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RAKIPOSHI, OR DEVIL'S TAIL
FROM A PAINTING BY COLONEL H.C. B. TANNER
MOUNTAIN (25,550 FEET HIGH) IN HUNZA NAGAR
iN DAN 3S UR. OE Yes,
BY Rp ee
CHARLES E. D. BLACK.
aee
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF HER MAJESTY’S SECRETARY OF STATE FOR
INDIA IN COUNCIL.
LONDON:
SoLtp By
E. A. ARNOLD, 37, Beprorp Street, Stranp, W.C.
ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & Co., 14, Partiament Street, S.W.
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER, & Co., LIMITED, Patrrnostrer House,
CuHarina Cross Roap, W.C.
HENRY S. KING & Co., 65, CornutLi, H.C.
LUZAC & Co., 46, Grear RusseLy Srreer, W.C.
B. QUARITCH, 15, Prccapitxy, W. ;
AND
EDWARD STANFORD, 26 anv 27, Cockspur Srtkerr, Caarine Cross, S.W.
1891,
Price Seven Shillings and Siapence.
é
cad
Printed by Eyre 4
Majatye ea
Her
NDON
Lo
Wawa
ClO2NT LE HON TS:
Page
PREFACE - = = = - = - - Vv
CONTENTS :
I. Indian Marine Surveys, First Period, 1875-82 C - - 1
IJ. Indian Marine Surveys, Second Period, 1882-90 - © - 18
Ill. Great Trigonometrical Survey of India - = = - 38
IV. Topographical Surveys - - : - - - 67
V. Revenue Surveys - = - - - : - 100
VI. Geographical Surveys and Explorations — - - - - 128
VII. Afghan Boundary Commission - = 5 c liz,
VIII. Tidal and Levelling Observations - © - ° = gs
IX. Geodetic Observations - = = ; - 209
X. Supply of Scientific Instruments - - - - - 216
XI. Head Quarters of Survey Department 5 - = - 221
XII. Geological Survey of India - - = - - 236
XITI. Indian Meteorology - - - © - - = 280
XIV. Statistical Survey of India - - at Nature - 3i4
XV. Archeological Surveys - - - - - 320
XVI. Geographical Work of the India Office - - - = 3f3
Appenprix. Return of Scientific Instruments examined at the India Store
Depot, 1887-1890 - - - - - - 379
INDEX - - - - - - =e SSO
ILLUSTRATIONS.
FRONTISPIECE.—Rakiposnr Mountain (25,550 feet high), in Hunza-Nacar.
To face Title page.
Map or Inpia - - - - - - To face page 1.
x Y¥ 20321. a 2
[PR 18 1 kG Ihe
Tuts work was suggested by Mr. Clements R. Markham’s
“Memoir on the Indian Surveys,” in which the geographical and
other kindred operations carriel out in India from the date of
the British occupation were reviewed in a most picturesque and
masterly manner. In 1878 a second edition of Mr. Markham’s
work was published, in which the narrative was brought up to
1875, and in some cases for a year or so later. For the last fifteen
years I have been accumulating notes in moments of leisure,
with a view to the publication of a volume which might serve as a
continuation to that by Mr. Markham, and the kind support
given to the project by the Secretary of State for India and the
Viceroy has now enabled me to present the work in a more or
less complete shape. From unavoidable circumstances the arrange-
ment of matter is not identical with that adopted by Mr. Markham,
but I believe I have conformed to it sufficiently to make reference
easy, and wherever the source of information is not specially
mentioned, it may be assumed that it will be found in the official
Annual Report for the particular year.
J have to express my sincere acknowledgments to those friends
who have been good enough to read through the proofs and favour
me with numerous suggestions, of which I have gladly availed
myself. To General J. T. Walker, R.H., C.B., F.RS., &e.,
formerly Surveyor-General of India, I am indebted for his careful
revision of the Trigonometrical, Geodetic, and other chapters.
Colonel H. R. Thuile, R.H., the present Surveyor-General of India,
1 Y 20321, b
vil PREFACE.
has also supplied much useful additional matter in Chapter XI.
Mr. W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., has furnished me with several
valuable comments on the Geological Section; Mr. H. F. Blanford,
F.R.S.. kindly revised the Meteorology; Sir W. W. Hunter,
K.C.S.1., C.LE., suggested some improvements in the brief chapter
on the Statistical Survey ; while Commander A. D. Taylor, late I.N.,
and Commander A. W. Stiffe, late I.N., Colonel W. Barron, B.S.C.,
Colonel W. J. Heaviside, R.E., Mr. E. Roberts, F.R.A.S., and
Mr. T. Cushing, F.R.A.S., have been obliging enough to give
similar aid in respect of the chapters dealing with Marine Surveys,
Revenue Surveys, Geodetic Observations, Tidal and Levelling
Observations, and the Supply of Scientific Instruments, respectively.
Colonel J. Waterhouse, B.8.C., Major H. Raverty, and Mr. Ney
Elias, C.I.E., have also given valued assistance in other ways.
Last, but by no means least, Dr. Jas. Burgess, C.I.H., has shown
great interest in, and supplied most useful information for the
Chapter dealing with Indian Archeology, a subject in which he is
an eminent and acknowledged authority.
My object has been to supply an outline sketch of the remarkable
labours achieved during the last fifteen years by the chief Indian
scientific departments, and to facilitate reference to the detailed
records of those services. Any possible success that may have
attended this effort is greatly due to the kind encouragement and
co-operation shown by the above gentlemen.
CHARLES E. D. BLACK.
London, October, 1891.
REFERENCES
British Torritory colored.___ Pink
Dependens & Subordinate Native States Yellow
Raibvays opened ____
—Do___ not opened) _§$_ nmemeemencemeneeneni
eh $$
The numerals denote the height above sea level in feet,
This Map is intended only to exhibit the principal
places, chic rivers £0, in. India.
Ades Bank
Mud Bank_||
Pedihol Pati
* 99 Islands
AR TTGPAS, oF Cancer ae omits
INDIAN EMPIRE
Scale 265 miles = to 1 mch
a —
id
Cape Negrais|//Y,
__Cape Negeais|
Atyuadn Reef LightHouse
i Andaman DY
oy esr
Wee oreniaie
(Jurvisiblaniank
(Deitdendaman tt
Car Nicobar I*
a4
Peet
ay
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.*
First Prriop, 1875-82.
The survey of the coasts of India has ever been a matter of high
importance for navigators, and from the days of the old Bombay
Marine and its successor, the Indian Navy, the observations of the bold
and experienced seamen belonging to those services bore rich fruit
in the labours recorded in the pages of the “ Memoir on the Indian
Surveys.” ‘he operations of these Indian officers extended to the
Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, Arabian and African coasts, China Sea,
and other regions far beyond the limits of India proper. But in
1862 the Indian Navy was abolished, and no arrangement was made
for continuing the excellent survey work for which the service had
become renowned. After a long period of inaction, a small bui
efficient and economical department was at length organised in
1875, under the superintendence of Commander A. D. Taylor, late
I.N., a good start was made, and an encouraging record of work
achieved had been shown in the pages of the first report.
In the spring of 1876 Commander Taylor started on a tour of
inspection of the principal ports on the coast of Burma, where two
steamers had struck some little time previously on rocks unmarked
on the existing charts. Akyab, Bassein, Rangoon, Moulmein,
Tavoy, Mergui, and the Pakchan river were visited, as well as the
ultra-Indian ports of Kopah and Junkseylon on the Siam Coast.
From this inspection, after examining the chart of Amherst, which
was found most incorrect and incomplete, Commander Taylor
arrived at the conclusion that no large port of British India so
much required to be carefully surveyed. Navigating Lieutenant
Jarrad, R.N., was accordingly despatched in the “ Clyde” to execute
* The spelling of Indian proper names has been assimilated to that adopted in the
Imperial Gazetteer of India.
me SECHRI. Ne A
2 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
the survey during the year 1876-77. The Admiralty chart of
Tavoy river was also found to be very erroneous, but during a brief
stay Commander Taylor was enabled to take observations and
soundings which resulted in a more reliable chart being pro-
duced. At Junkseylon he met Captain A. de Richelieu, Siamese
Royal Navy, commanding the gunboat ‘ Coronation,’ from whom
an excellent preliminary survey of that island was obtained, and
published at Calcutta.*
In July Commander Taylor proceeded, with Navigating Sub-
Lieutenant E. W. Petley, R.N., to False Point to report how the
sum of Rs. 30,000, applied for as a loan to the Port Fund, could best
be spent in the interests of the port. On this an elaborate report
was submitted to Government. In the following March he was
deputed to Goa with instructions to visit the harbours of Karwar
and Marmagao and report on their relative merits as shelter-giving
anchorages durig the §8.W. monsoon. On careful consideration,
Commander Taylor came to the conclusion that Marmagao was
superior as a natural harbour, and in some respects as regards the
practicability of making improvements quite equal to Karwar. Two
officers, Nav. Lieutenant Jarrad, R.N., and Mr. Falle, were sent to
survey Madras roadstead, and a careful sectional survey of the
part of the roadstead and beach abreast of the native town was
commenced by them and continued by Lieutenants Hammond and
Pascoe on the scale of 600 feet to 1 inch.
Lieutenant Jarrad’s next work was to connect, astronomically,
Diamond Island, Rangoon, and Amherst Pagoda, the three principal
stations in the Gulf of Martaban essential to the reproduction of
a new chart of that locality. An elaborate sectionally sounded
double elephant sheet survey of Moulmein river approaches was
excellently carried out, comprising 105 square miles of water
closely examined, and 36 miles of coast trigonometrically laid
down. An important correction of the true bearing of Double
Island lighthouse from Amherst point was obtained by Lieutenant
Jarrad, who discovered the former to be 14 miles westward
of its true position, notwithstanding that if had already been
shifted a distance of 43} miles to the eastward of the positions
shown on the Admiralty charts. His next step was to commence a
* An interesting article by Captain De Richelieu on Salang island or Junkseylon
will be found at page 118 of the Geographical Magazine for 1878.
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 3
survey of the port of Akyab, in the vicinity of which several
wrecks had occurred, but owing to an outbreak of cholera it was
impossible to continue operations, although the necessity for a
thorough survey of the place was much felt, as it is much frequented
by rice traders and as a harbour of refuge.
Another survey which had to be abandoned through an epidemic
of cholera was that of Chittagong (Karnaphuli river), where the
encroachment of the sea had necessitated the removal of the lights
at Norman’s Point to some more suitable place. Lieutenant
Hammond had been entrusted with this work, but on the arrival of
Commander T'aylor most of the party were found to be suffering
from fever and dysentery, healthy drinking water being unpro-
curable, and heaps of half-burnt or half-buried human corpses
encountered here and there by the surveyors in course of their
work. Operations were therefore broken off.
A large number of questions affecting navigation, such as
the hindrances to the free navigation of Bassein river, brought to
the notice of the Secretary of State hy the Liverpool Shipowners’
Association, rules affecting emigrant ships (for the better protection
against fire), improvements in signalling on Indian coasts, amend-
ments of Native Passenger Ships Act of 1876 with reference to
long and short voyages and seasons of fair and foul weather, Wc.,
were forwarded for report by the Government to the Superintendent
of Marine Surveys. The preparation of a complete list of Indian
lighthouses and light-ships, with details of cost of erection and
maintenance, their positions, distinctive characteristics, &c., was
undertaken, as well as the Annual Return of Wrecks and Casualties
in Indian Waters. Hydrographic Notices containing sailing direc-
tion for Junkseylon or Salang island, Mergui archipelago, Rangoon
river, Moulmein (Salwen) river, Kyouk Phyou, and False Point were
published, and Notices to Mariners relatine to new lights, buoys,
and newly-discovered dangers were also published and issued to the
Indian maritime authorities, and to foreign Governments, while the
English, Spanish, Dutch, American, Chinese, German, and Indian
notices were duly embodied and marked (so far as applicable) on all
the charts in store. Altogether 3,279 charts were corrected and
brought up to date, and a new catalogue of charts was issued.
In the following year (1877) the Superintendent carried into
effect his deferred tour of inspection of the ports of the peninsula of
A 2
4 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
India on both coasts from False Point round to Bombay. The
following were visited and reports made on each :—
False Point. Colachel.
Gopalpur. Cochin.
Calingapatam. Narakal.
Bimlipatam. Beypur.
Vizagapatam. Calicut.
Coconada. Tellicherri.
Masulipatam. Cannanur.
Madras. Mangalore.
Negapatam. Karwar.
Tuticorin. Bombay.
Owing to the special surveying steamer which was being
built at Bombay not beimg completed, the surveying operations
during the year were entirely carried on by two boat parties, one in
charge of Lieutenant Jarrad, R.N., and the other (a smaller one)
in charge of Mr. Morris Chapman, late I.N. The first-named
party surveyed the port of Ratnagiri (including Mirya and
Kalbadeyi bays) in four months, the plotting comprising 38 miles
of coast and 21 square miles of water sounded on the scale of
4 inches to 1 nautic mile. Viziadrug, including Rajapur and
Ambol Ghur bays, was next taken in hand, and sailing directions
for all these parts in the shape of hydrographic notices were also
compiled. Both at Mirya and Viziadrug the large percentage of
iron contained in the laterite (which in some places forms a layer
of considerable thickness over the igneous rock of which the coast
is formed) exercised a very considerable disturbing effect on the
compass needle. so it was with considerable difficulty that magnetic
observations were made. Both on this account and owing to the
inconvenience of working with boats in lieu of a well-found
surveying vessel slow progress was made.
At Paumben, Commander Taylor had found during his tour of
inspection that an accurate survey of the pass or channel between
India and Ceylon and its approaches was much required; the only
existing chart being on too small a scale. The Government of
India further desired that the examination might be complete, so
as to enable a time estimate to be formed of the labour required
for any subsequent widening and deepening of the channel. The
last survey by Commanders Powell and Ethersey, late LN.,
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 6)
had, curiously enough, been made exactly 40 years before.
Several trigonometrical stations had been fixed in the vicinity by
Major Branfill at the time of his connecting India with Ceylon in
1875, consequently Mr. Chapman was enabled to connect his marine
work with ease and accuracy. ‘he whole survey was shown on two
sheets, and no fewer than 455 miles of water were sounded over.
Navigating Lieutenants Hammond and Pascoe paid a visit to
Cochin, Beypur, and Calicut to ascertain what changes had occurred
since the last surveys. At the first-named nearly half of Vypeen
island was discovered to have been washed away, and other changes
had taken place necessitating a re-survey. About 10 years ago
the monsoon sea breached through Vypin island at Cruz Milagre,
two miles north of the town, and so large was the body of water
that great and costly efforts were made to close it. These for-
tunately succeeded, but during the two years of existence of the
gap, the main ebb stream of the Cochin backwater was much
weakened, and the sandy ridge of the bar was driven m about a
cable’s length by the monsoon swell, besides other changes. At
Beypur and Calicut minor hydrographic data were noted, and the
recess was utilised by Lieutenant Pascoe in preparing the fair
drawings of the extended survey of Madras, which was added to
the previous survey by Lieutenant Jarrad in 1876, the whole being
shown on ore sheet and plotted on the scale of 10 inches to
1 nautic mile. It extended from St. Thomé on the south to
Kasimodo on the north, and comprised 5? miles of coast, while the
soundings were carried out to the 10-fathom line, 7.c., between
two and three miles off shore.
Some important additions to the hydrography of the Siam coast
were received from Captain A. J. Loftus, Topographer and Marine
Surveyor to the Siamese Government. The hydrographic work
executed by him extended along the west coast of the Gulf of Siam
from Hilly Cape to Lem Chang P’ra, a distance of upwards of
300 miles, and embraced Singora, Patani, and other anchorages
hitherto entirely unsurveyed, and indeed unknown, and filled up a
distinct gap in the existing charts of the coast. The work was
well produced; elaborate notes were appended to the sheets
explaining how the survey was carried on, as well as a large
number of views of various parts of the coast. These sheets were
reduced to convenient scale by Mr. R. C. Carrington and published
by permission of the Government of India at Calcutta,
6 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
The natural history investigations of the season 1877-78 were
necessarily confined to examining, collecting, and preserving speci-
mens of the fauna of the shores near Ratnagiri and Viziadrug.
The area examined included the tract from the sea to the Western
Ghats. It is only on the slopes of the hills that the various fauna
begin to be at all abundant, or to assume any individuality of their
own. All the intervening tract of country is parched and barren,
and composed of a thin soil overlying a substratum of trap rock or
laterite, the latter being apparently detrimental to the development
of animal organisms. The want of an efficient surveying vessel
hampered Dr. Armstrong’s operations, but a list of about 60
ornithological specimens collected by him finds place in his report
for 1877-78. Among miscellaneous papers submitted to Govern-
ment by officers of the Department and printed in the Appendix to
the Report for the year were the following :—
Remarks on some ports of the Madras Presidency, after inspection
in April and May 1877. By Commander Taylor, late I.N.
Report on some harbours, &e. of the Bombay Presidency. after
an inspection tour in May 1877. By Commander Taylor, late I.N.
Remarks upon the supposed silting up of the upper portion of
Bombay harbour. By Commander Taylor.
On the history of some of the oldest races now settled in Bombay.
With reasons for supposing that the present island of Bombay
consisted in the 14th century of two or more distinct islands.
By R. X. Murphy, Esq.
Extract from report by Mr. Morris Chapman, late I.N., on
Paumben channel and Rameswaram island.
In addition to various useful pieces of work performed by
Mr. Carrington in the compilation of new charts and of hydro-
graphic publications may be mentioned the result of a visit of
inspection to Bombay paid by him, on which occasion he examined
the whole collection of charts (11,787 im number) stored in the
dockyard there. Of these, the vast majority (10,045) proved to be
quite obsolete, and had consequently to be cancelled; the remainder
(1,742) were corrected by hand up to the latest date by Mr. Carrington,
and retained for issue to masters of vessels.
One of the first matters to be settled in 1878 was the selection of
localities where tide-gauges should be erected, with a view to the
determination of the mean sea-level along the Indian coasts. This
was settled by Commander Taylor in concert with Captain
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. Uf
A. W. Baird, R.E., Superintendent of Tidal and Levelling Opera-
tions, visits being paid to False Point, Vizagapatam, Madras,
Paumben (where, at Commander Taylor’s instance, Mr. Morris
Chapman was deputed to extend his survey three miles to the
eastward), Beypur, Karwar, and Bombay.
Later on, Commander Taylor was enabled to carry out a further
inspection of several harbours in company with Colonel Thomason,
and Verawal, Seraia, and Cutch Mandvi were visited. In connexion
with the Gulf of Cambay a petition signed by upwards of 70
native shipowners and shipmasters was submitted to the super-
intendent, stating that in consequence of the existing lights being
insufficient, and of the imperfect state of the chart, a large number
of vessels were either wrecked or damaged every year by sand-
banks in the gulf. The petitioners solicited that a thorough
examination of the‘gulf might speedily be made in the interests of
navigation; but owing to the want of a steamer, this could not
be taken in hand.
A pressing request was also addressed to the superintendent to
cause a survey of Bankote river mouth to be made, as it had the
largest traffic of any of the Konkan rivers, and was at the same
time very dangerous. The request was supported by Sir Richard
Temple, the Governor of Bombay; but as the survey formed no
part of the programme of operations sanctioned by the Government
of India, it could not then be undertaken. It was, however,
thoroughly surveyed by No. 1 Boat party in the following year.
An examination of Quilon roadstead was also asked for in the
interests of the Scottish India Coffee Company, who had large
investments in South Travancore; but this could not be undertaken
till 1883, when it was completed by Lieutenant Pascoe.
Asin the preceding season, surveying had to be carried on in
boat parties, under the command of Lieutenant Jarrad and
Mr. Morris Chapman. At the request of Sir R. Temple, Governor
of Bombay, the port of Jyghur, a harbour of refuge during the
S.W. monsoon, and its approaches were surveyed on the scale
of 6 inches to 1 nautic mile. Although small, the harbour was
found to possess many natural advantages, and to be easy of access
for vessels of 12 feet draught in all weathers. Lieutenant Jarrad
reported there was not much traffic, though at Saichor, about four
miles from the entrance, a very large number of pattimars were
laid up and repaired during the monsoon. The entrance to the
8 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
Daphol or Anjanwil river, where the passenger traffic by coasting
steamers was rapidly increasing, was next taken in hand and plotted
on a double-elephant sheet on ‘the’ same scale as the above
survey, as well as that of Chaul, where the Chaul Kadu and other
dangerous reefs and shoals had caused many a wreck to vessels
making for Bombay harbour.
Harly in September 1878 Mr. Morris Chapman commenced his
survey of Tuticorin roadstead and ‘harbour, the soundings being
carried out as far as the 5-fathom and 7-fathom line to the
north and south respectively. The heat was most trying, and the
weather so exceptionably bad that a suspension of the work became
necessary. Mr. Chapman was deputed to make an examination of
the water space eastward of the Shingle islands at Paumben,
principally with the object of finding a southern deep entrance to
the proposed ship canal through Rameswaram. Forty miles of
goundings were taken, but there proved to be no deep southern
entrance, though there are great advantages for one to the north.
On the 16th March Mr. Chapman became ill from severe exposure,
and though he was granted two months’ leave to enable him to
proceed to Australia, he unfortunately died before the season closed.
He was a painstaking and hardworking surveyor, and his loss
was severely felt in the Department.
On the 4th December 1878 the building of the new surveying
steamer “ Investigator “ was commenced, and the formality of
driving the silver nail into her stem took place. The ceremony,
peculiar to Bombay, is said to be of Parsee origin, and is some-
what analogous to that of depositing coins, &c. under foundation
stones. The nail was of silver, about seven inches in length and
three-quarters of an inch diameter near the head. The four sides
bore the inscriptions :—(1) Indian Government surveying steamer
“ Investigator,’ Bombay Dockyard, December 1878 ; (2) The Right
Hon’ble Lord Lytton, G.C.S.I., Viceroy and Governor-General ;
(8) The Hon’ble Sir R. Temple, G.C.S.I1., Governor of Bombay ;
(4) Captain G. OB. Carew, I.N., Officiating Superintendent of
Marine, and Jamsetjee Dhunjeebhoy Wadia, master builder.
During the year a Chart Depot at Calcutta had been established,
and was in good working order. Printed lists of all new charts
and hydrographic publications, and information as to where
the same were obtainable, were distributed to all Indian shipping
agencies, and to all shipmasters calling at Calcutta; and the result
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 9
Was an increase in the sale of Admiralty publications, and of charts
of Indian ports and anchorages. Many acknowledgments were
received from the maritime public of the practical utility of an office
where reliable charts and information were procurable.
Seventeen new charts were issued during the year referred to,
and the large number of 17,268 Admiralty and Marine Survey
charts corrected. Among the special reports prepared during the
year, and reprinted in the Aunual Report, were the following :—
Memorandum on the reefs and dangers southward of Kundari
Island, aud the necessity for better marking those dangers by night,
by Navigating Lieutenant Jarrad, R.N.
A description of some new species of Hydroid Zoophytes from
the Indian Coasts and Seas, by Surgeon J. Armstrong, Medical
Officer and Naturalist.
Reports by Commander A. D. Taylor, late I.N., on the Phaeton
Shoal and Alguada Reef, and on the various ports, &c. inspected by
him during the season.
A thorough inspection of the lghthouses and lght-vessels of
India, with such proposals for their improvement as might seem
best in the interests of navigation, was one of the early aims of the
Marine Survey Department. This inspection Commander Taylor
was enabled to carry out in the year 1879-80, and his general report
upon the Indian lights is printed in full in the Report for that year.
It contains some useful observations and suggestions in regard to
92 lights, from Karachi to Coco islands. A supplementary report
in the same volume deals with the question of the relief and supply
of Indian lighthouses and their periodical inspection.
Owing to the untimely death of Mr. Morris Chapman, I.N., the
temporary abolition of No. 2 Boat party, and the postponement of
the surveys of Beypur and Cochin had become necessary; and as
Lieutenant Jarrad’s health was impaired, arrangements were made
for him to remain at Bombay and for an amalgamated party
under him and Lieutenant Petley to take up the survey of the Bombay
harbour, which the experience of the previous year had shown to
be necessary.
The first survey undertaken, however, was that of Karwar, which
was plotted on the 6-inch scale by Lieutenant Petley ; but owing
to the inefficiency of the small steam cutters at the disposal of the
party, the survey could not be extended so far to the north and
south as was desirable. Bankote was also surveyed on the same
10 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
scale, and on its completion the party moved to Marmagao, where
a minute examination of that port was made at the request of the
Bombay Government, acting on the suggestion of the Hngineer-in-
Chief of the proposed Hubli-Marmagao Railway. This work was
completed at the hottest period of the year, and was rendered
exceptionally trying by the prevalence of the Kanara fever, which
occasioned much sickness among the party.
The special reports printed in the Appendix to the Annual Report
for 1879-80 comprised reports on False Point harbour, and the
great modifications and movements of sand going on there, two
memoranda on Coconada, and a new deep channel into the
Godavari river, and a memorandum on the proposed breakwater
at Marmagao, all by Commander Taylor, while some general notes
on the topography and history of the latter place were written by
Lieutenant Petley, with the assistance of Dr. J. Gerson da Cunha.
During 1880-81 the surveying operations consisted of a careful
survey by Lieutenant Petley of the Bombay foreshore from the
Prongs lighthouse to Mazagon, and to an average distance of
7,500 feet seaward. The result was to discover many rocky
patches and also less water on the Raleigh shoal than shown on
the existing charts. Lieutenant Petley then proceeded to Goa,
where by the 20th February all the seaboard coast and islands were
mapped and 55 square miles of water were minutely examined, the
sounding lines being run in sections, those over shoal and dangerous
eround being as close as possible. The Portuguese Governor-
General took great personal interest in the progress of the survey,
and had it not been for this, the difficulties would have been far
ereater than they were, for the natives somehow formed the idea
that the survey party were connected with the new salt tax treaty,
which was very unpopular, and many petty annoyances often
occurred. The survey of the Sunchi reef was awkward and
perilous, as the sea when apparently quite smooth would suddenly
pile up on the reef and develop into tremendous breakers, and with
the place full of sharks, the danger from a capsize was great. A
good descriptive and historical sketch by Lieutenant Petley of Goa,
its forts, churches, rivers, islands, &c., is printed in the Appendices
to the Reports for 1879-80 and 1880-8]. In the month of May
Lieutenant Petley made a hasty survey of the approaches to Princes
Deck, Bombay. The general result of the season’s work at
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. li
Bombay was that eight miles of coast line were triangulated and
20 square miles of water soundings were taken.
Lieutenant W. H. Coombs command a survey of the port af
Rangoon in November 1880 and completed it in March of the
following year, the space sounded being eight square miles, and the
length of coast measured a little more than 20 miles. Some notes on
the history and topography of Rangoon were compiled by Lieutenant
Coombs during his stay, and find place in the Report.
During the summer and autumn of 188] Mr. P. J. Falle executed
a survey on the scale of 400 feet to the inch of that portion of
Dowdeswell island (Orissa coast) which hes north of Hukitollah, and
is most seriously affected by the action of the winds and waves of the
southerly monsoon, as also by the river freshets. Mr. Falle also
made observations later on in the year on the set and velocity of
the tides in the harbour.
On the 3rd March 1881 the new surveying steamer ‘‘ Investigator ”
was launched, and Lieutenant L. 8. Dawson, R.N., an able surveyor
of 18 years’ standing, possessing considerable experience of hydro-
graphical matters, was appointed to the command of the vessel.
He eventually succeeded Commander Taylor in the Superintendent-
ship of Marine Surveys.
The work at headquarters consisted in tendering advice on a
variety of matters of a scientific description affecting navigation to
the Government of India and the local governments and administra-
tions. in May 1881 the superintendent was appointed President of
a Committee on Indian Lighthouse Administration.
In 1880 events arose which ultimately had a most important
bearing cn the future of the Department. In the early part of that
year disagreements began to crop up between Mr. Rh. Carrington,
the Superintendent of the Drawing Branch, and some of the Royal
Nayy officers who had been lent for surveying service by the Lords
of the Admiralty, and this culminated in the services of Navigating
Lieutenant F. W. Jarrad, R.N., being replaced by the Government
of India at the disposal of the Admiralty on the 6th February 1880.
Lezegthy correspondence followed between the Indian Government,
the Commander-in-Chief on the Hast Indian Station, the Lords of
the Admiralty. and the Secretary of State for India. This led
eventually to the Government of India determining to institute an
inquiry into the working of the Marine Survey Department, and a
committee was appointed for the purpose under the presidency of
2 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
Major-General J. T. Walker, R.H., Surveyor-General of India, the
other members being Mr. D. M. Barbour, officiating Accountant-
General of Bengal, Mr. H. F. Blanford, F.R.S., Meteorological
Reporter to the Government of India, Commander A. D. Taylor,
late I.N., Superintendent of Indian Marine Surveys, Commander
A. D. Street, R.N., Assistant Secretary to the Government of India
in the Military (Marine) Department, and Mr. C. E. Palmer, R.N.,
Examiner of Marine Accounts as Secretary. The chief proposals
of this Committee were that the Survey Department should he
amalgamated with the Indian Marine and that a rather smaller
surveying establishment than the original one should be sanctioned.
The head of the department was to be styled Superimtendent of
Coast Surveys in lieu of Superintendent of Marine Surveys, the
employment of Royal Naval officers was to be continued, and
arrangements were to be made for marine zoological observations and
trawling to be carried on in the new surveying steamer, under the
supervision of a Naturalist. The post of superintendent was
recommended to be conferred on Commander T. A. Hull, R.N., an
officer who had had great experience in coast surveying in various
parts of the world, and in the projection and compilation of charts
in the Hydrographic Office of the Admiralty.* The Admiralty,
however, objected to the Superintendentship being given to an officer
retired from the Royal Navy, and this proposal had to be abandoned.
The general re-organization of the Department too, on the lines laid
down by the Committee, did not commend itself to the Admiralty
and the Secretary of State, and at the suggestion of the former,
advantage was taken of Commander Taylor’s prospective retire-
ment to depute Captain H. W. Brent, R.N., the recently nominated
Director of Indian Marine, to take up the question on his arrival in
India, so as to advise the Government as to the best way of dealing
with the Marine Survey Department.
An elaborate report on the Marine Survey Department was
compiled by Captain Brent, and its entire work since its origin in
1874 was severely criticised. A series of statements and charges
was brought against the Department, but it is enough to state here
* Captain Hull was author of a remarkable paper read in 1874 before the Royal
United Service Institution called “ The Unsurveyed World, 1874,” which enumerated
and specified all the more pressing coast surveys then needed throughout the world.
The paper attracted much attention.
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 13
that the general purport of this part of the report was to allege
that the Calcutta Office or shore establishment had been unduly
magnified at the cost of the survey proper, that India required her
coasts surveyed, but-no Hydrographic Office, and that the most
useful and profitable course in the interests of the State was
‘to break up the Indian Marine Survey Department.”
Captain Brent's detailed recommendations regarding the personnel
and records were as follows :—
Commander A. D. Taylor, late I.N., Superintendent of Marine
Surveys, was to be pensioned. The post of Superintendent of the
Drawing Branch was to be abolished, and 10 clerks and draughts-
men were to be either transferred to other Government posts or
dismissed. All the Admiralty charts purchased by and presented
to India, were to be sent back to the Hydrographer, while Indian
survey charts were to be sent to Bombay dockyard, together with
chart boxes, instruments, drawing materials, tin cases, &c.
Surveyors original charts were to be sent to the Admiralty
Hydrographer.
The Wreck Register and the clerk employed thereon were to be
transferred after the Ist July to the Port Office, Calcutta, instructions
being sent to the Indian ports to send all information in future to
that official instead of to the Marine Survey Department. The Port
Officer has since carried on this duty in addition to his own work.
The Annual Return of Lighthouses and Light-vessels was to be
handed over to the Home Department, and the Notices to Mariners
abolished, on the ground that they could always be procured from
London. Captain A. W. Stiffe, the Port Officer, was directed in
1887 to prepare a new corrected edition of the former Return, and
to the same officer was also entrusted the duty of issuing all Notices
to Mariners relating to India.
With respect to the future conduct of surveys, Captain Brent laid
down at the outset that it was only from the active list of the Royal
Navy that efficient marine surveyors could be obtained, and that the
Indian surveyors should be therefore nominated by the Admiralty,
the posts of assistants being filled by officers of the Indian Marine.
But the two classes were to be kept distinct, there being no promo-
tion from the lower to the higher grade. Their work was to be
sent home directly to the Hydrographer, such charts as might be
14 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
required promptly for local navigation and engineering wants being
first photo-zincographed in India. Printed Admiralty charts of the
coast of India were in future to be corrected at the Admiralty.
In the opinion of Captain Brent the ‘“ Investigator” steamer and
two boat parties would be sufficient at least to start the surveys
with. Unfortunately, however, it has never been found practicable
to increase this force.
The future establishment was to consist of a surveyor in charge (in
lieu of the Superintendent), who was to be placed in command of the
“Investigator,” direct the boat surveys, arrange all survey work
and connect it with the points of the Great Trigonometrical Survey.
The programme of operations was to be submitted through the
Director of the Indian Marine to the Government of India for
sanction. The surveyor in charge was to decide which of the
surveys would be of sufficient importance or use to be photo-zinco-
eraphed, and he was to countersign the original charts before
forwarding them to the Hydrographer of the Admiralty, to decide
on the form of all hydrographic information, whether emanating
from the marine surveying officers, port officers, or other sources, and
to forward such information to the Admiralty for publication. He was
to communicate with the Hydrographer of the Admiralty respscting
past operations and those most pressing in the future from a local or
Indian point of view, obtaining his approval or dissent before acting
on the more important points. ‘l’o report to the Hydrographer as
to any changes in the naval personnel and to the Director of Marine
any changes in the Indian personnel likely to prove of benefit to the
pubhe service. ‘lo make demand on the Hydrographic Office in
England for such charts, surveying notices, or publications as
may be necessary tec meet local Indian requirements. To answer
any questions velating to harbour conservancy by means of buoys,
beacons, or lights; those of a secondary nature to be kept for the
recess.
Owing to the arduous character of the duties and the trying
nature of the ciimate, it was stipulated that the duration of
the appomtments should be limited to five years, renewable if
advisable. The naval officers were to come under the Uncovenanted
Civil Service rules for leave and furlough, but, to count their time
and to keep them under the Naval Discipline Act, their names were
to be borne on the books of the flagship on the Hast India station
or such other ship as might be necessary from time to time.
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 15
There was to be an office at Bombay under the Director of Marine
with two draughtsmen and a clerk, and these officials were charged
with the custody and care of the charts.
Local governments and administrations and the several port officers
were to promptly communicate all information regarding wrecks,
lights, navigation, buoys, beacons, shoals, or other matters affecting
the safe navigation of the seas, to the Director of Marine for the
information of the surveyor in charge. The surveyor in charge
was to be the adviser to the Government of India upon all matters
connected with the navigation of Indian seas, the lighting and
marking of the sea approaches to all great Indian ports and rivers,
conservancy of harbours, and cognate subjects.
This general scheme was approved by the Government of
India.* The proposed staff as agreed to by them was to consist of
one surveyor in charge and seven officers, all of the Royal Navy,
and nine assistant surveyors of the Indian Marine. The total cost
of the scheme was to be Rs. 1,938,000, which was estimated to bea
saving of Rs. 7,000 a year on the cost of the then existing establish-
ment (Rs. 2,00,000 per annum), but as the actual expenditure of the
latter was about half a lakh less than its sanctioned limit, the new
scheme was in reality the more costly of the two.
The Secretary of State duly accorded his sanction to these pro-
posals, and the retirement of Commander Taylor on the Ist July
1882, under the 55-year rule, enabled the re-organization to be
completed. He was succeeded in the charge of the Marine Surveys
by Commander L. 8. Dawson, R.N.
Commander Alfred Dundas ‘Taylor, whose active Indian career thus
practically came to an end, is an officer whose public service here
merits some notice.
His earliest eastern services were rendered in the Persian Gulf when
he was a midshipman on board the Honourable Hast India Company’s
ship “‘ Elphinstone.” On leaving that vessel in June 1843 he was
granted a certificate as ‘‘a first-rate navigator who promised to be as
** good an officer.” His surveying career commenced in the following
year under Commander Montriou (succeeded later on by Lieutenant
Selby) in the brig “‘ Taptee,” along the Concan coast below Bombay,
and this work was carried on for four years. Promoted to the rank
of lieutenant in 1847 the next two years found him on board the
* Military (Marine) Letter, No. 29 of 1882, dated 1st September 1882.
16 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
steam frigate “ Feroze,” in the Red Sea. In the autumn of 1850
he was appointed to command the surveying vessel ‘‘ Pownah,” in
which, during the next six years, he carried out a survey of the
Gulf of Cutch and the Malabar coast. In 1855 he examined the
port of Karwar, and was then sent by Lord Harris (father of
the present Governor of Bombay) to survey Coringa bay and
Coconada port, on the Coromandel coast, and Cochin, on the Malabar
coast. Resuming the latter survey, he finished southward as far as
Calicut by the middle of 1859. Later in that year he was sent to
pilot the expeditionary force against the rebellious Waghers at Bet
and Dwarka, and then proceeded to England on furlough. In 1862
Commander 'laylor was pensioned off on the abolition of the Indian
Navy but, at the request of Admiral Washington, the Hydrographer,
his services were utilised in the compilation of Sailing Directions
for the West Coast of Hindostan, which work was published in 1865.
It was during the course of the next few years that in his researches
at the India Office, Commander Taylor became aware how little had
been done to improve the hydrography of Indian waters, a subject
eventually brought by the Secretary of State under the notice of
the Government of India, which led to the formation of the Marine
Survey Department under Taylor’s charge.*
During the six years of its existence, the cost of the Marine
Survey Department had been as follows :—
Rupees. as. pp.
1875-76 - - 160,771
1876-77 : : 1,40,484 O 1
1877-78 - - 198: 200 ee
1878-79 - - 160320 7g. ai,
1879-80 . - Gy Oe yes) ill
1880-81 - - 194,607" OF Or
Total Rupees 914067 9 @Q
Or, on an average, Rupees 1,502,344 per annum.
Under Commander Taylor’s superintendentsnip, ¢.e., from April
1875 (the date on which work was commenced at headquarters) up
to the end of September 1881, the publications of the Marine
Survey Department consisted of the following :—68 new charts,
* See Mr. Markham’s Memoir on the Indian Surveys (Second edition), p. AS.
Commander Taylor last year (1890) signalized the 50th year of his public service
by the compilation of a China Sea Directory, a sequel to the Indian Ocean Directory.
} Including Rs. 83,536, part construction of the surveying steamer “‘ Investigator.”
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 7
24 Hydrographic Notices, 172 Notices to Mariners, 5 Annual
Returns of Wrecks and Casualties in Indian Waters (1876-1880),
6 editions of the List of Lighthouses and Light-vessels in British
India (1876-1881), and various other useful publications, including
Spheroidal Tables, Glossary of French Nautical Terms, Tables of
Natural Seales, Table of Distances at which Objects are seen at
Sea, &c. The advantages, too, of a chart depdt at Calcutta, where
hyd1ographical publications could be promptly obtained without the
long delay of reference to England, were beginning to be fully
appreciated by the mercantile public, and in 1580-81 1785 charts
were sold, being at the rate of between five and six charts a day.
Such were the results accomplished by the Department during its
brief existence. Under the superintendence of its able and devoted
chief, and with the co-operation of its energetic officers, it had
made a position for itself, and its good work was beginning to be
kmown and thoroughly appreciated by the mercantile marine
frequenting Indian seas. Had it been able to survive those internal
and external petty jealousies, from which no public department, any
more than any other human institution, is exempt, it would
undoubiedly have achieved a long record of good work, worthy of
comparison with that, which during the present century, has made
the history of Indian land surveys so famous and brilliant. Un-
doubtedly much of the marine survey work has since been continued
by earnest and capabie hands. But the break-up of a department
is seldom unaccompanied by evils; the old personnel vanishes,
the old lines are obliterated, the experience which it has taken years
to build up, is either discredited or wholly lost, and the result is,
even at the best, a serious interruption to that record of continued
progress and development which are the aim of all Hnglisb
administrations.
x Y 20321. B
18
Il.
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
Seconp Perrriop, 1882-90.
The Indian coast surveys now entered on a new chapter of their
history. The headquarters had been moved from Calcutta to
Bombay, future operations were to be mainly confined to
surveying, pur et simple, and Commander lL. 8. Dawson was
appointed to their charge on the Ist July 1882,* in the place of
Commander A. D. Taylor, late I.N., retired.
The “ Investigator’ paddle steamer, 508 tons, was now available
for surveying purposes, and was arranged as a sort of floating
headquarters of the Marine Survey Department, a complete set of
charts, sailing directions, pilotage books, and works of reference
being taken in her, to enable Commander Dawson to deal with any
hydrographical question or reports referred to him.
During the year 1881-82 her officers performed the following
survey work :—
| Area Sounded | Coast Line | ‘Topography
Place. Scale. | in in | triangulated and
| Square Miles. | Square Miles. | drawn in detail.
|
Malwan - - | Ginches to! mile | 21 17°75 | 13
|
Vingorla SAP ge hi bees 11 7 | 10°5
Bombay - - 5 ~ 3 32 il +
Do, - -| 2 > 5 $1 20 50
Total - | 145 55°5 57°5
* Commander Dawson had been employed (while Lieutenant) as Naval Assistant in
the Hydrographic Deparimeut of the Admiralty since 1876. He had previously had
10 years’ experience in surveying in the Mediterranean, China, River Plate, New
Guinea, and at Fiji, where he commanded the schooner “ Alacrity.”
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 19
The boat party, in charge of Lieutenant W. H. Coombs, R.N.,
also did some useful work. It executed a survey of False Point,
on two sheets, the scales being 600 feet to 1 inch, and 4 inches to
1 nautic mile, respectively. For the first month the whole of the
work had to be carried on with only the whale boat, and all the
officers and men suffered more or less from the malarial fever, for
which the place is notorious. The remainder of the season was
taken up with surveys of Santapilly reef, Coconada, and the
southern portion of Madras harbour.
During most of the following year the charge of the surveys was
temporarily transferred to Lieutenant A. Channer, R.N., and under
his superintendence a survey of the Karil Kachal channel and
Vingorla rocks was made, after which the ‘‘ Investigator” weighed
anchor and proceeded to run a line of deep-sea soundings parallel
to and about 60 miles off the coast to the Gulf of Manar, and
across the gulf to Colombo, passing over the “ Wedge bank.”
The next work undertaken was a survey, in December 1882, of the
Dhumra river entrance, and the portion of the Baitarani (Byturnee)
river from its junction with the Dhumra up to Chandbally, and the
following month Balasore roadstead and Burraballung river up to
Balasore town were charted. The “ Investigator’ next proceeded
to Chittagong, where a rough reconnaissance of the Meghna river,
from Narayanganj to Sandwip channel, and of the Karnaphuli or
Chittagong river, to three miles seaward was made, after which the
ship returned to Bombay.
No. 1 Boat survey party, which had been in abeyance during the
previous year on account of the officers formerly composing it
having been required for duty on board the new surveying steamer,
was reconstituted on the Ist October 1882. Under Commander
Dawson, a survey of Back bay, Bombay, on the scale of two inches
to the mile, was commenced, and continued and completed by
Lieutenant Pascoe, the result being to show a slight deepening of the
bay to the northward as compared with Lieutenant Whish’s survey
of 1861. Karachi harbour was next taken in hand, and plotted
on a double-elephant sheet, the work comprising 194 miles of coast
line, and 16 square miles of sounding. -
All the above, with the exception of the large scale of Bhaunagar
(which was for local engineering purposes), were completed and sent
to the Hydrographer, and four of the plans were photo-zincographed
at Poona and sent to the Chief Commissioner of Burma for local
distribution.
The approaching outbreak of war with King Theebaw necessitated
some scheme for piloting a flotilla advancing on Mandalay and
Bhamo, for buoying the river and for preserving the buoys, as
native pilots beyond the frontier were not tobe had. A,river survey
party under Commander A. Carpenter, R.N., was accordingly formed,
with a small reserve party under Commander P. J. Falle, I.M.,
which was established at Pagan, about half-way between the frontier
and Mandalay. The main party, on joining the war flotilla at
Mirhla, were sent forward to lead the fleet up to Mandalay, throwing
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. D5)
the survey launch ahead to sound whenever there was a Coubt as to
which channel the main stream had adopted for the dry season.
The possession of a gun and a bluejacket’s crew were a very service-
able help to them when sounding ahead of the other vessels. Com-
mander Carpenter and lus party then piloted the flotilla up to
Bhamo, haying first taken the pilots over the shallowest portions and
examined the latest-formed channels. A complete sketch survey
was made of the river from Thayetmyo to Bhamo, and was checked
by astronomical observations at 20 positions, forming altogether a
valuable addition to geography. The survey party returned to
Rangoon and rejoined the ‘ Investigator’’ towards the end of
January, having received the thanks of General Sir H. Prendergast
for the skilful assistance which they had rendered to the Irawadi
war flotilla.
The next survey taken up was that of the Mergui archipelago,
the Admiralty chart of which (by Captains Ross and Lloyd of the
Indian Navy) was found to be very correct, the only defect being an
insufficient number of soundings. ‘The islets are all steep, and many
are mere pinnacles, which makes it probable that similar dangerous
pointed rocks exist below water. The Great Western Torres islands,
immense heaps of boulders overgrown with foliage, were visited,
and their position tested by angles to known peaks and found to be
1 miles out.
About this time a fresh datum for the low-water level on Indian
charts was resolved upon. Previously,the soundings used to
indicate the depth at the average lowest tides of all the lunar
fortnights during the year, but as this had been proved by the
observations of Major Baird to give in some cases more water
than actually existed, owing to the considerable difference on the
west coast of India between night and day tides, and on the Kast
and Burmese coasts between winter and summer ocean level, it
was decided that all soundings and tide tables should be reduced to
the lowest low water of the year, provided it was not phenomenal,
e.g., brought about by an earthquake or cyclone. The only exceptions
to this rule was to be made at Karachi, Marmagao, and in the River
Hugh, where the harbour authorities sound their own ports and
prefer their own reduction datum. This, however, was a matter
which would not confuse the mariner, as at such ports pilots are
obligatory.
26 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
Lieutenant HE. C. H. Helby, R.N., in charge of No. 1 Boat survey
party, completed the survey of the approaches to Bhaunagar com-
menced in the previous season. The soundings extended over 104
square miles, charted on the scale of three inches to a nautical mile.
No. 2 Boat party, under Lieutenant M. H. Smyth, R.N., was
engaged in buoying the China Bakir entrance to the Irawadi
river, and in the survey of Mergui, already mentioned.
29
On the “ Investigator’s”’ return from the Western Torres islands,
in March, she completed the southern approach to Mergui, taking
in some 20 miles of the beaten track to the southward. Preparis,
Narcondam, and Barren islands were next visited. From the last
two islands radiating lines of soundings were carried out to ascertain
their slope to the floor of the ocean. It was found that they rose
from a depth of 1,140 fathoms, but that the north-east slope of
Narcondam was being encroached upon by the outlying banks from
the great rivers flowing into the Gulf of Martaban. The temperature
observations taken seemed to favour the inference that no greater
depth than 760 fathoms exists in any of the passages between the
Andaman islands or between that group and Acheen.
In May, Lieutenant A. Channer, R.N., was again appointed as
Surveyor in charge (Commander Carpenter being absent on leave
in England). ‘The following charts and plans were drawn during the
recess :—
Irawadi river from ‘thayetmyo to Bhamo, on #-inch scale in
4 sheets.
China Bakir river - - . - on 2-inch scale.
Mergui Fells passage - - = je, Oe
3 Northern approach - = ey Ly ee
<3 Kings island to Christmasisland - ,,1 ,, _,,
Cambay Perim to Bhaunagar - CE? eae i
fs Narbada = - re ee tS,
4 Mandwa Bay, Diu - - =) eS 6
besides sailing directions, tidal, and other data. These were all
completed and forwarded to the Admiralty Hydrographer, copies
having been photo-zincographed by the Poona Office.
The first place examined by the ‘“ Investigator’ was Hinze basin
on the Burmese coast; the Moscos islands were then re-plotted,
and the beaten track in the Mergui archipelago from Christmas
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. Dil
island, where the survey of the previous season had ended,
down to Forrest strait near Pakchan. ‘The track is useful to
local trade and gives protection to vessels trading to Singapore,
but until thoroughly surveyed on a large scale, which the trade
does not at present seem to reauire, it is not recommended for
large and deep draught vessels. In fact, large ships able to steam
against the ordinary monsoon would not use it.
On Christmas day a visit was paid to the Elephant islands, close
to the south-east side of Domel island. ‘I'he former are composed
of a marble of medium quality, and are very remarkable, both for
their abrupt shapes and the beautiful grottoes they contain. The
grottoes are mostly accessible at low water through tunnels below
high-water mark opening into lofty caves. At the south end of
the largest islet, which is 1,000 feet, a low-water tunnel admits
a boat into a lagoon, entirely closed by high precipitous cliifs and
open only to the sky. Into this lagoon, which seems to be
purposely created for smugglers, several cave grottoes open from
under the cliffs. An interesting description of these islands will be
found in the Records of the Geological Survey.
With the object of examining the banks extending off the
Sundarbans between Chittagong and the “Swatch,” a survey was
made of the Meghna flats. No less than 1,750 square miles were
sounded, the result being to show more water in nearly every
direction than on the published charts, and no extension of the
prominent shoals. No. 1 Boat party completed their survey of
the channel between the Narbada river and Perim island in the
Gulf of Cambay (Narbada river to Perim island), the triangulation
being carried across the gulf from the Kathiawar side to Broach
point by means of mirrors which were extemporised as_ heliostats.
Mandwa bay, Diu head, was also surveyed, the area sounded being
10 square miles, while in the case of the Gulf of Cambay it was
65 square miles. Between October and February the “ Investigator ”
was at work in surveying the entrance to the Beypur river, and
here, and at Calicut, and off Cotta point, an aggregate area of
139 square miles were sounded and plotted on various scales. Boat
party No. 2, surveyed the approaches to the Yé river on the
Tenasserim coast on the scale of feur inches to the mile, but the
work was much impeded and interrupted by the ill-health of the
party, until on the 18th November no fewer than 23 were on the
28 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
sick list, and work was suspended. Places situated on tidal estuaries
where fresh and salt water come into contact are notoriously
malarious, and though not of a severe type the disease in this case
was extremely persistent.
The natural history results were meagre during the year 1886-87,
Surgeon G. M. Giles having been deputed to serve with the Chitral
and Kafiristan Mission during the greater part of the year.
Towards the close of March 1887 the ‘ Investigator’’ completed
the survey of the shallows off the mouths of the Meghna river.
The soundings on the ‘‘ South Patches ” proved to be even shallower
than hitherto supposed. This shoal has caused a great many wrecks
from endeavours to avoid it, for sailing vessels arriving off
Chittagong with their chronometers often in error after long ocean
passages, give it too wide a berth and get wrecked on the Meghna
shoals. With the present corrected chart, vessels making for
Chittagong should be able to avoid these Patches, while the rectifi-
cation of the peaks and outlying islets of the Andaman and Nicobar
groups will tend to decrease the wrecks on the flats of the
Sundarbans by enabling vessels standing up the Bay of Bengal to
fix their true positions.
From the ‘‘ South Patches” a line of soundings was first run
south to the latitude of Akyab, and then a line of deep-sea
soundings was carried at intervals of 70 miles to Madras, the depths
gradually increasing towards the latter place, 1,820 fathoms bemg
obtaimed 40 miles off Pulicat, near Madras. This line was the first
record of the depth of the northern portion of the Bay of Bengal.
Commander Carpenter’s paper on the mean temperaiure of the
Bay of Bengal, with its chart, has been published in the Journal
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1887, Vol. LVI., Part II.
The temperature records afford an extremely useful check on the
observations of depth in cases where the sounding wire indicator
gets out of order.
Off Madras a closely-sounded survey was made, on the scale of
two inches to the mile, of the Tripalur reef and Rockingham patch,
where three steamers had grounded, one being lost and another
very badly damaged. This survey was connected with the land
survey stations. A few soundings were also taken north of Pedro
Point in Ceylon, where a gap existed in the soundings showing the
eastern entrance to Palk straits.
ms a
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 29
During the recess the following charts and plans were turned
out by the officers of the “Investigator” and her two boat
parties :—
Charts.
White Point to Mergui - - + inch to 1 mile.
Meena flats - - - 6 99
Beypur to Sacrifice rock = - l#inches ,,
Plans.
Mergui archipelago - - - $ inch %
Forests strait - 2 Spe clin Hiss 99
Tripalur reef, @c. —- - - 2 inches "
Beypur and Calicut roads’ - ae ON nds »
Yé river = - = OL IaN55 %
Approaches to ditto - - SA gp ”
Beypur river bar - ar wor ht ss 5
Cotta point and reef - : BB) Gs »»
All except four of the above have been photo-zincographed for
local use, and all except that of the Meghna flats, which was purely
astronomical, were based on data of the Great Trigonometrical
Survey. Sailing directions, tidal and other data were also
compiled.
For the next season the sanctioned programme comprised a
survey of the western coast of the Andaman islands, and of the
Ganijam coast between Santapilly and Hurrichpoor in latitude 20° N.,
but later on the Madras Government requested that that of the
Ganjam coast might be postponed another year.
A line of deep-sea soundings was carried from Porbandar to the
Laccadive islands, one result of which was to indicate that the
Laccadive submarine peaks sprmg from an ocean floor about
1,100 fathoms, or one and a quarter land miles deep, and are
themselves about the same height as the Western Ghats in those
latitudes.
A curious discovery was made at Chitlac island, tending to prove
the existence of a southerly current on the west coast of India.
A large wooden tank had floated ashore over the reef in September
1885 with a human skull inside, and from enquiry this appeared to be
part of the wreckage of the British Indian wooden barque “ Jabree,”
of 695 tons, with a crew of 60 men and 40 passengers, an account
of the loss of which is given in the Wreck Register for 1885.
30 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
She had reached Ras-el-Hadd on the east coast of Arabia, when
she was caught in a gale and foundered in a few hours; seven of
the crew managed to climb into an empty wooden water-tank
which had been washed off the deck, and there the seven men
lived for ten days without either food or water. After the lapse
of those ten days the survivors died one by one, the bodies being
flung overboard, and the tank drifting on steadily towards the coast
of Cutch at the rate of 28 miles a day. ‘The sixth man died whilst
within sight of land, and the last solitary survivor managed to
crawl ashore at Jakao, in Cutch. He found a pot of millet, but
his throat was so parched that he was unable to swallow it till it
was moistened with sea water; thus refreshed he was able to make
his way along the shore till he reached a native hut, where he was
kindly treated, though laid up for a long time with fever.
Commander Carpenter considers that there is very little doubt
that this same tank, after touching the coast at Jakao on the north
side of the entrance to the Gulf of Cutch, was driven seaward by
the outset of the gulf consequent on the heavy monsoon rains,
and drifting southwards along the west coast of India in the
southerly current that relieves the pressure of water on the Sind
coast during the S.W. monsoon, was carried out to the Laccadives
after the monsoon was over.
The ‘Investigator’ proceeded in November to the Andaman
islands, which, with the exception of the little Andamans, had been
all recently triangulated by Captain Hobday of the Trigonometrical
Survey. A coast survey based on the land triangulation, and
on the scale of one inch to the mile, was set in hand, and 724
square miles in all sounded. Of the harbour of Port Blair a rough
chart by Lieutenant Dickson aud Mr. Marshall, I.N., had been
made in 1861, and as a more perfect survey was now considered
necessary, a detached party under Lieutenant B. Whitehouse, R.N.,
took this in hand, and completed 16 square miles of soundings on
the 5-inch scale, including 288 square miles about the Western
Coral banks, which were gone over most minutely to ascertain
whether there was any really dangerous shoal water on them. The
least water found was six fathoms. On two occasions instead of
anchoring on the banks for the night the ship was allowed to drift,
and some very rare marine specimens were obtained by trawling,
and sent to the Calcutta Museum.
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 31
The Andamanese were found to be no longer treacherous nor
hostile to Huropeans landing on their islands.
32 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
to our knowledge of Indian Marine Zoology, more especially in
regard to fishes, of which he has described 44 entirely new to science,
and 62 new to the Indian fauna.
In the spring of 1888 the “ Investigator,” having completed the
examination of the outlying dangers on the west coast of the
Andaman group, took a north and south line of deep soundings
about 100 miles west of the Andamans and Nicobars from latitude
12° 40’ to latitude 5° 45’ N. In the latter position a submarine
elevation was found representing a submerged peak rising 2,000 feet
high from the floor of the ocean, about half way between the Straits
of Malacca and Ceylon.
During the recess the following fair charts (with the exception
of the 20-inch Porbandar harbour plan) were drafted and forwarded
to the Admiralty Hydrographer :—
Name of Chart or Plan. Seale.
*Port Blair to Sistersislands = - - - + - 1 inch to 1 mile.
North Sentinel island - : - -
” 2?
|
i gs [ea dter
*Port Blair - - = - - - | 5 inches
bb)
Macpherson’s strait —- - - . =|) 2 aes
West Coral bank - = - = = = |), eliainchses ames
Middle and South Coral banks = - - - = eee 45
Porbandar harbour - = - - - | 20 inches _,,
|
{
*Porbandar and Navibandar - - - = | A: AS, x
*Cannanur to Mahe - - = s Z 12s a
*Plans of Cannanore and Tellicheri - - = 3
” 33
* Photo-zinecographed for local use.
The “ Investigator” left Bombay harbour on the 20th October,
and after having coaled at Colombo carried some deep soundings
to the Andamans. Confirmatory evidence was obtained of the
existence of the ridge or plateau of 1,700 fathoms found in April
1888 about 170 miles west of the Andamans. Between this ridge
and the islands there is a submarine valley of 1,900 to 2,000
fathoms, which appears to stretch up from Acheen; on the west
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 33
side of the valley the water appeared to be slightly colder than the
normal temperature of those depths.
Arriving at Port Blair, No. 1 Boat party was landed for the
purpose of making a survey of Diligent straits on the one-inch
scale, while the “Investigator” visited South Sentinel island and
the bank off the S.W. point of Little Andaman, both of which were
sounded.
Before proceeding to the Orissa coast, deep soundings were taken
across the bay. The Bay of Bengal proved to have a regular
decline towards its mouth, the Andaman and Nicobar ridge forming
its eastern boundary (the sea east of the Andamans being a separate
basin); there is slightly deeper water nearer the coasts than m the
centre, and the depth falls very suddenly from the 100-fathom line
off the Sunderbunds to the 900-fathom line. If we take the slope
of the bed of the bay between the 1,100 and 1,400 fathoms contours
as being the true gradient of its fall, unaffected to any great extent
by the detritus from the rivers, and carry this gradient, which is
only 1 in 396, northward, we find that it brings the bed of the bay
up on a level with its surface only when it reaches the foot of the
Himalayas.
The survey of the Orissa coast was begun at the mouth of the
Devi river, and first carried to the northward for 24 miles. This
survey was on the one-inch scale, and was afterwards carried by
the “ Investigator”’ along the coast for a total distance of 199 miles,
operations being greatly helped and expedited by the marks erected
by the land surveyors. ‘The mouth of the Devi river, the anchorage
at Puri, and Gopalpur anchorage were also charted on the four-inch
scale.
During 1889-90. the operations were carried along the Ganjam
coast to the south of Gopalpur. A survey of the Coco Islands was
also commenced during the same season, as well as an examination
of the Bassein River and its approaches, by the boat party under
Lieutenant G. 8. Gunn, R.N.
The Report for 1888-89 was the last submitted by Commander
Carpenter, R.N., and in it he took the opportunity to draw up a
brief review of past work, as well as a forecast of future operations.
More than seven years had elapsed since the “ Investigator”
had made her first surveying trip, and in that time she had run
some 44,000 miles, of which just half were actual lines of close
soundings taken on various surveys. ‘he “ Investigator’s’’ boats
1 ¥ 20321. C
34 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
had, in addition to the parent vessel’s mileage, run some 11,500
miles of similar soundings. 'I‘his total mileage, however, was far
from completing the shores of India. As a matter of fact, at that
time only 1,715 miles or one-third had been charted sufficiently for
safe navigation out of a total length of 5,100 miles, consequently
much remained and even now remains to be done before the coasts
of India can be said to be adequately surveyed.
The logalities specially needing attention have been specified in
a very valuable memorandum by Commander Carpenter, which is
attached to the Marine Survey Report for 1888-89, and a brief
notice of these requirements is here desirable, and will form a fitting
conclusion to the present chapter.
The mouths of the Indus have not been examined since 1877,
when they were surveyed by Lieutenant A. W. Stiffe, and are
continually reported to be shoaling seaward. A re-survey will
have to be done astronomically with a mark boat as a guide to the
line of soundings. The original survey was made as far back as
1848-49, and the examination in 1877 was only over the most
projecting portion, which, however, is that which most specially
requires attention from time to time.
The Gulf of Cutch shows signs of increasing trade, and before
long the ports of Mundra, Tuna, Rojhi, and Salaya creek will require
charting on scales sufficiently large for harbour improvements.
The gulf was well surveyed for open navigation in 1852 by
Lieutenant (now Commander) A. D. Taylor,* but the plotting on
the chart requires fitting in with the land triangulation.
The coast of Kathiawar from Dwarka point to Gogha in the
Gulf of Cambay is fairly well shown, and an improved chart to
Diu head is to be compiled, but Jafrabad, between Diu and
Goapnath, requires charting on a large scale, and the whole coast
needs sounding off. It was surveyed by Lieutenant Ethersey, I.N.,
in 1837, in a pattimar. The operations now called for would occupy
two years.
The Gulf of Cambay is practically unsurveyed, with the exception
of a portion from Bhaunagar creek down to Perim island and
across to Broach, which represents about one-seventh of the whole
area. The head of the gulf is shallowing up and becoming less
navigable every year, and this is resulting in the banks at its
* See page 15.
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 35
mouth extending further seaward, and becoming more dangerous
to shipping. It was also surveyed by Lieutenant Hthersey prior
to 1845, and though a very creditable piece of work, considering
the means at his disposal and the ferce tidal currents, the chart is
now quite unreliable. The work would take three years.
The Bombay coast, from latitude 20° N. as far as Bombay, has
been very slightly delineated, and the whole stretch is rocky and
dangerous, but there is no immediate call for a survey, though
the projecting reef near Danu, specified in the old Indian Navy
Officers Memorandum of 1862, requires examination, and as
local trade increases there will be a demand for reliable charts
of the small ports of call along it, while a harbour of refuge
is especially needed somewhere midway between Danu and
Bombay. A boat party could be employed here with advantage
for four years, or it would take the “ Investigator” herself about
two years.
At the northern end of the Kanara coast there are about 60 miles
of very rocky coast, which though well surveyed by Lieutenant
A. D. Taylor in 1856, are not charted so as to meet present require-
ments. ‘There is not sufficient protection here for a boat party, and
the scale, to be adequate, should be two inches, which would occupy
the “Investigator” two seasons. A detailed survey will soon be
required from the Enciam rocks to Cape Comorin,a rocky strip of
the Travancore coast some 25 miles in length. On the Tinnevelli
coast the Manapand shoals require proper delineation, and with the
above-mentioned bit of ‘'ravancore coast would not take more than
a single season.
The Laccadive Archipelago was well plotted in 1844-48 by
Captain Selby and Lieutenant A. D. Taylor, but the islands have
never been properly placed in longitude. Several of the group are
three to four miles out of position and should be rectified by chrono-
metric distances. This would take two months.
On the eastern coast of India the large bay north of the Paumben
Pass called Palk Straits is far from complete, the soundings being
thick only in shore, while the banks which extend from Point
Calimere to the north point of Ceylon are of sand and liable to
change. Inthe event of the deepening of the Paumben Pass, an
accurate survey of the banks will be required with the object of
findmg the best position for light-ships, buoys, &c. The small
ports of Karikal, Cuddalore, Porto Novo, and Pondicherry require to
C2
36 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.
be charted on a large scale, which witb other miscellaneous work
would take a season.
From Madras to False Point the east coast of India was, until
1888-89, quite unsurveyed, and as beacons have been erected by
the land surveyors this important piece of work could be finished by
1894. With the view of rounding off this survey, the portion
between the Mahanadi river and the Palmyras shoals should be
examined and the soundings carried out in a south-easterly direction
to 40 fathoms. This would then join on to the survey of the Pilot's
Ridge, and approaches to the Hugli, executed by the Department
in 1885.
The Burma coast from 20 miles north of Elephant Point down
to the Terrible Rocks has only been sketched, and many complaints
are received from steamers trading up and down it. The coast is
essentially rocky, and there are mud volcanoes at its south end
which are liable to form new shoals. This coast would take three
years to complete.
Passing over the extensive Cheduba Strait survey, we again come
upon a large piece of coast 150 miles in length from Sandoway to
Cape Negrais, which has never received more than a running survey,
and that as far back as 1826-30. This part, until properly charted,
28 quite unapproachable for steamers owing to the numerous rocks
and shoals that exist. But as it lies in a bight and out of the track
ot passing vessels, the requirement is not pressing.
The Bassein river has not been examined since 1853, and has
undergone great changes, but the upper reaches which connect it
with the Irawadi shift so frequently that a marine survey would
be thrown away, and vessels must depend only on their pilots.
The entrance should, however, be sounded, and this could be done
by a boat party im one season. The Great Baragua mud flat,
extending across the deltaic mouth of the Irawadi, has never been
thoroughly delineated and was only sketched in during the early
years of this century. In 1855 Captain Ward, I.N., made a survey
of it and of the outer banks of the Sittang river, but unfortunately
the drawings were lost. The Sittang river mouth, too, is a blank
on the present charts, nothing whatever being known of its present
channels. One season should consequently be set apart for a general
sounding of the Gulf of Martaban and Sittang banks.
The coast of South Burmah from Amherst to Pakchan, a length
of about 400 miles, with the exception of Yé River, Tavoy River,
INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 37
and Mergui, has only been delineated by running surveys as far
back as the years 1820-30. The principal trade route or beaten
track of trading steamers has however been sounded out sufficiently
for present purposes. As trade develops and new products are
discovered fresh surveys will be required. Besides the coast proper
there is an extensive archipelago, on the islands of which discoveries
have lately been made of silver, lead, tin, and marble, which afford
exceptional facilities for shipment. ‘he coast proper will take at
least six years to survey, and the archipelago another three years.
Pakchan, the Andaman islands (at present only one-fourth surveyed),
the Coco group, and the Nicobars also require attention.
Summing up these requirements it will be seen, with the present
establishment, about 40 years must elapse before the coasts of India
and Burma can be surveyed sufficiently for safe navigation, and by
that time British India may have extended its sea-board, and other
coasts may demand attention. Moreover, in 40 years time ocean
trafic will probably have very much enlarged, and rapidity of
transit increased, greater facilities will be required to bring produce
from small ports to larger ones, for shipment on ocean steamers and
there will be a gradual development of new ports and localities.
Whether it will be found expedient as well as possible to cope
more expeditiously with this large field of future operations, by
commissioning another surveying steamer, is a point that remains
to be seen. The matter has been commended by the Secretary of
State to the careful consideration of the Government of India. In
any case there is clearly a very extended field of employment for
the Indian Coast Survey Department for many years to come.
(oe)
(08)
III.
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
For more than a century and a half it has been generally
recognised that a trigonometrical survey forms the most correct
basis for mapping a country. The selection of sites for the careful
measurement of base lines, from which one or more series of triangles
are projected over the expanse of country to be mapped, and the
closing of the operations on to a second base line, the final measure-
ment of which forms a check on the accuracy of the operations—this
process spreads in every direction a network of precisely defined points
within which it becomes possible for the topographers to insert the
details. It was General Roy who commenced the work in England
towards the close of last century by the measurement of a base on
Hounslow Heath in 1774, and in 1802 Colonel Mudge was engaged
in the measurement of his are of the meridian from Dunnose to
Clifton. The same year saw the commencement of the actual work
of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of Indiain the measurement
of Major Lambton’s base line near Madras. A graphic account of
Lambton’s work and a history of the subsequent triangulation under
Everest, Waugh, and Walker are contained in four chapters of the
“Memoir on the Indian Surveys.”
In 1876, at the time that our review of these operations begins,
the Trigonometrical Branch was under the control of Colonel
J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., Superintendent, Major-General
H. L. Thuillier, C.8.L, F.R.S., beige Surveyor-General of India
and Superintendent of the Topographical Survey.
Extensive chains of triangulatory measurements had by that time
been spread over the Indian Peninsula from the Himalayas to
Ceylon, and the principal triangulation was now fast approaching
completion.
The first rough topographical survey of all India was also
nearly accomplished, and this naturally suggested a reduction of
the establishments of the Survey. In September 1875 the first
step was taken by the Government of India in deciding that the
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 39
Survey budget should be reduced from 240,000/. to 200,000/. Two
topographical parties were abolished, one fuil party was transferred
to Mysore, its cost being defrayed from the revenues of that State,
and similar reductions were made in the Trigonometrical and
Revenue Survey branches. These reductions, however, did not
entirely commend themselves to the Secretary of State. Further
information was called for, Lord Salisbury expressing at the same
time his hesitation in sancticning to the full the proposed reductions
except on general financial grounds or in consequence of some
recent undue growth of survey expenditure.* The Government of
India replied to this in August 1876, setting forth full details of
the expenditure during the previous ]0 years. Even this informa-
tion, however, was not conclusive. The data, in the words of the
Secretary of State, gave—
no indication of any enlargement of these establishments, which may not be regarded
as a reasonable result of the increased desire for improved information, such as that
which it is the function of the Survey Department to furnish to other branches of the
administration.
His Lordship went on in his reply; to lay stress on the general
usefulness of the work of the Department :—
I continue to attach much importance to the steady progress of the construction and
publication of good maps of all parts of the Britisi provinces in India, feeling sensible
that without them serious obstacles are necessarily interposed in the way of the acquisi-
tion of that complete statistical knowledge of the country, the absence of which has so
long been a discredit to our administration, and the application of which is so requisite
for the purpose of progressive government.
I should therefore be glad if, when the time comes for considering the details of the
budget for the ensuing year, your Lordship should find yourself in « position to avoid
further reductions in the grant to the Survey Department.
These were statesmanlike words and undoubtedly would have
borne fruit in at least arresting further reductions. But in the
meantime a grave misfortune had arisen. A famine was over-
spreading huge tracts of country, aggregating some 200,000 square
miles, in Madras and Bombay, and 36 millions of people were in
the most serious plight. It was, in fact, the most grievous calamity
of its kind experienced in British India since the beginning of the
century.{ This terribie state of things and the heavy expenditure
caused thereby, which, of course, were not foreseen at the time the
Secretary of State’s despatch was written in January 1877, made it
* Geographical Despatch to India, No. 3, dated 24th February 1876.
+ No. 1, dated 4th January 1877.
{ Report of the Indian Famine Commission, paragraph 60.
40 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
impossible to rescind or even to modify to any great extent the
scope of the orders of 1875.
It was about this time that General H. L. Thuillier, the Surveyor-
General, was retiring from the service in which he had done such
excellent work for five and forty years, and the Government took
the opportunity to call upon his successor, Colonel J. T. Walker, to
frame a scheme of re-organization of the Department. This
re-organization involved an amalgamation of the three branches of
the Survey, viz., the Great Trigonometrical, the Topographical, and
the Revenue. Up to that time they had been virtually separate depart-
ments, each with its own cadre of officers and establishments of
Huropean and Native surveyors and its own superintendent.
Originally, when the three departments were first formed, at different
times, the duties which each had to perform were essentially distinct.
The Trigonometrical Survey was required to furnish the basis
on which all surveys of interior details were to rest, and the
framework within which they were to be filled and connected
together. The Topographical and the Revenue Surveys were to
furnish the interior details, the former having to survey by means of
plane-tabling the whole country, including Native States and British
territory with the exception of the richer British revenue-paying
districts, which were to be surveyed by the latter on a larger scale.
In course of time, however, the duties of the three departments
began to overlap and intermingle. The Trigonometrical Survey
was approaching its completion, and for many years a large propor-
tion of its surveyors had beeu employed on topographical work.
The Topographical Survey, though originally imtended for the
primary general survey of India, had had to undertake in many
cases detailed surveys on large scales, and the Revenue Survey had
in addition to its own special functions been largely employed on
the topography of hill districts on a trigonometrical basis. The duties
of the three departments had thus become much intermixed, while
at the same time che transfer of an officer from one department to
another was a matter of such difficulty, that, from every point of
view, amalgamation was most desirable. This amalgamation was
not carried out without a good deal of difficulty and damage
to individual prospects, coincident as it was with extensive
reductions. The amaigamated cadres of officers and surveyors were
at last constituted as follows :—
1 Surveyor-General and Superimtendent of the Trigonometrical
and Topographical Branches.
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 41
1 Deputy Surveyor-General and Superintendent of the Revenue
Branch.
+ Deputy Superintendents, Ist grade.
TKO) asain ue Pinel sp
1S res 5 BIEL - on
li Assistant 35 listy 5
[eleecs =e e DANGl 4,
eters, Ei BIOL on
9 Surveyors, lst grade.
12 3 2nd ,,
16 5 Ord (33
22 : 4th ,,
23 Assistant Surveyors, Ist grade.
25 5 * 2ndeies.
Dill Bs i SIAL op
29 a = AG hemes
The designation of “The Survey of India” was given to the
amaleamated Department, which was henceforth to be one body,
its officers being held to be available for any description of survey
work that might be required of them, and the whole being placed
under the orders of Colonel J. T. Walker.
A brief notice of the previous services of this distinguished
officer seems here called for.
Major (now General) J. T. Walker, R.H., C.B., F.R.S., LL.D.,
&c., succeeded to the Superintendence of the Great Trigonometrical
Survey on the 13th March 1861, on the retirement of Major-
General Sir Andrew Waugh; he became Surveyor-General and
Superintendent of Topographical Surveys on the retirement of
Colonel Thuillier on the lst January 1878; and he held the three
united posts until the 12th February 1883, when he quittcd India
preparatory to retirement. He had entered the corps of Bombay
Engineers in 1844, served throughout the Punjab campaign of
1848-49, and had been employed for the next five years in making a
rapid military survey of the Northern Trans-Indus frontier, which he
carried single-handed over an area of about 10,000 square miles,
from Peshawar down to Dera Ismail Khan; he served in several
encounters with the hill tribes on the Trans-Indus frontier, and
during the mutiny of 1857 was ‘severely wounded at the siege of
Delhi; for his military services he received three medals and three
clasps, a brevet majority, and the Companionship of the Bath.
42 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
He was appointed an assistant in the Great Trigonometrical
Survey on the Ist December 1853, took a share in the measurement
of the Chach base line in the valley of the Indus near Attock,
and for some years was conducting the principal triangulation
along the Indus and on the meridian of 733°, and in carrying a
line of levels to connect the stations of the triangulation with the
sea.
In 1861, when Colonel Walker became superintendent of the Great
Trigonometrical Survey, the greater portion of the principal triangu-
lation had already been completed, and the time had arrived for
determining the procedure by which the fallible values of the several
angles and base-lines, as obtained by actual measurement on the
eround, were to be rendered consistent, and final values were to be
determined for the lengths and azimuths of the sides of the triangles
and also for the latitudes and iongitudes of the stations, which is
the ultimate object of all first-class triangulation. Already pro-
visional corrections had been applied to the angles of certain chains
of triangles directly connecting base-lines for the linear error
generated between the base lines, whereby the length of one base,
as computed through the triangles from the other, was brought into
accordance with the measured length. But this was only a small
part of the requisite reductions for general consistency. The
triangulation being formed of a large number of meridional chains
tied together by a few longitudinal chains—forming sections some-
what resembling a gridiron in shape—presented a large number of
circuits; and at the closing side of each circuit two values were
forthcoming not only of the length of the side but also of its
azimuth, and two values were also forthcoming of the latitudes and
longitudes of the stations at its extremities. Thus three geodetic
errors—as they have been called—had to be recognised and disposed
of by a process of dispersion throughout the angles, as well as the
linear error; and the question arose, and a most embarrassing
question it was, as to how the requisite angular corrections to
produce consistency throughout could be legitimately computed.
The procedure adopted was to form equations of condition
expressing the errors of the angles in each circuit as unknown
quantities in terms of the closing error of the circuit, for the three
geodetic as well as the linear errors. In forming the geodetic
equations—now done for the first time in any survey—it was found
that the co-efficients of the unknown quantities in them were greatly
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 43
more difficult to determine than the co-efficients in the linear
equations, for they consist of summations of series of terms from
the commencement of the circuit up to the position of the angle
whose error is the unknown quantity, whereas in the linear equations
the co-efficients are merely the co-tangents of the angles. The
solution of the equations was effected by Gauss’s method of minimum
squares, in which every unknown quantity is given the weight due
to the facts of observation of which it represents the error. The
number of triangles in each circuit was so great that every equation
usually contained at least a hundred unknown quantities and often
many more, and thus the simultaneous solution of any considerable
number of circuits would be a matter of enormous labour, requiring
every precaution to ensure accuracy in the execution of so large a
mass of interdependent calculations. It was found practically
impossible to undertake the simultaneous solution of the whole of
the principal triangulation of India; the triangulation was tbere-
fore apportioned into five sections, of which the dividing lines were
the two longitudinal chains of triangles, one connecting Karachi
with Calcutta, and the other connecting Vizagapatam with Bombay,
and also the portion of the central meridional chain of triangles
called the Great Arc, which lies between the parallels of 18° and 30°
Of the sections thus obtained, the four northern ones were of a
quadrilateral form, and were called the North-Hast, North-West,
South-East, and South-West Quadrilaterals, the directions having
reference to certain points common to all the four sections at their
convergence in Central India, namely, the Sironj base-line, which
was the adopted origin of the lnear element of the survey, and the
Kalianpur Observatory, the adopted origin of the geodetic elements
of azimuth, latitude and longitude. The fifth section embraced the
whole of the Peninsula to the south of a line from Bombay to
Vizagapatara, and, being triangular in form, is called the Southern
Trigon, Hach figure presents an enormous amount of simultaneous
interdependent calculation, greater than had ever been executed in
any survey, or probably in any investigation whatever.
Of these sections of the triangulation the North-West, North-
East, and South-Hast Quadrilaterals were reduced, and the final
results printed and published at the head quarters of the Survey in
Dehra Dun, by Mr. Hennessey and other officers directing the
computing staff, under the immediate superintendence of General
Walker. ‘The results are contained in Volumes II. to IV. and VI.
44 : GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
to VIITL. of the Account of the Operations of the Great 'l'rigono-
metrical Survey. Of these volumes, nine in all—of which No. I. is
on the Base-lines, No. V. on the Pendulum Operations, and No. IX.
on the Longitude Operations—were published under Colone! Walker.
The principal triangulation of the Indian Survey was designed,
from its commencement, to furnish data for employment im the
determination of the figure of the Harth. The central chain, executed
by Colonels Lambton and Everest, which extends from Cape Comorin
to the Himalayas, has several stations at which astronomical observa-
tions of the latitude were taken to convert it into a geodetic are,
and it is a most valuable arc, and has been employed in all the latest
and best investigations of the Earth’s figure. But east and west of
this central chain there were several other meridional chains when
the triangulation was completed, sore of them of an accuracy at
least equal to and perhaps greater than that of the Great Arc, and
these only required to have the latitudes of certain of their stations
determined astronomivally to become valuable meridional ares for
geodetic purposes. Moreover, a further contribution to geodesy
became practicable as soon as a sufficient number of telegraph lines
had been run over ihe country, by connecting certain of the
trigonometrical stations with those lines, and then determining the
differences in longitude between the stations telegraphically.
Colonel Walker obtained a supply of new instruments for these
observations, and a large number of astronomical latitudes and
differential longitudes were observed under his directions, and
employed by Colonel Clarke. R.E., C.B., of the Ordnance Survey, in
his latest investigations of the earth’s figure, published in his work
on Geodesy. Much of this work, however, still remained for
completion on Colonel Walker’s retirement, but the principal
triangulation of all India proper was completed, and the greater
portion of it had been finally reduced.
Colonel Walker also initiated the pendulum operations, which
were completed under his superintendence, and the tidal and
levelling operations, which are stil] in progress.
In 1864 he went to Russia to make the acquaintance of the
officers at the head of the Russian Topographical Department, and
for several years he was indebted to them for copies of their latest
maps of regions in Central Asia, which he employed in the com-
pilation of the successive editions of his well-known map of
Turkestan. He also did much to advance the operations of the
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 45
celebrated native explorers who have obtained so much new
geography in Trans-Himalayan regions.
On being appointed Surveyor-General, Colonel Walker proceeded
to carry out the amalgamation of the three branches of the Survey
referred to above.
Colonel Walker held the Surveyor-Generalship until 1883, when
he was succeeded by Colonel George Charles De Prée. The latter
officer had entered Addiscombe in 1848, and was appointed Second
Lieutenant of the Bengal Artillery im 1850. He served with the
Pegu Field Force in the following year, and examined the 'Tonghup
pass between Arakan and Burma, and reported on its practicability
for elephants. For this he was thanked by Lord Dalhousie, the
Governor-General, and he also gained the Pegu war medal. In
1854 he jomed the Survey Department and was deputed to take up
topography in Ganjam, where he worked for many years, being
afterwards attached to the contiguous survey of the Chota Nagpur
Division. On the disbanding of No. 4 Topographical Party (see
p- 74), he was placed in charge of No. 7 Party (Rajputana and
Simla). He officiated as Surveyor-General in 1883-84, and in the
latter year was confirmed in the appointment, which he held up to
his death, in Jersey, on the 18th February 1887. He was a talented
and indefatigable officer, and his early death was undoubtedly due
in great measure to the inclement and unhealthy tracts in the
eastern part of the Peninsula where he had so long and energetically
laboured. He was succeeded by Colonel H. R. Thuilher, R.H., (son
of the former Surveyor-General of that name) who obtained his
commission in 1857, and whose good services have admirably
sustained the traditions and reputation of the Department.
During the year 1876-7, at which period our review of these
operations begins, three parties were engaged on principal triangula-
tion, on the Madras Coast Series, the Hastern Frontier Series,
and the Hastern Sind Series, and two parties in the Assam Valley
and British Burma on secondary triangulation. The primary
object of the Madras Coast Series was the completion of the
principal triangulation in Southern India by a regular series between
Madras and Cape Comorin, with a branch series vid Palk straits
connecting Ceylon with India. Triangulation had been carried into
this region by Colonel Lambton in the beginning of the century,
but on leaving the hills of the central peninsula and entering a
vast plain covered with trees and vegetation, it met with difficulties
which the early appliances of the survey were inadequate to
46 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
surmount and which necessitated the stoppage of the operations,
A large blank in the triangulation thus remained to be filled in.
The Madras Coast Series (under the temporary direction of Captain
T. T. Carter, in place of Colonel Branfill) started from Southern
Tanjore and worked northwards, so as eventually to effect a junction
with the Madras Longitudinal Series at its eastern extremity. The
country was unfavourable for triangulation, beimg flat, with imnu-
merable groves of valuable trees; the villages were numerous, and
each covered much ground, and owing to the want of roads locomotion
was by no means easy. The famine, too, which was raging in
Southern India during the season, made the question of supplies
a difficulty, prices being excessively high, and the villagers occa-
sionally disinclined to supply food at any price. The country
traversed by the party skirts the coast of South Tanjore for some
fifty miles along the north-western shore of Palk straits (the Sinus
Argaricus of Ptolemy), and les between the deltas of the Vaigai
and the Cauvery rivers.
In the following season the triangulation was carried by Colonel
Branfill across the paddy swamps of the Cauvery delta into the
valley of the Coleroon. The lofty tower of the Provincial College
at Kumba onam afforded an excellent station, which greatly
facilitated the passage of the delta. An approximate connexion
with the levels of the South of India Railway was effected, and
seven of Colenel Lambton’s old stations were identified and con-
nected. An interesting note on the physiography of the Cauvery
delta, together with a list of the proper names of stations and places
with root meanings and notes on their characteristics, was compiled
by Colonel Branfill during the season and published by the Asiatic
Society of Bengal.
Next season (that of 1878-9) saw the party working across the
alluvial flats of the Coleroon, Vellar, and South Pennar rivers, and
it was not till the hillock and rock-studded plain of the Carnatic
was reached that the ground became favourable for triangulation.
The great Siva temple of Gangaikondapuram, in the north-east
corner of the Trichinopoly district, was visited and described by
Colonel Branfill, and his paper thereon was also published in the
journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
The operations of this party were brought to a conclusion in the
year 1879-SO0 by the measurements of three polygons between
Pondicherry and Madras. Secondary chains of triangles were
carried from the main chain to fix the positions of the hghthouses
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 47
at Pondicherri, Negapatam, and other distant points, and in course
of this work recourse was very frequently had to the lofty
temples called Gopurams, the temporary conversion of which into
theodolite stations was successfully negotiated by the Assistant
Surveyor, Mr. Potter. The principal triangulation being finished
early in the season, Colonel Branfill proceeded to the west coast to
connect the secondary triangulation which Colonel Lambton had
brought up from Cape Comorin over the hills of Travancore and
Cochin to Ponani, early in the present century, with the secondary
triangulation of the Malabar minor series. Colonel Branfill’s opera-
tions closed with certain observations for the better connection of
the triangulation on which the topography of the Nilgiri Hills is
based, with his principal triangulation. ‘This completed the modern
operations in Southern India, the greater portion of which fell to
his share and were accomplished with considerable skill, energy,
and perseverance.
The Hastern Sind Series, on the meridian of 70°, was commenced
by Captain Rogers in 1876, at a side of the Karachi Longitudinal
series. It lay across a country of sheer desert, composed mainly of
parallel ridges of sand of considerable height with steep slopes
covered with low thorn jungle ; occasionally these sandhills disappear
and give place to a variously moulded surface of ever shifting sand
utterly devoid of vegetation called ‘“‘draens.” Curiously enough,
wells of good water are occasionally found in these spots, the
water in other parts of the desert being scarcely drinkable. The
villages are for the most part built on the tops of the sand-
hills, which in winter are warmer than the valleys. During
1877-78 the rains falied in Sind, and Captain Rogers was
consequently despatched to carry a secondary triangulation from
the western frontier of Sind into Baluchistan along the line
between Jacobabad and Quetta, a series much needed for the
correction of the maps of Southern Afghanistan and Baluchistan ;
tke position of Kandahar in particular being placed on one of the
best maps 15 miles west of its real position. Towards the
British frontier there is a great dearth of water and vegetation,
but near the hills there are ravines and watercourses, several con-
siderable villages, and traces of much greater prosperity and
population in times past, the subsequent deterioration being attri-
buted mainly to the unsettled condition of the country. Captain
Rogers laid out several triangles near the entrance to the Bolan
48 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
pass, after which he marched to Quetta and fixed the most conspicuous
hills around. During the following season war broke out with
Afghanistan and Captain Rogers was attached to the southern army,
but Mr. Price carried the triangles up to Quetta, and Mr. Torrens
extended them to the boundary of Pishin beyond. A good descrip-
tion of the Kachi plain lying between General Jacob’s tower on the
British boundary and the mountains forms part of Mr. Price’s official
report. The various pieces of triangulation completed by Captain
Rogers and his assistants comprised the following: Ist, the series
from Jacobabad to Quetta; 2nd, the series from Quetta to Khelat ;
ord, the series from Quetta to Kandahar: 4th, the triangles round
Kandahar and the Khakrez valley.
It was not till near the end of the field season of 1879-80 that
the work of the Eastern Sind Series was resumed, when Captain
Rogers completed two double polygons spanning a direct distance
of 64 miles. In the followimg year the series was completed by
Colonel Branfill by four polygonal figures carried northwards, and
closing on toa side of the Great Indus Series. A chain of secondary
triangles was also successfully carried by Mr. ‘Torrens across
Central Sind to Sehwan, on the Indus, to furnish points for the
revenue and topographical surveyors.
On the northern confines of India the survey of the mountainous
districts of Kumaun and Garhwal (of which only a small area
remained to be done) had been in abeyance during 1875-76 so
as to enable the whole strength of the party to be applied to
the Dehra Dun survey, which by that means was finished in
that season. In 1876-77 the Kumaun and Garhwal survey was
resumed under Mr. E. C. Ryall and also brought to a conclusion.
The winter had been exceptionally severe, and the spring and
early summer cold and wet; consequently this told much against
the surveyors, whose operations had to be conducted at an average
elevation of about 16,000 feet above sea-level; Mr. Ryall’s highest
point of observation was 19,600, while Mr. Pocock executed
one plane table section at 19,000 feet. The snow-line was much
lower than usual, and owing to the inhabitants being thereby detained
in their winter homes long beyond the ordinary time, supplies were
very difficult to obtain. Mr. Ryall’s triangulation is described below,
p- 50. To Mr. J. Peyton was entrusted the topographical survey of the
Byans valley, but here again the exceptionally unfavourable weather
proved a great obstacle to work. In July there were only five days
of clear blue sky, when the mountain features could be delineated,
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. : 49
and in the Kuti Valley, behind most of the great snow and rain
collecting mountains, the weather was seldom fine for more than a
couple of hours in the morning. ‘The Byans valley communicates
with Tibet by three routes, the principal and earliest open to
travellers being called the Lipu Lek pass; in moderate weather this
is avery easy pass. There are seven villages in the valley, ali
facsimiles of each other, but with the exception of some half-dozen
houses built in the style of Swiss chalets, they all are small and low,
the building material being furnished by the cedars of the adjoining
ranges. The Bhotea inhabitants of these lofty regions are a race
of sturdy hillmen, with no caste prejudices, ready to eat game of
all kinds and to drink to any extent. They are principally engaged
in agriculture and breeding sheep and goats, and all their clothing is
made by hand looms, the wool being procured from their own
sheep. Woollen blankets and plaids of bright colours and scarfs
are made by the women, who occasionally act as coolies when there
isa lack of men. At Garbia, one of the largest villages of the
Byans valley, the Tartar physiognomy is by no means prominent,
and some of the faces were expressive and even pretty. Mr. Peyton
found the men always faithful to their engagements, and many of
them while in attendance on him underwent great hardships,
roughing it on the cold mountain tops without shelter of any kind.
To Mr. Pocock and Mr. Warwick was allotted the topography of the
northern and southern portions, respectively, of the Dharma valley,
which runs contiguously to the Byans valley, and in the case of the
former the inclemency of the weather was equal to and the altitude
even greater than in the Byans valley where Mr. Peyton was
occupied. The entrance to the Milam valley is through a stu-
pendous gorge overhung by large masses of granite precipices;
the gorge is about 12 miles in length, and the road through it is for
the most part a mere series of narrow steps built along the faces of
steep hillsides or rugged precipices; where these steps cannot be
made planks leading from one ledge of a precipice to another are laid
across. ‘The mountains here are composed of three different kinds
of rock, the lowest formation is granite, of which all the most lofty
peaks are composed; the second is hard slate; and the third and
highest is a hard crystallised limestone. At the village of Milam*
the valley splits into two; the one to the west is occupied by an
* This is the village where the celebrated explorers Nain Singh avd Kishen Singh
were both born and brought up. See page 151.
i YE DLP BSc D
50 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
extensive glacier, the other might be calied a narrow gorge,
extending up to the very watershed line on the Unta Dhurra pass,
below which lies a glacier four miles in length. Owing to this glacier
the Unta Dhurra pass is the most difficult of all the passes in
Kumeun and Garwhal.
Mr. E. C. Ryall succeeded in extending the Milam series of
triangles (origimating from a side of the Kumaun and Garhwal
survey) up to the frontier of Hundes—which is the name of the
S.W. province of Tibet—and then for some distance across the
frontier, whereby he was able to fix the positions of a large
number of peaks in Tibetan territory.* The severity of the winter
had caused the routes to be blocked up with snow; but though
this may have deterred ordinary travellers, the Tibetan officials
were on the alert, and soon after Mr. Ryall had crossed the frontier
his presence became known to them. By informing them, however,
that his object was to survey the northern limits of British territory,
which he found it impossible to do from the south, he succeeded in
satisfying them, and was allowed to proceed. Mr. Ryall was
enabled to fix a large number of snowy peaks across the Suilej,
including the remarkable needle-like peak of Leo Porgyal situated
at the point where the British frontier crosses the gorge of the
river, the sacred Kailas, and other lofty peaks at the head of the
Manasarowar lakes and to the east. The triangulation accomplished
was sufficient to furnish bases for a detailed survey, if one should
ever be desirable. The province of Hundes or Nari- Khorsam occupies
the upper basins of the Sutlej and the head waters of the Karnali
river. It is a most desolate region, the only trees being poplars, and
these being found only along the lower banks of large streams.
One of the most important places is the military fort of Taklakhar
(Tiger’s fortress), which is garrisoned by about 100 men and is close
to the Nepal frontier. It is in reality a huge mound, the dwellings
being excavated in the centre and the sides loopholed for defensive
purposes. Within are said to be vast stores of grain and ammuni-
tion, the former being subject to no deterioration owing to the
extreme dryness of the atmosphere. Tuklikhar was the last post
occupied by the Dogras in their disastrous invasion of Hundes, when
Zorowar Sing’s Indian army of 6,000 men was routed by the
Chinese and perished miserably by the sword and by the frost on
* See special report attached to Surveyor-General’s Repert for 1877-78. Some
interesting particulars are also given in the Trigonometrical Survey Report for 1876-77.
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 51
the 12th December 1841. The people of Hundes (called Hunias)
are of Tartar origin, having the well-known leading ethnological
characteristics of that race. They own large flocks of big, long-
fleeced sheep, and herds of cattle and Tibetan goats, as well as a
few yaks. There are five principal passes leading from Hundes into
British territory, and the traffic over them is carried on between the
15th June and the 15th October. The passes, however, are not
declared open till the authorities have satisfied themselves as to the
absence of epidemics in the Ghats, the effect of smail pox, &e. on
some occasions among a people so indifferent to cleanliness having
been terrible. Shawl wool is taken in large quantities to Amritsar
and other places in the Punjab, while sheep’s wool is also largely
exported to the Himalayas, where it is made up into blankets and
serges.
In the following year Mr. T. Kinney was despatched up the
Bhagirathi valley to supplement Mr. Ryall’s observations in the
direction of the Nilane vaJley and the T'saprang district of Hundes.
The Bhagirathi forms the westernmost source of the Ganges, and
the gorge through which the Nilang valley is entered is terrific in
aspect; snowy peaks, from 20,000 to 21,000 feet in height,
towering overhead, while the stream flows 10,000 feet below, walled
in by sheer precipices sometimes 3,000 feet in height. ‘The descrip-
tion given by Captain Hodgson in 1817* fully bears out Mr. Kinney’s
more recent account. Owing to the Tibetan frontier officials having
been sharply censured by the Governor of Gartok (who has supreme
authority over the province of Hundes) for allowing Mr. Ryall to
cross the frontier the year before, Mr. Kinney was unable to do
much more than fix some of the Tibetan peaks from the crest of
the watershed, some 19.000 feet in height. The cold was intense
throughout, and as the party were forced to encamp-at least
4,000 feet below, much time was spent in travelling to and fro, and
the out-turn of work not so great as it would have been under
favourable circumstances.
The secondary triangulation in the Assam valley was carried on
by Lieutenant Harman, in 1876-77, with his customary energy,
notwithstanding the unfavourable weather, incessant rains flooding
the nullahs and turning the forest paths into streams of mud and
water, which brought out myriads of leeches, to the great discomfort
of the party. Huge india-rubber trees had often to be felled, though
* See Asiatic Researches, Vol. XIII.
D 2
a2, GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
one, 112 feet in height, was usefully converted into an observing
station, enabling a connexion to be established with the triangulation
of Lieutenant Woodthorpe, who was carrying on a topographical
survey in the neighbourhood. The work of the season extended
over a distance of 53 miles, along the banks of the Brahmaputra to
within a few miles of Sadiya. During the following season
(1877-78) endeavours were made to extend the triangulation of the
region between the Subansiri and the Dihone, so as to ascertain
which of the two formed the continuation of the Sanpo river of Tibet.
As it was practically impossible to venture far across the frontier,
Lieutenant Harman was directed to measure the discharges of the
Subansiri, the Dihong, the Dibong, and the Bramaputra in order
to try and solve the question by ascertaining the magnitude of the
volume of water in each river, and thus obtaining indircct evidence
on the question at issue.
In company with Captain Woodthorpe, Lieutenant Harman pro-
ceeded to the Miri Hills, between the Subansiri and Dihong rivers,
and succeeded in sketching about 1,500 miles on the half-inch
scale. This included a portion of the Dihong river, higher than any
previously surveyed, but not sufficiently high to show whether the
stream is the continuation of the Sanpo or not. He next com-
menced to measure the river discharges, taking observations of the
following :—(1) the Subansiri river; (2) the Brahmaputra, at a
point three miles from Dibrugarh and below the junction of the
Dihong and Dibong rivers; (8) the united stream of the Dihong
and Dibong rivers, one mile below their junction and one mile above
their junction with the Bramaputra; (4) the Dibong river, at one
mile above its junction with the Dihong and half a mile below the
junction of the Sensri river with it; (5) the Brahmaputra river,
about nine miles above Sadiya and half a mile below the junction
of the united stream of the Tengapani and Noa Dihing rivers; and
(6) the united stream of the two latter rivers, at about 200 yards
below their junction.
The full details of these interesting operations, meluding the
sectional measurements and the calculation of discharges, have been
published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal.* ‘The general effect is
to show that the volume of water in the Dihong is from two to
® SeeJ.A.S. B., Vol. XLVIIL., Pt. 2, No. I., 1879. The measercments, in connexion
with the earlier ones by Bedford anit Wilcox, are also discussed in General Walker’s
paper on the Hydrography vf S.E. Tibet (see Proceedings Royal Geographical
Society, p. 581 of 1888).
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Dy3)
three times as great as that of the Subansiri, and that the former
is much more likely to be the continuation of the Sanpo than the
latter.
The secondary triangulation in Burma consisted in 1876 of chains
projected from the Eastern Frontier Series in various directions,
one being from Myanong to Cape Negrais, (2) one from Prome to
Thayetmyo and Tonghu, and (4) a chain to meet (2) in the neighbour-
hood of Tonghu. The country through which these operations had to
be carried on was difficult, the hills being flat-topped, densely wooded,
and from their similarity difficult to distinguish apart. ‘The
dificulty of obtaining labour, too, was considerable, as the Burmese
coolies strongly object to being absent from home for more than a
day or two. In the following season (1877) Mr. Beverley was
instructed to select suitable sites for two lofty beacons which it was
proposed to erect on the coast line abreast of the Krishna shoal, the
lighthouse on which had mysteriously disappeared, whether blown
over in a storm or demolished by the collision of a vessel was
unknown. Strenuous efforts were made to extend the triangulation
towards these beacons during the year 1878-79; but in conse-
quence of the great difficulties encountered, owing to the country
being quite uninhabited and covered with dense forest and jungle,
through which it was almost hopeless to attempt to cut openings
for the rays, the attempt to triangulate was abandoned, and instead
thereof a traverse survey was carried to the beacons along the
best paths that could be found.
At the close of the season 1875-76 the line of principal triangula-
tion called the Hastern Frontier Series had been brought down to
the vicinity of Tavoy, whence, durimg 1876-77, it was carried
forward in all a distance of 92 miles, first hy Mr. H. Beverley and
afterwards by Captain J. Hill, R.H., who assumed command. For
the extension of the triangulation southwards it was necessary,
during the ensuing season, to have a station on the group of
islands known as the Middle Moscos, and another on the Southern
Moscos. The country traversed on the mainland was very lke that
of the previous season; a thick impenetrable jungle, covering plain
and mountain alike, and offermg great obstruction to the elephants,
which had often to be brought to the stations by tediously circuitous
routes. The trigonometrical measurements were advanced a distance
of 65 miles; the position of the town of Tavoy was fixed, as weil
as that of the “ Three Pagodas,” an important and well-known mark
54 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
on the boundary between Siam and Tenasserim. All the officers
suffered more or less in health after their exposure and privation m
the Tenasserim jungles, and the want of a sanitarium in Burma to
enable men to recruit before entering the duties of a fresh season
was much felt.
This series had now ‘reached a point about 35 miles south of
Tavoy, from which the direct distance to Bangkok, the capital of
Siam, was only 90 miles, while the distance round the coasts
was fully 2,000 miles. As a check on the marine surveys it was
very desirable for a chain of triangles to be carried across into
Siamese territory, and to this the King of Siam readily assented.
Singularly enough, the tract of British territory lying up to the
Siamese boundary, though only 42 miles in width, proved the most
difficult piece of all, the hills (composed chiefly of metamorphic rocks)
being generally flat with no commanding points, while the dense
tropical vegetation and unusually long rainy season of 1878 were
further obstacles to speedy progress. Once across the frontier the
country suddenly became more favourable, and with the ready
co-operation of the Siamese officials good progress was made up to
within 25 miles of Bangkok, the remaining portion being continued
by Captain Hill late in the followimg year, and completed by
Mr. McCarthy at the beginning of the season 1880-81.
Mr. McCarthy also determined the position of the six next most
important towns in Siam; one of the stations selected was part of
the celebrated Phra Pratom pagoda, the largest in Siam. The
outside circuit of its enclosure is 3,25] feet. Within this enclosure,
which is cloistered and turreted, are other cloisters, temples, and
belfries built on successive plateaux, while from the centre of the
highest a great bell-shaped spire springs to the height of 347 feet
above the ground. Besides these places the positions of several hill
peaks on both sides of the head of the Gulf of Siam were deter-
mined, compass sketches made of several of the chief rivers and
canals, and a plan of Bangkok prepared on the scale of four inches
to the mile.
In November 1880 Mr. McCarthy was requested by the British
Vice-Consul, Mr. Newman, to accompany a Siamese telegraphic
expedition then about to start for the Natyadung pass, on the
British frontier, about 55 miles higher up than the Amya pass, by
which the survey party had crossed into Siam. The whole route up
to the former pass was measured with cane ropes, and Mr. McCarthy
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 55
was also enabled to get bearings to fresh peaks and te affix the
names to some already observed. He returned to Moulmein on tne
13th April 1881, having been employed on field duty nearly
eighteen months, and having won good opinions in his dealings
with the Siamese officials and natives.
The extension of the Hastern Frontier Series or chain of principal
triangulation down into lower Tenasserim, with a view to the
measurement of a base-line at the southern extremity of British
indian territory, was taken in hand by Mr. H. Beverley in
November 1879. But the ill-health from which, in spite of a very
strong constitution, he had suffered for some years, proved fatal
and he died on the 22nd June. He had served 25 years in the
Department, and notwithstanding the malarious and difficult tracts
in which he had often worked his labours were assiduous and
successful.
The selection of a suitable site for the measurement of a base-
line was a difficult matter, but eventually a gcod spot was discovered
in the Mergui township, Mergui island, beyond the range of the
numerous creeks which penetrate inland from the sea. Lastly, but not
leastly, supplies for the numerous surveyors and their followers were
here easily procurable. While Mr. Potter, Assistant Surveyor, was
constructing the principal stations around the base-line, and clearing
the rays between them, Captain Hill was completing the remaining
triangles between Tavoy and the base-line and connecting his
heights with the sea-level for verification. Extraordinary difficulties
were experienced from the haze, which was so dense that the
shipping people and fishing population were unable to carry on
their usual calling. The meteorological observations throw very
little light on the cause of this peculiar haze. It generally
commences about the middle of January, with north-east or easterly
winds, and rain seems to have no effect upon it; with south-west or
western winds it clears. The natives add that exceptionally hazy
seasons occur at intervals of about five or six years.
The part of Mergui chosen for the base-line appears to have been
more thickly inhabited in former times than at present. Many
old pagodas, some in ruins, are scattered about. A number
of Mussulmans, chiefly descendants of men from India and the
Straits who have intermarried with Burmans, have taken up their
vesidence in the place; they are increasing steadily, and supplanting
the original Burmans. ‘The Mergui archipelago, consisting of
56 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
thickly-studded islands, interspersed with shoals and rocks, enjoys a
salubrious climate, and the scenery is beautiful. Many of the
islands are peculiar and interesting; one with a central basin
enclosed by walls of rock can be approached through a short tunnel
open only at low water, and when the tide rises communication
with the outer world is cut off for six hours. Another small flat
island, calied Tho Bya, has a small fresh-water lake in the centre,
and until recently villages stood and fields were cultivated round
the margin; but tigers came and multiplied to such an extent that
they drove away tne people, and the island is now deserted. With
the exception of the fishing people from Mergui and the neigh-
bourhood, the only inhabitants of the smaller islands of the
Archipelago are the Selung, a small tribe of strange, timid, wild
beings, without fixed abode, living almost entirely in their boats.
According to Captain Hill they appear to be fleeced systematically
by the Chinese, who send agents to them out into the Archipelago
to barter rice at exorbitant rates for the pearls, shells (which fetch
very high prices in China), bees-wax, mats, &c. which the Selung
are able to supply.
During the season 1881-82 two parties were engaged im the
conipletion of the Hastern Frontier Series and the measurement of
the Mergui base, viz., that under Major Rogers (who had relieved
Captain Hill), and the party under Colonel Branfill which in the
previous year had been employed in completing the Hastern Sind
Series. During the first half of the season these parties worked
independently of each other; Colonel Branfill’s in connecting
the principal triangulation with the base-line and executing the
necessary preliminaries for the linear measurement; Major Rogers’s
in extending the principal triangulation southwards and making a
reconnaissance of the islands of the Mergui archipelago, with a view’
to the future extension down to Singapore. With the aid of the
Indian Marine steamer ‘“ Celerity,” by which communication was
much expedited. the most was made of the brief observing season—
barely two months—and by the end of January all hands were
engaged in the measurement of the Mergui base-line under Colonel
Branfill. The base is only about 3-4 miles in length, or rather less
than haif the average length of the previous Indian base-lines
(that at Cape Comorin alone excepted); but suitable ground for a
longer base could not be found anywhere on the coasts or islands
of the Archipelago.
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 57
The actual measurements and comparisons of the compensation
bars with the standard of length occupied 24 days, and the
value of the length of the base- in, as determined by calculation
through the triangulation, which consists of a chain of polygonal
figures nearly 1,000 miles in length, proved to be only 3-4 inches,
or 1 inch per mile, in excess of the measured value.
With a view to determine the height of the base-line above the
sea a line of spirit-levels was carried from one end. down to the
coast—where arrangements were made for erecting a tidal
station. Astronomical observations for the determination of the
latitude and the azimuth were taken at four of the stations of
tbe principal triangulation in the vicinity of the base-line, and the
mean differences between these observations and the latitudes and
azimuths geodetically computed from Kalianpur—Colonel Everest’s
station of astronomical origim—were 8-2” in latitude and 11-2” in
azimuth; but the theoretical probable errors generated in the
course of the triangulation between the origin at Kalianpur and the
terminus at Mereui are less than +1” in latitude and +3” in
azimuth ; thus the discrepancies between the observed astronomical
and the deduced geodetic results at Mergui are probably due mainly
to the influence of local attractions in deflecting the plumb- -line at
the initial and terminal astronomical stations.
Latitude observations were also made at Moulmein by Major
Rogers, and the same officer also inspected the working of the
tide-gauges at Moulmein, Amherst, Rangoon, Hlephant point, and
Port Blair, and then proceeded to Poona to relieve Major Hill
of the charge of the tidal and levelling party. Thus the super-
vision of the calculations for the reduction of the principal
triangulation and the astronomical observations mainly devolved
on Colonel Branfill, who, having brought ail the work to a satis-
factory completion and handed it over to Mr. Hennessey, at the
computing office of the great trigonometrical survey in Dehra Dun,
proceeded to Hurope on furlough. The triangulation parties were
then broken wp, most of the officers being transferred to topogra-
phical surveys, while the native establishments were reduced and
transferred to the new secondary triangulation party and the Nepal
Boundary survey.
The chain of principal triangles known as the Eastern Frontier
Series had thus been brought down from Assam through Arakan
58 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
and British Burma into Tenasserim, and closed on to a base-line of
verification in Mergui, near the southern extremity of the British
territory east of the Bay of Bengal. Thus the principal triangula-
tion of all India had been completed on the lines originally marked
out by Colonel Everest and sanctioned by the Honourable Court of
Directors of the Hast India Company. A brief retrospect of the
history of this great undertaking, epitomized from General Walker's
excellent account thereof, may be here given.
The Great Trigonometrical Survey of India originated in a
so-called ‘‘mathematical and geographical survey,’ which was
commenced in Southern India, in the year 1800, by Major Lambton
of H.M.’s 38rd Regiment of Foot, on the recommendation of the
Honourable Colonel Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington. Its
object was, in Major Lambton’s words, to ‘‘ determine the exact
** positions of all the great objects that appeared best calculated
“ to become permanent geographical marks, to be hereafter guides
“ for facilitating a general survey of the peninsula;” and as at
that time the elements of the figure of the earth were not known
with sufficient approximation to enable the latitudes and longitudes
of the ‘‘ great objects” to be computed with accuracy from the data
of the triangulation, Major Lambton pointed out that his intended
survey would, in the interests “of general science involve many
* more objects than that immediately appertain to geography,”
and that portions of the triangulation would have to be executed
with the utmost possible precision, and be supplemented by astro-
nomical determination of position, with a view to the requirements
of geodesy.
Between the year 1800 and 1825 the operations consisted of a
network of triangulation over Southern India, grounded on, and
verified by, several chain-measured base-lines, through the middle
of which a principal chain of triangles was carried in a meridional
direction, from Cape Comorin up to Sironj in Central India. This
chain formed the southern portion of what is now known as Lambton
and Everest’s Great Arc. Its angles were measured with greater
eare than those of the collateral network, and at certain of its
stations astronomical observations of the latitude were taken for
the determination of the included minor arcs of amplitude. Colonel
Lambton died in 1823, and was succeeded by Colonel Everest, who
found no difficulty in obtaining carte blanche from the Government
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 59
of India and the Court of Directors for a new instrumental equip-
ment, much superior to what had hitherto been employed. During
his absence from India a small party of surveyors was engaged
in carrying a longitudinal chain of triangles eastwards from the
point reached by the Great Arc in Central India to Calcutta.
On his return from Europe in 1830, Colonel Everest recommended
the abandonment of the network system of triangulation, and the
substitution instead of what he called the “gridiron” system,
consisting of meridional chains which were intended to be constructed
at intervals of about one degree apart, while the longitudinal chains
would follow the parallels of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, and
thus run at intervals of from five to six degrees apart. The external
chains of the gridiron were to follow the British frontier lines and
the coast lines. The entire triangulation was to be grounded on
base-lines measured with the Colby apparatus of compensation bars
and microscopes—in terms of a fixed standard of length—which
were to supersede the old base-lines that had been measured with
chains of comparatively rude construction and of uncertain length.
This programme of operations was approved by the Government of
India and the Court of Directors, and it has furnished the guiding
lines on which the principal triangulation has been executed during
a period of almost exactly half a century.
For convenience of treatment in the final reduction, the whole
of the chains situated within the limits of India proper have been
grouped into five sections. Four of these are roughly four-sided in
outline and are respectively called the North-Hast, North-West,
South-Hast, and South-West Quadrilaterals, names in which the
cardinal points have reference to the Kalianpur Observatory in
Central India, which Colonel Everest adopted as the origin of the
operations subsequent to 1832. The fifthis three-sided, and is called
the Southern Trigon, and embrace the southern portion of the
peninsula, below the parallel of Madras. The North-Hast Quadri-
lateral was completed first of all, and here it will be seen, on reference
to the Chart of the Principal Triangulation, that the meridional
chains of triangles lie at intervais of about one degree apart, as
originally designed by Colonel Everest. But in the sections sub-
sequently executed the intervals between the meridional chains were
materially increased, as the minor triangulations which in course
of time came to be executed by the topographical surveys were of
such accuracy that a smaller amount of principal triangulation was
60 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
found to suffice for all geographical requirements, and more was not
wanted for geodetical requirements. Anadditional meridional chain
might have been constructed on the meridian of 84° within the
South-East Quadrilateral, and it doubtless would haye been con-
structed but that before it could be commenced a network of
excellent topographical triangulation had been thrown over the entire
area which is included between the collateral principal chains,
and nothing more was wanted. Similarly in the Southern Trigon,
the execution of a chain of principal triangles along the west coast
from Cape Comorin to Mangalore was desirable for symmetry,
co-ordinately with the chain on the east coast from Cape Comorin
to Madras, but it was not wanted for geodesy. For geographical
purposes the Malabar coast series of secondary triangles was amply
sufficient. It had been mostly executed by Major Lambton, and it
stood connected with the modern operations. Major Lambton had
not, however, attempted to throw his triangulation over the broad
belt of plains on the east coast, which is covered with trees and
obstacles that he had no means of surmounting. Thus a chain
cf principal triangles has been extended of late years over these
plains, and has furnished a base from which a branch chain of
iviangles has been carried across the Paumben straits to the
Island of Ceylon, in order to connect the surveys of India and
Ceylon.
For geodetic purposes the amount of principal triangulation
which has been executed has been pronounced to be ample. The
first measurement of the sections of the Great Arc between Cape
Comorin and Sironj was accomplished with instruments far inferior
in accuracy to those with which the liberality of the Court of
Directors furnished Colonel Everest in subsequent years, and being
dvemed of insufficient accuracy for geodetic requirements, its revi-
son was directed to be undertaken as soon as might be consistent
with the need of triangulation for geographical purposes in other
parts of India. The northern section, from Sironj down to Bidar,
was indeed revised under Colonel Everest’s superimtendence in
1538-39, but the revision of the southern sections — Bidar,
Bangalore, Cape Comorin—was postponed for several years, and
was eventually accomplished during 1869-74.
The longitudinal series, from Sironj to Calcutta, was also revised,
as it was originally executed with very inferior instrumental
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 61
means, and it happens to be the most important of all the great
chains of triangles. because it furnishes bases for no less than
14 meridional chains lying to its north and south. Partial revisions
have been made in other quarters of work executed with inferior
instruments, which it was deemed necessary to raise to a higher
standard of accuracy. Outside the limits of India proper the more
recently completed chain of triangles called the Hastern Frontier
Series is a valuable contribution to geodesy as well as geography.
The whole of the triangulation rests on ten base-lines which have
been measured with the Colby apparatus of compensation bars and
microscopes, which was constructed in England under Colonel
Everest’s superintendence. The relations of the length of the
Indian standard to the principal European standards of length have
been very exactly determined. Considerations of symmetry would
suggest the introduction of an additional base-line near Bombay,
on the same parallel as the Bidar and Vizagapatam base-lines, and
measured with the same apparatus. But it so happened that a
chain base-line had been measured on the Karleh plain, near
Bombay, in the year 1828, by Captaim Shortrede, the calculated
value of which, through the longitudinal series from the Bidar
base-line, agrees very closely with the measured value. It was
commended by Colonel Everest, who, however, some years after-
wards, in 1848, made preliminary arrangements for the measurement
of another line in the neighbourhood with the Colby apparatus, but
he did not carry out this project. Eventually the idea was
abandoned, as the distance from the Bidar base is comparatively
small, and no material advantage at all commensurate with the
labour and expense would be derived from the measurement of a
new base; for-to measure a base-line with the Colby apparatus
occupies two full-strength trigonometrical parties for an entire field
season, unless there happens to be other employment for the survey
officers in the neighbourhood of the base. There is some uncertainty
as regards the unit of length adopted by Captaim Shortrede in
measuring the Karleh base, consequently this base has not been
employed in the final reductions, though no. new base has been
measured.
Thus the great work of the principal triangulation of India
became an accomplished fact. Commenced in 1800, under the
auspices of the Madras Government, it was carried on by Major
Lambton, almost single-handed, until the year 1818, when the
62 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
Marquis of Hastings, who was then Governor-General, placed it
under the direct and immediate control of the Supreme Government.
Captain Everest was shortly afterwards appointed assistant to
Major Lambton. In 1882 additional officers were appointed, and
by the year 1840, when the geodetic operations on the northern
sections of the Great Arc were completed, the personnel suticed
for the equipment of six trigonometrical survey parties, and this
number of parties was uniformly maintained from that time
onwards, until it could be gradually diminished on the completion
of the successive chains of triangles. The operations have been
uniformly and consistently supported by the Supreme Government,
with the sanction and approval, first of the Honourable Court of
Directors of the Hast India Company, and afterwards of the
Secretary of State for India. In times of war and financial
embarrassment the scope of the operations has been curtailed and
establishments have been reduced, and some of the military officers
sent to join the armies in the field; occasionally the civilians also
have been sent to the seat of war, to be employed on survey duties.
But whatever the crisis, the operations have never been wholly
suspended. Even during the troubles of 1857-58 they were
carried on in some districts though arrested in cthers. ‘They have
been uninfluenced by changes of personnel in the administration of
the British Indian Empire, each succeeding Governor-General or
Viceroy having honoured them with his support. At the close of the
mutinies, Lord Canning wrote as follows of the principal triangu-
lation and collateral topography in Kashmir to Colonel Waugh,
then Surveyor-General of India :—
“J cannot resist telling you at once with how much satisfaction I have seen those
papers. It isa pleasure to turn from the troubles and anxicties with which India is
still beset, and to find that a gigantic work of permanent peaceful usefulness, and one
which will assuredly take the highest rank as a work of scientific labour and skiil,
has been steadily and rapidly progressing through all the turmoil of the last two
years.”
and up to the last moment, the successive Government have
accorded their support to the operations with equal liberality and
constancy. It may well be doubted whether any similar under-
taking, executed in any other part of the world, has been equally
favoured and supported.
The field operations, viz., the measurements of the base-lines and
angles of the principal triangulation, being completed, the next
GREAT TRIGONOMETRIOAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 63
step was the final reduction and harmonising of the results, giving
to each measurement and observation its proper weight, and
nothing more or less. Strictly speaking, this undertaking should
have been postponed until the completion of the whole of the
operations, and then all the observations should be reduced
simultaneously, because every fact of observation is more or less
dependent on, and connected with, every other fact. But the
simultaneous reduction of the vast number of such facts acquired over
all India, by many individuals and during a period of many years,
was obviously impossible. Thus it became necessary to divide the
triangulation of India proper into five sections, and even then the
simultaneous reduction of the numerous facts of observation
collected together ineach group was a work of enormous labour,
necessitating, as remarked by Colonel Clarke, C.B., of the Ordnance
Survey, one of the most eminent of living geodesists, in his recent
treatise on geodesy, ‘“‘the most elaborate calculations that have
** ever been undertaken for the reduction of triangulation.”’ The
division of the work into sections necessitated the maintenance of
the results determined for the sections first reduced in the
contiguous sections, when they, in turn, came to be reduced and
this necessitated commencement with the section, which in all its
parts was of the highest accuracy. The section of which the field
work was first completed was the North-east Quadrilateral, but as
many of its angles had been measured with instruments of inferior
accuracy to those employed in the sections which were subsequently
completed, the reductions were performed in the following order :—
first, the North-west Quadrilateral ; secondly, the South-east Quadri-
lateral; and thirdly, the North-east Quadrilateral. The reductions
were commenced in the year 1869; the final results of the first
section are given in Volumes II., III., and IV. of the Account of
the Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey, published in
1879; those of the second in Volume VI., published in 1880; and
those of the third in Volumes VII. and VIII. The fourth section
selected for treatment was the Southern Trigon.
The stations of the principal triangulation were 3,665 in number
in 1885. They have been constructed with a view to being as lasting
and permanent as possible. On the plains they take the form of
towers rising from 20 to 40, and even 60 feet above the ground
level, and usually about 16 feet square at base, with an isolated
central pillar—always of masonry-—for the instruments to rest on.
64 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
On hills and mounds the central pillar is raised two to four feet above
the ground level, and is surrounded with a platform of earth and
stones. - Mark-stones engraved with a dot and surrounding circle to
define with precision the point to which the observations are
referred, are inserted on the surface and at the base of each pillar.
The stations are invariably placed under the protection of the local
officials; they are scattered over 33S British districts and Native
states, in each of which some officer is required to submit annual
reports of the condition of the whole of the stations within its
circle; repairs are effected whenever necessary. If the present
system of protection and repairs is maintained by future generations
of officials, the duration of the stations should be coeval with that
of the hills and plains on which they stand, and the great work now
completed will be of lasting utility.
A considerable amount of secondary triangulation has been
executed pari passu with the principal triangulation, partly by
observations from the principal stations to all the most prominent
objects visible from them, as the snowy peaks of the Himalayan
range, and partly by the construction of chains of secondary triangles
resting on the primary chains, such as have been carried to a number
of important towns and cities within the limits of the Empire, and of
late years beyond these limits, to Kandahar and Khelat on the one
side, and to Bangkok on the other. Much secondary triangulation,
however, still remains to be executed. Until recently it was wanted
on the coast lines to furnish fixed points for the marine surveys,
and in localities in the interior at a distance from the nearest prin-
cipal chains, where data may be required for topographical surveys.
But it 1s chiefly wanted outside the limits of India proper, as for
the extension of the Eastern Frontier Series through the Malayan
peninsula down to Singapore, and to furnish a basis for the
geography of Upper Burma. For tlie latter purpose three chains
on the meridians of 94°, 96°, and 98° respectively are Cesirable, the
two first of which would close on the chain of secondary triangula-
tion already completed in the Assam valley, while the third might
be carried still further to the north. Bangkok, the capital of Siam,
having already been connected with the Indian triangulation by a
chain of triangles, which was recently executed with the support of
the Siamese Government.
The requirements of geodesy necessitate astronomical observations
for the determination of the latitude and the azimuth, and electro
GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 65
telegraphic observations for the determination of differential longi-
tudes, at several of the stations of the principal triangulation. These
have already been completed to a considerable extent. Further
operations of this nature are in progress; they are carried out by
the two small astronomical parties which are attached to the trigono-
metrical or geodetic branch of the Department, and by which all the
operations that are required to render the principal triangulation
fully subservient to geodetic science should be completed in the
course of time. An extensive series of pendulum observations for
investigations of variations of gravity and the figure of the earth,
taken chiefly at stations of the principal triangulation, has been
completed and connected with the groups of corresponding observa-
tions in other parts of the globe. Long lines of spirit-levels have
been carried on in connexion with the principal triangulation, from
the sea to the base-lines in the interior, and from sea to sea across
the peninsula; they rest on determinations of the mean sea-level
which have been made at the tidal stations on the coasts.*
On tke conclusion of the measurement of the Mergui base-line,
Mr. J. McGill and Mr. C. D. Potter were deputed in 1882-3 to carry
a chain of secondary triangulation along the east coast, chiefly for
the purpose of setting up beacons for the use of the marine surveys.
These operations extended between Ichapur, in Ganjam, to the town
of Pooree, the seat of the Jaganath temple. The country is generally
well populated and prosperous, including seaports and large towns,
but subject to unhealthy malarious influences. The Chilka lake
fell within the area of the work; it is a vast sheet of salt water,
covering 350 sguare miles, with numerous islands, and fed by
freshets of the Mahanadi river and numerous small streams descending
from the Hastern Ghats; it has one outlet into the sea by a small
breach in the said ridge, and a canal connects with the port of
Ganjam. During 1883-84 the measurements were carried northward
along the coast of Orissa from Pooree to Balasor by Mr. A. D’Souza,
and the opportunity was taken to look up the old stations of Major
Saxton and Captain Depree’s survey in 1858-59. In 1884-85
Mr. D’Souza worked southwards, and carried the old triangulation of
the Madras Coast Series, which had stopped at Coringa, to the mouth
of the Godavari. Some interesting notes on the principal coast
towns and rivers of the Ganjam, Vizagapatam, and Godavari
districts accompany his report on the operations. The following
* From the Surveyor General’s Report for 1881-82.
i Y 20321. 1D)
66 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
Seasons saw the operations advance both northwards and southwards,
and in 1887-88 the entire coast triangulation from False Point to
Point Calimere, in the Tanjore district, was completed. Mr. Ryall,
who had assumed charge in 1885-86, had hoped to close his work on
to the station of the Negapatam Minor Series, but these were found
to be so inconyeniently situated and so hemmed in by gardens and
trees, that a carefully executed traverse, 60 miles in length, was
executed, and a junction effected with stations of the Great
Trigonometrical Survey.
The triangulation along the Madras coast having been thus
completed in 1887-88, the following year saw the party transferred
to Lower Burma for the purpose of carrying out similar work there
and fixing artificial beacons, as well as natural landmarks, at con-
venient intervals within sight of the sea for the Marine Surveyors
to base their work upon. One hundred and fifty-seven miles of
triangulation of this description were completed in 1888-89, reaching
from Cape Negrais to Sandoway, and about 170 miles in the
following season. A commencement was also made of the principal
triangulation for Upper Burma on the meridian of 97°. The series
emanated from a side of the Hastern Frontier Series near Toungoo,
and is destined to proceed northwards as far as Mandalay in the first
instance. Owing to climatic and other difficulties, the progress
during the past season was limited to the selection of two figures
and the building of the observing stations at the angles, but the
work was carried for 50 miles further in 1889-90, and six new
principal stations were fixed. For the Marine Surveys, 35 points
were fixed during the same year along a distance of 170 miles
from Kutabdia light-house off the coast of Chittagong, Bengal,
to Akyab, in Burma.
The series of secondary triangles emanating from the Great
Indus Series and running along the parallel of 30° N. latitude,
which had been commenced in the previous year to furnish a basis
for future work in Baluchistan was continued for a direct distance
of 115 miles to Quetta. Observations at four stations still remained
to carry the series to the Khwaja Amran range.
In this province and in the other new province of Upper Burma
a large field still awaits the exertions of the Indian triangulation
parties.
ee
67
VE
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
The Topographical and Revenue Surveys serve to furnish the
details required for filling up the outline supplied by the fixed points
of the triangulation, the former being confined mainly to the Native
States, and non-regulation British districts, of small importance from
a revenue point of view, while the Revenue Surveys deal with the
more productive and valuable tracts. As has been appropriately said,
it is their function to supply flesh and blood to the skeleton provided
by the triangulators. But while the Trigonometrical Survey has
had to be conducted regularly throughout on a fixed plan, both the
Topographical and Revenue operations have to be taken up on
varying scales to suit local requirements and conditions. The
standard scale of the Topographical Survey is 1 inch to the mile,
but where the work has to be executed very quickly the scale is
reduced to 4 or to + of an inch to the mile, as in trans-frontier
regions; on the other hand, in British territory it is sometimes
increased to 2 inches, and generally to 4 inches for Forest Surveys.
The Revenue Surveys are on scales of 4, 16, and 32 inches to the
mile, and sometimes larger scales. ‘These two classes of operations
have covered the greater portion of the expanse of British India
and the Native States, which have thus been, or are being, practically
mapped out on the scale and in the manner most appropriate to
the general purposes of administration. The accuracy of the
work has necessarily varied greatly according to circumstances.
Some of the earlier topographical surveys partook more of the
nature of rough and hasty geographical reconnaissances, but the
more recent surveys have been carried out on more rigorous
principles, and with greater regard for completeness and precision.
Since the close of the Punjab war in 1847, and the publication
of the “Manual of Surveying for India” a few years later, by
Captains Smyth and Thuillier, there has been an ever-increasing
E 2
68 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
efficiency in the methods and procedure of the surveys, and in the
completeness and trustworthiness of the resulting maps.
At the close of the period dealt with in the last edition of the
“Memoir,” the primary topography of the larger part of India,
as shown by the index map attached to General Thuiliier’s topo-
graphical report, had been completed, the most conspicuous blanks
still remaining being the western half of Rajputana, the greater part
of the North-West Provinces, the Konkans, and nearly all the Madras
Presidency. ‘The old maps of nearly all these regions had supplied
material for published sheets of the Indian Atlas on the scale of
four miles to the inch, but much of it was imcomplete and unsatis-
factory, and the re-survey and re-engraving of the less-accurately
mapped tracts have consequently had to be taken up as financial and
other considerations permitted. The most recent index map of the
Indian Atlas shows that the Punjab, Sind, the Berars, part of
Rajputana, most of the western and southern portion of the Bombay
Presidency, Haidarabad, and nearly all Southern India, as well as the
North-West and Lower Provinces, must be re-engraved before the
Indian Atlas sheets exhibiting those regions can be held to be up to
the level of accuracy befitting the standard map of India. And as
in many of these tracts fresh and better surveys must precede the
preparation of fresh plates, itis clear that there is abundance of
employment still awaiting the Indian Topographical and Revenue
Survey parties.
During the season 1876-77 nine separate parties of the Topo-
graphical Survey were at work in different parts of India. The
area allotted to the operations of the Gwalior and Central India
Survey covers an extensive portion of country east and south
of the Rajputana desert. One of its principal duties in 1876-77
was the construction of large scale surveys of the fortress of
Gwalior, the cantonments of Morar, the native city, and the Resi-
dency lands and surrounding country for the military authorities.
These were superintended by Captain Charles Strahan, R.E., chief
of the party, while Lieutenant J. R. Hobday carried on the one-inch
work towards the west in the Native States Udaipur, Dungarpur,
and ‘lonk in the Rajputana Agency. Part of Captain Strahan’s
operations lay near the great water-patting of the rivers draining
east into the Bay of Bengal and those flowing into the Gulf of
Cambay on the west, and the difference here observable is most
remarkable, the north-east portion being very flat and quite open,
bet aa
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 69
with several large towns and villages and fairly well cultivated; it
forms part of the plateau of Rajputana, and is on the average about
1,600 feet above the sea; while, after crossing the water-shed the
change is quite abrupt: the ground is intersected by watercourses
which gradually deepen into narrow valleys, and the general fall of
the face of the country shows a drop of 950 feet.
In 1877-78 the work of the party lay in the vicinity of Udaipur
and east of the Aravalli mountains, a region part of which is inha-
bited by the notorious Bhils.* Lieutenant Hobday penetrated into
one * pal” or settlement (liter. “‘ the embankment of a tank ”), where
no one except Captain Conolly of the Bhil Corps nad ever dared to
venture. He, however, trusted the people, and was well received.
The Bhil Corps appears from the accounts of Captain Strahan and
his assistants to be doing excellent work among the wild denizens of
these parts. Before the organization of the corps, the Bhils trusted
no one, looked on all intruders as enemies, and were so incredulous
of the good faith of the British that they had to be paid daily,
simply because they could not believe that if they remained they
would really receive their pay at the end of the month. Now there
are always a number of young men waiting for vacancies to be
enlisted in the regiment. Desertion is still frequent, but this is
partly due to their love of home and the distances to be traversed,
it being no uncommon thing for a sepoy to walk 15 or 2() miles to
his home after his day’s work and be hack in time for parade in the
morning. A great deal of topographical information respecting
this country was amassed by Captain Strahan, including a detailed
description of the great fort of Chitorgarh.+
During this season the party was deprived of one of its most
highly-valued members by the death of Mr. H. J. Bolst, who suc-
cumbed to typhoid fever after a long illness. He had been 27 years
in the Department, 17 years of which had been spent in this party,
where he had rendered most useful service.
The programme for 1878-79 involved a partial diversion from the
ordinary work, and included a survey of the Pachpadra salt fields
(described by Captain C. Strahan in the appendix) on the 4-inch scale,
and of the land adjoining the Luni River on the l-inch scale, both
* Some interesting details respecting the Bhils by Sub-surveyor Abdul Sobhan will
be found at page 43 of the Topographical Survey Report for 1876-77.
7 Sce page 101, et seq., of Surveyor General’s Report for 1877-78. Also pages 41
and 42 of Topographical Survey Report for 1876-77.
70 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
being in the Jodhpur State, for the requirements of the Indian
Customs Department. The regular work of the party consisted of a
detail survey of the city of Udaipur* and environs on the 12-inch
scale, and detail survey of the neighbouring district on the l-inch
scale. A comparatively small out-turn of work was effected in the
following season, but this was mainly due to the intricate character
of the ground, which was likened by Major EH. H. Steel (who took
charge during absence on furlough of Captain Strahan) to “a petrified
stormy sea.’ The ground to the north, whither the operations were
moved in 1880-81, proved stiil more intricate and difficult, and the
attitude of the Bhils was very threatening, insomuch so _ that
Mr. Templeton, one of the surveyors, was warned not to return to
one of the Bhil villages if he valued his life. In. 1881-82 the
region about Mount Abu fell within the area of triangulation, while
the topography ranged over the three Rajput States of Marwar,
Mewar, and Sirohi. The transfer of No. 7 topographical party from
Rajputana to Burma led to its uncompleted ground being allotted to
No. 1 party, which in consequence assumed the designation of the
Central India and the Rajputana Survey party. In the three years
1882-85 portions of the country south-west of EKrinpura as well as
of the desert west of Bikanir and parts of the Sirohi, Palanpur,
and Jodhpur States were mapped in detail, as well as_ special
surveys of the Sunda and Dorra ranges of hills, and large scale
surveys of Ajmere, Jaipur, Amer or Amber. In 1885-86 the
triangulation was carried down to the margin of the Rann of Cutch
mentioned below (see p. 85), while the detail survey was carried on
in portions of Jodhpur and tracts adjacent to the Luni river. But
at the close of that season the Rajputana party was ordered to be
transferred to Baluchistan, so a large tract of this important province
of British India remains unsurveyed, with no definite arrangements
for its completion. The number of standard sheets unsurveyed are
fifty out of a total of ninety-seven, covering nearly all the western
half of the province.
The Khandesh and Bombay Native States Survey worked in two
detachments in 1876-77, one being employed on the ordinary one-
inch scale in the Native hilly states north of the Narbada, and the
second, under Mr. H. Horst, the officer in charge, on the more
* A good description of the city will be found from the pen of Lieutenant J. R.
Hobday at pages 42 and 43 of the Topographical Survey Report for 1875-76.
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 71
important two-inch survey of the revenue-paying portion of the
plains of Khandesh. While surveying in the Tapti valley,
Mr. Graham, Assistant Surveyor, witnessed some extraordinary
examples of “sorcery ’’ among the Bhils, such as walking through
and treading on live coals barefoot without sustaining the slightest
apparent injury.* Mr. Horst was assured it was a common practice,
and frequently adopted by village punchayets as an ordeal in trials for
theftand murder. The work was continued during the two following
seasons, the plane-tabling including part of the Western Satpuras and
the vailey of the Tapti. Great obstacles were encountered by the
surveyors, partly from the high and rugged character of the hills,
but chiefly from the difficulty in getting supplies and the general
inhospitable nature of the country. The only water available for
drinking was of the most unwholesome description, to which may
be attributed the constant attacks of fever to which the assistants who
surveyed the worst parts were subjected. The culminating portion
of the Satpura range ‘“ Astamba,’ 4,346 feet above sea-level, came
into the season’s work. About 900 square miles on the two inch
scale were surveyed between the town of Dhula and the Tapti
river, this tract consisting mainly of undulating revenue-paying
districts. An attempt was made, on the whole successfully, to
incorporate the village boundaries from the Bombay Revenue
Survey maps. Captain W. J. Heaviside, who took charge of the
party in 1879-80, furnishes some picturesque descriptions of the trap
formation of the Deccan, which in Khandesh assumes the form of
erand black precipices surmounted by massive basaltic columns
rising to three or four thousand feet above sea-level. Two con-
spicuous basaltic hills, known as Mangya ‘angya, on a spur of the
Sahyadri hills, are of remarkable appearance, resembling monoliths
rising from pyramidical bases, in which numerous steps have been
cut. Some Buddhist temples, hewn out of the solid rock, are also to
be seen here. The following season saw the detail survey carried
forward in the south-western portion of the area allotted to the
party, where it abuts on Berar and the Nizam’s dominions. The
inhabitants of this part mostly speak Mahrati, and are rather addicted
to drink and theatricals, which latter entertainment affords a means
of support to a class of strolling actors.
The Khandesh and Bombay Native States Survey was finally
brought to a conclusion by Major TI. T. Carter in 1882-83. It had
* See page 47 of Topographical Survey Report for 1876-77.
72 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
been started in 1871, and comprised an area of 18,133 square miles,
including Khandesh and some of its outlying villages in the Nizam’s
territory. Of the total area about 10,532 square miles have been
surveyed and published on the one-inch scale, and the remaining
7,601 square miles have been surveyed on the two-inch scale, but
published on the one-inch scale. The first-named part comprises the
rugged and hilly tracts lying between the Tapti and Narbada
rivers, forming portion of the Satpura range and the tract of country
lying above the Ghats of the Satmala hills; that surveyed on the
two-inch scale consists of the alluvial valleys of the Tapti river and
its tributaries, where the country is richer and productive. In these
parts the valleys are numerous, well cultivated, and connected by
good roads, and the Great Indian Peninsula Railway traverses it
from south-west to north-east.
The Bhopal and Maiwa Survey party was originally organized in
1862 for the survey of Rewa and Bundelkhand, and on the
completion of that work was transferred in 1871 to Bhopal and
Malwa, to deal with all the country north of the Narbada river in
the Central India and Rajputana Agencies between the parallels of
22° 15’ and 24°, and bounded on the east by Saugor and on the
west by Mahi Kanta and Rewa Kantha. The survey lies inter-
mediate between the operations of the Gwalior and Central India
party to the north and the Khandesh and Bombay Native States
party to the suuth. Up to 1877 the out-turn of topography in
Bhopal and Malwa had been a little over 16,000 square miles. The
work of 1876-77 saw the practical completion of the topography
of the Vindhya range, which runs generally east and west through
the area of the survey. Between the towns of Dhar and Amjhera
there runs a low ridge extending northward some 30 miles, and the
point where this ridge issues from the Vindhya range is the water-
shed* of three of the river-systems of India, viz., 1st, the Narbada,
which lies to the southward and flows westward into the Gulf of
Cambay, 2nd, the Mahi, which rises to the north-west and discharges
into the same gulf after a circuitous course, and, 3rd, the Chambal
and Chamli rivers, which, rising to north-east, unite near Barnagar
and join the Jumna. During 1877-78 fever prevailed in almost
every camp, but a fair out-turn of work was nevertheless attained,
while in the following season large scale surveys of Indore and
* The height of the water-shed is apparently 1,883 feet. See Cuptain Wilmer’s
Narrative, Surveyor-General’s Report for 1875-79, page 13 of Appendix.
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. ie
Dewas were completed in addition to the ordinary mapping. The
ereater part of the ground covered by the surveyors of this party
proved tedious and intricate to the plane-tablers. Major J. R.
Wilmer, who was in charge, mentions a peculiar custom that the
Bhils have here of branding their male children on the arms above
the wrist with burning cotton dipped in oil, so as to enable them
to be identified as true Bhils. This custom appears to have been
unknown to previous writers. At the close of the season 1881-82 it
was arranged that the bulk of this party should be transferred to the
Mirzapur district, while the few remaining sheets of the Malwa
survey were entrusted to the Khandesh and Bombay Native States
(No. 2) party, who had completed their work in the season 1882-83,
and assumed in consequence the designation of the Bhopal and Malwa
Survey party. The latter work was brought to a termination in
1884-85, the entire out-turn of the 15 seasons having amounted to
29,262 square miles, comprising 59 standard sheets, all surveyed on
the one-inch scale. In addition, large scale surveys were made and
mapped of 13 cities and cantonments, representing an area of
127 square miles. The survey had been commenced in 1870-71 by
Major Riddell, R.H., and carried on by that officer till 1873-74,
when the charge of the party devolved on Lieutenant-Colonel
Wilmer, by whom the work was continued till 1882-83, when the
party was transferred to Mirzapur. The late Khandesh (afterwards
re-named the Malwa) party, under Major Carter, R.H., then resumed
this work and did a full season’s area in 1883-84, and in the
following season the charge of the survey was entrusted to
Mr. Patterson, by whom the work was brought to a completion.
While working in the Udaipur State some sensational stories were
circulated respecting the poles erected as signals to mark the trigono-
metrical stations, which the natives were convinced were intended for
the immolation of the men and women. Another rumour circulated
was that the survey party had come to weigh all the married men
and women, and that of those found of unequal weight there would be
a redistribution, thus disturbing their marriage ties. The Udaipur
Durbar, in consequence of these rumours, desired the survey party
to retire as soon as possible, but Mr. Patterson took the occasion to
invite the Bhils to the camp and encouraged them to dance and
sing and shoot at a target with their bows and arrows, afterwards
dismissing them with doucewrs. A description by Mr. G. P. Tate
of the town of Bhinmal and surrounding country will be found
74 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
in the Appendix to the Report of the Surveyor-General for 1884-85,
page xxx.
Central Provinces, §c.—Turning now to the operations which had
been progressing in the east of the Peninsula, we find that the season
1876-77 was signalised by the completion of the Central Provinces
and Vizagapatam Agency Survey, embracing altogether 72,144
square miles. ‘The difficulty and unkealthiness of work in this
region had been almost proverbial from its commencement, and its
successful termination was a matter of genuine congratulation ;
the previous operations were mainly associated with the name of
Colonel Saxton, who is frequently mentioned in the “ Memoir”:
to Captain Holdich belonged the credit of completing the work,
though this was not done without much cost and suffering to all
the members. of the party, some of whom were so prostrated
by jungle fever that they were with difficulty removed from the
field on the conclusion of the work. The characteristic features of
the country where the concluding operations lay were extensive
plateaux of from 1,800 to 2,000 feet above sea-level, surmounted by
masses of flat-topped hills. These high lands are a continuation
of the great plateau system of Central India, which decreasing in
elevation by a succession of steppes finally breaks to the west
into the low-lying plains forming the basin of the Godavari. The
geological structure of this part of the country is mixed, being
composed of trap and varieties of sandstone and slate; the first
occurs in the higher flat masses, while the two latter predominate
in the lower hills, and are distinctly separate one from another, a
circumstance producing bold, rugged, and ever-changing scenery,
but always the same endless monotony of forest from the plains
to the highest peaks. The Pertabpur taluk on the right bank of
the Kotri abounds in tigers, and sometimes whole villages are
deserted through their depredations.
Another survey also brought to a conclusion in the same season
was that of No. 4 party, N.E. Division, Central Provinces Suryey,
which had originally been organized by Colonel De Prée in 1856,
and during the 22 years of its existence had triangulated and
mapped on the one-inch scale a tract of country extending from the
Bay of Bengal at Balasor to a point nine miles east of Jabalpur.
This tract extends over nine degrees of longitude, and on an
average two degrees of latitude, and its area amounts to nearly
25,000 square miles. The difficulties overcome here were of no
——-
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 75
ordinary nature, for the country is a continuation of the Vindhya
range, which crosses India from Bombay on the west towards
Calcutta on the east and then turns southwards to Madras, forming
everywhere the water-shed between the great river-system draining
into the Bay of Bengal, and that towards the west into the Indian
Ocean. The landis almost entirely a series of plateaux of one uniform
height between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above sea-level, and of a wild,
hilly, and inaccessible character, destitute of roads, and inhabited
by an original population of Kols and Gonds, as well as minor
tribes. In addition to the ordinary survey, 11 Government reserved
forests were mapped on the four-inch scale. Alphabetical lists were
compiled of each State, the areas computed, the houses counted,
and the whole arranged in a compendious form as a gazetteer for
each of the standard sheets. The Chota Nagpur Division of the
Central Provinces covers 75 sheets, of 30’ longitude by 15’ of lati-
tude, and the North-Hastern Division, 42 sheets.
Assam.—The desultory and detached nature of the frontier surveys
and explorations on which the Khasia, Garo and Naga Hills party
(No. 6) had been for some years engaged, necessitated its being
broken in 1876-77 into three distinct sections or detachments.
Major Badgley, the officer in charge of the party, undertook the
revision of certain work in the vicinity of Shillong; Lieutenant
R. G. Woodthorpe, R.E., and Mr. M. J. Ogle were detached to
explore a wild part of the Lakhimpur district at the extreme head
of the Assam valley, south-east of Sadiya, and close to the Burma
frontier ; while the other two assistants were deputed on the Khasi,
Kamrup, and Garo Boundary Survey. Under these circumstances
the cost of the work was necessarily higher than usual, while dense
forest, swamps, want of good drinking water, venomous insects,
and fever seriously impeded the progress of Lieutenant Woodthorpe
and Mr. Ogle’s work. Both these officers contributed some in-
teresting descriptions of the country and of the manners and
customs of the Singphos, Kamtis, Nagas, and other tribes met
with.
The next season (1877-78) saw Major Badgley again engaged
in the revision of the survey work between Gauhati and Shillong,
(which had been done under unfavourable circumstances, necessitating
a re-examination of the ground), and also in triangulation in Sylhet,
where the swampy and malarious character of the place, and the
76 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
cowardly and malignant behaviour of the inhabitants, whom Major
Badgley found to be a particularly obnoxious and untrustworthy
lot, proved awkward obstacles to progress.
Lieutenant Woodthorpe was deputed with an assistant in the
first instance to accompany Lieutenant Harman to the Miri hills,
as already mentioned on page 52. On his return, Lieutenant Wood-
thorpe proceeded to Sadiya, and without waiting for his Mishmi
carriers, who had failed to put in an appearance, he ascended a
range of hills rising about 9,000 feet high, and overlooking the main
valley of the Dibong, and succeeded in acquiring the following :—
(1) a fairly accurate knowledge of the sources of the Dibong, and
the course of its main stream in the hills; (2) an accurate know-
ledge of its course in the plains, and of about 1,000 square miles
of the hills bordering it; and (8) an approximate knowledge of an
additional 1,100 square miles in the hills. The Dikrang, Diphu,
and Digaru rivers were also mapped.
This party had been engaged for several years in surveying the
hills south of the Brahmaputra river, the greater portion on the
half-inch scale, when in 1878 Major Badgley was instructed to
undertake a full topographical survey on the larger scale of
two inches to the mile of all the land on the south of the Sylhet
district left unsurveyed by the Revenue Survey, and afterwards
to make a detailed survey of the boundaries of tea grants and
estates. The want of accurate surveys was believed to be costing
Government heavily in fraudulent zemindari claims. With the
assistance of some surveyors lent from the Revenue Survey Branch
this work was taken in hand. Much difficulty was experienced in
triangulating, the stations being in most cases platforms supported
by bamboo scaffolding round trees, the tops of which were cut off
and the levelled stump used as a stand for the theodolite. Great
care had to be taken not to touch the tree, as once set swaying 1t
took some time to come to rest, and the wind for the same reason
sometimes put a stop to observations. Major Badgley says of the
Tipperahs that they are active fellows, and excellent hands at
jungle cutting, but their fondness for burning the forests makes
them undesirable cultivators. The Manipuris he describes as
pleasant-spoken, independent, and good hands at a bargain, but
in matters concerning land as often victimised by the Sylhetias, who
are strong, cowardly, morose, and quite uncompromising in their
hatred of Europeans.
—
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. ih
During 1879-SO and 1880-81 Major Badgley found it very
difficult to get coolies, while work was further retarded by the
dificult ground, consisting principally of hills, forest, and swamp.
One of these swamps called Hakaluki Howhar is about 20 miles
long by 9 miles broad during the rains. Major Badgley says that
he had to cross it once during winter, and was up to his waist in
water and weeds in it from eight o'clock in the morning till past
10 at night. In the following season the country under survey lay
further to the west, about the lower spurs of the Tipperah hills,
running northwards past the British boundary into the plains of
South Sylhet, as well as the isolated groups of low hills lying
between Fenchugunj and the Manu river. These tracts of country
up to that time described on the maps as “hills covered with
** jmpenetrable jungle” were rapidly becoming very valuable, as they
were being taken up and opened out for tea cultivation. Lieutenant-
Colonel Woodthorpe, who was in charge of the party, remarks on
the beauty of South Sylhet. The following graphic description
from his penis worth quoting :—
“ At four o’clock in the afternoon I am standing on a cleared hill just above a large
tea garden. The air is beautifully soft and balmy, and looking to the east I see below
me the gentle undulations and flat ground under tea cultivation, the rich dark green
bushes standing out in bold contrast on the red-brown soil. Among the bushes the
busy coolies are at work, the women adding brightness to the scene with their
brilliantly coloured robes. In the midst of the cultivation on the banks of a clear
stream, in a small, well-kept enclosure with a pretty tank, stands the manager’s
bungalow, a large commodious house, with white-washed walls and lofty thatched roof,
slightly hidden by tall plaintain trees. Rose bushes and other shrubs flourish in the
garden, in which from my elevated standpoint I can see that the useful is not over-
looked in the culture of the beautiful, as testified by a corner where many tempting-
looking vegetables are growing. With the orange glow of the afternoon sun upon
it, the bungalow, with its garden, looks, as indeed I find it, a very haven of rest,
comfort, and hospitality. I hear voices behind the bungalow near some large, neat
tea-houses, and, looking, I see an excellent tennis court, where an exciting contest is
being carried on between the young planters of this and a neighbouring garden.
Beyond, the view due south is closed by the virgin forest of dark trees and feathery
bamboos, the greater portion of which will soon, by the enterprise of the planters
and the extension of the tea gardens, disappear. To the south-west and west the eye
wanders over the plains of South Sylhet, bounded on the south by the jungle-clad
hills of Tipperah, purple now and indistinct. The flat green fields, above which, as
the sun sinks, soft mist wreaths float, are broken up by frequent clumps of mighty
bamboos or fine old banian trees, amid whose dark recesses a few glimpses of reddish
roofs and the light blue smoke curling upwards denote the presence of villages.
Beyond these to the west and north lie open expanses of what at this season is dry,
or at the worst, only damp ground, but which a few of the March and April storms
78 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
will speedily convert into swamps, and even lakes. A thin dark line appearing here
and there marks the course of a river, its waters now very low and hidden by the high
banks, above which the masts of country boats and the smoke from the funnel of a
steamer, just about to anchor for the night, are visible. Far away to the north
beyond the plain, the trees, the villages, and the station of Sylhet itself, rises the
long, level outline of the Khasia hills, faintly glowing in the sunset. A hum of
voices ascends from the villages below, cows wend their way homewards through the
deepening gloom, and as the sun sinks in the brown obscurity of the distant horizon,
I shut up my theodolite, and running down the hillside, soon find myself at the
bungalow, where a hearty welcome and an excellent dinner await me.”
Colonel Woodthorpe takes occasion to record in his report the
very great assistance and hospitality rendered to him and to his
followers by the planters, who in several places are making good
roads themselves, and so actively helping to open up the country.
Mr. A. W. Chennell, an energetic and valued member of this
party, died in Bombay Harbour on the 5th October 1883. The
disease to which he succumbed had originated in an accident he
met with during the previous season while traversing a stream in
the Tipperah hills. He had always been mentioned in the highest
terms by the officers under whom he served during the 19 years
he had been in the Department, and he was one of the surveyors who
were specially selected for service in Afghanistan during the late war.
The season of 1883-84 was to have been occupied in the
survey of the Noa Dihing valley and the hitherto unexplored
portions of the Patkoi range on the extreme north-eastern frontier
of Assam, but owing to the Aka raid on Balipur, the work was
postponed, and the survey party, in accordance with the wishes of
the Chief Commissioner of Assam, was ordered to accompany the
military force which was sent into the hills to rescue British
captives. The topographical results appear to have been meagre,
as the military authorities did not permit Colonel Woodthorpe to
visit much of the Aka country. He and Mr. Ogle subsequently
explored some of the Daphla hills, discovering in the course of
their work a branch of the Bhoroli named Kameng, of which large
stream no one had ever heard. The weather was, however,
exceptionally bad, and Colonel Woodthorpe considers that on the
north bank of the Brahmaputra the higher ranges are seldom free
from cloud and rain after November. ;
The season 1884-85 was devoted to work on the extreme north-
eastern frontier of Assam, where a knowledge of the mountainous
region between the head of the Assam valley and the upper waters
a. =. =
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 79
of the Irawadi is even now (1891) very important, as the esta-
blishment of a direct means of communication between the two
countries will be a great administrative and commercial gain, and
help towards opening up this part of Upper Burma. No. 6 survey
party. consisting of Colonel Woodthorpe, Mr. Ogle, and Mr. Ewing,
with an escort of the 44th Gurkha Light Infantry, and some
Frontier Police under the command of Major C. R. Macgregor,
explored this tract in 1884-85, ascending the Noa Dihing river
from Sudiya, and crossed the Chankau pass (8,400 feet) over the
dividing range. From an adjoining mountain, Mokoshat, the
Brahmaputra and Irawadi rivers can both be descried on a clear
day. The inhabitants of this part of the Upper Irawadi are
Kamtis or Shans, and Buddhists by religion; Major Macgregor
believes them to be of Siamese stock. The reception they gave the
English was friendly, and they appeared to be particularly honest.
The furthest points reached by the surveyors were Langdao and
Padao (the capital) on the M’Li-kha river (one of the affluents
of the Irawadi), a little south of Lieutenant Wilcox’s furthest,
after which the party returned and crossed the mountains at an
altitude of 5,500 feet into the head waters of the Kyendwen,
re-crossing eventually by the Patkoi pass (2,860 feet) into Assam.*
Part of the region to the south-west, intermediate between the
Naga hills and the Hukong valley, was explored in 1888 by an
expedition under Mr. J. F. Needham, Assistant Political Officer at
Sadiya, Mr. Ogle being again attached thereto as surveyor. The
starting point was Margherita, the terminus of the Assam Railway,
which was left on the 4th January, and to which the expedition
returned on the 28th February, having failed to reach their objective
point in the Hukong valley owing to difficulties in obtaining
carriage, the lateness of the season, and other causes, but having
demonstrated the practicability of reaching the Hukong valley by
two routes, viz., lst, by the Nongyong lake, and 2nd, by the Naga
hills route, which goes through the mountains south of Margherita.
The pass over the Patkoi on the outward journey was found to be
4.147 feet, while that on the return was 7,192 feet above sea-level.
About 1,500 square miles of entirely new country lying south of
the Patkoi range (up to which the surveys of 1873-74 had been
carried) was surveyed by Mr. Ogle, who hag established a reputation
* See also Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society for 1885, pp. 541 and 751,
80 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
by his successful work in these regions, and the new work was
connected with that done further eastward in 1884-85. The Nagas
met with south of the Patkoi have some cruel characteristics,
and are addicted to human sacrifices; but they nevertheless were
friendly disposed towards our troops, and gave useful assistance in
various ways.
This piece of exploration was the last accomplished by No. 6
party, which was finally dissolved on the 16th July 1885. A
retrospect of its history since its formation in 1863 is given by
Mr. Ogle at page viii of the Appendix to the Report of the Surveyor-
General for 1884-85.
The important survey of Sikkim which was carried out by
Lieut. Harman after completion of his work im Northern Assam is
described at pages 126 and 127, infra.
Rajputana and Simla—This party (No. 7) was divided in two
detachments in 1876-77, Lieutenant HE. P. Leach, R.E., bemg
engaged on an elaborately contoured survey of the Observatory hill,
Simla, and Mr. R. Todd in prosecuting the detail survey in the
desert portions of the Marwar (Jodhpur), Shekawati, and Bikanir
States in Rajputana,as well as a large scale survey of the city
and environs of Jodhpur and 50 linear miles of forest reserve
boundaries in Ajmere and Merwara. On the return of the party
to recess quarters the triangulation for the survey of the
approaches to Simla and of the several military cantonments
between Simla and the plains was taken in hand and carried over
120 miles.
Owing to the failure next year of the rains in Central and
Southern India, it was not feasible to send more than a small
portion of the Rajputana party to that province, so the remainder
were employed in the neighbourhood of Simla, where a total area of
104 square mijes of roads and adjacent strips of country was
surveyed on the 6-inch scale, together with plans of Subathu and
Kasauli cantonments. The system of topography employed by
Colonel De Prée for the hills in these surveys was the same as
employed by Lieutenant E. P. Leach in the previous season, 1.¢., a
combination of contour lines, sketched by eye, with other contour
lines which had been accurately determined by water level, care-
fully followed in succession by the topographers and accurately
delineated on the plane-table. Thus on the 6-inch maps the true
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. Sl
contour lines represent vertical intervals of 250 feet between which
were drawn nine eye contours at about 25 feet apart, while in the
cantonment maps on the 24-inch scale the true contour lines ran
at vertical intervals of 50 feet between which there were four eye
contours. This method of contouring proved valuable, enabling,
as it did, native surveyors with no aptitude for hill sketching to
produce accurate maps of difficult hill country, and reducing the
delineation thereof to a comparatively mechanical operation.
Operations in 1878-79 were resumed in the Bikanir desert, where
the ground was characterised by the regular sand waves formed
by the prevalent south-west wind, and a general paucity of
vegetation. The country, however, may be said to be culturable,
for it only requires for the sand to be scratched up, seed to be
sown, and the rainfall does the rest. Jt is said that when the rain-
fall has been good and the locusts do not destroy the standing
crops one year's harvest will feed the peopie for three years. By
December the crops are all off the ground, and after that, till the
next rains, the Bikanir cultivators remain idle in their houses. The
ground traversed during the following season was of the same rather
uninteresting description, being varied only by the salt works at
Sar and the sandstone quarries at Khari. In the former a coarse
salt is produced by solar evaporation, and in the latter a stone
of good colour and of compact texture, of which the stratum is
horizontal and close to the surface.
During the following year, as the work moved gradually to the
north and west, the country became even more desert-like than
before; but in the Jodhpur State a welcome change ensued, the
usual rolling sand hills and ridges of the desert being replaced by
extensive plains composed of sandy clay, all more or less fertile,
varied by clumps of rocky hills. ‘he wells in this part of the
country are of great depth, one measured by Mr. McGill, who was
in charge of the party in 1881-82, being 480 feet deep, and the
average depth being 270 feet.
At the close of the season the Rajputana party was transferred
to Burma and merged into the Burma Topographical party, the
Rajputana work being handed over to No. 1 topographical party,
as mentioned above (see page 70).
Mysore.—The important survey of the Native State of Mysore* had
been commenced in 1874-75, and good progress had been made during
* See Memoirs on the Indian Surveys, 2nd ed., p. 175.
x Y 20321. F
82 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
the season. But in 1876-77 a serious famine overspread the
greater part of Madras, and survey work in Mysore had con-
sequently to be restricted to those tracts in the Nandidrug and
Nagar divisions where it was easier to obtain water, provisions, and
forage. This seriously lessened the out-turn of work of the two
parties (Nos. 8 and 9), and at the close of the season, as so many
members of these parties had been necessarily deputed to famine relief
duties, it was deemed better to amalgamate the remaining survey
officers into one party under Major H. R. Thuillier, R.E. (now Sur-
veyor-General of India). On taking the field next year the prospects
were better than could have been expected, considering the disasters
to which the province had been subjected. The tanks were well
filled, pasturage was abundant, and but for the deserted look of the
villages a stranger could not have imagined that famine and
drought had so lately been devastating the country. Nevertheless
the season was particularly unhealthy. Fever of a virulent type
broke out early in the field season in many parts, and all the
European members of the party, except the officer in charge, were
laid up, while the meniai establishment, without a single exception,
suffered more or less. During 1878-79 seven surveyors, assistants,
and sub-surveyors rejoimed the party after being temporarily
employed on famine relief duties, so that it became practicable to
split the party again into two detachments. One of these detachments
yas engaged in triangulating the western part of the State, pre-
paratory to a detail survey of the tracts between Mysore and South
Kanara, so as to aid in the settlement of the long-debated frontier
survey, while the other detachment was occupied in the detail survey
of part of the Nandidrug division. In the Malnad, as the country
over which the triangulation extended is called, the principal feature
is the Western Ghats, rising to a height of over 6,000 feet, covered
for the most part with magnificent virgin forest, and forming the
source of numerous rivers. The western face of this range is
extremely precipitous, so as to be nearly inaccessible from that side,
but from the eastern face numerous spurs branch out in all direc-
tions, and form more or less continuous chains of hills, which with
innumerable undulations overspread the greater part of the State.
The Malnad is essentially the country of rain and fog, and two or
three months immediately after the monsoon season it is looked
upon as most unhealthy for these not acclimatised to it. Its staple
products are coffee, betel-nut, cardamoms, and pepper, and the
trade is mainly effected by means of pack-cattle, locomotion being
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 83
difficult except along the roads, which are few aud far between.
Great efforts were made to complete the mapping of the Mysore-
Kanara frontier during the following season (1879-80), but fever
and sickness attacked the party, and at the close of the season two
small gaps, aggregating about 25 miles in length, were unavoidably
left. Owing to the difficulty of the country the ordinary method of
working with the plane-table was in many cases utterly imprac-
ticable, and resort was had to special methods, particularly that
known as plane-table traversing, in which the plane-table supphes
the place of an angular instrument and the measurements are made
by chain, a process slow at all times, but especially so when the
chain lines, as in this case, had to be cleared through dense forest.
The same procedure had to be adopted in 1880-81 in the survey of
the western part of the province. The Assistant Superintendent,
Captain J. R. McCullagh, R.E., accompanied the Boundary Commis-
sicners in their work of demarcation, and inserted on the maps the
position of the various marks erected by them. The general work of
the party was much impeded by fever, from which all its members
suffered more or less; one valued officer, Mr. R. Chew, Senior
Surveyor, succumbed to a severe form of malarious fever contracted
in the Bhadra valley. He had been 25 years in the Department,
and had gained high commendation for his professional skill and
steady attention to his duties.
A large out-turn of topographical work was rendered in 1881-82,
this being due partly to the fact that so much triangulation had
been accomplished in previous years that sufficient ground had been
thereby prepared for the season’s detail survey, and partly to the
good health enjoyed by the party. Asin former years, part of the
work Jay in the Malnad, where progress was necessarily slow, and
part in the easier and more open Maidan country. The former part of
the survey lay on the extreme western edge of the province, and
included the famous Falls of Gersoppa, which are said to be the
most picturesque falls in India. The Sheravati flowing over a very
rocky bed about 250 yards wide here reaches a tremendous chasm
960 feet in depth, down which it is precipitated in four striking
cascades. The Falls are graphically described in the ‘‘ Mysore
Gazetteer.’’*
During the seasons 1883-84 and 1884-85 the mapping of Mysore
was steadily pushed forward under Major Thuillier. In the latter
“5 ; * Volume II., pages 386-390.
F 2
84 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
year the country was exceptionally difficult, fully half of the area
censisting of interminable forest and jungle, very sparsely populated
even when villages existed at all. The most ordinary supplies (in-
cluding water) were obtained only with great difficulty ; the heat was
intense, severe and continuous physical exertion had to be maintained,
the detachments were constantly molested by wild elephants and other
beasts, and the unhealthy season prostrated several members of the
party and a large number of the menial establishment. The entire
survey was finally completed by Major McCullagh, R.E., in the
middie of April 1886, and the whole of the records brought to a satis-
factory termination by the lst of October the same year. The area
of the Mysore State proved to be 29,305 square miles, which was
over 2,000 square miles in excess of the estimated area. A strip
of the country was also surveyed outside and all round the state
boundary. The Mysore Survey was based on portions of the three
principal series of triangles known as the “Great Arc Meridional,”
the ‘Mangalore Meridional,’ and the ‘Madras Longitudinal.”
At the time of its commencement, in addition to the strictly
topographical work on the scale of one inch to one mile, special
surveys on a large scale of the various State forests within the
province were contemplated, but after three of these forests, viz.,
Bilikal, Nandidrug, and Dwarayadurga had been completed, it
was decided that no more should be undertaken. The mapping of
the state is contained in 70 standard sheets, 4 sheets of Reserved
Forest Surveys, and 19 sheets of Cantonments and City Surveys,
chief among which were the surveys of Bangalore and Mysore
towns. The survey was originally commenced in November 1875,
and thus took 11 years to complete. The cost was entirely borne
by the revenues of the State of Mysore.
On the conclusion of the Mysore Survey the party was transferred
to the Madura and Tinnevelli districts of the Madras Presidency,
it having been arranged between the Governments of India and
Madras that the topographical work remaining to be done in the
Presidency, aggregating about 12,400 square miles, should be
surveyed on the l-inch and the forests on the 4-inch scale by
the professional Survey Department instead of by the Madras
Revenue authorities. The adjoining Native States of Travancore
and Cochin were also to be surveyed on the 1-inch scale, the old
maps of the mountainous tracts of these States being very deficient.
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 85
The area plane-tabled during the season 1886-87 consisted of a
block of hills from four to eight thousand feet in height, including
the south-west corner of the Palnis and parts of Madura and
Travancore. It is for the most part bare and exceedingly rugged,
some of the precipices being tremendous, so that a body falling
therefrom with a slight impetus would touch nothing for a quarter
of a mile. The following season (1887-88) was exceptionally
unhealthy, hardly a man escaped illness, and there were 12 deaths
out of a comparatively small establishment. The operations of
the triangulation included the locale of the Periyar project, an
important and bold undertaking, which has greatly changed the
character of the country, once the home of sambhar and of
herds of wild elephants, but now swarming with troops of
dusky coolies busied in excavating or raising embankments.
The project consisis in building a gigantic concrete dam, 160
feet high, across the Periyar river and cutting a tunnel 2,000
yards long, through which the imprisoned water will flow into the
channel of a small stream that rushes down the face of the Ghat
into thousands of thirsty acres in ithe Cumbum valley. The cost
amounts to about 70 lakhs of rupees.*
During 1888-89 and 1889-90, the party were engaged exclusively
on forest surveys in the Salem, Madura, and Tinnevelli districts, a
class of work of increasing importance, which is already absorbing
four parties in the Central Provinces, Bombay and Madras Presi-
dencies, as well as a detachment in Orissa.
Kathiawar and Cutch.—The topographical survey of Kathiawar
described at page 134 0f the ‘‘ Memoir” was brought to a conclusion
by Major A. Pullan in 1879-80. It is an elaborate and important
piece of work, surveyed on the 2-inch for reduction to the 1-inch
scale, and consisting of 61 sheets. On its completion the operations
of the party were extended into Cutch, and in 1880-81] the Great
Rann or Runn was surveyed on the $-inch scale. This remarkable
tract, marked so conspicuously on the maps, consists of sandy waste
and salt beds separating Cutch from the province of Sind, During
the south-west monsoon the Rann is a shallow inland sea, but during
the cold and beginning of the hot season a few roads cross it;
at first oozy salt slime and water overlies it in patches, but as the
* The general appearance and character of the country are capitally aud picturesquely
described by Mr. R. W. Senior, p. iv. of “Survey Report for 1887-88.”
86 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
warm weather approaches the hot winds blaze across the Rann like
the blast of a furnace, clouds of dust render it impossible to advance,
and travelling ‘is safe only at night, the whole length of the road
being marked out by the bones of the cattle and camels which have
died from exhaustion en route ; a heavy fall of rain closes the road
for days. and camels caught therein have but little chance of
escape. Before 1819 the river passing through the Rann was
crowded with boats carrying the produce of Sind down to Lakpat,
but in that year an earthquake closed the river and destroyed
several villages.*
During the following seasons the Cutch survey was continued by
Colonel Pullan. On one occasion while out surveying he was
attacked by a panther and a good deal mauled about; these brutes,
together with lions, haunt the Gir mountains of Kathiawar, and the
former are said to be not unfrequent in Cutch. The survey was
finally brought to a conclusion by Colonel Pullan in 1886.
Gujrat.—The Gujrat survey was organized for the purpose of dealing
with a large strip of country extending along the western confines of
the Bombay Presidency from the Rann of Cutch in the north to Nasik
in the south. From the first Colonel Walker devoted his hest
efforts to utilize the mapping work of the Bombay Revenue
surveyors who had already gone over all the cultivated tracts
for settlement purposes. But the combination of the two surveys
proved a difficult task; so during the rainy season in 1875 a
conference was held at Poona with the view of settling (1) the scale
on which the new Topographical Survey maps should be drawn,
and (ii) the extent to which the older Bombay Revenue Survey
maps could be incorporated and utilised. The Committee were
also particularly asked to consider whether the 4-inch scale adopted
by Major Haig in Gujrat, or the 2-inch scale adopted by Major
Tanner and Captain Samuells in the Deccan and Nasik was
preferable. Colonel W.C. Anderson was president, and the other
members were Lieut.-Cclonel Taverner, Lieut.-Colonel Macdonald,
Major Tanner, Captain Samuells, Major Haig, Major-General Bell,
and Colonel Merriman. The last two were engineers, all the others
were Survey officers.
* Sir Bartle Frere wrote an interesting paper on the Rann of Cutch for the
Royal Geographical Society. Sce R. G. S. Journal, xl, p. 181. Mr. W. T. Blanford
also discussed the former existence of a sea covering the Rann, Journal Asiatic Soc.,
Beng., xlv., p. ii,, 1876,
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 87
Unfortunately, the Conference did not agree upon a report; no
reply was given to the first question put, and great differences of
opinion were manifested in regard to the best scale to be adopted.
The Government of India, being thus inops consilii, fell in with
the middle course suggested by the Bombay Government ; they
decided that the 2-inch scale should be prescribed for the Topo-
eraphical surveys, and that the Bombay revenue sheets should be
utilised wherever they could be used with advantage. At the same
time. the Bombay officers were directed to supply in future such
additional topographical details as might be required.*
The Topographical party in 1876-77 was under the care of Colonel
C. T. Haig, who in March made over the charge to Lieutenant J. EH.
Gibbs, R.E. A good amount of topographical work was turned out, the
greater portion being in the Native State of Baroda, which occupies
a central position in the area allotted to the survey. Lieutenant Gibbs
was, however, attacked with cholera on the resumption of the
field work, and unfortunately died on the 21st November 1877.
Though quite young he was one of the most promising officers
of the Department, his abilities were of no mean order, and his
descriptions of the Dangs} and other localities surveyed by him
showed considerable power of observation. The native establishment
of the survey also suffered a good deal in health from the effects
of the famine. Lieutenant, Gibbs was succeeded by Lieutenant
St. G. C. Gore, who was transferred from the neighbouring Bhopal
and Maiwa survey, and who surveyed €8 square miles of the
Dangs Forest tract on the 4-inch scale. The maps of British
territory published on the 2-inch scale included, in addition to the
details of the ordinary l-inch scale maps, minor roads, and com-
munications, and so many of the field boundary, triple junctions,
and other points on the village maps drawn up by the Bombay
Revenue Survey that would facilitate the further incorporation of all
the details of those maps, if required for the purposes of any new
road, canal, or other engineering work. For this work the Bombay
Government supplied a special auxiliary agency, consisting of an
assistant superintendent from the Bombay Revenue Survey and a
native establishment, at a cost of Rs. 500 per mensem. The same
Government also contributed Rs. 30,000 towards the extra cost of
* Letters from A. O. Hume, C.B., Secretary to the Government of India, Nos. 134
and 136, dated 9th February 1876.
{ In the Appendices to the G. T. S. Reports for 1873-74 and 1874-75, pp. 32a and
36a, respectively.
88 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
the Dangs survey, this being divided into four annual instalments,
and the Baroda Government contributed Rs. 5,500 per annum
towards the expenses of surveying their State, on the condition
of 550 square miles per annum being surveyed until completion of
the whole. In April 1881 Colonel Haig, who had had charge of the
party for some years, was deputed to the Geographical Congress
at Venice.” and the command devolved first on Captain Hobday and
then on Lieutenant-Colonel Leach, V.C., R.H. The survey in the
Dangs Forest, which in previous years had been found to be attended
with much malarious fever, had by this time reached a more open
country, and it was thought the field work might be safely com-
menced early in the season; unfortunately the ground is then
covered with high dense grass, and all the surveyors, European
and native, with a single exception fell ill, thus the experiment
failed and the season’s out-turn of work fell below what had been
expected. During the same year (1880-81) Mr. Le Mesurier and
the native establishment of the Bombay Revenue and Settlement
Department were re-transferred to their own department after
having been attached to the Gujrat Survey for eight years, during
which time they had done good service in map-drawing and
incorporating the details from the Bombay Revenue Survey maps
into those of the professional survey party. In 1881-82 the plane-
table work included the northern part of the Baroda State which is
watered by the Saraswati river, and to which much historic interest
attaches. Patan, one of the chief towns in that locality, is built
on part of the site of Anhilwada, the old capital of Gujrat before
Ahmadabad was built. Anhilwada is said to have been i8 miles m
circumference, and the heaps of old ruins to be found for miles
round Patan seem to corroborate the statement. Patan and Sidhpur
are both situated on the Saraswati river, which is venerated as a
goddess, and the latter town (Sidhpur) is a noted place of pilgrimage,
the remains of the Rudra Mala Temple of Shiva being an object of
considerable archeological interest. Another remarkable feature
of the season’s survey was the hot sulphur spring of Unai on the
boundary between the Baroda and Bansda States, into which at
certain seasons crowds of people rush and bathe without cessation
for two or three daystogether. The water as tested by Colonel Haig
was of the temperature of 138° Fahrenheit, but this is probably
* 'Two medals were awarded at this Congress to meritorious Indian native explorers,
one being assigned to M 5 (see page 142) and the other to A-—- K——
(p. 156).
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS, 89
lowered by the continuous stream of human bathers, who are further
encouraged and fortified by doses of intoxicating bhang.
The survey of the Dangs forests was completed in 1882-83, and
a survey of the Panch Mahals, incorporating the fiscal details of the
Revenue Survey village maps and including forest boundaries, on
the 4-inch scale was commenced in the same year. Colonel Haig
caused a special survey to be made (so far as the scale permitted)
of the hill of Pawagarh, which with the remains of the old city of
Champaner atits base, forms an object of considerable historical
and archeological interest, and of which no previous map existed.
It abounds with old Jain temples, more recent Muhammadan
fortifications, mosques, buildings, and tanks, and still more recent
Hindu temples. Colonel Badgley took charge of the survey in
1884-85, and the work during that season consisted practically
of nothing but 2-inch scale work. Late rains increased the natural
unhealthiness of the country, so that nearly one-fifth of the working
season was lost through sickness. The detail survey of Baroda city
was finished in 1885-86, and an exceptionally large area of topography
was covered during the same season, much of the ground consisting
of open plain. The operations were in charge of Mr. J. Newland
during the greater part of the time, owing to the paucity of available
officers of the senior division. In the next season the party was
divided into two sections, one proceeding to Surat and Palanpur
to carry on the topographical survey of Gujrat on the 2-inch scale,
and the second to Kalyan taluka to commence surveys on the
8-inch scale of the Forest Reserves in the Thana district which
had been requested by the Bombay Government. The surveyors
employed on this work suffered much from fever, which is specially
prevalent in those tracts between November and January (both
months inclusive). In 1887-88 the 2-inch scale work lay within
two of the northernmost sheets of the area of the survey close to
the limit of the Gwalior and Central India Survey, one of which
sheets includes the cave temple of Menaknath, which lies embedded
in the side of a hill seven miles south-east of Danta. It is said to be
capable of accommodating 2,000 persons, and is a sacred place
of pilgrimage for Hindus. A large scale survey of Disa cantonment
and environs was also completed.
In consequence of the Bombay Government having proposed the
organization of a special Forest Survey Branch for the future conduct
of forest surveys in that presidency, a conference was held at Poona
90 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
in July 1888, at which the Secretary to the Government of India in
the Revenue and Agricultural Department, the Surveyor-General,
and the Deputy Surveyor-General attended and discussed the matter.
A general scheme was arranged, the following being the principal
points :—
(1.) One party of the topographical survey of India to be placed
fully equipped and manned at the disposal of the Bombay
Government for the purposes of forest surveys in that
presidency, to be utilised in such manner as that Govern-
ment may think fit.
(2.) The cost of the party to be debited to forests, by which half
the cost will be borne by imperial and half by provincial
revenues.
(3.) The normal scale for the Forest Survey maps to be four inches
to the mile instead of eight inches.
(4.) The officer in charge of the party to be under the control and
supervision of the Survey and Settlement Commissioners,
supervision over his work being also maintained by the
Surveyor-General of India.
These conditions haying been accepted by the Government of
India, the Gujrat party with slight modifications as to personnel
(the topographical section having been withdrawn and the forest
section from No. 10 party added) was placed at the disposal cf the
Bombay authorities, and the programme for 1888-89 arranged
by that Government. The work of the northern circle lay principally
on the ridges and spurs of the Ghats, on the low hills of the
Konkans, and on the plateaux of the Northern Ghats, while the
forests of the southern circle, from the dense nature of the under-
growth, were most tedious and unhealthy to map out.
The area remaining for topographical survey in Gujrat, Rajputana,
and the Southern Maratha country was entrusted to the old party,
which also worked: in two sections under Colonel Hutchinson.
Part of the frontier of the Nizam’s dominions was mapped, durmg
which an assault was made on the surveyors by some villagers,
who mistook them for excise officials. The ringleaders were
sentenced to two years’ imprisonment and a fine of Rs. 1,000 each.
The survey and settlement of a large tract of disputed country
between Mewar and Marwar were also undertaken.
Kohat —On tke withdrawal of the British forces from Northern
Afghauistan in 1880 it was arranged that some of the survey officers
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 91
who had returned to India should be employed in making a standard
topographical survey of the Kohat district, to supersede the prelimti-
nary reconnaissance survey which had been made in 1849-51 imme-
diately after the annexation of the Punjab, and to complete the gaps
remaining to be filled in on the frontier line up to the recent surveys
in the Kuram valley and other contiguous portions of Afghanistan.
The time was limited, but some useful work was done. Mr. McNair
was deputed early in the season 1880-81 to effect amore satisfactory
junction than had been possible during the progress of the military
operations between Major Woodthorpe’s triangulation in the Kuram
valley and the old Kohat secondary triangles, fixed thirty years ago.
He also undertook the topography of the Miranzai valley, through
which the highway from Kohat to Kabul, by way of the Kuram
valley, passes, and of which a good map was much required by the
local officials. Major Holdich joined the party about the middle
of February, but soon after his services were needed with the force
under Brigadier-General Gordon, U.B., which proceeded from Bannu
to operate against the Mahsud Waziris. An area of 2,000 square
miles was covered by the Kohat triangulation, and 398 square miles
were topographically surveyed on the 1-inch scale in the Miranzai
valley, besides rough reconnaissances in the Urakzai, Tirah, and
Bam valleys. A native explorer made a reconnaissance of the
Zhob valley, and afterwards did good service with the Waziri
expedition.
During the recess the party were engaged in making a standard
topographical survey of the Kohat district on the l-inch scale, and
also on the final mapping of the surveys in Northern Afghanistan.
The Kohat field work was continued by Major Holdich and
Mr. McNair in 1881-82. The latter officer also succeeded in making
friends with one of the Waziri chiefs, and was taken under tribal
protection to make a reconnaissance of the tract of independent
territory lymg east of the Kuram river and immediately north of
Bannu, which is inhabited by the Daresh Khel Waziris, and embraces
the well-known range of hills culminating in the Kafir Kot, which
Mr. McNair is the first Hurcpean to have visited. The general
aspect of the country is wild, and there is very little cultivation. In
winter and spring as many as 6,000 fighting men are estimated to
occupy the hills, but during the hot months scarcely 500 remain
behind. The reputation of these gentry as highwaymen is great,
and they are a source of considerable anxiety to the Deputy
92 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
Commissioners of Kohat and Bannu; they are, however, men of
splendid physique, inured to all weathers and of great endurance,
and it isa great pity that they do not accept employment under
our Government.
Mr. Claudius surveyed a small area of ground, including Kohat
itself, and the hill sanitarium of Mirkhwaili. He states that the
whole of Tirah is well supplied with Sniders, and a number of men
carry good Martini rifles. They boast that these weapons are
plunder, secured during the recent campaigns in the Khaibar and
Kuram routes. For the Sniders they have such an abundance
of ammunition that cartridges are actually bought from Tirah by
our men cheaper than in India. The manufacture of cartridges
for the Martinis is even said to have been commenced by them
with success.
The survey was finally brought to a conclusion in 1882-83, and
a large scale plan of Kohat city and cantonment was completed
the same year. The efforts made to reconnoitre the adjacent
frontier under the protection of the tribes proved very successful,
and thanks in great measure to the interest taken in the work by
Major Holdich, the results were to supply reliable maps of the whole
strip of territory extending from the Kabul river on the north to
the Gumal on the south, the only exception being a small tract of
country near the Gumal pass. With the assistance of No. 5 Topo-
graphical and No. 3 Revenue parties, Major Holdich was enabled
during the recess to complete for publication the whole nine standard
sheets of the survey of the Kohat district. The work being
completed, the party was broken up, and Major Holdich with most
of his assistants were transferred to the Baluchistan Survey.
Baluchistan.—In September 1879 Major R. Beavan was directed to
proceed from Kandahar to Quetta to survey the country between and
around Quetta and Sibi. On arrival at Quetta, finding that an expe-
dition was about to start to explore the route to Sibi, via the Hanna
or Hamra pass, he accompanied them, arriving at Sibi on the
12th January 1880, just in time to see the opening of this part of
the railway and the arrival of the first railway train. He subse-
quently visited Khost in the Dargi valley, and then ‘Tal, from
which place he subsequently accompanied military expeditions
towards Chotiali and to Baghao and Smalan on the north-east.
Major Beavan’s reconnaissance ou the +-inch scale covered about
2,500 square miles, and extended from Quetta to Tal, Chotiali, and
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 93
down to Sibi. It proved of great use afterwards to the engineers
employed in laying out the new line of railway. Some valuable
survey work around Sibi, Mitri, and Dadur, was done by Messrs.
Coxen and Corkery, assistant surveyors, who showed great tact in
dealing with the Pathan and Baluchi inhabitants of the country.
The obstacies in the way of survey work in Baluchistan were
altogether exceptionally great. The local means of carriage were
monopolised for the service of the troops, and the camel owners
realised such enormous profits by carrying Government stores at so
much a maund that they refused to take service by the month.
Dust storms and haze were very persistent at times and prevented any
satisfactory observations from being taken, water was often terribly
scarce or almost unfit to drink, and as a natural result of bad water
and an unequable climate, sickness was rife among both Huropeans
and natives. Another great drawback in Baluchistan is the
extremes of temperature experienced. From March to November
the low country is intensely hot, and from November to March the
highlands between Quetta and Khelat are intensely cold, while
during June, July, and August thick haze prevails.
By an order of the 12th July 1880 the party under Major
Beavan’s orders was organized as a regular party for the survey of
Southern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the adjacent country under
the designation of the “ Baluchistan Topographical party.”
During October, November, and December 1880 Major Beavan
accompanied the expedition into the Marri country, but the unsettled
state of the country rendered it impossible to leave the line of
march in order to ascend any commanding heights. A. survey of
the actual line of route with bearings and paces was taken by
Captain W. Gill, R.E.
The work of Major Beavan’s party was described by him as a
geographical reconnaissance on the +-inch scale of Sewestan and the
Marri hills, and a more elaborate survey on the 43-inch scale of
the territories subject to the Khan of Khelat. In a geographical
point of view Major Beayan applies the name Sewestan to the
district drained by the Nari river and its affluents, one of rugged
broken ranges of hills running mostly east and west. Huge cracks
or crevices have been formed across the line of hills, and through
these the drainage of the country makes its way, presenting the
enomalous condition of parallel valleys with rivers running at right
angles to them. In many parts the sandstone rocks lie broken and
94 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS.
mixed up in magnificent confusion, lending an appearance of truth
to the old legend that after the creation of the world the spare
rubbish was shot down here. Major Beavan says it is impossible
to give on the map an adequate idea of such a country.
During the winter of 1881-82 the survey of the country lying
between Quetta and Khelat was continued, the season’s work com-
prising more especially that part adjacent to the Bolan and Rodbar
passes. Major Beavan himself accompanied a military expedition
under Brigadier-General H. C. Wilkinson to open out the routes
between ‘'al-Chotiali and Dera Ghazi Khan. In addition to
making a plane-table reconnaissance of the previously unsurveyed
portions of the route which lay via Mandai, Tal, and Chamalang,
Major Beavan took observations for the purpose of completing
the Sewestan triangulation, and subsequently, accompanied by
Mr. Corkery, and under the protection of an escort of Marris,
made some useful additions to the survey of that country.
In the following season the work mainly consisted of triangula-
t'on, originating from stations of the Great Indus Series and carried
over the Suliman range, the Khetran country, and a portion of the
Marri hills, and closing on to the triangulation previously executed.
A series of triangles was also commenced over the hill country
between Khelat and the Kach Gandaya plain. The season’s topo-
graphy was carried on in the hilly country east of Khelat during the
autumn and again in the spring months, and during the cold months
in the low country at the foot of the hills and also in the lower hills
north of Sibi. In all an area of 1,844 square miles was finally
mapped. 70) = > 5) Bx)
The constituents of the Indian tides are now computed by new
formule investigated by Professor Darwin, in supersession of the
formule first suggested by the Tidal Committee of the British
Association.”
* A “Manual for tidal observations and their reductions by the method of harmonie
analysis, with an Appendix,” was compiled by Major Baird, and published by Taylor
and Francis, in 1886.
IDG
GEODETIC OBSERVATIONS.
All great national surveys have for many years past contributed
data for the determination of the figure of the earth. At first these
consisted mainly of measurements of the distances between successive
points situated on a common meridian, and of the astronomical arcs
of amplitude between these points, but it is only of late years that
similar measurements have been attempted in the case of points
situated on a common parallel of latitude. The reason of this is that
the required astronomical data are very readily obtained in the case
of meridional arcs by determining the latitudes of the geodetic
points, which is one of the simplest problems of practical astronomy ;
but on ares of parailel, longitudes are required instead of latitudes,
and the precise astronomical determination of an absolute longitude
under such circumstances is well nigh impracticable. When, how-
ever, places are connected telegraphically, their differences of longi-
tude can be determined with great precision, and this has been done
both im America and Europe. In the former country the operations
were utilised for geographical purposes only, but in Hurope, which
is covered with a net of triangulations, of which there is as yet no
counterpart beyond the Atlantic, their chief interest lies in the hight
they throw on the figure of the earth.
At the same time these investigations have benefited the Indian
Survey in a way that may be shortly explained. In order that
the true latitudes, longitudes, and azimuths of the stations of a
system of triangulation on the earth’s surface may be computed,
it is necessary that the polar and equatoreal axes of the terrestrial
spheroid should be correctly known, as they are involved in the
formule by which such computations are effected. The value
of those elements that have since 1830 been used in the calculations
of the Indian Survey are those known as “ Everest’s Constants,
Ist set.” Any error in these adopted elements will, of course,
produce an error in the geodetical latitudes and longitudes of the
stations, increasing with the distance from the originating station.
1 ¥ 20321. O
210 GEODETIC OBSERVATIONS.
Consequently as the Indian geodetic operations have come to be
extended over the whole peninsula, along the Burmese coast and
across the mountains into Siam, and as far east as Bangkok,
it has become more and more important to determine the amount of
error in the further stations.
The data for such investigations are furnished by—
(1.) Comparison of observed latitudes with geodetic latitudes ;
(2.) Comparison of observed longitudes with geodetic longitudes ;
and
(3.) Comparison of observed azimuths with azimuths deduced
through the triangulation from the station of origin.
The astronomical observations are of great importance in various
ways, among which may be mentioned that they contribute largely
toward the investigation of local attraction, and also towards the
accurate determination of the position of India with respect to its
distance from Greenwich, and lastly they furnish data for improving
existing star tables in the case of about 900 stars.
But before the application of the electric telegraph to the
determining of longitudes the comparison (2) could not be made,
because the longitudes determined by the old methods were not
sufficiently accurate for such a purpose, a case in point being
that of Madras which, though the result of many years careful
observations and taken with all the refinements of a well-equipped
observatory, was discovered through these electro-telegraphic
operations to be erroneous by about 23 minutes of arc, which had
the effect of placing India nearly 3 miles too far from Greenwich,
and of ascribing an error of 10 seconds to the chrovometers of all
ships arriying at Indian ports from Europe or America.* Thus the
introduction of electro-telegraphic longitude operations into India was
a most valuable addition to the geodetic operations of the Survey.
The Government of India have always taken a very liberal view
of the more purely scientific ends of the Great Trigonometrical Survey,
and almost from its commencement the operations of the Survey have
furnished data for investigating the figure of the earth. Its earliest
contributions to the science of geodesy were determinations of
the lengths and amplitudes of meridional arcs, as described in
Colonel Everest’s accounts of the measurement of sections of the
meridional ures of India published m 1850 and 1847. Then came
the series of Pendulum observations for the purpose of determining
* See wfra, p. 213.
GEODETIC OBSERVATIONS. DALIL
the variations of the force of gravity at sundry stations of the
Survey, situated on mountains, table lands, the interior of the
continent and the coast lines, which was commenced in the year
1865 and is described in the fifth volume of the Account of the
operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India. And
when the electric telegraph had been introduced into India, the
advantage was taken to commence the measurement of differential
longitudes between certain stations of the Survey, co-ordinating
with the differential latitude measurements and thus to contribute
to the science of geodesy determinations of a number of longitudinal
arcs which were to supplement and be combined with the time-
honoured Meridional Arcs.
One of the first preliminary steps for the electric determination
of differential longitudes was to procure the necessary apparatus,
the astronomical clocks, transit imstruments, chronograph and
electric appliances. On the recommendation of Colonel Walker,
then Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey, the
expenditure for this was sanctioned by the Secretary of State, and
Colonel Strange, a retired officer of the Survey, residing in London,
was entrusted with the task of designing and superintending the
construction of the instruments. He had already acquired a high
reputation for skill in mechanism generally, especially in regard
to delicate geodetic instruments. Messrs. Frodsham, of London,
were selected for the task of making the clocks, Messrs. Cooke and
Sons, of York, for the transit instruments, and Messrs. Hichens and
Hardy, of Paris, for the chronographs and electric apparatus.
Before being sent out to India the instruments were examined
at the observatory attached to the India Stores Depot, by Colonel
Strange, assisted by Captain W. M. Campbell, who subsequently
took a prominent share in the observations themselves.
The instruments were received in India in 1872, and were placed
in the hands of Captains Herschel and Campbell, who were then at
Bangalore, which, bemg connected both by railway and telegraph
with Madras, was a convenient starting point for the operations.
The arc Madras—Bangalore was first measured, and then the sister
are Bangalore—Mangalore. ‘The total are was a very interesting
one. In length it was not so great—its amplitude was 5° 24’ 12”,
and lineal measurement 364 miles—but it was situated much nearer
the Equator than any other measured arc, and, moreover, it was
on that very are of parallel that Colonel Lambton had endeavoured
O 2
22, GEODETIC OBSERVATIONS.
in 1802-5 to determine the length of a degree of longitude, so the
comparison of determinations by ancient and modern methods
became peculiarly valuable.
The procedure adopted in the telegraphic operations was as
follows:—T'wo observers were employed, one for each of the two
stations to be connected. Hach observer furnished with a complete
set of instruments took up his position and made the most accurate
determination possible of the error of his own clock, and at certain
times both observers working in concert determined. by means
of electric signals transmitted between the stations, the absolute
difference between the clocks at a given instant. With these data
the difference of longitude between the stations or are of longitude
becomes known.*
The results of the first field season’s operations were unfortunately
unsatisfactory: one of the transit instruments showed discordances
in the ‘ constant for collimation’ which were eventually traced to a
fault in the joint of a telescope, so the observations were rejected
and re-measurement was necessary.
During 1875-76 the following arcs were measured by Captains
Campbell and Heaviside :
Haidarabad (Bolarum)—Bombay. Madras—Haidarabad (Bolarum).
Bellary— Bombay. Madras—Bellary.
Haidarabad (Bolarum)—-Bellary. _Bangalore—Bellary.
During the next year (1876-77) the following arcs were measured
by the same officers :—
Vizagapatam—Madras.
Vizagapatam—Bellary.
Mangalore—Bombay.
In almost all the cases the trigonometrical values were found to be
ereater than the telegraphic. Thisis due partly to the circumstance
‘that the constants for the figure of the earth, used in the computa-
tions of the geodetic latitudes and longitudes of the Indian Survey,
are not quite exact, and parily to local deflections of the plumb-line
at the stations of observations, which indicate (in accordance, it may
be observed, with the results of Captain Basevi's pendulum observa-
tions) a probable greater density in the strata of the earth’s crust
under the beds of oceans than under continents.
* Volume IX. of the operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India,
page xiv.
GEODETIC OBSERVATIONS. 213
On the completion of the operations between Bombay and Manga-
lore, Captains Campbell and Heaviside proceeded to determine the
differences of longitude between Bombay, Aden, and Suez. in order
to complete the connexion between England and India, of which the
section from Greenwich to Suez had been executed on the occasion
of the Transit of Venus in 1874, under instructions from Sir George
Airy, the Astronomer Royal. The Hastern Telegraph Company
kindly granted the gratuitous use of their cables, not only during the
actual work of signalling, but also during the preliminary tentative
measures. In these operations Captain Campbell devised a sort of
automatic method of comparing the clocks through the cables, so
that no personal errors of observing or repeating signais could
enter. The results were to establish the following values* :-—
Jb. a0, Ss.
Station at Aden - > = 2 69 Sec Hast of
Observatory at Bombay- = 4 51 15°81 een
Observatory at Madras - = 5 20 59-34) Sen
The longitudes of all places in India are usually referred to Green-
wich through the Madras observatory, the position of which has
been determined at various times by astronomical observations. The
latest determination had been 5h. 20m. 57°3s., or 80° 14’ 19-5’
east of Greenwich, and this had been for many years the accepted
value, being that given in the Nautical Almanac. The effect of
these electro-telegraphic observations was to show that this value
was about 2 seconds of time or 30°57 seconds of are in deficit of
what is probably the true value, i.c., 80° 14’ 50-03” H.*
In 1877 both officers took furlough, and on their return the
Afghan war intervened, but in 1880-81 operations were resumed
and the following geodetic arcs were measured :—
Bombay—Disa. | Jabalpur—Haidarabad (Bolarum).
Disa—Karachi. | Jabalpur—Agra.
Bombay—Karachi. | J abalpur—Disa.
Jabalpur—Bombay. Agra—Disa.
During the following season seven arcs were measured between
Faizabad, Agra, Jabalpur, Hazaribagh, Calcutta, and Jalpaiguri,
* See p. xviii. of Vol. IX. of “Account of Operations of the Great Trigonometrical
“ Survey of India.” It has been recently suggested that Indian longitudes should be
referred direct to Greenwich, so as to avoid the discrepancies arising from the fact of the
true longitude of Madras Observatory being above 24 minutes west of its accepted
position on Indian maps.
214 GEODETIC OBSERVATIONS.
but owing to a defect in No. 2 transit telescope similar to that found
in 1872-73, three of these arcs were remeasured in the following year
as well as five new arcs, and in 1883-84 the operations moved east-
wards of Calcutta as far as Moulmein, thus completing the last
link between Karachi and Moulmein.
In 1884-85 Major Heaviside resumed the observations for
astronomical latitudes with the zenith sector, which had been in
abeyance since 1871-72. He observed at stations about half a degree
apart down the Amua meridional series, commencing about latitude
28° 30’ N. and carrying them south over five degrees of the are,
which was eventually to be extended to Madras in latitude 13° 4’.
The results are given in the appendix to the Survey Report for
1885-86, p. lvii. :
No fewer than nine arcs were measured for longitude by electro-
telegraph in 1885-86, but, unfortunately, when the results came to
be reduced and compared in the recess season, it was found there
was a mysterious source of appreciable error, for out of five verifi-
catory circuits; three exhibited errors between a quarter and a third
of a second of time. ‘These irregularities were investigated with
the greatest care during the following season by Colonel Haig,
Lieutenant $8. G. Burrard, R.E., and Mr. Eccles, and every possible
interchange of observers, telescopes, electrical apparatus, and stations
was secureil in a series of observations on a short experimental are
at Dehra Dun. ‘The observations tended to show that the longitude
operations had been harassed by three sources of error, viz., (1)
electrical, (2) local, and (3) imstrumental. But it must be borne in
mind that these so-called errors are intrinsically so minute as to be
of no consideration whatever, except from a purely scientific point
of view.{
* The whole of the details and results of the observations from 1875-76 to 1883-84.
will be found in Vols. IX. and X. of the “Account of the Great Trigonometrical
“ Survey,” &e. mentioned in the previous note.
8
; Any three arcs forming a triangle offer a verificatory circuit:
thus the sum of the ares A B and B C is equal to the are A C,
therefore, if the sum of the measured ares A B and B C differs
from the measured are A C the difference is due to error of
measurement in one or more ares. Cc A
+ They have since heen traced to the determinations of the errors of collimation of the
telescopes, which indicate either slight weakness in the telescope tubes, or irregularities
in the object glasses, which were not always exactly centered between the collimators
in determining the collimation.
GEODETIC OBSERVATIONS. AN 5)
During the early part of this season (1886-87) Lieutenant Burrard
continued the latitude observations with the zenith section near the
meridian of 80°, observing at five stations and so extending the arc
to about latitude 20° N. The longitude operations were resumed
in Southern India, and the following arcs were measured :—
1. Madras—Bangalore.
Bangalore—Nagarkoil (near Cape Comorin).
Madras—Nagarkoil.
Nagarkoil—Mangalore.
Madras—Mangalore.
Bellary—Mangalore.
. Mangalore—Bombay,.
Nos. 1 and 5 were revisions of the work executed in 1872-73 and
rejected (as mentioned above) owing to a fault in the telescopes, and
No. 7 the are which was left incomplete in 1876-77.
Three of the old arcs in Southern India were revised in addition
to four new ones being measured. The season’s measurements tended
to confirm a curious geodetic fact that the plumb-line round the
coasts of India deviates in the direction of the sea. They were also
satisfactory in showing a diminution in the circuit errors which was
probably as small as can be expected, while the value obtained for
arc No. 7 differed only by 0023 of a second from the value of the
same are as measured in 1876-77. Bie
Operations were resumed in 1889-90 in the Punjab, Baluchistan,
and Central India. Seven arcs were measured, including the
revision of one formerly measured in Baluchistan, and the measure-
ment of a cross-arc, Agra-Karachi.
SID Or yp Ob
216
xX.
SUPPLY OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS.
The supply of accurate instruments constructed on the most
recently approved principles by skilled mechanicians has largely
conduced to the precision of modern surveys. In 1862 the Secretary
of State perceiving that the supply and examination of instruments
for use in India were requirements likely to increase rather than
the reverse, appointed Lieutenant-Colonel A. Strange, F.R.S., to
supervise and test all scientific instruments destined for India.
Colonel Strange was an officer possessing high qualifications for the
post; he had had considerable practical experience in trigono-
metrical surveying, while his mechanical genius and knowledge of.
mathematical, geodetical, and astronomical instruments were not
surpassed by any man in England. A special observatory* and
office were erected at the India Store Depdt in Belvedere Road,
Lambeth, and since then the examination of instruments has steadily
proceeded, the number of kinds of instruments annually dealt with
being now close on 2U0, or about twice as many as in 1871. The
effect has been to bring about a vast improvement in the quality of
the appliances. In the early part of 1876 Colonel Strange died, and
in June of the same year the Secretary of State appointed
Mr. ‘Thomas Cushing, F'.R.A.S., to succeed him as Inspector of
Scientific Instruments. Mr. Cushing had also had much practical
training and experience in his earlier career as a_scientitic
mechanician, besides having been for nine years assistant to Colonel
Strange. During the last three years the number of instruments
examined by him has averaged about 10,000 per annum (valued at
30,0002.) as against 7,000 in 1871.+ Among them may be specially
mentioned a six-inch equatoreal telescope, a large reflecting telescope
and an observatory dome for the Poona College of Science, as well as
costly physical apparatus of a varied kind for the use of colleges in
India, amounting in value to 1.714/. For the Survey Department
only instruments of the highest order are sent out, long experience
having shown this is most economical in the end.
* A description of the observatory will be found at page 201 of the “ Memoir on
the Indian Surveys” (2nd ed.).
} Appendix I. shows the character, number, aud value of the scientific instruments
examined at the Lambeth Observatory during the three years ended 1890.
SUPPLY OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. 217
In the year 1879 Mr. Cushing brought out a new form of levelling
instrument which he called a “reversible” level. The objects were
to facilitate the adjustments, make the instrument more compact
and rigid, and render the surveyor independent of the aid of an
instrument-maker should anything go wrong when in the field.
Several hundreds are in use at the present time in India.
The tide-predictor, constructed for the Indian Government by
Messrs. Légé and Co., is located in the observatory at Lambeth,
and with its aid tide-tables for upwards of 20 ports are annually
printed and forwarded to India towards the end of the year pre-
ceding the one for which they are prepared. The tides for several
ports are also predicted for the Colomial Office. This work is very
ably done by Mr. E. Roberts of the Nautical Almanac Office.*
During the year 1889 three new standard yard measures were
constructed in England by Messrs. Troughton and Simms as
primary standards of length for the Governments of Bengal, Bombay,
and Madras, and were verified by the Standards Department of the
Board of Trade. It may be interesting to know that these important
standards do not absolutely agree in length, but they are probably
as near as human skill can make them. The standard temperature
of India having been fixed at 85° Fahrenheit, the certificates of
verification, which were forwarded to the respective Governments
with the standards, show their respective lengths at that temperature,
which are as follows :—
Bombay - 936:00023406 inches.
Calcutta - 36°00039041 ,,
Madras - 36:00007206
And the co-efficient of expansion in each case is the 00003744 of
an inch.
The mints of Calcutta and Bombay were each supplied in 1889
with new sets of standard tola weights, all of which were verified
by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, and the
tables of errors were supplied to the respective mints with the
weights in question.
The Calcutta mint also received a large balance, constructed by
Napier, for weighing silver. It was a splendid piece of mechanism,
made to carry upwards of 380 lbs. avoirdupois in each pan and to
* For a description of the tide predictor, sce p. 199.
218 SUPPLY OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS.
turn with two erains, which isa quantity less than the one-millionth
of the weight in each pan. It is needless to say that such accuracy
requires the highest mechanical skili in the construction, and such a
balance, which must necessarily be costly, deserves the greatest
possible care in use, notwithstanding that it is so constructed that
the pans can be loaded before the knife-edge is brought into contact
with the plane on which it acts in weighing.
Besides the above department in London there is a similar depart-
ment in Calcutta called the Mathematical Instrument Office, which
receives and takes charge when necessary of all the instruments
constructed in Europe for the Survey Department, manufactures those
which can be made most economically in India, repairs those which
are damaged, and keeps up a stock of serviceable instruments for issue
to the Survey and other public departments in the Bengal Presidency.
It has always been under the superintendence either of the Deputy
Surveyor-General or one of the senior officers stationed in Calcutta,
but it was not until 1877 that a report on this branch was issued.
Since then the work done has been regularly noticed in the Surveyor-
General’s Report. In April 1878 the number of instruments in
store at Calcutta was nearly 37,000, about a third of which belonged
to the Public Works Department and a nearly equal number to the
Survey, the remaining third being distributed among other depart-
ments. The principal description of instruments issued are :—
To the Survey Department.-—Aneroid barometers, binoculars,
chains, magnetic compasses, drawing instruments, heliotropes,
reading lenses, plane-tables, planimeters, protractors, flat rules,
scales of various sorts, optical squares, telescopes, and theodolites.
To the Marine Department—Barometers, binoculars, Massey’s
patent logs, carpenters’ rules, drawing instruments, sympiesometers,
telescopes, and thermometers (but all in very small numbers).
To the Military Department.—Pocket aneroid barometers, sketching
cases, prismatic compasses, drawing instruments, reflecting levels,
protractors, scales of various sorts, pocket sextants, and tapes.
To the Public Works Department. — Drawing boards, chains,
compasses, curves, drawing instruments, levels, protractors, car-
penters’, rules, flat rules, scales of various sorts, levelling staves,
tapes, and theodolites.
To Miscellaneous Departments, viz., Meteorological Department.
Telegraph Department, Educational Department, and others.—
SUPPLY OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. 219
Aneroid barometers, chains, drawing instruments, prismatic com-
passes, surveying compasses, protractors, flat rules, scales of various
sorts, pocket sextants, tapes, thermometers, and wind-vanes.
The rates at which instruments were locally purchased in Calcutta
in 1879 were, on the average, about 343 per cent. higher than those
at which the instruments received from Hnegland had been issued to
the public service, and which were themselves 20 per cent. above
their English prices, in order to cover freight and other charges.
Moreover, the articles purchased in the local market were seldom
equal in quality to those received from England.
The departmental manufactures, valued at about 10,000 Rs. in
1878, and consisting chiefly of chains, hand map-printing machines,
drawing boards, plane-tables, pluviometers, stands for compasses,
plane-table telescopes, &c., were issued, as far as could be ascertained,
at about two-thirds of the value at which similar articles could be
issued if procured from England. In repairing too a very consider-
able amount of work is done, 7.e., about twice as much as in
manufacturing. Among the repairs was that of the great 24-inch
theodolite which was used with great success by Colonel Branfill in
Southern India, and among the new instruments manufactured was
an idiometer, designed by Lieutenant-Colonel W. M. Campbell, R.E.,
the object of which was to afford means of measuring the absolute
personal equations in observations of star transits recorded on a
chronograph. The general arrangement is that of a moveable
frame carrying vertical wires in imitation of the wires of a telescope,
which passes in front of a fixed imitation star; a small observing
telescope is attached to the wire frame so as to follow its
movements, and thus the appearance of fixed wires and a moveable
star is obtained. As each wire passes the star two sienals are
recorded on the chronograph, one by the observer and the other
automatically by the instrument.
In 1884 a fine circular dividing machine by Troughton and Simms,
which had been obtained from Hngland some years previously for
the Madras Public Works Department workshops, and had lain
there unused, was transferred to the Mathematical Instrument
Office, where it was set up. It proved to be of great use, enabling
the limbs and verniers of many damaged theodolites, which
would otherwise have had to be rejected or sent to England for
repair, to be re-divided. In the following year a machine was
imported from Hngland for the purpose of testing all aneroid
220 SUPPLY OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS.
barometers by a standard, in lieu of sending them to the
Meteorological Department.
In 1888 the Mathematical Instrument Department was located in
its present handsome building,* which had been commenced the
year previously. The transfer from the old house (one of the
oldest in Calcutta) was not too soon, for some of the beams showed
unmistakeable signs of collapse, and the steam engine had to be
stopped for fear of disaster. It was found that the large majority
of the beams had been gutted by white ants, and it was fortunate
that the hovse did not fall to ruins before it was vacated. The new
buildimg has fairly ample accommodation for workmen, stores, &c.,
there is an observatory on the roof in which a transit instrument
has been set up for rating chronometers, and a new steam engine
and shafting have been erected.
During the last 12 years there has been a great increase in the
work of the Department, necessitated by fresh annexations of
territory in Burma and Baluchistan, the development of railways,
roads and public works, and a general increase in the scientific
requirements of the administration. The number of instruments
issued in the year 1887-88 was 57,293, valued at Rs. 2,25,599, while
out of the total stock 7,387, valued at Rs. 1,16,246, were procured
from England, 31,846, valued at Rs. 35,252, were purchased in the
local market, and 17.960, valued at Rs. 33,820, were manufactured
in the Mathematical Instrument workshop. The last number shows
a large increase, nearly 100 per cent. over the figures of the previous
year, and the value has risen by nearly Rs. 10,000.
* There is a capital photograph of the new building at page 92 of the Surveyor-
General’s Report for 1887-83.
i)
i)
—_—
XI.
HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT.
The Headquarters Offices of the Department of the Surveyor-
General comprise six different offices, five in Calcutta, and one in
Dehra Dun, whence the operations are directed, and where the
results of the field surveys are worked up into final shape for general
administrative use. These offices consist of—
(1.) The Surveyor-General’s Office (including also the drawing,
engraving, and map issue branches),
2.) The Lithographic Office.
3.) The Photographic Office.
4.) The Mathematical Instrument Office.
5.) The Revenue Survey Office.
(All at Calcutta.)
(6.) The Trigonometrical Survey Office at Dehra Dun.
In 1877 the Calcutta branches were still in different buildines
some cistance apart one from another, and a good deal of incon-
venience was felt in consequence. ‘This anomaly and inconvenience
had long been felt and recognised by Government sanctioning designs
for new offices; but it was not till 1882 that any part of the new
building was sufficiently advanced to be occupied. In that year
the new building designed to accommodate the Surveyor-General’s
and Revenue Survey Offices was ready, and within a month after
the close of the year the houses in Park Street and Middleton Street,
in which the offices had previously been located, were vacated, and
the entire stock of maps and records—the collection of nearly a
century—of copper plates, and plant of all descriptions, was trans-
ferred to their new quarters. The new building proved to be well
designed and constructed. It is commodious and airy; it gives
suficient space for all the members of the office, and excellent
accommodation and lighting for the engravers and draftsmen, who
had long had to work in crowded and inadequately lighted rooms.
In 1882-83 it was decided to amalgamate the correspondence and
accounts offices of the Surveyor-General’s Office and the Revenue
DD, HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT.
Survey Otfice under one Registrar, and form three sub-offices, the Sur-
veyor-General’s Office, the Revenue Branch, and the Topographical
Branch Offices, each under the immediate supervision of its own
head clerk. The work of the Drawing Office divides itself so dis-
tinctly into two classes, the geographical drawing and that connected
with large scale revenue maps, that it was found advisable to keep
up two sections of the office for the two classes of work, though
for administrative work the clerical staff were all amalgamated into
one list under one Assistant Surveyor-General. The new building
for the accommodation of the photographic and lithographic offices
was not completed till 1889 and was finally taken into occupation
at the end of September in that year. These offices which had been
for many years scattered between three houses, of which one was
at some distance from the others, were thus concentrated under one
roof, and this concentration, together with the introduction of
steam printing machines, enables them to work with far greater
economy and efficiency than was possible previously.
A large and important part ef the work of the Surveyor-General’s
Office consists in compiling urgent maps and preparing pressing
data for other departments. With a view to prevent interruption
of work and to ensure a more perfect scrutiny of the geographical
compilations and publications, a special examining branch was
organised in 1877-78, and located in a separate part of the Surveyor-
General’s Office.
The engraving branch have to cope with two classes of work,
viz.:—(1) the sheets of the Indian Atlas on the quarter-inch scaie,
and (2) provincial and other compilations and maps of India on
smaller scales than the atlas. The increasing amount of labour
thrown on the branch made it necessary after a time for the data
engraved on the copper to’ be confined to the results of actual
survey, all questionable details being left blank or drawn on the
plate by hair lines. ‘The engraving branch contains a large
number of natives who have been trained by Mr. Coard, the late
superintendent, and his assistants to do the more mechanical part
of the work very satisfactorily. But strange to say, the natives do
not appear to possess the artistic skill requisite for hill etching,
though at first sight it was imagined that this was precisely the
class of work at which they might be expected to excel, and so
the lull engraving has had to be assigned almost entirely to
Europeans.
HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT. 223
A considerable amount of labour was thrown on the Department
by the preparation of a list of the latitudes and longitudes of all the
places in Dr. Hunter’s Imperial Gazetteer of India. This was
successfully completed in 1879.
In July 1878 Captain Waterhouse went to Hurope on privilege
leave and visited the Paris Exhibition and other places to investigate
the most recent improvements in photography as applied to map
reproduction. He also studied the process of heliogravure™ practised
at the Military Geographical Institute, and secured for the Depart-
ment the right of using Mr. Willis’s platinotype process, a good
permanent substitute for silver printing.
During the year 1879-80 the demand for maps of Afghanistan
was very great and urgent, and it taxed the resources of the
Department to the utmost to utilise speedily the new surveys which
kept coming in from the seat of war from time to time. Five
editions of the large map issued under the successive titles of the
two routes to Kabul and the seat of war in Northern Afghanistan
were compiled and published on the quarter-inch scale. Two
editions of the map of Quetta to Kalat-i-Ghilzai and Girishk and a
first edition of the map of Sibi to Quetta and Tal-Chotiali to the
Pishin valley were published on the same scale, and a new map of
Southern Afghanistan and Baluchistan was also taken in hand and
completed during the ensuing year.
The process of steel-facing the copper plates of the Indian Atlas
to prevent wear has proved very successful. For some years a
large number of the plates had been thus treated and none of them
showed the least sign of wear or of suffering from rust, while the
system possessed another advantage in the fact that it was no longer
necessary to make transfers from the copper to stone, and that the
clearer and sharper impressions could be taken directly from the
plate without fear of injury to its surface.
A very useful engraved general map of India on the scale of
32 miles to the inch was completed in 1881, to take the place of the
old skeleton map which had done duty for many years. Progress was
also made with two smaller maps on the scales of 64 and 96 miles to
the inch respectively. During the same year the map of Southern
Afghanistan in four sheets was also issued. There was a con-
siderable diminution in the out-turn of geographical and military
maps owing to the withdrawal of the British troops from
* Described in the Appendix to the Survey Report for 1881-82.
22.4 HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT.
Afghanistan; but, on the other hand, there was a great imerease
in the number of cadastral maps printed, the voluminous character
of which has always proved a very laborious undertaking.
The despatch of the Indian troops to Egypt m 1881-82 neces-
sitated the drawing and publication of a map of Lower Egypt, as
well as maps of the Suez Canal, Cairo, and Alexandria. All these
came into great demand on the outbreak of hostilities. Happily the
collection in the Survey Department contained some exceilent
French maps of Egypt, and from these single specimens large
numbers of copies were rapidiy obtained by photo-zincography,
issued to the troops, and also sold te the public.
In September of the same year (1881) the Venice Geographical
Congress and Exhibition took place. Colonel C. T. Haig, R.E., was
delegated thither by the Government of India as their representative,
and Sir Henry Thuillier and Captain Baird were subsequently depuled
in the same capacity from England by the Secretary of State. Sir
H. Thuillier and Colonel Haig were also appointed British Commis-
sioners by Lord Granville. Collections of maps, charts, &c., were
despatched by the Indian Government, Ordnance Survey, and
Admiralty, and the Indian delegates obligingly took charge of the
arrangement and organisation of the Engligh maps, &c., in addition
to their own exhibits, which included a large and representative
selection of Indian maps, as weil as the great theodolite and other
survey and tidal instruments. Two letters of distinction (the highest
award) were given to the Survey of India in Classes I. and VIII., as
well as two medals for native explorers (already mentioned at page 88,
note), a diploma of honour to the Marine Survey of India, a medal
to Captain Baird for his tidal work in Class II., a medal in Class I.
to Colonel Haig for his topographical maps of Gujrat, and a medal
in Class VI. to Dr. Hunter for his Gazetteer of India.*
A map, based on triangulation, of the Nizam’s dominions was
commenced in the following year, the old topographical sheets being
re-drawn in the regular standard forms on the one and half inch
scales and in a style fit for reproduction by photo-zincography. The
materials were very old, being derived from surveys in the
early part of the century. Unfortunately though old they are the
only materials available, no modern survey having been as yet made
of this enormous expanse of country in Southern India, though
detached portions here and there have fallen into the field of
adjoiming parties. During the same year (1882-83) an irrigation
* See Reports in Appendix to Indian Survey Report for 1880-81.
HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT. 225
map of the North-West Provinces on the scale of eight miles to the
inch anda rainfall chart of India with eight gradations of colour
were also prepared. The heliogravure process also made steady
progress, and seven plates were turned out, four being for the
Geological Survey, one outline map of Simla and Jutog, and two
plates of a view of the great Kan-chan-janga mountain.
In 1883-84 some of the special maps drawn for the Calcutta
International Exhibition were prepared for publication, viz., those
exhibiting trade routes, distribution of religions, missionary stations,
density of population, distribution of languages and river basins ;
the rainfall, railway, and telegraph maps having been already
published.
An elaborate plaster of Paris model map, based on the 32-mile
map of India, showing all the hills as well as the scale would allow,
was completed for the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886
by Major Charles Strahan, R.H. The vertical scale was 12 times the
horizontal, hence the highest peaks of the Himalayas were nearly
two inches high.* In the same year (1884) a very successful repro-
duction of a quarter atlas sheet by the electrotyping process was
made by Colonel Waterhouse, the method of scraping away the faulty
parts from the matrix being suitable where large corrections on a plate
are required and the ordinary mode of cutting out and hammering
up from behind might seriously damage the plate. Considerable
progress was also made in the various processes of heliogravure by
the electrotyping and etching methods, and 79 plates (principally
of photographs of Indian art-works taken in the Caleutta Exhibition)
were produced. Considerable attention was also given to the
reproduction of maps, and some very successful experiments were
made in reproducing brush-shaded maps by the photo-etching
process. With suitable original drawings the heliogravure processes
can be made to render immense service in the cheap and speedy
production of engraved maps. The process of electrotyping was
also applied to the duplication of the engraved sheets of the Atlas of
India so as to adapt them for temporary issue, pending engraving
of the final results, and good progress was also made with the
photo-collotype process which was used for plates of coins for the
Asiatic Society, for botanical plates, and the like. The principal map
completed in the Lithographic Office during the year was a contour
map of India in six sheets on the scale of 1 inch to 32 miles.
* This relief map hag since been presented to the Imperial Institute.
1 Y¥ 20321. P
226 HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT.
During 1885-86 a great deal of drawing and compiling work was
done for the Indian and Colonial Exhibition in London. A map
was prepared showing the import and export trade of India with
other countries, and a series of maps showing at a glance the
percentage of various crops grown in different districts of India,
with other maps showing density of population, religions, emigra-
tion, external trade, land settlement and revenue, and geology of
India was also completed.
In the Lithographic Office a series of maps were prepared for Sir
E. Buck’s Statistical Atlas of India, and the map of the Nizam’s
dominions in two sheets on the 16-mile scale referred to above was
printed off.
The following year (1886-87) was marked by a great demand for
maps of Afghanistan and Baluchistan, consequent on the events
on the Afghan frontier. Compilations from rough military recon-
naissances in Burma had also to be undertaken. The Engraving
Office lost the services of Mr. C. W. Coard, the superintendent, who
had been selected, together with a small staff of engravers, in 1868
by Colonel Thuillier, then Surveyor-General, to take up the
engraving of the Indian Atlas sheets. Mr. Coard had done excellent
work during his tenure of office, and had left the engraving
branch in a high state of efficiency. He was succeeded by
Mr. G. G. Palmer.
The work done in the heliogravure and collotype sections was
more satisfactory im quantity and quality than previously, both
processes having quite emerged from the experimental stage into
practical methods. A commencement was made in reproducing
archeological drawings for the use of art schools and also for the
illustration of the Journal of Indian Art.
During 1887-88 greater strain was put on the geographical
drawing and compiling branch in consequence of the necessity
of preparing general maps of Burma and sheets of the N.W.
frontier, and it was with difficulty that sufficient materiai could be
got ready to keep the engravers employed. To remedy this it
was arranged that all the N.W. frontier mapping, except
Baluchistan, should be undertaken at the Trigonometrical Branch
Office at Dehra Dun, leaving the Burma maps to be dealt with in
the Calcutta Office.
One of the principal features of the period under review has been
the introduction of the heliogravure processes for the direct repro-
duction of delicate drawings in line or of balf-tone subjects of all
HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT. 227
kinds, and of electrotyping for the duplication and correction of
hand-engraved maps.
The first experiments in heliogravure were made, with fair success,
about 1877 with a photo-electrotype process based on Geymet’s,
which was originally brought out by Mr. J. W. Swan, the inventor
of the carbon process. In the following year Captain Waterhouse,
while in Europe on privilege leave, visited the Military Geographical
Institute at Vienna, at that time the only large geographical office
working the process, and obtained a good deal of valuable informa-
tion regarding it; but little progress was made till 1882, when he
introduced a new process for producing “ grain” on the plates of
half-tone subjects which he had worked out, with the aid of the
Autotype Company, while on furlough in 1880-81. In this process
the wet-gelatine relief is dusted over with sand or some similar
granular material, previously waterproofed by treatment with a greasy
substance like wax, so that it might easily be removed from the
gelatine relief when dry. ‘I'he effect of the sand was to roughen
the gelatine surface proportionately to the depth of gelatine and so
produce a graduated grain stronger in the shadows than in the
lights. 'The gelatine surface was then blackleaded and electrotyped.
In this way an engraved mezzotint plate was produced from which
very perfect half-tone prints could be printed. This process proved
very valuable for the production of some 3,000 copies of the “ Award
Certificate” of the Calcutta Exhibition in 1883-84, and several
plates of illustrations of Indian art-ware in the Exhibition as well
as of brush shaded maps and drawings were reproduced by it, but
owing to climatic causes it was always rather a difficult process to
work, and the plates required a good deal of touching up.
In 1884, with the assistance of a skilful carbon printer, Mr. A. W.
Turner, experiments were made with the photo-etching process,
which was on the same principle as the photoglyphic process
originally invented by Fox Talbot, and which had recently been
re-introduced with modifications by Herr Klig of Vienna.
The process was worked out successfully on the bare information
obtainable from the photographic journals, but further improve-
ments, learnt at the Military Geographical Institute in Vienna,
during Colonel Waterhouse’s furlough in 1886, were introduced in
1887, and since that time the process has been working on a
perfectly practical footing and is found very valuable for all kinds
of delicate work in line or half-tone. It has the great advantage
12 2
228 HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT.
over photo-collotype, which was also worked with some success at
Calcutta, that the copper plates can be worked on and lettered and,
if protected by a coating of steel, are capable of yielding an
unlimited number of equally good impressions, whereas the tender
gelatine film of the photo-collotype plate will stand no touching up
or correction, 1s difficult to print under varying conditions of
temperature and humidity, and at best will only yield a compara~-
tively small nuinber of good impressions, while all lettering has
usually to be added by a separate printing. Consequently, photo-
collotype is being discarded in favour of photo-etching.
The principal applications of the photo-etching process have been
for the reproduction of some very delicate drawings of insects in
pencil and Indian ink, for the illustration of the “ Indian Museum
Notes,” also for botanical and histological plates from the original
drawings or photograpius, illustrating the ‘ Memoirs by the Medical
Officers of the Army in India.” A large proportion of the plates,
illustrating Dr. Fihrer’s Report on the Sharqi remains at Jauupur,
both from photographs and line drawings, were done by this process,
and no other would have answered so well. It is also steadily
utilised for the reproduction of a series of technical drawings of
architectural ornaments, &c., taken from the drawings of the
Archeological Surveys and issued for the use of art schools and
workmen of various kinds in all the provinces of India.
Attempts have been made from time to time to apply the process
to the reproduction of brush-shaded maps and by its means enable
a preliminary issue of the sheets of the Atlas of India to be made
pending the completion of the hill-etching by hand, which is always
a tedious operation. There are, however, great difficulties to be
overcome in reproducing lines and brushwork together, which have
practically prevented its utilisation in this way, although it is
always kept in view. The process might be more largely applied
to the reproduction of maps in line, but the difficulty has been to
obtain a staff of highly trained draughtsmen capable of turning
out the original drawings in a sufficiently good style for direct
engraving. The necessity for constant corrections on the maps
also militates very greatly against the preparation of highly finished
drawings capable of competing aguinst hand engravings. The
process has, however, been successfully applied to the reproduction
of the maps of the Andaman Islands on the }-inch scale, by reduc-
tion from the original standard sheets on double the scale, and, no
HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT. 229
doubt, as time goes on, it will be much more largely employed for
map work.
The process of electrotyping was first introduced in connexion
with the photo-electrotype process of heliogravure about 1882,
and has proved very valuable in connexion with that process, and
also as an economical means of duplicating engraved plates of
standard maps in various stages of their progress, in order to
obtain skeleton maps with varying amounts of detail, suitable for
the illustration of reports and other administrative purposes. It
has also been found very useful in carrying out extensive cor-
rections on the engraved plates; a matrix being made from the
original plate, the parts in relief corresponding to the parts to be
corrected are scraped away and a duplicate plate is electrotyped on
which the faulty parts present a blank flat space upon which the
new details required can be engraved. The process is scarcely ever
used, as it is at the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton, for
producing printing plates,-as the process of steel-facing which
enables the original engraved plates to be printed from without
injury has been found to be cheaper and more suitable for the
requirements of the Indian Office.
The electrotyping method in use is practically the same as was
practised for many years at the Military Geographical Institute in
Vienna, and consists of a horizontal single-cell apparatus in which
an electrical couple is formed by the copper plate to be deposited
on, which rests on a suitable support in a bath of sulphate of
copper, and an iron plate immersed in dilute sulphuric acid,
contained in an upper tray with a leathern bottom which forms
a porous diaphragm. These batteries are found to work with
regularity and practical economy, being very simple in working and
easily looked after by natives. The electrotyping work is done
in the Photographic Office.
Probably the most important cartographical work of the Calcutta
Office is the Indian Atlas. This great work is on the scale of four
miles to the inch; it is the standard map of India, and embodies the
results of the detailed surveys. It is designed to cover 181 full
sheets, 40 inches by 27, on the globular projection and scale
originally proposed by Mr. Aaron Arrowsmith, and the region
embraced extends from Karachi to Singapore and from Gilgit to
Cape Comorin. It also includes Ceylon. The original sheets, for
which the Madras Topographical Surveys furnished the materials,
230 HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT.
were produced by Mr. John Walker in 1827. In 1864, with a view
to expedite the work, a proposal was made by the Surveyor-General
that the Atlas should be brought out in quarter sheets, and this was
agreed to by Mr. Walker. The convenience of this mode of publi-
cation has been universally recognised since and the practice
uniformly adhered to, the old full sheets being now discontinued.
In 1868 the engraving of the Indian Atlas was formally transferred
to Caleutta, and a small but efficient staff of experienced engravers
under Mr. C. Coard, was engaged by Colonel (now Sir Henry)
Thuillier, the Surveyor-General. These were reinforced in 1872 by
fresh hands selected by Colonel J. T. Walker, who at the same
time made arrangements for the completion of the engraving of
all the plates remaining in England. Since 1876 the engraving
has been carried on entirely in Calcutta at the headquarters of the
Surveyor-General, within easy reach of the compilers and surveyors,
to whom reference is made in cases of doubt or difficulty.
It must not be supposed, however, that the Indian Atlas, though
commenced as far back as 1825, is near completion.* This arises
* The following table, taken from Captain George M. Wheeler’s (U.S. Army)
admirable report upon the Third International Geographical Congress and Exhibition
at Venice in 1881], will serve to show how far the European countries had advanced
in 1885 towards the completion of their general topographic maps :—
| | |
: | | Number cf < : ae
Country. | arena —| Scales. | Sheets when | Sunber ee ey d
Square Miles. complete. | completed. | reproduced.t
Great Britain - - 1: 63,360 696s 412 C.
Germany - - | 1: 100,000 674 417 C.
Austro- Hungary - | 1: 75,000 720 578 Hig.
France - - | 1: 50,000 1,092 20T Lie
» Algeria = | 1: 50,000 $27 23 | Tix
Switzerland - - | 1:100,000 25 25 | C.
Holland - - 1: 50,000 62 62 Ss.
Spain - - 1: 50,000 1,080 29 Ss}
Italy - - - 1: 100,000 277 109 Ph. z.
Sweden - - 1:100,000 232 64 C.
Russia = =|) 9, | 1: 126,000 9725 505 (oh
Belgium - - | 1: 40,000 72 72 G
Denmark (Jutland) - 1: 40,000 131 } 69 (Ot
» Cslands) a) 1: 80,000 29 29 C.
| (in quarter
| | sheets).
Norway - - 125,646 | 1:100,000 Bl | 43 C. and S.
Portugal - - | 34,418 | 1: 100,000 37 22 Ss.
|
+ C. Copper engraving; S. Stone engraving; Z. Zincography; Ph. z. and Ph. 1. Photo-zincography
and Photo-lithography; Hlg. Heliogravure.
t This map is intended to supersede the Etat Major map on the scale of 1:80,000 in 273 sheets,
which was commenced n 1819 and finished in 1881.
§ Approximate.
HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT. 231
partly from the magnitude of the scheme which embraces the whole
of Burma and the Malay peninsulas and partly from the necessity
of replacing the sheets compiled from old surveys by more accurate
work as soon as practicable. The last index map shows that nearly
the whole of India west of Burma has been completed and published,
the exceptions being Nepal and parts of Gujrat and Rajputana.
But the greater part of the Punjab, the Lower Provinces, Madras,
Haidarabad, the Berars, the western part of the Bombay Presidency,
and Sind are derived from oid materials and will have to be
re-engraved. In fact, the Indian Atlas sheets that are based on
trustworthy surveys (which consist for the main part of a broad
belt running north-west and south-east from the Punjab to Jeypur
and the Mahanadi, with the addition of Assam, Kathiawar, and
the greater part of Cutch) are less numerous than those which do
not corae up to the modern standard of accuracy. It will thus be
seen that there is an enormous area still awaiting the energies of
the Department both in mapping and field work before even a
satisfactory first survey of India is available.
The number of sheets according to the original scheme of the
Indian Atlas was 177, which included the whole of Burma (at that
time independent of the British Crown) right up to, and even
beyond, the Salwen river. Hvents have proved that this precaution
Was a wise one, and that the wide margin allowed in this direction
was not too liberal. But in the extreme north India has outgrown
the limits of the Atlas, and three new sheets, 14a, 27a, and 44a
(to include Chitral, Gilgit, and Baltistan), have been laid down, while
fresh sheets will probably have to be added for Baluchistan, which
is now, to all intents and purposes, incorporated into our Empire.
A special arrangement, too, has been sanctioned, by which the
Indian Atlas is being supplemented by a complete and homo-
geneous belt of maps illustrating all the transfrontier regions from
Baluchistan round by way of Tibet to Burma, on the same scale
as the adjacent Atlas sheets, a most convenient plan in consequence
of the unavoidable expansion of the Indian Empire.
The following are the other principal maps in general demand :—
(1.) India. Scale, 32 miles = | inch, in six sheets.
(2.) India, 64 miles = | inch, engraved, in four sheets.
(3 and 4.) Railway maps of India on 48 and 64 mile scales, photo-
zincographed with hills in grey.
Zon HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT.
(5.) Turkestan. Scale, 32 inches=1 mile. 6th edition. Photo-
zincographed, in four sheets.
(6.) Afghanistan. Scale, 24 miles = 1 inch. Photo-zincographed,
two colours, in four sheets.
(7.) Burma and Adjacent Countries. Photo-zincographed.
Scale, 32 miles = 1 inch.
(8.) Atlas of India. Scale, 4 miles = 1 inch. Engraved.
(9.) Provincial maps. Engraved on the scale of 16 miles =
1 inch.
(10.) Standard sheets of the Topographical and Revenue Surveys
on various scales from 2 inches = 1 mile to 4 miles =
linch. 1 inch =1 mile is the standard.
(11.) District maps on various scaies, usually 4 miles = 1 inch.
Transferred to stone from the engraved copper plates.
(12.) Himalayan Route map. Scale, 32 miles = 1 inch.
Engraved.
The Trigonometrical Branch Office, Dehra Dun.—Although the
three branches of the Survey (Trigonometrical, Topographical, and
Revenue) were amalgamated in 1877, it was nevertheless found
conyenient to maintain the Trigonometrical Survey Office at Dehra
Dun, where important and special work had and still has to be
transacted. The principal part of this work has been the final
reduction and publication of the Indian and extra-Indian triangula-
tion, both principal and secondary, which was carried cut for years
under the care of Mr. J. B. N. Hennessey and Mr. W. H.Cole. This
Department has also had to publish the Topographical Surveys
executed by the parties formerly attached to the Trigonometrical
Branch, as well as those carried out by the Forest Survey Depart-
ment. Being located at a considerable distance from Calcutta,
the office has a small drawing, photo-zincographic, and printing
establishment of its own, as well asa depot of instruments and stores
attached to it, chiefly of the higher class of instruments appertaining
to the Great Trigonometrical Survey, such as several large theodo-
lites, the compensation bars, and apparatus for the measurement of
base-lines, &c. Other work pertaining to this branch has consisted
in the determinations of azimuths from celestial cbservations at many
of the stations of the triangulation; the observations of astronomical
latitudes, the determination of differences of longitude by the aid of
electric telegraph, and the determination of sea-level at many places
on the coasts of India, from which main lines of spirit-levelling are
HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT. 233
run over the country to form a basis for canal, railway, and other
operations. Vol. I. of the general account of the operations of the
Great Trigonometrical Survey was completed in 1870. In 1878 and
1879 Volumes II., III., and IV. were produced, giving a general
account of the triangulation and its reduction, with full details of
the North-West Quadrilateral; also Vol. V., giving an account of
the Pendulum Operations; this was followed in 1880 by Vol. VI.
for the South-Hast Quadrilateral, in 1882 by Volumes VII. and VIII.
for the North-East Quadrilateral, in 1883 and 1887 by Volumes IX.
and X. on the Electro-telegraphic longitude operations executed
during 1875-77 and 1880-84, and in 1890 by Vol. XI. on the
Astronomical Observations for Latitude made during the period
1805 to 1885, and Vols. XII. and XIII. on the Southern Trigon.
Of the synoptical volumes—which give a précis of the results, both
principal and secondary, for topographical and geographical require-
ments—twenty-three have been published in all.
In the volume on the Pendulum Operations it is shown that the
steps which had been taken to connect the Kew Observatory,
the base-station of the Indian operations, with the Greenwich
Observatory, which was an important station of the Huropean
operations, had not sufficed to effect the desired connexion. ‘lhe
absolute leneth of a seconds’ pendulum of the Kater pattern, which
had beer determined at Greenwich by Genera! Sabine in 1831, was
determined with the same pendulum at Kew by Major Heaviside
in 18738, in the expectation that this would suffice for the connexion
of the operations at the two observatories; but the result gave
three more vibrations in 24 hours at Kew than at Greenwich, which
was highly improbable, as it corresponds to a change in latitude
of about 1°, whereas the two observatories are nearly in the same
latitude and only ten miles apart. Colonel Herschel was therefore
deputed to determine the vibration numbers at Kew and Greenwich
with the invariable pendulums which had been used in India.
He was aiso authorised to take the pendulum to America and swing
them at some of the pendulum stations of the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey, with a view to a further connexion with the
Indian operations. He made observations accordingly, employing
the two Indian pendulums, and a third pendulum of the same
pattern which he obtained at the Kew Observatory; he swung all
three pendulums at Kew and Greenwich, in London, and at
Washington and Hoboken in the United States. He then made over
234 HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT.
the three pendulums to officers of the United States Survey, who took
them round the world and swung them at Auckland, Sydney, Singa-
pore, Tokio, San Francisco, and finally at Washingten. When Colonel
Herschel’s observations came to be finally reduced, it was found that
the relation of Kew to Greenwich by one of the pendulums differed
by more than six vibrations from the values by the two other
pendulums. MRevisionary swings were therefore made at the two
observatories, with all three pendulums, by the observatory staff
at each place. The final result gives the daily vibration number at
Kew an excess of 0°64 of a vibration over that at Greenwich.
General Walker has given an account of Colonel Herschel’s work and
the revisionary operations at Kew and Greenwich, with an abstract
of his results and those of the officers of the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey at other stations, in the Philosophical
Transactions, Vol. 181 (1890) A., pp. 5387-558.
At the Dehra office the solar photographs referred to at page 340
of the Memoir on the Indian Surveys, 2nd edition, were taken under
the care of an observer, Mr. C. Meins, who had been trained by
Mr. Norman Lockyer. Mr. Meins died on the 3lst March 1879,
and nine months later the observations were resumed by Mr. L. H.
Clarke. The photo-heliograph employed gave 4-inch images of the
sun, but by means of an enlarging combination, 8-inch pictures
were obtained, while the definition in no way suffered. In July 1882,
however, the great photo-heliograph sent out by the Secretary of
State, and capable of taking 12-inch pictures of the sun, was received,
and after some difficulty connected with the period of exposure, and
some delay entailed by ihe construction of tho necessary rotating
dome, good and regular pictures were eventually secured. The
difference between the amount of invisibility in India and in the
sunless climate of England is very striking; in 1880-81 at Dehra Dun
the percentage of dark days was 15; in 1881-82 it was 10, and in
1882-83 it was 13, as against 50, which was the average percentage
of “invisible” days at Greenwich during the same period! The
8-inch pictures have been continued pari passu with the 12-inch
photographs, the former being used for the measurement of the
areas of spots and faculw, while the latter are specially suited for
the study of the mottling or granular appearances of the normal
photosphere and structure of the penumbra of the spots. The results
of the observations are included by the Astronomer Royal in the
yearly volumes of the Greenwich observatory.
HEADQUARTERS OF SURVEY DEPARTMENT. Joo
Successive editions of General Walker’s excellent map of ‘Turkestan
** and the countries between the British and the Russian dominions
“in Asia” have been produced at the Dehra Dun office, the last
(7th ed.) having been issued in 1885. At that time the surveys
in connexion with the Russo-Afghan boundary were actually in
progress, and since then our geographical knowledge of Afghanistan
and the adjacent regions has been so revolutionised that an entirely
new map has become necessary. But during the 20 years that
Walker’s map has been in existence it has been invaluable as the
standard map of that vast and important region between the Caspian
sea, the Persian gulf, and Tibet. A full and interesting account
of the circumstances under which it was undertaken, and of its
general construction, will be found in the appendix to the Report
of the Trigonometrical Survey for 1872-73.
The new map of Afghanistan which will, to a great extent, take
the place of the foregoing, embodies the surveys and reconnaissances
made by the officers and native surveyors attached to the Afghan
Boundary Commission. It is in four sheets and on the scale of
24 miles to the inch, and the work of preparation, first under
Major Gore and then under Colonel Holdich, has been divided
between the Calcutta and Dehra offices. Among other cartographical
work that has devolved on the latter branch have been the three
sheets illustrative of A-—~k’s remarkable explorations in 'Tibet,*
and a two-sheet map of Arabia and Persia for the use of the Resident
in the Persian gulf.
Another important duty devolving on the Dehra Dun branch is that
sf protecting the principal stations of the Great Trigonometrical
Survey. In 1884-85 the number of these stations was 3,665, and
their protection involved correspondence and accounts with a large
number of district officers to provide for their repair.
* See above, pp. 152-7.
236
XII.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
From a geological point of view, India is most conveniently
regarded as presenting a threefold aspect, and this is the general
division of the country adopted in the “‘ Manual of the Geology of
India,” @.e., into the peninsular area, the extra-peninsular area, and
the great Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain separating the two.
When we proceed to distinguish the various formations, we find
that the geology of the country south of the Himalayas presents a
comparatively simple aspect, in that all the rocks are easily
separated into the following great groups, viz. :—
6. Alluvial plains.
5. Sedimentary rocks, of jurassic, cretaceous, and tertiary ages.
4. The Deccan basalt, of cretaceous and lower tertiary age.
3. The Gondwana system, comprising the Indian coal measures,
and ranging inclusively from the age of the English coal
measures to that of the Portland and Purbeck beds.
2. The Vindhyan system, a formation peculiar to India, the age
of which cannot be guessed, as it has yielded no fossils,
but which is immensely older than the Gondwanas.
1. The archean or metamorphic rocks, such as gneiss and
crystalline schists with the granite often occurring in them,
and with some slaty rocks that have partially escaped the
general metamorphism.*
Long before the establishment of an organised geological survey,
a series of travellers had from time to time recorded observations
of a practical or scientific character on the rocks and minerals of
India. Foremost among these observers were Dr. Falconer and Sir
Proby Cautley, to whom the discovery of the wonderful fossil fauna
* A detailed consideration of these formations does not come into the province of
this book. It may be mentioned, however, that an excellent and picturesque general
account of the Geology of India, from the pen of Mr. Medlicott, F.R.S., late Director
of the Survey, is to be found in Sir Edward Buck’s Statistical Atlas of India, while
those who desire to pursue their investigations still further should consult the Manual
of the Geology of India, in 4 vols. with map, Caleutta and London (Triibner).
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. DHT
of the Siwalik hills was due, a discovery which revealed the
extraordinary nature of the animal life with which the alluvial
valleys south of the Himalayas once teemed. Another famous
geologist was Captain Newbold, who made some important
researches on the laterite of the western coast, the regur or black
cotton soil of the south, and the mineral resources of the country,
while Dr. Carter, of the Indian Navy, in addition to his original
investigations, collected and classified the recorded observations
of his predecessors.
The first geological map of India was compiled by Mr. Greenough
in 1858; and this forms a distinct landmark showing the state of
our knowledge at that time; but it was not till 1856 that Lord
Canning, who took a real interest in geology, placed this branch
of the survey on a proper footing, under the superintendence of
Dr. Thomas Oldham.
The excellent work of Dr. Oldham and his able assistants are
described in detail in the publications of the Department, which are
threefold, viz., the ‘“ Memoirs,” “ Records,” and “ Palzontologia
Indica.” The first-named are the detailed and matured results of
the investigations in each district, written by the geologist who
prosecuted the survey. The volumes are profusely illustrated with
maps, views, sections, and sketches. The “ Records” are issued
quarterly, and contain the annual reports and brief abstracts of the
results of the field work during the previous three months, as well
as other papers of general interest. The “ Paleeontologia Indica”
contain elaborate illustrations and descriptions of the organic
remains which are discovered during the progress of the survey.
A most interesting summary of the labours of the Department up to
1875 is contained in Chapter XIV. of the “ Memoir on the Indian
Surveys,’ at which period, in spite of the limited staff and the
inherent difficulties of so vast an undertaking, an area about
five times as large as Great Britain had been examined and
reported on.
The year 1876 was one of special advance in the knowledge of Indian
formations, for some problems previously unsolved or misunderstood
in the classification of the great plant-bearing series of rocks known
as the Gondwana system, the only fossiliferous formation of central
peninsular India, was at last successfully grappled with by investi-
gations and discoveries made by Mr. Hughes and Dr. Feistmantel,
in the Pranhita valley, and corroborated by the researches of
238 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
Dr. King in the Godavari delta. An important gap in our knowledge
of the Sub-Himalayan tertiaries was also filled up by the season’s
work. Messrs. Medlicott, Theobald, and Lydekker made an outline
survey of the broad band of tertiary deposits flanking the Pir
Panjal in the Jammu territory, thus connecting previous work in
the Cis Ravi ard Trans-Jhelam regions. In the east, in Upper
Assam, Mr. Mallet completed his survey of the coai fields of the
Naga hills, which for quality and quantity of the coal, rank as the
most important of the Indian carboniferous deposits, although
entirely of tertiary age, possibly even of middle tertiary.* On the
south-west extension of the Sub-Himalayan series, Mr. Blanford,
assisted by Mr. Fedden, accomplished a good season’s work on the
tertiary deposits in Sind. A preliminary sketch of these formations
from the previous season's field work was published by Mr. Blanford
in the “ Records” for 1876 (p. 8).
Early in 1876 Mr. Blanford made an important trip across the
desert east of the Indus, through Umarkot and Balmir to Jodhpur,
and back through Jaisalmer to Rohri. Interesting information was
thus gained regarding a great area of Western Rajputana, pre-
viously almost unknown, and of the region traversed by the Arvali
mountains, a tract believed to be formed entirely of gneissic and
transition rocks, the remains of an exceedingly ancient mountain
system or area of special disturbance. The main difficulty here
demanding solution is the occurrence within a moderately large area
of several strong rock groups, having much mutual resemblance,
and each independently in natural contact with a fundamental
gneiss.
The survey sustained an irreparable loss during 1876 in the
retirement of Dr. Thomas Oldham, F.R.S., the able and eminent
superintendent, whose services will be found briefly recorded in the
Memoir on the Indian Surveys. He was succeeded by Mr. H. B.
Medlicott. Mr. Tween, the chemist to the survey, also retired,
after a service extending over 15 years.
A first-class medal was awarded for the exhibits of the Geological
Survey of India at the Congrés International des Sciences
Géographiques, held at Paris in 1875.
During 1877 two comparatively new regions were explored by
Mr. Lydekker and Dr. Ball, respectively, one beimg the mountains
* See Part 2 of the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XII.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 239
north and south of the Kashmir valley and in the upper basin of
the Chenab, and the other a wide tract some 300 miles long between
the Mahanadi and the lower reaches of the Godavari. The former
was rather difficult ground; the presence of carboniferous strata
had long since been observed, as well as the extensive occurrence
of eruptive rocks ; but the relations of all these to the preponderating
mass of contiguous unfossiliferous rocks had remained unknown.
Mr. Lydekker showed that the Kashmir area is a compressed
synclinal ellipse, on the pattern of the larger features defined by
Stoliezka in the Tibetan region, but containing, so far as observed,
no rocks vounger than the trias. Regarding the obscure point of
the relations of the gneissic series, Mr. Lydekker’s view was that the
Pir Panjal range is on the whole a great folded anticlinal flexure,
having a cone or axis of gneiss, the whole stratified series on the
outer (south-west) side being inverted. The Simla region, which
belongs to the broad area of lower mountains which east of the
Sutle] separates the snowy range from the plains, is made of
metamorphic and slaty rocks, in a very irregular and incompre-
hensible mode of distribution. This region was examined by
Colonel McMahon, himself an amateur geologist, and his paper is
published in the “ Records.” He shows that the massive gneiss
forming several prominent ridges on the lower mountains must be
the same as the central gneiss of the main range; he describes the
upper members of the slate series to be so related to this gneiss as
to involve the total overlap of the lower part of the series, and
therefore complete unconformity to the gneiss, but subsequent
metamorphic action, largely affecting the slate series itself, has so
obscured the junction as to make the exact definition of it a matter
of great difficulty.
The region between the Mahanadi and the Godavari is a wild,
hilly country, entirely occupied by primitive tribes and petty
tributary states. It proved (as indeed had been conjectured) to
be occupied by Vindhyan and gneissic rocks. On the coast side
there is a broad mountainous belt of crystalline rocks, with peaks
exceeding, in some cases, 5,000 feet in elevation. West of this is
an extensive upland also largely formed of gneissic rocks, upon
which stand two or more scarped plateaux of flatly bedded sand-
stone, the principal being that of Nowagarh-Kharial. Further west
there 1s the wide expanse of lower ground formed of the shales,
limestone, and sandstones occupying the plains of Chattisgarh and
240 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
Upper Mahanadi, and stretching southward to the more elevated
land about Bustar. High-level laterite was also found, giving a
plateau character to the otherwise serrated mountain features.
Mr. Hacket’s work in Rajputana also ranked as in new ground.
He carried his observations to some distance south of Ajmir, where
he obtained a further section of the metamorphic rocks transitionally
underlying the Arvali series.
The recognition of the Karnarbari coal measures as a distinguish-
able horizon in the lower Gondwana series was an interesting step
in the knowledge of these formations. Dr. Feistmantel’s paleeonto-
logical researches indicate that their affinity is rather with the
Talchirs than with the Damudas as hitherto imagined.
Among the detailed work of the year, an interesting area of
the Gondwana formations was completed by Mr. Hughes, in
extension of his previous work in the Wardha valley, the geological
lines beine carried down to the Godavari at and above Sironcha.
A practical result of this work was the accurate demarcation of a
considerable area of possibly productive coal measures in the
Nizam’s territories about Khairgura and Tandur, and again on
the Godavari at Sandrapali. In the former position actual coal
crops were found, and in the latter promising indications of the
same formation.
Mr. Foote, during the season, completed his survey of the coastal
zone of Gondwana deposits through the Nellore and Gantur
districts up to the Kistna river, thus bringing his lines into con-
nexion with Mr. King’s work in the Godavari district south of
Hllore. The deposits which were the special object of his study
are very obscurely exposed as irregular patches along the margin
of the crystalline rocks forming the low ground from the base of
the Hastern Ghits, and on the east they pass rapidly under the
alluvium of the flat seaboard. Mr. Foote has made considerable
collections of the mixed marine and terrestrial fossils peculiar to
the Gondwana strata in this position.
The coal explorations which had been prosecuted for some seasons
past in the Satpura basin unfortunately proved unsuccessful,
though in some cases the borings were carried to a greater depth
than anywhere else in India.
Some observations on underground temperature in these borings
were instituted by Mr. Medlicott. The lowest depth at which
successful observations were taken was 370 feet, and the most
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 241
reliable group of these at Manegaon gave, below the depth of
60 feet (throughout which a constant temperature of 81° prevails)
a very steady rate of increase of 1° Fahrenheit for every 66 feet
in depth.
Mr. Wynne was fully occupied in mapping the structural features
of the tertiary basin between the Salt Range and the mountains
to the north, which is often spoken of as the Potwar or Rawalpindi
plateau. It is on the whole a broad synclinal with many sub-
ordinate axes of flexure, and the disturbed character of the deposits
makes their study a matter of great difficulty. The post tertiary
deposits here are of much interest. They are found resting upon
tilted Siwalik strata at very high levels over the actual river courses,
so that prodigious denudation must have taken place since they
were laid down. There is much evidence to suggest that glacial
action took a direct part in the accumulation of some of these
deposits.
During the working season of 1876-77 Mr. Blanford and
Mr. Fedden completed the mapping of Sind west of the Indus.
The former re-examined the Khirthar range from its northern
termination west of Jacobabad to the neighbourhood of Sehwan;
he then re-mapped the cretaceous rocks in the Laki range south
of Sehwan, and after completing the geological lines in the Habb
valley, and marching westward along the coast as far as Sonmiani,
returned to Calcutta. Mr. Fedden, starting from Karachi, mapped
the large tract of country west of the Laki range from the neigh-
bourhood of Sehwan to the sea, an area of nearly 5,000 square
miles. Large additions were also made to the fossil collections
previously obtamed. So much of the geology of Sind had been
determined in the two previous seasons that no very important
addition could be expected. It was, however, clearly ascertained
that a band of contemporaneous volcanic rock, from 40 to 90 feet
thick, intervenes between the base of the Ranikot group (lower
eocene) and the cretaceous beds, and there can be little doubt that
this thin lava-flow represents the great mass of the Deccan traps.
Mr. W. T. Blanford’s memoir (Vol. XVII., Art. 1) on the
geology of Western Sind* deals with that portion of the province
* The names of the province of Sind and of the river called the Indus by Europeans
are really identical, and Hindu, Hindustan, and India are all derived from the same
source, the letters S. and H. being interchangeable. ‘The old name of the Indus is
Sindhn. There is 1 Muhammadan story about tne name of Sind being derived from
Sindh, the brother of Hindh and son of Noah.
1 Y 20321. Q
DED GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
of Sind which lies west of the Indus, and especially the hilly
portions of the Karachi and Shikarpur collectorates, together with
the curious isolated ranges of limestone hills to the east of the
Indus in Northern Sind near Rohri, and in Southern Sind near
Haidarabad. The examination of the geology of the province was
a special desideratum as the peninsula of India has had a very
different geological history from other parts of the country, the
former having probably been land ever since paleeozoic times at
least, while the extra-peninsular regions have frequently been
covered by sea. Fuller series of marine tertiary beds were known
to exist in Sind than elsewhere in India, and other advantages lay
in the absence of forest which so greatly impedes surveying, and
in the circumstance that large collections of fossils from this
region have been carefully examined and described by Huropean
paleontologists. Sind is also nearer to Europe than most parts
of India, and the rocks form the eastern prolongation of a tract
of tertiary beds believed to be continuous with the well-known
formations on the shores of the Mediterranean. The Khirthar
eroup, named from the great frontier range of hills, comprises
by far the most conspicuous rock, the massive nummulitic limestone,
of which formation all the higher ranges in Sind consist. The
sections exposed in the Khirthar range are superb, and afford the
best epitome of tertiary geology hitherto observed in India. Above
is found the Nari group, occupying a belt of varying width from
one to ten miles in breadth throughout the eastern flank of the
Khirthar range; the lower beds of this group are mostly yellow
or brown limestone, while the upper series assume the form of
coarse, massive, thick-bedded sandstones, attaining in some places
a thickness over 4,000 feet. Upon the Nari group, almost through-
out Sind, is found resting a mass of highly fossiliferous limestones
and calcareous beds (the Gaj group), easily distinguished from the
limestones of the older tertiary formations by the absence of
nummulites, while the highest sub-division of the Sind tertiary
series, the Manchhar group, represents in all probability the well-
known Siwaliks of Northern India, consisting of clays, sandstones,
and conglomerates, and attaiming in places a thickness of about
10,000 feet. Westward of the British frontier the Manchhar beds
die away, and are succeeded by high hills of hard greyish-white
marls or clays, conspicuous at Ras Malan, Ormara, Pasni, Gwadar,
near Jashk, at the entrance to the Persian Gulf, and on the Persian
shores of the gulf itself. The headlands of Ras Malan, Ormara,
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 243
and Gwadar consist of great horizontal plateaux surrounded by
cliffs of whitish marl or clay, and capped by dark calcareous grit.
These remarkable rocks have been called the Makran group, and
though the coast of Baluchistan has never been examined |
geologically, there appears a considerable amount of probability
that the marine Makran group may represent the Manchhars and
Siwalikhs on the edge of the Indo-Gangetic plain.
The completion of the ‘“* Manual of the Geology of India” was
the principal event in 1878. Though not the first general de-
scription of the Geology of India it differed from most previous
works in the extent of the area described and the amount of
information. Since the establishment of the survey in 1851,
data in the shape of detached papers and reports had been
accumulating rapidly, and these were not even confined to the
official channels of publications but had overflowed into the
journals of various scientific societies throughout the world. There
was thus an urgent need of a general view of the existing
knowledge, and Mr. Medlicott and Mr. Blanford’s efforts supplied
the want. While the work itself is a joint production, each chapter
bears the initials of its actual author. The first two volumes deal
with the more strictly scientific side of Indian Geology, while a
third volume of over 600 pages from the pen of Mr. Valentine Ball
treats of the Economic Geology of the country, its Mineralogy being
described by Mr. F. R. Mallet in the fourth and last volume. A
map on the scale of 64 miles to the inch and geologically coloured
forms a valuable accompaniment to the work.
During the same year Mr. Hacket examined a very large area at
the northern extremity of the Arvali range, and extending up to the
Jumna at Delhi. Though not abundant in mineral wealth the Arvali
region contains several extensive mines, now abandoned, from which
in bygone times large quantities of copper and lead ores have been
extracted, and a number of small pits or burrows where ores in small
quantities were found. None of these mines, however, were worked
deeper than a few feet below the water level on account of the
difficulty of raisimg the water. Marble is of frequent occurrence
among the Arvali rocks, and is extensively quarried in several
places, the principal place being Makrana. It is generally white,
but coloured marbles are occasionally met with, and black marble
in one spot.
Q 2
244 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
A description of the previously unsurveyed basins of Palamau
was given by Mr. Ball in Vol. XV. of the Memoirs.
Palamau had attention directed to it about 60 years ago, when
the object was to open out the coal-fields then known to exist, and
so to obtain a supply of cheap fuel for the steam navigation of the
Ganges. To meet this demand the Daltonganj field was worked
by the Bengal Coal Company up to the time of the mutiny, when
the works were attacked by the rebels and destroyed. On the
completion of the main canal, the question of connecting the
Palamau fields with the Hast Indian railway arose, and an examina-
tion of the coal and iron ores available became necessary. Mr. Ball
speaks highly of the coal from the Daltonganj field, which has
ereat heating power and is admirably adapted for steam purposes ;
that from the other two fields of the Palamau basin, the Aurunga
and Hutar, being of only average quality. The Aurunga field is,
however, the only locality where there are iron ores and limestone
suitable for iron manufacture.
The Rajmahal hills, which are described by Mr. V. Ball in
Vol. XIII. of the ‘“‘ Memoirs” are of complex geological structure, but
the mutual relations of the several rock groups within their limits
have supplied a useful key to the geological problems of far distant
localities. Amongst other notable features in this area are some
curious examples of radiating columnar trap,“ while at least two
varieties of laterite occur. The coal found is inferior to that of
a large series of Raniganj coal, but it can be easily worked, though
the difficulties and cost of transit to rail and rivers. render it
unavailable except to stations in the immediate neighbourhood. A
considerable variety of rocks suitable for building purposes exists
in the Rajmahal hills, while the basaltic trap.is capable of affording
an inexhaustible supply of road material. Clays suitable for
pottery and iron also occur.
The geology of the district of Manbhum, which lies about
120 miles west of Calcutta, and of Simghbhum, which is situated
to the south of Manbhum, is also described by Mr. V. Ball (in
Vol. XVIII. of the Memoirs). The tract abuts on the headlands
(as they may be called) of the eastern frontier of the rocky and
elevated country of western Bengal, the headlands themselves being
lapped round by tke Gangetic alluvium, which spreads over Lower
* See illustration facing page 60, latter part of Vol. XILJ. of “ Memoirs of Geological
Survey of India.”
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 245
Bengal. The northern part of the region is occupied by meta-
morphic rocks, which pass across the boundaries of Manbhum on
the north into Birbhum and Hazaribagh, on the west and south
into Lohardaga and Singbhum, and on the east into Bankura
and Midnapur, while the scuthern half is covered by sub-meta-
morphic rocks, the term adopted by the Geological Survey of India
for a series which, though showing distinct signs of metamorphism,
do so in a much less degree than do the eneissose or metamorphic
rocks proper. The prefix sub refers to the amount of metamorphism,
not, as might be supposed, to the position in the geological scale.
Speaking generally, the sub-metamorphics of Bengal may be said
to occupy a position in the geological scale roughly corresponding
to that of the Huronian of Canada or the Cambrian of Europe.
The determination of further obscure points in the great Gondwana
series occupied the attention of several members of the Geological
Staff m 1878. Dr. King was engaged in endeavouring to fix the
middle Gondwana horizon on the lower Godavari, while Mr. Hughes
came across plant fossils of decided upper Gondwana type between
the Pranhita and Godavari rivers. LHarly in the season Dr. Feist-
mantel visited the Satpura coal basin to examine on the spot some
good sections of the Gondwana series. He shows that they belong
to the horizon of coai-bearing strata represented by the Karharbari
measures in Bengal. And on the western confines of the Peninsula,
where the Gondwanas become associated with marine sirata,
Mr. Fedden broke new ground in Kathiawar, of which he surveyed
about 1,800 square miles. He speaks very highly of the excellence
of the sheets of Captain H. Trotter, R.E.’s Topographical Survey
of that province. The country is for the most part flat, and the
rocks consist of Deccan traps overlying sandstone in which some
remains of plants were found. These plants prove to be identical
with those occurring in the uppermost jurassic or Umia beds of
Cutch, and it is thus clear that a portion at least of the Cutch
jurassic series extends into northern Kathiawar. The greater part
of the area examined consists of jurassic sandstone, the hills being
of trap, but to the southward, where the surface is more hilly, the
traps cover the country.
In Southern India Mr. Foote took up new ground iv the south
of Trichinopoly. - The region belongs partly to the Madura, Tanjore,
aud Trichinopoly districts, and partly to the native state of Pudukotai
or Tondiman. It may be described as a gently undulating inclined
246 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
plane, rising very slowly westward from the delta of the Cauvery
or the sea board. It is only on the western part that the surface is
broken by a few low but steep hills rising in the gneissic area and
by the lines of scarp corresponding generally with the western
boundary of the lateritic formations, which occupy by far the
ereater part of the country now under consideration. The district
18 poor in economic minerals. In the extreme North-western Punjab
Mr. Wynne made a preliminary examination of some new ground in
Hazara, having been prevented by difficulties on the frontier from
following the formation of the Salt range across the Indus into
Bannu as had been proposed. He made a useful reconnaissance
of the ground and defined the limits of the crystalline rocks forming
the higher mountains. One general inference was that the gneiss of
Hazara is much newer than the central gneiss of the Himalayas.
Mr. Lydekker’s work in the N.W. Himalayas was much hindered
by the famine in Kashmir, so he spent the season in the mountains
of Dras and Tilail where he described some important sections
of the sedimentary rocks. Colonel McMahon also made some
noteworthy observations in the Central Himalayan districts to the
north of the Simla region of the Lower Himalayas, on the relation
of the lmestone and slate series of the latter range to the central
gneiss. Mr. Theobald made large additions during the same season
to the collections of Siwalik fauna, the results of which are recorded
in Mr. Lydekker’s papers in the Records and the “ Paleontologia
Indica.”
Mr. Mallet was deputed to report upon some coal seams in Ramri
Island, which had been reported by the Commissioner of Akyab.
Mr. Mallet could not form a favourable opinion of the practical
value of these measures; the coal is inferior to that of Bengal, and
the measures are greatly disturbed and would be difficult to
work. Specimens of a very different coal, a bright jetty lignite,
were forwarded by the Commissioner from the Baranga islands.
Mr. Medlicott also made a short trip to the North West Provinces
to serve on a committee appointed for investigating into the causes
of deterioration of land by veh or efflorescence in the Aligarh
district. His notes were published in the report of the committee.
Two large parts of the Palxontologia Indica were issued during
the year, one by Dr. Feistmantel on the flora of the Jabalpur group,
containing 14 plates, and one by Mr. Lydekker on the erania of
fossil ruminants, containing 18 plates. By order of Government
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 247
the price of these publications, and that of the “ Records,” were
lowered.
During 1878 the survey lost Mr. Walter Lindsay Willson, who
died on the 28rd of March 1878. He had joined the Indian service
in March 1857, having at that time been for some years Senior
Geologist on the Geological Survey of Ireland; the training he had
there received was very marked in the finished neatness of his
field maps in India. His place was taken by Mr. C. L. Griesbach,
F.G.S., who was appointed by the Secretary of State in the latter
part of the same year.
The great tract of Gondwana rocks, occupying the lower half
of the Godavari valley, is conveniently divisible into two areas,
separated physically by that portion of the Hastern Ghats sometimes
called the Golconda range of mountains, and geologically in that
the upper division of this formation is in great part of marine
origin to the south of the hills, while there are only river and
lacustrine members of the series in the upper part of the valley.
The portion below the Ghats, or in other words the coastal region
corresponding to the lower division of the Godavari district, is
described by Mr. King in Vol. XVI. of the “Memoirs.” The
country mainly consists of the deltaic deposits of the Godavari and
the Kistna, rismg gradually amid groups of small hills up to the
Kaurkonda-Papakonda range. It is a puzzle how the Godavari
river came to cut its way down through a 2,000 feet high range of
crystalline rocks (where the famous “ gorge” of the Godavari lies),
when it might have deviated and flowed through the more easily
worn sandstone to the south-west near Ashwaraopet, where the great
gap (crossed by the Kistna) in the continuity of the Hastern Ghats
commences. The economic geology of this region is of no great
importance, though old diamond workings exist in the sandstone
near Muleli, west of Ellore.
In 1879, Mr. King’s researches were prosecuted among the
Gondwana rocks in the Pranhita-Godavari area, and the detailed
account is contained in Vol. XVIII. of the ‘ Memoirs.” The
Godavari valley for a considerable length of its lower course
traverses a great area of Gondwana rocks, which connects the
Nagpur or Kamthi and Chanda fields of these with the patch of the
same great formation on the Coromandel coast. The Chanda rocks
extend southward by the Wardha river valley, and so with the
Pranhita river to its junction with the Godavari, whence they are
248 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
continued down the valley of the latter river, and 1t was in the
following out of this great series of the plant-bearing sandstones
with the economically interesting coal measures of their Damuda
subdivision that this immense tract of wild and poorly populated
country came to be visited by the survey. The Pranhita-Godavari
area is thus a narrow strip of Peninsular India, extending from
about Dhaba or Porsa on the Wardha in a 8.8.H. direction to
within 40 miles north of Ellore. With the exception of the bottom
or floor rocks, namely, the gneiss or crystalline series, which extends
far to the eastward and westward, all the other formations occur as
roughly parallel outcrops or bands. It is still practically what
it has been for ages, the home of a great portion of the old
Pre-Aryan race of Kols or Gonds, and a centre for the huge trains
of grain- and salt-carrying pack bullocks of the Brinjaris, who find
the region well adapted for their temporary settlements and feeding
grounds. Judging, however, by the ruins of many large forts,
splendid temples, and great tanks scattered over part of the country,
the Aryan conquerors exercised there a benign and prosperous
sway.
The better known outcrops of Barakar strata showing workable
coal of any value are in the southern part of the above field,
at Damerchela, Lingala, and to the westward in the two fields of
Kamawaram and Singareni.* Iron is obtained from the Chikiala
sandstones, and gold in small quantities has been washed for, having
been found to be brought down into the Godavari by streams from
Haidarabad territory. ;
An irregularly shaped strip of the Carnatic, including rather more
than the southern half of the Nellore district and portions of the
northern edges of those of Madras and North Arcot, was traversed
by Mr. W. King and the late Mr. Charles Ai. Oldham in 1861,
while following out the transition rocks of the Cuddapah district.
Mr. King’s account was written subsequeutlyy and after Mr. Oldham’s
death, The region is in the nature of a coastal plain with a more
or less distinct step or ghat edging an upland, the former being of
eneiss, covered up in a scattered way (more perfectly towards
the coast) by later formations, while the western hill wall is of
* A report on the progress and results of borings for coal in the Godavari valley
near Damagudem and Bhadrachalam, by Mr. W. T. Blanford, forms an Appendix to
Voi. XVIII. of thie * Memoirs.”
} See “ Memoirs,” Vol, XVI,
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 249
the hardest rocks of the transition or Cuddapah series. The
carving out of the great plain and step of mountain wall was
evidently in the greatest measure the work of marine denudation,
though subsequent atmospheric and river degradation and later
deposits have obliterated most traces of this. An interesting
feature observable in this region is a narrow and low sandstone
ridge, from 40 to 70 feet above sea-level, with a lateritic
covering running generally north and south at from 10 to
20 miles inland from the sea shore, and forming an extension of the
Red Hills of Madras, Pondicherry, Cuddalore, and Samuleotah
in the Godavari district. This plateau ridge marks what may be
considered the last permanent upheaval of the Coromandel, but
the views of the Survey differ as to the period when this may
have taken place, Mr. Foote inclining to date the upheaval during
the human period, while Mr. King is doubtful whether it can be
fixed so late.
The eastern coast from latitude 15° and northward to Masulipatam
is described by Mr. Foote in Vol. XVI. of the “ Memoirs.” The
topography is simple, consisting as it does of an inclined plane
sloping gently eastward from the foot of the Eastern Ghats to the
Bay of Bengal, diversified only by scattered hills. Fiscaily the area
is divided between the Kistna and Nellore districts. The geological
structure is almost as simple as the topographical, the western part
being occupied by a broad band or zone of ancient crystalline rocks
belonging to the gneissic series, the eastern part by marine and
fluviatile alluvia, while the intermediate part, roughly speaking,
is occupied by a band of patches of sedimentary rocks of two ages, both
older than the alluvial formations. The economic resources of this
region are very small as regards all the really valuable and important
minerals; there is a great deal of good iron ore, but unfortunately
no coal or mineral fuel accompanies it, while in the matter of building
and road materials, the supply, though plentiful, is no better than the
average districts further to the south.
Mr. Foote’s exhaustive description of the geological features of
the South Maratha country («e., the country which formed the
southern part of the Maratha empire without reference to the
distribution of the Maratha people) is published in Vol. XIL.,
Part I., of the “ Memoirs.” Although a very large portion of this
area iS inhabited by Kanarese people, who differ very widely in
appearance and language from their Maratha neighbours, the term
is a convenient one for the irregular belt stretching from near
250, GEOLOGICAL AURVEY OF INDIA.
Haidarabad in the Deccan to the western coast between Ratnagiri
and Goa. Of the several rock series found there the eneissic is the
mostly widely developed, and occurs chiefly in the eastern, southern,
and south-western parts of the area, while the Deccan trap covers
very nearly as large an extent of ground in the western and northern
parts. The iron clay or lateritic beds cover a much smaller area,
but claim notice on account of their remarkable features. They
cap all the highest ridges and peaks in the Kolhapur and Belgaum
mountains, rendering them perfectly table-topped, and in consequence
favourite sites for old Maratha strongholds and forts.
Tn continuation of Mr. Ball’s survey of the Aurunga and Hutar coal
fields (sce ‘“‘ Memoirs,” XV., Parts I. and II.), Mv. Griesbach, during
1879, mapped and described some 900 square miles of Gondwana
rocks in Ramkola between Takapani and the Rer river. The ground
is the easternmost prolongation of the great central area of South
Rewa or the Son, extending westwards to near Katni on the
Jabalpur railway and south-eastwards into the Mahanadi basin to
near Sambalpur. In Kathiawar, on the southern confines of the
Arvali metamorphic region, Mr. Fedden completed the survey of
some 1,900 square miles in continuation to the south of his previous
season’s work, besides making some preliminary traverses of
adjoining ground. Nearly the whole area is occupied by the great
eruptive formation. It is mostly stratified, having a slight inclina-
tion to the south, but huge dykes traverse it in various directions;
forming prominent ridges across the low undulating country. The
isolated central hill forming the sacred peak of Girnar is a mass of
thoroughly crystalline rock, which seems to be the core of a volcanic
focus. Owing to the scattered position of the outcrops im a wide-
spread waste of sand, Mr. Hacket was enabled to add a very large
area (more than 10,000 square miles) to his previous study of the
Arvali region, extending to the south-west as far as Hrinpura. The
Vindhyan strata were found to cover a large area to the north and
east of Jodhpur; they everywhere rest flatly upon the old rocks,
the gneiss, schists, felsites, or Alwar quartzites.
With the aid of the new maps of Kumaun, Mr. Theobald explored
the belt of tertiary rocks at the base of the mountains between the
Ganges and the Kali, in continuation of the work done several years
previously to the west of the Ganges.
Mr. Wynne, besides making a reconnaissance of the ground far to
the north between Kohat and Thal on the Kuram, accomplished the
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. oil
survey of the western extension of the Salt range from the Indus to
the outskirts of the Suliman range beyond Shakh Budin. The
Salt range proper, or eastern section, between the Indus and
Jehlam rivers, had been examined by Mr. Wynne in 1869-70, with
the assistance of Dr. W. Waagen, for the paleontology, but the
report was not published till 1878, when it appeared as Vol. XIV.
of the “ Memoirs,’ forming a volume of over 300 pages. ‘The
range had long been known as one of the most interesting and
important regions in British India, its geological interest being
enhanced by its highly fossiliferous rocks, and its importance chiefly
derived from its enormous deposits of rock salt. Years before the
British conquest of the Punjab, our officers penetrated thither and
reported on the geology of the region. In making a detailed
examination, Mr. Wynne had the advantage of the excellent maps
constructed by Captain D. G. Robinson, R.E., one of the best set of
maps ever produced in India.* The Salt range occupies historic
ground, one extremity resting upon the ancient Hydaspes or Jehlam
river, the other on the Indus, while its eastern extension overlooks
the battle field of Chilianwala, which is marked by a memorial
obelisk built of materials taken from the range. The Mayo mines
in the eastern plateau of the range are probably the most extensive
salt mines in the world. Old chambers occur in them up to
320 feet in width and 130 feet in height, besides natural shafts
formed by rain water, one of which is 312 feet deep. The old
workings had long been in a dangerous condition, and disastrous
falls have taken place—one in 1870. When visited in 1869-70 the
position of the miners was anything but enviable, perched upon
a lofty tripod of slender sticks and picking at a roof full of fissures
and unsupported for many yards. ‘The colour of the salt is red and
white, red earthy or merely coloured layers being very numerous
in some of the beds. The main mass of the gypsum overlies the
salt, and is sueceeded by the purple sandstone and other groups in
their proper order. The Salt range geology is peculiar and differs
greatly from that of neighbouring countries, so far as they are
known, comprising as it does various consecutive palxozoic,
mesozoic, and tertiary formations, and even including among the
older rocks a group of Silurian age. Nevertheless, there is a
remarkable degree of continuity preserved throughout the deposits.
The range thus forms a continuous series, embracing alternations
* See Mr. Markham’s notice of these maps, p. 121 of ‘Memoir on the Indian
Surveys,’ (2nd Edition).
DD, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
of calcareous, earthy, and arenaceous deposits, chiefly marine, but
possibly in part of fresh water origm—a series comprising thirteen
main divisions, of which nine are distinctly referable each to one of the
thirteen principal formations known to geology, and the ages of four
are less accurately ascertained. The development of the whole range
is not at any place complete, the groups changing along their
outcrop in thickness if not also in character; from the fourth to
the seventh group in ascending order the series extends westwards
across the Indus.
For the four years ending 1871 the receipts of the Inland
Customs Department were Rupees 38,81,440 per annum, and as the
rate at which the salt is sold at the mines is Rs. 3.1 per maund, an
idea may be formed of the out-turn. Notwithstanding the enormous
waste that goes on, especially in regard to carriage, the salt being
reduced to rough spherical lumps to prevent the corners being
rubbed off during its transport in open nettings or hair cloth bags,
the supply seems practically inexhaustible. Coal is also found in
the range, the Kalabagh coal or lignite, which is of jurassic age,
being the best, as well as petroleum, building and ornamental
stones, and gypsum.
The trans-Indus extension of the Salt range is also described by
Mr. A. B. Wynne, in Vol. XVII. of the “ Memoirs.” Its geological
structure repeats in a great measure that of the western portion of
the Salt range proper, but with some important differences, the
purple sandstone, for instance, of the latter disappearing at
Kalabagh. Kalabagh itself is an interesting place, which has
always attracted the attention of visitors. It is thus referred to by
Thorburn, who states that the town was devastated by the Indus,
on the western bank of which it is situated, in 1841 :—
“The houses rise oue above the other on the hill side, nestling close packed in an
abandon of dirt and confusion amid the glistening carnation-coloured salt of the reeks.
Tt hasa municipality and an old standing grievance: for as Government levies a duty of
about 8s. 4d. on every hundredweight of salt quarried in the range, and as half the town
is built of sait and on salt, the people are fined heavily should they attempt to eat their
houses; and their cattle, when they loiter by the way in order to lick the rocks or the
house walls, are ordered to move on by stern-visaged constables whose mud and salt-
built sentry-boxes are perched about on every commanding knoll.”*
Both orographically and geologically the Salt range is continued
through the trans-Indus of the Bannu and Derajat districts to the
Suliman mountains, both sections including with many variations
palzeozoic, mesozoic, and cainozoic formations. The salt all belongs
* “Bannu,” p. 8, note.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 253
to the same horizon as that of the Salt range proper, alum also
occurs and is manufactured from the pyritous shales of the jurassic
and eocene formations, but the industry seems to have greatly
fallen off.
During 1879 Mr. Lydekker explored a large area of Ladak to the
east of his previous observations and determined several points
of interest, while Mr. Griesbach accomplished a very successful
season's work in the higher Himalaya of Kumaun and Hundes,
and despite the severity of the climate prevailing at this altitude
succeeded in mapping the snowy range between the Niti and Milam
passes.
The Records for 1879 contained 22 papers of various interest
with 11 maps and plates, two being articles by contributors
not attached to the survey; that on Hangrang and Spiti by Colonel
McMahon, and that on the old mines at Joga on the Narbada by
Mr. G. T. Nicholls of the Civil Service. Four parts of the “ Paleon-
tologia Indica”’ were issued during i879, one by Dr. Feistmantel on
the flora of the Gondwana outliers on the Madras coast, and another
by the same author on the flora of the Talchir-Karharbari beds,
one by Mr. Lydekker on the Reptilia and Batrachia of Indian
pretertiary formations, and the first part of the Salt range fossils
by Dr. Waagen.
Mr. Richard D. Oldham, the son of the founder and successful
director of the survey, was appointed by the Secretary of State as
an assistant in the survey, and took up duty with Mr. King in the
Godavari valley. The two native apprentices, Kishen Singh and
Hira Lal, having served their five years of probation with sufficient
credit and having acquired a serviceable knowledge of rocks and
minerals, received, on the recommendation of Mr. Medlicott,
permanent promotion as sub-assistants.
In 1880 Mr. C. L. Griesbach was sent to the Bolan pass and
Southern Afghanistan to report on the gold near Kandahar and the
petroleum traces near Sibi. The first task was, however, much
impeded (though eventually accomplished) by Ayub Khan’s revolt,
and Mr. Griesbach had to perform military duties for a time, after
which the rising of the Marris prevented his visiting the petroleum
locality at all, Jyimg as it does 40 miles east of Sibi.
Mr. Griesbach is certain that the hills between the Indus plain
and the Quetta valley are simply a continuation of the Kirthar
range, already described by Mr. Blanford in his geology of
Western Sind, while the range of hills which in turn bears the
254 GEOLOGICAL SURVRBY OF INDIA.
name of Suliman range, Marri hills, Brahuik and Khirthar ranges,
all form links of one great chain with a uniform geological structure.
Speaking generally, the area examined on this occasion by Mr.
Griesbach can be grouped into three divisions, viz. :—
1. The Brahuik area of Baluchistan, coinciding with the Jime-
stone facies of the older tertiaries ;
2. The Pishin valley, with its eastern and western ranges
(Ghaziaband and Khojak) falling in with the sandstone and
shales (flysch) facies of the eocene group; and, lastly,
3. The Kandahar and Shah Maksud ranges are formed of
cretaceous limestone and eruptive rocks of the same age.
Of special interest are the vast deposits of aérial origin, which not
only cover extensive tracts of country in the great deserts of
Registan, Seistan, &e., but also encroach rapidly on the more fertile
plains of Southern Afghanistan, the valleys of the Helmand,
Argandab, the lower Khakrez, and the great tracts lymg between
Kandahar and Quetta. The great deserts are formed of huge
accumulations of blown sand and other material, among which
a fine densely red clay is conspicuous. South of Kandahar this
loose material, constantly changing its position, 1s seen to surround
and creep up into the hollows, creeks, and fissures of the jagged
cliffs of limestone and trap. Every season material is thus added,
and the time must come when the whole Kandahar valley will
be covered by this deposit and be merged into the endless expanse
of desert to the south.
The gold near Kandahar occurs about three miles north of the city
in quartz veins, between the hippuritic limestone and the extensive
trap outbursts.* During the first months of the British occupation
the gold was obtained in considerable quantities by a native con-
tractor, who rented the mine from the Kandahar Government.
Apparently, the process of extracting the gold with mercury,
though rude, was paying, but the native workers, being ignorant of
all engineering science, went on blasting the rock with gunpowder
and sinking the shaft lower and lower, until the sides fell in and
buried the miners below. Part of the auriferous vein is still visible,
and about two inches thick, but Mr. Griesbach was told that it
thickened lower down to about two feet or more, and some of the
nuggets of goid obtained were of the size of a man’s fist. He
considers it highly probable that gold will be found all along the line
of trappoid beds, north and west of the city, but the then disturbed
* Described also at p. 30 of Bellew’s Seistan Mission, Calcutta, 1873,
GEOLOG{CAL SURVEY OF INDIA. DSS)
state of the country frustrated any effort on his part to test the
rocks. Gold is also found and worked in some fashion in the
Hazarah country and in various streams of Northern Afghanistan.
Amone other minerals found in Southern Afghanistan may be
mentioned copper, which is worked in the Shah Maksud range, lead
and antimony ores, argentiferous galena, and native silver, sulphur,
petroleum (east of Sibi, since examined and reported on), coal, and
eypsum. From olden times Kandahar has been celebrated as a
market where precious stones were sold to the merchants coming
from Shikarpur, but apparently only varieties of chrysolite and
chrysotile with some cornelian are actually found there, both being
derived from the amygdaloidal variety of the traps.
Mr. Blanford was officially deputed by the Government of India
to represent the Indian Geological Survey at the Congress held at
Bologna in 1881. This Congress had originated in a meeting of
geologists of various nations at Buffalo in 1876, who, in their turn,
arranged for an International Geological Congress at Paris in 1878,
for the purpose of deciding upon rules for the construction of
geological maps and for geological nomenclature and classification.
Out of this second meeting arose the Bologna Congress of 1881, to
which the questions at issue were referred, and which was attended
by about 200 members, of whom 1380 were Italians and 70 foreigners.
On the whole, if cannot be said that much was done towards the
unification of nomenclature, or of the colouring and signs for
geological maps. It is an obvious drawback to congresses of this
character that they are not strictly representative, and that their
resolutions can have no binding force on absentees or dissentients.
But it is very profitable to gauge, however tentatively, the general
feeling of an important scientific body, and to those who have to
pass most of their lives in remote regions like India, it is of. vast
importance to meet fellow-workers in similar fields and to exchange
ideas.
One of the most important events in 1882 was the proving of the
new coal field of Umaria,* at the west end of the South Rewa
Gondwana basin. The actual area of exposed coal measures is
small (about five square miles) in an angle between the gneissic rocks
and the great spread of newer Gondwana sandstone to the north-
east. ‘he outcrop ot coal had been known for many years, but its
surface appearance was unpromising. An extensive field was thus
opened to enterprise, Umaria being the nearest possible source of
* Noticed by Mr. Hughes in the ‘‘ Records ” for 188] (Vol. XIV., Part 4).
256 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
coal for the North-Western Provinces, and immediately west of the
immense coal field of Sohagpur, which district is also rich in
agricultural produce, and the natural entrepdt for the surrounding
forest tracts, while southwards from Sohagpur lies the least difficult
line of communication between northern and southern India, into the
plains of Chattisgarh, leading down the Mahanadi valley to Cuttack,
and up it over the plateau of Bustar to Vizagapatam. Again, an
opportunity was also offerec for successful iron manufacture, there
being probably no spot in India where such an abundant supply of
first-class iron ores exists as at Katni, on the Hast Indian Railway.
A survey for a line from Katni to the coal field was commenced.
The Shapur coal borings in the Satpura region proved unsuccessful,
but the cretaceous coal field of Darangiri, in the Garo hills, reported
on by Mr. La Touche during the preceding season,* proved good, the
quantity bemg very considerable and the quality serviceable.
Mr. Foote was engaged in Madura and Tinnevelli, principally in
completing his map of the coast region and joining this work on to
Dr. King’s in Travancore. Mr. Hacket took up work in the wilder
parts of the Arvali range in Southern Mewar. but being warned by
the Political Agent of the hostility of the Bhil tribes, he employed
the rest of the season very usefully in examining some intricate
features along the Vindhyan boundary north-east of Neemuch. In
Kathiawar a large area along the coast region, from Bhaunagar
to Madhapur, consisting mostly of trap and post-tertiary rocks, with
a remnant of tertiary beds on the western sea-margin, was examined
by Mr. Fedden.
The principal object of Mr. Blanford’s work in the field season
1881-82 was to endeavour to trace northward the well-marked series
of tertiary rocks of Sind, and to follow their continuation if possible
into the Punjab, where there is not the same clue to classification in
the presence of marime beds above the eocene. Before taking up
this work Mr. Blanford was called upon to report again upon the
coal deposits to the west of Sibi, so he marched by the Bolan pass
to Quetta, examining the coal seams of Mach on the road. From
Quetta to Sibi he returned by the Harnai route, and visited the
Sharag coal locality, after which he skirted the western boundary
of the Bugti hills, and then marched from Jacobabad to Harrand in
the Punjab, through the heart of the Bugti country. From Harrand
he proceeded northward along the eastern flank of the Suliman
* “ Records,” Vol. XV., Part 3.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 257
range to some distance north of Dera Ghazi Khan. Here a severe
attack of fever compelled him to leave and return to England.
Besides effecting some important alterations in Mr. Griesbach’s
work about Quetta, one of the results of Mr. Blanford’s work was to
show that post-eocene marine deposits of Sind do not continue north
to the Punjab border. It was also found that the main chain of the
Suliman is composed of hard whitish sandstones, apparently
cretaceous, overlying lmestones and limestone shales, with a few
fossils belonging to the same system. By this important piece of
reconnaissance the greater portion of the gap between Sind and the
Punjab was bridged over. Throughout the area no beds of older
age than cretaceous were observed; by far the greater portion being
covered with tertiary deposits, the cretaceous rocks protruding only
in the neighbourhood of Quetta to the westward and along the
Suliman range to the eastward. The efforts made to trace a con-
nexion between the tertiary deposits of Sind and those of the Punjab
by following the rocks themselves to the northward, were fairly
successful, and some interesting fossils, mammalian and molluscan,
were obtained from Lower Siwalik beds, at localities discovered by
Captain Vicary nearly 40 years previously in the Bugti hills.
On the termination of his short leave in Hngland Mr. Griesbach
obtained permission to visit some places on the Continent, the
collections made in Armenia by Staatsrath von Abich proving
especially interesting in their close relationship to some of the
Himalayan fossils. On his return Mr. Griesbach proceeded to the
Tibetan frontier, but the cold was so intense as to impede his
explorations considerably. Mr. Oldham, who accompanied the
Manipur-Burma Boundary Commission, made a complete traverse
of the main range into the great alluvial and tertiary basin of the
Chindwin river. He also marched from Manipur northward into
the Naga hills, returning by the Assam valley, the indications
proving that the range is altogether a secondary one, a mere fender
of the great Malayan crystalline axis.
During the year two parts of Vol. XIX. of the “ Memoirs” were
published, the first being a description, with numerous illustrations,
of the great Cachar earthquake of the 10th January 1869.
The circumstances of this earthquake were observed and noted by
the late Dr. Oldham, superintendent of the survey, but the materials
were not published till 1883, when they were collated and skilfully
discussed by Mr. R. D. Oldham. The shock, it appears, originally
i Y 20321. R
258 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
came on at Silchar at a quarter to 5 p.m., with a gently undulating
movement, which, however, rapidly increased until neither men nor
animals could keep their legs, but were thrown down; the water in
tanks and rivers was violently agitated, and the Barak river rose in
huge waves and wrecked numbers of boats. The landslips caused
were numerous and extensive, and many homesteads were carried
down into the stream. At Manipur the Political Agent found the
motion of the ground most violent; it seemed to rise and fall m
waves of about three feet in height, and the Raja’s palace as well as
other houses were ruined, and there was some loss of life. At
another place (Kussilong), about 90 miles from Chittagong, a corre-
spondent reported that “It burst with tremendous force. The
* undulations were very severe and lasted nearly two minutes.
* Tt seemed as if some mighty wave were sweeping on under the
‘* earth, and as it passed the solid earth rose and fell with a motion
“« distinctly visible along the banks of the river and in the hills
* beyond. The ground was seen to roll wave-like, the hills to reel,
** and the trees to wave to and fro. The spectacle was wonderful
«“ and fearful.” The extreme limits of the area over which the same
shock or group of shocks was experienced must have exceeded 650
miles from north-west to south-east, and 400 miles in the conjugate
direction of north-east to south-west. Allowing for those districts
from which no reports happened to be received, the area affected
must have been fully a quarter of a million of square miles, a
tolerable index to the vastness of the forces developed.
Mr. Oldham is of opinion that the shock originated in a fissure
above 20 miles long, running underneath an area about three or four
miles broad and from 20 to 30 miles long, situated in north latitude
26° and east longitude 92° 40’, on the northern borders of the
Jamtia hills. The mean depth of the focus was probably about
30 miles, and the velocity of the wave particle 20 or 30 feet per
second. ‘The rate of transit could not be satisfactorily determined.*
The second part of Vol. XIX. of the ““ Memoirs” issued during the
same year (1882) contained a list of the thermal springs of India,
compiled by the late Dr. T. Oldham, and brought out by his son.
The geographical position, latitude and longitude, elevation of the
locality above sea-level, and the temperature of the water of the
spring are all given. The list is far completer than the last one
* A catalogue of Indian earthquakes, from 833 A.D. up to 1869, was prepared by
Dr. Oldham and published in the “ Memoirs,” Vol. XTX.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 259
prepared by Mr. R. Schlagintweit,* containing as it does 01 names
of springs as against only 90 enumerated by Mr. Schlagintweit.
Five fasciculi of the Paleontologia Indica were brought out in
1882, comprising a description of the fossil flora of the South Rewa
basin by Dr. Feistmantel, the Siwalik and Narbada Hquide, being
Part 3, Vol. IL., of the Tertiary Vertebrata Series, by Mr. Lydekker,
a fasciculus on the Brachiopoda of the Salt range by Dr. Waagen,
and two fasciculi on the fossil] Hehinoidea of Sind by Professor
Martin Duncan and Mr. Percy Sladen.
During the year 1882 Mr. W. T. Blanford was obliged to
take sick leave to Hurope, and under medical advice he was
subsequently compelled to retire from the service. He had spent
27 years in the arduous work of the Geological Survey, in which
from the very outset he had taken a leading part. He wrote
part of the report on the Talchir coal fields, the first paper in
the “‘ Memoirs,’ which have since extended to twenty-four volumes,
containing numerous contributions from his pen. Besides his
regular geological labours, Mr. Blanford has done a vast deal
for the zoology of India, on which he is the highest authority.
He was twice deputed on special missions out of India—with the
army to Abyssinia, and with the Seistan Boundary Commissioners to
Persia: and published special accounts of his researches in both
those countries. He was twice (in 1878 and 1879) elected President
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and so long ago as 1874 he was
elected, at his first nomination, a Fellow of the Royal Society.
In 1876 Dr. Oldham, on retirement, recommended Mr. Blanford as
his successor as Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India;
of this he was deprived only by a small matter of seniority, and in
recognition of his high claims Government rewarded him with a
special personal remuneration above the pay of his appointment.
Personally, as well as professionally, Mr. Blanford’s departure was
much regretted by his colleagues and the Government.
Since Mr. Blanford’s return to England, he has undertaken the
editing of the “Fauna of British India,” at the request of the
Secretary of State, 5; volumes of which have already appeared.
It is designed to form a complete series of manuals of Indian
zoology for schools and for students, and will be the standard work
on the subject.
* Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. XX XIII, p. 49, 1864.
R 2
266 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
Of the work achieved during 1883 Mr. Griesbach’s was probably
the most interesting, dealing as it did with the main Himalayan
range and its grand formations. He completed the survey of the
Hundes basin to its western limit on the fianks of the eneissic mass
of the Porgyal mountain which separates Hundes from Spiti. For
some important horizons he satisfied himself of the identity of the
sections in Spiti (as partly determined by Dr. Stoliczka) and those
in Hundes. From this region Mr, Griesbach had te hurry late in
October to join the expedition to the Takht-i-Suliman, on the
North-West frontier.* This remarkable peak consists of the
cretaceous sandstones with limestones described by Mr. Blanford
as forming the crest of the range 80 miles to the south.+
In Jaunsar, in the Lower Himalayas, Mr. Oldham succeeded in
introducing two unconformable and almost wholly detached groups
above the Deoban limestone where a great gap had always existed
between the tertiaries in the Simla section and the Krol group, for
which no age later than the trias had been conjectured. Further
researches into the character of the granitoid gneiss of the
Himalayas were made by Colonel McMahon, leading to the con-
clusion that much of it is intrusive and must properly be called
gneissose granite.
An important contribution to the lterature of the year was
Mr. Lydekker’s volume on the north-west Himalayas (“ Memoirs,”
Vol. XXITI.), the researches in the field for which had been concluded
two years previously.
Mr. La Touche was to have taken up the examination of the coal
field in the Garo hills, his preliminary visit to which was described
in the “ Records,” Vol. XVI., page 164, but instead he was deputed
to accompany Colonel Woodthorpe’s party in the exploration of the
Dehing basin, a region of much interest, as it probably reaches
beyond the zone of tertiary rocks fringing the Upper Assam valley
and beyond the range of the Arakan-Manipur axis. Unfortunately
this plan was interrupted by the Aka raid, the party being diverted
into that territory and Mr. La Touche with it. The ground is
Himalayan ground proper not far to the west of the Daphla
district, visited by Colonel Godwin-Austen in 1865, and probably
like it in structure.
The eastern parts of the Madura and Tinnevelli districts were
examined by Mr. Foote, and a sketch of the geological features of
* See above, p. 147, 7 “Memoirs,” Vol. XX., Part 2.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 261
the region appears in the “ Memoirs,” Vol. XX., Part]. The districts
both form part of the tract lying between the water-parting along
the axis of the Southern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. Alone the
sea-board there runs a belt of sedimentary rocks, and westward a
great band of crystalline rocks, while the greater part of the low
country occupied by gneissic rocks in South Madura and North
Tinnevelly is covered with a widespread deposit of regur or black
cotton soil. Along the coast from Cape Comorin to the Paumben
channel a series of marine rocks, generally calcareous grits, forms a
narrow and broken fringe. This formation was once widely
extended, but has been removed by denudation, while the outliers
and patches of beds which have been left testify to the fact that
since their formation under the sea the country must have under-
gone an elevation of close upon 200 feet, if not more. There is
evidence of a somewhat similar phenomenon in an upheaved coral
reef on the northern coast of Rameswaram island, between India and
Ceylon; and the same cause, in Mr. Foote’s opinion, upraised both
the island and the mainland. It is difficult to resist the inferenco
that the same upheaval led to the formation of what is known to
the Hindus as Rama’s bridge, and to Mussulmans and Christians as
Adam’s bridge, the long narrow isthmus which once united Ceylon
to India; while to the same action again may be attributed the
formation of the long line of islets running parallel with the south
coast of Madura. Local history claims that Rameswaram island
was once completely joined to the terra firma on both sides, and
that both the Paumben strait and the other passages to the eastward
were breached by a tremendous storm about 1480 A.D. The action
of the waves has broken the barrier into large flat blocks, which so
strongly resemble a series of gigantic stepping stones that it is easy
to fall in with the imagination of the author of the Ramayana,
which ascribed artificial construction to the bridge.*
The two great groups into which the soils of ‘Tinnevelly and
Madura are divisible are the red and the black, the former being -
* According to the famous old Hindu epic, the construction of the bridge was due
to the industry of the great army of monkeys and bears led by Rama and his long-tailed
friends, Sugriva and Hanuman, when they proceeded to invade Lanka (Ceyion), during
the war with Rama, the king of demons and the abductor of Sita, Rama’s wife.
The engineering part of the undertaking was specislly entrusted to the monkey Nala,
ason of Viwakarma, the famous architect. Perhaps the upheaval of Rama’s bridge
may have occurred within the semi-mythical time preceding some invasion of the
heretical Buddhist kingdom of Lanka (Ceylon) by the Brahmanical Aryans of the
mainland and their Dravidian allies.
262 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
generally the product of decomposition in situ of underlying
ferruginous rocks. A very curious feature connected with this red
loamy soil is the enormous number of white-ants’ nests, which are
of a bright red colour, attain a height of five to eight feet, and are
often so numerous as to affect very strikingly the character of the
foreground. There is no part of the south of India in which blown
sands play so large and important a part as in the Tinnevelly
district and along the south coast of Madura. They are of two
kinds—the red sand or feris and the white, which are ordinary sand
dunes. The former are attributed by Mr. Foote to the action of
the heavy and continuous gales prevalent (sometimes for four
months) during the 8.W. monsoon on the broad belt of deep red
loam which skirts the eastern base of the Ghats. It is evident that
these sands bear a great resemblance, though on a smaller scale, to
the red sands of the Nefud or great desert of Central Arabia
described by Mr. Palgrave, Lady Anne Blunt, M. Huber, and other
Arabian travellers. But the origin of the red sands of the Neftd is
still involved in uncertainty.
Mr. Mallet’s investigation of the iron ores in the Katni district,
in north Jabalpur,* shewed that all the other conditions for extensive
iron manufacture were favourable if suitable coal could be found.
Mr. Fedden, by prolonging the season’s work well into the hot
weather, was enabled to complete his survey of Kathiawar.
The area is principally occupied by Deccan trap, of which it was
not desirable to attempt a detailed survey throughout, so the work
lay principally in tertiary or post-tertiary deposits of the coastal
region, with some secondary rocks on the north-east margin.
Five parts of the “Memoirs” were published during the year.
Part 3 of Volume XIX. contained the catalogue of Indian earthquakes
mentioned above (page 258, note), and Part 4 Mr. Oldham’s account
of his examination of an area of about 1,800 square miles to the east
and in the north of the valley of Manipur, with the neighbouring Naga
hills. This country is densely covered with vegetation, and for whole
days one may march without seeing a single rock, while the want
of population or else savages of doubtful temperament offered great
impediments to Mr. Oldham’s researches. Geologically, the region
has no great feature of interest, and the economic minerals are
poor.
* « Records,” Vol. XV., Part 2.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 263
The other volumes issued during the year (XX. and XXII.)
contain the memoirs by Messrs. Blanford, Foote, and Lydekker,
already referred to.
The Records for the year (Vol. XVI.) embrace 24 articles of varied
interest with numerous maps and plates. Of the ‘“ Paleeontologia
Indica,” a full part containing a large section of the Brachiopoda
of the productus limestone of the Salt range, by Dr. Waagen, was
published; also a part on the tertiary Hchinoidea of Kach and
Kathiawar, by Dr. Duncan. Mr. Mallet issued a descriptive catalogue
of the systematic series of minerals in the museum, and a guide to
the economic mineral products, giving a very instructive account of
each class of substance, its use and distribution.
With the co-operation of Mr. H. F. Blanford, the Meteorological
Reporter to the Government of India, some simple seismometric
instruments were set up at Silchar, Sibsagar, and Shillong, forming
a group for the determination of centres of earth disturbance in
Assam.
During the year two able members of the Department retired.
Mr. Wynne, who had left India on medical certificate in 1880, had,
after several extensions of sick leave, to be finally invalided in 1883.
He had joimed the Indian Service in 1862, having already had
several years geological experience in Ireland. In India some
choice fields of work fell to him, such as Cutch and the Salt range,
excellent illustrated descriptions of which have appeared in the
“ Memous.”’ Mr. Lydekker, the other retirmg member, had had a
short but a very busy career. He joined the Survey in 1874, and
as soon as the collections were moved to the new museum and
amaloamated with those of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, he under-
took the arrangement and description of the extensive series of
tertiary vertebrate fossils, large additions to which were made by
Mr. Theobald in the Punjab. Mr. Lydekker’s description of the
Siwalik fauna in the ‘“ Paleeontologia Indica” will form an enduring
record of his zeal and ability.
During the same year two new assistants joined the Survey,
Mr. E. J. Jones, A.S.R.M., and Mr. C.S. Middlemiss, B.A. (Cantab).
The Karnul cave explorations commenced by Mr. Foote, and
continued by his son Lieut. H. B. Foote, R.A., proved to be on the
whole encouraging, a large number of bones were secured, some of
animals that do not now inhabit the region, some human remains
and articles of human manufacture, the latter at the considerable
264 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
depth of 16 feet, but nothing to show that the caves had ever been
used as dwellings or as a place of sepulture. Mr. Foote was alxo
called upon to explore for coal along an intended line of railway
between Haidarabad and the Kistna. Between Bezvada and the
Singareni coal field, and from the latter to Haidarabad, the country
proved to be all of gneissic rocks, but Mr. Foote’s labours were
rewarded by the discovery of a strong lode of rich iron close to the
Singareni coal field.
Dr. King’s survey of the coal fields on the north-east confines of
Chattisgarh was described in the “ Records” (Vol. XVIL., Part 3).
In South Rewa regular mining explorations of the Umaria coal
field had been commenced under Mr. Hughes’s direction in 1883,
and the shafts proved so satisfactory that steps were taken to
establish a colliery there with a branch railway from Katni to
Jabalpur. Mr. Hughes also managed to complete the examination
of the southern coal fields of the Rewa Gondwana basin, the total
area of exposed measures proved to be no less than 1,800 square
miles.
Mr. Bose took up new ground in the basin of the upper
Mahanadi, but the results were not deemed satisfactory by Mr.
Medlicott, who indeed referred prominently to this as an additional
proof of the unsuitableness of natives of India for the faculty of
independent research and critical observation required to make a
good geologist. Mr. Medlicott adds that the Geological Suryey is
about the only branch of the puble service in which natives could
not as yet reasonably find employment.
Mr. Qldham submitted full progress reports of his work in the
Himalayan region, embracing a section from the plains to the base
of the main range; his detailed conclusions are summarised under
nine different heads in Mr. Medlicott’s report. Mr. Griesbach was,
unfortunately, taken seriously il] at Kohat, after the expedition to
Vakht-i-Suliman, but after recoverme his strength, at Simla he
was appointed to accompany the Afghan Boundary Commission in
the capacity of geologist. The results of the Takht-i-Suliman
observations were published in the “ Records” (Vol. XVII., Part 4),
and the same volume contains Mr. Mallet’s examination of ores
from the Andaman islands.
Harly in the season Mr. La Touche accompanied the expedition
into the Aka hills, north of Tezpur, in Assam. The dense vegeta-
tion prevented any observation of the rocks except in the stream
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 265
courses. The section was found to correspond with that observed in
the Daphla hills to the east by Colonel Godwin Austen, and
with that described by Mr. Mallet in the Bhutan Duars to the
west. Inside the tertiary zone there is a belt of carboniferous
Damuda strata bordering the schistose rocks of the higher hills.
Here too, as elsewhere, along the foot of the Himalayas, the coal
is so crushed as to be unserviceable. Later on Mr. La Touche
examined the Longrin coal field on the south-west edge of the Garo
hills. His report, which is published with a map in Vol. XVII. of
the “ Records,” Part 3, shows that the field offers an abundant supply
of very fair coal easily accessible on the very borders of the plain of
Sylhet.
In connexion with the record of Indian geological progress, men-
tion may be here made of a very instructive discussion of geological
homotaxis given by Mr. W. T. Blanford in -his address as
President io the Geological Section of the British Association on
the occasion of their meeting at Montreal. Being mainly illustrated
from Indian geology the paper was reprinted in the “ Records.”
Mr. Blanford is inclined to modify Professor Huxley’s statement
that “for anything that geology or paleontology is able to show
“* to the contrary, a Devonian fauna and flora in the British Islands
“ may have been contemporaneous with Silurian life in North
« America, and with a carboniferous fauna and flora in Africa.’’*
Granting such conditions to be possible for a terrestrial fauna or
flora, Mr. Blanford considers that the marine fauna would give
a much nearer approximation to synchrony. Mr. Oldham also
dealt with the same subject in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal for 1884 (Part II., p. 187), and illustrated from Indian
paleontology the great discrepancies in correlations of time from
fossil evidence. He also endeavoured to establish synchronous
relations of distant formations through the evidence of periods of
glaciation, and arrived at the conclusion that in early secondary
times the crust of the earth did not occupy the same position with
respect to the axis of rotation as it does now.
Two memoirs were published in 1884, Mr. Bose’s on the Lower
Narbada valley between Nimawar and Kawant, and Mr. Fedden’s
on Kathiawar, each with a map. They form Parts 1 and 2 of Vol.
XXI. In the “‘ Palzontologia Indica,” five parts of Series X., the
Indian Tertiary and Post Tertiary Vertebrata by Mr. Lydekker,
were published during tie year, forming a very valuable addition to
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. XVIIL, p. xlvi.
266 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
that branch of the Survey publications. Dr. Waagen also furnished
two parts (Nos. 3 and 4) of the Brachiopoda of the Productus
Limestone, and a huge fasciculus of Series XIV., with 18
admirably executed plates descriptive of the tertiary and upper
cretaceous fossils of Sind, was issued from the pen of Professor
Martin Duncan.
Some interesting contributions of ores, rocks, and other
geological specimens were made to the museum from the Inter-
national Hxhibition held in Calcutta, the principal presentations
being made by the Ministers for Mines in New South Wales and
Victoria, and the Tasmanian Commissioners.
During 1885 Mr. R. D. Oldham took a trip to Australia to enable
him to study the Gondwana rocks of that region, and his memo-
randum on the correlation of the Indian and Australian coal-bearing
beds is published in Vol. XITX., Part 1, of the * Records.” Dr. King
was chiefly engaged in directing the practical exploration of the
Rampur coal field, which is the southern portion of the Raigarh
and Hingir basin, formerly surveyed by Mr. Ball in 1876, but
unfortunately the coal has proved uniformly bad in quality.
During 1884-85 Mr. Foote was able to take up his survey in the
Bellary district, from which he had been called away in the
previous season to search for coal in the gneiss of Haidarabad. The
Sandur hills to the west of Bellary were the principal objects of
investigation ; they are formed by one of the bands of transition
rocks that traverse the peninsula with a N.N.W. trend, and are all
remnants of a once widespread formation which Mr. Foote now
unites and distinguishes as the Dharwar series, and shows to be
unconformable to the gneiss with which it has been intimately
associated by complete folding together. In the Sandur hills
there occur masses of rich hematite. Mr. Foote made a careful
examination of the well-known diamond field at Wadjra Karur, to
which special interest attached on account of mining operations
started there by Messrs. Orr and Sons of Madras. But in spite of
the occurrence of a peculiar trappean rock, declared to be identical
with the famous diamond matrix of Kimberley, no speck of the
gem was discovered. Mr. Hacket covered a large area (some
3,000 square miles) of new ground in Mewar, in continuation of
his previous work to the north. It is entirely composed of the
same obscure rocks—the schist hmestones and quartzites of the
Arvali system in transitional relation with gneiss and granite masses.
Mount Abu is a mass of coarse highly felspathic gneiss.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 267
Mr. Griesbach contributed to the February number of the
“Records” a small instalment of his observations with the Afghan
Boundary Commission. ‘The southern route taken to Herat crossed
the continuation of the tertiary and cretaceous formation previously
described by him at and west of Kandahar (“‘ Memoirs,’ XVIII, 1),
the hippuritic limestone being very prominent with copious intrusions
of basic trap and syenitic granite. In the axial range of the Siah
Koh and Doshakh, south of the Herat valley, paleeozoic rocks make
their first appearance, as represented by a carboniferous Productus
limestone, dipping northwards towards the Hari Rud valley. The
Paropamisus range, north of the valley, seems to be largely made
up of a great plant-bearing series which Mr. Griesbach provisionally
parallels with the Indian Gondwana system, conjecturing that it
overlies the carboniferous productus-limestone. In notes of a
year’s later date, published in the “ Records,” Mr. Griesbach adheres
to this general rock sequence, and describes its distribution in the
Binalat and other ranges of eastern Khorasan.
The result of Mr. Oldham’s observations in the Andamans is
published, with a map, in the “ Records,” and gives generally the
classification and distribution of the rocks, with a digest of all
previous explorations. Mr. La Touche was again despatched from
the Garo hills to take advantage of the topographical exploration
party to the head waters of the Dehing* on the extreme east frontier
of Assam. In that region the conditions are very unfavourable for
ceological observations on account of the dense vegetation. It has,
however, been ascertained that the whole upper valley of the Dehing
is occupied by tertiary deposits, chiefly sandstones, while the actual
crest of the ridges to north and east are of crystalline rocks. Un«
fortunately, Mr. La Touche did not accompany tke officers who
crossed the water-shed, consequently the opportunity of extending
the geological observations into the valley of the north-west branch
of the Irawadi. A good season’s work was done by Mr. Jones in
mapping the whole area hitherto known as the Pench coal field, and
for some distance to the west in the direction of the Shahpur coal
field, on the south side of the Satpura Gondwana basin. The field
is, however, remote and inaccessible. Further light was shed on the
geology of the Lower Himalayan region, where the absence of fossil
guidance has always proved a perplexity, by the discovery by
* See p. 79.
268 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
Mr. Middlemiss of some fossils east of the Tal river. He ascribes
the normal position of this Tal group as above the massive limestone
and thus next below the nummulitic band. Mr. Middlemiss also
investigated the circumstances of the Bengal earthquake, and
secured some good observations in positions favourable for ascer-
taining the focus of the shock. The Kashmir earthquake, which
was reported on by Mr. Jones, was far more difficult to investigate
critically, owing to the rough mode of construction of the native
houses, the heavy earthen roofs having simply collapsed between
crumbling walls, leaving little trace of direction. The same cause
also made it most disastrous in respect of loss of life.
Dr. Feistmantel, the permanent Paleontologist of the Survey,
resigned his appointment at the termination of his two years’
furlough, having accepted a professorship at Prague. In his three
volumes on the Gondwana Flora this learned and energetic officer
has cleared up many difficulties connected with the principal rock
system of India, and suppled a standard for future work in that
branch of paleontology.
The work of the Survey had necessarily suffered from the absence
of a paleontologist, but, nevertheless, the co-operation of savants
enabled some important papers to be issued during the year. The
fossil Echinoidea from the Gaj or miocene series of Sind were
described by Professor Martin Duncan and Mr. Percy Sladen, and
two instalments of Dr. Waagen’s work on the Salt range fossils were
also published. Mr. Lydekker also brought out two parts of the
‘ Paleeontologia Indica,” dealing with Indian Pretertiary Vertebrata,
and a third part (No. 6 of Series X., on the Siwalik and Narbada
Chelonia) devoted to tertiary and post-tertiary vertebrata.
During 1886 Mr. Foote, whose work had been confined to the
Madras Presidency during the two previous seasons, mapped a con-
siderable area, in extension of his previous work in Bellary, both of
eneiss and of his Dharwar schistose series. The researches of
Mr. Foote’s son, Lieutenant H. Foote, R.A., in the Karnul cave
resulted in the discovery of very interesting fauna, which has
been described by Mr. Lydekker in the “ Palzontologia Indica.” A
large number of the species, according to this authority, are now
cither totally extinct or not living in India, and are not newer than
pleistocene. They display numerous affinities with African types,
i feature previously noted regarding the tertiary Siwalik fauna
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 269
of India. Dr. King’s regular work in the hills west of the Chattis-
garh plains was necessarily interrupted by his having to superintend
the coal explorations in the fields far to the east, which, however,
did not promise a fair supply of fuel. In the remote hill country,
far to the north of Korba, a large new coal field was traced out by
Sub-assistant Hira Lal; it is the western extension of the measures
noticed some yearsago by Mr. Ball at their eastern extremity as the
Lakanpur field. Mr. Hughes’ deputation in charge of the Umaria
colliery was followed by his examination of the rocks above the coal
measures, in which he found some new localities for fossils.
Mr. Jones’s work during the season of 1886 was the completion of
the survey cf the southern coal field of the Satpura Gondwana
basin. There are altogether 11 separate areas where the coal
measures group is exposed, seven of them being in the Chindwara
district, while four adjoining areas in the Betul district were mapped
and described some years ago.* The quality of the coal, as ascer-
tained from outcrop samples, was not very encouraging, and during
the two seasons work no recognisable fossils were found. Mr.
Hacket’s operations in Rajputana were confined to the older rocks,
the Arvalis and the Vindhyans, to the west of which, in the more or less
desert country of Jaisalmer, the existence of fossiliferous limestones
has been known for many years. Mr. Oldham was deputed to
explore in 1886 the northern extension of the jurassic strata towards
Bikanir, for the purpose of seeing whether he could fix upon a
Talchir bed, which all over India forms the base of the Gondwana
coal measures. Mr. La ‘Touche made good progress with his work in
the Garo hills, and his notes appeared in the “‘ Records” (Vol. XX.) ;
and Mr. Middlemiss investigated an obscure point presented by the
discovery of a long ellipse of crystalline schists surrounded by a
narrow fringe of newer strata, immediately east of the Ganges and
at the edge of the lower Himalayan region just inside the fringing
zone of sub-Himalayan rocks.
On the 1st November Mr. Griesbach returned to India with the
Afghan Boundary Commission not much the worse for his two years’
wanderings. His notes appear in the “ Records.” The geology of the
Herat valley is shortly described in Vol. XVIII., Part 1. Afghan
and Persian field notes, dealing with Eastern Khorasan and the
Herat province, are contained in Vol. XIX., Part 1, while a very
* “Records,” G. S. J., VIII, 1875.
270 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
full and valuable sketch of the geology of Afghan Turkistan appears
in Part 4 of the same volume. The fourth or concluding batch of
notes treats of the return march of the Commission from Turkistan
over the Hindu Kush and through Kabul to India.
In the little known region of Gilgit, Astor, and Baltistan, and the
country beyond, the observations made by Dr. G. M. Giles, though
not those of a professed geologist, supplied some valuable informa-
tion about a large area from the Pamir through Wakhan and
eastern Badakhshan across the Hindu Kush at its supposed roots,
and back through Chitral and Yasin. The whole of the large area
presented apparently an extension of the conditions known in
Baltistan ; no trace of a fossiliferous rock was seen ; crystalline and
schistose rocks greatly preponderated, with only a few less altered
slaty specimens. Throughout the eastern and central part of the
area an east-west strike was very constant, while on the west side,
i.e.,on what is represented as the axis of the Hindu Kush, the
prevailing strike of the rocks was north to south, though often
irregular. There remains a belt of unknown ground (over 150 miles)
between Charikar and Chitral to which peculiar interest attaches,
both from a geological and geographical point of view.
Several parts of the “ Paizeontologia Indica”? came to a natural
close with the end of the year, Mr. Lydekker, who has earned much
reputation in that branch, having pretty well cleared off all the fossil
vertebrata, though of course further collections have since been made.
With the fasciculus on the Echinoidea of the Makran series of the
Baluchistan and Persian Gulf coasts Professor P. Martin Duncan
completed a portly volume, forming Vol. I. of Series XIV., the
“Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous Fauna of Western India.” Dr.
Waagen made good progress with his important volume on the fossils
of the productus-limestone of the Salt range, one part (the
Coelenterata) being issued in 1886.
The year 1887 was marked by the retirement, on the 27th of
April, of Mr. H. B. Medlicott, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., after a con-
tinuous service of over 30 years in India. Mr. Medlicott became
Superintendent (a title afterwards altered to Director) after the
retirement of the late Dr. T. Oldham in 1876, and the admirable and
efficient manner in which he conducted the responsible duties of the
Department is amply borne out by the official records of the Survey.
In collaboration with Mr. W. T. Blanford, then Senior Deputy
Superintendent, he produced the first and second parts of the
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 271
‘Manual of the Geology of India,” since out of print. Besides his
part in the Manual, Mr. Medlicott wrote five of the memoirs of the
Geological Survey of India, which are works on special formations
or districts: but his peculiar genius for conducting the Survey and
for treating the multifarious questions which came before him is
more specially displayed in the ‘‘ Records,” to which he contributed
no fewer than 44 papers in all.* His long and valuable services
were thus acknowledged by the Government, on the receipt of his
last annual report :—
* As this is the last occasion on which the annual report will be submitted by you,
the Government of India desires to take the opportunity of placing on record its
appreciation of your long and valuable services, and to recugnise the zealous manner
in which you have discharged the duties of superintendence and direction, and the
devotedness with which you have supported the cause of Geological Science in India,
I am to add that the marked advance which has been made in the investigation of the
* The complete list of his non-official writings, as far as ascertainable, is as
follows :—
“On the Geology of Portraine, county of Dublin.”—Jour. Dub. Geol. Soc., V. 264,
1850-53.
“On the Sub-Himalayan rocks between the Ganges and the Jumna.’”—-J. A. S. B.,
XXX., 22.
“Note relating to Siwalik Fauna.”—J. A. 8. B., XXXIV., pt. 2, 63.
“On the action of the Ganges.”—P. A. S. B., 1868, 232.
“On a celt from the ossiferous ‘Pliocene’ deposits of the Narbada valley.”—
Pp A. S. B., 1873, 138.
“ Record of the Khairpur Meteorite of 23rd Sept. 1873.”"—J. A. S. B., XLUT.,
pt. 2, 33.
“Exhibition of a Meteorite from Raipur.”—P, A. S. B., 1876, 115.
“Exhibition of Meteorites recently fallen in India, with remarks upon them.’—
P. A. S. B., 1876, 221.
‘Remarks on Himalayan Glaciation.” P. A.S. B., 1877, 3.
“Note on Mr. J. F. Campbell’s remarks on Himalayan Glaciation.’—J. A. S. B.,
XLVI., pt. 2, 17.
“ }exhibition of the new Geological Map of India.”—P. A. S. B., 1878, 124.
“ Exhibition of some Geological specimens from Afghanistan.”—P. A. S. B.,
1880, 3.
** Exhibition of a specimen of rock-salt from the Chakmani Territory.”—P. A. S. B.,
1880, 123.
“* Note on Chloromelanite.’—P. A. S. B., 1883, 80.
“ Ncte on the Reh efflorescence of North-Western India, and on the waters of some
of the rivers and canals.”
“ Lithological Nomenclature.”—Geol. Mag. IV., 83, 1867.
“The Alps and the Himalayas: a Geological comparison.”—Quar. J. Geol. Soc.,
XXIIL., 323, 1867 ; XXIV., 34, 1868; Phil. Mag., XXXIV., 396, 1867.
* On faults in Strata.”—Geol. Mag. VI., 341, 1869, VIJ., 473, 1870.
ie) GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
Geological conditions of India during your tenure of office is maa creditable to your
self, and that it is undouhtedly leading to the development of the mineral resources
of the empire, as well as the material extension of scientific knowledge.”
On Dr. King taking over the directorship in April 1887 from
Mr. Medlicott, he found the staff of the Survey still below the
normal number. The distribution over the vast area of the Indian
Empire was as follows :—
Mr. Foote on special deputation to the Mysore Government.
Mr. Mallet, Museum and Laboratory.
Mr. Hughes, special deputation with the Deccan Company,
Hyderabad.
Mr. Fedden, Vizagapatam.
Mr. Hacket, Rajputana.
Mr. Griesbach, just returned from the Afghan Boundary
Commission.
Mr. Oldham, Salt range.
Mr. Bose, Chattisgarh.
Mr. La Touche, Assam.
Mr. Middlemiss, Himalayas.
Mr. Jones, Upper Burma.
Two of the vacancies were subsequently filled up by the appoint-
ment of Dr. Fritz Noetling (Berlin University) as Palaeontologist,
and of Mr. Philip Lake (Cantab.) as assistant superintendent; on
the other hand, Mr. Huches’s engagement with the Deccan Company
continued until May 1888, and Mr. Griesbach was deputed for two
years to Afghanistan as geologist to the Amir of that country.
Mr. La Touche was also selected for work under the Kashmir
Government. These various calis from Native administrations were
of course in the nature of distinction; nevertheless, they formed an
interruption to the regular work of the Survey. Mr. Foote’s study
of the auriferous veins of Mysore resulted in a lengthy and valuable
report, founded on a rapid tour through the province. Mr. Fedden,
who was transferred to the Madras Presidency at the end of 1886,
took up work in the Vizagapatam district, with the endeavour to
fill in the large unsurveyed gap between the Godavari and the
Ganjam districts in the Northern Circar, and he had been going on
steadily with his work when he suddenly died at Vizagapatam on
the 27th December 1887. He was one of the oldest and most valued
members of the Department, and had only just attained the long
looked-for promotion to the Ist grade.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Vile
Dr. King’s executive work closed with his boring experiences in
the Chattisgarh coal fields, one tract in which, near Korba, yielded
workable coal of good quality. The credit of the find was due to
Sub-assistant Hira Lal. Mr. Hacket continued his researches in
Rajputana, and Mr. Middlemiss steadily and energetically pursued
his proper work in the lower Himalayas about British Garhwal and
Kumaun, the results of which are given in a series of papers in the
** Records.”
On the application of the Kashmir Government for a geologist to
report on the sapphires in Zanskar, Mr. La 'l'ouche was detached
from his recess work in Assam. He was able to work fora month
at the spot which hes just below the snow line, and took the
advantage to examine the Jammu coal, originally discovered by
Mr. Medlicott, on which he was inclined to look hopefully. Mr. E.
J. Jones was fully occupied until the end of the season in examining
the principal coal fields in Upper Burma as well as the metalliferous
mines in the Shan hills, reports on which appeared in the ‘‘ Records.”
Another work by Mr. Jones claiming notice was the 24th volume of
the memoirs “Southern Coal Fields of the Satpura Gondwana
basin.” Mr. R. Lydekker’s description of the ‘‘ Hocene Chelonia
from the “Salt range’* was issued during the year, as well as
Mr. Mallet’s Part IV., ‘“ Mineralogy,’ of the ‘‘ Manual of the
Geology of India,’ a very fitting complement of that important
and useful work.
The Madras gold-bearing rocks occupied Mr. Foote during the
whole of 1888, and his observations thereon were published in the
* Records’ with a map showing the localities of gold occurrence in the
presidency. ‘The area over which these bands of transition rocks
occur in Southern India is enormous, extending N.N.W. and 8.8.E.
over 192 miles, while the number of spots in this huge tract which
have been mined in past times by a so far unknown people is very
remarkable. The story of the struggles and ultimate success of the
Kolar mines, which occur in the easternmost part of the Dharwar
rocks, is well known, and Dr. King favours the conclusion that other
gold fields of equal, if not superior, richness to these are still lying
fallow. The Singareni coal field was successfully exploited by
Mr. Hughes; the area proved greater than that of the Umaria estate
and the Karharbari field; the coal was good steam coal with little
* Jn Series ¥., Vol. 1V., Part I11,, of the “ Paleontologia Indica,”
+ Y 20391. 8
274 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
or no clinker, and containing only the average amount of ash, while
the entire series of the measures is within the easy reach of the
surface.
Mr. Lake was deputed to work out the geology of the west coast
in the long strip of country between Cochin and Karwar. One
noteworthy discovery made was that of an oil shale among the
strata underlying Calicut, indicating a possible relation with the oil
traced in the Alleppi mud bank and the smooth waters adjacent.
Mr. Bose was commissioned to make a thorough examination of the
Gosalpur manganese ores in the Central Provinces. He estimated
the total quantity of pyrolusite (manganese ores) at about 50,000
tons in addition to about 20,000 tons from neighbouring deposits, a
supply which may be described as practically inexhaustible. Mr.
Bose subsequently resumed work in Balaghat among the trausition
and Vindhyan rocks, while Babu Kishen Singh investigated the
limits of the Deccan trap in the Chindwara district, after which he
joimed Mr. Bose in the study of the more intricate but economically
important rocks of Balaghat. Mr. Hacket was unfortunately unable
to extend his observations sufficiently to the westward of Jodhpur
to touch on the Gondwanas. His work lay west of Mount Abu and
the Arvalis, but partly from the increasingly complicated associa-
tion of the very altered rocks in that region, and partly from failing
health which necessitated his retirement from the service, but little
progress was made towards a solution of the geology of the region.
Mr. Oldham procured specimens of flexible sandstone, a very peculiar
decomposition-form of certain quartzites belonging to the transition
series occurring at Kaliana in the Jhind State, for which frequent
inquiry had been made both from Europe and America.
Renewed search for materials required for the development of
the iron industry at the Barakar (Bengal) works was prosecuted by
Mr. Jones, and further progress was made by Babu Hira Lal in
mapping the extensive coal tracts of the western portion of Chota
Nagpur. Portions of the Rampur, Sirgujah, and Lakhanpur coal
fields and of the adjacent area were described; all the coal outerops
were examined and recorded, and assays were made of such seams
as were thought worth trying, some of them giving very fair
results. Attempts were also made to test the capabilities of two
of the coal fields of the Rajmahal hills, but the results were not
thoroughly conclusive. On this point Dr. King remarks that
skilled and experienced miners are rare in India, while boring plant
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 21D
is almost equally difficult to obtain. The best plan for coping with
these difficulties, he suggests, is to vest the conduct of these
operations in the hands of the Geological Survey, who would arrange
for sets of boring and mining plant to be stored at a convenient
centre, the actual duties being entrusted to a mining manager with
a small staff of subordinates, selected in some cases from young
men trained in an engineering school like Sibpur College. By this
means mining questions would be settled more quickly and econo-
mically, and a class of trained reliable men would be gradually
formed in India ready to fill the many posts now filled by highly
paid men imported from England or the Continent.
Dr. King paid a visit to Baluchistan and the Sind frontier to
inspect the coal outcrops and oil resources in those parts. At
Khost on the Sind-Pishin Railway thin seams of tertiary coal were
being worked at the outcrops a mile or so behind the station, but
in face of the very fitful continuity of the coal and the extremely
unstable character of the beds above and below, necessitating a costly
mode of holding up the workings, Dr. King recommended a close
stratigraphical survey of the valley before further extension of the
operations. As to petroleum, that brought to the surface by
Mr. R. A. Townsend at Khatan gave good promise, and Dr. King
says there are other likely localities among certain bands of the
tertiary rocks.
During the year Mr. La Touche’s deputation with the Kashmir
Durbar came to a close; he had not only given valuable information
regarding the sapphire rocks in the Zanskar district, but also on
the Jammu coal and the ironworks and ores near the village of
Soap in the Kashmir valley. On his return through Murree he also
furnished a report on the water supply of the station.
Owing to the demand for latest information respecting the
geological structure of the Himalayas, and to the fact that there
had been no general review of our knowledge thereof since the
publication of the ‘‘ Manual,’ Mr. Oldham put forward a valuable
paper in the “ Records” on the sequence and correlation of the pre-
tertiary sedimentary formation of the Simla region of the Lower
Himalayas. A later paper of his on the geology of the North-
Western Himalayas gives further observations in Spiti, Ladak, and
Kashmir. Mr. Middlemiss also contributed a further paper
(No. III.) on the study of the crystalline and metamorphic rocks
of the Lower Himalayas, Garhwal, and Kumaun.
5 2
276 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
Mr, R. A. Townsend, superintendent of petroleum works in
Baluchistan, was deputed during the rains to look up the oil
indications in the neighbourhood of the Naga hills, the geo-
logical relations of which had already been dealt with in the
papers of Messrs. Medlicott and Mallet. Mr. Townsend’s report
on Makum was very encouraging. ‘The oil fields of Yenang-gyung,
Thayetmyo, and other places in Burma were examined by
Dr. Noetling, though this involved of course the temporary stoppage
of his proper work as paleontologist of the Survey. He also
recognised silurian rocks in the Shan hills, with the limestones of
which is associated a very important and extensive band of iron
ore, and his expedition to the ruby limestone tracts of Madya and
Kya-whyat yielded some satisfactory information. Mr. Hughes on
rejoining the Survey was also posted to Burma. In connexion with
his researches there he made a special visit to the mines of Perak,
after which he investigated the tin ores of Tenasserim.
The publications of the year comprised 16 papers (five of which
were of considerable economic interest) in the ‘‘ Records,” a very
useful bibhography of Indian geology compiled by Mr. Oldham,
and the concluding part of the “ Productus Limestone Fossils of the
Salt Range,” by Dr: Waagen.
At the International Geological Congress held in London in“
September 1888, the Indian Survey was represented by Mr. Medlcott
and Mr. W. T. Blanford, while Mr. Oldham also availed himself
of a brief term of privilege leave to exhibit there specimens of
interest from India. Mr. Blanford had also been officially deputed
by the Government of India to represent the Indian Survey at the
Congress in Bologna in 1881 (see page 255), and at Berlin in 1885.
In 1889 Mr. Foote examined the auriferous tract around
Chiggateri, and considered it well worthy of being systematically
prospected. He also investigated the economic geology of the
Sandur State, where are great beds of hematitic iron ore, affording
a practically inexhaustible supply of iron. The only difficulty in
the way appears to be the scarcity of fuel in the immediate neigh-
bourhood. On the southward slope of the western range of the
Sandur hills, Mr. Foote discovered an important argillite formation
very rich in nodular oxide of manganese or pyrolusite, capable of
being easily mined by open workings on a large scale. Mr. Lake
surveyed a considerable tract extending over some 1,000 square
miles in South Malabar, but was unable to complete the blank still
existing here in the geological map, as he was then transferred to
———
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Qik
Baluchistan to explore for coal and oil. At the close of the working
season, and just as the S.W. monsoon was bursting on the coast,
Mr. Lake was deputed to Alleppi to study the action of the famous
mud banks there.*
The question of utilising the clays and coals occurring in the
neighbourhood of Jabalpur for pottery works has claimed attention
for years past, and Mr. Mallet made an exhaustive examination
which led to the satisfactory result of works being started at
Jabalpur by Messrs. Burn and Co. of Calcutta.+ Mr. Mallet also
made an interesting series of experiments on steatite from various
parts of India. This was in response to a demand preferred by the
Secretary of State, and the tests applied proved that the product of
the Karnul district of Madras was the most likely to compete
successfully with the costly material now imported from Germany.
Dr. King considers that if steps were taken to work quarries the
prospect of this new industry would be very hopeful.
The development of the gold industry in Madras has led to
attention being turned to Chota Nagpur, which from time immemorial
has been known for its native gold washings and occasional: finds of
decided fragments of gold, and a syndicate has been formed to work
the neighbourhood of Sonapet. Geological reports on the subject
already exist from the pen of Mr. V. Ball, but Dr. Noetling has
submitted a reportt containing some further information.
In Extra-peninsular India Mr. HE. J. Jones took up a further
examination of the outcrops of coal in the Sharigh valley, and came
to the conclusion that the Khost seam is still the one which can be
relied upon for fuel for that section of the frontier railway.
Mr. R. D. Oldham has been investigating the coal and oil condition
of the tract traversed by the railway, a task which has for the
present delayed the publication of his work in the Dehra and Simla
portion of the Lower Himalayas. Mr. La Touche was engaged on
more detailed reports on the coal fields of the Khasia and Jaintia
hills, and at the conclusion of the working season he was attached
to the Lushai column of the Chin-Lushai expedition, which investi-
gated the wild and obscure intermediate country between Chittag gong
pid Upper Burma.
* A full account of these banks and of the literature of the subject has been written
by Dr. King, and will be found in the “ Records of the Geological Survey of India,”
Vol. XVII., pp. 14-27.
+ Mr. Mallet’s report appeared in the “ Records” for May 1889.
{ See “ Records” for 1890, Part I.
278 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
The investigation and working of tin in Tenasserim continued
in the hands of Mr. Hughes, and towards the end of the year a
professional staff of Huropeans and Chinese miners were obtained
from the Straits Settlements. The conditions of tin mining in the
Mergui district are fully set forth in Mr. Hughes’s paper in the
“ Records” for August 1889.
In Upper Burma much was done by Dr. Noetling in the
rather rapid explorations which he had to make in regions known
for coal, oil, iron, and precious stones; while so engaged he was
also employed in framing suggestions for the Government for a
code of mineral concessions and leases. His most important works
were reports on the Yenan-gyung oil fields and Chindwin coal field.
In July 1889 Mr. Griesbach returned to India after his tour of
deputation to the Amir of Afghanistan. During his journey in the
previous year up the Logar valley to the Khurd Kabul valley,
Upper Wardak, Cherkh, Kharwar, Zanakhan, Ghazni, &c., the most
interesting geological work was the recognition of at least three
horizons, the rheetie with lithodendron (in Kharwar), the upper
jurassic (or possibly neocomian) plant beds near the Shutargardan,
and finally, well-developed nummulitics in Kharwar and Shilghar.
He examined the copper lodes of the Logar and Khurd Kabul areas,
the magnesite of the Logar and entrance to the Tangi Wardak, the
graphite of Cherkh, the iron and lead ores of Kharwar, and the
argentiferous lead ore of Zanakhan near Ghazni. It turns out also
that the entire Surkhab valley from near Doab-i-Mekhyari to near
Dahana Iskar is practically one big coal field with numerous thick
seams of good coal of triassic and rheetic age.
Dr. Waagen’s further contribution on the Salt range fossils in
Part I., Vol. IV. (Geological Results), was issued at the close of
the year. Several important modifications in the classifications
originally adopted have become necessary, owing to very interesting
discussions of fossils by Dr. Warth, the last and most remarkable
of these discoveries, that of trilobites, having been announced by
Dr. King, in the Records for 1889, p. 153.
During 1890 Mr. Foote, the only officer of the Survey left to
carry on the work in Southern India, completed the examination
of the southern half of the Bellary district,in quest of the auriferous
condition of the Dharwar series. The auriferous indications were,
however, not worthy of particular notice, though considerable
additions were made to the existing knowledge of the occurrences
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 279
of iron ore in the Dharwars. During the construction of the
Bengal-Nagpur Railway, a seam of coal was struck in the founda-
tion of a bridge on the Ib river, in the Central Provinces; but the
coal proved to be not of much better quality than that already
known in the field, though its uniformity and thickness were all
in its favour. In the Bengal Presidency the Daltonganj coal field
became the scene of fresh boring operations, while Mr. Bose
explored the coal area south of Kalimpong, in the Darjeeling district.
As arule, the coal is very high dipping and much crushed, while
faults are numerous; thus the working of it will be very difficult
and precarious. The quality of the coal is, however, good, and a
great part of it can be coked. In Baluchistan, Mr. Oldham added
very considerably to our knowledge of the coal, oil, and water
resources in British Baluchistan, and a special report on the more
favourable sites for petroleum explorations in the Harnai district
was published in the May number of the Records. A hopeful
specimen cf mineral oil was obtained from the Sherani country, and
Mr. Oldham was enabled to visit the spot during the late Zhob
Valley expedition in November last. The oil is clear, limpid, of a —
pale yellow colour, and issues from a band of hard unfossiliferous
sandstone, near Mogulkot, perfectly free from water. Mr. Oldham’s
general conclusions are that there can be no doubt of the existence
of oil of excellent quality and great value in the district, but that it
would be premature to undertake any expensive operations at
present. Exploration for coai in the Baluchistan region has been
“prosecuted in the Bolan valley and in the hills east and south-east
of Quetta. The best coal, as regards both quantity and quality, is
found in the Zarakhu valley.
The elucidation of certain obscure points in the geological history
and structure of the Salt range was left to Mr. Middlemiss, who was
seconded by Mr. Datta; the former also examined the coal tract in
the Hazara country. Tin exploitation is still being carried on in
Tenasserim under Mr. Hughes, but under considerable disadvantages
in the way of climate and insufficient means of communication.
Dr. Noetling has been engaged in directing the demarcation of the
oil-bearing tracts in the Magive, Mingyan, and Pakoku districts,
and in surveying the coal fields, ruby, and tourmaline mines in the
Shan States.
As may be inferred from the foregoing, the larger and more
important results in 1890 were in economic research. Still geological
280 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
investigation has not been allowed to stand still, and some advance
has been made in Baluchistan, the Punjab, and Burma, by Mr.
Oldham, Mr. Middlemiss, and Dr. Noetling. A discovery of fossils
in a series of limestones on the outskirts of the Shan plateau, east
of Mandalay, which he had already noticed as bearing a very strong
resemblance to certain limestones of the lower Silurian system of
Sweden and Western Russia is pronounced by Dr. King to be of the
grearest geological interest and importance as indicating that a
branch or arm of the Arctic portion of the ocean by which the lower
Silurian beds were deposited, reached at least to 22° N. lat. of the
Indo-Chinese peninsula; it is even likely that it extended still
further to the south, as the limestone beds of the Shan hills are
again met in Tenasserim.
Mr. Griesbach was engaged until October 1890 on his Memoir on
the Geology of the Central Himalayas, which will be issued very
shortly ; and has since been attached in the capacity of geologist to
the Miranzai Expedition.
During the same year (1890) the usual volume of the “ Records,”
consisting of 23 papers, has been issued; of these, 12 bear on
industrial or economic subjects. Vol.*X XIII. also contains the second
part (Madras and the North-West Provinces) of the Provisional Index
of the local distribution of important minerals, miscellaneous
minerals, gem stones, and quarry stones in the Indian Empire, which
has been much sought after.
One memoir was published, forming Part 2 of Volume XXIV.
In this, Mr. Middlemiss has contributed much new research to the
physical geology of the Sub-Himalaya of Garhwal and Kumaun.
The remarkable speculation arising out of a sudden deyelop-
ment of interest in the auriferous conditions of the Chota Nagpur
Province has created a great demand for those publications of
the survey which contain even a slight reference to the geology
of that region, and as a consequence, Vol. XVIII., Part 2, of the
Memoirs, and several parts of the volumes of the records are now
out of print.
A complete and detailed index to all the papers published in the
first 20 volumes of the Records has been “prepared during the past
year, and issued quite recently. This publication will prove of the
greatest use to those desirimg to consult the detailed papers on
Indian geological topics. A “ Bibliography of Indian Geology,” or
list of books published up to the end of 1887, has also been
published by Mr. R. D, Oldham.
=~
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 281
The tracts throughout the Indian Empire still awaiting geological
examination are of very large extent. In India proper, south of the
Himalayas, an area of about one-fourth is represented on the latest
“state of progress” map of the Geological Survey as having been
* mapped, reported on, and published.” - It is true that throughout
a considerable area thus represented, the topographical maps used
as a basis for geological surveying were very imperfect, and conse-
quently a more detailed survey may hereafter be necessary. But,
on the other hand, most of the tracts, such as coal fields, demanding
close mapping, have been completed, and an enormous area 1s occupied
by the ailuvial deposits of the Indo-Gangetic plain and by the
Deccan trap, neither of which, so far as is known at present,
requires to be surveyed in detail. The remainder of the unsurveyed
area 1s occupied to a great extent by gneissose rocks, the examina-
tion of which has been postponed partly because of the rarity
amongst them of useful minerals, partly because of the great
difficulties presented by them.
It is very difficult to form a trustworthy comparative estimate of
the work that remains to be done before the geological mapping of
the Indian Peninsula can be regarded as fairly complete, but
probably about half the work of actual mapping remains to be
done. ;
In the Punjab, Kashmir, and Sind, the progress has been greater,
though much of the work (as has been shown in the case of the
Salt range) willneed revision. Baluchistan is almost untouched. The
North-western Himalayas cannot be regarded as nearly half finished,
and of course the range east of Garhwal is, with the exception of
a few sections, chiefly in the lower ranges, geologically unknown.
Of the countries east of the Bay of Bengal, some portions of the
Assam hills and the province of Pegu, with the southern part of
Arakan, have been surveyed, all the remainder of Burma, including
besides Upper Burma, Martaban, and Tenasserim, together with
the enormous tract of country between Burma, the Assam valley,
_ and Eastern Bengal, is unsurveyed.
Roughly, it may be said that west of the meridian of Calcutta,
the mapping is half finished or nearly so; east of the meridian of
Calcutta only a very small proportion of the area, certainly not
more than one-sixth, has been geologically surveyed. A large
amount of exploration and of reporting upon useful minerals has
282 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.
been carried out, but much of this reporting, which delays the
regular work of the survey, and at present appears to have com-
pletely stopped it, is necessary because the survey has not been
extended to the areas on which reports are required.*
There is still great uncertainty as to the total annual yield or
out-turn of the different kinds of minerals in India. With a
view to the improvement of our existing knowledge, a valuable
index of the local distribution of important minerals, miscellaneous
minerals, gem stones, and quarry stones in India, has been prepared
by Dr. King. The primary object of the list was to help the local
authorities in drawing up the returns for an annual statement,
showing the quantities and value of mineral products in British India,
which should be published in the “‘ Mining and Mineral Statisties of
the United Kingdom” of Great Britain and Ireland. The products
themselves are grouped by Dr. King under the following headings :
Important Minerals, including coal, iron ores, gold, petroleum, and
salt; Miscellaneous Minerals, including alum, antimony ores, arsenical
minerals, asbestos, bismuth and cobalt ores, borax, chrome ores,
copper ores, corundum, gypsum, lead ores, magnesia minerals,
manganese ores, mica natron, nitre, ochres, phosphates, platinum,
plumbago, soapstone, soda, salts, sulphur, tin ores, zine ores; Gem
Stones, including amber, beryl, diamond, garnet, jade and jadeite
quartz, &c., rubellite, ruby, sapphire, spinel, and Quarry Stones,
including clays, granite (gneiss, &c.), laterite, limestone (marbles,
kunkar, &c.), slate, and trap.
* Tam indebted to Mr, H. B. Medlicott and Mr. W. T. Blanford, the two greatest
authorities in this country on the subject of Indian geology, for the above statement
respecting the geological work that still remains to be done.
283
xaULD:
INDIAN METEOROLOGY.
The Indian Meteorological Department was officially established
by the Order of the Government of India, in the Department of
Revenue, Agriculture, and Commerce, No. 56 of the 27th
September 1875. A few months before that, Mr. H. F. Blanford,
F.R.S., the Reporter and head of the Department, had made a tour
through Berar, the Central and the North-West Provinces, Oudh, the
Punjab, Bengal, and subsequently the Madras Presidency and the
Nizam’s dominions, visiting the principal observatories, and taking
steps to supply stations with instruments in which they were
deficient, to get all the barometers satisfactorily compared, and to
obtain trustworthy determinations of the elevations of the instru-
ments above sea-level.
At the time of the establishment of the Department there were
84 observatories in India and its dependencies (exclusive of Ceylon).
Two of these (a private observatory at Vizagapatam, and one
established by the Portuguese Government at Goa) were inde-
pendent of the British Government; eight were under special
superintendents, or attached to special Government departments,
and 74 were administered by local meteorological reporters or by
the provincial sanitary commissioners. The observatories were
very unequally distributed, being somewhat overcrowded in the
alluvial Sub-Himalayan plain, and unduly sparse over the whole of
Western India and some parts of the peninsula. But much valuable
information on the meteorology of the country might, nevertheless,
have been gathered from them, had the resulting data been com-
parable and accessible to persons in other presidencies.
Neither of these conditions were fulfilled, however, except
partially and very imperfectly, and up to 1876 it had been
impossible to collect and utilise the registers for discussing the
meteorology of India as a whole,
284 INDIAN METEOROLOGY.
The reorganisation of the department, which was sanctioned on
the lines suggested by Mr. Blanford, involved :—
1. A redistribution of the observatories, and the provision of
suitable additional stations. Except under some special conditions,
it was proposed to arrange ag uniform a distribution of the obser-
vations as the circumstances of the country would admit of.
2. The rendering the data from all observatories comparable
inter se and also with those of known standards. To accomplish this,
a rigorous comparison of the instruments was requisite, uniformity
in the mode of their exposure and methods of reduction, and a
knowledge of the surroundings of each station.
3. The establishment of one or two observatories of a higher
class in the interior as well as on the coasts of India, to furnish
detailed and continuous registers, and also serve as depots for
verifying instruments, training observers for the minor stations, &c.
4. To more effectually supervise the work of all observatories,
by relieving the local reporters of a large part of their former
duties, which were henceforth to be undertaken by the General
Department. Also to provide an additional local reporter for
Western India.
5. To bring together the materials furnished by the observatories
in all parts of India, and, as far as possible, from adjacent regions,
for the purpose of discussion and publication, and this with the
least possible delay.
The number of observatories was to be raised to 95, eight of the
former observatories being abolished and 22 new stations being
established.
The whole were divided into three classes, as follows :—
I. Three first-class observatories, at Calcutta, Allahabad, and
Lahore, in addition to the Madras and Colaba observatories, which
were to remain under the independent management of their own
superintendents. These new observatories were to be furnished
with self-recording instruments; that of Calcutta with barograph,
thermograph, &c., similar to those of the Kew observatory, and
those of Allahabad and Lahore with the meteorograph of M. Van
Rysselberghe. These observatories were to be under the immediate
charge of the reporters.
II. Twenty-one second-class observatories, at which (with two
exceptions, viz., False Point and Saugor Island) observations were to
INDIAN METEOROLOGY. 285
be recorded hourly, from midnight to midnight, on four days in each
month, and at 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. on all other days. The chief
object of this arrangement was to ascertain the diurnal variation of
the chief elements and to furnish the means of correcting registers
to true daily mean values. These stations were also to be furnished
with self-recording anemometers. ‘hey were as follows :—
2 in Assam - - - Sibsagar and Goalpara.
6 in Bengal - - - Patna, Hazaribagh, Cuttack,
False Point, Saugor Island,
and Chittagong.
2 in North-West Provinces - Agra and Rurki.
1 in Oudh - = - Lucknow.
3 in Central Provinces - Nagpur, Jabalpur, and Pach-
marhi.
4in Bombay - - - Belgaum, Poona, Disa, and
Karachi.
2in Madras” - - - Bellary and Trichinopoly.
1 in Burma - 2 - Rangoon.
At False Point and Saugor Island stations, which were established
chiefly for warnings of storms, the orginal plan of six-hourly
observations at 4 and 10 a.m. and p.m. was retained,
Ill. Seventy-one third-class observatories, at which two sets of
observations of the principal instruments were to be recorded daily,
at 10 a.m. and 4 p.m.
The publications of the Meteorological Department were to
consist of an annual report on the meteorology of India for each
calendar year, giving the abstract of the registers of all stations,
together with a discussion of the meteorological features of the
year, illustrated by charts of temperature, pressure, and wind
directions, and also the original observations (corrected and reduced)
of some of the more important stations. The other departmental
serial was to be termed “ Indian Meteorological Memoirs,’ and to
include such of the work of the officers of the department as did
not properly come within the scope of the annual report.
The library of the Bengal Meteorological Office was transferred
to the general office, and was thus rendered available for both
departments. It has since been greatly enlarged by purchases and
presentations of works.
During the following year (1876-77) 11 new stations were
founded, and an important improvement was effected in the work
286 INDIAN METEOROLOGY.
of the older observatories, by the verification of all the thermo-
meters and the withdrawal of all inferior instruments. A first
instalment of the tabulated observations in Indian seas, extracted
from the meteorological log-books in the Marine Department of
the British Meteorological Office, was received during the same
year, and proved to be of such extent and value that Mr. Blanford
strongly recommended the speedy completion of the work.
Progress was also made in the collation of the registers of rainfall
in former years. Unfortunately, the records for Northern India,
ranging from 1851 to 1860, had been made over to the Messrs. Von
Schlagintweit, to aid them in the preparation of their work on
magnetic and meteorological observations in India, and although
application was made to Mr. Hermann Von Schlagintweit-Saktilunski
for the return of the original registers, that gentleman practically
declined to let them go, except on conditions which were held to be
unreasonable. Eventually, however, on Mr. Blanford’s proceeding
on furlough to Europe, he availed himself of the opportunity to
visit Munich and obtain copies of the registers in question.
The meteorology of 1876 possessed a sinister interest in that in
the two southern presidencies the failure of the annual rains was
followed by wide-spread suffering and a heavy mortality, while
Bengal was visited by a terrible storm flood of almost unprecedented
destructiveness. With respect to the rainfall, it is certain that
from an early period of 1876 the distribution of pressure in the
Punjab and the Indus valley must have weakened, and perhaps
diverted, the summer monsoon that reaches India from the Arabian
Sea, and have given prevalence to the dry westerly winds that, as a
normal feature of the hot season, blow from Baluchistan across a
considerable part of the Bombay Presidency. Other causes also were
probably at work, but the mere fact that a great disturbance in the
normal distribution of the rainfall is found to accompany an
abnormal distribution of pressure, which distribution was manifested
some months in anticipation of the rainy season, is of considerable
importance.
A manual of instruction for the guidance of meteorological
observers was completed and issued during the year, together with
the tables of reduction specially drawn up for use in India. To
supplement this and encourage inquiry, a sketch of the meteorology
of India, accompanied by an introductory chapter on the physical
laws of the atmosphere and an outline of the physical geography of
India, was prepared by Mr. Blanford, the whole forming an octavo
INDIAN METEOROLOGY. 287
volume of about 300 pages, and published under the title of the
* Indian Meteorologist’s Vade Mecum.”
Besides the Report on the Meteorology of India in 1875, the
publications issued during the year were—
Part I. of the Indian Meteorological Memoirs, containing three
papers, Viz. :—
(a.) On the winds of Calcutta ;
(b.) On the climate and meteorology of Kashghar and
Yarkand ;
(c.) On the diurnal variation of barometric pressure at
Simla.
Part I. of the Indian Meteorologist’s Vade Mecum.
The Meteorological Office for Bengal also published Mr. J. Hliot’s
report on the Vizagapatam and Bakarganj cyclones of October
1876. In this report, Mr. Hhot gave a very full discussion of the
formation and progress of these two storms, based on data collected
partly from ships which encountered the storm and partly from the
registers of the coast observatories. He also gave an account of the
disastrous flood which submerged the low alluvial tracts at the mouth
of the Meghna. But perhaps the most valuable part of the report was
that which dealt with the formation of cyclones. Previous theories
had laid it down that cyclones originated from the action of two
opposing winds, which resulted in a rotatory action. But as the winds
preceding the formation of a cyclone are generally very light, this
was practically a mechanical impossibility. Mr. Hliot’s theory, on
the other hand, ascribes the formation to the continued precipitation
of rain raising the temperature of the cloud-forming strata by the
emission of the latent heat of the condensed vapour and lowering
the atmospheric pressure.
Mr. N. R. Pogson published a tabular statement during the year
of the rainfall registered at the Madras Observatory in every month
during the previous 62 years. The data in this table were discussed
by Mr. W. W. Hunter, with special reference to the supposed
periodicity of droughts and famines in Southern India, in a
pamphlet which obtained a large circulation and attracted very
general interest. Mr. Blanford, however, after investigating the
question with a wider field of materials, was compelled to conclude
that Mr. Hunter’s results required some limitation.
The following year (1877-78) was marked by an important
addition to the work of the Department, 7.c., the transmission by
post daily of the 10 a.m. readings from nearly all the observing
288 INDIAN METEOROLOGY.
stations. As, however, several of the distant observatories com-
municated very slowly with Calcutta, the charts compiled from these
giving the isobars, isotherms, wind direction, and rainfall were neces-
sarily often a fortnight in arrear. But as a step towards the trans-
mission of weather reports daily by telegraph, and the eventual
publication of weather probabilities, the new departure was important.
It also enabled the reporter to exercise a continuous and most useful
supervision over the daily work of each observer.
Altogether, on the 3lst March 1878, there were 103 observatories
at work in India and its dependencies (excluding Ceylon), and one
in the Persian Gulf. All, except the private observatories, were
furnished with barometers and thermometers, carefully verified and
adjusted to those of the well-known standards in India or in
Europe, and the elevations of by far the greater number of the
barometers had been ascertained with great accuracy, while the
preparation by the central office of the daily charts from the postal
returns was already beginning to throw light on the connexion
between the seasonal and daily atmospheric changes over the whole
of India.
Besides the General Report on the Meteorology of India for 1876,
and Part IL. of the Indian Meteorologist’s Vade Mecum, Part II.
of the Indian Meteorological Memoirs was issued, containing the
following papers :—
1. Storms in Bengal in 1876, with increased atmospheric pressure.
By J. Ehot, M.A.
. On the rainfall of Benares in relation to the prevailing winds.
By 8. A. Hill, B.Sc.
3. On the diurnal variation of the barometer at Calcutta and
Hazaribagh. By H. F. Blaaford.
Mr. Blanford also drew up from all the accessible records a
catalogue of the cyclones of the Bay of Bengal. This was com-
municated to the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
bo
A system of issuing daily reports of the weather in all parts of
India was set on foot experimentally by Mr. Ehot on the 15th June
1878, the observations recorded at 10 a.m. being telegraphed to
Simla. To facilitate the transmission of these reports, a special
telegraphic code was devised by Mr. Eliot and Mr. Pedler, which
gave the whole of the requisite information in six words.
This system was found so satisfactory that it was determined to
extend it to all observatories having telegraphic communication,
INDIAN METEOROLOGY. 289
and furthermore to supplement it by an extended system of report
of the rainfall from stations other than those provided with
meteorological observatories. Arrangements were also made for
transferring to the Meteorological Department the duty of working
the time-bali on the semaphore tower of Fort William, which had
been previously performed by the Surveyor-General’s Department.
An important incident of the year was a tentative forecast of the
character of the monsoon season, made by Mr. Eliot (who officiated
for Mr. Blanford during his absence on furlough). The retardation
of the monsoon rains in 1878, following on their almost complete
failure in the North-West Provinces in the previous year, was a
cause of grave anxiety. Mr. Eliot’s opinion, on examination of the
whole subject, was that the advent of the rains would probably be
retarded, but that they would be more equally distributed than in
previous years. This prediction was borne out by the results.
The work sanctioned by the Secretary of State in 1875, of
copying the ship observations relating to the Indian seas that had
accumulated in the Marine Department of the London Meteorological
Office, was fast approaching completion, and by it the basis of a
knowledge of the general meteorology of the adjacent seas, com-
parable to the existing knowledge of the land observatories, was
being laid. The observations of the Department had finally
dissipated some of the long prevalent errors respecting the Indian
monsoons, such as, for instance, the idea that the summer monsoon
of India is caused by the heat of Central Asia, and blows towards
that region. But with respect to the seas, there was still no
accurate knowledge of the origin of the summer wind, and it was
still doubtful whether the general body of the southern trade winds
crossed the equator and fed the monsoon, or whether, on the other
hand, the North Indian Ocean was not the chief source of the
vapour supply, and the connexion of the monsoon with the southern
trades only fortuitous and partial. Another problem awaiting
solution in the study of the meteorological marine logs was the
possible deficiency of pressure over parts of the ocean as bearing
on land droughts such as those of 1876.
Owing to the increasing attention attaching to the connexion
between solar physics and meteorology (a matter discussed so long ago
as the beginning of the century by Sir John Herschel), Mr. Blan-
ford entered into communication with Professors Norman Lockyer and
Balfour Stewart, and, at their suggestion, obtained the Secretary of
State’s sanction for the purchase of a new form of actinometer for
1 ¥ 20321. aN
290 INDIAN METEOROLOGY.
measuring the solar heat. Mr. Blanford also took the opportunity
during his stay in Europe to study and practise the process of solar
photography as elaborated on a large scale by Mr. Janssen, the
Director of the Physical Observatory at Meudon.
Mr. Meins, a trained solar photographer, had been despatched to
India in 1877, and was engaged in taking daily photographs of the
sun’s disc up to the date of his death in 1879. This unfortunate event
caused a delay of nine months, but at the close of 1879, Sergeant
White, of the Royal Engineers, was sent to India to continue the
work, under the superintendence of Mr. J. B. N. Hennessey, M.A.,
F.R.S. A large photo-heliograph, suitable for taking pictures of
the solar disc 12 inches in diameter, was subsequently supplied to
the Dehra Observatory under the direction of the Surveyor: General’s
Department (see page 234).
The Report on the Meteorology of 1877 was prepared by
Mr. Ehot. Like the Reports of the two previous years, it included
a general description of the meteorological features of the year,
with comparative tables showing the average values of the several
meteorological elements derived from past years, and the anomalies
or differences in 1887, descriptions of the newly-established
stations, and the geographical co-ordinates and elevations of ail
stations. The report was illustrated by 12 charts in coloured
lithography, showing the mean distribution of temperature,
atmospheric pressure, and wind direction in each month of the
year. According to a notice in the Journal of the Austrian
Meteorological Society, under the very competent editorship of
Professor Hann, the annual volume on the Meteorology of India
at this time already ranked with that of the Russian Empire in the
extent and comprehensiveness of its data, while it appeared at a
very much earlier date.
Part III. of the Meteorological Memoirs was issued in 1879,
contaiming the following papers :—
1. On the variations of rainfall in Northern India by
S. A. Hill, B.Se.
2. Meteorological and hypsometrical observations in Western
Tibet, recorded by Dr. J. Scully, with a discussion by
Henry F. Blanford.
Mr. Eliot also published a Report on the Madras cyclone of 1875.
The year 1879-80 completed the first lustrum of the existence of
the Department. Up to March 1880, 117 stations in India and
neighbouring countries had been established, not including the
INDIAN METEOROLOGY. 291
observatories in Ceylon. There still remained, however, some
portions of the country in which they were somewhat sparsely
scattered, but most of these were the wilder tracts where no suitable
stations existed.
The Famine Commission Report issued during the year 1880-81,
gave emphatic expression to the objects of the department and the
practical importance of meteorology. After giving a summary of
what is known respecting the distribution of rainfall in India and
the variations to which it is subject, the Commissioner remarked :—
« As at present no power exists of foreseeing the atmospheric changes effective in
producing the rainfall, or of determining beforehand its probable amount in any season,
such as would admit of timely precautions being taken against impending drought, the
necessity becomes the greater for watching with close attention the daily progress of
each season as it passes, for ascertaining with accuracy and promptitude the actual
quantity of 1ain in all parts of the country, and for forming the best and earliest judg-
ment possible from the facts as they occur, whether the supply will be sufficient or
otherwise. For the present, at least, as far as the rainfall directly affects the subject
under consideration, these are the only precautions that appear possible. Within the
last few years a very satisfactory system of meteorological observations has been
established all over British India, and, in our opinion, it is of primary importance that
it shall be maintained in complete efficiency, and shali so far be strengthened aad
improved as to ensure the early and punctual supply of information to the executive
Governments, and to the officials in all departments concerned with the agriculture of
the country, or the preparations required to meet famines, as to the actual progress of
the periodical seasons of rain in all parts of the provinces, for which these Govern-
ments or officers are respectively responsible. So far as it may become possible with
the advance of knowledge to form a forecast of the future, such aids should be made
use of, though with due caution.
“ We are also satisfied of the importance of the diffusion of more sound and accurate
knowledge of the causes and mode of occurrence of the periodical rains, on which
the well-being of India is so largely dependent, not only among the officers of the
Government but also among all classes of the community. Any measures which the
Goyernment may find possible with a view to the publication and diffusion of such
knowledge cannot fail to be highly beneficial.”
In the annual return of the rainfall prepared in 1879 for the
information of the Secretary of State, considerable tracts were
unrepresented, owing to the absence of registers. Measures were
therefore taken during the following year to supply these deficien-
cies, and to establish rain-gauge stations in the Tributary Mehals of
Orissa, Chutia Nagpur, South Rewa, the eastern districts of the
Central Proyinces, Jaipur, Bastar, and also in Khairpur, on the
borders of Sind. An endeavour was made to do the same in
Western Rajputana. Rainfall registers for the past six years were
also obtained from several stations in Haidarabad, so that this
territory was as well represented as most other parts of India.
WB
292 INDIAN METEOROLOGY.
A system of storm-warning, by means of telegraphic report to
Bombay from seven stations on the west and three stations on the
east coast, was brought into operation on the 13th June, the inclu-
sion of eastern stations being rendered necessary, as it was known
that the storms which are felt on the west coast of India originate
in many cases over the Bay of Bengal. In Bengal an improvement
in the provincial system of reports was introduced by Mr. Elot, the
number of stations sending daily telegrams to Caicutta being increased
from 7 to 15. All with the exception of Dacca were situated on the
coasts of the Bay of Bengal. Arrangements were also made for
lithographing the Calcutta daily reports and issuing them about
3 p.m. to the port authorities, the chamber of commerce, merchants,
and newspapers. ‘The reports were accompanied by a lithographed
chart of the Bay of Bengal.
The observations of the temperature of the ground at Alipore, at
the surface, and at depths of 1 foot and 3 feet respectively, disclosed
the fact that the mean annual temperature of the ground was not
less than 5° in excess of that of the air. These observations also
showed that the ground acts as a reservoir of the heat received from
the sun, which it stores up and slowly gives forth to the atmosphere.
Subsequent research showed that the ground temperature is subject
to slow but not inconsiderable fluctuations, which depend evidently
much more on the rainfall than on any variation in the radiant
intensity of the sun. ‘The importance of these deductions, from an
agricultural point of view, led to the institution of similar observa-
tions at Allahabad.
The remaining portion of the observations extracted from the
meteorological logs in the possession of the London office was
received in 1880-81. It consisted of all the observations recorded
in Indian seas north of the equator, between Hast longitude 50°
and 100° up to the end of the year 1878, and the data were reduced,
corrected, and tabulated according to the months and squares of
1° latitude and longitude, and arranged in 154 data books, one for
each 10° square in each month. The discussion of this large
mass of material therefore now became possible, and was eventually
undertaken by a special officer, Mr. Dallas, who had been trained in
the London Meteorological Office, and was appointed, partly for this
purpose, in 1882.
Part IV. of the Indian Meteorological Memoirs was published
during the year. It contained a paper by Mr. F. Chambers on the
winds of Karachi. being a discussion of three years anemographic
INDIAN METEOROLOGY. 293
records at that station, illustrated by eight plates. Mr. Hill pub-
lished a table giving the monthly total rainfall at each station in the
North-West Provinces for 1880, the number of rainy days in each
month and the average monthly rainfall of each place.
Owing to the prevalence of haze in fine dry weather, the actino-
metric observations taken for two years at Alipore were less
successful than had been hoped for, and on the recommendation of
the Solar Physics Committee, Leh, in Ladak, was selected as being
situated, as was hoped, inaclearer atmosphere and at a height above
the disturbing influences of the haze of the plains.
During the year Mr. Eliot devised a new and improved system of
storm signals for the port and signalling stations on the Hugli,
below the port. The knowledge of such storms had by this time
advanced sufficiently to enable Mr. Eliot to a certain extent to predict,
their course, a‘matter of great importance to outgoing ships. The new
system of signalling made provision for this specialinformation. In
connexion with the Bombay storm-warning system Mr. I’. Chambers
drew up an interesting list of some 70 storms of the west coast,
which was published in Vol. II., Part 1, of the Indian Meteorological
Memoirs.
In 1881 Miss E. Isis Pogson was appointed meteorological super-
intendent to the Government of Madras, a step which resulted in
the prompter transmission of the Madras registers to headquarters,
and less delay in the preparation of the annual report.
The first volume of the Meteorological Memoirs was completed by
the publication of Parts V. and VI., containing two papers by
Mr. Hill on the Meteorology of Allahabad and on that of the North-
western Himalaya, and a discussion of the hourly observations of
the barometer at Goalpara, Patna, and Leh, by Mr. Blanford,.
The following year was marked by efforts to obtain information
respecting the extent and thickness of the Himalayan snows, a
physical feature which appeared to exercise considerable influence
on the meteorology of the plains, and to which attention was first
directed in 1877. In April 1882, a communication was made by the
Government of India to the local governments of the northern
provinces, requesting that the attention of the civil officers and
Residents of Hull States might be particularly directed to this
matter, and it was recommended that monthly reports on the
state of the snows on the passes and higher ranges of the interior
should be drawn up from information obtained from native traders,
travellers, and others, and communicated to the central office.
294 INDIAN METEOROLOGY. ~
The observed facts are thus described by Mr. Blanford :—
“A fall of snow on the hills is followed, as scon as the weather clears, by a consider-
able rise of pressure over the mountains, and frequently ulso over the north-western
plains, and this rise is accompanied by a steady wind on the plains, from north along
the foot of the hills; from north-west on the more distant plains. In the cold weather
and early spring, when there is often rain simultaneously on the plains, there is also a
considerable fall of temperature ; but in April frequently, and generally in May, there
is no vain on the plains, and any fall of temperature is restricted to the immediate
neighbourhood of the hills. In these months the cooling effect of the snow is local,
but it is also persistent ; and since the snow reflects a large portion of the sun’s rays,
and that which is absorbed does not raise the temperature of the surface, nor that of
the air resting on it, above the freezing point, this air remains denser than it would be
over a bare rock surface. Jt floats away as a north-west wind at a high level, towards
the plains communicating its high pressure and southward movement to the lower
strata, and thus the whole mass of dry air moves towards the region of low pressure
(which then exists over the plains of Behar, Bengal, and the peninsula), constituting
the dry land winds, usually characteristic of the spring, and in seasons of unusual
snowfall lasting into the summer months. These winds are hot, the heat being
absorbed from the dry strongly-heated land surface, and the lower strata, thus heated,
mingle by convection with the bigher, while the latter descending are also heated,
partly by the compression, which the air necessarily undergoes, partly by beinz
brought within the heating influence of the ground.”
During the same year a chart of the average rainfall of India was
drawn on a map of 64 miles to the inch and displayed at the
Amsterdam Exhibition, and also prepared for reproduction by
lithography. The chart accompanying it shows the names of 985
places, with the average rainfall of each to the nearest integral inch,
while the distribution of rainfall is shown by eight tints, representing
respectively the areas with an annual fall below 5 inches and successive
increments up to above 100 inches. The only general rainfall charts
of India previously published were, first, that drawn in 1872 by Dr.
(now Sir) D. Brandis, the late Inspector-General of Forests, when
engaged in the preparation of his work on the Indian Forest Flora,
and published in Vol. II., No. 7, of Ocean Highways, and, second,
a revised edition of the same chart, prepared in Mr. Blanford’s
office and published in 1878.
Progress was made by Mr. Blanford with the discussion of the
rainfall data of past years and by Mr. Eliot in the study of the
origin and development of storms, by his paper (printed in Part I.,
Volume II., of the Indian Meteorological Memoirs) on a small
cyclonic storm which originated over the Bay of Bengal, and thence
travelled northwards across Bengal in the third week of November
1878. He showed that the origin, existence, and motion of the
storm were due entirely to the atmospheric conditions of the area
INDIAN METEOROLOGY. 295
which it actually traversed, and the course of the cyclone across
Bengal took place where the air-motion was relatively least, prior to
its advent.
The arrival of Mr. W. L. Dailas, appointed Scientific Assistant
to the Meteorological Reporter to the Government of India, enabled
the important work of reducing and discussing for publication the
marine meteorological observations collected during the 20 years
1856-75 by the London Meteorological Office to be taken up, and
a beginning was made with the barometic and wind data of the Bay
of Bengal for the month of January.
With regard to the collection of current meteorological data for
the Bay of Bengal this was undertaken by Mr. Eliot. Observations
were regularly recorded with duly verified instruments on board the
light-ships off the mouth of the Hugli, and a form of return
showing the meteorological information which it is desired to
obtain was handed to the captain of every vessel. A large number of
captains duly responded to this appeal, and information of great
value was derived from their returns On the whole the extracts
proved that the weather in the whole extent of the bay (excluding
the Andaman sea) was fairly indicated by the observations taken at
the coast stations, and that the progress of every important storm
might be traced and followed with more or less exactness, almost
from its origin, from the shore observations.
Among the more important incidents of the year 1883-84 should
be mentioned the arrival of Sergeant Rowland and Mr. Shaw at
Ich, in November 1883, for the purpose of instituting actinometric
observations there. For some months previously they had been
undergoing most valuable training at the hands of Mr. Hennessey
at Dehra.
A body of valuable information with regard to the question of
the influence of the Himalayan snowfall on the dry westerly winds
in Northern India was obtained from officers stationed in the Hill
States, and the abnormal features of the snowfall in the spring and
winter months enabled Mr. Blanford to frame forecasts with regard
to the duration and nature of the dry winds in the plains, which
were fairly justified by the events. During the year observatories
were established at Kailang, in Lahul, at an elevation of 10,000 feet
above the sea, and to the north of the second survey range, and also
at Chamba.
Among the more notable publications of the year were Part II. of
Vol. II. of the Indian Meteorological Memoirs, containing a memoir
296 INDIAN METEOROLOGY.
by Mr. Blanford on the storms of the west coast and on the
land-formed cyclone of Gujrat of July 188], and a very
important paper by Mr. Hill on the normal temperature of
Northern India.
The observatories in existence in 1880-85 were classified by
Mr. Blanford as follows :—
Low-level observatories in India.
Hill observatories.
Himalayan valley observatories.
Extra-Indian observatories.
Ships.
Of the first four classes there had been 117 in 1880, and these
were increased to 128 in 1885. exclusive of 22 observatories in
Bengal, which were established in connexion with the provincial
system of telegraphic weather report.
The actinometric observations at Leh, after 17 months, did not
prove so successful as had been anticipated, for owing to the cloudi-
ness of the skies, Leh turned out, during a large part of the year, to
be even a less favourable station than Mussoorie. Fifty-two com-
plete sets of three daily observations and six long series, together
with 64 imperfect sets of the former and 14 of the latter, were the
total result of the 17 months’ work. It was, therefore, deemed in-
expedient to continue the experiment, and arrangements were made
for Sergeant Rowland and Mr. Shaw to return to India at the close
of the season.
Before 1884 all the officers of the department had been Europeans,
who had either received a special education in science or had been
trained in the technical work of a meteorological office. During
that year it was resolved as an experiment to train an educated
native to prepare the daily weather reports. Lalla Ruchi Ram
Sahni, a native of the Punjab, who had taken his B.A. degree in
Physical Science and had passed for an M.A. degree, was selected
for the post.
In the spring of 1884 the snows on the North-Western Himalayas
were more extensive and later than they had been in any previous
year since 1878, and Mr. Blanford, predicted a somewhat retarded or
weak and interrupted monsoon. So far as the rains of the early
part of the monsoon of North-Western India were concerned the
forecast was fully justified by the events. After a general burst in
the latter part of June the rains of all Western and North-Western
INDIAN METEOROLOGY. 297
India were entirely suspended for three weeks or more, and even up
to August they were somewhat defective in the Punjab. But the
conditions there existing did not operate throughout the whole of
the monsoon and the latter months brought abundant rain. Nothing
was said in the forecast respecting the deficiency of the Bengal
rainfall in the latter part of the season, nor that of the Deccan
and Carnatic. The causes of that deficiency were obscure, and,
therefore, reserved for future investigation.
On the 26th July 1884, heavy floods occurred in the rivers Tapti
and Narbada, which resulted in the submergence of a portion of
the city of Surat. These were followed on the 31st by the flooding
of the Subarmati, Mahi, and neighbouring rivers which discharge
into the gulf of Cambay, causing serious breaching of the Bombay
and Baroda Railway. Again, on the 3rd September, the same rivers
were in flood with like disastrous consequences. All these floods,
and also a flood which occurred in September 1882, were the
consequences of small cyclones of the south-west monsoon type,
which either travelled to Western India from Bengal or the Central
Provinces, or in the last instance had travelled up the west coast at
the end of August. It was accordingly arranged that the super-
intendents of observatories situated near the head waters of the
Tapti and Narbada should be instructed that in the event of the
rainfall exceeding 3 inches in the 24 hours an urgent telegram
should be sent to certain Bombay officers, and also that premonitory
warnings should be sent from the Simla, giving notice of the
approach of a storm to the Central Provinces, Central India, and
Gujrat. At the same time the Meteorological Reporter from
Western India was requested to take up the question of the floods
and investigate the circumstances attending their origin, with a view
to the greater efficiency of the system.
An important addition was made during the year under review
by Mr. J. Eliot to his previous admirable work on the law of storms.
Taking as his basis the daily weather charts of India, drawn up in
the office since 1877, he took out the track of every storm generated
over the Bay of Bengal between the months of May and December,
during the five years 1877-81 (46 in all), and discussed them in a
memoir of 216 quarto pages, illustrated by seven plates, issued as
Part IV. of Vol. Il. of the Indian Meteorological Memoirs.
In regard to marine meteorology, Mr, Dallas completed, during
1884-85, the set of monthly charts showing the distribution of
barometric pressure, the prevalent winds, and marine currents of the
298 INDIAN METEOROLOGY.
Bay of Bengal. The January chart was lithographed on a reduced
scale as a specimen of the work, and circulated to the port officers,
Marine Weather Institutes, and some ship commanders for criticism,
some valuable suggestions being offered in reply.
Up to 1835 the daily weather reports had been issued at Simla
from the lst May to the 1st October, and at Calcutta during the cold
season, but in this year it was arranged for the work to be carried
on permanently at Simla in future.
Before 1885 there were only three observatories fully equipped
with autographic instruments for furnishing either a continuous
register or one repeated at short intervals: these were the Govern-
ment observatories at Calcutta (Alipore), Bombay (Colaba), and the
Maharajah’s observatory at Jaipur. During 1885-6 a fourth was
established at Allahabad, and a portion of the instruments for a fifth
at Lahore were received shortly after, a suitable building having
been already provided.
Some further additions were made to the stations transmitting
regular returns of rainfall to the Central Office, some being of
especial value as representing the arid region of Western Rajputana,
which but a few years since was an almost complete blank on the
charts of recorded rainfall. Improved returns of the Himalayan
snowfall were also received from hill stations on the north and
western frontiers.
Attempts had been made to estimate the prospects of the monsoon
rains from the snowfall reports, and the wind and pressure distribu-
tion in the period immediately before the rainy season in each of the
preceding two or three years. In 1885, Mr. Blanford’s prediction
on the 21st May was that the influx of the monsoon rains on the
west coast and in Southern and Western India generally would be
retarded, and this was amply borne out by the subsequent history of
the season.
Some time before Dr. Brandis’s retirement from the office of
Inspector-General of Forests with the Government of India, he
conferred with Mr. Blanford as to the establishment of observatories
in connexion with the forests, with a view to ascertaining the effect
of forests more especially on temperature and rainfall. As a result
an observatory was established at the Forest School at Dehra Dun,
which should serve as a model for the forest observatories and also
as a training school for observers. In July 1884, the first pair of
comparative observatories was started at the Forest Nursery, Ajmir,
in the following years various other pairs were established near
INDIAN METZOROLOGY. 299
Ajmir and Dehra. The tendency of the results was to show that
the existence of forest increases the rainfall. My. Ribbentrop, the
officiating Inspector-General of Forests with the Government of
India, starting from the fact that extensive tracts of forest, previously
devastated by jungle fires with a view to the nomadic system of
cultivation practised by the hill tribes, had been brought under
protection in 1875, and that thereby the area of vigorous forest
growth had been enormously increased, was led to inquire whether
this measure had sensibly affected the rainfall. Mr. Blanford’s data
showed that the rainfall of the years subsequent to 1875, when
compared with that anterior to that date, manifested a large increase,
attributable to the preservation of forests. Subsequently, however,
some doubt was thrown on the trustworthiness of the registers of
the earlier years, which had led to this conclusion.
On the 22nd September 1885, a cyclone, small in extent, but
accompanied by a high storm, devastated the settlement of Hukitolla,
at False Point, in Orissa. The terrible destruction of life and
property which resulted from this storm, aroused public attention
to the subject of storm warnings to the coast ports, and led to the
adoption of measures for extending the system. It was therefore
arranged that whenever the telegraphic reports showed the existence
of a storm over the bay, an intimation to that effect should be sent
to the port officers of the chief places on the Indian coast, who should
be instructed to depend on their own observations of the wind and
barometer for taking all necessary precautions.
During 1885-86, Part I. of Vol. III. of the Meteorological
Memoirs was issued, containing the first part of a memoir on the
rainfall of India. Three other memoirs, viz., one by Mr. Eliot,
on the Akyab cyclone of the 12th to the 17th May 1884; one by
Mr. Blanford, on the diurnal variations of the rainfall of Caleutta ;
and one by Mr. Dallas, on the meteorology of a sea tract to the south
of the Bay of Bengal, were also printed.
As a consequence of the annexation of Upper Burma, an enormous
tract of country, of the meteorology of which scarcely anything
was previously known, was in the same year brought under the
operations of the department. Three fully equipped meteorological
observatories were established at Mandalay, Bhamo, and Kindat,
and in addition rainfall registers were received for a portion of
the year from ten other stations. ‘The three principal observatories,
however, very inadequately represented the enormous tract added to
our possessions, and it was felt that it would be soon necessary to
300 INDIAN METEOROLOGY.
increase their number. One other observatory commenced work
during the year, 7.e., at Coco Island, which, being situated between
Diamond Island and Port Blair, and close to the cradle of most of
the violent storms that occur at the change of the monsoon, formed
a valuable addition to the Indian system.
Preparations were also made for establishing an observatory
at Baghdad, in connexion with the British Political Residency, and
proposals were also afoot with respect to a fresh observatory at
Srinagar.
Se AG Eb hisq-, |
B.Sc., E.R. Met. | |
Soc. |
W.L. Dallas, Esq. - |
A.
Esq.
S. Hutchinson, |
Miss Isis Pogson, F.R.
Met. Soc.
|
Dr. G. C. Chesnaye -) |
Dr. J. Richardson |
Dr. J. G. Pilcher -
Dr. C. Little - =
Dr. D. Sinclair =
Office.
Meteorological Reporter to the
Government of India.
First Assistant Meteorological |
Reporter to the Government of
India.
Second Assistaut Meteorological
Reporter to the Government of
India.
Personal Assistant, the Meteoro-
logical Reporter to the Govern-
ment of India.
| Meteorological Reporter to the
Government of Bengal.
Meteorological Reporter to the
Government of the North-
Western Provinces and Oudh.
Meteorological Reporter to the
Government cf the Punjab.
Metecrological Reporter for
Western India.
| Meteorological Reporter to the
Government of Madras.
Sanitary Commissioners, Central
Provinces.
Sanitary Commissioner, Berar
Sanitary Commissioner, Burma — -
|
{
|
lower Office.
|
J
Bengal and Assam.
North-Western Pro-
vinees, Oudh, Raj-
putana, and Central
India (part).
Punjab.
Bombay, Berar, Raj-
putana, and Central .
India (part).
| Madras, Mysore,
| Coorg, and Haidar-
| abad.
Central Provinces.
- | Berar.
| Burma,
312 INDIAN METEOROLOGY.
CoLABA AND MapraAs OBSERVATORIES.
The Government Observatory at Colaba is under the direction
of Mr. Charles Chambers, F.R.S. It is devoted principally to the
record and publication of facts and the prosecution of inquiry in
terrestrial magnetism and meteorology, to astronomical observation
for the purpose of time-keeping, and to the signalling of time for
purposes of navigation. The results of the observations are pub-
lished annually in the form of a quarto volume. The autographic
instruments, which are maintained in continuous action, are the
following :—l. Declination magnetograph. 2. Horizontal force
magnetograph. 3. Vertical force magnetograph. 4. Barograph.
5. Thermograph, dry-bulb and wet-bulb. 6. ea
7. Anemograph, direction and velocity.
The harbour clock and time-ball are worked by alsoinio: current
from the Observatory, which is also charged with the custody of a
store of Indian Government and Admiralty chronometers. Chrono-
meters of merchant ships are also received for rating.
There-ig also an astronomical observatory at Madras, until
lately under the direction of Mr. N. R. Pogson, C.I.E., who held the
post of Government Astronomer from 1860 until his death on June
23rd, 1891. This observatory gives uniform time to the greater part
of India for railway and other purposes, and its lougitude* is the fixed
point of the departure of the Trigonometrical Survey of India.
From the period of his takmg charge up to 1885, Mr. Pogson
discovered the following six minor planets between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter :-—
Name. Date of Discovery. Period of Revolution.
Y. M. D.
Asia - - 1861, April 17 2) 3) 4)
Freia - - 1864, February2 - 6 3 23
Sappho - - 1864, May 3 - 3 5 22
Sylvia - - 1866, May 16 =) (6) <6) 20)
Camilla - 1868, November17 6 6 7
Vera - - 1885, February 6 - 5 4 24
Asia was so named on account of its being the first astronomical
discovery made in that quarter of the globe. Freia was first dis-
covered by Professor D’Arrest, at Copenhagen, 1862, October BAS:
* Its latest determination of Elonpinde, as mentioned on page 213, is $0? 1 14’ 50°03” E.
of Greenwich,
INDIAN METEOROLOGY. 313
but was lost owing to insufficient observations having been secured
to render the calculation of its orbit definite. It was re-discovered
independently at Madras. - - - - 85 0 O
Apparatus for liquefaction of gases - - - - - 12) (8210
Apparatus for interference of sound - - - - | ORO
Apparatus for water analysis - - - =es - 46 9 10
Apparaius to illustrate Ayr ton’s practical electricity : - 200 18 0
Apparatus, electric li¢ht - - - Tyas - - 2,332 10 0
Arithmometers - - - - - | 75 O O
Astronomical clock - - - - - - - OmO KO
Apparatus, submarine mining, various - - - 562 16° 9
Balances, weighing, various - - - - : 532 0 0
Balances, electrical - - 215) 0)
Bars, standard - - - - = - ly OO)
Barometers, aneroid - - - S = = 498 3 11
Barometers, mercurial - - - = 2 693e I ienO
Barographs, repaired - - - - - = 6) SO
Batteries, voltaic, various - - - - - SNS 3. Al
Bells, alarum = : - - - = 3 “NO. 12 -@
Binoculars, various - - = = = 512 10 10
Boards, drawing - = - - - - - 1410 0
Boards, sketching - - : - - 45 0 0
Bubble tester - - - - ss - - 20 0 0
Cabinets, chemical - = = © - 858 0 O
Cables, electric, various - - - - = - 2,261 19 2
Calliper’s micrometer = - - - - 18 0 0
Cards for compasses, various = - - - = 8) WG
Carbon plates - - - - - - 514 11 O
Cases, sketching = - - - = - - - 6415 0
380
Cathetometers - -
Chartometer - = : x
Chains, measuring . a
Chronometers = - : z
Chronomicrometers - -
Chronographs - - : Z
Clocks = : <
Collimators - - = - .
Comparing apparatus for standard measures
Combination boxes - - = 2
Compasses, drawing, various -
Compasses, magnetic
Compasses, prismatic - -
Compass, liquid - - - 2
Compass, subtense :
Clinometers - = = 2
Core for telegraph cables - -
Cross staves - Sp : :
Curve ranger - - =
Curves, various - = -
Carbons for Jablochkoff lamps -
Dioptric lights for lighthouses and ports
Dip needles - - :
Dynamo machines - p s
Dynamo exploders - : =
Dynamometers - - =
Educational apparatus, Riggs’
Electric bells - = =
Electrometers - - 2 =
Electro-magnetic and galvanic machines
Engine counters < - -
Exploders - - :
Eye pieces for theodolites and levels
Fault finder, telegraphic - :
Field cable, Siemens’ - =
Galvanometers, various” - :
Gauges, pressure and vacuum
Gauging instruments -
Gauges, standard) - -
Glass spirit bubbles -
Glasses for heliotropes -
Glasses, object - -
Giasses, tracing - = - -
Glasses, reading
Globes - -
Goniometers = - < =
|
|
|
|
{
|
£
58
2
a
Al
224
108
122
135
100
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381
Description of Instrument.
Heliographs =
Heliostat. with block
Hydrometers, various
Hygrometers -
Hypsometers -
Indicators, Richard’s steam engine -
Ink writers, telegraphic - = -
Instruments, mathematical drawing, in cases
_ Instruments, vibrating call signal - - -
Instrument, telegraph, double and single current
Insulators, various -
Insulating stand -
Integrators - -
Keys, telegraphic
Keys, firing -
Keys, reversing, Thomson’s -
Lactometers - -
Lamps, referring, &e.
Lamps, miners’ surveying - - -
Lamps, electric incandescent -
Lathes - -
Lenses for eye-pieces
Lens, rapid rectilinear photographic -
Levels, astronomical
Levelling instruments, reversible —- -
Levels, reflecting
Levels, spirit block -
Levels, striding -
Machine, drilling -
Magnets for relays
Magneto-inductor bridge —- - 2
Meters, air -
Microscopes, various
Mirrors for sextants
Mirrors for heliographs - = -
Mines, submarine -
Miners’ dial -
Micrometers -
Nickel anodes -
Observing chair
Observatory dome. -
Ophthalmic test glasses - -
Value.
eo &
130 4
5 10
762 0
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wal 0)
213 10
950 O
1,295 0
10 O
282 0
15,588 12
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145 7
278 O
118 19
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eye (0)
4,416 O
112 8
35 0
24 0
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40 O
16 10
8 8
216 19
32 14
70 4
2,227 14
17 10
12 4
4 18
23 5
250 O
25 4
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Description of Instrument.
Optical squares -
Optical bench
Optometer, Tweedy’s
Pens, drawing -
Pentagraphs :
Photo-micrographie apparatus
Physical apparatus, various -
Plane-tables -
Planimeters -
Polariscopes -
Protractors, various -
Pyrometers, various
Pitch compound for cables, telegraph
Rain gauges -
Range finders, various
Relays -
Resistance coils -
Kiulers, parallel, various
Rules, boxwood -
Rules, flat, various
Revolution indicator, Buss’s
Sand glasses -
Seales, various -
Sectors - -
Set squares, various
Sextants, various -
Slide rules, various
Slopes and batters -
Sounders, telegraph
Speedometers -
Spectroscopes -
Spherometer -
Stadiometers -
Station pointers -
Standard yard measures
Stencil plates -
Storm glass -
Straight edges .
Stop watches -
Stills - -
Sundials - =
Switches, battery -
Serving tape for cables, telegraph
Tachometer - *
Tapes, measuring, various
Telemeters - -
382
WO &
10
—
Sowovoongato
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owed
383
Description of Instrument.
Telephones, various -
Tell-tale apparatus -
Telescopes, various -
Tellurions - -
Thermometers, various = -
Theodolites, various
T squares - -
Urinometers -
Water meters - -
Weights, assay -
Weights, troy, avoirdupois, and tola standards
Zenith telescope :
Zine rods for batteries -
Miscellaneous apparatus not included under
the above headings -
any
£
nc
of { 3,245 18 10
- |. 2,070 10 6
Total (January 1887-January 1890) °
Value.
£ S Gh
3 7 @
Wy 3 @
968 7 0O
6 5 O
TMG ELON 9)
8,657 0 O
2953556
228 5 O
48 2
14-2) 6
81 O
90020
42 8 8
5,316 9 4
94,728 9 7
INDEX.
A.
A. k (Kishen Singh), 151-157, 235.
Abbas of Ghur, 184 (note).
Abbott, General, 333.
Abors, 165.
Abu, Mount, 266, 274; Jaina temples at, 322,
324.
Ab-i-istadeh lake, 136, 146.
Ab-i-Sar-i-jangal, 183.
Ab-i-Surkh, 190.
Abyssinia, Mr. Blanford deputed to, 259.
Abyssinian Expedition, Mr. Markham in, 376.
Acheen, 26. ;
Actinometric observations, 289;
295, 296.
Adam, Mr., Governor of Madras, 357, 358.
Adam’s bridge, 261.
Aden, 197, 205, 213.
Admiralty Hydrographer. See Hydrographer.
Admiralty publications, increase in sale of, 9.
Adraskund river, 176, 185.
Aerial deposits in Afghanistan and Baluchistan,
254.
Afghan Boundary Commission, 96, 128, 172-195,
267, and passim in Chapter VII.
Afghanistan, triangulation extended towards, 47 ;
surveys of Afghanistan during first Afghan
Wars, 128, 135, 139; survey lessons of later
campaign in, 131; connexion between triangu-
lation in North and South Afghanistan, 146, 167,
194; maps of Afghanistan, 223, 226, 235;
metals of Southern Afghanistan, 255; geologi-
cal specimens from Afghanistan, 271 (note);
Mr. Griesbach in Northern Afghanistan, 278.
Afghan Turkistan, 186 and passim through
Chapter VII.; geology of Afghan Turkistan,
270.
“ Afghanistan and part of Baluchistan, Notes on,”
by Major Raverty, 365.
African, South, tides, 200.
African types recognizable in Karnul cave fauna,
268.
Agathokles, coins of, 370.
Agra, 206, 213; Agra observatory, 286; monu-
ments in, 328, 338, 343, 344.
Agricultural statistics supplied by good revenue
surveys, 100; collected by Survey Department
in N.W. Provinces, 113.
t Y 20321.
at Leh, 293,
|
|
B
Ahalvabai temple at Elura, 351.
Ahmad Sayad, sub-surveyor, 166.
Ahmad Shah, 365.
Ahmadabad, 322, 325, 354, zb. (note), 362.
Ahmadnagar, 342, 355.
Ahmadnagar district survey, 123.
Ahmed Ali Khan, 96, 99, 144, 145.
Ahmed Khel, battle of, 136.
Aihole, 323, 324, 353.
Airy, Sir G., 213.
Aitchison, Dr. J. E. T., 194.
Ajanta rock, temples, and paintings, 342, 346
(note), 352, 354, 356.
Ajaygarh fort, 337.
Ajmir, 240; Ajmir Forest school, 298.
Ajmir-Merwara district boundary survey, 108.
Aka raid, 78, 260; Mr. La Touche in the Aka
hills, 264.
Akbar, Emperor, 330, 343; tomb of, 322, 344.
Akram Khan, 131.
Aksu, 158.
Aksu river (Pamir), 193.
Akyab, 1 ; commencement of survey of, 3 ; line of
soundings run south to latitude of, 28; tidal
station at Akyab swept away by storm, 207;
Akyab cyclone, 300; antiquities in Akyab.
Alaiva temple, 343.
Aleock, Sir R., 165.
Alcock, Surgeon A., 31.
Alexander the Great, 188; route of, 326; coins
of successors of, 337.
Alexandria, map of, 224.
Alexandrian merchants, Surashtra known to, in
early times, 347.
Ali, son-in-law of Mahomed, 184, 189.
Alichur Pamir, 193.
Aligarh, district survey, 108; 246.
Ali Khel, 133.
Ali Musjid, 124, 130, 333.
Alipore, meteorologieal observations at, 293, 299,
306. See also Caleutta.
Allahabad, 206; observations at Allahabad, 285,
293, 304,306; 320 (note); Dr. Fiihrer in, 340.
Alleppi mud bank, 274, 277.
Alluvial plains as geological group, 236.
Almar plain, 181.
Alompra, 363,
b
386
Alps as compared geologically with the Himalayas,
271 (mote).
Altimor range, 134.
Alwar, 336.
Amalgamation of
Survey, 40, 100.
Aman ul Muik, Badshah of Chitral, 150.
Amaranath, Jaina temples at, 324, 327.
Amarapura, 364.
Amb fort, 333.
Ambala district, Mr. Rodgers in, 340.
Amherst, pagoda and Point, 2; 201, 204, 207.
Amrayati tope, 322, 357, 358; Dr. Burgess on,
360.
Amritsar, 51.
Amsterdam Exhibition, 294.
Amua meridional series, 214.
Amya pass, 54.
Analysis of tidal observations, 197.
Andaman islands, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 38, 166,
204; ores from the Andaman islands, 264;
necessity of telegraphic communication with
Andaman islands, 310, 311.
Anderson, Colonel F. C., 112.
Anderson, Colonel W. C., 86.
Andhras, The, 351.
Andkhui, 174, 178, 183, 186.
Andrew, Major D. C., 116, 123.
Anemographic observations, 201, 306.
Angirtakshia mountains, 153, 157.
Anglo-Siamese Boundary Commission, 170.
Anhilwada, 88.
Anjar, 350.
Ankai-Tankai, 353.
the branches of Indian
Ankole, antiquities in, 342.
Antiquities, Preservation of, 341 and passim in
Chapter XV.
Ants’ nests in Tinnevelly and Madura, 262.
Ao Barik, 180.
Aornos, rock of, 337.
Apaluk pass, 150 (note).
Arab, old, coins, 173.
Arabia and Persia, map of, 235.
52.
Arabian Neftid, 2
Arabian Sea, Meteorology of, 302, 306; cyclone
in Arabian Sea, 307; Arabian conquest of
Sind, 348.
Arabic inseriptions, 339, 346 (note).
Arakan, 201; Arakan-Manipur geological axis,
260; antiquities in Arakan, 364.
Arang, 335.
Archean rocks (as geological group), 236.
Archeological drawings, Reproduction of, 226.
Archeological Survey Record, 371.
Archeology, Indian, 320-372; paper by Dr.
Burgess on, 321 ; first scheme of survey of, 325 ;
survey suspended by Lord Lawrence, 327 ;
survey re-organized, 338; last re-organization
of, 361; Survey Staff, 362.
Architecture, Mr. Fergusson on history of, 360.
INDEX.
Architecture, Indian, classified, 321 e¢ seq.
Ares, measurement of, 209.
Aret in Chugani or Kohistan country, 130.
Argandab river, 129, 136, 254.
Argaricus, Sinus, of Ptolemy, 46.
Arghastan yalley, 136.
Argyll, Duke of, 368.
Ariana, Princes of, $69.
Ariano-Pali characters, 369.
Armenia, Geological collection in, 257.
Armstrong, Dr., Collection of ornithological
specimens by, 6.
Arnawai river, 150.
Arrian, 331.
Arrowsmith, Mr. Aaron, 229.
Art ware, Heliogravure reproductions of, 227.
Arun river, 160.
Arvali mountains, 238, 243, 256, 266, 269, 274.
Ashizar, 180 (note).
Ashwaraopet, 247.
Asiatic Society of Bengal. founded 1784, 320;
centenary review of, 325 (note); 367.
Asiatic Society of Bombay, 367.
Askarab, 180.
Asoka, King, his inscriptions and edicts, 320
(note), 321, 326, 329, 331, 332, 333, 337, 338,
340, 347, 348, 2b. (note), 349, 352, 369.
Asphan valley, 135.
Assam, 51; discharges of Assam rivers, 52; 57;
Assam frontier surveys, 75, 78, 79; deputation
on communication with Assam, 165; 167;
Assam lakhirajdar survey, 126; 231; Mr.
La Touche on eastern frontier of, 267.
Assyrian coins, 173.
Astarab river, 182.
Astor, 144, 145, 270.
Astronomer Royal, 213.
Astronomical observations, 210 et seq.
Ata Mahomed Khan, 150, 177, 188, 190, 191.
Atala Masjid at Jaunpur, 339.
Atkinson, Mr. W. G. E., 163.
Attaran river, 364.
Attock, 141.
Attraction, local, as affecting geodetic observa-
tions, 210.
Auckland, 234.
Aurunga coal-field, 244, 250.
Aurangabad, 325, 350, 351, 352, 353.
Australian Gondwana rocks, 266.
Autotype Company, 227.
Ava, 364.
Ayodhya, 340.
Ayub Khan, Revolt and defeat of, 137, 253.
Azimuths of stations, 209.
INDEX.
B.
Baber, Emperor, 336.
Babington, Dr. B. G., 321.
Bactria, 193 (note).
Badakshan, 186, 191, 193 (mote), 194;
S— in, 148; 270.
Badami, 323, 347, 353.
Badghiz, 177, 178, 195.
Badgley, Colonel, 75, 89.
Bagh caves, Paintings in, 342.
Baghanvala, Temples at, 333.
Baghao, 92.
Baghdad observatory, 300.
Baghmati river, 162.
Bahmani dynasty, 350.
Baird, Major A. W., R.E., 25, 196, 204, 207,
224.
Bakarganj district survey, 120; Bakarganj cy-
clone, 287.
Baktro-Hellenic kings, 348.
Bala Hissar (Balkh), 188.
Bala Murghab, 180, 195.
Balaghat, 274.
Balal Sen, 334.
Balasore, 207 ; survey of roadstead, 19 ; cyclone
at, 303.
Balipur, 78.
Balkh, 174, 182. 183, 187, 188.
Balkh Ao, 181, 186, 189, 190.
Ball, Dr., 238, 243, 277.
Ballia district survey, 109.
Balmir, 238.
Baltistan, 270.
Baluchistan, survey of, 47, 92, 98, 98, 99;
triangulation in §.W., 147; 270; geodetic
determinations in, 215; map of, 226; coal,
oil, and iron in, 275, 277; westerly wind
from, 286.
Bam valley, 91.
Bamburath, 150.
Bamian, 174, 182, 183, 190.
Bandalkhand, 328; General Cunningham in,
329, 336; Dr. Fiihrer, 340.
Band-i-Amir (see also Balkh Ao), 189.
Band-i-Turkestan mountains, 177, 178,
18], 186.
Bandar, 179.
Bandar Abbas, 176.
Bangalore, 60, 84, 211,
Bangkok, 54, 64, 210.
Bankote, Survey by Lieutenant Petley of, 9, 10.
179,
212, 215.
Bankote river, Dangerous state of mouth of, 7.
Bankura, 245.
Banna, 104, 146, 149.
Banpur mals survey, 115.
Baoli well, 336.
3ar Marai valley, 148.
387
Bar Panjah, 193.
Baragan, 180.
Baragua mud flat, 36.
Barakar, 248, 329; Barakar iron works, 274.
Baran, 149.
Baranga islands, coal from, 246.
Barbour, Mr. D., 12.
Barghana route to Kandahar, 136.
Barmayan, Buddhist monastery at, 336.
Baroda city survey, 89.
Baroda, Gaikwar of, 354, 355, and (note).
Baroda State survey, 87, 88, 89.
Baroghil pass, 143.
Barren islands, 26.
Barron, Colonel W., 110.
Barrow, Captain, 162.
Barrows in Shorapur, 323.
Bartang river, 143.
Barton, Rev. J., 318.
Basalt in Khandesh, 71.
Base line at Mergui, 56; other base lines, 61.
Basevi’s, Captain, pendulum observations, 213.
Bashkar, 142.
Bassein, 1; hindrances to free navigation of river,
3; examination of, 33; soundings required
in entrance to, 36; cadastral survey of, 116;
364.
Basti district survey, 110, 111.
Batanis, 149.
Bathang, 155.
Bauris or wells, 325.
Bay of Bengal, “ Investigator” takes soundings
across, 20, 23, 28; temperature of, 28, 31;
sounded and result of soundings, 32, 383;
weather chart of, 292, 300; meteorology of,
297, 302, 306 ; storm warnings from, 310, 311.
Bazar valley, Captain Leach’s survey of, 130.
Beauchamp Tower, Mr., 199.
Beavan, Major, 92, 93, 94, 104; route survey
from Kandahar to Girishk, 129; in Southern
Afghanistan, 135.
Bedsa, 352.
Beglar, Mr. J. D., passim in Chapter XV.
Behar, cadastral survey, 118 ; General Cunning-
ham in Behar, 333, 335, 336 (note); cave
inscriptions in, 369.
Bejwada, 357, 358.
Belgaum survey, 126; Belgaum observatory,
285 ; 323, 346, 347, 354, 362.
Bell, Major-General, 86.
Bellary, 212; Mr. Foote in Bellary, 266, 268;
Bellary observatory, 285.
Benares district survey, 109; Benares rainfall,
288.
Bengal, Bay of. See Bay.
Bengal Coal Company, 244; Sub-metamorphie
rocks of Bengal, 245; Bengal storms in 1876,
288; storm warnings, 292; Bengal, General
Cunningham in, 333; history of, 334 (note) ;
list of monuments in, 345.
Bengali architecture, 322.
Bb 2
388 ~ INDEX.
Ber Singh, 152. |
Berars, 231; monuments in, 342, 345. \
Berid dynasty, 350.
Betiya, 332. |
Betul district, coal in, 269.
Beverley, Mr., 53; his death, 55.
Beypur, 4, 5,9, 27, 31, 197, 206.
Beyt harbour (Baroda State), 20.
Bhadresyar, 350.
Bhagirathi valley, 51, 334.
Bhaja, 352.
Bhamo, 25, 166, 168, 169, 170, 299.
Bhandak, Buddhist caves at, 329.
Bharhut, stupa of, 329 and (note), 337; General
Cunningham on, 338; 370.
Bhaunagar, 24, 26, 34, 201, 206, 256; Bhaunagar
observatory, 307.
Bhau Daji, 367.
Bhavaneswar temples in Orissa, 327.
Bhil tribes, 69, 71, 256. |
Bhilsa topes, General Cunningham on, 337.
Bhitargaon, 337. |
Bhopal and Malwa survey, 72, 87.
Bhore Ghat, 200.
Bhoteas, 49.
Bhuila Tal, 331, 340.
Bhuj, 350.
Bhutan, 151, 162; Bhutan Duars, 265.
Bibliography of Indian geology, 276, 280.
Bidar, 60, 350.
Biddulph, General, 129.
Biddulph, Major, threatened by Gilgit tribes, 144; |
150.
Bijapur, 322, 355, 7b. (note) ; Hart’s illustrations
of the principal Muhammadan buildings of, 360.
Bijayanagar, 343, 359, 362.
Bikanir, 80, 81; Mr, Oldham in Bikanir, 269.
Bilaspur district survey, 120.
Bilhari, 329.
Bilser, 330, 337.
Bimlipatam, 4.
Birbhum, 245.
Birjand, 174, 177.
3irmal hills, 147.
Bizoti valley, 149.
Black Mountain Expedition, 150, 151.
Black, Mr. F. C., C.E., 330, 7b. (note), 343, 7b.
(note).
Blanford, Mr. H. F., F.R.S., 12; makes tour of
meteorological inspection, 283; retirement of
and services, 308.
Blanford. Mr. W. T., passim through Chapter
XII. His retirement and services, 259.
Bodawpara, King, 364.
Bogle, Mr. G., 374.
Bogosta valley, 150.
Bohkara, 182.
Bolan pass, 94, 253; Bolen route, 98.
Bolarum, 212, 213.
Bologna Geological Congress, 255, 276.
Bolst, Mr. H. J., 69.
Bombay, Marine, 1; 4, 10, 11; becomes head-
quarters of marine survey, 18; Bombay coast
wants charting, 35; Bombay revenue survey,
86, 122, 123 ; Bombay suburbs survey, 125;
Bowbay forest surveys, 89, 126; 197, 200, 201 ;
mean sea level at, 202; 212, 213, 215; Bombay
Presidency (in Indian atlas), 231; Bombay
and Baroda Railway, floods on, 297; Bombay
storm warnings, 292, 304; Bombay Chamber
of Commerce, 304; Bombay Geographical
Society, 318; Bombay meteorological obser~
yations. See Colaba; Bombay Presidency,
monvtments in, 341, 345; rock cut temples in,
346; Cave Temple Commission, 367 ; Bombay
Asiatie Society, 368.
Boram Deo, temples at, 332, 335.
Borddhonkuti, 334 (mote).
Bori valley, 97, 147.
Boring operations, Question of ecnduct of, 275.
Bose, Mr., 264, 272, 274, 325 (mote).
Botanical investigations, Afghan Boundary Com-
mission, 194.
Boury, M. (French missionary), 155.
Boutflower, Mr. W. N., 311.
“ Bozdar,” The, 146, 148.
Brachiopoda of Salt Range, 259, 263.
Brahmakund, 155.
Brahmaputra river, 52. See also Sanpo.
Brahmaputra (Cooper’s), 155.
Brahui mountain system, 98.
Brahuik range, 254.
Brandis, Sir D., 294.
Branfill, Colonel, 5, 46, 47, 56, 57, 219.
Brent, R.N., Captain H. W., 12; report on
Marine Survey Department, 12; detailed
recommendations by, 13; his scheme approved
-of by Government of India, 15.
Brett, Lieutenant, 367.
Brindaban, 344 and (note).
Brinjaris, The, 248.
British Association, 197, 203 (also note).
British Museum, 368.
Broach, 34, 346 (note), 355, 362.
Buchanan, Francis, 367.
Buckingham, Duke of, Governor of Madras, 358.
Budaun revenue survey, 108; -Muhammadan
masjids at Budaun, 330, 340.
Buddha, sites connected with career of, 330, 331,
332, 335.
Buddha Gaya, 326, 328, 329 and (note), 331,
333, 335.
Buddhist remains in Kabul valley, 134; also
near junction of Logar, 134; in Afghan
Turkistan, 190; 321,322; at Ali Masjid, 333 ;
in Central India, 337; Buddhist monasteries,
836, 349; Buddhist cave temples, 352; remains
in Southern India, 359.
Budi, 161.
Buffalo, meeting of geologists at, 255.
INDEX.
Bugti country, 95, 97, 296
Biibler, Professor G., C.1-E., 354, 372.
Bulandshahr district survey, 108.
Bunji, 142.
Burgess, Dr. James, C.1-E., passim Chapter XV.
His retirement and services, 361.
Burma, ports of, Commander Taylor’s tour of
inspection of, 1 ; 20; Burma coast, 36 ; triangu-
lation in, 66; 165, 166; reconnaissances in
Upper, 167; 231; maps of, 226; coal-fields in
Upper Burma, 273; oil fields in Upper Burma,
276; mineral resources of Upper Burma, 278,
279: observatories in Burma, 299, 309;
archeological research in Burma, 363 ; Burma,
Chief Commissioner of, 364.
Burmans as surveyors, 116.
Burn, Messrs., & Co., 277.
Burnes, Sir A., 190.
Burraballung river, 19.
Burrard, Lieutenant S. G., 214, 215.
Burt, Lieutenant, 321.
Bushire, 208.
Bustar, 240, 256.
Butkak, 140.
Boxa Duar, 163.
Byans valley, 48, 49.
Bythell, Lieutenant, 170.
Byturnee river, survey of portion of, 19.
C.
Cachar survey, 116; Cachar earthquake, 257.
Cadastral srrveys, nature of 100, 102.
Cadell, Colonel, in the Andamans, 31.
Cairo, Map of, 224.
Calcutta, head-quarters of marine survey moved
from Caleutta to Bombay, 18 ; Calcutta survey,
121, 122; 204, 206, 213; Calcutta Exhibition,
266; Calcutta observatory (see also Alipore),
285, 288, 289, 305; Calcutta weather reports,
298 ; Calcutta, Cutch earthquake felt up to, 349.
Calicut, 4, 5, 16, 31, 274.
Calingapatam, 4, 21.
Callian Junction, 200.
Cambay, Gulf of, wrecks in and lighting of, 7;
surveys in, 27, 34.
Cambay, Inscriptions from, 346 (note) ; 359.
Camels, Wild, 154.
Campbell, Colonel W. M., 129, 211, 213, 219.
Canadian tides, 200.
Canara. See Kanara.
Cannanur, 4, 31, 32.
Canning, Earl, 62, 237, 325, 337; minute on an
archeological survey, 326 (note).
Cape Negrais, 36, 53.
Carew, I.N., Captain G. O’B., 8.
Carey, Mr. A. !)., 157.
Carlleyle, Mr. A. C., passim Chapter XV.
Carnac, General J., 367.
Carnatie, the. 46 ; drought in, 300.
Carpenter, Commander Alfred, R.N., assumes di-
rection of marine survey in place of Commander
Dawson, 22; experience on board H.M.S.
“ Challenger,” 23 ; Ivawadi survey party formed
under, 24; pilots flotilla up to Bhamo, 25;
paper on mean temperature of Bay of Bengal
by, 28; 30, 33; list of marine survey require-
ments drawn up by, 34.
Carrington, Mr. R. C., 5, 6, 11; retirement of, 13.
Carter, Captain T. T., Madras coast triangulation
series under direction of, 46; his triangulation
around Indus valley, 141.
Carter; Dr., I.N., 237.
Cautley, Sir P., 236.
Cauvery (Kaveri) river, 46; Colonel Branfill on
physiography of delta of, 46.
Cavagnari, Death of Sir L., 132.
Caves, Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmaniecal, 323
and passim in Chapter XV.
Cave temples of India,” “ The, 351, 352.
“ Celerity,’” Indian marine steamer, 56.
Census of 1872, 317.
Central Asia formerly supposed to originate
Indian summer monsoon, 290.
Central establishment for archeological sur-
veyors, 328.
Central India, electro-telegraphic observations in,
215; meteorology of, 319 ; General Cunning-
ham in, 336 (note) ; Major Keith appointed
Assistant Curator of Monuments for, 843; Dr.
Fiihrer’s list of monuments in, 346.
Central Provinces Suryey, 74; Central Provinces,
Rainfall in, 302 ; General Cunningham in, 329,
335; monuments in, 342; statistical inquiries
in, 314.
Ceylon, triangulation connected with Indian, 45;
204, 229, 261.
Chagsum, 165.
Chahar Aimak, 178, 179, 18:3.
Chahar-burjak, 173.
Chahardar, 180, 184.
Chaharsada, 179, 180.
Chaharshamba, 180.
Chahil Abdal, 184.
Chaitya or Buddhist temple caves, 323.
Chakcharan, 179, 180.
Chakmani territory, 271 (note).
Chalapdalan, 184.
Chalukya architecture, 322, 324, 362, 363.
Chalukya dynasty, 350, 357.
Chamalang, 94.
Chamba, 295.
Chambel. See L c.
Chamberlain, Sir N., 146.
Chambers, Mr. F.,on winds of Karachi, 292; 304,
306, 307.
390
Chambers, William, 321.
Chamkar monastery, 165.
Champaner, 89, 354, 362.
Chanda fields, 247.
Chandbally, Survey of Byturnee river up to, 19.
Chandels of Mahoba, 337.
Chandragupta, 369.
Chandravati, ruins of, 320 (note).
Chandrehi, Brahman temples at, 331.
Chankau pass, 79.
Channer, Lieutenant A., R.N., 19, 23, 26.
Chapman, Mr. Morris, late I.N., 4, 5;
Paumben channel, 6, 7, 8; his death, 8.
Chardeh plain, 135.
Charikar, 191, 270.
Charsada, 336.
Charts, Marine, passim through Marine Survey
Chapter.
on
Charts of daily weather. See Weather charts.
Chashma Sabz, 177.
Chatang La pass, 158.
Chattisgarh, 239, 256, 269, 273, 331, 335.
Chaul, 8.
Chazumtuka, 165.
Chedi, Rajas of, 332.
Cheduba, 20, 21, 36.
Chelonia, Eocene, from the Salt Range, 273.
Chenab river, 239.
Chennell, Mr. A. W., death of, 78.
Cherkh graphite, 278.
Chesnaye, Dr. G. E., 311.
Chetang, 151, 156, 160, 165.
Chew, Mr. R., 83.
Chezarla, Buddhist chaitya discovered at, 359.
Chiamdo Chu (Upper Mekong), 155.
Chiamo Golok robbers, 153, 157.
Chiggateri, 276.
Chikalwohol, 200.
Chilas, 144, 145.
Childers, Professor, 363.
Chiling Shahi Mardan hill, 18+.
Chilianwala, battle of, 251, 337.
Chin country, 169,
Chin-Lushai Expedition, 277.
China Bakir river, 21.
Chiva, Mound at, 333.
Chipapati, 333.
Chindwara district, 269, 274.
Chindwin valley, 167, 168, 257, :
Chinese coins, 173.
Chingurak range, 178.
Chingiz Khan, 186, 187.
Chingmis, 163, 164.
Chiras, 180.
Chitlac island, 29.
Chittagong (Karnaphuli river), 3, 19 ; land survey
of, 121, 206; Chittagong observatory, 285.
~T
to
or
ee)
he 4
INDEX. =
Chitral, 150, 194, 231, 270, 366.
Chloromelanite, 271 (note).
Chobash, 187.
Chol in Afghan Turkistan, 177.
Chota Nagpur, Western, coal-fields, 274; gold
in Chota Nagpur, 277; meteorology of Chota
Nagpur, 309.
Chotiali, 92, 129.
Christmas island, 27.
Chrysolite from Kandahar, 255.
Chugani valley, 130.
Chumbi valley, 151, 153, 160, 163.
Cintra (Portugal), Sanskrit inscription at, 342.
“ Civilisations de l’Inde, Les,” Dr. Le Bon on,
362.
Clarke, Colonel, R.E., C.B., 44, 63.
Clarke, Mr. L. H., 234. ‘I
Classification of observatories, 296, 304.
Claudius, Mr., 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 135, 148.
‘ Clyde,” I.G.S.S., 1.
Coal, 236 and passim through Geological chapter.
See under name of particular coal-field.
Coard, Mr. C. W., 226, 230.
Cochin, 4, 5, 9; surveyed in 1855 by Taylor,
16; surveyed by Dawson, 20; 206,274,
Coco islands, 9, 33, 37; observatory at Coco
islands, 300.
Coconada, 10;
206.
Coddington, Iieutenant-Colonel F., 105.
Coinage among ancient Hindus, 333.
survey of Coconada, 16; 19,
Coins of Arakan, Pegu, and Burma, Lieutenant-
General Sir A. P. Phayre on, 372; coins of
Southern India, Sir W. Elliot on, 372 (uote).
Colaba observatory, 312; and passim through
Meteorological chapter.
Colachel, 4.
Cole, Major H. H., R.E., 327, 342, 343, 844;
illustrations of ancient monuments by, 7b.
(note),
Colebrooke, H., Mr., 321.
Coleroon, Triangulation carried into valley of, 46.
Collotype process, 226.
Colombo, 19, 206, 207.
Comedarum, Vallis, 193 (note).
Committee on Marine Survey Department, 12 ;
on equipment of field survey party, 137.
Comorin, Cape, 35, 45, 47, 60, 202.
Congress, Geographical, at Venice, 88, 201;
do. at Paris, 238; Geological Congresses at
Buffalo, Paris, and Bologna, 255,276. See also
Paris and Venice.
Conjiveram archeological survey,
362.
Conolly, Arthur, 179.
Conservation of monuments, 320 (note), 327,
344,
Contour map of Simla, 80; of India, 225.
Cooke, Mr. G. H., 110.
Cooke, Messrs., and Sons, 211.
report on, if
_—"
INDEX.
Coombs, Lieutenant W. H., commences survey of
Rangoon, 11; surveying work done by boat
party in charge of, 19; surveys entrance to
Chittagong river, 20; surveys Akyab, 20, 27.
Copping, Mr. G. R., 96.
Corkery, Mr., 93, 94.
“ Coronation,” gunboat, 2.
Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, 338, 369, 370
(note).
Cost of Revenue Surveys, 103.
Cotta point surveyed, 27.
Court, General, 333.
Cousens, Mr. H., 320 (note), 342, 354, 355, 362.
Cowan, Major S. H., 110, 115, 121.
Coxen, Mr., 93, 94.
Crawley Boevey, Mr., Bo. C.S., 354.
Cretaceous, Upper, fauna of Western India, 270.
Crops, map showing Indian, 226.
Cruz Milagre, 5.
Cuddalore, 249.
Cuddapah district, 248.
Cumbum valley, 85.
Cunningham, General Sir A., K.C.LE., passim
Chapter XV.; his services, 337.
Curator of Ancient Monuments in India, Captain
Cole appointed, 343.
Cushing, Mr. Thos., F.R.A.S., 216.
Cutch, gulf of, 30, 34; 85, 197, 209, 231, 263, 347,
349.
Cutch Mandyvi, 7.
Cuttack conference, 115; Cuttack cadastral sur-
yey, 116; 256, 285, 331.
Cyclones, 201, 206 ; formation of cyclones, 287;
Mr. J. Eliot on cyclones, 290, 294,299; cyclone
at Gujrat, 296; eyclone at False point, 299;
cyclone at Balasore, 303; cyclone memoirs,
303, 306; cyclones in Bay of Bengal, 306,
310.
Cyrus, 184.
D.
D’ Arrest, Professor, 312.
Daba Jong, 152.
Dabboi, 324, 350, 354.
Dabhol (Anjanwil) river, &.
Dacoits in Decean, 124.
Dahana Doab, 183.
Dahana Iskar coal-field, 278.
Dahgoba in Buddhist architecture, 323.
Daily weather charts, 288, 298, 303, 304.
Dalgleish, Mr., 157.
Daling hills, 160.
Dallas, Mr. W. L., 292, 295, 297; 300, 302, 307,
311.
Daltonganj coal-ficld, 244.
Damaun, 200.
39]
Damerchela, 248.
Dangs Forest survey, 87, 88, 89.
Daniel, T. and W., 321.
Dantidurga, 354.
Danu, examination required of reef near, 35.
D’Anville, 159.
Daphla hills, 78, 260, 265.
Dara Imam, 143.
Dara-i-KKhargosh, 179 and (note).
Dara-i-Nur, valley of, 154.
Dara Yusuf, 189.
Dara-i-Zindan, 190.
Darangiri coal-field, 256.
Darchendo, 154, 156.
Dardistan, survey of, 145.
Dareyl, 142, 145.
Dargi valley, 92.
Darjeeling, survey,
158, 160, 164.
Darkot valley, 143; Darkot pass, 144.
Darmarokht river, 193.
Darwaz, 143, 193.
Darwin, Professor G. H., 203, 207, 208.
Dasa Avatara inscriptions, 354.
Datum line for coast soundings, 25, 207.
Daud Shah, 330.
Daugam, 164.
Daulatyar, 180, 182, 183, 184.
Davy, Major, 318.
Dawar Dour, 146.
Dawson, Lieutenant L. S., R.N., appointed to the
command of surveying steamer “ Investigator,”
11; succeeds Commander Taylor in the charge
of marine surveys, 15; former experience, 18
(mote); commences survey Back bay, 19;
resumes charge of “ Investigator,” 20.
Dearah survey in Faridpur and Bakarganj, 120.
Deb Raja of Bhutan, 163.
Deb Singh, 152.
pecean Company, Mr. Hughes (geologist) with,
272.
Decean survey, 86; report on Deccan, 124;
Deccan trap, 236, 241; Deccan meteorology,
3809; 351.
Defiles in Afghanistan, 179, 181.
De Haviland, Colonel, 203.
Dehgans, 135.
Deh-i-Sabz range, 134.
Dehing basin, Mr. La Touche in, 260, 267.
Dehra Dun, trigonometrical branch at, 57, 226;
forest school in Dehra Dun, 298.
Delhi, 322, 326, 328, 338; Muhammadan kings
of, 336 ; monuments at, 343; 7b. (note), 344.
Deoyarh, 330, 337.
De Prée, Colonel G. C., succeeds Colonel Walker
as Surveyor-General of India, 45; services and
death, 45, 80.
Dera Ismail Khan revenue survey, 104, 105.
Derajat, the, 95.
Deronta, 134.
126, 127; 151, 153, 155,
392
Desgodins, Father, 171.
Dev Hissar, 180.
Devi river, charting of mouth of, 33.
Dewangiri, 163.
Dhamnar caves, 327.
Dhangs Forest survey. See Dangs.
Dharasinva, Jaina caves at, 323.
Dharma Raja of Bhutan, 163.
Dharma valley, 49.
Dharmapala, Prince, 333.
Dharwar, 362; Dharwar district, Chalukyan
temples in, 354; Meadows Taylor on, 360.
Dharwar rocks, 266, 273, 278.
Dhauli, 331, 348 (note); Dhauli inscriptions
of Asoka, 358.
Dholka, 346 (note), 354, 362.
Dhumra river, survey of entrance to, 19;
alterations found in, 22, 23.
Diamond field at Wadjra Karur, 266.
Diaroond harbour, 201, 207.
Diamond island, 2, 208.
Dibong river, the, 52; survey of part of, 76.
Di-chu, 154
Dickson, Lieutenant, rough chart of harbour of |
Port Blair made by, 30.
Differential longitudes, measurement of, 209, 210,
Puts
Dihong river, the, 52, 164, 165.
Diligent straits surveyed, 33.
Digaru river, 76.
Dikrang river, 76.
Diphu river, 76.
Dir, 150.
Disa cantonment
observatory, 285.
Diu Head, 34.
Dividing machine, 219.
Dixon, M.N.1., Lieut.-Colonel, 36s.
Doab, Central, 331.
Doab -i-Mekhyari, 278.
Doaba dara river, 143.
Dogras, invasion of Hundes by, 50.
Dolmens in Western India, 323.
Dondra head (Ceylon), 20.
Dong-tse, 158.
survey, 89;
Donkia-La pass, 127, 15°.
Dora pass, 150.
Dori river, 136.
Doshakh, 195.
Douglas, Captain, 206.
Double island lighthouse, 2.
Dowdeswell island, Mr. J. P. Falle suryeys
portion of, 11,
“ Draens,” 47.
Dragon lake, 193 (note).
Dras, mountains of, 246.
Dravidian architecture, $25, 324.
Droughts, periodicity of, 287, 300.
INDEX.
Du Halde, 159.
Dubkuna, Jain temple of, 336.
Dublat, 207.
Dumar Lena, 347.
Dunean, Professor Martin, 259, 266, 268, 270.
Durgavati, the Hindu princess, 329.
Dwarka point, 34.
Ei.
Earth, rigidity of, 203; investigation of figure of,
44, 210.
Earthquake at Lakpat, 86; earthquake in Bay of
Bengal, 204; in Cachar, 257; catalogue of,
258 (note), 262; in Bengal, 268; in Kashmir,
268; in Cutch in 1819, 349.
Eastern frontier triangulation series, 45, 46;
chains projected from, 53; extension of, 55;
two parties engaged in completion of series,
56, 57.
Eastern Ghats, 240.
Eastwick, Mr., 318.,
Eccles, Mr., 214.
Echivoidea of Sind, 259, 268; Echinoidea of
Makran series of Baluchistan and Persian Gulf
coasts, 270.
Edgar, Sir. J. W., 127.
Edicts of Asoka. See Asoka’s inscriptions.
Fegeling, Professor J., 372.
Egypt, maps of, 224.
Hichens and Hardy, Messrs., 211.
Eimaks, 179 (note).
Flectrotyping process of reproducing atlas sheets,
&e., 225, 229.
Elephant islands, 27.
Elephant point, 36; tide gauges at, 57, 201, 204,
207.
Elephanta, 323, 346 (note), 347, 353, 354;
Dr. Burgess’s monograph on, 361.
Elias, Mr. Ney, C.1.E., 192, 193, 194.
Eliot, Mr. J., report on Vizagapatam and
Bakarganj cyclone, 287; 290,293; onstorms,
297 ; his proposals for more efficient working of
Meteorological Department, 303; 311.
Elliot, Sir Walter, 321, 358 (note), 367.
Ellobius fuscicapillus, 195.
“Elphinstone,” Honourable East India Company’s
ship, 15.
Elura, 323, 346 (note), 351, 353.
Emigration, Map of india showing, 226.
Enciam rocks, 35.
Endawgyi Lake, 169.
Engraving Branch, Surveyor-General’s Office,
Caleutta, 222, 230.
Epigraphica Indica and Archeological Survey
Record, 371.
Equatoreal telescope, 216.
Equipment necessary for field survey party, 137.
Eran, 337.
‘
7
INDEX.
Erinpura, 250.
Errors in triangulation, Process of correcting, 42. |
Ersari Tureomans, 181, 187.
Erskine, W., 354.
Eruption at Krakatoa, 204, 205.
Etah district survey, i08.
Ethersey (late I.N.), Commander, survey of pass
between India and Ceylon by, 4; Jafrabad
surveyed by, 34.
Everest, Colonel, 58, 210.
Ewing, Mr., oa Assam frontier, 79.
F.
Falie, Mr., commences survey Madras road-
stead, 2; surveys portion Dowdeswell island,
11; surveys of Vizagapatam and Caling-
apatam by boat party in charge of, 21; river
survey party at Pagan under, 24.
Faida Ali, sub-suryeyor, 168.
Faizabad (Badakshan), 143, 194.
Faizabad (Oudh), 213.
Falconer, Dr., 236.
False Point, 2,3, 4, 10,19, 201, 204, 206, 207,
285.
Fa Hian, 326, 331,559.
Famines, in Madras and Bombay, 39, 2b. (note) ;
periodicity of, 287; Famine Commission, 117,
291.
Farah, 183, 185.
Farah Rud river, 175, 176.
Faridpur, 120.
Fatehpur Sikri, 340, 344, 363.
Faults in strata, 271 (note).
Fauna of British India, 259.
Fedden, Mr. F., 168, 238, 241, 256, 262; death
of, at Vizagapatam, 272.
Feistmantel, Dr., 237; resignation of, 268.
Fergusson, James, passim in Chapter XV.; his
death and works, 360.
'“ Feroze,” steam frigate, 16.
Ferrier, General, 180, 183, 184, 189.
Firoz Shah, 333.
Firuzkhuis, 179, 184.
Firozepur district survey, 106, 206.
Floods and flood warnings, 297.
Fleet, C.J.E., Mr. J. F., 368, 370.
“ Flora Indica,” 195. J
Flora of Afghanistan, 194, 195.
Flower, Professor, 166 (note).
Foote, Lieutenant H. B., 263.
Foote, Mr., 240, 256, 261, 263, 272, 276.
Forchhammer, Dr., 363; death of, and reports
by, 364.
Forecast of monsoon season, 289, 296, 298.
Forests, denudation of, in Konkan, 125.
Forest observatories, 298.
398
| Forest surveys, 8+; in Bombay Presidency, 89,
90.
Forrest strait, 27.
Forster, Rt. Hon. W. E., 165.
Forsyth, Sir D., 172, 193 (note).
Fort Jamrud, 131.
Fort Stedman, 168.
Fox Talbot, Mr., 227.
French maps of Egypt, 224.
Frodsham, Messrs., 211.
Frontier, Eastern. See astern.
Fiihrer, Dr., his report on Shargi remains of
Jaunpur, 228, 330 (note), 339; his list of re-
mains and inscriptions in N.W. Provinces and
Oudh, 346, 362.
G.
G. M.N., 164, 165.
G.S.'S. in Nepal, 160.
Galichah, 172.
Galle, 206, 207.
Gandak river, 160, 161.
Gandamak, 135, 140.
Gangaikondapuram, Siva temple of, 46.
Ganges Dearah survey, 107.
Ganges, the source of, 51; 369; action of the
river, 271; course of, near Patna, 328.
Gangri range, 163.
Ganjam coast, 29, 33, 45.
Gantur district, 240.
Garbia, 49.
Garhwal, 48, 50, 273, 275.
Garo hills, coal-field in, 256; Mr. La Touche in,
260, 265, 269.
Garok, 95.
Garratt, Professor, 318.
Garrick, Mr., 336, 340.
Gartok, 51, 152.
Gauges, tidal, 196-208.
Gauhati, 75.
Gaur, 328, 329, 334, 340.
Gauss’s method of minimum squares, 43.
Gaya district survey, 114.
Gazetteer, Imperial, latitudes and longitudes for,
223; 224 and passim in Chapter XIV.
Geodetic observations, 209-215.
Geographical explorations, 128-171.
Geography of India, ancient, Cunningham on the,
327, 337.
Geological survey of India, 236-282; medal
awarded for exhibits at Paris Congress, 238 ;
maps of, 225; publications of, 237 ; geological
map of India, 226, 271 (note); geological
nomenclature and classification, 255 ; Geological
Congress in Bologna, 255; in London, 276;
geological surveys uncompleted, 281, 282.
594 INDEX.
Gersoppa, Falls of, 83.
Gharjistan, 179, 180 and (note).
Ghats, Eastern, 350.
Ghats, Western, 6, 82, 202; forest surveys on, 90.
Ghaziaband range, 254.
Ghazipur district survey, 108 ; Ghazipur, 332.
Ghazkol lake, 143.
Ghazni, 133, 140, 149 ; Mr. Griesbach at, 278.
Ghorband, 190, 191, 192.
Ghori, 182.
Ghur, 184, 185.
Ghur Mushkan, 186.
Giama Nu Chu river, 155, 156.
Giangtse Jong, 151, 153.
Gibbs, Lieutenant J. E., 87.
Gibbs, Mr. J., 362.
Gibson, Mr. A. J., 104.
Gilchrist, Dr. J., 318.
Giles, De. G. M., deep-sea trawling, by, 23;
deputed to serve with Chitral and Wafiristan
Mission, 28; report on results of deep-sea
dredging coasts, by, 31, 270.
Gilgit and river, 141, 142, 144, 145, 148, 167, 194,
231, 270.
Gill, Captain W., R.E., 93.
Gill Memorial Medal awarded to Mr. Ogle, 170.
Gilliland, Mr. J. H., 311.
Gimuchen, 165.
Ginja hill, 337.
Girdlestone, Mr. F. B., 374.
Girishk, 129, 136, 137, 185.
Girnar, 322, 346 (note), 347.
Girnar mountain, 250, 349.
Glaciation, Himalayan, 271 (note).
Gladwin, Francis, 321.
Gneiss, Himalayan, 239, 246, 260.
Goa, 2; seaboard coasts and islands examined by
Lieutenant Petley, 10.
Goalpara, observations at, 285, 293.
Goapnath, 34.
God-i-Zirreh, 173, 175.
Godavari, 125, 239, 247, 350.
Godwin-Austin, Colonel, 165, 260, 265.
Gogha, 34.
Golconda range, 247.
Gold near Kandahar, 254; in Hazarah country,
255; in Chota Nagpur, 277; in Mysore
(Mr. Foote’s report), 272, 273; gold tract in
Chiggateri, 276 ; in Sonapet, 277.
Goldsmid, Major-General Sir F., 172.
Gonds, country of, 248, 329, 332.
Gondwana deposits, the, 236, 237, 240, 245,
247, 250; Gondwanarocks in Australia, 266; |
Dr. Feistmantel on Gondwana flora, 268. |
Gopalpur, 4, 33. |
Gopurams, or temples, in Southern India, 47.
Gor, 145.
Gorakhpur district survey, 112; Gorakhpur, 331,
332.
Gordon, General, in Waziri country, 91, 146.
Gordon, Mr. R., 169 (note).
Gore, Major St. G. C., 87; survey of the Pishin
valley by, 129; advances from Kandahar, 134 ;
in Southern Afghanistan, 136; accompanies
Sir D. Stewart, 186; 172, 177, 183, 235.
Gosalpur manganese ores, 274.
Goteik, 167.
Gour, ruins of, 320 (note); see also under Gaur.
Grant, Mr. Charles, 320 (note).
Grant Duff, Rt. Hon. Sir M. E., 343, 358, 376.
Granville, Lord, 224.
Greco-Baktrian sculptures, 344.
Great Arc series, 43.
Greek coins and ornaments in Afghan Turkistan,
188 ; in Helmand yalley, 173.
Greenough, Mr., 237.
Greek alphabet, Remains of, in India, 348.
“ Gridiron” system of triangulation, 59.
Griesbach, Mr. C. L., 178, 181, 186, 247, 253,
254, 257, 260, 264, 269, 272, 278, 280.
Griffiths, Dr. W., 140.
Griffiths, Major, prisoner in Afghan War in 1842,
131.
Griffiths, Mr. J. (Bombay School of Art), 356.
Grodekoff, Colonel, 179 (note).
Growse, F. §., Mr., B.C.S., C.LE., 344 (note).
Guedeonoff, Captain, 174.
Gubjal, Little, 144.
Gujrat, 86, 89, 90, 231,, 322, 360; Gujrat cyclone,
296; architecture and ]scenery in, 346 (note) ;
battle of, 337; Chandravati, ancient capital of,
320 (note); Dr. Burgess in, 350; Muhamma-
dan architecture in, 354; monuments in, 341;
Mr. Cousens in, 355; Northern, 362.
Gulistan, 96.
Gulran, 178.
Gumal pass, 92, 98; Gumal valley, 146, 147,
149.
Gumti river, 339.
Gund river, 193.
Gunn, Lieutenant G. S., R.N., 33.
Gurdaspur, 106.
Gupta architecture, 330; Gupta dynasty, 347;
Gupta inscription, 348 ; Gupta coins, 7b. (note) ;
Gupta kings, 370; Gupta kings, temples of,
337.
Gurgi, ancient city of, 336.
Guz river, 192.
Gwal valley, 97.
Gyala Sindong, 164, 165.
H,
Hacket, Mr., 240, 243, 256, 266, 269, 272, 273;
his retirement, 274.
Hematite in Sandur hills, 266, 276.
Haft Kotal pass, 135.
INDEX.
Haibak, 174, 182, 189, 190.
Haidarabad assigned districts, list of monuments
in, 345.
Haidarabad Circars, maps of, 378; Haidarabad,
survey of portion of, 90, 123, 124; 212, 213,
231; rainfall stations in Haidarabad, 291;
Dr. Burgess’s, archeological tour in, 350.
Haig, General C. T., 86, 87, 88, 214, 224.
“ Hakim, The,” 149.
Halhed, Mr., 318.
Hallabid temple, 322.
Hami, 158.
Hammond, Nay. Lieut., R.N , 2, 3, 5.
Hampe, 359, 362.
Hamra pass, 92.
Hamuns (Lora and Helmund), 173, 175.
Hangrang, 253.
Hanna pass, 92.
Hari Rud, river and valley, 174, 176, 177, 178,
182, 183, 184, 185, 195.
Harischandragad, 353.
Harman, Lieutenant, 51, 126; survey of Sikkim
by, 126, 127; death of, 127; 164.
Harmonie analysis of tidal observation, 197, 198,
et seq.
Harnai, valley and route, 95, 96, 98; 279.
Hartington, Lord, 118, 358.
Harut-Rud river, 195.
Hasan Khan, 336.
Hassan Khels, 104.
Hastings, Warren, 367, 376.
“ Havildar,” The, 143.
Hazara (in Afghanistan) country and people,
Captain Leach’s account of, 137 and (note) ;
178, 185.
Hazara (North-west frontier), 246.
Hazarajat, The (Afghanistan), 186.
Hazaribagh, 213, 245, 288.
Hazrat Pandua, 334.
Headquarters of Survey Department, 221-235.
Hearsey, Mr., 152.
Heaviside, Colonel W. J., 129, 135, 214.
Heights of tides, 198, 199, et seq.
Heights of various places in Afghanistan, 140.
Helby, Lieutenant E., R.N., boat party in charge
of, 23; completes survey of approaches to
Bhavnagar, 26; completes survey of Beypore
and Calicut, 31.
Heliogravure process, 223, 225, 226, 227.
Helmand river, 136, 172, 173, 175, 176, 183,
185, 195, 254.
Hemadpanti temples, 324, 325.
Hennessey, Mr. J. B. N., 57; his report on
A—k’s journey, 156, 232.
Henzada district, 364.
Herat, 175, 176, 180, 182, 183, 185, 187.
Herat valley, geology of, 269.
Herakles, Statue of, 335.
Herschel, Sir J., 289.
Herschel, Colonel, 211, 233.
3995
Heysham, Mr. W., 122.
Hilly cape, 5.
Hill, R.E., Major J., triangulation by, 53, 54;
completes triangles between Tavoy and base-
line, 55; 171.
Hill etching oa copper plates, 222.
Hill, Mr. 8. A., 293, 301, 311.
Himachal mountains, 152.
Himalayan States Survey, 99; Himalaya
mountains, 160; (also note), 161, 162,
190; geology of Himalaya mountains, 260;
Mr. Oldham on Himalaya mountains, 264;
glaciation in, 271 (note) ; Himalaya compared
geologically with the Aips, 271; sub-Hima-
layan rocks, 271 (note) ; geology of Himalayas,
275, 280; meteorology of N.W. Himalaya,
293; snows of Himalaya meteorologically con-
sidered, 293, 295, 296, 297, 303, 310.
Himalayas, Lower, 267, 273, 275, 277.
Hindu architecture, 325.
Hindu Kush, 143, 144, 150, 177, 182, 190, 191;
geology of, 270; 366.
Hinze basin (on Burmese coast), 26.
Hira Lal (geological sub-assistant), 253, 273,
274.
Hira Sing, 94, 177, 179, 180, 191.
Hisarak valley, 135.
Hissar, district survey, 105; Mr. Kodgers in, 340.
Hoang Ho, 154.
Hobday, Major, 30, 68, 88, 135, 166, 167, 168,
169, 170.
Hoboken, 234.
Hodgson, Captain, description of Nilang valley
by, 51.
Hodgson, Mr. B. H., 321.
Hoernle, Dr. A. F. R., 325 (note).
Hoiduthara, 153.
Holdich, Colonel, in Kohat, 91, 92, 129; acecom-
panies General Bright’s column to Kabul, 133;
traverses Tal-Chotiali route, 186; member of
committee on survey equipment, 137; in Zhob
valley, 147; called to join Afghan Boundary
Commission, 147; with Takht-i-Suliman Ex-
pedition, 148; 159, 172, 177, 183, 190, 235.
Holt, Mr. J. R., 311.
Homotaxis, Geological, 265.
Hong Kong, 200.
Hooker, Sir J., 195.
Hope, Sir Theodore C., 368.
Horses, Wild, 153.
Hoshiarpur, 106.
Hot springs in India, 258.
Hourly meteorological observations, 306.
Hubli-Marmagao, proposed railway, 10.
Hue, Abbé, 156.
Hughes, Mr., 237, 272, 273, 276, 278.
Hugli river, 22, 25, 36, 121, 203, 207; meteo-
rological observations at mouth of, 296.
Hukitolla, 11 ; Hukitolla cyclone, 299.
Hukong valley, 79.
Huli, Antiquities at, 347.
396 INDEX.
Hull, Commander T. A., R.N., proposal to confer
post of superintendent on, 12; writer of “ The
Unsurveyed World,’ 12 (note).
Eultzsch, Dr. E., 362, 371.
Human sacrifices by Nagas, 80.
Hundes, 50; invaded by Dogras, ib.; exports
from, 51, 152, 253, 260.
Hunias (people of Hundes), description of, 51.
Hunter, Dr., 354.
Hunter, Sir W. W., 224, 287, 314; appointed
Director-General of Statistics, 317.
Huuza, 142, 148, 168.
Hurrichpoor, 29.
Hutar coal-fields, 244, 250.
Hutchinson, Colonel, 90, 117, 123.
Hutchinson, Mr. §. A., 304, 311.
Hwen Thsang, 193 (note), 326, 331, 332, 334,
349, 359, 370.
Hydaspes, 251.
Hydrographer of the Admiralty, his relations with
surveyor in charge Marine Survey Depart-
ment, 14; 26, 32.
Hydrographic Notices, 3.
Hydroid zoophytes, description of by Surgeon
J. Armstrong, M.D., 9.
Hypeethral temple in Karund State, 331.
Ie |
Ibrahimabad, 174, 175.
Ighiz Yar, 192, 194.
Igutpuri, 200.
Tltitmish, 330.
Imam Baksh, Bozdar, services of, 148.
Imam Sharif, 99, 150, 180,181, 183 184, 185.
Imperial Gazetteer of India, 224, 316, 319.
“Tndia, a Sketch of Mountains and River
Basins of,” by Mr. T. Saunders, 378.
India, general maps of, 223, 231.
India Office, Geographical work of, 373.
India-prastha, 343 (note).
India, Retrospect of history of entire triangulation |
of, 58.
Indian antiquary, 346 (note), 361, 368.
“Tndian Art, Journal of,” 362.
Indian atlas, 222, 229, 230, 231.
Indian atlas plates, steel facing of, 223.
Indian Eras, Book of, by General Cunningham,
338.
Indian coasts, Selection of localities for tide-
gauges, for determinatioa of mean sea-level
along, 6.
Indian lighthouses and lightships, preparation
undertaken of complete list of, 3; inspection
of, by Commander A. D. Taylor, 9.:
Indian Museum Notes, 228.
Indian Navy, Surveys of, 1.
“Indian Surveys, Memoir on,’ Mr. C. Mark-
ham’s, 376.
Indor Khera, 331.
Indo-Seythian antiquities, 328, 330.
Indo-Scythian kings, 347.
Indraji, Pandit Bhagwanlal, 342.
Indus, Alexander’s route along, 326.
Indus-Kishenganga watershed, 145.
Indus river, re-survey of mouths of, required,
34; Mullah’s survey of, 141; 151, 206.
Indus series, Great, of triangulation, 94.
Indo-Colonial Exhibition, London, 225, 226.
Inland customs, Receipts from salt, 252.
Inlé Jake, 169.
Inscriptions and Coins, 366; also passim in
Chapter XV.
“Tnscriptions in Dharwar and Mysore,” Sir T.
Hope’s, 368.
“Institutes of Timur,” 319.
Instruments for geodetic observations, 211.
Instrument, Mathematical, office at Calcutta, 218.
Instruments, scientific, Supply of, 216-220. See
also Appendix.
“ Jnvestigator,” surveying steamer, building of, 8 ;
launching of, 11; available for surveying
purposes, 18; list of survey work done during
year 1881-82 by officers of, 18; runs a line of
deep-sea soundings in Gulf of Manar, 19; “pro-
ceeds to Chittagong, 19 ; reported by Lieutenant
Channer to be admirably adapted for work, 20 ;
proceeds to Sandoway roads and resounds the
whole of bank of soundiogs between False point,
Palmyras point, and Eastern channel light
vessel, 22; boats of, assist in surveying Pal-
myras shoals, 22 ; examination of ravine south
of the Sunderbuns made by, 23; leaves the
Sunderbuns, 23 ; returns from Western Torres
islands, and completes southern approach to
Mergui, 26; Hinze basin on Burmese coast
examined by,26 ; surveys entrance to Beypore
river, 27; completes survey of shallows off
mouths of Meghna river, 28; takes soundings
west of Andamans and Nicobars, 32; leaves
Bombay harbour, 32; visits south Sentinel
island, 33; total distance run by during seven
years work, 33.
Inquiry into working of Marine Survey Depart-
ment, ll.
Trawadi river, Survey of, 24, 25, 36, 79, 155
(mote), 156, 166, 168, 170, 203; geological
observations in basin of N.W., 267.
Irak pass, 190.
Iron, Effect of, on stone known to Hindus in
ancient times, 332.
Tron. See passim through geological chapter.
Will be found indexed under name of locality. -
Ishkaman river, 143.
Ishkashim, 143, 193.
|=
INDEX. 397
J.
Jabalpur, 213; Jabalpur fossil flora, 246;
Jabalpur Railway, 250; 277; Jabalpur obser-
vatory, 289.
*Jabree.” British Indian wooden barque, dis-
covery of part of wreckage of, 29; description
of track of, 30.
Jackson, Captain, 167, 168, 170.
Jacob, Colenel, “ Jeypur portfolios of architec-
tural details by,” 363.
Jacobabad, 47, 241.
Jade mines (Upper Burma), 169.
Jafrabad, charting required of, 34.
Jaggayyapeta stupa, 358, 360.
Jahngria, 333.
Jaina monuments, 322, 340, 346, 352.
Jaintia hills, 258, 277.
Jaipur, 306.
Jaisalmer, 238 ; fossiliferous limestones in, 269.
Jakao, 30.
Jalalabad, distance from Peshawar, 130, 133,
134; height of, 140.
Jalandhar Doab, 333.
Jalandhar, 106; Mr. Rodgers in, 340; monu-
ments in, 344.
Jalawan, 97.
Jalpaiguri, 121, 213.
Jam valley, 177.
James, Mr., 169.
Jami Masjid at Jaunpur, 339.
Jammu coal, 273, 275.
Jamnagar, 349.
Jamrud, Fort, 131.
Jamsetjee Dhunjeebhoy Wadia, master builder, 8.
Jamshidis, 178, 184.
Janssen, M., 290.
Jarrad, Nay. Lieutenant, R.N., despatched in
“Clyde” to survey Amherst, 1; surveys
Madras, 2; connects, astronomically, Diamond
island, Rangoon, and Amherst pagoda, 2; in
charge of boat party surveying, 4; surveys
Bankote river mouth, 9; impaired health of,
9; placed at disposal of Admiralty, 11.
Jashk, 298.
Jaugada inscription, 358.
Jaunpur, survey, 114; 322, 338; Dr. Fiihrer’s
report on Sharqi architecture of, 228, 339;
Masjid at, 330.
Jaunsar, 260.
Jehlam, mound at, 333.
Jehlam river, 251, 326.
Jelep La pass, 126, 153.
Jesalmer. See Jaisalmia.
Jesuit fathers at Tasienlu, 155.
Jeypur, 231; Jeypur observatory, 299, 306.
Jhansi, district survey, 114, 340.
Jhinjuwada, 324, 250.
Jodhpur, 80, 81, 238, 250, 274.
Joga, 253.
Jogada Naugam, 348 (note).
Jogeswari, caves near, 323, 353.
Johnson, Mr. E. T. S., 108.
Johnstone, Major-General, C.B., 104.
sone Mr. E. J., 268, 267, 268, 272, 273, 274,
277.
Jones, Sir W., 318, 320, 367.
Jongu, 158.
Journal of Indian art, 226.
Jowain, 175, 176.
Jowaki Expedition, 104; Jowaki hills, Surveys
in, 148.
J pedulus pass, Captain Strahan’s survey of,
Jumna, ancient cities near, 327.
Junagadh, 346 (note), 347, 348, 349.
Junkseylon, Commander Taylor visits, 1; chart
of, 2; 7b. (note) ; sailing directions for, 3.
Junnar, 352.
Jyghur, port of, surveyed at request of Sir
R. Temple, 7.
K.
K—p, 163, 164, 165.
Kabadian, 188.
Kabul valley column, 129; survey of valley,
133; triangulation connected with Kuram,
133; position of Kabul, 140; height of, 140;
183, 190; map of routes to, 223; Mr. Gries-
bach in Kabul valley, 278.
Kach Gandavya, 94.
Kach valley, 97.
Kachi plain, 48, 94, 95, 96, 97.
Kachin hills, 166, 169.
Ka-cho, 171.
KKadis, 179, 180.
Kafiristan, 130; slavery in, 134, 135,
Mr. MeNair in, 149, 150 (note), 191.
Kafir Kot, 91, 333.
Kahalgaon, rock- cut temple of, 333.
Kaiani kings, 174.
Kailang, observatory at, 295.
Kailas temple at Elura, 324, 353, 354.
Kaisar river, 131, 186.
Kaisarghar peak, 147, 148.
Kaitu Kuram, 149.
Kajuri Kach, 98.
Kaka Khels, 149, 150.
Kala Chitta Pahar tract, 104.
Kala-i-Madre Padshah, 173.
Kala Fath, 174, 175.
Kalabagh, 252.
Kaladan river, 364.
Kaladgi, Antiquities in, 342, 346.
Kalagwe, 166.
144;
398
Kalanjara fort, 337.
Kalburga, 344.
Kali river, the, 161, 250.
Kaliana (Jhind State), 274.
Kalimpong, 279.
Kalsi, 326, 848 (note).
Kalyana, 350.
Kaman-i-Bihisht, 176, 177.
Kamawaram coal-field, 248.
Kameng branch of the Bhoroli, 78.
Kamrup boundary survey, 75.
Kamtis, 75, 79.
Kan (Upper Burma), 170.
Kanara, coast, 35; 322, 355, 367.
Kanara-Mysore frontier, 82, 83.
Kanauj, 326 (note).
Kanchanjanga mount., 127, 162, 225.
Kanchipuram, 359.
Kanchipuram, 371.
Kanchrapara station, East Bengal Railway, 121.
Kandahar, 64; route from, to Girishk, 129, 133 ;
battle of, 137 ; position of, 47, 139; height of,
140, 174, 185; gold near, 254; Kandahar
range, ib.
Kandia, 141, 142.
Kandil river, 149.
Kangra district survey, 99.
Kangra Lama La pass, 127, 151.
Kanheri, 352; K. inscriptions, 354.
Kaniguram, 146.
Kankali mound at Mathura, 240.
Kantee, 171.
Kanungos for Bengal, 118.
Kapilavastu, Mr. Carlleyle’s supposed identifica-
tion of, 331, 332.
Karachi, 25, 197, 201, 206, 213, 214, 215; Karachi
winds, 292.
Karakoram pass, 158.
Karakul, Great and Little, lakes, 192.
Karashahr, 158.
Kara Tapa Kalan, 187.
Kara Tapa Khurd, 187.
Karatash, 192.
Karatoya river, 334.
Karenis as surveyors, 116 ; Kareni State, 169.
Karharbari coal-field, 240, 245, 278.
Karkatcha range, 134.
Xarleh, 61.
Karnali river, 152.
Karnul, cave explorations, 263, 268; 277.
Karta, 160.
Karwar, 2, 197, 204, 274.
Karsambla, Buddhist caves at, 342, 355.
Karauli, 336.
Kasauli cantonments, 80.
Kashgar, 192; Kashgar and Yarkand meteor- |
ology, 287.
Kashkar, 366.
INDEX.
Kashmir, 150, 154, 194; amine in Kashmir, 246 ;
Mr. La Touche (geologist) in Kashmir, 272.
Kashmir, temples of, General Cunningham on,
337.
Kasia, ruins at, 332.
Kathe tribes, 363.
Kathiawar, 34, 85, 231, 245; Mr. Fedden (geolo-
gist) in Kathiawar, 250, 256, 262, 265;
meteorology of Kathiawar, 308, 309; Kathia-
war, monuments in, 341; Dr. Burgess’s
Archeological report on, 347, 349.
Kathi tribe, 347.
Katni, 250,
264.
Kaurkonda-Papakenda range, 247._
Kausambi, 337.
Keda, 350.
Kegudo, 154.
Kennedy, General, 146.
Ketas, temples at, 333.
Keyes, General, in Jowaki country, 104.
Khaf, 177.
Khairgura, 240.
Khairpur meteorite, 271 (note).
Khaisar valley, 146.
Khajuraho, 330, 337.
Khakrez, lhe lower, valley, 254.
Khamba Jong, 158.
Khamiab, 174, 187.
Khan Bahadur, Title
** Bozdar,” 148.
Khanabad, 188, 194.
Khandagiri caves, 327, 331, 358.
Khandesh Survey, 70,71; monumental remains
in 342.
Khanti (of Wilcox), 171.
Khanwa, Battle field of, 336.
Kharajangas pass, 180.
Kharan, 95, 97, 98.
Khari, 81.
Kharwar (Afghanistan), 278.
Khasia, Garo, and Naga hills survey, 75; 277.
Khatan, 275.
256; Katni railway to Jabalpur,
of, bestowed on the
KXhatmandu valley, 162.
Khawak, 191.
Khelat, 64, 93, 94, 97.
Khetran country, 94, 97.
Khiderzai clan, 148.
Khirthar range, 241, 254.
Khojah Ali, 173.
Khojak range, 254.
Khojas, fugitive, in Badakashan, 193 (note).
Khorasan, 176, 195, 267; geology of eastern
Khorasan, 269.
Khost (Punjab frontier), 130, 146; Khost (Sind
Pishin Railway), 92, 275, 277.
Khotan, 157.
Khulm and river, 186, 188, 189, 190.
Khurasan (Baluchistan province), 97.
INDEX.
Kherd Kabul, 140, 278.
Khurdeh estate (Pooree), large scale surveys in, |
103, 114. |
Khushk-i-rud valley, 133.
Khusrah writing assigned to survey staff, 109.
Khwaja-Amran range, 96, 97.
Khwaja Salor, 187.
Kielhorn, Professor F., 372.
Kidderpore, 201, 207.
Kila Bar Panjah, 143.
Kila Wamar, 193.
Kilif, 182, 187, 188.
Mindat, 299.
King, Dr., 238, 245, 256, 266; appointed Super-
intendent of the Geological Survey, 272, 273.
Kinney, Mr., 51.
Kirghiz, 192.
Kiria, 157.
Kirman, 177.
Kirthar range, 253.
Kishen Singh. See A——k.
Kishen Singh (geological apprentice), 253.
Kishenganga valley, 145.
Kisseraing, 204.
Kistna river, 125, 247.
Kitchen, Mr., 150 (note).
Kittoe, Captain M., 321.
Kli¢, Herr, 227.
Kodi Kols, 323.
Kohat, district survey, 90,91; Kohat town, 92;
Kohat pass, 104; 250.
Koh Daman, 133, 134
Koh-i-Baba mountains, 182, 190.
Koh-i-Saf, 181. See also Safed Koh.
Kohistan, 134, 191.
Kohitezek pass, 193.
Kokcha river, 194.
Kolab, 143.
Kolam, 142.
Kolar gold mines, 273.
Kols, The, 248.
Kondane, 352.
Kong-lachen pass, 158.
Konkan survey, 124; description of Konkan,
125.
Konni, 169.
Kopah, 1.
Kopargaum, antiquities in, 342.
Korba, 273.
Korokh valley, 177, 179.
Kostenko, Captain, 192.
Kotai, 350.
Kotanni pass, 149.
Kotkai, 150.
Krakatoa, 204, 205.
Krik (French missionary), 155.
Krishna shoal lighthouse, 53.
Krol greup, 260.
399
| Kshatrapa inscription at Junagadh, 348.
Kshatrapa kings of Surashtra, 347, 349.
Kuchar (East Turkistan), 158; (Afghanistan),
179.
Kudara, 193.
| Kuen Lun mountains, 153, 154, 157.
Kuhaks, 97.
Kuhsan, 174, 176, 182.
Kulachuri Rajas of Chedi, 332.
Kuldar, 188.
Kulha range, 163.
KKumaun, 48, 50, 161, 250, 258, 273, 275.
Kunar valley, 130, 135, 150.
Kund, peak of, 134.
Kunduz, 186, 194; Kunduz river, 188, 189, 190.
Kuru river, 163.
Kuram valley, 91, 129, 130, 133; triangulation
connected with that of Kabul, 7b.; Mr. Wynne
in, 250.
Kushk river, 177.
Kushk Rud river, 176.
Kussilong, 258.
Kusinagara, 332.
Kuthera, 337.
Kwwandar valley, 147.
Kyaukku temple, 364.
Kyauk-pyu, 23.
Kya-whyat, 276.
Kyendwen river, 79.
Kyonkse, 166.
L.
L—, explorer in Tibet, 151.
L ¢ (Chambel), 152, 157.
Laccadive islands, 29, 35.
Ladak, 157, 253, 275.
Ladak, Cunningham’s, 337.
Lahore, 338 ; monuments at, 343, 344.
Lahore observatory, 284, 298, 304.
Lahori pass, 150.
Lakanpur coal-field, 269, 274.
Lake, Mr. P., 272, 274, 277.
Lakhima, inscription at, 337.
Laki range, 241.
Lakpat, 86.
Lala Hem Raj, 311.
Lalla Ruchi Ram Sahni, B.A., 296.
Lama, The. See U.G.
Lamaing, 166.
Lambeth (India Store Depét) observatory, 216.
Lambton, Colonel, 38, 44, 47; commences the
trigonometrical survey of India, 58, 212.
Lambton and Everest’s Great Arc, 58.
Lamech, shrine of, in Lughman, 134.
400
“ Lamp Rock,’ The, 192 and (note).
Lamuti, 141.
Land settlement, map of India showing, 226.
Lane, Mr. W., 116.
Langdao, 79.
Laram Kotal, 150.
Large scale cadastral surveys, 102.
Lash Jowain, 173, 175.
Lataband pass, 135.
La Touche, Mr. J. D., 112.
La Touche, Mr. (geologist), 256; in the Dehing
basin, 260, 264, 265; in Garo hills, 269, 272;
in Kashmir, 273, 275; 277.
Laterite, 249.
Latitudes and longitudes of Indian localities, 209,
318.
Launggyet, 364.
Leach, Lieut.-Colonel E. P., on Simla survey, 80,
88; in North Afghanistan, 130; wounded and
gains V.C.,7b.; in Argandab and Khakrez
valleys, 137; description of Hazara country
by, 2b.
Le Bon, Dr. G., 320 (note), 362.
Légé & Co., Messrs., 199, 217.
Leh, 157; actinometric observations at, 295, 296;
barometrical observations at Leh, 293.
Lem Chang P’ra (Siam), 5.
Leopards found in N.W. Afghanistan, 195.
Leo Porgyal, 50. See also Porgyal.
Level, “ Reversible,” 217.
Levelling operations
observations, 200.
Lhakhang-Jong, 160.
Lhasa, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 160, 376.
“Lhasa, Narrative of journey to” (by 8.C.1).),
158.
Lhobrak Chu, the, 163.
Lhobra Sanpo, 160.
Lho Jong, 156.
Lhok’haptra, 164 (note).
Lighthouses and light vessels, inspection
annual return of, 13.
Lignite from Baranga, 246.
Limestone fossils in Upper Burma, 280.
Lingala, 248.
Lipu Lek pass, 161.
Lithang, 155.
lithographic Office, Calcutta, 221.
Lithological nomenclature, 271 (note).
Little, Dr. C., 311.
Little, Mr. C., 311.
Lo river, 164.
Lob Nor, 153, 157.
Lockhart, Sir W., 167.
Lockyer, Professor N., 289.
Loess soil in Badghiz, 178.
Loftus, Captain A. J., additions to hydrography
of Siam coast, received from, 5.
Logar valley, 133, 134, 135, 278.
in connexion with tidal
of, 9;
INDEX.
4
7.
Logs, meteorological observavions in ships, 289,
292. See also Marine meteorology.
Lohardaga, 245.
Lohit river, 156 (note).
Lonad, 353.
London Geological Congress, 276.
Long, Captain F. B., R.E., 97, 137.
Longitude observations, passim in Chapter IX.
Longitudes and latitudes of Indian stations and
localities, 209, 223, 317.
Longrin coal-field, 265.
Lora river, 136, 173.
Lower Provinces, mapping of, 231.
Lucknow observatory, 285.
Ludhe, 150.
Ludhiana district survey, 106.
Lughman valley, 98, 131, 133.
Luni Pathan, 97.
Lu river, 155 and (note).
Chu.
Lungleh, 308.
Lushai expedition, 170, 277.
Lut-dih, 150 (note).
Lydekker, Mr., 238, 246; on the N.W.
Himalayas, 260; retirement and services of
263; 268.
See also Giama Nu
M.
M S in Badakshan, 142; presented with
medal, 144.
Macdonald, Colonel J., 86, 104, 123, 125.
Macgregor, Major C. R., 79.
Mach coal seams, 256.
Machine for calculating tidal heights, 199.
Ma-chu rivers, 153, 154.
Mackenzie, Colonel Colin, 32) ; his survey of the
Amravati Tope, 358 (note), 359, 367.
Mackenzie, Lieutenant, R.E., 99.
Madhapur, 256.
Madras Presidency topography, arrangements for
completing, 84; in Indian atlas, 231.
Madras, survey of roadstead, 2, 4, 5, 19, 28;
Madras coast series, 45, 46; Madras longitu-
dinal series, 46; Madras revenue survey, 84;
197, 201; mean sea level at Madras, 202, 203,
204; 211, 214, 215; longitude of Madras, 210,
213; Madras observatory, 285, 312; Madras
rainfall, 288; Madras cyclone of 1875, 290;
Madras monuments, conservation and restora-
tion of, 343, 345.
Madura district survey, 84, 85; Mr. Foote in
Madura, 256, 260; Madura, antiquities in, 359.
Madya, 276.
Magadha, Ancient kingdom of, 326, 329, 347.
Maha-Kosala, Ancient capital of, or Chattisgarh,
335.
Mahanadi, 36, 281, 239; Upper Mahanadi, 264.
Mahamuni pagoda, 364.
INDEX.
Mahasthan, 334.
Mahi river, 297.
Mahoba, 337.
Mahomed Jan, 133.
Mahseud Waziris, 91.
Mahuwa cr Mowa, 21.
Maigna, 171.
Maiji Sahiba, tomb of, at Junagadh, 349.
Maimana, 178, 180, 181.
Mainlon, 166.
Maisey, Colonel, 521.
Maitland, Captain, 191.
Maiwand, Battle of, 137.
Mak, 179.
Makran, surveys in, 99; Makran geology, 243,
270, 349.
Makrana (Arvali Mountains), marble quarried at,
243.
Makum, 276.
Malabar, South, Part of, geologically examined,
276.
Malay peninsula, 231.
Malegaon, 200.
Maleeka or M’Li-kha river, 79, 170.
Mallet, Mr., 238, 243, 262, 272, 276, 277.
Malnad, 82, 83.
Malot, temples at, 333.
Malwa and Bhopal survey, 87.
Malwa, General Cunningham in, 329.
Malwan surveyed, 18.
Mamallapuram, archeological reports on, 359,
362, 371.
Manar, gulf of, 19.
Manasarowar lakes, 50.
Manas river, 160, 163 and (note).
Mandai, 94.
Mandalay, 24, 166, 167, 168, 169, 299, 364.
Manapand shoals (off Tinnevelly), 35.
Manbhum, 244.
Mandwa bay surveyed, 27.
Manegaon, 241.
Mangal country, 130.
Mangalore, 4, 60, 211,212, 215.
Manganese ores in Gosalpur, 274; in Sandur
hills, 276.
Manikyala, 326, 333.
Manipur, inhabitants of, 76,168 ; Manipur-Burma
Boundary Commission, 257; 258, 262.
Manning, Mr. T., 374.
Manora point, 19.
Mansahra, 348, 369.
Manual for meteorologists, 286.
Manual of Geology of India, 243, 271.
Manuscripts, collections of Burmese, Siamese,
and Cambodian, 364.
Mara, caves at, 331.
Marble in Arvali region, 243.
Maratha country, 90, 125, 249, 250, 346, 367.
I Y 20321.
401
Marathas, 335, 347.
Marco Polo, 154.
Mardan, 341.
Margherita (Assam), 79.
Marine meteorological observations,
295, 297, 300, 302, 305.
Marine surveys of India, early history, 1; new
department under Commander Taylor, 1;
committee for inquiry into working of, 11;
report by Captain Brent on the department
12,13, 14,15; re-organisation of 15; Com-
mander Dawson suceeeds Commander Taylor
in charge of, 15; total cost of department,
16; list of the publications of, 16,17; results
of, 17; second period of, 18; total work
remaining for, 34-36.
Markandi temples, 329, 332, 336.
Markham, Mr. C. R., on Indian agriculture, 120
(mote) ; on Lake Palti, 159; 373; his work and
publie services, 375.
Marmagao, 2, 10, 25, 206.
Marri country, 93, 96, 97, 133, 254.
Marshall, I.N., Mr., rough chart of of harbour of
Port Blair made by, 30.
289, 292,
Marshman, Mr., 318.
Martaban, Gulf of, 2, 26, 36.
Martin, Captain Gerald, in Kuram valley, 129;
in Kohistan, 184; in Waaziri, 146.
Maruchak, 194.
Marwar State, 80, 90.
Mashhad, 174, 176, 182, 191, 309.
Masson, Mr., 321.
Mastuj, 141, 144, 150.
Masulipatam, 4.
Mathematical Instrument Office, Caleutta, 218 ;
department transferred to new building, 220,
221.
Matheran survey, 125.
Mathura, 112, 326, 328, 335, 344, 348, 363.
Mauritius observatory, 310.
Mayo, Earl, 314.
Mayo salt mines, 251.
Mayu river, 364.
Mazagon, 10.
Mazar-i-Sharif, 182, 188, 189.
Mazure, Monseigneur de, 155 (note).
McCarthy, Mr., triangulation by, 54; accom-
panies Siamese telegraphic expedition, 54;
returns to Moulmein, 55.
McCullagh, Major, 83, &4.
MeGill, Mr., 81.
MeMehon, Colonel, 239, 246, 260,
McNair. Mr. W. W., 91, 98; his death and
services, 7b., 135, 149, 150.
Measurement of meridional ares, 209.
Mechi river, 160.
Medixval style of Indian architectnre, 323, 324.
Medlicott, Mr., 238, 253; retirement and services
of, 270; his geological writings, 271; 273, 276,
283 (note).
Meerut district survey, 108.
Ce
402
Meghna river, reconnaissance of, 19; survey of
Meghna flats, 27, 28.
Mehka, 171.
Mehmudabad, 362.
Meins, Mr. C., 234, 290.
Mekong river, 155.
Mekran. See Makran.
Mektar vailey, 147.
“Memoirs by the Medical Officers of the Army
in India,” 228.
Men tribes, 164.
Mena, 147.
Menaknath, Cave temple of, 89.
Menda La pass, 159.
Menhirs, 324.
Meos of Mewat, the, 336.
Meridional ares, measurement of, 209.
Merk, Mr., 178, 175.
Merriman, Colonel, 86.
Mergui, 1: selected as site for measurement of a
base-line, 55; description of, tb., 56,57; 58;
tin in Mergui, 278 ; 364.
Mergui archipelago, 3; survey of, 25, 26; re-
plotting of beaten track in, 26 ; 37.
Merv, 187.
Merwara, forest surveys, 80.
Meteorites, 271 (note).
Meteorology, 288 ef seg.; meteorology of Indian
seas, 289 and passim in chapter; report on
Indian meteorology, critically compared with
that of Russia, 290.
Meudon observatory, 290.
Mewar, 90; Mr. Hacket in Mewar, 266.
Mewat, Meos of, 336.
Mians, 149.
Michni fort, 130, 131.
Middlemiss, Mr. C. S., 263, 268, 269, 272,
275.
273,
Middle Mosevs, Triangulation station on, 53.
Midnapur, district survey, 116; 245.
Mihirakula, 370.
Milam, 49,151; Milam pass, 253.
Military route surveys, Conduct of, i32.
Mill, Mr., 321.
Minar, Buddhist, in Kabul valley, 134.
Minbu, 168, 169.
Minbya, 364.
Mineralogy of India, 273, 280, 282.
Minerals of South Afghanistan, 2
Minicoy, 208.
Mining and boring operations in India, 274.
Mints at Calcutta and Bombay, 217.
Mir Izzut Ollah, 190 (note).
Miranzai valley, 91, 280.
Miri Hills, 52.
Miri Padam, 164.
Mirkhwaili, 92.
Mirya, survey of bay of, 4.
ae
INDEX.
Mirzapur district survey, 109, 112.
Mishmi country, 156.
Mithankot, 206.
Mitra, Dr. R., C.1.E., 325 (note).
Mitri, 93.
M’Li-kha river, 79. See also Maleeka river.
Model map of India, 225.
Mogaung, 169.
Moghuls, descendants living in Afghanistan, 186 ;
190 (note).
Mogok, 167.
Mo-goung-poon, 171.
Mogulkot, 279.
Mokoshat mountain, 79.
Monghyr, 206.
Mongolia, A——k in, 151, 153; 192.
Mong States in Eastern Burma, 170.
Monsoon forecasts, 289 ef seq.
Moutreal, Geological Section of British Associa-
tion, 265.
Montriou, Commander, 15.
Monuments, preservation of ancient, 320, 341,
344, 345.
Moorcroft, Mr. W., 152.
Moradabad revenue survey, 108.
Moscos islands, 26, 53.
Moshabar pass, 141.
“ Mosque of Vazir Ali Ad-din Khan, at Lahore.”
Mr. J. L. Kipling on, 363.
Moulmein, 2, 3, 57, 201, 204, 207, 214, 364.
Mounds in Shorapur, 323.
Mowa, survey of, 21.
Mrohaung, 364.
Mud bank at Alleppi, 274,
Mudhera, 324, 355.
Mugzisolma, 157.
ort
Hii.
Muhammadan buildings, rare, in Konkan, 125;
Muhammadan ‘or Saracenie architecture, 322 ;
Muhammadan buildings in Bombay Presi-
deney, 325 ; Muhammadan ravages in Deccan,
350.
Muhammad Yusuf Sharif, 147, 148.
Yusuf.
Mukur, 140.
Muleli, old diamond workings in, 247.
“ Mullah,” Explorations of the, 141.
Multan, 136.
** Munshi,” the, 135.
Munjan, 150.
Mundra, Port of, 34.
Murchison grant awarded to Mr. McNair, 150.
Murghabi river (Pamir), 143, 193.
Murghab river (N.W. Afghanistan), 178, 179,
180, 181.
Murphy, R. X., Mr., on Bombay and its popula-
tion in medieval times, 6.
Murree, water supply of, 275.
Musadarra, 148.
Musa Khel country, 147, 148.
See also
INDEX.
Mussoorie, 296 ; Mussoorie observatory, 304.
Mustugh Ata, 192.
Muzattargarh, 104, 105.
Muzaffarnagar district survey, 107, 108.
Muzaffarpur district survey, 117, 118, 119.
Muzawar surveys, 102.
Muztagh range, Point of convergence of, with
Hindu Kush, 143.
Myanong, 53.
Myingyan, 169.
Myittha valley, 170.
Mysore survey, 81; survey of Mysore town, 84;
area of Mysore state, 84; Mr. Foote surveys
auriferous deposits in Mysore, 272; 322;
Meadows Taylor on, 360.
N.
Nadsur, Buddhist caves at, 342, 355.
Naga hills, coal-fields in, 238; 257; petroleum
in, 276.
Naga tribes, 75, 80.
Nagarkoil, 215.
Nagar (Mysore), 82.
Nagpur observatory, 285.
Naichi valley, 153, 157.
Nainshe, 158.
Nain Singh, Pundit, birthplace of, 49 (note}, 151,
158, 165.
Nalai valley, 147.
Nammaw, 167.
Nanaghat inscriptions, 354.
Nandidrug, 82, 84.
Nangaparbat mountain, Description of, 145.
Narakel, 4.
Naratu, 179.
Narayanganj, 19.
Warbada and Siwalikh Equide, 259.
Narbada river and Perim island, survey of chan-
nel between, 27; Mr. Bose on the Lower
Narbada, 265; Narbada valley, 271 (note) ;
floods on the Narbada river, 297.
Narcondam, 26.
Nari river basin, 93.
Narmada river, 327, 329, 350.
Nasik survey, 86; Nasik, Antiquities in, 342,
351, 352, 355.
Native Passenger Ships Act, 3.
Native States, Statistical information regarding,
317.
Natives as geologists, 264.
Natyadung pass, 54.
Naungsa lake, 171.
Nava-deva-kula, 331.
Navibandar, 31, 32.
Nawal, 331.
Neching Gangra range, 156.
403
Needham, Mr. J. F., 79, 156 (note), 165.
Neftid, Red sands of Arabian, 262.
Negapatam, 4, 21, 47, 201, 205, 207.
Nellore district, 240.
Nemezan lion, statue of Herakles and, 335.
Nepal, 127; G. S. S. in, 160; 161, 162, 231,
349.
Nepal and Oudh frontier survey, 124, 160.
Newtold, Captain, 237.
Newland, Mr. J., 89.
Newman, Mr., 54.
New South Wales, Minister for mines, 266.
Neza Tash pass, 193.
Nicobar islands, 28, 204, 205.
Nilgiri hills, 47.
Nilang valley, 51.
Nili river and fort, 184, 186.
Nishapur, 187.
Niti pass, 253.
Nizam’s dominions, survey of portion of, 90,
128, 124; map of Nizam’s dominions, 224,
226; Dr. Burgess’s archeological researches in
western part of, 350.
Noa Dihing valley, 52, 78, 79.
Noah’s ark, Traditions of, in Lughman, 134.
Noetling, Dr. F., appointed paleontologist, 272;
276, 277, 279.
Nomenclature, Lithological, 271 (note).
Nongyong 79, 166.
Northbrook, Earl, 376.
Norman’s Point, 3.
North-West frontier and adjacent regions, Ex-
plorations in, 140.
North-West Provinces, irrigation map of, 228;
North-West frontier mapping, 226; North-
West Provinces rainfall, 294; North-West
Provinces and Oudh, monuments in, 544, 346.
North-West quadrilateral, 59.
Notices to mariners published, 3.
Nowagarh-Kharial, 239.
Nu Chu. See Giama Nu Chu.
Nuksan pass, 150.
‘© Numismata Orientalia,’ Marsden’s, 372.
Nurpur, 340.
Nushki, 94, 96, 172, 173.
O.
Obeh, 140, 183.
Observatories, Meteorological, 284 ; classification
of, 296, 304.
Ocean Highways, Rainfall chart in, 294.
Occupancy tenants, 111, 113.
Ogle, Mr., in Lakhimpur, 75; on Assam
frontier, 79; his account of work of No. 6
party on Eastern frontier, 80; in Kuram
valley and Zaimukht country, 133; 167, 170.
Ce2
404
Oldenburg, Professor, 332.
Oldham, Dr., 237, 257, 270.
Oldham, Mr. C. l., 248.
Oldkam, Mr. R. D., appointed to geological
survey, 253, 257, 262, 264; in Bikanir, 269,
279, 274, 277.
Onlet, 164.
Orakzai. See Urakzai.
Oriental Congress of 1874, 356.
Orissa coast, examination made of, 22; survey
of, 33, 36; triangulation along, 65; cyclone
off, 206 ; 369.
Orr, Messrs., and Sons, of Madras, 266.
Oudh revenue surveys, 112; Oudh and Nepal
frontier survey, 124, 160; Oudh monuments
in, 346 and (note).
Oxus river, 143, 174, 176, 181, 186, 187, 366.
Oxus, Upper, valley, 192. See also Panjah.
1B
P. A. in Bhutan, 163.
Pachmarhi observatory, 285.
Padams, The, 165.
Padao, 79.
Pagan, river survey party (under Commander
P. J. Falle) at, 24.
Paithan, 350, 351.
Paiwar pass, Captain Woodthorpe at, 129;
Paiwar pass, 120.
Pakchan, 1, 27.
Pakokku, 168.
Pala dynasty of Bengal, 333.
Palamau, 244.
“Paleontologia Indica,” passim in Geological
Chapter.
Palanpw, 89.
Palesar pass, 142.
Palibothra, 328.
Palitana, 355.
Palk straits, survey required of, 35; triangulation
(connecting Ceylon with India) via, 45.
Pallavaram, 359.
Palmer, Mr. C. E., R.N., appointed member
Marine Survey Committee, 12.
Palmer, Mr. G. G., 226.
Palmyras shoals, delineated, 22.
Palni Hills, the, $5.
Palosin, 146.
Palti lake, 158, 159 (and note), 164.
Yam-dok-tso.
Pamir, 192, 193, 270.
Panama, mean sea levels at isthmus of, 202.
Panchalinga, 347.
Panch Mahals survey, 89.
Panch Pahari, 330.
Pandua, 340.
Panipat, Battle of, 365.
Panjah river, 193, 194.
Pangong lake, 157.
See also
See also Oxus.
INDEX.
Panjara-Borddhonkuti, 334 (note).
Panjgur, 95 and (note), 147.
Panjkora valley, 141.
Panjshir, 191.
Pantaleon, coins of, 370.
Paoghan, 182.
Paranagar, 336.
Paris Exhibition, 223; Geological Congress at
Paris, 255.
Parivrajaka Maharajas, 370.
Parner, antiquities in, 342.
Paropamisus, 177, 178, 179, 267.
Pascoe, Navigating Lieutenant, R.N., surveys
Madras roadstead, 2; visits Cochin, Beypore,
and Calicut, 5; completes examination of
Quilon roadstead, 7; completes survey Back
bay, 19; surveys Quilon, 21; resigns Indian
marine survey, 31.
Pataliputra, 328.
Patkoi range, 78, 79, 166.
Patan, 88, 355.
Patna district survey, 114; observatory, 285;
barometrical observations at, 293; Patna, 328,
331, 333, 348, 353.
Pattadkal, temple at, 324, 347.
Patterson, Mr. W. H., 126.
Patwari Bill for Bengal, 118.
Paundra Varddhana, ancient capital of, 334.
Paumben, 4, 8, 197, 204, 261, 309.
Pawagarh hill survey, 89.
Peacocke, Captain, 187, 191.
Pedder, Mr. W. G., 377.
Pedler, Mr. A., 311.
Pedro point, 28.
Pemakoichen, 164.
Pemberton, Captain, 163.
Pench coal-field, 267.
Pendulum observations, 44; Captain Basevi’s,
210, 212.
Peukalaotis, 336.
Pennar river, South, 46.
Perak, Mines of, 276.
Perim, 34; (Red Sea), 309.
Periodicity of drought or famines, 287, 300.
Periplus, the, 351.
Periyar project, 85.
Permanently settled districts of Bengal, Survey
of, 119.
Persian inscriptions, 339, 346 (note).
Persia, Yusuf Sharif in, 99; Eastern Persian Mis-
sion, 172; Persian gulf, 270.
Peshawar, column, 130; 140, 141, 336 (note).
Petley, Navigating Sub-Lieutenant E. W., 2;
takes up survey Bombay harbour,9; notes by
on history and topcgraphy Marmagao, 10; sur-
yeys Bombay foreshore, 10; descriptive sketch
of Goa by, 10; 121.
Petroleum in Baluchistan,
hills, 276; in Burma, 276.
Peyton, Mr. J., entrusted with topographical
survey of Byans valley, 48, 49.
275, 279; in Naga
INDEX.
Phaeton shoal, Report by Commander A. D.
Taylor on, 9.
Phari, 151.
Phayre, Lieutenant-General Sir A. P., 372.
Pho-mo-chang-thang-tso lake, 159, 160, 163.
Photo-collotype process, 228.
Photo-electrotyping process, 229.
Photo-etching process, 227, 228.
Photoglyptie process, 227.
Photographie Office, Calcutta, 221.
Photo-heliograph, 290.
Phra Pratom pagoda, 54.
Phyllite Gondali, 329.
Pigou, Dr., 368.
Pilcher, Dr. J. G., 311.
Pilots ridge, 22, 36.
Pirghal peak, 146.
Pir Panjal (Jammu territory), 238.
Pishin valley, 96, 97, 98, 129, 173; geology of,
254 ; rainfall in, 300.
Piyadasi, inscriptions of, Mr. Senart on, 361.
Plane table, 101; usefulness of, for military
route surveys, 132.
Planets, Minor discovered at Madras, 313.
Platinotype process, 223.
Pliny, 351.
Pocock, Mr., 48.
Pogson, Miss Isis, 293, 311.
Pogson, Mr. N. R., 287, 312.
Pollen, Lieutenant W. H., 170.
Po-lo-mo-ki-li, 359.
Po-lo-yu monastery, 359.
Polu, 187.
Ponani, 47.
Pondicherry, port of, 35; measurements of
polygons between Madras and, 46, 47; 349.
Ponrowa, 334 (note).
Poona, tidal and levelling party at, 57; survey
conference at, 86, 89, 126; Poona district
survey, 122, 197; 200; Poona College of
Science, 216; Poona observatory, 285 ; anti-
quities in Poona, 342.
Population, map showing density of, 226.
Porbandar, 29 ; survey of, 31, 32.
Porgyal mountain, 50, 260.
Port Blair, rough chart made of harbour of, 30 ;
juspection of working of tide gauges at, 57,
201, 205.
Port Childers, 22.
Port funds liable for tidal gauge expenses, 196.
Porto Novo, 35.
Portraine, county Dublin,
geology of, 271 (note).
Ports, inspection of Indian peninsular, 4.
Porus, Alexander’s battle with, 326.
Postans, Lieutenant, 321.
Potter, Mr., assistant surveyor, 47, 55.
Pottery works started at Jabalpur, 277.
Potwar, 241.
Mr. Medlicott on
405
Powell, Commander, Survey of pass between
India and Ceylon by, 4.
Poweil, Mr. G. H., 169.
“ Pownah ” surveying vessel, 16.
Pranhita valley, 237, 247.
Predictions of tidal heights as compared with
actuals, 206, 208.
Prehistoric remains in India, 321.
Prendergast, Sir H., 99.
Preparis, 26.
Price, Mr., triangulates towards Quetta, 48.
Prince’s dock, Bombay, 10, 207.
Prinsep, Mr. H. T., 318.
Prinsep, James, 321; the first to discover positive
dates in Indian history, ¢b., 325, 369, 372.
Priyadasi, 361, 369.
Proby Cautley, Sir, 236.
Prome district, 364.
Prongs lighthouse, 10.
Propert, Mr., 342.
Prshevalsky, General, 154, 157.
Prun, 155.
Pudukattai State, 245.
Pughman range, 134; Pughman district, 135.
Puhi creek, 19.
Pulicat, 28,
Pul-i-Khisti, 178.
Pullan, Major A., 85.
Punniar, batile of, 337.
Pumthang river, 163.
Punjab revenue survey, 104, 112 ; 231; geodetic
operations in the, 215; Punjab, General Cun-
ningham’s explorations in, 326, 332; Punjab,
Lieutenant Abbott, R.E., restores monuments
in, 344.
Pym-ul-win (Burma), 166.
Pyrolusite (manganese ores) in Central Pro-
vinces, 274; in Sandur hills, 276,
Q.
Quetta, 47, 92, 93, 94, 98, 172, 173.
Quilon, roadstead, 7 ; survey of, 21.
R.
R N—, 161, 162, 163, 164.
Rahanpur, 334.
Rahat Shah, 150.
Rainfall charts, 225, 294, 309; rainfall registra-
tion, 286, 300, 301, 302, 309; rainfall as
affected by forests, 298, 299 ; rainfall in
Northern India, 290; memoir on rainfall of
India, 299, 306.
406 INDEX.
Rain-gauge, Symons’, 309.
Raipur meteorite, 271 (note).
Rajgarh, 336.
Rajendrala Mitra, Dr., 325 (note).
Rajim, 335.
Rajmahal hills, 244; Rajmahal coal-field, 274.
Rajpuri river, chart of entrance to, 23.
Rajputana, 80, 81, 90, 231, 238, 269, 298, 322,
328 ; General Cunningham in, 336; architec-
ture and scenery in, 346 (note).
Rajputs, 350.
P
Rajput temples, 323.
Rakas Tal, 152.
Raleigh shoal, 10.
Ramree roadstead, survey of, 21.
Ramkola, 250.
Rama bridge, 261.
5
Ramayana, invasion of Ceylon mentioned in the,
261.
Rameswaram, 261, 359, 362, 371.
Ramnad Zamindari, 371.
Rampur coal-field, 266, 274.
P
Rampurwa, 332, 340.
Ramri island, 246.
Rang-kul lake, 192, and 193 (note).
5 >
Rangoon, 1, 2; hydrographie notices published
containing sailing directions for, 3; Lieutenant
Coombs’ surveys port of, 11 ; Commander
Dawson surveys entrances to, 20,21; inspec-
tion of working of tide gauges at, 57; 201,
204 ; Rangoon observatory, 285.
Ranipur-jural, 331.
Rann, the Great, 85.
?
Rashtrakuta, king Dantidurga, 354.
Ratnagiri, survey of port of, 4 ; fauna of shores
near, 6,
Ravenshaw, Mr. J. H., 334 (note).
taverty, Major H. G.’s Notes on Afghanistan,
150 (note), 365.
Rawal Pindi revenue survey, 104, 105; Rawal
Pindi plateau, 241.
Rawlins, Lieutenant, 194.
Rawlinson, Sir H., 190 (note), 192 and (note).
Razmak valley, 146.
Rea, Mr., 358, 359, 360, 362.
Red hills of Madras, 249.
Red Sea, 309.
Reductions in survey budget, Secretary of State
disapproves of, 39; correspondence on subject
of, 39 and (note).
Reduction of triangulation, 232.
Reh efflorescence, 246, 271 (note).
Registan, 96, 254.
Regur, or black cotton soil, 261.
Rehatsek, Mr. E., 355 (note).
Religions, Map of India, showing, 226.
Renny-Tailyour, Lieutenant, 170.
Reorganisation of Marine Survey epartment,
15.
Reports on moral and material progress of India,
374. ;
Repsold, instrument 174.
Rer river, 250.
Revenue survey branch, reductions in, 39; Te-
organisation of department and amalgamation
with trigonometrical and topographical, 40; list
of officers and surveyors in amalgamated
departinent, 40, 41; Revenue surveys, 100-127 ;
Revenue Survey Office, Calcutta, 221.
“ Reversible” level, 217.
Rewa, South, basin, fossil flora of, 259; Rewa
Gondwana basin, 264; Rewa, General Cun-
niugham in, 336.
Richardson, Dr. J., 311.
Ribbentrop, Mr., 299.
Richelieu, Captain A. de, 2.
Ridgeway, Sir J. West, 172.
Rigidity of earth, 203.
Rima, 156 (note).
Robert, Mr., 126, 127.
Roberts, Mr. E., F.R.A.S., 197, 198, 199, 200,
203, 204.
Robertson, Dr., 150 (note).
Robinson, Captain D. G., R.E., 251.
Rock-cut temples of Western India, 346.
Rockingham pateh surveyed, 28.
Rodgers, Mr., archeological surveyor, 340, 361.
Rogers, Major, commences Eastern Sind series of
triangulation, 47; attached to southern army in
Afghanistan, 48 ; relieves Captain Hill in com-
pletion of Eastern frontier series, 56 ; inspects
working of tide-gauges, 57; in Southern
Afghanistan, 129, 135; 204.
Rohilkhand, Dr. Fiibrer in, 340.
Rohri, 238, 333.
Rohtak, village survey, 106.
Rohtas, 340.
Rojhi, port of, 34.
Roman carayan across Pamir, 193 (note).
Rong-chu, 159.
Ronson, Mr. W., 374.
Roshan, 143.
Ross, General, 104, 134.
Roate surveys, conduct of, 132 ; in first Afghan
War, 139.
Rowland, Sergeant, 295, 297.
Roy, General, commencement of trigonometrical
survey in England by, 38.
Royal Geographical Society, 156, 158, 170.
Ruby mines, 167, 169.
Ruby tracts in Burma, 276, 279.
Rudbar, 173.
Rudra Mala, temple at Sidhpur, 88, 324.
Rumbur, 150.
Runn of Cutch. See Rann.
Rupnath, 329.
Rurki observatory, 285.
Russian meteorological report critically com-
pared with that of India, 290.
—
INDEX.
Ryall, Mr. E. C., Kumaun and Garhwal survey
completed under, 48 ; description of triangula-
tion by, 50 (see note).
Rysselberghe, Van, meteorograph, 285.
8.
S. C. D. (Sarat Chandra Das) Babu, 158, 159.
Sabarmati, 297.
Sabzawar, 185.
Sachu, 154, 158.
Sacramento shoal, 21.
Sadiya, 52.
Sadri, 322.
Safed Koh ranges, 130, 178, 180.
Safis, 135.
Sagain, 169.
Sah coins, 348 (note).
Saharanpur survey, 107, 120.
Sahet Mahet, 339, 340.
Sah Kings of Surashtra, 349.
Saichor, 7.
Saidabad, 134.
St. Thomé, 5.
Saithang, 154, 158.
Saitu. See Sachu.
Saiva caves, 323.
Saiva temples at Pattadkal, 347.
Sakaw, 169.
Salaya creek, 34.
Salem district survey, 85.
Salsette island, 353.
Salt range, the, 241, 246, 251-3, 263.
Salt range fossils, 259, 263, 268, 270, 273, 276,
278.
Salt produced by solar evaporation at Sar, 81.
Salwen river, 155, 168, 203, 363.
Sama, 155.
Sambalpur, 250.
Samding monastery, 158, 159.
Samuell’s, Captain E. W., 86, 120, 124; attached
to Peshawar column, and death of, 124, 130.
Sam-ye, 160.
San Francisco, 234.
Sana, 349.
Sancharak, 181.
Sanchi tope, 322, 327, 330, 343, 370.
Sandeman, Colonel, 112, 170.
Sandeman, Sir R., 95, 147.
Sand Heads, The, 207.
Sandoway, 20, 21, 22, 36, 364.
Sandrakoptos, 369. See also Chandragupta.
Sandrapali, 240.
407
Sands, red and white blown, in Tinnevelly and
Madura, 262.
Sandur hills, 266, 276.
Sandwip channel, 19.
Sangala, fortress of, 337. °
Sangamner, antiquities in, 342.
Sangram, Prince, 336.
Sankara, ancient fort at, 331.
Sankisa, 337.
Sanpo river, 52, 153, 156, 158, 159, 163, 164,
171.
Sanscrit inscriptions, 339.
Sanskrit inscriptions from Girnar, 346 (note).
Santapilly, 19, 29.
Sapphires in Zanskar, 273, 275.
Saracenic architecture, 322, 323.
Saraswati river, 88.
Saran, 332.
Sarez Pamir, 148.
Sarhad, 143.
Saripul, 180, 181; Saripui river, 186.
Sar Laspur, 141.
Sarun district survey, 109.
Sasik, 193.
Sasseram, 330, 340.
Satara, district survey, 122; 200.
Satpura Mountains, 71; Satpura basin, 240 ;
Satpura Gondwana basin, southern coaltields
in, 269, 273.
Satrunjaya, 322, 346 (note).
Saugor island, 201, 207; Saugor island obser-
vatory, 284, 285.
Saunders, Mr. T., 374.
Sauras or Savaras, aboriginal race of, 335 (note).
Schlagintweit-Sakiilunski, Mr. H. von, 286.
Schlagintweit, Mr. R., 259.
Science and Art Department, 327.
Scientific instruments, Supply of, 216.
Sconce, Colonel, 104, 115.
Scott, Mr. G. B., 95, 104, 130; attacked by
Momands, 131); granted sword of honour, 131 ;
in Zhob, 147.
Scully, Dr. J., 194 (note), 290.
Sea-level, mean, on Indian coasts, 200-208.
Sedimentary rocks, 236.
Selung tribe (Mergui archipelago), 56.
Sehwan, 48.
Seismometric observations, 263.
Seistan, 173, 175, 176,254 ; Mr. W. T. Blanford in,
259.
Selby, Lieutenant, late I.N., 15.
Seleukos Nikator, 369.
Selungs in Mergui, 56.
Senior, Mr. Rh. W., description of Periyar project
by, 85 (note).
Serap Gyatsho, Lama, 162 (note), 163.
Settlement, Map showing land, in India, 226.
Seven pagodas, temple of, 324, 343.
Sewell, Mr. R., 357, 358, 371,
405 INDEX.
Sewestan, 93, 94.
_ Seychelles, meteor. Observations in, 309.
Shah-jui, 136.
Shah Yar, 157.
Shah Maksud range, 254, 255.
Shakh Budin, 251.
Shakh Dara valley, 143.
Shachau. See Sachu.
Shahabad district survey, 109, 115.
Shah Alam, 365.
Shahbaz-garhi, 348 (note), 369.
Shahderi, 333.
Shahk, 188.
Shahr-i-Nao, 177:
Shahr-i-Wairan, 180.
Shah Riza, of Drush, 366.
Shan hills, metalliferous deposits in, 273, 276.
Shan States, 166, 167, 168, 169, 363.
Shapur coal borings, 256.
Sharag coal locality, 256.
Sharan river, 149.
Sharqi kings, 330.
Sharigh valley, 277.
Shashgao, 140.
Shaw, Mr., 295, 296.
Sheikh Mohidin, 96.
Shekabad, 140.
Shekawati State, 80.
Sherani country, 147.
Sheravati, Falls of, 83.
Sherpur, 133, 135.
Sher Shah, tomb of, at Sasseram, 330.
Shial Bet surveyed, 21.
Shibrghan, 181.
Shigatze, 151, 152, 158.
Shignan, 143, 192.
Shikto valley, 146.
Shillong, 75, 263.
Shingle islands, 8.
Ships’ meteorological observations, 289 and
passim in Chapter XIII. See also Marine
meteorology.
Shinwari country, 130.
Shir Shah, 328.
Shiva table land (Badakshan), 143; Shiva lake,
193.
Shorapur, barrows in, 323.
Shorarud hills, 96.
Shorawak, 96; survey of Shorawak valley, 129.
Shore, Sir J., 367.
Shore temple at Seven pagodas, 343.
Shor Tapa, 187.
Shortrede, Captain, base line measured by, 61.
Shortt island, 22.
Shuidar peak, 146.
Shutargardan pass, Woodthorpe’s reconnaissance
of, 130; 278.
Shwe Dagon pagoda, 364.
Siahgird, 188.
Siam coast, Additions to the hydrography of, 53,
54; Siam, triangulation carried into, 54.
Sibi, 92, 93, 94; Sibi coal deposits, 256.
Sibpur Engineering College, 275.
Sibsagar, 263; Sibsagar observatory, 285.
Sidhpur, 88, 324, 355.
Sikandra, 344.
Sikaram peak, 130, 131.
Sikh States survey, 106.
Sikkim, survey by Lieutenant Harman and Mr.
Roberts, 126, 127; 151.
Silahara copper plate grant, 242. :
Silchar, 258, 263.
Silk manufactory at Sachu, 154; Silk shawls
formerly manufactured at Paithana, 351.
Sinclair, Mr. W. F., 342.
Singorgarh, 329.
Simla survey, 80; Simla Hill States survey, 99;
Simla and Jutog, map of, 225; Simla geology,
239, 260; Simla barometrical observations,
288 ; Simla observatory, 304, 306.
Simms’s survey of Caleutta, 122.
Sind, triangulation in Eastern, 47 ; 231; Blanford
on geology of Western Sind, 241 ; tertiary rocks
of, 256 ; Sind fossils, 266, 268 ; Sind, Buddhist
topes in, 323; Sind, archeological remains in,
342 (note) ; Sind, Arabian conquest of, 348.
Sivelair, Dr. C., 311.
Singareni coal-field, 273.
Singapore, 200, 234.
Singhbhum, 244.
Singora, 5. ©.
Singphos, 75.
Sinus Argaricus, 46.
Sirgujah coal-field, 274.
Sironcha, 240.
Sironj, 58, 60, 206.
Sirpur, 335.
Sirsa village survey, 106,
Sirthang. Sce Saithang.
Sittang river, marine survey required of, 36.
Siwalik hills, 237 ; Siwalik and Narbada Equide,
259; Siwalik fauna, 246, 263, 271.
Skandagupta, 331, 337.
Sladen, Mr. Perey, 259, 268.
Slavery in Kafiristan, 124.
Smalan, 92.
Smart, Mr. R. B., 115.
Smith, Mr. E. W., 339, 362, 363.
Smith, Major Lees, 125.
Smyth, Lieutenant Morris, R.N., surveys Nega-
patam and Nagore, 21; engaged in buoying
the Chiva Bakir entrance to Irawadi, 26;
surveys poris of Porbandar, &e., 31.
Snows, Himalayan, meteorologically considered,
294, 295, 296, 297, 300, 303, 310.
Soane irrigation cadastral survey, 114.
Soap, Village of (Kashmir), 275.
INDEX.
Sohagpur coul-field, 256.
Soils, classification of, 112.
Sejali, 346 (note), 362.
Solar physics, 234, 289, 290, 291.
Soldiers trained for surveying, 99.
Somnath, 346 (note).
Sonepet, 277.
Sonarekha river, 348.
Son river, old course of, examined, 328.
Sorath, 347.
Southern India, Archeological survey of, 356.
Soti ereek, 19.
Souter, Captain, prisoner in Afghan War in 1842,
131. -
South-east quadrilateral, 59.
Southern Moscos, 53.
Southern Trigon, 60.
South Patches, Wrecks by, 28.
South-west quadrilateral, 59.
Speir’s “ Ancient India,” 356.
Spelling of Indian names, 318.
Springs, list of thermal, 258.
Spirit-levelling operations, 200.
Spiti, 253, 260, 275.
Sravasti, 330, 337.
Sri Gupta, Maharajah, 336.
Sri Sailam, 359.
Srinagar observatory, 300.
Statistical atlas of India, 226, 236 (note).
Standard yard measures, 217.
Stanford, Mr., 377.
Statistical Survey of India, 314, et seq pag.
Steatite in Karnul, 277.
Steel, Colonel E. H., 106, 116.
Steel-facing for copper plates, Process of, 223,
229.
Stephen, Mr. Carr, 343 (note).
Sterling, E., 179 (mote).
Stevenson, Rev. Dr., 367.
Stewart, Lieut.-Colonel, of Guide Corps, 137.
Stewart, Professor B., 289.
Stewart, Sir Donald, 129, 134, 137.
Stiffe, Captain A. W., late I.N., directed to pre
pare Annual Return of Lighthouses and Vessels,
13; entrusted with duty of issuing Notices to
Mariners relating to India, 13; 34.
Stirling. E., 179 (note).
Storm flood in Bengal, 286.
Strahan, Colonel C., 68, 130, 225.
Strachey, General R., 205 (note).
Strange, Colonel, 211, 216.
_ Street, R.N., Commander A.D., 12.
Strettell, Mr., 169.
Stoliczka, Dr., 260.
Stone-cutting known to Hindus in lexander’s
time, 332.
Stene tower, The, 193 (note).
Storm phenomena, observations and warnings of, |
292, 295. 298, 304, 205, 307, 209, 310.
Be Ne2032i1-
409
Sub-Himalayan districts of the Panjab, 105, 271
(note).
Subansiri, 52. 163 (note).
Subarmati. See Sabarmati.
Subathu, 80.-
Suez, mean sea levels at isthmus of, 202, 213;
maps of Suez canal, 224,
Suliman mountains, Geology of, 251, 256, 257.
Sunargaon, 333.
Sunchi reef, survey of, 10.
Sundarbans, 23, 27, 28.
Sungar, 179..
Surashtra, 347.
Surat, 89; Surat flooded, 297.
“ Surveys, Abstracts of,’? 374.
Surveys, reduction in budget of, 39 ; comparison
of three classes of, 101-3; Survey, equipinent
in field, Report of Committee on, 138; Survey
instruments, 216.
Surkhab valley (Baluchistan), 97 ; (Afghanistan),
131, 278.
Sunspots and weather, 308.
Surveyor-General’s Office, Calcutta, 221.
Sutlej river, 50.
Swan, Mr. J. W., 227.
Swat, 141, 150.
Swatch - of - no- ground, Examination by the
“ Investigator” of, and description of, 23.
Sylhet, 75, 76, 77,78; Sylhet Mahalwar survey,
114; coal for Sylhet, 265.
Sydney, 234.
« Syud,” The, 149.
|
Tabakat-i-Nasiri, 184 (note), 190 (note).
Tabulation of meteorological observations, 301.
Tagharma peak, 192.
Tahangarh fort, 336.
Tailan route, 180.
Taimani country, 183-185.
Taiwara, 183, 184, 185.
Tajiks, 194.
Taj Mahal, Agra, The, 322; decorations of, Sir
George Birdwood on, 363.
Takapani, 250.
Takht-i-pul, 189.
Takht-i-Rustam, 190.
Takht-i-Suliman Expedition, 94, 147, 148, 260,
264.
Taklakhar, 50, 161.
Tal, 92, 94, 129, 147, 268.
Tal-Chotiali route to India, 94, 129, 136.
Tal pass, 141.
Talaings, the, 363.
Talaja, 849.
Dd
410
Talbot, Captain, the Hon. G. M., 94, 95, 137,
146, 172, 182, 189, 190.
Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions, Dr. Burgess on,
371.
Tandur, 240.
Tandwa stupa, 330.
Tangir, 142.
Tanjore, 46, 245.
Tanner, Colonel H. C. B., 86, 97, 99, 122, 124,
130; attempts to penetrate into Kafiristan, 7b.,
144, 159, 160, 161.
“Taptee,” brig, 15.
Tapti river, 297, 329.
Tarim river, the, 157.
Tarnak valley, 133.
Tashi Lhunpo, 158.
Tashkurghan, 188, 189.
Tasienlu, 154, 155.
See also Stone Tower.
Tasmanian Commissioners, 266.
Taverner, Lieut.-Colonel, 86.
Tavoy, 1; Tavoy river, 2, 36, 58, 364.
Tawang, 151, 163, 164.
Taxila, 326, 333, 337.
Taylor, Colonel Meadows, 318, 321, 360.
Taylor, Commander A. D., late I.N., see passim
through Chapter I.; his retirement and services,
WE.
Tchamea, 165.
Teesta river, Survey of lands adjoining, 127.
Tejara, 336.
Tejend, 179 (note), 186.
Telegraphic determinations of longitudes, 209,
210, 212.
Telkupi, 329.
Tellicherry, 4.
Telugu country, 351.
Temple, Sir R., 7, 8, 314.
Temples, illustrations of rock-cut,
on, 360.
Tenasserim, 27, 55, 201,
Mr. Fergusson
276, 278, 279, 280,
Tengapani River, 5.
Terai survey, 112.
“Terrible” rocks, 36.
Termez, 187, 188.
Tertiary fauna of Western India,
Tezin, Khan of, 135.
Thabeitkyun, 167. |
Thakot, 151.
Thal Ghat, 200.
Thana district forest surveys, 89; Thana collect-
orate survey, 125; Thana, antiquities in, 342.
Thaneswar, 333.
Thal, 250.
Thayetmyo, 53, 169;
myo district, 364.
Theebaw, king, 166.
Theobald, Mr., 238, 246.
Theodolite, Colonel Strange’s great, 219, 224.
270.
oil fields of, 276; Thayet-
INDEX.
Thermal springs in India, list of, 258.
Thibaw, Tsawbwa of, 167.
Thingkali, 153.
Tho Bya, Island of, 56.
Thomas, Mr. Edward, 348, 372.
Thomason, Colonel, 7.
Thompson, Dr., 195.
Thomson, Sir Wm., 197, 199, 203.
Thonze, 166.
Three Pagodas (between Siam and Tenasserim),
53.
Thuillier, C.S.I., General Sir H. L., topegraphical
branch under control of, 38 ; retirement of, 40,
224, 373.
Thuillier, Colonel H. R., R.E., succeeds Colonel
De Prée as Surveyor-General of India, 45;
in Mysore, 82.
Tian Shan mountains, 158.
Tibet, Survey of frontier peaks of, 51; route
surveys in, 126, 151-160; Mr. Griesbach on
frontier of Tibet, 260; meteorological obser-
vations in Western Tibet, 290.
Tidal observations, 57, 196-208.
Tide predictor, 198, 199, 217.
Tiger, Distribution of the, in Badghiz, 195.
Tigowa, 337.
Tigu lake, 163. =
Tila La pass, 155.
Tilail, mountains of, 246.
Time-ball at Fort William, 289.
Tinnevelli, 35, 84, 85; Mr. Foote in Tinneyvelli,
256, 260.
Tipperah natives, 76.
Tirah valley, 91, 92.
Tiraj (Tirich) Mir, 144.
Tirpul bridge, 176.
Toba, Eastern, Sir H. Prendergast in, 99.
Toba plateau, survey of, 129.
Tochi, 149.
Todd, Mr. J., 116.
Todd, Mr. R., 80.
Tod, Major James, 348 (note).
Tongoup, Lieutenant Channer surveys approaches
to, 20, 21.
Tonghu, 53.
Tonk, 146.
Topographical survey, accomplishment of first,
of India, 38, 68 ; reduction in survey budget, 39 ;
re-organization of department, amalgamation
of trigonometrica] and revenue survey branches
with, 40; list of officers and surveyors in
amalgamated department, 40, 41, 67-99 ; com-
pared with other surveys, 101.
Topra or Tobra, 333.
Torrens, Mr., ‘Triangulation by, in Pishin, 48.
Tourmaline in Shau States, 279.
Tower, Mr. Beauchamp, 199.
Townsend, Mr. R. A., 275, 276.
Trade, import and export, Maps showing, 226.
Trans-frontier regions, Explorations in, 128;
mapping of, 231.
INDEX.
Transit of Venus, 213.
Transit theodolites supplied in Afghan operations,
132.
Trap, Deccan, 274.
Travancore, 21, 35; survey of, 84, 85; Dr. King
in, 256.
Traverse surveys, 121.
Treasure Trove Act, 341.
Tree and serpent worship, Mr. Fergusson on, 360.
Trevelyan, Sir C., 318.
Triangulation, correction of errors developed in,
42; completion of entire triangulation of India,
58; retrospect of, 58; stations of, 63, 235; see
also Trigonometrical survey.
Trichinopoly, 245 ; observatory at, 285.
Trigonometrical survey, early history, 38 ; reduc-
tion of budget of, 39; re-organization of
department, amalgamation of topographical
and revenue branches with, 40; list of officers
and surveyors in amalgamated department,
40, 41; Trigonometrical Survey Office, Dehra
Dun, 221, 232; account of operations of, 233.
Trincomali, 208.
Tripalur reef surveyed, 28.
Trivandrum observatory, 308.
Trotter, Major, 192 and 193 (note), 245.
Troughton and Simms, Messrs., 217, 219.
Tsaidam, 153.
Tui pass, 141.
Tuna, port of, 34.
Tungabhadra river, 350.
Turbat-i-Haidri, 177.
Turfan, 158.
Tarkis, 194.
Turkeskan, Map of, 232, 235.
Turkomans, 176 ; Ersari Turkomans, 181 ; Turko-
man country, 194.
Turner, Captain, 151, 153.
Turner, Mr. A. W., 227.
Turturia, Brahman temples at, 332.
Tusaran Bihar, 330.
Tuticorin, 4; roadstead and harbour surveyed, 8,
207.
Tween, Mr., 238.
Whe
U. G. (Ugyen Gyatsho), Lama, 158, 159, 160, 162
(note).
Udaipur, 70, 73.
Udayagiri, 331, 337, 358.
Umaria coal-field, 255, 264, 269, 273.
Umarkot, 238.
Umballa district survey, 106, 107.
Unai hot spring, 838.
Undavilli, 357.
Unta Dhurra pass, 50.
Upheaval of coast between India and Ceylon,
261.
Urakzai valley, 91, 149.
411
Urchha, 340, 363.
Urel, 331.
Urittaung, 364.
Uruvilwa forest, 330.
Uzbegs, 187, 189.
v-
Vade mecum, Indian meteorologist’s, 288.
Vaigai (Veghavati) river, 46.
Vaishnava caves, 323.
Vaitarna, the coasting steamer, 307.
Valej, 190 (note).
Valabhi, inscriptions of kings of, 371.
Valishan fort, 190 (note).
Vallis Comedarum, 193 (note).
Vambery, Professor, 179 (note).
Vanrenen, General I. C., 100; his retirement,
104.
Varv, 143.
Vellar river, Triangulaticn across, 46.
Vellur, Temple at, 359.
Vengi, Kingdom of, 357.
Venice, Geographical Congress, 88, 144, 156,
224,
Ventura, General, 333.
Venus, Transit of, 1874, 213.
Verawal harbour, 7.
Vieary, Captain, 257.
Victoria, Minister for Mines, 266.
Vienna Military Geographical Institute, 227.
Viharas or Buddhist monasteries, 323.
Vihowa basin, 148.
Village or Muzawar survey, 102.
Vilwa or bel trees, Forest of, mentioned in
Baddha’s history, 330.
Vindhyan mountains, 236, 250, 256, 269, 369.
Vingorla, 18, 19,
Vishnu Sastri Bapat, 368.
Vizagapatam, 4, 21, 197, 201, 206, 212, 256;
Vizagapatam and Bakarganj cyclones, 287.
Viziadrug, survey of, 4; collection, examination,
and preservation of fauna of shores near, 6.
Von Abieh, Staatsrath, 257.
Vypeen Island, Changes necessitating re-survey
(in bs
AW
Waagen, Dr., 251, 259, 263, 266, 270, 276, 278.
Wadjra Karur diamond field, 266.
Waghers, Commander Taylor sent in 1859 to
pilot expeditionary force against, 16.
Wahab, Captain, 95, 96, 97, 147, 150, 172.
Wainr Gaga river, 329.
Wajiristan, 180 (note).
Wakhan, 143, 270.
412
Walker, Mz., 378.
Walker, R.E., Major-General J. 'I., C.B., ap-
pointed president of committee for inquiry into
working of Marine Survey Department, 12;
Trigonometrical Branch under control of, 38;
survey of India under control of, 41; notice
of services of, 41; on the Lu river, 155, 156
(note); on tidal observations, 197, 203; on
pendulum observations, 224, 235.
Walkh, 190 (note).
Ward, I.N., Captain, 36.
Wardak, 136, 278.
Wardha valley, 240, 248, 329.
Warth, Dr., 278.
Warwick, Mr., 49.
Washington (U. S.), 234.
Washington, Admiral, 16.
Waterfield, Mr. H., 377.
Waterhouse, Colonel, 223, 225, 227.
Waugh, Major-General Sir A., 41, 62.
Waziri country, surveys in, 91, 146, 148.
Weather reports and charts, Daily, 289, 299, 303.
Wedge bank, 19.
Weighing balance for Mint at Caleutta, 217.
Wellesley, Marquis, 366.
Wellington, Duke of, 58.
Wells, Deep, in Jodhpur, 81.
Western coral banks (Andamans) surveyed, 30.
Western Ghats, 6, 82, 202.
Western India, monuwents and rock-cut temples
of, 322, 346.
Westmacott, Mr. E. V., 334 (note).
Wharton, Captain, R.N., 207.
Whish, Lieutenant, his survey of Back Bay,
1861, 19.
Whitehouse, R.N., Lieutenant B., 30.
Wilcox, Lieutenant, 171.
Wild men in Northern Tibet, 153.
Wilkias, Major W. H., 107, 108, 116.
Wilkins, Sir Charles, 321, 367.
Wilkinson, General H. C., 94.
Williams, Mr. Monier, 318.
Willison, Mr. W. L., death of, 247.
Wilmer, Colonel, 96.
Wilson, Dr., 321, 354.
Wilson, Major, survey of Khatmandu valley by,
162.
Wind observations, 196, 301.
Wood, Lieutenant, I.N., 193.
Wood-carving in Gujrat, 325.
Wood-mason, Mr. J., 31.
Woodthorpe, Colonel, 52; in Lakhimpur, 75; on
Assam frontier, 78, 79, 129; narrow escape of,
at Paiwar pass, 7b. ; accompanies Sir F. Roberts
towards Cabul, 133; member of Committee on
Survey Equipments, 187; 146, 167.
Woolber Dr.. 309.
INDEX.
Wrecks and Casualties, Annual Return of, 3,
13.
Wuleeshar, 190 (mote).
Wurshigun river, 144.
Wyatt, Mr., 167, 168.
Wynne, M., 241, 246; retirement and services
of, 263.
NG:
Yakban Pain, 184.
Yakhsu river, 143.
Yam-dok-tso lake, 151, 153, 158, 159, 163, 165.
Yangi Hissar, 192.
Yang-tse-kiang river, Upper, 153, 154, 157.
Yard measures, Standard, 217.
Yarkand, 158, 192; Yarkand mission, 171; 192
(note), 194; Yarkand and Kashghar meteo-
rology, 287. :
Yasin, 141, 142, 144, 150, 270.
Yate, Captain, C.E., 194 (note).
Yaw country, 168.
Yenan-gyung oil fields, 276, 278.
Yé river, survey of approaches to, 27, 36.
Yembi, 154.
Yeshil Kul, 193 (note).
Yule, Sir H., 166 (note).
Yudish thira, 343 (note).
Yusuf Sharif, 95; in Persia, 99,
190.
Yusufzai, 336, 344, 369.
148, 185,
Z.
Zafarabad, 339, 340.
Zaimukht, 133, 135.
Zamindawar, 182, 185.
Zanakhan, 278.
Zanskar, sapphires in, 273, 275.
Zanzibar observatory, 308.
Zarmast pass, 177, 179.
Zarakhu valley, 279.
Zayul Chu, 155, 156 (note).
Zerni, 184, 186.
Zhob valley, 91, 95; Sir H. Prendergast in, 99 ;
146, 147, 148, 172.
Ziarat, 97.
Zohak-i-Maran, 184.
Zoological investigations,
Commission, 194.
Zorowar Sing’s Indian army routed by Chinese,
50.
Zuhak, 190 (note).
Zulfikar, 174, 176, 183.
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