sra and con-
f tj ty 2 des pie my—md— ;
Mephicntlys y= omtdrttietde meh pi YL mes here.
‘ Pi)

alfo x = eam bee

Bae - m* g—e } }

_ Suppose 14x*+31x"-+24 = 9"; then, taking 9 = d? from both
; ides, 14x*+-31«-+15 = y*—d*; but /(b*—4ac) = /(g61—840)
= 11; whence, if 2 = 2, the divifors, by Cafe III. will be
5 and 2x-+3; wherefore, making m= 2, x =
245 ;
7
29 = (23)

= 5, andy = Se 23. For 14.254+31.5-+24

We. 8 LE My “VIIt

é cz sige aah y?, and ac-+b = d?, fubtracting thefe equa-
we fhall obtain ax*—ac* = y’—d*, and by refolution,
ac)(x+c) = (y+d)(y—d); whence ax—ac = my—md,

= = From the firft of thefe equations, x =

<i ae my—md--ac

na , and at the fecond, x = =, whence) —=—
2 J =

- and y= m drad—amac oy (m? +-a)d—2mac ¢ Rat x

m*—a : m?—a

205 “On the RESOLUTION of

m m*—a

tthe np ; therefore x = 2™—-CHtae To fimplify thefe a

formule, put p = bet, and g = = ; then will « = dg—cp,
and y = pd—gac. If c become negative, the conditions of the .
problem will not be affected. In this cafe, x = pe+gqd, and
y = pdtagce. The values of x and y, obtained from either “ie
of thefe formule, may be repeatedly fubftituted for thofe of 4
cand d; and thus a variety of numbers will be difcovered.
Suppose 2x7+7 = y*, then c=1, andd = 33; and if m —

zy

4
ese’ Fs Pines: = 3, andg=7y = 23 whence ee

3-1+2.3 = g or 3, and y= 3.3+4 = 130r 5. Again, «=
3-94+2.13 = 153 or 3, and y = 3.13+4.9 = 7501.3. Ona
2°9.5--2.5 = To or land y = 4657+ 4-3-— 27 OF 33 and fo
| repeatedly. 7
We may obferve, that the value of p is the fame with that q
of y in Prob. VI. Cor. II. and the value of g the fame with
that of x. Whence, if p = d, and g =, we fhall obtain for
the expreflion ax°—1 = y®, x = 2cd, andy = d* + act.
Thus, in the example, 2x*—1 = y®, wherec = 2, andd= 3, ©
v= 2.2.3 = 12, and y = 3.34+2.2.2 = 173 and again, x =
2.12.17 = 408, and y = 17.17-+-2.12.12 = 577. Bi

aiREEEiEEEnmeniecdnmee ee ee

PROBLEM Ix.

Se.

To yee two rational numbers, the fum of which fball be qual
to a given number, and the fum of their Squares a fquare.

ro

. ;:
By hypothefis, v--y = 4, and x*+y*? = 2%. Tranfpofing the
fecond equation, x* = z*—y*, and refolving into factors, aXe i 9

=~ ee

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 207

= (z4y)(e—) ; whence, x= mz—my, and z--y = mx 5 where-

ue
e mz = my+x, and z= a ; alfo, z = mx—y; confe-

P quently, my--x = mx—my, and y Li eeee

But from the
2m $

My

a IA ae
m

equation, y = a—x; wherefore a—x =

~

m1 d Leek
m*-+-2m—1 ? and 2 =

PROBLEM .- X.

ro find two numbers, whofe fum fhall be a given number, and the

‘

rodut of the fums, formed by adding given numbers to them, @

- fecond equation, we obtain by affumption, «+b =

a--b—me*

moe is alfo «

quently, m*y--m*c—b = a—y, and y=
— antmer—b og ya tb _amtct-tbm
ray marr. ? and == wie Ge ans

SUPPOSE:

208 On the RESOLUTION of a

i Ri

Suppose a = 17,6 =6,¢=2, and let m= 23 then y_ ;

17+5—8 ; 68-+-8—6 344+-4+12 KM it
Fp ae nea S214, ond. acs SS

_ But 14+3 = 17, and (144+6)(3+2) = 100,= (10),
Bhi)!

PROBLEM XL NG

Let it be required to find two numbers, Such that, if to each,
their Jum and difference, unit be added, the numbers gis Shall be
fquares.

Tue firft condition will be obferved, if the numbers be} de-
noted by x*—1 and y*—1. The hypothefis will then requned
a-ty—r = 2%, and #—y*-++1 = v4

TRaAwNsposinc the firft equation, —1 = 2*—y’, and re-_

folving into faétors, (x-+1)(w—1) = (z-+y)(z—y); whence, —
x-+1 = mzZ—my, and z--y = mx—m ; therefore, z = na i

t
= a, from which we have y = “*#=*—™'=7 R,

2m

AGAIN, tranfpofing the fecond equation, x*—y? = vt,
and refolving, («-+y)(«—y) = feck ens and by affumption, — a
aty = pv—p, and v+1 = px—py, and therefore, v = a

vokony 508, ’ + i
px—py—t — ‘ te ee i

Hence y= & aoe

° Oh ae ss92 = py 2 % al
But it was found, that y = — wherefore, *

prx—x—2p _ m*x—x—m*—1 | - reduction, « | =
ena os i ; and by re :

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 209

— __ pr +p?—4mp-+m* +1 tt en $1) p*-1)—amp
T p*m*—2mp*— p* +n*-+am—1? p? ((m—1)?—2)+(m+1)*—2

In the fame manner, by finding the values of x in terms of

m*p>—2m* p-p>—m*-F2p—1 4 or =
Pp? m* —2mp?—p* +m? +,

_y, &c. we obtain y =

; aw (p—1)?—2)-H p+ )—2 ,
| eae ecient

ao PROBLEM. xi.
‘tp find three numbers, the product of any two of which, increafed
by Pe, Jhall bea Square.

“By i pile: xyHr = vy xe-+I = s, and y2+1 = wv’.
Se NETO the brit equation, ae = v’—1, and re-
2am--y

= me confequenty, @ v= sand align tah and a=
- . > wel

nd aiding xXx% = (s+1)(s—1) 3 whence, z = ps—p, and
I = px; confequently, s = aan = px—t, and reducing,

2m--y

th Z+2p pia . —
—- Bux = —S; wherefore mz-+2m°p =

’ py, and y= mm 2+ 2m" p— 2mp* "

p*
, 3. Moreover, by the third equation, yz =) w*—15
whence, yXz = (w-+1)(w—1), and y = gw—g, and w+
es wherefore, w= a4 = gz—I, and y = q?%—29-

Vou. II. dd But

210 On the” RESOLUTION of

But WS mesa oa confequendy, py2z—2pq =

mz+2mp—amp*, and % = apt geam'p—amp rae p a » Now, y =
7’%—29 3 whence by fubftitution, y = seats .

And becaufe x = a, we have alfo x = Ser aaa = am 24

Cor, Let m= ss then the formulz will be more firnple 5

— 4 — 252 —
ip an iape sr Mg 2 ait ya — ste i 1, and xe — 2 gt 2p— 2p” 5
P qs! TT) eee ? if

:

THERE isa el) ot a Aa in which the above formule do

not directly apply, the numerators and denominators vanifhing
at the fame time... It is when m= 1, p = 2,andg= 4. For, —

re

“ ‘ 2am hq* 2p? g*+2mg | i= 24+1 t2riq Py s f
by art. 3: J — gene oS naan rare _ ae > where- ¥

fore the alue of y may be exprefled by any affumed number, ps F

But,. by art. 1. « = amy = yt2; whence es eae Alto, 1

by art. 2. vente, rs cee dedfore ithe ant8, and ;
%—= 4n+4. Thus, 2, 4, 12; for 2X4-+-l = 9, 2X12-+14 =) 065
and 4X12+1 = 49.

PRO B:L-E.M . XI. y

given number.

-

By hypothe, pie ay*, and S aheine: F< sae = axy i
whence v = ma, and y*? = mx*; but «* = (ma)’, confequently :
b i Vy

INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 21
ye ma, and yXy = maXm’a; and by a fecond affumption,
YY = pma, and m’a = py; but x = ma; whence y = px, and
“ iE Ne = meets — = px, and c=
as but y = px, whence y = = ap*. :

' Beceense a= 3, and p = 2, then x = 3X(2)* = 12, and
= 3.(2)? = 24; .For (12)3;=.1728.= 3.(24)

mance y = .

wROB LEM. XIV.

m ‘Ta ed two numbers, the Jum. of which fhall be a given fquare, -
and the fum of their cubes a fquare.

. rast

Af ‘By hypothefis, ay = #, and basciedes = 2%. Dividing the

cond equation by the firft, we obtain = ae = w—ay+y, or

educing the firft of thefe expreffions, z = —

; and by
2 eeond; % = max—may—ay ; whence “77

ay—ay, and ~~ = ae . But from the firft equation,

i Ao ob abicwly bith ad
"x; wherefore, —— — = @—x, and therefore x =
at ol m 4 ©

m*—tI
eat ee
2m*--2am—t

d dz. Alfo,.

. Buty = =a—x, confequently, y = a*X

212 On th RESOLUTION, &c.

Alfo, becaufe z = “*"" we have by fubftitution, z =
m

m?* +-m-+1
2m*+2m—1 °

a?xX
Cor.1. Iza = 2m*+2m—1, two whole numbers may be
always found, the fum of which, and that of their cubes, fhall
be fquares. For in this cafe, x = = (2m*-+2m—1)(m*+2m), ¥ =
(2m*-+-am—1)(m*—1), and z = (2m?+-2m—1)*(m*-+m-+1.)
Tuus, if m = 2, we fhall find x = 88, y = 33, and z =
847. But 88+33 = 121 = (11), and (88)?+(33)? = 717409
= (847)*. . . .
_ Cor. 2. Ir y be negative, we fhall obtain two numbers, the
. difference of which, and that of their cubes, fhall be fquares.

PrN ae
Put m= £4, and fubftituting, « = xX >2— 4. , yee
, q P P
+=
Ge) de
oe Pe Rl aS
ots zi ; SS ae! q ai
Cpa er eer , and z = 4°X>=——> , and by re
+4 - optus
gn. ah 8 oe

2 2p?
f a pr-2pq = ax—t—? — , and zg =
duction, x x “op? +2p9g—q" ? y ahaa age ?

a?xX ear . If a = 2p+269—¢°, we fhall obtain —
2p*-+2p9—4

whole numbers; for « = (2f?+2f9—g9')(p+29), y =

(2p"+-2p9—9°)(-—P*), and z = (2p°*+2p9—-7' (P4097)

" Tues examples will probably be thought fufficient to ex- —
plain the application of this method to the folution of indeter-
minate problems in general, ‘and to fhew that it is not lefs ex- _
tenfive, and much more uniform, than thofe that are commonly ~
in ufe. tn

XV.

+

xv. A DISSERTATION on the CLIMATE of RUSSIA.
ia By MaTTHEW GUTHRIE, M.D. Phy/ician to the Impe-
a rial Corps of Noble Cadets at St Peterfourg, F.R.SS. Lonp.
and Epin.: With two Letters from his Excellency
ae M. EpINuUs, Counf. of State, Kn‘ of the Order of
St ANNE, &e. te. We.

1 e [Read by Mr Rozison, Nov. 2. 1789.)

N a paper publithed in the fecond volume of the fecond de-
cade of the Medical Commentaries of Edinburgh, I men-
. tioned a defign of endeavouring to trace the influence of a cold
climate on the human body and its difeafes, which fhould form
if a contraft with the many accounts publifhed of late years rela-
q tive to the effects of hot climates ; and I likewife mentioned my
a having given a detached piece*, fome years ago, a8 a com-
mencement of the fubject, in ae fixty-eighth volume of the
| Ehilofophical Tranfactions of London, which contains matter
Hi -neceflary to illuftrate fome parts of the following Differtation.

___ I was induced to this defign, by having met with nothing of
‘the kind in the courfe of my reading ; and by remarking that,

In
oe ie Tas title of the Differtation mentioned above, is, The Antifeptic Regimen of the
_ Natives of Ruffia.

214 DISSERTATION on the

In this point of view, the fubject feems to me to merit in-
veftigation, fince the difcuflion of it is an obje€t to fcience in
general, and to medicine in particular. The plan, then, that
I have chalked out to myfelf, as likely to throw light on the
fubjeét, is to give the Hiftory of the Northern Climate in one
paper, and that of its Phyfical Influence in another, as it ap-
pears in the new capital of Ruffia, St Peterfburg, where I have
refided for many years. Thefe two Diflertations will contain a
number of faéts and obfervations, from which Phyficians, in
the double fenfe of the word, may draw conclufions ; for | pre-
tend to nothing more than the honour of laying the foundation
of an important work to be profecuted by others, and which
will probably require many years to complete.

As to the execution of my plan: F77/?, I have made ufe of
the meteorological regifter, kept in the Imperial Academy of
Sciences, as fuch regifter muft be more clofely attended to than
that of any individual, whofe private bufinefs muft often call
him abroad at the proper hours of obfervation.

2dly, | wave adopted the Academy’s divifion of the year in-
to two feafons only, as in fact we have but two, properly fpeak-
ing, viz. winter and fummer, the one feafon running into the
other, without leaving well defined intermediate periods, to an-
{wer to what are called fpring and autumn in the temperate
climates. Nature appears to hurry in the north, by as quick a
tranfition as poflible, from the long fevere winter into its fhort —
but ardent fummer; fo that our thawing feafon occupies the

period of your fpring: and the fame kind parent feems to pro- “_

long the feafon of vegetation, from a fimilar wife intention, as
long as poflible, till furprifed in a manner at once by the re-
turn of winter, without much of what may be called autumn

weather.
3dly, | nave followed the plan of the academic regifter, in
prefixing to each feafon an enumeration of the common pheno-
mena which take place in it, fuch as the quantity and duration
of

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. a1

| of froft, fnow, rain, congelation, &%c. as will be feen in the pa-
per, adding to the fhort note of the Academy on each article,
__a few remarks of my own, which I have collected during a long
ferince in the north.
_ 4thly, My calculations are all taken from the mean of fifteen
a as will be feen by the annexed regifter, an abridgment
that kept by Profeffor Eunzr, perpetual Secretary to the Im-
perial Academy of Sciences, with which he obligingly fur-

nf I am happy to embrace this opportunity of acknowledging
a ar number of fimilar-obligations for many years paft, from our
e equally liberal and learned Profeflors of the Imperial Academy
_ of Sciences.

_ Lajily, Lave added to the og the sompgrative degrees

on ufe i in Great Britain, and the fecond in Ruffia, as it
cr to be (and I believe generally is) with the public every
i re from its greater fimplicity.

&

The RUSSIAN WINTER,

With the common Phenomena attending it.

1p ‘Tue Ruffian winter certainly muft take the lead, when treat-
of the feafons, both from its duration and confequences in
northern fituation. The duration of winter is generally
m the end of September to the beginning of May, although
fe certainly have occafionally very pleafant weather in April,
pite of morning and evening froft, which the fun, in his
er approach, diffipates inftantly on appearing above the
izon; nay, the agreeable effect which a little of his "fenfible
uence has, when contrafted with his little more than lunar
on for fo long a period, leads us to give to April almoft the
ank of a fammer month, although I doubt if, in a more
fouthern

216 DISSERTATION on the

fouthern country, it would merit that appellation under the fame
circumftances.

Duration of Froft and Snow.

Tue duration of winter, if it is to be defined by the mean
term of froft and fnow, according to the common method, muft
be dated from the gth of October to the beginning of May,
when its force is fo far fpent as to be perceptible only by a
flight hoar-froft at an early morning hour ; and as the continu-
ance of {now is generally much the fame as that of froft, we
may reckon the mean period of both at about 230 days in the
year.

Term of the Rivers remaining Frozen.

Burt the duration of what is called the real Ruffian winter,
when our communication by water with the reft of the world
is fhut up, and that element confounded in appearance, and
almoft in folidity, with the land, is confiderably fhorter, and
is to be reckoned from the 27th of November to the 19th of
April, (its mean term for fifteen years paft), that is to fay, it
comprehends about 160 days in the year; for in the feafon al-
lotted to winter by the ordinary definition, as given above,
there are about 70 days, when our froft, although equal to the
congelation of water in its tranquil ftate, is incapable to arreft
the rapid current of rivers. Nay, I am yet to learn what de-
gree of it might be required for that purpofe; for in this
country there are certain circumftances which ufually accelerate
the congelation of rapid rivers, fuch as, their furface being
covered with floating ice, formed in the lakes * above, which,

at

* As for example, the floating ice which covers the Neva, and fo much facilitates its
congelation, is formed in the Ladoga lake, where an inferior degree of froft can aét upom
the ftill water, to what is neceflary to congeal the river, and on the firft wind it is brake
up and carried down by the current.

~

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 419

at the firft obftacle it meets with in its courfe down the river,
i (as at the bar a little below the city of Peterfburg) accumulates
_ fo as to form one uniform fheet to appearance, for many miles
_ above the obftacle, compofed of a number of large thick flakes,
_ which the fevere froft that commonly prevails about that time,
_almoft inftantly cements together, although the fame degree of
4 froft i is much inadequate to the power of congealing the naked
a farface of the running river. By this ceconomy of nature, al-
_ though the northern countries are much interfected by large
{ and rapid rivers, which, from the floating ice, do not admit of
_ ftanding bridges, ftill the communication is feldom interrupted _
_ fortwenty-four hours, as they fhut up with a degree of thick-
y nef fufficient to bear the weight of a man almoft immediately,
aod heavy burdens in a few days.

Lhicknefs and other Phenomena of the Ice.

by Febriary, our ice has acquired the aftonifhing thicknefs
f about three quarters of an Englifh yard, and, what is equally

af onifhing, it has loft not above a third of it, when become fo
S weak, at the breaking up of the rivers, as not to fupport the
weight of a dog. At this period, I have paid particular atten-
to its appearances, and found the mafs compofed of a
mber of long folid cry({tals, refembling, in fome meafure,
> pipes of an organ, about half a yard long, but almoft
hout adhefion, fo that the mafs feems to have loft little but
ementing principle, (if I may be allowed the expreffion)
h bound thofe cryftals together ; inftead of its being re-
d, according to the common opinion, to a pellicle, by the
on of the fun and water on its upper and under furfaces,
ich any one may convince himfelf is a vulgar prejudice, by
e infpection of a piece of the floating ice on the breaking
f the Neva, ‘aca although funk fo deep in the water as
Pivot, Il. ee to

218 DISSERTATION on the

to appear only like a pellicle above the furface, has the confider-
able thicknefs that I have mentioned, concealed below the water.

I may here fubjoin fome obfervations on the conducting
power of ice with refpeét to found. This is affirmed to be very
great, by the ingenious Profeffor of Natural Philofophy in your
Univerfity *. Iam difpofed to accede to his opinion, from know-
ing, that even the unbroken and uncultivated ground of our

{tepps or defarts conducts found fo well, that the Coffacks hear

the tread of a horfe at a great diftance, by laying their ear to
the ground. Experiments might be tried in this country ona
very great fcale. But as I have not had an opportunity of this
kind fince the thought ftruck me, I fhall content myfelf with
giving the following extract of a letter from a friend: “ Ha-
“ ying walked out on the ice to a great diftance from our fort
“ the other day, when its cannon were difcharged for the taking
“ of Oxakow, the firft intimation I received of this event
was, by a difagreeable ringing found from the ice,-and, after
fome feconds, the ufual report through the air, but not fo

“ violent as the firft.”

Regifter of the Weather for the fix Winter Months.
THERMO ME TER.

Our greateft cold exceeds in general 196° of De L1sxx’s,
equal to 24° below o of Faur. or 24°2 of Reaum. below o,
and commonly obtains in January.

Our mean cold for the fix winter months is, in the after-

noon, 154°, equal to 27° of Faur. above 0, or equal to 2° of

Reaum. below 0; Night, 162°, equal to 23° of Faur. above 0,

or to 7° of Reaum., below o.
Ir muft always be remembered, that they are the mean de-,
grees of cold and heat during a period of fifteen, years, which
are

* Joun Ropison, M.A. Profeflor of Natural Philofophy in the Univerfity of Edinburgh.

a

a “CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 219

f are fet down in this regifter ; for we have often, for example, a
_ more confiderable degree of cold than what is indicated above,
4s our greateft during the feafon ; 27° of REAuM. or 62° of
_ Faur. below 0, are often felt here, and fometimes as far as 30°
* nay,a cold of 32° below the freezing point of REAuM. is upon
_ tecord, which is the freezing point of the pureft mercury, ac-
cording to my experiments, publifhed here in 1785.

Ir mutt be alfo remarked, that the thermometer fometimes
basa furprifing range during winter, fo as to produce a change
_ of temperature from 10° to 25° of Reaum. (or from 23° to
57° of Faur.) in 24 hours; a trying circumftance for delicate
nN conftitutions, and which the moft robuft feel after the prime of
ft life. The preffure of the air on the body is alfo equally vari-
able in 24 hours, as indicated by the barometer on thefe occa-
a ions.
ae: BAROMETER.

Et ir ?

- Placed 20 feet above the mean level of the Neva, and at 6000

B from its opening into the gulph of Finland.
By. Higheft, © 28.87 — ofteneft in January.
Lowett, 26.99 ofteneft in November.

Difference, 1.88
_ Mean height, 28.02 Paris inches.

Winds. a

Tue prevailing wind during winter is the weft, and its pro-

"portion tothe eaftis,

Me if ~ Weft, 113 days in the fix winter months.

--——s Faft, ~—-« 68: days in the fame period.

ON. B. Tue fouth wind, and all to the weft of the meridian,

is reckoned weft ; the north wind, and all to the eaft of the

eridian, is reckoned eaft.
ee 2 THis

220 DISSERTATION on the

Tuis circumftance of the weft and foutherly winds prevail-
ing during the fevere northern winter, muft appear rather fin-

gular to moft people, efpecially in Great Britain, where the very:

name of N. and N.E. winds conveys the idea of cold. But
this phenomenon may eafily be explained on the principles ad-
vanced by Profeffor Rogison, in the Notes to Dr ROBERTSON’S
Hittory of America. Vide Note 4. B. IV.

Mean Quantity of melted Snow and Rain.

THeEseE together do not amount, in the fix winter months, to
more than about five Paris inches, although the whole furface
of the northern countries is covered with fnow to a confiderable
depth, over which we drive in fledges, without diftinguifhing
between land and water; whilft, during fummer, a period
apparently fair in comparifon, there falls more than double the

quantity of rain ; but indeed, as it pours in torrents, when it.

does rain, like thunder-fhowers in hot feafons, there mutt fall
more than the apparent drynefs of the feafon would lead one
to fuppofe at firft fight, efpecially when the large portion fur-
nifhed by the heavy night-dews, is added to the quantity.

I must here obferve, that water feems to- acquire fome
new properties, from being converted into fnow, froft, in-
cruftations, and even common river ice, if we are to judge
from the following facts: Fir/t, I have fhewn, in a paper pu-
blifhed in the Philofophical TranfaGtions of London, that the
frozen incruftation, which is formed on the infide of the win-
dows, in the habitations of the lower clafs of people in this
country, during the fevere part of wimter, (an inconvenience
avoided in the better fort of houfes by double windows), fets
loofe, on thawing, a fpecies of mephitic air, producing all the
dangerous effeéts of the fumes of charcoal on people expofed to,
its action, :

adly,

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 221

i 2dly, A Mr Scuroeter of this city has found the water of
efe incruftations to be of a very volatile nature; and indeed
t the folutions of all the frigorific productions mentioned above,
- poflefs a fuperior difpofition to evaporate to river water in its
natural ftate, as is fhown by the following experiment :
F i HE poured into five tea-cups, ftanding in the window of his
a room, a tea-fpoonful of each of the five different fluids men-
tioned below, when, at the expiration of 24 hours, their com-
_ parative degrees of evaporation were as follow :
_ No. 1. A tea-fpoonful of window cruft water was ‘iat all
evaporated.
hoar froft water had loft about the half.
3. ——— ——————._ fnow water had loft about a third.
4, ———_————— Neva ice water had loft rather lefs
ae an than a third.
5. ——————_ River Neva water had loft nothing
¢ to appearance.

Hail.

pit?) 5 .

__ Irs appearance is a rare phenomenon in this feafon: But I
_ fhall leave to the ingenious author of the Theory of Rain *, (in
_ the firft volume of the Tranfactions of the Royal Society of
dinburgh) to give a reafon why water fhould conftantly take
form of fnow during the fevere weather of the north, and
feldom that of hail. Can it be that the fun has not fufficient
uence, at this period of the year, to raife it to the higher
zion, where the form of hail is fuppofed to be given?

errtyf giftile fj ‘Tempefts

| Ane equally uncommon with hail in the feafon treated of.

ibution of her SRS: as it is only the parts of the earth
which

222 DISSERTATION on the A,

which moft enjoy the kindly influence of the fun, that fuffer
by the effects of its fuperior heat ; fo that if the atmofphere of
the north is not fo genial as that of the fouth, at leaft it re- _
mains perfectly quiet and ferene, without threatening deftruc-
tion to man and the produét of his induftry, as in what are
commonly called happier climates. ©

Aurora Borealis.

As to the Aurora Borealis, it often illuminates our hemi-
fphere, more particularly in winter, when it appears from fix-
teen to feventeen times in the fix months, although we, by no
means, enjoy fo much of its light as our more northern neigh-
bours, who have certainly a better title to its fervices, from the
beautiful plan of equality mentioned above. Some remarks
which I fhall make in the next article but one, may probably
ftrengthen the opinion of its being an electric phenomenon,
that is to fay, if proving the atmofphere in general to be un-
commonly electric, at the time of its greateft prevalency, can
lead to a prefumption pf its connection with that fluid.

Parheliums and Mock Moons

Are feen pretty frequently in the north. Probably our
frozen mifts and vapours make thefe phenomena more frequent
here than in the temperate climates.

General Obfervations on the Winter Atmofphere.

Tue air, though cold, is remarkably pure and elaftic during
our fevere froft, fo as to give a moft furprifing degree of {pring
and tone to the human frame. At this time the atmofphere is
moft aftonifhingly electric, even more fo than during our vio-
lent thunder-{torms in fummer, if we are to judge from the

great

ae CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 223

great power of our electrical machines, and from feveral other
Emenee curious to be pafled over in filence.

_ Tue moft ftriking of thefe is the appearance of a flame, on
Satin a flannel cover off a filk chair, or on rubbing with a
_ woolen cloth the filk hangings of an apartment. On this laft
\ ~ operation, a flame was feen running along the gold-laced bor-
. der, to the great amazement of the Imperial fervants, to whom
- thefe alarming meteors appeared, on dufting the apartments of
the palace i in a dark winter morning, as I remember to have
heard at the time, though many years ago. But the faéts of this
_ mature, which | got from our ingenidus and learned electrician

_M. #prnus*, whilft Preceptor to his Imperial Highnefs the
_ Great Duke, are much more circumftantial and interefting.
_ See his letter at the end.

‘However, I do not mean to affert, that the rotal of the electric

which are fometimes of a very alarming and dangerous nature.
. Tonly fay, that it appears to be more equally diffufed through
the whole volume of the atmofphere, from not being collected
into clouds, as in fummer, and that the air is in a ftate more
difpofed to part with it. In faé, no clouds are to be feen du-
fevere froft, nor indeed can water exift in that form, but.
divided into infinitely fmall particles, frozen into fhining
cula, which play and fparkle in the beams of our bright
yugh feeble fun, in a very beautiful manner. This appear-
panne ae fomething like brilliant points floating in our atmo-
? fphere,

* As it may operate to the encouragement of Science, permit me to inform the So-

ty, that when this refpeétable Philofopher (fo well known in Europe by his profound

\d ingenious writings on Eleétricity and Magnetifm) had finifhed the education of his

‘ial Highnefs the Grand Duke of Ruffia, he was advanced to the rank of aGual

oun ellor of State, with a penfien to fupport his new dignity, and was decorated with
ted ribbon of St Annz, an order only beftowed on men of high military or civil

‘rank, This anecdote thows how well the prefent’ Sovereign underftands rewarding me~
rit; when it falls, under her immediate cognifance.

224 DISSERTATION on ‘the

{phere, is not conftant, but I think follows a fort of cloudinefs,
which occafionally takes place on a change of temperature, as
if it was going to fnow; but on the cold increafing a few de-
grees, which it does often very fuddenly, the fky becomes in-
{tantly clear again, and feems to have acquired the little parti-
cles in queftion, which I have often thought I felt acting againft
my face, while driving with great velocity in a fledge.

TuatT I may feparate as much as poflible theory from facts,
I referve to this place fome explanation of what I have faid
above, and beg leave to hazard a conjecture, in form of a
query, for thofe who have more leifure and genius than myfelf.
It would indeed be difficult to reconcile the idea of our atmo-

{phere poffefling a greater quantity of eleétric fluid in winter ~

than fummer, with the difcoveries of Meflrs p—E VoLtTa and
Saussure, who have found the electricity of the air in dry
weather to be conftantly pofitive. The laft mentioned gentle-
man fuppofes its pofitive ftate to be maintained by a regular
fupply of vapours from the earth, (which are difcovered to
abound with that fluid) carrying up a portion of the electricity
that belongs to the globe. Now, as in the north the earth is
hard frozen during winter, one fhould think the fupply by eva-
poration cannot be fo great in this feafon as in fummer, and
of courfe its pofitive ftate with difficulty kept up from this
fource, according to Dr FRAN«KLIN’s Theory of Plus and Mi-
nus. Will that of two diftin fluids (to which Mr Saussure
feems to lean in fome part of his works) account for it better?
There is a theory very prevalent in Germany and Sweden ; nay,
we even find the refpeétable names of BERGMAN, SCHEELE,
Witke, tc. amongft its advocates. This is a fufficient reafon
for my giving it a place in this paper, left it fhould not be ge-
nerally known in Britain.

PosiTIvE electricity is fuppofed to be common air faturated
with heat or fire, as they term it; negative electricity is fup-
pofed to be phlogifton, combined with an acid. As to the

commotion,

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 225

commotion, they account for it, by fuppofing that it is owing
to the air and phlogifton rufhing with violence together, (from
if great affinity) and fuddenly fetting loofe the heat contained in
_ the air, according to CRawrorp’s theory, which then becomes
ele. and in fome cafes vifible. I muft take the liberty of
fuggefting a doubt if this new theory will account for fo many
_ phenomena in ele@tricity, as the beautiful and fimple one of
_ FRANKLIN and Apinus, particularly for Earl Sranuope’s re-
q turning ftroke, which his Lordfhip proves to have been the
death of Mr Brypen’s carter and horfes, in fo fatisfactory a
q manner, that no man in future will think himfelf fafe in a
% ‘thunder-ftorm, however diftant from the explofions.
_ It might be fuppofed, from the feverity of the froft men-
% Mined above, that we fuffer much cold during this period; but
_ the fat is juft the reverfe: for people in eafy circumftances,
_ who are not obliged to remain much out of doors, but drive,
or even walk from one houfe to another, fuffer lefs than in
~ moft countries, as there reigns conftantly a fummer heat from
14° to 16° of REAUMUR in our apartments, where flowers
- blow all the winter; and when out of doors, the warm fur
_dtefs, with the fkin furniture of the fledges, (a coach requires
2) keep the body fo comfortable, that 1am ¢onvinced lefs
Lis felt (difference of drefs confidered) in driving through
the ftreets of Peterfburg in our cold dry air, than through thofe
of London or Edinburgh, during the cold moift weather that
ins there during a great part of the winter; efpecially as
ftate of the atmofphere in Britain is often accompanied by
ik winds, whilft the air in Ruffia, during our greateft cold,
generally ferene and calm. In fact, we have only the face to
yard again{t the froft when out of doors, by occafionally
ng the cape of our fur garb, as all the reft is fecured againft
attack by the well contrived drefs of the north; and at
e, if the door is only kept fhut, the cold can enter from
ho other quarter, (the windows being double, well caulked and
- Vou. II. FAG papered

226 DISSERTATION on the

papered in the feams) to countera& the equally diffufed heat
produced by well contrived ftoves, which are built generally of
white tiles, and admit of much latitude of elegant form.

Tue above defcription of our mode of living in winter, ac-
counts for-a circumftance that has been regarded as affectation,
both in the natives of Ruffia, and in foreigners who have re-
fided long here, viz. their complaining of cold during winter
in the temperate climates; for, on taking into confideration
their mode of living at home, there js nothing more natural
than their fuffering cold in countries where neither the houfes
nor drefs are calculated to keep it from conftantly aéting on the
body, during a certain period of the year. This is a fituation
quite new to a Ruffian, and which produces fenfations more
difagreeable than can eafily be imagined, till cuftom makes it
familiar, and that they have learned to feek heat in exercife,
inftead of ovens and furs ; a leffon by no means unprofitable

to people of fafhion from the northern countries of Europe.

SPRING.

As to fpring, I muft again repeat my remark in the intro-
duétion, that we can hardly fay that it exifts here; the feafons
of winter and fummer running into one another, almoft without
any fenfible intermediate one: For by the time that the immenfe
mafs of {now and ice, which covered the face of land and
water, is melted, the fun has acquired fo much influence, as to
dart on ts at once a fummer heat. It is probable that the
quantity of water produced by this operation, when joined to
the effeG& of our heavy night-dews in the hot weather, may
render a wet intermediate feafon unneceffary, whilft the fhort
period allowed to hurry vegetation through all its ftages, will
fearcely admit of it. Is it not poflible, likewife, that the fud-
den commencement of fummer on the finifhing of the thawing
procefs, may be accounted for, in fome meafure, by Dr Brack’s

Theory —

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 227

_ Theory of Latent Heat? For as water requires a great portion
_ of fenfible heat to refume its fluid form, of courfe, a large
: _ proportion of that furnifhed by. the fun will be abforbed, un-
til the whole is diffolved, when we at once receive all his influ-
ence, without any part of it being abforbed by our winter co-
_ vering. When this caufe is joined to the cold produced by the
evaporation going on during the thawing period, it is eafy to
_ conceive how different our feelings muft be at the time when
7 they are both removed, and the earth is beginning to ac-
¢ quire and give out warmth; which very quickly takes place in
this light fandy foil, that lets the water readily filter through it,
a _ and almoft immediately begins to heat.

“RUSSIAN SUMMER,

With the common Phenomena attending it.

Our Ruffian fummer, during a good feafon, prefents exaétly
he oppofite extreme to winter, the former being nearly as hot
s the latter is cold; an admirable arrangement of nature, if
confider the tafk the fun has to perform, with regard to ve-
tation, during that fhort fpace of time. The influence of
fun during the period of a Ruffian fummer, is no doubt
ed by that equally wife ceconomy relative to the habits of

the fhort fpace of time allotted to them, (even in Iceland,
ere, from its infular fituation, the heat cannot, be fo confi-
ble as with us), thofe imported from the fouth can, by no
ans, effect all their ftages of vegetation, within the bounds.
a Ruffian fummer, until they have pafled a few feafons in
this climate, and thus acquired the habits of the indigenous
plants of the country.

Tri is remarkable, that the thermometer falls exactly to 24°+
of Reaumur below the freezing point, during our greateft

if fi2 cold

228 DISSERTATION on the

cold in winter, and rifes to the fame number of degrees above
it, during our greateft heat of fummer, taking the mean of ©
fifteen years. The fun’s remaiming fo many hours above the
horizon, or rather fcarcely leaving it at all during a certain pe-
riod of our fummer, affords one reafon for the violent heat
which a traveller meets with, to his no fmall aftonifhment, in
the latitude of 60, as the air and earth have not time to cool
in the fhort interval between his fetting and rifing again. Two
Britifh travellers from Bengal, (where they are certainly ac-
cuftomed to great heat) complain much of that of the prefent
fummer in St Peterfburg.

I TAKE this opportunity of mentioning a curious fact con-
neéted with northern vegetation. There is a difh to be found
at the tables of Mofcow during winter, which will fcarcely be
credited by the reft of Europe, when it is remembered that the
climate is nearly as fevere as at Peterfburg, viz. afparagus,
reared in the open air, the production of a fpecies of Ruffian
gardening, which merits being known.

In autumn, the afparagus beds are covered with mats, and
buried by the falling fnow, which is moft abundant in this
climate, fo as to preferve the plants from being frozen, until
they are wanted. When a bed of them is to be thrown into.
vegetation during winter, it is done by cutting a deep and
broad trench all around it, down to the unfrozen earth, which
is filled with fmoking dung, taken out of the middle of a
large dunghill; the old mats, covered with fnow, are then re-
moved, and dry ones put in their place, and upon them a thick
layer of warm dung, leaving only fmall apertures for the
plants to pufh through.

Regifler

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 229

Regi, seis rhe Weather for the fix Summer Months.

THERMOMETER.

i
were!

~ Greateft heat, 106° commonly in July or Auguft, equal to

ake 85° of Faur. above o, or to 24°4 of
REAUM. above o.

in May or O@ober, equal to 41° of Faur.
above 0, or to 3° of Rzaum. above o.

°

144

38° equal to 46°4 of Faur. or equal to 20°4
of REAUM.
ean heat of the aftern. 127° equal to 59° of Far. above 0, or
r equal 12° of Reaum. above o.
rd en of the night, 136° equal to 49° of Faur. above o,
GES or to Bae of REAuM. above o.
Mean heat of the climate at aici 2°J5.

~

BAROMETER.

, 28.42 ofbencG: in May.
27.50 ofteneft in September.

pee} The middle between thefe extremes i8 27. .96.

Weft wind, IIo days.
Eaft wind, 84. days.
Rain,

230 DISSERTATION on the

Rain.

THE quantity of rain that falls in the fix months, is 10%,
or about 11 Paris inches.

Rainy days, . - - 80.
Tempeft during this feafon, from II to 12.
Showers of hail, =! fiona. 2 tala ae
Aurora Borealis, from 8to 9.
Fog, - - 17 days.

I sHoULD be happy in being able to give the heat of deep
wells and fprings in this province, to compare with the mean
heat of our climate, which, according to a curious modern
difcovery, ought to be pretty nearly the fame; but as our wa-
ter lies within about four yards of the furface, at leaft in the
diftri@ I inhabit, it may be fuppofed to be affeéted by the in-
fluence of the fun during fummer, and the fevere froft in
winter. To avoid, then, as much as poflible, both thefe caufes
of error, I have chofen for the time of my experiment, what,
in my opinion, is the moft favourable of the whole year, viz.
the fhort interval which takes place between the rigorous feafon
of winter and the heat of fummer, when the water is moft ex-
empt from either influence. The epoch fixed upon then for
my experiment was the 9th of May, whilft we had ftill a little
floating ice in our river, the laft of that which*comes down
from the lake Ladoga every {pring on its breaking up. At this
time, the trees were {till without a leaf, except the birch, which
was juft budding ; and RrAumurR’s thermometer ftood at 10°4
above the freezing point, fome degrees higher than ithad yet done;
fo that I think, from the {mall effet the fun had yet produced
on vegetation, tc. we cannot well fuppofe, that the temperature

of a thick covered well in my garden, excluded as much as pof- _
fible from communication with the open air, by every precau-

tion I could invent, could be fo much affected by it, as to pro-

duce an error on the fide of heat.
‘wee

\

ee ae DE De wi ghntny

ae

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 231

a Bey 9g. Heat of. the : air, + “10°! above o.
Heat of the well in my garden, Imp.

Cadet fore , 2°23 above o.

as the mean heat of our climate is 2°~7., there is a very
remarkable coincidence between it and the heat of the water,
even taken under all the difadvantages mentioned above. How-
_ ever, I by no means offer this as the abfolute and exa@ tempe-
_rature of deep wells and fprings in this province, which may

ae be confiderably different.

curious fcale, as they are of temperate, torrid, and frigid
imates. As for example:

ni Mean heat of | Heat of wells
the climates. | and fprings.

tac N. ide, 59° 26/ Dee Long. 30° 25/ E. from the 2°s5 2°s

firft merid. of Greenw.
N. Lat. ce 31 Long. 0 Vie wie
N. Lat. 48°. 50’ Long. 2° 25’ E. 102 10°F in the
rik shia cave under the
gn Tel A obfervatory.
Jam. N. Lat. 18° 15’) Long. 56° 38’ W. 21°F 21°F

Tue difference of temperature between London and Paris

ich was my reafon for fetting down two places Ha: near to
another. Accident fometimes prefents us with one inter-
ting fact when in fearch.of another. This was my cafe, in
ng the heat of the earth in my garden, to contraft with that
> my well, for a particular purpofe. On April 19. 1789,
AUMUR’s thermometer at 7° above 0, I found the heat of
earth, in a foft bed one foot from the furface, only half a
gree above the freezing Bont and on the next day was afto-

nifhed

232 DISSERTATION cen the

nifhed to find it at 5° above it, although the thermometer in
_air had not altered its pofition, but was ftill at 7°, nor had the

fun fhone out in the interval, fo that this furprifing change of

heat in the earth feems to have been effected by a fhower of
rain that fell between the two obfervations ; a {trong confirma-
tion of the hypothefis that rain water contains a large portion

of latent heat, and probably of eletric matter; fo that it is

not furprifing, if plants fhould, under certain circumftances,
ftart, as it were, fuddenly out of the earth after a fhower of
rain, as they receive fo large a fupply, not only of moifture,
but likewife of heat, amd poflibly a vivifying principle from
the ftimulus of the eleétric fluid carried down by the rain.

General Obfervations on the Summer Atmofphere.

Tue ftate of the atmofphere during the fummer, is in gene-
ral pretty fixed, and the air very ferene and clear, both during
the day and night, in fpite of the heavy dew that falls from
the fetting to the rifing of the fun, which feems to ferve, as
before obferved, for watering the plants during this hot dry
feafon. I have been much ftruck with obferving, that an ex-
cellent hygrometer, fent me by the learned Profeffor Proret of
Geneva, (hung within doors with the windows open) indicated
a greater degree of humidity, on a fine’ fummer evening, than

during the moft continued rainy weather ; fo much higher is —

the faturation of the air with water, and fo much greater is its
diffufion through it, than when it falls in the form of rain.

This obfervation favours the modern hypothefis of the —s .

folution of water in air.

I ruinx alfo worthy of remark, the much greater effect
this fultry debilitating period has upon foreigners, (from even
warm countries) than on the natives of the north, as one
fhould naturally think the former would fupport it better, than
a people unaccuftomed, for fo long a period of the year, to ex-

ceflive

CLIMATE of RUSSTA. err

ceflive cold. This, however, is by no means the cafe; for
“s whilft foreigners can {carcely take any exercife out of doors, with
e b. the fun high above the horizon, without feeling a’ {pecies of
~ faintith debility, the natives even carry 6n the hardeft labour
without much apparent fatigue.’ This may probably be. ac-
a _ counted for by their conftant ufe of the vapour bath, heated to
as ee degree unfupportable for many minutes to a foreigner, whilft
_ they feel themfelves perfectly at their eafe in it, from habit, and
are as fond of it as the Greeks and Romans were of the tepid
water bath. ~

; Anoruer circumftance in the mode of life of this doréhera
people, which may alfo contribute greatly to their fupporting
_ fo well confiderable degrees of heat, is their living at home,
F for eight months of the year, in a conftant heat of from
16° to 20° of Rreaum. or from 68° to about 77° of Fanr. ;
hay, even during the fummer, the ovens of their cottages are

By
_ obliged to be pretty conftantly heated, each peafant baking his

bre ead at home, and drefling his viCtuals in them.

AUTUMN.

rm’s fake. I have annexed the abridged regifter of fifteen
iy urs, made ufe of in this paper, as there may be fome who
me puld mah to fee it.

fevor. W *- ee . Ee

234 DISSERTATION on the
a ee
Two LetTrers id ELECTRICAL and other PHENOMENA $

addrefed to Dr MaT.THEW GUTHRIE, Conf. Aul. F.R. SS.
*Lonp. and Epin. Phy/fician to the Imperial Corps of Noble

Cadets, and to that of the Artillery and Engineers in St Peterfourg,, ”

by his Excellency M. EPINUS.

[Lranflation from the French.]

DEAR SiR,

I ACKNOWLEDGE the pleafure I have received in perufing

your paper on the Northern Climate ; and certainly it would

be difficult to give, with more method and intelligence, a clear
and diftinét idea of the peculiarities of our climate, quod malus
Fupiter urget, and which diftinguifh it from the other countries
of Europe, placed under a more mild and temperate fky.

I sHALL therefore comply with pleafure, in giving a circum-
ftantial account of the curious faéts mentioned in your Difler-
tation, as feen and authenticated by me; and fhall, at the
fame time, avail myfelf of your permiffion to communicate

the remarks and reflections I have made on reading your inter-

efting Differtation *.
THE uncommon phenomena alluded to in your paper, were
as follow: During the laft weeks of the year 1766 and the

firft of 1767, we had conftantly very ftrong froft, with the

calm,

.* Dr Gurtuaiz folicited the learned gentleman’s remarks and opinion on his paper.
M. /Errnvs is the oldeft Profeflor of the Imperial Academy now alive, having {pent

upwards of thirty years in this country ; and as Natural Philofophy was his profeflional)

line before called to Court, and his amufement fince, his Excellency is of all others moft
able to judge of the peculiarities of our climate, and the fitteft to put the {lamp of
veracity on this Differtation, its principal merit.

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 235

calm, clear and ferene {ky which generally accompanies it in
_ this climate; and during its prevalence, her Imperial Majefty
_ having fent for me one morning, ordered me to go to the
_ apartments of Prince Orxorr, in another part of the palace,
who, fhe faid, had, for fome days paft, become uncommonly
eleétric every time his hair was combed.

+ I rounp the Prince at his toilet, and Sori in fact,

a through his hair, a pretty {trong crackling noife was heard;
i) and on darkening the room, by drawing the curtains, the
a {parks were feen following the direction of the comb in great
_ abundance, whilft the Prince, by this operation, was become
fo completely electric, that ftrong {parks could be drawn from
his hands and face; nay, he was even eleétrified when .he was
only powdered with a puff, the friction of the air againft his
hair being able to produce a confiderable degree of electricity ;
a curious experiment, which however but feldom fucceeded af-
terwards, when I was defirous of repeating it.
. ee A Frew days after this fcene with the Prince, I was witnefs
toa ftill more ftriking effect of the electric ftate of our atmo-
fphere at this period. His Imperial Highnefs the Grand Duke
3 fent for me one evening in the twilight, and told me, that, having
brifkly drawn a flannel cover off a green damafk chair in his
_bed-chamber, which had been put on it by accident, he was
__aftonifhed at the appearance of a ftrong bright flame that fol-
} lowed i it; but having immediately comprehended that it muft
ve been an eleétric phenomenon, his Highnefs had been
ng to produce a fimilar illumination on different pieces of
niture, and could now fhow me a beautiful and furprifing
eriment, that he had juft difcovered.—His Highnefs then
threw himfelf on his bed, which was covered with a damafk
It laced with gold, and rubbing it with his hands in all di-
‘ions, the young Prince, who had then reached his twelfth
bia , appeared to be fwimming in fire, as, at every ftroke,
EE 2 flames

236 DISSERTATION on the

flames arofe all around him, which, darting to the gold lace
border, run along it, and up that of the bed, to the very top.

Wuitst his Highnefs was fhowing me his experiment,
Prince Ortorr, who had been making many different trials of
his perfonal eleftricity, fince the day I faw him at his toilet,
came into the room with a fable muff in his hand, and fhowed
us, that, by only whirling it five or fix times round his headin *
the air, he could eleCtrify himfelf fo ftrongly, as to fend out
{parks from all the uncovered parts of his body; another proof
that the imple friGtion of air againft hair could produce elec-
tricity. Similar experiments were repeated in many houfes of
the city, whilft the ftrong froft prevailed; which fhows, that
the uncommon difpofition of bodies to electricity, during the
period treated of, was general.

THESE curious phenomena have appeared igh time to time
fince that epoch, particularly during the fevere cold which has
prevailed for thefe four weeks paft. A few days ago, a lady of
my acquaintance informed me, that, on having her head ©
combed, not only her hair fhowed the ordinary figns of elec-
tricity, but that, after the comb had been drawn through, it
bufhed out in a moft furprifing manner, by the mutual repul-
fion of the hairs,-and occafioned, on rifing upon her head, a
moft fingular and difagreeable fenfation, which would cer-
tainly have frightened her terribly, if fhe had not inftantly |
guefled the caufe. .

Ir muft not, however, be taken for granted, that thefe ap-
pearances are quite common here, or that hey appear every
winter, although we never fail to have 24° and upwards of
cold, by ReEAuMuR’s fcale. No; to render thefe effects very ‘ .
remarkable, a great cold muft have continued feveral weeks.
without abating, as I fhall explain in the fequel.

I suaut here likewife account for a curious fact mentioned
above, which muft have drawn the attention of the reader, viz.
that Prince Ortorr became electrified whilft fitting at his —

toilet,

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 237

toilet, on a chair placed on the bare floor, or on walking ist the
Great Duke’s apartment, without any fpecies of apparatus to
cut off his communication with the naked boards; but he was
" in faa infulated, in both fituations, as the inlaid floors were
become as completely ideo-electric as glafs or rofin, from the
_ high dried ftate to which they were reduced by an exficcating
quality of the atmofphere, (to be explained in the fequel) and
_conftant waxing. -Now, as I obferve, Sir, that in your paper
. on our climate, you enter into fome reafoning on thefe pheno-
: mena, I pref{ume my opinion on them will not be pasenceable
5 to Caley

ws of ‘deétric force, and. as fuch, that it did not require
to be deduced from it in a formal manner. However, that
you may know on what I.founded that fuppofition, I {hall ob-
e, That, f7/?, nothing indicates air, and other bodies, to.
tain, during fevere froft,.an atom of more .electric matter
their natural, quantity; and they are certainly not in a
te of {pontaneous electricity, becaufe, to render them. elec-
c, friGion muft be employed, as at all other times; fo that
the uncommon appearances above mentioned are reduced to
, That, by means of friction, bodies, in the above ftate of
e. atmofphere, become more eafily, and more ftrongly, electric,
-atyany other time, which does. not indicate a larger
tity of diane. matter, but a greater difpofition to re-
e it.

dly, THERE is no ona dootbieys then, to enquire, why air, filk,
1, hair, wood, tc. contain a greater quantity of electric
er in this than in another feafon, fince the fact does not
in ; fo that the queftion Jeft for inveftigation is only, Why
poffefs, during fevere cold, a greater aptitude or difpofition
‘ to

238 DISSERTATION on the

to become electric, than in any other ftate of the atmofphere ?
or, in other words, Why they become, in a more eminent de-
gree, ideo-electric?

3dly, Ar poffeffes, like the other fluids we call menfrua, the
power of diffolving different bodies, efpecially water, which
laft procefs we term evaporation ; and, like the other menftrua,

this power is modified by the degree of heat it poffefles, fo
that, ceteris paribus, warm air can diffolve, and hold in folu-

tion, a much greater quantity of water than cold air.

4thly, Suppose that air, heated to a given degree, holds in
folution as much water as it is able to diffolve, that is to fay,
that it is faturated with it, and it then cools down fo confi-
derably, that it cannot hold in folution the fame quantity it
did at firft; there fhould, in that cafe, take place a large pre-
cipitation, or a large portion of the diffolved water fhould fe-
parate itfelf from the cooled air; fo that it muft remain
charged with a much fmaller quantity than before it loft its
heat.

5thly, Ir follows, then, that the atmofphere is never drier
than during great froft, and never more humid than during
great heat; and this affertion will appear a paradox only to thofe
who confound a dry with a drying air, and a wet with a wet-
ting air; or who do not refle&t that a dry air may not be of a
drying nature, and that a humid atmofphere may not be of a
wetting quality. I hope, likewife, nobody will maintain, that
the apparent purity, and perfect tranfparency of the air, in a
fine fummer day, is a proof of its not being charged with he-
terogeneous matter, as that tranfparency is only the effect of a
perfect folution of the water it contains.—It is evident, by the
common chemical operations, performed every day, that every
perfect folution is clear and tranfparent, and that when it be-
comes turbid, a precipitation is at hand. Let us confirm this
fact, Sir, by a phenomenon we have an opportunity of feeing

very often in fummer, viz. that we fhall find the air full of
broken

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 230

_ broken clouds in the morning, which vanifh under our eye
_whilft looking at them, as the fun rifes higher above the hori-
_ zon, in the fame manner as chemical folutions become turbid
; on cooling, and clear again on heating.

_ 6thly, THis extraordinary dry air penetrates into our apart-
: ments, either gently and infenfibly through chinks, or deyid!
_ and perceptibly when our ftoves are lighted each morning ;
Bre means of ert! the air of our apartments once in

tas 4c: acquires the remperature of the chamber, which is com-
i ihonly from 12° to 15° or more of REAuMuR, (in the better
fort of houfes, for thofe of the common people are warmer)
and then recovers its diffolving power, which the feverity of
- the cold had confiderably diminifhed, nay almoft entirely over-
come ; but as it now contains little or-no humidity, it mutt,
like other menfirua, attack the humidity that it finds in the
_ ehamber, with a much greater rapidity than it could have
done with the fame degree of heat, had it not been thus puri-
+ fied ( (or dephlegmated, in the language of chemiftry) by the
. cold. All the bodies, then, which happen to be in the room,
auf lofe of their humidity, or be dried much quicker than in
- other feafon ; and, in fact, there is no houfekeeper in Pe-
fburg who lees not perceive to his coft this extraordinary
ying procefs, as our furniture warps, cracks or fplits much
re during the rigour of winter, than in the hotteft period of
mer, nay probably more than in any other country between
and the equator.

tly, A NATURAL refult of all this, is, that, after our great
d has continued.a certain time, the bodies mentioned above,
. air, filk, wool, hair, wood, €c. are in faét, without affift-
ce from us, drier than during the reft of the year, and pro-
bly more fo than in any other part of Europe, except they
dried exprefsly by fome artificial means.
Stbly,

246 DISSERTATION on the

8rbly, Now, the bodies I have enumerated, are all in the
clafs of imperfect ideo-eleétrics, and have likewife the common
property of attraéting moifture, fo that they can never be pet-
fe@ly dry; but water is, after the metals, the moft perfect
condudtor of the electric fluid, or the leaft of an ideo-electric,
I fay, after the metals ; for [think | have obferved, and pro-
bably others have done the fame, that water does not conduct
quite fo well as they do. But let that be as it may, thefe bo-
dies cannot certainly imbibe water without becoming lefs of an
ideo-eleCtric, in proportion as they do fo, and, of courfe, the
more they dry again, the more they recover their natural quality.

Tue refult upon the whole then muft be, That during our
fevere cold, the bodies of which I {peak become fpontaneoutly
much better ideo-electrics here, than they ever are in any other
feafon or climate; therefore thefe bodies have an extraordinary
difpofition to become eafily and ftrongly electric.

Ir cannot have efcaped your penetration, Sir, that in all I
have faid, I have advanced only known and: generally received
facts, without admixture of hypothefes or conje@ure of my own;
fo that the explanation I have given of the phenomena, (alluded
to in your paper, and which I was called upon to illuftrate)
arifes naturally and neceffarily from thofe faéts, in fuch a man-
ner, that it may pafs, in my opinion, for a demonftration,
fuch as is to be given in Natural Philofophy.

Ir appears to me then, Sir, that we are not obliged to have
recourfe to the conjectures of Meflrs SaussurE, BERGMAN, _
Wirke, &c. to explain the above phenomena, as you appear to —
have been difpofed to do, in the paffage alluded to, with a mode-
ration that does honour to your mode of philofophifing ; nay, if
we were even inclined to employ them, I do not fee how they
would anfwer our purpofe, being only hazarded opinions; but _

could they be verified, (which I doubt much) they would even |

then be of very little ufe, as they could contribute nothing to
the perfection of the theory of electricity.

You

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. eae

You muft excufe-me, Sir, if I enter into another difcuffion
which the fame paflage of yours has likewife given rife to. |
mean, the opinions which feveral of the learned have thrown
out of late years relative to two forts of electricity,

Ir was I, Sir, as you know, who. firft gave rife to that idea
2 “many yea ago. I had riindle in my Tentamen tater: Ele&rie:

F Regd A ow

, 1 oi I ‘i well Leth; digefted and HENAN it with the
Ht analogy of nature.

| Tue Philofophers.you cite imagine they could remove this
; difficulty, by fuppofing the exiftence of two diftine elediric
fluids, one of which is pofitive and the other negative. I fhail
- confine myfelf at prefent to a few-remarks upon that fubject.
Bsus: imo, THose who would pafs that idea for a new theory of
i ted different from mine, (and there are thofe who sibel

sida, will eee perfectly and elleosiuily with mine; nay, the
planation of the phenomena, the reafoning, and even the ana-
¢ formula which they draw from their pretended theory, is
-exaétly the fame as mine. But fuppofing their hypothefes could
4 be proved, there would refult from it nothing new, except that
t might furnifh an explanation of one of the fundamental facts
) which I founded my theory, and which I did not follow, nor
1ink important enough to inveftigate the origin of, but was
tented to admit it as an eftablifhed fact.
2do, My theory, 1 in confining itfelf to fimple well attefted facts,
her affifts nor denies the exiftence of two, or even feveral
aids, which nature might poflibly employ to effect the funda-
mental laws on which I have eftablifhed my theory ; for when I
nake ufe of the expreflion matter proper to bodies, it is evident,
hat it means what remains in a body after we have drawn off |
the eledtric fluid. ,
. ae) ) 3tio,

242. DISSERTATION on the

3tio, IN confulting the analogy of nature, one cannot fail to
recollect, that all known bodies poffefs, befides the Newtonian
attraction, which is common and general to them all,’ another
attractive force, or that which produces cohefion between two
pieces of polifhed marble, the afcent of fluids in capillary tubes,

and an infinite number of other phenomena. Now, this laft -

attractive force is evidently and effentially different from the
firft ; for whilft the one follows the inverfe ratio of the fquare
of the diftance, it is proved that the other is in proportion 'to a

power, into which enters the reverfe ratio of the cubes, and © i

probably of fome ftill higher power of the diftance.
Ir then both experience and the analogy of nature, fhow the

poflibility of the co-exiftence of two attractive forces in the

fame body, governed by laws entirely different ; and as a repul-

five force is nothing elfe than a negative attraétive one, myfup-

pofition of the repulfive force of bodies, contains nothing but
what is perfeétly conformable to the analogy of nature.

You alfo make mention, Sir, and with reafon, of the frequent
appearance of the beautiful phenomena of parheliums and
mock moons in our climate, which enables us to be better ac-
quainted with all the circumftances attending them, than people
nearer the equator. I paid a particular attention to thefe phe-
nomena for a part of the years 1758 and 1759, and I think have

made fome important obfervations on that fubject ; but it isnot

at prefent either the time or place to enter into them, efpecially

as I have already given the principal faéts in a paper inferted in

the eighth volume of the Novi Comment. Academ. Scien. Petrop.
p- 392, by referring to which I fhall content myfelf at prefent.

Ir is now time, Sir, to finifh this long letter, which has al- |
moft {welled to a differtation ; and I fhall do fo, by ais HE

you, that I am, with much efteem,

Your obedient fervant, ~
St Pererssurc,
Jan. 7—18. 1789, :
ZEPINUS. |

SIR,

CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 243

SI Joa . January 23. 1789.

% ‘a AN idea has ftruck me fince I fent off my laft letter, which
“may poffibly merit fiab attention, and therefore I fhall ‘give it

- Boru of us know long ago, Sir, and we have probably felt
“@ ‘it lately, that when a fevere frott has lafted for a certain time

: its effedts on our own Ar Beaies, as well as our furniture, although
_ we even remain within doors in a comfortable {pring heat, with-
a “out expofing ourfelves to the open air at all. It might be fup-
‘ pofed that thefe precautions would be fufficient; but they are
: in fact far from being fo: for as foon as the fevere cold has
-Tafted fome time, we find ourfelves attacked with a difagreeable
enfation, which, like’all the reft of our fenfations, there is no ~
efcribing exa@lly. I fhall therefore only fay; that it confifts in

: 2 fort of laffitude and heavinefs or torpor, affecting both the

tude.” ‘Stich are our feelings during the continuance of the
_ above defcribed weather, and I fhall next give you, Sir, my
as on the caufe of this curious phenomenon.

_ In the letter I had the honour to write you fome weeks ago,

ne in oft our chamber-atmofphere ‘ohick ideas the
fations enumerated above? For why fhould it not attack, un-

. che rooms? Surely, what we call perfpiration muft be much
increafed by it; and this confumption of our excreted fluids
. pay poflibly be extended, I fhould think, to the nobler fluids

neceflary

244 DISSERTATION, &c.

neceflary to the funGtions of the animal ceconomy, fuch as what
are called vital fpirits, the exiftence of which is fuppofed, with
fome degree of probability, without our being able to fay what
they are. This idea appears the more likely, as it is known that) |
the diffolving power of air is not confined to water alone, but
is extended to many other bodies. If then my conjecture is
founded, there appears to me, Sir, a very eafy way to prevent
this fort of difeafe ; for in fact it is one, although but flight
and of little confequence ; we have only to give back to the
air the humidity which the froft had robbed it of, which may
be done, either by promoting the evaporation of a certain quan-
tity of water in the room, or, what will be a much more con-
venient and fhorter mode of doing it, to hang up a cloth of a
proper fize, dipped in water, and wetted from time to time—
I fubmit, Sir, thefe conjectures to your judgment; as all that
regards the impreflion which, in length of time, may be made
on the human body, by a very dry and a very drying air, falls
more immediately into your line as a Phyfician, than into that
of your moft obedient fervant,
JEPINUS.

You may make what ufe you pleafe of this letter, and give
it the fame deftination as the firft, if you think proper.

END OF PAPERS OF THE PHYSICAL CEASE

N

. The MEAN STATE of the
rH , Weather, kept by Profeffor EuLer

For the fix Winter Months, November, De
and April, which make 181 days of the

At 20 feet above the mean level of the }
into the Gulph of Finland.

At higheft, 28.87 comn
At loweft, 26.99 often:

Difference, 1.88 The n
_ Mean height, 28.02 Paris inch
It ftands 95 days above 28 inches,

. De wIsxe’s Thermomet -
Greateft cold, 196° commonly in January,

abi HEIT, or 24° of R

Leaft cold,. - 141° in November or April,

5° of Reaum. abo

. ¥ Difference, 55° equal to 64° of Fanr.
Mean cold of the night, 162° equal 23° of Fanr
below o. And of the afternoon, 154° equal 27
of Reaum. below o. ;
The cold has been above 170° for 47 nights, equal
to 10°3 of Reaum. below o. And above 150‘
nights.
The mean term of the firft froft, the 9th OStober,
The mean term of the Neva freezing, the 27th Nx

Perfe&t calm,, 28 days.
Brifk gales, | 50 days.

N. 14 days. E. 23 days. S.

N.E. 19 —— 8. E. 12 —— 8.1
Bary (58

Sky clear, 39 days. Cloudy, 68 day:

Fog, 26

Rain, 20 ——

Snow, 64—— Mean term of the firi

Quantity of rain and melted fnow, 4,22,’ or a

Aurora Borealis, 16 or 17 days.

Tempett, feldom.

Hail, very feldom.

[To face page 244. Phy/. Cl.]

The MEAN STATE of the ATMOSPHERE in St Peterfburg, for Sixteen Years, extraéted from a Regifter of the
Weather, kept by Profeflor EuLER, perpetual Secretary to the Imperial Academy of Sciences.

For the fix Winter Months, November, December, January, February, March
and April, which make 181 days of the common year.

For the fix Summer Months, May, June, July, Auguft, September and Oétober,
which make 184 days of the year.

Se eB Ay Ry ©) elVine Eye eee eee

At 20 feet above the mean level of the Neva, and at 6000 feet from its falling
into the Gulph of Finland.

At higheft, 28.87 commonly in January.
At lowett, 26.99 ofteneft in November.
Difference, 1.88 The mean between thefe extremes, 27.93.

Mean height, 28.02 Paris inches.
It ftands 95 days above 28 inches, and 86 days below it.

N. B. The fcale of the barometer is divided into Paris inches and hun-
dredth parts.
At higheft, 28.47 ofteneft in May or Oétober.
At loweft, 27-50 ofteneft in September or O&ober.

Difference, 92 The mean between thefe extremes is 27.96.
Mean height, 28.04 Paris inches.
Its height for 107 days is above 28 inches, and for 77 days below it.

Tee ee Ee SERV © eV Be es

De .’Istx’s Thermometer in the fhade, and expofed to the north, the inftrument in ufe in the Imperial Academy of Sciences.

Greateft cold, 196° commonly in January, equal to 24° below o of FAuREN-

HEIT, or 24°2 of Reaumur below o.

Leaft cold, 141° in November or April, equal to 57° of Faur. above o, or
5°2 of REAum. above o.
Difference, 55° equal to 64° of Fanr. or 28° of Reaum.

Mean cold of the night, 162° equal 23° of Fanr. above o, or equal 7° of Reaum.
below o. And of the afternoon, 154° equal 27° of Faur. above o, or equal 2°
of Reaum. below o.

The cold has been above 170° for 47 nights, equal to 8° of Faur. above o, or equal
to 1092 of REAUM. below o. And above 150°, or the freezing point, for 156
nights.

The mean term of the firft froft, the 9th October, new Ttile.

The mean term of the Neva freezing, the 27th November.

III. WwW

Perfect calm, 28 days. Light breezes, 84 days.
Brifk gales, 50 days. Strong gales, 16 days.
N. 14 days. E. 23 days. S.| 20 days. W. 45 days.
Neko) ——— 5.E. 12 —— 5.W. 22 N.W. 26

IV. SUS YG AND
Sky clear, 39 days. Cloudy, 68 days. Overcaft, 74 days.
Fog, 26
Rain, 20 ——
Snow, 64 Mean term of the firft fhow, O&. 9. N.S,

Quentity of rain and melted fnow, 4,%,' or about 5 inches.
Aurora Borealis, 16 or 17 days.

Tempett, feldom.

Hail, 7 very feldom,

eels

- Aurora Borealis,

Greateft heat, 106° commonly in July or Auguft, equal to 85° of Fanr.

above o, or to 24°5 of Reaum. above o.

Leaft heat, 144° in May or O&ober, equal to 41° of Fanr. above o, or to
3° of Rraum. above o.
Difference, 38° — equal to 46° of Faur. or equal to 2094 of REAuM.

Mean heat of the afternoon, 127°, equal to 59° of Faur. above 0, or equal to 12°
of Reaum. above o. And of thenight, 136°, equalto 49° of Faur. above o, or
to 2°5 of Reaum. above o.

The heat of the afternoon has been 130°, equal to 56° of Fanr. above o, or 10°?
of Reaum. above 0; and above 150° for 182 days: That is to fay, that the ther-
mometer has been fo many days above the freezing point.

The mean term of the laft froft, 3d of May, new ftile.

The mean term of the opening of the Neva, 19th of April.

N= DD:

Perfect calm, 41 days. Light breezes, 75 days.
Brifk gales, 53 days. Strong gales, 15 days.
N.- 32 days. E. 19 days. S. 22 days. W. 27 days.
N. E. 15 —— 5. E. 18 S.W. 24 N.W. 27

mit ©) By IP UBL IR, I Je,

Sky clear, 53 days. Cloudy, 87 days. Overcaft, 44 days.
Fog, 17

Rain, 80 ——

Snow, from 6 to 7 days. Mean term of the laft fnow, 4th of May, N.S.
Quantity of rain-water, 10,25, or about 11 inches.

from 8 to 9g days.

Tempetts, from 11 to 12

Hail, from 2to 3——

II.

Ldn Account of fome EXTRAORDINARY STRUCTURES
on the Tops of Hills inthe HIGHLANDS; with Remarks on
the Progre/s of the Arts among the ancient Inhabitants of Scor-
LAND. By ALEXANDER FRASER TYTLER, Ef; Advocate,
F.R.S.Epin. and Profeffor of Civil Hi ifory in the Univerfity
i} oe EDINBURGH *.

| N the year 1777, an account was publifhed by Mr Joun -
i Wit.taMs, mineral-engineer, of certain remains of an-
buildings on the fummits of fome of the hills in the
hlands of Scotland, which had hitherto efcaped obfervation,
which to him afforded grounds for a very extraordinary
ofition, That they had been cemented together by means of
» He mentioned feveral of thofe hills exhibiting remains
uilding, which he had vifited and examined ; particularly
hill of Knockfarril in Rofs-fhire, Craig-Phadrick near In-
efs, Dun-Evan and Caftle-Finlay in the county of Nairn,
he Caftle-hill of Finhaven in the county of Angus. He
ibed the sinc of regular fortifications on the fummits of
A 2 thofe

* Part of this Paper was read in 1783, before the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh.
ow enlarged, and printed by order of the Committee for publication of the Tran
ions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh..

i ie eis

4 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

thofe hills, of which the walls, remaining in fome places of fe-
veral feet in height, were evidently compacted together by the
vitrification of the ftones of which they were built ; and he of-
fered fome ingenious conjectures with regard to the means em-
ployed in forming fuch extraordinary ftructures, and the pur-
pofes for which they might have been reared.

Tuts account, which Mr WitiraMs himfelf candidly owned,
was by many people treated as a fiction, excited, however, the
curiofity of feveral travellers to vifit and examine fome of thofe
hills which he had mentioned. In the fame year, 1777, Dr JAMES
AnpeErson of Monkfhill, tranfmitted to the Society of Anti-
quaries of London, a very elaborate account of fome ancient
monuments and fortifications in the Highlands of Scotland,

contained in two letters, which are publifhed in the sth and ©

6th volumes of the Archeologia. In thefe he treats, at confider-
able length, of the vitrified forts, and particularly of that upon
the hill of Knockfarril in Rofs-fhire; and, agreeing with Mr
Wictiams in the general idea, that, in rearing thofe ftructures,
the builders had employed fire for the purpofe of cementing
the materials, he differs from him a little as to the manner in
which he fuppofes the fire to have been applied to the mound
or rampart.

Ir is curious to remark, how the fame appearances, to dif-
ferent obfervers, lead to the moft oppofite opinions and conclu-
fions. The two gentlemen above mentioned feem not to have
entertained the fmalleft doubt, that the vitrified materials on the
tops of thofe hills, were the veftiges of works of art, and the
remains of f{tructures reared for the purpofes of fecurity and
defence. The Bifhop of Derry, when on a tour to the north
of Scotland, vifited the hill of Craig-Phadrick near Invernefs,
and exprefled his opinion, that the mounds of vitrified matter
were not the remains of any artificial work, but the traces of
an ancient volcano. In the Philofophical Tranfactions of the
Royal Society of London for 1777, Part II. No, 20. is an ac-

count

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 5

count of Creck Faterick, there termed a volcanic bill near Invernefs,
in a letter from Tuomas WEst, Efq; to Mr Lang, F.R.S.
_ in which the writer does not hefitate to pronounce this hill an
extinguifhed volcano; and having fent fpecimens of the burnt
matter for the infpection of the Royal Society, the Secretary
fubjoins a note to the paper, intimating, that “ thefe {pecimens
“ having been examined by fome of the Members well ac-
_ “ quainted with volcanic produtions, were by them judged to
“be real lava.” Such was likewife the opinion of a very inge-
nious Member of this Society, the late ANDREW Crossiz, Efq;
who, in an account which he gave to the Philofophical Society
_ of Edinburgh in 1780, offered fome curious conjectures with
_ regard to the procefs of nature, by which he fuppofed the whole
_ of this hill to have been thrown up from the bottom of the fea
_ by the operation of inteftine fire.

‘Tue perufal of Mr Witt1AMs’s pamphlet and of Dr ANDER-
_ $ON’s account, as well as thofe differing opinions I have men-
_ tioned, excited my curiofity, in a journey I made to Invernefs-
_ fhire in autumn 1782, to examine, with fome attention, fuch of
- the hills mentioned by Mr WixiiAms as lie in that country;
and I now propofe to lay before this Society the refult of that
_ €xamination, which, however, I confine chiefly to Craig-Phad-
_ rick, as that which I have moft minutely furveyed.

- Crarc-Puaprick is a {mall conical hill, which forms the
eaftern extremity of that ridge of mountains which bounds
~ Loch-Nefs upon the north-weft fide. It is fituate about a mile
to the north of Invernefs, and commands an extenfive profpect
_ of both fides of the Murray frith, to the diftance of above forty
miles. It is acceflible on two different quarters ; on the weft
“ by a narrow but level ridge, which joins it to the chain of hills
_ upon Loch-Nefs ; and on the fouth-eaft, by an eafy afcent from
the high ground above the town of Invernefs. When feen
_ from the oppofite heights, it appears pretty much of a conical
_-fgure; the top cut off, forming a level furface, bounded at
te . each

6 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in “

each end by a {mall rifing or fhoulder. At the diftance of three
or four miles, its artificial appearance is more perceptible than
upon a nearer approach, when the eye, feeing only a part, fails
to take in the great outlines, and to perceive their regularity and
fymmetry. A more diftin@ idea of the general form of this
hill than can be given by defcription, may be obtained from a
fketch taken from the oppofite high grounds, at a few miles di-
flance. See Plate I. fig. 1. In this fketch, Craig-Phadrick is
marked by the letter C. B are thofe hills, a part of the fame
ridge, which bound Loch-Nefs upon the north-weft; and D is
a conical hill oppofite to Craig-Phadrick, on the other fide of the
Murray frith.

Ow approaching Craig-Phadrick from the level saae upon
the weft fide, what firft prefents itfelf to view is a road cut
through the rock, from the bottom to the fummit; in moft
places about ten feet in breadth, and nearly of the fame depth,
winding in an eafy ferpentine direction for about feventy feet ;
by which means an afcent is gained over a very fteep rock,
which is otherwife quite inacceflible from that quarter. See
Plate I. fig. 2. The form alone of this road leaves little room
to doubt of its being an operation of art. I examined the fides
of it, where it is cut into the rock, to fee if there were any
marks of a tool. A labourer, who attended me with a mattock,
or quarryman’s pick, declared his opinion, that, in many places,
there were marks of an inftrument fimilar to what he had in his
hand ; but the rock being compofed of many rounded pebbles,
and when broken prefenting a furface, in which the beds of
thofe pebbles have often an appearance like what is made by the
ftroke of a tool, I lay little weight upon that circumftance. The
form alone of this road, as I have already faid, was fufficiently
convincing to me of its being an operation of art.

From the nature of the ftone itfelf, of which this hill is
formed, and from that compound appearance of water-worn
pebbles, flicking in a cementing mafs, it has been conjectured,

that

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 7
that thefe pebbles, together with the bed in which they are
lodged, had been forced up from the bottom of the fea, by in-
ternal fire ftruggling for a vent, which it afterwards obtained at
the fummit. With regard to the nature of the ftone of this
hill, I fhall here obferve only, that this compound appearance
in the rock at Craig-Phadrick, affords no more prefumption of
this particular hill being forced up by fire from the bottom of
the fea, than it does of all the furrounding hills for many miles
having the fame origin. The greateft part of the hills which
bound Loch-Nefs, both on the north and fouth, are compofed
of the fame materials, or at leaft contain large {trata of the ftone
I have mentioned. Yet none of thofe hills that I have feen, or
on enquiry have ever heard of, exhibit the {fmalleft appearance
of the effects of fire; though, being infinitely higher than
Craig-Phadrick, and confequently demanding a much greater
force to raife them up, had fire been the agent, its effects on
them would probably have been much more confpicuous than
on a hill incomparably fmaller. .

THAT the materials which compofe the hill of Craig-Phad-
rick, as well as all other hills, of which the ftone is of a fimi-
lar nature, have originally been under water, I have not the
fmalleft doubt. The compound appearance of the rock, which
is evidently a mafs of water-worn pebbles, of various fize, na-
ture and colour, fticking in a bed of clay, leaves no room to
doubt of its origin. But whether thofe hills, which confift of
fuch compound materials, have been forcibly raifed up from
the bottom of the water, by fome convulfion of nature, or
formed by a gradual alluvio, or depofition of materials under a
mafs of water which has now deferted them, (as fand-banks
are formed in the fea) is what we have no grounds for deter-
mining with certainty, and few to found even a probable con-
jeGture: Since, with regard to this particular hill, there never
has been a, feGtion made acrofs any part of it, from which the
component ftrata might be perceived, or the difpofition in

which

8 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

which they lie. All that I am at prefent concerned to fhew, is,
that, from the fuperficial or external appearance of this hill,
there is no reafon for fuppofing that it ever contained inteftine
fire.

Tue ftone, of which the whole of this hill, and moft of the
neighbouring hills are compofed, is a mixed mafs of round
water-worn pieces of different. coloured granite, greyifh or
fpeckled quartz, and the common white quartz. This compound
ftone, which is well known to miners, has, from its appear-
ance, been termed slum-pudding ftone. 'Thofe who have en-
tertained the notion of Craig-Phadrick’s being an extinguifhed
volcano, have maintained, that this compound ftone is of the
nature of the volcanic twfas. This, however, will be acknow-
ledged to be a miftake, by all who have examined and compared
the two fubftances. The volcanic tufas are all compofed of
materials which have undergone a change by fire; the plum-
pudding ftone has undergone no fuch change. Sir WiLLIAM
HAMILTON defcribes tufa to be a foft ftone, compofed of pu-
mice, afhes and burnt matter, its colour often tinged with grey,
green and yellow. It is formed, fays he, by water making up
thefe materials into a fort of clay, which afterwards hardens.
The plum-pudding ftone, on the contrary, contains no burnt
materials. Its component parts, fo far from being already
burnt, when expofed to fire, undergo a total change, and the
whole ftone fuffers an imperfect vitrification. Upon the whole
furface of this hill, and amidft all the detached fragments, both
of the natural ftone and of the vitrified matter, there is not, fo
far as I could obferve, any thing that bears the appearance of a
pumice ftone. The burnt matter, indeed, is often full of {mall
holes or honey-combed ; but it ftill retains a glafly appearance
and a confiderable weight, both which circumftances fufficient-
ly diftinguifh it from pumice. Ba/altes are, I believe, conftant-
ly found, in fome form or another, upon all volcanic hills ; but
neither on the rock of Craig-Phadrick, nor on any of the neigh-

bouring

+
re

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 9

bouring hills is there, fo far as I could obferve, the fmalleft ap-
pearance of that kind.
Tue vitrified matter on the fummit of this rock is, therefore,
the only circumftance which pofitively vindicates the effect of
fire ; and this I fhall now proceed to examine.
f Tue Society have already had before them fpecimens of this
burnt or vitrified matter. I fhall, therefore, fuppofe, that they
_ are fufficiently acquainted with its appearance. It will be re-
collected, that in none of the fpecimens which were produced,
was there any thing like a total fufion of the materials. Some
parts of the mafs feemed to be portions of argillaceous and un-
vitriable ftone ; others of {tones of which a part had been in
fufion, while the reft remained in its natural ftate. Thefe cir-
cumftances, of themfelves, are fufficient to diftinguith this fub-
ftance from volcanic lava, which is an uniform homogeneous
qj mafs, of which every part has been ina ftate of fufion. Nei-
ther has this vitrified fubftance the appearance of thofe /coria
_ thrown up from volcanos, which are probably the fcum of the
_ lava, or fuch parts of the materials as either never were fufible,
4 or have loft their fufibility and principle of inflammability :
_ For the burnt fubftance on the top of Craig-Phadrick is rather
HH a mixture of fufible with unfufible fubftances ; many parts ap-
_ pearing to have been in the moft perfect fufion, while others
fare remained in tlieir natural ftate. |
_ Bur the circum{tance which, in my apprehenfion, evinces,
_ in the moft fatisfattory manner, that thofe appearances of the
_ effect of fire on the fummit of this hill, are not the operation of

~ materials, the form of the ground, and the various traces of
kill and contrivance which are yet plainly difcernible, though

literating hand of time. To proceed regularly in examining
thofe appearances of artificial contrivance, I return to that

B through

10 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

through the rock for the purpofe of gaining an eafy afcent from
the level ridge to the fummit, which would otherwife have been
impracticable.

In mounting up by this road, and towards the middle of
the afcent, there appears a fmall platform overhanging the road,
upon the right hand, and inclining, by a very gentle declivity,
to the edge of the rock. Upon this platform, and on the very
edge and extremity of it, are placed four enormous ftones,
which have been evidently guided by art into that pofition ; as
it is impoffible, fuppofing them to have rolled down, that they
ever could have refted in that fituation. The pofture of thefe
ftones leaves no doubt as to the purpofe they were intended to
ferve. Upon an alarm of danger, the ftrength of a very few
men was fufficient to raife thefe enormous ftones fo as to de-
{troy their balance, and project them into the hollow road,
which they would entirely block up, and thus either prevent all
accefs, or render the pafs fo difficult, as to be with eafe defend-
ed by a few againft any number of affailants. This winding
road, with the platform upon the right, may be feen in Plate I.
fig. 2. which is a {ketch of the top or cone of the hill, as it
rifes from the level of the ridge to the weft. Some other
large {tones are likewife placed on an eminence to the left of
the road, evidently to ferve a fimilar purpofe with thofe on the
right, and to block up or defend a hollow channel, by which
an afcent might have been attempted, by following the waving
direG@tion of the natural furrows of the hill at B, C and D.

On arriving at the fummit of the hill by the winding road,
and a few feet below the rampart which crowns the top of the
hill, there appears an outward wall furrounding the whole,
which approaches on the fides of the hill fo near to the upper
rampart, as to leave only a fofsé or trench of ten or twelve feet
in width between them; unlefs at the weft extremity, where
this outward wall extends itfelf to a greater diftance from the
inner rampart, and forms a level platform, of an oblong and

fomewhat

Th, HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. II

fomewhat femi-circular fhape, about forty yards in length, and
fifteen at its greateft breadth. In Plate II. fig. 1. which is a
ground-plan of the whole works upon the fummit of this hill,
the outward wall is marked by the letters P, M, N, X,Q 5 and
at P is the level platform above mentioned. This outward wall
is in many places fo low, as to be almoft level with the rock,
though, in other places, it rifes to the height of two or three
feet ; but even where it is loweft, the marks of it may be
traced by a line of vitrified matter fticking faft to the rock, all
along nearly of the fame breadth, which, in moft places, is
about nine feet. The remains of this wall are ftrongly vitri-

fied, unlefs in one place upon the north fide, where, for about
feventy yards, the rampart is formed only of dry ftones and
earth. The probable reafon of this | fhall afterwards mention,
It is fufficient juft now to obferve, that the ftrong natural de-
fence that was afforded on this fide, by the extreme fteepnefs of
the rock, which is here almoft perpendicular, fuperfeded the
neceflity of much artificial operation, there being little hazard
that an affault would ever be attempted on this quarter.

Every where elfe this outward wall appears completely vitri-
fied ; and at the eaft fide, where the hill is more acceflible, and
the declivity more gradual, there is a prodigious mound of vi-
trified matter, extending itfelf to the thicknefs of above forty
feet. At the fouth-eaft corner, and adjoining to this immenfe
mound, is an out-work, confifting of two femi-circular vitrified
walls, with a narrow pafs cut through them in the middle.
This appears to have been another, and perhaps the principal
entry to the fort. It was neceflary that there fhould be two
entries ; one from the level ridge which joins this hill on the
‘weit to that chain of which it forms the extremity, the other
from the low country to the eaft. The entry to the weft was
defended inthe manner already defcribed ; that towards the eaft
did not admit of a defence of the fame kind, but was fecured

| _ by three ramparts; and the pafs through the femi-circu-

B 2 ; lar

12 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS i

lar out-work was made fo narrow as to be eafily defended, or
even blocked up with ftones and earth, upon the fhorteft notice
of danger.

We come now to the inner wall furrounding the fummit of
this hill, and inclofing a level fpace, of the form of an oblong
{quare, about feventy-five yards in length and thirty in breadth,
rounded, like the outward wall, at each of the ends. This inner
wall is nearly of the fame thicknefs with the outward one, and
is of confiderable height. There is fome appearance that it has
been armed with four baftions or turrets; as, at regular di-
ftances, at thofe places marked d,d,d,d, (Plate II. fig. 1.)
the wall enlarges itfelf confiderably in thicknefs, in a circular
figure, like the foundation of a fmall tower. Of this, how-
ever, the traces are fo imperfect, that I will not take upon me
to fay whether they may not be entirely an accidental irregula-
rity. In the fame light I was at firft difpofed to have confider-
ed the circle C, confifting of a number of {mall ¢wmuli of earth,
with a {tone placed in the centre, which I fuppofed might have
been nothing more than an accidental appearance, till lately,
that, from the defcription of fome ancient fortifications of a
fimilar kind in Ireland, I find there are, in many of them, cir-
cles of {mall tumuli, like what I have mentioned, which are
fuppofed to have marked the place fet apart for the chief, as the
pretorium in the camps of the Romans.

But within this inner fpace, there are other marks of artifi-
cial operation, which are lefs ambiguous. On looking at the
ground-plan, (Plate II. fig. 1.) there appears, on the eaft fide,
a portion of the internal fpace, marked S, which is feparated
from the reft by two ranges of ftones ftrongly fixed in the ~
ground, in the form of a rectangular parallelogram. This fe-
paration is immediately difcernible by the eye, from this cir-
cumftance, that the whole of the inclofed fummit has been
moft carefully cleared from ftones, of which there is not one
to be feen, unlefs thofe that form this divifion, and the fingle

ftone

(The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 13

ftone in the middle of the circle of tumuli above mentioned.
What has been the defign of this feparated fpace, is difficult to
conjecture. It might, perhaps, have marked the refidence of thofe

_ ofahigher rank, or ferved as a temple for the purpofes of devotion.

‘TowArps the eaft end of the large area on the fummit, and
at the place marked q in the plan, are the veftiges of a well,
about fix feet in diameter, which has probably been dug deep
into the rock, though it is now filled up with rubbihh to within
a yard of the furface.

Sucu are the appearances on the fummit of Craig-Phadrick,

which exhibit, in my opinion, fuch evident and. unambiguous

_ traces of artificial operation, that I cannot conceive a difference

of opinion to have arifen concerning their origin, but from too
inattentive and hafty a furvey of them, joined to a partiality
for thofe hypothefes, extremely fafhionable at prefent, which
afcribe a vaft variety of natural appearances to the operation of
ancient volcanos.

OF thofe fortified hills mentioned by Mr Wittrams, I had
likewife an’ opportunity of examining two others, the hill of
‘Dun-Evan in the County of Nairn, and the Caftle-hill of Fin-
haven in the county of Angus.

On the fummit of the hill of Dun-Evan, (of which the
name implies that it had been originally a place of defence)

"i there have been two walls or ramparts furrounding a level {pace
of the fame oblong form with that upon Craig-Phadrick, though
hot quite fo large. There are likewife the traces of a well with-

y in the inclofed area ; 3 and at the eaft end, as at Craig-Phadrick,
there are the remains of a prodigious mound or mafs of build-
_ ing, much more extenfive than that which we have remarked

ap upon the former hill. In all thefe operations, which, in their
- form, are perfeétly fimilar to thofe on Craig-Phadrick, there

are not, however, fo far as I could perceive, any marks of vi-
: Deiaédiion or the effects of fire. Mr Wr iiams, in his de-

bs tad - feription of Dun-Evan, fays, that the vitrified ruins are more

watted

14 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

wafted here than upon Knock-farril or Craig-Phadrick ; but as
neither I myfelf, nor two other gentlemen who examined this
hill along with me, could perceive the fmalleft appearance of
vitrification, I am inclined to believe, that, in this inftance,
Mr WituiaAms’s fondnefs for his new difcovery has a little
blinded him in his obfervations. Dun-Evan has, in my appre-
henfion, been fortified with walls of dry {tone and earth; but
thefe of great thicknefs, and very compactly built, as appears
by their remains at this day. The entry Mr WiLtiAms fup-
pofes to have been at the eaft end, where there has been, as al-
ready obferved, a prodigious rampart of ftones. But in this
particular he is evidently miftaken. The entry has, without
doubt, been upon the weft fide, where there is a ferpentine
road from the bottom to the fummit, extremely con{fpicuous,
which is vifibly continued for a confiderable diftance along the
low ground at the foot of the hill, and is regularly formed, by
filling up hollows and levelling rocky heights which lay in its
Way.

Tue inclofed fpace on the fummit of the Caftle-hill of Fin-
haven, is of much greater extent than that upon Craig-Phadrick
or Dun-Evan. The area is about 140 yards in length, and
above forty in breadth. The vitrified remains of a rampart
are extremely vifible all around the fummit, which is cleared of
ftones and levelled, unlefs at one end, where there is a great
hollow fpace feparated from the reft of the area, and probably de-
ftined exclufively for the keeping of cattle. The remains of
ftru€ture upon this hill are, in other refpects, nearly fimilar to
thofe on Craig-Phadrick and Dun-Evan.

AnoTuer fortified hill, which is not among thofe enume-
rated by Mr Wittiams, I have likewife vifited, and have exa-
mined with particular attention. This is Dun-Jardel, a very
high hill, which rifes in a beautiful, irregular, conic figure,
on the fouth fide of Loch-Nefs, about two miles to the eaftward
of the fall of Fyers. The fummit is acceffible only on the

fouth

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 1§

fouth fide by a narrow ridge, communicating with the hills of
Stratherrick, of which it terminates a fmall collateral chain.
On every other quarter, the afcent is almoft perpendicular ;
and the bafe of the hill is defended by a very rapid river,
which winds along two thirds of its circumference. The in-
clofed area on the top of Dun-Jardel is an oblong fquare of
twenty-five yards in length and fifteen in breadth. It is, there-
fore, confiderably fmaller than any of the three fortified hills
above mentioned ; but is, from its fituation and form, incom-
parably ftronger, and muft, in thofe periods when it was re-

-forted to for defence, have been quite impregnable. The area

on the fummit is levelled, cleared of ftones, and has in it the
remains of a well. It is furrounded with a very ftrong wall
of dry ftones, which has formerly been of great height and
thicknefs, as may be conjectured from the prodigious quantity
of ftones that has fallen only from one fide of the fortification,
and has refted upon the level ridge on the fouth fide. Thofe
parts of the building on the other fides which have gone to de-
cay, muft have rolled down the precipice into the river at the
bottom. It is remarkable, that, on afcending the conical fum-
mit of Dun-Jardel, there is, upon a {mall fhoulder of the hill,
about fifty or fixty feet below the fortification on the top, a cir-
cle of large ftones, firmly fixed in the ground, with a tranfverfe
double range of ftones, extending from one fide, to ferve as an
avenue or entry to the circle. This is, without doubt, a monu-
ment of the fame nature with thofe which are termed Druidical
Temples, and muft have been appropriated to the fame purpofes ;
but whether it had any conne¢tion with the fortification on the
fummit of the hill, I fhall not take upon me to determine. It
may, however, afford fome ground, as I fhall afterwards fhew,
for a conjecture as to the period when thofe extraordinary for-

tifications were reared.
IMMEDIATELY oppofite to Dun-Jardel, on the north fide of
Loch-Nefs, is another conical hill called Dun-Sgrebin, on the
fummit

16 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

fummit of which, as I was informed by a gentleman who re-
fides in that neighbourhood, there are fimilar remains of a for-
tification, compofed of dry ftone, like thofe on Dun-Evan and
Dun-Jardel. Mr WiLtraAms mentions a {mall fortified hill near
Fort-Auguftus, called Tor-Dun, which is plainly difcernible
from Dun-Jardel. Dun-Jardel is diftinély feen from Dun-
Sgrebin ; and from the fituation of the country, this laft is, in
all probability, feen from Craig-Phadrick. Craig-Phadrick is
plainly difcernible from Knockfarril, and Dun-Evan and Catftle-
Finlay (a fortified hill in the fame neighbourhood) from Craig-
Phadrick. Thus, there is a chain of feven fortified hills, com-
manding a very large tract of country, over which an alarm
could be communicated with the utmoft celerity ; and I think
it is not improbable, that, upon a minute furvey of the moun-
tainous country, it would appear, that there have been, in fome
former period, chains of communication of this kind through -
many of the regions in the northern parts of the ifland.

Nor were fortified places of this kind peculiar to the north-
ern parts of Britain. The Honourable Darnes BARRINGTON,
in a memoir printed in volume vi. of the Archzologia,
affirms, that there are many fuch ftructures of dry ftone upon
the tops of hills in Wales, and particularly in Merioneth-fhire,
In Dr Bortase’s Hiftory of Cornwall, we are informed, that
there are the remains of fimilar ftru€tures in that country.
Some of thefe the author has defcribed under the name of Hill-
caftles.

In Ireland, the remains of fuch fortifications on the tops of
hills, are yet much more frequent than in this country.

Harris, in his republication of Sir James Ware’s Anti-
quities of Ireland, in treating of what are called Danes raths or
Danes forts, in that country, defcribes precifely fuch fortifica-
tions or ftrudtures, as thofe on the fummits of the hills we have
mentioned, viz. conical mounts terminating in an oblong level
area, and furrounded with the remains of ftrong ramparts.

The.

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 19

The very general tradition, of attributing thefe fortifications,
both in Ireland and in this country, to the Danes, I fhall af-
__ terwards fhew to be quite erroneous. In a collection of mifcel-
a laneous eflays towards a natural hiftory of Ireland, publifhed
by Dr Motynevux, Dr Gerarp Boars, and others, there is
an accurate defcription given of thofe ftruGures. “ Mott of
* thofe in Ireland,” fays Dr Motynevx, “ are furrounded on-
“« ly by earthen ramparts. Some, though but a few, are en-
“ compaffed round with walls of {tone caft up inftead of éarth,
“ yet without any mortar. Two of thefe may be feen at
_ Farmoyle in the county of Longford.” The authors of the
ancient and modern {tate of the county of Down, defcribe par-
ticularly five of thofe fortified mounts, which are but a few,
_ out of a vaft many in that fingle county. On the Rath at
_ Crown-bridge near Newry, there is, at the weft end of the le-
- vel area, and about fifty feet below it, a fquare platform, fuch
as we have defcribed at the weft end of the fortification on
_ Craig-Phadrick. The tradition is, that this platform at Crown-
3 _ bridge, was the arena where two competitors decided, in fingle
_ combat, the difputed right to the Crown of Ireland. Wricur,
in his Low¢biana, or introdudtion to the antiquities of Ireland,
_ defcribes and gives plans of many fuch fortified mounts, all of
_ which are furrounded by ramparts; and moft of them have at
_ the extremities flrong outworks below the level of the fort it-
felf. One of thefe, which is'called Green Mount, near Caftle-
Bellingham, appears from the engraving in Mr Wrrcurt’s
_ book, to bear a near refemblance in its plan to Craig-Phadrick.
None of thofe remains of building upon the hills in Ireland,
- fo far as is taken notice of in the defcriptions of them I have
_ mentioned, exhibit any marks of vitrification. Three of the
_ fortifications I have enumerated in the neighbourhood of Inver-
_nefs, are likewife crowned with dry ftone ftructures, without
_ any appearance of the effects of fire; and I am inclined to be-
lieve, that, upon an accurate furvey of thofe extraordinary
Vou, II. Cc works,

ae

18 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

works, the number of thofe that fhow marks of vitrification
will be inconfiderable, when compared with thofe that have not
been at all affeCted by fire. I am led, from this circumftance,
to form an opinion different from that of Mr WiLi1Ams, and
of fuch as believe thofe ftructures to be the proofs of an an-
cient mode of building, in which fire was employed for the
purpofe of cementing, before our anceftors knew the ufe of
lime. Iam difpofed to think, that the appearances of vitrifica-
tion on fome of thofe hills, are the accidental effects of fire up-
on a ftru€ture compofed of combuftible and fufible materials,
and by no means the confequence of an operation intended to
produce that effect.

Tue buildings reared by the ancient inhabitants of this
country, both for habitation and defence, would naturally be
compofed of fuch materials as the rude ftate of the country
prefented in abundance, and fuch as required little, either of
labour or of fkill, to bring into ufe. In thofe quarters where
ftone could be eafily quarried in fquare blocks, or where it fplit
into /aming, no other material than the fimple ftone was necef-
fary, and very httle labour was fufficient to rear the ftructure.
Such has been the cafe at Dun-Jardel and Dun-Evan. But
where the ftone is of that nature as not to be eafily fplit into
fquare blocks, or feparated into /aming, but is apt to break into
irregular and generally fmall fragments, as the rock of Craig-
Phadrick, and all others of the plum-pudding kind, it would be
extremely difficult to form a regular ftru€ture of fuch mate-
rials alone, which fhould be endowed with fufficient ftrength.
The mode in which I imagine building was practifed in fuch
fituations, was by employing wood, as well as ftone, in the fa-
bric. The building, I fuppofe, was begun by raifing a dou-
ble row of pallifades or ftrong ftakes, in the form of the in-
tended ftructure, in the fame way as in that ancient mode of
building, defcribed by PALLADIo under the name of Riempiuta,

&

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 19

a caffa, or coffer-work *. Thefe ftakes were probably warped
acrofs by boughs of trees laid very clofely together, fo as to
form two fences, running parallel to each other at the diftance
_ of fome feet, and fo clofe as to confine all the materials, of
whatever fize, that were thrown in between them. Into this
intermediate f{pace, I fuppofe, were thrown boughs and trunks
of trees, earth and ftones of all fizes, large or fmall, as they
could quarry or collect them. Very little care would be necef-
fary in the difpofition of thefe materials, as the outward fence
would keep the mound in form. In this way, it is eafy to con-
_ ceive, that a very {trong bulwark might be reared with great
difpatch, which, joined to the natural advantage of a very in-
acceffible fituation, and that improved by artful contrivances
for encreafing the difficulty of accefs, would form a ftru@ture
capable of anfwering every purpofe of fecurity or defence.
Tue moft formidable engine of attack againft a ftruture of
this kind, would be fire; and this, no doubt, would be al-
ways attempted, and often fuccefsfully employed by a be-
fieging enemy. ‘The double ramparts, at a confiderable di-
ftance from each other, and the platform, at one end, were
certainly the beft poffible fecurity againft an attack of this
kind. But if the befiegers prevailed in gaining an approach to
_ the ramparts, and, furrounding the external wall, fet fire to
it in feveral places, the conflagration muft fpeedily have be-
come general, and the effect is eafy to be conceived. If there
happened to be any wind at the time, to increafe the intenfity
_ of the heat, the ftony parts could not fail to come into fufion,
b C 2 ~ and

* La maniera rzempiuta che fi dice anco a cafja, facevano gli antichi, con tavole
pofte in coltello tanto fpacio, quanto volevano che fofle groffo il muro, empiendolo di
malta, e di pietre di qualunque forte mefcolate infieme, e cofi andavano facendo di corfo
in corfo. Si veggone muri di quefta ‘forte a Sirmion fopra il lago di Garda. Di quefta
maniera fi poffono anco dire le mura di Napoli, cioe le antiche, le quali hanno due muri
di faffo quadrato, groffi quattro piedi, e diftanti tra fe piedi fei — e fono empiute di fafi
editerra. Pauuap. Architect. lib. 1. cap. 9. ;

20 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

and (as the wood burnt away) finking by their own weight in-
to a folid mafs, there would remain a wreck of vitrified mat-
ter, tracking the {pot where the ancient rampart had ftood; ir-
regular and of unequal height, from the fortuitous and unequal ©
diftribution of the {tony materials of which it had been com-
pofed. The appearance at this day of thofe vitrified mounds
creates the ftrongeft probability of the truth of this conjecture.
They do not appear ever to have been much higher than they
are at prefent; as the fragments that have fallen from them,
even in thofe places where the wall is loweft, are very inconfi-
derable. From the durable nature of the fubftance, they
mwu{t have fuffered very little change from time, though, from
the gradual growth of the foil, they mu(t, in fome places,
have loft, in appearance, a good deal of their height, and, in
others, have been quite obfcured. Mr Witiiams, in making
a cut through the ramparts at Knockfarril, found, in many
places, the vitrified matter entirely covered with peat-mofs of
half a foot in thicknefs.

I wave obferved, that, in the fortification on Craig-Phad
rick, a large portion of the outward rampart upon the north
fide bears no marks of vitrification. The reafon of this it is
eafy to explain. In the ftru€lure of this part of the wall no
wood has been employed; for the extreme fteepnefs of the
rock on this quarter rendered any rampart for defence entirely
unneceflary. A low fence of ftones and turf was fufficient
here to prevent the cattle, which were probably lodged between
the outer and inner rampart, from falling over the precipice.
Such is that fence which at prefent remains on the north fide
of the rock of Craig-Phadrick.

Ir appears, therefore, highly probable, that the effect of fire
upon thofe hill-fortifications, has been entirely accidental, or,
to {peak more properly, that fire has been employed, not in the
conftruction, but towards the demolition of fuch buildings ;
and for the latter purpofe it would certainly prove much more

efficacious

. The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. ar

efficacious than for the former. It is much to be doubted,
whether it would be at all poflible, even in the prefent day, by
_ the utmoft combination of labour and of {kill, to furround a
large {pace of ground with a double rampart of ftones, com-
_ patted by fire, of fuch height and folidity as to ferve any pur-
_ pofe of fecurity,-or defence againft a befieging enemy. Any
_ ftruéture of this kind muft have been irregular, low, fragile,
_ eafily fcaled and quite infecure; a much weaker rampart, in
_ fhort, than a fimple wall of turf or wooden pallifade. The
_ veftiges yet remaining, as I have already obferved, give no
- room to fuppofe, that the vitrified mound has ever been much
_ more entire than itis at prefent. ‘The effect of fire upon ftruc-
tures reared in the manner I have fuppofed them to have been,
_ will account moft perfe&ly for their prefent appearance.
Ir was from neceflity that the builders of thofe fortifications
_ betook themfelves to a mode of ftructure fo liable to be de-
_ ftroyed by fire. In thofe parts where ftones could be eafily
quarried, of fuch fize and form as to rear a rampart by them-
_ felves of fufficient ftrength and folidity, there was no occafion.
_ to employ wood or turf in its conftructon, and it was there-
_ fore proof againft all aflault by fire. Such are the ramparts.
_ which appear on the hill of Dun-Jardel, Dun-Evan, and many
_ others, on which there is not the fmalleft appearance of vitrifi-
_ cation. . But on Craig-Phadrick, and the other hills above de-
feribed, where, from the nature of the rock, the ftones could
_ be procured, only in irregular and generally {mall fragments,
_ it was neceflary to employ fome fuch mode of conftruction as
Ihave fuppofed ; and thefe ramparts, though folid and well
calculated for defence againft every attack by force or ftratagem,
were not proof againft the affault by fire.
_ Bor thofe ancient fortifications prefent a. much more curi-
ous and more interefting obje&t of fpeculation, than thofe un-
_ certain and indeed fruitlefs conje@tures as to the mode in which
they have been reared. It is evident, that, were it poflible to
a afcertain.

22 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

afcertain the zra in which thofe fortifications were conftructed,
fome ufeful light might be thrown upon the ancient hiftory of
this country, and the condition of fociety in thofe remote pe-
riods. This I fhall now attempt ; and, in the courfe of a fhort
difquifition upon that fubject, fhall have occafion to mark the
progrefs of archite€ture in Britain, from its firft introduétion
_into the fouthern parts, till it had attained to confiderable per-
fection, and the knowledge of the art of building had extended
itfelf, in fome degree, to the remoteft quarters of the ifland.

At the time when thofe fortifications were reared, it is evi-
dent that the ufe of mortar was unknown. As it mutt be fup-
pofed that the builders exerted the utmoft of their architectural
fkill (fo far as ftrength was concerned) in fabricating thofe
ftructures, we cannot doubt, that, as the country abounded in
lime-{tone, had its ufe been known as a cement, it muft have
been employed in fuch works. This brings them at once up
to a period of time prior to the Roman eftablifhments in the
northern parts of Britain. The Romans employed mortar in
all their buildings, of which many remains are at prefent exift-
ing in thofe parts of the ifland where they are known to have
formed fettlements. They taught the Britons the ufe of that
cement, of which, till then, they were ignorant.

At the time of Ca#sar’s invafion of Britain, the inhabi-
tants of the fouthern, and probably the moft civilized part
of the ifland, lived in huts conftructed with turf, or with the
branches of trees. Their towns or villages were nothing
more than an inclofed part of a wood, furrounded by a ditch
and rampart, within the circle of which they reared their
huts. ‘“ Oppidum vocant Britanni cum fylvas impeditas val-
* lo atque foffa munierunt.” Cas. de Bell. Gal. lb. 5. cap. 21.
Thefe inclofures or towns were but a temporary refidence, and

geil reforted to, only when it was neceflary to defend
themfelves

i

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 23

_ themfelves againft an enemy *. They were fo fpacious as to
__ afford fecurity, both to the inhabitants themfelves and to their
cattle. “ Urbium loco ipfis funt nemora. Arboribus enim
** dejectis ubi amplum circulum fepierunt, ibi cafas ibidem fibi
“ponunt, et pecori ftabula condunt, ad ufum quidem non
“ longi temporis.” Srraso Geogr. lib. 4. +. Of this nature
were all the Britifh towns in the fouthern part of the ifland at
the time of Casar. Such was the town of Caflibelanus, pro-
bably a place of the greateft confideration in the ifland, as be-
ing the refidence of that chief under whom the whole of the
fouthern Britons agreed to unite their forces to oppofe the Ro-
mans at their fecond defcent upon the coafts. “ Ab his cog-
“ nofcit non longe ex loco oppidum Caffibelani abeffe, filvis pa-
“ ludibufque munitum, quo fatis magnus hominum pecorif-
“* que numerus convenerit.” Cais. de Bello Gal. lib. 5. cap. 21.
\ This oppidum Caffibelani was Verulamium, the prefent St Al-
bans. (See CAMDEN, and HorsLey’s Britannia Romana.) Lon-
_ don, or the capital of the Trinobantes, was then a place of in-
_ ferior note to Verulam. The Romans dignified the latter with
the title of a municipium, while the former was fimply an ofpi-
_ dum; and therefore ftriétly correfpondent to C#sar’s general
' defcription ; a portion of a thick wood furrounded with a ditch
and rampart. F

2
’

It

* Tue picture given by Tacitus of the manner of life of the Germanic tribes, may
_ probably be applied, with very little difference, to all the contemporary barbarous na-

i“ quidem inter fe junétas fedes. Colunt difcreti ac diverfi, ut fons, ut campus, ut ne-
_ “ mus placuit. Vicos locant non in noftrum morem, connexis et cohzrentibus zdificiis :
_ fuam quifque domum {patio circumdat, five adverfus cafus ignis remedium, five in-
“ {citia edificandi. Ne camentorum quidem apud illos, aut tegulorum ufus.” Tacit.

i de Mor. Germ. cap. 16.

| Poets dt eurwv erony os Seupcos. wregiPpakarrac yoep devdpecs xarePeBrnucerors evenxwen xv“rov, xat
euros evravSa xaruGomourras, xo Te Rocknmare xarasaSusvoios, 8 eos moAUY Xeore7, STRARO

Geog. 1.4. i

24 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

Ir fuch was the appearance of London at the time of the fe-
cond invafion of the ifland by Ca@sar, which happened fifty-
five years before the Chriftian zra, we have certain evidence,
that the fouthern Britons had undergone a remarkable change
in their mode of life, and made a great progrefs in refinement
and civilization in the fpace of 107 years, which elapfed from
that time to the great victory gained over the Romans by their
Queen BoapicEa, At this latter period, Tacirus mentions
London as a flourifhing town, which, though not dignified
with the title of a Roman colony, was a place of trade and
opulence, and a great refort for merchants. “ Londinum qui-
“ dem cognomento coloniz non infigne, fed copia negotiatorum
“ et commeatuum maxime celebre.” Aznal. lib. 14. cap. 33.
The Britons of the fouth had, therefore, profited very greatly
by a fhort intercourfe with the Romans ; and this progrefs will
appear more remarkable when it is confidered, that, from the
time of Cmsar’s invafion to the reign of Craupius, during
almoft a complete century, there was no Roman army in Bri-
tain, nor any ftation or fettlement of that people in the ifland*.
The Britons, therefore, had, as yet, enjoyed little more than
the fight of a polifhed and improved people. Amidft the tumult
of hoftilities, there was no opportunity to imitate the practices or
ftudy the accomplifhments of the people by whom they were
invaded ; but they faw enough to convince them of their own
fignal inferiority in all the arts of cultivated life, and to excite
a defire to imitate them in a fubfequent feafon of tranquility.
This they obtained by the retreat of the Romans; and profit-
ing to the utmoft by thofe lights they had acquired, they made
a more rapid advancement to civilization, than perhaps in any
after period of their hiftory. Cities were built, harbours con-

ftructed

* Horsexey’s Britannia Romana, p. 19, 20.3; and Tacirus mentions both the fact
and its caufe. ‘* Mox bella civilia et in rempublicam verfa principum arma ac longa -
*€ oblivio Britannic etiam in pace.” Vit. Acric. cap. 13.

S

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 25

ftructed for the accommodation of mercantile fleets *, and mo-
ney coined for the medium of trade. The coinage of Cuno-
BELINE, the fucceflor of Cass1BELANUS, and Sovereign of the
Caffii and Trinobantes, from the mints of Colchefter, Verulam
and London, is a proof, not only of an extenfive commerce,
but of very confiderable advancement in the arts +.

In this interval, therefore, between the invafion of C#sAR
and the reign of CLAuDIUS, this period of rapid improvement,
itis probable the Britons of the fouth firft learned the art of
conftructing durable buildings with mortar; though we do not
_ find from any claffic author, that, before the reign of Nero,
_ the Romans had ereéted any buildings in the ifland which
- could ferve as a model of regular architecture. In the fifth
: year of the Emperor Nero happened that fignal defeat of the
e Romans by the Britifh Queen Boapicka, occafioned princi-
_ pally by the revolt, or, as Tacitus terms it, the rebellion of
e eee One great caufe of this revolt had been the

tionis afpiciebatur ; delectique facerdotes, fpecie religionis,
omnes fortunas effundebant.” Tacit. Annal. lib. 14. cap. 3t.

a ‘to it as sete laft ftrong hold, and, for two days, defended
] emfelves in it again{t the befieging Britons. ‘ Cetera qui-
“ dem impetu direpta aut incenfa funt: Templum in quo mi-
) Vor. II. D “* Tes

' * See an accurate account of the commencement of the commerce of Britain in

“of gold, of filver and of brafs; and fome of them are elegant in their fabric and de-
vice.

26 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

“ les fe conglobaverat, biduo obfeflum expugnatumque.” bid.
cap. 32.

Tue Britons, profecuting their fuccefs, attacked, pillaged
and fet fire to feveral of the Roman forts and garrifons. Lon-
don and Verulam were deftroyed; and, in thefe two places,
(a convincing proof of their magnitude and population) the
Britons maflacred about 70,000 Roman citizens and their al-
lies *. But thefe temporary fuccefles were foon checked by a
dreadful defeat of the Britons by Sueronius PAULINUS, in
which 80,000 were left dead upon the field of battle. From
that time, the Romans advanced into the internal parts of the
ifland; and, finding themfelves more feebly refifted, as their
power became more known, began now to apply themfelves to
the civilization of the rude people whom they had fubdued.
Juzius Acricoxa, in the fecond year of his command, as
Propretor of Britain, A. D. 79. reduced the inhabitants of
North Wales, of Chefhire and of Lancafhire, to abfolute fub-
jection, and conquered the ifle of Anglefey. Having fuffi-
ciently evinced his power, he tried the effect of alluring the
natives to an eafy fubmiflion, by giving them a tafte of the
enjoyments of a polifhed people +. Towards this purpofe, the
Romans encouraged the Britons to build regular towns, aflifted
them in conftructing temples, market-places and commodious
dwellings, and taught them even the ufe of the baths and por-
ticos, and all the luxuries of the Roman banquets {. To this.

precife

* Ap feptuaginta millia civium et fociorum iis quz memoravi locis, cecidiffe confti-
tit. Tacit. dnnal. lib.14. cap. 33-

+ Uni fatis terruerat parcendo rurfus irritamenta pacis oftentare. Jur. Acric. Vit.
Cap. 20.

t Szquens hiems faluberrimis confiliis abfumpta. Namque ut homines difperfi ac
rudes, eoque bello faciles, quieti et otio per voluptates afluefcerent, hortari privatim, ad-
juvare publice, ut templa, fora, domos extruerent, laudando promptos, aut caftigando
fegnes—paullatimque difceflum ad delinimenta vitiorum, porticus et balnea et convivio-
rum elegantiam. Jur. Acric. Vit. cap. 21.

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 27

precife period, we may refer the foundation of many of the
_ towns inthe weft of England, which are known to have had a
Roman origin, as Lancafter, Manchefter, Warrington, Ribche-
fter, Overborough, Colne, tc. *.

Ar this time, therefore, A.D. 79, the Britons of the north-
weftern parts of England, had acquired a confiderable know-
ledge of regular architecture. But all to the north of the Ro-
man conquefts, we muft prefume was in its original ftate of
barbarifm. Improvement, however, muft have kept pace with
the advances of the Romans into the country ; and it is there-
fore not difficult to mark its progrefs. In the year 80, we find
AcricoLta employed in erecting a chain of forts between the
friths of Clyde and Forth; and in 83 f+, the laft year of his
command, he had penetrated to the foot of the Grampian
_ mountains in the northern parts of Angus. From this time,
_ during the remainder of the reign of Domitran, and through
_ the whole of the reigns of Nerva and of Trajan, a period
_ of above thirty years, the Romans made no progrefs in the
q ifland. The northern parts of the province were ill defended,
and the Caledonians, in that interval, recovered all that part of

_ Scotland which Acricota had gained ; for, in the fecond year
_ of Haprian, A. D. 120, when that Emperor built his va//um
acrofs the ifland, between Solway frith and the mouth of the
_ Tyne, he confidered the Roman Province as extending no fur-
ther to the north than that rampart. “ Murum per o¢toginta
4 millia paffuum primus duxit qui barbaros Romanofque divi-

_ “ deret.” Vit. Hadr. Hift. Aug. Script.

_ Tuts interval, therefore, of more than thirty years, muft
have been a period of remarkable improvement to the favage
_ Caledonians. Maintaining a conftant intercourfe with the Ro-
‘mans, not diftinguifhed by extraordinary hoftilities, and gradu-
a D2 ally

“cs

* Warraxer’s Manchefter, book I. chap. 7.

+ Or 84; for the year is not certain. See Horstey, p. 48.

28 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

ally regaining a country in which they found the recent works
of a polilhed people, they could not fail to acquire much know-
ledge in the arts. At the time, therefore, when ADRIAN built
his rampart, A. D. 120, we know, almoft to a certainty, that
the inhabitants of Scotland, as far to the north as the Grampi-
an mountains, underftood and pra¢tifed the art of conftru@ting
durable buildings with mortar. The forts or cafella erected
by Acricota, which Tacirus* fays were fo ftrongly con-
{tructed as to refilt the utmoft efforts of the enemy to take
them by ftorm, were now in the pofleflion of the Caledonians.
The Roman cattella were circular, and fometimes {quare, inclo-
fures, furrounded with a ftrong wall of ftone, hewn into
{quare blocks, and cemented with mortar. The fpace inclofed
was fuflicient to contain various buildings likewife of ftone,
barracks for the winter habitation of the troops, granaries for
provifions, and fometimes baths. The form of thefe caftella
may be feen in the fculptures upon the Trajan column, and
their conftruction may be learnt from VecerTiuvs. The re-
mains of a bath belonging to one of thefe caftella, probably
erected by Acricota, were difcovered, within thefe few years,.
at the village of Dalnoter, between Glafgow and Dumbarton.
The Caledonians had witneffed the building of thofe ftruétures,
which were reared with the moft perfec fkill in military archi-
teCture, from materials which the country furnifhed in abun-
dance. They were now in poffefion of the ftructures them-
felves. It is reafonable, therefore, to conclude, that they now
learnt the art of conftructing regular buildings with ftone and
mortar, and practifed it, both for the purpofes of defence and
habitation ; becaufe the contrary fuppofition would. do violence

to all probability.
TueE wall of ApRIAN, which was built in 120, and that of
ANTONINUS Pius, built, as Horstey thinks, in 140, were
both

* Vit. AcRIc. cap. 22.

-*

apes

The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 29

both conftructed folely of turf *. But they were defended by
caftella, placed at intervals of various diftance, according to
the nature of the ground. The wall of ANTONINUs ran acrofs
from Dumbarton on Clyde to Cramond on the frith of Forth,
and was probably in the precife line of the caftella built by
Acricota. It was at this period, and under the command
of Lotuius Urnsicus, the heutenant of ANTontINus, that the
Romans made their fartheft advances into the ifland of Britain.
After the ereétion of this new vallum, which had probably
been reared in the idea, that the country to the north of it was
hardly worth fecuring, Ursicus marched to the northward,
and finding, beyond his expectation, that the country, efpeci-
ally along the fea-coaft, was open and fertile, he appears to have
profecuted his conquefts as far north as Invernefs. For this
fact, we want indeed the authority of any Roman hiftorian ;
but the Geography of Protemy, and the late difcovered iti-
nerary of RicHarD of Cirencefter, prove, beyond all doubt,
that there were Roman ftations in the neighbourhood of Inver-
nefs ; and there is no other Roman general, but Ursicus, who,
to the days of ProLEemy, can be fuppofed to have paffed the
limits of AcricoLa’s conquefts t. The moft northerly Roman

ftation, according to ProLEMYy, is the rregwrov sgaromsdov, or caftra

alata, which, in the itinerary of RICHARD, is termed Ptorotone.
This, I think, there is every reafon to believe to have been that
fortified promontory, now called the Burgh of Moray}. At

any

* Juriws Caprrotinus, in his life of Antoninus Pivs, mentions, that this Emperor
excluded the barbarians from the Province, ‘‘ a#o muro cefpitio,’”’ which proves that the
former, vz. that of Aprian, was of the fame materials.

+ Warraxer’s Hiftory of Manchefter, book L chap. 3. § 5.

} Irs fhape correfponds entirely to the name of an encampment with wings. Such is
the aétual form of the promontory ; and although both Sruxexey. and Horstey place
the ftation of Ptorotone at Invernefs itfelf, it will be obferved, this is nothing more than
conjecture. The itinerary of Ricwarp gives no authority for that precife fituation;

for

30 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

any rate, it is certain there were feveral Roman ftations in that
neighbourhood, as Tueflis, Varis and Ptorotone, which is fuffi-
cient for our purpofe. It is then evident, that, in the reign
of ANTONINUs Pius, and within a few years of A. D. 140, the
date of his vallum, the Romans had fixed prefidia and built
caftella in the neighbourhood of Invernefs, from which part of
Scotland, there was an uninterrupted military road, as appears
by RicHARp’s itinerary, to the Land’s end in Cornwall. At this
period, therefore, the inhabitants of this region of Scotland
muft have been acquainted, from the practice of the Romans,
with the art of building with mortar. And, as the ftructure
of thofe hill-fortifications demonftrates the ignorance of the
builders of the ufe of that cement, the moft complete evidence
thence arifes, that they were reared prior to the time above
mentioned, that is, above fixteen centuries and a half ago.

But how far beyond that period we are to fearch for the
date of thofe fingular fortifications, {till remains in doubt.
All that we can, with certainty, conclude, is, that they belong
to a period of extreme barbarifm. They muft have been con-
{tructed by a people fcarcely removed from the ftate of favages,
who lived under no impreffion of fixed or regulated property
in land, whofe only appropriated goods were their cattle, and
whofe fole fecurity, in a life of conftant depredation, was the
retreat to the fummits of thofe hills of difficult accefs, which
they had fortified in the beft manner they could. As the {pace
inclofed was incapable of containing a great number of men,
efpecially if occupied in part by cattle, it is prefumable, that
thefe retreats were formed chiefly for the fecurity of the wo-

men

for the diftance in miles between Ptorotone, and the preceding ftation Tueflis, is left
blank in the itinerary, and the a¢tual fituation of Tueflis is likewife uncertain, Horsey
fixing it at Nairn, and Sruxexey at Ruthven on the Spey. All that is certainly known
from Ricnarp’s itinerary, is, that Ptorotone was the third Roman ftation beyond the
Grampian moyntains.——Since writing the above, it was a fatisfaCtion to me to find, that
General Roy, in his elegant map of Roman North Britain, has actually placed Proroton,
or Ptorotone, at the burgh-head of Moray.

The HIGHLANDS of SGOTLAND. 31

ie men and children of the canton, and of their herds. They
could be defended by a few men, while the reft of the tribe
__ were engaged with their enemies in the field.

_____In the defcription I have given of the fortified hill of Dun-
__ Jardel upon Loch-Nefs, I mentioned a Druidical circle upon the
fhoulder of the hill about fifty or fixty feet below the fortification ;
_ and hinted, that this circumftance might poffibly afford ground
_ for a conjecture with regard to the date of thofe extraordinary
_ ftructures on the tops of hills.

Tue religion of the Druids obtained in Britain long before
the period of the Roman invafion ; and it was probably intro-
duced into the ifland by the firft colony of Celt or Gauls who
landed from the continent*. If, as is generally fuppofed, this
ifland was actually peopled from Gaul, Druidifm mutt have been
_ the religion of its firft inhabitants. I am difpofed, however,
_ to believe, that this ifland was inhabited of old by a race of
men who knew nothing of the religion of the Druids, whofe
_ manners and mode of life were too barbarous to be compatible
_ with that fyftem, and who, in after times, adopted from thofe
_ Druids their firft ideas of civilization and improvement. The
_ Druids, it is well known, were a very enlightened order of men ;
__and they had the addrefs to avail themfelves of that charaGter
\ of wifdom and learning, in obtaining an abfolute controul, not
only in matters of religion, but in the civil government of the
countries in which they were eftablifhed. They cultivated the

mechanic arts, and even the fciences of Medicine, Aftronomy
_ and Geometry, with confiderable fuccefs. In fhort, no nation,
_ among whom that fyftem had become prevalent, could long re-
main i in a ftate of barbarifm. But, from all the ideas we can
form.

+ + Tats idea is not contradicted by the fact, of which we are aflured by Casar, wiz..
‘That the Druids of Gaul were fent over for inftruGtion to Britain. This fact proves
- only, that the Britifh Druids, in the folitude of the diftant ifland of Mona, had made:
_ farther advances in the fciences at that time, than their brethren on the continent. Cz#-
sar indeed thence conjeétures, that the Druidical fyftem had been invented in Britain ;:
but this conje¢ture has no other bafis than the fact above mentioned.

32 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS, &e.

form of the ftate of Caledonia, at the time when it was necefla-
ry to rear thofe hill-fortifications, there appears no probability
that the inhabitants either lived under fuch a government as
we know to have prevailed under the influence of the Druids,
or had any acquaintance with thofe arts which it is certain
they cultivated. Thofe buildings muft, therefore, have been
erected previoufly to the introduction of the Druidical fyftem ;
that is to fay, in a period of time antecedent to the firft vifita-
tion of this ifland by the Celte of Gaul.

Tue Druidical circle upon Dun-Jardel lends its aid in fup-
port of this conjeture. If the fortification on the fummit had
been erected after the abolition of Druidifm, it feems extremely
improbable, that the builders of it would have neglected to
employ the ftones of this circle in rearing their fortification,
(ftones extremely well fuited to the purpofe, and quite at hand)
when they have been at immenfe pains to carry up a prodigious
quantity of {tones from the very bottom of the hill for that
work. It is not probable that they would have been reftrained
by any fuperftitious idea of reverence for the monuments of an
extinguifhed religion. For Druidifm, foon after its abolition,
funk into utter contempt, and the introduction of Chriftianity
rendered the ancient fuperftitions impious and deteftable. That
this hill-fortification was ere¢ted in the times of the Druids, I
have already {hewn to be extremely improbable. We mutt, there-
fore, recur to the only remaining, and the moft natural fuppo-
fition, that it was reared in times antecedent to the introduc-
tion of that religion. And this fuppofition carries the date of
this ftructure, and confequently of all the reft of the fame na-
ture, up to a period of antiquity far beyond all. hiftorical re-
cord, and connects them with a {tate of fociety in which the
arts were as imperfect, the manners as barbarous, and the con-
dition of life as lawlefs, turbulent and precarious, as among
the rudeft tribes of American favages.

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Il. REMARKS on fome Paffages of the fixth Book of the ENEID.
By FAMES BEATTIE, LL.D. F.R.S. Eoin. and Pro-
Seffor of Logic and Moral Philofophy in the Marifchal College,
Aberdeen.

[Read by Mr DALZEL, Secretary, March 19. 1787.

HE poetical beauties of Vireit’s fixth book are great

and many; and a moft agreeable tafk it would be to
point them out: but that is not my prefent purpofe. Nor dol
intend to draw a comparifon of the fentiments of our poet
with thofe of Homer, concerning a future ftate. From Ho-
MER, no doubt, Virert received the firft hint of this epifode ;
but the evocation of the ghofts, in the eleventh book of the
Odyffey, is not in any degree fo ftriking, or fo poetical, as
EnezAs’s defcent into the world of fpirits. Nor does the for-
mer exhibit any diftiné idea of retribution. In it all is dark
and uncomfortable. ‘‘ I would rather, fays the ghoft of
“ AcuiLuEs, be the flave of a poor peafant among the living,
“than reign fole monarch of the dead:” a paflage blamed,

not without reafon, by PLATO, as unfriendly to virtue, and

‘
ole

tending to debafe the foul by an unmanly fear of death.
My defign is, to give as plain an account as I can of the
theology (if I may be allowed to call it fo) of this part of Vir-

GIL’s poem. And I shall make the poet his own interpreter,

without trufting to commentators, or feeking unneceflary illu-
ftrations from PLatTo, to whom VirRciL, though he differs
from him in many particulars, was indebted for the outlines of

Voz. Il. E the

34 REMARKS on fome Paffages of

the fy{tem, and who probably owed them to philofophers of the
Pythagorean f{chool.

Tue learned Bifhop WarBurton has commented on this
part of the Eneid. Many of his obfervations are pertinent,
but fome are fanciful ; and in more places than one he feems to
have mifunderftood the author. His general pofition is, That
what the poet fays of Elyfium and the infernal regions, we are

to underftand as nothing more than a figurative account of the ©

myfteries exhibited in the temple of Cerzs at Eleufis ; and that
the poet meant in this way to tell us, that Enzas had, like
fome other heroes and lawgivers of old, been initiated into
thofe myfteries. This theory he fupports very ingenioufly, but
not, I believe, to the fatisfaction of many readers. I admit
there are allegories in the book, as I fhall have occafion to fhow ;
but that the whole is an allegory, or rather an allegorical repre-
fentation of the Eleufinian allegories, I can no more fuppofe,
than that the arrival at Carthage is an allegory, or the vifit to
EvANDER, or the combat with Turnus, or any other of our
hero’s achievements. | confider this epifode as truly epic,
and as a part, though not a neceflary part, of the poet’s fable;
and that he contrived it, firft, that he might embellifh his work
with a poetical account of a future ftate, and fecondly, and
chiefly, that he might thence take an opportunity to introduce
a compliment to his country, by celebrating the virtues of fome
of the great men it had produced. As thefe great men did not
flourith till after the death of EnzaAs, there were but two ways.
in which the poet could make him acquainted with them.
One was, by caufing fome prieft or foothfayer to prophecy con-
cerning them ; and the other, by fo availing himfelf of the doc-
trines of pre-exiftence and tranfmigration, then taught in fome
of the fchools, as to exhibit in their pre-exiftent ftate, fuch of the
hero’s pofterity as there might be occafion for. He chofe the
latter method ; and has fo managed it, that we muft acknow-
ledge the choice to have been judicious.

As

The fixth Book of the EN EID. 35

As the chief thing I have in view is, to illuftrate the moral
and theological fentiments of my author, I need not take up
much time, either in vindicating, or in apologizing for, his ge-
neral fiction ; I mean, his laying the fcenery of a future ftate in
the fubterranean regions.. That on the coaft of Italy, in the
neighbourhood of Cumz, there fhould be a paffage under
ground, leading to the rivers Acheron, Cocytus and Styx, and
thence to Tartarus on the left hand, and Elyfium on the right ;
that in this Elyfium, though thus fituated, there fhould be a
fun and ftars, and grafly plains, and delightful groves and ri-
vers, and two gates, the one of ivory, the other of horn, open-
ing into the upper world, at no great diftance from the Cumz
above mentioned ; and that in the fubterranean fpaces thus
bounded, there fhould be different forts of accommodation for -
all the fhades or fouls of the dead:—thefe, I fay, are fables,
which, as they cannot, according to our way of judging, be
reconciled to probability, or even to poflibility, we muft endea-
vour to acquiefce in the beft way wecan. So, in reading Ovip’s
ftory of Phaeton, if we would enter into the poet’s views,
and be fuitably affected with his narrative, we muft fuppofe,
what we know to be abfolutely impoffible, that the fun is
driven about the world in a chariot, which, though made of
gold and filver, and dragged by real horfes, and fupported by
nothing but air, yet paffes along in a beaten highway, where the
marks of the wheels are clearly difcernible. Fables of this fort,
however inconfiftent with the laws of nature, when rendered by
the art of the poet confiftent with themfelves, it is not our in-
tereft to criticize too minutely ; efpecially if, like that now un-
der confideration, they abound in fublime defcription and in-
ftructive leffons of morality. The fable then let us acquiefce ~
in for a moment. Our dreams, while they laft, we believe
without inconvenience ; and the fcenery of this fable will not

_ be more lafting than that of a dream.

at

E 2 As

36 REMARKS on fome Pafages of

As a fort of apology for the wildnefs of fome parts of this
fable, it may be remarked, that formerly at Cumz, near which
the Trojan fleet was now ftationed, there lived a prophetefs.
called the Cumean Sybil ; that in her neighbourhood, encom=
paffed with thick woods, there was a lake called Avernus,
which emitted peftilential fteams; that in the fame parts of
Italy there are many dreadful caverns, one of which is to this
day called the Sybil’s Grotto; and that for thofe who knew
nothing of the real fize of the earth, or the final deftination of
man, it was not altogether abfurd to imagine, as all dead bo-
dies return to the earth, that the fubterranean regions might
be the manfions of the ghofts or fhades of human beings de-
parted.

Tue neceflary facrifices being performed, and Engas ha+
ving found in the woods that golden bough which, being in-
tended as a prefent to PROSERPINE, was to ferve him as a pafl-
port through her dominions; the Sybil or prieftefs plunged into:
the cavern, calling to him to follow her, with his {word drawn
in his hand. They went a great way through a lonely region,
where there was no more light than one travelling in a wood
receives in a cloudy night from the moon. At length they ar-
rived at the entrance of the infernal world, where a number of
terrible beings refided; Difeafe, Old Age, Fear, Famine, Poverty,
and Death, and Labour, and War, and Difcord ; and fuch mon-
ftrous things as centaurs, gorgons, harpies and giants, one with
three heads, and another with a hundred hands, and the chi-
mera breathing fire, and the many-headed ferpent of Lerna
roaring hideoufly. By placing thefe at the entrance, the poet
perhaps intended to fignify, in the way of allegory, the horrors »
that accompany the near approach of death; or perhaps thofe
many evils, real and imaginary, which we muft all pafs through
in our way to the other world.

From this place to the river Styx was a region, in which the
ghofts of thofe, whofe bodies had not been honoured with the

: rites

The jfixth Book of the ENEITD. 37

rites of fepulture, were obliged to wander in a melancholy con-
dition for the {pace of an hundred years, before they could be
permitted to pafs the river, or appear before any of the in-
fernal judges. Here ENEAs met with his old pilot PALINURUS,
who, in their laft voyage, having fallen overboard in the night,
and fwam to the main land of Italy, was there murdered by
the natives, who did not give themfelves the trouble to bury
him, but threw his body into the fea. He begged ENEAS to
take him under his protection, and procure him a paflage over
the Styx. “ It cannot be, faid the Sybil; you muft have pa-
“tience. In the place where you were murdered, there will
“ foon be prodigies, which will induce the natives to perform
“ your funeral rites, and call a promontory after your name ;
“and then you may pafs the river, but not before.” Pati-
NuRus acquiefced ; well pleafed to hear that fuch honours
awaited him. ;

To inculcate this doctrine, that the foul would fuffer for
fome time in another world, if the body were not decently bu-
ried in this, and that the negle& of the funeral ceremonies is’
offenfive to fuperior beings, was a very warrantable fraud ‘in the
lawgivers of Greece and Egypt; as it would no doubt make’
the people attentive to a duty, whereof we find that favage na-
tions are too apt to be forgetful.

Our two adventurers were now approaching the river, when
Charon the ferryman, alarmed at the fight of a living man in
complete armour, called to the Trojan to ftop, and give an
account of himfelf. The Sybil pacified Charon, by declaring
the name and quality of her fellow-traveller, and fhowing the
golden bough. ‘They were then ferried over; and the three-
headed. dog Cerberus, preparing to attack them, was quieted:
with a cake which the prieftefs had’ got ready for him, and which.
he had no fooner {wallowed than he fell fait afleep.

Wuat could have given rife to this fable of Charon and his-
boat, it is not very material to enquire. Mythological writers:

have:

38 REMARKS on fume Paffages of

have faid, That the Greeks learned it from the Egyptians, which
is indeed probable enough; that the Egyptians framed both
this, and fome other fables relating to the dead, from certain
cuftoms peculiar to their country ; that in particular there was,
not far from Memphis, a famous burying-place, to which the
dead bodies were conveyed in a boat acrofs the lake Acherufia ;
and that Charon was a boatman who had long officiated in that
fervice. The learned Dr BLackweE tt fays, in his life of Ho-
MER, that, in the old Egyptian language, Charoni fignified fer-
ryman.

Tue travellers had now before them a region which the poet
calls /ugentes campi, extending from the other fide of the Styx to
the road that leads to Elyfium on the right hand, and that
which terminates in Tartarus on the-left. Thefe melancholy
plains muft not be confounded with Tartarus. The latter is a
place of eternal torment, prepared for thofe who, in this world,
had been guilty of great crimes; for there, fays the poet, “ Se-
“« det, gternumque fedebit infelix Thefeus.” The former,
though an uncomfortable region, is not a place of endlefs pu-
nifhment, but a fort of purgatory, in which all thofe fouls
that are not configned to Tartarus, are doomed to undergo
certain purifying pains, to prepare them for Elyfium. Thefe
pains are more or lefs fevere, and of longer or fhorter duration,
according to the degree of guilt committed in the upper world.
The fouls, on paffing the Styx, appear before the judge Minos,
who fummons a council, either of ghofts or of infernal deities,
but whether as a jury, or as witnefles, we know not ; and _ ha-
ving informed himfelf of the lives and characters of thofe who
are brought before him, allots to each a fuitable manfion in this
purgatory.

Tue fouls thus difpofed of, are—fr/, thofe of good men,
who, after undergoing the neceflary pains of purification, pafs
into Elyfium, where they remain in a {tate of happinefs for

ever 3 2dly, of thofe who have been of little or no ufe to man-
kind ;

i
-

4
ie

7

!

¥

cept by witches *, paid them, though to mother Midnight, whofe

The fixth Book of the ENEIJD. 39

kind ; 3dly, of thofe who have been cut off by an untimely
death, fo that their real characters could not be exactly afcer-
tained ; 4thly, of thofe who, though guilty of crimes, had not
committed any thing very atrocious ; and, /a/ly, of thofe whofe

*crimes, though atrocious, were confidered as the effe¢ts, rather
of an unhappy deftiny, than of wilful depravation.

_ Tuart the fouls of good men, who were to have an eternal
abode in Elyfium, were previoufly obliged to undergo purgation
by fuffering, is not exprefsly declared, but may be inferred
from what Ancuises fays, “ Quifque fuos patimur manes ;”
** every one of ws undergoes what is inflicted on him by his

manes ;” that is, by thofe deities of the nether world who
were the difpenfers of expiatory punifhment. This is the ori-
ginal, or at leaft the moft ufual fenfe of the word manes, which,
however, fometimes denotes metonymically the infernal regions

6c

in general, and fometimes, but more rarely, the fouls or fhades
who inhabited thofe regions. In Tartarus, it does not appear
that the Manes had any thing todo. The difpenfers of punifh-
ment in that dreadful place were Tifiphone and her fifter-furies.
The Manes mutt have been a gentler fort of beings. Some derive
the word from manus or manis, which they fay (on what autho-

_ rity I know not) is an old adjective fignifying good. The invo-
_ cations of the Manes practifed at funerals, the altars that were

erected to them, and thofe monumental infcriptions which be-
gan with the words Dis Manibus, were all, no doubt, intended
as acts of worfhip, or as compliments, to thefe deities, and
fuppofed to incline them to mercy in their treatment of the per-
fons deceafed, whofe fouls.were now in their hands in purga-
tory. Horace tells us, that the Manes, as well as the gods
above, might be rendered placable by fong—* Carmine di fuperi
“ placantur,carmine manes.” But the furies were inexorable and
mercilefs—‘‘ Nefciaque humanis precibus manfuefcere corda.”
_ And I do not find that worthip, or any other honours, were, ex-

daughters:
* Hor, Sat. I. 8. ¥ 33,°

a

40 REMARKS on fome Paffages of

daughters they were, facrifice was occafionally performed.
Ovip fays indeed, that they relented on hearing the fong of
Orpheus, but affures us it was for the firft time. Viren, in
his account of that affair, fays only, that they were aftonifhed.

Here I cannot but remark how abfurd it is for us to begin
an epitaph with the words Dis Manibus, or the letters D. M.
which oftener than once I have feen on a modern tombftone.
Such an exordium may be claflical ; but, in a Chriftian church-
yard, an invocation to Proferpine would not be more incongru-
ous. Apprison did well, when he advifed the writers of his
time not to facrifice their catechifm to their poetry.

I sarp, that the Manes feem to have had nothing to do in
Tartarus. I am not ignorant, however, that Rueus and the
common Dictionaries affirm, that the word fometimes denotes
the furies, and quote as an authority, “ Ignofcenda quidem,
* {cirent fi ignofcere manes.” But this is not fufficient autho-
rity. That verfe of Vircit relates to Orpheus looking behind
him, when condudting his wife to the upper world ; a fault, or
infatuation, which was to be punifhed, not by the fcourge of
the furies, but by calling back Eurydice to the fhades below ;
and which the Manes, however placable, could not pardon,
becaufe it was a direct violation of. the treaty with Profer-
pine.

Ir is fomewhat difficult to underftand diftin@ly what the
ancients meant by the words anime, umbre, fimulacra, which,
in this difcourfe, I call ghofts, /bades or fouls. We know, that
man confifts of a body and a foul, a material and an incorpo-
real part ; the one, like all other bodies, inative, the other the _
fource of life, motion and intelligence. But, on comparing
the general do@trine of this fixth book with a paflage in the
fourth Georgic, and with the eleventh of the Odyfley, we find,
that our poet, following in part the opinions of PyTHAGORAS
and PLaro, and partly too the reprefentations of Homer, fup-

pofed man to confift of three fubftances ; /irf, a vital and ac-
tive

The fixth Book of the ENETJD. 41

tive principle, derived either from the Deity himfelf, or from
that univerfal fpirit whom he created in the beginning, who
‘animates all nature, and of whom the vital principle of brutes
is alfo, according to VIRGIL, an emanation; 2d/y, a fhade or
ghoft, umbra, anima, fimulacrum, or adwrov, as HomeER calls it; -
and 3d/y, abody. At death, the vital principle was re-united
to that univerfal fpirit whereof it was originally a part; the
body was burned or buried, and returned to the earth whence
it came ; and the fhade or ghoft went to the nether world, and
appeared before Minos or Rhadamanthus, who affigned it fuch
a manfion of happinefs, of torment, or of expiatory fuffering, as
the perfon’s behaviour on earth had merited, or his circumftances
with refpect to pollution or purity required. Thefe fhades or
ghofts were fo far corporeal as to be vifible, but could not be
touched ; they retained the fame appearance their bodies had
before death; they had reafon and fpeech and confcioufnefs,
and a remembrance of their paft lives; they could be happy or
unhappy ; retained all the paffions and affeCtions of humanity ;
and.were capable (fuch of them at leaft as had not been atro-
‘cious criminals) of being purified from the pollutions of guilt
by the operation of air, fire and water.

TuaT part of the /ugentes campi which ENEAs firft paffed
through, after crofling the Styx, was peopled by the fhades of
infants, of perfons who had fuffered death by a falfe accufation,
-and of thofe who had taken away their own lives. Thefe are
all placed in the fame neighbourhood, probably becaufe, ha-
ving been cut off, as we fay, before their time, they had not
had the means, while on earth, of difplaying their character in
its full extent. This, however, is but conjecture ; for the poet
only mentions the circumftance, without afligning a reafon.
The felf-murderers, who occupy this diftrict, are termed in/cntes,

innocent or harmlefs ; an epithet which the commentators do

-not underftand, or at leaft do not fee the propriety of in this
place. Wrreiz, we are fure, did not mean to infinuate, that
Vou. II. F felf-

42 REMARKS on fome Paffages of

felf-deftroyers in general are guilty of no fault; for he places
even thefe in/ontes, who in refpect of others were comparatively
innocent, in an uncomfortable fituation, and fays, that they
would now return to the earth if they could, and willingly
fubmit to poverty, and thofe other evils, which when alive they
thought infupportable. By the word in/fontes, therefore, as here
applied, I underftand fuch unhappy perfons as had deftroyed
themfelves, without being chargeable with any other great
wickednefs. Had they been guilty of impiety, injuftice, want
of natural affection, or any grofs immorality, they would, ac-
cording to our author’s plan of retribution, have been configned
to everlafting punifhment in Tartarus. But as we find them in
a {tate of expiatory fuffering, and characterifed by this epithet,
we mutt, I think, fuppofe, that the poet here fpeaks of that
felf-deftru€tion, which, being partly the effect of infirmity,
was, in his judgment, the object of pity as well as of difap-
probation.

Tue Trojan and his guide were now arrived at that part of
the melancholy plains, where the country, if I may call it fo,
feemed to open into a wider extent. Here was a diftrict,
where, in a myrtle grove, were wandering the fhades of un-
happy lovers. Here ENEAs met with Dipo, who had rejoined
her hufband S1cueus ; and here he faw feveral others, fome of
whom, by the by, had led fuch lives on earth as would feem
to deferve a feverer doom than that of Vircit’s purgatory.

ADJOINING to the grove of lovers, and at the furtheft ex-
tremity of thefe regions, was a province inhabited by deceafed
warriors. Here he found feveral of his old acquaintance, who
were glad to fee him, and converfe and walk with him, and
curious to know the occafion of his coming. The Grecian
ghofts knew him likewife, and fled from before him, as they
had been accuftomed to do in the Trojan war. Here he faw
the fhade of his brother-in-law Dr1pHosus, in the fame mangled
condition in which his body had been left by the Greeks in the

night

gee tp me

The fixth Book of th ENETD. 43

night of the burning of Troy. A long converfation enfued
between the two friends, which was at laft interrupted by the
prieftefs, who told Eng As that he had no further time to lofe.

_ Be not angry, faid DerpHosus ; I fhall go away, return to my

darknefs, and there complete my term of penance.
Difcedam, explebo numerum, reddarque tenebris.

The words explebo numerum are varioufly interpreted ; but the
fenfe is probably what is here given. Rueus is inclined to ex-
plain it thus, “ Be not angry, great prieftefs, I fhall juft wind
up the laft period of my difcourfe, and then return to my
* darknefs ;” as if the poor mangled ghoft of DrrpHosus had
been ambitious to diftinguith itfelf at this time as a rhetorician,
and well {killed in the art of rounding a period. Dryben un-
derftands the paflage as I do. Servius hints at the fame in-
terpretation, but feems to prefer another.

THE two travellers having paffed through the melancholy
plains, were now come to a place, where one road went off to
the left, and another to the right ; the former leading to Tar-
tarus, the latter to Elyfium. They were going to Elyfium ona
vifit to ANcHISsES: but before they ftruck off to the right, the
prieftefs took this opportunity to defcribe Tartarus, the gates of
which were in view, but which ENEAs could not enter, as they
were never opened but for the reception of thofe wicked fouls,
whom the judge Rhadamanthus, after making them confefs the
crimes they had committed in the upper world, thought proper
to condemn to eternal punifhment. When this dreadful fen-
tence was paffed, they were feized on by Tifiphone and the other
furies, the adamantine gates opened with a tremendous found,
and the criminals were thrown into an immenfe dungeon,
ftretching downwards twice as far as from hell to heaven.

F 2 THE

44 REMARKS on fome Paffages of

Tue defcription of Tartarus is wrought up in a ftyle of ter-
rible fublimity, fuch as never was equalled by any other poet,
except by Mitton, in the firft and fecond books of Paradife
Loft. In the intrinfic grandeur of his images, the Englifh poet
may be thought to have excelled the Roman; but in one re-
{pect the Roman has the advantage. By means of a more mu-

fical language, he has been enabled to embellifh his narration

with a fonorous magnificence of harmony, whereof the Englifh

tongue, even when modulated by. Mitton, is not fufceptible.
Tue mouth of the Tartarean gulf was encircled with three
walls fo ftrong, as to be proof againft every affault of men or
gods ; and thefe walls were furrounded by Phlegethon, a river
of tempeftuous flame. Sleeplefs, before the gate, day and
night, and full in EneAs’s view, fat the fury Tifiphone in
bloody attire. From within iffued fuch an uproar of terrifying
noifes, that the hero, though at a diftance, heard it with hor-
ror; the cries of the tormented, the found of the fcourge, the
crafh of iron engines, and the clanking of chains dragged
along. Tell me, faid he, O virgin, what clamours, what pu-
nifhments, are thofe ; and for what crimes they are inflicted.
This gives the prieftefs occafion to defcribe what was pafling in
the regions of torment ; with which Hecate had made her ac-
quainted, when fhe gave her the fuperintendence of the groves
of Avernus. The perfons there punifhed had all perpetrated
enormous crimes ; among which are reckoned, acts of impiety,
want of natural affection, cruel treatment of parents, the de-
frauding of clients or dependants, and the hoarding up of
wealth to the injury of friends and relations. Here too adul-
tery is punifhed, even though the criminal fhould have ali eady
fuffered death for it in the upper world. Other crimes here pu-
nifhed are, rebellion, inceft, the various forts of injuftice and
treachery, the venality of lawgivers, fubverfion of the liberties
of our country, facrificing the public good to private intereft,
and

»

The fixth Book of th ENETD. 45

and many other forms of wickednefs, whereof the Sybil de-
clares it was impoflible for her to give a particular enumeration.

Tue punifhments are various. Of one enormous offender,
the entrails are continually devoured by a vulture, and conti-
nually growing to be again devoured ; an apt emblem to ex-
prefs the pangs of a guilty confcience, and which puts one in
mind of the never-dying worm mentioned in Scripture. Some
are in the eternal apprehenfion of being crufhed by a black
rock, which hangs over them, and feems to be every moment
beginning to fall. Some are perpetually employed in rolling a
huge mafs of ftone; fome are ftretched out on a whirling
wheel; and fome, agonifing with eternal hunger, have a fump-
tuous banquet fet before them, which they no fooner attempt
to touch, than a gigantic fury ftarts up, brandifhing a torch,.

_ and denouncing vengeance in a voice of thunder.

THERE is nothing in ViR6eIL more explicit than the account
of Tartarus; and I know not why it has been fo generally mif-

underftood. Dr WarsBurTON fays, in one place, that ENgEas

faw the fights of Tartarus at a diftance, and, in another, that
EngAs paffed through Tartarus. In fact, he did neither. He
could not pafs through without entering ; and this, we are told,

___ was to him impoflible: “ Nulli fas cafto fceleratum infiftere

“ limen.” And though he had been permitted: to enter, he
could not pafs through, without firft crofling a river of fire,
and then defcending into an immenfe gulph, twice as deep be-
neath the level of the other regions of darknefs, as thofe are

remote from heaven. It was equally impoflible for him to fee

_ from a diftance what was doing in fuch a gulph, even though

the gate that led to it had been open, which, however, at this
time, happened to be fhut. ‘‘ You fee, faid the Sybil, what a
“ centinel. fits without in the porch, (meaning Tifiphone) ;
* another, {till more dreadful, has her ftation within ;” which,

as he could not fee it, fhe informs him is a huge ferpent, or

er =
= ect)

hydra, with fifty heads. Amn opening of the gate is indeed:
*mentioned,,

46 REMARKS on fome Paffages of

mentioned, which Rueus underftands to have taken place at
the very time when the Trojan and the Sybil were looking at
it. But that is a miftake. The Sybil only tells her compa-
nion, that, when Rhadamanthus has made the criminals con-
fefs their guilt, then at length (¢vm demum) the gate opens for
their reception into the place of torment. It is ftrange that
Rueus and Dr WarBurTon did not fee that this is the obvious
import of the words of VirciL ; and that, if we do not under-
ftand them in this fenfe, the paflage muft appear confufed, if
not ungrammatical. In a word ; of the infide of Tartarus the
Trojan hero faw nothing ; he faw the outfide only, the walls,
the gates, the tower of iron, &c. and thefe he faw at fome di-
ftance. What was paffing within he learns from the Sybil’s
information.

“ AnD now, fays fhe, let us be going. Yonder, on the
right hand, is the palace of Proferpine, where, in the vaulted
** porch that fronts us, we are commanded to depofit the golden
“ bough.” This ceremony ENEAs performs, after having
fprinkled himfelf with pure water ; which was cuftomary with
thofe who made offerings to the gods.

TueEy then went onward to Elyfium, the gay fcenery of
which, immediately fucceeding the gloom of purgatory and the
horrors of Tartarus, is fo charming, that every reader feels
himfelf refrefhed by it. Here were groves, and plains, and
meadows, clothed with perpetual verdure, the abodes of tran- —
quillity and joy, and illuminated by a fun and ftars of the
moft refulgent beauty. Here were feafting, and dancing, and
mufic, and poets accompanying their verfes with the harmony
of the lyre. Here thofe warlike exercifes were renewed, in
which the heroes while on earth had fo much delighted; and
here were horfes, and chariots, and arms, and every thing that
could gratify an heroic mind. It muft be owned, that all this
is very inadequate to the defires and the capacity of an immortal

foul :

ce

The fixth Book of the ENEID. 47

foul: but Virert had heard of nothing better; and it was
impoflible for him to defcribe what he could not conceive.

In this Elyfium, which, with all its imperfection, is, as well
as the infernal world, founded on the beft ideas of retributive

_ juftice that could-be expected from a pagan, the poet places, in

a ftate of endlefs felicity, ‘‘ the fhades of the pure and the
pious; of heroes who have died in defence of their country ;
of ingenious men who have employed their talents in adorn-
ing human life with elegant arts, or in recommending piety
and virtue; and of all who, by adts of beneficence, have
merited the love and the gratitude of their fellow-creatures.’”
To a company of thefe happy beings, who had flocked round

the two ftrangers, and efpecially to the poet Muszeus, whom

fhe knew, the Sybil addreffed herfelf, defiring to be informed
where Ancuises refided. We have no certain habitations, re-
turned the poet; we wander about, and amufe ourfelves,
wherever we pleafe ; but follow me to yonder rifing ground,
and I fhall put you in a path that will conduct you to him.

Some writers blame Vircit for not making EneEas find
Homer in this part of Elyfium ; and infinuate, that the Roman
poet muft have been both invidious and ungrateful, in ne-
gleGting fuch an opportunity of doing honour to his great ma-
fter, to whom he owed fo much. Thofe critics do not confider
that ENEAs was dead an hundred years before HoMER was
born. Our poet has been cenfured for a /uppo/ed anachronifm,
in making ENeas and Dipo contemporary; and here he is
found fault with for having judicioufly avoided a rea/ anachro-
nifm.

Ir chanced that ANCHISES was at this time in a remote val-

__ ley, reviewing, in their ftate of pre-exiftence, fome of his pofte-

rity, who were afterwards to diftinguifh themfelves in the Ro-
man republic. When he faw his fon advancing towards him,
he held forth both his hands, gave him an affectionate welcome,
and wept for joy. The hero would have embraced his fa-

ther 3.

48 REMARKS on fome Paffages of

ther; but found that the fhade, though vifible, eluded the
touch.

Arrer a fhort converfation, ENEAs happening to fee, in a
grove through which a river was flowing, an innumerable
multitude of human beings flying about, afked his father who
they were, and what river it was. The river, faid he, is Lethe,
of which thofe fouls are taking a draught, being about to re-
turn to the upper world, in order to animate new bodies. Is
it to be imagined, exclaims Engas, that fouls fhould ever leave
this happy place, and go back to the imprifonment of the bo-
dy, and all the wretchednefs of mortality? I will explain the
whole matter to you, replies ANCHISEs.

Know, then, that all the parts of this vifible univerfe, the
heavens, and earth, and fky, the fun, moon, and ftars, are, like
one vaft body, animated by an univerfal fpirit, whereof the
fouls, or vital principles, of all animals, of men and beafts, of
fifhes and fowl, are emanations. This vital principle is, in eve-
ry animal, the fource of fenfation and motion; but, from the
influence that the body has over it, becomes fubjeét to inordi-
nate paflions, and forgetful of its heavenly original. The foul
of man, in particular, (for nothing further is faid of the other
animals) contracts, while fhut up in the dark prifon of the bo-
dy, a degree of debafement which does not leave it at death,
and from which the fufferings of a fubfequent ftate of purga-
tion are neceflary to purify it. Thefe are of different kinds
and degrees, according to the different degrees and kinds of
guilt or impurity which the foul has contracted. Some fouls
are expofed to the beating of winds, fome are wafhed in water,
and fome purified by fire. Every one of us (fays ANCHISES,
including himfelf) fuffers his own peculiar pains of purifica-
tion.. Then we are fent into this vaft Elyfium, and a few of
us remain in the eternal poffeffion of it*. The reft continue

here,

* I fuppofe the words Ez pauct Jeta arva tenemus, to be a parenthefis ; which, in my
epinign, clears the text of all obfcurity. By the change of the perfon, in the four lait
lines

“The fixth Book of th ENEID. 49

here till, by the air and tranquillity of the place, they have
entirely got the better of the impurity contracted in the world,
have had every impreflion of the pains of purgatory worn out,
and are reftored to their original fimplicity of nature. Thus
refined, they are, at the end of a thoufand years +, fummoned
__ by a divine agent, or god, to meet in one great aflembly, where
_ they drink of Lethe to wafh away remembrance, and then, in
compliance with their own inclination, are fent back to the
ale to animate new bodies.

_ Havine ended this account, ANcHIsEs, with his hgh and the
“sybil, paffes to a rifing ground, and points out, in a ftate of
_ pre-exiftence, a proceflion of Roman heroes, who were in due
_ time to defcend from hhim ; briefly defcribing their feveral cha-
_ racters, in a moft fublime {train of poetical prophecy.

r.,,

I suaAct fubjoin a few remarks on the concluding fcene of
this noble epifode ;—on the gates of horn and ivory. Thefe gates
have given no little trouble to critics, both ancient and modern ;
rho, after all, feem to have been not very fortunate in their
Vor. Il. G conjectures.

“

(certains fufficiently the import of tenemus. ‘The learned Rueus conftrues the paflage
‘a way fomewhat different ; 3 but his genera] account of the poet’s dottrine differs not
entially from mine.
: - More literally, ‘‘ When they have rolled the wheel, or circle, for a thoufand
ears ;” that is, when the revolution of a thoufand years is completed. For this
pretation we are indebted to Servius, who tells us further, that this fingular
rafe was taken from Ennius. Anciently perhaps rota might mean a circle, (as well
a wheel,) and poetically a year; fo that, in Ennius’s time, vo/vere rotam might be a
urative phrafe of the fame import with annum peragere, to pa/s a year. The original
fing of annus is a circle, whence the diminutive annulus, a ring. The fame reference
e circular nature of the year, may be feen in the Greek éuavres, which Vircix cer-
had in his mind when he wrote, “‘ Atque 7 /é fua per vefligia volvitur annus.”
‘ mf this is attended to, our author’s ufe of the phrafe in queftion will appear not fo
harfh as it might otherwife be thought to be, and not at all too figurative in this very
folema part of the poem.

50 REMARKS on fome Paffages of —

conjectures. This is owing, not to obfcurity in the poet, but
to the refinement of thofe interpreters, who miftook a plain
paflage for a profound allegory, and were determined to find a
fecret meaning init. The gate of ivory, fay they, tranfmits
falfe dreams, and.that of horn true ones; and Engas and his
companion are difmiffed from Elyfium, and let into the upper
world, through the ivory gate. What can this imply, but that
the poet meant to infinuate, that every thing he had faid con-
cerning a ftate of future retribution, was nothing more than a
fallacious dream? And, in fupport of this conjecture, they ge-
nerally quote from the Georgic three verfes to prove, that
Vircit was in his heart an Epicurean, and confequently difbe-
lieved both a future ftate and a providence. The verfes are—
“ Felix qui potuit rerum cognofcere caufas, Atque metus om-

“ nes, et inexorabile fatum, Subjecit pedibus, ftrepitumque

‘* Acherontis avari.”

Now, in the firf place, it does not appear to me, that thefe

lines can prove their author ever to have been an Epicurean, or
that he meant to fay more than ‘‘ Happy is the -man whofe
“‘ mind philofophy has raifed above the fear of death, as well
“© as above all other fears.” For, in the Georgic, he not only
recommends religion and prayer, which Epicureans could not
do confiftently with their principles, but again and again aflerts
a providence ; and, in terms equally elegant and juft, vindi-
cates the Divine wifdom in eftablifhing phyfical evil as the
means of improving and elevating the mind of man. But does
he not, in his fixth eclogue, give an account of the formation
of the world according to the Epicurean theory? He does;
and he makes it part of the fong of a drunkard: no proof that
he held it in very high efteem.

Bur, 2d/y, Suppofing our poet’s admiration of Lucretius
might have made him formerly partial to the tenets of Epicu-
RUS, it does not follow that he continued fo to the end of his

life,

The fixth Book of the EN EID. 51

‘life, or that he was fo while employed upon the Eneid. The
duties of religion, and the fuperintending care of providence,
are by no other Pagan author fo warmly enforced as in this
poem ; and the energy with which, in the fixth book, and in
‘one paflage of the eighth, (v. 666.) he afferts a future retribu-
tion, feems to prove, that he was fo far in earneft with regard
to this matter, as to believe, that it was not, as the Epicureans
_ affirmed, either abfurd or improbable.

Let it be remarked, in the ¢hird place, that no poet ever
thought of fo prepofterous a method of pleafing and inftructing
his readers, as firft to employ all his fkill in adorning his fable,
and then tell them, that they ought not to believe a word of it.
The true poet’s aim is very different. He adapts himfelf to the
opinions that prevail among the people for whom he writes,
that they may the more eafily acquiefce in his narrative; or he
- is careful, at leaft, to make his fable confiftent with itfelf, in
order to give it as much as poflible the appearance of ferioufnefs
and truth. We know, that the fcenery of the fixth book ‘is
_ wholly fictitious ; but the Romans did not certainly know how
far it might be fo: founded as it was on ancient tradition,
which no hiftory they had could overturn ; and on philofophi-
cal opinions, which they had never heard confuted, and which,
where Revelation was unknown, might feem refpectable, on
account of the abilities of PyrHaGoRAs, PLATO, and other
hit ‘great men who had taught them.

To which I may add, 4fhly, as an argument decifive of the
__ prefent queftion, That if VireiL wifhed his countrymen to be-
-_ fieve him to have been zof in earneft in what he had told them of
apre-exiftent and future ftate, he muft alfo have wifhed them to
underftand, that the compliments he had been paying to the

moft favourite charaters among their anceftors were equally
infincere ; and that what he had faid of the virtues of Camiz-
tus, Brutus, Caro, Scipio, and even Aucustus himfelf,
___-was altogether vifionary, and had as good a right to a paflage
n- G2 through

ye

— ee

52 REMARKS on fome Paffages of

through the ivory gate, as any other falfehood. Had Ocravia
underftood this to be the poet’s meaning, fhe would not have

rewarded him fo liberally for his matchlefs encomium on the ©

younger Marcettus. Had this indeed been his meaning, all

the latter part of the fixth book would have been a ftudied in-
fult on Aucustus, and the other heroes there celebrated, as well
as on the whole Roman people. Strange, that the moft judi-
cious writer in the world fhould commit fuch a blunder in the
moft elaborate part of a poem which he had confecrated to the
honour of his country, and particularly to that of his great
patron AuGusTUs !

We mutt therefore admit, either that Vircrt had loft his
fenfes, or, which is more probable, that, in fending Engas and
the Sybil through the ivory gate, he intended no farcaftic re-
fleGion either on his country or on his poetry. In a word, we
muft admit, that, in this part of his fable, he was juft as much
in earneft as in any other ; and that there was no more joke in
Eneas’s afcent through the gate of ivory, than in his de/cent
through the cave of Avernus. How then are we to underftand
this adventure of the gate? I anfwer, By making the poet his
own interpreter, and not feeking to find things in his book
which we have no good reafon to think were ever in his head.

In the nineteenth book of the Odyfley, Penelope, {peaking
of dreams, fays to her nurfe, that there are two gates by
which they are tranfmitted to us; one made of horn, through
which the true dreams pafs, and the other of ivory, which
emits falfe dreams. This thought Homer probably derived
from fome Egyptian cuftom or tradition, which one might dif
cufs with many quotations and much appearance of learning ;
and this, no doubt, gave Vircizt the hint of the paflage now
before us. But Vrrer’s account differs from Homer’s more
than the commentators feem to be aware of. Homer does not
fay in what part of the world his gates are; ViRGIL’s are in
Italy, not far from Cumz, and are faid to be the outlet from

Elyfum

The fixth Book of the ENETD. 53

_ Hlyfium into the upper world: a wild fiction no doubt, but
not more wild than that of making the cave of Avernus the in<
let from the upper world into the nether. Homer’s gates are
_ the gates of dreams ; V1RGI1 calls his the gates of fleep. The
former are not faid to tranfmit any thing but dreams; of the
latter, one tranfmits dreams, and the other real ghofts or /hades.
For thus, though all the commentators are againft me, I muft
: 4 underftand the words wmbris veris; becaufe in Vircit umbra
- often fignifies: a ghof, but never in him, nor in any other good
_ writer, (fo far as I know) a dream. If it be afked, what ghofts
they were that ufed to pafs this way; the anfwer is eafy : they
_ were thofe who, after having been a thoafand years in Elyfium,,
and taken a draught of Lethe, were fent back to the upper
_ world to animate new bodies.‘ If again it were afked, whether-
i fuch beings might not be of fo fubtle'a nature as to work their
i "way into the upper :world without paffing through a gate; I
fhould anfwer,’ that vifible fubftances, which might be purified
by fire;or wafhed in water, and could not get over the river
Styx but in‘a'‘boat, muft be fo far material at leaft, as to be ca-
4 pable ‘of ‘confinement,’ and confequently of being fet at li-

e) THE falfa infomnia that go out by the ivory gate may mean,
either deceitful dreams, or dreams in general, that is, unfubftantial
things, as oppofed to realities ; which laft I take to be the pre-
ferable fignification. Be this, however, as it will, ENEAs and
the Sybil were neither ghofts nor dreams, but human flefh and
: od 5 3 and could no more be fuppofed to partake of the quali-
; alluded to in the mame of the gate by which Ancuises dif-
ed them, than a man is fuppofed to be lame for having —
ed through Cripplegate, or than the Lord Mayor of Lon-
, by entering in proceflion through Temple-bar, is fuppofed.
C Rive become a better churchman than before, or a better:
awyer. Through one or other of the gates of fleep the Trojan
and his guide muft pafs, or they never could return to the upper:
world:

54 REMARKS on fome Paffages of the ENEID.

world at all: and that gate the poet probably made choice of,
which firft occurred to him ; and that probably would firft oc-
cur which founded beft in his verfe: or perhaps one might fay,
in the way of conjecture, that he thought fit to open the ivory
gate, becaufe the other, being appropriated to the purified
ghofts, might not be fo well fuited to mere mortals. This is
‘certain, that, though the ablative eburna ftands very gracefully
in the 898th line, the ablative cornea could not ; becaufe, being
the foot amphimacer, it can have no place in a regular hexa-
meter. .

As to the analogy that fome critics have fancied between horn
and truth, and between falfehood and ivory, it is fo whimfical,
-and fo abfurd, that I need not mention it.

AND now, by removing the mift of allegory from Vireit’s
gates, I flatter myfelf, that I have made thefe verfes fomewhat
more intelligible than they have been generally fuppofed to be 5
that I have proved the latter part of this epifode to be confiftent
with the reft of it; and that I have vindicated a favourite au-
thor from the heavy charges of impiety and ill-manners, where-
of, however repugnant to his general character, it would not be
eafy for thofe to clear him who follow the common, though lefs
obvious, interpretations.

Ill.

ie

ML dn Essay on RyTumMican Measures. ByWAL-
Bt TER YounG, M.A. F.R.S, Epin. and vee RE RE
15a Gofpel at Exfkine.

| ee

[Read by Mr FoHN ROBISON, Dec. 18. 1786.]

AWN is formed to derive pleafure from a variety of dif-
YH ferent fources. Many of his pleafures are communi-
red ra the channel of the external fenfes. Each of thefe has
a Seclar claffes of objects that are fuited to its gratification ;
d thefe, being diffufed in great abundance through the works
“mature, or framed by the art and ingenuity of men, become
to him a fource of frequent and diverfified enjoyment.
_. Tue pleafures which we receive through the fenfes of feeing
of hearing have ever been accounted of a nobler and more
nified nature than thofe which we receive by means of the
other fenfes. They are intimately connected with, and feem,
in a great meafure, to depend upon, certain higher faculties of
uuman nature, which have fometimes been called internal
es. A fenfibility to them is poffeffed by different men in
, different degrees, and confers upon fome men a real fupe-
ority to others: The inferior animals do not appear to be, in
any degree, poffeffed of it. It is fufceptible of cultivation and
rovement. The man, therefore, who poffeffes it in a high
ee, whilft he has an exquifite enjoyment of all the pleafures
h are peculiar to thofe fenfes, derives, at the fame time, an.
additional fatisfaétion from the flattering confcioufnefs, not on-
ly that he is exalted above the inferior animals, but that he is
more

56 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

more perfec in his kind, and more highly improved, than ma-
ny who belong to his own fpecies. Accordingly, thefe plea-
fures have, in all ages, been fought after with eagernefs. Men
of the greateft abilities have employed themfelves in tracing out
their nature, invettigating the different internal fenfes upon
which they depend, and difcovering the various objects that
are fuited to communicate them. The greateft efforts of hu-

man ingenuity have been directed to obtain thefe objects, and |

to prefent them in their moft perfect ftate.

Amonce the internal fenfes upon which thefe pleafures are
found greatly to depend, the perception of order and propor-
tion feems to have a principal place. Order and proportion are
generally difcovered, in a certain degree, in every thing that
communicates immediate pleafure, either to our fight or hear-
ing. When, from any particular circumftance, they happen
not to be perceived, the pleafure is always greatly abated ; in
fome cafes it is altogether deftroyed. ‘That fome kind of ar-

rangement and proportion of parts is effential to every thing —

which is accounted beautiful, is generally acknowledged. Lefs
doubt can be entertained with regard to the objects of hearing.
It is an eftablifhed fact, that no founds can give great pleafure
to the ear, unlefs they are related to one another according to
certain proportions, and are difpofed in a certain order. It is
equally eftablithed, that when founds in fucceflion are fo re-
lated, the pleafure which they afford is very imperfe@t, unlefs
their refpeCtive durations are regulated according to certain
meafures. Mankind are greatly diverfified with regard to the

power which they poflefs of perceiving thefe relations. Some —

men have that power in a much higher degree than others.
Some men have a very nice perception of thefe relations in one
clafs of objects, while they feem to be fcarcely fenfible of them
in other clafles. Thefe differences amongft men are undoubt-
edly owing in a great meafure, to habit and cultivation. They

feem,

; On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 57

feem, however, to depend alfo, in a confiderable degree, upon
natural conftitution.

I wave obferved, that, in an agreeable fucceflion of founds,
order and proportion take place in two different ways. Upon
the one depends what is called the tone of the feveral founds,
or the relation which. they bear to one another with refpect to
. acutenefs and gravity ; upon the other depends what is often
called their rythm, cadence or meafure. The latter of thefe is
probably the moft important. It feems to be indifpenfably re-
‘quired in every agreeable fucceflion of founds. A feries of
notes, proportioned in tone with the utmoft nicety, and ar-
ranged with the greateft art, if no meafure or proportional du-
ration is obferved in them, will-communicate no pleafure, but,
onthe contrary, will create difguft. On the other hand, a fe-
ries of founds juftly proportioned in duration, and artfully dif-
_ pofed, will always give pleafure, although every one of them
fhould be expreffed in the fame-tone, and even although they
__ fhrould be expreffed in different tones, the proportions of which

cannot be ‘perceived by the ear. The beating of a drum is

agreeable to the ear, and fometimes has a confiderable effect
upon the mind. ‘The fyllables which compofe words differ in
_ length according to certain proportions, which may be felt by
‘the ear. Words, therefore, may be arranged in rythm. When
f E this arrangement is made with art, the rythm i is agreeable, even
__-when it is expreffed in the tones of fpeech in which no mufical

Le | proportion i is perceived. | Again, though men: poffefs, in diffe-
i. ‘rent degrees, ithe power of feeling the proportional duration of
: a - fiicceflive founds, and of relifhing an agreeable rythm, there
tee is’ perhaps no man altogether deftitute of it. On the other
a) pyneny mens power of perceiving the mufical relations of founds,

i bi) and of relifhing an artful combination of them, is much more
he _ diverfified: | The differences among them in this refpect are
__ wider and more ftriking. In fome men, that power is fcarcely
- difcernible, who neverthelefs may be able to judge of rythm
Vot. II. H ; with.

58 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

with accuracy, and to enjoy it with fenfibility. From this cir-
cumftance, too, we are led to conclude, that of thefe two.
powers, that by which we perceive and enjoy rythm is of
greateft importance to our gratification.

Tone is the province of the mufician alone. Rythm is
equally the province of the mufician and the poet. It is alfo,
in fome degree, an object of attention to the orator and profe
writer. Although the general principles and foundations of
rythm, as it takes place in the works of thefe different artifts,
may be nearly the fame, the particular application of thefe, and
the extent to which it is carried by each of them, are diffe-
rent. It may accordingly be diftinguifhed into three kinds, viz,
mufical, poetical and profaic.

It is propofed, in the following Effay, to endeavour to inve-
ftigate fome of the leading principles of the two firft kinds of
rythm, the mufical and the poetical, and afterwards to fubjoin.
fome additional remarks. and illuftrations upon each. of them.

AmoncstT the ancients, mufic was feldom or never ufed but
as an auxiliary to poetry. Its rythm, therefore, was regulated,
in a great meafure, by that of the poetry to which it was
adapted. Amongft the moderns, too, mufic and poetry are
frequently united, and by this union their greateft effects are
produced. As, however, mufic has been greatly cultivated and’
improved by the moderns, it is enabled alfo to fubfift alone,
and in that fituation to produce very pleafing effects. In this
feparate ftate it will be proper to confider it at prefent. And.
here it will readily occur, that variety, within certain limits, is.
neceflary to mufical rythm. In poetry, the proportion in du-
ration of fingle contiguous founds feldom exceeds that of two-
to one. This. proportion does not admit of great variety.
When a poem, however, is recited, the attention of the hearer
is chiefly engaged by the fentiments, the images and the dition.
The rythm is frequently confidered only as an accidental.
grace, which we are led by habit to expeét in every compofi-

tiom

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 59.

tion that bears the name of poetry. In mufic, on the other
hand, a principal part of the pleafure to be communicated
muft depend upon the rythm; and therefore in mufic other
proportions in duration, befides that of two to one, muft be
admitted.

In order then that thefe proportions may be felt, and that
uniformity may be perceived amidft this variety, it is neceflary
that the duration of the fucceflive founds be regulated according
to fome fixed ftandard or meafure, which may be obvious to
the hearer. This ftandard muft be a determined portion of
time, of which every found muft be either an aliquot part or a
multiple.

Time is a meafurable quantity, or may be confidered under
the ideas of equal, or of greater and lefs. Moft men are
capable of perceiving equal intervals of time, provided thofe
intervals do not exceed a certain magnitude. , When we hear a
number of fucceflive ftrokes, we can generally determine whe-
ther the intervals betwixt them are equal or unequal. We ac-
quire this idea of equal intervals of time, from the motion of

our own limbs, and of thofe of other animals, in walking or
flying, which nature, for the purpofes of eafe and grace, has
determined to be an uniform motion. We acquire the fame
idea from the movement of pendulums, and from the beating
of clocks and watches. By a habitual attention to thefe, men
come by degrees to have a very accurate perception of {mall
equal intervals of time.

WHEN we have fixed our attention upon any fuch/interval,
and confider it as an unit of time, we can fuppofe it divided into
a certain number of equal parts; and by motion we actually
can make fuch a divifion. _When we ftand befide a clock, we
can, with great eafe, make a certain number of uniform or
equal timed ftrokes in the intervals betwixt the feveral beats.
This power of divifion, however, has its limits. Although we
may conceive an interval to be divided into any number of

H 2 equal

60 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

equal parts, the number of parts into which we actually can
divide it muft depend upon the powers which we have of per-
forming quick motions. Thefe powers are very limited. The
roll of a drum, the moft rapid movement of a mufician upon
an inf{trument, does not divide a fecond of time into much more
than fixteen or eighteen equal parts, hardly ever into twenty-four.
Our power of dividing a fimall interval of time, equally and
uniformly, and of perceiving fuch a divifion by the ear, is alfo
confined to certain proportions. The fimpleft and the eafieft
divifion is into two, or any of its powers which are within the
limits of practicability. We can divide an interval into two or
into four equal parts with almoft the fame eafe. Having ob-
tained either of thefe divifions, we can alfo confider each of the
parts as an unit, and fubdivide it into two or four, thus making
a divifion into eight, or, if our powers of quick motion will
admit, into fixteen*. Beyond this we cannot carry the powers.
of two in the divifion of fingle intervals. The divifion into.
three equal parts is not fo fimple as that intotwo. By practice,
however, it comes to be equally eafy. Having eftablifhed this.
divifion, we can, as in the former cafe, fubdivide each of them
into twos, into threes or into fours, thus obtaining a divifion
into fix, nine and twelve. We alfo obtain the numbers fix and
twelve, by breaking down into threes each of the parts of a
divifion by two or four t. A divifion into five equal parts re-
quires a confiderable effort of the attention. We fometimes
meet with a fucceflion of fuch divifions in the works of mufi-
cians. In executing fuch paflages, the performer, fixing his
attention upon the unit, probably runs on to the end of the

fucceflion

* Eicut is moft eafily conceived as two fours; fixteen is always conceived as.
four fours.

+ Six we can indifferently conceive as three twos or as two threes ;, nine we muft con-
ceive as three threes; twelye we can either conceive as three fours or four threes; we
can alfo conceive it as two fixes, but with more difficulty as fix twos,

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 66

fueceflion as uniformly as he can, without greatly regarding
the numbers. When we attempt the divifion into five, we are
often difpofed to break down the interval into two parts *, and
fubdivide the one part into three, and the other into two, ma-
king the two either equal to each other, or in the proportion of
one and two. In the fame manner, when we attempt the divi+
fion of an interval into feven, we are perhaps irrefiftibly led to
halve it, giving three to the one half and four to the other. A
divifion into any of the higher primes is impra¢ticable.

We have not only the power of dividing and fubdividing
{mall intervals or units of time in the manner I have explained,
but we can alfo form aggregates of them, by telling off equal
parcels of them, when they are rendered fenfible to the ear by
repeated ftrokes or founds. We do this, by attending particu-
larly to the firft of each of the parcels. The confequence of
this is, that thopgh the fucceflive ftrokes give out exactly the
_ fanfie found, and are made with the fame degree of force, we
_ fhall infallibly imagine the firft of each of our parcels to be
fomewhat. louder or more ftrongly expreffed than the others.
When we have counted off one parcel, the mind confiders the
- whole as one act; the parcel is as it were fet by, and a new
effort is made to count off the next parcel. Hence the firft of
this parcel, being marked by a particular effort of the mind,
and as it were reprefenting the whole parcel, ftrikes it more
ftrongly than the reft, and is therefore conceived as louder ; and
the laft of the parcel, being leaft attended to by the mind, is
conceived as feeble, thus giving us the impreflion of fomething
like a break or paufe betwixt the parcels. Thus, when we liften.
-to the beats of a watch, we are at firft difpofed to reckon them
by pairs ; and we invariably find, that the firft of each pair is
confidered by us as a ftrong, and the other as a feeble found.

We

»® Mors efpecially if, in former parts of the fucceflion, the fame interval has. been
found frequently. divided into two.

62 Qn RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

‘We may'be eafily fatisfied, however, that this is not always
OWing to any real inequality in the force of the founds ; be-
caufe we can often reverfe this order, by fixing the attention
upon one of our feeble founds, and confidering it as the firft of
a parcel. After-we have liftened for fome time to the beats,
according to this new arrangement, we ftill find that the firft
of each pair is ftrong, and the other feeble. We can tell off
the beats, not only by pairs, but alfo by parcels of three, four
and other numbers ;'and in every cafe we uniformly imagine
the firft of each parcel to be more forcible than the others. We
form thefe aggregates with greateft eafe, according to the fame
proportions in which we make the divifions formerly defcribed.
We count off the fucceffive equal intervals, marked by repeated
founds, moft eafily, by parcels of two and of four. When the
fingle intervals are not large, we can alfo make parcels of eight.
Thefe arrangements -give what the muficians call common
time. We.can alfo, with fuffcient eafe, reckon them by par-
cels of three and of fix, thus obtaining what is called triple
time. We can do more: we can even form aggregates of five
equal intervals. We feem to do this by firft telling off two
pairs, then accounting the fifth a feeble found, fixing the at-
tention upon the fixth, and making that the firft of the next
two pairs, and fo proceeding. We might, in the fame manner,
form aggregates of feven. As, however, by. counting off
three fucceflive pairs, the mind has in a manner eftablithed the
arrangement of ftrong and feeble founds, it becomes greatly
more difficult to confider the feventh as a feeble found, and to
fall into the new arrangement. Even when we reckon by par-
cels of five, we are defirous of having fome little time to efta-
blifh our new arrangement ; and when the intervals marked by
the fucceflive founds are perfe@tly equal, we always feel as if
the fixth came upon us too foon; we wifh that it might be
fufpended till the time of the third pair is completed. Aggre-

gates of five oecur frequently in poetry. They have fome-
times,

.

;
i

-

ay

7

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 63

times, we are told, been attempted alfo in modern mufic, but
never with fuccefs, and are now univerfally laid afide *
BesipEs the powers which we have of dividing and fubdi-
viding {mall equal intervals or units of time, and of counting
them off by equal fucceffive parcels, we have ftill the farther
power of combining together certain numbers of thefe parcels,
or of feeling fuch combinations, and confidering them as
fomething feparate and diftin@ from what went before and
what is to come after. We make thefe combinations by twos,
by threes and by fours, rarely I believe by any other num-
bers. The parcels by which we firft count off the intervals,
are, in modern mufic, called ars, being marked in writing by
perpendicular lines drawn acrofs the ftave. Combinations of
two, three or four of thefe bars are called mufical phrafes or
firains. The firft note of every bar is accented t. In parcels
of four, the third, being the firft of a baie is alfo accented, but

not fo ftrongly as the firft.
THIS:

* Tue ancients defined certain meafures, which they confidered as aggregates of five

and of feven, as meafures of which rythmical fucceffions might be formed. Thefe

they fuppofed to be made up of lefler meafures, bearing to one another, in the one cafe,
the fefquialter proportion, or that of two to three, and in the other cafe the epitrite

_ proportion, or that of three to four. Whether they had, or could have, a diftin&t feel-

ing of thefe numbers, upon hearing a fucceffion of' fuch meafures exprefled in fyllables,
or whether fuch a fucceffion could be exprefled fo as to communicate fuch a feeling, are
matters with regard to which F am much inclined to doubt. We may indeed conceive
aggregates of five to be formed. by counting off twos and threes, or threes and twos
alternately ; and, in like manner, aggregates of feven, by counting off threes and fours,
or fours and threes. This, however, can hardly be done, unlefs the fingle times are of
fuch magnitude,.as that they may be confidered as units of time, which is not the cafe
with the fhort fyllables of words. Even when the fingle times are fufficiently large, the
counting them off by alternate even and odd numbers, isa difficult, perhaps an unna-
‘tural operation. It requires fuch.a conftant and even:painful effort of the attention, as
is inconfiftent with that eafe and fimplicity of conception and operation, which is effen-
tial to every thing that is agreeable. If the attention is relaxed, we muft either hold
“entirely by one number, or run into confufion.

+ Tuave here ufed the term accent in its mufical acceptation, to denote that imagi--

' nary degree of force or emphafis which a found acquires from the circumftance of? its
being the firft of a parcel in a rythmical fucceflion.

64 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

Tus procefs of dividing and fubdividing, of compounding
and fupercompounding {mall intervals or units of time, as I
have now ftated it, appears, at firft view, to be extremely com-
plicated. The whole, however, is undoubtedly gone through
by ‘every one who executes a piece of regular mufic in juft
time, and by every one who hears a piece’ of mufic, and per-
ceives the meafure of it; and this apparently without any la-
bour or exertion of the mind. Perhaps the procefs, by which
we perceive the relations in tone, which mufical founds bear to
each other, is ftill more complicated, and yet this goes on even
without our confcioufnets.

“Wuen we hear a piece of mufic, we firft mark the fingle
intervals or units of time; afterwards, from the fuperior de-
gree of force with which the accented notes are exprefled, or
from fome circumftances in the found or the rythm which
draw the attention to thefe notes, we very quickly difcover, how
many intervals are contained in each of the equal parcels, ac-
cording to which the meafure is conftructed. Having efta-
blifhed this, we can with great eafe go along with the perform-
er, and feel the proportional duration of every note. We are
provided with a ftandard or fcale, to which we can refer the
moft minute divifions that can be made, and by which we can
meafure the longeft notes that may occur. If we are unac-
quainted with the piece, and do not at firft perceive the mea-
fure, we are kept, during all that time, in a difagreeable ftate
of fufpenfe, and are unable to liften with any degree of pleafure
or fatisfaction.

THE meafure is moft eafily perceived when the bars natu-
rally combine into twos or fours, and when of thefe combina-
tions the whole or each part of the piece contains a determinate
even number. In this manner, the fimple popular airs, fuch
as marches, gavots and minuets, are conftructed. There are
very few who cannot eafily perceive and relifh the meafure in
fach airs. This regular ftructure, however, is not obferved

in

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 65

in all mufic. In fome pieces, the bars do not regularly com-
bine into phrafes, or, if they do, the phrafes do not always
contain the fame number of bars. The number of the bars,
too, is indeterminate, and fometimes very great. In fuch
pieces, then, the meafure muft in general be formed of fingle
bars or parcels ; and if the rythm is variegated by a confidera-
ble range of long and fhort notes, and if the accented notes do
not forcibly engage the attention, an unpractifed hearer will
fometimes hardly perceive the meafure at,all. When this hap-

pens to be the cafe, it is impoflible that he can receive any

great pleafure from that mufic. According to the language ufed
upon fuch occafions, he does not underftand it. Such difficult
and perplexed meafures, however, occur more rarely in the
later compofitions than in thofe of the laft century.

In fuch meafures, beating of time is of great ufe both to
the performer and to the hearer. This feems to have been a
practice ever fince man had an idea of rythmical meafures.
We are naturally difpofed, upon hearing fuch meafures diftinét-
ly exprefled, to accompany them with correfponding motions

of the body; and hence probably the origin of dancing, to

which exercife the term rythm has been frequently applied.
The beating of time is performed by putting down the hand
or foot, and giving a ftroke at the inftant in which the firft

note of every bar begins to be founded, and raifing them up

during the remaining time of the bar. This both direéts the
performer to execute the piece in uniform time, and enables the
hearer readily to perceive the accented notes, and to afcertain
the meafure. The ancients, in the performance of their mu-

fic, and efpecially of their dramatical mufic, where the band

Was numerous, beat time with great force and noife. This
was perhaps neceflary, as their meafures were frequently un-
equal .and irregular. The moderns, who generally conftruc&

_ their mufic by equal and regular meafures, have laid afide that
_ practice in every cafe where it is not indifpenfable. We un-

Vo. II. I doubtedly

66 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

doubtedly liften with more fatisfaétion when we can perceive
the meafure from the real accent and expreffion of the notes,
than when we mutt be aflifted by the continual repetition of un-
mufical founds.

Sucu then feem to be the nature, the extent and the man-
ner of operation of what may be called our rythmical powers,
or thofe powers by which we afcertain and perceive the propor-
tional magnitudes of {mall intervals of time, when thefe are
marked out by motion, or by fucceffive founds. And from
what has been faid, we eafily fee what a prodigious variety may
be introduced into mufical rythm, from the great range of long
and fhort founds which may be occafionally employed, and:
which may be difpofed and combined in a number of different
ways almoft infinite, without perplexing the hearer, or hinder-
ing him from readily and accurately feeling the proportional!
duration of each.

In the foregoing account of thefe powers, I have frequently:
fpoken of fingle intervals or units of time. It may be proper,.
in this place, to explain a little more fully what I underftood.
by thefe terms. It will readily occur to every one, that I did
not mean to exprefs by them a certain invariable portion of ab-
folute duration. hefe units, like units in all other fubjects,
are indeterminate and relative magnitudes. They mark fome-
times a greater, and at other times a lefs portion of abfolute
duration. The fame portion of abfolute time will, upon diffe-
rent occafions, be confidered as an unit, as a multiple and as a
part. Every one, however, who has been converfant in mufic,
experiences, that when he performs, or when he hears and goes:
along with a piece of mufic, there are certain notes which he-
uniformly confiders as fingle durations, of which all the longer
notes that occur are aggregates, and the fhorter notes are parts.
He may therefore be very properly faid to have all this while
the idea of an unity of time. Although thefe units of time
differ confiderably in their abfolute duration in different move-

ments,,

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. Be,

ments, this difference is undoubtedly confined within certain
limits. They can fcarcely be much greater nor much lefs than
the intervals marked by thofe natural uniform motions from
which our original impreffions of rythmical movement are de-
rived, and particularly the motion of our own limbs in walk-
ing or running. Perhaps the longeft found which can be con-
fidered as a fingle undivided duration, is hardly equal to the
time of two feconds; and the fhorteft which can be eafily
counted without parcelling, is not much lefs than half a fecond,
or than the time in which we can diftin€ly pronounce the nu-
meral names in fucceflion. We can indeed attend to the fingle
beats of a watch, but not without a confiderable exertion of the
mind; we reckon them much more eafily by pairs or by
fours.

Ir might here be afked, what occafion is there, in order to
explain our perception of rythmical proportion, for fuppofing
it neceflary that the two oppofite operations of divifion and
combination go on at the fame time? Would it not be more
fimple and more natural to fuppofe, that the whole procefs is
carried on in the fame direction, and by the fame operation ;
and that either the longeft found which occurs in the fucceffion
is to be accounted the unit or ftandard, and all the fhorter ones
formed and conceived as proportional divifions of-it; or elfe,
that the fhorteft found is to be taken for the unit, and all the
longer founds conceived as formed by combination? The an-
fwer is, that the procefs of dividing and combining appears to
be the procefs of nature; and, for proof of this, appeal might
be made to experience. When a perfon is inftructed in mufic,
he is taught to mark the time of a femibreve by four uniform
motions of the hand. He is thus accuftomed to confider it,
Not as one time, but as four times, expreffed, not feparately
and diftin@ly, but in continuance; and I may venture to fay,
that the moft experienced mufician does not conceive fuch
lengthened founds in a different manner. By practice and dif-

I 2 cipline,

68 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

cipline, indeed, he is enabled to give them a fmooth and uni-
form intonation, without marking the fingle times as they
pafs, by a {well or more forcible expreffion ; but ftill he is all
the while reckoning thofe fingle times in his mind, or attending
to the accompaniment by which they are for the moft part di-
ftintly articulated. Thefe lengthened founds, therefore, never
are conceived as units or fingle durations, but always as com-
pounds. On the other hand, many founds occur in mufic
which are too minute to be counted individually. Thefe,
therefore, can only be conceived in groups, by being referred
to fome longer duration of which they are aliquot parts. This
may be farther proved from the following circumftance: In
mufical fucceffions, we often find a duration which may be
confidered as an unit, divided at one time into fours, and at
another time into threes or triplets. Thefe minute times,
therefore, will be to’ one another in the proportion of three to
four. If, therefore, it is thought practicable to account fuch
fmall time the unit or ftandard of a rythmical fucceffion, to
which all the other times are to be referred, and by which they
are to be eftimated, I would afk, which of the two minute
times is to be taken for the unit, in the cafe above defcribed?
If the fmalleft is pitched upon, I would farther afk, by what
means are we enabled to exprefs the other accurately, in pro-
portion to it as four to three, or to feel this proportion as fub-
fifting betwixt them, efpecially as both are fuppofed to be in-
capable of further divifion ? The matter feems to be impoffible.
Such paflages, however, are, by no means, confidered as diffi-
eult or embarraffing, even by young performers. Thefe
fall times, therefore, are not conceived as units, but as divi-
fions, by the fimple numbers four and three, of fome longer
duration, which has been often diftinctly marked in the
former parts of the piece, and with which the mind is fa-
miliar.

THESE

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 69

THEse oppofite operations of divifion and combination faci-
litate and fimplify the procefs of rythmical perception, and, at
the fame time, enable us to take in a much wider range of
proportion, than could be done if we proceeded only in one di-
reCtion. As the unit is commonly fome intermediate time be-
twixt the longeft and the fhorteft which occurs in the fucceflion,
it bears no very diftant proportion to either of them. We
frequently meet with femibreves and femiquavers in the fame
piece of mufic ; notes which are to one another in the proportion
of one to fixteen. This proportion is too great to be conceived
and felt by a fingle operation of the mind. When, however,
the crotchet is accounted the unit, we are enabled to eftimate,
and accurately to exprefs, thefe diftant times, without going
beyond the fimple and familiar proportion of four to one, on
either hand.

THE ancients. indeed accounted their fmalleft time as the
unit or ftandard of rythmical movement. This fmalleft time,
however, was not lefs than that of a fhort fyllable in pronun-
ciation, and they had no founds in their fucceflions, which
they confidered as bearing to this a greater proportion than that
of twotoone. It may alfo be of importance to remark, that
as their arithmetic was very imperfect, compared with. that of
the moderns, it is very probable that they had not the fame
ideas of fractional divifion, which we now have. In treating
upon any fubject, therefore, in which number is concerned,
they would naturally take for their unit the {malleft of the kind
which they were examining, fomething that was either naturally
indivifible, or that they did not expect to be under the neceflity
of dividing. Thus ArisTIDES QUINTILIANUs Calls the fingle
time of rythmical movement enuéor; a term by which, as he
tells us, geometricians exprefled that which has no parts. This
time, he adds, being without parts, holds, in fome degree,
the place of unity *. The moderns, on the other hand, being

able
* Page 32, 33. Edit. Meib.

“70 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

able to conceive and exprefs proportional divifions of the unit,
with as much eafe and accuracy as they do aggregate numbers,
have it in their power to take their unit of fuch dimenfion as
beft fuits the nature of the fubje@t. This circumftance may
perhaps enable us to account for fome of thofe differences
which take place betwixt the opinions of the ancients and of the
moderns, upon the fubject of rythm.

THERE are a few remarks which it may be neceflary to make,
before I conclude this part of the fubjet.

‘In mufic, we fometimes find the unit of time divided into
‘two unequal parts, in the proportion either of two to one, or of
three to one. In making or perceiving this divifion, we do
not firft break down the unit into three or four, and then allow
two or three of thefe to the firft note, and the remaining one to
the other. We have not leifure for this operation. We merely
conceive the one as prolonged and accented, and the other as
abrupt and feeble. Hence, when we hear fuch divifions, it is
very difficult, without the affiftance of the other parts of the
meafure, to determine whether they are made according to the
one proportion or the other. A practifed ear will frequently
miftake, and in writing mufic the one is fometimes fubftituted
for the other.

AFTER a diftinét impreflion has been obtained of the units
of which a rythmical fucceffion is compofed, and of the par-
cels according to which it is conftru€ted, we do not lofe that
impreflion, although the fucceffion fhould ftop, or no found be
heard, during the time of one or more of the units. Thefe
vacant or filent times, if they are not too long continued, we
reckon with nearly the fame eafe and certainty, as if they had
all been expreffed by founds ; and we clearly perceive the par-
ticular part of the meafure at which the fucceffion of founds
recommences. Thefe filent times are called refs in mufic, and
are always accounted as part of the meafure. But this is not
all. Wecan in a manner ftop the courfe of the rythmical

movement,

hen ay

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 71.

movement, or fufpend the flow of the units, during a time
which is either indeterminate, or of which we take no exact
account, and proceed afterwards as if no fuch paufe had been
made. Thefe ad libitum paufes, as they are called in mufic,
are feldom taken into the meafure, or confidered as making any
part of it. The intention of them is to roufe and ftrike the
mind of the hearer ; and there are various occafions on which:
they may be introduced with very happy effect. Modern mu-
ficians often ufe them as opportunities of difplaying the extent
‘of their invention and execution, when lofing fight of the
compofer, giving the reins to their fancy, and little regarding
rule or meafure, they entertain their hearers with a feries of
rapid divifions through the whole compafs of their inftrument,
and of uncommon and irregular modulations. But farther,
we can not only fufpend for a time the courfe of the rythmical
movement in the manner above defcribed, we can alfo render
it occafionally flower or quicker, by-increafing or leffening the
dimenfion of the unit, when we wifh to exprefs a heavy lan-
guid movement, or one that is light and animated; and after

having executed’ a part of the fucceflion in that manner, we

can often, with great accuracy, refume our firft unit, or re-
turn to our original time. We probably do this with moft cer-
tainty, when this enlargement or diminution of the unit is
made in fome fenfible proportion, as that of two to one. This

L practice, and the effects of it, were well known to the an-

‘cients. They made it a branch of their rythmical inftitution, .

_ under the title of Aywy7 pudusxn, or Dudius Rythmicus.-

_In mufic, the accented note, or beginning of the meafure,.
is not always the firft note that is founded.; it is:often preceded
by one or more feeble notes, which are placed before the bar
or perpendicular line which marks the commencement of the

i firft meafure. Thefe introductory notes are thought to give a
_ foftnefs and delicacy to the opening of the piece. In regular

mufic, when the parts are repeated, the time of thefe notes
is

72 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

is always compenfated at the conclufion of the ftrain. The
mo{t graceful clofe of a rythmical fucceflion is when the laft
found is long. We alfo reft upon this found with moft fatis-
faction when it begins upon an accented part of the meafure.
In this cafe, that meafure may be left incomplete, by the exact
quantity of the introductory note; fo that when the ftrain is
repeated, this incomplete bar at the end, together with the in-
troductory note at the beginning, make up one entire mea-
fure.

I Now come to make fome obfervations upon the rythm of
poetry.

Ir has already been remarked, that words being compofed
of fyllables which differ in length according to certain propor-
tions, are fufceptible of rythm. In all compofitions, therefore,
the object of which is to pleafe and to affeét, it has been the
general practice to arrange the words in fome agreeable
rythm. One very common method for attaining this end has
been, to form the words into parcels, according to certain mea-
fures and proportions ; and in order that thefe parcels may be
more readily perceived and attended to by the reader, to write
them*out in feparate lines.

Tuts poetical rythm cannot poflibly be fo various and com-
plicated as the mufical. The fame principles, however, to a
certain extent, take place in both. We find in poetry fmall
intervals or units of time regularly divided and combined.
The divifions, indeed, cannot poflibly be fo minute as they
often are in mufic; neither are the parcels fo equal and uni-
form. We have alfo in poetry accented and feeble founds ;
and verfes, like mufical ftrains, are often introduced by one or
more feeble founds, which fometimes are compenfated at the
end of the verfe, and at other times are not. In poetry, as in
mufic, we often make up a part of the meafure by refts or filent
times. In reciting verfes, too, we can make indefinite paufes ;

and

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 73

a

and we are often infenfibly led by the fentiments or by the
ftructure of the words, to execute the dudfus rythmicus, or occa-
fionally to accelerate or retard the movement.

In the ancient Greek and Latin languages, the proportion
betwixt the longand the fhort fyllables is better af{certained, more
diftinéty marked, and more fenfibly felt, than it is in the mo-
dern languages of Europe. Thofe languages are, therefore,
fufceptible of a more perfe&t and a more diverfified rythm.

_ The poets who have written in them have availed themfelves

of this advantage, and have left us in their works a variety of
very pleafing rythmical meafures. Critics have difcovered the
rules by which thefe meafures were conftructed ; and, in order
to explain them with greater eafe, have eftablithed and defined
different fmall fcales of long and fhort fyllables, which have
been called metrical feet, and by which the different meafures
have been parcelled out into their component parts. The
names and the nature of thefe feet are generally known, and
need not, in this place, be explained. I fhall only, at this

time, make two obfervations upon them. The firft is, that

they feem, in general, to mark what I have formerly called fin-
gle intervals or units of time, and thefe not very large. Any
one may find, when he recites a verfe, that he can eafily pro-
nounce two feet in a fecond; but that he can hardly draw
them out, fo as that each of them fhall occupy the time of a
fecond. The other obfervation is, that it does not appear to
have been the intention of the perfons who defined and applied

_thefe feet, to divide verfes by them always into equal intervals
of time. The formation of them proceeds upon the fuppofi-

tion, that when a perfon recites a poem, he pronounces every
fhort fyllable in one determined fpace of time, and every long
fyllable in a {pace of time exactly double of that in which he
pronounces a fhort one. The real duration, therefore, of any

one foot will be to the real duration of any other foot exactly
_ in proportion to the number of thefe f{malleft times contained

- Vor. II. K in

=

74 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

in each ; and this can be accurately determined, by obferving
the number of long and fhort fyllables in each of them, and
accounting every long fyllable equivalent to two fhort ones. In
this manner we find, that the duration of an iambus or tro-
chzus is to the duration of a fpondzus or a dactylus exaétly in
the proportion of three to four. When thefe feet of unequal
time, therefore, occur in the fame verfe, which frequently
happens in fcanning, it is evident, that, upon this fuppofition,
they do not divide that verfe according to equal intervals of
time. Whether the fuppofition of this proportion, invariably
fubfifting betwixt long and fhort fyllables, upon which this
fyftem depends, be in every cafe well founded, may be the fub-
ject of future enquiry.

THE units of time, of which the duration of verfes 1s
made up, are fometimes divided into twos and fours, and fome-
times into threes. Of the firft we have an inftance in the com-
mon hexameter verfe of the ancients. This is a regular rythm,
the units being all equal, and formed into equal parcels. The
number, of which the parcels confift, is fix. It may there-
fore be confidered as a triple meafure. In verfes, as well as in.
other rythmical fucceffions, the parcels of which confift of any
number greater than three, we are always difpofed to break
down thefe parcels into the fmaller numbers of which they are
compofed, or to confider the whole parcel as an aggregate of
thefe fmaller parcels. This is the origin of what is called the
paufe or cefural ftop in verfes. As, according to what was
formerly ftated, the clofe of a rythmical fucceflion, whether
final or partial, is moft agreeable, when the laft found is long
and accented, and as we are often difpofed to begin a fucceflion
with one or more feeble founds ; fo, in making the divifions of
verfes, we reft with moft fatisfaCtion upon a long fyllable
in an accented part of the meafure, and begin the fucceeding —
member moft eafily with a fhort or feeble fyllable, which we,
in a manner, pafs over, and confider as introductory to the

meafure,

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 75

meafure. The moft fimple divifion of fix is into two threes.
Hence we generally wifh to conclude the firft member of a
hexameter verfe with the firft fyllable of the third foot ; and
are pleafed, when we have an opportunity of doing fo, by that
fyllable being the termination of a word.

_ Tityre, tu patule — recubans fub tegmine fagi.
Nos patriz fines — nos dulcia linquimus arva.

This divifion of the hexameter verfe, not only gratifies the na-
tural propenfities above mentioned, but, as the concluding fyl-
lable of the verfe is in the unaccented part of the meafure, it
gives a variety to the cadence of the two members, and pre-
vents them from being fimilar or convertible *, which is al-
ways confidered as a fault in the ftructure of verfes, and un-
doubtedly gives them a difgufting uniformity. We can alfo
make the break at the fecond fyllable of the third foot, when

it happens to be a dactyle; as, in this cafe, we have ftill a

feeble found with which to begin the fecond member, and the
time of the firft member is more nearly completed.

Formofam refonare — doces Amaryllida filvas.
This ‘penthemimer divifion of the hexameter verfe, though the

moft agreeable, does not always take place. To obtain variety,
it is neceflary that it fhould occafionally be divided otherwife.

_ The number fix may alfo be eafily conceived as made up of

_ three pairs. By making the break at the firft fyllable of the
_ fourth foot, we have two pairs, deficient of their juft time by
_ the feeble fyllable or fyllables, which are introductory to the

meafure of the fucceeding member.

Ile meas errare boves — ut cernis, et ipfum.
K 2 The

* As, Cornua veletarum — vertimus antennarum,

76 On RY THMICAL MEASURES.

The grammarians, led by the fyftem of half-feet, would not
probably confider the divifion which I have made of the fifth
line of Vircit’s firft Eclogue, quoted above, as the juft one.
Fhey would rather fuppofe that the break took place at the end
of the word doces. They would alfo fuppofe a fubordinate di-
vifion at the word formofam.

Tue divifion of the units into twos and fours, which takes
place in the hexameter verfe, feems beft fuited to the ftructure
of the Latin and Greek languages. Pure trochaic or iambic
verfes, where every alternate fyllable is profodically long, and
the others are fhort, occur but rarely in their works. Our lan+
guage, again, feems fcarcely to admit of fuch divifions. In
our poetry, the fyllables are arranged lefs according to their
real quantity, than according to the accent * with which we are
accuftomed to pronounce them. An accented fyllable has ak
ways the effect of a long one, and is qualified for being placed
in the leading or accented part of a poetical meafure. An un-
accented fyllable, on the other hand, gives us the impreffion of
a fhort one, though by the common rules of profody it ought
to be long, and though itis, in reality, pronounced long.
is alfo difqualified for being placed in the accented part of a
meafure. We have few inftances of areal dactylus in fingle
words, though three fhort fyllables, from the accent with which
the firft is pronounced, often affumes the appearance of one.
Englith verfes are conftructed for the moft part by feet of two
fyllables. The proportion which thefe two fyllables bear to
one another is feldom perceived with accuracy ; neither is it of
great importance that it fhould be fo perceived, provided the
times of the entire feet, or of the two fyllables taken together,
be nearly equal. The impreflion, however, which thefe feet,

for

* Wuen I apply the term accent to fyllables, I.ufe it in its grammatical acceptation,
to denote that fuperior force of articulation, and that inflection of the voice, with which
we always mark in our pronunciation fome particular fyllable or fyllables of every,
word,

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 49

for the moft part, communicate, is that of a trocheus of
fambus. Our poets alfo conftruct verfes fometimes by feet of
three fyllables. Thefe feet, although the fyllables of which they
are compofed are, for the moft part, nearly equal, give us the
impreffion of fomething like a dactylus or anapzftus, according
as the accented fyllable is the firft or the laft of thethree. In
regard to their ftructure, therefore, Englifh verfes have been
diftinguifhed into three kinds, trochaic, iambic and ana-
peftic *.

ALTHOUGH all iambic verfes are to be confidered as trochaics
having a feeble fyllable introductory to the meafure, and ought
always to be fo fcanned, yet the impreflion which thefe two:
werfes make upon the ear, and the effeéts which they have upon
the mind, are fomewhat different. When. we begin with the
feeble found, we pafs eafily and gently from it to the ftrong
found. We utter the ftrong found without much exertion, and
can dwell upon it for fome time. On the contrary, when the
ftrong found comes firft, we exprefs it with more difficulty and
force, and pafs on to the fucceeding feeble found with more ra-
pidity. Hence trochaics have been generally reckoned fome-
what quicker in their movement than. iambics, and. more pro-
per for exprefling vehemence or gaiety. As iambic verfes:
themfelves, however, have naturally a light and airy caft, efpe-
cially when the combinations are made by even numbers, our
beft poets, to obviate this, have, in their more’ ferious compo-
fitions, generally adopted a combination of five.. This has ac-

cordingly been denominated the Englifh heroic meafure. The

OS

regular model of this verfe is as.follows. The firft. fyllable is
unaccented, or fhort and introductory to the meafure. This
is fucceeded by four feet of two fyllables, which, as the accent

takes

* Eneuisa trochaic and iambic verfes may be fet to mufic in‘common or in triple
time indifferently. Anapzeftic verfes require, for the moft part, to be fer in triple time.
Suenston’s Paftoral Ballad fet in common time, would lofe much of its beauty an@-
delicacy.

78 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

takes place upon the firft fyllable, may be confidered as tro-
chees. After thefe, there is a {trong or accented fyllable, which
clofes the verfe, and, along with the introductory fyllable of
the next line, completes the number of five feet *.

To | wake the | foul — by | tender | ftrokes of | art.

This model is not always obferved. Our beft poets make fre-
‘quent deviations from it, in order to give variety to the cadence
of their verfes, or to render them more expreflive of the fenti-
ments or emotions which they wifh to convey.

Tus verfe, like the ancient hexameter, admits of a break
or divifion. As, according to what was formerly obferved, we
generally reckon combinations of five by two pairs and an odd
one, we make this break with moft fatisfaction upon the leading
found of the fecond foot, or the fourth fyllable of the verfe.

To make mankind — in confcious virtue bold.

We can alfo make a divifion at the fixth fyllable, as in this cafe
we have ftill one pair, with its introductory found, remaining.

Of that forbidden tree — whofe mortal tafte f.

Sometimes too the words are fo arranged, that the divifion muft
neceffarily take place at the fifth fyllable or feeble found of the
fecond foot. This divifion gives a paufe more real, and more
diftinlly felt, than thofe formerly mentioned. As we mutt be-
gin

* Turs verfe is a combination of five times, more in appearance than in reality. When

it is well conftructed, it will feldom fail to give the perfon who prenounces it the difpofi-

tion and opportunity, by means of refts, of completing fix, fometimes perhaps eight
times.

+ Wuen, by means of refts at the clofe, the time of fix feet is completed in pro-
nunciation, this break divides the whole time into two threes.

De.

ae

—

hem gett:

ey ae

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 79

gin the fecond member with a ftrong found, and are partly de-
prived of the afliftance in forming it, which we would have
derived from the preceding feeble found, we require a little
more time to make the exertion which is neceflary for that pur-

pofe. This divifion alfo changes, in fome degree, the character

of the verfe, the laft member becoming proper trochaic. It
may fometimes, however, be ufed with a very happy effect.
There feems to be an inftance of this in the firft line of Popn’s.
‘Effay on Man.

A|wake, my | St Joun. | — Leave all | meaner | things,

Here the grammatical paufe, coinciding with the rythmical di-
vifion, gives fufficient time to form the accented found with
which the fecond member begins; and that member being
trochaic, is very well fuited to exprefs the intention of the poet,
which is to roufe. The fame divifion occurs in the fecond:
line ; but the effect of it is fomewhat different.

To tow ambition —and the pride of kings.

In reciting this line, we are unwilling to give an accent to the

- conjunctive particle avd. To avoid this, therefore, we are dif-

pofed to confider both that word, and the article which follows
it, as feeble founds, introductory to the next ftrong found, and
to fill up the time of the accented part of that third meafure
‘by a filence or reft.

s

To | low am|bition —| f and the:| pride of | kings.

In this way, the reciter, hurrying over thefe two comparatively
Bnimportant words, almoft in the time of one feeble fyllable,
‘is naturally led to exprefs the word pride with confiderable force

or emphafis ; a circumftance which feems, in this-place, to fa-.

ie.

your

80 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

vour the defign of the poet. Verfes of this form occur fre-
‘quently in the works of this author.

Tue ftructure of the Englifh heroic verfe, and the uneven
number of feet of which it is compofed, effectually fecures it
againft the danger, or even the poffibility of its being divided
into two parts which are equal, and at the fame time fimilar
and convertible. When the break takes place at an accented or
ftrong fyllable, the two members are neceflarily unequal. When,
again, as in the two lines laft quoted, the divifion happens at
the fifth fyllable, the two members, though they may be equal
in time, are neceflarily different in cadence, as the firft begins
and ends with a feeble found, and the fecond regularly begins
and ends with a ftrong found. This feems to give to the Englifh
verfe of this form a confiderable advantage over the common
French verfe of fix feet, which uniformly divides into equal
and fimilar hemifticks.

TueEse breaks or divifions in verfes have perhaps been im-
properly termed paufes. In many cafes, the paufe is more ima-
ginary than real. I have formerly obferved, that we have al-
ways, in a greater or lefs degree, the impreflion of a paufe be-
twixt every parcel of equal times which we form. When we
hear a minuet, or any piece of mufic, which is conftructed ac-
cording to regular rythm, we have the impreffion of a paufe at
the end of every bar; we have the fame impreflion more
ftrongly at the end of every phrafe ; and yet we are certain, that,
at many of thofe paflages, no real paufe is made. It frequently
happens, that the proper break or rythmical divifion of a verfe
takes place at one part of it, when the reft, the grammatical
ftop, or the paufe of fufpenfion, occurs at another part of it.

And | leaves the | world — to | darknefs | ¢ and to | me.
In this line, the rythmical divifion takes place at the fourth

fyllable, where little or no real paufe is neceilary. From what
was

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 85

was above obferved, however, upon the ftrudture of the fecond
line of Pope’s Effay on Man, there muft be a fenfible reft or
filence betwixt the feventh and eighth fyllables. Accordingly,
this has commonly been confidered, and perhaps with propriety,
as the place of the paufe in this line. It is probable, however,
that the cadence of the verfe would not have been fo agreeable
and fatisfactory, if the regular rythmical divifion had not oc-
curred at the fourth fyllable.

Some additional obfervations upon rythmical meafures, and
upon the ftructure of ancient and modern verfes, fhall be re-
ferved to the fecond part of this Effay. ~

PE: WP ie GE EF

N the former part of this Effay, I endeavoured to- eftablith
the general foundations of rythm, and to explain the nature
and the extent of thofe powers, by which we perceive the pro-
portional magnitudes of fmall intervals of time, when thefe are

made obvious to the fenfes by motion or by fucceflive founds.

The cafe of founds being that which is moft interefting, I di-
rected my attention chiefly to it. Rythm in found I diftin-
guifhed into three kinds, mufical, poetical and profaic; and

_ made fome obfervations upon the two firft of thefe. I propofe,
in this part, to offer a few obfervations relative to the fame fub-
jects, which may tend to throw fome further light upon them.

In thefe obfervations, I fhall have the following objects chiefly
in view: To explain that ftruCture or arrangement of meafured
founds, which may be faid to give a regular and perfeat rythm ;
to mark the gradual deviations from that regular ftructure,
which appear in thofe productions of human genius which are

Vor. IT. L intended

82 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

intended to pleafe, and of which the agreeable effect depends,
in any degree, upon rythm; and, laftly, to apply the princi-
ples which may be delivered, to illuftrate fome particulars in
the ftructure of verfes. J

In entering upon the firft of thefe, it will be proper to reca-
pitulate fhortly the account which I formerly gave of what may
be called our rythmical powers.

From our conftitution, or from our habits, we have the
power of marking and perceiving equal intervals of time, when
thofe intervals do not exceed a certain magnitude. When we
fix our attention upon one of thofe intervals, and confider it as
an unit of time, we can fuppofe it to be divided into a certain
number of equal parts, and by motion we actually can make
fuch a divifion. The number of parts into which we can thus
divide a given interval, muft neceflarily depend upon the powers
which we have of performing quick motions. It is, however,
regulated alfo by the preference which the mind naturally gives
to the fimpler numbers. We divide with greateft eafe by two
and its powers. We can alfo, with fufficient eafe, divide by
three, nine, and the fmaller compounds of two and three. To
make an equable divifion into five is difficult, into feven is per-
haps impracticable, and into any of the higher primes is cer-
tainly fo. Again, when we hear a number of equal intervals
of time diftinétly marked by fucceflive founds, we are always.
difpofed to count them off by equal numbers, thus forming
them into fets or parcels. In doing this, as in making divifions,
we always prefer the fimpleft numbers. When, therefore,
there is nothing in the nature of the founds to determine our
choice, we ufually count off the intervals by pairs, by fours
or by eights. We can alfo, with fufficient eafe, count them off
by threes and by fixes. As the firft found of each parcel is
marked by a particular effort of the mind, and confidered by
it as reprefenting the whole parcel, it is conceived to be more
forcible than the other founds of that parcel, which, being lefs

attended

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 83

attended to by the mind, are conceived as feeble. As five is too
large a number to be comprehended by one individual a@ of
the mind, we can only form parcels of that number, by count-
ing off two pairs, confidering the fifth fingle found as feeble,
and fixing our attention upon the fixth, as the leading found of
the next pair; or by counting off twos and threes, or threes and
twos alternately. This infertion of the fingle time, at the end
of every two pairs, changes the order of the ftrong and feeble
founds, in every fucceeding parcel. Although this operation is
practicable, it is probably very feldom actually performed. The
frequent and fudden changes of the arrangement of ftrong and
feeble founds, require an uneafy effort of attention in the per-
former, and give an unpleafing furprife and difappointment to
the hearer. Both feel a {trong defire to have the number of fix
times completed, either by a lengthened found, or by a filence.

_ Laftly, we have the farther power and difpofition to join toge-

ther two, three or four of our firft parcels, thus forming larger
combinations.

By means then of the powers now defcribed, we are enabled
to exprefs a fucceflion of founds whofe durations may be very
different, but may, at the fame time, be moft accurately related
to one another, according to certain proportions. We are alfo
enabled, upon hearing fuch a fucceflion of founds, with readi-

nefs and eafe, to feel the proportional duration of each, provi-

ded the fimple proportions above mentioned be conftantly ob-
ferved. In order to this, we firft of all fix our attention upon
fome determined duration, which may be fomething near to
the intervals obferved in walking, or in fome other of the uni-
form motions with which we are familiar. This duration we
confider as an unit of time. Having eftablifhed this, we can
exprefs any number of them with great uniformity ; we can
divide fome of them as we go along into parts, or combine two
or more of them into lengthened founds. By habit, we can
take our unit, at different times, greater or {maller; we can
: L 2 make

84 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

make larger combinations, and more minute and diverfified di-
vifions. We go through a fimilar procefs, when we liften to
fuch a fucceffion of founds, and perceive their proportional du-
rations. As the exercife of every power, which we poflefs,
conveys a certain degree of pleafure, we obtain a gratification,
when we hear a fucceflion of founds juftly proportioned in du-
ration to one another, and are able, at the fame time, to go
along with, or to feel the feveral proportions which they bear.
This then is undoubtedly one foundation of the fatisfaction
which we derive from every kind of rythm. It can be no juft
objection to this, that we frequently are not confcious, upon
hearing a fucceflion of rythmical founds, of perceiving the va-
rious proportions which they bear to one another. Our being
pleafed with the proportions, our acquiefcing in them, is a fure
indication that we feel them. If the unit were varied, or if di-
vifions were attempted, to which we have not been accuftomed, »
and with which we cannot go along, we fhould inftantly feel
the difference. Our pleafure would be fenfibly diminifhed or
altogether deftroyed.

To form then a regular and agreeable rythm, it is neceflary
that all the units in fucceffion be equal intervals. of time, and
that their divifions be fimple and obvious. This, however, is
not all. I have already obferved, that when we hear fuch a
fucceffion of intervals, we are always difpofed to form them in-
to equal parcels. As, however, there feems to be nothing to
lead us to count off thefe parcels by any one number in pre-
ference to another, and as we can do it by a few of the fmaller
and fimpler numbers with almoft equal eafe, we naturally wifh
to have fomething that may determine our choice. If we are
not led eafily and readily to one particular number, or if, after
we have fixed upon a number, we find ourfelves obliged to give
it up, and to adopt another number, we are uneafy and diffatis-
fied. For this reafon, a rythm that may be perfectly agreeable
and fatisfactory, muft be conftru@ed according to fome mea-

fure 5

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 85

fure ; the whole fucceffion muft be made up of parcels of fome
determined number of units, and muft be fo contrived as that
the hearer may be inftantly led to adopt that number, and re-
tain it to the end of the fucceflion. This may be effected by
various means. If, for inftance, we with that the hearer
fhould count off the equal times by parcels of four, we may
firft exprefs four diftin@t and undivided units, and afterwards
other four in fome way combined or divided*. By this
means, the hearer will naturally be led, after having reckoned
four units, to ftop and begin a new parcel. He will be ftill
more confirmed in this arrangement, if we make our third par-
cel fimilar to the firft, and our fourth fimilar to the fecond f.
We may obtain the fame end, by exprefling three diftin@ un-
divided units, and refting during the time of the fourth, and
fll more certainly by doing the fame thing over again. In
like manner parcels of other numbers may be fuggefted. Va-
Fious other contrivances for indicating the meafure, will readily
occur to every one who attends to the works of muficians. The
feturn of fimilar founds, and of fimilar combinations and di-
vifions, after any number of units has been expreffed, naturally
fixes the attention of the hearer to that number, and determines
him to_adopt it, for counting off fucceeding parcels; and if
care be taken not to confound him, by bringing in fuch returns
at different parts of the parcel, by continuing founds from the
end of one parcel to the beginning of the next, or by making
minute and perplexed divifions, he will hold by that number to
the end of the piece.

WE naturally wifh, when hearing a fucceflion of meafured
founds, not only to form them into parcels, but alfo to join
two, three or four of thofe parcels together, thus forming

larger

* Firft movement of the fixth periodical overture, publifhed by R. Bremner.

+ Symphony to the firft recitative in Hanprx’s Messtan.

86 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

larger combinations or ftrains. We may be affifted in doing
this, and determined to a particular number, by the fame
means by which we are affifted and determined in forming the
fingle parcels, chiefly by paufes, and by the return of fimilar
founds, or of fimilar combinations and divifions. By being
led to form fuch aggregates, the pleafure we derive from liften-
ing to the fucceflion is greatly increafed. We are thus provided
with certain ftages or refting-places, and are enabled to count

off the parcels with more fteadinefs, and with a fmaller effort of :

the attention. Our fatisfaction is fill farther enhanced, when
the entire piece confifts of fome fimple and agreeable number
of fuch aggregates. We have then the impreffion of a whole,
of fomething finifhed and complete ; and have a lively percep-
tion of that proportion and arrangement of parts, which is
effential to every thing that can be accounted beautiful or
pleafing.

We may now be able to form fome precife idea of what may
be called a regular and perfect rythm. It is a fucceflion of
meafured founds, all of which are either equal to, or are certain
multiples or certain parts of fome determined portion of time,
which may be called an unit, and are fo arranged and difpofed
that the hearer is eafily led to count off thofe units by equal
parcels of fome fimple number, and alfo to combine two, three
or four of thofe parcels together, the whole fucceffion contain-
ing a fmall determined number of thofe larger aggregates. It
is in this manner, that all thofe pieces of mufic, which are com-
monly called airs, are conftruéted. The regular minuet confifts
of two parts or complete ftrains, the units are conftantly formed
into parcels of three, and each part contains eight of thofe par-
cels or bars, which the hearer is difpofed to combine into aggre-

gates of two or four. The regular march and gavot are con-_

ftruéted in the fame manner, only the bars or firft parcels con-
fift of four units in place of three.

Havine

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 87

Havinc eftablifhed this ftru€ture as the ftandard of regular
and perfect rythm, I proceed to mark the gradual deviations
from it that appear in thofe produdtions of human genius
which are intended to pleafe, and of which the agreeable effec
depends in any degree upon rythm. The artifts who have
been employed in fuch produétions, feem to have had two ob-
jects chiefly in view in occafionally departing from this regular
ftructure, namely, to introduce variety into their works, and
to render them more expreflive of certain feelings and emotions
of the mind. I can only at this time confider the firft of
thefe.

In all thofe works which are addreffed to the fancy, that
which is moft fimple and moft eafily conceived, is always that
which firft of all engages the attention and communicates plea-

+ fure. While our powers of perception are yet in their infancy,
it is impoffible that we can go along with what is various and

complicated. Nothing but what is diftin@lly felt can commu-
nicate real pleafure. We may perhaps not always be able to
analyze our feeling, and may therefore fay that we are pleafed
we know not why. When it is analyzed, however, it will be
generally found to have been a diftinct feeling, or in other
words, the objects which excited it will be found to have been
commenfurate to our powers of perception. As we feem to de-
rive our firft ideas of fmall equal intervals of time, from the
unifoym motion of our own limbs, or of thofe of other animals

_ in walking, we probably from the fame fource acquire the ha-
bit of counting off fuch intervals by pairs. When, from any

circumftance, the firft of each alternate pair is made particu-

larly to attract the attention, we are then difpofed to join two.

_ Pairs together, to form parcels of four, or to confider each four

as fomething feparate and diftin¢ét from what went before and:

we

_ what is to come after. We may, in the fame manner, be led
_to join two or four of thefe parcels together, in order to obtain
_ what we may account a whole. Gradually we are enabled to

conceive:

88 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

conceive a fingle interval to be halved, and each half to be again
fubdivided in the fame proportion. We thus obtain the fpon-
deus, daétylus and double pyrrichius. It would appear, then, .
that fomething of the nature of the march or gavot meafure ~
above deferibed, gives the moft fimple and eafy rythm, and is
that which would probably firft of all ftrike and pleafe the hu-
man mind. Dr Burney, in his account of Crotcu, the mu-
fical child, publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, remarks
of him, that, when he plays from his own fancy, what rythm
he obferves is generally of the march kind, proceeding chiefly
by the daétylus and fpondzus. The firft verfes of the ancients
were probably formed of the fame meafures.
As mens powers of perception improve, they naturally with
for objects fuited to them, That which is moft fimple, and
was at firft moft agreeable, gradually lofes its charm; they with
for fomething that may give more employment to their powers.
They could not, therefore, be always confined to the uniform’
movement by pairs and double pairs, but would endeavour in
fome way to diverfify it. Their firft contrivance for this pur-
pofe might poflibly be, to depart occafionally from the original
arrangement of two, four, eight, by throwing in an additional
pair to their two, or two additional pairs to their four, thus
making combinations of three or of fix pairs. The da¢tylus
and f{pondzus at the end of the common hexameter verfe, may
thus poflibly have been an addition to the verfes of four feet,
which had formerly been ufed, and might then have been con-
fidered as an improvement. After combinations of three pairs
had become familiar, it was an eafy ftep from that to arrange
by parcels of three units; and thus the fimple triple time was
obtained. This, though ftill farther removed from the original
ieafure, became probably on that account the more pleafing.
It gave more exercife to the rythmical powers; at the fame
time, it did not fatigue them. It was free from the folemnity

and uniformity of regular pairs. The minuet accordingly ever
has

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 89

has been, and is at this day accounted the moft elegant and
pleafing movement in mufic. This meafure is almoft entirely
confined to mufic. There is fcarcely an inftance of verfes,
which are conftructed exa€tly according to it, unlefs perhaps the
Ionian verfe of the ancients, a verfe which does not often occur
in their works, and which, from the heavy uniformity of its
movement, is by no means pleafing*. From parcelling by
threes, it was an eafy tranfition to divide the unit by the fame
number. For this, nothing more was required, than gradually
to diminifh the unit, and to take the parcels of three by pairs :
each parcel would come at laft to be confidered as a fingle unit
divided. They would thus form the tribrachys, trocheus and
iambus, according as they exprefled each of the three parts fe-
parately, or joined any two of them together. In this way
would be obtained the gig meafure in mufic, and the trochaic
and iambic verfes in poetry +. Such parcels and divifions by
three would probably at firft be formed into ftrains or larger
combinations, by twos and fours; and this is ftill the moft
ufual arrangement, In procefs of time, however, they would
alfo be formed by threes and fixes. Thus the trimeter or fe-

marian iambic verfe might be derived from the dimeter, or verfe
of four fingle feet.

So long as the bars or firft parcels, whether of pairs or
threes, are equal, the larger combinations uniformly contain the
fame number of bars, and thefe laft are reftri€ted to fome fim-
ple and obvious number, the rythm may be confidered as re-

_ gular. The moft gentle deviation from this ftructure, if in

truth it can be called fuch, is extending the entire piece beyond
Vou. IL. M the

* Tuere is only one ode of Horace in this meafure, vz. Book lII. Ode 12. The
rythm feems to go on to the end, without any fenfible break or clofe.

+ Tue tribrachys, or gig meafure, may poflibly have been fuggefted immediately from
the found of a horfe’s feet, when running at full fpeed.

go On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

the limits above afligned. The modern muficians frequently
compofe pieces of confiderable length, and confifting of a num-
ber of bars too great for the mind to keep an exact regifter or
account of them. This enables them to take a wider range of
melody and modulation, than they could do if their pieces were.
confined within the limits of fhort regular air, and to prolong
and diverfify the pleafure of the hearer. If in fuch extended
pieces, however, the bars uniformly affemble into equal groups.
or combinations, and if the whole piece, and each larger divi-
fion of it, contain an even number of fuch combinations, the ;
hearer has {till the impreffion of a juftly proportioned whole ;
and even within this limitation a very copious variety may be
obtained. Men, however, could not always bear this confine-
ment. In proportion as rythmical meafures become more an
object of attention, and are more frequently prefented to the
ear, the neceflity of variety becomes the greater. The moft
agreeable meafures, when too often repeated, become difguft-
ing. We are often pleafed with a bold deviation from what is:
ftrictly regular. The very furprife which it caufes is agreeable.
It feems to have been in part from this principle, that the com-
pofers of mufic have occafionally departed from the regular
ftructure of rythm.

Tue leaft offenfive deviation, which can be made from that
ftructure, is the departing at times from the uniform equality of
the {trains or latger combinations. It is effential to the minuet
that the bars conftantly proceed by pairs. In the regular mi-
nuet, there is always a more diftinét cadence at the end of every
fecond pair. By this means, the hearer is led to, join two pairs.
together, or to make combinations of four bars. ‘This arrange-
ment is neceflary to render the rythm of the mufic ftriétly con-
formable to the movement of the dance, which it is intended to:
regulate. The whole piece commonly contains four of thofe
larger combinations, two of which go to the firft part or com-
plete ftrain, and two to the fecond. In order, however, to give

more

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. gi

more variety and extent to the compofition, a part may be made
to confift of three, four or fix of thofe combinations ; or, by
ql occafionally adding two bars, combinations of fix may be form-
__ ed. All this may be done, without lofing the diftinguifhing
characteriftic of the minuet. But if either the rythm is fo
_ contrived, or the mufical cadences are fo placed, as at any time
to form combinations of three or of five bars, the piece then
ceafes to be a minuet. It may, however, notwithftanding this,
be a pleafing compofition. The modern muficians, efpecially
thofe of the German fchool, often fubjoin to the minuets of
their inftrumental pieces, airs of the fame time and meafure,
which they fometimes call fecond minuets, but more frequently
trios. In compofing thefe trios, they fometimes take an oppor-
} _ tunity of difplaying their learning and invention, and of fearch-
ing for novelty, without confidering themfelves as under obli-
_ gation to adhere to the elegant fimplicity of ftyle, or the regular
_ rythmical ftruéture of the minuet. - By this means, the hearer
_ is for a while very agreeably entertained, and the beauty and
peculiar qualities of the minuet, which is always repeated after
the trio, are rendered more ftriking. In thefe airs, combina-
tions of three bars are frequently to be found *. As, however,
two of thefe combinations often occur in fucceffion, and the other
parts of the piece proceed commonly by pairs, the number of
_ bars in the complete ftrain or air is in moft cafes even, or divifi-
ble by two.
In pieces of confiderable extent, fuch licences, when ufed
with moderation, frequently pafs without being greatly ob-
_ferved. They may even at times produce a very happy effect.
D. They ferve to roufe the attention of the hearer, which is apt to
ss. flag in a long piece, when the rythm uniformly proceeds by
__ qual combinations ; and they often give a more emphatic in-
{i M 2 troduction,

}

- /
* Taro of firft minuet in third quartetto of Haypn, firft fet. Trio of fecond minuet
4m fecond quartetto of the fame author, fecond fet.

92 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

troduction, or a more ftriking and diftin@ clofe, to fome re-
markable ftrain. In fuch pieces, the bars very frequently pro-
ceed by pairs. It is no unufual thing, however, for the com-
pofer, in the courfe of the piece, to invert the order of the
pairs, or to conftru@ the mufic in fuch a manner, as to lead the
hearer occafionally to confider thofe bars as the firft or leading
bars of a pair, which, from the place in which they ftand in
the piece, ought to be accounted the fecond or following. This
is done in various ways. When a ftrain, for inftance, happens.
to clofe upon the beginning of an odd bar, in place of com-
pleting the time of the even bar which fhould follow it, by
found or filence, that {train is either immediately repeated, or a
new {train is introduced*. When, again, a ftrain concludes:
upon the firft of an even bar, the key-note, or one of its. har-
monics, with which that bar begins, is fometimes made: the
commencement of a new ftrain, and of courfe to ftand as: the
leading bar of the next pair ft. This is very often practifed by
the compofers of inftrumental fymphonies, when it is intended:
by them, that the paflage thus brought in fhould be fenfibly
different in loudnefs or in ftyle from what went before. A bold
and animated {train efpecially, in which all the inftruments join
and. exert their whole power, is thought to produce a greater
effect, when it is introduced in this fudden and abrupt manner.
The arrangement of the pairs is alfo fometimes inverted, by
the repetition of a bar in the middle of a ftrain. Such repeti- ©
tions feem, upon fome occafions, to give the appearance of
greater buftle and confufion to mufic that is impetuous and
rapid}. Laftly, the firft bar of a movement, or of fome parti-

cular

* Exvevents periodical overture, laft movement, at the thirty-firft bar.

+ Tue fame movement at the forty-feventh bar, where the original arrangement of the
pairs is reftored.

+ Tuirp quartetto by Haypn, firft fet, laft movement, at the rsth bar of the firft
part, and the 29th bar of the fecond part.

On RYTHMIGAL MEASURES. 93

cular ftrain in the progrefs of it, is fometimes occupied by the
key-note, ftruck with emphafis, and followed by one or more
feeble notes, introductory to the next meafure. This firft bar
being as it were fet afide, or confidered as ftanding by itfelf,
the mufic afterwards proceeds by regular pairs, commencing
at the fecond bar *. When inverfions occur at the end of three
or of five bars, diftinét combinations of thefe numbers are
formed +. Such fmaller uneven combinations are very often
repeated, and thus the original arrangement is reftored. In
other cafes too, when by any means the firft arrangement of the
pairs or double bars has been inverted, it is frequently reftored
either by the fame or by fome other means. Sometimes, how-
ever, the altered arrangement continues to the end of the piece,
and the number of bars in it becomes thereby uneven. As
pleafure is often heightened by variety and contraft, fuch occa-
fional interruptions of uniform movement give an additional
relifh to the regularity that is obferved in other parts of the
compofition. Their effect is fomewhat analogous to that of
difcords in the harmonical ftructure of mutfic.

Tue licences with refpect to the combinations of the bars,
which have been mentioned above, though they feldom fail
to ftrike a perfon who has a good ear, do not prevent the rythm
from being diftinét and pleafing. In fome mufical compofi-
tions, however, fuch licences are carried to a greater extent.
The combinations are fometimes fo various and obfcure, that
the hearer can fcarcely retain the impreflion of them. This is

often the cafe in the longer and more grave and.folemn pieces
_ of what is now, by way of diftinction, called the ancient mu-

fic,

* Fiasr quartetto of the fame fet, laft movement, at the beginning, and firft movement,
at the 23d bar of the firft part, and correfponding paflage of the fecond part.

+ Tue firft quartetto of Hayon’s fecond fet begins with two combinations of three
bars, after which the mufic proceeds in general by pairs. The fecond part of the laft
movement of the firft of fix overtures by the Earl of Kexry, begins with two fucceffive
combinations of five bars.

94 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

fic, and particularly in that fpecies of it, which is known by
the name of the fugue. This had its rife at the time when the
chief profeffors and improvers of the mufical art were church-
men, and when, of courfe, that kind of mufic was chiefly cul-
tivated, which was thought to be beft calculated to compofe
and elevate the mind, and to infpire devotion. A fimple, regu-
lar and diftinét rythm was probably thought by them to give
the mufic a light and airy caft, inconfiftent with the effedé
which they wifhed to produce. They either made the move-
ment flow and the notes equal, in which cafe the attention of
the hearer was almoft wholly directed to the tone and modula-
tion; or if, in their inftrumental mufic, they introduced a
quicker and more varied movement, they ftudioufly avoided
every thing, which might have the appearance of regular air.
The fugue feems to be well calculated to anfwer this intention.
It is executed by two, three or more voices or inftruments in
concert. All of them in fucceflion are made to found fome
fhort fimple melody, which is called the fubjeé&t. This is fre-
quently repeated or imitated by them, in a variety of different
keys, the repetitions coming in at unequal intervals, and often
in the middle of a bar. As the compofition of the fugue was
thought to be a great difplay of art and {fkill, it was afterwards
introduced into every kind of inftrumental mufic, and was
gradually rendered more complicated. As the rythmical com-
binations are often irregular and indiftin@tly marked, and the

harmonical parts are frequently running counter to one another, —

it requires great attention to perform it with precifion and ac-
curacy, and of all mufic it gives leaft pleafure to one who has
not been accuftomed to it. The tafte for this kind of mufic has
been for fome time declining, and it is now moftly confined to
the church.

ALmost every degree of irregularity, then, in the combina-
tions of the. bars may be occafionally tolerated. This, how-
ever, is by no means the cafe with the bars themfelves, or the,

fingle

t

-

b |

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. OF

fingle parcels. Any inequality among them is more fenfibly
felt, and when improperly introduced, never fails to hurt and
difpleafe. Such inequalities may be made, either by increafing
or diminifhing the unit, thus making the movement quicker or
flower, or by varying the meafure, or the number, according
to which the bars are formed. In a long piece of mufic, a con-
fiderable variety, both of movement and of meafure, may be
introduced. Changes, however, are feldom made, until the
movement has gone on for fome time, in one uniform move-
ment and meafure, and has been brought toa clofe more or
lefs complete. Such changes, when fkilfully managed, enliven
the mufic, furprife the hearer, and excite his attention. When,
however, they occur very often, and at-fmall intervals, they
never fail to perplex and confound. The hearer is kept in a

- ftate of continual fufpenfe and uncertainty, and therefore can-

not liften with fatisfaGtion. The French muficians, rather per-
haps in confequence of fome fanciful theories, than from the
fuggeftions of good tafte, or the experience of agreeable effect,
hhave fometimes introduced frequent and fudden changes of
movement and meafure into their pieces. Their example, how-
ever, has not been much followed. How often, or at how

fmall intervals, changes of meafure may be introduced into a

mufical compofition, is a matter that is dificult to determine.
It muit depend a good deal upon the tafte of men, and upon
the habits which they may have formed. There is certainly,
however, fome limit, within which fuch changes cannot be
‘made, without giving more uneafinefs than fatisfaction to the
hearer. We may bear to be, in fome degree, offended a certain
number of times, when fuch offence has the effect to ftimulate

_ and furprife, and when it is quickly compenfated by fome
ftriking beauty; but if the experiment is too often repeated,
_ the end propofed will be defeated. The piece will become
_ 4 motely affemblage of diflimilar and unconnected parts, and

will

96 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

will communicate no fentiment but that of ridicule or of
difgutt.

To change the meafure or the number of equal times in a
bar, in the courfe of a fhort {train or rythmical claufe, has, fo
far as | know, never been attempted by a modern mufician,
and probably would not be tolerated. _And yet, if we are to
believe the accounts, which have been tranfmitted to us by an-
cient authors, this practice was not unfrequent amongft the
muficians of Greece. The verfes, to which they adapted mutic,
were often compofed of unequal feet, fuch as trochees and
{pondees, which they refpectively confidered as meafures of
three and of four equal times, and thefe occurring fometimes
alternately ; and we are told that the mufic rigidly obferved the
meafure of the verfes. If this was indeed the cafe, it is a fin-
gular faét in the hiftory of mufic, to which perhaps no parallel
has been found. After the many clear and exprefs teftimonies
to the truth of that fact, which have been given by enlighten-
ed authors, who were natives of the country, and who may ~
be fuppofed to have been well acquainted with, and to have had
frequent opportunities of hearing that mufic, it may appear
highly prefumptuous to exprefs the fmalleft doubt with regard
to it. There are, however, fome confiderations which ftrongly
incline me to indulge at leaft fome degree of {cepticifm, and to
fuppofe that nature, perhaps without their confcioufnefs, might
at times prevail over fyftem.

I rorMeR-y obferved, that to count off alternate parcels of
two and of three equal times, and thereby to form aggregates
of five, is by no means impracticable; but that it requires an
uneafy effort of the attention, and that both the performer and
the hearer feel a ftrong defire to have the even number of fix
times completed, either by a lengthened found, or by a filence.
I may here add, that neither is it impracticable to form alter-
nate parcels of three and of four times, but that, as the num-
ber feven, the aggregate of thefe, is lefs agreeable and {fatis-

factory,

Ben ee ae en ee ae

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 97

faétory, and lefs eafily comprehended than five, and as it is
Nearer in proportion to eight than five is to fix; the defire of
completing, by fome means or other, the number of eight
times. will be ftill ftronger, and will not be refifted without a
great and conftant effort of the attention, and even fome degree
of force and conftraint. The difficulty will be much increafed,
if the unequal meafures do not occur periodically in regular
fucceffion, but are varioufly introduced in the courfe of different
ftrains, without any fixed or permanent rule. In order that
fuch unequal meafures may be expreffed with accuracy, it feems
neceflary, that the equal times of which they are compofed,
fhould be of fuch dimenfion as that they may be counted fin-
gle. If they are too minute to be fo counted, it will probably
be impoffible for the performer to mark with certainty, or for
the hearer to perceive diftinétly, the proportion which fubfifts

betwixt the contiguous unequal bars; as there is no common

meafure or ftandard to which they may be referred, or by which
they may be adjufted. It feems neceflary, moreover, not only
that the beginning of every meafure thould be diftin@tly mark-
ed, but alfo that every fingle interval of time fhould be render-
ed obvious, either to the eye or to the ear of the performer. Un-
lefs fome fuch affiftance is given to him, there is reafon to ap-
prehend, that he will not always execute the different bars ac-
cording to their prefcribed meafures. We are told, that this
was done in the performance of the choral mufic of the ancient
Greeks. The coryphzus, placed in a confpicuous ftation,
marked the arfis and thefis of the fucceflive feet, while others
ftruck with their hands, or with the points of their fingers
armed with fome hard body, each fingle time of which they
were compofed. If thefe fingle intervals were ftruck with per-
fe& uniformity, and were regularly diftributed among the dif-

ferent feet, according to their refpective meafures, we cannot

avoid acknowledging, that, on many occafions, they did truly

_ and accurately exprefs contiguous unequal parcels of rythmical

Vat, II. N times.

08 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

times. We can only fay, that they were at much pains to coun-
teract a {trong propenfity of nature, in order to attain an object,
the agreeable or happy effect of which we cannot now fo much
as conceive. But it may be afked, how are we certain that thefe
fingle times were always {truck in exact uniformity, or that the
intervals marked by the ftrokes were in every cafe equal? It
will poflibly be anfwered, that there was fufficient fecurity for
this, in the {trong natural propenfity which all men feel to ex-
prefs fuch {mall times equally and uniformly, when it is not
their profefled intention to do otherwife. But furely the natu-
ral propenfity to aflemble thefe times into equal parcels is alfo
ftrong, perhaps, in fome cafes, ftronger than the other. When
thefe two propenfities, then, are fet in oppofition to one ano-
ther, it becomes a queftion which of them is moft likely to
prevail. We are told, that, in the performance of the Greek
mufic, the propenfity to the equable expreffion of fingle times
prevailed, and that the parcels or aggregates of them were un-
equal. It is certainly, however, not unnatural to fuppofe, that
fometimes the other propenfity might preponderate, and that
fome inequality might be admitted amongft the fmaller times,
which were marked by the crepitacula, in order to bring the
feet or parcels more nearly to equality. Thefe times and mea-
fures were not marked by machines, fo conftructed that they
could never vary, nor by perfons who had no thought nor con-
cern, but to ftrike with the hand or fingers at equal intervals of
time. The coryphzus, who regulated and conducted the per-
formance, muft be fuppofed to have been a mufician of diftin-
guifhed talents, and the fmaller times were marked by per-
formers, who were keenly engaged in the bufinefs that was
going forward, who probably founded every note of the mufic,
and articulated every fyllable of the verfe. It has always ap-
peared to me very wonderful and unaccountable, that the deli-
cate ears of the ingenious and enlightened Greeks fhould not
only bear, but even be delighted, with what a modern cannot

“hear

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 99

hear without pain and difguft ; and I would very willingly fup-
pofe, that they made fome fuch accommodation as is hinted at
above in the performance of their mufic, and that their feet or
bars were fometimes unequal, more in theory than in pra¢tice.
When we confider the rythmical conftitution of man, which,
being a part of his nature, muft be fundamentally the fame, in
all ages and amongft all nations; when we confider that thefe
Greeks had a very lively feeling of the powers of rythm, and
that they were accuftomed to have equal meafures frequently
prefented to them in their moft popular compofitions; laftly,
when we confider, that they had no written characters to repre-
fent fome of the proportions which may enter into the fimpleft
mufic, particularly that which is marked by the point in the
modern notation, and therefore could have no diftiné percep-
tion of thofe proportions, or rather might occafionally exprefs

_ them, without being confcious of their doing fo; it does not

feem impoffible, or even improbable, that their praCtice upon
many occafions was not conformable to their theory, and that
they might actually exprefs as equal thofe meafures, which, ac-

_ cording to rule and fyftem, were unequal. After all, it is im-

fured founds.

poffible to fay, how far the power of habit may operate upon
men in this as well as in every thing elfe. It muft be acknow-
ledged, that there are various circumftances in the mufical fyftem
of the ancients, befides the one that we have been now treating
of, which we muft be fatisfied with contemplating and admir-

ing at a diftance, without hoping fully to underftand them, or

daring to imitate them.

To conclude this part of the fubject, the laft deviation that
can be made from regular rythm, is varying the length of the
unit or fingle time in the fame bar. This has never been at-
tempted in written mufic, and can hardly be done without al-
moft entirely deftroying every impreffion of rythm or mea-

N 2 THE

100 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

Tue regular ftru€ture of rythm, and the progreffive devia
tions from that ftru€ture, which I have above endeavoured to
defcribe, have been chiefly confidered as taking place in mufic.
The fame things, however, to a certain extent, may be found
in poetry; and many of the obfervations which have been |
made upon them may be exemplified from verfes, and may
ferve to illuftrate fome particulars in their ftru€ture. A verfe
is an aflemblage of words, which are fo arranged, as that the
long and fhort, or the ftrong and feeble fyllables of which they
are compofed, may, by their fucceflion, give a rythm, fuch as
I have defcribed, more or lefs regular. It muft, therefore, be
fo conftructed, as that the hearer may be led to form the equal
or nearly equal times, which are marked by the fyllables, into
certain parcels and combinations. The ancients feem in gene-
ral to have confidered the time of a fhort fyllable, as the unit
or firft element of the rythm of poetry. According to this fup-
pofition, the feet will become analogous to the bars or firft par-
cels in mufic, the verfe will be analogous to a combination or
{train, and the ftanza, where it occurs, will reprefent the entire
piece, which being finifhed, the fame rythmical air, as it may
be called, is again Eee. The time in which a fhort fyllable
is expreffed in reciting verfes, is often too {mall to be regularly
counted and parcelled. If this is thought to be the cafe, the
feet may be confidered as units, varioufly divided and articulated
by the different fyllables which enter into them ; the verfe will
then correfpond to a bar, and the ftanza to. a combination.
Although, however, the time in which we utter a foot is fre-
quently not greater than what we are difpofed to confider as an
unit in mufic, yet, as itis always compofed of two or more
fmaller intervals, and as we have frequent opportunities of
hearing it prolonged in finging, fo as to fill up the time of a bar
in mufic, we are hence rather more difpofed to confider the

foot as a fhort parcel or bar, than as a divided unit. The for-
mer

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 101

mer analogy, therefore, will perhaps be the moft fimple and ob-
vious, and the moft eafily applied.

THE meafure of a verfe, or the number, according to which
it is intended that the combinations fhould be formed, may be

_ eafily intimated to the reader, by writing them in feparate

lines. This contrivance, however, can be of no fervice to the
hearer. Some other means mutt be ufed to direé his attention
to the number propofed, or to make him ftop and begin anew,
after that number of equal times has been exprefled. The very
name of verfe implies a return. I formerly mentioned three
different means by which this may be effected, namely, the re-
turn of fimilar combinations and divifions of the times, or, in
other words, the return of fimilar arrangements of long and
fhort founds, the return of founds fimilar in kind or in
quality, and paufes. All thefe means have been employed in
conftructing verfes.

Tue return of fimilar fucceffions of long and fhort fyllables

_at equal intervals, naturally leads the hearer to account the times

which have been expreffed during one of thofe intervals, as one

parcel or combination. This fimilarity may either take place

through the whole line, or only in a particular part of it. In

the firft cafe, when each fingle combination is exaétly fimilar

throughout, or, in the language of the grammarians, when
every line contains the fame number of feet difpofed in the
fame order, the return is abundantly clear and obvious, provided
the fucceffion of long and fhort, or of ftrong and feeble fylla-
bles in the meafure, be in any degree diverfified. We have an
example of this in the afclepiadzan verfes of the ancients,
Such meafures feem to have been confidered by them as deficient
in variety, and proper only for fhort pieces. Horace has
been very fparing of them. Of all his odes, there are only fix,
in which every line is {canned by the fame feet taken in the
fame order. When the cadence of the line, or the arrange-
“ment of the fyllables, is fuch as to ftrike the hearer, or engage

his.

102 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

his attention, the frequent repetition of it, like the frequent re-
petition of a {hort mufical ftrain, can hardly fail to be in fome
degree irkfome and difgufting. The other cafe, in which the
fimilarity takes place only in a part of the line, is more con-
fiftent with variety. We have the moft diftinct impreffion of a
return, when the fimilarity occurs at the end of the line. Of
this we have a {triking example in the common hexameter verfe
of the ancients. The dactylus and fpondzus, recurring regu-
larly at equal intervals, neceflarily leads the hearer to confider
thofe intervals as diftin€@t combinations of equal times, although
the fame feet be difpofed in the other parts of the meafure in
every pofiible way. The iambus recurring at the end of iam-
bic verfes, when diftin€@tly pronounced, will give fome im-
preffion of a combination, when the rythm in the other parts
of the line is very irregular. Other inftances of the fame kind
will readily occur. Sometimes the moft ftriking fimilarity takes
place in the middle of the line. The daétylus, in the middle
of the fapphic verfe, feems to have the chief effect in forming
the return of that meafure.

WueEn the return of the verfe, or the impreffion which the
hearer has of diftinét combinations, is to depend chiefly upon
fuch fimilarities, it is neceffary, that the cadence in that part of
the line in which the fimilarity takes place, be marked, and eafily
diftinguifhable from that of the other parts, or that the verfe
be made up of fome diverfity of feet. When lines run uni-
formly by the fame, or nearly the fame feet, as in trochaic and
iambic verfes, no fuch diftinét recurrences can happen. In
this cafe, fome other means mutt be ufed to give the hearer the
impreflion of a combination. A very gentle hint will incline
a hearer to count off fuch feet by combinations of the fmaller
even numbers. For this, little more is neceflary than to write
them out in feparate lines. The tones of voice, with which a
perfon is difpofed to read lines of fuch even meafure, are often
fufficient to direét the hearer to the number according to which

they

- On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 103

they are formed. ‘This effe& is more certainly obtained, when
the verfe is made to confift of an uneven number of fuch feet,
together with an additional fyllable or cefura. As it is thus
deficient of the even number by one fyllable, the reader is na-
turally difpofed to fill up the time of that fyllable, either by
paufing at the end of the line, or by prolonging the laft or the
penult fyllable. In either way, he conveys to the hearer a very
diftinct impreffion of the meafure. Such catalectic verfes, as
they are called, occur frequently in the works of the ancient
poets.

Verses of the trochaic and iambic kind are often compofed
of fome uneven number of feet, without fuch additional fylla-
ble. Our common Englifh verfe of ten fyllables is of this
form. In this cafe, there feems to be no rythmical means of
giving the hearer an impreflion of the meafure, but paufing a
little at the end of every line. Such uneven meafures naturally
infer a paufe. If the reader, while reciting a line, catches the

idea of regular pairs; he will be difpofed, by refting at the end

of the line, to complete the time of his laft pair. This, how-
ever, is attended with inconveniencies. The hearer is made to
depend for his.impreflion of the combination, chiefly upon the
accuracy of the reader. If the latter neglects to make the pro- ~
per paufes, the former may lofe this impreffion, and may be

- equally difpofed to form combinations of any other number.

Qn the other hand, when there is no grammatical ftop at the

end of the line, when a claufe of a fentence is continued from

_ one line to another, fuch paufes are ungraceful ; the reader, if
_he is more attentive to the fentiment than to the rythm, always

makes them with reluGtance. In fuch cafes too, to mark the
end of the line by a particular inflection of the voice, is very
improper ; and it is difficult to obferve paufes without making

fuch infleGtion.

THEsE inconveniencies feem to furnifh objeCtions to our Englifh:

* blank verfe, which is exactly of the nature that I have been de-

fcribing:.

.

‘104 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

{cribing. This perhaps cannot with ftri€t propriety be called
verfe; it wants one of the effential charafters of verfe, a di-_
{tinct return. The feet indeed mark times, which may be ex-
prefled as equal; but there is no circumftance in the rythm to
lead the hearer to form thefe times into combinations of any
one number in preference to another, befides the mere artifice
of writing the intended combinations in feparate lines. It is
impoflible to read it, fo as to maintain in the hearer the impref-
fion of the combination, without often doing violence to the
fenfe, by feparating words which ought to be united. One
may be eafily fatisfied of this, by reciting the firft fentence of
MittTown’s Paradife Loft, in which almoft every line terminates
in the middle of aclaufe. In reading fuch paflages, the paufes
muft often be omitted, and the meafure facrificed to the fenfe.
This verfe, however, if it may be called fuch, has been thought
to be of all others the moft proper for poems of confiderable
extent, upon fubjects that are great and dignified: The feeming
imperfections, which have been ftated above, are perhaps the
circumftances which contribute to render it fo. The alternate
fucceflion of long and fhort, or of ftrong and feeble fyllables,
which generally takes place, gives a fmoothnefs and a regular
flow to the language, which fufficiently diftinguifhes it from
profe, while, at the fame time, it does not folicit the attention
fo ftrongly, as to render frequent repetition difguftful ; and the
deviations which are occafionally made from that arrangement,
give a variety to the cadence, and often a very happy expreflion
to particular paflages. The proper meafure of the verfe, or
that which feems intended by the poet, is often obfcured, and
even changed, by the different breaks or divifions which occur
in the lines, and by the continuation of grammatical claufes
from one line to another. The unequal combinations of the
feet, however, which are thus formed, like the obfcure and
unequal combinations of the bars in an extended piece of fe-
rious mufic, both give a variety, and add a dignity and folem-
nity

ts mre lag lie S| I a

ie

.
.

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 105

nity to the movement, which it could not poflefs, if the combi-
nations were always diftinét and equal; and the frequent oc-
currence of lines, in which the meafure of the verfe is clearly
marked, prevents the hearer from lofing fight of it, and alfo
communicates additional pleafure from the contraft. This
mode of compofition feems thus to unite the freedom, variety
and energy of profe, with the foftnefs and elegance of verfe.

In lines of fuch uniform cadence, there is no means more
fimple, or more effectual for giving the impreffion of regular
combination, than the return of fimilar founds. When two
contiguous verfes, of equal times, are terminated by one or
more fyllables of the fame or nearly the fame found, the hearer
can find no difficulty in adopting and going along with fuch
combinations. This contrivance has been called rhyme. It is
faid to have had its rife from a corrupted tafte during the ages
of ignorance and barbarifm. It {till continues, however, to be
practifed by the beft poets, who write in the modern languages ;
and perhaps the conftitution of fuch languages does not afford
a better means of conftructing regular verfes.

In poetry, verfes may be formed according to the model of
what I called regular and perfect rythm, fo as to give the im-
preflion, not only of equal parcels and combinations, but alfo
of diftinét aggregates of thofe combinations. When fuch ag-
gregates confift of two fingle combinations, they are called
couplets, when of more than two, they get the name of ftanzas.
We are led to form fuch aggregates by the fame means, by
which we are led to form the fingle combinations, namely, by
the return of like cadences, by paufes and by rhyme. When
two contiguous lines rhyme together, we have the impreffion
of a couplet; when the alternate lines rhyme together, we
form a combination-of four. The fame impreflions may alfo
be conveyed by other means more purely rythmical. When
the lines are all equal, and made up of the fame or equal
timed feet, and the ftanzas confift uniformly of four or eight

Vot. Il. O : lines,

106 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

lines, we have then a rythm perfectly regular, correfponding
to the minuet or march time in mufic. Such regular ftru€ture
is not always obferved. In the higher kinds of lyric poetry,
it is thought to be inconfiftent with that freedom and variety,
and a check to that fire and enthufiafm, which ought to cha-
racterife thofe compofitions. Accordingly, the writers of lyric
poetry have departed the fartheft of any from this regular
ftructure, and have indulged themfelves in almoft every kind
of licence. The lines, of which ftanzas are compofed, may
often confift of an unequal number of fyllables, whilft the
times employed in reciting them are ftri€tly equal, the defi-
ciency of the fhorter ones being compenfated by paufes, or by
lengthened founds. Sometimes, however, the inequality is fo
great, as to render fuch compenfation impracticable. Such un-
equal lines, like unequal combinations in a mufical air, when
properly introduced, may communicate a {pirit and variety to
the ftanza, and give ita more marked and ftriking conclufion.
The adonian verfe, coming after three fapphic lines, gives an
agreeable variety and a graceful clofe to the ftanza. Amongft
the ancients, there are few or no inftances of ftanzas, confifting of
more than four lines. The moderns, by the help of rhyme, are
enabled to form larger and more variegated ftanzas.

So long as all the lines of a ftanza are compofed of the fame
or of equal timed feet, the rythm may be confidered as in fome
degree regular. Thus the hexameter and the falifcan verfe form
an agreeable couplet.

Laudabunt alii claram Rhodon, aut Mitylenen,
Aut Ephefum, bimarifve Corinthi.

The elegiac couplet is of the fame kind. The pentameter verfe
is indeed confidered as an uneven combination. When, how-
ever, it regularly divides into hemiftics, the paufes, which we
are difpofed to make at the cefuras, fill up the whole time of

the

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 107

the hexameter. Trochaic and iambic verfes may be combined
into couplets in the fame manner. When the trochaic verfe is
catalectic, the deficient time at the end is made up by the firft
fyllable of the fucceeding iambic, and the whole combination
proceeds as if it were trochaic.

Non elbur, ne|que aurejum
Me|a re|nidet | in do|mo la|cunar.

The latter of thefe two combinations being uneven, the reader
will be difpofed to paufe at the end of it, during the time of
an entire foot, and will be gratified, when the ftru€ture of the
fentence permits him to do fo. The paffion for variety, how-
ever, could not always be confined within this limit. In the
works of the ancients, we meet with couplets and ftanzas, of
which the different lines are compofed of different and unequal
timed feet. This is a further departure from regularity. It is

_ like varying the meafure of the bars in a piece of mufic. One

of the moft ftriking examples of this is, when couplets are
formed of hexameter and iambic verfes. Although fuch li-
cence may not have the fame difagreeable effect in poetry, that
it often has in mufic, it feems at leaft to give an impreffion of
incongruity, which is probably heightened by the conftant re-
currence of the different meafures at ftated intervals. The fo-
Iemn and majeftic movement of the hexameter does not feem
to affort well with the airy flippant pace of the iambic. After
pronouncing the latter, a perfon requires fome time to recover

j _ that firmnefs of tone and manner, with which he is difpofed to

pronounce the former. The 16th epode of Horace is com-
pofed in couplets of hexameter and fenarian iambic verfes, and
is the only inftance of this meafure, which occurs in his works.
In this piece, the contraft is very ftriking. The even lines

_ throughout the whole of it are pure iambics, which have a

more rapid movement than thofe which are mixed. The verfes
Oz of

108 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

of the Phaleucian form may be confidered as fhort couplets of
the fame kind.

A FARTHER deviation from regularity is when fuch unequal
timed feet are admitted into the fame line. The mixed iambic
and trochaic verfes of the ancients furnifh us with the moft
remarkable inftance of this. I formerly ventured to exprefs a
conjecture, that in the performance of the mufic, which was
adapted to verfes of this kind, the ancients, by fome means of
accommodation, of which they were not diftinétly confcious,
might occafionally exprefs as equal thofe contiguous feet, which,
according to rule and fyftem, were unequal; in other words,
that they fometimes departed from the proportion of two to
one, which they eftablifhed as fubfifting betwixt the long and
fhort fyllables of words. It feems {till more probable, that
they did this when reciting fuch verfes. It is indeed difficult
for us to conceive how they could do otherwife. In finging,
they might be affifted in exprefling thofe unequal meafures with
accuracy, and even, in fome degree, conftrained to do fo, by
feeing the arfis and thefis of each foot diftin@ly marked, and
hearing the fingle times uniformly ftruck; but they could not
always have the fame affiftance, when reciting. The time of a
fhort fyllable might be counted and parcelled, when exprefled
in the continuous and more extended tones of mufic ; but this
could fcarcely be done with eafe and certainty in common
fpeech ; and, without this, it is not eafy to difcover, how the
proportions of thofe unequal feet could be accurately exprefled
or perceived. I fhould, therefore, be apt to fuppofe, that the
propenfity to equal parcels -or meafures of fyllables would pre-
vail, as it might be gratified almoft infenfibly, and as there ap-
pears to be nothing of fufficient force to counteract it. ‘It is
often difficult to determine exactly the proportional quantity of
contiguous fyllables, or to lay down any particular proportion
as invariably fubfifting betwixt them. We can fometimes arti-
culate three, perhaps even four fyllables, in our own language,

in

On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. Tog

in no longer time than we employ in exprefling one fyllable in
the fame fentence. It would be rafh, however, upon perceiving
this, to affert, that the one fyllable was in quantity triple or
quadruple of the others, as in different occurrences, or in
different arrangements of the fame fyllables, the proportion
might be varied. We can, with great eafe, contract or extend
a fyllable, when we wifh to make it a certain component - part;
or the whole of a determined interval of time, upon which we
have fixed our attention. It is hard to fuppofe, that in the
Greek and Latin languages, which are compoftd of the fame
fimple elements with ours, no proportion fhould fubfift betwixt
contiguous fyllables, but that of equality, or that of two to one,
or fome obfcure or ill defined proportion approaching to thefe ;
_and itis ftill harder to fuppofe, that thefe proportions were
conftant and invariable, in every fituation and occurrence.

THE trochzus and {pondzus might be rendered equal in reci-
tation, either by contracting the latter to the time of the for-

mer, or by extending the former to that of the latter. The
one or the other of thefe praétices might be adopted in different
cafes, according to the different ftructure of the fyllables of
which the feet were compofed. That there was a tendency to
prolong the trochzus, we are almoft inclined to believe, from
the firft fyllable of that foot being regularly placed in the
ftrongeft and moft emphatic part of the meafure. It is well
known, that in conftruéting mixed trochaic verfes, the tro-
chzus was made to occupy the firft, third and other uneven
places ; the even places were occafionally filled with {pondzus,
or other feet of four times. In iambic verfes, again, the even’
places were kept facred to the iambus. If, however, we confi-
der the firft fyllable of thefe verfes as introductory, and fuppofe
the meafure to begin with the fecond fyllable, which we are.
much inclined to do, we reduce them to trochaics, in which
alfo the trochzus will be regularly found in the uneven places
of the meafure.

It

b 8 fe) On RYTHMIGAL MEASURES.

It is not always fafe indeed to reafon from general principles.
and analogy upon matters of fact, more efpecially when fuch
reafoning appears to be contradiéted by pofitive teftimony. I
therefore offer thefe conjectures with diffidence. The accent
and manner of pronunciation of the ancients being now irre-
coverably loft, we have no means of having the matter fub-
jected to*fenfible demonftration. All that we can fay is, that
if they did in fa& pronounce thefe unequal feet in their juft
proportions, and were confcious of doing fo, they poffefled a
power of combining very fmall intervals of time into unequal
parcels, to which perhaps no parallel can be found in modern
days.

z

4}

IV. On certain ANALOGIES obferved by the GREEKS in the
Ufe of their LutTTERS} and particularly of the LETTER
ZITMA. By ANDREW DALZEL,M.A. F.R.S. Epin.
and Profeffor of Greek in the Univerfity of EDINBURGH.

{Read by the Author, Dec. 19. 1785, and Nov. 19. 1787]

ZN 2 OD UG.T JOAN,

HE power of pronouncing articulate founds is one of

the moft obvious marks which diftinguifh man from the

other animals. No philofophical inveftigation is neceflary for

pointing it out, and therefore it has not efcaped the notice of

the poets, the moft ancient of all authors. In the works of

Homer and Hesiop*, we often meet with the expreffion

péeores cvbeuros, men having an articulate voices the word peeo

being evidently compounded of eign, to divide, and. op, the

voice F.

But

* Vide Iliad. ¢, 250. y', 492. o', 288. de. Oper. & Dies, 109, 142. Awnacrzon has
alfo made ufe of the fame epithet, but without the fubftantive; Od. III. 4.

+ Ase 70 Memegerpcevny ayer Thy ora, fays Hesvcutvs, voce wiporic. In which Surnas
agrees. Evsraruius is more explicit. Mégowés of avOgwror, maga ro Quces mrurercmerny exes
any Gra cis ve Atzete nae cig cuAAaBas nal eis sorgsiac, D pendepla Tis BAAN Eyes Porn rape thy Tov
avbporoy aidyy. Men are called wipoxts, from their naturally having their votce divided into
Words and Syllables and Elements, a quality which no voice poffeffes, except haman
Speech. Ad Iliad. 2, 250. The Bifhop adds, That “ thofe of his own facred fociety,
“ the interpreters of holy Writ, derive the word from the divifion of tongues which
“ took place at the building of the tower of Chalana,”’ as he calls it; which etymology

_ Erasmus has alfo taken notice of in his Dialogue de reéta Latint Grecique Sermonis pro-

nuntiationés

112 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

But although man is plainly poflefled of this faculty of ar-
ticulation, or pronouncing diftinct fyllables; yet the analyfis
of thofe fyllables into their conftituent parts, or fimple ele-
ments, or into what the Greek writers call sovyéa, muft origi-
nally have been a work of immenfe ingenuity. Perhaps it
would even have been impracticable ever to have made a com-
plete analyfis of this kind, without the invention of vifible
figns for denoting each of thofe elements. Nor hath any fort
of figns, fymbols or characters been found fo proper for that
purpofe, as thofe which we call Letters. Indeed, it feems im-
poflible to comprehend any other vifible mode of analyzing
words into fyllables, and fyllables into fimple elements, than
that which is furnifhed by letters. For though we can con-
ceive language to be, in fome degree, conveyed by marks of
imitation ; as when, in exprefling an elephant, we fhould fet
down the figure of that animal: yet we could never analyze
fuch a reprefentation, fo as to convey any idea of the different
fyllables in the word elephant, or of the elemental founds of
any of thofe fyllables *.

INDEED, the fignificant founds of a language, even confider-
‘ed each in the aggregate, and without any refolution into its

conftituent

nunizatione. But of this derivation, Damm, in his Lexicon, juftly fays, ‘‘ Id pié magis
“quam veré.”” Evsrarmivs has farther obferved, ‘‘ That certain birds are called
“ uégomic 3” thofe, no doubt, he means of the parrot kind. But thg manner in which
thefe poflefs the faculty of articulation, forms but a very flight exception to this cha-
raéteriftic of human nature. Human articulation was defined by the Stoics as follows:
Darn EvagSeos xk ame diavoras txaemopern, Sound articulate, and proceeding from Sentiment.
See Harais’s Hermes, p. 322+

* Even Dr Wirxtns’s Real Charaéter, which he has, with fuch aftonifhing labour,
invented, is not calculated to give any idea of fyllables or elemental founds ; and there-
fore, in order to complete his fcheme of an univerfal philofophical language, he has
likewife invented two alphabets, one of which he calls a Natural CharaGer ; this being
neceflary for the exprefling of proper names, according to his projet. See 4n Effay —
towards a real CharaGer and a philofophical Language, by Joun Wixxins, D. D. Dean
of Ripon, and F.R.S, (afterwards Bi/hop of Chefter.) Lond. 1668. fol.

©

j Particularly of the LETTER S1TMA. 113

eonftituent elements, can be but very imperfectly exprefled by
figures of imitation ; becaufe there is of thefe founds an im-
menfe variety, which cannot poflibly admit of any fuch vifible
exhibition *. Thofe conventional figns, which we call letters,
are the only proper and complete mode of denoting fimple ele-
mental founds, and their infinite variety of combination in
fyllables and words. For although the alphabet of no one lan-
E “guage contains a fufficient number of letters to exprefs every pof-
‘ fible modification of articulated found ; yet the letters compo-
_ fing the feveral alphabets of thofe written languages with which
we are acquainted, efpecially the ancient Greek and Latin, have
been found fufficient for denoting all the requifite elementary
founds in thofe particular languages f.
__Lerrers are called by the Greeks yeéppara, a word whofe
etymology is evident; for if yeagw fignify to write, yedpmupu
mutt fignify a thing written, that is, a letter, or written charac-
ter, denoting an clement of articulate found {. The ori-
' Vo1. I. P ginal

ua “* Sex an excellent account of the difference betwixt imitative and fymbolic language,
by the Jate Mr Hagais, fupported by quotations from Greek authors. Hermes, Book Ill.
. Chap. 3. Py

+ Dr Wirxrns has endeavoured to fhew the defe&ts in common alphabets, as to the
true order of the letters, their juft number, determinate powers, fitting names, proper
figures, dc. Effay towards a real Charaéter, &c. Part 1. Chap. v. And he has exhi-
_ bited a table of fuch fimple founds as he thinks can be framed by men, with a twofold in-
ftance of a more regular chara¢ter for the letters, together with feveral other curious
particulars. Part Ill. Chap. x. xi. xii. xili. xiv. After all, he concludes as follows :
_“ Thefe thirty-four letters, before enumerated, will fuffice to exprefs all thofe articulate
~ founds, which are commonly known and ufed in thefe parts of the world. I dare not
“ be over-peremptory in afferting, that thefe are all the articulate Sounds, which either
are, or can be in nature; it being as impoflible to reckon up all fuch, as to determine
“the juft number of Co/ours or Tafes.”

wi

iB

_ £ Tus etymology of the Latin word Litera, is not fo well afcertained. See ScaurcEr
de Caufis Ling. Lat. Lib. 1. Cap. 4. Ammonis the Grammarian thus defines the dif-
_ ference betwixt yeu and satyeiov. Tectppece Lroingeis diaPégete Lroiyeoy yey yp iow n ixQae
; Yan 5 0 Qbayyos, 370 yectu pce est onpeciov n Ux OK phote Tedupe differs from TOLLE Oe For

“‘s0iygoy is the enunciation and the found, of which ypepua ts a fign or type or Jigure. De
. ‘affinium vocab. differenti, voce yeéuwa, ubi vide que annotavit vir dottiflimus Lun.
Casp.

114 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

ginal fignification, however, of yeégw was not precifely what
we now mean by the expreflion ¢o write. In the earlieft times
of the Greek language, it meant fo carve ; and as the moft an-
cient method of writing was to carve fome fort of figures upon
tables of wood or brafs, which was exprefled by yeagew, (as
we learn from Homer *), that verb remained in ufe to exprefs

the

Caspr. Vatcxenaer. ArtsTorte gives the following account of an element. Eroryeéioy
piv By iss Dah cdvaigeros* B xiicu >}, WAN EE hs wee cuveTn yiveck Qo. 1 yd Trav Sagion cist
ADicchgeros Qavecd Sy BDepicey Atyw sorydiov. An Element is an indivifible found ; not every in-
divifible found, but from the compofition of which an intelligible found (or word] is natu-
rally produced. For the cries of wild animals are indivifible founds, but I call none of thefe
an Element. De Poetic. cap. xx. See alfo Dionys. Halicarn. de Compof. Verb.

cap. XIV. et Prato in Cratylo. Vol. I. p.426. Edit.Serrant. See the Stoic defini-

tion of an element, quoted by Mr Harars from Diocenes Larertius: Hermes, Book III. °

chap. 2. But though yedyye and cliyédoy are clearly different, the one fignifying a let-
ter and the other an element, they are frequently confounded by the Greek writers ; the
fign being often taken for the thing fignified. Accordingly, Dionysius the Thracian, in
giving the etymology of the words, has confounded their meaning. Tpdgeuare Jb Atyeras
Oia 7d yeappoets next Evowais tureck. ypérbas 70 Boas mage vols maraions, Os nab mae” “Ounpie
(Wiad. a’, 388.] Ta Bb abre wah oroiyaa xararas Oe To EXE OTOL OY Té¥ee Hy THE. They are
called yecuyura, on account of their being formed by lines and incifions : for ygaxpas, among
the ancients, fignified to make an incsfion, as we find from Homer, [lliad. a’, 388.] The fame
are called croyeiz, becaufe they are arranged according to acertain progreffion or feries. Ars
Gramm. apud Fazricium in Biblioth. Gr. Vol. VII. p. 27. Nor has Tuzopore Gaza
attended to the diftinétion in his definition, though it is, in other refpects, extremely accu-
rate. Apurioy OD vous awe +8 eure, obay TAY OToIYEwre TadTe p n meurn ek G&pnepns tots. T ae
Seon Quan, & yap ws PrUyey TUTAEKETeCh CAAKADIS eis oloTacw GVAAaGIC, GAA” ws nab rBvoyace one
nol, orehyer te > ebrdxtws xvdusie mus ovvrdocsras nord doyor. Perhaps we /hould begin with
the firft, viz. the Elements. For they are the firfl and indivifible voice of man ; not be-
ing conneéled together at random, to produce the compofition of a fyllable ; but, as the
name imports, arranged ina rational manner, advancing ina certain fertes and regular
order. Grammat. Inft. Lib. 1V. Paiscran has remarked this confounding of an ele-
ment and a letter: ‘‘ Abufivé tamen et elementa pro literis et liter pro elementis vo-
“© cantur”? Lib. I. In moft cafes, however, no great inconvenience arifes from the

negleét of this diftinction.

% [ieume Ot pay Aveinrde, wepev 3° bys oxara Avyed,
Tedtbas tv mivaxs mrunty SupoPQee worard. Iliad. ¢’, 168.

which, tranflated literally, runs thus : He /ent him into Lycra, and he moreover gave him
deftruftive figns, having carved, upon a folding tablet, a variety of them fatal to his hfe.
The poet is fpeaking of Paosrus, who fent Betreroruon into Lycia with this fatal

tablet,

Particularly of the LETTER SITMA. 115

the more commodious method of writing which was afterwards
invented.

_ In whatever part of the world, or at whatever time, the ufe
of letters took its origin, (for I do not mean at prefent to enter
upon that inquiry *), it cannot be denied that it is one of the
moft admirable of all human inventions. That we fhould be
able, by means of twenty-four vifible charaéters, to denote
the various thoughts of our minds, uttered by articulate founds,
fo as not only to convey them to perfons abfent and at a di-
ftance, but even to tranfmit them to pofterity, muft, if it did
not, as fome fuppofe, proceed immediately from the Deity, be
confidered as the moft eminent of all the improvements which
human art has yet made of thofe powers which he has been
pleafed to beftow upon our fpecies t.

P 2 INDEED,

tablet. We have no authority to tranflate oyware, Letters, or yedspaus, having writen,
_ as is generally done. Indeed, no where in the poems of Homer, do we find any part of
the fimple verb ygé?0, except here, and in the s9ggth line of the 17th book of the Iliad,

_ where yeas): occurs; and there it fignifies to wound, or to make an incifion, being applied
___ to what the fpear of Porypamas did to Penexaus the Beeotian. Its compound irsyecQw
"indeed is found four or five times, and always fignifies to raze or graze the fkin with the
_ point of a weapon. But neither yee nor soydov are to be met with in Homer, nor

does he any where make mention of Letters or writing by any terms whatever. For
eux, which occurs fo often, can {earcely ever be faid to fignify what we mean by a Lefter:
And hence an argument has been adduced, though not by any means a decifive one, againft
Homer’s knowledge of the art of writing, or the ufe of letters. But this is an invefti-
gation which cannot properly be. introduced in a note. See what the late Mr Rozerr
Woop has written upon this fubject in the laft fection of his Efay*on the original Genius
of Homer. Lond. 1775. 4to.

" ® Sex a fhort but elegant Differtation, printed at the conclufion of the 2d Vol. of
; -Havercamr’s Sylloge Scriptorum qui de Ling. Grac. vera et recta pronuntiatione commen-
tarios reliquerunt, entitled, De Fenicum Literis, &c. Guinu1eLMo Poste.xo Barentonio
audiore. See alfo Harris’s Hermes, Book Ill. ch. 2.

+ ‘ La communication des pensées par I’Ecriture, n’eft guéres moins admirable que
* celle qui fe fait par la Parole. Ce ne fut apparemment qu’apres bien des meditations
_ et des effais multipliés, que degouaté des difficultés, des ¢quivoques, des obfcurités, des
© bornes trop etroites de Pécriture hiéroglyphique, l’inventeur de V’ecriture littérale re-
** connut

116 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

INDEED, the faculty of fpeech itfelf, not to mention the va-
rious arts and fciences, could not have been brought to any
confiderable degree of improvement, without the affiftance of
written language. Without this, the knowledge of one age of
the world could not have defcended diftin€tly to another, and
confequently mankind mnuft, in a great meafure, have loft thofe
advantages which they derive from the accumulated experience
of former times.

THE variety of languages, however, both written and
fpoken, which takes place in the world, has been matter of
regret to thofe who have confidered the fubje@ particularly ;
and it has been wifhed, that a method of {peech, capable of
being conveyed by writing, had been invented, which man-
kind, at leaft in every polifhed nation, might have been able
univerfally to adopt and to underftand. But the diftribution
of the world into fo many different kingdoms and nations,
feems to render the introduction of an univerfal language
among mankind quite impradticable*. For although men

poflefs

¢ connut le nombre aflez petit des fons élémentaires, et comprit qu’en les repréfentant
“ par autant de caractéres diftin&ts, on pourroit combiner ces caractéres comme les fons

.

wils repréfentent ; ce qui conftitue en effet
q ie

ia Cet art ingenieux
© De peindre la parcle, et de parler aux yeux 5

“ art merveilleux, qui fixe 4 jamais la parole et la pensée qu’elle exprime, qui porte
«© Pune et autre aux abfents, qui les fait pafler 4 la poftérité la plus recilée, et dont on
“ peut dire avec vérité et fans reftri€tion, ce que dit M. Drperor d’un idiome qui di- _
“ yiendroit commun A tout le genre humain: [Encycfop. au mot Encycropepie.] que
‘* par fon moyen, /a diflance des temps difparoft, les lieux fe touchent, il fe forme des liaifons
* entre tous les points habités de Ve/pace et de la durée, et tous les étres vivants et penfants
“© Sentreteennent.? Grammaire Generale, &c. Par M. Beavzze. Tom.I.p.2, See
alfo Crceron. Que/t. Tufe. Lib. 1. and. Witxins’s Effay, &c. p. 10.

* Tur ingenious, laborious and truly admirable effort of Dr Wizx1ns, to invent and:
eftablifh an univerfal charaéter and philofophical language, has only tended to fhow more
ftrikingly the impracticablenefs of fuch an attempt: At leaft, however feafible his project
may appear, his method ftill remains unemployed by the learned ; and as for the vulgar,
it is quite beyond their comprehenfion.

Particularly of the LETTER 3ITMA. 117

poffefs univerfally the fame organs of fpeech, and, by means
of thefe, the fame faculty of uttering articulate founds; yet
the manner of exerting thofe organs, fo as to produce a parti-
cular language, being quite arbitrary, is a work, at firft, of ac-
cident, and then of gradual improvement, and which cannot
be carried forward, even by the help of writing, without a fre-

i quent intercourfe, and a fort of mutual convention among the
‘individuals of that fociety, who find * for their advantage to

adopt fuch a language *. But an intercourfe adequate to fuch
an end cannot take place beyond a particular nation ; therefore
an univerfal living language cannot poflibly fubfift: For, ac-
cording to an obfervation of D’ALemsert, “ There is nothing,

_“ either in nature or in reafon, which determines an object to

“ be defigned by one found more than by another.” To which
BreauZeeE adds, That “ there is nothing m nature or reafon
“ which determines a found to be defigned by one letter more:
“than by another +.” Accordingly, a variety of different

tongues:

_ * Tue inhabitants of fome nations, fays M. pu Marsars, employ certain organs, and’
even certain parts of organs, of which others make no ufe. There is likewife a particu-
lar form or manner of exerting the organs, &c. ‘ Il y’a des peuples qui mettent en:
“« action certains organes et méme certaines parties des organes, dont les autres ne font
“ point d’ufage. Il y’a aufli une forme ou maniere particuliere de faire agir les organes.
** De plus en chaque nation, en chaque province, et méme en chaque ville, on s’enonce
*« avec un forte de modulation particuliere ; c’eft qu’on appelle accent natzona/, ou accent
“© provinciale.”” Encyclop. au mot Consonne.

+ * Sr, comme le dit l’illuftre Secrétaire de l’Academie Francoife, 7/ n’y a ren:
“ dans la nature ni dans ta ratfon qui détermine un objet a étre defigné par un
* fon plutot que par un autre; on peut dire avec autant ou plus de vérité, qu’il n’y a

* rien dans Ja nature ni dans la raifon qui détermine un fon 4 etre defigné par une lettre

“€ plutét que par une autre.”? Gramm. Generale, par M. Brauzee. Tom. IL. p. 179.
See alfo p. 233, 234. 9

Dr Wixgws indeed has endeavoured to contrive a fet of characters, which, in their
fhape, have ‘‘ fome refemblance to that configuration which there is in the organs of
fpeech upon the framing of feveral letters”? Upon which account, he thinks, fuch an
alphabet may. deferve the name of a natural charaéer of the letters. Efay, &c. p. 375.
But here he has not been very fuccefsful ; and indeed he feems himfelf to prefer another
alphabet, which he has alfo fet down, although it has no fuch property, and yet is, as he
confefles, “ more facile and fimple.”

118 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

tongues has prevailed ever fince the early ages of the world;
and fuch of them as have ceafed to be fpoken would have foon
perifhed, had they not been committed to writing ; by which
means, fome of them have furvived the wreck of nations, and
the other viciflitudes of human affairs. Of thefe, though
their genuine pronunciation be now, in a great meafure, loft,
we are ftill able, after a confiderable degree of pains, not only
to under{tand the meaning, but even to perceive the beauties ;
and, among the various forts of inftruétion which they convey,
we derive from them many effential advantages in improving
and polifhing our own language.

To none have we been more indebted in thefe refpects, than
to the language of the ancient Greeks. As this is acknow-
ledged, by all who have ftudied it, to be the moft perfect *;
fo the analogy perceived from an attentive obfervation of its
ftructure, even in the moft’ minute’ parts, is of all others the
moft complete and beautiful. Whence the Greeks borrowed.
their alphabet, which they ufed with fuch fuccefs, I am not
here to enquire. That it did not originate with themfelves, is
univerfally agreed among the learned f. But it is no lefs cer-

tain,

* Sex Mr Hararis’s elegant encomium of the Greeks and their language, of which he
was the great and rational admirer. Hermes, Book III. Chap. 5. Alfo, Dr Grecor¥
Sarre, in the Preface to his Origin and StruGure of the Greek Tongue.

+ Ir is the uniform opinion of ancient authors, that the Greek alphabet at firft con-
fifted only of fixteen letters. which were imported out of Pheenicia into Greece by the
celebrated Capmus. [See Heropor. Terpfchor. cap. 58. “Puurarcn. Sympo/. lib. Q.
Iren. lib. 1. cap.12. Lucan. Phar. lib. III. See alfo, Dr Witxins’s Effay, p. 11-]
Thefe fixteen letters, called Kaduntx yezuuarx, and fometimes cxwara Kadue, were the
two fhort vowels with the three ancipites ; the three fmooth and the three intermediate
mute confonants; and the four liquids, with the folitary Evyue. Patamenes is faid to
have added the three afpirated mutes, and the double confonant 5, at the time of the
Trojan war. And Simonipes is fuppofed afterwards to have invented the two other
double confonants and the two long vowels. See Monrravucon. Pa/eogr. Gr. p. 115,
116, 117. And fee an enumeration of the authors who have written on this fubje& in
Tueoparct Curistorn. Hanes Introd. in Hit. Ling. Gr. Proleg. p. viii. feqq. Alten-
burg. 1778. 80.

Particularly of th LETTER ZITMA. 119

tain, that wherever they got the firft fketch of an alphabet,
they improved it very much, not indeed inftantly, but gradu-
ally, till they brought it to that ftate in which we now fee
it, in the twenty-four different characters whereof it is com-
pofed *.

To point out completely the analogy which the Greek wri-
ters obferved in the ufe of each of thofe letters, would lead
into a very wide field. At prefent, I propofe only to enquire
particularly into the nature and principal ufes of one of them,
I mean the Siypze. This, being the fign of a fingular fort of
found, has been ufed, in the ftru€ture of the Greek tongue, in
a manner different from every other letter; and therefore the
Grammarians have generally allotted to it a fingular place in
their arrangement of the different component members of the
Greek alphabet. It will be impoflible, however, to treat of
the Siyue, without making mention of certain circumftances
incident to the other confonants.

ri Pin AriRoyrol, Wy

PAE letter Size was commonly fo called by the inhabi-
i tants of Greece, its iflands and colonies, except the Do-
. rians, who, as we learn from HERoDorTus, gave it the name
of 3%}. Dionysius of Halicarnaffus alfo mentions this
¥ Doric

_* Canuistratus, the Grammarian of Samos, is faid to have arranged the Greek al-
phabet in the order in which we now find it, when Evcripzs was Archon of Athens.
See Fosrer’s E/fay on Accent and Quantity, p. 41. 2d Edit.

$ Acgites ply vd ody xartaos, "Iwnes de olypa. Lib, I.

120 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

Doric name *; and ATHEN#us further obferves, that Aris-
TOPHANES, in his comedy of Zhe Clouds, has called thofe
horfes who had this letter branded upon them, Yepu@ogas fF. It
has been by fome thought abfurd, that the letters, which are
the figns of elemental founds, fhould be called by any other
names than the mere founds which they denote. It may be
faid, however, in favour of the Greek names, that they always
begin with the letter whofe power they denote; and it is a
good practical rule in grammar, to fay, “ That the power of
“ each letter may be known by catching the initial found of the
“ name {.” In fpeaking particularly of the letters, it is ne-
ceflary to have a diftin@ articulate name to give to each of
them, becaufe the mere power, efpecially of the mute confo-
nants, can fcarcely be uttered without a vowel; and if the af-
fiftance of a vowel be employed in uttering them, then you
give them a name fomewhat different from their real power, and
more likely to lead into error.

Witn refpect to the elemental found of which Siype is
the fign, there is no doubt that the Greeks ufed that letter to
exprefs precifely what we denote in Englifh by the letter S in
fauch words as the following, fame, defignation, diftre/s. This we
learn from a diftiné defcription, which Dionysius of Hali-
carnaflus has given of the pofition and effort of the vocal
organs in the pronunciation of this letter.. “ The 3iyua, fays
‘* he, is pronounced by an appulfe of the tongue to the palate,

* while

* He mentions it as (6 called by Pinpar. De compoftione Verborum, Se. 14. of which
more afterwards.

4+ Aruznxus, p- 467. Edit. Commelin. See alfo Isaac Casaus. Animadverff. in
Aruen. Lib. X. cap. 21. ZapPépas is evidently compounded of Edy and Pépw* » being .
always » before 7, 8, ?, which will be remarked more particularly afterwards. See
Anristoruanis Nubes, 122. 1298. Edit. Brunck. Argentor. 1783.

+ Livers cujufque vis intelligitur ex initiali fono nominis. Moor Elementa, L. Gr. ,
p: 2

Particularly of the LETTER ZIPMA. 121

while the breath ruthes through the middle part of it, and
emits a gentle and conftriGed fibilation about the teeth ey
_ The name itfelf is evidently derived from sila, to bift; and
from the hiffing found of which it is the fign, it has been
ri called the ferpentine letter. Some have even fancied, that varj-
__ ous fhapes of the ferpent have been copied in the different forms
it has aflumed T- The forms moft commonly in ufe, are two
_ for the large or capital letter, thus 5, C, and three for the {mall
_ one, thus ¢, (, ¢, of which the laft is always final, the other two
initial or intermediate t. In order to comprehend more diftin@ly

the ufe of the Zrywe, it will here be Proper to take a fhort view
_ of the other confonants.

We Vor. IL Q. THE
1

ay ee

Bt lec,

Beis tl tS [e<Paveirees] The py yAdeons Reoravxyousvys Ge 7005 Toy Beavor, Te OOF wrevear Gs
Oe plow abs Pepoueve x) mech chs sures rcwriy xe} savy taSdvr@ xp overywc.
— Cerartinos’s definition is nearly the fame: “ Profertur lingua furfum adduéta ad pa-
© Tatum, cujus medio {patio fpiritus fertur et circa dentes exilem et anguftum et quodam-
: © modo triftem fibilum expellit.”? De Sono Gr. Litt. Libellus. It ought never to be
-pronou ced, as in fome Englifh and French words, as if it were the fame with Z, ora
double S. “‘ Hic quidem certe graviter errant et labuntur preter czeteros Galli, quoties
\ | giype interjacet duabus vocalibus in una vel diverfis ditonibus.
4 eft in Gre, vel in Zarn Hebrzorum ex eo percipitur :
ula feriberetur. . Quod certe vitium dum nonaulli fubterfugere ac devitare volunt,
*“utinam in alterum Minime inciderent, nec quafi per geminum SS effet {criptum mussa
“proferrent.” Hen. Srepu. Apologet. pro vet. L. Gr. Pron, In which opinion Lan-
T agrees. “Sa prononciation doit eftre ferme et entiere, auffibien entre deux
-voielles qu’en tout autre lieu. C’eft pourquoi il le faut prononcer dans Xptens de mé-
‘ me que dans cis Tuak : quoiqu’en Francois nous Prononcions autre

“Ses.” Nouvelle methode pour apprendre facilement la Langue Gregu

Tum enim fonus qui
ac perinde pronuntiatur ac fi

ment Curyses que
é p. 16,

: + “ Stcma—merus eft Gbilus : ideoque ab Hebreis fp

ecie quadam ferpentis caudam
ad caput Tetorquentis, et a Gracis, in gyrum fefe revolventis, hac videlicet figura =

el veluti caput vibrantis, ut ¢ : denique ut fefe finuantis, pingitur, nempe (. quam fi-
guram Latiniimitati.” Beza de pronunt.Gr.L, p.2t. Edit. H. Steps. 1587.

Fea

es Father Montravcon has given ten different figures of the Siyue, and mentioned
the different periods when each of them was ufed. Paleogr. Gr. p. 336

» 337. “ The
“ difability of Pronouncing this letter is called Blajitas, Lifping, whence it is corruptly
“ founded like (4.)” Wirxins, p. 369.

tal

122 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

Tue general difference betwixt vowels and confonants has been
very accurately ftated by Dr Wiktns, in the following words:
“ Thofe letters are called Vocales, vowels, in pronouncing of
“ which by the inftruments of fpeech, the breath is freely
“ emitted ; and they are therefore {tyled Apert, or open letters.
‘© Thofe letters are ftyled Confonants, in the pronouncing of
“ which the breath is intercepted by fome collifion or clofure
* amongft the inftruments of fpeech ; and for this reafon are
« they ftyled Claufe Litera *”

Tue feventeen Greek confonants were divided by the elder
grammarians into eight femivowels and nine mutes. “ Of the
“ confonants, fays THEODORE GAZA, fome are femivowels,
“ as Z, , bs As fr v Or Os of which @ & ~, are double, and

or, fo @, are immutable and liquid f.” According to_

this arrangement, « is a femivowel ; but in the fubdivi-
Gon of the femivowels into double confonants and liquids,
it is tacitly omitted. For this GazA had the authority of
Dionysius the Thracian}, and probably of APOLLONIUS
Dysconus, whom he very much followed. CoNSTANTINE
Lascaris has expreffed himfelf very nearly in the fame
words §. But EMANUEL CHRYSOLORAS is more explicit. His
Grammar is in the form of queftion and anfwer. “ How are
“ the feventeen confonants divided ? Into two forts, femivowels
“ and mutes. How many are femivowels? Eight, @ 2, > /»
»@, 0 How are the femivowels divided? Into three forts,
“ double confonants, immutable confonants, and «. How ma-

“c ny

ee

* Effay towards a real CharaGter, 8c. ps, 363. and 366.

+ Tiv & cupParav, TH pet nptPaavee, choy C. Be te Ae He Me GM Sv Bernd piv 0. &. Ye dpilaGore
BE i Syed Av fa Mo Ee Turop. Gaze Introduétionts Grammatice libri lV. fol. 3- Ba/fil.
apud VALENT- Curtonem. 8vo.

t Vide Dionysit Thracis Art. Grammat. Extat in Fas. Biblioth. Gr. Vol. VIL.
p- 26.

§ Vide Constantini Lascarts Grammatice Compendium, p. 2. apud Payium Manv-
nium, Avni F. Venet, 1557- 12m

oy atte

frog a dpe eee 8 P32,

Particularly of the LETTER S\TMA. 124

* ny are double? Three, Z 2, ~. How many are immutable?
“ Four, which are alfo called liquids, a, uw», e@*.” The re-
maining nine confonants are called mutes by all the gram-
marians: Of which three, to wit, 7, ,7, are termed WwaAc,
fmooth ; three, to wit, 9, y, 3, are ducéa, rough, or denfe; and
three, to wit, 6, y, 0, are wicuw, intermediate; in fuch a manner,
that each fmooth one has an intermediate and a denfe one to
correfpond to it, which three are faid to be of the fame rank,
becaufe they nearly refemble each other in the manner in
which the vocal organs exert themfelves in pronouncing them ;
the firft rank z, (, ?, being /abial, the fecond z, y, y, being fa-
latine, and the third -¢, 3,4, being dental, as is well known to
every one who has the fmalleft acquaintance with the princi-
ples of the Greek tongue. ARrisTOTLE has defined, with his
ufual acutenefs and precifion, the difference betwixt a vowel, a
femivowel anda mute. “ A vowel (fays he) is that which,
“ without any allifion of the organs, hath an audible found,
as wand». A femivowel is that which, with an allifion,
hath an audible found, as « and ¢. A mute is that which,
with an allifion, hath by itfelf indeed no audible found, but
is audible in conjunction with the vowels, as y and 0 f.”

I am fenfible that the arrangement of the confonants by the
Greek grammarians, has not been approved of by fome late
writers on the fubject of grammar; and there is no doubt but
another might be fhewn which would feem better adapted to

Q2 the

Etc wien Siarekvrat ra Oxasmra cipPwyx 5 cis OUD, ets uePuvee nar APave, meow yplOave 3

“
“
“

«ec

sxe 6, %, by Ay He, %) 0, oe cis worm Diaxigdvrar re dnd nplOwva 5 ig Tein, cts DiMA, eis dere
Corn, 5 TO clypa. more dimre; Tein, & 2, pe more dpirdbcra 5 Ticcapa, ce i Dyed Azyorlas,
a, #, % e Emanvetis Curysororare Gr. Gram. Inflitutiones. Ven. apud Jo. Farneum
et Fratres. 12mo. Paginis defunt numeri.

F Est OF Qartey ptr, Aver mpocGorrs exov Qwvhy dxuclar chor, 73 @ xh w. “HyuiPasov Os, rd nile
meorbons eqyov Quay aneorny® choy, 70 oy nak TO ee "ADavoy oy To pete mporboring nad aito piv
BIenicey Exov Qavny, were OF ray exsvrau tive Pavay ywoucver axBoras olov, Tey nal 72 dO Tlegt
Tloinr. Keg, x’.

124 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

the natural order of the elemental founds, and the affinity fub-
fitting among certain claffes of fuch founds. All fuch as are
labial, for inftance, might be clafled together, whether mutes
or femivowels, as 6, 4,7, ? ~~3 all fuch as are dental, to
wit, Ge, o3 all fuch as are lingual, to wit, 0, 4, a,», 73; and all
fuch as are palatine, to wit, y,%, vy, And accordingly this
has been done by HutEewicz, one of the beft modern writers
on Greek grammar *. But this he has propofed, without re-
jecting the ufual arrangement, which he knew to be fo im-
portant in examining or explaining the ftructure of the Greek
tongue. For though a divifion and arrangement of that fort
might anfwer the purpofe of a minute anatomical or phyfiolo-
gical inquiry concerning the organs of fpeech, yet as this was
not the circumftance chiefly attended to by the Greeks in the
progrefs of their language, though they did not by any means
neglect it, we muft adhere to that other diftribution by the:
grammarians, if we would wifh to comprehend clearly the real
ufe of the Greek letters. There is, for inftance, no doubt
that » is a labial confonant, as well as z, B, or g* and in faé
the Greeks in fome meafure attended to this, as will be after-
wards fhewn; but the ufe of » asa liquid, and its partaking
in this refpect of the fame analogy with A, », e, was a connection,
much more ftriking, and much more attended to in the prac-
tical application of the Greek alphabet f. In the cafe of the:
nine mutes, it is of very great confequence to confider how,,

1m,

%* See Avex. Gasr. Worutyn Hurewrcz, nobilis Poloni, Tnfiitutiones Ling. Grace,
p. 14. Lugd. Bat. 1746. 4to. M. Beavzee, an ingenious French Grammarian, has alfo.
propofed a very minute arrangement of the letters, according to an idea of this kind.
See Grammaire Générale, ou Expofition raifonnée des Elemens neceffaires du Langage..
2 tomes, Paris, 1767. 8vo. See allo Bi/hop Wirxins’s Effay, &c. p. 357+

+ ‘ Appellantur Lrquiva, quod poft mutam pofite quafi liquefcentes ac evanef-
« centes, vim confonantes interdum amittant, neque vocalem pracedentem longam effi-
“ ciunt, ut ali confonantes.”? Anresicnanus apéd Cuenarpum, p. 3- Hanovia,

1617. 4fo.

Particularly of the LETTER SI1TMA. 125

in the infletions, and in certain other fyllabic combinations,
each of the letters which compofe the different ranks changes
its place occafionally with one of its own rank, and not with
that of another; and in the cafe of the liquids, how, if any
one of them occur in the nominative of a noun, it muft re-

‘main unchanged in the oblique cafes; and if it occur in the

prefent tenfe of a verb, it muft remain unchanged in the fu-
tures; from whence the liquids have alfo got the name of
topereore, immutable ; likewife, in the cafe of the double con-
fonants, how each of them is occafionally refolved into the
mute of which it is compofed, and ciyuzc. All this might be
fhewn primera, and at great length. But I return to the
Biypa.

In treating of the Greek characters, fome diftinguifhed mo-
dern grammarians have not paid due attention to this letter.
GretseEr, the Jefuit, in his arrangement of the confonants,
has affigned no place to it at all*. He does not even mention
it as one of the femivowels, although it be evidently entitled to.

that diftinGion. LawnceLot, author of the Port-Royal Gram-
omar, at a lofs, it fhould feem, what to do with it, has clafled

it, awkwardly enough, with the double confonants. ‘ Although
* the Xiyua, fays he, be the only one of its own fet, we may
“ neverthelefs join it with the double confonants, not only be-

_“ caufe it forms one of their conftituent parts, but alfo becaufe

“ they all refemble it, by being fibilant in the pronuncia-

“tion f.” Other grammarians, particularly CLENaRDus, AN-

“TESIGNANUS and HuteEwicz, have judged much better
im taking the hint from the Greek writers. already quoted,
efpecially

* Inflitutiones Ling. Gr. Ingoldfladi, 1605. 12mo.

- # “ Quoique le ¢ foit feul de fa bande, nous pouvons neanmoins le joindre avec les
** doubles, non feulement parce qy’il en fait partie, mais aufli parce que dans leur pro-.
“ nonciation elles font toutes fiffantes comme lui.”? Nouvelle Methode pour appendre:

. Sactlement la Langue Greque, Paris, 1754. 8v0».

126 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

efpecially EMANUEL CurysoLoras, and allowing the Siype to
be a femivowel ; but perceiving that it is neither a liquid, nor
a double confonant, nor a mute, they have called it /itera /olita-
ria, et fue poteftatis, vel fui juris ; the folitary, and the ab/olute
or independent letter ; the letter which poffeffes a fingular and
independent power, nowife fettered by that relative analogy to
which the other confonants are obliged to fubmit. That is to
fay, there has been a fingular found obferved to fubfift in the
Greek language, expreflive of a great many varieties in the
‘changes and inflections of words independent of certain other
clafles of changes and infleGtions ; and that fingular found has
been denoted by the 2iyuza. For it is certain, that languages
were ufed previous to the invention of letters, though they
mui{t have been very rude in that early ftate. But they would
afterwards be much refined by thofe very letters, the ufe of
which muft doubtlefs have fuggefted' many eflential improve-
ments, which would not otherwife have been thought of.

Now, upon what grounds the Ziyue is entitled to an ex-
emption or diftin@tion, fuch as I have mentioned, it may be
worth while to examine. The inquiry will tend to fhew the
great ufe, and indeed abfolute neceflity of fuch a character in
the alphabet of this moft exquifite of all languages.

Dr Samuet CLARKE, one of the moft acute and ingenious
of all the commentators, has, in a note upon the word siaucce,
at the beginning of the thirteenth book of the Iliad, men-
tioned a probable reafon, in his opinion, why the ancients
held the Siyya to be /ue poteftatis. “ Mésuooe, fays he, mutt
“ certainly be written with a double «, becaufe the fecond fyl-
“ Jable of sauce is fhort. It may, however, (continues he), be
‘ queftioned, whether the more ancient Greeks made ufe of
“ that mode of writing. For when they called ¢ an arbitrary
“ letter, perhaps they meant, that whereas the letters @ 2
“ are neceflarily double, and all the reft of the confonants
‘* fimple, ¢ alone has this peculiarity, that, in a great many

‘* places,

.

Particularly ofthe LETTER SITMA. 127

“ places, efpecially the aorifts of verbs, it may be pronounced.
“ either as a fimple or a double letter *.” This reafon is inge-
nious; but, upon examining it narrowly, it does not appear to
be fatisfaGtory. Indeed Dr Crarxe himfelf does not feem
quite fatisfied with it, and offers it only as a conjecture. There
is no doubt, however, of what this accomplifhed fcholar has
elfewhere + fhewn, that the penult of the firft aorift of fuch a
verb as weAaZm is fhort, but that the poets, as Homer has fre-
quently done, may make it long, by doubling the ¢, or rather
by reftoring the ¢, which had been thrown away in the forma-
tion of the firft future {. Nor is it improbable, that when the

‘poems of Homer were firft committed to writing, the « was

fet down fingle, even when the verfe made it requifite to pro-
nounce it double. It happens, however, that this privilege of
being occafionally doubled, is not peculiar tothe c. We find,
among the poets, other confonants, mutes as well as liquids,.
frequently in the fame fituation. Thus,

"Org tpas’ EAAciver D6 yewr nat ereidero wow |].
And .
ad ry 4
Tov wat vreAAciran wanoges Seoi, 80 Fedqoay §.
Here:

+ miracot.| “ Ita jam fcribendum, neceflarid ; quia 7Aece fecundam corripit. Dubitari
‘‘ tamen poteft, utrumne Greci antiquiores ifto modo feripferint. Nam quumz, /ue po-
“ teflatis hteram dixerunt, haud {cio an hoc fibi voluerint ; literas ¢, 2, .y, neceflarid qui-
« dem duplices effe ; confonantium reliquas omnes, /mplices ; unicam autem ¢, ifttufmodi
% effe, ut permultis in locis, ac precipue in verborum Aorittis, /implex dupléxve ex xquo
pronunciari pofit.” Ad Ifad. y', 1.

+ Vide ad Wiad. é, 140. §', 432.

$ Accorpine to the rule, which direéts, that, in verbs not liquid, the firft future
fhould arife from the prefent, by inferting a + before w, xsadQa, which is the fame with
maddow, would have in the firft future readro, or m:Aadcow. But a fpecial rule directs,
that before » we muft, in the future, throw away +, 3, 9, 2, which makes that tenfe of
middlw to be meadow" hence the firft aorift ¢x:adce, to which reftore the rejected ¢, and it
becomes éweadcoa. Vide Moor Element. L. Gr. p. 128..

] liad. @, 33.

§ Ibid. 2, 406.

128 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

Here the d is double in ewe and ortdeoev, that ede may bea
f{pondee, which it could not otherwife have been. We find the
y alfo frequently doubled, as 0, 7 *, inftead of 6,7. In which
cafes, it is fully as probable, that in the early copies of the

poems of Homer, fuch words were always written with a

fimple } or +, as that zéAaez, and others of the fame fort, were
always written with a fimple « Sometimes we find e, contrary
to the rule by which it is faid to be always doubled after the
fyllabic augment, (as pizra, épperrov), written fingle by the

poets: thus, éppeZe, in the imperfect from péZs, is written firft

fingle, and then double, in the following verfes :

"Anrros 0 ddrw tele Seay aieryereraav fT.

"Oi 0 ex eppeCe Asos xeon weycrou ft.
In the firft of thefe lines, 0 daa e- is a dactyl, in which the
», one of the furd diphthongs, is fhort before the firft fyllable
of 22, by a well known practice of the poets. Nay, we find,
that even in the modern editions of Homer, the liquid a oc-
curs written fingle, when the verfe requires it to be pronounced
double, which Dr Cuarke himfelf, with his ufual acutenedfs,
has fhewn to be the cafe in the exordium of the Iliad.

“Hedw», adres 0 erwerce revy.e avvecow—

where tae muft be pronounced as if it were written ‘Ardea,
ric 0: being here a fpondee. After all, it muft be owned, that
> is much oftener doubled by the poets than any other confo-
nant. Indeed, no confonant but itfelf admits of being doubled
in the penult of the firft aorifts |.
THERE

* had. #, 294.

+ Ibid. 6’, 400.

$ Thad. ‘, 532. In fome editions, tééee is written 725 in the firft aorifl, which an-
fwers the prefent purpofe as well.

| In the middle voice it is the antepenult.

Particularly of the LETTER SiVMA. 129

THERE are, however, feveral other grounds on which the
claim of this letter to'the appellation of /olitary or independent,
may be fupported.

I. 3IPMA alone of all the confonants employs its power in
affifting the mutes to make up the double letters. Thus, any
one of the labial mutes 7, or ®, or @, aflifted by oc, makes)‘
any one of the palatine mutes, x, ory, or -y, affifted in the
fame manner, makes £* and any one of the dental mutes, r, or
8, or 3, with the fame help, makes @. In the cafe of Y and &,
this is evident from the mode of refolving thofe double letters
in the inflections, efpecially in the oblique cafes of nouns of the
imparifyllabic declenfion. ‘Thus, in the cafe of ~, we perceive
that AainaL, procella, is the fame with Aaidwws, becaufe its ge-
Nitive is AasAares’ that” Ago), drabs, is the fame with "AgaBe,
becaufe its -genitive is "Agaos* that xar7anp, /cala, is the fame
with zernaids, becaufe its genitive is xarfipos* and in the cafe

‘of £, we perceive that xogaZ, corvus, is the fame with xogans, be-

caufe its genitive is xoganos* that Pack, flamma, is the fame with
Prdys, becaufe its genitive is Prdyos’ that ove, ungula, is the fame
with dwys, becaufe its genitive is ovvyec. But the fame analogy
in the cafe of 2 is not fo eafily traced ; and indeed the critics
and grammarians, who have written in Greek, do not even af-

fert that @.is equivalent to d, but towd*. Their reafon feems

to have been, that they never obferved,@ refolved into two fim-
ple confonants, except in the Doric manner, as yeAicdw, inftead
of psrida, modulor; todo, inftead of of, olco. The learned
Huewiczieven denies that Z is a donble letter; ‘ becaufe,
“ (fays-he) it never is equivalent to two confonants, like and
“ )° for if & were a double confonant, it would occur in the
“ termination of Greek words, as well as @ and », which it

mo. (i. - R ““ never

“Vide Dionys. Hal. ag? cvv9, dou. 10’. Dronys. Thracem apud Fasaictum in Biblioth.
Gr. Vol. VII. p. 28. Tuzop. Gazar Grammat. fol. 24. ‘Thefe are followed by
Cienarnvs, dc.

130 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

“ “ww

never does *.” But, in anfwer to this, it may be faid, that
the argument againft @ being a double confonant, becaufe
it never terminates a word, cannot be admitted, as it is no where
afferted, that to be a final letter is abfolutely neceflary to the ex-
iftence of a double confonant. But, granting this to be the
cafe, @ may in faé& be faid, as well as and W, to be a final let-
ter, if the following circumftances be properly attended to. It
is obferved by Hutewicz himfelf, as well as other grammari- -
ans, that the dental mutes +z, 0, 6, are thrown away before o.
This happens evidently in the formation of the firft futures of
verbs: thus, rirrw, verbero, not rurrew in the future, but rica,
which is written rio" dw, cano, not adow, or «fw, but dow"
many, impleo, not rrA7Iow nor rA7~e, but zayow. One reafon for
this feems to be, that if zs, or dc, or 9s, had been permitted to
remain in the firft futures of verbs, they muft have produced
é, and this would have confounded the termination of thofe
futures with that of the prefent tenfes of a great many verbs in
@#, and thus have given rife to a great ambiguity in the cafe of
prefent and future tenfes ; an inconvenience which the Greeks
carefully avoided, and in the prefent inftance the more willingly
got rid of, becaufe the throwing away of +, 0, 3, before o, grati-
fied an antipathy, which the Grecian ear, during the progrefs
and refinement of their language, feems to have conceived againft
the combination of thofe confonants + ; for it isevident, from the
analogy of certain genitives which end in oc, dos and Soc, that,
in the early times of the Greek language, a great many nouns
terminated in 7, 05 and 4c, which is the fame with terminating
in @° thus, AéByrs, or aAcGnZ, by rejecting the =z before ¢, be-
comes.

* Inflitut. Gram. p. 13

+ Aworuer reafon is, that, in many verbs, it would produce too great a concourfe of
confonants. See this illuftrated above, p.127. note f.

a ke
st ns <

~ Particularly of the LETTER S1TMA. 131

comes AéGys, /ebes, but ¢ remains before o in the genitive, AgGnroc*
Agpraes, Or Adura?, by rejecting the d before ¢, becomes rAdu-
aac, lampas, in the genitive Adéperedos dense, or ced, by rejecting
8 before ¢, becomes cenc, avis, in the genitive dguSe¢*. Farther,
it may be inferred, that is equivalent at leaft to 3, from what
happens in ‘the formation of the fecond future of fuch verbs as
6%. For as rérrw hath in the fecond future ruza, by throwing
out the 7, which is the latter of the two confonants, the former
being the chara¢teriftic of the tenfe ; fo 02w (ddew) hath oda, by
throwing out the «, which is the latter of the two component
confonants in @, the d being properly the characteriftic of the
tenfe. In the fame manner, ¢ea@w (Qecdew) hath Qeads, and

&@w (dew) hath da. But that @ was confidered by the Greek

writers as a double confonant, may be clearly evinced from this,
that, like the other two, 2 and WJ, it obliges a vowel immedi-
ately preceding it, though naturally fhort, to be long by pofi-
tion, as is well known to all who have the fmalleft acquaintance
with Greek profody. It may be concluded then, that 2 is not
only a double confonant +, but is equivalent either to rs, or ds,
or 3¢, though the general practice of the Greek writers was to

‘reject 7, 0, 3 immediately before «, or to fet down ¢ in moft

cafes where the general analogy requires @, and this, it fhould
feem, in order to produce a found more pleafing to the
R 2 ear.

* Sometimes 7 is thrown out betwixt x and <, after which the xs coming.together muft
make a thus, ents, Bas, ane, rex, Gen. avaxros, where the & is refolved into xs, and
the 7 is reftored. See a moft ingenious Differtation, afcribed to the late learned Mr
Jex. Marxxanp, entitled, De Grecorum Quintd Dechnatione Imparifyllabica, ‘et inde for-
mata Latinorum Tertia, Queftio Grammatica. Extat cum Editione alter4 Evrrerprs Dra-
matis Supplicium Mulierum, quam Londini excudebat dottus typographus Guu. Bowyer,
nuper defunctus, ejufque difcipulus J. Nicuots. 1775.

_. + Tue other arguments adduced by Huzewicz. to prove that is not a double confo-

nant, do not feem to have any weight. Vid. Inflitut. Gram. Gr. ubt fupra.

132 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

ear *. iywa, therefore, not only lends its. affiftance to the den-
tal mutes, in order to form @, but even frequently occiniee
the place of @, the component mute being rejected.

II. SIMA is the only confonant whofe power is employed

in the formation of the dative plural of the imparifyllabic |

declenfion ; and this is done by interpofing it immediately be-
fore « of the dative fingular : as, pare, orator, Dat. Sing: przoge,
Dat.. Plur. pavogos. So xoguk (xigang), corvus, D. S. xogeems,
D. P. xéganos,, which is xogukir pack (parcys), flamma, D.S. progr,
D.P.gacyor, which is prods Bug (Bays), tuffis, D.S. Bays, D. P. Canyon,
which is Bz. So alfo ab (ars), aculus, D.S. da, D. P.. dren,
which is. air "Agaal. ("Agu Bc), Arabs, D.S. "Agafi,D, P. "Age Bor,
which is "Agadir xargran) (xarnris), fcala, D. 8. xacnrms,

D. P. zarnripas, which is zarqrnbn Alfo, daig (duirs), epulum,

D. S. dari, D. P. not dumoi, nor Iii, but dui, becanfe z, 3,9,
are thrown. away before o. Adwaas (Adpaads), lucerna, D.S. rdpe

rads, D. P. not acuradcs, nor Adumads, but Adpracs ogni (gnidg)y

D. S. deuS1, D. P. not devitor, nor dguds, but cent ts ,
IL. In

* Ir deferves to be remarked, that one of the liquids, vz. », is alfo thrown away be-
fore ¢ of the’ nominative, and reftored agam in the genitive: Thus, uéac:, meer; fon
wérasc, has,,in the genitive, Axes. From fome! nominatives,, both. » andz are thrown
away, and reftored in the genitive : thus, y'yas for yiyarts, Gen. yiyxrros* and they are again
thrown away before ¢ in the dative plural, which isnot y/yasrct, but yiyzo. And when,
in the prefents of verbs, y and 2 occur together; they are both thrown away before cw of
the future: thus, xvAidw, voluto, xvaiow, evidently for the fake of a more pleafing found..
Vid. Moor Elementa L. Gr. p. 128. :

Wiru refpeét to what Hutewicz afferts about the final ¢, in nouns of the third declen-
fiom being changed’ into 0,9, »,7, in the genitive, as. tes, ds, Gen. feidoct dgnic, avis,
Gen. @guSoc* pérac, niger, Gen. pidavos” xapic, gratia, Gen. yéprros~ this arifes from his.
not having obferved, with Mr Marxxanp, that the full nominatives of thofe words are},
Zerde, Gens, ufrave, yapsrs* and that ¢ is not changed into the above mentioned confonants,.
but that thefé having been thrown. away in the nominative, euphonie cau/a, are reftored
in the genitive, where that reafon no longer takes place. See above, p. 130.

+ In the dative plural, » is alo. thrown. out, asi rome, paflor, D. S. xoren, D. Pe mosstors.
Other changes are. made inthis cafe in certain. nowns. euphonie gratia, but. is always:
inferted,

r

Particularly of the LETTER S1TMA. 133

HE. Iw the formation. of the Greek verb, where a fyftem of
the moft beautiful kind may be traced, the fingular or peculiar
_- power of Xiu is very confpicuous.

‘ bp. It is always the charaCteriftic of the firft future, in verbs that
are not liquid, a {tation which it maintains without arival. Thus,
im pure verbs, ria, bonoro, ricw, Xvw, folvo, Avow, rinow, bonoro, rijrw,
Pirew, amo, Pikjow, rAAeow, impleo, rXnedow" im mute verbs, rAzxw,
plico, xxénow, which is rhééw, Pedyas fugio, Pedyow, which is d<dZa,
Betya, irrigo, Becyow, which is Beka" alfo, Brera, video, Brerow,
which is Bartha, ret Bary lero, reibow, which is reinbw, yeaPn, firibo,
yeedow, which is yeapo- and fo alfo in verbs ending in +a,
do and 4, im which the 7, 3, 3, are rejected before cw of the fu-

ture, as has been already obferved and exemplified *.

2. Ir is never the proper charatteriftic letter of the prefent
tenfe, and therefore in that refpect alfo it is fingular. There
are indeed a great many verbs which end in @w and as it has
been faid that ¢ is compofed of 8, &c. it may be fuppofed that o is:
here the charateriftic of the prefent. But as in fome verbs,
fuch as rizrw and pirrw, the former of the two confonants, to
wit x, is reckoned the chara¢teriftic ; fo in fuch verbs as deacu
and: vowiZ, 0 perhaps is the characteriftic, as if they were
Peddow and vomidew t. With refpeé& to thofe verbs which end

in

-

i * P.130. It is to be remarked, that in pure and-mute verbs, the ¢, which is the cha-
ih ratteriftic of the firft future active, is alfo that of the firft aorifl ative, the firft future,
and firft aorift middle ; which it is needlefs to exemplify, as it is quite familiar, even to

i young ‘cholars,
a4 + Iw the Doric diale&, they are Pedcdw and vopicdw. ©, however, is certainly the cha-
c. “ratteriftic of their firft future, where 7, 0, 9, are always thrown away.. In this cafe, the
Bi ‘propriety of throwing out the dis apparent; for, if it were retained, @ea§~ would have.
: * in the firft future ggaé-w, which is the fame with dgddecw* and voxigw would have vouigrw,
which is'the fame with youidz7w, where it is neceflary alfo to throw away the « which came
i from the prefent tenfe, on account of the ¢ which was aifumed by the formation as the
__ charaéteriftic of the future, and therefore the futures actually are Qgécw and souicw. See
i this hinted at above, p.127. note}. See likewife, Moor Evementa Ling- Gr.
~ p 129.

134 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

in cow in the prefent, in which a ¢ muft be fuppofed to be the
characteriftic, this termination is plainly incident to a particu-
lar dialect, and thofe futures in 2a, which are faid to arife from
them, are actually derived from obfolete prefents: thus, mentu,
the future, which is faid to come from zeaccw, is evidently
formed from the obfolete xeéy#, which may be learned from the
fecond future, which is weave. Indeed, zeaecw, and other
verbs of that termination, cannot have a firft future regularly
formed, as +, which is improperly adopted as the characteriftic
of the prefent, cannot alfo be the charaéteriftic of the future
in the fame verbs. I may add, that the later Attics rejected
that termination in cw, and fubftituted srw, faying reérrw, in-
ftead of zeéeew*. I muft not omit obferving too, that a few
verbs occur which terminate in ~w and g#, in the prefent, in
which « may be fuppofed the charadteriftic of that tenfe. But
thefe feem to be futures fubftituted in place of certain obfolete
prefents from which they are derived, and whofe meaning they
have aflumed. I know not that there are any more of them
than the following, é)o, coquo 5 odukw, mordeo; &rskw, opitulors
avéo, augeo. At any rate, fo few exceptions, and thofe too of
fuch a queftionable fhape, can have no effect againft a general
rule. The confequence, however, is, that fuch verbs, by ha-
ving ac in their prefent, muft be defective ; for there is no
proper way of diftinguifhing their firft future, the ¢ already be-
ing employed as the characteriftic of the prefent.

3. LZITMA never is the characteriftic of liquid verbs,
the liquid of the prefent always remaining in the future,
and fome other change being employed to mark this laft
tenfe, fuch as the fhortening of the penult, if it be long,
and the circumfle@tion of the final af. The reafon is, the
analogy of the Greek tongue does not permit a liquid to pre-
cede o, except, fometimes in the Doric dialect, as, éew, ex-

cito,
* Vide Lennep in Analogiam L. Gr. p. 55, 56, &ce
+ See Moor Elementa L. Gr. p. 128.

Particularly of the LETTER S1TMA. 135

cio, oeow" or for fome fpecial caufe, as in the cafe of the prepo-
fition éy in compofition, for example tezeign, infero, as will be
fhewn more particularly afterwards *
_ IV. Tue fingularity and independent nature of the « is alfo
very ftriking, when we take a view of the ftate in which the
_ liquid » is found, when it precedes the different letters of the
_ alphabet +. This may be fuccefsfully exemplified in the cafe
of words compounded with the prepofitions ¢» and ow: where
_ we may remark one fcheme of analogy for the vowels, one for
; each rank of the mutes, (which includes alfo the double confo-
nants, as thefe all begin with a mute,) and one for all of the li-
- quids; but the folitary and abfolute Siyye poflefles a fort of
analogy peculiar to itfelf, different from all the reft, though no
~ efs regular and beautiful.
, 1. EN and ov», in compofition, remain before the vowels with-
- out any change ; as, Ei aang immuto 5 XYN-Oixew, una ha-
bito, &e.

(2. Berore the /irf rank of this mutes, » is changed into uw.

incido. Tleida, ana perfuadeo.
injicio. SYM-5 Baia, congredior.
agen Seon ak ln

3. BEFORE

z os: See aloe Bp: 137.

” f. 73

Tee liquids are called'immutable for the reafon formerly given ; but their immuta-
ity applies chiefly to their fituation’in the inflections of nouns and verbs ; for » is muta-

rT: A

le in different parts of the analogy here remarked.

Paarticunarty in thofe new prefents in aw, which are formed from the fecond fu-
of other prefents by changing # into aw, and inferting y immediately after the
in the antepenult : thus, Aca, Arma, Avmevw, Avredvw, which is Ardrar Anko,

a, AwRerw, AayBetvw, which is Aey@dvw. The fame thing happens before »), which is
“60 ompounded of any labial mute and. c, thus, BM-¥vy, refrigero- See p. 120. note +-

136 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

3. Berore the /econd rank of the mutes, » is changed into
y- Thus,

Krgia, includo. Kanréw, convoco.
rr TeaQw, infcribo. SYT-5Tercw, Jjinul rideo,
Xela, inungo. Xéw, confundo.

The reafon is, there being no palatine liquid, y, the interme-
diate palatine mute, coalefces better than » with the mutes of
its own order; and this is a combination of very frequent oc-
currence in the Greek language * ; the found of ‘the » being at
the fame time retained and incorporated in the pronunciation
with that of y, though the former is thrown out in writing, to
avoid the concourfe of three, and fometimes of four confonants.

4. Berore the third rank of the mutes,» remains unchange-
able ; thus, EN-Teivw, intendo, XYN-Tagéeow, commoveo, &c.
The reafon is,» being a dental liquid eafily coalefces with the
dental mutes, without any change.

5. Berore a liquid, » paffes into a liquid of the fame kind
with that which it precedes; thus,

EA-Agpro, — illuceo. TY A-Aéya, colligo.
EM-Miyyias, immifceo. SYM-Méerrw, corripio.
EN-Naia, inbabito. ZYN-Noiw, mecum reputo.
EP-Piyéo, inalgefco. ' 3SYP-Pia, confiuo.

All this evidently was done eupbonie caufa. Butit:is to beobferved,
that before verbs beginning with g, the prepofition ~ feldom
paffes into ég, becaufe, in that cafe, certain perfons of the prefent
tenfe of the compound verb would be confounded with certain
perfons of the imperfect tenfe of the fimple verb ; for in verbs
beginning with g, the g is doubled after the fyllabic augment;
wherefore the euphony was generally here facrificed, in order

to

* Tuus, from aire, offendo, we have in the perfect, not réParea, but xipayxe. Amd
in the new prefents in «vw, formed from a fecond future, as already. mentioned in, the pre-
ceding note 5 gvyo, guy, tgvyara, égurydvw, which is gevyyava* Anya, Aayd, Aaydvwl Aav-
yaved, Which is Aeyye. The fame thing happens.before 2, which is compounded of any
palatine mute and ¢* thus, ET-sé, an/culpo.

Particularly of the LETTER SITMA. 137

to obtain a eteater advantage, ivecarw, infuo, for inftance, being
preferred to éppaara *.

6. In the cafe of the folitary Siypa, » before c, if a vowel
follows the «, becomes another o* thus, SY3-Siréw, una cibum
capio. If a mute follows the c, then, in the cafe of ev, the » is
ftruck out ;, but in the cafe of &, it remains: thus,

(STlée, contraho. LMleiew, infero.
we Sr [No example +.] EN- [No example f-]
oO = (2@arra, fimul jugulo. VDeayilo, Jignum imprimo.

oy rY- ~ [No example f.] [No example f.]

a ' Skaarn, Simul fodio. as ingruo.
EN
o%, LXnparilw, conformo. ZXorclw, — immoror.

or 2Tearéve, Simul milito. ETeiga, intorqueo.
0 nn Il, una Vivo. EN-) Zioueu ||, inferveo.
od [No Fxample §J [No example §.]

Vor. IL. ods The
;! oiTG! : :

_ * Tas i inconvenience which was thus prevented by & remaining unchanged, may be
perceived by declining the prefent tenfe of the compound verb, and the imperfect of
the fimple verb ; thus,

Comrounp Vers: Present Tense.

S. tesco, eescmreic, : épicerres,
D. EPPAIITETON, EPPAIITETON,
P. EPPAHTOMEN, EPPAIITETE, tesdmreos.
Lites ; Simptre Vers: Imprerrect TEnsE.
{ 8. 2 tesdmror, igodarres, eeanne,
“i D. EPPAIITETON, iscareray,
P. EPPATITOMEN, EPPATITETE, air

+ Tuis cannot be exemplified, becaufe there is no Greek word which bee with of,
except cfinvps, extinguo, with its verbals.

_ $ Tuere is no Greek word which begins with cy.

| For ¢, which we fhewed above to be equivalent to 3;, is alfo, at leaft in the Doric
dialeét, equivalent to «3.

§ Tuenz is no primitive Greek word which begins with 09, except o9w, valeo.

138 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

The reafon why y remains in the cafe of 2», 1s, that if » were
omitted, as in the cafe of cv, certain perfons of the prefent of
the compound verb would be confounded with certain perfons
of the imperfect tenfe of the fimple verb, as in the cafe of &
becoming é¢ before e, which has been already mentioned *.

V. Lafily, Tue peculiar nature of Siywe, and that which feems
to have fuggefted its various functions in the ftructure of the
Greek tongue, arifes from this, that it is the only letter which
is fibilant or hiffing in the whole Greek alphabet. For 2, which
by fome is confidered as a fibilant letter, is no farther fo than
the two other double confonants Z and * and whatever fibila-
tion is obferved in their found, they plainly derive from o, which
is half of their compofition.

In what manner then the improvers of the Greek language:
availed themfelves. of this fingular letter, I have now endea-
voured to fhow. .From the various ufes to which it has been
applied, fome have confidered it as a fervile letter; and from
its hiffing, and, as they thought, difagreeable found, fome of
the ancient, writers, notwith{tanding its great ufe in their lan-
guage, conceived, a. violent diflike at it, But. this, with feveral-
other particulars relative to the fame letter, I propofe to confider
in a fecond part of this Effay.

In the mean time, if the authority of names be deemed of
any ufe in juftifying inquiries of this nature, I may afk with
QuincTinran, “ An ideo minor eft M. Tuxtivus orator, quod
* idem artis hujus diligentiffimus fuit, et-im filio (ut in epifto-
“ lis apparet) reéte loquendi ufquequaque afper quoque exactor ?
“ Aut vim C. Ca#s4ris fregerunt editi de: analogid libri? Aut
“« ideo minus MEssaLA nitidus, quia quofdam totos libellos non.

“ de verbis modo fingulis, fed etiam literis dedit + ?” :
F

* Turs will appear evident, by declining the- prefent tenfe of a compound verb, with
the » thrown out, as écegw, &c. and the imperfect tenfe of the fimple verb, as éemsigor, Re.

+ Infitut. Orat. Lib. 1. Cap. 4. ‘* Vilefcit tibi hic fermo. Itane ? Scilicet Murero

“« et Lupsio, indignum decurrere Grammaticum. hoc quor, quod tot olim Senatores: ”
« imds

ut

Particularly of the LETTER ZITMA. 139

Ir a farther apology ftill be requifite for a long difcourfe upon
a fubje& feemingly fo frivolous as a fingle letter, I might deny
that the fubject is frivolous. Nothing, it might be faid, is fri-
volous, which has for its object an inveftigation into the moft
minute caufes of the cultivation of that faculty, which, next
to our intellectual powers, is the moft important the human
fpecies enjoys; without which indeed our intelle€tual. powers
themfelves would, in a great meafure, be deftitute of the means
of improvement, but with the elegant and correct ufe of which,
elegance and correctnefs in {cience muft ever go hand in hand.
I may add, that it is an exercife furely of no illiberal fort, to
explore, and to produce to view, thofe marks of minute atten-
tion which the moft accomplifhed people in the world beftowed
upon the conftituent elements of their language, and which

contributed to render that language of all others the nobleft in

every refpect, and to all thofe who attain to a knowledge of it,
the object of enthufiaftic admiration.

Bo Aw Re E one aL

A LTHOUGH the letter 3i7ya be of fuch effential ufe in
the infle€tions of the Greek language, as I have endea-
voured to explain, yet when it happens, either in profe or in

i poetry, to be frequently introduced without neceflity, the re-
oe .., S 2 peated

“ imd addo, Imperatores. Messata orator, € clariffim& Corvorum gente, non librum
« integrum De unic& litera S compofuit? et cum laude quidem nominis fui, adeo fine
*€ fraude. Cxaupius Imperator, quanta cura, et pené dicam ambitione, tres novas
if Titeras invexit. iifque Romanam linguam auxit? non alia, quam fi totidem regnis im-

€ perii fines. Jam Czsaz ille Juzrvs De Analogia, id eft de infimis Grammaticorum
ee ineptiis, binos libros conferipfit : et triumphales illas epulas variare et interflinguere
non erubuit fcholicA iftA dape.” Lurstus de reé#a pronunc. Ling, Lat.

140 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

peated fibilation thereby occafioned is undoubtedly very difa-
greeable to the ear. Of this, a noted paflage in the Medea of
Euripipes, which has been feverely cenfured by fome critics,
is a fufficient proof,

y
Eowre o, 6 iecow “EXAqvov boot
\ é ~
Tavrov cvveroe nou Agyaor oxtQos *.

The poet, however, had not attended to this circumftance,
otherwife he would have avoided fuch an offenfive tautology.
Cicero, from inadvertence of a fimilar fort, has begun his
Topica with the following fentence: ‘“ Majores nos res feribere
“ ingreflos, C. TREBaTI, et iis libris, quos brevi tempore fatis.
multos edidimus, digniores, e curfu ipfo revocavit voluntas
tua.’ Several fuch paflages might be produced from the
beft authors, both Greek and Latin, if it were worth while to
colle& them. . .

It is remarkable, that in the Englifh tongue, where almoft
no inflection takes place, and confequently where the S has no
peculiar duty to difcharge, that letter is of more frequent oc-
currence than in any other language, and occafions, efpecially
in the ears of foreigners, a conftant and difagreeable hifling f.
Such a language would have been confidered as harfh and bar-
barous in an extreme degree, by thofe ancient authors who were

offended

se

* Verfle 477+ ‘
+ “ S (fays Jounson) has in Englifh the fame hiffing found’ as in other languages, and
“ unhappily prevails in fo many of our words, that it produces in the ear of a foreigner
“¢ 4 continued fibilation.” Dzé&. Letter S.. Appison too had obferved, ‘(That a change
“ has happened in our language, by the abbreviation of feveral words that are termi-
“ nated in eth, by fubftituting an Sin the room of the laft fyllable, as in drowns, walks,
‘© arrives, and innumerable other words, which, in the pronunciation of our forefathers,
“« were drowneth, walketh, arriveth.. This (adds he) hath wonderfully multiplied a let-
“ ter which was before too frequent in the Englifh tongue, and added to that hifling in
“* our language, which is taken fo much notice of by foreigners.’’ Specfator, No. 135»

aoa

Particularly of th LETTER S1ITMA. 141

offended even with a moderate ufe of Siyua in the Greek.
Dionysius of Halicarnaffus, in particular, has faid, that ‘ the
“ Yiywe is harfh and unpleafant, and when unneceflarily re-

-“ peated, exceedingly offenfive ; for its hifling feems to be con-

“ neéted with what is wild and irrational, rather than with the
*.voice of rational beings. Wherefore (continues he) fome
. ol authors ufed it but feldom, and with caution, and

_ others compofed whole odes without this letter *.”

To condemn, however, the ufe of this letter on all occafions,
either becaufe its found refembles the hifling of a ferpent, or
perhaps becaufe the found of hifling has been an ufual mode of
expreffing diflike in different ages and nations of the world,
would be a faftidious and hypercritical, method of judging.
Heroportus, the {fweeteft of all profe writers, furnifhes a va-
riety of fuch periods as the following : Keozodeiaze dé lures
avopocoy, einaCovres murav ta eden roIor Tage olor ‘yromévoioe
wgonodeirores roe tv ejo% aipocigost. From this we may infer,

_ that the Ionic Greeks were not very much difgufted even with

a frequent ‘repetition of the Ziywe. - But fucha paflage, not only
on account of the frequent occurrence of Ziywx, but alfo of
Iér«, would have been intolerable to an Attic ear, which feems
to have had a particular averfion to the repeated ufe of the
letter in queftion, and induced that refined people to prefer the
double zr to the double sc in a great many of their words ; as

when they faid darurra inftead of baruccn, rearrw inftead of

retcow, and even oveirrw inftead of cveicow, to bifs. ‘The propri-
‘ety of fuch a change, however, feems to have been the fubject

_ of difpute among fome of the ancient writers, and gave occa-

fion to a jeu d’efprit of Lucian, which has defcended to our
times,

*"Ayags ny andes roc, nab & wAcordctit, oPidea Avmel* ngiddes yae xal ardye wedrov hr
Royiniis DamrecIas Donei Pavan 6 cvgiyuds* Tav ysv maeraov craving txpavtd tives dura xab
MePurayytias* kot OF of ciotywes wdus Oras emoley” Tlegh cus Ovouar. Edit, REisk11,,
Vol. V. p. 80.

¥,

+ Book Il. chap. 69-'

142 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

times, under the title of Alzq Wwvyévrav: The judgment of the
Vowels ; where that exquifite author, with his ufual talent for
ludicrous compofition, has introduced the letter Siywe arraign-
ing the letter Ta before the tribunal of the feven Vowels, and
calling out loudly for juftice againft the encroachments made
upon him by this atrocious delinquent. It is fcarcely poflible
to render the performance intelligible to a mere Englifh reader,
as the ridicule chiefly arifes from the folemnity with which an
unimportant fubftitution of certain Greek letters in the place of
others, is treated. But it may be tranflated in fuch a manner
as to amufe this learned audience, and ferve perhaps as fome
fort of atonement for the trefpafs committed againft their pa-
tience, in the former part of a dry grammatical difcuffion.
The humour of the piece is heightened, by its being a very
fuccefsful and well fupported imitation of an ancient pleading.

LuciaAn’s Fudgment of the Vowels.

“* IN the Archonfhip of ArisTARCHUs of Phalerum *, on the
7th of November {, the letter 3iyyz« commenced a profe-
cution againft the letter Tai, at the bar of the feven
Vowels, for violent diftraining of goods, alleging that he

was plundered of all thofe words “eernd pronounced with
“ a double Tav.

“eé YE.

* Tur learned Corstnr, merely upon the authority of this paflage of Lucian, has
inferted in his Fu/fi Attic’, the name of Arrstarcuus Phalereus, as Archon Eponymus at
Athens, in the 1{t year of the CCXXII. Olympiad, and of the Chriftian era, rog. It
may be fuppofed, however, that, in a ludicrous compofition of this fort, Lucran would
not mind an adherence to the truth of chronology, but might pitch upon an Archon on
this occafion called Artstarcuus, in allufion to the famous grammarian of that name
who was born in Samothracia, and flourifhed at Alexandria about the CLVI. Olympiad ;
and who was fo eminent in his art, that the name Arisrarcaus became fynonymous with
the word Critic. See Corsini Fafti Attic’, Tom. Il. p.104. and Tom. IV. p. 165.

a Scarrcer and others fuppofe Mvavs).d» to correfpond to the month of O@ober. 1
have preferred the opinion of Perau and Corsinr, who make it to agree with November,

Os

: Particularly of thee LETTER X1TMA. 143

“ Ye Vowe ts, before whofe tribunal I ftand, as long as
the injuries I received from this Tad here were but of a tri-
vial nature, whilft he abufed my property, and encroached
upon me where he had no juft right or title, I bore the lofs
without repining ; and out of the deference which you know
I obferve both to you and the other fyllables, I lent a deaf

=.
a
.

_ * ear to certain infinuations which were circulated to his dif-
_ “ credit. But fince he proceeds to fuch a pitch of avarice and
_ * folly, as to be conftantly adding more heinous acts of vio-
_ * lence to thofe which, with a reluctant filence, I ufed to fuffer,

I am forced to arraign him before you, who are well ac-
quainted with the difpofition of us both. And Iam under
‘no {mall apprehenfion, on account of this expulfion to which
I am expofed ; for while he is continually adding fomething
more violent to what he has already perpetrated, he will foon
thruft me completely out of my own province, fo that by be-
having thus tamely, I fhall run the rifk of being no longer
accounted a Jetter, and all of us fhall have fome reafon to be
alarmed *..
» “ Tr is therefore expedient, that not only you who at pre-
“ fent fit in judgment, but likewife the other Letters, fhould
“ be upon your guard againft this daring attempt. For if any
“ one who has amind fhall be permitted. to quit the poft af
“ figned

On the 7th of Mveve)sdy, were celebrated at Athens the feftivals called Mvavthiz and
Orye@seie. See Corsini Fa/li Attict, Vol. 1. p. 63. and Vol. U. p. 383. Alfo, Porrer’s
Archwol. Vol. 1. p. 418. & 423.

* Iw the Greek,, the laft member of this fentence is, & t7w NX xdio9ce 78 Pohs* to-which
Bovurvecorius propofes to add, rz roid yeotuparce which he found on the margin of ‘one
‘MS. and the reft of the letters be in the Jame alarming fituation. Inftead of 78 9ége, the
celebrated Hemsreruuss feems difpofed to read rg [i.e. 7] YeQy, and to render the
_ fentence as follows :. Ita ut parum abfit, quin, fi quietus injuriam ultra feram, e numero

; Titerarum expungar, neque alio fim loco, quam Jonus aliquis, vel, fibilus, 1 have no doubt
that the phrafe, as it is in the printed books, came from the pen of Lucran, éy iw d: xeiSas-
8 QBs, t.€. Ne a1 78 Pie xcioSas Hew ev toy, and all of us have fame reafon to be alarmed.
This meaning is confirmed by what immediately follows.

144 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

figned to him, and violently to intrude himfelf into that of
another, and this too by your connivance, without whofe aid
nothing is written to any purpofe, I cannot fee how the fe-
veral ranks will maintain their juft rights, according to the
original arrangement. But I truft that neither you will ar-
rive at fuch a pitch of negligence and {loth as to permit the
perpetration of injuftice, nor, though you fhould decline all
participation in this ftruggle, muft I, who am the fufferer,
abandon my plea.
“ Wou Lp to heaven! the audacity of certain other letters had
received a check the inftant they began to violate the law,
and then Add would not at this day have been at daggers-
drawing with ‘Po, difputing whether a pumicefone fhould be
written xo7esg or xsicogrs, or a headach fhould be xeQaruryia
or x2QuAugyia* nor would Tawa have been perpetually
wrangling, and even frequently upon the point of coming
to blows, with Karzw, in the fuller’s fhop, infifting that the
“* flocks of wool /born off by the fuller, fhould be yagearu and not
© xadare’ and the fame Tauya« would have no longer con-
tended with Adpdx, by taking away from him, and indeed
totally robbing him of, the word hardly, calling it poy in-
ftead of worse and the reft of the letters would have aban-
doned every attempt to introduce an illicit confufion. For it
is fair that each fhould abide by his appointed ftation ; as
every tranfgreflion of the bounds prefcribed marks the cha-
racter of a fubverter of juftice.
“ Waoever at firft eftablifhed thefe laws for us, whether it
was CAapMus the iflander *, or PALAMEDEs the fon of Nau-
piius,—(fome afcribe this important charge to SIMONIDES)
—not only determined who fhould be firft and who fecond
“ in

“cc

“ec
ec
‘é
6s
“cc
ac

“se

* See above, p. 118. note +. The famous Capmus, fon of Acenor, is here called
5 ymeisrac, from his conneétion with Tyre, according to ancient authors origi-
nally built in an Ifland, which Atexanner is faid afterwards to have joined to the
Continent. Sce the notes of Du Sout and Hemsreauuis, in the qto Edit, of Lucran’s
Works. Tom.\. p.87. <Amfl. 1743.

Particularly of the LETTER S1TMA. 145

in that order:wherein the feats of precedence are fixed, but
alfo fully wnderftood the qualities and powers which belong
to each of us. And on you, ye Judges, he hath conferred
the larger portion of honour, inafmuch as you are capable
‘© of exprefling a found by yourfelves; on the femivowels, the
“ next fhare to yours, becaufe they require a fmall degree of
your afliftance, in order to be diftin@lly heard; and he hath
allotted the leaft of all to fome who, by themfelves, poflefs
“ no fort’of found whatfoever*. Wherefore, it is the province
‘of you Vowels to be the guardians of thefe laws.

“ Bur this Tad, (for 1 have not a more opprobrious: appel-
lation for him than his own name +) who, unlefs, by Jupiter!
two of yourfelves, I mean” Adda and Y, excellent both, and
feemly to behold, had come propitious to his aid, would not
even have been heard,—this very culprit dares to injure me
‘ in a moré atrocious manner than ever any other of the letters,
“ by expelling me: from my native nouns and verbs, at the
‘ fame time chafing | me away from conjundions and prepo-
“ fitions, infomuch that I am no longer able to endure his ex-
“ ceflive rapacity. But it is now time to ftate whence, and
“ from what circumftances, thefe outrages originated.

_“ Lonce was fojourning at Cybelum, an agreeable enough
“ little town, a colony, as is reported, of Athenians, and took
‘along with me the beft of my neighbours, the robuft ‘Pa.
“ T lodged at the houfe of a certain comic poet, whofe name
‘ was Lysimacuus, by extraction evidently a Boeotian, but
who was ambitious of -pafling for a native of the very centre
“ of Attica. While:I remained in the houfe of this landlord,

_ “ I deteéted the avarice of this fame Ta’. As long as, by de-

“ priving me of my congenial friends, he feized only on a few

Vou. I. Poni of

| : { . ~
* See Artsrorze’s definition of a Vowel, a Semivowel and a Mute, p. 123.,

a _t See below, p. 149.

| t I have adopted the reading propofed by Hemsreauuts, wz. dmAdcay and ixdiakay.

146 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

of them, fo as, for inftance, to call forty cerraguxovra inftead
of recrugenovre, | imagined, it to be a conameon practice among
the letters who were, there educated together. And even
while he claimed a right to force: to. day into his train. by the
name of rzwegov inftead. of onwegor, and ufed. the: fame freedom
with other words of that kind, as if they had been his own
property, I tolerated: what) I heard: with fome degree: of: pa-
tience,; and was not very violently provoked upon the. occa-
fron. But when, after beginning in this manner, he had'the.
impudence to metamorphofe the word fignifying eel from
nagoizegor INto zarriregov, and to call cobler’s leather x&rrupe
inftead of xaeovua, and pitch cirrw in place: of ricew; and,
in dhort, having divefted himfelf of all. fenfe: of fhame, to
infule the name of Queen, by pronouncing that Bacidrra
which ought to have: been @acidicon, 1 got into a moft furi-
ous paroxyfm. of rage, being apprehenfive that fome: one, in
procefs of time, might venture to: fay: rixe inftead of ctx,
and fo: not: leave: me fo much as a. fingle fig.—I befeech
you, in\the name:of Jove! to: bean with. this: juft indigna-
tion, when you reflectithat my {pirit is fo much deprefled,
and that Ihave none who. are ready to: help-me‘; for when
the queftion is about depriving me of words: that have been
my wonted, and familiar: companions, furely no: trivial and
vulgar objects. ane at flake. Having torn my prattling xicca,
my favourite magpie; as it were out of my bofom, he calls it
his, xirre, and, in. defiance of the command of ArtsTAR-
cuus, he-hath feized.on my: ringdave, which he’ calls: edzra,
on. my ducks, ftyling thenn vizras, and my: oufels, to which he
gives, the odious name: of xortigo. He hath borne off whole
hives; of my dees, calling them jerérres inftead of perlooa.
Nay,. having made an incurfion into the Attic territory, he
hath even, carried away, in the moft outragious manner, the
region of bees, mount Hymettus itfelf, and that too before
your own eyes and thofe of the other fyllables. But why

ee. do.

iar ee Te al

Patticularly of th LETTER YITMA. 147

* do I mention fuch circumftances as thefe? He has banifhed
“me entirely out of Thefaly, to which he infifts upon giving
* the name of Thettaly, and he has claimed ‘an exclufive right
‘to the very /ea, which he calls dzAurra inftead of Sdéaacra,
Nor does he even abftain from the beets in my garden, ‘info-
* much that he has not, I may fay, left me a fingle xéocanros,
or Uitile'pole, which I can call my own. But you’ yourfelves
* can’ bear me ‘‘witnefs what a patient cheradéer lam; ‘for I
* never fo much as found fault with 2, when ‘he ftole my pre-
cious cuaguydoe*, or emerald, from me, and'thruft meout of
“the city of Smyrna; nor with 2, when he violated every ftt-
“ pulation +, and even has Tuucypipes the hiftorian as the
“ abettor of his guilt. As to my next neighbour ‘Po, it was
“but an at of ‘humanity'in me to forgive Aim, when, in the
i aE aa of a difeafe, he planted me myrtles in his own ‘garden,

‘as if they had been called puppwa:, and not pvecivas, and,
“ under the preffure of a deep melancholy, ftruck me a blow
on the cheek. Such is the patient natural temper with which
“"T am endowed.

-“ Bur the violent difpofition of this Tai will be ftill more
apparent, when we reflect, that he has alfo injured, not only
“ Aérra, Ojre and Zirx, but almoft every one of the other

“Fetters. Call in the plaintiff. ‘Hear, O ye Judges, what

*' ‘Atara has to fay.— A. He hath bereaved me of my faculty of
“ ‘perfeverance, requiring, in the face of all law, that it fhall be
Called tvrerdyem inftead of évdcréysie.—Liften, 1 befeech you
* to the wailing of @jrx, who is tearing his hair in anguifh for
“ the lofs of his gourd, which has been changed from zoAvawSy
“into xodvxiven 3 and to Zire, complaining that he no longer
mn “hears the mafic of the pipe nor the found of the trumpet, a aap

Pre * and

* Wuics is fometimes written Qexeaydos, as Zarprz is written Zuveve. | See the annota+
tion of Hemsterausius.

+ cWv9nxny,—which TuucypipEs Writes %éy99xnv, and fo in many other words, ufing ¢
for c, as is well known,

148 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

“

and oasriZew being now fupplanted by cvgirrew and cuarirrew
and that he is not allowed even to grumble, the. proper word
yev¢sw being now no more. Who could have patience to en-
dure fuch indignities? or what punifhment is adequate to
the demerits of this moft execrable Tai?
“* Bur, in fhort, he is not only injurious to his kindred tribe
of letters, but has already begun to encroach upon the. hu-
man race, in fuch a manner that he permits them not to
make a proper ufe of their tongues. dfropos of tongues,
which this mention of human affairs has introduced, it
brings to mind how the mifcreant has ufurped my province
here too, by metamorphofing yasora, a tongue, into yAwrra.
O thou villanous Tau! thou very bane of all tongues !—
But to return from this digreffion to the defence of men,
whom he has fo grofsly injured. He attempts to torture their
voice, and bind it with chains. When one perfon beholds
a beautiful object, and withes to ftyle it zarov, fair, up comes
this Tad, and moft impudently obliges him to call it saAo;
fuch is the violence of his claim to be at the head of every
“‘ thing! When another is {peaking of a vine-brauch by the
“ appellation of zajua, he himfelf being rAjuov, a wretch, -
““ makes the poor word wretched too, by calling it rajua.
** Nor are his injuries confined to vulgar men; he even forms
** a plot againft that tremendous Monarch, to whom the earth
“‘ and the fea, in a fupernatural manner, are reported to have
“* yielded * ; and inftead of giving him his proper name Kogos,
“ Cyrus, he {peaks of him by the appellation of Tugos, as if
“ he were a chee/fe.

“* Sucu then are the ways. in which he injures men in their
“ fpeech. But how does he ftill more materially injure them?
“ They

* Lucian feems here to allude to the magnificence of the oriental ftyle. XEnoPuon,
in the Anaba/is, relates, that Cyrus the younger, with his army, pafled the Euphrates
on foot, which had never been forded in that manner before, and adds—édoxes Seiov vay
xual caOas imoyupiras Tay moray Kugy ds Bucirsioovse Lib, I. See the annotation of
HeEMSTEARBUIS.

“ee

eee

Particularly of the LETTER S1ITMA, 149

a They lament and deplore their hard, fate, and often execrate
a ‘CapMus for introducing this Ted among the number of the
“letters. For they fay that tyrants, taking the hint from. the
“appearance, and imitating the form, of this letter, did fa-
bricate gibbets to hang men upon ; and hence this moft
mifchievous contrivance obtained its odious name *. For all
thefe crimes, how many deaths do you fuppofe this Tao de-
ferves? For my own part, I reckon the.only punifhment
adequate to his guilt would be to hang him upon a machine
of his own fhape ; for it was owing to him that there was ever
fuch a thing in the world as the figure or the name of a
gallows.”

ce
ii
“
“
“
ce
“

ie

Tuus far Lucian; and it muft be owned that the ludicrous
manner was the moft proper that could be employed in treating
fuch a fubje&t. Lipsius, in his Dialogue de rea pronunciatione
Latin lingua, has obferved, ‘“‘ That many attack the reputation
*“ of the letter S, and even form a defign againft its life.”’—
famam ejus multi petunt, imo vitam.—And ‘he adds an enumera--
tion of thofe enemies. ‘‘ PinpAr (fays he) reproaches it, and
“ calls it 2/@dyrov, /purious, and, out of hatred to it, is faid'to
“ have compofed verfes without its affiftance. Dionysius the
“« rhetorician, in exalting the ‘Po, undervalues this letter, and
“ brands it with the vile epithet of Sygiwdy, favage. All the
“ Attics deteft it, and generally have fubftituted Tao in its
“room. Latin authors feem to join in the confpiracy ; and,
“ among men of rank, MessAua fays it is not even a /etter,
“ but only a Sis. Among teachers, QuINCTILIAN pronounces
“it to be a rough letter, and harfh in the combination of
“ words. Nay, even the ancient writers rejected it, in imita-

“ tion

* © VerisissimA vocis sravets originatio: tai, revnpis, hoc eft in modum tai effor-
“ matus: et per contra¢tionem tavpis* et prepofito figma ut fieri folet, saupis.”” MeE-
NAGIUS.

150 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

Lid

tion of the Attics ; and their method was, to ufe mertare and
pultare inftead of merfare and pu Ware, juft as Ennius ufed
adgrettus fari inftead of aggreffus fari. The poets alfo have
taken a fide ; and, in their verfe, this letter, when a confo-
nant follows, is commonly expunged. Thus,—vitd illd dig-
ni’ locoque. And—omnibu’ princeps: And in the Plays of
PLauTus and TeRrEeNcE, examples frequently occur.”
AGAINST all this hoftility which has been declared againft
the S, Lipsius undertakes its defence. The paflage is curious;
but being too long for a quotation, I refer to the work itfelf.
The elegant Murerus is a fpeaker in the Dialogue, and on
him Lipsius devolves the tafk of vindicating his favourite
letter ; but, like other ftrenuous advocates, he appears to carry
his zeal for his client too far *

THERE

* Tsuaxx tranflate fome excerpts from it'in this note. In anfwer to Prwpar’s charge,
Morevus infifts, ‘‘ That Ziywa'has a genuine found, and every other mark ofa genuine
“* letter.” And with refpeét to the epithet of 9%gd, given to it by the Halicarnaffian,
if the meaning be, that denotes a found fimilar to the hiffing of ferpents, this he thinks
@ very ftrange objetion. ‘‘ Why then (fays he) don’t you defpife the letter R, becaufe
“ it is expreflive of the noife of dogs ?'M, becaufe that of oxen? B, becaufe that of
“ fheep? For dogs /nar/, oxen ow, or utter a noife which in Greek is wuxdes, and in
“ Latin mugire, and theep b/eat. But fince you call this -hiffing of ferpents deteftable,
‘ tell me, what fhall you think of winds, of trees, of men? You will not deny that they
whifper, and that moft agreeably.—The ancient inventors of names, as if nature had
been their guide, denoted the moft delightful of all objets by this letter. Look up to
the heaven, there you behold the fun, the flars. Look down to the earth, among the
things that are /weet, you find /e/ame and /ugar ; among the charms of love, whi/pers
“and diffs ; and among the joys of life, /leep, fafety, foundne/s.”” And a little after ke
adds, ‘* The Attics, you fay, defpifed it. Why fhould I be-furprifed that the moft fafti-
ae
nion, At this very day, the robuft inhabitants of Germany delight in this ftrong fi-
bilating found, which (let not my Lipsius' be offended) is avoided by you, the delicate
inhabitants of the Netherlands. You are in the wrong. But I do not point out your
* error, becaufe Lucran has already pleaded and difeufled the caufe before the tribunal
of the Vowels.” The fpeaker next proceeds to anfwer the objections of Mzssara and
QurnetrLran, and then fhews that the ancient writers made very frequent ufe of this
letter, infomuch that their infertion or fubftitution of it feemed, in his opinion, to favour
of affe@tation ; and, after producing a great many inftances of this, and accufing thofe

poets

dious of mortals did fo? But the Lacedamonians and Thebans were of a different opi-

Particularly. of the LETTER SARM A. Isp

THERE feems, however, to be no good reafon either for ap-
plauding or condemning the found of this letter in the extreme.
Paflages have been already quoted from EuripiDes and Cicero,
which, if read with attention, muft convince every one, that
its frequent recurrence is difagreeable to the ear, though that.
circumftance feems to-haye efcaped, the notice of the authors
themfelves in compofing \thofe fentences. But Mitron has,
with manifeft defign, availed himfelf of. the \difcordant found.

~ produced by fuch a repetition; and that with powerful effect, in
the following verfes,'where’Sa7ran; when deferibed as having
arrived at Pand#monium, and in a boaftiig manner related his
faccefs againft Man, is received by his infernal audience with a.
general hifs. opto whelars .
: | So

poets of ignorance who defpife this letter, he puts the queftion, “‘ Have not I now faid-
'© enough, Livsiws) ‘about! the fondnefs, and irefpech which, the ancients, had for this let-
sto tenet Neh qi enopehe lot enan witsor mo asonhare waged atdy
Ae Tis Dialogue betwixt Lipstus and Murgtws, is dedicated to.the renowned Sir Partie
“Sipvey. The feene is laid on the Quirinal, in a gardeh belonging to the {pléndid.Hrero-
_* t¥rvs/of Efte, the patron of Muxetus. | Errsmus reprefents himfelf asa young man on
his travels at Rome, poffeffing an ardent defire of knowledge. Having,paid:a: vifity at
the apartments occupied’ by Murerus in the houfe of his patron, he was fhewed into the
garden, where he found that accomplifhed {cholar fo deeply engaged in reading, as for.
; fome time to pay no attention to the*approach of the-itranger. The book he had in his
hand happened to:be.a work of Liesews:hiinfelf,, entitled: Vari, which had been lately
iy publifhed at Antwerp. A. pleating) defcription, of this, interview, is given by Lupsivs in
| the commencement of the Dialogue, ** Cubsculum cjus cum. pulfalfem,” &c. They af-
___ terwards enter upon the proper fubjeét of the piece, in which Murtrus is reprefented as-
the principal fpeaker. But the ftyle, in point of elegance, is far inferior to what
: Muretus would have really made ufe of. The work indeed is confefledly the compofi-
tion of Lirsius, whofé Latinity, though he was one of the ableft critics of the fixteenth
Y eentury, has with juftice been cenfured: His merit was fuch, however, that even his ftyle
Bouts numerous tribe of imitators, But no modern writer of Latin has furpafled
‘the elegance of Muxetus. His orations in particular, m point; of eafé: and fluency of
__~ expreffion; may! perhaps even vie! with thofe: of Cicero. » It muft give evéry, {cholar
____ pleafuire to hear; that the celebrated Runnxenivs of Leyden, is at prefent engaged. in
Preparing for the prefs a new and complete edition of the works of Murerus. ‘‘ 1) faut
(fays Baru) bien aimer les mauvais modeles quand on eft capable de préférer le
* flyle de Lipsz 4 celui de Paut Manuce, ou 4 celui de Muagm; un) ftyle quiva par
“ fauts, et par bonds, heriflé de pointes et d’ellipfes, Aun ftyle bien li¢ et coulant, et qui
*. © develope toute la penfée.” Dié#. Artic. Lirss, Not. [L.]

*

hie

Ty¥2 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

So having faid, awhile he ftood expe@ting
Their univerfal fhout and high applaufe
To fill his ear: when contrary he hears
On all fides from innumerable tongues

A difmal univerfal hifs, the found

Of public feorn. —

R He would have fpoke,
But hifs for hifs returned with forked tongue
To forked tongue : for now were all transform’d
Alike, to ferpents all, as acceffories
To his bold riot : dreadful was the din

_ Of hiffing through the hall; thick {warming now

With complicated montfters, head and tail
Scorpion and afp, and amphifbeena dire, we
Ceraftes horn’d, hydrus and elops drear ’
And dipfas *.

On the other hand, it is certain, that a judicious introduction
of this letter produces, on many occafions, a very pleafing ef-
fee ; fuch as may be perceived from the two concluding words
of the following verfes of the fame poet. Our firft parents are
the fubject. sat

————He on his fide
Leaning half-raifed, with looks of cordial love
Hung over her enamoured ; and beheld
Beauty, which whether waking or afleep
Shot forth peculiar graces ; then with yoice
Mild, as when Zephyrus on Flora breathes,
Her hand, foft touching, whifper’d thus +.

Tueocritus, in the very beginning of his firft Idyllium,
reprefents Tuyrsis, a fhepherd, addrefling a goatherd in the
following manner: “ Goatherd, this pine, which is befide

6 the
* Par. Loft, Book X.
+ Ibid. Book V.

Particularly of the LETTER Z1TMA. 153

“ the fountain, melodioufly utters its whifpering ftrains with
“ inexpreflible {fweetnefs: thou too playeft exquifitely on the
‘ee ry)

pipe:

7 ‘ ? ,
“Add ri 70 Pidveimn wal o& wits, wiaoAE, TIVE,
” ~ ~ \ ‘
A mori roils rayoios merioderas dv Os nab ro

Zugiodess ———

With refpect to the whifpering or gentle ruftling produced by the
pines, the Greek Scholiaft remarks, ‘‘ That the pines whifper
“ when they are gently fanned, the breeze being broken by
* the clofenefs of the leaves *.”” He has likewife obferved,
That the word W:Sveine is contrived on purpofe, from the
peculiarity of its found, to imitate the found which it ex-
“ preffles t+.” I may add, that the Doric words pedicderos and
cveiodes, inftead of weariZeras and cveiZes, by bringing ciype be-
fore dara, confiderably augment, in this inftance, the fweet-
nefs of the found.

# WiSveiuos wi wirus, ray gimicbicr, rn crevornTIm~TaY QUAAWY OMIGomENNS THs mVONG.

>, ' ay. © s ‘ ‘ - hae x te ~ ~
t Qyopameroinras dt 4 Aig waee thy Te NYY iiornTa, xara BieMoW THs Paviis
Homer abounds in inftances of *Ovouaromore, as is well known.

Vox. II. U V.

V. Account of th GERMAN THEATRE. By HENRY
MACKENZIE, Efq; F.R.S. Epin.

[Read by the Author, April 21. 1788.]

O country perhaps affords a more interefting literary fpe-
culation at prefent than Germany. For refearches in {ci-
ence and philofophy, for laborious inveftigations into the prin-
ciples of public polity and law, fhe had long been confpicuous ;
but, till very lately, fhe made fcarce any pretenfion to fame in
the other departments of literature, which ufually precede thofe
more abftract and laborious purfuits I have juft mentioned,
Even in hiftory, her writers were few; but of poetry, and
belles lettres, {carce a trace was to be found; and of the very
little of either, which the authors of that country produced,
the language in which they conveyed it, was a foreign one.
But of late, Germany begins to exert herfelf in the more ele-
gant walks of literature, with an uncommon degree of ardor 3
and in her literary afpect, fhe prefents herfelf to our obfervation
in a fingular point of view, that of a country arrived at ma-
turity, along with the neighbouring nations, in the arts and
fciences, in the pleafures and refinements of manners and fociety,
and yet only in its infancy with regard to writings of tafte and
imagination. Thefe, however, from this very circumftance, fhe
purfues with an enthufiafm, which no other fituation could
perhaps have produced ; the enthufiafm which novelty infpires,
and which the feverity incident to a more cultivated and critical
ftate of literature does not reftrain. Since the time of HALLER
(who, by an extraordinary combination of talents, united the
deepeft

ACCOUNT of th GERMAN THEATRE. 155

deepeft abftraction: of fcience with the eafe and pleafantry of
the lighteft poetry) and of Geriert, the La Fonraine of
Germany, that country has thrown into the circle of literature
a greater variety of produ¢tions in poetry and belles lettres than
any other nationof Europe. While other countries have been
applying themfelves chiefly to moral, phyfical and geographical
enquiries, Germany, remounting as it were to the fources of
ancient infpiration, has given to the world works of that crea-
tive fort, which are feldom produced in thofe later times, when

fancy and imagination give place to the fober certainties of
é Pp

Weience and” philofophy. Among thofe works of imagination,
it is fufficient to mention feveral epic poems, one of which at
leaft, the Mefiah of Klopftock, is of the moft acknowledged and
- tniverfal reputation.

Tue language of Germany, however, has not yet attained,
as thofe who know it inform us, that perfection and regularity
neceflary to ftamp the higheft value on the productions com-
pofed in it. Its currency, for the fame reafon, is far from
extenfive ; and therefore the original German works are {carce
read at all beyond the circle of the empire. French and En-

_ gilifh tranflators, particularly the former, have made up to

ftrangers the lofs which this would otherwife have occafioned ;

_ and few books of any merit now appear in Germany, that are

not republifhed in the French language by the bookfellers of
Paris.
. OF thefe, one of the moft remarkable, and, from its nature,

__ one'of the moft interefting, is the Theatre Allemande, or a Col-

leGtion of the moft approved theatrical performances of Ger-
many, tranflated into French by Meflrs FrigpEt and pz Bon-
NEVILLE, which is rivalled by another collection of the fame
kind, though not hitherto fo extenfive, by Meflrs JunKer and
Lizsautt ; both tranflations, as far as one may judge from
intrinfic evidence, are executed with fidelity and ability.

U2 As

156 ACCOUNT of th GERMAN THEATRE.

As the drama of every country marks more ftrongly than
any other of its productions, the features, both of its genius
and of its manners, I thought I fhould afford a not unaccepta-
ble piece of information to this Society, by giving an account
of thofe publications, accompanied, as it naturally muft be,
with fome remarks on dramatic compofition in general, ‘arifing
from the particular obfervations excited by the works in que-
ftion. Neither that account, nor thofe remarks, will pretend to:
completenefs or regularity. Written amidft a variety of other
occupations, with but little leifure either of time or of mind,
I only mean them as prefenting to the Members of this Society
a {ketch of fomething that merits the further enquiry of the
induftrious, and which, as an amufement, will well repay the
time which the unemployed may be induced to beftow on it.

Ir appears by a preliminary difcourfe, prefixed to Mr Frig-
DEL’s tranflation, fomewhat contradiéted, but without much
effect, by the preface of Mr Junker, that it is only at a very
late period that the theatre of Germany has arrived at any de-
gree of perfection. In the year 1727, GorrscueED, profeffor
of Philofophy in the Univerfity of Leipfic, undertook a re-
formation of the German ftage, till that time funk in a ftate of
barbarifm. But he gave only tranflations of French plays,
with one or two miferable originals.of his own, long fince for-
gotten. It was not till between the years 1740 and 1750, that
any performance of merit appeared, or that actors of eminence
(with very few exceptions) feem to have exifted to perform them.
About that period, the celebrated Eckuor, the Roscius of
Germany, began his theatrical career, in which he continued
to delight his countrymen till his death, which happened in
1778, a year remarkable in the annals of the ftage, fince it de-
prived the world of three of its. greateft actors, Le Kain,
Garrick and EckHor.

Besrpezs the low ftate of polite literature in Germany before
ehat period, of which I have taken notice above, the fmall ex-

tent

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 157

tent of each individual ftate muft neceffarily have obftruéted
the progrefs of theatrical exhibition. The eftablifhment of a

‘good theatre is too expenfive for the limited revenues of the

{maller potentates, among whom great part of Germany is divi-
ded. At Vienna, Berlin and Drefden, there were theatres fupported
at very confiderable expence ; but thefe, I believe, were deftined
for the opera. This would indeed naturally be the cafe, where
the entertainment was meant for the Court. Dramas that

‘roufe the paffions, that fhake the foul, afford pleafure only to

the body of the people; the great and the fafhionable relith
much more thofe fpecies of entertainment which gratify the
finer fenfes, or amufe the lighter fancy of the indolent and the
voluptuous. Mufic and dancing, or mufical dramas which
include both, are always their favourite amufements.

Tue progrefs of the German ftage muft have alfo been con-

_ fiderably impeded by the circumftance of the language being

fo different in different parts of the empire; and in fome of
them fo degraded in the fatois of the country, as of courfe to
make French the common language of the better fort of
people.

_ In the year 1747, Lesstnc, whom the Germans regard as
the chief of their dramatic authors, produced his firft comedy
at Leipfic; and from this time downwards, a variety of au-
thors of genius contributed to form and to eftablifh the thea-
trical tafte of Germany. Their attempts, however, feem ftill
to have been obftructed by the particular fituation of the coun-
try. No capital, like Paris and London, united or rewarded
their efforts. The King of Pruffia, from whom one would
have looked for literary patronage, had always a prepoffeffion
for French, and a contempt for German literature. We find
him therefore beftowing high honours on Le Karn, who acted
occafionally on a French theatre eftablifhed at Berlin, but never

- interefting himfelf about the eftablifhment of a German flage.

Tt is pretty remarkable, that the mufes of the empire found
protection,

158 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

protection and fupport chiefly from. perfons engaged in com-
merce, the firft theatres of any eminence being built by the
merchants of Leipfic and Hamburg. After the conclufion of
the laft war, however, the theatre appears to have received
confiderable encouragement. at Vienna, Berlin, Manheim and
Drefden.
Asourt this period, the tafte for fentimental and pathetic
writing began to be wonderfully prevalent in Germany. The
works of STERNE, and feveral other Englifh authors of the
fame clafs, were read with the greateft avidity. I remember to
have been told of aclub or fociety, inftituted at fome town in
Germany, whofe name was taken from the /uuff-box, which
forms a ftriking incident in the celebrated ftory of the monk
in the Sentimental Fourney: The Poems of WiELAND, GESNER,
Weisse, te. are full of the moft refined fentiment and fenfibi-
lity ; and the celebrated: Sorrows of WERTER of Goethe carries.
thofe qualities to that enthufiaftic height, which has fo much
captivated the young and the romantic of every country it has
reached *. This prevalence of highly refined fentiment feems
commonly the attendant of newly-introduced literature, when
letters are the property of a few fecluded men, and have not
yet allied themfelves to the employments or the feelings of fo-
ciety. The fame thing took place at the revival of letters in
Europe after the long night of the middle ages. . The Platonic
love of the ancient romance, and of the poetical dialogue of
the Provencals, was the produce of the fame high-wrought and
metaphyfical fentiment, which is the natural refult of fancy
and feeling, untutored by a knowledge of the world, or the
intercourfe of ordinary life.
We are not therefore to wonder, if, amidft what we might
be apt to term refinement in point of fentiment and expreflion,
we

* Soon after the publication of that little work, it became a badge of fafhion among
the young men of Germany, to wear as a uniform the drefs which Wenrer is defcribed
as having on in one of his interviews with Cuartorre.

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 159

we fhould find in thofe German dramas, a difregard for the re-
gularities and the decorum of the ftage, which is confidered as
marking a very rude ftate of the dramatic art. Such difregard,
in effect, fome of thofe dramas exhibit in a remarkable degree.
The fcene is fullied with murder, and disfigured with madnefs,
as often as that of the ancient Englifh tragedy. And in one
of the plays of this collection, in: point of tendernefs and
paffion, a performance of very high merit; Acnzes BERNAU,
the heroine of the piece, is executed on the ftage in a manner
as repugnant to the delicacy or dignity of theatrical fituation
as can well be imagined, to wit, by being drowned; and one
of the executioners is exhibited, pufhing her down into the wa-
ter when fhe attempts to fave herfelf.

Tuis difregard of rule, and this licence of the fcene, are attend-
ed with many unfavourable, and yet perhaps with fome fortunate
effects. The rules of found and\liberal criticifm certainly pro-
duce, in the hands of great ability anid genius; the moft exqui-

_ fite and delightful, performances. Yet there ‘is a certain reach

of genius, which they may reftrain from,éxertions that might
fometimes accomplifh very valuable productions. There are
moments of peculiar warmth: of imagination and felicity )of
language, which, in the coutfe of a work where fancy is in-
dulged beyond the bounds of rigid critical rule, a writer may
experience aboye the level of his ordinary powers. Without
an attention to the critical regulations of the: drama, VOLTAIRE
would not have written fuch admirable tragedies; but, from
the reftraints which the neceflity of that attention impofes on
the theatre of France, that theatre is loaded with thofe thoufand
infipid plays which every year at Paris are exhibited and for-
gotten. The monotony of the modern French drama may
fairly enough be imputed to that nicety and faftidioufnefs of a
French audience, which will not fuffer any irregularity, though
fanétioned by nature, or dignified by genius. I mean not by
this to plead for any indulgence to a licence their ftage has

lately

160 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

lately affumed in point of moral bienfeance, which is equally
unfavourable to excellence of compofition and to decency of
manners. The fame remark might be extended to our ftage,
were it not now funk to fuch a ftate of degradation as hardly
to be worthy of notice.

TuE collection of the German theatre by JUNKER, contains,
befides Sara Sampfon, which is common to both publications,
three tragidies, fix comedies, a drame and a paftoral. That of
FRIEDEL confifts of twelve volumes, containing twenty-feven
dramatic pieces, of which thirteen are tragedies, nine are called
comedies, and five drames, a {pecies of performance for which’
we have not yet got in Englifh a very definite term. It holds
a fort of middle place between tragedy and comedy, borrowing
from the firft its paffions and fentiments, from the laft the rank
of its perfons, and the fortunate nature of its conclufion.

Tus fort of drama was for fome time extremely popular in
France, and was thence adopted into the theatres of England
and Germany, but particularly into the latter, where it feems
to have been peculiarly adapted to that turn for high-wrought
fenfibility, which I have before mentioned as having become a
fort of national tafte in that country. Indeed, moft of the
comedies of thefe volumes might be claffed under this denomi-
nation. .

TuereE are three hiftorical plays, one of which, of the
higheft popularity in Germany, is Goetz de Berliching, founded
on the hiftory, or rather indeed detailing the hiftory, of a chief
of that name, in the war of the peafants in the time of the
emperor MAxiMILIAN. This play goes beyond the utmoft
licence of our SHAKESPEARE, in its change of fcene and mul-
tiplicity of incident. Yet this was written as late as the year
1773.

Tne principal authors of thefe collections are LEssine,
GorTueE and Branpgs. The two firft are fufficiently known;
the laft, BRaNnpEs, is the director of a company of German co-

medians ;

e

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 161

medians ; and if we may judge from his performances in this
collection, one of the ableft of the German dramatifts, though
he feems not to have attained in his own country fo much con-
fideration as I fhould be difpofed to allow him.

In JuNKeER’s collection is a comedy of Getiert’s, which
gives a very favourable idea of his talents for comic charaéer
and dialogue, talled The Lottery Ticket.

WEISsE, a name of high dramatic reputation in his own
country, is the author of two tragedies in thefe volumes, one
of which, Romeo and Fuliet, is an extremely popular per-
formance in Germany. It is an imitation of SHAKESPEARE’Ss
Romeo and Fuliet, with the plot much compreffed and conneéted;
but, in the fwell of its language, and the extravagance of its
allufions, it goes rather beyond the original. Fuliet, however,
is a better and more interefting female character than is gene-
rally found in this collection.

THERE is one performance, which, as it is of a sees kind,
I may difmifs with a particular notice here, by a writer whom
Germany places by the fide of Homer and Mitton, Krop-
sTocK, the author of the Mefiah. ‘This is the Death of Adam,
written in a dramatic form, though, as the author himfelf
informs us, not meant for reprefentation. The fubjeét in-

_ deed feems to exclude it from the ftage; but the fituations,

though not of a pleafing, are of a highly interefting kind, and

___.the conceptions and language are marked with that force and

fublimity which his countrymen fo enthufiaftically admire in
Kiopstock. The angel of death is introduced as a perfon in
the drama, announcing to Apam his approaching fate. The
appearance of this majeftie and terrible being is prepared in a
manner uncommonly awful and fublime. ApAm and his fon
Szru are on the fcene. ‘“ The terrors of the ALMicuty (fays
“ the father of mankind) are upon me. My eyes lofe you,
“my fon. What darkly gleaming light rolls before me?
“ Feel’ft thou the fhaking of this rock? Doft thou hear the

Vor. II. x * trembling

162 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

“ trembling of that hill? Upon that hill behold him! Seeft
“ thou, my fon, the angel of terror?” “ ’Tis night around
me, (replies Sern) but I hear the noife of founding fteps !”
The fublimity of this terror, which is conveyed to the ear
while invifible to fight, has been felt in the fame manner, and
is expreffed in nearly the fame words, by a poet of our own
country, who, in that paflage at leaft, has touched the lyre
with the true energy of a bard. “ Hark, (exclaims the Druid
in Caractacus)

sé

“* Hark ! heard you not yon footftep dread .
** That fhook the earth with thundring tread, °
*Twas Death !”—

It will be no difparagement to either of the modern poets, if they
fhall be thought to have borrowed the idea from the Oedipus
Coloneus of SOPHOCLES.

Tue angel is vifible to ADAM, and announces his approaching
diffolution with the fimplicity and folemnity of his funétion.
The figns he gives are the fun defcending behind the grove
of cedars, and the return of the angel, whofe fteps fhall again
fhake the earth ; ‘‘ Thine eye fhall be dim, and thou fhalt not
‘© fee me—but thou fhalt hear the rock burft with the noife of
“ thunderthou fhalt hear, and die!” The reader is thus pre-
pared for the awful event, and the imagination watches, from
feene to feene, the finking of ‘the fan and the fhaking of the
earth, with that anxious expectation, thofe minute-terrors (if
the expreflion may be allowed me), which, of all circumftances,
give the ftrongeft emotion to the mind. I take this fhort no-
tice of the ‘detail of the particular drama in queftion, though
Not quite in its proper place here, becaufe it ftands without the
pale of theatrical criticifm, and becaufe it is the production of
a writer who is but little known in this country, though his ge-
nius is revered, even to idolatry, in his own.

1

_ ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 164

I wow return to give fome general account of the dramatic
colleGtions before us. Moft of the pieces of which they confift
are plays of fituation rather than of character. In the come-
dies, it is not the mifer, the mifanthrope, the hypocrite, that is re-
prefented, but a father offended by the mifalliance of his child,
a hufband hurt by the ridiculous extravagance of his wife.
The tragedies, in like manner, do not exhibit a perfonification
of ambition, revenge or jealoufy, but a fon outraged by his
father, a baron offended by his prince, a prince tyrannifed over
by his love. I am inclined to think the charaéteriftic drama

‘the moft pleafing, and generally the moft excellent. The cha-

raéter of the leading perfon introduced, marks the events and
the fituations in which it is placed, in fuch a way as ftrongly
to imprefs the imagination and the memory of the reader, and
colours, as it were, that particular province of mind which the
author means to delineate, with a precifion and a force which
is not found in fcenes where the fituation only acts on the ge-
neral feelings of our nature. This kind of drama, however,
is not fo commonly found in later periods of fociety, both be-
caufe thofe later periods do not fo frequently produce peculiar
and ftrongly diftinguifhed characters, as becaufe fuch characters
have been already feized by the earlieft dramatic writers, who
only leave to their fucceffors the power of tracing them through
their fubdivifions and modes, of painting the nicer fhades by
which the fame great features of the human mind are difcri-
minated in different perfons. I think it may be remarked as a
defeét in the colleétions before us, that the dramas do not al-
ways place thofe features in a ftrong and fteady light. The
charatters are not always perfectly or uniformly fupported, and
the perfons are fometimes exhibited acting from motives not
quite confiftent with the general plan of their character, nor
appearing of fufficient force to produce their actions. This

may perhaps be imputed to that extreme refinement of feeling,

which I have before remarked to be particularly predominant
X 2 in

164 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

in thefe pieces. Objects feen through the medium (a medium
too rather fluétuating and uncertain) in which the perfons of
the drama are placed, {trike them with a force which the reader
does not always readily allow, and become motives to a con-
duct of which he does not always perceive the neceflity or the
ufe. Charaéters fuch as thofe of SHAKESPEARE, which act
from the original native feelings of the foul, are immediately
acknowledged by the correfponding feelings of the audience.
It is of no confequence in this particular, that they are fome-
times ideal beings, placed in a world of fancy, different from _
the real. They have ftill a fet of feelings, confonant to that

{phere in which they are placed, and to thofe chara&ers with
which the poet has invefted them. But in the metaphyfical
refinements of fentiment, the fame thing does not take place.
There the feelings are created, not the characters ; and we have
no leading radical idea to which we can refer them, to which
we can difcover that intimate relation, which it is the great ex-
cellence of the poet to preferve, and the great pleafure of the
reader or the {pectator to trace.

Tue plots of thefe dramas are generally fimple, but rather
diffufe ; a fault to which the freedom from critical reftraints of
time and place, claimed by the authors of feveral of them, is
apt to lead. They are frequently too eafily anticipated in their
conclufion ; and, in the conduét, they do not produce many of
thofe ftriking theatrical fituations, which, even to the moft
enlightened fpectators, are highly pleafing, but which feem
abfolutely effential to the entertainment of an ordinary au-
dience. In perufing fome of thefe plays which have obtained
the moft univerfal reputation in Germany, one is led to give the
audiences of that country credit for a high degree of refine-
ment, when we are told of the unbounded applaufe they be-
ftow on thofe pieces, the merit of which does by no means lie
in f{triking incidents, or in what are called coups de theatre, but
confifts chiefly in a minute developement of feeling and fenfi-

bility,

Pa eee

a ee ee ee a

+

el ah im

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 165

bility ; a refinement and eloquence of fentiment which one
would imagine the bulk of the people could neither underftand
nor admire. Perhaps, however, an audience may admire what
it does not perfectly underftand, if a few fentimentalifts of high

> name do but fhew it what it ought to admire. In fentiment, as in

religion, there is a myftical fort of enthufiafm, which warms the
fancy without fubmitting itfelf to the underftanding ; in fen-
timent, as in religion, enthufiafm is eafily communicated.
High refinements, which go far beyond real life, catch with a
rapidity of infection. They are the creed of a fect, which is
always propagated with more ardor and bigotry than the rational
belief of a community.

In the condué of the fable, fome of their authors, as I
mentioned before, do not confine themfelves to any obfervance
of the unities of time and place, but affume a licence of tranf-
porting their audience, even in the midft of what they call
(though by what rule I know not) an aé, into different pro-
vinces and diftant periods. In the reading, this offends but
little ; and even in reprefentation, it offends lefs than fome of
the difciples of ARISTOTLE are apt to fuppofe.

Ir is difficult to affign the limits or the power of theatrical
deception. Perhaps Dr Jounson, in his excellent piece of cri-

_ ticifm on the Unities, has allowed too little force to that to

which the {chools had before afcribed too. much. A play re-
prefented is certainly fomething different from a play read ; and
in that reprefentation, we are hurt with any circum{tance which
lets down our feelings from their ideal place, as we are, on the
other hand, pleafed with every circumftance which rivets and
confirms them there. The drefs, the decorations, the fcenery,
and ail thofe little externals, which, in the cant language of the
theatre, are called property, hurt us, if they do not correfpond
with the fituation and circumftances of the perfons whom we
fee before us on the fcene. And this cannot be from our fenfe
of the propriety of a theatrical exhibition, confidered as fuch,

according

166 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

according to the rules of art ; for the little circumftances I men-
tion are fooner perceived by an ignorant and untutored fpecta-
tor than by a critical and experienced one. A critical and ex-
perienced one is indeed a very challengeable judge of the effects
of this deception. He has got too much behind the fcene to
allow it its due impreffion on his mind ; and is exercifing other
faculties than that feeling and imagination, which the lefs in-
formed fpectator allows to overpower him with all the pity, the
wonder and the terror, with which the poet has filled his piece.
In point of deception, however, fuppofing what I contend for
to be granted, the circumftance of time is, as JOHNSON very
well obferves, extremely pliant to the imagination. Nor is.
place perhaps lefs accommodating. Indeed I am inclined to
think it rather more fo, for this reafon, that time holds a rela-
tion to ourfelves; but the mimic world of the ftage, from
which we draw our ideas of place, is fomething quite diftiné
from the world of the pit or boxes in which we ourfelves are
placed. Still, however, a violent infringement of probability
in either of thofe particulars, offends that belief which the cap-
tive fancy wifhed to pay to the dramatic creation before it.
The divifion of aéts, which is very arbitrary on, our ftage, and
not lefs fo in fome of thefe German produ¢tions, affords, in
my opinion, an opportunity favourable to this dittance of place
and lapfe of time, which, in both theatres, are fo often in-
dulged. When the curtain is down, and the mufic plays,
there is a paufe in our attention, a calling off of our imagina-
tion from its immediate purfuit, which fufficiently prepares
both for a very confiderable change of place and of time, with-
out wounding the unity of our feeling by the difcordance of
the fcene. In the divifion of our plays, and in that of the
German ones I am now confidering, the author is not bold
enough to multiply the aéts, in words, beyond the number five;
but, in truth, if by an ad is underftood a fubdivifion of the
piece, confifting of a certain feparate complete part, both the

Englifh

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 167

Englifh and German plays are frequently fplit into a much
greater number. And I thought it a very juft, as well as na-
tural anfwer, which a countryman in the pit gave toa friend
of mine, who entered in the middle of one of SHAKESPEARE’S
tragedies, and afked him to what aé they had got, “ I be-
“lieve, Sir, faid he, they are juft going to begin the ninth.”

THE morals of thefe German plays are in general unex-
ceptionable. There is no approach towards indelicacy, except
in one er two inftances in the more ferious fcenes, to a kind of
indelicacy, arifing from a want of that nice fenfe of dignity
and decorum which the family of the mufe requires. There:
is, however, a licence of thinking on fome fubjedts, that
tinctures pretty ftrongly of feveral of the performances in que-
ftion; and by a combination not unfrequent among fenti-
mentalifts, the language is highly virtuous, while the action is.
libertine and immoral. From the author of the Sorrows of
Werter, this does not furprife ; but in a play, written by a
yerfon of a grave character, Profeffor Unzzr of Altona, one:
would hardly expect to have found a prayer to the virgin con-
cluded by a folemn refolution of fuicide, and the ftrength of
mind with which the heroine looks on the poifoned beverage
before her, afcribed, in the very language of devotion, to the:
power and efficacy of prayer.

Besipes the delicacy of decorum, and propriety in the man-
_ ners and the language of a play, there is a fort of delicacy in its:
very paflions and diftrefs, which highly polifhed theatres _re-
quire, the neglect of which is difagreeable to the feelings and:
the tafte of a very refined people. The forrow that melts, not
the anguifh that tears; the fear that agitates, not the terror
that overwhelms the foul, are the paffions which fuch an au-
dience relifhes in a tragedy. The German theatre does not
allow for this delicacy of feeling. Its horrors and its diftrefs
affault the imagination and the heart of the reader with un-
fparing force ; it loves to trace thofe horrors and that diftrefs
through

168 ACCOUNT of th GERMAN THEATRE.

through every fcene and every fituation in which they can be
found ; and in its difplay of human paffions and human for-
rows, is little folicitous to mitigate the atrocity of the one, or
the poignancy of the other. This ftrong painting will fome-
times difguft the delicacy of him who has been ufed to the
finer tints of the modern fchool ; but it gives room for that
fublimity and boldnefs of picture, which is often ill exchanged
for the flat infipid reprefentation of reftrained paflions and
chaftened manners.

Baron RiesBeck, himfelf a German, who is therefore no
bad authority on this fubjeét, accounts for the prevalence of
high-wrought paffion on the German ftage, from the particular
mode of living in Germany. “ The different clafles of people,
“ fays he, do not mingle fo much in the German towns as they
“‘ doin France. To every thing which belongs to nobility, or
which has the name of nobility, or is in any way attached to
the Court, the German in middle life can have no accefs.
His knowledge of life, and tafte for focial pleafures, is much
more confined than that of our people, (the Baron writes in
the charaéter of a Frenchman), nor does he, like the inhabi-
tants of a moderately large French town, enter into. the in-
numerable incidents and accidents of common life. This
want of intereft in ufual virtues and vices, this infenfibility
to the little events of ordinary life, oblige the German to
look for ftrong emotions and caricatures to entertain him on
the {tage ; whereas the Frenchman is contented with a piece
of much finer wrought plot, and willingly fees the people he
lives and is acquainted with reprefented on the ftage.”

To this account of the Baron’s may, I think, be added
fomething peculiar in the national character, which, like that
of the Englifh, is of an ardent, thinking, ferious caft. To
men of this difpofition, the lighter and more ordinary views of
life and manners are not interefting. They call for deeper and
more impreffive {cenes, {cenes of high paffion and ftrong emotion.

The

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 169

The Germans have accordingly adopted, with the greateft ea-
gernefs, the Englith tragedies moft calculated to pleafe this
turn of mind. SHAKEsPEARE is their favourite author, and
the model of fome of their moft popular tragedies. To this
idea, the love of fentiment I have before taken notice of, may
be eafily reconciled. ‘Fhe fentiment thefe plays exhibit, is not
the fentiment one meets with in French authors ; it is not the
nice and delicate feeling of the petites morales, or manners ; it
is that deep impaflioned fenfibility, which refides in ferious and
ardent minds, which can brood with melancholy, or kindle with
enthufiafm.

In the German comedy, fomewhat of the fame thought-

fulnefs, phlegm perhaps a Frenchman might call it, may be
traced. We find not the gay and fportive language with which
the comic mufe of France forms her lively and elegant dia-
logue ; not thofe nice and delicate tints with which her light

-and flying pencil marks the pictures of her fcene ; but a ftyle
more ferious and reflective in the ES and colours more ftrong
and hard in the other.

A cIRCUMSTANCE very obfervable in the German theatre,
is the frequent minutenefs and prolixity of the fcene. This is
naturally the cafe in an early and unrefined period of the
drama. To felect ftriking and luminous parts of a ftory, or
of a feries of actions, to exhibit thofe in one ftrong point of
view, and to leave the fubordinate parts to be filled up by the
imagination of the reader or the fpectator, is a fort of abftrac-
tion which belongs to a more advanced and cultivated period.
In the firft rude eflays of painting, one piAlure contains diffe-

rent actions of the fame perfons; and, in early narrative, every
circumftance that pafled, and every word that was uttered by
the perfons of whom the relation {peaks, is introduced. In
dramatic poetry, in the fame way, the earlier and lefs culti-
vated poets are not contented with fhewing the perfons of the
drama only in the great and important fcenes to which the
Vor. II. yee courfe

170 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE...

courfe of their ftory leads; they exhibit every concomitant
{cene in which thofe perfons may be fuppofed to have been
concerned. The more inventive imagination an author pof-
feffes, the more he is liable to this fault, if that imagination is
not chaftened by learning, and regulated by tafte. RicHARD-
son, who may perhaps be ranked next to SHAKESPEARE among
our authors of untutored genius, is an inftance of this in later
times. His painting is always in nature; but his canvas is
often filled with unneceflary figures, which add to the fize,
while they diminifh the effect of the pi@ure. SHAKESPEARE
(as might more readily be expected) is in this particular ex-
tremely faulty ; and his German admirers have not corrected
this fault in their imitations of him. They are more defe@tive
than he in what may be called the unity of dialdgue, 7. ¢. in
making their perfonages {peak only what is natural and im-
portant to their fituations, and to the conduét of the piece; an
error to which feveral of their fcenes owe a degree of languor,
as well as length, which is apt to fatigue the reader, and muft
have required very good {peaking indeed, not to have tired the
audience.
_ Tue ftyle of thefe volumes is in general bold, forcible and
rich ; in fome places perhaps rather too florid and ornamented.
This is apt to ftrike us more in profe, in which moft of the
pieces in thefe collections are written, and into which they are
all tranflated, than it does in verfe; becaufe elevation of lan-
guage is more expected in the latter than in the former. It has
been generally held as a maxim in dramatic dialogue, that the
pathetic fhould be expreffed in the fimpléft language; that de-
{cription and moral fentiment may admit of the pomp of vérfe
and the ornaments of eloquence, bit that paffion ‘and diftrefs
do not allow of fuch decorations, becaufe they brihg the mind
into a fituation which {welling or figurative language does nét
fuit. This is evidently juft toa certain degree. The mind,
occupied with, and full of its own feelings, has no ‘leifure to
‘ftudy

ACCOUNT of thh GERMAN THEATRE. 7

{tudy the expreflions in which thofe feelings are vented ; yet I
think it will be found in nature, that a certain elevated diction
will often be that in which the mind will pour its moft genuine
and deepeft forrows. There is a pride and dignity in forrow
which renders it eloquent; which, rifing above the level of
ordinary things, {peaks in a ftyle more lofty than that of com-
mon life. I believe it will alfo be found, that, in compofition,
the aflumed loftinefs of language will have oui effect in pro-
ducing a loftinefs of idea; that “ the words that glow” will
fometimes, as it were, create ‘‘ the thoughts that burn.” I
think it is PLATO who, fomewhere in his works, makes a re-

mark of this kind as to poetry, whofe meafure and majeftic

march give an infpiration to the poet, which the train of
thought in common language would not have produced. And

Iam perfuaded that the dramatic writer who, in the feryour

of compofition, gives to the diftrefles of his fancy a language
of that elevated kind, will fometimes, in the very flow and
current of his words, feel his heart fwell, and tears guth from

his eyes, with an energy of paffion which a more ordinary

didtion would.have failed to roufe. It muft, however, at the
fame time, be confeffed, that the moft common fault lies on
the oppofite fide; and that authors of but moderate genius
often inveft their chara¢ters, rather in the parade of words than
in the dignity of fentiment, rather in a coldly imitative phrafe
of feeling than in feeling itfelf. A fault of this kind is fome-
times difcernible in the dramas before us, where, in the deve-
lopement of fentimental diftrefs, the characters talk rather than
feel their fituation ; where the poet, refining on his art, rather
colours than draws the piCture of the f{cene, or, to purfue
the allufion, gives us fhades of language inftead of fhades of

_ thought.

Tuts laboured difplay of fentiment and fenfibility i is liable
to the general objection which ftrikes one in every dramatic
performance, as lying againft the perfons of the drama in-

er forming

172 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

forming us of what paffes in their minds, not by what the
fcene fhews in their actions, or what the fituation naturally
leads them to fay, but, if we may be allowed to refort to the
plain honeft confeflion of Mr Bayes, in order to give an op-
portunity of introducing good things. To this fault, the fimple
and the polifhed ftate of the drama are equally liable ; the firft
from that chace of images and analogies which the luxuriance
of fancy dictates, and which tafte has not yet taught her to re-
ftrain; the other, from a rigid obfervance of order and unity,
which adds to the narrative in proportion as it limits the exhi-
bition of the fcene. We find accordingly this defe&t in many
paflages of the older poets ; and not lefs, and indeed in a much
more continued ftrain, in the modern dramatifts, particularly
the French, where the ¢irade, or ftring of fine lines, is often
introduced, not to exprefs the feelings of the fpeakers, but
merely to fhew the eloquence of the poet.

In my enumeration of the pieces contained in this collec-
tion, I mentioned, that moft of thofe which are called come-
dies, rather come under the denomination of drames, containing
a delineation of the affections and paflions of ordinary life,
more allied to tragedy than to comedy, being only related to
comedy in its perfons, but to tragedy in its fentiments and its
fufferings. Its fufferings, however, are rather of feeling -than
of fituation, which is one great reafon of the intereft it excites
in that clafs.of people, a very amiabie one, whofe minds from
nature, reading, or habit, poflefs an exceflive and high {trained
delicacy and fenfibility. The fituation and diftreffes of the
perfons reprefented in it, are but little removed from the fitua-
tion in which that clafs of readers are placed, or thofe diftreffes
which they often feel. Hence perhaps no fpecies of the drama
may be fuppofed to have a ftronger effect on actual life and
conduét. This might lead to an interefting moral inquiry, for
which the prefent is not the proper place, and which indeed has
not been unnoticed by feveral late moral writers. In general,

L

ee a Se CC”
-

—So

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 173

I think we may venture to pronounce thefe dramas favourable
both to moral principle and to the praétice of virtue. To the
former, they are allowed, even by their adverfaries, to be
friendly ; to the latter, it may perhaps be contended that they
do not always contribute, or at beft that they only produce
that momentary impreflion, which paffes over the mind like a
golden dream, amufing to the fancy, but without any effect on
our actual condué or difpofitions. The French dramas of this
fpecies, and fome of the German ones in this colle¢tion,
which feem to have been formed on thefe models, have a good
deal of that pompous wordy declamation of virtue and fenfibi-
lity, which, like every {pecies of bombaftic writing, is extreme-
ly popular at its firft introduction, and generally maintains a
number of partizans, even when aflailed by the weapons of
criticifm or good fenfe. Such a common-place fort of weak-
nefs hurts equally the good effects of the drama, as a leflon of
morals, and the entertainment to be derived from it as a work
of tafte. To the enemies of virtue, the ridicule is open; to
her friends, the exhibition is painful ; it is like the dotage of
a perfon we love, which, though we cannot laugh at, we are
conftrained to blufh for. Befides, in moral effect, it lofes the
advantage which, as I obferved above, this fpecies of drama
poffeffes, of approaching nearer than any other to ourfelves.
When we fee fo little truth or life in the picture, when the fen-
timents foar fo airy a height, we feel them as thofe of another
world, which, if we fhould even admire, we will never concern
ourfelves to imitate.

Ir muft, however, be confeffed, that though fuch weak
paflages will naturally produce thofe effects among people of
better informed judgments and more ripened tafte;. yet, by
the lefs refined part of an ordinary audience, they are often
received with that genuine feeling and applaufe, which, as
they are produced by virtue, are friendly to her interefts. At
the reprefentation of fome of thofe fcenes, where very lauda-

ble,

173. ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

ble, but very common-place maxims, were pompoufly brought
forth, and received with loud plaudits, I confefs, though I
thought meanly enough of the genius of the poet, I have
thought, and been happy while J thought, highly of the peo-
ple. The people, whofe opinions may often be folly, whofe
conduét may fometimes be madnefs, but whofe fentiments are
almoft always honourable and juft; the people, whom an au-
thor may delight with bombaft, may amufe with tinfel, may
divert with indecency, but whom he cannot miflead in princi-
ple, nor harden into inhumanity. It ,is only the mob in the
fide-boxes, who, in the coldnefs of felf-intereft, or the languor
of out-worn diflipation, can hear unmoved the fentiments .of
compaflion, of generofity, or of virtue.

In examining thefe pieces in detail, and appropriating | them
to their refpective authors, one is immediately ftruck with ,the
name of Lessinc, whom Germany fo much reveres.as one-of
the founders of her drama. He is the author of the firft. piece
in Frrepe’s colleétion, Emilie de, Galotti, another tragedy in
one act called Philotas, a third called: Sara Sam/fon, and a drame
entitled Nathan le Sage. He is author alfo of feveral other plays
contained in the Theatre Allemand of JuNKER, one of which,
Minna de Barnhelm, is reckoned the chef d’auvre of German
comedy. I have perufed it with all the attention to which its
high chara@er entitled it, and indeed with a great degree of
the pleafure, though: not with all the admiration which that
high charatter led me to expect. :It is of the graver or fenti-
mental kind of comedy, where the chara¢ters maintain. a, war of
generofity, from which the embarraflments .and implications
of the plot, not very intricate nor artificial ones, refult. The
principal perfon is a Major Trtuzim, a difbanded officer,
whofe merits his country had ill rewarded; aman of ithe moft
confummate bravery, generofity and virtue, for whom. thofe
‘qualities have gained the love of every foldier and domeftic
around him. They have procured-him a {till more valuable

attachment,

—_——

ACCOUNT of th GERMAN THEATRE. 175

attachment, the love of the heroine of the piece, MINNA of
Barnhelm, who, on hearing of the Major’s regiment being dif-
banded, comes. to Berlin to feek him, and to make him happy.
The rival noblenefs of mind of thefe two charafers produces
the principal incidents of the piece, which, however, are not
always natural, nor very happily imagined; and befides, as
FIELDING jocularly fays, when comparing a fhallow book to a
fhallow man, may be eafily feen through. But, with all thefe
defeéts, and that want of comic force which the turn and fitu-
ation of the principal charaéters naturally occafions, the play

_ miuft pleafe and intereft every reader. There is fomething in

the conftitution of the human mind fo congenial to difintereft-
ednefs, generofity and magnanimity, that it never fails to be
pleafed with fuch characters, after all the deductions which cri-
tical difcernment can make from them. Amidft the want of
comic humour which I have obferved in this play, I muft not
omit, however, doing juftice to a ferjeant-major of TrnnEtm’s
regiment, and to Justin his valet, who are drawn with a.
ftrong and natural pencil. The ftory of the fpaniel, told by
the Tatter, when his mafter’s poverty makes him with to difmifs.
him from his fervice, is one of the beft imagined, and beft
told, I remember to have met with. There is a good deal of

- comic charaéter and lively dialogue in fome of Lissrne’s lefs

celebrated ‘pieces in the colle€tion of Junker; but the plots are
in general extravagant and ‘farcical.
TN judging of LEssinG as a tragic writer, one will do‘him

no ‘injuftice by making the tragedy of Emilie de Galotti the
eriterion of that judgment. The others in thefe-volumes are

very inferior to’this, which “is certainly, in point of compofi-
tion, charater and paffion, a performance of no ordinary’ kind.
LesstNo ‘was ‘well acquaitited with the ancierit drama, and
wifhed ‘to britig the theatre of his country to a point.of regu-
larity nearér‘to ‘that ‘of the ancients. He publithed, for fome

time, ‘a ‘periodical ‘criticifm ‘on ‘theatrical compofitton, called,
‘és 5 By e

176 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

** Le Dramaturgie de Hambourg.”’ His plays, accordingly,
though not exaétly conformable to the Ariftotelian ftandard,
approach pretty near to it in the obfervation of the unities.
He is faid to have got into a difpute with Gorrue on this fub-
ject, in which, from a degree of timidity in his nature, he ra-
ther yielded to his antagonift. I am not fure if he has pro-
fited by confining himfelf more than fome other of his coun-
trymen within the bounds of the regular drama. The fable
of Emilie de Galotti,.as well as of his other tragedies, is more
regular than happy, and the denouement neither natural nor
pleafing. It is founded on circumftances fomewhat fimilar to
thofe in the ftory of Virginia. A Prince of Guaftalla is defpe-
rately enamoured of EMILIE DE GALoTTI, who is juft about
to be married to a man of rank and fortune, the Count AppPi-
ANI. On the day of his marriage, he is way-laid by order of
a wicked minifter of the prince, and murdered. His bride is
brought to the Prince’s country-feat, where, to prevent any
chance of her difhonour, her father kills her.

Arter the firft reading of Emilie, I was difpofed to wonder
at the reputation it had acquired; but a fecond placed it higher
in my eftimation. This was naturally the cafe in a performance
where the whole was neither fo perfect nor fo interefting as
fome of the fcenes in detail were forcible and ftriking. The
heroine Emitre pE Gatorri is but imperfeétly drawn, and
not very well fupported. Indeed, it may in general be obferved
in thefe pieces, that the characters of the female perfonages
are by much the moft defective, both in beauty and in force.
This may perhaps be afcribed to the ftate of fociety in Ger-
many, where the fex is lefs an object of confideration and re-
{pect than in France, and fome other parts of the Continent.
But there is another lady in this tragedy, the Counte/s d’Orjina,
the betrayed and abandoned miftrefs of the Prince, whofe cha-
racter the poet has delineated with great ability; and one
fcene, in which fhe is introduced along with the father of

EMILIE>

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 199

EMILIE, in genuine expreffion of paffion, and pointed force of
dialogue, may be compared to fome of the beft which the mo-
dern ftage can boaft.

In the developement of the fecret foldings of the heart,
Lessinc feems deeply fkilled, and the* opening fcenes of this
tragedy contain fome of thofe little incidents that mark an in-
timacy with human nature, which genius alone can claim. But
in its progrefs we find, in fome degree, a want of that ftrong
and juft delineation and fupport of charaler, but chiefly of
that probable condué and interefting fituation, which are the
great and peculiar requifites of dramatic excellence. It feems
alfo defective in the pathetic, for which certainly the fubject

- afforded very great room, and which, in a fimilar fituation,
_our countryman Rowe has contrived fo ftrongly to excite.

_ Or Lesstnoc’s performances in thefe volumes, the next in

‘merit, though, in my opinion, at a confiderable diftance, is

Sara Samfon, an Englifh ftory, of which the idea feems chiefly
taken from C/ariffa, though one character in it, that of a vio-
lent and profligate woman, is evidently borrowed from Millwood
in George Barnwell. 1 muft venture to doubt, whether a cha-
rater of this fort be proper for filling a principal place in tra-
gedy. There is a degree of infamy in the vice of fuch a per-
fon that is fcarcely fuitable to the dignity of the higher drama,
and which difgufts us with its appearance. The Marwood of
LessING is introduced in fuch a manner as to heighten that
difguft. The amiable female of the piece, Sara Sam/on, is no
exception from the general defect of female charaéter in this -
collection. And her father, who is placed in the tender fitua-
tion of which feveral authors have made fo affecting a ufe, the
parent of a child feduced from honour, though ftill alive to

__-virtue, is infipidty drawn, and awkwardly introduced. In this

tragedy, is an incident, of which Lessinc feems to be fond,
as he has repeated it with very little variation in another tra-
gedy called L’E/prit Fort, a dream, related by the heroine, pre-
aver. il. § - Z dictive

178 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

dictive of the cataftrophe. This, as it anticipates the conclu-
fion, is always faulty. No part of the condud of a play is
more nice and difficult than that degree of information which
the author is to give the audience in the courfe of it. In ge-
neral, he fhould certainly not foreftal their expectations, by
opening his plot too foon. But there is an admirable theatrical
effect which often refults from letting the audience know what
the perfons of the drama are ignorant of, which ftretches, if
I may ufe the expreflion, the cords of fear, anxiety and hope
in the fpectators to the higheft pitch, through fcenes which
otherwife would produce thefe feelings in an inferior, as well
as in amomentary degree. ‘This knowledge in the audience, of
Merope’s fon, while fhe, in ignorance of his perfon, is on the
point of putting him to death, is one of the moft interefting
fituations which dramatic invention has ever produced ; and
there is nothing on the French ftage which equals the horror of
that fcene of CREBILLON’s diree et Thye/ie, where the devoted
brother attempts to difguife himfelf from Areus, while the
terrified {pectators know him all the while, and tremble at every
look and word which they think will difcover him.

Next to LEssinc, in point of name, is GoETHE, the au-
thor of two tragedies in this colleCtion, Goetz de Berliching and
Glavidgo, and of a drame entitled Stella. The firft I have al-
ready mentioned as highly irregular in its plan, being a life
thrown into dialogue rather than a tragedy. The co/ume of the
age in which the events are fuppofed to have happened, is very
well preferved. The fimple manners, the fidelity, the valour
and the generofity of a German knight, are pourtrayed in a va-
riety of natural fcenes. This national quality, I prefume, has
been the caufe of its high fame in Germany, to which it feems
to me to have otherwife not a perfectly adequate claim. His
Clavidgo is founded on an incident which happened to the cele-
brated Caron DE BEAUMARCHAIS in Spain, who is intro-
duced as a perfon of the drama, under the name of Ronac,

an

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 179

an anagram of Caron, with the letters a little tranfpofed. The
diftrefs of the play arifes from the falfehood of a lover, who
leaves his miftrefs after being engaged to marry her. Neither
the delineation of the characters, nor the management of the
plot in the firft two aéts, is entitled to much applaufe ; but the
laft act, which paffes in fight of the corpfe of Maria, is wrought
up with uncommon force, and muft, on the ftage, be produc-
tive of high effect. His third performance, Stella, is ftrongly
marked with.that enthufiaftic fentiment and refined fenfibility,
which, in the Sorrows of Werter, he has fo warmly indulged ;

and in point of immoral effect, the drama is equally reprehen-

fible with the novel. Its conclufion is in the boldeft ftyle of
this fentimental refinement; fince it gives to the hero two
wives, with whom he is to fhare that heart, to which the inci-
dents of the play have fhewn the claims of both.

ArFrTeR Lessinc and GoETHE, BrRANDEs feems to be the
author in thefe volumes next entitled to notice, and indeed, in
my opinion, the leaft exceptionable of them all. His two come-
dies, Le Comte d’Olbach, and L’ Hotel Garni, are highly interefting
in their fable, fpirited and natural in their dialogue, and con-
tain fituations and incidents truly theatrical, and extremely af-
fecting.

Amonc the comedies of thefe volumes, is a very pleafant
one, entitled Le Creancier, by Mr RicuTER. A paragraph in
his preface is worthy of notice, as it ftrongly marks the pre-
vailing tendency of the German tafte in theatrical perform-
ances. “ In thefe days, fays he, when all the world reads
“ SHAKESPEARE and GogTue, a drama like mine, which con-
“ tains no outrageous paflions, of which the ftyle is neither
“ metaphorical nor bombaftic, which ventures to follow the
“ good old Ariftotelian rules, fo long exploded among us,
“‘ can hardly hope to pleafe the driffarchufes of our modern

“ {chool.
Z 2 - ir

180 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

“ Tr is true, I might obferve to thefe gentlemen, that an
honeft banker, who has not loft his wits, will, in all probabi-
lity, neither fpeak nor act like King Lear, nor his clerk like
‘Fago, nor his daughter’s maid like the confidante of Queen
“ Cleopatra. But thefe old fafhioned obfervations would pro-
“ bably not fave my poor comedy from condemnation.”

THERE is one little piece in the collection of FrigpEL, which
every reader muft applaud, even if his applaufe had not been anti-
cipated by the judgment of the late King of Pruflia, who pro-
nounces it the only very good German comedy. This is the 4/te-
lage de Pofte, by Colonel Empor FF, an officer in the Imperial fervice.
The plot is founded on the violent love for horfes of a Ger-
man Count, who barters his miftrefs with his rival for a fet of
carriage-horfes. The characters are truly comic, the incidents
highly amufing, the dialogue infinitely eafy, lively and natural,
and fo perfeétly appropriated to the fpeakers, that one might
afcertain the perfons, though their names were not affixed to the:
fpeeches. .

Bur the moft remarkable, and the moft ftrongly impreflive
of all the pieces contained in thefe volumes, is that by which
the colleGtion of Mr Friepet is clofed, Les Voleurs, a tragedy
by Mr ScHILLER, a young man, who, at the time of writing
it, was only twenty-three. Bred in the Ecole Militaire of Wir-
temberg, he had little opportunity of informing his mind by
letters, or of knowing mankind by obfervation. But amidft
the cloiftered ignorance incident to his fituation, his genius, by
its own native warmth and vigour, produced this wonderful
drama, which fhews indeed, as might be expected, a certain
want of acquaintance with the manners, as well as a total dif-
regard of dramatic regularity, but in which the author, for-
tunate, if we dare fay fo, in thefe defects, has drawn from the
fources of an ardent and creative imagination, characters and
fituations of the moft interefting and impreffive kind, and has.
endowed thofe characters with a language in the higheft de-

gree

ia)

ae

“

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 18r

gree eloquent, impaflioned and fublime. With a particular
detail of this tragedy, I fhall clofe the account (I am afraid a
very imperfect, though without the apology of being a ‘hort
one) which I have taken the liberty to lay before this Society,
of the Theatre Allemand.
A younc man, of high birth and expedtations, Charles,
- eldeft fon of the Comte de Moor, endowed by nature with a foul
of fire and a heart full of fenfibility, is led away, in the prime
‘of youth, by the love of pleafure and diffipation too common
at that age. After running a courfe of thoughtlefs and crimi-
nal extravagance, he liftens to the voice of virtue, which had
been ftifled, not loft, in his heart, and writes to his father,
whom amidft all his vice and folly he had never ceafed to love,
a letter full of penitence and contrition, defiring to return to
his duty, and to be received again to pardon and to favour.
This is intercepted by the villany of a younger brother, who
manages fo as to perfuade his father that his fon Charles (who
appears to have been his great favourite) is totally abandoned
to villany and vice; in confequence of which, the old man-
throws him utterly from his regard, and fends him a letter re-
‘nouncing him for ever, and containing that paternal maledic-
tion, fo dreadful to the fenfibility of a fon who loved his pa-
rent. On receipt of this, Charles becomes defperate; and,
amidft the ftorm of his feelings, outraged by what he thinks
the inhumanity of his father, readily accepts of a propofal
made by fome of his diffipated companions, to leave a world
_ in which they had nothing but contempt and poverty to expe,
‘to fly to the forefts of Bohemia, and there to eftablith them-
felves into a fociety of robbers and banditti, of which he was

_. to be the chief. In the horrid duties of this new employment,
he thews all that wonderful magnanimity, that perfuafive elo-

quence, that undaunted valour, which would have graced a
better ftation ; yet amidft the elevation and activity of mind

with which the exercife and the fuccefs of thefe qualities
are

182 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

are accompanied, his heart is prefled down by remorfe, and
melted by the tender recollection of that virtuous happinefs
which, in the days of youth and innocence, he had once en-
joyed. The curfe of a father whom he had revered and loved,
the defertion of a miftrefs, a coufin of his own, of whom he
was defperately enamoured, the fenfe of his outcaft and aban-
doned fituation, and of thofe violations of virtue and morality
to which it neceflarily leads; thofe rending feelings, thofe
melting remembrances, joined to that high fenfe of perverted
honour which links him to his band, and that ardent valour
which makes their enterprifes of glory ; thefe form a character of
the moft energetic and interefting kind, and the author has
given to his hero a loftinefs and power of expreflion fully ade-

quate to the terrors and the paflions which his fituation and his f
feelings produce. The intrinfic force of this dramatic charac-
ter is heightened by the fingular circumftances in which it is
placed. Captain of a band of inexorable and fanguinary ban-
ditti, whofe furious valour he wields to the moft defperate pur-
pofes ; living with thofe affociates, amidft woods and defarts,
terrible and favage as the wolves they have difplaced ; this pre-
fents to the fancy a kind of preternatural perfonage, wrapped
in all the gloomy grandeur of vifionary beings.

Bur to return to the narrative of the tragedy.

His younger brother Francis having fucceeded in removing
this favourite of his father, now looks to the death of the old
man as the complete accomplifhment of his wifhes to attain the
fortune and honours of his family. To effeé this hellifh pur-
pofe, he makes ufe of his father’s ftill remaining tendernefs for
that very fon whom the traitor’s arts had driven from his love.
He employs one Herman, a tool of his villany, to perfonate a
foldier, who had been the companion of Charles, and to relate a
fabricated ftory of the fufferings and death of that unfortunate
young man, who, according to him, had been reduced, by the
feverity of his father, to the moft extreme and pitiable indi-

gence,

ACCOUNT of th GERMAN THEATRE. 183

gence, from which he had at laft been -relieved by death, ha-
ving fallen fighting gallantly in an a€tion with the infidels, and
in his laft words had breathed out the name of his father and
of his Amelia. The old Count feels this relation as his inhu-
man fon expected ; he faints at its clofe, and is carried off life-
lefs from the ftage. The traitor Francis reaps the fruit of his
villany ; he reaps, but his confcience does not permit him to
enjoy it; and he is ever after prefented as the martyr of re-
morfe, haunted by the terrors of inward guilt. His aflociate
Herman appears to yield to contrition ; he braves the anger of
his lord, and refolves to embrace the firft opportunity of coun-
teracting his villany.

TuouGu the great and the terrible be the moft prominent
features of this drama, there are fcenes in which the pathetic
and the tender prevail in a very uncommon degree; and the
impreffion they make on the reader is heightened by the con-

traft of that bold unbending fpirit which he fees melted by

their force. One of thefe, the fecond,fcene of the third ad, is
fo ftriking, that I cannot forbear laying it before the Society in

Englifh. They will make allowance for what it muft lofe in

this form, when they confider that it is the tranflation of a
tranflation.
Tue band are encamped on a height on the banks of the

Danube, after a hard-fought battle with a party of Bohemian

horfe, which had been fent to take them; but which, by the
unparalleled valour and exertions of Moor and his friends, they
had defeated. He enters, overcome with fatigue and thirft.

“ I must reft here, (throwing bimfelf on the ground); my

“ limbs are broken with fatigue, and,,my parched tongue

“cleaves to my mouth. I would have afked fome of ‘you to

fetch me a little water from that river, but you too are weary

almoft'to death. (One of the band goes out, unperceived by Moor,
“ to fetch him fome water.)

“ Grim,

184 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

““ Grim, (another of his band) ’T1s a long time fince our flafks
“were empty of wine. How majeftically the fun fets there
below!

“ Moor, (looking ftedfaflly on the fetting fun) *T1s thus that a
** hero dies, and the nations admire his fall !

“* G. Ir feems to move you.

““ M. in my youth, it was my favourite idea to live like
“him, (looking earnefily on the fun) to die like him! ’Twas the
“* fancy of a young man.

“ G. ’Twas even fo.

“ M, Tuere was a time—(drawing bis hat over his eyes)—
“ leave me alone, my friends.

** G Moor, Moor! do you ail aught? Your colour
changes.

“ M. THERE was a time when I could not fleep if I had
forgot my prayers before I laid me down.

** G. °T1s folly all—Would you, like a boy, be fchooled by
the remembrance of your infant days?

“ M. My infant days! Oh! (leaning bis head on the bofom of
Grim.)

“ G. Turnk of thefe no more. Be not a child again, I pray
you.

** M. A child again ! ! Would that I were !

“ G. Rouse yourfelf for fhame! See how the landfcape
{miles—how beautiful the evening looks !

“ M. Aye, my friends, this earth is fo beautiful—

“ G. Way, that is well.

“ M. Tuis fcene fo grand— (
“ G. You fpeak it truly. I love to hear you talk thus. ‘
“ M. AnpD what am I, in this world that is fo beautiful!
A thing fo vile on this magnificent work of heaven !—The
prodigal fon !

“ G. Moor! Moor!

~
”

“
n

cal
n

x
n

a
.

é

wn

”

<M.

ACCOUNT of th GERMAN THEATRE. 185

“* M. My innocence—give mé back my innocence. Look

how every thing in nature is cheered by the fmile of fpring.

Why in this air, fo pure to them, fhould I breathe the ©

blafting fmoke of hell? When all around us are happy—

when gentle peace has united them—the world one bleffed
family, and its Father there above—who is not my Father!

I alone fhut out—the prodigal fon—excluded from the por-

tion of his children—(/hrinking back with horror) farrounded

with crimes—with murder—bound to them with chains of
iron. :

“ G. (to the reft of the band) 1 never faw him thus before.

“ M. (with a voice of tendernefs) Au! if it were poflible for
*“ me to be born again—to be born a beggar, the meaneft
“‘ thing that were not a guilty one!. With the labour of thefe
“ hands I would purchafe the wearinefs of peace. Oh! that
** with the fweat of my brow, though that fweat were blood,
** T could buy one guiltlefs hour—the luxury of one tear!

“ G. Patience, friends ; his fit is almoft over.

“« M. THERE was a time when my tears flowed freely. Ob
** peaceful days !—that faw me in my father’s houfe, in my
“ native fields !—Ye fmiling fields !—ye valleys made for en-
“ thufiafm to wander in! Scenes of my happy infancy—will
“ ye never return? Will ye never breathe on this burning bo-
“ fom your gales of peace and joy ?—Nature, why art thou
« dark around me ?—They will never, never return ; never on

_ this bofom will they breathe —they are gone—gone for

meyer YP

SuspuED by the tendernefs of the recolleftion which this
feene exprefles, Charles vifits his native caftle in difguife ;
he finds his father dead, his brother Francis in poffeffion of his
inheritance, and his miftrefs ready to take the veil. After

_ yielding for a while to thofe fofter feelings which the fcenes of
his infancy recal, he recolle¢ts the outcaft abandonment of his
= Vou. Il. Aa own

186 ACCOUNT of th GERMAN THEATRE.

own fituation, makes himfelf known, at the inftant of parting,
to his Amelia, and flies to rejoin his defperate affociates.

In this fituation of things, the fourth act commences. The
fcene is of that favage kind, which prepares the imagination
for the horrors to enfue. ’Tis night; and the remains of
the band are affembled on a defert heath, near to the ruins of
an ancient tower, round which the winds whiftle, and the owl
fhrieks. They had watched three days and nights of danger
and alarm, and all, except their unhappy chief, whom remorfe
and anguifh keep awake, yield to their fatigue, and lay them-
felves on the ground to fleep. Moor remains alone, and walks -
to and fro, like the fovereign fpirit of the night, revolving in
his troubled, but daring foul, this world and the next. In this
world, he has now nothing left to hope, and he looks, with
defperate calmnefs, on the dark and unknown gulph of that
to come. His foliloquy is of that fublime and broken fort
which exprefles the agitation of a great but erring mind, yield-
ing to remorfe for crimes which have ftained his life, but not
corrupted his foul, and left him, amidft the outrages of violence
and vice, the fentiments and the fufferings of virtue and of
feeling. After a paufe of gloomy meditation, he breaks out in
the following ‘words, (to my tranflation of which the Society
will afford the indulgence I formerly folicited.)

“ A tone long night!—on which no morning will
“ ever dawn! Think ye that Moor will tremble? Shades of
“ the victims of this aflaflinating fword! I fee your bleeding
“* wounds, I look on your livid lips, and hear the laft agoni-
‘“ zing groans they breathe—but I tremble not.—Thefe are but
“ links of that eternal chain, which he who fits in yonder
“ heaven holds in his hand. He ftamped thefe horfors on my
“ deftiny. Even amidft the innocent, the happy days of my
~ ynfullied infancy, his eye faw them, and fealed them on my
“ fate! (be draws a piftol) The barrier betwixt eternity and
“ time, this little inftrument can burft—and then—Thou

“ dread

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 187

dread unknown ! whither wilt thou lead? where wilt thou
place me? If thou leav’{t me this confcious felf, ’tis that
muft create my heaven or my hell. Amidft the wafte of a
world which thine anger has deftroyed, I can people the fi-
“ Jent void with thought. Or wilt thou, in new and untried
' ftates, lead me through various mifery to nothing? Thou
mayeft annihilate my being ; but while this foul is left, will
not its freedom and its force remain? ’Tis equal where—
“* (putting up bis piftol) 1 will not now fhrink from the fuffer-
“ ings of the prefent—the deftiny of Moor hall be fulfilled.”
HE is filent—he hears the tread of approaching feet, and
prefently a figure glides before him, and knocks at the grated
wicket of the tower. The figure fpeaks, “ Rife, man of for-
** row, inhabitant of the tower, thy repaft is here.” A feeble
voice anfwers from the dungeon within, ‘* Herman, is it thou?
*« Bring’ft thou, like the prophet’s raven, his food to a linger-
“* ing wretch, that lives by the crumbs which thy pity affords
“ him?” Moor, who had fhrunk back in amazement, now ad-
vances, and defires the man to ftop. That man is Herman.
He draws his fword ; but is almoft inftantly difarmed. ‘“ What
“ art thou, fays the aftonifhed Herman, whofe touch withers
“ like that of death? Art thou the demon of this horrid
place? the fpirit of this murderous tower?” “ Iam, fays
Moor; the exterminating angel is my name; and yet I have
** flefh and bones like thee. But what wretch is in that
“ tower? I will burft his chains.” He draws from his pocket
the pafs-keys which his profeffion employs ; he opens the tower ;
the fkeleton figure of a famifhed wretch creeps from the dun-
geon—* Horrible phantom!” fays the aftonifhed AZcor, m a
low and ftifled voice, ““ my father !”
Iris his father, whom the inhuman Francis (taking advan-
tage of the long faint into which the account of his fon’s death
had thrown him) had buried alive in the dungeon of the
tower. — Charles is informed of this, and his other
A a2 treacheries,

188 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

treacheries, by Herman, the penitent affociate of his villany, he
wakes his band, and, in the rage of filial revenge, difpatches
one of the boldeft of the troop to force the caftle of his bro-
ther, and bring him alive before them. The old ‘man is ftill
ignorant of his deliverer’s being his fon, and waits, terrified
and weak, the difclofing of this myftery of juftice and of ven-
geance.

Tue laft ad opens with a fcene in the caftle of the guilty
Francis, who is now in pofleffion of the county of Moor. He
is exhibited in all the difmay and diftraction of awakened re-
morfe. After fome incoherent dialogue (wrought up with the
livelieft circumftances of guilty terror) with a fervant, who
had watched his fleep, and followed him, when he had ftarted
from his bed, into the faloon of the caftle, they are told by a
frightened domeftic, that a troop of horfemen are approaching
at a gallop, with terrifying fhouts. The Count is petrified by
his guilty fears, and cannot give orders for defence. His fol-
lowers, however, for a while difpute the paflage of the band,
till the caftle is fet on fire. Its mafter is {till more loft in the
horrors of his fituation; and, after an unavailing requeft to
his fervant, to fave him from the vengeance of his enemies, by
putting him to death, is left alone amidft the approaching
flames, withing to die, yet dreading death, till he hears the
thunder of the band at the gate, which fhakes, burfts, and the
entering foe feizes him alive, and carries him off, according to
the command of his captain.

Tue fcene changes to the heath, where Moor and his old fa-
ther are difcovered amidft the war of contending feelings with
which the fon is torn. He often refolves to difclofe himfelf to
his father ; but the confcioufnefs of his fallen and abandoned ~
ftate withholds him. The poet has contrived, by placing the
father and fon in this particular fituation, to infufe into this
{cene a degree of tendernefs which melts the heart, mixed with
a horror which chills the imagination. When the old man

* complains

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 189

complains that he has now no fon to clofe his eyes, his fon
throws himfelf on the neck of his father, yet is unable to dif-
cover that this wretch, this robber, this aflaffin, is his Charles.
At that moment, a diftant noife is heard, and prefently the dim
gleam of torches begirs to illumine the fcene around them.
The glare of their light increafes ; the voices are heard more
near; the accuftomed mufic of their favage triumph founds ;
and the faithful band of Moor, true to their commiflion of ven-
geance, bring the criminal Francis chained before his father
and his brother. It is impoffible to convey by narrative the
horrid fublimity of the fituation which this fcene prefents, or
of thofe expreflions to which the wounded fenfibility of Moor,
wrought up to the moft infatiable revenge againft the author
of his father’s mifery and his own, gives birth. The reader
could hardly conceive any modern imagination, how pregnant
foever with tragic terrors, to produce a fcene that could vie
with the dread picture of the fourth aé&t ; when he has read the
fifth, he will find the horror equalled, and the intereft fur-

' paffed. -

Moor leads the Gromied Francis. before his father. The old
man is willing to forgive him; but his brother has devoted
him to vengeance. He defires the band to lead his father to a

remote part of the wood; and then, fettling the fury of his

revenge into the terrible folemnity of difpaflionate juftice, he
places his brother in the midft of his fierce affociates, and de-
fires them to pronounce fentence on his crimes. They confult
fome time together on an adequate punifhment; and then, fe-
licitating themfelves on the thought, they throw him into the
dungeon in which this barbarous parricide had buried his fa-
ther. The old man is brought in. He feels the yearnings of
paternal affection for his guilty fon, and exclaims againft the
cruelty of his avengers. Moor throws himfelf into his arms,
and difcovers to him his favourite, his Charles. Juft then,

Amelia, who had efcaped from the caftle of his brother, enters,
and

190 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

and runs to embrace her lover and his father. The father feels
all the pleafure of his fon and his niece reftored, and fondly
anticipates the felicity they are to enjoy. But Moor bids them
check the expe¢tation of happinefs, and look only for defpera-
tion and horror. ‘“ Your paternal curfe, fays he, configned
“me to perdition. Thefe men you fee are robbers—mur-
“ derers—your fon is their chief.” The exhaufted ftrength of
the old man cannot ftand the fhock ; he expires in the arms of
his fon. His miftrefs ftill furvives; and though dumb with
terror and grief, folds him in her arms, and fhews the moft
ardent affection for her Charles. Warm in his love, as in every
other feeling, Moor had doated on her to diftraction; he for-
gets himfelf in her embraces, and for a moment thinks he will
live and be happy with his Amelia. “ Come from her arms,
“ cries one of the boldeft of his troop, or I will fpeak what
“ fhall freeze your blood.” “ Think, exclaims another, (while
“ they level their pieces at his head) of your vow to be ours
“ for ever. Ours you are, and heaven nor hell can win you
“ from us.” Their voices roufe the remembrance of his fitu-
ation. But his foul is too proud to yield to threats. “ You
“ are murderers, fays he, and I am your chief. Down with
“ thefe arms, and know your mafter.” Awed by the founds
they are accuftomed to obey, the banditti lower their arms.—
“ To be great, Moor muft be free. I would not give this tri-
‘‘umph for all the elyfium of love. (He draws his fword.)
“ Call not that madnefs of which your fouls want ftrength to
“ fee the grandeur. The greatnefs of defpair is above the ken
“ of wifdom. On aétions fuch as this, reflection mutt follow,
“ not wifdom paufe.”

He plunges his fword into the bofom of Amelia. Struck
with the barbarous heroifm of the deed, his affociates fall at
his feet, acknowledge his unparalleled fidelity, and vow to be
his flaves for ever. ‘‘ No, fays he, with a determined and pe-
“ trifying calmnefs; the deftiny of Moor is accomplifhed.

“ Thus

See

—

Snares

2 eS

nes acl
re os nae
.

ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. tot

“ ‘Thus far it was in human power to go, and thus far he has
“ gone; but here his courfe is clofed, and his genius cries out,
** All is confummated.”’ He difmiffes his band, except two fa-
vourite officers, with an exhortation to ufe their invincible cou-
rage in the fervice of their country. To thefe two favourites,
whofe fouls are not fo deeply tin@tured in blood, he bequeaths
his paternal domain, and defires them to leave him, and to devote
their future lives to virtue and obedience to the laws. ‘ And
*“ IT too, he concludes, will obey the laws; I will bear the
** fterneft punifhment of their decree.” And he goes to deliver
himfelf up to juftice.

I HAVE yentured this long and particular account of the
tragedy in queftion, becaufe it appears to me one of the moft
uncommon productions of untutored genius that modern times
can boaft. Confeffedly irregular and faulty, both in plan and
conduct, it were needlefs, and perhaps unfair, to offer any re-
marks on its defects.. But its power over the heart and the ima-
gination muft be acknowledged. Every body has heard the
anecdote of its effects on the fcholars at the fchool of Fribourg,
where it was reprefented foon after its firft appearance. They
were fo ftruck and captivated with the grandeur of the cha-
racter of its hero Moor, that they agreed to form a band like
his in the forefts of Bohemia, had elected a young nobleman
for their chief, and had pitched on a beautiful young lady for

‘his Amelia, whom they were to carry off from her parents
houfe, to accompany their flight. ‘To the accomplifhment of

this defign, they had bound themfelves by the moft folemn and
tremendous oaths; but the confpiracy was difcovered by an
accident, and its execution prevented.

THE energy of this tragedy’s effect is not to be wondered at,
efpecially on young minds, whofe imaginations are readily in-
flamed by the enthufiafm of gigantic enterprife and defperate
valour, whofe fenfibility is eafily excited by the fufferings of a

great

192 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

great unhappy mind, and who feel a fort of dignity and pride
in leaving the beaten road of worldly prudence, though the
path by which they leave it may fometimes deviate from moral
rectitude. But hence, to fome parts of an audience, the dan-
ger of a drama fuch as this. It covers the natural deformity
of criminal a@ions with the veil of high fentiment and virtu-
ous feeling, and thus feparates (Gf I may be pardoned the ex-
preflion) the moral /enfe from that morality which it ought to
produce. This the author has, fince its firft publication, been
candid enough to acknowledge, and reprobates, in terms per-
haps more ftrong than it deferves, his own produétion as of a
very pernicious tendency. He has left his native country, Wir-
temberg, from which | believe indeed fome confequences of the
publication of this tragedy had driven him, and now lives at
Manheim, where he publifhes a periodical work, and has written
one or two other tragedies, which have a high reputation. If
his genius can accommodate itfelf to better fubjects, and toa
more regular conduct of the drama, no modern poet feems to
poflefs powers fo capable of bending the mind before him, of
roufing its feelings by the elevation of his fentiments, or of
thrilling them with the terrors of his imagination.

VI.

tee

6 Spree

i€"

ij

eee

a ae Se ee Ss ee ee a ey eee SS Se ry
7

VI. THEORY of the Moons of VERBs. By ¥4MES
GrReGorr, M.D. F.R.S. Epin. Fellow of the Royal
College of Phyficians, and Profeffor of the Theory of Phyfic
in the Univerfity of EDINBURGH.

[Read by the Author, Fune 18. and Fuly 16. 1787.]

N the profecution of certain philological and philofophical

fpeculations, very ample f{pecimens of which have already
been fubmitted to the confideration of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, I had occafion to confider more minutely than I
believe had ever been done before, many particulars relating to
the nature, the ftructure, and the import of Verbs.

Tuose fpeculations related chiefly or folely to the general ra-
dical import of every verb and every clafs of verbs, without
any regard to the peculiar meaning or nature of the various
inflections or parts of a Verb; fuch as, moods, tenfes, perfons
and numbers. It was impoflible, however, for me altogether
to avoid attending to thefe modifications of the general mean-
ing of every Verb ; efpecially to the nature and import of the
Moods of verbs, which appears to me a very curious and in-
terefting point in the theory of language.

As | had not the good fortune to meet with any account of
the Moods of verbs, which appeared to me complete or juft, in
the writings of thofe grammarians and philologifts that I have
had an opportunity of confulting, I was tempted to undertake
the inveftigation of the nature of them myfelf. The refult of

Vor. II. Bb that

194 THEORY of the

that undertaking I now have the honour to fubmit to the confi-
deration of the Royal Society. -

As there is fomething peculiar in the plan and manner of it,
it is proper to mention the reafon of this peculiarity. In thofe
accounts of the moods of verbs which I have feen, there feem-
ed to be a want of fufficiently numerous and extenfive and
accurate obfervations of the particular faéts that were to be ex-
plained or accounted for; a want of fufficiently precife and
diftinét notions of the general import of the moods; a hafty
and carelefs admiffion of certain general principles not duly
afcertained, and a vague ufe of certain general and compre-
henfive terms, which were not fufficiently explained or under-
{tood.

In order to avoid thefe errors, and to fupply thefe defects,
I have proceeded on a plan more nearly akin to that which has
long been fuccefsfully employed in phyfical inveftigations ; be-
ginning with a colleétion of obfervations’ relating to the moods
of verbs; from thefe deducing certain general principles, and
verifying thefe principles by further obfervation, and even ex-
periment. Such a plan is undoubtedly laborious, and may ap-
pear tedious; but I think it has advantages amply fufficient to
compenfate thefe inconveniences.

I must mention likewife, that this Effay bears a particular
and very intimate relation to the do@rine concerning the moods
of verbs, laid down by the learned author of the treatife on
the Origin and Progre/s of Language, (Vol. 11.) with which I may
prefume my hearers to be fufficiently acquainted.

Tue account which he givesof the number, the nature,
and the import of the moods of verbs, though very acute, and
in many refpeéts perfectly juft, is certainly very incomplete,
and in one important circumftance it is very obfcure ; which
makes me fufpect, that, on this point, he had not carried his
inveftigation fo far as to obtain a complete and diftinét view of
the fubject which he was treating.

BuT

MOODS of VERBS. * hBO5

But though I make many remarks on his doétrine, and
often refer to it, my Effay is by no means intended to cavil at
it, but, on the contrary, to make ufe of it, as being, on the
whole, the beft difquifition on the fubject that I have feen; to
correct what is erroneous, and to fupply what is wanting, in
his treatife, and to carry the inveftigation farther than he had
done.

I aGReE perfectly with this learned author in thinking that
the infinitive is moft improperly called a mood : and I think the
obfervation a very important one; for, on this account, it is to
the infinitive, exclufively, that we fhould turn our thoughts, when
we endeavour to inveftigate the general import of the Verb,
with a view to afcertain the accident which it denotes, and be
led, ftep by ftep, to form a diftiné notion of what is common
in the accidents of all verbs, and of what is peculiar in the ac-
cidents of the feveral clafles of them, and thereby be enabled
to give good definitions, fpecifying the effence of a Verb, and
the charaéteriftic import of the different clafles of verbs, fuch
as fubftantive, neuter, active intranfitive, active tranfitive, paf-
five, and refleéted verbs. The infinitive, | own, does not ex-
prefs the pure general meaning of the verb; for it compre-
hends likewife the circumftances of time, and in fome lan-
guages thofe of perfon, and of courfe of number, and perhaps
of gender. Scribere. Scripfiffe. Scripturum effe. Scripturas
effe.

Bur the infinitive (fo far as I can perceive) denotes no
energy or modification of thought (fuch as, affirming, com-
manding, afking or wifhing) that is peculiar to itfelf, as the
other moods do; but only that kind of thought, or combi-
- nation of thoughts, which is common to all the others. Now,
fome peculiarity of that kind I take to be the very eflence of

a mood. 2
B b2 YET

196 THEORY of the

Yet the thought expreffed by the infinitive is clearly appre-
hended, and plainly fhews that the word denoting it is a verb.

Non eff VIVERE fed VALERE Vita.

Saepe etiam feriles 1NCENDERE profuit agros,
Atque levem flipulam crepitantibus URERE flammis..

——Pudet hac opprobria nobis
Et DIcI POTUISSE, et non POTUISSE REFELLI..

READING (fays Bacon) makes a full man, /peaking a ready
man, and writimg an exact man.

(Tuese Englith words in ing, will be called participles, or per-
haps verbal nouns ; they have the form of participles and verbal
nouns, but the meaning of infinitives; and may be tranflated
into Greek and Latin by infinitives. But it is of no confe-
quence whether they be called participles or infinitives; the
meaning of them is obvious, and is the fame with that of the
Latin infinitives. )

THE meaning or thoughts exprefled by thefe infinitives, are
as plainly chara¢teriftic of verbs as thofe denoted by Vivo fed
non valeo. Incendite fleriles agros—urite levem flipulam. Oppro-
bria dicuntur nobis. Yet in the latter there is mood, while in the
former there is not. Whence it follows that mood, properly fo
called, is not effential to a verb. It is only the capacity or
fafceptibility of mood, that can with propriety be faid to be
effential toa verb. This diftin@tion, which I think of fome |
importance, may be fufficiently explained and illuftrated by the
following examples. It is not divifion, but divifibility, that
is effential to a geometrical line; it is not fluidity, but fufibi-
lity, that is effential to lead ; not motion, but mobility, nor
reft, but the capacity of being at reft, that is eflential to body.
But ref? is eflential to fpace, and, for aught I know, motion may:
be fo to light.

Li

MOODS of VERBS. . 197

I susprcT therefore fome inaccuracy in the learned author’s
manner of exprefling himfelf, when he fays in one page, (161)
that moods are effential to verbs, and in the next page remarks
that the infinitive is nota mood. This would imply, that a
verb, when put in the infinitive, ceafed to be a verb; which
he does not exprefsly fay, though he comes very near to it, in
the following words: “ As to the infinitive, I hold it to be no
** mood, though it be commonly called fo; becaufe it exprefles
no energy of the mind of the fpeaker, but fimply the action”

(he fhould certainly have faid more generally the accident, as in
ele, valere, or cadere) ‘‘ of the verb, with the addition of time.
‘* Tt is therefore ufed, either as a noun, or it ferves to connect
** the verb with another verb, or a noun, and fo is ufeful in.
* fyntax.” But ftill I would afk, When it is ufed in thefe or
other ways, and is accordingly ufeful in fyntax, does it ona
fide ceafe to be a verb? I own! do not think it does ; for this
reafon, that the thought expreffed by means of the infinitive,
may be expreffled in fynonymous and convertible phrafes, in
different languages, by means of other parts or moods of the
verb. ‘ To be or not to.be, that is the queftion,” is equivalent
in meaning, though fuperior in fimplicity, beauty and force of
expreffion, to “ The queftion is, whether we fhall be or fhall
** not be.”

«ce

— Nec quicquam tibi prodeft
Aerias TENTASSE domos, animoque rotundum
PERCURRISSE polum, morituro.

Nec quicquam tibi prodeft quod aerias domos TENTAVERIS, ef
animo PERCURRERIS polum.

Moreover, it muft be taken into confideration, that the
infinitive not only appears as the nomen verbi, (which fome
have called it) but expreffes fully the accident of the verb, whe-
ther this be mere exiftence, or ftate, or event, or intranfitive ac-

tion, or tranfitive action, that is, action with relation of vari-
ous

198 THEORY of the

ous kinds ; and of courfe it has the proper regimen of the verb,
when it exprefles action and relation, or, in grammatical lan-
guage, is tranfitive; as in percurriffe, tentaffe, urere, incendere,
in the preceding examples.

Dico, credo, puto, Titium, exiflere;valere, jacere, cecidiffe, pro-
cubuiffe, projecifje Mavium, projectum fuiffe a Maevio, have the very
fame meaning with Dico, &c. quod Titius exiftat, quod jaceat, quod
ceciderit, procubuerit, projecerit Mevium, projectus fuerit a Mevio.

I cannor help thinking, that, in thefe cafes, the infinitives,
as well as the fubjunctives, are truly verbs, though {tripped of
that circumftance which is, in ftri€ propriety of language,
called mood. Nor do the infinitives as thus ufed acquire any
further meaning, in addition to the radical import of the verb
with tenfe, like the proper moods; but the /ubjunctives after
quod lofe their peculiar meaning as moods, and fignify no more
than bare i/inilives.

I ruink fome more illuftration may be given to this fub-
ject, by confidering the import of participles, which partake
of the nature both of verbs and of adjectives; and that of
verbal nouns, which partake of the nature and meaning of
verbs and of fubftantive nouns.

Ir is an acknowledged fact with refpect to participles, and
it is equally true with refpect to verbal nouns, that, by means
of them, various thoughts, commonly expreffed by the moods
of verbs, or by the infinitives of them, may be exprefled with
great accuracy, and fometimes with advantage in compofition,
by enabling us to leffen the number of verbs in a fentence, or
to vary occafionally the ftru€ture of it. Neg quicquam tibi pro-
deft morituro tua TENTATIO domuum aeriarum, et CURSUS tuus circa
polum, though a very crabbed inelegant fentence, has: the very
fame meaning with Horact’s beautiful lines, and with ‘the
profe verfion immediately fubjoined to it.

Way are not ¢entatio and cur/us reckoned verbs, as well as
tentaffeand percurriffe 2 They are furely very near akin. .

HE

MOODS of VERBS. 199

Tueanfwer given to this queftion by the author of the Eflay
on the Origin. and Progre/s of Language, and which he fays: is
plain, 1 muft own appears to me very obfcure and unfatisfac-
tory. Nor can I think that the defect is entirely in me, and
that I ought to underftand it; for I can fpecify what is wanting
tothe anfwer which he gives, in order 'to make it plain and fa-
tisfactory. His anfwer is, if
»“ Twat it (to wit a verbal noun, tie curfus or tentatio) ex-

prefles no energy of the mind of the fpeaker, who pronounces
the words ;, nor does it affirm that the thing exifts or does not
-exift 3 nor does it command that it {hould or fhould not exift ;
nor does it wifh that it may or may not exift; but fimply gives:
us the conception of the mind of the fpeaker.” Page 167.
Berore we can fully underftand this anfwer, (which feems
to apply to zmfinitives as well as to verbal -nouns), or of courfe
judge whether it be juft and complete, or not; we muft know
what the author means by exergy, and what by conception, what
more or lefs he apprehends there is in the one than inthe other,
or how he diftinguifhes them. Nor can this be known but by
finding what there is'in common ainong all ‘the energies, (for
fomething common among them, even’as conceived by him,
it is demonftrable there mu/? be) and not belonging to any fim-
ple conceptions. _ We have energy expreffed; and of courfe a verb
conftituted, even according to his definition of a verb, without
affirmation, when we with or ‘command; without command,
when we affirm or wifh ; without wifh, when we command or
affirm: Yet in all thefe cafes we have equally and indifputably
a verb. How fhall we know what is in common to them all?
How much of the meaning of a verb is in a verbal noun?
What is wanting, befides the fufceptibility of mood? Whence
_ does this fufceptibility of mood arife, or wherein does it con-
fift >, Does it depend on the combination of the notion of time
with that of the proper accident of a verb, which combination.
takes place in the infinitive, and even remains in the partici-

ples of a verb, but not in a verbal noun?
Exiffentia

200 THEORY of the

Exiftentia (whether good Latin or not) is the predicament or
accident of being.

Vita is the ftate or accident of living. Cafus, obitus, the
events or accidents of falling and of dying.

Cogitatio, lectio, fcriptio, curfus, edificatio, trucidatio, are the
accidents or attions of thinking, reading, writing, running,
building and murdering.

In Englith, almoft any noun fubftantive may occafionally be
converted into a verb, by ufing it to denote thofe thoughts, or
combinations of thoughts, fuch as exiftence, ftate, event, acti-
vity, intranfitive, or tranfitive, or refleGted, and paffivenefs or
being the object or fubject. of ativity, which are conceived to
conftitute the effence of a verb.

Water is plainly a noun.

Watered a participle.

To water a verb, without mood.

He watereth, water thou, may it be watered, it was watered,
a verb with mood.

A watering, a verbal noun, retaining the accident, but not
the import of mood; and nearly allied to the infinitive to water,
in every refpect but that it does not involve the notion of time,
as the infinitives to water, to have watered, ‘Sc. plainly do.

TuEse are but hints. Valeant quantum valere poffnt.

I suspect that the author whofe dotrine I am confidering,
has been rafh in limiting the number of moods to three ; the’
indicative, exprefling affirmation, (and of courfe negation) un-
der which he comprehends the /ubjunéctive, as being nearly of
the fame import, and denoting affirmation, only qualified or
conditional ; the optative, expreffling wifhing or praying ; and
the imperative, exprefling command.

I ssouxtp think the fame kind of reafons that he urges
againft admitting an izterragative mood, namely, that ‘‘ it is
** not exprefled by any different form of the verb, but only
4* by particles, or by a certain arrangement of the words,”

and

MOODS of VERBS. 201

and for rejecting the potential mood, and for making the /wd-
junttive only a branch of the indicative, would apply with equal

-force againft admitting an opftative mood, at leaft in fome lan-

guages, as for inftance in our own.
In the following lines,

Te spEcTEM /uprema mihi cum venerit hora;
Te TENEAM moriens deficiente manu.

The verbs /pectem and teneam exprefs very clearly the exergy of
wifhing. This modification of thought is denoted in Latin by
inflection, and would be fo in Greek, o dean, ce xureyorus, and
will be allowed to conftitute a perfeét mood. But in Englith it
muft be denoted bya certain arrangement of the words, and there-
fore fhould be no mood, any more than interrogation. ‘ Thee
* may I look on when my laft hour fhall come; thee may I
“ grafp, when dying, in my failing hand.” J may look on thee,
I may grafp thee, have meanings as different from thofe de-
moted by the fame words differently arranged, as Ca/ar was
killed, ts from was Cefar killed ?

Ir I am rightly informed, the Chinefe language has no zmpe-
rative mood; and thofe who fpeak it are obliged to employ a
very clumfy circumlocution, by means of a verb fignifying
command, to exprefs the familiar meaning of our imperative.

Ir does not appear clearly to me, that the /ubjunctive mood
expreffes merely qualified or conditional affirmation in every
cafe, though undoubtedly it does fo in many cafes. In the
following lines of Horace,

Ulla fi juris tibi pejerati

Pena, BARINE, NOCUISSET unquam;

Dente fi nigro FIERES, vel uno
Turpior ungut,

CREDEREM.

Vor. Il. Cc ye The

202 THEORY of ‘the

The word crederem to be fure denotes merely a qualified of con-
ditional affirmation: I might, could, would, or fhould believe,
if a certain event took place. But the verbs exprefling this
condition and fuppofition, are alfo in the /uhjunctive, nocuiffet,
Jieres, after the particle f. With this particle, they might have
been put in the indicative, and the fenfe would ftill have been
complete, nocuerat, fiebas. The fame thought may be expreffed.
accurately in Englifh, without the ufe of any particle corre-
{ponding to fi, and merely by the peculiar arrangement of the
words, juft as was done with the with of Tiputtus, “ Had
“any punifhment ever overtaken you for your broken vows ;
were but one of your teeth growing black, or even were but
“ one of your nails becoming lefs beautiful, I fhould believe
«ce you.”

I cANNoT conceive that the three firft verbs in this fentence
denote any affirmation at all, conditional or unconditional, but
avery plain fuppofition. And this thought feems to me to be
as well entitled to be called an energy, as T1nuLLUS’s wifh; and
when it is exprefled (no matter in what way, whether by in-
fleGtion, by augment, or by peculiar arrangement) by a verb,
it muft be either a perfect grammatical mood, or fomething
very near akin to one.

Tue very fame kind of thought, to wit fuppofition, is ex-
preffed by circumlocution, and a kind of metaphor, in the follow-
ing lines.

cc

PoNE me, pigris ubi nulla campis
Arbor aftiva recreatur aura :
Pone fub curru nimium propinqua
Solis, in terra domibus negata.

En which fone, though in the imperative mood, exprefles no
command, but only fuppofition or condition. This Captain
Macheath and Polly Peachum (or Mr Gay for them) underftood

perfectly 5

MOODS of VERBS. 203

perfectly ; and accordingly tranflate the thought very well,
without either an imperative or a particle, by arrangement.

Were I laid on Greenland’s coaft,
Were I fold on India’s foil.

It may be remarked too, that Horace exprefles his quali-
fied or conditional affirmation, which is fubjoined to the fup-
pofition by a verb in the indicative, not in the fubjundctive
mood.

Dulce ridentem LALAGEN AMABO.
Macheath takes the common /ubjunctive -

Too foon the half year’s pight wouLD pa/s;
And Polly, the potential,

I couxp mock the fultry toil.

- Omnia novit
Graculus efuriens; in calum, JUSSERIS, 1BIT.

A little hungry Greek knows every thing ; he will go to hea-
ven, /hould you defire him. This is conditional affirmation, expref-
fed by the indicative, and /uppojition by the /ubjunctive mood.

Illum et parentis CREDIDERIM fui
Fregiffe cervicem.

I could believe that he had murdered his father. This I con-
ceive to be an inftance of the potential mood; if not of the verb

credo, at leaft of human thought.
Cc 2 WHATEVER

204, THEORY of the

WuaTEVER may be thought of the preceding obfervations,
it mutt at leaft be admitted, that the moods of verbs may be
confidered in two very different points of view ; either with re-
lation to any particular language, or with relation to human thought,
which muft be fuppofed the fame in all ages and nations. For
the fake of diftinétnefs, I fhall call the expreffions of them, by
inflection or otherwife in language, grammatical moods; and the
thoughts, or combinations of thoughts, fo expreffed, as well as
fimilar combinations of thoughts, though not always, or per-
haps never exprefled in the fame way, I fhall call energies, or
modifications, or moods of thought.

WiTHh refpect to the former of thefe things in any particular
language, there can be no difpute or difficulty. Any tolerably
good grammar of that language will fhew at once-the number
and the forms of them in it; and the exact import of each of
them, and the proper application of them all, will foon be learned
by attending to the ufe of thofe who {peak and write that lan-
guage well. But the latter (the moods of thought) muft be
inveftigated in a different and much more laborious way; by
ftrict attention to our own thoughts, and with fuch aid as the
ftructure of language, and obfervation, and even experiment
afford.

Att languages, I believe, are very defective in refpect of that
variety and accuracy of combination and of diftin¢tion, which
we know with infallible certainty take place in thought. Nor
do I know of any particular in which language is more defi-
cient, than in the exprefling of thofe energies or modifications.
of thought, fome of which always are, and all of which might
be exprefled by the grammatical moods of verbs. Of this,
there cannot be a clearer proof, than the well known facts,
that we are obliged to exprefs by the fame mood very different-
modifications or energies of thought, and that the number of
moods, as marked by infleétion or otherwife, is different in
different languages, which, of courfe, do not correfpond fo far

as

Te

MOODS of VERBS. 205

as to admit of perfect and literal tranflation in all cafes from
one to another, or at leaft not without circumlocution.

Yet, unfavourable as this circumftance muft, at firft fight,
appear to the hopes of one who withes to inveftigate the nature
of the moods of verbs, and ultimately to afcertain the nature
of a verb itfelf, I think it is chiefly by attending to it, by con-
fidering what modifications of thought are expreffed by gram-
matical moods in different languages, and by comparing them
with fuch modifications of thought as are never, or at leaft not
ufually, exprefled in that way, and by examining how it comes
to pafs that fome of them are, while others are not fo exprefled,
that we fhall be led to difcover wherein they agree or differ,
that is, to learn the common nature of all, and the particular
nature of each of them, which is the immediate obje& of
enquiry.

THE province of the fchoolmafter who undertakes to teach
any particular language, Englifh, French, Latin, or Greek, ex-
tends no farther than to explain the meaning and fhew the
ufe of the grammatical moods which are found in that lan-
guage which he teaches ; and his fcholars, at leaft at an early
period of life, can go no farther.

Bot the province of the philologift, who wifhes to examine
the ftru@ture of language, and of the philofopher, who wifhes
to inveftigate the laws of human thought, is much more ex-
tenfive. Every grammatical mood that is found in any one
language, is to hima proof of a correfponding diftinétion, or
variety of energy, or modification of thought; for all men are
by nature capable of learning any language. Nor does he {top

_ here. From confidering- how many energies are exprefled by

grammatical moods, he is led to form a more extenfive and juft
notion of thofe energies, and may naturally fufpeé, and with a
little attention will foon difcover, that there are many other fi-
milar energies, which are not exprefled in any language; and

to thefe, as well as to thofe that are exprefled, in fome or
all

206 THEORY of the

all languages, by grammatical moods, he ought unqueftionably
to direct his attention.

Ir is evident at firft fight, that a variety of thoughts, or
modifications of thought, may be combined, or conceived and
expreffed, along with the general meaning or accident denoted
by any verb.

Ir is equally evident, that only a few of thefe modifications
of thought are expreffed by grammatical moods in Greek, Latin
or in the modern European languages.

Ir is alfo evident, that in thefe languages, one grammatical
mood is often employed to denote very different modifications
of, or additions to, the thought, or combination of thoughts,
which is expreffled equally by every part of the verb, and
which may be found without mood, though not without éen/,
in the zafinitive.

Anp it is plain alfo, that both thofe additions and modifica-
tions of thought, which commonly are, and thofe which are
not expreffed by the grammatical moods of any verb, may be
expreffed by the infinitive of that verb, with the addition and
regimen (that is, marked relation). of another verb.. And this
additional or auxiliary verb muft be in the firft perfon, either
fingular or plural, of the prefent tenfe of the indicative mood.
In fome cafes, there may be more than one ftep in this procefs
of refolution, as in interrogation ; but it always terminates ul-
timately in a verb in the prefent of the indicative, and in the
ficft perfon, as the phrafe to be refolved is the expreffion of the
thought of the perfon or perfons fpeaking.

AFFIRMING, denying, teftifying, foretelling or prophecying,
afking, anfwering, wifhing, hoping, expecting, believing, know-
ing, doubting, fuppofing, ftipulating, being able, commanding,
praying, requefting, fupplicating, loving, hating, fearing, def-
pairing, being accuftomed, wondering, admiring, warning,
{wearing, advifing, refufing, exhorting, difluading, encouraging,
promifing, threatening, and perhaps numberlefs other modifi-

cations

MOODS of VERBS. 207

cations of thought, for which I cannot eafily find names, all
admit very readily of being combined with the general import
of a verb, and form with it various more complicated mean-
ings, which are eafily diftinguifhable from one another, and
ar€ not convertible, and therefore muft be different. ‘There
are various degrees and kinds of refemblance or affinity among
them, in confequence of which they admit of being arranged,
and of courfe of having different more general names given
with propriety to the feveral divifions or claffes of them. And
there is fomething common among them all, to which the name
of energy, without any impropriety (that I can fee), may be ap-
plied. If every one of them had been expreffed in all lan-
guages, by variations as ftriking as thofe of rurra, rurrous, and
gurre, they mu/t have been acknowledged as diftin® moods of the
verb. They are equally moods or diflin& energies of thought,
whether expreffed in language or not, if they be but under-
ftood by thofe who ufe language ; as for inftance, in the cafe
of the grammatical mood called the zmperative, by which we
exprefs occafionally prayer to Gop, command to a flave, requeft
to a fuperior, advice to an equal or to any one, order as from
an officer to his fubaltern, fupplication to one whom we cannot
refift. Thefe /pecific differences of thought were perhaps in fome
meafure exprefled in Greek by the ¢en/es of the imperative, the
exact ufes and import of which | muft own I underftand but
very imperfectly. ”

Iz they could all be arranged under three heads, as the au-
thor of the Origin and Progre/s of Language conceives, affir-
ming, wifhing and commanding ; or if they could all be referred
to one head, affirmation, as many philologifts think they may,
this would be but a {mall addition to our knowledge con-
cerning them, compared to what we might expect to obtain
by a more accurate examination of them; and it muft be ac-
knowledged to be fomewhat rafh to attempt to arrange them,
_ without firft examining them carefully.

THE

o08 THEORY of the

THE cafe of the moods of verbs is exactly parallel to that of
their ten/es, which is very accurately pointed out and happily
illuftrated by the learned author of the treatife on the Origin
and Progre/s of Language.

AtMosT every language has its own advantages and difad-
vantages in the exprefling of the various divifions and relations
of time; but the conception of thefe divifions and relations of
time muft be thefame in all mankind. So it is with the conception
and the expreflion of moods or energies, and indeed with the
conception of every thing elfe which can be exprefled by verbs,
or by any other words. As in one of his own inftances: “ The
““ Lorp gave, and the Lorp hath taken away; blefled be the
““ name of the Lorp.” There is a precifion and a beauty in this
ufe of the fimple contrafted with the compound paft tenfe, which
cannot be attained in Latin. Dominus pEepit, et Dominus
ABSTULIT ; benedictum fit nomen Domini. But it might be at-
tained in Greek, by ufing the aorift for gave, and the preter-
perfect for hath taken away. On looking into the Septuagint,
I do not, however, find that this delicacy of expreffion has been
attempted. But the genius of the Greek language has led the
tranflators to another nicety and propriety of expreffion, which
cannot be attained in any other language, nor indeed explained
without a circumlocution : “O Kugios edwxev, 0 Kugsog a@erraro: ein
ro ovouce Kugsov évroynpevoy. In this paflage, édwzxev is the aorift of —
the active voice of the verb fignifying to give; &@eruro is the
-aorift of the middle voice of the verb fignifying zo take away.
The Greek fentence therefore exprefles, The Lorp gave, the
Lorp took away to him/elf, took back to himfelf, or fimply took
back. Dominus pepit, Dominus REcEpIT. If the Greek verb
&@oivew had a preterperfeét middle, and if this tenfe of the
middle voice had, like moft other parts of the middle verb, a
kind of reciprocal or reflected meaning, on which points I dare
not prefume to decide, but muft leave them to the judgment
of grammarians, it would be poffible to exprefs in Greek both

the

MOODS of VERBS. 209

the niceties in queftion. Yet it cannot be doubted, that all

mankind are capable of underftanding them perfectly, whether

they ufe a language in which they can be exprefled by mere
inflections or not.

By means of the fame tenfe and the fame mood, to wit, the
future of the indicative, we are accuftomed to exprefs either
mere futurity, and of courfe a prophecy, or an intention or
purpofe, or a threat, or a promife.

—— Improvifa Lethi
Vis rapuit RAPIETQUE gentes. Hor.

Quo nos cunque FERET melior fortuna parente,
Inimus O /focti comite/que. Hor.

Cras ingens 1TERABIMUS @quor. Hor.

Ile Deiim vitam accie1ET, Divifque ViDEBIT
Permifios Heroas, et ip/¢ ViDEBITUR illis :
Pacatumque REGET patriis virtutibus orbem. VIRG.

Verberibus cafum te in piftrinum Dave DED AM u/que ad necem
TER.

Quarum, que forma pulcherrima, Detiopeiam
Connubio JUNGAM /flabili, propriamque DICABO. VIRG.

In the two firft of thefe inftances from Horace, we have, I
think, the bare expreffion of what is to come to pafs.

In the third and fourth, we have not only futurity, but in-
tention or purpofe, plainly expreffed.

Tue prophecies in the four inftances, from Vireit’s Pollio,
are, I apprehend, fomething more than what is exprefled or un-
derftood in the two firft of the preceding examples, and dif-

Vor. Il. Dd ferent

210 THEORY of the

ferent from what is expreffed in the two laft of them. The
future events mentioned feem to be announced with authority,
or fomething like fupernatural knowledge or information,
which I take to be effential to the notion of prophecy.

Bur Juno's promife of a handfome wife to #olus, and Simo’s
threatening of a fevere whipping and perpetual imprifonment and
hard labour to Davus, are by no means mere predictions of fuch
good or evil to them, nor yet bare enunciations of the intentions
of the fpeakers to them, but fomething very different ; other
energies, modifications of thought, or moods, in fo far at leaft
as mood is predicable of thought, which I think it is com-
pletely. For if there were two or ten different forms or in-
flections of a verb in any language, or in all languages, to ex-
prefs any one mood of thought, for inftance affirmation, with,
or command, they would not be different moods, but only dif-
ferent forms of the fame mood. This is not altogether an ima-
ginary cafe. In Englifh we have, at leaft in fome parts of our
verbs, two forms or grammatical moods for one mood of
thought; one of them -fimple, and only marked by inflection
of the primary verb; the other compound, confifting of an
auxiliary in addition to the primary verb; and in this cafe the
infle@tion is in the auxiliary verb alone. J write. J do write.
They wrote. They did write. (They did wrote or they do wrote,
would be folecifms.) Write thou. Do thou write. Every per-
fon, I think, muft acknowledge, that thefe are not inftances of
two indicative and of two imperative moods in Englifh, but
only two forms or expreflions of one indicative and of ene im-
perative mood. If fo, then it foilows that mood is generally
conceived to be properly an attribute or predicate of thought
alone, while only the expreflion of it, by inflection or other-
wife, belongs to grammatical verbs, juft as the firft and fecond
future, or the firft and fecond aorift, of the regular Greek
verbs, are not two futures and two paft tenfes, but only two

different forms or expreflions of one future and of one paft tenfe,
which

—

ee en a

MOODS of VERBS. ait

which tenfes are uniformly underftood by all mankind. While
the prefent, the imperfect, the aorift, the perfect, the plufquam-
perfect, and the future, are really different ten/es, or expreflions
of different notions of the relation of the general import of the
verb to time; which expreflions and notions are by no means
convertible, and certainly may be underftood by all mankind,
though they are not found diftinguifhed in all languages. In
fhort, we muft draw no inference with refpect to the nature,
the number, the affinities, or the arrangements of the moods
of verbs, from the inflections or other variations employed in
language, without taking into confideration alfo the relation
which thofe infle@ions bear to human thought.

I nave further to add to thefe remarks on the import of the
moods of verbs, that fuch is the affinity or mutual relation
among them, that they may often, by circumlocution, and the
introduction of an additional verb, and fometimes without any
fuch addition to the principal verb, and merely by a kind of
metaphor, be interchanged, or fubftituted one for another,
without materially affecting the fenfe of the paflages wherein
they occur, and fometimes with the manifeft effect of giving a
more full and particular expofition of the meaning of fuch paf-
fages. This I mention, not for the fake of any advantage that
can in general be obtained by fuch interchange, or fubftitution,

but that I may point out that it is not properly a refolution or

decompofition of the meaning of the feveral moods, as fome
philologifts have fuppofed, and have thought an important dif-
covery in grammar, but a mere circumlocution, and a kind of
paraphrafe of the fhorter and more common expreflion, and
fometimes a mere metaphor, inftead of a literal expreflion of
thought. That it can be no refolution of a more complicated
into feveral fimpler meanings, appears plainly from this confi-
deration, that it is mutual among the moods; the fuppofed
fimpler being as éafily refolvable into the fuppofed complicated,
as thefe are into them. But of this afterwards. In general,

Ddz2 the

212 THEORY of the :

the expreflion by the common, or what we may call the natural
mood, is as clear and intelligible as the circumlocution, or fup-
pofed refolution of it, and much fhorter, and more animated
and forcible, and of courfe more agreeable and proper.

Ir muft be owned, however, that fometimes there is a great
and manifeft beauty and advantage, not only in point of vari-
ety, but in force and animation of expreffion, obtained by
ufing a mood of the verb, and a form of fpeech different from
what might be termed the natural one, and what would exprefs
the literal meaning of the fpeaker. Thus, in the ode of Ho-
RACE, already quoted, the ufe of the imperative mood inftead

‘of the /uhjunctive, which would exprefs the literal meaning, ap-

pears to me advantageous, even putting all regard to verfe
out of the queftion. Pong me pigris, &c. Ponz /ub curru,
&c. is furely more forcible and animated than Sz ponerer, or
Si effem pofitus, or imply po/jitus, though the general meaning
be the fame. And Gay’s lines, in imitation of thefe two
ftanzas of HorACcE,

Were I laid on Greenland’s coaft,
Were I fold on India’s fal,

though highly beautiful, and in one refpeét, I mean the bold-
nefg of the imagery introduced, fuperior both to Horace’s
own lines, and to thofe of his tranflator, are lefs animated
than either the original or the tranflation,

PLACE ME where never fummer breeze

Unbinds the earth or fans the trees;

PLAcE ME beneath the burning ray,

Where rolls the rapid car of day.

7
All fuch applications of the imperative mood I ‘confider as
metaphorical ; underftanding by the term metaphor, the trans-
ferring

|

MOODS of VERBS. 213

ferring of any word or phrafe, and employing it to exprefs a
thought different from what it denotes in its original, ftrict, and
literal fignification; which I take to be the very effence and pro-
per definition of this figure of fpeech.

In like manner, the interrqgative mood, inftead of the condi-
tional or fuljunétive, which would fully and clearly have ex-
preffed the literal meaning of the poet, gives peculiar anima-
tion and fpirit to the following lines:

Fervet avaritia miferoque cupidine pectus ?
Laudis amore tumes ?

Are you a covetous wretch 2 Are you a coxcomb 2-—If you are @
mifer, If you are a coxcomb, would furely be flat.

Anp, on the fame principle, fuch expreflions as the follow-
ing, Shall we receive good at the hand of Gov, and hail we not
alfo receive evil 2—Shall I do this great evil, and fin againfi Gop *
are more animated and forcible than the plain literal expreflions
of the fame thoughts would be.

Ir is more remarkable, that fometimes a kind of beauty and
force, not indeed from greater animation, for fimple command
and interrogation, as exprefled by the imperative and interroga-
tive moods, are, I believe, the moft animated enunciations of
thought, but from greater folemnity, may be given by employ-
ing the indicative mood, where either the imperative or the inter-
rogative would fully have exprefied the fpeaker’s meaning.

Lydia pic per omneis
Te deos oro, Sybarin cur PROPERES amanda
Perdere: cur, Sc.

TueEN follow all the articles of interrogation. The general
meaning would have been completely exprefled without the
imperative Dic, and the indicative oro ; yet I prefume no perfon

of

\

24 THEORY of the

of tafte and judgment will difpute, that, independently of the
verfification, there is a beauty and force in HorAce’s expreflion
far beyond what there would be in the fimple interrogation,
Lydia cur Sybarin properas amando perdere 2

Tue future of the indicative is employed in fome cafes
wherein the zmperative mood would exprefs the literal meaning
of the fpeaker; as for inftance, in the Decalogue, the expref-
fions, Thou /halt not kill, Thou fhalt not fieal, Thou fhalt not com-
mit adultery, have not the proper future meaning, but are the
moft abfolute commands, or rather prohibitions, much more
forcible, becaufe more folemn, than K7// not, Steal not, &c.

Tue preceding obfervations on the nature and import of the
moods of verbs, are fo imperfect and fo defultory, that it may
appear very rafh to draw any formal inferences from them. 1|
hope, however, they are fo far at leaft intelligible and juft,
that the conclufions which I have in view, and which I think
might be fairly deduced from a more ample and more. metho-
dical colle&tion of fimilar obfervations, will neither appear ab-
furd nor paradoxical.

Tuey are chiefly the following.

I. THart the energies, or modifications of thought, expreffed
by the moods of verbs, are fuch as may be exprefled feparately
‘by other verbs, and chiefly by active verbs ; or, in the phrafeo-
logy of the author of the eflay on the Origin and Progre/s of
Language, That the energies of the mind of the fpeaker, denoted
by the moods of verbs, are truly accidents, and chiefly actions.

Tuis perhaps the learned author was not fully aware of, elfe
he would not have ufed, in his definition of a verb, a phrafe
which may be fairly tranflated, “‘ A verb is a word chiefly fig-
“ nificant of being and of aétion, of the action of the mind
of the fpeaker relative to that action,” tc. Or, if he had
been aware of this, he muft, I think, have been led to examine

more

— .

MOODS of VERBS. 2¥5: .

more accurately the nature of the energies, actions, or accidents
denoted hy the moods of verbs.

Yer, trom his uniformly employing the term energy to de-
note the general import of all moods, we may prefume, that
he had fome conception of that intimate relation between the
import of the accidents of fome and that of the moods of all
verbs. For he muft have known, that exergy, though a com-
pound Greek word, and aéton, though a fimple Latin word,
when applied to the operations of mind, are perfectly fynony-
mous; and he very properly mentions action as one of the chief
accidents denoted by verbs.

His definition might even be fairly ftated thus. ‘* A verb
“* is a word chiefly fignificant of accident, of the accident of
“« the mind of the fpeaker relative to that accident,” tc. - For
this is only fubftituting the generic term accident for the /pecific
term energy or ation; fo that the propofition, though lefs parti-
cular and accurate, would ftill be true.

Il. Tuat the energies expreffed by the moods of verbs are
chiefly the focial operations of mind, as they have been very
properly termed by Dr Rep ; that is to fay, fuch as imply the
belief of fome other intelligent being to whom they relate, and
which cannot be fuppofed to take place in a folitary being.

fil. Tuar the grammatical moods of verbs are-concife modes
of exprefling fome of thofe combinations of thoughts, which:
eccur moft frequently, and are moft important and ftriking.

IV. Tuat the number of grammatical moods is limited by:
the fame circumftances which feem to limit the variety, preci-
fion, and perfection of language, in other refpects ; and _parti-
cularly by the convenience of thofe who ufe it, and who in
general will have no more moods to their verbs, and no more
words or infleGtions of any kind, than they have abfolute oc-

cafion.

216 THEORY of the

cafion for; and, of courfe, muft often employ one mood as
they do one word, or one infleGtion, in various fenfes, that is,
to exprefs occafionally different thoughts.

V. THAT grammatical moods contribute greatly to the
beauty and perfeGtion of language, by the brevity, animation,
and force, which they give to the expreffion of our moft fami-
lar and interefting combinations of thoughts, which may in-
deed be exprefled, in fome meafure, by circumlocution, and
the ufe of additional verbs, but not with the fame advantages.

VI. THaT grammatical moods of verbs, like other inflec-
tions of words, exprefs much better than any fucceflion of
words’can do, the intimate connection and relation of various
thoughts, which are not fucceflive, but fimultaneous or coex-
iftent, and which appear unnaturally disjointed, and in fome
meature altered, when they are exprefled by a feries of words
denoting each of them feparately and in fucceffion.

Some of thefe conclufions, efpecially the third, the fifth and
the fixth, are fo intimately connected, that it is difficult to con-
fider them feparately ; and as it is of no confequence to keep
them quite diftiné in the following illuftrations, I fhall confi-
der them pretty much together, as I conceive they tend to ex-
plain and illuftrate one another.

I. Tue firft of thofe conclufions can hardly be thought a no-
velty, if it be confidered that feveral philologifts have main-

tained, that fome of the moods are re/olvable into fuch ‘circui- .

tous expreflions, by means of other additional verbs. In truth,
they are all, infome meafure, convertible, though, in ftri@ pro-
priety of language, not 7¢/olvable, nor even perfectly convertible,
in that way. ©

THE zndicative, which denotes affirmation, is nearly the fame

in medning, and of courfe is nearly convertible, with a verb
of

MOODS o VERBS. 217

of affirming in the jir/ per/on (either fingular or plural) of the
prefent of the indicative, and the general import of the primary
verb, without mood, that is, in the infinitive. Titius /cribit,
dico, dicimus, Titium fcribere, quod Titius fcribat. I fay, we
Ja, that he writes. This kind of expreffion is a mere pleonafm.
But fomething very nearly approaching to it is often ufed in
very folemn language, as in that of the Holy Scripture, and
witha good effect. Verily I fay unto thee, &c.

THE imperative mood is in fome meafure convertible with a
verb of commanding, fuch as Fubeo, in the firft perfon of the
prefent of the indicative, and the primary verb without mood.

I nunc, et verfus tecum meditare canoros.
Fubeo te nunc ire et tecum meditari, &c.
Fubeo, dico me jubere.

In like manner, the oftative mood is, in fome meafure, re-
folvable or convertible by means of the primary verb without
mood, and a verb of wifhing, fuch as ofto or cupio, in the firft
perfon of the prefent of the indicative. Te teneam, te /pectem.
Opto, cupio te tenere, te /pectare. It has been found unneceffary,
but it would undoubtedly be poffible, and on fome occafions
might be ufeful, to have grammatical moods, either by inflec-
tion or by arrangement, (like may I held, may I fee) to denote
Jpero te tenere, defpero te tenere, confido te tenere, or te /pecta-
turum.

THE interrogative mood is not refolvable exa¢tly in the fame
way, by the primary verb without mood, and the indicative of
another verb: there is another ftep in it; and, after all, the
refolution is {till lefs perfect than in the other moods. °

Quid faciam? Moriar? et Amyntam perdet Amyntas ?

The meaning here is more than merely, Cupio fcire quid factu-
rus fim, utrum moriar necne, num Amyntas femet perditurus fit.
Even Rogo, Fubeo, aliquem, mibi dicere quid faciam, quid debuero

Vot1. II. Ee facere,

218 THEORY of the

facere, &c. does not fully exprefs it. The energy of interroga-
tion, in point of thought, admits of a more clofe and perfect
combination with the conception denoted by a verb, than can
well be expreffled by any circumlocution *; but it is fully de-
noted by the interrogative mood, as appears by the perfon who.
is addreffed in that mood returning a pertinent anfwer. This,
which is fo manifeft with refpe€t to the interrogative mood, is
equally true with refpeét to all the other moods.

Wonper has a kind of mood appropriated to the exprefling of
it, made out by the addition of a particle, originally of inter-
rogative meaning, to the indicative mood ; at leaft, I think it
is fo in all the languages that I am acquainted with.

Quam timeo quorfum evadas. TER.

Quam pene furve regna Proferpine,

Et judicantem vidimus /Eacum. Hor.
Tela quam certo moderatur arcu. SEN..

ta 7) . = vo f -
Qwil eft cruel—qu'il eff doux d'etre Pere:

DiperRoT Pere de Famille.

How fearful and dizzy ’tis to caft one’s eyes fo low !

How many thoufands of my pooreft fubjects are at this hour
afleep! SHAKES,

None of thefe fentences are interrogations, or can admit of
an anfwer. They all exprefs (in addition to the general: mean-
ing

* I pexizve the neareft we can come to it is by the ufe-of the imperative of a verb.
of affirming with the infinitive of the primary verb. °

‘

Dic mibi Dameta cujum pecus, an Melibei ?
Cujus. eft pecus? Dic cujus pecus eft.
Jubeo te mibi dicere cujus pecus eft.

aa ok

Se rears:

oe ears

MOODS of VERBS. 219

ing of the primary verbs) the emotion of wonder, or fome
mixed emotion, of which wonder forms a part. No perfon
can doubt that this exergy might have been exprefled by in-
flection of the verb; and that, if it had been fo, fuch inflec-
tion mufi have been reckoned. a perfeét grammatical mood, and
might have been refolved, though no doubt but imperfectly,
into a fentence containing the primary verb, (timeo, video, &c.)
and fome verb, or phrafe containing a verb, expreflive of
wonder, or fome fimilar emotion. Miror me tam pene vidiffe
regna Proferpine, miror quantum timeo, mirus eff timor meus,
quorfum evadas. 1 wonder, tremble, fhudder, to caft my eyes
fo low. Iadmire, it is admirable, that many of my fubjedts
are at this hour afleep.
Wirua refpect to the grammatical mood called the /ubjunctive,
it muft be obferved, that it (like many words in common lan-
guage) has different meanings, or exprefles different energies,
combined with the radical meaning of the verb, fuch as, with,
(already confidered) fuppofition, power, condition, tc. It
muft be in vain, therefore, to look for any one verb, or any
one thought or energy, by means of which the fubjunctive
mood may uniformly be refolved, as the indicative may be by
dico, the optative by opto, the interrogative by vago, the impe-
rative by jubeo. Itis to be refolved occafionally by means of
different verbs, according to the particular energy or mood of

’ thought expreffed in any inftance. Of this indeed there can

be no better proof than the number of different auxiliary words
which we employ in Englifh to make out what we call the fub-

*- junétive mood in all its ten/es, fuch as, may, can, might, could,

would, /bould, which are, by no means, fynonymous and con-
vertible terms, even in this application of them, and yet all

-correfpond occafionally to the Latin fubjunétive mood, which

is fimple, and only marked by inflection.
Crediderim, pofjum credere, | might believe; credidiffem, potui
credere, 1 might have believed. Condition, ftipulation, fuppo-
Ee2 fition,

220 THEORY of the

fition, which, though fomewhat different, are very near akin,.
are among the moft frequent meanings of the fubjunctive mood.
This meaning, or mood of. thought, may be refolved, to a cer-
tain degree, into an imperative mood (the refolution of which
hath already been fhewn) and the primary verb. An ingeni-
ous etymologift* has fhewn, that the Greek particle é&, and
the Roman /, are but contractions of certain parts or in-
fleGtions of the fubftantive verbs, és and /um; which parts
of thofe verbs have an imperative meaning, Be it fo. The
fame author fhows, that our Englifh particle if is juft a con-
traction of the imperative of the verb give, anciently written -
and pronounced gif. Si vis me flere. Sit, eflo, quod vis, or
velis me flere. Fac, pone, te velle me flere. ‘The imperative fac
was often ufed by the ancient writers of Latin in this fenfe;
pone feldom by them, but often by modern writers ; r:de: was
ufed in the fame fenfe by the Greeks. Indeed, different parts,
both of zidyus and of pono, were ufed for this purpofe; the
Romans, I prefume, imitating the Greeks. It is worthy of
obfervation, that in French, the ufe of the conditional particle
fi faperfedes completely the ufe, either of the fubjunétive or of
the conditional mood. $7 in French always governs the indica-
tive mood. 7 je peux, fi je pouvois, fi je pourrais never Si je
puiffe, fi je puff, wm the fubjunctive, nor even /¢ je pourrois in the
conditional mood.

As to the circumftance of being fubjoined to a preceding
member of a fentence, and commonly to a verb in the indica-
tive mood, from which the fubjun¢tive has got its name, the
difference of meaning between the fubjunctive fo employed,
and that of the indicative in fome cafes, and between it and
the bare infinitive in others, is fo minute, that it is difficult to
afcertain it, and perhaps impofhible to exprefs it in words. Ac-
cordingly, we often find, that in tranflating from one lan-
guage into another, thofe three grammatical moods may and

perhaps

* Mr Horne Tooke.

MOODS of VERBS. oo

perhaps mu/ be interchanged, to preferve the original meaning,
without violating the idiom of the language into which the
tranflation is made. But the ufe of a peculiar inflection or
mood to diftinguifh the fecondary or fubjoined verb from the
fundamental or primary verb in a fentence, often has its ufe;
and I think, without much refinement, we muft perceive an
elegance, and perhaps too a greater degree of precifion, in thofe
languages in which this nicety is attended to, asin Latin and in
French ; for in our own it is almoft loft fight of. But it muft
be obferved, that it is not every verb fubjoined to another by
the relative pronoun quwz, that is put in the fubjunétive mood.
In many cafes, either the indicative or the fubjunctive may be
employed, almoft indifcriminately, both in Latin and in French.
But fometimes the one, fometimes the other, ought to be ufed.
Where the affirmation is certain and pofitive, the indicative
fhould be fubjoined to the indicative..

—— Heu quoties fidem,
Mutatofque deos FLEBIT : et afpera
Nigris equora ventis
EMIRABITUR 7/olens,
Qui nunc te FRUITUR credulus aurea=
Qui /emper vacuam, femper amabilem.
SPERAT, %e/cius aure
Fallacis : miferi, QUIBUS.
Intentata NITES.

Cependant je RENDS grace au ele officicux,
Qui fur tous mes perils vous FAIT ouvrir les yeux.

Feune et vaillant heros, DoNT la haute fageffe
N’est point le fruit tardif d’une lente vieilleffe.

- Though in thefe lines of Borrzau, there be no verb but ¢/,
ir is plainly fubjoined to the preceding member of the fen-
tence

222 THEORY of the

tence by means of the relative dont. Ne foit point le fruit,
would, in the firft place, be bad. French, and, in the next
place, would have been a very impertinent infinuation to
_Lovuis XIV. as if his high wifdom had been fomehow contin-
gent, or hypothetical. But BoILEav was not .a man likely to
fall into.either of thefe errors.

On the fame principle, I prefume, the indicative mood is
fubjoined to the indicative, in the following paflage of the
Holy Scripture: Fe fuis 1 Eternel ton, Dieu, qui t? ai tire du
pais d’Egypte, de la maifon de Jervitude. The fubjunéive
mood, Qui 7’ AYE tiré, would manifeftly be inelegant and in-
accurate in this place, where the fubjoined affirmation is pofi-
tive and certain. And for the fame reafon, we fhould never
hefitate to exprefs the fame thought in Latin by the words,
Ego fum Dominus tuus Deus, qui EDUX1 te e terra Aigypti, e domo
Jervitutis; and fhould be fenfible of a grofs impropriety, if the
word eduxerim were fubftituted for eduxt.

Bur in innumerable inftances, wherein the fubjoined verb
expreffes any thing uncertain, precarious, contingent, or de-
pendent on the will or power of another, it is put in the fub-
junétive mood: hence this mood has, in all its ¢enfes, a fort of
affinity or relation to a future meaning. Still, however, great
latitude is allowed to writers, both in profe and verfe, and is
actually taken by the beft of them, in the ufe of the indicative
and of the fubjun@tive moods ; as in the following inftances
from VirciL and Cicero.

‘Quip. FACIAT /atas fegetes, QUO SIDERE terram
Vertere, Maecenas, ulmi/que adjungere vites
CONVENIAT: QUH CURA Boum, qui cuLtus habendo
Sit pecori, apibus quanta experientia parcis,

Hine canere incipiam.

Vos,

MOODS of VERBS. 223

— Vos, 0 clarifima mundi
Lumina, labentem celo gum DUCITIS annum, :
Liber, et alma Ceres; veftro fi munere Tellus
Chaoniam pingui glandem MUTAVIT arifia,
Poculaque inventis Acheloia miscuitT uvis :
Munera vefira canos Tuque O cur prima frementem
Fupit equum magno tellus percuffa.tridenti,
Neptune: et cultor nemorum cui pinguia Cee
Ter centum nivet TONDENT dumeta juvencic.

Enumerare pofum QUE siT in figuris animantium, et quam fo-
fers fubtilifque defcriptio partium, quamque admirabilis fabrica
membrorum. Omnia enim QU quidem intus inclufa suNT ita nata,
atque ita locata funt,-uv nihil eorum fupervacaneum sit, nihil ad
vitam retinendam non neceffarium.

Cuyus quidem adminiftratio nihil HABET in fe QUOD reprehendi
PROTEST 5 eX iS enim naturis QUHERANT, QUOD efici POTUIT
optimum effectum eff : doceat ergo aliquis. potuiffe melius: fed nemo
unquam docebit: et stquis corrigere aliquid voLET, aut deterius-
faciet, aut id, quod fiert not potest, defiderabit..

In thefe paflages, the fubjoined verbs are marked in capi-
tals. They are.to the number of feventeen; yet of them no
lefs than twelve are put in the indicative mood. And it may
be obferved, at Jeaft with refpect to the two paffages from Cr-
CERO, that the meaning exprefled by the fubjoined. indicative
is not diftinguifhable, in feveral cafes, from that which, in
other cafes, is exprefled by the fubjunctive mood.

_ THESE more particular obfervations, and. the well known
general fact, that, in our own language, we find means to
difpenfe with the ufe of a peculiar grammatical mood, to de-
note barely the circumftance of being fubjoined, I apprehend
coincide perfeétly with the account given of the comprehenfive

and various meanings of that grammatical mood which is
called

224 THEORY of the

called the fubjunctive, and amount to a full confirmation of
that account.

Il. Tue fecond of thofe conclufions can f{carce require any
explanation or commentary. The modification or mood of
thought, which is moft commonly exprefled by a grammatical
mood of a verb, is unqueftionably that of affirmation, under
which we may comprehend negation, or elfe we muft ufe the
more general term propofition, which comprehends them both.
This is exprefled by the indicative mood. Next to.this, the
moods of thought, moft commonly exprefled by verbs, are
thofe of command and of interrogation ; the latter (at leaft in all
the languages that I know any thing of) being w/wally expreffed,
either by the addition of fome particle to the common indica-
tive mood, or elfe by fome peculiar arrangement of the words
conneéted with a:verb in that mood. Vidiffi, Thou /aweft or
thou didft fee. Vidiftine? Saweft thou, or Didft thou fee? Some-
times, however, it is not exprefled in either of thefe ways, nor in
any way but merely by the tone of voice of the fpeaker; and
confequently, when it is written, and read filently, it cannot be
diftinguifhed from a propofition. Fervet avaritia pectus. Lau-
dis amore tumes. Hence the ufe of points or marks of interro-
gation in writing. The former (command) is commonly ex-
prefled by a diftin@ grammatical mood.

Tuese three moods are all plainly focial modifications of
thought. No man could be fuppofed even to form (not to fay
utter) a propofition, a queftion, or a command, who did not
believe that there were other intelligent Beings befides himfelf,
who might underftand him. In general too, (for I admit there
may be exceptions to this) the perfon who utters a propofition
wifhes to be believed, he who gives a command withes to be
obeyed, he who puts a queftion wifhes to be anfwered, and all
of them wifh to be underftood. Thefe are all operations of

thought,

MOODS of VERBS. 225

thought, which cannot be fuppofed to take place in a folitary
Being.

Bur there are fome moods of thought denoted by the gram-
matical moods of verbs, (more or lefs perfeétly) which are not,
ftrictly {fpeaking, focial acts of the mind; for inftance, wifh-
ing, fuppofing, wondering. Thefe may all be fuppofed to take
place in a folitary being, like Rosinson Crusoe in his ifland,
as well as in Cicero in the Forum of Rome.

THE greateft part, even of common converfation, confifts
of propofitions; and whole volumes, both in hiftory and in fci-
ence, may be, and perhaps have been written, confifting en-
tirely of propofitions, and of courfe requiring no other mood
but the indicative.

BuT in common converfation, and {till more remarkably in
all buftling and interefting fcenes, commands and queftions
muft occur, and, of courfe, the interrogative and imperative
moods, however formed and marked, become neceflary.

Next to thefe purely focial acts of the mind, or poflibly not
lefs frequent or important even than them, is the familiar and
interefting emotion of wifhing. And this emotion or energy
of thought we often have occafion to exprefs or communicate
to thofe among whom we live and with whom we converfe ;
fo that although it be not of itfelf, ftritly fpeaking, a focial
act of the mind, yet it is plainly very near akin to one, and
may almoft be faid to become one when combined with that of
affirmation, as it is when exprefled by the optative mood in
common difcourfe ; for it would not be fo in foliloqguy. Now,
thefe are the modifications of thought, which, in moft lan-
guages that are tolerably perfect, are exprefled by grammatical
moods in one way or another.

Ill. Tue third conclufion, ‘“‘ That the grammatical moods
of verbs are concife modes of exprefling the moft frequent
modifications of thought, (and the moft important or in-
Vox. II. Fuk “ terefting

ay

226 THEORY of the

“ terefting of them)” is felf-evident, when we compare them
with the circumlocutions into which it is thought they may be
refolved. But it will be illuftrated more fully than is neceflary
here, in confidering the two laft conclufions.

IV. As to the fourth conclufion, it muft -be very plain to us
all, from the experience we have had of different languages,
that none of them are in every refpect, nay hardly in any re-
fpe&t, abfolutely perfect ; and correfponding, either by the va-
riety of words which they afford, or by the modifications,
infleGtions, and arrangements of thofe words, to all the varie-
ties and niceties of human thought. It is only the moft com-
mon and familiar thoughts or notions that have particular
words in al] common languages to denote them, and only the
familiar and frequent combinations of thoughts that have ap-
propriated phrafes to exprefs them. New notions require new
words to denote them, as new combinations of thoughts, of
which the variety is endlefs, require new phrafes and fentences.
In this way, languages gradually improve, at leaft in point of
richnefs, copioufnefs, and precifion.

Bur it is only the moft frequent of all combinations of
thought with that which is the general meaning of a verb, fuch
as affirmation, interrogation, command, wifh, tc. that are
exprefled by fuch infletions or variations of the primary verb,
as may be called grammatical moods. Thefe are the combina-
tions of thought, in the exprefling of which, circumlocution,
or tedioufnefs of any kind, would be the moft difagreeable and:
inconvenient ; and for which, therefore, a quick and fimple
mode of communication is moft requifite. Many other com-
binations of thoughts may be exprefled by the combination of
different verbs with fufficient quicknefs, and without inconve-
nience or difagreeablenefs of any kind. The number of gram-
matical moods cannot be infinite. It is plainly limited, partly
by the difficulty of contriving a great number of diftinct in-

flections;.

me,

es ee

MOODS of VERBS. 227

fletions, partly too from the obvious difficulty of remember-
ing and employing accurately even fuch a number as might

‘undoubtedly be contrived, but much more from there being

no urgent occafion for fuch a variety of them; many of the
combinations of thoughts to be expreffed by verbs being fo
near akin, that they would naturally be claffed together, and
might be denoted by one grammatical mood, without danger of
any ambiguity or obfcurity ; as for inftance, the various moods
of thought which are occafionally exprefled by the grammatical
imperative, or by the future tenfe of the indicative; all the
diftinctions of which moods of thought, both in kind and in
degree, may be fully underftood by thofe to whom the dif-
courfe is addrefled, from a variety,of well known or obvious
circumftances. Hence I think it appears very natural, that
though the poflible number of grammatical moods be very
great, (though by no means infinite) the number of actually
fubfifting moods in different languages fhould be very fmall ;
and that fome, even of thefe few, fhould occafionally be em-
ployed with little diftinction; the ingenuity and labour of man-
kind in contriving, and their precifion and fteadinefs in em-
ploying fuch moods, being chiefly regulated by the experience
of what they daily had occafion for.

V. Tue fifth of thofe conclufions refpefting the importance
of grammatical moods towards the perfection and beauty of
language, by the quicknefs, animation, and force, which they
give to the expreffion of our moft familiar and moft interefting
modifications of thought, can require no other proof but mere
illuftration by proper examples, any number of which may
eafily and readily be found. And from thefe it will plainly ap-

“pear, that the moods of verbs are in a manner effential to elo-

quence of almoft every kind. “ L’éloquence” (as M. D’ALEM-
BERT very juftly obferves, and propofes to define it) “ eft le
* talent de faire pafler avec rapidité, et d’imprimer avec force,

| Sage det “ dans

228 THEORY of the

* dans l’ame des autres, le fentiment profond dont on eft péne-

tré. Cette definition convient a l’éloquence méme du filence,
langage energique et quelquefois fublime des grandes paf-
fions ; a l’éloquence du gefte, qu’on peut appeller l’éloquence
““ du peuple, par le pouvoir quelle a pour fubjuguer la multi-
“ tude, toujours plus frappée de ce qu’elle voit que de ce qu'elle
* entend ; enfin a cette éloquence adroite et tranquille, qui fe
* borne & convaincre fans emouvoir, et qui ne cherche point a
“ arracher le confentement, mais a l’obtenir. Cette derniére
“* éfpece d’éloquence n’eft peutétre pas la moins puiflante ; on
eft moins en garde contre l’infinuation que contre la force.”
D’AcemsBert Difcours a T Academie Frangoife, et Reflexions fur
Eloquence Oratoire. Melanges, Vol. Il. p. 304, 305- 319.

Or all the moods of thought which are commonly expreffed
by grammatical moods, the indicative (comprehending the
fimple /ubjunctive) though one of the moft important, and
moft frequently employed, is plainly one of the leaft animated
or interefting, from the nature of the thought expreffed by it,.
which is merely propofition, that is, affirmation and negation.
Though animation and force be little needed, yet brevity and.
quicknefs are of much .confequence in the exprefling of this
combination of thoughts. Had we not an indicative mood to.
exprefs it briefly, and in one word, our converfation and wri-
ting would be intolerably flow and tedious, and confequently
feeble and difagreeable. We fhould be obliged to employ at.
leaft two verbs inftead of one, and after all fhould have but a:
very inaccurate and clum{fy expreffion of a thought, which we:
fhould wifh to communicate as precifely and diftin@ly as pofli-
ble. Fuit Ilium could not be refolved into Dico Ilium fuiffe 3
for dico is itfelf an indicative, refolvable in the fame way with
fuits aio, inquam, affero, affevero, Sc. me dicere. Without the ufe
of grammatical moods, we could get no nearer to a refolution
of fuit Ilium than ego dicere fuiffe Ilium. Or dropping the in-
fletions which ferve to diftinguifh the infinitives from the
; moods,

Le SC

MOODS of VERBS. 229

moods, properly fo called, and taking only the roots or bafes
of the verbs refpectively, Ego dic— fu— Ilium. Any perfon
may eafily try the effect of fuch a refolution of any plain ele-
gant compofition, either in profe or verfe, wherein the indica-
tive and fimply fubjunctive moods are ‘chiefly or folely em-
ployed ; as for inftance, the following beautiful lines of Ovrp,
containing an account of PyTHAGORAs.

Vir vuiT hic ortu Samus: fed FUGERAT una

Et Samon et dominos; odioque tyrannidis exul

Sponte ERAT: i/que licet ceeli regione remotus

Mente deos ADIIT: et que Natura NEGABAT
Vifibus bumanis, oculis ea pectoris HAUSIT.

Cumque animo, et vigili PERSPEXERAT omnia cura,
In medium difcenda DABAT: catumque filentum,
Dittaque mirantum, magni primordia mundi,

Et rerum cauffas, et quid Natura, DOCEBAT :

Quid Deus; unde nivess que fulminis ussev origo :
Fuppiter, an venti, difcuffa nube TONARENT :

Quid QUATERET terras; qua fidera lege MEARENT }
Et quodcunque LATET. Primufque animalia men/is
ARCUIT imponi: primus quoque talibus ora

Doéta quidem sorvit, fed non et credita, verbis.

’ In thefe fifteen lines, there are fixteen verbs, either in the
indicative or in the fimply fubjun@tive mood. Without the ufe:
of fuch a mood, the thoughts exprefled in the lines, fimple and
eafy of apprehenfion as they may appear, could hardly have
been expreffed intelligibly ; or if this, with much labour and.
ingenuity, could be accomplifhed, ftill the beauty, the charm,
of the compofition would be completely loft. The poet, the
orator, the philofopher, the hiftorian, and indeed every perfon
who has the gift of fpeech, or who makes ufe of language in
any way, has almoft conftant occafion to employ that mood,

and

230 THEORY of the

and muft feverely feel the want of it, whatever refolution or
circumlocution he might contrive inftead of it. It is evident,
that, in many cafes in real life, a flow and tedious expreflion
of the thought denoted by the indicative mood, fuppofing
that it could be made fufficiently intelligible, would not only
be difagreeable, but might fcarce ferve the purpofe required ;
it might come too late. In ‘certain circumftances, a perfon’s
life and fortune may depend on his quicknefs in exprefling
what he means to communicate. Even where nothing of that
kind is at ftake, the difference between a quick and a flow te-
dious expreffion of thought, is very ftriking and important.
Language is at beft, and after all its improvements, not only
lefs perfe&t and accurate, but incomparably flower, than
thought; the quicknefs of which is proverbial, and with
great reafon. J believe it is even in many cafes much quicker
than we are commonly aware of: We all know, that we can,
in a very few feconds, recollect a vaft number of things in
fucceflion; fuch as the various circumftances of a ftory, in
which perhaps many different perfons were concerned, and
many different events occurred, or the various fcenes through
which we paffed in the courfe of a long journey. But to tell
fuch a {tory intelligibly, or to defcribe particularly fuch fcenes,
even with the help of the moft perfect language, might be the
work of hours. In a certain ftate of imperfect fleep, in which
dreams moft.commonly accur, .or at leaft are moft diftiné and
beft remembered, the train of thought appears to be incompa-
rably quicker than we can ever make it, while awake, by any vo-
luntary exertion. There is reafon to think, that fometimes a
fudden noife, which, to a carelefs obferver, might feem to
waken a perfon inftantaneoufly and perfectly, may yet give
occafion to a /ong dream, in an almoft imperceptible interval of
time. I call the dream dong, though it may pafs in a fingle fe-
cond or lefs, when it confifts of a great or numerous feries of
imaginary events, the narration of which would be long in

point

MOODS of VERBS. 231

point of time; like the adventure of the Sultan in the Arabian
Nights Entertainments, who, on dipping his head into water,
had a long and vexatious feries of adventures, for feven years,
as he thought, in the fhort fpace of time in which his head
was in the water. Even when we are awake, a voluntary
train of thought, efpecially when much connected with emo-
tion or paffion, is fometimes fo quick that we are unable to ex-
prefs it in words, or at leaft to do it any juftice in point of
quicknefs. Before we can exprefs even the hundredth part of
it, the reft of it is gone, and cannot be recalled but flowly,
and with much labour. We can often obferve, both in com-
mon converfation, and in public fpeaking, that a perfon hath
gone on much farther in thought than he has expreffed in
words. Many people cannot tell to ‘any purpofe either a ludi-
erous or a pathetic ftory for laughing or weeping. The whole
train of thought rufhes on their minds fo quickly as to over-
power them with its full effect, before they have expreffed.
enough to let their hearers know any thing of it, nay fome-
times before they begin to fpeak.

Format enim natura prius nos intus ad omnem
Fortunarum habitum : juvat aut impellit ad iram,
Aut ad humum merore gravi deducit et angit :
Mox effert animi motus interprete lingua.

Some of the moft interefting modifications of thought, f
mean emotions and paffions, exprefs themfelves by natural:
language, that is by the countenance, voice and gefture, al-
moft as quickly as they are conceived; and when they are ex-
preffed in this way, they are not only well under{tood by
others, but are often in fome meafure communicated to them,
For fuch is the nature of man, that, independently of all reli-
gious precepts, and of all moral confiderations, we are ftrongly,
_and often. irrefiftibly difpofed to rejoice with thofe that do re-
joice,

232 THEORY of the

joice, and weep with thofe that weep. This we mutt all have |

feen, and to a certain degree felt, even in common converfa-
tion. We can often obferve, that one very cheerful, or one
very melancholy perfon quickly communicates his ftate of
mind to a whole company. We feel the fame to a ftill greater
degree in fcenes of real diftrefs, or of violent emotions of any
kind, and often to a very high degree from exquifite theatrical
reprefentation. The fame principle extends to the fpreading of
the military ardour or of a pannic among foldiers, of civil
fury among a mob, and of religious fanaticifm, fometimes
even among people who did not apprehend any fuch danger to
themfelves.

Next to this inftantaneous and moft effe@tual expreflion and
communication of thought by natural language, is the quick
tranfmiffion of it by very brief expreffions in artificial lan-
guage. The beauty and force (that is, the quick, and power-
ful, and pleafing, effe€t) of fuch quick and brief expreflions
has been generally acknowledged, and felt, and admired. The
chief, and fometimes perhaps the only merit of certain apoph-
thegms, or good fayings, confifts in the brevity, and confe-
quently force of the expreflion*. Among the Spartans, this
ftyle of fpeaking and writing was fo much admired as to be-
come a matter of ftudy, and confequently fometimes of affec-
tation. It is certain, that many thoughts, which appear ftriking
and admirable, when expreffed in one or two words, are feeble
and frivolous, when expreffed at full length, efpecially when put
into pompous language. On the fame principle too, we may
underftand how it comes to pafs, that brevity, and the employ-
ment of few and fimple words, are eflential to the fublime in

literary compofition ; which is a well known and important —

fact. :
We are fo apt to-be difgufted with a very full and precife
expreflion of thought, efpecially on fubjeéts which are familiar

to
* Videfis Puurarcn’s Apophthegms.

a

MOODS of VERBS. 233

to us, or at leaft are fuppofed to be fo, that many people who
are accuf{tomed to the elegant, and often concife and animated,
compofitions of hiftorians, orators, and poets, cannot be recon-
ciled to that accurate enunciation of propofitions and of argu-
ments in proof of them, which is often indifpenfibly neceflary
for ftrict reafoning ; or if they can bring themfelves to liften
to the propofitions and demonftrations of geometry, when ex-
preffed in this way, they will not fo readily admit that there is
the fame occafion for fuch fulnefs and accuracy of expreffion
on any other fubjeét, not even in metaphyfics; hence the
vague, inconclufive, and often abfurd reafonings, which have
produced both difguft and diftruft of fuch fpeculations.

GRAMMATICAL language, in general, and efpecially the
modern languages, afford fuch flow expreflions of thought, that
often before we have heard or read the half of a fentence, we
apprehend the meaning of the whole of it, and, of courfe, the
latter part of it is not merely fuperfluous and tedious, but in
many cafes quite difgufting.

Ir we could exprefs ourthoughts by grammatical language
as quickly and concifely as we can by natural language, and
without lofing any thing of that diftinétnefs and precifion
which artificial language gives to the expreflion of them, it
would unqueftionably be a great improvement in language, in
point of agreeablenefs, animation, and force. I doubt whe-
ther it would be equally favourable in fcience. Iam difpofed:
to think that the flownefs, or even tedioufnefs, of the expref-
fion of our thoughts on certain fubjects of profound reafoning,
has its ufe, by giving us time and opportunity, and almoft
forcing us, to attend to every particular thing, and its relations
to other things, about which we reafon. But even this has its
limits ; and mathematical demonftration itfelf, as we find it in
the writings of the ancient geometers, is but an abridged chain
of fyllogifms. And it is ftill further abridged in many cafes,
by thofe who are perfect mafters of it, by omitting many of

Vo. II. Gg the

232 THEORY of the

the more minute-and eafy fteps which thofe who are well ac-
euftomed to fuch reafonings quickly and eafily fupply for them-
felves, and find pleafure in this quicknefs. and brevity ; while,
on the contrary, they are tired and difgufted with that flow.
and tedious expofition of every ftep in the reafoning, which to
them is needlefs, but perhaps would be neceflary for the in-
ftru@tion of thofe of inferior talents and knowledge.

A GRAMMATICAL language, as quick as thought, and as.
concife as natural language, is manifeftly unattainable. But
every approximation to it is valuable. All the moods of verbs,
even the indicative and the fimple fubjundtive, are fuch ap-
proximations.

Ir thefe obfervations be true, with refpect to the indicative
and fimply fubjunctive mood, and the plain and tranquil ex-
preffion of mere propofition, how much more important and
ftriking muft the correfponding differences be, between the
concife and quick expreffions of fuch interefting and animated.
combinations of thoughts, as interrogation, command, with,
&%c. by the grammatical moods of verbs, and the flow, languid
‘enunciations of the fame or fimilar thoughts, by circumlocu-
¢ion and the ufe of additional verbs?

Tere is a jult and beautiful obfervation of Loneinus,
relating to this fubje@, which will fairly admit of much more

extenfive application than he has made of it, and is in truth. _

more important than ‘he féems to ‘have been aware of. He
takes notice of interrogation as a figure of rhetoric, by which
an orator endeavours to render the expreflion of his thoughts
more animated and forcible. Tid” exeva Qayrer rag wevoeis Te woe:
eearnrels 3 apm Bm wUTes Tog Tay oY AmoTOW e1Domort cls TeegeemTony
EMT OUKTOTERH KOb coPagurecn OUVTEWEL TH REVyomever ; Loncinus de
Sublim. Se&. xviii. This opinion he illuftrates, in fome mea-
fure, by the manner in which he expreffes it, namely, by the
ufe of the very figure of interrogation of which he is treating
and ftill ‘better by a very apt quotation from the firft Philippic

of.

—=-_ SC

MOODS of VERBS. 235

of DEMOSTHENES. H Bezreodbe, eure (40ls Weouiovres eodrnrwy wvvdaverbors
AUTO THY CLIVOLOLY, hevyEroLs TE HOLIVOY; YEVOITO YH CLY Th HOLWOTELOY, 7 Maxedov
ane AOnvesovs naramorcuov, xo roe tov EAAnvev Diomav; rebvyne Dida
mos; ov oe A’ arr’ aobever 210° vps dsadeges; Pe,

Tue juftnefs of Loncinus’s remark on this paflage, and
indeed his general obfervation with refpeét to the animation and
force of interrogation, employed as a figure of rhetoric, can,
I think, admit of no difpute. But even the truth of it, and
our ready acquiefcence in it, implies that he was, and that we
too are, fenfible of fomething more animated and forcible in
an interrogation, even literally employed, as in common life,
than in a circuitous expreffion of the fame thought; elfe it
never could have been employed, nor thought of, as an ani-
mated figure of f{peech.

- Even the fimple interrogation, Who is that? is evidently
more animated and forcible, as well as more concife, than I de-
Jire you to tell me who that is, or I defire to be informed who that is.
The fame is equally obvious with refpect to go, come, do this,
te [pectem, te teneam, vu pev beos dorer, if we compare them with
I order you to go, I command you to come, I defire you to do this,
cupio te fpectare, opto te tenere, Mocomas reg bese vos didovas, oY,
Aey— Arco— bees vu do—; which is employing merely the
roots, without any inflection whatever of the three verbs, the
meaning of all of which, to wit, affirmation, wifh, and giving,
is briefly, but fully and clearly, and confequently forcibly ex-
prefled by the Greek optative doe,

Tue more urgent the occafion is, and the more interefted
the paffions become, the more important is the brevity and
force of thefe moods to the expreflion of our thoughts. This,
which is obvious even in common life, is ftill more ftriking in
thofe animated and interefting reprefentations of real life, which
we have in dramatic poetry ; to a great part of which it may
fairly be faid that thefe moods are effential. _

Gg2 In

236 THEORY of the

In the great difcovery fcene in Oedipus Tyrannus, there are not
fewer than 150 interrogative and imperative fentences.; any one
of which would be murdered, and the effect of the fcene
{poiled, by ufing circumlocution by means of a verb of afking
or of commanding.

In the paffionate fcenes of Lear and of Othello, feveral hun-
dreds of fimilar inftances may eafily be found.

In the difcovery fcene in Douglas, fome of the fineft ftrokes
of paflion, of anxiety, of wonder, of horror, of eager curiofity,
are conveyed by means of the moods of verbs, and would be
loft in any circumlocution.

Was he alive 2

— Inhuman that thou art
How couldft thou kill what winds and tempefts [pared ?

Even Rowe, amidft all his golden verfe, was not unmind-
ful of the force and animation which the moods of verbs give
to the expreflion of thought. y

—— Does he? Does Haftings ?

Reward him for the noble deed, juft Heaven.

For this one action, guard him, and di/tingui/b him,
With fignal mercies, and with great deliverance ;
Save him from wrong, adverfity, and fhame ;

Let never fading honours flowri/h round him ;

And con/ecrate his name even to time’s end ;

Let him know nothing elfe but good on earth,

And everlafting bleffednefs hereafter.

The poor, forfaken, royal little ones !

Shall they be left a prey to favage power ?

Can they lift up their harmlefs hands in vain,
Or cry to Heaven for heip, and not be heard?
Impofhible!

ee

_
a

oS

MOODS of VERBS. 237

Go on, purfue, affert the facred caufe, /fand forth and
fave. Fane Shore, act 4. fc. 1»

Alas ! I never wrong’d you—

Oh ! then be good to me, have pity on me 3

Thou never knew’ft the bitternefs of want,

And may"/t thou never know it. Oh! beftow

Some poor remain
Allow me but

The fmalleft pittance. Abt §.

THE genius of SopHocieEs and of SHAKESPEARE, and the
talents of Garrick and S1DDONs united, could not make fuch
fentiments as thofe of Lear, and Othello, and Oedipus, and Lady
Randolph, and Fane Shore, interefting, or even tolerable, to any
reader or {pectator of tafte and judgment, if they were exprefled
in minute detail, by fuch circumlocutions: as the grammatical
moods of verbs may be refolved into.

Tue fineft inftance that can be given, or indeed fuppofed, of
the truth of this principle, we have in Homer, in the admira-
ble fpeech of Priam to Achilles, when he goes to beg the body
of his fon Hector, This fpeech has been univerfally admired,
as perhaps the moft eloquent that ever was compofed. Though
it be exquifite in every part, the exordium, and indeed the very
firft fentence of it, is by far the moft ftriking and eloquent
part of it. This too Homer feems to have felt and underftood

perfectly ; for he makes Priam repeat the fame thought, and
almoft in the fame words, at the end of his fpeech, by way of
peroration, and with a very happy effect. When Priam enters
the tent of Achilles, and throws himfelf at his feet, his addrefs: .
to him is moft fingularly ftriking.

Monoos rareos oeso Seoss emieimen Aysrren,
Trius wonee EYa, OAOW ETS YNEKOS avd.

Think

238 THEORY of the

Think of thy father, O god-like Achilles, old like me, and on the
brink of the grave. Pofhibly there is a force and propriety in the |
ufe of the aoriftic imperative w»ycas, inftead of the prefent im-
perative, which would be more intelligible to Homer’s coun-
trymen than it can be to us. Perhaps to them the difference
between thofe two forms of the imperative mood might be as
great as it is to us between think of and be thinking of, the im-
perative of the aorift being a more vehement, fudden and
urgent requeft or command than the imperative prefent waov,
but yet not difrefpectful, like the imperative perfe€t peuryco,
which, I believe, might be addrefled to a flave, but could not,
with propriety, be employed by a fupplicant to an equal or to
a fuperior. é

Some nicety and delicacy of this kind feems to be expreffed
in the conclufion of Priam’s fpeech, by the ufe of the impe-
rative prefent of one verb, and the imperative of the aorift of
another, in the fame line.

ADA asdeo bexs Aysrev, avroy T eAEenrov,
Miogjoopevos o8 margos-

Aideto, aidov, asdeov, is the imperative prefent of osdeowes 3 erenoov
is the imperative of the aorift of eacw. The former feems a
more tranquil and cool requeft, or rather advice or fuggeftion,
and refers to a continued, or frequently repeated, action, ftate,
or habit, to wit reverence to the Gods. The latter is a more
urgent fupplication for immediate pity and favour;.as if he
had faid, Be ever mindful of your duty to the Gods, and mftantly (or
at this time, moment, Sc.) have pity on me.

WuaTEVER may be thought of thefe {peculations and re-
finements, it can never be doubted, that if, inftead of the
imperative mood, we were to ufe a circumlocution, to exprefs
the warm and vehement fentiments of Priam, it would be in-
fupportable ; Arwoowe oe pnracbou oe rarpoc—eidecbos ree besc—
avroy chenoos. Such a flow and languid expreflion would have

fuited

28 aS

MOODS of VERBS. 239

fuited ill with thofe fentiments and actions. which Homer attri-
butes to Priam: Indeed his actions, without his {peaking at all,
would have been more pathetic and perfuafive than they would
have been with fuch imperfect and improper expreflions of his
thoughts; but by means of the moods of verbs, it is poflible
to unite, to a certain degree, the advantages both of natural and
of artificial language.

We have many inftances in poetry, as well as in oratory, of
the figurative ufe of fuch moods as I have juft now been con-
fidering, and the effet of it, in enlivening and enforcing the

-expreflion of the poet’s fentiments, is very ftriking.

Can ftoried urn, or animated bu/ft,

Back to its manjion call the fleeting breath ?
Can honour’s vowe provoke the filent duft ?
Or flatt’ry footh the dull cold ear of death ?

What female heart can gold defpife?
What cat’s averfe to fifo ? Gray.

But while I thus point out how great a {hare the concifenefs
of the expreflion of many thoughts, by means of grammatical
moods, has in giving animation and force to language, I beg
it may not be thought that I impute the animation and force
of fuch expreflions entirely to that concifenefs. Many of the
thoughts to be expreffed are in themfelves highly animated and
interefting ; and, on this very account, concifenefs in the expref-

fing of them is peculiarly agreeable, and even neceflary.

VI. Tue fixth and laft conclufion refpecting the import of
the moods of verbs, is very intimately connected with the pre-
ceding. It relates not merely to the brevity and quicknefs of
the expreflion of thought, but to the intimate combination,
and fimultaneous exhibition, of the figns of thoughts, which

thoughts

240 THEORY of the

thoughts are themfelves co-exiftent, and moft intimately com-
bined. To this great property of thought, which has never
yet been confidered with that attention which it deferves, in-

flections of words, and efpecially the moods of verbs, do fome

Kind of juftice ; while circumlocution of every fort, even though
it exprefs all the different thoughts, does manifeft violence.

To explain this fully, would require a much longer and
more elaborate difquifition concerning the nature of human
thought than would be proper here. It may, however, be, in
fome meafure, underftood, by obferving, that grammatical
language, though the nobleft of all human inventions, or, as
fome conceive, an art beyond the reach of our unaflifted fa-
culties, and imparted to us by a kind of immediate infpiration
from Heaven, is, by no means, abfolutely perfect, nor even
capable of ever becoming fo. It anfwers admirably well for
denoting many of our thoughts, either fingly, or in various
relations, particularly in fucceffion, and is even fubfervient to
the precifion and fteadinefs of thought, by the fubdivifion or
decompofition of the mafs of thought which it requires, and
obliges us to make, not merely for the inventing, but for the
learning, and the occafional ufing, of language. It is indeed
in many ways the chief inftrument in the improvement of hu-
man reafon. But in one very important refpect, it is almoft in-
congruous with the nature of that thought which it is employ-
ed to reprefent.

Tue artificial figns, whether audible or vifible, that we ufe
in grammatical language to denote our thoughts, are neceflarily
arranged, either in the order of time, or in that of place; and
when we fee the vifible figns arranged in the order of place,
(as in reading) we attend to them, and occafionally give them
audible utterance in the order of time. :

Bur our thoughts themfelves are not arranged in either of
thofe ways. It is felf-evident, that thoughts cannot be arranged
in the order of place; at leaft this will be felfevident to every

perfon

MOODS of VERBS. a4t

perfon who can fhake off the long eftablifhed philofophical hy-
pothefis of zdeas, or images of things in the mind, as fubfer-
vient to thought ; or even who will take the trouble to diftin-
guith between fuch fuppofed images, which, like thofe of a
magic lanthorn, may be conceived to be arranged in place, and
the thoughts correfponding to them. And I believe it is equally
certain, though not equally evident, that many of our thoughts
are not even arranged in the order of time, but are related to
one another in a very different manner, which is well under-
ftood, as being perfectly familiar to us, but which cannot be
reprefented merely by the arrangement of words.

THAT many of our thoughts are arranged in the order of |
time, or, in other words, that there is a train or fucceffion of
thought, is, I think, too evident and generally acknowledged to
require either proof or illuftration ; and this relation among our
thoughts may be fairly and completely reprefented by the fuc-
ceffion of audible words, and of courfe with fufficient pro-
priety by the arrangement of vifible words.

But this is perhaps the leaft important of all the various re-
lations of thought. Befides the train or fucceffion of thoughts
in time, there is often at once a great combination or mafs of
thoughts varioufly related to one another. Such a mafs of

“thought we fometimes wifh to impart entire and all at once;
fometimes we wifh to analyfe it, to break it down, as it were,
and either to attend to it ourfelves, or to impart it to others,
that they may attend to it, piece-meal.

For the latter purpofe, the arrangement of words in gram-
matical language is admirably well adapted; for the former,
it is in a great meafure unfuitable. It gives disjointed, and in
fucceffion, thofe thoughts which we have united and fimulta-
neous, and wifh to communicate in the fame way.

Hence the importance of the great principle of infletion in
grammatical language, and its fuperiority to mere arrangement
of words; Hence too the fuperiority of thofe,languages which,
having many and diftinét inflections, admit of great variety

Vot. Il. Hh of

~

242 THEORY of the

of arrangement. This is fcarce required for mere reafoning,
but is of great value in poetry and eloquence, not only in point
of found, but fenfe, both with refpea& to the force of it, and
the juftnefs of the expreflion of the various complicated and fi-
multaneous relations of the things conceived.

Now, to infleGion the moods of verbs plainly belong ; and
by them we exprefs the fimultaneous combinations of the
thoughts or exergies of affirmation, interrogation, wifh, com-
mand, and many others, with the thought or accident exprefled
by any verb; and when we exprefs thefe combinations by refo-
lution or circumlocution, by means of two or more verbs, we,
in fome meafure, feparate in words what was moft intimately
blended in thought, and reprefent as fucceflive what we con-
ceived, and wifhed to impart, as fimultaneous.

Tuts doctrine will not be admitted by thofe philofophers
who have aflumed or admitted as a principle, that a perfon can
have but one thought (or idea) at once. But this principle I
difregard, as I know of no proof of it, and as it feems to me
inconfiftent with many obvious phenomena, and even repug-
nant to direct confcioufnefs. 1 fufpect that it has been adopted
in confequence of very carelefs obfervation, both of thought
and of language ; and I think it of fome confequence to be aware
of the error of fuch an opinion ; for though it may appear,
at firft view, of little importance, whether we admit the fimul-
taneous prefence, or only the immeafurably quick fucceflion of
different thoughts, yet the difference of thefe two principles
may be found very great, on tracing their feveral comfequences.
With refpe& to the moods and other inflections of verbs, I
cannot think it fhould admit of doubt, that they are employed
and underftood to denote combinations of fimultaneous thoughts,
no one of which can reafonably be faid to occur to. the perfon
{peaking, or to be apprehended by the perfon hearing, before
the reft. Specto, /pectemus, fpecta, fpectaverunt, fpectavitne ?

All nouns, even proper names, denote a congeries of circum-
ftances,

.

MOODS of VERBS. 243

{tances, or a ma/3 (not a train) of thoughts, whic’ are conceived
at once, and cannot be feparated and confidered in fucceflion,
but by a very laborious effort. Many fingle words, for exam-
ple prepofitions, and moft fentences, denote fome kind of rela-
tion; but we cannot, I think, conceive a relation, without
thinking at once of the things (two or more) that are related,
as well as of the relation (both in its generic and in its {pecific
nature) that fubfifts between them.

MATHEMATICAL propofitions are expreflions of co-exiftent
thoughts, the objeéts of which (at leaft in pure geometry) bear
no relation at all to time ; and thefe, to be conceived rightly or
at all, muft be conceived at once. Any ordinary perfon can do
this with refpect to an axiom, or even a very simple propofi-
tion; and good mathematicians can do it with refpect to very
long and complex theorems, fome of which ordinary people
find almoft infuperable difficulty in apprehending. Part of
this difficulty (as I feel very plainly in myfelf) arifes from the
number of things and relations that are to be thought of at
once, and accordingly is not immediately removed, nor is it
obviated, by even the moft diftin@ and juft conception of every
one of thofe things and relations taken fingly. Correfponding
to this difficulty in a learner, and juft the oppofite of it, is that
- of ateacher of almoft any fcience, and often of a f{peaker, ei-
ther in a public affembly or in common converfation, who may
have a clear and juft conception of a great mafs of thought,
which he withes to communicate to others, but can fcarce con-
trive to do fo, nor knows he well where or how to begin; and
perhaps when he has begun right, or at leaft diftin@ly, foon
falls into fuch confufion and perplexity, as makes him almoft
or quite unintelligible to his hearers, even when he under-
ftands himfelf perfectly, and may know that another, more
_ fortunate in the talent of communicating thought, has be/ped
him out, or expreffed diftinétly and properly that very meaning
which he was endeavouring in vain to convey to his hearers,

: Ia ee though

244. THEORY of the

though as well acquainted as the other with the proper words to
denote every portion or fragmentof the great congeries of thought.

Tuere is reafon to think, that there are much greater dif-
ferences among mankind, with refpec to that capacity or com-
prehenfivenefs of mind, by which they take in, or attend to, at
once, a variety of objects and relations, than there are with
refpect to the conception or fimple apprehenfion of any one of
them by itfelf. And that comprehenfivenefs of mind, which.
is in truth a moft valuable talent, both with a view to fpecula-
tion and aétion, may be improved by various means, efpecially
by frequent exercife, and may be aflifted by many expedients.

A pERsoN who, when he firft begins the ftudy of mathe-
matics, can apprehend only the axioms and the fimpleft propo-
fitions, after a few months or years employed in that ftudy,
will eafily apprehend, not only the propofition, but the demon-
ftration of complex theorems, which are mafles of co-exiftent
thoughts, that could not be expreffed by the fucceffion of words
in lefs than feveral minutes, nor by the arrangement of words
in lefs than feveral pages.

Tue fucceflion, and even the beft arrangement of words are
found fo unfuitable for the expreffion of fuch combinations of
thoughts as occur in many mathematical propofitions, that other
expedients are very generally and properly employed to affift us in
making or in communicating thefe complex operations of thought.

DraGrams and algebraical formule anfwer thefe purpofes ad-
mirably ,well. Neither of them, ftrictly fpeaking, is effential
to mathematical demonftration ; but both of them are highly
ufeful in it, and many good mathematicians would be at a
ftand if they were deprived of them. A good con/iruction or
diagram will fuggeft inftantaneoufly the whole congeries of
thought which conftitutes both the propofition and the demon-
ftration of a theorem. A good expreffion in algebra anfwers
nearly the fame purpofe ; and fuggefts, almoft inftantaneouily,
fuch a mafs of thought, without confufion, as never could

have

MOODS of VERBS. 245

have been conveyed by common words in fucceffion and ar-
rangement, by reafon of the great length of time required to
utter or to read them; in the courfe of which time, many of
the particular thoughts compofing the mafs would be gone, be-
fore others were fuggefted or produced, with which they ought
to be combined, to enable us to perceive their various re-
lations.

THE analogy between the diagrams and formule of mathe-
maticians, and the moods of verbs, and other infle€tions of
words in common difcourfe, which I endeavour here to point
out, is not fo diftant as may at firft fight appear. They agree
in this, that all of them exprefs, infinitely better than any fuc-
ceflion. or arrangement of words can do, combinations of
thoughts, which are almoft or perfeétly co-exiftent, and which,
by means of them, are apprehended more juftly, more quickly,
and more forcibly, than otherwife they could be.

AND let it be remembered, that the obje€ts and relations:
which occupy the minds of geometers, though more abftrufe,
‘and requiring a greater voluntary effort of thought, than
thofe which engage the attention of ordinary men, are not
more numerous or complicated, but in general much lefs fo;
and that they admit more eafily, and with lefs injury, of be-
ing broken down, and given fucceflively, at leaft with a view
to demonftration, in which no great quicknefs is required.
Hence, ina great meafure, the clearnefs and force of mathe-
matical reafoning.

Tue mafles of co-exiftent thoughts which we often meet
with in common difcourfe, or in elegant compofition im full
periods, are of incredible extent, as appears on our’ endeavour-
ing to analyfe them, and exprefs in detail the various parts. of
the complicated meaning which we apprehend.

Tue firft feven lines of the Iliad, containing about forty
words, and the firft fixteen lines of Paradife Loft, containing

about one hundred and twenty words, denote refpectively a
mafs

246 THEORY of the

mafs of co-cxiftent thoughts, not a train of fucceflive thoughts.
The thoughts expreffed in them are much more numerous than
the words, as plainly appears on endeavouring to explain or
define all the words, even in their moft general radical mean-
ing, which is rendered {till more complicated, that is, expref-
five of more thoughts, by the inflections of many of them,
efpecially in the Greek lines. We can attend to different parts
of that mafs of thought, at our pleafure, regardlefs of the reft,
or we may take in, more or lefs clearly, the whole at once, as
the authors certainly did in compofing the lines; or we may
attend accurately to the meaning of every word fingly. And
if this be done very flowly, and with long intervals between
every word, the meaning of the whole lines, as a fentence or
period, will be loft; nor can we, in fuch a way of reading or
pronouncing Homer’s or Miiron’s lines, make fenfe of them,
but by a voluntary and painful effort of memory, to retain, or
recal, the former words and thoughts, till the latter are fug-
gefted and duly combined with them. The words of the fineft
period that ever was compofed, when read or uttered one by
one at the interval of a few minutes, or even feconds, will no
more have the effect of the period properly read or uttered, in
point of thought, than an equally flow founding of the various
notes in ‘a piece of mufic will have, in point of melody or
harmony, the effect of the mufic properly performed ; or than
the fucceffive and flow infpeétion of the different rainbow co-
lours will have, in giving the perception of white, which they
would give, if contemplated at once properly blended, or even
if contemplated in very quick fucceflion.

Arrer all, perhaps the beft illuftration of this important
principle is that of the Indian orator, mentioned in the Origin
and Progrefs of Language, Vol. IV. p. 22. “ Ihave heard a
“ ftory” (fays the learned author of that work) “ of an Indian
“ orator, who, at a congrefs or ta/k, as they call it, with the
* then Britifh governor of Florida, Commodore JonnsTon,

“ being

MOODS of VERBS. 247

‘‘ being frequently interrupted by the interpreter, who ftopped
“ him in order to explain to the governor what he faid, at laft
“ loft patience; and, fays he, I can bear this no longer. My
“ difcaurfe, cut thus into pieces, can have no more effect than the
“ water could have on that great beafi of yours, (pointing to a
“ faw-mill at fome diftance) if it were to fall upon it drop by
“* drop. Now, this orator muft have had as perfe& am idea
“ of the flumen orationis, and the effects it produces, as a Cr-
** cero or DEMOSTHENES.” The fame author has many juft
‘and ftriking remarks on the force, the beauty, and the compre-
henfivenefs of compofition. in, periods, (page 239, 240.) and of
infleétion of words, (page 14. et pafim.) And all of thefe ob-
fervations may fairly be applied to the moods of verbs. What
proper periods are to very great and complicated maffes of
thought, infleGtions, including moods, are to the more familiar
and fmaller combinations of thoughts, which we almoft every
moment experience, and wifh to exprefs united as we conceive
them. :
* * * #

As I think it of effential importance, im all fcientific invefti-
gations, never to blend sypothefes, or matters of opinion,
with evident matters of fact, and {trict inferences by indudtion
from them; it is proper to point out, that no hypothefis what-
ever, with refpect to the original ftate, or the formation, or
the improvement, of language, is aflumed in this Effay.

Ir has generally been fuppofed, or taken for granted, in all
reafonings about the theory of language, that, in a very early
period of its progrefs, perhaps from its very origin, it was rude
and fimple, almoft deftitute of infleGtions, (fuch as the moods
of verbs) and in a great meafure or wholly monofyliabic ; and
that all manner of infleGions and modifications, by compofi-
tion, by augment, or otherwife, were gradually given, in a flow
progrefs, to thofe monofyllabic roots, by deliberate human

contrivance.
THAT

248 THEORY of the

TuHat this has taken place, to a certain degree, in many
languages, and to a very great degree in fome, cannot be dif-
puted. In Greek, for example, we can, with the greateft eafe,
refer fome thoufands of words (counting every variation by
inflection, by augment, or by compofition, as a different word )
to one fimple root, fuch as Azy.

In fome languages, it feems probable that the ufual progrefs
and improvement has not taken place,they remaining very long
in a monofyllabic ftate. This has certainly been the cafe with
the Chinefe language, for fome thoufands of years ; probably,
in part at leaft, the confequence of that great, civilized and
ingenious people perfifting in the ufe of hieroglyphic characters,
immediately fignificant of thought, without any direé relation to
audible words, like the Indian figures that we ufe in common
arithmetic, and never adopting the noble invention of alpha-
betic characters, dire€tly expreflive only of founds, the combi-
nations of which founds are immediately fignificant of thought.

But fome ingenious men have been of opinion, confirmed,
as it is faid, by actual obfervations of the languages of fome
very rude nations, efpecially in America, that fome languages
at leaft, perhaps all, were, in a very early period, polyfyllabic
to a moft inconvenient degree; the words of them being very
long, and fignificant of very complicated meanings, like
phrafes or whole fentences of ours. It has been thought, that
thefe unwieldy long words may have been gradually broken
down into fhorter, and even into monofyllables; which, in a
further progrefs, might be varied again by inflection and other-
wife.

Ir is certainly conceivable, and not very improbable, that
mankind, in their firft rude attempts towards forming a lan-
guage, might not perceive the vaft advantage to be gained by
fubdividing, and breaking down as it were, the great mafs of
thought which they conceived, and wifhed to communicate.
They might attempt to give utterance by one word to all the

mafs

MOODS of VERBS: — 249

mafs of thought which they had to exprefs. Thus, Give me a
bow, might be expreffed by one word ; Give me food, by ano-
ther ; I faw a friend, an enemy, a beaft, a man, a woman, by as
_ many different words ; no diftinction being made between noun
and verb, agent or fubject, mood or accident. But the incon-
venience of fuch a language would foon be felt and. gradually
remedied ; and the firft and moft natural ftep would. be to em-
ploy the fame word for give, whatever was to be given; one word
for /ee, whatever was feen, and to employ different nouns: to
denote the fubftances given or feen. But this implies the pre-
vious exercife of a faculty of a higher order than that of di-
viding the voice, or forming articulate founds. The fame
power that has made us Megorec, hath alfo taught us to divide
our thoughts. Indeed, without: this nobler faculty, which
feems to be denied to all the inferior animals, and is fcarce per-
ceptible in man during the firft months of his life, the other
would be of little value, Several animals have learnt to divide -
the voice, or to articulate, better than many unfortunate indi-
viduals.of our own fpecies, who were deficient in the proper
organs of voice and fpeech ; but none of them have ever learned
to make ufe of {peech as we do. They probably always, and
children for fome time, make no attempt to feparate or analyfe
their thoughts. Till that be done, which our fuperior faculties
foon enable us to do, the very fundamental notions of the parts
of {peech cannot be conceived, grammatical language cannot
be contrived, nor even if it were prefented to us ready made,
mall the perfection of the Greek of DEMosTHENES, could it be
either learned or employed.

On the former fuppofition, (page 247.) the moods of verbs
muft be conceived to be added to them in the courfe of the
formation or improvement of language.

On the latter fuppofition, they muft be conceived to be /e-
_ tained in language, and to bea remnant of a very rude polyfyl-
Vor. IT. Ti labic:

250 THEORY of the MOODS, &e.

labic ftate of it, which, though inconvenient on the whole,
had fome advantages.

SomE expreffions occafionally employed in this Differtation,
may feem to favour or to imply the former fuppofition. But
that is not meant. Neither hypothefis is affumed in the reafon-
ing. Thofe expreflions have always been employed with cau-
tion and diftruft, and merely in compliance with cuftom, a
deviation from which might have feemed to imply the oppofite
hypothefis, and would have required a new, and, in fome mea-
fure, an embarraffed and uncouth mode of expreffion.

Boru hypothefes are equally indifferent to this Theory of the
Moods of Verbs, which is independent of all hypothefes, and
does not extend to the Aiffory of the firft appearance of moods,
nor to the queftion, whether they be added to language in its
progrefs, or retained in it when perhaps many other inflections
were laid afide. They may be partly both, or their hiftory may
be different in different languages. All that is attempted in
this Theory of the Moods of Verbs, is only to inveftigate the
nature and import of them more accurately than had been
done before, and to fhew what valuable, and almoft indifpenfi-
ble purpofes they actually ferve in the communication of
thought.

Vil.

ee ae ee aa ee ee

VIL. An Essay on the CuaractTer of HAMLET, in
SHAKESPEARE’s Tragedy of HAMLET. By the Re-
verend Mr THomaAs ROBERTSON, F.R.S. EpIN.
and Minifier of Dalmeny.

[Read by Mr DALZEL, Secretary, Fuly 21. 1788.]

HE Character of Hamuer, has been varioufly judged of

by critics, and what might be expected, it has been ftill

more varioufly reprefented by performers upon the ftage.

SHAKESPEARE himfelf feems to have apprehended that this

would happen ; and that injuftice would be done to a hero, who

probably, in his eftimation, ranked higher than any other that

he has brought into the drama.

Wuen Hamtet was dying, he appears, upon this account,

to have made him fpeak as follows to HoRATIO.

—— Horatio, I am dead ;
Thou liv’ft; report me and my caufe aright
To the unfatisfied.
Oh good Horatio, what a wounded name,
Things ftanding thus unknown, fhall live behind me.
If thou didft ever hold me in thy heart,
Abfent thee from felicity a while,
To tell my tale.

Hamuer was here in a fituation in which men in general
{peak truth; and he was befides {peaking to a confidential
Lee) friend,

252 An ESSAY on the

friend, who could not be impofed upon; a friend who, from
the ftrongeft poffible attachment to him, had been about to
put an end to his own life, but was reftrained from his pur-
pofe, in order to explain to a “ harfh world,” the ftory of
Hamtet, after he was no more.

AND when HAmMteT dies, Horatio pronounces this eu-
logium :

Now cracks a noble heart! good night, /weet prince 5
And flights of angels fing thee to thy reft.

SHAKESPEARE, in thefe paflages, not only refers to the par-
ticular part which Hamuet had atted, with refpect to the
ufurper, (which he calls HAMLET’s caufe) and which, upon
being -explained, would vindicate what he had done. He
plainly intimates by the mouth of Horatio, his own idea of
Hamtet’s character, in all other refpeéts; as not only he-
roic and fplendid, but perfectly confiftent, amiable and jutft ;
and further, from the danger that Hamuet himfelf, as well as
his caufe, might be expofed to the cenfure of the unfatisfied, he
feems ftrongly to infinuate, that the chara¢ter could not be com-
prehended, unlefs an enlarged view were taken of it, and of
the different fituations in which it had been placed.

Hamuet’s conduct.in having put the king to death, was, in
a great meafure, already juftified, in the very hearing of the
lords, and other attendants upon the court, who were witneffes
to it. The queen, who had juft expired in their fight, had
faid fhe was “ poifoned.” Hamtet had called out “ villany !”
Even Laerres, the treacherous opponent of Hamtet, had
declared, “ the king, the king’s to blame—lIt is a poifon tem-
“ pered by himfelf’? And Hamuet, upon ftabbing the king,
had exprefsly charged him with “ murder.” All this paffed in
the prefence of the court, who would hence be led to view the
king as guilty of having poifoned the queen, and therefore as

juttly -

CHARACTER of HAMLET. 253

juitly put to death by her fon. It is true indeed, the king had
intended to poifon, not the queen, but Hamuet ; but neither
the court, nor HAMueT himfelf, knew this; none but LAaErR-
TES was privy to it; and as he immediately expired without
faying more, the fecret was to laft for ever.

Hamctet, therefore, could have but little caufe to fear that
he fhould leave a wounded name behind him for thus revenging
his mother’s death. What troubled him, was the thought that
pofterity would condemn him for not having, before that time,
revenged the murder of his father. This was the reproach
with which he had often charged himfelf; for at the beginning
he had refolved to act quite otherwife, and had exprefsly pro-
mifed to his father’s ghoft, with the utmoft {peed to avenge the
murder.

Hafte me to know it (faid he in the firft aét) that I with
wings as fwift

As meditation or the thoughts of love,

May fweep to my revenge.

His fervent defire now therefore, was, that Horatio, who
knew all, might furvive him, not merely to reveal the murder
of his father, but to make known to all men the infinite indig-
nation which this excited in him, and the plan of vengeance
which he had laid. Horatio, for this purpofe, would de-
{cribe the two great and leading features in the character of
HAMLET, pointed out by the finger of SHAKESPEARE himfelf,
that “ noble heart,” and that “ fweetnefs,” with which at once
he was diftinguifhed. Upon the latter of thefe two, Horatio
would particularly explain the {cheme of counterfeiting mad-
nefs, which that fweetnefs had fuggefted; and which, at the
fame time, would fave Hamuer from pafling for a real mad-
man in the opinion of pofterity.

As

254 An ESSAY on the

As certain critics, however, have thought, fome, that there is
an incongruity, others, that there is an immorality, in the cha-
racter of this perfonage, it becomes a duty in the charitable to
juftify the poet, and to revive the office of Horatio, in the
defence of his hero.

To underftand the character of HAMLET, we had beft per-
haps take it at two different times, before the death of his fa-
ther, and after that period ; for while the fubftance is in both
the fame, the form is exceedingly different.

Tue former of thefe, and which was his radical and general |

character, was a compound of many particular qualities ; an
exceeding high elevation of foul, an exquifite fenfibility to vir-
tue and vice, and an extreme gentlenefs of {pirit and fweetnefs
of difpofition. With thefe were conjoined the moft brilliant
and cultivated talents, an imagination tranfcendently vivid and
ftrong, together with what may be called, rather an intuition,
than an acquired knowledge of mankind. And there may be
added ftill, a fingular gaiety of {pirits, which hardly at any af-
ter period, the very gloomieft only excepted, feems to have
failed him.

TuesE being the fundamental properties of HAMLET, we
have only to fee what effects would be produced upon /uch a
man, by the villany of his uncle, the murder of his father, the
inceft of his mother, and the ghoft of his father calling upon
him for revenge. Thefe were the dreadful fprings which put
HAMLET into motion; and in which ftate, SHAKESPEARE brings
him upon the ftage.

I sHOULD venture to imagine, (both from the nature of 2
character fo extenfive, and from the various motives to aétion)
that SHAKESPEARE had no particular plan laid out in his mind
for HAMLET to walk by, but rather meant to follow him ; and,
like an hiftorian, with fidelity to record, how a perfon, fo fin-
gularly and marvelloufly made up, fhould act; or rather, (to ufe

the

CHARACTER of HAMLET. 255

the term employed by the king) to defcribe the “ transformation”
which he fhould undergo. For this purpofe, he kept an atten-
tive and an undeviating eye upon HAMLET’s previous and ge-
neral charaéter, (fuch as he had figured it to be) without any
' intention to add a fingle new feature, but only to take in fuch
new afpects of it, fuch new exertions of his powers, and fuch
new fchemes of conduét, as fhould naturally flow from his new
fituations.

Tuts being fuppofed, the new colours under which HAMLET
appears will be found entirely confiftent with the old, and
f{pringing lineally from them; an indignation and fenfibility
irritated to extreme; the deepeft anguifh; at times a mortal
melancholy ; a counterfeited madnefs, in order to wait for op-
portunities of revenge; and a degree of real phrenzy, to
which he feems, more than once, to have been actually driven
by the ftrength of his feelings, through force of which he
was fometimes upon the point of betraying his own fecret.
Still, however, there was neither violence, nor forrow, nor me-
lancholy, nor madnefs, in the original and natural ftate of his
mind. ;

Wuart feems to explain the whole of Hamuet’s condué is
the latitude of his charaGter. He was at once a polifhed gen-
tleman, a foldier, a fcholar and a philofopher ; as in the excla-
mation of OPHELIA:

O what a noble mind is here o’erthrown!
The courtier’s, foldier’s, {cholar’s, eye, tongue, {word.

At one time, mild, courteous and contemplative ; at another,
animated with the keeneft feelings ; upon occafions, all wrath
and fire ; looking down, at all times, as if from a fuperior orb,
upon whatever was little, infincere or bafe among men.

Now,

256 4n ESSAY on the

Now, in fuch an aflemblage of qualities, combining to form
the broad character of HAMLET, SHAKESPEARE appears to
have feen, that they were balanced in fuch an oppofite manner,
that one clafs of them fhould counteraét, and render inefficient
the other. It is this that fuffered nothing to be done; it is this
that conftantly impeded the action, and kept the cataftrophe
back. Refentment, revenge, eternal indignation, ftimulated
HAMLET at one moment; at the next, we have the mere un-
bending and reéoil of thefe paflions ; and not only this, which
was tranfient, but there followed, almoft at the fame in-
{tant, that gentlenefs which fo feldom left him. From this,
he could not, at any time, act in cold blood; he could ftrike
only in the fierceft_ moments of provocation; then ‘“‘ could he
“ drink hot blood!” In the general tenor of his mind he could
do nothing ; he was like Samson, when his ftrength was gone
from him.

MeaAnwuite, he is almoft conftantly chiding himfelf for
dull mettle, dull revenge, want of gall; a felf-reproach which, in
fome fcenes, breaks vividly out; as upon the occafions where
he faw a mere player weeping over Hecusa, and when he was
told that the delicate prince FoRTINBRAS was marching at the
head of his troops to rifk his life for an “ egg-fhell.”. Hamter,
in fhort, was not formed for action. . Upon the fluctuation of
his mind between contriving and executing, between elevation,
fenfibility and gentlenefs, hangs the whole bufinefs of the
tragedy. ;

In fuch a ftate of Hamuer’s frame, the project of counter-
feiting madnefs occurred to him with great confiftency. It was
a device to which his nature led ; bent upon vengeance ; defti-
tute of refolution direétly to gratify ic; affuming therefore the
cloak of infanity, in order to Jull fufpicion, and to watch at
leifure for thofe occurrences which time or chance might pre-
fent. To fecure, by this fidtion, his perfonal fafety was, in

Te

CHARACTER of HAMLET. 25%

no degree, his view ; for “ he did not fet his life at a pin’s fee;”
but, by means of his life being preferved, to embrace the op-
portunities of revenge. It was from the fame foftnefs in his
nature, that he afterwards {trove to make himfelf believe, that
his father’s ghoft might be the devil trying to “ abufe him ;”
and which fcggefted to him the ftratagem of getting a play to
be performed before the king.

His anxious adherence to the projeét of counterfeiting mad-
nefs, to which he made every thing elfe give way, explains his
rudene/s, as Dr JOHNSON calls it, to OpHexra ; for to deceive
the beloved OpueEtia into a belief of his madnefs, and to in-
fult er, was the fureft of all means to make it believed that he
was really mad. And this alfo accounts for his making her
brother LAagrrtes believe, that the rough treatment he gave
him at his fifter’s funeral, proceeded not from love to OPHELIA,
its true caufe, but from diftra€tion ; and which is ridiculoufly
called by Dr Jounson, a “‘ falfehood unfuitable to the charac-
© ter of a good or a brave man.” HAmuet was then in the
very prefence of the ufurper, and, on that account, induftrioutfly
“ proclaimed,” that what he had done, proceeded from madnefs.

ConNECTED with this point, it has been thought vain by
fome critics *, to juftify SHAKESPEARE in his making HAMLET
forget (as they think) Opuera fo foon after her death; in-
ftead of which, he fhould have waited, they fay, for the effect
which time has upon the change of feeling ; and Dr Jonnson
has remarked that “ time toiled after him in vain.” But I
fhould apprehend that this is entirely to miftake the character.
Time toils after every great man, as well as after SHAKESPEARE.
The workings of an ordinary mind keep pace indeed with time ;
they move no fafter; they have their beginning, their middle, and
their end ; but fuperior natures can reduce thefe into a point.
They do not indeed fupprefs them ; but they fufpend, or they lock

Won, TI. Kk them

* Mirror, &c.

258 An ESSAY on the

them up in the breaft. It is the very mark and prerogative of a
great foul, upon great occafions to outrun time, to {tart at once,
without fenfible tranfition, into another period. Even a common
foldier, in the heat of action, were his deareft companion to fall
by his fide, would not (although he could) drop his arms and
mourn overhim. Ina fimilar ftate, but infinitely more inter-
efting, was HAMLET at this time. And if doubts fhould ftill
be entertained about the exiftence of HAMLET’s love to OPHE-
LiA after her death, the queftion can be brought to the fhorteft
iffue. Hamuet himfelf will anfwer, That his love for OpHE-
LIA was greater than ever. When Laerrres, half-delirious
himfelf with grief for his fifter’s madnefs and death, leaped
into her grave, and imprecated “ ten times triple woe upon the
“© curfed head of him (HamuteT) who had deprived her of her
** moft ingenious fenfe;’? HAMLET burft upon him at once
from his concealment, like thunder from a cloud ;

What is he whofe griefs
Bear fuch an emphafis ? whofe phrafe of forrow
Conjures the wand’ring ftars, and makes them ftand
Like wonder-wounded-hearers ? This is I,
Hamtet the Dane— [leaps into the grave.
Why, I will fight with him upon this theme
Until my eye-lids will no longer wag.
I loved Opuetia ; forty thoufand brothers
Could not, with all their quantity of love, :
Make up my fum. What wilt thou do for her?
Come, fhew me what thou’lt do.
Woo't weep? woo't fight? woo’t faft ? woo’t tear thyfelf?
Woo’t drink up Eifel, eat a crocodile?
I'll do’t—Doft thou come hither but to whine?
To out-face me with leaping in her grave ?
Be buried quick with her, and fo will I.
ore.

CHARACTER of HAMLET. 259

His love had been only the deeper embofomed ; it had become
too facred to be feen; and like fire, when pent up, it had ac-
quired greater force.

THERE feems alfo to be a miftake in the attempt which
fome * have made, in juftification of SHAKESPEARE, to re-
concile the melancholy to the jocularity of Hamuet. For his
jocularity, I fhould rather conceive, fprung more from the
elevated than from the melancholy parts of his nature. He was
not, ftrictly fpeaking, a melancholy man; although it be true
that, at times, he was plunged into a ftate of genuine and
deep dejection. In fuch a ftate, and in certain kinds of it, we
have heard of the joy of grief, and can underftand it—fome-
thing fweetly grave and penfive ; but the gaiety and pleafantry
of grief are things which probably never exifted. It is, on the
other hand, the exclufive at of a great mind, to make truce-
with forrow; to difmifs the deepeft anguifh ; to put mirth in its
ftead ; and Ham tet, in fuch fcenes, was only for a little re-
fuming his ftrength. Even the melancholy which is afcribed
to him, and which indeed he afcribes to himfelf, was often not
melancholy, but wild contemplation and reverie.

THERE are many fimilar inftances of the connection between
elevation and pleafantry, both in the charaéer of nations and
of individuals. The Spaniards, for example, are defcribed to
be of a grave and lofty {pirit; yet among no people is there

“more humour. Individuals of this caft are not unfrequently
to be met with in every country. Mo.xiere may be inftanced,
who was one of the moft ferious and refpectable men that ever
lived ; and yet no writer has had fuch a propenfity to farce and
buffoonery ; his plays being in general juft the counter-parts of
himfelf. It is upon fuch principles, I would venture to explain
the pleafantries of HAMLET; in which he rofe up, at times,

KE 2 from

* Mirror.

260 An ESSAY on the

from an abyfs of anguifh, to make a mere fport of human fuf-
ferings.

Tue caufes of HAMLET’s dilatory progrefs have been already
pointed out in general; and the more narrowly we take a view
of him, the more we fhall always find his fenfibility to be, in
the firft moments, fuch, as led to inftant and mortal aétion,
while his gentlenefs, like an equal weight on the other fide,
counteracted its whole force. SHAKESPEARE has defcribed
him, in the cool ftate of his mind, as averfe, and even fhocked,
at the thought of killing. His mother faid, that, in this ftate,
he was “‘ as patient as the female dove.”” If we take his own
account of himfelf, he was a coward:

Now, whether it be

Beftial oblivion, or fome craven {cruple

Of thinking too precifely on the event—

A thought which, quartered, hath but one part wifdom,
And ever three parts, coward—I do not know,

Why yet I live to fay, This thing’s to do.

THERE was a fuperftition alfo in Hamuet, which pre-
vented him from putting the ufurper to death, when in the aé&
of prayer. For the reafon he himfelf gave for deferring this,
was, that if he killed the king in the midft of his devotions,
be would in fa be doing him a good’ fervice, “ fending a
** villain to heaven.”

Why, this is hire and falary, not revenge.

He took my father grofsly, full of bread,

With all his crimes broad blown, as flufh as May ;
And how his audit f{tands, who knows fave Heaven ?

He put up his fword, and waited till he fhould find him en-
gaged

CHARACTER of HAMLET. 261

gaged in drink, rage, inceft, gaming, {wearing, or other act
that had “ no relith of falvation in’t ;’’

Then trip him, that his heels may kick at Heaven,
And that his foul may be as damn’d and black
As hell, whereto it goes.

Tue fentiments in this laft paflage have been confidered as
the moft difficult to be defended in the whole character of
Hamtet. Without having recourfe to a defence of them up-
on the principle of retaliation, and other pleas, there feems to
be ground for an explication of a very different nature, founded
upon what appears to be the real character of this perfonage,
and altogether exculpating him from the charge of thofe horrid
difpofitions which he has been fuppofed here to poffefs.

Hamcer, in thefe lines, (if it may be allowed to offer a
conjecture) was really zmpofing upon himfelf * ; devifing an excufe
for his averfion at bloodfhed, for his cowardice, his ‘‘ craven
“ feruple.” In the firft moments, he propofes inftantly to
ftrike—“ now YH do’t.” His ordinary foftnefs immediately
recurs ; and he endeavours to hide it from himfelf, by project-
ing a more awful death at a future period, but which he feems
never to have thought of afterwards, and which was not at all
confonant to his general character. Indeed, what the king him-
felf faid of him afterwards, upon bafely propofing to LaErres
to ufe “* a fword unbated,” is a fufficient proof that there was
nothing dark or malignant in his nature.

— He being remifs,
Moft generous, and free from a// contriving,
Will not perufe the foils.
THE

* Since writing this Effay, ) have’ the pleafure to find, that the fame idea has oc-
curred to Mr Profeffor Ricuarpson, in his additional obfervations on Hamter; and
whicl: he has fuccefsfully enlarged upon.

262 An ESSAY on the

THE execution of his two fchool-fellows, RosENCRANTZ and
GUILDENSTERN, in confequence of an artifice which he con-
trived againft them, has alfo drawn the cenfure of critics. But
is there any evidence that HAMueET thought them unacquainted
with the mandate which they carried for ftriking off his head
in England? Whether they were in fact privy or not privy to
this, is not the queftion. Did not Hamuet believe they were
privy to it, and even were fond of it? “ Whom I will truft
** (faid he early) as I will adders fanged.”” And fpeaking af-
terwards to his confident HoraTio, he added,

Why, man, they did make /ove to this employment 5
They are not near my confcience.

That is, my confcience does not upbraid me; the cruelty lies
not with me, but with them. And in this conduct of HAMLET,
to the companions of his early days, does SHAKESPEARE prove
his {killin human nature ; the itrongeft hatred fucceeding, upon
fuch occafions, to the ftrongeft friendfhip: For that they were
his fchool-fellows, he would confider, and with reafon, as a great
aggravation of their guilt.

In all other refpeéts, the character of Hamuer ftands con-
feffedly fair and great. He moved in the higheft {phere of
men ; pofleffled an elevated and comprehenfive mind; pene-
trated through every character ; knew the whole of human life;
faw nothing noble but virtue, nothing mean and bafe but folly
and vice. Speaking to HoraTio,

Since my dear foul (fays he) was miftrefs of her choice,
And could of men diftinguifh, her election

Hath fealed thee for herfelf; for thou haft been

As one in fuffering all, that fuffers nothing ;

A man that fortune’s buffets and rewards
Haft

CHARACTER of HAMLET. 263

Haft ta’en with equal thanks : and bleft are thofe
Whofe blood and judgment are fo well co-mingled
That they are not a pipe for fortune’s finger,

To found what ftops fhe pleafe. Give me that man
That is not paflion’s flave, and I will wear him. -

In my heart’s core.

Men praife in others what they love and poffefs in themfelves ;.
and HaMter was here drawing fome of the outlines of his own
character.

To the principles of morality and a confummate knowledge
of mankind, he joined the accomplifhments of learning and
the graces of life. His eloquence was fuch as great orators only
have poffeffed, rich, tropical, daring, ardent, vehement. The
directions he gives to the players, are models of tafte and laws
for the ftage. His wit and fancy feem to have belonged only
to himfelf. Even in his charafter of foldier and hero, and.
which I all along confider as his weaker part, an intrepidity
breaks forth at times beyond what is human; as appears in the
ghoft-feenes, where his courage grows with danger ; where he
is not only unterrified, but {ports with what appals the reft of
mankind.

Tue Hamer of SHAKESPEARE, taken all in all, feems
thus to be the moft fplendid charaéter of dramatic poetry 3
poffeffing, not one or two great qualities, the ordinary compafs of
the heroes in tragedy, of a LEAR, an OTHELLO, a RODRIGUE,
an Horace, but comprehending almoft the whole of what is
beautiful and grand.

Tue miftakes which critics feem to have fallen into, can be
all traced perhaps to partial and fide-views which they have
taken of Hamer; but which can neither explain his whole
charaéter, nor fufficiently account for the intereft which is ex- _
cited,

SENSIBILITY,

264 An ESSAY on the

SensiBiLiTy, for example, making a ftriking figure in this
character, has been thought to be the fole bafis of it, without
confidering that mere fenfibility cannot excite a tragic intereft ;
cannot/attach; cannot overwhelm ; and indeed feems unable to
make any other impreflion but that of pain, when viewed apart
from the caufe in which it aéts, and from the other qualities with
which it is conjoined. Neither can a SENSE OF VIRTUE be ad-
mitted as the only ruling principle ; for even this does not fuf-
ficiently account for the intereft; and both fyftems fail in ex-
plaining the inefficiency of the chara@ter, which refults from the
foft and amiable, and hence, in a great degree, the interefting parts
of it. For in both, the gentlenefs of HAMLET, the great impedi-
ment to the action, has been overlooked ; although, to fupply its
place, a weaknefs and irrefolution, fometimes deduced from
exceflive fenfibility, fometimes from melancholy, are recurred
to in the former, but which are certainly of a tranfient dura-
tion, ‘while gentlenefs was a permanent quality ; and, in the lat-
ter, while the fame office is allotted to irrefolution, the irrefo-
lution itfelf is deduced from the moral faculty, fufpending and
abating refentment; but which furely would fuppofe, what
cannot be admitted, that the pious and noble revenge of Ham-
LET had fomething morally blameable in its nature. Two elegant
and ingenious publications are here alluded to* ; but in both of
them, the ground taken is, I humbly think, too narrow; and
this feems to have been the caufe, why recourfe has been had to
refinements, in order to ftretch it out. Facts certainly fupply
us here with two principles at leaft, fenfibility and gentlenefs ;
and there hence feems no neceflity for refolving the whole
conduét of HAmteT into the formér, as is done in one of
thefe publications. Neither are we to recur, fometimes to

the

* Tne one anonymous, in No. 99. and 100. of the Mirror; the other, the Analhyfs of
Hamuer, by Mr Ricuarpson.

CHARACTER of HAMLET. 266

the one principle, fometimes to the other, taken feparately, in
order to explain Hamer. It is the //ruggle between the two,
upon which his conduct hinges. This appears in the very open
ing of the tragedy.

The time is out of joint; Oh curfed fpight!
That ever J was born to fet it right.

Here, fenfibility and gentlenefs may be faid to fpeak in one and *
the fame breath ; a proof that their operations were not fuccef-
five, but co-exiftent; and reigned nearly equal in power in
HaMLET’s breatt.

_ Exevation feems to have been nearly as much overlooked
as gentlenefg. Yet between thefe two was Hamer almoft always
moving. For his fublimity of foul feems to have been the very
{pring which prompted and whetted his fenfibility to the quick.
SHAKESPEARE in one phrafe, ** a noble heart,’ meant to ex-
prefs both; as they were in toet intimately conjoined, and acted
at once, together.

THERE is an impreflion which great accomplifhments and

' {plendid talents, independent of every thing elfe, efpecially in
a tragic caufe, never fails to make upon mankind. Thefe fhine
moft powerfully in the character before us; and probably have
contributed much to the charm which has made audiences hang
upon Hamiet. The world, for the firft time, faw a man of
genius upon the ftage; and the intereft which the fpetators
have taken, and perhaps for ever will take, receiving an ad-
dition from this caufe, arifes thus upon the whole, from the
many different fources which the poet, by a fuperlative effort
of talents and of fkill, has combined together.

Tue fault (if any) of the play feems to lie in this, that
there is not the ufual intereft excited in it, for the final event:
What SHAKESPEARE’s purpofe in this refpec originally was,

Vou. ID. Ll cannot

266 _ An ESSAY on the

cannot be affirmed. It is poffible, that, finding the character
of HAMLET to grow upon him, he varied in the progrefs from
what he had intended in the outfetting of the play, and giving
to HAMLET, on this account, a fuller fcope, (but without de-
parting from the character) he eventually threw more intereft
into the perfon than into the plot. Whatever may have been
the caufe, we fee the effect,—Hamtert, in his fole perfon,
predominating over, and almoft eclipfing the whole action
of the drama. It is he that draws the admiration; it is he
that engroffes the concern ; all eyes are turned more and more
to him; HaMtet is wifhed for in every {cene ; king and queen,
inceft and murder, as objects of tragic attention, vanifh almoft
away ; the moment HAaAMLET’s own fate arrives, the play is
ended. The intereft which the hearts of men take in the prin-
cipal character of this tragedy, ftands thus in competition
with the laws of the drama; and it becomes a problem, which
of the two, the means or the end, fhould preponderate.

On account of the intereft being transferred from the ation
to the agent, the moral, taking the fame courfe, is to be drawn
rather from the particular conduct of Hamter than from the
general bufinefs of the play. But what that particular moral
is, may be difficult to afcertain. We may fay, perhaps, that
from the conduét of HAMLer, it appears, how unfit for the
work of revenge are the qualities of a foldier and hero, when
conjoined with thofe of a fcholar and philofopher ; yet we can-
not prefume to affirm, that it was SHAKESPEARE’s object merely
to exemplify this, or even to conceive, that he limited himfelf
to any fingle object or moral. Thofe things which feem to have
been uppermoft in his mind, and which he has made to fhine
with moft light, are the charms in the perfonal character of
Hamuet. Enamoured with thefe himfelf, it feems to have been
his chief purpofe to raife the fame paffion in his audiences.
That he has intimated this, by his interpreter Horatio, only

» in

CHARACTER of HAMLET. 267

in one or two lines at the clofe of the play, is to be afcribed to.
his judgment. The purpofe which the dramatic poet has in
view, is to be found out by the beft of judges, the feelings of
the fpectators. From a fuperior fkill upon this point, RACINE
has merited the praifes which have been given him, while,
from a failure in it, the great CornnzILLE has been defervedly
blamed.

END OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

PRINTED BY NEILL & CO.

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[Omitted in the Lift of Donations, page 80.]

t By Mr Robert Kerr, furgeon, Edinburgh.
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