SS Te peopel) ohne eee Fata tee og a eee SN eae Mvenaieyeuen een Eee eT es resasdsseg ata Nadeem Ase inowet a.asced. ant greeornen wi, arate ae byt} Pen etre nen i ent a eareadaw amen Sta tetace: Spbieabteser eres tenner rest Ace eresdiargonacusges ng ses essed sergrasaceclseraiarecuct ns tagure a swam een Song hie ach patna a dealave. Naw ar joerea, ems be ead gegen ar a snainvrarasanenaaiseccralnseta’ 4.4 iter eurese) \edmertatae cdeeras eos hee oe a Gee were See ee mes et ateegae tees eee eel focce ani aeee erasers 2 tna Sunt eeamrfensgemecnewee tle Seakesttatanstenssiteseeeiarsien os “rearereees - oapicebena lee se odivatarelisaracalote Letietaeect ination Satumriteenact rcer Pel siesta Nesta ieee paieecheses digs ceteaaetas oT istectacie seats sfedaauhauy tee aaatas iooen # sages dow rhe: aera eateta cra rast et Stata icactan green (pt Salar ayitala gets Ceeaser Poi yth att, ci retaliate FO ec ey , ieusu ieee ee * +r siietetacatcsannine SAS Ae ae He ANTE OR aD soles Ne Lary veges: slant mai Treat Wor ad omnem cited a Saou towel || Dasshitss te ease Mast ea bearesasdabgw afew sheye ebyeat ss awe Tos Nay dewbisedeumieinded ail Teg: be Woetad ae et rded ng wai stem . Tee eesasiagth| aeandemee le arte MSA hasten Sn toh pitt pansians bran terenst arene vet aaah Sou Nesapdeae Tnedye sa presse idalaerimnteardinndidensa ianeea Pasi ateletd mene tse! eieitdeniuya te tteatantedae ieee TRE mnN Sierras tiesalegatesn jaca ies srs Seeperees rey ige Oe Chron Shae tt aes Sheehan Seo sedate etaia seh aah Baa ies att earned ont ase nets ie 2 sens e “4 : ae Wdestatqends eisaanisrsgas tansy | Tear eed ne at atass rae on jee Saga: a fat aSaeeeee leash: Taran nas > eee eras Sea serait sata tiniatats oda eet Hetitos bie 9G Tag Ha 4 vee etigger ite vet larieiedds kn Ate adttasays ad oe ot th Pb reairatte taXasd-aea'de i reed it estan Site a eae aa eel ied Dimes den anne wared eogeqir uriavudive’ Bieta ede 4449 sa ota we itaatiedenterieedetvgidey anes rg ts : peer set Yea eay inks) gseleat hae ialttea ial Fast oat deat cial iils Oty rh tos Ta Haeatecsnit Sissecee vaterererteuntscis cere’ ace pace perrrriaet tra ee reat ue pe rrenos jose ews Tee eeu tr) acargiet saisents IaagWus terraces cresaren CLA teas hatin shat at yeeee vias tee eat i aeajornr seg cr sapecntieers joenp evan rometcrtrers) isaticeraet Sdhagstasertestese siestinete Piceeres tirana seri San aay et iacas izes beacecae tet Snagangsaliacd Aadeds raed Siebtgasants Sasaae Nae tie sah tote “eo i) wisgs fut ices heaee, TS fesesina’ rita a Dee aan Pantani? nsiade dente . ‘se Heasdtantt eigce iors Siseetoatay ineedes “ ‘ adnbealg ar se ei Srabaaesier et eovaet Wieland ates hetagtae ere aehaeaeaae sees Sebel es om 4a an edrd Aiediwed* bedi dreedia tdreres) ma 3 ish Vdead lowea nde de aienshees Teltayeeareg spanace Ti erogtheresansttsWateerdeuttesgerss Wivertering tqrtec ttre eye init: ined fe'Aeaete oe ee fee Se segue cry ow Mies “ pied ag iibtea these ttisey TPoees dad agg se toes Sev Asoc PUNT eth Diretrparigiest ties Taeet sons *7: ws G a eS iatded woni tence aay CREEPS NALD ertore SBP ett 44: Hasansee: Ae iis net) rites ita nanld “ satiate i whe ereh Sito aes Sari Wiagy laste eet Stessereea Wain sides day ayy lact eT He sit pberiten Taasatitswaneaiys oeae tebe a alge, Jtees u oy a ad Madaaeded osiK). Semrend-st dege », by) wi Retain Piactesdvare a apts dtte a ne SEIN ee ayes Some hts ty aatasi jis i i inh ve Cie Sea poet ie ae Syd y9 sd yee o oo Muna waa iene Teatie trey int Mee Heb ee catie eh, e4h di eRe ily en see z oe iO Wipeeagessostusdtery gterse lt neseenys patty . cS Ea 4 metros as Teeinrges i Pret ores ie itis asians nd betas tsseteate age dtydaneaat sais y Aseaepyecretass 4 nid ates : inaaeaegas SANE Shana fiteeateiaayis ene agian eh tiny i Sobel sonnet eteig totes Aer" beaayte ’ itierantaitn ay Sa iN: 4. baldyte tt thy Tate Lies vn BKM ET Rcvahy phat oataaleates gates ia MIREEN IC reo SEROUS EN nan it again Pe BY iS hehe rat mt hehe Ta % asta Ag Sabena a oe Satya Tits Ve AevNU Thom ate a visas Woda Vieni soeaeiin ites REELS here Beran POSER DR BND Ra itpuedesqueses serasaeat, Seiten a diatie laheeyey SOV» See " SEAGTAAD AS HHL Gas HIS! " a ; pict egies Ceaith Hee Sinaysate ta stven et Sette ita. sorta Saryrarcs ay sh ag ay alte spa ths) bone hte ey steal hati Isa hemaes heat ainsy tivinrare iden) tase ty k ohat i piieiet hor SERPS tee Uarstitersnie jeserergee ys sakasdatt ithe ea eases Feed pstekey tees Seah Siac tt) : Patrik ir cn pedcy erdet eter be jae wr geasicds it aewnare Serine percent) Crete thet totes Weire yt eres enesrirrce entree ats Sissies gy PENN be tne ties Neat tens at ake Misa ory Sficwsrsmee en VSS nas Pe Roem hs ee naron eer geet wana aee aed Soe presueetracara ivdvees brett SStarnceracg ese ares wired eee so Peat is teakhrga bbe Bay sea tal Moses einer enel less bale te tele ares i Sein ry im yaesucaeeey te hie Seach I RS Eorecsnantt Goin eee bett SUSh tT Bt SEC prota het er Selamete Lindaesbasesyineg wee seuent atere aeecws verte yi are jareeatarteqrsrscssseatenreaestere a SS irateasts tei i eee Brahe itarhastie! Sarees Sines Tia ate are de pabeyetyegeagier™ i ea te Te | A oN wee, na: yt Py > | pal ze € La We 4 Goan er RTO er ee] =) Be a AN Pay woe May Pr tho ih ND) Sea tpey Ant, LEE GSC aes Veh ee ull i Hci gaily AR ain UNIS tur Poh Vit URNA yo tii Hoi Pai Nu Ay ANE What ny Ca “Vi A pai ry i i - OT ee 7 un Ta ae ( itp iy 7 - ify) i 1 rel ie i Tl tall v i! in ie ulm Mba RAKIPOSHI, OR DEVIL'S TAIL FROM A PAINTING BY COLONEL H.C. B. TANNER MOUNTAIN (25,550 FEET HIGH) IN HUNZA NAGAR iN DAN 3S UR. OE Yes, BY Rp ee CHARLES E. D. BLACK. aee PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF HER MAJESTY’S SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA IN COUNCIL. LONDON: SoLtp By E. A. ARNOLD, 37, Beprorp Street, Stranp, W.C. ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & Co., 14, Partiament Street, S.W. KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER, & Co., LIMITED, Patrrnostrer House, CuHarina Cross Roap, W.C. HENRY S. KING & Co., 65, CornutLi, H.C. LUZAC & Co., 46, Grear RusseLy Srreer, W.C. B. QUARITCH, 15, Prccapitxy, W. ; AND EDWARD STANFORD, 26 anv 27, Cockspur Srtkerr, Caarine Cross, S.W. 1891, Price Seven Shillings and Siapence. é cad Printed by Eyre 4 Majatye ea Her NDON Lo Wawa ClO2NT LE HON TS: Page PREFACE - = = = - = - - Vv CONTENTS : I. Indian Marine Surveys, First Period, 1875-82 C - - 1 IJ. Indian Marine Surveys, Second Period, 1882-90 - © - 18 Ill. Great Trigonometrical Survey of India - = = - 38 IV. Topographical Surveys - - : - - - 67 V. Revenue Surveys - = - - - : - 100 VI. Geographical Surveys and Explorations — - - - - 128 VII. Afghan Boundary Commission - = 5 c liz, VIII. Tidal and Levelling Observations - © - ° = gs IX. Geodetic Observations - = = ; - 209 X. Supply of Scientific Instruments - - - - - 216 XI. Head Quarters of Survey Department 5 - = - 221 XII. Geological Survey of India - - = - - 236 XITI. Indian Meteorology - - - © - - = 280 XIV. Statistical Survey of India - - at Nature - 3i4 XV. Archeological Surveys - - - - - 320 XVI. Geographical Work of the India Office - - - = 3f3 Appenprix. Return of Scientific Instruments examined at the India Store Depot, 1887-1890 - - - - - - 379 INDEX - - - - - - =e SSO ILLUSTRATIONS. FRONTISPIECE.—Rakiposnr Mountain (25,550 feet high), in Hunza-Nacar. To face Title page. Map or Inpia - - - - - - To face page 1. x Y¥ 20321. a 2 [PR 18 1 kG Ihe Tuts work was suggested by Mr. Clements R. Markham’s “Memoir on the Indian Surveys,” in which the geographical and other kindred operations carriel out in India from the date of the British occupation were reviewed in a most picturesque and masterly manner. In 1878 a second edition of Mr. Markham’s work was published, in which the narrative was brought up to 1875, and in some cases for a year or so later. For the last fifteen years I have been accumulating notes in moments of leisure, with a view to the publication of a volume which might serve as a continuation to that by Mr. Markham, and the kind support given to the project by the Secretary of State for India and the Viceroy has now enabled me to present the work in a more or less complete shape. From unavoidable circumstances the arrange- ment of matter is not identical with that adopted by Mr. Markham, but I believe I have conformed to it sufficiently to make reference easy, and wherever the source of information is not specially mentioned, it may be assumed that it will be found in the official Annual Report for the particular year. J have to express my sincere acknowledgments to those friends who have been good enough to read through the proofs and favour me with numerous suggestions, of which I have gladly availed myself. To General J. T. Walker, R.H., C.B., F.RS., &e., formerly Surveyor-General of India, I am indebted for his careful revision of the Trigonometrical, Geodetic, and other chapters. Colonel H. R. Thuile, R.H., the present Surveyor-General of India, 1 Y 20321, b vil PREFACE. has also supplied much useful additional matter in Chapter XI. Mr. W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., has furnished me with several valuable comments on the Geological Section; Mr. H. F. Blanford, F.R.S.. kindly revised the Meteorology; Sir W. W. Hunter, K.C.S.1., C.LE., suggested some improvements in the brief chapter on the Statistical Survey ; while Commander A. D. Taylor, late I.N., and Commander A. W. Stiffe, late I.N., Colonel W. Barron, B.S.C., Colonel W. J. Heaviside, R.E., Mr. E. Roberts, F.R.A.S., and Mr. T. Cushing, F.R.A.S., have been obliging enough to give similar aid in respect of the chapters dealing with Marine Surveys, Revenue Surveys, Geodetic Observations, Tidal and Levelling Observations, and the Supply of Scientific Instruments, respectively. Colonel J. Waterhouse, B.8.C., Major H. Raverty, and Mr. Ney Elias, C.I.E., have also given valued assistance in other ways. Last, but by no means least, Dr. Jas. Burgess, C.I.H., has shown great interest in, and supplied most useful information for the Chapter dealing with Indian Archeology, a subject in which he is an eminent and acknowledged authority. My object has been to supply an outline sketch of the remarkable labours achieved during the last fifteen years by the chief Indian scientific departments, and to facilitate reference to the detailed records of those services. Any possible success that may have attended this effort is greatly due to the kind encouragement and co-operation shown by the above gentlemen. CHARLES E. D. BLACK. London, October, 1891. REFERENCES British Torritory colored.___ Pink Dependens & Subordinate Native States Yellow Raibvays opened ____ —Do___ not opened) _§$_ nmemeemencemeneeneni eh $$ The numerals denote the height above sea level in feet, This Map is intended only to exhibit the principal places, chic rivers £0, in. India. Ades Bank Mud Bank_|| Pedihol Pati * 99 Islands AR TTGPAS, oF Cancer ae omits INDIAN EMPIRE Scale 265 miles = to 1 mch a — id Cape Negrais|//Y, __Cape Negeais| Atyuadn Reef LightHouse i Andaman DY oy esr Wee oreniaie (Jurvisiblaniank (Deitdendaman tt Car Nicobar I* a4 Peet ay INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS.* First Prriop, 1875-82. The survey of the coasts of India has ever been a matter of high importance for navigators, and from the days of the old Bombay Marine and its successor, the Indian Navy, the observations of the bold and experienced seamen belonging to those services bore rich fruit in the labours recorded in the pages of the “ Memoir on the Indian Surveys.” ‘he operations of these Indian officers extended to the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, Arabian and African coasts, China Sea, and other regions far beyond the limits of India proper. But in 1862 the Indian Navy was abolished, and no arrangement was made for continuing the excellent survey work for which the service had become renowned. After a long period of inaction, a small bui efficient and economical department was at length organised in 1875, under the superintendence of Commander A. D. Taylor, late I.N., a good start was made, and an encouraging record of work achieved had been shown in the pages of the first report. In the spring of 1876 Commander Taylor started on a tour of inspection of the principal ports on the coast of Burma, where two steamers had struck some little time previously on rocks unmarked on the existing charts. Akyab, Bassein, Rangoon, Moulmein, Tavoy, Mergui, and the Pakchan river were visited, as well as the ultra-Indian ports of Kopah and Junkseylon on the Siam Coast. From this inspection, after examining the chart of Amherst, which was found most incorrect and incomplete, Commander Taylor arrived at the conclusion that no large port of British India so much required to be carefully surveyed. Navigating Lieutenant Jarrad, R.N., was accordingly despatched in the “ Clyde” to execute * The spelling of Indian proper names has been assimilated to that adopted in the Imperial Gazetteer of India. me SECHRI. Ne A 2 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. the survey during the year 1876-77. The Admiralty chart of Tavoy river was also found to be very erroneous, but during a brief stay Commander Taylor was enabled to take observations and soundings which resulted in a more reliable chart being pro- duced. At Junkseylon he met Captain A. de Richelieu, Siamese Royal Navy, commanding the gunboat ‘ Coronation,’ from whom an excellent preliminary survey of that island was obtained, and published at Calcutta.* In July Commander Taylor proceeded, with Navigating Sub- Lieutenant E. W. Petley, R.N., to False Point to report how the sum of Rs. 30,000, applied for as a loan to the Port Fund, could best be spent in the interests of the port. On this an elaborate report was submitted to Government. In the following March he was deputed to Goa with instructions to visit the harbours of Karwar and Marmagao and report on their relative merits as shelter-giving anchorages durig the §8.W. monsoon. On careful consideration, Commander Taylor came to the conclusion that Marmagao was superior as a natural harbour, and in some respects as regards the practicability of making improvements quite equal to Karwar. Two officers, Nav. Lieutenant Jarrad, R.N., and Mr. Falle, were sent to survey Madras roadstead, and a careful sectional survey of the part of the roadstead and beach abreast of the native town was commenced by them and continued by Lieutenants Hammond and Pascoe on the scale of 600 feet to 1 inch. Lieutenant Jarrad’s next work was to connect, astronomically, Diamond Island, Rangoon, and Amherst Pagoda, the three principal stations in the Gulf of Martaban essential to the reproduction of a new chart of that locality. An elaborate sectionally sounded double elephant sheet survey of Moulmein river approaches was excellently carried out, comprising 105 square miles of water closely examined, and 36 miles of coast trigonometrically laid down. An important correction of the true bearing of Double Island lighthouse from Amherst point was obtained by Lieutenant Jarrad, who discovered the former to be 14 miles westward of its true position, notwithstanding that if had already been shifted a distance of 43} miles to the eastward of the positions shown on the Admiralty charts. His next step was to commence a * An interesting article by Captain De Richelieu on Salang island or Junkseylon will be found at page 118 of the Geographical Magazine for 1878. INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 3 survey of the port of Akyab, in the vicinity of which several wrecks had occurred, but owing to an outbreak of cholera it was impossible to continue operations, although the necessity for a thorough survey of the place was much felt, as it is much frequented by rice traders and as a harbour of refuge. Another survey which had to be abandoned through an epidemic of cholera was that of Chittagong (Karnaphuli river), where the encroachment of the sea had necessitated the removal of the lights at Norman’s Point to some more suitable place. Lieutenant Hammond had been entrusted with this work, but on the arrival of Commander T'aylor most of the party were found to be suffering from fever and dysentery, healthy drinking water being unpro- curable, and heaps of half-burnt or half-buried human corpses encountered here and there by the surveyors in course of their work. Operations were therefore broken off. A large number of questions affecting navigation, such as the hindrances to the free navigation of Bassein river, brought to the notice of the Secretary of State hy the Liverpool Shipowners’ Association, rules affecting emigrant ships (for the better protection against fire), improvements in signalling on Indian coasts, amend- ments of Native Passenger Ships Act of 1876 with reference to long and short voyages and seasons of fair and foul weather, Wc., were forwarded for report by the Government to the Superintendent of Marine Surveys. The preparation of a complete list of Indian lighthouses and light-ships, with details of cost of erection and maintenance, their positions, distinctive characteristics, &c., was undertaken, as well as the Annual Return of Wrecks and Casualties in Indian Waters. Hydrographic Notices containing sailing direc- tion for Junkseylon or Salang island, Mergui archipelago, Rangoon river, Moulmein (Salwen) river, Kyouk Phyou, and False Point were published, and Notices to Mariners relatine to new lights, buoys, and newly-discovered dangers were also published and issued to the Indian maritime authorities, and to foreign Governments, while the English, Spanish, Dutch, American, Chinese, German, and Indian notices were duly embodied and marked (so far as applicable) on all the charts in store. Altogether 3,279 charts were corrected and brought up to date, and a new catalogue of charts was issued. In the following year (1877) the Superintendent carried into effect his deferred tour of inspection of the ports of the peninsula of A 2 4 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. India on both coasts from False Point round to Bombay. The following were visited and reports made on each :— False Point. Colachel. Gopalpur. Cochin. Calingapatam. Narakal. Bimlipatam. Beypur. Vizagapatam. Calicut. Coconada. Tellicherri. Masulipatam. Cannanur. Madras. Mangalore. Negapatam. Karwar. Tuticorin. Bombay. Owing to the special surveying steamer which was being built at Bombay not beimg completed, the surveying operations during the year were entirely carried on by two boat parties, one in charge of Lieutenant Jarrad, R.N., and the other (a smaller one) in charge of Mr. Morris Chapman, late I.N. The first-named party surveyed the port of Ratnagiri (including Mirya and Kalbadeyi bays) in four months, the plotting comprising 38 miles of coast and 21 square miles of water sounded on the scale of 4 inches to 1 nautic mile. Viziadrug, including Rajapur and Ambol Ghur bays, was next taken in hand, and sailing directions for all these parts in the shape of hydrographic notices were also compiled. Both at Mirya and Viziadrug the large percentage of iron contained in the laterite (which in some places forms a layer of considerable thickness over the igneous rock of which the coast is formed) exercised a very considerable disturbing effect on the compass needle. so it was with considerable difficulty that magnetic observations were made. Both on this account and owing to the inconvenience of working with boats in lieu of a well-found surveying vessel slow progress was made. At Paumben, Commander Taylor had found during his tour of inspection that an accurate survey of the pass or channel between India and Ceylon and its approaches was much required; the only existing chart being on too small a scale. The Government of India further desired that the examination might be complete, so as to enable a time estimate to be formed of the labour required for any subsequent widening and deepening of the channel. The last survey by Commanders Powell and Ethersey, late LN., INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 6) had, curiously enough, been made exactly 40 years before. Several trigonometrical stations had been fixed in the vicinity by Major Branfill at the time of his connecting India with Ceylon in 1875, consequently Mr. Chapman was enabled to connect his marine work with ease and accuracy. ‘he whole survey was shown on two sheets, and no fewer than 455 miles of water were sounded over. Navigating Lieutenants Hammond and Pascoe paid a visit to Cochin, Beypur, and Calicut to ascertain what changes had occurred since the last surveys. At the first-named nearly half of Vypeen island was discovered to have been washed away, and other changes had taken place necessitating a re-survey. About 10 years ago the monsoon sea breached through Vypin island at Cruz Milagre, two miles north of the town, and so large was the body of water that great and costly efforts were made to close it. These for- tunately succeeded, but during the two years of existence of the gap, the main ebb stream of the Cochin backwater was much weakened, and the sandy ridge of the bar was driven m about a cable’s length by the monsoon swell, besides other changes. At Beypur and Calicut minor hydrographic data were noted, and the recess was utilised by Lieutenant Pascoe in preparing the fair drawings of the extended survey of Madras, which was added to the previous survey by Lieutenant Jarrad in 1876, the whole being shown on ore sheet and plotted on the scale of 10 inches to 1 nautic mile. It extended from St. Thomé on the south to Kasimodo on the north, and comprised 5? miles of coast, while the soundings were carried out to the 10-fathom line, 7.c., between two and three miles off shore. Some important additions to the hydrography of the Siam coast were received from Captain A. J. Loftus, Topographer and Marine Surveyor to the Siamese Government. The hydrographic work executed by him extended along the west coast of the Gulf of Siam from Hilly Cape to Lem Chang P’ra, a distance of upwards of 300 miles, and embraced Singora, Patani, and other anchorages hitherto entirely unsurveyed, and indeed unknown, and filled up a distinct gap in the existing charts of the coast. The work was well produced; elaborate notes were appended to the sheets explaining how the survey was carried on, as well as a large number of views of various parts of the coast. These sheets were reduced to convenient scale by Mr. R. C. Carrington and published by permission of the Government of India at Calcutta, 6 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. The natural history investigations of the season 1877-78 were necessarily confined to examining, collecting, and preserving speci- mens of the fauna of the shores near Ratnagiri and Viziadrug. The area examined included the tract from the sea to the Western Ghats. It is only on the slopes of the hills that the various fauna begin to be at all abundant, or to assume any individuality of their own. All the intervening tract of country is parched and barren, and composed of a thin soil overlying a substratum of trap rock or laterite, the latter being apparently detrimental to the development of animal organisms. The want of an efficient surveying vessel hampered Dr. Armstrong’s operations, but a list of about 60 ornithological specimens collected by him finds place in his report for 1877-78. Among miscellaneous papers submitted to Govern- ment by officers of the Department and printed in the Appendix to the Report for the year were the following :— Remarks on some ports of the Madras Presidency, after inspection in April and May 1877. By Commander Taylor, late I.N. Report on some harbours, &e. of the Bombay Presidency. after an inspection tour in May 1877. By Commander Taylor, late I.N. Remarks upon the supposed silting up of the upper portion of Bombay harbour. By Commander Taylor. On the history of some of the oldest races now settled in Bombay. With reasons for supposing that the present island of Bombay consisted in the 14th century of two or more distinct islands. By R. X. Murphy, Esq. Extract from report by Mr. Morris Chapman, late I.N., on Paumben channel and Rameswaram island. In addition to various useful pieces of work performed by Mr. Carrington in the compilation of new charts and of hydro- graphic publications may be mentioned the result of a visit of inspection to Bombay paid by him, on which occasion he examined the whole collection of charts (11,787 im number) stored in the dockyard there. Of these, the vast majority (10,045) proved to be quite obsolete, and had consequently to be cancelled; the remainder (1,742) were corrected by hand up to the latest date by Mr. Carrington, and retained for issue to masters of vessels. One of the first matters to be settled in 1878 was the selection of localities where tide-gauges should be erected, with a view to the determination of the mean sea-level along the Indian coasts. This was settled by Commander Taylor in concert with Captain INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. Uf A. W. Baird, R.E., Superintendent of Tidal and Levelling Opera- tions, visits being paid to False Point, Vizagapatam, Madras, Paumben (where, at Commander Taylor’s instance, Mr. Morris Chapman was deputed to extend his survey three miles to the eastward), Beypur, Karwar, and Bombay. Later on, Commander Taylor was enabled to carry out a further inspection of several harbours in company with Colonel Thomason, and Verawal, Seraia, and Cutch Mandvi were visited. In connexion with the Gulf of Cambay a petition signed by upwards of 70 native shipowners and shipmasters was submitted to the super- intendent, stating that in consequence of the existing lights being insufficient, and of the imperfect state of the chart, a large number of vessels were either wrecked or damaged every year by sand- banks in the gulf. The petitioners solicited that a thorough examination of the‘gulf might speedily be made in the interests of navigation; but owing to the want of a steamer, this could not be taken in hand. A pressing request was also addressed to the superintendent to cause a survey of Bankote river mouth to be made, as it had the largest traffic of any of the Konkan rivers, and was at the same time very dangerous. The request was supported by Sir Richard Temple, the Governor of Bombay; but as the survey formed no part of the programme of operations sanctioned by the Government of India, it could not then be undertaken. It was, however, thoroughly surveyed by No. 1 Boat party in the following year. An examination of Quilon roadstead was also asked for in the interests of the Scottish India Coffee Company, who had large investments in South Travancore; but this could not be undertaken till 1883, when it was completed by Lieutenant Pascoe. Asin the preceding season, surveying had to be carried on in boat parties, under the command of Lieutenant Jarrad and Mr. Morris Chapman. At the request of Sir R. Temple, Governor of Bombay, the port of Jyghur, a harbour of refuge during the S.W. monsoon, and its approaches were surveyed on the scale of 6 inches to 1 nautic mile. Although small, the harbour was found to possess many natural advantages, and to be easy of access for vessels of 12 feet draught in all weathers. Lieutenant Jarrad reported there was not much traffic, though at Saichor, about four miles from the entrance, a very large number of pattimars were laid up and repaired during the monsoon. The entrance to the 8 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. Daphol or Anjanwil river, where the passenger traffic by coasting steamers was rapidly increasing, was next taken in hand and plotted on a double-elephant sheet on ‘the’ same scale as the above survey, as well as that of Chaul, where the Chaul Kadu and other dangerous reefs and shoals had caused many a wreck to vessels making for Bombay harbour. Harly in September 1878 Mr. Morris Chapman commenced his survey of Tuticorin roadstead and ‘harbour, the soundings being carried out as far as the 5-fathom and 7-fathom line to the north and south respectively. The heat was most trying, and the weather so exceptionably bad that a suspension of the work became necessary. Mr. Chapman was deputed to make an examination of the water space eastward of the Shingle islands at Paumben, principally with the object of finding a southern deep entrance to the proposed ship canal through Rameswaram. Forty miles of goundings were taken, but there proved to be no deep southern entrance, though there are great advantages for one to the north. On the 16th March Mr. Chapman became ill from severe exposure, and though he was granted two months’ leave to enable him to proceed to Australia, he unfortunately died before the season closed. He was a painstaking and hardworking surveyor, and his loss was severely felt in the Department. On the 4th December 1878 the building of the new surveying steamer “ Investigator “ was commenced, and the formality of driving the silver nail into her stem took place. The ceremony, peculiar to Bombay, is said to be of Parsee origin, and is some- what analogous to that of depositing coins, &c. under foundation stones. The nail was of silver, about seven inches in length and three-quarters of an inch diameter near the head. The four sides bore the inscriptions :—(1) Indian Government surveying steamer “ Investigator,’ Bombay Dockyard, December 1878 ; (2) The Right Hon’ble Lord Lytton, G.C.S.I., Viceroy and Governor-General ; (8) The Hon’ble Sir R. Temple, G.C.S.I1., Governor of Bombay ; (4) Captain G. OB. Carew, I.N., Officiating Superintendent of Marine, and Jamsetjee Dhunjeebhoy Wadia, master builder. During the year a Chart Depot at Calcutta had been established, and was in good working order. Printed lists of all new charts and hydrographic publications, and information as to where the same were obtainable, were distributed to all Indian shipping agencies, and to all shipmasters calling at Calcutta; and the result INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 9 Was an increase in the sale of Admiralty publications, and of charts of Indian ports and anchorages. Many acknowledgments were received from the maritime public of the practical utility of an office where reliable charts and information were procurable. Seventeen new charts were issued during the year referred to, and the large number of 17,268 Admiralty and Marine Survey charts corrected. Among the special reports prepared during the year, and reprinted in the Aunual Report, were the following :— Memorandum on the reefs and dangers southward of Kundari Island, aud the necessity for better marking those dangers by night, by Navigating Lieutenant Jarrad, R.N. A description of some new species of Hydroid Zoophytes from the Indian Coasts and Seas, by Surgeon J. Armstrong, Medical Officer and Naturalist. Reports by Commander A. D. Taylor, late I.N., on the Phaeton Shoal and Alguada Reef, and on the various ports, &c. inspected by him during the season. A thorough inspection of the lghthouses and lght-vessels of India, with such proposals for their improvement as might seem best in the interests of navigation, was one of the early aims of the Marine Survey Department. This inspection Commander Taylor was enabled to carry out in the year 1879-80, and his general report upon the Indian lights is printed in full in the Report for that year. It contains some useful observations and suggestions in regard to 92 lights, from Karachi to Coco islands. A supplementary report in the same volume deals with the question of the relief and supply of Indian lighthouses and their periodical inspection. Owing to the untimely death of Mr. Morris Chapman, I.N., the temporary abolition of No. 2 Boat party, and the postponement of the surveys of Beypur and Cochin had become necessary; and as Lieutenant Jarrad’s health was impaired, arrangements were made for him to remain at Bombay and for an amalgamated party under him and Lieutenant Petley to take up the survey of the Bombay harbour, which the experience of the previous year had shown to be necessary. The first survey undertaken, however, was that of Karwar, which was plotted on the 6-inch scale by Lieutenant Petley ; but owing to the inefficiency of the small steam cutters at the disposal of the party, the survey could not be extended so far to the north and south as was desirable. Bankote was also surveyed on the same 10 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. scale, and on its completion the party moved to Marmagao, where a minute examination of that port was made at the request of the Bombay Government, acting on the suggestion of the Hngineer-in- Chief of the proposed Hubli-Marmagao Railway. This work was completed at the hottest period of the year, and was rendered exceptionally trying by the prevalence of the Kanara fever, which occasioned much sickness among the party. The special reports printed in the Appendix to the Annual Report for 1879-80 comprised reports on False Point harbour, and the great modifications and movements of sand going on there, two memoranda on Coconada, and a new deep channel into the Godavari river, and a memorandum on the proposed breakwater at Marmagao, all by Commander Taylor, while some general notes on the topography and history of the latter place were written by Lieutenant Petley, with the assistance of Dr. J. Gerson da Cunha. During 1880-81 the surveying operations consisted of a careful survey by Lieutenant Petley of the Bombay foreshore from the Prongs lighthouse to Mazagon, and to an average distance of 7,500 feet seaward. The result was to discover many rocky patches and also less water on the Raleigh shoal than shown on the existing charts. Lieutenant Petley then proceeded to Goa, where by the 20th February all the seaboard coast and islands were mapped and 55 square miles of water were minutely examined, the sounding lines being run in sections, those over shoal and dangerous eround being as close as possible. The Portuguese Governor- General took great personal interest in the progress of the survey, and had it not been for this, the difficulties would have been far ereater than they were, for the natives somehow formed the idea that the survey party were connected with the new salt tax treaty, which was very unpopular, and many petty annoyances often occurred. The survey of the Sunchi reef was awkward and perilous, as the sea when apparently quite smooth would suddenly pile up on the reef and develop into tremendous breakers, and with the place full of sharks, the danger from a capsize was great. A good descriptive and historical sketch by Lieutenant Petley of Goa, its forts, churches, rivers, islands, &c., is printed in the Appendices to the Reports for 1879-80 and 1880-8]. In the month of May Lieutenant Petley made a hasty survey of the approaches to Princes Deck, Bombay. The general result of the season’s work at INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. li Bombay was that eight miles of coast line were triangulated and 20 square miles of water soundings were taken. Lieutenant W. H. Coombs command a survey of the port af Rangoon in November 1880 and completed it in March of the following year, the space sounded being eight square miles, and the length of coast measured a little more than 20 miles. Some notes on the history and topography of Rangoon were compiled by Lieutenant Coombs during his stay, and find place in the Report. During the summer and autumn of 188] Mr. P. J. Falle executed a survey on the scale of 400 feet to the inch of that portion of Dowdeswell island (Orissa coast) which hes north of Hukitollah, and is most seriously affected by the action of the winds and waves of the southerly monsoon, as also by the river freshets. Mr. Falle also made observations later on in the year on the set and velocity of the tides in the harbour. On the 3rd March 1881 the new surveying steamer ‘‘ Investigator ” was launched, and Lieutenant L. 8. Dawson, R.N., an able surveyor of 18 years’ standing, possessing considerable experience of hydro- graphical matters, was appointed to the command of the vessel. He eventually succeeded Commander Taylor in the Superintendent- ship of Marine Surveys. The work at headquarters consisted in tendering advice on a variety of matters of a scientific description affecting navigation to the Government of India and the local governments and administra- tions. in May 1881 the superintendent was appointed President of a Committee on Indian Lighthouse Administration. In 1880 events arose which ultimately had a most important bearing cn the future of the Department. In the early part of that year disagreements began to crop up between Mr. Rh. Carrington, the Superintendent of the Drawing Branch, and some of the Royal Nayy officers who had been lent for surveying service by the Lords of the Admiralty, and this culminated in the services of Navigating Lieutenant F. W. Jarrad, R.N., being replaced by the Government of India at the disposal of the Admiralty on the 6th February 1880. Lezegthy correspondence followed between the Indian Government, the Commander-in-Chief on the Hast Indian Station, the Lords of the Admiralty. and the Secretary of State for India. This led eventually to the Government of India determining to institute an inquiry into the working of the Marine Survey Department, and a committee was appointed for the purpose under the presidency of 2 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. Major-General J. T. Walker, R.H., Surveyor-General of India, the other members being Mr. D. M. Barbour, officiating Accountant- General of Bengal, Mr. H. F. Blanford, F.R.S., Meteorological Reporter to the Government of India, Commander A. D. Taylor, late I.N., Superintendent of Indian Marine Surveys, Commander A. D. Street, R.N., Assistant Secretary to the Government of India in the Military (Marine) Department, and Mr. C. E. Palmer, R.N., Examiner of Marine Accounts as Secretary. The chief proposals of this Committee were that the Survey Department should he amalgamated with the Indian Marine and that a rather smaller surveying establishment than the original one should be sanctioned. The head of the department was to be styled Superimtendent of Coast Surveys in lieu of Superintendent of Marine Surveys, the employment of Royal Naval officers was to be continued, and arrangements were to be made for marine zoological observations and trawling to be carried on in the new surveying steamer, under the supervision of a Naturalist. The post of superintendent was recommended to be conferred on Commander T. A. Hull, R.N., an officer who had had great experience in coast surveying in various parts of the world, and in the projection and compilation of charts in the Hydrographic Office of the Admiralty.* The Admiralty, however, objected to the Superintendentship being given to an officer retired from the Royal Navy, and this proposal had to be abandoned. The general re-organization of the Department too, on the lines laid down by the Committee, did not commend itself to the Admiralty and the Secretary of State, and at the suggestion of the former, advantage was taken of Commander Taylor’s prospective retire- ment to depute Captain H. W. Brent, R.N., the recently nominated Director of Indian Marine, to take up the question on his arrival in India, so as to advise the Government as to the best way of dealing with the Marine Survey Department. An elaborate report on the Marine Survey Department was compiled by Captain Brent, and its entire work since its origin in 1874 was severely criticised. A series of statements and charges was brought against the Department, but it is enough to state here * Captain Hull was author of a remarkable paper read in 1874 before the Royal United Service Institution called “ The Unsurveyed World, 1874,” which enumerated and specified all the more pressing coast surveys then needed throughout the world. The paper attracted much attention. INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 13 that the general purport of this part of the report was to allege that the Calcutta Office or shore establishment had been unduly magnified at the cost of the survey proper, that India required her coasts surveyed, but-no Hydrographic Office, and that the most useful and profitable course in the interests of the State was ‘to break up the Indian Marine Survey Department.” Captain Brent's detailed recommendations regarding the personnel and records were as follows :— Commander A. D. Taylor, late I.N., Superintendent of Marine Surveys, was to be pensioned. The post of Superintendent of the Drawing Branch was to be abolished, and 10 clerks and draughts- men were to be either transferred to other Government posts or dismissed. All the Admiralty charts purchased by and presented to India, were to be sent back to the Hydrographer, while Indian survey charts were to be sent to Bombay dockyard, together with chart boxes, instruments, drawing materials, tin cases, &c. Surveyors original charts were to be sent to the Admiralty Hydrographer. The Wreck Register and the clerk employed thereon were to be transferred after the Ist July to the Port Office, Calcutta, instructions being sent to the Indian ports to send all information in future to that official instead of to the Marine Survey Department. The Port Officer has since carried on this duty in addition to his own work. The Annual Return of Lighthouses and Light-vessels was to be handed over to the Home Department, and the Notices to Mariners abolished, on the ground that they could always be procured from London. Captain A. W. Stiffe, the Port Officer, was directed in 1887 to prepare a new corrected edition of the former Return, and to the same officer was also entrusted the duty of issuing all Notices to Mariners relating to India. With respect to the future conduct of surveys, Captain Brent laid down at the outset that it was only from the active list of the Royal Navy that efficient marine surveyors could be obtained, and that the Indian surveyors should be therefore nominated by the Admiralty, the posts of assistants being filled by officers of the Indian Marine. But the two classes were to be kept distinct, there being no promo- tion from the lower to the higher grade. Their work was to be sent home directly to the Hydrographer, such charts as might be 14 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. required promptly for local navigation and engineering wants being first photo-zincographed in India. Printed Admiralty charts of the coast of India were in future to be corrected at the Admiralty. In the opinion of Captain Brent the ‘“ Investigator” steamer and two boat parties would be sufficient at least to start the surveys with. Unfortunately, however, it has never been found practicable to increase this force. The future establishment was to consist of a surveyor in charge (in lieu of the Superintendent), who was to be placed in command of the “Investigator,” direct the boat surveys, arrange all survey work and connect it with the points of the Great Trigonometrical Survey. The programme of operations was to be submitted through the Director of the Indian Marine to the Government of India for sanction. The surveyor in charge was to decide which of the surveys would be of sufficient importance or use to be photo-zinco- eraphed, and he was to countersign the original charts before forwarding them to the Hydrographer of the Admiralty, to decide on the form of all hydrographic information, whether emanating from the marine surveying officers, port officers, or other sources, and to forward such information to the Admiralty for publication. He was to communicate with the Hydrographer of the Admiralty respscting past operations and those most pressing in the future from a local or Indian point of view, obtaining his approval or dissent before acting on the more important points. ‘l’o report to the Hydrographer as to any changes in the naval personnel and to the Director of Marine any changes in the Indian personnel likely to prove of benefit to the pubhe service. ‘lo make demand on the Hydrographic Office in England for such charts, surveying notices, or publications as may be necessary tec meet local Indian requirements. To answer any questions velating to harbour conservancy by means of buoys, beacons, or lights; those of a secondary nature to be kept for the recess. Owing to the arduous character of the duties and the trying nature of the ciimate, it was stipulated that the duration of the appomtments should be limited to five years, renewable if advisable. The naval officers were to come under the Uncovenanted Civil Service rules for leave and furlough, but, to count their time and to keep them under the Naval Discipline Act, their names were to be borne on the books of the flagship on the Hast India station or such other ship as might be necessary from time to time. INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 15 There was to be an office at Bombay under the Director of Marine with two draughtsmen and a clerk, and these officials were charged with the custody and care of the charts. Local governments and administrations and the several port officers were to promptly communicate all information regarding wrecks, lights, navigation, buoys, beacons, shoals, or other matters affecting the safe navigation of the seas, to the Director of Marine for the information of the surveyor in charge. The surveyor in charge was to be the adviser to the Government of India upon all matters connected with the navigation of Indian seas, the lighting and marking of the sea approaches to all great Indian ports and rivers, conservancy of harbours, and cognate subjects. This general scheme was approved by the Government of India.* The proposed staff as agreed to by them was to consist of one surveyor in charge and seven officers, all of the Royal Navy, and nine assistant surveyors of the Indian Marine. The total cost of the scheme was to be Rs. 1,938,000, which was estimated to bea saving of Rs. 7,000 a year on the cost of the then existing establish- ment (Rs. 2,00,000 per annum), but as the actual expenditure of the latter was about half a lakh less than its sanctioned limit, the new scheme was in reality the more costly of the two. The Secretary of State duly accorded his sanction to these pro- posals, and the retirement of Commander Taylor on the Ist July 1882, under the 55-year rule, enabled the re-organization to be completed. He was succeeded in the charge of the Marine Surveys by Commander L. 8. Dawson, R.N. Commander Alfred Dundas ‘Taylor, whose active Indian career thus practically came to an end, is an officer whose public service here merits some notice. His earliest eastern services were rendered in the Persian Gulf when he was a midshipman on board the Honourable Hast India Company’s ship “‘ Elphinstone.” On leaving that vessel in June 1843 he was granted a certificate as ‘‘a first-rate navigator who promised to be as ** good an officer.” His surveying career commenced in the following year under Commander Montriou (succeeded later on by Lieutenant Selby) in the brig “‘ Taptee,” along the Concan coast below Bombay, and this work was carried on for four years. Promoted to the rank of lieutenant in 1847 the next two years found him on board the * Military (Marine) Letter, No. 29 of 1882, dated 1st September 1882. 16 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. steam frigate “ Feroze,” in the Red Sea. In the autumn of 1850 he was appointed to command the surveying vessel ‘‘ Pownah,” in which, during the next six years, he carried out a survey of the Gulf of Cutch and the Malabar coast. In 1855 he examined the port of Karwar, and was then sent by Lord Harris (father of the present Governor of Bombay) to survey Coringa bay and Coconada port, on the Coromandel coast, and Cochin, on the Malabar coast. Resuming the latter survey, he finished southward as far as Calicut by the middle of 1859. Later in that year he was sent to pilot the expeditionary force against the rebellious Waghers at Bet and Dwarka, and then proceeded to England on furlough. In 1862 Commander 'laylor was pensioned off on the abolition of the Indian Navy but, at the request of Admiral Washington, the Hydrographer, his services were utilised in the compilation of Sailing Directions for the West Coast of Hindostan, which work was published in 1865. It was during the course of the next few years that in his researches at the India Office, Commander Taylor became aware how little had been done to improve the hydrography of Indian waters, a subject eventually brought by the Secretary of State under the notice of the Government of India, which led to the formation of the Marine Survey Department under Taylor’s charge.* During the six years of its existence, the cost of the Marine Survey Department had been as follows :— Rupees. as. pp. 1875-76 - - 160,771 1876-77 : : 1,40,484 O 1 1877-78 - - 198: 200 ee 1878-79 - - 160320 7g. ai, 1879-80 . - Gy Oe yes) ill 1880-81 - - 194,607" OF Or Total Rupees 914067 9 @Q Or, on an average, Rupees 1,502,344 per annum. Under Commander Taylor’s superintendentsnip, ¢.e., from April 1875 (the date on which work was commenced at headquarters) up to the end of September 1881, the publications of the Marine Survey Department consisted of the following :—68 new charts, * See Mr. Markham’s Memoir on the Indian Surveys (Second edition), p. AS. Commander Taylor last year (1890) signalized the 50th year of his public service by the compilation of a China Sea Directory, a sequel to the Indian Ocean Directory. } Including Rs. 83,536, part construction of the surveying steamer “‘ Investigator.” INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 7 24 Hydrographic Notices, 172 Notices to Mariners, 5 Annual Returns of Wrecks and Casualties in Indian Waters (1876-1880), 6 editions of the List of Lighthouses and Light-vessels in British India (1876-1881), and various other useful publications, including Spheroidal Tables, Glossary of French Nautical Terms, Tables of Natural Seales, Table of Distances at which Objects are seen at Sea, &c. The advantages, too, of a chart depdt at Calcutta, where hyd1ographical publications could be promptly obtained without the long delay of reference to England, were beginning to be fully appreciated by the mercantile public, and in 1580-81 1785 charts were sold, being at the rate of between five and six charts a day. Such were the results accomplished by the Department during its brief existence. Under the superintendence of its able and devoted chief, and with the co-operation of its energetic officers, it had made a position for itself, and its good work was beginning to be kmown and thoroughly appreciated by the mercantile marine frequenting Indian seas. Had it been able to survive those internal and external petty jealousies, from which no public department, any more than any other human institution, is exempt, it would undoubiedly have achieved a long record of good work, worthy of comparison with that, which during the present century, has made the history of Indian land surveys so famous and brilliant. Un- doubtedly much of the marine survey work has since been continued by earnest and capabie hands. But the break-up of a department is seldom unaccompanied by evils; the old personnel vanishes, the old lines are obliterated, the experience which it has taken years to build up, is either discredited or wholly lost, and the result is, even at the best, a serious interruption to that record of continued progress and development which are the aim of all Hnglisb administrations. x Y 20321. B 18 Il. INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. Seconp Perrriop, 1882-90. The Indian coast surveys now entered on a new chapter of their history. The headquarters had been moved from Calcutta to Bombay, future operations were to be mainly confined to surveying, pur et simple, and Commander lL. 8. Dawson was appointed to their charge on the Ist July 1882,* in the place of Commander A. D. Taylor, late I.N., retired. The “ Investigator’ paddle steamer, 508 tons, was now available for surveying purposes, and was arranged as a sort of floating headquarters of the Marine Survey Department, a complete set of charts, sailing directions, pilotage books, and works of reference being taken in her, to enable Commander Dawson to deal with any hydrographical question or reports referred to him. During the year 1881-82 her officers performed the following survey work :— | Area Sounded | Coast Line | ‘Topography Place. Scale. | in in | triangulated and | Square Miles. | Square Miles. | drawn in detail. | Malwan - - | Ginches to! mile | 21 17°75 | 13 | Vingorla SAP ge hi bees 11 7 | 10°5 Bombay - - 5 ~ 3 32 il + Do, - -| 2 > 5 $1 20 50 Total - | 145 55°5 57°5 * Commander Dawson had been employed (while Lieutenant) as Naval Assistant in the Hydrographic Deparimeut of the Admiralty since 1876. He had previously had 10 years’ experience in surveying in the Mediterranean, China, River Plate, New Guinea, and at Fiji, where he commanded the schooner “ Alacrity.” INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 19 The boat party, in charge of Lieutenant W. H. Coombs, R.N., also did some useful work. It executed a survey of False Point, on two sheets, the scales being 600 feet to 1 inch, and 4 inches to 1 nautic mile, respectively. For the first month the whole of the work had to be carried on with only the whale boat, and all the officers and men suffered more or less from the malarial fever, for which the place is notorious. The remainder of the season was taken up with surveys of Santapilly reef, Coconada, and the southern portion of Madras harbour. During most of the following year the charge of the surveys was temporarily transferred to Lieutenant A. Channer, R.N., and under his superintendence a survey of the Karil Kachal channel and Vingorla rocks was made, after which the ‘‘ Investigator” weighed anchor and proceeded to run a line of deep-sea soundings parallel to and about 60 miles off the coast to the Gulf of Manar, and across the gulf to Colombo, passing over the “ Wedge bank.” The next work undertaken was a survey, in December 1882, of the Dhumra river entrance, and the portion of the Baitarani (Byturnee) river from its junction with the Dhumra up to Chandbally, and the following month Balasore roadstead and Burraballung river up to Balasore town were charted. The “ Investigator’ next proceeded to Chittagong, where a rough reconnaissance of the Meghna river, from Narayanganj to Sandwip channel, and of the Karnaphuli or Chittagong river, to three miles seaward was made, after which the ship returned to Bombay. No. 1 Boat survey party, which had been in abeyance during the previous year on account of the officers formerly composing it having been required for duty on board the new surveying steamer, was reconstituted on the Ist October 1882. Under Commander Dawson, a survey of Back bay, Bombay, on the scale of two inches to the mile, was commenced, and continued and completed by Lieutenant Pascoe, the result being to show a slight deepening of the bay to the northward as compared with Lieutenant Whish’s survey of 1861. Karachi harbour was next taken in hand, and plotted on a double-elephant sheet, the work comprising 194 miles of coast line, and 16 square miles of sounding. - All the above, with the exception of the large scale of Bhaunagar (which was for local engineering purposes), were completed and sent to the Hydrographer, and four of the plans were photo-zincographed at Poona and sent to the Chief Commissioner of Burma for local distribution. The approaching outbreak of war with King Theebaw necessitated some scheme for piloting a flotilla advancing on Mandalay and Bhamo, for buoying the river and for preserving the buoys, as native pilots beyond the frontier were not tobe had. A,river survey party under Commander A. Carpenter, R.N., was accordingly formed, with a small reserve party under Commander P. J. Falle, I.M., which was established at Pagan, about half-way between the frontier and Mandalay. The main party, on joining the war flotilla at Mirhla, were sent forward to lead the fleet up to Mandalay, throwing INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. D5) the survey launch ahead to sound whenever there was a Coubt as to which channel the main stream had adopted for the dry season. The possession of a gun and a bluejacket’s crew were a very service- able help to them when sounding ahead of the other vessels. Com- mander Carpenter and lus party then piloted the flotilla up to Bhamo, haying first taken the pilots over the shallowest portions and examined the latest-formed channels. A complete sketch survey was made of the river from Thayetmyo to Bhamo, and was checked by astronomical observations at 20 positions, forming altogether a valuable addition to geography. The survey party returned to Rangoon and rejoined the ‘ Investigator’’ towards the end of January, having received the thanks of General Sir H. Prendergast for the skilful assistance which they had rendered to the Irawadi war flotilla. The next survey taken up was that of the Mergui archipelago, the Admiralty chart of which (by Captains Ross and Lloyd of the Indian Navy) was found to be very correct, the only defect being an insufficient number of soundings. ‘The islets are all steep, and many are mere pinnacles, which makes it probable that similar dangerous pointed rocks exist below water. The Great Western Torres islands, immense heaps of boulders overgrown with foliage, were visited, and their position tested by angles to known peaks and found to be 1 miles out. About this time a fresh datum for the low-water level on Indian charts was resolved upon. Previously,the soundings used to indicate the depth at the average lowest tides of all the lunar fortnights during the year, but as this had been proved by the observations of Major Baird to give in some cases more water than actually existed, owing to the considerable difference on the west coast of India between night and day tides, and on the Kast and Burmese coasts between winter and summer ocean level, it was decided that all soundings and tide tables should be reduced to the lowest low water of the year, provided it was not phenomenal, e.g., brought about by an earthquake or cyclone. The only exceptions to this rule was to be made at Karachi, Marmagao, and in the River Hugh, where the harbour authorities sound their own ports and prefer their own reduction datum. This, however, was a matter which would not confuse the mariner, as at such ports pilots are obligatory. 26 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. Lieutenant HE. C. H. Helby, R.N., in charge of No. 1 Boat survey party, completed the survey of the approaches to Bhaunagar com- menced in the previous season. The soundings extended over 104 square miles, charted on the scale of three inches to a nautical mile. No. 2 Boat party, under Lieutenant M. H. Smyth, R.N., was engaged in buoying the China Bakir entrance to the Irawadi river, and in the survey of Mergui, already mentioned. 29 On the “ Investigator’s”’ return from the Western Torres islands, in March, she completed the southern approach to Mergui, taking in some 20 miles of the beaten track to the southward. Preparis, Narcondam, and Barren islands were next visited. From the last two islands radiating lines of soundings were carried out to ascertain their slope to the floor of the ocean. It was found that they rose from a depth of 1,140 fathoms, but that the north-east slope of Narcondam was being encroached upon by the outlying banks from the great rivers flowing into the Gulf of Martaban. The temperature observations taken seemed to favour the inference that no greater depth than 760 fathoms exists in any of the passages between the Andaman islands or between that group and Acheen. In May, Lieutenant A. Channer, R.N., was again appointed as Surveyor in charge (Commander Carpenter being absent on leave in England). ‘The following charts and plans were drawn during the recess :— Irawadi river from ‘thayetmyo to Bhamo, on #-inch scale in 4 sheets. China Bakir river - - . - on 2-inch scale. Mergui Fells passage - - = je, Oe 3 Northern approach - = ey Ly ee <3 Kings island to Christmasisland - ,,1 ,, _,, Cambay Perim to Bhaunagar - CE? eae i fs Narbada = - re ee tS, 4 Mandwa Bay, Diu - - =) eS 6 besides sailing directions, tidal, and other data. These were all completed and forwarded to the Admiralty Hydrographer, copies having been photo-zincographed by the Poona Office. The first place examined by the ‘“ Investigator’ was Hinze basin on the Burmese coast; the Moscos islands were then re-plotted, and the beaten track in the Mergui archipelago from Christmas INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. Dil island, where the survey of the previous season had ended, down to Forrest strait near Pakchan. ‘The track is useful to local trade and gives protection to vessels trading to Singapore, but until thoroughly surveyed on a large scale, which the trade does not at present seem to reauire, it is not recommended for large and deep draught vessels. In fact, large ships able to steam against the ordinary monsoon would not use it. On Christmas day a visit was paid to the Elephant islands, close to the south-east side of Domel island. ‘I'he former are composed of a marble of medium quality, and are very remarkable, both for their abrupt shapes and the beautiful grottoes they contain. The grottoes are mostly accessible at low water through tunnels below high-water mark opening into lofty caves. At the south end of the largest islet, which is 1,000 feet, a low-water tunnel admits a boat into a lagoon, entirely closed by high precipitous cliifs and open only to the sky. Into this lagoon, which seems to be purposely created for smugglers, several cave grottoes open from under the cliffs. An interesting description of these islands will be found in the Records of the Geological Survey. With the object of examining the banks extending off the Sundarbans between Chittagong and the “Swatch,” a survey was made of the Meghna flats. No less than 1,750 square miles were sounded, the result being to show more water in nearly every direction than on the published charts, and no extension of the prominent shoals. No. 1 Boat party completed their survey of the channel between the Narbada river and Perim island in the Gulf of Cambay (Narbada river to Perim island), the triangulation being carried across the gulf from the Kathiawar side to Broach point by means of mirrors which were extemporised as_ heliostats. Mandwa bay, Diu head, was also surveyed, the area sounded being 10 square miles, while in the case of the Gulf of Cambay it was 65 square miles. Between October and February the “ Investigator ” was at work in surveying the entrance to the Beypur river, and here, and at Calicut, and off Cotta point, an aggregate area of 139 square miles were sounded and plotted on various scales. Boat party No. 2, surveyed the approaches to the Yé river on the Tenasserim coast on the scale of feur inches to the mile, but the work was much impeded and interrupted by the ill-health of the party, until on the 18th November no fewer than 23 were on the 28 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. sick list, and work was suspended. Places situated on tidal estuaries where fresh and salt water come into contact are notoriously malarious, and though not of a severe type the disease in this case was extremely persistent. The natural history results were meagre during the year 1886-87, Surgeon G. M. Giles having been deputed to serve with the Chitral and Kafiristan Mission during the greater part of the year. Towards the close of March 1887 the ‘ Investigator’’ completed the survey of the shallows off the mouths of the Meghna river. The soundings on the ‘‘ South Patches ” proved to be even shallower than hitherto supposed. This shoal has caused a great many wrecks from endeavours to avoid it, for sailing vessels arriving off Chittagong with their chronometers often in error after long ocean passages, give it too wide a berth and get wrecked on the Meghna shoals. With the present corrected chart, vessels making for Chittagong should be able to avoid these Patches, while the rectifi- cation of the peaks and outlying islets of the Andaman and Nicobar groups will tend to decrease the wrecks on the flats of the Sundarbans by enabling vessels standing up the Bay of Bengal to fix their true positions. From the ‘‘ South Patches” a line of soundings was first run south to the latitude of Akyab, and then a line of deep-sea soundings was carried at intervals of 70 miles to Madras, the depths gradually increasing towards the latter place, 1,820 fathoms bemg obtaimed 40 miles off Pulicat, near Madras. This line was the first record of the depth of the northern portion of the Bay of Bengal. Commander Carpenter’s paper on the mean temperaiure of the Bay of Bengal, with its chart, has been published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1887, Vol. LVI., Part II. The temperature records afford an extremely useful check on the observations of depth in cases where the sounding wire indicator gets out of order. Off Madras a closely-sounded survey was made, on the scale of two inches to the mile, of the Tripalur reef and Rockingham patch, where three steamers had grounded, one being lost and another very badly damaged. This survey was connected with the land survey stations. A few soundings were also taken north of Pedro Point in Ceylon, where a gap existed in the soundings showing the eastern entrance to Palk straits. ms a INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 29 During the recess the following charts and plans were turned out by the officers of the “Investigator” and her two boat parties :— Charts. White Point to Mergui - - + inch to 1 mile. Meena flats - - - 6 99 Beypur to Sacrifice rock = - l#inches ,, Plans. Mergui archipelago - - - $ inch % Forests strait - 2 Spe clin Hiss 99 Tripalur reef, @c. —- - - 2 inches " Beypur and Calicut roads’ - ae ON nds » Yé river = - = OL IaN55 % Approaches to ditto - - SA gp ” Beypur river bar - ar wor ht ss 5 Cotta point and reef - : BB) Gs »» All except four of the above have been photo-zincographed for local use, and all except that of the Meghna flats, which was purely astronomical, were based on data of the Great Trigonometrical Survey. Sailing directions, tidal and other data were also compiled. For the next season the sanctioned programme comprised a survey of the western coast of the Andaman islands, and of the Ganijam coast between Santapilly and Hurrichpoor in latitude 20° N., but later on the Madras Government requested that that of the Ganjam coast might be postponed another year. A line of deep-sea soundings was carried from Porbandar to the Laccadive islands, one result of which was to indicate that the Laccadive submarine peaks sprmg from an ocean floor about 1,100 fathoms, or one and a quarter land miles deep, and are themselves about the same height as the Western Ghats in those latitudes. A curious discovery was made at Chitlac island, tending to prove the existence of a southerly current on the west coast of India. A large wooden tank had floated ashore over the reef in September 1885 with a human skull inside, and from enquiry this appeared to be part of the wreckage of the British Indian wooden barque “ Jabree,” of 695 tons, with a crew of 60 men and 40 passengers, an account of the loss of which is given in the Wreck Register for 1885. 30 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. She had reached Ras-el-Hadd on the east coast of Arabia, when she was caught in a gale and foundered in a few hours; seven of the crew managed to climb into an empty wooden water-tank which had been washed off the deck, and there the seven men lived for ten days without either food or water. After the lapse of those ten days the survivors died one by one, the bodies being flung overboard, and the tank drifting on steadily towards the coast of Cutch at the rate of 28 miles a day. ‘The sixth man died whilst within sight of land, and the last solitary survivor managed to crawl ashore at Jakao, in Cutch. He found a pot of millet, but his throat was so parched that he was unable to swallow it till it was moistened with sea water; thus refreshed he was able to make his way along the shore till he reached a native hut, where he was kindly treated, though laid up for a long time with fever. Commander Carpenter considers that there is very little doubt that this same tank, after touching the coast at Jakao on the north side of the entrance to the Gulf of Cutch, was driven seaward by the outset of the gulf consequent on the heavy monsoon rains, and drifting southwards along the west coast of India in the southerly current that relieves the pressure of water on the Sind coast during the S.W. monsoon, was carried out to the Laccadives after the monsoon was over. The ‘Investigator’ proceeded in November to the Andaman islands, which, with the exception of the little Andamans, had been all recently triangulated by Captain Hobday of the Trigonometrical Survey. A coast survey based on the land triangulation, and on the scale of one inch to the mile, was set in hand, and 724 square miles in all sounded. Of the harbour of Port Blair a rough chart by Lieutenant Dickson aud Mr. Marshall, I.N., had been made in 1861, and as a more perfect survey was now considered necessary, a detached party under Lieutenant B. Whitehouse, R.N., took this in hand, and completed 16 square miles of soundings on the 5-inch scale, including 288 square miles about the Western Coral banks, which were gone over most minutely to ascertain whether there was any really dangerous shoal water on them. The least water found was six fathoms. On two occasions instead of anchoring on the banks for the night the ship was allowed to drift, and some very rare marine specimens were obtained by trawling, and sent to the Calcutta Museum. INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 31 The Andamanese were found to be no longer treacherous nor hostile to Huropeans landing on their islands. 32 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. to our knowledge of Indian Marine Zoology, more especially in regard to fishes, of which he has described 44 entirely new to science, and 62 new to the Indian fauna. In the spring of 1888 the “ Investigator,” having completed the examination of the outlying dangers on the west coast of the Andaman group, took a north and south line of deep soundings about 100 miles west of the Andamans and Nicobars from latitude 12° 40’ to latitude 5° 45’ N. In the latter position a submarine elevation was found representing a submerged peak rising 2,000 feet high from the floor of the ocean, about half way between the Straits of Malacca and Ceylon. During the recess the following fair charts (with the exception of the 20-inch Porbandar harbour plan) were drafted and forwarded to the Admiralty Hydrographer :— Name of Chart or Plan. Seale. *Port Blair to Sistersislands = - - - + - 1 inch to 1 mile. North Sentinel island - : - - ” 2? | i gs [ea dter *Port Blair - - = - - - | 5 inches bb) Macpherson’s strait —- - - . =|) 2 aes West Coral bank - = - = = = |), eliainchses ames Middle and South Coral banks = - - - = eee 45 Porbandar harbour - = - - - | 20 inches _,, | { *Porbandar and Navibandar - - - = | A: AS, x *Cannanur to Mahe - - = s Z 12s a *Plans of Cannanore and Tellicheri - - = 3 ” 33 * Photo-zinecographed for local use. The “ Investigator” left Bombay harbour on the 20th October, and after having coaled at Colombo carried some deep soundings to the Andamans. Confirmatory evidence was obtained of the existence of the ridge or plateau of 1,700 fathoms found in April 1888 about 170 miles west of the Andamans. Between this ridge and the islands there is a submarine valley of 1,900 to 2,000 fathoms, which appears to stretch up from Acheen; on the west INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 33 side of the valley the water appeared to be slightly colder than the normal temperature of those depths. Arriving at Port Blair, No. 1 Boat party was landed for the purpose of making a survey of Diligent straits on the one-inch scale, while the “Investigator” visited South Sentinel island and the bank off the S.W. point of Little Andaman, both of which were sounded. Before proceeding to the Orissa coast, deep soundings were taken across the bay. The Bay of Bengal proved to have a regular decline towards its mouth, the Andaman and Nicobar ridge forming its eastern boundary (the sea east of the Andamans being a separate basin); there is slightly deeper water nearer the coasts than m the centre, and the depth falls very suddenly from the 100-fathom line off the Sunderbunds to the 900-fathom line. If we take the slope of the bed of the bay between the 1,100 and 1,400 fathoms contours as being the true gradient of its fall, unaffected to any great extent by the detritus from the rivers, and carry this gradient, which is only 1 in 396, northward, we find that it brings the bed of the bay up on a level with its surface only when it reaches the foot of the Himalayas. The survey of the Orissa coast was begun at the mouth of the Devi river, and first carried to the northward for 24 miles. This survey was on the one-inch scale, and was afterwards carried by the “ Investigator”’ along the coast for a total distance of 199 miles, operations being greatly helped and expedited by the marks erected by the land surveyors. ‘The mouth of the Devi river, the anchorage at Puri, and Gopalpur anchorage were also charted on the four-inch scale. During 1889-90. the operations were carried along the Ganjam coast to the south of Gopalpur. A survey of the Coco Islands was also commenced during the same season, as well as an examination of the Bassein River and its approaches, by the boat party under Lieutenant G. 8. Gunn, R.N. The Report for 1888-89 was the last submitted by Commander Carpenter, R.N., and in it he took the opportunity to draw up a brief review of past work, as well as a forecast of future operations. More than seven years had elapsed since the “ Investigator” had made her first surveying trip, and in that time she had run some 44,000 miles, of which just half were actual lines of close soundings taken on various surveys. ‘he “ Investigator’s’’ boats 1 ¥ 20321. C 34 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. had, in addition to the parent vessel’s mileage, run some 11,500 miles of similar soundings. 'I‘his total mileage, however, was far from completing the shores of India. As a matter of fact, at that time only 1,715 miles or one-third had been charted sufficiently for safe navigation out of a total length of 5,100 miles, consequently much remained and even now remains to be done before the coasts of India can be said to be adequately surveyed. The logalities specially needing attention have been specified in a very valuable memorandum by Commander Carpenter, which is attached to the Marine Survey Report for 1888-89, and a brief notice of these requirements is here desirable, and will form a fitting conclusion to the present chapter. The mouths of the Indus have not been examined since 1877, when they were surveyed by Lieutenant A. W. Stiffe, and are continually reported to be shoaling seaward. A re-survey will have to be done astronomically with a mark boat as a guide to the line of soundings. The original survey was made as far back as 1848-49, and the examination in 1877 was only over the most projecting portion, which, however, is that which most specially requires attention from time to time. The Gulf of Cutch shows signs of increasing trade, and before long the ports of Mundra, Tuna, Rojhi, and Salaya creek will require charting on scales sufficiently large for harbour improvements. The gulf was well surveyed for open navigation in 1852 by Lieutenant (now Commander) A. D. Taylor,* but the plotting on the chart requires fitting in with the land triangulation. The coast of Kathiawar from Dwarka point to Gogha in the Gulf of Cambay is fairly well shown, and an improved chart to Diu head is to be compiled, but Jafrabad, between Diu and Goapnath, requires charting on a large scale, and the whole coast needs sounding off. It was surveyed by Lieutenant Ethersey, I.N., in 1837, in a pattimar. The operations now called for would occupy two years. The Gulf of Cambay is practically unsurveyed, with the exception of a portion from Bhaunagar creek down to Perim island and across to Broach, which represents about one-seventh of the whole area. The head of the gulf is shallowing up and becoming less navigable every year, and this is resulting in the banks at its * See page 15. INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 35 mouth extending further seaward, and becoming more dangerous to shipping. It was also surveyed by Lieutenant Hthersey prior to 1845, and though a very creditable piece of work, considering the means at his disposal and the ferce tidal currents, the chart is now quite unreliable. The work would take three years. The Bombay coast, from latitude 20° N. as far as Bombay, has been very slightly delineated, and the whole stretch is rocky and dangerous, but there is no immediate call for a survey, though the projecting reef near Danu, specified in the old Indian Navy Officers Memorandum of 1862, requires examination, and as local trade increases there will be a demand for reliable charts of the small ports of call along it, while a harbour of refuge is especially needed somewhere midway between Danu and Bombay. A boat party could be employed here with advantage for four years, or it would take the “ Investigator” herself about two years. At the northern end of the Kanara coast there are about 60 miles of very rocky coast, which though well surveyed by Lieutenant A. D. Taylor in 1856, are not charted so as to meet present require- ments. ‘There is not sufficient protection here for a boat party, and the scale, to be adequate, should be two inches, which would occupy the “Investigator” two seasons. A detailed survey will soon be required from the Enciam rocks to Cape Comorin,a rocky strip of the Travancore coast some 25 miles in length. On the Tinnevelli coast the Manapand shoals require proper delineation, and with the above-mentioned bit of ‘'ravancore coast would not take more than a single season. The Laccadive Archipelago was well plotted in 1844-48 by Captain Selby and Lieutenant A. D. Taylor, but the islands have never been properly placed in longitude. Several of the group are three to four miles out of position and should be rectified by chrono- metric distances. This would take two months. On the eastern coast of India the large bay north of the Paumben Pass called Palk Straits is far from complete, the soundings being thick only in shore, while the banks which extend from Point Calimere to the north point of Ceylon are of sand and liable to change. Inthe event of the deepening of the Paumben Pass, an accurate survey of the banks will be required with the object of findmg the best position for light-ships, buoys, &c. The small ports of Karikal, Cuddalore, Porto Novo, and Pondicherry require to C2 36 INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. be charted on a large scale, which witb other miscellaneous work would take a season. From Madras to False Point the east coast of India was, until 1888-89, quite unsurveyed, and as beacons have been erected by the land surveyors this important piece of work could be finished by 1894. With the view of rounding off this survey, the portion between the Mahanadi river and the Palmyras shoals should be examined and the soundings carried out in a south-easterly direction to 40 fathoms. This would then join on to the survey of the Pilot's Ridge, and approaches to the Hugli, executed by the Department in 1885. The Burma coast from 20 miles north of Elephant Point down to the Terrible Rocks has only been sketched, and many complaints are received from steamers trading up and down it. The coast is essentially rocky, and there are mud volcanoes at its south end which are liable to form new shoals. This coast would take three years to complete. Passing over the extensive Cheduba Strait survey, we again come upon a large piece of coast 150 miles in length from Sandoway to Cape Negrais, which has never received more than a running survey, and that as far back as 1826-30. This part, until properly charted, 28 quite unapproachable for steamers owing to the numerous rocks and shoals that exist. But as it lies in a bight and out of the track ot passing vessels, the requirement is not pressing. The Bassein river has not been examined since 1853, and has undergone great changes, but the upper reaches which connect it with the Irawadi shift so frequently that a marine survey would be thrown away, and vessels must depend only on their pilots. The entrance should, however, be sounded, and this could be done by a boat party im one season. The Great Baragua mud flat, extending across the deltaic mouth of the Irawadi, has never been thoroughly delineated and was only sketched in during the early years of this century. In 1855 Captain Ward, I.N., made a survey of it and of the outer banks of the Sittang river, but unfortunately the drawings were lost. The Sittang river mouth, too, is a blank on the present charts, nothing whatever being known of its present channels. One season should consequently be set apart for a general sounding of the Gulf of Martaban and Sittang banks. The coast of South Burmah from Amherst to Pakchan, a length of about 400 miles, with the exception of Yé River, Tavoy River, INDIAN MARINE SURVEYS. 37 and Mergui, has only been delineated by running surveys as far back as the years 1820-30. The principal trade route or beaten track of trading steamers has however been sounded out sufficiently for present purposes. As trade develops and new products are discovered fresh surveys will be required. Besides the coast proper there is an extensive archipelago, on the islands of which discoveries have lately been made of silver, lead, tin, and marble, which afford exceptional facilities for shipment. ‘he coast proper will take at least six years to survey, and the archipelago another three years. Pakchan, the Andaman islands (at present only one-fourth surveyed), the Coco group, and the Nicobars also require attention. Summing up these requirements it will be seen, with the present establishment, about 40 years must elapse before the coasts of India and Burma can be surveyed sufficiently for safe navigation, and by that time British India may have extended its sea-board, and other coasts may demand attention. Moreover, in 40 years time ocean trafic will probably have very much enlarged, and rapidity of transit increased, greater facilities will be required to bring produce from small ports to larger ones, for shipment on ocean steamers and there will be a gradual development of new ports and localities. Whether it will be found expedient as well as possible to cope more expeditiously with this large field of future operations, by commissioning another surveying steamer, is a point that remains to be seen. The matter has been commended by the Secretary of State to the careful consideration of the Government of India. In any case there is clearly a very extended field of employment for the Indian Coast Survey Department for many years to come. (oe) (08) III. GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. For more than a century and a half it has been generally recognised that a trigonometrical survey forms the most correct basis for mapping a country. The selection of sites for the careful measurement of base lines, from which one or more series of triangles are projected over the expanse of country to be mapped, and the closing of the operations on to a second base line, the final measure- ment of which forms a check on the accuracy of the operations—this process spreads in every direction a network of precisely defined points within which it becomes possible for the topographers to insert the details. It was General Roy who commenced the work in England towards the close of last century by the measurement of a base on Hounslow Heath in 1774, and in 1802 Colonel Mudge was engaged in the measurement of his are of the meridian from Dunnose to Clifton. The same year saw the commencement of the actual work of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of Indiain the measurement of Major Lambton’s base line near Madras. A graphic account of Lambton’s work and a history of the subsequent triangulation under Everest, Waugh, and Walker are contained in four chapters of the “Memoir on the Indian Surveys.” In 1876, at the time that our review of these operations begins, the Trigonometrical Branch was under the control of Colonel J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., Superintendent, Major-General H. L. Thuillier, C.8.L, F.R.S., beige Surveyor-General of India and Superintendent of the Topographical Survey. Extensive chains of triangulatory measurements had by that time been spread over the Indian Peninsula from the Himalayas to Ceylon, and the principal triangulation was now fast approaching completion. The first rough topographical survey of all India was also nearly accomplished, and this naturally suggested a reduction of the establishments of the Survey. In September 1875 the first step was taken by the Government of India in deciding that the GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 39 Survey budget should be reduced from 240,000/. to 200,000/. Two topographical parties were abolished, one fuil party was transferred to Mysore, its cost being defrayed from the revenues of that State, and similar reductions were made in the Trigonometrical and Revenue Survey branches. These reductions, however, did not entirely commend themselves to the Secretary of State. Further information was called for, Lord Salisbury expressing at the same time his hesitation in sancticning to the full the proposed reductions except on general financial grounds or in consequence of some recent undue growth of survey expenditure.* The Government of India replied to this in August 1876, setting forth full details of the expenditure during the previous ]0 years. Even this informa- tion, however, was not conclusive. The data, in the words of the Secretary of State, gave— no indication of any enlargement of these establishments, which may not be regarded as a reasonable result of the increased desire for improved information, such as that which it is the function of the Survey Department to furnish to other branches of the administration. His Lordship went on in his reply; to lay stress on the general usefulness of the work of the Department :— I continue to attach much importance to the steady progress of the construction and publication of good maps of all parts of the Britisi provinces in India, feeling sensible that without them serious obstacles are necessarily interposed in the way of the acquisi- tion of that complete statistical knowledge of the country, the absence of which has so long been a discredit to our administration, and the application of which is so requisite for the purpose of progressive government. I should therefore be glad if, when the time comes for considering the details of the budget for the ensuing year, your Lordship should find yourself in « position to avoid further reductions in the grant to the Survey Department. These were statesmanlike words and undoubtedly would have borne fruit in at least arresting further reductions. But in the meantime a grave misfortune had arisen. A famine was over- spreading huge tracts of country, aggregating some 200,000 square miles, in Madras and Bombay, and 36 millions of people were in the most serious plight. It was, in fact, the most grievous calamity of its kind experienced in British India since the beginning of the century.{ This terribie state of things and the heavy expenditure caused thereby, which, of course, were not foreseen at the time the Secretary of State’s despatch was written in January 1877, made it * Geographical Despatch to India, No. 3, dated 24th February 1876. + No. 1, dated 4th January 1877. { Report of the Indian Famine Commission, paragraph 60. 40 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. impossible to rescind or even to modify to any great extent the scope of the orders of 1875. It was about this time that General H. L. Thuillier, the Surveyor- General, was retiring from the service in which he had done such excellent work for five and forty years, and the Government took the opportunity to call upon his successor, Colonel J. T. Walker, to frame a scheme of re-organization of the Department. This re-organization involved an amalgamation of the three branches of the Survey, viz., the Great Trigonometrical, the Topographical, and the Revenue. Up to that time they had been virtually separate depart- ments, each with its own cadre of officers and establishments of Huropean and Native surveyors and its own superintendent. Originally, when the three departments were first formed, at different times, the duties which each had to perform were essentially distinct. The Trigonometrical Survey was required to furnish the basis on which all surveys of interior details were to rest, and the framework within which they were to be filled and connected together. The Topographical and the Revenue Surveys were to furnish the interior details, the former having to survey by means of plane-tabling the whole country, including Native States and British territory with the exception of the richer British revenue-paying districts, which were to be surveyed by the latter on a larger scale. In course of time, however, the duties of the three departments began to overlap and intermingle. The Trigonometrical Survey was approaching its completion, and for many years a large propor- tion of its surveyors had beeu employed on topographical work. The Topographical Survey, though originally imtended for the primary general survey of India, had had to undertake in many cases detailed surveys on large scales, and the Revenue Survey had in addition to its own special functions been largely employed on the topography of hill districts on a trigonometrical basis. The duties of the three departments had thus become much intermixed, while at the same time che transfer of an officer from one department to another was a matter of such difficulty, that, from every point of view, amalgamation was most desirable. This amalgamation was not carried out without a good deal of difficulty and damage to individual prospects, coincident as it was with extensive reductions. The amaigamated cadres of officers and surveyors were at last constituted as follows :— 1 Surveyor-General and Superimtendent of the Trigonometrical and Topographical Branches. GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 41 1 Deputy Surveyor-General and Superintendent of the Revenue Branch. + Deputy Superintendents, Ist grade. TKO) asain ue Pinel sp 1S res 5 BIEL - on li Assistant 35 listy 5 [eleecs =e e DANGl 4, eters, Ei BIOL on 9 Surveyors, lst grade. 12 3 2nd ,, 16 5 Ord (33 22 : 4th ,, 23 Assistant Surveyors, Ist grade. 25 5 * 2ndeies. Dill Bs i SIAL op 29 a = AG hemes The designation of “The Survey of India” was given to the amaleamated Department, which was henceforth to be one body, its officers being held to be available for any description of survey work that might be required of them, and the whole being placed under the orders of Colonel J. T. Walker. A brief notice of the previous services of this distinguished officer seems here called for. Major (now General) J. T. Walker, R.H., C.B., F.R.S., LL.D., &c., succeeded to the Superintendence of the Great Trigonometrical Survey on the 13th March 1861, on the retirement of Major- General Sir Andrew Waugh; he became Surveyor-General and Superintendent of Topographical Surveys on the retirement of Colonel Thuillier on the lst January 1878; and he held the three united posts until the 12th February 1883, when he quittcd India preparatory to retirement. He had entered the corps of Bombay Engineers in 1844, served throughout the Punjab campaign of 1848-49, and had been employed for the next five years in making a rapid military survey of the Northern Trans-Indus frontier, which he carried single-handed over an area of about 10,000 square miles, from Peshawar down to Dera Ismail Khan; he served in several encounters with the hill tribes on the Trans-Indus frontier, and during the mutiny of 1857 was ‘severely wounded at the siege of Delhi; for his military services he received three medals and three clasps, a brevet majority, and the Companionship of the Bath. 42 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. He was appointed an assistant in the Great Trigonometrical Survey on the Ist December 1853, took a share in the measurement of the Chach base line in the valley of the Indus near Attock, and for some years was conducting the principal triangulation along the Indus and on the meridian of 733°, and in carrying a line of levels to connect the stations of the triangulation with the sea. In 1861, when Colonel Walker became superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey, the greater portion of the principal triangu- lation had already been completed, and the time had arrived for determining the procedure by which the fallible values of the several angles and base-lines, as obtained by actual measurement on the eround, were to be rendered consistent, and final values were to be determined for the lengths and azimuths of the sides of the triangles and also for the latitudes and iongitudes of the stations, which is the ultimate object of all first-class triangulation. Already pro- visional corrections had been applied to the angles of certain chains of triangles directly connecting base-lines for the linear error generated between the base lines, whereby the length of one base, as computed through the triangles from the other, was brought into accordance with the measured length. But this was only a small part of the requisite reductions for general consistency. The triangulation being formed of a large number of meridional chains tied together by a few longitudinal chains—forming sections some- what resembling a gridiron in shape—presented a large number of circuits; and at the closing side of each circuit two values were forthcoming not only of the length of the side but also of its azimuth, and two values were also forthcoming of the latitudes and longitudes of the stations at its extremities. Thus three geodetic errors—as they have been called—had to be recognised and disposed of by a process of dispersion throughout the angles, as well as the linear error; and the question arose, and a most embarrassing question it was, as to how the requisite angular corrections to produce consistency throughout could be legitimately computed. The procedure adopted was to form equations of condition expressing the errors of the angles in each circuit as unknown quantities in terms of the closing error of the circuit, for the three geodetic as well as the linear errors. In forming the geodetic equations—now done for the first time in any survey—it was found that the co-efficients of the unknown quantities in them were greatly GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 43 more difficult to determine than the co-efficients in the linear equations, for they consist of summations of series of terms from the commencement of the circuit up to the position of the angle whose error is the unknown quantity, whereas in the linear equations the co-efficients are merely the co-tangents of the angles. The solution of the equations was effected by Gauss’s method of minimum squares, in which every unknown quantity is given the weight due to the facts of observation of which it represents the error. The number of triangles in each circuit was so great that every equation usually contained at least a hundred unknown quantities and often many more, and thus the simultaneous solution of any considerable number of circuits would be a matter of enormous labour, requiring every precaution to ensure accuracy in the execution of so large a mass of interdependent calculations. It was found practically impossible to undertake the simultaneous solution of the whole of the principal triangulation of India; the triangulation was tbere- fore apportioned into five sections, of which the dividing lines were the two longitudinal chains of triangles, one connecting Karachi with Calcutta, and the other connecting Vizagapatam with Bombay, and also the portion of the central meridional chain of triangles called the Great Arc, which lies between the parallels of 18° and 30° Of the sections thus obtained, the four northern ones were of a quadrilateral form, and were called the North-Hast, North-West, South-East, and South-West Quadrilaterals, the directions having reference to certain points common to all the four sections at their convergence in Central India, namely, the Sironj base-line, which was the adopted origin of the lnear element of the survey, and the Kalianpur Observatory, the adopted origin of the geodetic elements of azimuth, latitude and longitude. The fifth section embraced the whole of the Peninsula to the south of a line from Bombay to Vizagapatara, and, being triangular in form, is called the Southern Trigon, Hach figure presents an enormous amount of simultaneous interdependent calculation, greater than had ever been executed in any survey, or probably in any investigation whatever. Of these sections of the triangulation the North-West, North- East, and South-Hast Quadrilaterals were reduced, and the final results printed and published at the head quarters of the Survey in Dehra Dun, by Mr. Hennessey and other officers directing the computing staff, under the immediate superintendence of General Walker. ‘The results are contained in Volumes II. to IV. and VI. 44 : GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. to VIITL. of the Account of the Operations of the Great 'l'rigono- metrical Survey. Of these volumes, nine in all—of which No. I. is on the Base-lines, No. V. on the Pendulum Operations, and No. IX. on the Longitude Operations—were published under Colone! Walker. The principal triangulation of the Indian Survey was designed, from its commencement, to furnish data for employment im the determination of the figure of the Harth. The central chain, executed by Colonels Lambton and Everest, which extends from Cape Comorin to the Himalayas, has several stations at which astronomical observa- tions of the latitude were taken to convert it into a geodetic are, and it is a most valuable arc, and has been employed in all the latest and best investigations of the Earth’s figure. But east and west of this central chain there were several other meridional chains when the triangulation was completed, sore of them of an accuracy at least equal to and perhaps greater than that of the Great Arc, and these only required to have the latitudes of certain of their stations determined astronomivally to become valuable meridional ares for geodetic purposes. Moreover, a further contribution to geodesy became practicable as soon as a sufficient number of telegraph lines had been run over ihe country, by connecting certain of the trigonometrical stations with those lines, and then determining the differences in longitude between the stations telegraphically. Colonel Walker obtained a supply of new instruments for these observations, and a large number of astronomical latitudes and differential longitudes were observed under his directions, and employed by Colonel Clarke. R.E., C.B., of the Ordnance Survey, in his latest investigations of the earth’s figure, published in his work on Geodesy. Much of this work, however, still remained for completion on Colonel Walker’s retirement, but the principal triangulation of all India proper was completed, and the greater portion of it had been finally reduced. Colonel Walker also initiated the pendulum operations, which were completed under his superintendence, and the tidal and levelling operations, which are stil] in progress. In 1864 he went to Russia to make the acquaintance of the officers at the head of the Russian Topographical Department, and for several years he was indebted to them for copies of their latest maps of regions in Central Asia, which he employed in the com- pilation of the successive editions of his well-known map of Turkestan. He also did much to advance the operations of the GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 45 celebrated native explorers who have obtained so much new geography in Trans-Himalayan regions. On being appointed Surveyor-General, Colonel Walker proceeded to carry out the amalgamation of the three branches of the Survey referred to above. Colonel Walker held the Surveyor-Generalship until 1883, when he was succeeded by Colonel George Charles De Prée. The latter officer had entered Addiscombe in 1848, and was appointed Second Lieutenant of the Bengal Artillery im 1850. He served with the Pegu Field Force in the following year, and examined the 'Tonghup pass between Arakan and Burma, and reported on its practicability for elephants. For this he was thanked by Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General, and he also gained the Pegu war medal. In 1854 he jomed the Survey Department and was deputed to take up topography in Ganjam, where he worked for many years, being afterwards attached to the contiguous survey of the Chota Nagpur Division. On the disbanding of No. 4 Topographical Party (see p- 74), he was placed in charge of No. 7 Party (Rajputana and Simla). He officiated as Surveyor-General in 1883-84, and in the latter year was confirmed in the appointment, which he held up to his death, in Jersey, on the 18th February 1887. He was a talented and indefatigable officer, and his early death was undoubtedly due in great measure to the inclement and unhealthy tracts in the eastern part of the Peninsula where he had so long and energetically laboured. He was succeeded by Colonel H. R. Thuilher, R.H., (son of the former Surveyor-General of that name) who obtained his commission in 1857, and whose good services have admirably sustained the traditions and reputation of the Department. During the year 1876-7, at which period our review of these operations begins, three parties were engaged on principal triangula- tion, on the Madras Coast Series, the Hastern Frontier Series, and the Hastern Sind Series, and two parties in the Assam Valley and British Burma on secondary triangulation. The primary object of the Madras Coast Series was the completion of the principal triangulation in Southern India by a regular series between Madras and Cape Comorin, with a branch series vid Palk straits connecting Ceylon with India. Triangulation had been carried into this region by Colonel Lambton in the beginning of the century, but on leaving the hills of the central peninsula and entering a vast plain covered with trees and vegetation, it met with difficulties which the early appliances of the survey were inadequate to 46 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. surmount and which necessitated the stoppage of the operations, A large blank in the triangulation thus remained to be filled in. The Madras Coast Series (under the temporary direction of Captain T. T. Carter, in place of Colonel Branfill) started from Southern Tanjore and worked northwards, so as eventually to effect a junction with the Madras Longitudinal Series at its eastern extremity. The country was unfavourable for triangulation, beimg flat, with imnu- merable groves of valuable trees; the villages were numerous, and each covered much ground, and owing to the want of roads locomotion was by no means easy. The famine, too, which was raging in Southern India during the season, made the question of supplies a difficulty, prices being excessively high, and the villagers occa- sionally disinclined to supply food at any price. The country traversed by the party skirts the coast of South Tanjore for some fifty miles along the north-western shore of Palk straits (the Sinus Argaricus of Ptolemy), and les between the deltas of the Vaigai and the Cauvery rivers. In the following season the triangulation was carried by Colonel Branfill across the paddy swamps of the Cauvery delta into the valley of the Coleroon. The lofty tower of the Provincial College at Kumba onam afforded an excellent station, which greatly facilitated the passage of the delta. An approximate connexion with the levels of the South of India Railway was effected, and seven of Colenel Lambton’s old stations were identified and con- nected. An interesting note on the physiography of the Cauvery delta, together with a list of the proper names of stations and places with root meanings and notes on their characteristics, was compiled by Colonel Branfill during the season and published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Next season (that of 1878-9) saw the party working across the alluvial flats of the Coleroon, Vellar, and South Pennar rivers, and it was not till the hillock and rock-studded plain of the Carnatic was reached that the ground became favourable for triangulation. The great Siva temple of Gangaikondapuram, in the north-east corner of the Trichinopoly district, was visited and described by Colonel Branfill, and his paper thereon was also published in the journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. The operations of this party were brought to a conclusion in the year 1879-SO0 by the measurements of three polygons between Pondicherry and Madras. Secondary chains of triangles were carried from the main chain to fix the positions of the hghthouses GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 47 at Pondicherri, Negapatam, and other distant points, and in course of this work recourse was very frequently had to the lofty temples called Gopurams, the temporary conversion of which into theodolite stations was successfully negotiated by the Assistant Surveyor, Mr. Potter. The principal triangulation being finished early in the season, Colonel Branfill proceeded to the west coast to connect the secondary triangulation which Colonel Lambton had brought up from Cape Comorin over the hills of Travancore and Cochin to Ponani, early in the present century, with the secondary triangulation of the Malabar minor series. Colonel Branfill’s opera- tions closed with certain observations for the better connection of the triangulation on which the topography of the Nilgiri Hills is based, with his principal triangulation. ‘This completed the modern operations in Southern India, the greater portion of which fell to his share and were accomplished with considerable skill, energy, and perseverance. The Hastern Sind Series, on the meridian of 70°, was commenced by Captain Rogers in 1876, at a side of the Karachi Longitudinal series. It lay across a country of sheer desert, composed mainly of parallel ridges of sand of considerable height with steep slopes covered with low thorn jungle ; occasionally these sandhills disappear and give place to a variously moulded surface of ever shifting sand utterly devoid of vegetation called ‘“‘draens.” Curiously enough, wells of good water are occasionally found in these spots, the water in other parts of the desert being scarcely drinkable. The villages are for the most part built on the tops of the sand- hills, which in winter are warmer than the valleys. During 1877-78 the rains falied in Sind, and Captain Rogers was consequently despatched to carry a secondary triangulation from the western frontier of Sind into Baluchistan along the line between Jacobabad and Quetta, a series much needed for the correction of the maps of Southern Afghanistan and Baluchistan ; tke position of Kandahar in particular being placed on one of the best maps 15 miles west of its real position. Towards the British frontier there is a great dearth of water and vegetation, but near the hills there are ravines and watercourses, several con- siderable villages, and traces of much greater prosperity and population in times past, the subsequent deterioration being attri- buted mainly to the unsettled condition of the country. Captain Rogers laid out several triangles near the entrance to the Bolan 48 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. pass, after which he marched to Quetta and fixed the most conspicuous hills around. During the following season war broke out with Afghanistan and Captain Rogers was attached to the southern army, but Mr. Price carried the triangles up to Quetta, and Mr. Torrens extended them to the boundary of Pishin beyond. A good descrip- tion of the Kachi plain lying between General Jacob’s tower on the British boundary and the mountains forms part of Mr. Price’s official report. The various pieces of triangulation completed by Captain Rogers and his assistants comprised the following: Ist, the series from Jacobabad to Quetta; 2nd, the series from Quetta to Khelat ; ord, the series from Quetta to Kandahar: 4th, the triangles round Kandahar and the Khakrez valley. It was not till near the end of the field season of 1879-80 that the work of the Eastern Sind Series was resumed, when Captain Rogers completed two double polygons spanning a direct distance of 64 miles. In the followimg year the series was completed by Colonel Branfill by four polygonal figures carried northwards, and closing on toa side of the Great Indus Series. A chain of secondary triangles was also successfully carried by Mr. ‘Torrens across Central Sind to Sehwan, on the Indus, to furnish points for the revenue and topographical surveyors. On the northern confines of India the survey of the mountainous districts of Kumaun and Garhwal (of which only a small area remained to be done) had been in abeyance during 1875-76 so as to enable the whole strength of the party to be applied to the Dehra Dun survey, which by that means was finished in that season. In 1876-77 the Kumaun and Garhwal survey was resumed under Mr. E. C. Ryall and also brought to a conclusion. The winter had been exceptionally severe, and the spring and early summer cold and wet; consequently this told much against the surveyors, whose operations had to be conducted at an average elevation of about 16,000 feet above sea-level; Mr. Ryall’s highest point of observation was 19,600, while Mr. Pocock executed one plane table section at 19,000 feet. The snow-line was much lower than usual, and owing to the inhabitants being thereby detained in their winter homes long beyond the ordinary time, supplies were very difficult to obtain. Mr. Ryall’s triangulation is described below, p- 50. To Mr. J. Peyton was entrusted the topographical survey of the Byans valley, but here again the exceptionally unfavourable weather proved a great obstacle to work. In July there were only five days of clear blue sky, when the mountain features could be delineated, GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. : 49 and in the Kuti Valley, behind most of the great snow and rain collecting mountains, the weather was seldom fine for more than a couple of hours in the morning. ‘The Byans valley communicates with Tibet by three routes, the principal and earliest open to travellers being called the Lipu Lek pass; in moderate weather this is avery easy pass. There are seven villages in the valley, ali facsimiles of each other, but with the exception of some half-dozen houses built in the style of Swiss chalets, they all are small and low, the building material being furnished by the cedars of the adjoining ranges. The Bhotea inhabitants of these lofty regions are a race of sturdy hillmen, with no caste prejudices, ready to eat game of all kinds and to drink to any extent. They are principally engaged in agriculture and breeding sheep and goats, and all their clothing is made by hand looms, the wool being procured from their own sheep. Woollen blankets and plaids of bright colours and scarfs are made by the women, who occasionally act as coolies when there isa lack of men. At Garbia, one of the largest villages of the Byans valley, the Tartar physiognomy is by no means prominent, and some of the faces were expressive and even pretty. Mr. Peyton found the men always faithful to their engagements, and many of them while in attendance on him underwent great hardships, roughing it on the cold mountain tops without shelter of any kind. To Mr. Pocock and Mr. Warwick was allotted the topography of the northern and southern portions, respectively, of the Dharma valley, which runs contiguously to the Byans valley, and in the case of the former the inclemency of the weather was equal to and the altitude even greater than in the Byans valley where Mr. Peyton was occupied. The entrance to the Milam valley is through a stu- pendous gorge overhung by large masses of granite precipices; the gorge is about 12 miles in length, and the road through it is for the most part a mere series of narrow steps built along the faces of steep hillsides or rugged precipices; where these steps cannot be made planks leading from one ledge of a precipice to another are laid across. ‘The mountains here are composed of three different kinds of rock, the lowest formation is granite, of which all the most lofty peaks are composed; the second is hard slate; and the third and highest is a hard crystallised limestone. At the village of Milam* the valley splits into two; the one to the west is occupied by an * This is the village where the celebrated explorers Nain Singh avd Kishen Singh were both born and brought up. See page 151. i YE DLP BSc D 50 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. extensive glacier, the other might be calied a narrow gorge, extending up to the very watershed line on the Unta Dhurra pass, below which lies a glacier four miles in length. Owing to this glacier the Unta Dhurra pass is the most difficult of all the passes in Kumeun and Garwhal. Mr. E. C. Ryall succeeded in extending the Milam series of triangles (origimating from a side of the Kumaun and Garhwal survey) up to the frontier of Hundes—which is the name of the S.W. province of Tibet—and then for some distance across the frontier, whereby he was able to fix the positions of a large number of peaks in Tibetan territory.* The severity of the winter had caused the routes to be blocked up with snow; but though this may have deterred ordinary travellers, the Tibetan officials were on the alert, and soon after Mr. Ryall had crossed the frontier his presence became known to them. By informing them, however, that his object was to survey the northern limits of British territory, which he found it impossible to do from the south, he succeeded in satisfying them, and was allowed to proceed. Mr. Ryall was enabled to fix a large number of snowy peaks across the Suilej, including the remarkable needle-like peak of Leo Porgyal situated at the point where the British frontier crosses the gorge of the river, the sacred Kailas, and other lofty peaks at the head of the Manasarowar lakes and to the east. The triangulation accomplished was sufficient to furnish bases for a detailed survey, if one should ever be desirable. The province of Hundes or Nari- Khorsam occupies the upper basins of the Sutlej and the head waters of the Karnali river. It is a most desolate region, the only trees being poplars, and these being found only along the lower banks of large streams. One of the most important places is the military fort of Taklakhar (Tiger’s fortress), which is garrisoned by about 100 men and is close to the Nepal frontier. It is in reality a huge mound, the dwellings being excavated in the centre and the sides loopholed for defensive purposes. Within are said to be vast stores of grain and ammuni- tion, the former being subject to no deterioration owing to the extreme dryness of the atmosphere. Tuklikhar was the last post occupied by the Dogras in their disastrous invasion of Hundes, when Zorowar Sing’s Indian army of 6,000 men was routed by the Chinese and perished miserably by the sword and by the frost on * See special report attached to Surveyor-General’s Repert for 1877-78. Some interesting particulars are also given in the Trigonometrical Survey Report for 1876-77. GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 51 the 12th December 1841. The people of Hundes (called Hunias) are of Tartar origin, having the well-known leading ethnological characteristics of that race. They own large flocks of big, long- fleeced sheep, and herds of cattle and Tibetan goats, as well as a few yaks. There are five principal passes leading from Hundes into British territory, and the traffic over them is carried on between the 15th June and the 15th October. The passes, however, are not declared open till the authorities have satisfied themselves as to the absence of epidemics in the Ghats, the effect of smail pox, &e. on some occasions among a people so indifferent to cleanliness having been terrible. Shawl wool is taken in large quantities to Amritsar and other places in the Punjab, while sheep’s wool is also largely exported to the Himalayas, where it is made up into blankets and serges. In the following year Mr. T. Kinney was despatched up the Bhagirathi valley to supplement Mr. Ryall’s observations in the direction of the Nilane vaJley and the T'saprang district of Hundes. The Bhagirathi forms the westernmost source of the Ganges, and the gorge through which the Nilang valley is entered is terrific in aspect; snowy peaks, from 20,000 to 21,000 feet in height, towering overhead, while the stream flows 10,000 feet below, walled in by sheer precipices sometimes 3,000 feet in height. ‘The descrip- tion given by Captain Hodgson in 1817* fully bears out Mr. Kinney’s more recent account. Owing to the Tibetan frontier officials having been sharply censured by the Governor of Gartok (who has supreme authority over the province of Hundes) for allowing Mr. Ryall to cross the frontier the year before, Mr. Kinney was unable to do much more than fix some of the Tibetan peaks from the crest of the watershed, some 19.000 feet in height. The cold was intense throughout, and as the party were forced to encamp-at least 4,000 feet below, much time was spent in travelling to and fro, and the out-turn of work not so great as it would have been under favourable circumstances. The secondary triangulation in the Assam valley was carried on by Lieutenant Harman, in 1876-77, with his customary energy, notwithstanding the unfavourable weather, incessant rains flooding the nullahs and turning the forest paths into streams of mud and water, which brought out myriads of leeches, to the great discomfort of the party. Huge india-rubber trees had often to be felled, though * See Asiatic Researches, Vol. XIII. D 2 a2, GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. one, 112 feet in height, was usefully converted into an observing station, enabling a connexion to be established with the triangulation of Lieutenant Woodthorpe, who was carrying on a topographical survey in the neighbourhood. The work of the season extended over a distance of 53 miles, along the banks of the Brahmaputra to within a few miles of Sadiya. During the following season (1877-78) endeavours were made to extend the triangulation of the region between the Subansiri and the Dihone, so as to ascertain which of the two formed the continuation of the Sanpo river of Tibet. As it was practically impossible to venture far across the frontier, Lieutenant Harman was directed to measure the discharges of the Subansiri, the Dihong, the Dibong, and the Bramaputra in order to try and solve the question by ascertaining the magnitude of the volume of water in each river, and thus obtaining indircct evidence on the question at issue. In company with Captain Woodthorpe, Lieutenant Harman pro- ceeded to the Miri Hills, between the Subansiri and Dihong rivers, and succeeded in sketching about 1,500 miles on the half-inch scale. This included a portion of the Dihong river, higher than any previously surveyed, but not sufficiently high to show whether the stream is the continuation of the Sanpo or not. He next com- menced to measure the river discharges, taking observations of the following :—(1) the Subansiri river; (2) the Brahmaputra, at a point three miles from Dibrugarh and below the junction of the Dihong and Dibong rivers; (8) the united stream of the Dihong and Dibong rivers, one mile below their junction and one mile above their junction with the Bramaputra; (4) the Dibong river, at one mile above its junction with the Dihong and half a mile below the junction of the Sensri river with it; (5) the Brahmaputra river, about nine miles above Sadiya and half a mile below the junction of the united stream of the Tengapani and Noa Dihing rivers; and (6) the united stream of the two latter rivers, at about 200 yards below their junction. The full details of these interesting operations, meluding the sectional measurements and the calculation of discharges, have been published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal.* ‘The general effect is to show that the volume of water in the Dihong is from two to ® SeeJ.A.S. B., Vol. XLVIIL., Pt. 2, No. I., 1879. The measercments, in connexion with the earlier ones by Bedford anit Wilcox, are also discussed in General Walker’s paper on the Hydrography vf S.E. Tibet (see Proceedings Royal Geographical Society, p. 581 of 1888). GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Dy3) three times as great as that of the Subansiri, and that the former is much more likely to be the continuation of the Sanpo than the latter. The secondary triangulation in Burma consisted in 1876 of chains projected from the Eastern Frontier Series in various directions, one being from Myanong to Cape Negrais, (2) one from Prome to Thayetmyo and Tonghu, and (4) a chain to meet (2) in the neighbour- hood of Tonghu. The country through which these operations had to be carried on was difficult, the hills being flat-topped, densely wooded, and from their similarity difficult to distinguish apart. ‘The dificulty of obtaining labour, too, was considerable, as the Burmese coolies strongly object to being absent from home for more than a day or two. In the following season (1877) Mr. Beverley was instructed to select suitable sites for two lofty beacons which it was proposed to erect on the coast line abreast of the Krishna shoal, the lighthouse on which had mysteriously disappeared, whether blown over in a storm or demolished by the collision of a vessel was unknown. Strenuous efforts were made to extend the triangulation towards these beacons during the year 1878-79; but in conse- quence of the great difficulties encountered, owing to the country being quite uninhabited and covered with dense forest and jungle, through which it was almost hopeless to attempt to cut openings for the rays, the attempt to triangulate was abandoned, and instead thereof a traverse survey was carried to the beacons along the best paths that could be found. At the close of the season 1875-76 the line of principal triangula- tion called the Hastern Frontier Series had been brought down to the vicinity of Tavoy, whence, durimg 1876-77, it was carried forward in all a distance of 92 miles, first hy Mr. H. Beverley and afterwards by Captain J. Hill, R.H., who assumed command. For the extension of the triangulation southwards it was necessary, during the ensuing season, to have a station on the group of islands known as the Middle Moscos, and another on the Southern Moscos. The country traversed on the mainland was very lke that of the previous season; a thick impenetrable jungle, covering plain and mountain alike, and offermg great obstruction to the elephants, which had often to be brought to the stations by tediously circuitous routes. The trigonometrical measurements were advanced a distance of 65 miles; the position of the town of Tavoy was fixed, as weil as that of the “ Three Pagodas,” an important and well-known mark 54 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. on the boundary between Siam and Tenasserim. All the officers suffered more or less in health after their exposure and privation m the Tenasserim jungles, and the want of a sanitarium in Burma to enable men to recruit before entering the duties of a fresh season was much felt. This series had now ‘reached a point about 35 miles south of Tavoy, from which the direct distance to Bangkok, the capital of Siam, was only 90 miles, while the distance round the coasts was fully 2,000 miles. As a check on the marine surveys it was very desirable for a chain of triangles to be carried across into Siamese territory, and to this the King of Siam readily assented. Singularly enough, the tract of British territory lying up to the Siamese boundary, though only 42 miles in width, proved the most difficult piece of all, the hills (composed chiefly of metamorphic rocks) being generally flat with no commanding points, while the dense tropical vegetation and unusually long rainy season of 1878 were further obstacles to speedy progress. Once across the frontier the country suddenly became more favourable, and with the ready co-operation of the Siamese officials good progress was made up to within 25 miles of Bangkok, the remaining portion being continued by Captain Hill late in the followimg year, and completed by Mr. McCarthy at the beginning of the season 1880-81. Mr. McCarthy also determined the position of the six next most important towns in Siam; one of the stations selected was part of the celebrated Phra Pratom pagoda, the largest in Siam. The outside circuit of its enclosure is 3,25] feet. Within this enclosure, which is cloistered and turreted, are other cloisters, temples, and belfries built on successive plateaux, while from the centre of the highest a great bell-shaped spire springs to the height of 347 feet above the ground. Besides these places the positions of several hill peaks on both sides of the head of the Gulf of Siam were deter- mined, compass sketches made of several of the chief rivers and canals, and a plan of Bangkok prepared on the scale of four inches to the mile. In November 1880 Mr. McCarthy was requested by the British Vice-Consul, Mr. Newman, to accompany a Siamese telegraphic expedition then about to start for the Natyadung pass, on the British frontier, about 55 miles higher up than the Amya pass, by which the survey party had crossed into Siam. The whole route up to the former pass was measured with cane ropes, and Mr. McCarthy GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 55 was also enabled to get bearings to fresh peaks and te affix the names to some already observed. He returned to Moulmein on tne 13th April 1881, having been employed on field duty nearly eighteen months, and having won good opinions in his dealings with the Siamese officials and natives. The extension of the Hastern Frontier Series or chain of principal triangulation down into lower Tenasserim, with a view to the measurement of a base-line at the southern extremity of British indian territory, was taken in hand by Mr. H. Beverley in November 1879. But the ill-health from which, in spite of a very strong constitution, he had suffered for some years, proved fatal and he died on the 22nd June. He had served 25 years in the Department, and notwithstanding the malarious and difficult tracts in which he had often worked his labours were assiduous and successful. The selection of a suitable site for the measurement of a base- line was a difficult matter, but eventually a gcod spot was discovered in the Mergui township, Mergui island, beyond the range of the numerous creeks which penetrate inland from the sea. Lastly, but not leastly, supplies for the numerous surveyors and their followers were here easily procurable. While Mr. Potter, Assistant Surveyor, was constructing the principal stations around the base-line, and clearing the rays between them, Captain Hill was completing the remaining triangles between Tavoy and the base-line and connecting his heights with the sea-level for verification. Extraordinary difficulties were experienced from the haze, which was so dense that the shipping people and fishing population were unable to carry on their usual calling. The meteorological observations throw very little light on the cause of this peculiar haze. It generally commences about the middle of January, with north-east or easterly winds, and rain seems to have no effect upon it; with south-west or western winds it clears. The natives add that exceptionally hazy seasons occur at intervals of about five or six years. The part of Mergui chosen for the base-line appears to have been more thickly inhabited in former times than at present. Many old pagodas, some in ruins, are scattered about. A number of Mussulmans, chiefly descendants of men from India and the Straits who have intermarried with Burmans, have taken up their vesidence in the place; they are increasing steadily, and supplanting the original Burmans. ‘The Mergui archipelago, consisting of 56 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. thickly-studded islands, interspersed with shoals and rocks, enjoys a salubrious climate, and the scenery is beautiful. Many of the islands are peculiar and interesting; one with a central basin enclosed by walls of rock can be approached through a short tunnel open only at low water, and when the tide rises communication with the outer world is cut off for six hours. Another small flat island, calied Tho Bya, has a small fresh-water lake in the centre, and until recently villages stood and fields were cultivated round the margin; but tigers came and multiplied to such an extent that they drove away tne people, and the island is now deserted. With the exception of the fishing people from Mergui and the neigh- bourhood, the only inhabitants of the smaller islands of the Archipelago are the Selung, a small tribe of strange, timid, wild beings, without fixed abode, living almost entirely in their boats. According to Captain Hill they appear to be fleeced systematically by the Chinese, who send agents to them out into the Archipelago to barter rice at exorbitant rates for the pearls, shells (which fetch very high prices in China), bees-wax, mats, &c. which the Selung are able to supply. During the season 1881-82 two parties were engaged im the conipletion of the Hastern Frontier Series and the measurement of the Mergui base, viz., that under Major Rogers (who had relieved Captain Hill), and the party under Colonel Branfill which in the previous year had been employed in completing the Hastern Sind Series. During the first half of the season these parties worked independently of each other; Colonel Branfill’s in connecting the principal triangulation with the base-line and executing the necessary preliminaries for the linear measurement; Major Rogers’s in extending the principal triangulation southwards and making a reconnaissance of the islands of the Mergui archipelago, with a view’ to the future extension down to Singapore. With the aid of the Indian Marine steamer ‘“ Celerity,” by which communication was much expedited. the most was made of the brief observing season— barely two months—and by the end of January all hands were engaged in the measurement of the Mergui base-line under Colonel Branfill. The base is only about 3-4 miles in length, or rather less than haif the average length of the previous Indian base-lines (that at Cape Comorin alone excepted); but suitable ground for a longer base could not be found anywhere on the coasts or islands of the Archipelago. GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 57 The actual measurements and comparisons of the compensation bars with the standard of length occupied 24 days, and the value of the length of the base- in, as determined by calculation through the triangulation, which consists of a chain of polygonal figures nearly 1,000 miles in length, proved to be only 3-4 inches, or 1 inch per mile, in excess of the measured value. With a view to determine the height of the base-line above the sea a line of spirit-levels was carried from one end. down to the coast—where arrangements were made for erecting a tidal station. Astronomical observations for the determination of the latitude and the azimuth were taken at four of the stations of tbe principal triangulation in the vicinity of the base-line, and the mean differences between these observations and the latitudes and azimuths geodetically computed from Kalianpur—Colonel Everest’s station of astronomical origim—were 8-2” in latitude and 11-2” in azimuth; but the theoretical probable errors generated in the course of the triangulation between the origin at Kalianpur and the terminus at Mereui are less than +1” in latitude and +3” in azimuth ; thus the discrepancies between the observed astronomical and the deduced geodetic results at Mergui are probably due mainly to the influence of local attractions in deflecting the plumb- -line at the initial and terminal astronomical stations. Latitude observations were also made at Moulmein by Major Rogers, and the same officer also inspected the working of the tide-gauges at Moulmein, Amherst, Rangoon, Hlephant point, and Port Blair, and then proceeded to Poona to relieve Major Hill of the charge of the tidal and levelling party. Thus the super- vision of the calculations for the reduction of the principal triangulation and the astronomical observations mainly devolved on Colonel Branfill, who, having brought ail the work to a satis- factory completion and handed it over to Mr. Hennessey, at the computing office of the great trigonometrical survey in Dehra Dun, proceeded to Hurope on furlough. The triangulation parties were then broken wp, most of the officers being transferred to topogra- phical surveys, while the native establishments were reduced and transferred to the new secondary triangulation party and the Nepal Boundary survey. The chain of principal triangles known as the Eastern Frontier Series had thus been brought down from Assam through Arakan 58 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. and British Burma into Tenasserim, and closed on to a base-line of verification in Mergui, near the southern extremity of the British territory east of the Bay of Bengal. Thus the principal triangula- tion of all India had been completed on the lines originally marked out by Colonel Everest and sanctioned by the Honourable Court of Directors of the Hast India Company. A brief retrospect of the history of this great undertaking, epitomized from General Walker's excellent account thereof, may be here given. The Great Trigonometrical Survey of India originated in a so-called ‘‘mathematical and geographical survey,’ which was commenced in Southern India, in the year 1800, by Major Lambton of H.M.’s 38rd Regiment of Foot, on the recommendation of the Honourable Colonel Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington. Its object was, in Major Lambton’s words, to ‘‘ determine the exact ** positions of all the great objects that appeared best calculated “ to become permanent geographical marks, to be hereafter guides “ for facilitating a general survey of the peninsula;” and as at that time the elements of the figure of the earth were not known with sufficient approximation to enable the latitudes and longitudes of the ‘‘ great objects” to be computed with accuracy from the data of the triangulation, Major Lambton pointed out that his intended survey would, in the interests “of general science involve many * more objects than that immediately appertain to geography,” and that portions of the triangulation would have to be executed with the utmost possible precision, and be supplemented by astro- nomical determination of position, with a view to the requirements of geodesy. Between the year 1800 and 1825 the operations consisted of a network of triangulation over Southern India, grounded on, and verified by, several chain-measured base-lines, through the middle of which a principal chain of triangles was carried in a meridional direction, from Cape Comorin up to Sironj in Central India. This chain formed the southern portion of what is now known as Lambton and Everest’s Great Arc. Its angles were measured with greater eare than those of the collateral network, and at certain of its stations astronomical observations of the latitude were taken for the determination of the included minor arcs of amplitude. Colonel Lambton died in 1823, and was succeeded by Colonel Everest, who found no difficulty in obtaining carte blanche from the Government GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 59 of India and the Court of Directors for a new instrumental equip- ment, much superior to what had hitherto been employed. During his absence from India a small party of surveyors was engaged in carrying a longitudinal chain of triangles eastwards from the point reached by the Great Arc in Central India to Calcutta. On his return from Europe in 1830, Colonel Everest recommended the abandonment of the network system of triangulation, and the substitution instead of what he called the “gridiron” system, consisting of meridional chains which were intended to be constructed at intervals of about one degree apart, while the longitudinal chains would follow the parallels of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, and thus run at intervals of from five to six degrees apart. The external chains of the gridiron were to follow the British frontier lines and the coast lines. The entire triangulation was to be grounded on base-lines measured with the Colby apparatus of compensation bars and microscopes—in terms of a fixed standard of length—which were to supersede the old base-lines that had been measured with chains of comparatively rude construction and of uncertain length. This programme of operations was approved by the Government of India and the Court of Directors, and it has furnished the guiding lines on which the principal triangulation has been executed during a period of almost exactly half a century. For convenience of treatment in the final reduction, the whole of the chains situated within the limits of India proper have been grouped into five sections. Four of these are roughly four-sided in outline and are respectively called the North-Hast, North-West, South-Hast, and South-West Quadrilaterals, names in which the cardinal points have reference to the Kalianpur Observatory in Central India, which Colonel Everest adopted as the origin of the operations subsequent to 1832. The fifthis three-sided, and is called the Southern Trigon, and embrace the southern portion of the peninsula, below the parallel of Madras. The North-Hast Quadri- lateral was completed first of all, and here it will be seen, on reference to the Chart of the Principal Triangulation, that the meridional chains of triangles lie at intervais of about one degree apart, as originally designed by Colonel Everest. But in the sections sub- sequently executed the intervals between the meridional chains were materially increased, as the minor triangulations which in course of time came to be executed by the topographical surveys were of such accuracy that a smaller amount of principal triangulation was 60 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. found to suffice for all geographical requirements, and more was not wanted for geodetical requirements. Anadditional meridional chain might have been constructed on the meridian of 84° within the South-East Quadrilateral, and it doubtless would haye been con- structed but that before it could be commenced a network of excellent topographical triangulation had been thrown over the entire area which is included between the collateral principal chains, and nothing more was wanted. Similarly in the Southern Trigon, the execution of a chain of principal triangles along the west coast from Cape Comorin to Mangalore was desirable for symmetry, co-ordinately with the chain on the east coast from Cape Comorin to Madras, but it was not wanted for geodesy. For geographical purposes the Malabar coast series of secondary triangles was amply sufficient. It had been mostly executed by Major Lambton, and it stood connected with the modern operations. Major Lambton had not, however, attempted to throw his triangulation over the broad belt of plains on the east coast, which is covered with trees and obstacles that he had no means of surmounting. Thus a chain cf principal triangles has been extended of late years over these plains, and has furnished a base from which a branch chain of iviangles has been carried across the Paumben straits to the Island of Ceylon, in order to connect the surveys of India and Ceylon. For geodetic purposes the amount of principal triangulation which has been executed has been pronounced to be ample. The first measurement of the sections of the Great Arc between Cape Comorin and Sironj was accomplished with instruments far inferior in accuracy to those with which the liberality of the Court of Directors furnished Colonel Everest in subsequent years, and being dvemed of insufficient accuracy for geodetic requirements, its revi- son was directed to be undertaken as soon as might be consistent with the need of triangulation for geographical purposes in other parts of India. The northern section, from Sironj down to Bidar, was indeed revised under Colonel Everest’s superimtendence in 1538-39, but the revision of the southern sections — Bidar, Bangalore, Cape Comorin—was postponed for several years, and was eventually accomplished during 1869-74. The longitudinal series, from Sironj to Calcutta, was also revised, as it was originally executed with very inferior instrumental GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 61 means, and it happens to be the most important of all the great chains of triangles. because it furnishes bases for no less than 14 meridional chains lying to its north and south. Partial revisions have been made in other quarters of work executed with inferior instruments, which it was deemed necessary to raise to a higher standard of accuracy. Outside the limits of India proper the more recently completed chain of triangles called the Hastern Frontier Series is a valuable contribution to geodesy as well as geography. The whole of the triangulation rests on ten base-lines which have been measured with the Colby apparatus of compensation bars and microscopes, which was constructed in England under Colonel Everest’s superintendence. The relations of the length of the Indian standard to the principal European standards of length have been very exactly determined. Considerations of symmetry would suggest the introduction of an additional base-line near Bombay, on the same parallel as the Bidar and Vizagapatam base-lines, and measured with the same apparatus. But it so happened that a chain base-line had been measured on the Karleh plain, near Bombay, in the year 1828, by Captaim Shortrede, the calculated value of which, through the longitudinal series from the Bidar base-line, agrees very closely with the measured value. It was commended by Colonel Everest, who, however, some years after- wards, in 1848, made preliminary arrangements for the measurement of another line in the neighbourhood with the Colby apparatus, but he did not carry out this project. Eventually the idea was abandoned, as the distance from the Bidar base is comparatively small, and no material advantage at all commensurate with the labour and expense would be derived from the measurement of a new base; for-to measure a base-line with the Colby apparatus occupies two full-strength trigonometrical parties for an entire field season, unless there happens to be other employment for the survey officers in the neighbourhood of the base. There is some uncertainty as regards the unit of length adopted by Captaim Shortrede in measuring the Karleh base, consequently this base has not been employed in the final reductions, though no. new base has been measured. Thus the great work of the principal triangulation of India became an accomplished fact. Commenced in 1800, under the auspices of the Madras Government, it was carried on by Major Lambton, almost single-handed, until the year 1818, when the 62 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Marquis of Hastings, who was then Governor-General, placed it under the direct and immediate control of the Supreme Government. Captain Everest was shortly afterwards appointed assistant to Major Lambton. In 1882 additional officers were appointed, and by the year 1840, when the geodetic operations on the northern sections of the Great Arc were completed, the personnel suticed for the equipment of six trigonometrical survey parties, and this number of parties was uniformly maintained from that time onwards, until it could be gradually diminished on the completion of the successive chains of triangles. The operations have been uniformly and consistently supported by the Supreme Government, with the sanction and approval, first of the Honourable Court of Directors of the Hast India Company, and afterwards of the Secretary of State for India. In times of war and financial embarrassment the scope of the operations has been curtailed and establishments have been reduced, and some of the military officers sent to join the armies in the field; occasionally the civilians also have been sent to the seat of war, to be employed on survey duties. But whatever the crisis, the operations have never been wholly suspended. Even during the troubles of 1857-58 they were carried on in some districts though arrested in cthers. ‘They have been uninfluenced by changes of personnel in the administration of the British Indian Empire, each succeeding Governor-General or Viceroy having honoured them with his support. At the close of the mutinies, Lord Canning wrote as follows of the principal triangu- lation and collateral topography in Kashmir to Colonel Waugh, then Surveyor-General of India :— “J cannot resist telling you at once with how much satisfaction I have seen those papers. It isa pleasure to turn from the troubles and anxicties with which India is still beset, and to find that a gigantic work of permanent peaceful usefulness, and one which will assuredly take the highest rank as a work of scientific labour and skiil, has been steadily and rapidly progressing through all the turmoil of the last two years.” and up to the last moment, the successive Government have accorded their support to the operations with equal liberality and constancy. It may well be doubted whether any similar under- taking, executed in any other part of the world, has been equally favoured and supported. The field operations, viz., the measurements of the base-lines and angles of the principal triangulation, being completed, the next GREAT TRIGONOMETRIOAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 63 step was the final reduction and harmonising of the results, giving to each measurement and observation its proper weight, and nothing more or less. Strictly speaking, this undertaking should have been postponed until the completion of the whole of the operations, and then all the observations should be reduced simultaneously, because every fact of observation is more or less dependent on, and connected with, every other fact. But the simultaneous reduction of the vast number of such facts acquired over all India, by many individuals and during a period of many years, was obviously impossible. Thus it became necessary to divide the triangulation of India proper into five sections, and even then the simultaneous reduction of the numerous facts of observation collected together ineach group was a work of enormous labour, necessitating, as remarked by Colonel Clarke, C.B., of the Ordnance Survey, one of the most eminent of living geodesists, in his recent treatise on geodesy, ‘“‘the most elaborate calculations that have ** ever been undertaken for the reduction of triangulation.”’ The division of the work into sections necessitated the maintenance of the results determined for the sections first reduced in the contiguous sections, when they, in turn, came to be reduced and this necessitated commencement with the section, which in all its parts was of the highest accuracy. The section of which the field work was first completed was the North-east Quadrilateral, but as many of its angles had been measured with instruments of inferior accuracy to those employed in the sections which were subsequently completed, the reductions were performed in the following order :— first, the North-west Quadrilateral ; secondly, the South-east Quadri- lateral; and thirdly, the North-east Quadrilateral. The reductions were commenced in the year 1869; the final results of the first section are given in Volumes II., III., and IV. of the Account of the Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey, published in 1879; those of the second in Volume VI., published in 1880; and those of the third in Volumes VII. and VIII. The fourth section selected for treatment was the Southern Trigon. The stations of the principal triangulation were 3,665 in number in 1885. They have been constructed with a view to being as lasting and permanent as possible. On the plains they take the form of towers rising from 20 to 40, and even 60 feet above the ground level, and usually about 16 feet square at base, with an isolated central pillar—always of masonry-—for the instruments to rest on. 64 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. On hills and mounds the central pillar is raised two to four feet above the ground level, and is surrounded with a platform of earth and stones. - Mark-stones engraved with a dot and surrounding circle to define with precision the point to which the observations are referred, are inserted on the surface and at the base of each pillar. The stations are invariably placed under the protection of the local officials; they are scattered over 33S British districts and Native states, in each of which some officer is required to submit annual reports of the condition of the whole of the stations within its circle; repairs are effected whenever necessary. If the present system of protection and repairs is maintained by future generations of officials, the duration of the stations should be coeval with that of the hills and plains on which they stand, and the great work now completed will be of lasting utility. A considerable amount of secondary triangulation has been executed pari passu with the principal triangulation, partly by observations from the principal stations to all the most prominent objects visible from them, as the snowy peaks of the Himalayan range, and partly by the construction of chains of secondary triangles resting on the primary chains, such as have been carried to a number of important towns and cities within the limits of the Empire, and of late years beyond these limits, to Kandahar and Khelat on the one side, and to Bangkok on the other. Much secondary triangulation, however, still remains to be executed. Until recently it was wanted on the coast lines to furnish fixed points for the marine surveys, and in localities in the interior at a distance from the nearest prin- cipal chains, where data may be required for topographical surveys. But it 1s chiefly wanted outside the limits of India proper, as for the extension of the Eastern Frontier Series through the Malayan peninsula down to Singapore, and to furnish a basis for the geography of Upper Burma. For tlie latter purpose three chains on the meridians of 94°, 96°, and 98° respectively are Cesirable, the two first of which would close on the chain of secondary triangula- tion already completed in the Assam valley, while the third might be carried still further to the north. Bangkok, the capital of Siam, having already been connected with the Indian triangulation by a chain of triangles, which was recently executed with the support of the Siamese Government. The requirements of geodesy necessitate astronomical observations for the determination of the latitude and the azimuth, and electro GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 65 telegraphic observations for the determination of differential longi- tudes, at several of the stations of the principal triangulation. These have already been completed to a considerable extent. Further operations of this nature are in progress; they are carried out by the two small astronomical parties which are attached to the trigono- metrical or geodetic branch of the Department, and by which all the operations that are required to render the principal triangulation fully subservient to geodetic science should be completed in the course of time. An extensive series of pendulum observations for investigations of variations of gravity and the figure of the earth, taken chiefly at stations of the principal triangulation, has been completed and connected with the groups of corresponding observa- tions in other parts of the globe. Long lines of spirit-levels have been carried on in connexion with the principal triangulation, from the sea to the base-lines in the interior, and from sea to sea across the peninsula; they rest on determinations of the mean sea-level which have been made at the tidal stations on the coasts.* On tke conclusion of the measurement of the Mergui base-line, Mr. J. McGill and Mr. C. D. Potter were deputed in 1882-3 to carry a chain of secondary triangulation along the east coast, chiefly for the purpose of setting up beacons for the use of the marine surveys. These operations extended between Ichapur, in Ganjam, to the town of Pooree, the seat of the Jaganath temple. The country is generally well populated and prosperous, including seaports and large towns, but subject to unhealthy malarious influences. The Chilka lake fell within the area of the work; it is a vast sheet of salt water, covering 350 sguare miles, with numerous islands, and fed by freshets of the Mahanadi river and numerous small streams descending from the Hastern Ghats; it has one outlet into the sea by a small breach in the said ridge, and a canal connects with the port of Ganjam. During 1883-84 the measurements were carried northward along the coast of Orissa from Pooree to Balasor by Mr. A. D’Souza, and the opportunity was taken to look up the old stations of Major Saxton and Captain Depree’s survey in 1858-59. In 1884-85 Mr. D’Souza worked southwards, and carried the old triangulation of the Madras Coast Series, which had stopped at Coringa, to the mouth of the Godavari. Some interesting notes on the principal coast towns and rivers of the Ganjam, Vizagapatam, and Godavari districts accompany his report on the operations. The following * From the Surveyor General’s Report for 1881-82. i Y 20321. 1D) 66 GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Seasons saw the operations advance both northwards and southwards, and in 1887-88 the entire coast triangulation from False Point to Point Calimere, in the Tanjore district, was completed. Mr. Ryall, who had assumed charge in 1885-86, had hoped to close his work on to the station of the Negapatam Minor Series, but these were found to be so inconyeniently situated and so hemmed in by gardens and trees, that a carefully executed traverse, 60 miles in length, was executed, and a junction effected with stations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey. The triangulation along the Madras coast having been thus completed in 1887-88, the following year saw the party transferred to Lower Burma for the purpose of carrying out similar work there and fixing artificial beacons, as well as natural landmarks, at con- venient intervals within sight of the sea for the Marine Surveyors to base their work upon. One hundred and fifty-seven miles of triangulation of this description were completed in 1888-89, reaching from Cape Negrais to Sandoway, and about 170 miles in the following season. A commencement was also made of the principal triangulation for Upper Burma on the meridian of 97°. The series emanated from a side of the Hastern Frontier Series near Toungoo, and is destined to proceed northwards as far as Mandalay in the first instance. Owing to climatic and other difficulties, the progress during the past season was limited to the selection of two figures and the building of the observing stations at the angles, but the work was carried for 50 miles further in 1889-90, and six new principal stations were fixed. For the Marine Surveys, 35 points were fixed during the same year along a distance of 170 miles from Kutabdia light-house off the coast of Chittagong, Bengal, to Akyab, in Burma. The series of secondary triangles emanating from the Great Indus Series and running along the parallel of 30° N. latitude, which had been commenced in the previous year to furnish a basis for future work in Baluchistan was continued for a direct distance of 115 miles to Quetta. Observations at four stations still remained to carry the series to the Khwaja Amran range. In this province and in the other new province of Upper Burma a large field still awaits the exertions of the Indian triangulation parties. ee 67 VE TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. The Topographical and Revenue Surveys serve to furnish the details required for filling up the outline supplied by the fixed points of the triangulation, the former being confined mainly to the Native States, and non-regulation British districts, of small importance from a revenue point of view, while the Revenue Surveys deal with the more productive and valuable tracts. As has been appropriately said, it is their function to supply flesh and blood to the skeleton provided by the triangulators. But while the Trigonometrical Survey has had to be conducted regularly throughout on a fixed plan, both the Topographical and Revenue operations have to be taken up on varying scales to suit local requirements and conditions. The standard scale of the Topographical Survey is 1 inch to the mile, but where the work has to be executed very quickly the scale is reduced to 4 or to + of an inch to the mile, as in trans-frontier regions; on the other hand, in British territory it is sometimes increased to 2 inches, and generally to 4 inches for Forest Surveys. The Revenue Surveys are on scales of 4, 16, and 32 inches to the mile, and sometimes larger scales. ‘These two classes of operations have covered the greater portion of the expanse of British India and the Native States, which have thus been, or are being, practically mapped out on the scale and in the manner most appropriate to the general purposes of administration. The accuracy of the work has necessarily varied greatly according to circumstances. Some of the earlier topographical surveys partook more of the nature of rough and hasty geographical reconnaissances, but the more recent surveys have been carried out on more rigorous principles, and with greater regard for completeness and precision. Since the close of the Punjab war in 1847, and the publication of the “Manual of Surveying for India” a few years later, by Captains Smyth and Thuillier, there has been an ever-increasing E 2 68 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. efficiency in the methods and procedure of the surveys, and in the completeness and trustworthiness of the resulting maps. At the close of the period dealt with in the last edition of the “Memoir,” the primary topography of the larger part of India, as shown by the index map attached to General Thuiliier’s topo- graphical report, had been completed, the most conspicuous blanks still remaining being the western half of Rajputana, the greater part of the North-West Provinces, the Konkans, and nearly all the Madras Presidency. ‘The old maps of nearly all these regions had supplied material for published sheets of the Indian Atlas on the scale of four miles to the inch, but much of it was imcomplete and unsatis- factory, and the re-survey and re-engraving of the less-accurately mapped tracts have consequently had to be taken up as financial and other considerations permitted. The most recent index map of the Indian Atlas shows that the Punjab, Sind, the Berars, part of Rajputana, most of the western and southern portion of the Bombay Presidency, Haidarabad, and nearly all Southern India, as well as the North-West and Lower Provinces, must be re-engraved before the Indian Atlas sheets exhibiting those regions can be held to be up to the level of accuracy befitting the standard map of India. And as in many of these tracts fresh and better surveys must precede the preparation of fresh plates, itis clear that there is abundance of employment still awaiting the Indian Topographical and Revenue Survey parties. During the season 1876-77 nine separate parties of the Topo- graphical Survey were at work in different parts of India. The area allotted to the operations of the Gwalior and Central India Survey covers an extensive portion of country east and south of the Rajputana desert. One of its principal duties in 1876-77 was the construction of large scale surveys of the fortress of Gwalior, the cantonments of Morar, the native city, and the Resi- dency lands and surrounding country for the military authorities. These were superintended by Captain Charles Strahan, R.E., chief of the party, while Lieutenant J. R. Hobday carried on the one-inch work towards the west in the Native States Udaipur, Dungarpur, and ‘lonk in the Rajputana Agency. Part of Captain Strahan’s operations lay near the great water-patting of the rivers draining east into the Bay of Bengal and those flowing into the Gulf of Cambay on the west, and the difference here observable is most remarkable, the north-east portion being very flat and quite open, bet aa TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 69 with several large towns and villages and fairly well cultivated; it forms part of the plateau of Rajputana, and is on the average about 1,600 feet above the sea; while, after crossing the water-shed the change is quite abrupt: the ground is intersected by watercourses which gradually deepen into narrow valleys, and the general fall of the face of the country shows a drop of 950 feet. In 1877-78 the work of the party lay in the vicinity of Udaipur and east of the Aravalli mountains, a region part of which is inha- bited by the notorious Bhils.* Lieutenant Hobday penetrated into one * pal” or settlement (liter. “‘ the embankment of a tank ”), where no one except Captain Conolly of the Bhil Corps nad ever dared to venture. He, however, trusted the people, and was well received. The Bhil Corps appears from the accounts of Captain Strahan and his assistants to be doing excellent work among the wild denizens of these parts. Before the organization of the corps, the Bhils trusted no one, looked on all intruders as enemies, and were so incredulous of the good faith of the British that they had to be paid daily, simply because they could not believe that if they remained they would really receive their pay at the end of the month. Now there are always a number of young men waiting for vacancies to be enlisted in the regiment. Desertion is still frequent, but this is partly due to their love of home and the distances to be traversed, it being no uncommon thing for a sepoy to walk 15 or 2() miles to his home after his day’s work and be hack in time for parade in the morning. A great deal of topographical information respecting this country was amassed by Captain Strahan, including a detailed description of the great fort of Chitorgarh.+ During this season the party was deprived of one of its most highly-valued members by the death of Mr. H. J. Bolst, who suc- cumbed to typhoid fever after a long illness. He had been 27 years in the Department, 17 years of which had been spent in this party, where he had rendered most useful service. The programme for 1878-79 involved a partial diversion from the ordinary work, and included a survey of the Pachpadra salt fields (described by Captain C. Strahan in the appendix) on the 4-inch scale, and of the land adjoining the Luni River on the l-inch scale, both * Some interesting details respecting the Bhils by Sub-surveyor Abdul Sobhan will be found at page 43 of the Topographical Survey Report for 1876-77. 7 Sce page 101, et seq., of Surveyor General’s Report for 1877-78. Also pages 41 and 42 of Topographical Survey Report for 1876-77. 70 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. being in the Jodhpur State, for the requirements of the Indian Customs Department. The regular work of the party consisted of a detail survey of the city of Udaipur* and environs on the 12-inch scale, and detail survey of the neighbouring district on the l-inch scale. A comparatively small out-turn of work was effected in the following season, but this was mainly due to the intricate character of the ground, which was likened by Major EH. H. Steel (who took charge during absence on furlough of Captain Strahan) to “a petrified stormy sea.’ The ground to the north, whither the operations were moved in 1880-81, proved stiil more intricate and difficult, and the attitude of the Bhils was very threatening, insomuch so _ that Mr. Templeton, one of the surveyors, was warned not to return to one of the Bhil villages if he valued his life. In. 1881-82 the region about Mount Abu fell within the area of triangulation, while the topography ranged over the three Rajput States of Marwar, Mewar, and Sirohi. The transfer of No. 7 topographical party from Rajputana to Burma led to its uncompleted ground being allotted to No. 1 party, which in consequence assumed the designation of the Central India and the Rajputana Survey party. In the three years 1882-85 portions of the country south-west of EKrinpura as well as of the desert west of Bikanir and parts of the Sirohi, Palanpur, and Jodhpur States were mapped in detail, as well as_ special surveys of the Sunda and Dorra ranges of hills, and large scale surveys of Ajmere, Jaipur, Amer or Amber. In 1885-86 the triangulation was carried down to the margin of the Rann of Cutch mentioned below (see p. 85), while the detail survey was carried on in portions of Jodhpur and tracts adjacent to the Luni river. But at the close of that season the Rajputana party was ordered to be transferred to Baluchistan, so a large tract of this important province of British India remains unsurveyed, with no definite arrangements for its completion. The number of standard sheets unsurveyed are fifty out of a total of ninety-seven, covering nearly all the western half of the province. The Khandesh and Bombay Native States Survey worked in two detachments in 1876-77, one being employed on the ordinary one- inch scale in the Native hilly states north of the Narbada, and the second, under Mr. H. Horst, the officer in charge, on the more * A good description of the city will be found from the pen of Lieutenant J. R. Hobday at pages 42 and 43 of the Topographical Survey Report for 1875-76. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 71 important two-inch survey of the revenue-paying portion of the plains of Khandesh. While surveying in the Tapti valley, Mr. Graham, Assistant Surveyor, witnessed some extraordinary examples of “sorcery ’’ among the Bhils, such as walking through and treading on live coals barefoot without sustaining the slightest apparent injury.* Mr. Horst was assured it was a common practice, and frequently adopted by village punchayets as an ordeal in trials for theftand murder. The work was continued during the two following seasons, the plane-tabling including part of the Western Satpuras and the vailey of the Tapti. Great obstacles were encountered by the surveyors, partly from the high and rugged character of the hills, but chiefly from the difficulty in getting supplies and the general inhospitable nature of the country. The only water available for drinking was of the most unwholesome description, to which may be attributed the constant attacks of fever to which the assistants who surveyed the worst parts were subjected. The culminating portion of the Satpura range ‘“ Astamba,’ 4,346 feet above sea-level, came into the season’s work. About 900 square miles on the two inch scale were surveyed between the town of Dhula and the Tapti river, this tract consisting mainly of undulating revenue-paying districts. An attempt was made, on the whole successfully, to incorporate the village boundaries from the Bombay Revenue Survey maps. Captain W. J. Heaviside, who took charge of the party in 1879-80, furnishes some picturesque descriptions of the trap formation of the Deccan, which in Khandesh assumes the form of erand black precipices surmounted by massive basaltic columns rising to three or four thousand feet above sea-level. Two con- spicuous basaltic hills, known as Mangya ‘angya, on a spur of the Sahyadri hills, are of remarkable appearance, resembling monoliths rising from pyramidical bases, in which numerous steps have been cut. Some Buddhist temples, hewn out of the solid rock, are also to be seen here. The following season saw the detail survey carried forward in the south-western portion of the area allotted to the party, where it abuts on Berar and the Nizam’s dominions. The inhabitants of this part mostly speak Mahrati, and are rather addicted to drink and theatricals, which latter entertainment affords a means of support to a class of strolling actors. The Khandesh and Bombay Native States Survey was finally brought to a conclusion by Major TI. T. Carter in 1882-83. It had * See page 47 of Topographical Survey Report for 1876-77. 72 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. been started in 1871, and comprised an area of 18,133 square miles, including Khandesh and some of its outlying villages in the Nizam’s territory. Of the total area about 10,532 square miles have been surveyed and published on the one-inch scale, and the remaining 7,601 square miles have been surveyed on the two-inch scale, but published on the one-inch scale. The first-named part comprises the rugged and hilly tracts lying between the Tapti and Narbada rivers, forming portion of the Satpura range and the tract of country lying above the Ghats of the Satmala hills; that surveyed on the two-inch scale consists of the alluvial valleys of the Tapti river and its tributaries, where the country is richer and productive. In these parts the valleys are numerous, well cultivated, and connected by good roads, and the Great Indian Peninsula Railway traverses it from south-west to north-east. The Bhopal and Maiwa Survey party was originally organized in 1862 for the survey of Rewa and Bundelkhand, and on the completion of that work was transferred in 1871 to Bhopal and Malwa, to deal with all the country north of the Narbada river in the Central India and Rajputana Agencies between the parallels of 22° 15’ and 24°, and bounded on the east by Saugor and on the west by Mahi Kanta and Rewa Kantha. The survey lies inter- mediate between the operations of the Gwalior and Central India party to the north and the Khandesh and Bombay Native States party to the suuth. Up to 1877 the out-turn of topography in Bhopal and Malwa had been a little over 16,000 square miles. The work of 1876-77 saw the practical completion of the topography of the Vindhya range, which runs generally east and west through the area of the survey. Between the towns of Dhar and Amjhera there runs a low ridge extending northward some 30 miles, and the point where this ridge issues from the Vindhya range is the water- shed* of three of the river-systems of India, viz., 1st, the Narbada, which lies to the southward and flows westward into the Gulf of Cambay, 2nd, the Mahi, which rises to the north-west and discharges into the same gulf after a circuitous course, and, 3rd, the Chambal and Chamli rivers, which, rising to north-east, unite near Barnagar and join the Jumna. During 1877-78 fever prevailed in almost every camp, but a fair out-turn of work was nevertheless attained, while in the following season large scale surveys of Indore and * The height of the water-shed is apparently 1,883 feet. See Cuptain Wilmer’s Narrative, Surveyor-General’s Report for 1875-79, page 13 of Appendix. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. ie Dewas were completed in addition to the ordinary mapping. The ereater part of the ground covered by the surveyors of this party proved tedious and intricate to the plane-tablers. Major J. R. Wilmer, who was in charge, mentions a peculiar custom that the Bhils have here of branding their male children on the arms above the wrist with burning cotton dipped in oil, so as to enable them to be identified as true Bhils. This custom appears to have been unknown to previous writers. At the close of the season 1881-82 it was arranged that the bulk of this party should be transferred to the Mirzapur district, while the few remaining sheets of the Malwa survey were entrusted to the Khandesh and Bombay Native States (No. 2) party, who had completed their work in the season 1882-83, and assumed in consequence the designation of the Bhopal and Malwa Survey party. The latter work was brought to a termination in 1884-85, the entire out-turn of the 15 seasons having amounted to 29,262 square miles, comprising 59 standard sheets, all surveyed on the one-inch scale. In addition, large scale surveys were made and mapped of 13 cities and cantonments, representing an area of 127 square miles. The survey had been commenced in 1870-71 by Major Riddell, R.H., and carried on by that officer till 1873-74, when the charge of the party devolved on Lieutenant-Colonel Wilmer, by whom the work was continued till 1882-83, when the party was transferred to Mirzapur. The late Khandesh (afterwards re-named the Malwa) party, under Major Carter, R.H., then resumed this work and did a full season’s area in 1883-84, and in the following season the charge of the survey was entrusted to Mr. Patterson, by whom the work was brought to a completion. While working in the Udaipur State some sensational stories were circulated respecting the poles erected as signals to mark the trigono- metrical stations, which the natives were convinced were intended for the immolation of the men and women. Another rumour circulated was that the survey party had come to weigh all the married men and women, and that of those found of unequal weight there would be a redistribution, thus disturbing their marriage ties. The Udaipur Durbar, in consequence of these rumours, desired the survey party to retire as soon as possible, but Mr. Patterson took the occasion to invite the Bhils to the camp and encouraged them to dance and sing and shoot at a target with their bows and arrows, afterwards dismissing them with doucewrs. A description by Mr. G. P. Tate of the town of Bhinmal and surrounding country will be found 74 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. in the Appendix to the Report of the Surveyor-General for 1884-85, page xxx. Central Provinces, §c.—Turning now to the operations which had been progressing in the east of the Peninsula, we find that the season 1876-77 was signalised by the completion of the Central Provinces and Vizagapatam Agency Survey, embracing altogether 72,144 square miles. ‘The difficulty and unkealthiness of work in this region had been almost proverbial from its commencement, and its successful termination was a matter of genuine congratulation ; the previous operations were mainly associated with the name of Colonel Saxton, who is frequently mentioned in the “ Memoir”: to Captain Holdich belonged the credit of completing the work, though this was not done without much cost and suffering to all the members. of the party, some of whom were so prostrated by jungle fever that they were with difficulty removed from the field on the conclusion of the work. The characteristic features of the country where the concluding operations lay were extensive plateaux of from 1,800 to 2,000 feet above sea-level, surmounted by masses of flat-topped hills. These high lands are a continuation of the great plateau system of Central India, which decreasing in elevation by a succession of steppes finally breaks to the west into the low-lying plains forming the basin of the Godavari. The geological structure of this part of the country is mixed, being composed of trap and varieties of sandstone and slate; the first occurs in the higher flat masses, while the two latter predominate in the lower hills, and are distinctly separate one from another, a circumstance producing bold, rugged, and ever-changing scenery, but always the same endless monotony of forest from the plains to the highest peaks. The Pertabpur taluk on the right bank of the Kotri abounds in tigers, and sometimes whole villages are deserted through their depredations. Another survey also brought to a conclusion in the same season was that of No. 4 party, N.E. Division, Central Provinces Suryey, which had originally been organized by Colonel De Prée in 1856, and during the 22 years of its existence had triangulated and mapped on the one-inch scale a tract of country extending from the Bay of Bengal at Balasor to a point nine miles east of Jabalpur. This tract extends over nine degrees of longitude, and on an average two degrees of latitude, and its area amounts to nearly 25,000 square miles. The difficulties overcome here were of no ——- TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 75 ordinary nature, for the country is a continuation of the Vindhya range, which crosses India from Bombay on the west towards Calcutta on the east and then turns southwards to Madras, forming everywhere the water-shed between the great river-system draining into the Bay of Bengal, and that towards the west into the Indian Ocean. The landis almost entirely a series of plateaux of one uniform height between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above sea-level, and of a wild, hilly, and inaccessible character, destitute of roads, and inhabited by an original population of Kols and Gonds, as well as minor tribes. In addition to the ordinary survey, 11 Government reserved forests were mapped on the four-inch scale. Alphabetical lists were compiled of each State, the areas computed, the houses counted, and the whole arranged in a compendious form as a gazetteer for each of the standard sheets. The Chota Nagpur Division of the Central Provinces covers 75 sheets, of 30’ longitude by 15’ of lati- tude, and the North-Hastern Division, 42 sheets. Assam.—The desultory and detached nature of the frontier surveys and explorations on which the Khasia, Garo and Naga Hills party (No. 6) had been for some years engaged, necessitated its being broken in 1876-77 into three distinct sections or detachments. Major Badgley, the officer in charge of the party, undertook the revision of certain work in the vicinity of Shillong; Lieutenant R. G. Woodthorpe, R.E., and Mr. M. J. Ogle were detached to explore a wild part of the Lakhimpur district at the extreme head of the Assam valley, south-east of Sadiya, and close to the Burma frontier ; while the other two assistants were deputed on the Khasi, Kamrup, and Garo Boundary Survey. Under these circumstances the cost of the work was necessarily higher than usual, while dense forest, swamps, want of good drinking water, venomous insects, and fever seriously impeded the progress of Lieutenant Woodthorpe and Mr. Ogle’s work. Both these officers contributed some in- teresting descriptions of the country and of the manners and customs of the Singphos, Kamtis, Nagas, and other tribes met with. The next season (1877-78) saw Major Badgley again engaged in the revision of the survey work between Gauhati and Shillong, (which had been done under unfavourable circumstances, necessitating a re-examination of the ground), and also in triangulation in Sylhet, where the swampy and malarious character of the place, and the 76 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. cowardly and malignant behaviour of the inhabitants, whom Major Badgley found to be a particularly obnoxious and untrustworthy lot, proved awkward obstacles to progress. Lieutenant Woodthorpe was deputed with an assistant in the first instance to accompany Lieutenant Harman to the Miri hills, as already mentioned on page 52. On his return, Lieutenant Wood- thorpe proceeded to Sadiya, and without waiting for his Mishmi carriers, who had failed to put in an appearance, he ascended a range of hills rising about 9,000 feet high, and overlooking the main valley of the Dibong, and succeeded in acquiring the following :— (1) a fairly accurate knowledge of the sources of the Dibong, and the course of its main stream in the hills; (2) an accurate know- ledge of its course in the plains, and of about 1,000 square miles of the hills bordering it; and (8) an approximate knowledge of an additional 1,100 square miles in the hills. The Dikrang, Diphu, and Digaru rivers were also mapped. This party had been engaged for several years in surveying the hills south of the Brahmaputra river, the greater portion on the half-inch scale, when in 1878 Major Badgley was instructed to undertake a full topographical survey on the larger scale of two inches to the mile of all the land on the south of the Sylhet district left unsurveyed by the Revenue Survey, and afterwards to make a detailed survey of the boundaries of tea grants and estates. The want of accurate surveys was believed to be costing Government heavily in fraudulent zemindari claims. With the assistance of some surveyors lent from the Revenue Survey Branch this work was taken in hand. Much difficulty was experienced in triangulating, the stations being in most cases platforms supported by bamboo scaffolding round trees, the tops of which were cut off and the levelled stump used as a stand for the theodolite. Great care had to be taken not to touch the tree, as once set swaying 1t took some time to come to rest, and the wind for the same reason sometimes put a stop to observations. Major Badgley says of the Tipperahs that they are active fellows, and excellent hands at jungle cutting, but their fondness for burning the forests makes them undesirable cultivators. The Manipuris he describes as pleasant-spoken, independent, and good hands at a bargain, but in matters concerning land as often victimised by the Sylhetias, who are strong, cowardly, morose, and quite uncompromising in their hatred of Europeans. — TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. ih During 1879-SO and 1880-81 Major Badgley found it very difficult to get coolies, while work was further retarded by the dificult ground, consisting principally of hills, forest, and swamp. One of these swamps called Hakaluki Howhar is about 20 miles long by 9 miles broad during the rains. Major Badgley says that he had to cross it once during winter, and was up to his waist in water and weeds in it from eight o'clock in the morning till past 10 at night. In the following season the country under survey lay further to the west, about the lower spurs of the Tipperah hills, running northwards past the British boundary into the plains of South Sylhet, as well as the isolated groups of low hills lying between Fenchugunj and the Manu river. These tracts of country up to that time described on the maps as “hills covered with ** jmpenetrable jungle” were rapidly becoming very valuable, as they were being taken up and opened out for tea cultivation. Lieutenant- Colonel Woodthorpe, who was in charge of the party, remarks on the beauty of South Sylhet. The following graphic description from his penis worth quoting :— “ At four o’clock in the afternoon I am standing on a cleared hill just above a large tea garden. The air is beautifully soft and balmy, and looking to the east I see below me the gentle undulations and flat ground under tea cultivation, the rich dark green bushes standing out in bold contrast on the red-brown soil. Among the bushes the busy coolies are at work, the women adding brightness to the scene with their brilliantly coloured robes. In the midst of the cultivation on the banks of a clear stream, in a small, well-kept enclosure with a pretty tank, stands the manager’s bungalow, a large commodious house, with white-washed walls and lofty thatched roof, slightly hidden by tall plaintain trees. Rose bushes and other shrubs flourish in the garden, in which from my elevated standpoint I can see that the useful is not over- looked in the culture of the beautiful, as testified by a corner where many tempting- looking vegetables are growing. With the orange glow of the afternoon sun upon it, the bungalow, with its garden, looks, as indeed I find it, a very haven of rest, comfort, and hospitality. I hear voices behind the bungalow near some large, neat tea-houses, and, looking, I see an excellent tennis court, where an exciting contest is being carried on between the young planters of this and a neighbouring garden. Beyond, the view due south is closed by the virgin forest of dark trees and feathery bamboos, the greater portion of which will soon, by the enterprise of the planters and the extension of the tea gardens, disappear. To the south-west and west the eye wanders over the plains of South Sylhet, bounded on the south by the jungle-clad hills of Tipperah, purple now and indistinct. The flat green fields, above which, as the sun sinks, soft mist wreaths float, are broken up by frequent clumps of mighty bamboos or fine old banian trees, amid whose dark recesses a few glimpses of reddish roofs and the light blue smoke curling upwards denote the presence of villages. Beyond these to the west and north lie open expanses of what at this season is dry, or at the worst, only damp ground, but which a few of the March and April storms 78 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. will speedily convert into swamps, and even lakes. A thin dark line appearing here and there marks the course of a river, its waters now very low and hidden by the high banks, above which the masts of country boats and the smoke from the funnel of a steamer, just about to anchor for the night, are visible. Far away to the north beyond the plain, the trees, the villages, and the station of Sylhet itself, rises the long, level outline of the Khasia hills, faintly glowing in the sunset. A hum of voices ascends from the villages below, cows wend their way homewards through the deepening gloom, and as the sun sinks in the brown obscurity of the distant horizon, I shut up my theodolite, and running down the hillside, soon find myself at the bungalow, where a hearty welcome and an excellent dinner await me.” Colonel Woodthorpe takes occasion to record in his report the very great assistance and hospitality rendered to him and to his followers by the planters, who in several places are making good roads themselves, and so actively helping to open up the country. Mr. A. W. Chennell, an energetic and valued member of this party, died in Bombay Harbour on the 5th October 1883. The disease to which he succumbed had originated in an accident he met with during the previous season while traversing a stream in the Tipperah hills. He had always been mentioned in the highest terms by the officers under whom he served during the 19 years he had been in the Department, and he was one of the surveyors who were specially selected for service in Afghanistan during the late war. The season of 1883-84 was to have been occupied in the survey of the Noa Dihing valley and the hitherto unexplored portions of the Patkoi range on the extreme north-eastern frontier of Assam, but owing to the Aka raid on Balipur, the work was postponed, and the survey party, in accordance with the wishes of the Chief Commissioner of Assam, was ordered to accompany the military force which was sent into the hills to rescue British captives. The topographical results appear to have been meagre, as the military authorities did not permit Colonel Woodthorpe to visit much of the Aka country. He and Mr. Ogle subsequently explored some of the Daphla hills, discovering in the course of their work a branch of the Bhoroli named Kameng, of which large stream no one had ever heard. The weather was, however, exceptionally bad, and Colonel Woodthorpe considers that on the north bank of the Brahmaputra the higher ranges are seldom free from cloud and rain after November. ; The season 1884-85 was devoted to work on the extreme north- eastern frontier of Assam, where a knowledge of the mountainous region between the head of the Assam valley and the upper waters a. =. = TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 79 of the Irawadi is even now (1891) very important, as the esta- blishment of a direct means of communication between the two countries will be a great administrative and commercial gain, and help towards opening up this part of Upper Burma. No. 6 survey party. consisting of Colonel Woodthorpe, Mr. Ogle, and Mr. Ewing, with an escort of the 44th Gurkha Light Infantry, and some Frontier Police under the command of Major C. R. Macgregor, explored this tract in 1884-85, ascending the Noa Dihing river from Sudiya, and crossed the Chankau pass (8,400 feet) over the dividing range. From an adjoining mountain, Mokoshat, the Brahmaputra and Irawadi rivers can both be descried on a clear day. The inhabitants of this part of the Upper Irawadi are Kamtis or Shans, and Buddhists by religion; Major Macgregor believes them to be of Siamese stock. The reception they gave the English was friendly, and they appeared to be particularly honest. The furthest points reached by the surveyors were Langdao and Padao (the capital) on the M’Li-kha river (one of the affluents of the Irawadi), a little south of Lieutenant Wilcox’s furthest, after which the party returned and crossed the mountains at an altitude of 5,500 feet into the head waters of the Kyendwen, re-crossing eventually by the Patkoi pass (2,860 feet) into Assam.* Part of the region to the south-west, intermediate between the Naga hills and the Hukong valley, was explored in 1888 by an expedition under Mr. J. F. Needham, Assistant Political Officer at Sadiya, Mr. Ogle being again attached thereto as surveyor. The starting point was Margherita, the terminus of the Assam Railway, which was left on the 4th January, and to which the expedition returned on the 28th February, having failed to reach their objective point in the Hukong valley owing to difficulties in obtaining carriage, the lateness of the season, and other causes, but having demonstrated the practicability of reaching the Hukong valley by two routes, viz., lst, by the Nongyong lake, and 2nd, by the Naga hills route, which goes through the mountains south of Margherita. The pass over the Patkoi on the outward journey was found to be 4.147 feet, while that on the return was 7,192 feet above sea-level. About 1,500 square miles of entirely new country lying south of the Patkoi range (up to which the surveys of 1873-74 had been carried) was surveyed by Mr. Ogle, who hag established a reputation * See also Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society for 1885, pp. 541 and 751, 80 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. by his successful work in these regions, and the new work was connected with that done further eastward in 1884-85. The Nagas met with south of the Patkoi have some cruel characteristics, and are addicted to human sacrifices; but they nevertheless were friendly disposed towards our troops, and gave useful assistance in various ways. This piece of exploration was the last accomplished by No. 6 party, which was finally dissolved on the 16th July 1885. A retrospect of its history since its formation in 1863 is given by Mr. Ogle at page viii of the Appendix to the Report of the Surveyor- General for 1884-85. The important survey of Sikkim which was carried out by Lieut. Harman after completion of his work im Northern Assam is described at pages 126 and 127, infra. Rajputana and Simla—This party (No. 7) was divided in two detachments in 1876-77, Lieutenant HE. P. Leach, R.E., bemg engaged on an elaborately contoured survey of the Observatory hill, Simla, and Mr. R. Todd in prosecuting the detail survey in the desert portions of the Marwar (Jodhpur), Shekawati, and Bikanir States in Rajputana,as well as a large scale survey of the city and environs of Jodhpur and 50 linear miles of forest reserve boundaries in Ajmere and Merwara. On the return of the party to recess quarters the triangulation for the survey of the approaches to Simla and of the several military cantonments between Simla and the plains was taken in hand and carried over 120 miles. Owing to the failure next year of the rains in Central and Southern India, it was not feasible to send more than a small portion of the Rajputana party to that province, so the remainder were employed in the neighbourhood of Simla, where a total area of 104 square mijes of roads and adjacent strips of country was surveyed on the 6-inch scale, together with plans of Subathu and Kasauli cantonments. The system of topography employed by Colonel De Prée for the hills in these surveys was the same as employed by Lieutenant E. P. Leach in the previous season, 1.¢., a combination of contour lines, sketched by eye, with other contour lines which had been accurately determined by water level, care- fully followed in succession by the topographers and accurately delineated on the plane-table. Thus on the 6-inch maps the true TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. Sl contour lines represent vertical intervals of 250 feet between which were drawn nine eye contours at about 25 feet apart, while in the cantonment maps on the 24-inch scale the true contour lines ran at vertical intervals of 50 feet between which there were four eye contours. This method of contouring proved valuable, enabling, as it did, native surveyors with no aptitude for hill sketching to produce accurate maps of difficult hill country, and reducing the delineation thereof to a comparatively mechanical operation. Operations in 1878-79 were resumed in the Bikanir desert, where the ground was characterised by the regular sand waves formed by the prevalent south-west wind, and a general paucity of vegetation. The country, however, may be said to be culturable, for it only requires for the sand to be scratched up, seed to be sown, and the rainfall does the rest. Jt is said that when the rain- fall has been good and the locusts do not destroy the standing crops one year's harvest will feed the peopie for three years. By December the crops are all off the ground, and after that, till the next rains, the Bikanir cultivators remain idle in their houses. The ground traversed during the following season was of the same rather uninteresting description, being varied only by the salt works at Sar and the sandstone quarries at Khari. In the former a coarse salt is produced by solar evaporation, and in the latter a stone of good colour and of compact texture, of which the stratum is horizontal and close to the surface. During the following year, as the work moved gradually to the north and west, the country became even more desert-like than before; but in the Jodhpur State a welcome change ensued, the usual rolling sand hills and ridges of the desert being replaced by extensive plains composed of sandy clay, all more or less fertile, varied by clumps of rocky hills. ‘he wells in this part of the country are of great depth, one measured by Mr. McGill, who was in charge of the party in 1881-82, being 480 feet deep, and the average depth being 270 feet. At the close of the season the Rajputana party was transferred to Burma and merged into the Burma Topographical party, the Rajputana work being handed over to No. 1 topographical party, as mentioned above (see page 70). Mysore.—The important survey of the Native State of Mysore* had been commenced in 1874-75, and good progress had been made during * See Memoirs on the Indian Surveys, 2nd ed., p. 175. x Y 20321. F 82 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. the season. But in 1876-77 a serious famine overspread the greater part of Madras, and survey work in Mysore had con- sequently to be restricted to those tracts in the Nandidrug and Nagar divisions where it was easier to obtain water, provisions, and forage. This seriously lessened the out-turn of work of the two parties (Nos. 8 and 9), and at the close of the season, as so many members of these parties had been necessarily deputed to famine relief duties, it was deemed better to amalgamate the remaining survey officers into one party under Major H. R. Thuillier, R.E. (now Sur- veyor-General of India). On taking the field next year the prospects were better than could have been expected, considering the disasters to which the province had been subjected. The tanks were well filled, pasturage was abundant, and but for the deserted look of the villages a stranger could not have imagined that famine and drought had so lately been devastating the country. Nevertheless the season was particularly unhealthy. Fever of a virulent type broke out early in the field season in many parts, and all the European members of the party, except the officer in charge, were laid up, while the meniai establishment, without a single exception, suffered more or less. During 1878-79 seven surveyors, assistants, and sub-surveyors rejoimed the party after being temporarily employed on famine relief duties, so that it became practicable to split the party again into two detachments. One of these detachments yas engaged in triangulating the western part of the State, pre- paratory to a detail survey of the tracts between Mysore and South Kanara, so as to aid in the settlement of the long-debated frontier survey, while the other detachment was occupied in the detail survey of part of the Nandidrug division. In the Malnad, as the country over which the triangulation extended is called, the principal feature is the Western Ghats, rising to a height of over 6,000 feet, covered for the most part with magnificent virgin forest, and forming the source of numerous rivers. The western face of this range is extremely precipitous, so as to be nearly inaccessible from that side, but from the eastern face numerous spurs branch out in all direc- tions, and form more or less continuous chains of hills, which with innumerable undulations overspread the greater part of the State. The Malnad is essentially the country of rain and fog, and two or three months immediately after the monsoon season it is looked upon as most unhealthy for these not acclimatised to it. Its staple products are coffee, betel-nut, cardamoms, and pepper, and the trade is mainly effected by means of pack-cattle, locomotion being TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 83 difficult except along the roads, which are few aud far between. Great efforts were made to complete the mapping of the Mysore- Kanara frontier during the following season (1879-80), but fever and sickness attacked the party, and at the close of the season two small gaps, aggregating about 25 miles in length, were unavoidably left. Owing to the difficulty of the country the ordinary method of working with the plane-table was in many cases utterly imprac- ticable, and resort was had to special methods, particularly that known as plane-table traversing, in which the plane-table supphes the place of an angular instrument and the measurements are made by chain, a process slow at all times, but especially so when the chain lines, as in this case, had to be cleared through dense forest. The same procedure had to be adopted in 1880-81 in the survey of the western part of the province. The Assistant Superintendent, Captain J. R. McCullagh, R.E., accompanied the Boundary Commis- sicners in their work of demarcation, and inserted on the maps the position of the various marks erected by them. The general work of the party was much impeded by fever, from which all its members suffered more or less; one valued officer, Mr. R. Chew, Senior Surveyor, succumbed to a severe form of malarious fever contracted in the Bhadra valley. He had been 25 years in the Department, and had gained high commendation for his professional skill and steady attention to his duties. A large out-turn of topographical work was rendered in 1881-82, this being due partly to the fact that so much triangulation had been accomplished in previous years that sufficient ground had been thereby prepared for the season’s detail survey, and partly to the good health enjoyed by the party. Asin former years, part of the work Jay in the Malnad, where progress was necessarily slow, and part in the easier and more open Maidan country. The former part of the survey lay on the extreme western edge of the province, and included the famous Falls of Gersoppa, which are said to be the most picturesque falls in India. The Sheravati flowing over a very rocky bed about 250 yards wide here reaches a tremendous chasm 960 feet in depth, down which it is precipitated in four striking cascades. The Falls are graphically described in the ‘‘ Mysore Gazetteer.’’* During the seasons 1883-84 and 1884-85 the mapping of Mysore was steadily pushed forward under Major Thuillier. In the latter “5 ; * Volume II., pages 386-390. F 2 84 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. year the country was exceptionally difficult, fully half of the area censisting of interminable forest and jungle, very sparsely populated even when villages existed at all. The most ordinary supplies (in- cluding water) were obtained only with great difficulty ; the heat was intense, severe and continuous physical exertion had to be maintained, the detachments were constantly molested by wild elephants and other beasts, and the unhealthy season prostrated several members of the party and a large number of the menial establishment. The entire survey was finally completed by Major McCullagh, R.E., in the middie of April 1886, and the whole of the records brought to a satis- factory termination by the lst of October the same year. The area of the Mysore State proved to be 29,305 square miles, which was over 2,000 square miles in excess of the estimated area. A strip of the country was also surveyed outside and all round the state boundary. The Mysore Survey was based on portions of the three principal series of triangles known as the “Great Arc Meridional,” the ‘Mangalore Meridional,’ and the ‘Madras Longitudinal.” At the time of its commencement, in addition to the strictly topographical work on the scale of one inch to one mile, special surveys on a large scale of the various State forests within the province were contemplated, but after three of these forests, viz., Bilikal, Nandidrug, and Dwarayadurga had been completed, it was decided that no more should be undertaken. The mapping of the state is contained in 70 standard sheets, 4 sheets of Reserved Forest Surveys, and 19 sheets of Cantonments and City Surveys, chief among which were the surveys of Bangalore and Mysore towns. The survey was originally commenced in November 1875, and thus took 11 years to complete. The cost was entirely borne by the revenues of the State of Mysore. On the conclusion of the Mysore Survey the party was transferred to the Madura and Tinnevelli districts of the Madras Presidency, it having been arranged between the Governments of India and Madras that the topographical work remaining to be done in the Presidency, aggregating about 12,400 square miles, should be surveyed on the l-inch and the forests on the 4-inch scale by the professional Survey Department instead of by the Madras Revenue authorities. The adjoining Native States of Travancore and Cochin were also to be surveyed on the 1-inch scale, the old maps of the mountainous tracts of these States being very deficient. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 85 The area plane-tabled during the season 1886-87 consisted of a block of hills from four to eight thousand feet in height, including the south-west corner of the Palnis and parts of Madura and Travancore. It is for the most part bare and exceedingly rugged, some of the precipices being tremendous, so that a body falling therefrom with a slight impetus would touch nothing for a quarter of a mile. The following season (1887-88) was exceptionally unhealthy, hardly a man escaped illness, and there were 12 deaths out of a comparatively small establishment. The operations of the triangulation included the locale of the Periyar project, an important and bold undertaking, which has greatly changed the character of the country, once the home of sambhar and of herds of wild elephants, but now swarming with troops of dusky coolies busied in excavating or raising embankments. The project consisis in building a gigantic concrete dam, 160 feet high, across the Periyar river and cutting a tunnel 2,000 yards long, through which the imprisoned water will flow into the channel of a small stream that rushes down the face of the Ghat into thousands of thirsty acres in ithe Cumbum valley. The cost amounts to about 70 lakhs of rupees.* During 1888-89 and 1889-90, the party were engaged exclusively on forest surveys in the Salem, Madura, and Tinnevelli districts, a class of work of increasing importance, which is already absorbing four parties in the Central Provinces, Bombay and Madras Presi- dencies, as well as a detachment in Orissa. Kathiawar and Cutch.—The topographical survey of Kathiawar described at page 134 0f the ‘‘ Memoir” was brought to a conclusion by Major A. Pullan in 1879-80. It is an elaborate and important piece of work, surveyed on the 2-inch for reduction to the 1-inch scale, and consisting of 61 sheets. On its completion the operations of the party were extended into Cutch, and in 1880-81] the Great Rann or Runn was surveyed on the $-inch scale. This remarkable tract, marked so conspicuously on the maps, consists of sandy waste and salt beds separating Cutch from the province of Sind, During the south-west monsoon the Rann is a shallow inland sea, but during the cold and beginning of the hot season a few roads cross it; at first oozy salt slime and water overlies it in patches, but as the * The general appearance and character of the country are capitally aud picturesquely described by Mr. R. W. Senior, p. iv. of “Survey Report for 1887-88.” 86 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. warm weather approaches the hot winds blaze across the Rann like the blast of a furnace, clouds of dust render it impossible to advance, and travelling ‘is safe only at night, the whole length of the road being marked out by the bones of the cattle and camels which have died from exhaustion en route ; a heavy fall of rain closes the road for days. and camels caught therein have but little chance of escape. Before 1819 the river passing through the Rann was crowded with boats carrying the produce of Sind down to Lakpat, but in that year an earthquake closed the river and destroyed several villages.* During the following seasons the Cutch survey was continued by Colonel Pullan. On one occasion while out surveying he was attacked by a panther and a good deal mauled about; these brutes, together with lions, haunt the Gir mountains of Kathiawar, and the former are said to be not unfrequent in Cutch. The survey was finally brought to a conclusion by Colonel Pullan in 1886. Gujrat.—The Gujrat survey was organized for the purpose of dealing with a large strip of country extending along the western confines of the Bombay Presidency from the Rann of Cutch in the north to Nasik in the south. From the first Colonel Walker devoted his hest efforts to utilize the mapping work of the Bombay Revenue surveyors who had already gone over all the cultivated tracts for settlement purposes. But the combination of the two surveys proved a difficult task; so during the rainy season in 1875 a conference was held at Poona with the view of settling (1) the scale on which the new Topographical Survey maps should be drawn, and (ii) the extent to which the older Bombay Revenue Survey maps could be incorporated and utilised. The Committee were also particularly asked to consider whether the 4-inch scale adopted by Major Haig in Gujrat, or the 2-inch scale adopted by Major Tanner and Captain Samuells in the Deccan and Nasik was preferable. Colonel W.C. Anderson was president, and the other members were Lieut.-Cclonel Taverner, Lieut.-Colonel Macdonald, Major Tanner, Captain Samuells, Major Haig, Major-General Bell, and Colonel Merriman. The last two were engineers, all the others were Survey officers. * Sir Bartle Frere wrote an interesting paper on the Rann of Cutch for the Royal Geographical Society. Sce R. G. S. Journal, xl, p. 181. Mr. W. T. Blanford also discussed the former existence of a sea covering the Rann, Journal Asiatic Soc., Beng., xlv., p. ii,, 1876, TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 87 Unfortunately, the Conference did not agree upon a report; no reply was given to the first question put, and great differences of opinion were manifested in regard to the best scale to be adopted. The Government of India, being thus inops consilii, fell in with the middle course suggested by the Bombay Government ; they decided that the 2-inch scale should be prescribed for the Topo- eraphical surveys, and that the Bombay revenue sheets should be utilised wherever they could be used with advantage. At the same time. the Bombay officers were directed to supply in future such additional topographical details as might be required.* The Topographical party in 1876-77 was under the care of Colonel C. T. Haig, who in March made over the charge to Lieutenant J. EH. Gibbs, R.E. A good amount of topographical work was turned out, the greater portion being in the Native State of Baroda, which occupies a central position in the area allotted to the survey. Lieutenant Gibbs was, however, attacked with cholera on the resumption of the field work, and unfortunately died on the 21st November 1877. Though quite young he was one of the most promising officers of the Department, his abilities were of no mean order, and his descriptions of the Dangs} and other localities surveyed by him showed considerable power of observation. The native establishment of the survey also suffered a good deal in health from the effects of the famine. Lieutenant, Gibbs was succeeded by Lieutenant St. G. C. Gore, who was transferred from the neighbouring Bhopal and Maiwa survey, and who surveyed €8 square miles of the Dangs Forest tract on the 4-inch scale. The maps of British territory published on the 2-inch scale included, in addition to the details of the ordinary l-inch scale maps, minor roads, and com- munications, and so many of the field boundary, triple junctions, and other points on the village maps drawn up by the Bombay Revenue Survey that would facilitate the further incorporation of all the details of those maps, if required for the purposes of any new road, canal, or other engineering work. For this work the Bombay Government supplied a special auxiliary agency, consisting of an assistant superintendent from the Bombay Revenue Survey and a native establishment, at a cost of Rs. 500 per mensem. The same Government also contributed Rs. 30,000 towards the extra cost of * Letters from A. O. Hume, C.B., Secretary to the Government of India, Nos. 134 and 136, dated 9th February 1876. { In the Appendices to the G. T. S. Reports for 1873-74 and 1874-75, pp. 32a and 36a, respectively. 88 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. the Dangs survey, this being divided into four annual instalments, and the Baroda Government contributed Rs. 5,500 per annum towards the expenses of surveying their State, on the condition of 550 square miles per annum being surveyed until completion of the whole. In April 1881 Colonel Haig, who had had charge of the party for some years, was deputed to the Geographical Congress at Venice.” and the command devolved first on Captain Hobday and then on Lieutenant-Colonel Leach, V.C., R.H. The survey in the Dangs Forest, which in previous years had been found to be attended with much malarious fever, had by this time reached a more open country, and it was thought the field work might be safely com- menced early in the season; unfortunately the ground is then covered with high dense grass, and all the surveyors, European and native, with a single exception fell ill, thus the experiment failed and the season’s out-turn of work fell below what had been expected. During the same year (1880-81) Mr. Le Mesurier and the native establishment of the Bombay Revenue and Settlement Department were re-transferred to their own department after having been attached to the Gujrat Survey for eight years, during which time they had done good service in map-drawing and incorporating the details from the Bombay Revenue Survey maps into those of the professional survey party. In 1881-82 the plane- table work included the northern part of the Baroda State which is watered by the Saraswati river, and to which much historic interest attaches. Patan, one of the chief towns in that locality, is built on part of the site of Anhilwada, the old capital of Gujrat before Ahmadabad was built. Anhilwada is said to have been i8 miles m circumference, and the heaps of old ruins to be found for miles round Patan seem to corroborate the statement. Patan and Sidhpur are both situated on the Saraswati river, which is venerated as a goddess, and the latter town (Sidhpur) is a noted place of pilgrimage, the remains of the Rudra Mala Temple of Shiva being an object of considerable archeological interest. Another remarkable feature of the season’s survey was the hot sulphur spring of Unai on the boundary between the Baroda and Bansda States, into which at certain seasons crowds of people rush and bathe without cessation for two or three daystogether. The water as tested by Colonel Haig was of the temperature of 138° Fahrenheit, but this is probably * 'Two medals were awarded at this Congress to meritorious Indian native explorers, one being assigned to M 5 (see page 142) and the other to A-—- K—— (p. 156). TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS, 89 lowered by the continuous stream of human bathers, who are further encouraged and fortified by doses of intoxicating bhang. The survey of the Dangs forests was completed in 1882-83, and a survey of the Panch Mahals, incorporating the fiscal details of the Revenue Survey village maps and including forest boundaries, on the 4-inch scale was commenced in the same year. Colonel Haig caused a special survey to be made (so far as the scale permitted) of the hill of Pawagarh, which with the remains of the old city of Champaner atits base, forms an object of considerable historical and archeological interest, and of which no previous map existed. It abounds with old Jain temples, more recent Muhammadan fortifications, mosques, buildings, and tanks, and still more recent Hindu temples. Colonel Badgley took charge of the survey in 1884-85, and the work during that season consisted practically of nothing but 2-inch scale work. Late rains increased the natural unhealthiness of the country, so that nearly one-fifth of the working season was lost through sickness. The detail survey of Baroda city was finished in 1885-86, and an exceptionally large area of topography was covered during the same season, much of the ground consisting of open plain. The operations were in charge of Mr. J. Newland during the greater part of the time, owing to the paucity of available officers of the senior division. In the next season the party was divided into two sections, one proceeding to Surat and Palanpur to carry on the topographical survey of Gujrat on the 2-inch scale, and the second to Kalyan taluka to commence surveys on the 8-inch scale of the Forest Reserves in the Thana district which had been requested by the Bombay Government. The surveyors employed on this work suffered much from fever, which is specially prevalent in those tracts between November and January (both months inclusive). In 1887-88 the 2-inch scale work lay within two of the northernmost sheets of the area of the survey close to the limit of the Gwalior and Central India Survey, one of which sheets includes the cave temple of Menaknath, which lies embedded in the side of a hill seven miles south-east of Danta. It is said to be capable of accommodating 2,000 persons, and is a sacred place of pilgrimage for Hindus. A large scale survey of Disa cantonment and environs was also completed. In consequence of the Bombay Government having proposed the organization of a special Forest Survey Branch for the future conduct of forest surveys in that presidency, a conference was held at Poona 90 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. in July 1888, at which the Secretary to the Government of India in the Revenue and Agricultural Department, the Surveyor-General, and the Deputy Surveyor-General attended and discussed the matter. A general scheme was arranged, the following being the principal points :— (1.) One party of the topographical survey of India to be placed fully equipped and manned at the disposal of the Bombay Government for the purposes of forest surveys in that presidency, to be utilised in such manner as that Govern- ment may think fit. (2.) The cost of the party to be debited to forests, by which half the cost will be borne by imperial and half by provincial revenues. (3.) The normal scale for the Forest Survey maps to be four inches to the mile instead of eight inches. (4.) The officer in charge of the party to be under the control and supervision of the Survey and Settlement Commissioners, supervision over his work being also maintained by the Surveyor-General of India. These conditions haying been accepted by the Government of India, the Gujrat party with slight modifications as to personnel (the topographical section having been withdrawn and the forest section from No. 10 party added) was placed at the disposal cf the Bombay authorities, and the programme for 1888-89 arranged by that Government. The work of the northern circle lay principally on the ridges and spurs of the Ghats, on the low hills of the Konkans, and on the plateaux of the Northern Ghats, while the forests of the southern circle, from the dense nature of the under- growth, were most tedious and unhealthy to map out. The area remaining for topographical survey in Gujrat, Rajputana, and the Southern Maratha country was entrusted to the old party, which also worked: in two sections under Colonel Hutchinson. Part of the frontier of the Nizam’s dominions was mapped, durmg which an assault was made on the surveyors by some villagers, who mistook them for excise officials. The ringleaders were sentenced to two years’ imprisonment and a fine of Rs. 1,000 each. The survey and settlement of a large tract of disputed country between Mewar and Marwar were also undertaken. Kohat —On tke withdrawal of the British forces from Northern Afghauistan in 1880 it was arranged that some of the survey officers TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 91 who had returned to India should be employed in making a standard topographical survey of the Kohat district, to supersede the prelimti- nary reconnaissance survey which had been made in 1849-51 imme- diately after the annexation of the Punjab, and to complete the gaps remaining to be filled in on the frontier line up to the recent surveys in the Kuram valley and other contiguous portions of Afghanistan. The time was limited, but some useful work was done. Mr. McNair was deputed early in the season 1880-81 to effect amore satisfactory junction than had been possible during the progress of the military operations between Major Woodthorpe’s triangulation in the Kuram valley and the old Kohat secondary triangles, fixed thirty years ago. He also undertook the topography of the Miranzai valley, through which the highway from Kohat to Kabul, by way of the Kuram valley, passes, and of which a good map was much required by the local officials. Major Holdich joined the party about the middle of February, but soon after his services were needed with the force under Brigadier-General Gordon, U.B., which proceeded from Bannu to operate against the Mahsud Waziris. An area of 2,000 square miles was covered by the Kohat triangulation, and 398 square miles were topographically surveyed on the 1-inch scale in the Miranzai valley, besides rough reconnaissances in the Urakzai, Tirah, and Bam valleys. A native explorer made a reconnaissance of the Zhob valley, and afterwards did good service with the Waziri expedition. During the recess the party were engaged in making a standard topographical survey of the Kohat district on the l-inch scale, and also on the final mapping of the surveys in Northern Afghanistan. The Kohat field work was continued by Major Holdich and Mr. McNair in 1881-82. The latter officer also succeeded in making friends with one of the Waziri chiefs, and was taken under tribal protection to make a reconnaissance of the tract of independent territory lymg east of the Kuram river and immediately north of Bannu, which is inhabited by the Daresh Khel Waziris, and embraces the well-known range of hills culminating in the Kafir Kot, which Mr. McNair is the first Hurcpean to have visited. The general aspect of the country is wild, and there is very little cultivation. In winter and spring as many as 6,000 fighting men are estimated to occupy the hills, but during the hot months scarcely 500 remain behind. The reputation of these gentry as highwaymen is great, and they are a source of considerable anxiety to the Deputy 92 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. Commissioners of Kohat and Bannu; they are, however, men of splendid physique, inured to all weathers and of great endurance, and it isa great pity that they do not accept employment under our Government. Mr. Claudius surveyed a small area of ground, including Kohat itself, and the hill sanitarium of Mirkhwaili. He states that the whole of Tirah is well supplied with Sniders, and a number of men carry good Martini rifles. They boast that these weapons are plunder, secured during the recent campaigns in the Khaibar and Kuram routes. For the Sniders they have such an abundance of ammunition that cartridges are actually bought from Tirah by our men cheaper than in India. The manufacture of cartridges for the Martinis is even said to have been commenced by them with success. The survey was finally brought to a conclusion in 1882-83, and a large scale plan of Kohat city and cantonment was completed the same year. The efforts made to reconnoitre the adjacent frontier under the protection of the tribes proved very successful, and thanks in great measure to the interest taken in the work by Major Holdich, the results were to supply reliable maps of the whole strip of territory extending from the Kabul river on the north to the Gumal on the south, the only exception being a small tract of country near the Gumal pass. With the assistance of No. 5 Topo- graphical and No. 3 Revenue parties, Major Holdich was enabled during the recess to complete for publication the whole nine standard sheets of the survey of the Kohat district. The work being completed, the party was broken up, and Major Holdich with most of his assistants were transferred to the Baluchistan Survey. Baluchistan.—In September 1879 Major R. Beavan was directed to proceed from Kandahar to Quetta to survey the country between and around Quetta and Sibi. On arrival at Quetta, finding that an expe- dition was about to start to explore the route to Sibi, via the Hanna or Hamra pass, he accompanied them, arriving at Sibi on the 12th January 1880, just in time to see the opening of this part of the railway and the arrival of the first railway train. He subse- quently visited Khost in the Dargi valley, and then ‘Tal, from which place he subsequently accompanied military expeditions towards Chotiali and to Baghao and Smalan on the north-east. Major Beavan’s reconnaissance ou the +-inch scale covered about 2,500 square miles, and extended from Quetta to Tal, Chotiali, and TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 93 down to Sibi. It proved of great use afterwards to the engineers employed in laying out the new line of railway. Some valuable survey work around Sibi, Mitri, and Dadur, was done by Messrs. Coxen and Corkery, assistant surveyors, who showed great tact in dealing with the Pathan and Baluchi inhabitants of the country. The obstacies in the way of survey work in Baluchistan were altogether exceptionally great. The local means of carriage were monopolised for the service of the troops, and the camel owners realised such enormous profits by carrying Government stores at so much a maund that they refused to take service by the month. Dust storms and haze were very persistent at times and prevented any satisfactory observations from being taken, water was often terribly scarce or almost unfit to drink, and as a natural result of bad water and an unequable climate, sickness was rife among both Huropeans and natives. Another great drawback in Baluchistan is the extremes of temperature experienced. From March to November the low country is intensely hot, and from November to March the highlands between Quetta and Khelat are intensely cold, while during June, July, and August thick haze prevails. By an order of the 12th July 1880 the party under Major Beavan’s orders was organized as a regular party for the survey of Southern Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the adjacent country under the designation of the “ Baluchistan Topographical party.” During October, November, and December 1880 Major Beavan accompanied the expedition into the Marri country, but the unsettled state of the country rendered it impossible to leave the line of march in order to ascend any commanding heights. A. survey of the actual line of route with bearings and paces was taken by Captain W. Gill, R.E. The work of Major Beavan’s party was described by him as a geographical reconnaissance on the +-inch scale of Sewestan and the Marri hills, and a more elaborate survey on the 43-inch scale of the territories subject to the Khan of Khelat. In a geographical point of view Major Beayan applies the name Sewestan to the district drained by the Nari river and its affluents, one of rugged broken ranges of hills running mostly east and west. Huge cracks or crevices have been formed across the line of hills, and through these the drainage of the country makes its way, presenting the enomalous condition of parallel valleys with rivers running at right angles to them. In many parts the sandstone rocks lie broken and 94 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. mixed up in magnificent confusion, lending an appearance of truth to the old legend that after the creation of the world the spare rubbish was shot down here. Major Beavan says it is impossible to give on the map an adequate idea of such a country. During the winter of 1881-82 the survey of the country lying between Quetta and Khelat was continued, the season’s work com- prising more especially that part adjacent to the Bolan and Rodbar passes. Major Beavan himself accompanied a military expedition under Brigadier-General H. C. Wilkinson to open out the routes between ‘'al-Chotiali and Dera Ghazi Khan. In addition to making a plane-table reconnaissance of the previously unsurveyed portions of the route which lay via Mandai, Tal, and Chamalang, Major Beavan took observations for the purpose of completing the Sewestan triangulation, and subsequently, accompanied by Mr. Corkery, and under the protection of an escort of Marris, made some useful additions to the survey of that country. In the following season the work mainly consisted of triangula- t'on, originating from stations of the Great Indus Series and carried over the Suliman range, the Khetran country, and a portion of the Marri hills, and closing on to the triangulation previously executed. A series of triangles was also commenced over the hill country between Khelat and the Kach Gandaya plain. The season’s topo- graphy was carried on in the hilly country east of Khelat during the autumn and again in the spring months, and during the cold months in the low country at the foot of the hills and also in the lower hills north of Sibi. In all an area of 1,844 square miles was finally mapped. Se AG Eb hisq-, | B.Sc., E.R. Met. | | Soc. | W.L. Dallas, Esq. - | A. Esq. S. Hutchinson, | Miss Isis Pogson, F.R. Met. Soc. | Dr. G. C. Chesnaye -) | Dr. J. Richardson | Dr. J. G. Pilcher - Dr. C. Little - = Dr. D. Sinclair = Office. Meteorological Reporter to the Government of India. First Assistant Meteorological | Reporter to the Government of India. Second Assistaut Meteorological Reporter to the Government of India. Personal Assistant, the Meteoro- logical Reporter to the Govern- ment of India. | Meteorological Reporter to the Government of Bengal. Meteorological Reporter to the Government of the North- Western Provinces and Oudh. Meteorological Reporter to the Government cf the Punjab. Metecrological Reporter for Western India. | Meteorological Reporter to the Government of Madras. Sanitary Commissioners, Central Provinces. Sanitary Commissioner, Berar Sanitary Commissioner, Burma — - | { | lower Office. | J Bengal and Assam. North-Western Pro- vinees, Oudh, Raj- putana, and Central India (part). Punjab. Bombay, Berar, Raj- putana, and Central . India (part). | Madras, Mysore, | Coorg, and Haidar- | abad. Central Provinces. - | Berar. | Burma, 312 INDIAN METEOROLOGY. CoLABA AND MapraAs OBSERVATORIES. The Government Observatory at Colaba is under the direction of Mr. Charles Chambers, F.R.S. It is devoted principally to the record and publication of facts and the prosecution of inquiry in terrestrial magnetism and meteorology, to astronomical observation for the purpose of time-keeping, and to the signalling of time for purposes of navigation. The results of the observations are pub- lished annually in the form of a quarto volume. The autographic instruments, which are maintained in continuous action, are the following :—l. Declination magnetograph. 2. Horizontal force magnetograph. 3. Vertical force magnetograph. 4. Barograph. 5. Thermograph, dry-bulb and wet-bulb. 6. ea 7. Anemograph, direction and velocity. The harbour clock and time-ball are worked by alsoinio: current from the Observatory, which is also charged with the custody of a store of Indian Government and Admiralty chronometers. Chrono- meters of merchant ships are also received for rating. There-ig also an astronomical observatory at Madras, until lately under the direction of Mr. N. R. Pogson, C.I.E., who held the post of Government Astronomer from 1860 until his death on June 23rd, 1891. This observatory gives uniform time to the greater part of India for railway and other purposes, and its lougitude* is the fixed point of the departure of the Trigonometrical Survey of India. From the period of his takmg charge up to 1885, Mr. Pogson discovered the following six minor planets between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter :-— Name. Date of Discovery. Period of Revolution. Y. M. D. Asia - - 1861, April 17 2) 3) 4) Freia - - 1864, February2 - 6 3 23 Sappho - - 1864, May 3 - 3 5 22 Sylvia - - 1866, May 16 =) (6) <6) 20) Camilla - 1868, November17 6 6 7 Vera - - 1885, February 6 - 5 4 24 Asia was so named on account of its being the first astronomical discovery made in that quarter of the globe. Freia was first dis- covered by Professor D’Arrest, at Copenhagen, 1862, October BAS: * Its latest determination of Elonpinde, as mentioned on page 213, is $0? 1 14’ 50°03” E. of Greenwich, INDIAN METEOROLOGY. 313 but was lost owing to insufficient observations having been secured to render the calculation of its orbit definite. It was re-discovered independently at Madras. 215) 0) Bars, standard - - - - = - ly OO) Barometers, aneroid - - - S = = 498 3 11 Barometers, mercurial - - - = 2 693e I ienO Barographs, repaired - - - - - = 6) SO Batteries, voltaic, various - - - - - SNS 3. Al Bells, alarum = : - - - = 3 “NO. 12 -@ Binoculars, various - - = = = 512 10 10 Boards, drawing - = - - - - - 1410 0 Boards, sketching - - : - - 45 0 0 Bubble tester - - - - ss - - 20 0 0 Cabinets, chemical - = = © - 858 0 O Cables, electric, various - - - - = - 2,261 19 2 Calliper’s micrometer = - - - - 18 0 0 Cards for compasses, various = - - - = 8) WG Carbon plates - - - - - - 514 11 O Cases, sketching = - - - = - - - 6415 0 380 Cathetometers - - Chartometer - = : x Chains, measuring . a Chronometers = - : z Chronomicrometers - - Chronographs - - : Z Clocks = : < Collimators - - = - . Comparing apparatus for standard measures Combination boxes - - = 2 Compasses, drawing, various - Compasses, magnetic Compasses, prismatic - - Compass, liquid - - - 2 Compass, subtense : Clinometers - = = 2 Core for telegraph cables - - Cross staves - Sp : : Curve ranger - - = Curves, various - = - Carbons for Jablochkoff lamps - Dioptric lights for lighthouses and ports Dip needles - - : Dynamo machines - p s Dynamo exploders - : = Dynamometers - - = Educational apparatus, Riggs’ Electric bells - = = Electrometers - - 2 = Electro-magnetic and galvanic machines Engine counters < - - Exploders - - : Eye pieces for theodolites and levels Fault finder, telegraphic - : Field cable, Siemens’ - = Galvanometers, various” - : Gauges, pressure and vacuum Gauging instruments - Gauges, standard) - - Glass spirit bubbles - Glasses for heliotropes - Glasses, object - - Giasses, tracing - = - - Glasses, reading Globes - - Goniometers = - < = | | | | { | £ 58 2 a Al 224 108 122 135 100 eoornuo”? 1 OS SC Cork: —_—— Sous _ oxcoc a Cc 18 0) 0) oo Oc og oS = OPAOGSCaAconece 381 Description of Instrument. Heliographs = Heliostat. with block Hydrometers, various Hygrometers - Hypsometers - Indicators, Richard’s steam engine - Ink writers, telegraphic - = - Instruments, mathematical drawing, in cases _ Instruments, vibrating call signal - - - Instrument, telegraph, double and single current Insulators, various - Insulating stand - Integrators - - Keys, telegraphic Keys, firing - Keys, reversing, Thomson’s - Lactometers - - Lamps, referring, &e. Lamps, miners’ surveying - - - Lamps, electric incandescent - Lathes - - Lenses for eye-pieces Lens, rapid rectilinear photographic - Levels, astronomical Levelling instruments, reversible —- - Levels, reflecting Levels, spirit block - Levels, striding - Machine, drilling - Magnets for relays Magneto-inductor bridge —- - 2 Meters, air - Microscopes, various Mirrors for sextants Mirrors for heliographs - = - Mines, submarine - Miners’ dial - Micrometers - Nickel anodes - Observing chair Observatory dome. - Ophthalmic test glasses - - Value. eo & 130 4 5 10 762 0 TOS wal 0) 213 10 950 O 1,295 0 10 O 282 0 15,588 12 O ll 17 +O 7 4 3) 2 lWiperesle We ©) 145 7 278 O 118 19 8) @) eye (0) 4,416 O 112 8 35 0 24 0 oy (0) 40 O 16 10 8 8 216 19 32 14 70 4 2,227 14 17 10 12 4 4 18 23 5 250 O 25 4 — SOHN ooe S&S Ses QOS Coe QnoecoeS occe moccoeo SSIS) Description of Instrument. Optical squares - Optical bench Optometer, Tweedy’s Pens, drawing - Pentagraphs : Photo-micrographie apparatus Physical apparatus, various - Plane-tables - Planimeters - Polariscopes - Protractors, various - Pyrometers, various Pitch compound for cables, telegraph Rain gauges - Range finders, various Relays - Resistance coils - Kiulers, parallel, various Rules, boxwood - Rules, flat, various Revolution indicator, Buss’s Sand glasses - Seales, various - Sectors - - Set squares, various Sextants, various - Slide rules, various Slopes and batters - Sounders, telegraph Speedometers - Spectroscopes - Spherometer - Stadiometers - Station pointers - Standard yard measures Stencil plates - Storm glass - Straight edges . Stop watches - Stills - - Sundials - = Switches, battery - Serving tape for cables, telegraph Tachometer - * Tapes, measuring, various Telemeters - - 382 WO & 10 — Sowovoongato nAoonm eoooonoanooso SoeROGOCOS cccooocosooaaoaccoonSaS owed 383 Description of Instrument. Telephones, various - Tell-tale apparatus - Telescopes, various - Tellurions - - Thermometers, various = - Theodolites, various T squares - - Urinometers - Water meters - - Weights, assay - Weights, troy, avoirdupois, and tola standards Zenith telescope : Zine rods for batteries - Miscellaneous apparatus not included under the above headings - any £ nc of { 3,245 18 10 - |. 2,070 10 6 Total (January 1887-January 1890) ° Value. £ S Gh 3 7 @ Wy 3 @ 968 7 0O 6 5 O TMG ELON 9) 8,657 0 O 2953556 228 5 O 48 2 14-2) 6 81 O 90020 42 8 8 5,316 9 4 94,728 9 7 INDEX. A. A. k (Kishen Singh), 151-157, 235. Abbas of Ghur, 184 (note). Abbott, General, 333. Abors, 165. Abu, Mount, 266, 274; Jaina temples at, 322, 324. Ab-i-istadeh lake, 136, 146. Ab-i-Sar-i-jangal, 183. Ab-i-Surkh, 190. Abyssinia, Mr. Blanford deputed to, 259. Abyssinian Expedition, Mr. Markham in, 376. Acheen, 26. ; Actinometric observations, 289; 295, 296. Adam, Mr., Governor of Madras, 357, 358. Adam’s bridge, 261. Aden, 197, 205, 213. Admiralty Hydrographer. See Hydrographer. Admiralty publications, increase in sale of, 9. Adraskund river, 176, 185. Aerial deposits in Afghanistan and Baluchistan, 254. Afghan Boundary Commission, 96, 128, 172-195, 267, and passim in Chapter VII. Afghanistan, triangulation extended towards, 47 ; surveys of Afghanistan during first Afghan Wars, 128, 135, 139; survey lessons of later campaign in, 131; connexion between triangu- lation in North and South Afghanistan, 146, 167, 194; maps of Afghanistan, 223, 226, 235; metals of Southern Afghanistan, 255; geologi- cal specimens from Afghanistan, 271 (note); Mr. Griesbach in Northern Afghanistan, 278. Afghan Turkistan, 186 and passim through Chapter VII.; geology of Afghan Turkistan, 270. “ Afghanistan and part of Baluchistan, Notes on,” by Major Raverty, 365. African, South, tides, 200. African types recognizable in Karnul cave fauna, 268. Agathokles, coins of, 370. Agra, 206, 213; Agra observatory, 286; monu- ments in, 328, 338, 343, 344. Agricultural statistics supplied by good revenue surveys, 100; collected by Survey Department in N.W. Provinces, 113. t Y 20321. at Leh, 293, | | B Ahalvabai temple at Elura, 351. Ahmad Sayad, sub-surveyor, 166. Ahmad Shah, 365. Ahmadabad, 322, 325, 354, zb. (note), 362. Ahmadnagar, 342, 355. Ahmadnagar district survey, 123. Ahmed Ali Khan, 96, 99, 144, 145. Ahmed Khel, battle of, 136. Aihole, 323, 324, 353. Airy, Sir G., 213. Aitchison, Dr. J. E. T., 194. Ajanta rock, temples, and paintings, 342, 346 (note), 352, 354, 356. Ajaygarh fort, 337. Ajmir, 240; Ajmir Forest school, 298. Ajmir-Merwara district boundary survey, 108. Aka raid, 78, 260; Mr. La Touche in the Aka hills, 264. Akbar, Emperor, 330, 343; tomb of, 322, 344. Akram Khan, 131. Aksu, 158. Aksu river (Pamir), 193. Akyab, 1 ; commencement of survey of, 3 ; line of soundings run south to latitude of, 28; tidal station at Akyab swept away by storm, 207; Akyab cyclone, 300; antiquities in Akyab. Alaiva temple, 343. Aleock, Sir R., 165. Alcock, Surgeon A., 31. Alexander the Great, 188; route of, 326; coins of successors of, 337. Alexandria, map of, 224. Alexandrian merchants, Surashtra known to, in early times, 347. Ali, son-in-law of Mahomed, 184, 189. Alichur Pamir, 193. Aligarh, district survey, 108; 246. Ali Khel, 133. Ali Musjid, 124, 130, 333. Alipore, meteorologieal observations at, 293, 299, 306. See also Caleutta. Allahabad, 206; observations at Allahabad, 285, 293, 304,306; 320 (note); Dr. Fiihrer in, 340. Alleppi mud bank, 274, 277. Alluvial plains as geological group, 236. Almar plain, 181. Alompra, 363, b 386 Alps as compared geologically with the Himalayas, 271 (mote). Altimor range, 134. Alwar, 336. Amalgamation of Survey, 40, 100. Aman ul Muik, Badshah of Chitral, 150. Amaranath, Jaina temples at, 324, 327. Amarapura, 364. Amb fort, 333. Ambala district, Mr. Rodgers in, 340. Amherst, pagoda and Point, 2; 201, 204, 207. Amrayati tope, 322, 357, 358; Dr. Burgess on, 360. Amritsar, 51. Amsterdam Exhibition, 294. Amua meridional series, 214. Amya pass, 54. Analysis of tidal observations, 197. Andaman islands, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 38, 166, 204; ores from the Andaman islands, 264; necessity of telegraphic communication with Andaman islands, 310, 311. Anderson, Colonel F. C., 112. Anderson, Colonel W. C., 86. Andhras, The, 351. Andkhui, 174, 178, 183, 186. Andrew, Major D. C., 116, 123. Anemographic observations, 201, 306. Angirtakshia mountains, 153, 157. Anglo-Siamese Boundary Commission, 170. Anhilwada, 88. Anjar, 350. Ankai-Tankai, 353. the branches of Indian Ankole, antiquities in, 342. Antiquities, Preservation of, 341 and passim in Chapter XV. Ants’ nests in Tinnevelly and Madura, 262. Ao Barik, 180. Aornos, rock of, 337. Apaluk pass, 150 (note). Arab, old, coins, 173. Arabia and Persia, map of, 235. 52. Arabian Neftid, 2 Arabian Sea, Meteorology of, 302, 306; cyclone in Arabian Sea, 307; Arabian conquest of Sind, 348. Arabic inseriptions, 339, 346 (note). Arakan, 201; Arakan-Manipur geological axis, 260; antiquities in Arakan, 364. Arang, 335. Archean rocks (as geological group), 236. Archeological drawings, Reproduction of, 226. Archeological Survey Record, 371. Archeology, Indian, 320-372; paper by Dr. Burgess on, 321 ; first scheme of survey of, 325 ; survey suspended by Lord Lawrence, 327 ; survey re-organized, 338; last re-organization of, 361; Survey Staff, 362. Architecture, Mr. Fergusson on history of, 360. INDEX. Architecture, Indian, classified, 321 e¢ seq. Ares, measurement of, 209. Aret in Chugani or Kohistan country, 130. Argandab river, 129, 136, 254. Argaricus, Sinus, of Ptolemy, 46. Arghastan yalley, 136. Argyll, Duke of, 368. Ariana, Princes of, $69. Ariano-Pali characters, 369. Armenia, Geological collection in, 257. Armstrong, Dr., Collection of ornithological specimens by, 6. Arnawai river, 150. Arrian, 331. Arrowsmith, Mr. Aaron, 229. Art ware, Heliogravure reproductions of, 227. Arun river, 160. Arvali mountains, 238, 243, 256, 266, 269, 274. Ashizar, 180 (note). Ashwaraopet, 247. Asiatic Society of Bengal. founded 1784, 320; centenary review of, 325 (note); 367. Asiatic Society of Bombay, 367. Askarab, 180. Asoka, King, his inscriptions and edicts, 320 (note), 321, 326, 329, 331, 332, 333, 337, 338, 340, 347, 348, 2b. (note), 349, 352, 369. Asphan valley, 135. Assam, 51; discharges of Assam rivers, 52; 57; Assam frontier surveys, 75, 78, 79; deputation on communication with Assam, 165; 167; Assam lakhirajdar survey, 126; 231; Mr. La Touche on eastern frontier of, 267. Assyrian coins, 173. Astarab river, 182. Astor, 144, 145, 270. Astronomer Royal, 213. Astronomical observations, 210 et seq. Ata Mahomed Khan, 150, 177, 188, 190, 191. Atala Masjid at Jaunpur, 339. Atkinson, Mr. W. G. E., 163. Attaran river, 364. Attock, 141. Attraction, local, as affecting geodetic observa- tions, 210. Auckland, 234. Aurunga coal-field, 244, 250. Aurangabad, 325, 350, 351, 352, 353. Australian Gondwana rocks, 266. Autotype Company, 227. Ava, 364. Ayodhya, 340. Ayub Khan, Revolt and defeat of, 137, 253. Azimuths of stations, 209. INDEX. B. Baber, Emperor, 336. Babington, Dr. B. G., 321. Bactria, 193 (note). Badakshan, 186, 191, 193 (mote), 194; S— in, 148; 270. Badami, 323, 347, 353. Badghiz, 177, 178, 195. Badgley, Colonel, 75, 89. Bagh caves, Paintings in, 342. Baghanvala, Temples at, 333. Baghao, 92. Baghdad observatory, 300. Baghmati river, 162. Bahmani dynasty, 350. Baird, Major A. W., R.E., 25, 196, 204, 207, 224. Bakarganj district survey, 120; Bakarganj cy- clone, 287. Baktro-Hellenic kings, 348. Bala Hissar (Balkh), 188. Bala Murghab, 180, 195. Balaghat, 274. Balal Sen, 334. Balasore, 207 ; survey of roadstead, 19 ; cyclone at, 303. Balipur, 78. Balkh, 174, 182. 183, 187, 188. Balkh Ao, 181, 186, 189, 190. Ball, Dr., 238, 243, 277. Ballia district survey, 109. Balmir, 238. Baltistan, 270. Baluchistan, survey of, 47, 92, 98, 98, 99; triangulation in §.W., 147; 270; geodetic determinations in, 215; map of, 226; coal, oil, and iron in, 275, 277; westerly wind from, 286. Bam valley, 91. Bamburath, 150. Bamian, 174, 182, 183, 190. Bandalkhand, 328; General Cunningham in, 329, 336; Dr. Fiihrer, 340. Band-i-Amir (see also Balkh Ao), 189. Band-i-Turkestan mountains, 177, 178, 18], 186. Bandar, 179. Bandar Abbas, 176. Bangalore, 60, 84, 211, Bangkok, 54, 64, 210. Bankote, Survey by Lieutenant Petley of, 9, 10. 179, 212, 215. Bankote river, Dangerous state of mouth of, 7. Bankura, 245. Banna, 104, 146, 149. Banpur mals survey, 115. Baoli well, 336. 3ar Marai valley, 148. 387 Bar Panjah, 193. Baragan, 180. Baragua mud flat, 36. Barakar, 248, 329; Barakar iron works, 274. Baran, 149. Baranga islands, coal from, 246. Barbour, Mr. D., 12. Barghana route to Kandahar, 136. Barmayan, Buddhist monastery at, 336. Baroda city survey, 89. Baroda, Gaikwar of, 354, 355, and (note). Baroda State survey, 87, 88, 89. Baroghil pass, 143. Barren islands, 26. Barron, Colonel W., 110. Barrow, Captain, 162. Barrows in Shorapur, 323. Bartang river, 143. Barton, Rev. J., 318. Basalt in Khandesh, 71. Base line at Mergui, 56; other base lines, 61. Basevi’s, Captain, pendulum observations, 213. Bashkar, 142. Bassein, 1; hindrances to free navigation of river, 3; examination of, 33; soundings required in entrance to, 36; cadastral survey of, 116; 364. Basti district survey, 110, 111. Batanis, 149. Bathang, 155. Bauris or wells, 325. Bay of Bengal, “ Investigator” takes soundings across, 20, 23, 28; temperature of, 28, 31; sounded and result of soundings, 32, 383; weather chart of, 292, 300; meteorology of, 297, 302, 306 ; storm warnings from, 310, 311. Bazar valley, Captain Leach’s survey of, 130. Beauchamp Tower, Mr., 199. Beavan, Major, 92, 93, 94, 104; route survey from Kandahar to Girishk, 129; in Southern Afghanistan, 135. Bedsa, 352. Beglar, Mr. J. D., passim in Chapter XV. Behar, cadastral survey, 118 ; General Cunning- ham in Behar, 333, 335, 336 (note); cave inscriptions in, 369. Bejwada, 357, 358. Belgaum survey, 126; Belgaum observatory, 285 ; 323, 346, 347, 354, 362. Bell, Major-General, 86. Bellary, 212; Mr. Foote in Bellary, 266, 268; Bellary observatory, 285. Benares district survey, 109; Benares rainfall, 288. Bengal, Bay of. See Bay. Bengal Coal Company, 244; Sub-metamorphie rocks of Bengal, 245; Bengal storms in 1876, 288; storm warnings, 292; Bengal, General Cunningham in, 333; history of, 334 (note) ; list of monuments in, 345. Bengali architecture, 322. Bb 2 388 ~ INDEX. Ber Singh, 152. | Berars, 231; monuments in, 342, 345. \ Berid dynasty, 350. Betiya, 332. | Betul district, coal in, 269. Beverley, Mr., 53; his death, 55. Beypur, 4, 5,9, 27, 31, 197, 206. Beyt harbour (Baroda State), 20. Bhadresyar, 350. Bhagirathi valley, 51, 334. Bhaja, 352. Bhamo, 25, 166, 168, 169, 170, 299. Bhandak, Buddhist caves at, 329. Bharhut, stupa of, 329 and (note), 337; General Cunningham on, 338; 370. Bhaunagar, 24, 26, 34, 201, 206, 256; Bhaunagar observatory, 307. Bhau Daji, 367. Bhavaneswar temples in Orissa, 327. Bhil tribes, 69, 71, 256. | Bhilsa topes, General Cunningham on, 337. Bhitargaon, 337. | Bhopal and Malwa survey, 72, 87. Bhore Ghat, 200. Bhoteas, 49. Bhuila Tal, 331, 340. Bhuj, 350. Bhutan, 151, 162; Bhutan Duars, 265. Bibliography of Indian geology, 276, 280. Bidar, 60, 350. Biddulph, General, 129. Biddulph, Major, threatened by Gilgit tribes, 144; | 150. Bijapur, 322, 355, 7b. (note) ; Hart’s illustrations of the principal Muhammadan buildings of, 360. Bijayanagar, 343, 359, 362. Bikanir, 80, 81; Mr, Oldham in Bikanir, 269. Bilaspur district survey, 120. Bilhari, 329. Bilser, 330, 337. Bimlipatam, 4. Birbhum, 245. Birjand, 174, 177. 3irmal hills, 147. Bizoti valley, 149. Black Mountain Expedition, 150, 151. Black, Mr. F. C., C.E., 330, 7b. (note), 343, 7b. (note). Blanford, Mr. H. F., F.R.S., 12; makes tour of meteorological inspection, 283; retirement of and services, 308. Blanford. Mr. W. T., passim through Chapter XII. His retirement and services, 259. Bodawpara, King, 364. Bogle, Mr. G., 374. Bogosta valley, 150. Bohkara, 182. Bolan pass, 94, 253; Bolen route, 98. Bolarum, 212, 213. Bologna Geological Congress, 255, 276. Bolst, Mr. H. J., 69. Bombay, Marine, 1; 4, 10, 11; becomes head- quarters of marine survey, 18; Bombay coast wants charting, 35; Bombay revenue survey, 86, 122, 123 ; Bombay suburbs survey, 125; Bowbay forest surveys, 89, 126; 197, 200, 201 ; mean sea level at, 202; 212, 213, 215; Bombay Presidency (in Indian atlas), 231; Bombay and Baroda Railway, floods on, 297; Bombay storm warnings, 292, 304; Bombay Chamber of Commerce, 304; Bombay Geographical Society, 318; Bombay meteorological obser~ yations. See Colaba; Bombay Presidency, monvtments in, 341, 345; rock cut temples in, 346; Cave Temple Commission, 367 ; Bombay Asiatie Society, 368. Boram Deo, temples at, 332, 335. Borddhonkuti, 334 (mote). Bori valley, 97, 147. Boring operations, Question of ecnduct of, 275. Bose, Mr., 264, 272, 274, 325 (mote). Botanical investigations, Afghan Boundary Com- mission, 194. Boury, M. (French missionary), 155. Boutflower, Mr. W. N., 311. “ Bozdar,” The, 146, 148. Brachiopoda of Salt Range, 259, 263. Brahmakund, 155. Brahmaputra river, 52. See also Sanpo. Brahmaputra (Cooper’s), 155. Brahui mountain system, 98. Brahuik range, 254. Brandis, Sir D., 294. Branfill, Colonel, 5, 46, 47, 56, 57, 219. Brent, R.N., Captain H. W., 12; report on Marine Survey Department, 12; detailed recommendations by, 13; his scheme approved -of by Government of India, 15. Brett, Lieutenant, 367. Brindaban, 344 and (note). Brinjaris, The, 248. British Association, 197, 203 (also note). British Museum, 368. Broach, 34, 346 (note), 355, 362. Buchanan, Francis, 367. Buckingham, Duke of, Governor of Madras, 358. Budaun revenue survey, 108; -Muhammadan masjids at Budaun, 330, 340. Buddha, sites connected with career of, 330, 331, 332, 335. Buddha Gaya, 326, 328, 329 and (note), 331, 333, 335. Buddhist remains in Kabul valley, 134; also near junction of Logar, 134; in Afghan Turkistan, 190; 321,322; at Ali Masjid, 333 ; in Central India, 337; Buddhist monasteries, 836, 349; Buddhist cave temples, 352; remains in Southern India, 359. Budi, 161. Buffalo, meeting of geologists at, 255. INDEX. Bugti country, 95, 97, 296 Biibler, Professor G., C.1-E., 354, 372. Bulandshahr district survey, 108. Bunji, 142. Burgess, Dr. James, C.1-E., passim Chapter XV. His retirement and services, 361. Burma, ports of, Commander Taylor’s tour of inspection of, 1 ; 20; Burma coast, 36 ; triangu- lation in, 66; 165, 166; reconnaissances in Upper, 167; 231; maps of, 226; coal-fields in Upper Burma, 273; oil fields in Upper Burma, 276; mineral resources of Upper Burma, 278, 279: observatories in Burma, 299, 309; archeological research in Burma, 363 ; Burma, Chief Commissioner of, 364. Burmans as surveyors, 116. Burn, Messrs., & Co., 277. Burnes, Sir A., 190. Burraballung river, 19. Burrard, Lieutenant S. G., 214, 215. Burt, Lieutenant, 321. Bushire, 208. Bustar, 240, 256. Butkak, 140. Boxa Duar, 163. Byans valley, 48, 49. Bythell, Lieutenant, 170. Byturnee river, survey of portion of, 19. C. Cachar survey, 116; Cachar earthquake, 257. Cadastral srrveys, nature of 100, 102. Cadell, Colonel, in the Andamans, 31. Cairo, Map of, 224. Calcutta, head-quarters of marine survey moved from Caleutta to Bombay, 18 ; Calcutta survey, 121, 122; 204, 206, 213; Calcutta Exhibition, 266; Calcutta observatory (see also Alipore), 285, 288, 289, 305; Calcutta weather reports, 298 ; Calcutta, Cutch earthquake felt up to, 349. Calicut, 4, 5, 16, 31, 274. Calingapatam, 4, 21. Callian Junction, 200. Cambay, Gulf of, wrecks in and lighting of, 7; surveys in, 27, 34. Cambay, Inscriptions from, 346 (note) ; 359. Camels, Wild, 154. Campbell, Colonel W. M., 129, 211, 213, 219. Canadian tides, 200. Canara. See Kanara. Cannanur, 4, 31, 32. Canning, Earl, 62, 237, 325, 337; minute on an archeological survey, 326 (note). Cape Negrais, 36, 53. Carew, I.N., Captain G. O’B., 8. Carey, Mr. A. !)., 157. Carlleyle, Mr. A. C., passim Chapter XV. Carnac, General J., 367. Carnatie, the. 46 ; drought in, 300. Carpenter, Commander Alfred, R.N., assumes di- rection of marine survey in place of Commander Dawson, 22; experience on board H.M.S. “ Challenger,” 23 ; Ivawadi survey party formed under, 24; pilots flotilla up to Bhamo, 25; paper on mean temperature of Bay of Bengal by, 28; 30, 33; list of marine survey require- ments drawn up by, 34. Carrington, Mr. R. C., 5, 6, 11; retirement of, 13. Carter, Captain T. T., Madras coast triangulation series under direction of, 46; his triangulation around Indus valley, 141. Carter; Dr., I.N., 237. Cautley, Sir P., 236. Cauvery (Kaveri) river, 46; Colonel Branfill on physiography of delta of, 46. Cavagnari, Death of Sir L., 132. Caves, Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmaniecal, 323 and passim in Chapter XV. Cave temples of India,” “ The, 351, 352. “ Celerity,’” Indian marine steamer, 56. Census of 1872, 317. Central Asia formerly supposed to originate Indian summer monsoon, 290. Central establishment for archeological sur- veyors, 328. Central India, electro-telegraphic observations in, 215; meteorology of, 319 ; General Cunning- ham in, 336 (note) ; Major Keith appointed Assistant Curator of Monuments for, 843; Dr. Fiihrer’s list of monuments in, 346. Central Provinces Suryey, 74; Central Provinces, Rainfall in, 302 ; General Cunningham in, 329, 335; monuments in, 342; statistical inquiries in, 314. Ceylon, triangulation connected with Indian, 45; 204, 229, 261. Chagsum, 165. Chahar Aimak, 178, 179, 18:3. Chahar-burjak, 173. Chahardar, 180, 184. Chaharsada, 179, 180. Chaharshamba, 180. Chahil Abdal, 184. Chaitya or Buddhist temple caves, 323. Chakcharan, 179, 180. Chakmani territory, 271 (note). Chalapdalan, 184. Chalukya architecture, 322, 324, 362, 363. Chalukya dynasty, 350, 357. Chamalang, 94. Chamba, 295. Chambel. See L c. Chamberlain, Sir N., 146. Chambers, Mr. F.,on winds of Karachi, 292; 304, 306, 307. 390 Chambers, William, 321. Chamkar monastery, 165. Champaner, 89, 354, 362. Chanda fields, 247. Chandbally, Survey of Byturnee river up to, 19. Chandels of Mahoba, 337. Chandragupta, 369. Chandravati, ruins of, 320 (note). Chandrehi, Brahman temples at, 331. Chankau pass, 79. Channer, Lieutenant A., R.N., 19, 23, 26. Chapman, Mr. Morris, late I.N., 4, 5; Paumben channel, 6, 7, 8; his death, 8. Chardeh plain, 135. Charikar, 191, 270. Charsada, 336. Charts, Marine, passim through Marine Survey Chapter. on Charts of daily weather. See Weather charts. Chashma Sabz, 177. Chatang La pass, 158. Chattisgarh, 239, 256, 269, 273, 331, 335. Chaul, 8. Chazumtuka, 165. Chedi, Rajas of, 332. Cheduba, 20, 21, 36. Chelonia, Eocene, from the Salt Range, 273. Chenab river, 239. Chennell, Mr. A. W., death of, 78. Cherkh graphite, 278. Chesnaye, Dr. G. E., 311. Chetang, 151, 156, 160, 165. Chew, Mr. R., 83. Chezarla, Buddhist chaitya discovered at, 359. Chiamdo Chu (Upper Mekong), 155. Chiamo Golok robbers, 153, 157. Chiggateri, 276. Chikalwohol, 200. Chilas, 144, 145. Childers, Professor, 363. Chiling Shahi Mardan hill, 18+. Chilianwala, battle of, 251, 337. Chin country, 169, Chin-Lushai Expedition, 277. China Bakir river, 21. Chiva, Mound at, 333. Chipapati, 333. Chindwara district, 269, 274. Chindwin valley, 167, 168, 257, : Chinese coins, 173. Chingurak range, 178. Chingiz Khan, 186, 187. Chingmis, 163, 164. Chiras, 180. Chitlac island, 29. Chittagong (Karnaphuli river), 3, 19 ; land survey of, 121, 206; Chittagong observatory, 285. ~T to or ee) he 4 INDEX. = Chitral, 150, 194, 231, 270, 366. Chloromelanite, 271 (note). Chobash, 187. Chol in Afghan Turkistan, 177. Chota Nagpur, Western, coal-fields, 274; gold in Chota Nagpur, 277; meteorology of Chota Nagpur, 309. Chotiali, 92, 129. Christmas island, 27. Chrysolite from Kandahar, 255. Chugani valley, 130. Chumbi valley, 151, 153, 160, 163. Cintra (Portugal), Sanskrit inscription at, 342. “ Civilisations de l’Inde, Les,” Dr. Le Bon on, 362. Clarke, Colonel, R.E., C.B., 44, 63. Clarke, Mr. L. H., 234. ‘I Classification of observatories, 296, 304. Claudius, Mr., 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 135, 148. ‘ Clyde,” I.G.S.S., 1. Coal, 236 and passim through Geological chapter. See under name of particular coal-field. Coard, Mr. C. W., 226, 230. Cochin, 4, 5, 9; surveyed in 1855 by Taylor, 16; surveyed by Dawson, 20; 206,274, Coco islands, 9, 33, 37; observatory at Coco islands, 300. Coconada, 10; 206. Coddington, Iieutenant-Colonel F., 105. Coinage among ancient Hindus, 333. survey of Coconada, 16; 19, Coins of Arakan, Pegu, and Burma, Lieutenant- General Sir A. P. Phayre on, 372; coins of Southern India, Sir W. Elliot on, 372 (uote). Colaba observatory, 312; and passim through Meteorological chapter. Colachel, 4. Cole, Major H. H., R.E., 327, 342, 343, 844; illustrations of ancient monuments by, 7b. (note), Colebrooke, H., Mr., 321. Coleroon, Triangulation carried into valley of, 46. Collotype process, 226. Colombo, 19, 206, 207. Comedarum, Vallis, 193 (note). Committee on Marine Survey Department, 12 ; on equipment of field survey party, 137. Comorin, Cape, 35, 45, 47, 60, 202. Congress, Geographical, at Venice, 88, 201; do. at Paris, 238; Geological Congresses at Buffalo, Paris, and Bologna, 255,276. See also Paris and Venice. Conjiveram archeological survey, 362. Conolly, Arthur, 179. Conservation of monuments, 320 (note), 327, 344, Contour map of Simla, 80; of India, 225. Cooke, Mr. G. H., 110. Cooke, Messrs., and Sons, 211. report on, if _—" INDEX. Coombs, Lieutenant W. H., commences survey of Rangoon, 11; surveying work done by boat party in charge of, 19; surveys entrance to Chittagong river, 20; surveys Akyab, 20, 27. Copping, Mr. G. R., 96. Corkery, Mr., 93, 94. “ Coronation,” gunboat, 2. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, 338, 369, 370 (note). Cost of Revenue Surveys, 103. Cotta point surveyed, 27. Court, General, 333. Cousens, Mr. H., 320 (note), 342, 354, 355, 362. Cowan, Major S. H., 110, 115, 121. Coxen, Mr., 93, 94. Crawley Boevey, Mr., Bo. C.S., 354. Cretaceous, Upper, fauna of Western India, 270. Crops, map showing Indian, 226. Cruz Milagre, 5. Cuddalore, 249. Cuddapah district, 248. Cumbum valley, 85. Cunningham, General Sir A., K.C.LE., passim Chapter XV.; his services, 337. Curator of Ancient Monuments in India, Captain Cole appointed, 343. Cushing, Mr. Thos., F.R.A.S., 216. Cutch, gulf of, 30, 34; 85, 197, 209, 231, 263, 347, 349. Cutch Mandyvi, 7. Cuttack conference, 115; Cuttack cadastral sur- yey, 116; 256, 285, 331. Cyclones, 201, 206 ; formation of cyclones, 287; Mr. J. Eliot on cyclones, 290, 294,299; cyclone at Gujrat, 296; eyclone at False point, 299; cyclone at Balasore, 303; cyclone memoirs, 303, 306; cyclones in Bay of Bengal, 306, 310. Cyrus, 184. D. D’ Arrest, Professor, 312. Daba Jong, 152. Dabboi, 324, 350, 354. Dabhol (Anjanwil) river, &. Dacoits in Decean, 124. Dahana Doab, 183. Dahana Iskar coal-field, 278. Dahgoba in Buddhist architecture, 323. Daily weather charts, 288, 298, 303, 304. Dalgleish, Mr., 157. Daling hills, 160. Dallas, Mr. W. L., 292, 295, 297; 300, 302, 307, 311. Daltonganj coal-ficld, 244. Damaun, 200. 39] Damerchela, 248. Dangs Forest survey, 87, 88, 89. Daniel, T. and W., 321. Dantidurga, 354. Danu, examination required of reef near, 35. D’Anville, 159. Daphla hills, 78, 260, 265. Dara Imam, 143. Dara-i-KKhargosh, 179 and (note). Dara-i-Nur, valley of, 154. Dara Yusuf, 189. Dara-i-Zindan, 190. Darangiri coal-field, 256. Darchendo, 154, 156. Dardistan, survey of, 145. Dareyl, 142, 145. Dargi valley, 92. Darjeeling, survey, 158, 160, 164. Darkot valley, 143; Darkot pass, 144. Darmarokht river, 193. Darwaz, 143, 193. Darwin, Professor G. H., 203, 207, 208. Dasa Avatara inscriptions, 354. Datum line for coast soundings, 25, 207. Daud Shah, 330. Daugam, 164. Daulatyar, 180, 182, 183, 184. Davy, Major, 318. Dawar Dour, 146. Dawson, Lieutenant L. S., R.N., appointed to the command of surveying steamer “ Investigator,” 11; succeeds Commander Taylor in the charge of marine surveys, 15; former experience, 18 (mote); commences survey Back bay, 19; resumes charge of “ Investigator,” 20. Dearah survey in Faridpur and Bakarganj, 120. Deb Raja of Bhutan, 163. Deb Singh, 152. pecean Company, Mr. Hughes (geologist) with, 272. Decean survey, 86; report on Deccan, 124; Deccan trap, 236, 241; Deccan meteorology, 3809; 351. Defiles in Afghanistan, 179, 181. De Haviland, Colonel, 203. Dehgans, 135. Deh-i-Sabz range, 134. Dehing basin, Mr. La Touche in, 260, 267. Dehra Dun, trigonometrical branch at, 57, 226; forest school in Dehra Dun, 298. Delhi, 322, 326, 328, 338; Muhammadan kings of, 336 ; monuments at, 343; 7b. (note), 344. Deoyarh, 330, 337. De Prée, Colonel G. C., succeeds Colonel Walker as Surveyor-General of India, 45; services and death, 45, 80. Dera Ismail Khan revenue survey, 104, 105. Derajat, the, 95. Deronta, 134. 126, 127; 151, 153, 155, 392 Desgodins, Father, 171. Dev Hissar, 180. Devi river, charting of mouth of, 33. Dewangiri, 163. Dhamnar caves, 327. Dhangs Forest survey. See Dangs. Dharasinva, Jaina caves at, 323. Dharma Raja of Bhutan, 163. Dharma valley, 49. Dharmapala, Prince, 333. Dharwar, 362; Dharwar district, Chalukyan temples in, 354; Meadows Taylor on, 360. Dharwar rocks, 266, 273, 278. Dhauli, 331, 348 (note); Dhauli inscriptions of Asoka, 358. Dholka, 346 (note), 354, 362. Dhumra river, survey of entrance to, 19; alterations found in, 22, 23. Diamond field at Wadjra Karur, 266. Diaroond harbour, 201, 207. Diamond island, 2, 208. Dibong river, the, 52; survey of part of, 76. Di-chu, 154 Dickson, Lieutenant, rough chart of harbour of | Port Blair made by, 30. Differential longitudes, measurement of, 209, 210, Puts Dihong river, the, 52, 164, 165. Diligent straits surveyed, 33. Digaru river, 76. Dikrang river, 76. Diphu river, 76. Dir, 150. Disa cantonment observatory, 285. Diu Head, 34. Dividing machine, 219. Dixon, M.N.1., Lieut.-Colonel, 36s. Doab, Central, 331. Doab -i-Mekhyari, 278. Doaba dara river, 143. Dogras, invasion of Hundes by, 50. Dolmens in Western India, 323. Dondra head (Ceylon), 20. Dong-tse, 158. survey, 89; Donkia-La pass, 127, 15°. Dora pass, 150. Dori river, 136. Doshakh, 195. Douglas, Captain, 206. Double island lighthouse, 2. Dowdeswell island, Mr. J. P. Falle suryeys portion of, 11, “ Draens,” 47. Dragon lake, 193 (note). Dras, mountains of, 246. Dravidian architecture, $25, 324. Droughts, periodicity of, 287, 300. INDEX. Du Halde, 159. Dubkuna, Jain temple of, 336. Dublat, 207. Dumar Lena, 347. Dunean, Professor Martin, 259, 266, 268, 270. Durgavati, the Hindu princess, 329. Dwarka point, 34. Ei. Earth, rigidity of, 203; investigation of figure of, 44, 210. Earthquake at Lakpat, 86; earthquake in Bay of Bengal, 204; in Cachar, 257; catalogue of, 258 (note), 262; in Bengal, 268; in Kashmir, 268; in Cutch in 1819, 349. Eastern frontier triangulation series, 45, 46; chains projected from, 53; extension of, 55; two parties engaged in completion of series, 56, 57. Eastern Ghats, 240. Eastwick, Mr., 318., Eccles, Mr., 214. Echivoidea of Sind, 259, 268; Echinoidea of Makran series of Baluchistan and Persian Gulf coasts, 270. Edgar, Sir. J. W., 127. Edicts of Asoka. See Asoka’s inscriptions. Fegeling, Professor J., 372. Egypt, maps of, 224. Hichens and Hardy, Messrs., 211. Eimaks, 179 (note). Flectrotyping process of reproducing atlas sheets, &e., 225, 229. Elephant islands, 27. Elephant point, 36; tide gauges at, 57, 201, 204, 207. Elephanta, 323, 346 (note), 347, 353, 354; Dr. Burgess’s monograph on, 361. Elias, Mr. Ney, C.1.E., 192, 193, 194. Eliot, Mr. J., report on Vizagapatam and Bakarganj cyclone, 287; 290,293; onstorms, 297 ; his proposals for more efficient working of Meteorological Department, 303; 311. Elliot, Sir Walter, 321, 358 (note), 367. Ellobius fuscicapillus, 195. “Elphinstone,” Honourable East India Company’s ship, 15. Elura, 323, 346 (note), 351, 353. Emigration, Map of india showing, 226. Enciam rocks, 35. Endawgyi Lake, 169. Engraving Branch, Surveyor-General’s Office, Caleutta, 222, 230. Epigraphica Indica and Archeological Survey Record, 371. Equatoreal telescope, 216. Equipment necessary for field survey party, 137. Eran, 337. ‘ 7 INDEX. Erinpura, 250. Errors in triangulation, Process of correcting, 42. | Ersari Tureomans, 181, 187. Erskine, W., 354. Eruption at Krakatoa, 204, 205. Etah district survey, i08. Ethersey (late I.N.), Commander, survey of pass between India and Ceylon by, 4; Jafrabad surveyed by, 34. Everest, Colonel, 58, 210. Ewing, Mr., oa Assam frontier, 79. F. Falie, Mr., commences survey Madras road- stead, 2; surveys portion Dowdeswell island, 11; surveys of Vizagapatam and Caling- apatam by boat party in charge of, 21; river survey party at Pagan under, 24. Faida Ali, sub-suryeyor, 168. Faizabad (Badakshan), 143, 194. Faizabad (Oudh), 213. Falconer, Dr., 236. False Point, 2,3, 4, 10,19, 201, 204, 206, 207, 285. Fa Hian, 326, 331,559. Famines, in Madras and Bombay, 39, 2b. (note) ; periodicity of, 287; Famine Commission, 117, 291. Farah, 183, 185. Farah Rud river, 175, 176. Faridpur, 120. Fatehpur Sikri, 340, 344, 363. Faults in strata, 271 (note). Fauna of British India, 259. Fedden, Mr. F., 168, 238, 241, 256, 262; death of, at Vizagapatam, 272. Feistmantel, Dr., 237; resignation of, 268. Fergusson, James, passim in Chapter XV.; his death and works, 360. '“ Feroze,” steam frigate, 16. Ferrier, General, 180, 183, 184, 189. Firoz Shah, 333. Firuzkhuis, 179, 184. Firozepur district survey, 106, 206. Floods and flood warnings, 297. Fleet, C.J.E., Mr. J. F., 368, 370. “ Flora Indica,” 195. J Flora of Afghanistan, 194, 195. Flower, Professor, 166 (note). Foote, Lieutenant H. B., 263. Foote, Mr., 240, 256, 261, 263, 272, 276. Forchhammer, Dr., 363; death of, and reports by, 364. Forecast of monsoon season, 289, 296, 298. Forests, denudation of, in Konkan, 125. Forest observatories, 298. 398 | Forest surveys, 8+; in Bombay Presidency, 89, 90. Forrest strait, 27. Forster, Rt. Hon. W. E., 165. Forsyth, Sir D., 172, 193 (note). Fort Jamrud, 131. Fort Stedman, 168. Fox Talbot, Mr., 227. French maps of Egypt, 224. Frodsham, Messrs., 211. Frontier, Eastern. See astern. Fiihrer, Dr., his report on Shargi remains of Jaunpur, 228, 330 (note), 339; his list of re- mains and inscriptions in N.W. Provinces and Oudh, 346, 362. G. G. M.N., 164, 165. G.S.'S. in Nepal, 160. Galichah, 172. Galle, 206, 207. Gandak river, 160, 161. Gandamak, 135, 140. Gangaikondapuram, Siva temple of, 46. Ganges Dearah survey, 107. Ganges, the source of, 51; 369; action of the river, 271; course of, near Patna, 328. Gangri range, 163. Ganjam coast, 29, 33, 45. Gantur district, 240. Garbia, 49. Garhwal, 48, 50, 273, 275. Garo hills, coal-field in, 256; Mr. La Touche in, 260, 265, 269. Garok, 95. Garratt, Professor, 318. Garrick, Mr., 336, 340. Gartok, 51, 152. Gauges, tidal, 196-208. Gauhati, 75. Gaur, 328, 329, 334, 340. Gauss’s method of minimum squares, 43. Gaya district survey, 114. Gazetteer, Imperial, latitudes and longitudes for, 223; 224 and passim in Chapter XIV. Geodetic observations, 209-215. Geographical explorations, 128-171. Geography of India, ancient, Cunningham on the, 327, 337. Geological survey of India, 236-282; medal awarded for exhibits at Paris Congress, 238 ; maps of, 225; publications of, 237 ; geological map of India, 226, 271 (note); geological nomenclature and classification, 255 ; Geological Congress in Bologna, 255; in London, 276; geological surveys uncompleted, 281, 282. 594 INDEX. Gersoppa, Falls of, 83. Gharjistan, 179, 180 and (note). Ghats, Eastern, 350. Ghats, Western, 6, 82, 202; forest surveys on, 90. Ghaziaband range, 254. Ghazipur district survey, 108 ; Ghazipur, 332. Ghazkol lake, 143. Ghazni, 133, 140, 149 ; Mr. Griesbach at, 278. Ghorband, 190, 191, 192. Ghori, 182. Ghur, 184, 185. Ghur Mushkan, 186. Giama Nu Chu river, 155, 156. Giangtse Jong, 151, 153. Gibbs, Lieutenant J. E., 87. Gibbs, Mr. J., 362. Gibson, Mr. A. J., 104. Gilchrist, Dr. J., 318. Giles, De. G. M., deep-sea trawling, by, 23; deputed to serve with Chitral and Wafiristan Mission, 28; report on results of deep-sea dredging coasts, by, 31, 270. Gilgit and river, 141, 142, 144, 145, 148, 167, 194, 231, 270. Gill, Captain W., R.E., 93. Gill Memorial Medal awarded to Mr. Ogle, 170. Gilliland, Mr. J. H., 311. Gimuchen, 165. Ginja hill, 337. Girdlestone, Mr. F. B., 374. Girishk, 129, 136, 137, 185. Girnar, 322, 346 (note), 347. Girnar mountain, 250, 349. Glaciation, Himalayan, 271 (note). Gladwin, Francis, 321. Gneiss, Himalayan, 239, 246, 260. Goa, 2; seaboard coasts and islands examined by Lieutenant Petley, 10. Goalpara, observations at, 285, 293. Goapnath, 34. God-i-Zirreh, 173, 175. Godavari, 125, 239, 247, 350. Godwin-Austin, Colonel, 165, 260, 265. Gogha, 34. Golconda range, 247. Gold near Kandahar, 254; in Hazarah country, 255; in Chota Nagpur, 277; in Mysore (Mr. Foote’s report), 272, 273; gold tract in Chiggateri, 276 ; in Sonapet, 277. Goldsmid, Major-General Sir F., 172. Gonds, country of, 248, 329, 332. Gondwana deposits, the, 236, 237, 240, 245, 247, 250; Gondwanarocks in Australia, 266; | Dr. Feistmantel on Gondwana flora, 268. | Gopalpur, 4, 33. | Gopurams, or temples, in Southern India, 47. Gor, 145. Gorakhpur district survey, 112; Gorakhpur, 331, 332. Gordon, General, in Waziri country, 91, 146. Gordon, Mr. R., 169 (note). Gore, Major St. G. C., 87; survey of the Pishin valley by, 129; advances from Kandahar, 134 ; in Southern Afghanistan, 136; accompanies Sir D. Stewart, 186; 172, 177, 183, 235. Gosalpur manganese ores, 274. Goteik, 167. Gour, ruins of, 320 (note); see also under Gaur. Grant, Mr. Charles, 320 (note). Grant Duff, Rt. Hon. Sir M. E., 343, 358, 376. Granville, Lord, 224. Greco-Baktrian sculptures, 344. Great Arc series, 43. Greek coins and ornaments in Afghan Turkistan, 188 ; in Helmand yalley, 173. Greenough, Mr., 237. Greek alphabet, Remains of, in India, 348. “ Gridiron” system of triangulation, 59. Griesbach, Mr. C. L., 178, 181, 186, 247, 253, 254, 257, 260, 264, 269, 272, 278, 280. Griffiths, Dr. W., 140. Griffiths, Major, prisoner in Afghan War in 1842, 131. Griffiths, Mr. J. (Bombay School of Art), 356. Grodekoff, Colonel, 179 (note). Growse, F. §., Mr., B.C.S., C.LE., 344 (note). Guedeonoff, Captain, 174. Gubjal, Little, 144. Gujrat, 86, 89, 90, 231,, 322, 360; Gujrat cyclone, 296; architecture and ]scenery in, 346 (note) ; battle of, 337; Chandravati, ancient capital of, 320 (note); Dr. Burgess in, 350; Muhamma- dan architecture in, 354; monuments in, 341; Mr. Cousens in, 355; Northern, 362. Gulistan, 96. Gulran, 178. Gumal pass, 92, 98; Gumal valley, 146, 147, 149. Gumti river, 339. Gund river, 193. Gunn, Lieutenant G. S., R.N., 33. Gurdaspur, 106. Gupta architecture, 330; Gupta dynasty, 347; Gupta inscription, 348 ; Gupta coins, 7b. (note) ; Gupta kings, 370; Gupta kings, temples of, 337. Gurgi, ancient city of, 336. Guz river, 192. Gwal valley, 97. Gyala Sindong, 164, 165. H, Hacket, Mr., 240, 243, 256, 266, 269, 272, 273; his retirement, 274. Hematite in Sandur hills, 266, 276. Haft Kotal pass, 135. INDEX. Haibak, 174, 182, 189, 190. Haidarabad assigned districts, list of monuments in, 345. Haidarabad Circars, maps of, 378; Haidarabad, survey of portion of, 90, 123, 124; 212, 213, 231; rainfall stations in Haidarabad, 291; Dr. Burgess’s, archeological tour in, 350. Haig, General C. T., 86, 87, 88, 214, 224. “ Hakim, The,” 149. Halhed, Mr., 318. Hallabid temple, 322. Hami, 158. Hammond, Nay. Lieut., R.N , 2, 3, 5. Hampe, 359, 362. Hamra pass, 92. Hamuns (Lora and Helmund), 173, 175. Hangrang, 253. Hanna pass, 92. Hari Rud, river and valley, 174, 176, 177, 178, 182, 183, 184, 185, 195. Harischandragad, 353. Harman, Lieutenant, 51, 126; survey of Sikkim by, 126, 127; death of, 127; 164. Harmonie analysis of tidal observation, 197, 198, et seq. Harnai, valley and route, 95, 96, 98; 279. Hartington, Lord, 118, 358. Harut-Rud river, 195. Hasan Khan, 336. Hassan Khels, 104. Hastings, Warren, 367, 376. “ Havildar,” The, 143. Hazara (in Afghanistan) country and people, Captain Leach’s account of, 137 and (note) ; 178, 185. Hazara (North-west frontier), 246. Hazarajat, The (Afghanistan), 186. Hazaribagh, 213, 245, 288. Hazrat Pandua, 334. Headquarters of Survey Department, 221-235. Hearsey, Mr., 152. Heaviside, Colonel W. J., 129, 135, 214. Heights of tides, 198, 199, et seq. Heights of various places in Afghanistan, 140. Helby, Lieutenant E., R.N., boat party in charge of, 23; completes survey of approaches to Bhavnagar, 26; completes survey of Beypore and Calicut, 31. Heliogravure process, 223, 225, 226, 227. Helmand river, 136, 172, 173, 175, 176, 183, 185, 195, 254. Hemadpanti temples, 324, 325. Hennessey, Mr. J. B. N., 57; his report on A—k’s journey, 156, 232. Henzada district, 364. Herat, 175, 176, 180, 182, 183, 185, 187. Herat valley, geology of, 269. Herakles, Statue of, 335. Herschel, Sir J., 289. Herschel, Colonel, 211, 233. 3995 Heysham, Mr. W., 122. Hilly cape, 5. Hill, R.E., Major J., triangulation by, 53, 54; completes triangles between Tavoy and base- line, 55; 171. Hill etching oa copper plates, 222. Hill, Mr. 8. A., 293, 301, 311. Himachal mountains, 152. Himalayan States Survey, 99; Himalaya mountains, 160; (also note), 161, 162, 190; geology of Himalaya mountains, 260; Mr. Oldham on Himalaya mountains, 264; glaciation in, 271 (note) ; Himalaya compared geologically with the Aips, 271; sub-Hima- layan rocks, 271 (note) ; geology of Himalayas, 275, 280; meteorology of N.W. Himalaya, 293; snows of Himalaya meteorologically con- sidered, 293, 295, 296, 297, 303, 310. Himalayas, Lower, 267, 273, 275, 277. Hindu architecture, 325. Hindu Kush, 143, 144, 150, 177, 182, 190, 191; geology of, 270; 366. Hinze basin (on Burmese coast), 26. Hira Lal (geological sub-assistant), 253, 273, 274. Hira Sing, 94, 177, 179, 180, 191. Hisarak valley, 135. Hissar, district survey, 105; Mr. Kodgers in, 340. Hoang Ho, 154. Hobday, Major, 30, 68, 88, 135, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170. Hoboken, 234. Hodgson, Captain, description of Nilang valley by, 51. Hodgson, Mr. B. H., 321. Hoernle, Dr. A. F. R., 325 (note). Hoiduthara, 153. Holdich, Colonel, in Kohat, 91, 92, 129; acecom- panies General Bright’s column to Kabul, 133; traverses Tal-Chotiali route, 186; member of committee on survey equipment, 137; in Zhob valley, 147; called to join Afghan Boundary Commission, 147; with Takht-i-Suliman Ex- pedition, 148; 159, 172, 177, 183, 190, 235. Holt, Mr. J. R., 311. Homotaxis, Geological, 265. Hong Kong, 200. Hooker, Sir J., 195. Hope, Sir Theodore C., 368. Horses, Wild, 153. Hoshiarpur, 106. Hot springs in India, 258. Hourly meteorological observations, 306. Hubli-Marmagao, proposed railway, 10. Hue, Abbé, 156. Hughes, Mr., 237, 272, 273, 276, 278. Hugli river, 22, 25, 36, 121, 203, 207; meteo- rological observations at mouth of, 296. Hukitolla, 11 ; Hukitolla cyclone, 299. Hukong valley, 79. Huli, Antiquities at, 347. 396 INDEX. Hull, Commander T. A., R.N., proposal to confer post of superintendent on, 12; writer of “ The Unsurveyed World,’ 12 (note). Eultzsch, Dr. E., 362, 371. Human sacrifices by Nagas, 80. Hundes, 50; invaded by Dogras, ib.; exports from, 51, 152, 253, 260. Hunias (people of Hundes), description of, 51. Hunter, Dr., 354. Hunter, Sir W. W., 224, 287, 314; appointed Director-General of Statistics, 317. Huuza, 142, 148, 168. Hurrichpoor, 29. Hutar coal-fields, 244, 250. Hutchinson, Colonel, 90, 117, 123. Hutchinson, Mr. §. A., 304, 311. Hwen Thsang, 193 (note), 326, 331, 332, 334, 349, 359, 370. Hydaspes, 251. Hydrographer of the Admiralty, his relations with surveyor in charge Marine Survey Depart- ment, 14; 26, 32. Hydrographic Notices, 3. Hydroid zoophytes, description of by Surgeon J. Armstrong, M.D., 9. Hypeethral temple in Karund State, 331. Ie | Ibrahimabad, 174, 175. Ighiz Yar, 192, 194. Igutpuri, 200. Tltitmish, 330. Imam Baksh, Bozdar, services of, 148. Imam Sharif, 99, 150, 180,181, 183 184, 185. Imperial Gazetteer of India, 224, 316, 319. “Tndia, a Sketch of Mountains and River Basins of,” by Mr. T. Saunders, 378. India, general maps of, 223, 231. India Office, Geographical work of, 373. India-prastha, 343 (note). India, Retrospect of history of entire triangulation | of, 58. Indian antiquary, 346 (note), 361, 368. “Tndian Art, Journal of,” 362. Indian atlas, 222, 229, 230, 231. Indian atlas plates, steel facing of, 223. Indian Eras, Book of, by General Cunningham, 338. Indian coasts, Selection of localities for tide- gauges, for determinatioa of mean sea-level along, 6. Indian lighthouses and lightships, preparation undertaken of complete list of, 3; inspection of, by Commander A. D. Taylor, 9.: Indian Museum Notes, 228. Indian Navy, Surveys of, 1. “Indian Surveys, Memoir on,’ Mr. C. Mark- ham’s, 376. Indor Khera, 331. Indo-Seythian antiquities, 328, 330. Indo-Scythian kings, 347. Indraji, Pandit Bhagwanlal, 342. Indus, Alexander’s route along, 326. Indus-Kishenganga watershed, 145. Indus river, re-survey of mouths of, required, 34; Mullah’s survey of, 141; 151, 206. Indus series, Great, of triangulation, 94. Indo-Colonial Exhibition, London, 225, 226. Inland customs, Receipts from salt, 252. Inlé Jake, 169. Inscriptions and Coins, 366; also passim in Chapter XV. “Tnscriptions in Dharwar and Mysore,” Sir T. Hope’s, 368. “Institutes of Timur,” 319. Instruments for geodetic observations, 211. Instrument, Mathematical, office at Calcutta, 218. Instruments, scientific, Supply of, 216-220. See also Appendix. “ Jnvestigator,” surveying steamer, building of, 8 ; launching of, 11; available for surveying purposes, 18; list of survey work done during year 1881-82 by officers of, 18; runs a line of deep-sea soundings in Gulf of Manar, 19; “pro- ceeds to Chittagong, 19 ; reported by Lieutenant Channer to be admirably adapted for work, 20 ; proceeds to Sandoway roads and resounds the whole of bank of soundiogs between False point, Palmyras point, and Eastern channel light vessel, 22; boats of, assist in surveying Pal- myras shoals, 22 ; examination of ravine south of the Sunderbuns made by, 23; leaves the Sunderbuns, 23 ; returns from Western Torres islands, and completes southern approach to Mergui, 26; Hinze basin on Burmese coast examined by,26 ; surveys entrance to Beypore river, 27; completes survey of shallows off mouths of Meghna river, 28; takes soundings west of Andamans and Nicobars, 32; leaves Bombay harbour, 32; visits south Sentinel island, 33; total distance run by during seven years work, 33. Inquiry into working of Marine Survey Depart- ment, ll. Trawadi river, Survey of, 24, 25, 36, 79, 155 (mote), 156, 166, 168, 170, 203; geological observations in basin of N.W., 267. Irak pass, 190. Iron, Effect of, on stone known to Hindus in ancient times, 332. Tron. See passim through geological chapter. Will be found indexed under name of locality. - Ishkaman river, 143. Ishkashim, 143, 193. |= INDEX. 397 J. Jabalpur, 213; Jabalpur fossil flora, 246; Jabalpur Railway, 250; 277; Jabalpur obser- vatory, 289. *Jabree.” British Indian wooden barque, dis- covery of part of wreckage of, 29; description of track of, 30. Jackson, Captain, 167, 168, 170. Jacob, Colenel, “ Jeypur portfolios of architec- tural details by,” 363. Jacobabad, 47, 241. Jade mines (Upper Burma), 169. Jafrabad, charting required of, 34. Jaggayyapeta stupa, 358, 360. Jahngria, 333. Jaina monuments, 322, 340, 346, 352. Jaintia hills, 258, 277. Jaipur, 306. Jaisalmer, 238 ; fossiliferous limestones in, 269. Jakao, 30. Jalalabad, distance from Peshawar, 130, 133, 134; height of, 140. Jalandhar Doab, 333. Jalandhar, 106; Mr. Rodgers in, 340; monu- ments in, 344. Jalawan, 97. Jalpaiguri, 121, 213. Jam valley, 177. James, Mr., 169. Jami Masjid at Jaunpur, 339. Jammu coal, 273, 275. Jamnagar, 349. Jamrud, Fort, 131. Jamsetjee Dhunjeebhoy Wadia, master builder, 8. Jamshidis, 178, 184. Janssen, M., 290. Jarrad, Nay. Lieutenant, R.N., despatched in “Clyde” to survey Amherst, 1; surveys Madras, 2; connects, astronomically, Diamond island, Rangoon, and Amherst pagoda, 2; in charge of boat party surveying, 4; surveys Bankote river mouth, 9; impaired health of, 9; placed at disposal of Admiralty, 11. Jashk, 298. Jaugada inscription, 358. Jaunpur, survey, 114; 322, 338; Dr. Fiihrer’s report on Sharqi architecture of, 228, 339; Masjid at, 330. Jaunsar, 260. Jehlam, mound at, 333. Jehlam river, 251, 326. Jelep La pass, 126, 153. Jesalmer. See Jaisalmia. Jesuit fathers at Tasienlu, 155. Jeypur, 231; Jeypur observatory, 299, 306. Jhansi, district survey, 114, 340. Jhinjuwada, 324, 250. Jodhpur, 80, 81, 238, 250, 274. Joga, 253. Jogada Naugam, 348 (note). Jogeswari, caves near, 323, 353. Johnson, Mr. E. T. S., 108. Johnstone, Major-General, C.B., 104. sone Mr. E. J., 268, 267, 268, 272, 273, 274, 277. Jones, Sir W., 318, 320, 367. Jongu, 158. Journal of Indian art, 226. Jowain, 175, 176. Jowaki Expedition, 104; Jowaki hills, Surveys in, 148. J pedulus pass, Captain Strahan’s survey of, Jumna, ancient cities near, 327. Junagadh, 346 (note), 347, 348, 349. Junkseylon, Commander Taylor visits, 1; chart of, 2; 7b. (note) ; sailing directions for, 3. Junnar, 352. Jyghur, port of, surveyed at request of Sir R. Temple, 7. K. K—p, 163, 164, 165. Kabadian, 188. Kabul valley column, 129; survey of valley, 133; triangulation connected with Kuram, 133; position of Kabul, 140; height of, 140; 183, 190; map of routes to, 223; Mr. Gries- bach in Kabul valley, 278. Kach Gandavya, 94. Kach valley, 97. Kachi plain, 48, 94, 95, 96, 97. Kachin hills, 166, 169. Ka-cho, 171. KKadis, 179, 180. Kafiristan, 130; slavery in, 134, 135, Mr. MeNair in, 149, 150 (note), 191. Kafir Kot, 91, 333. Kahalgaon, rock- cut temple of, 333. Kaiani kings, 174. Kailang, observatory at, 295. Kailas temple at Elura, 324, 353, 354. Kaisar river, 131, 186. Kaisarghar peak, 147, 148. Kaitu Kuram, 149. Kajuri Kach, 98. Kaka Khels, 149, 150. Kala Chitta Pahar tract, 104. Kala-i-Madre Padshah, 173. Kala Fath, 174, 175. Kalabagh, 252. Kaladan river, 364. Kaladgi, Antiquities in, 342, 346. Kalagwe, 166. 144; 398 Kalanjara fort, 337. Kalburga, 344. Kali river, the, 161, 250. Kaliana (Jhind State), 274. Kalimpong, 279. Kalsi, 326, 848 (note). Kalyana, 350. Kaman-i-Bihisht, 176, 177. Kamawaram coal-field, 248. Kameng branch of the Bhoroli, 78. Kamrup boundary survey, 75. Kamtis, 75, 79. Kan (Upper Burma), 170. Kanara, coast, 35; 322, 355, 367. Kanara-Mysore frontier, 82, 83. Kanauj, 326 (note). Kanchanjanga mount., 127, 162, 225. Kanchipuram, 359. Kanchipuram, 371. Kanchrapara station, East Bengal Railway, 121. Kandahar, 64; route from, to Girishk, 129, 133 ; battle of, 137 ; position of, 47, 139; height of, 140, 174, 185; gold near, 254; Kandahar range, ib. Kandia, 141, 142. Kandil river, 149. Kangra district survey, 99. Kangra Lama La pass, 127, 151. Kanheri, 352; K. inscriptions, 354. Kaniguram, 146. Kankali mound at Mathura, 240. Kantee, 171. Kanungos for Bengal, 118. Kapilavastu, Mr. Carlleyle’s supposed identifica- tion of, 331, 332. Karachi, 25, 197, 201, 206, 213, 214, 215; Karachi winds, 292. Karakoram pass, 158. Karakul, Great and Little, lakes, 192. Karashahr, 158. Kara Tapa Kalan, 187. Kara Tapa Khurd, 187. Karatash, 192. Karatoya river, 334. Karenis as surveyors, 116 ; Kareni State, 169. Karharbari coal-field, 240, 245, 278. Karkatcha range, 134. Xarleh, 61. Karnali river, 152. Karnul, cave explorations, 263, 268; 277. Karta, 160. Karwar, 2, 197, 204, 274. Karsambla, Buddhist caves at, 342, 355. Karauli, 336. Kasauli cantonments, 80. Kashgar, 192; Kashgar and Yarkand meteor- | ology, 287. Kashkar, 366. INDEX. Kashmir, 150, 154, 194; amine in Kashmir, 246 ; Mr. La Touche (geologist) in Kashmir, 272. Kashmir, temples of, General Cunningham on, 337. Kasia, ruins at, 332. Kathe tribes, 363. Kathiawar, 34, 85, 231, 245; Mr. Fedden (geolo- gist) in Kathiawar, 250, 256, 262, 265; meteorology of Kathiawar, 308, 309; Kathia- war, monuments in, 341; Dr. Burgess’s Archeological report on, 347, 349. Kathi tribe, 347. Katni, 250, 264. Kaurkonda-Papakenda range, 247._ Kausambi, 337. Keda, 350. Kegudo, 154. Kennedy, General, 146. Ketas, temples at, 333. Keyes, General, in Jowaki country, 104. Khaf, 177. Khairgura, 240. Khairpur meteorite, 271 (note). Khaisar valley, 146. Khajuraho, 330, 337. Khakrez, lhe lower, valley, 254. Khamba Jong, 158. Khamiab, 174, 187. Khan Bahadur, Title ** Bozdar,” 148. Khanabad, 188, 194. Khandagiri caves, 327, 331, 358. Khandesh Survey, 70,71; monumental remains in 342. Khanti (of Wilcox), 171. Khanwa, Battle field of, 336. Kharajangas pass, 180. Kharan, 95, 97, 98. Khari, 81. Kharwar (Afghanistan), 278. Khasia, Garo, and Naga hills survey, 75; 277. Khatan, 275. 256; Katni railway to Jabalpur, of, bestowed on the KXhatmandu valley, 162. Khawak, 191. Khelat, 64, 93, 94, 97. Khetran country, 94, 97. Khiderzai clan, 148. Khirthar range, 241, 254. Khojah Ali, 173. Khojak range, 254. Khojas, fugitive, in Badakashan, 193 (note). Khorasan, 176, 195, 267; geology of eastern Khorasan, 269. Khost (Punjab frontier), 130, 146; Khost (Sind Pishin Railway), 92, 275, 277. Khotan, 157. Khulm and river, 186, 188, 189, 190. Khurasan (Baluchistan province), 97. INDEX. Kherd Kabul, 140, 278. Khurdeh estate (Pooree), large scale surveys in, | 103, 114. | Khushk-i-rud valley, 133. Khusrah writing assigned to survey staff, 109. Khwaja-Amran range, 96, 97. Khwaja Salor, 187. Kielhorn, Professor F., 372. Kidderpore, 201, 207. Kila Bar Panjah, 143. Kila Wamar, 193. Kilif, 182, 187, 188. Mindat, 299. King, Dr., 238, 245, 256, 266; appointed Super- intendent of the Geological Survey, 272, 273. Kinney, Mr., 51. Kirghiz, 192. Kiria, 157. Kirman, 177. Kirthar range, 253. Kishen Singh. See A——k. Kishen Singh (geological apprentice), 253. Kishenganga valley, 145. Kisseraing, 204. Kistna river, 125, 247. Kitchen, Mr., 150 (note). Kittoe, Captain M., 321. Kli¢, Herr, 227. Kodi Kols, 323. Kohat, district survey, 90,91; Kohat town, 92; Kohat pass, 104; 250. Koh Daman, 133, 134 Koh-i-Baba mountains, 182, 190. Koh-i-Saf, 181. See also Safed Koh. Kohistan, 134, 191. Kohitezek pass, 193. Kokcha river, 194. Kolab, 143. Kolam, 142. Kolar gold mines, 273. Kols, The, 248. Kondane, 352. Kong-lachen pass, 158. Konkan survey, 124; description of Konkan, 125. Konni, 169. Kopah, 1. Kopargaum, antiquities in, 342. Korba, 273. Korokh valley, 177, 179. Kostenko, Captain, 192. Kotai, 350. Kotanni pass, 149. Kotkai, 150. Krakatoa, 204, 205. Krik (French missionary), 155. Krishna shoal lighthouse, 53. Krol greup, 260. 399 | Kshatrapa inscription at Junagadh, 348. Kshatrapa kings of Surashtra, 347, 349. Kuchar (East Turkistan), 158; (Afghanistan), 179. Kudara, 193. | Kuen Lun mountains, 153, 154, 157. Kuhaks, 97. Kuhsan, 174, 176, 182. Kulachuri Rajas of Chedi, 332. Kuldar, 188. Kulha range, 163. KKumaun, 48, 50, 161, 250, 258, 273, 275. Kunar valley, 130, 135, 150. Kund, peak of, 134. Kunduz, 186, 194; Kunduz river, 188, 189, 190. Kuru river, 163. Kuram valley, 91, 129, 130, 133; triangulation connected with that of Kabul, 7b.; Mr. Wynne in, 250. Kushk river, 177. Kushk Rud river, 176. Kussilong, 258. Kusinagara, 332. Kuthera, 337. Kwwandar valley, 147. Kyaukku temple, 364. Kyauk-pyu, 23. Kya-whyat, 276. Kyendwen river, 79. Kyonkse, 166. L. L—, explorer in Tibet, 151. L ¢ (Chambel), 152, 157. Laccadive islands, 29, 35. Ladak, 157, 253, 275. Ladak, Cunningham’s, 337. Lahore, 338 ; monuments at, 343, 344. Lahore observatory, 284, 298, 304. Lahori pass, 150. Lakanpur coal-field, 269, 274. Lake, Mr. P., 272, 274, 277. Lakhima, inscription at, 337. Laki range, 241. Lakpat, 86. Lala Hem Raj, 311. Lalla Ruchi Ram Sahni, B.A., 296. Lama, The. See U.G. Lamaing, 166. Lambeth (India Store Depét) observatory, 216. Lambton, Colonel, 38, 44, 47; commences the trigonometrical survey of India, 58, 212. Lambton and Everest’s Great Arc, 58. Lamech, shrine of, in Lughman, 134. 400 “ Lamp Rock,’ The, 192 and (note). Lamuti, 141. Land settlement, map of India showing, 226. Lane, Mr. W., 116. Langdao, 79. Laram Kotal, 150. Large scale cadastral surveys, 102. Lash Jowain, 173, 175. Lataband pass, 135. La Touche, Mr. J. D., 112. La Touche, Mr. (geologist), 256; in the Dehing basin, 260, 264, 265; in Garo hills, 269, 272; in Kashmir, 273, 275; 277. Laterite, 249. Latitudes and longitudes of Indian localities, 209, 318. Launggyet, 364. Leach, Lieut.-Colonel E. P., on Simla survey, 80, 88; in North Afghanistan, 130; wounded and gains V.C.,7b.; in Argandab and Khakrez valleys, 137; description of Hazara country by, 2b. Le Bon, Dr. G., 320 (note), 362. Légé & Co., Messrs., 199, 217. Leh, 157; actinometric observations at, 295, 296; barometrical observations at Leh, 293. Lem Chang P’ra (Siam), 5. Leopards found in N.W. Afghanistan, 195. Leo Porgyal, 50. See also Porgyal. Level, “ Reversible,” 217. Levelling operations observations, 200. Lhakhang-Jong, 160. Lhasa, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 160, 376. “Lhasa, Narrative of journey to” (by 8.C.1).), 158. Lhobrak Chu, the, 163. Lhobra Sanpo, 160. Lho Jong, 156. Lhok’haptra, 164 (note). Lighthouses and light vessels, inspection annual return of, 13. Lignite from Baranga, 246. Limestone fossils in Upper Burma, 280. Lingala, 248. Lipu Lek pass, 161. Lithang, 155. lithographic Office, Calcutta, 221. Lithological nomenclature, 271 (note). Little, Dr. C., 311. Little, Mr. C., 311. Lo river, 164. Lob Nor, 153, 157. Lockhart, Sir W., 167. Lockyer, Professor N., 289. Loess soil in Badghiz, 178. Loftus, Captain A. J., additions to hydrography of Siam coast, received from, 5. Logar valley, 133, 134, 135, 278. in connexion with tidal of, 9; INDEX. 4 7. Logs, meteorological observavions in ships, 289, 292. See also Marine meteorology. Lohardaga, 245. Lohit river, 156 (note). Lonad, 353. London Geological Congress, 276. Long, Captain F. B., R.E., 97, 137. Longitude observations, passim in Chapter IX. Longitudes and latitudes of Indian stations and localities, 209, 223, 317. Longrin coal-field, 265. Lora river, 136, 173. Lower Provinces, mapping of, 231. Lucknow observatory, 285. Ludhe, 150. Ludhiana district survey, 106. Lughman valley, 98, 131, 133. Luni Pathan, 97. Lu river, 155 and (note). Chu. Lungleh, 308. Lushai expedition, 170, 277. Lut-dih, 150 (note). Lydekker, Mr., 238, 246; on the N.W. Himalayas, 260; retirement and services of 263; 268. See also Giama Nu M. M S in Badakshan, 142; presented with medal, 144. Macdonald, Colonel J., 86, 104, 123, 125. Macgregor, Major C. R., 79. Mach coal seams, 256. Machine for calculating tidal heights, 199. Ma-chu rivers, 153, 154. Mackenzie, Colonel Colin, 32) ; his survey of the Amravati Tope, 358 (note), 359, 367. Mackenzie, Lieutenant, R.E., 99. Madhapur, 256. Madras Presidency topography, arrangements for completing, 84; in Indian atlas, 231. Madras, survey of roadstead, 2, 4, 5, 19, 28; Madras coast series, 45, 46; Madras longitu- dinal series, 46; Madras revenue survey, 84; 197, 201; mean sea level at Madras, 202, 203, 204; 211, 214, 215; longitude of Madras, 210, 213; Madras observatory, 285, 312; Madras rainfall, 288; Madras cyclone of 1875, 290; Madras monuments, conservation and restora- tion of, 343, 345. Madura district survey, 84, 85; Mr. Foote in Madura, 256, 260; Madura, antiquities in, 359. Madya, 276. Magadha, Ancient kingdom of, 326, 329, 347. Maha-Kosala, Ancient capital of, or Chattisgarh, 335. Mahanadi, 36, 281, 239; Upper Mahanadi, 264. Mahamuni pagoda, 364. INDEX. Mahasthan, 334. Mahi river, 297. Mahoba, 337. Mahomed Jan, 133. Mahseud Waziris, 91. Mahuwa cr Mowa, 21. Maigna, 171. Maiji Sahiba, tomb of, at Junagadh, 349. Maimana, 178, 180, 181. Mainlon, 166. Maisey, Colonel, 521. Maitland, Captain, 191. Maiwand, Battle of, 137. Mak, 179. Makran, surveys in, 99; Makran geology, 243, 270, 349. Makrana (Arvali Mountains), marble quarried at, 243. Makum, 276. Malabar, South, Part of, geologically examined, 276. Malay peninsula, 231. Malegaon, 200. Maleeka or M’Li-kha river, 79, 170. Mallet, Mr., 238, 243, 262, 272, 276, 277. Malnad, 82, 83. Malot, temples at, 333. Malwa and Bhopal survey, 87. Malwa, General Cunningham in, 329. Malwan surveyed, 18. Mamallapuram, archeological reports on, 359, 362, 371. Manar, gulf of, 19. Manasarowar lakes, 50. Manas river, 160, 163 and (note). Mandai, 94. Mandalay, 24, 166, 167, 168, 169, 299, 364. Manapand shoals (off Tinnevelly), 35. Manbhum, 244. Mandwa bay surveyed, 27. Manegaon, 241. Mangal country, 130. Mangalore, 4, 60, 211,212, 215. Manganese ores in Gosalpur, 274; in Sandur hills, 276. Manikyala, 326, 333. Manipur, inhabitants of, 76,168 ; Manipur-Burma Boundary Commission, 257; 258, 262. Manning, Mr. T., 374. Manora point, 19. Mansahra, 348, 369. Manual for meteorologists, 286. Manual of Geology of India, 243, 271. Manuscripts, collections of Burmese, Siamese, and Cambodian, 364. Mara, caves at, 331. Marble in Arvali region, 243. Maratha country, 90, 125, 249, 250, 346, 367. I Y 20321. 401 Marathas, 335, 347. Marco Polo, 154. Mardan, 341. Margherita (Assam), 79. Marine meteorological observations, 295, 297, 300, 302, 305. Marine surveys of India, early history, 1; new department under Commander Taylor, 1; committee for inquiry into working of, 11; report by Captain Brent on the department 12,13, 14,15; re-organisation of 15; Com- mander Dawson suceeeds Commander Taylor in charge of, 15; total cost of department, 16; list of the publications of, 16,17; results of, 17; second period of, 18; total work remaining for, 34-36. Markandi temples, 329, 332, 336. Markham, Mr. C. R., on Indian agriculture, 120 (mote) ; on Lake Palti, 159; 373; his work and publie services, 375. Marmagao, 2, 10, 25, 206. Marri country, 93, 96, 97, 133, 254. Marshall, I.N., Mr., rough chart of of harbour of Port Blair made by, 30. 289, 292, Marshman, Mr., 318. Martaban, Gulf of, 2, 26, 36. Martin, Captain Gerald, in Kuram valley, 129; in Kohistan, 184; in Waaziri, 146. Maruchak, 194. Marwar State, 80, 90. Mashhad, 174, 176, 182, 191, 309. Masson, Mr., 321. Mastuj, 141, 144, 150. Masulipatam, 4. Mathematical Instrument Office, Caleutta, 218 ; department transferred to new building, 220, 221. Matheran survey, 125. Mathura, 112, 326, 328, 335, 344, 348, 363. Mauritius observatory, 310. Mayo, Earl, 314. Mayo salt mines, 251. Mayu river, 364. Mazagon, 10. Mazar-i-Sharif, 182, 188, 189. Mazure, Monseigneur de, 155 (note). McCarthy, Mr., triangulation by, 54; accom- panies Siamese telegraphic expedition, 54; returns to Moulmein, 55. McCullagh, Major, 83, &4. MeGill, Mr., 81. MeMehon, Colonel, 239, 246, 260, McNair. Mr. W. W., 91, 98; his death and services, 7b., 135, 149, 150. Measurement of meridional ares, 209. Mechi river, 160. Medixval style of Indian architectnre, 323, 324. Medlicott, Mr., 238, 253; retirement and services of, 270; his geological writings, 271; 273, 276, 283 (note). Meerut district survey, 108. Ce 402 Meghna river, reconnaissance of, 19; survey of Meghna flats, 27, 28. Mehka, 171. Mehmudabad, 362. Meins, Mr. C., 234, 290. Mekong river, 155. Mekran. See Makran. Mektar vailey, 147. “Memoirs by the Medical Officers of the Army in India,” 228. Men tribes, 164. Mena, 147. Menaknath, Cave temple of, 89. Menda La pass, 159. Menhirs, 324. Meos of Mewat, the, 336. Meridional ares, measurement of, 209. Merk, Mr., 178, 175. Merriman, Colonel, 86. Mergui, 1: selected as site for measurement of a base-line, 55; description of, tb., 56,57; 58; tin in Mergui, 278 ; 364. Mergui archipelago, 3; survey of, 25, 26; re- plotting of beaten track in, 26 ; 37. Merv, 187. Merwara, forest surveys, 80. Meteorites, 271 (note). Meteorology, 288 ef seg.; meteorology of Indian seas, 289 and passim in chapter; report on Indian meteorology, critically compared with that of Russia, 290. Meudon observatory, 290. Mewar, 90; Mr. Hacket in Mewar, 266. Mewat, Meos of, 336. Mians, 149. Michni fort, 130, 131. Middlemiss, Mr. C. S., 263, 268, 269, 272, 275. 273, Middle Mosevs, Triangulation station on, 53. Midnapur, district survey, 116; 245. Mihirakula, 370. Milam, 49,151; Milam pass, 253. Military route surveys, Conduct of, i32. Mill, Mr., 321. Minar, Buddhist, in Kabul valley, 134. Minbu, 168, 169. Minbya, 364. Mineralogy of India, 273, 280, 282. Minerals of South Afghanistan, 2 Minicoy, 208. Mining and boring operations in India, 274. Mints at Calcutta and Bombay, 217. Mir Izzut Ollah, 190 (note). Miranzai valley, 91, 280. Miri Hills, 52. Miri Padam, 164. Mirkhwaili, 92. Mirya, survey of bay of, 4. ae INDEX. Mirzapur district survey, 109, 112. Mishmi country, 156. Mithankot, 206. Mitra, Dr. R., C.1.E., 325 (note). Mitri, 93. M’Li-kha river, 79. See also Maleeka river. Model map of India, 225. Mogaung, 169. Moghuls, descendants living in Afghanistan, 186 ; 190 (note). Mogok, 167. Mo-goung-poon, 171. Mogulkot, 279. Mokoshat mountain, 79. Monghyr, 206. Mongolia, A——k in, 151, 153; 192. Mong States in Eastern Burma, 170. Monsoon forecasts, 289 ef seq. Moutreal, Geological Section of British Associa- tion, 265. Montriou, Commander, 15. Monuments, preservation of ancient, 320, 341, 344, 345. Moorcroft, Mr. W., 152. Moradabad revenue survey, 108. Moscos islands, 26, 53. Moshabar pass, 141. “ Mosque of Vazir Ali Ad-din Khan, at Lahore.” Mr. J. L. Kipling on, 363. Moulmein, 2, 3, 57, 201, 204, 207, 214, 364. Mounds in Shorapur, 323. Mowa, survey of, 21. Mrohaung, 364. Mud bank at Alleppi, 274, Mudhera, 324, 355. Mugzisolma, 157. ort Hii. Muhammadan buildings, rare, in Konkan, 125; Muhammadan ‘or Saracenie architecture, 322 ; Muhammadan buildings in Bombay Presi- deney, 325 ; Muhammadan ravages in Deccan, 350. Muhammad Yusuf Sharif, 147, 148. Yusuf. Mukur, 140. Muleli, old diamond workings in, 247. “ Mullah,” Explorations of the, 141. Multan, 136. ** Munshi,” the, 135. Munjan, 150. Mundra, Port of, 34. Murchison grant awarded to Mr. McNair, 150. Murghabi river (Pamir), 143, 193. Murghab river (N.W. Afghanistan), 178, 179, 180, 181. Murphy, R. X., Mr., on Bombay and its popula- tion in medieval times, 6. Murree, water supply of, 275. Musadarra, 148. Musa Khel country, 147, 148. See also INDEX. Mussoorie, 296 ; Mussoorie observatory, 304. Mustugh Ata, 192. Muzattargarh, 104, 105. Muzaffarnagar district survey, 107, 108. Muzaffarpur district survey, 117, 118, 119. Muzawar surveys, 102. Muztagh range, Point of convergence of, with Hindu Kush, 143. Myanong, 53. Myingyan, 169. Myittha valley, 170. Mysore survey, 81; survey of Mysore town, 84; area of Mysore state, 84; Mr. Foote surveys auriferous deposits in Mysore, 272; 322; Meadows Taylor on, 360. N. Nadsur, Buddhist caves at, 342, 355. Naga hills, coal-fields in, 238; 257; petroleum in, 276. Naga tribes, 75, 80. Nagarkoil, 215. Nagar (Mysore), 82. Nagpur observatory, 285. Naichi valley, 153, 157. Nainshe, 158. Nain Singh, Pundit, birthplace of, 49 (note}, 151, 158, 165. Nalai valley, 147. Nammaw, 167. Nanaghat inscriptions, 354. Nandidrug, 82, 84. Nangaparbat mountain, Description of, 145. Narakel, 4. Naratu, 179. Narayanganj, 19. Warbada and Siwalikh Equide, 259. Narbada river and Perim island, survey of chan- nel between, 27; Mr. Bose on the Lower Narbada, 265; Narbada valley, 271 (note) ; floods on the Narbada river, 297. Narcondam, 26. Nari river basin, 93. Narmada river, 327, 329, 350. Nasik survey, 86; Nasik, Antiquities in, 342, 351, 352, 355. Native Passenger Ships Act, 3. Native States, Statistical information regarding, 317. Natives as geologists, 264. Natyadung pass, 54. Naungsa lake, 171. Nava-deva-kula, 331. Navibandar, 31, 32. Nawal, 331. Neching Gangra range, 156. 403 Needham, Mr. J. F., 79, 156 (note), 165. Neftid, Red sands of Arabian, 262. Negapatam, 4, 21, 47, 201, 205, 207. Nellore district, 240. Nemezan lion, statue of Herakles and, 335. Nepal, 127; G. S. S. in, 160; 161, 162, 231, 349. Nepal and Oudh frontier survey, 124, 160. Newtold, Captain, 237. Newland, Mr. J., 89. Newman, Mr., 54. New South Wales, Minister for mines, 266. Neza Tash pass, 193. Nicobar islands, 28, 204, 205. Nilgiri hills, 47. Nilang valley, 51. Nili river and fort, 184, 186. Nishapur, 187. Niti pass, 253. Nizam’s dominions, survey of portion of, 90, 128, 124; map of Nizam’s dominions, 224, 226; Dr. Burgess’s archeological researches in western part of, 350. Noa Dihing valley, 52, 78, 79. Noah’s ark, Traditions of, in Lughman, 134. Noetling, Dr. F., appointed paleontologist, 272; 276, 277, 279. Nomenclature, Lithological, 271 (note). Nongyong 79, 166. Northbrook, Earl, 376. Norman’s Point, 3. North-West frontier and adjacent regions, Ex- plorations in, 140. North-West Provinces, irrigation map of, 228; North-West frontier mapping, 226; North- West Provinces rainfall, 294; North-West Provinces and Oudh, monuments in, 544, 346. North-West quadrilateral, 59. Notices to mariners published, 3. Nowagarh-Kharial, 239. Nu Chu. See Giama Nu Chu. Nuksan pass, 150. ‘© Numismata Orientalia,’ Marsden’s, 372. Nurpur, 340. Nushki, 94, 96, 172, 173. O. Obeh, 140, 183. Observatories, Meteorological, 284 ; classification of, 296, 304. Ocean Highways, Rainfall chart in, 294. Occupancy tenants, 111, 113. Ogle, Mr., in Lakhimpur, 75; on Assam frontier, 79; his account of work of No. 6 party on Eastern frontier, 80; in Kuram valley and Zaimukht country, 133; 167, 170. Ce2 404 Oldenburg, Professor, 332. Oldham, Dr., 237, 257, 270. Oldham, Mr. C. l., 248. Oldkam, Mr. R. D., appointed to geological survey, 253, 257, 262, 264; in Bikanir, 269, 279, 274, 277. Onlet, 164. Orakzai. See Urakzai. Oriental Congress of 1874, 356. Orissa coast, examination made of, 22; survey of, 33, 36; triangulation along, 65; cyclone off, 206 ; 369. Orr, Messrs., and Sons, of Madras, 266. Oudh revenue surveys, 112; Oudh and Nepal frontier survey, 124, 160; Oudh monuments in, 346 and (note). Oxus river, 143, 174, 176, 181, 186, 187, 366. Oxus, Upper, valley, 192. See also Panjah. 1B P. A. in Bhutan, 163. Pachmarhi observatory, 285. Padams, The, 165. Padao, 79. Pagan, river survey party (under Commander P. J. Falle) at, 24. Paithan, 350, 351. Paiwar pass, Captain Woodthorpe at, 129; Paiwar pass, 120. Pakchan, 1, 27. Pakokku, 168. Pala dynasty of Bengal, 333. Palamau, 244. “Paleontologia Indica,” passim in Geological Chapter. Palanpw, 89. Palesar pass, 142. Palibothra, 328. Palitana, 355. Palk straits, survey required of, 35; triangulation (connecting Ceylon with India) via, 45. Pallavaram, 359. Palmer, Mr. C. E., R.N., appointed member Marine Survey Committee, 12. Palmer, Mr. G. G., 226. Palmyras shoals, delineated, 22. Palni Hills, the, $5. Palosin, 146. Palti lake, 158, 159 (and note), 164. Yam-dok-tso. Pamir, 192, 193, 270. Panama, mean sea levels at isthmus of, 202. Panchalinga, 347. Panch Mahals survey, 89. Panch Pahari, 330. Pandua, 340. Panipat, Battle of, 365. Panjah river, 193, 194. Pangong lake, 157. See also See also Oxus. INDEX. Panjara-Borddhonkuti, 334 (note). Panjgur, 95 and (note), 147. Panjkora valley, 141. Panjshir, 191. Pantaleon, coins of, 370. Paoghan, 182. Paranagar, 336. Paris Exhibition, 223; Geological Congress at Paris, 255. Parivrajaka Maharajas, 370. Parner, antiquities in, 342. Paropamisus, 177, 178, 179, 267. Pascoe, Navigating Lieutenant, R.N., surveys Madras roadstead, 2; visits Cochin, Beypore, and Calicut, 5; completes examination of Quilon roadstead, 7; completes survey Back bay, 19; surveys Quilon, 21; resigns Indian marine survey, 31. Pataliputra, 328. Patkoi range, 78, 79, 166. Patan, 88, 355. Patna district survey, 114; observatory, 285; barometrical observations at, 293; Patna, 328, 331, 333, 348, 353. Pattadkal, temple at, 324, 347. Patterson, Mr. W. H., 126. Patwari Bill for Bengal, 118. Paundra Varddhana, ancient capital of, 334. Paumben, 4, 8, 197, 204, 261, 309. Pawagarh hill survey, 89. Peacocke, Captain, 187, 191. Pedder, Mr. W. G., 377. Pedler, Mr. A., 311. Pedro point, 28. Pemakoichen, 164. Pemberton, Captain, 163. Pench coal-field, 267. Pendulum observations, 44; Captain Basevi’s, 210, 212. Peukalaotis, 336. Pennar river, South, 46. Perak, Mines of, 276. Perim, 34; (Red Sea), 309. Periodicity of drought or famines, 287, 300. Periplus, the, 351. Periyar project, 85. Permanently settled districts of Bengal, Survey of, 119. Persian inscriptions, 339, 346 (note). Persia, Yusuf Sharif in, 99; Eastern Persian Mis- sion, 172; Persian gulf, 270. Peshawar, column, 130; 140, 141, 336 (note). Petley, Navigating Sub-Lieutenant E. W., 2; takes up survey Bombay harbour,9; notes by on history and topcgraphy Marmagao, 10; sur- yeys Bombay foreshore, 10; descriptive sketch of Goa by, 10; 121. Petroleum in Baluchistan, hills, 276; in Burma, 276. Peyton, Mr. J., entrusted with topographical survey of Byans valley, 48, 49. 275, 279; in Naga INDEX. Phaeton shoal, Report by Commander A. D. Taylor on, 9. Phari, 151. Phayre, Lieutenant-General Sir A. P., 372. Pho-mo-chang-thang-tso lake, 159, 160, 163. Photo-collotype process, 228. Photo-electrotyping process, 229. Photo-etching process, 227, 228. Photoglyptie process, 227. Photographie Office, Calcutta, 221. Photo-heliograph, 290. Phra Pratom pagoda, 54. Phyllite Gondali, 329. Pigou, Dr., 368. Pilcher, Dr. J. G., 311. Pilots ridge, 22, 36. Pirghal peak, 146. Pir Panjal (Jammu territory), 238. Pishin valley, 96, 97, 98, 129, 173; geology of, 254 ; rainfall in, 300. Piyadasi, inscriptions of, Mr. Senart on, 361. Plane table, 101; usefulness of, for military route surveys, 132. Planets, Minor discovered at Madras, 313. Platinotype process, 223. Pliny, 351. Pocock, Mr., 48. Pogson, Miss Isis, 293, 311. Pogson, Mr. N. R., 287, 312. Pollen, Lieutenant W. H., 170. Po-lo-mo-ki-li, 359. Po-lo-yu monastery, 359. Polu, 187. Ponani, 47. Pondicherry, port of, 35; measurements of polygons between Madras and, 46, 47; 349. Ponrowa, 334 (note). Poona, tidal and levelling party at, 57; survey conference at, 86, 89, 126; Poona district survey, 122, 197; 200; Poona College of Science, 216; Poona observatory, 285 ; anti- quities in Poona, 342. Population, map showing density of, 226. Porbandar, 29 ; survey of, 31, 32. Porgyal mountain, 50, 260. Port Blair, rough chart made of harbour of, 30 ; juspection of working of tide gauges at, 57, 201, 205. Port Childers, 22. Port funds liable for tidal gauge expenses, 196. Porto Novo, 35. Portraine, county Dublin, geology of, 271 (note). Ports, inspection of Indian peninsular, 4. Porus, Alexander’s battle with, 326. Postans, Lieutenant, 321. Potter, Mr., assistant surveyor, 47, 55. Pottery works started at Jabalpur, 277. Potwar, 241. Mr. Medlicott on 405 Powell, Commander, Survey of pass between India and Ceylon by, 4. Poweil, Mr. G. H., 169. “ Pownah ” surveying vessel, 16. Pranhita valley, 237, 247. Predictions of tidal heights as compared with actuals, 206, 208. Prehistoric remains in India, 321. Prendergast, Sir H., 99. Preparis, 26. Price, Mr., triangulates towards Quetta, 48. Prince’s dock, Bombay, 10, 207. Prinsep, Mr. H. T., 318. Prinsep, James, 321; the first to discover positive dates in Indian history, ¢b., 325, 369, 372. Priyadasi, 361, 369. Proby Cautley, Sir, 236. Prome district, 364. Prongs lighthouse, 10. Propert, Mr., 342. Prshevalsky, General, 154, 157. Prun, 155. Pudukattai State, 245. Pughman range, 134; Pughman district, 135. Puhi creek, 19. Pulicat, 28, Pul-i-Khisti, 178. Pullan, Major A., 85. Punniar, batile of, 337. Pumthang river, 163. Punjab revenue survey, 104, 112 ; 231; geodetic operations in the, 215; Punjab, General Cun- ningham’s explorations in, 326, 332; Punjab, Lieutenant Abbott, R.E., restores monuments in, 344. Pym-ul-win (Burma), 166. Pyrolusite (manganese ores) in Central Pro- vinces, 274; in Sandur hills, 276, Q. Quetta, 47, 92, 93, 94, 98, 172, 173. Quilon, roadstead, 7 ; survey of, 21. R. R N—, 161, 162, 163, 164. Rahanpur, 334. Rahat Shah, 150. Rainfall charts, 225, 294, 309; rainfall registra- tion, 286, 300, 301, 302, 309; rainfall as affected by forests, 298, 299 ; rainfall in Northern India, 290; memoir on rainfall of India, 299, 306. 406 INDEX. Rain-gauge, Symons’, 309. Raipur meteorite, 271 (note). Rajgarh, 336. Rajendrala Mitra, Dr., 325 (note). Rajim, 335. Rajmahal hills, 244; Rajmahal coal-field, 274. Rajpuri river, chart of entrance to, 23. Rajputana, 80, 81, 90, 231, 238, 269, 298, 322, 328 ; General Cunningham in, 336; architec- ture and scenery in, 346 (note). Rajputs, 350. P Rajput temples, 323. Rakas Tal, 152. Raleigh shoal, 10. Ramree roadstead, survey of, 21. Ramkola, 250. Rama bridge, 261. 5 Ramayana, invasion of Ceylon mentioned in the, 261. Rameswaram, 261, 359, 362, 371. Ramnad Zamindari, 371. Rampur coal-field, 266, 274. P Rampurwa, 332, 340. Ramri island, 246. Rang-kul lake, 192, and 193 (note). 5 > Rangoon, 1, 2; hydrographie notices published containing sailing directions for, 3; Lieutenant Coombs’ surveys port of, 11 ; Commander Dawson surveys entrances to, 20,21; inspec- tion of working of tide gauges at, 57; 201, 204 ; Rangoon observatory, 285. Ranipur-jural, 331. Rann, the Great, 85. ? Rashtrakuta, king Dantidurga, 354. Ratnagiri, survey of port of, 4 ; fauna of shores near, 6, Ravenshaw, Mr. J. H., 334 (note). taverty, Major H. G.’s Notes on Afghanistan, 150 (note), 365. Rawal Pindi revenue survey, 104, 105; Rawal Pindi plateau, 241. Rawlins, Lieutenant, 194. Rawlinson, Sir H., 190 (note), 192 and (note). Razmak valley, 146. Rea, Mr., 358, 359, 360, 362. Red hills of Madras, 249. Red Sea, 309. Reductions in survey budget, Secretary of State disapproves of, 39; correspondence on subject of, 39 and (note). Reduction of triangulation, 232. Reh efflorescence, 246, 271 (note). Registan, 96, 254. Regur, or black cotton soil, 261. Rehatsek, Mr. E., 355 (note). Religions, Map of India, showing, 226. Renny-Tailyour, Lieutenant, 170. Reorganisation of Marine Survey epartment, 15. Reports on moral and material progress of India, 374. ; Repsold, instrument 174. Rer river, 250. Revenue survey branch, reductions in, 39; Te- organisation of department and amalgamation with trigonometrical and topographical, 40; list of officers and surveyors in amalgamated departinent, 40, 41; Revenue surveys, 100-127 ; Revenue Survey Office, Calcutta, 221. “ Reversible” level, 217. Rewa, South, basin, fossil flora of, 259; Rewa Gondwana basin, 264; Rewa, General Cun- niugham in, 336. Richardson, Dr. J., 311. Ribbentrop, Mr., 299. Richelieu, Captain A. de, 2. Ridgeway, Sir J. West, 172. Rigidity of earth, 203. Rima, 156 (note). Robert, Mr., 126, 127. Roberts, Mr. E., F.R.A.S., 197, 198, 199, 200, 203, 204. Robertson, Dr., 150 (note). Robinson, Captain D. G., R.E., 251. Rock-cut temples of Western India, 346. Rockingham pateh surveyed, 28. Rodgers, Mr., archeological surveyor, 340, 361. Rogers, Major, commences Eastern Sind series of triangulation, 47; attached to southern army in Afghanistan, 48 ; relieves Captain Hill in com- pletion of Eastern frontier series, 56 ; inspects working of tide-gauges, 57; in Southern Afghanistan, 129, 135; 204. Rohilkhand, Dr. Fiibrer in, 340. Rohri, 238, 333. Rohtak, village survey, 106. Rohtas, 340. Rojhi, port of, 34. Roman carayan across Pamir, 193 (note). Rong-chu, 159. Ronson, Mr. W., 374. Roshan, 143. Ross, General, 104, 134. Roate surveys, conduct of, 132 ; in first Afghan War, 139. Rowland, Sergeant, 295, 297. Roy, General, commencement of trigonometrical survey in England by, 38. Royal Geographical Society, 156, 158, 170. Ruby mines, 167, 169. Ruby tracts in Burma, 276, 279. Rudbar, 173. Rudra Mala, temple at Sidhpur, 88, 324. Rumbur, 150. Runn of Cutch. See Rann. Rupnath, 329. Rurki observatory, 285. Russian meteorological report critically com- pared with that of India, 290. — INDEX. Ryall, Mr. E. C., Kumaun and Garhwal survey completed under, 48 ; description of triangula- tion by, 50 (see note). Rysselberghe, Van, meteorograph, 285. 8. S. C. D. (Sarat Chandra Das) Babu, 158, 159. Sabarmati, 297. Sabzawar, 185. Sachu, 154, 158. Sacramento shoal, 21. Sadiya, 52. Sadri, 322. Safed Koh ranges, 130, 178, 180. Safis, 135. Sagain, 169. Sah coins, 348 (note). Saharanpur survey, 107, 120. Sahet Mahet, 339, 340. Sah Kings of Surashtra, 349. Saichor, 7. Saidabad, 134. St. Thomé, 5. Saithang, 154, 158. Saitu. See Sachu. Saiva caves, 323. Saiva temples at Pattadkal, 347. Sakaw, 169. Salaya creek, 34. Salem district survey, 85. Salsette island, 353. Salt range, the, 241, 246, 251-3, 263. Salt range fossils, 259, 263, 268, 270, 273, 276, 278. Salt produced by solar evaporation at Sar, 81. Salwen river, 155, 168, 203, 363. Sama, 155. Sambalpur, 250. Samding monastery, 158, 159. Samuell’s, Captain E. W., 86, 120, 124; attached to Peshawar column, and death of, 124, 130. Sam-ye, 160. San Francisco, 234. Sana, 349. Sancharak, 181. Sanchi tope, 322, 327, 330, 343, 370. Sandeman, Colonel, 112, 170. Sandeman, Sir R., 95, 147. Sand Heads, The, 207. Sandoway, 20, 21, 22, 36, 364. Sandrakoptos, 369. See also Chandragupta. Sandrapali, 240. 407 Sands, red and white blown, in Tinnevelly and Madura, 262. Sandur hills, 266, 276. Sandwip channel, 19. Sangala, fortress of, 337. ° Sangamner, antiquities in, 342. Sangram, Prince, 336. Sankara, ancient fort at, 331. Sankisa, 337. Sanpo river, 52, 153, 156, 158, 159, 163, 164, 171. Sanscrit inscriptions, 339. Sanskrit inscriptions from Girnar, 346 (note). Santapilly, 19, 29. Sapphires in Zanskar, 273, 275. Saracenic architecture, 322, 323. Saraswati river, 88. Saran, 332. Sarez Pamir, 148. Sarhad, 143. Saripul, 180, 181; Saripui river, 186. Sar Laspur, 141. Sarun district survey, 109. Sasik, 193. Sasseram, 330, 340. Satara, district survey, 122; 200. Satpura Mountains, 71; Satpura basin, 240 ; Satpura Gondwana basin, southern coaltields in, 269, 273. Satrunjaya, 322, 346 (note). Saugor island, 201, 207; Saugor island obser- vatory, 284, 285. Saunders, Mr. T., 374. Sauras or Savaras, aboriginal race of, 335 (note). Schlagintweit-Sakiilunski, Mr. H. von, 286. Schlagintweit, Mr. R., 259. Science and Art Department, 327. Scientific instruments, Supply of, 216. Sconce, Colonel, 104, 115. Scott, Mr. G. B., 95, 104, 130; attacked by Momands, 131); granted sword of honour, 131 ; in Zhob, 147. Scully, Dr. J., 194 (note), 290. Sea-level, mean, on Indian coasts, 200-208. Sedimentary rocks, 236. Selung tribe (Mergui archipelago), 56. Sehwan, 48. Seismometric observations, 263. Seistan, 173, 175, 176,254 ; Mr. W. T. Blanford in, 259. Selby, Lieutenant, late I.N., 15. Seleukos Nikator, 369. Selungs in Mergui, 56. Senior, Mr. Rh. W., description of Periyar project by, 85 (note). Serap Gyatsho, Lama, 162 (note), 163. Settlement, Map showing land, in India, 226. Seven pagodas, temple of, 324, 343. Sewell, Mr. R., 357, 358, 371, 405 INDEX. Sewestan, 93, 94. _ Seychelles, meteor. Observations in, 309. Shah-jui, 136. Shah Yar, 157. Shah Maksud range, 254, 255. Shakh Budin, 251. Shakh Dara valley, 143. Shachau. See Sachu. Shahabad district survey, 109, 115. Shah Alam, 365. Shahbaz-garhi, 348 (note), 369. Shahderi, 333. Shahk, 188. Shahr-i-Nao, 177: Shahr-i-Wairan, 180. Shah Riza, of Drush, 366. Shan hills, metalliferous deposits in, 273, 276. Shan States, 166, 167, 168, 169, 363. Shapur coal borings, 256. Sharag coal locality, 256. Sharan river, 149. Sharqi kings, 330. Sharigh valley, 277. Shashgao, 140. Shaw, Mr., 295, 296. Sheikh Mohidin, 96. Shekabad, 140. Shekawati State, 80. Sherani country, 147. Sheravati, Falls of, 83. Sherpur, 133, 135. Sher Shah, tomb of, at Sasseram, 330. Shial Bet surveyed, 21. Shibrghan, 181. Shigatze, 151, 152, 158. Shignan, 143, 192. Shikto valley, 146. Shillong, 75, 263. Shingle islands, 8. Ships’ meteorological observations, 289 and passim in Chapter XIII. See also Marine meteorology. Shinwari country, 130. Shir Shah, 328. Shiva table land (Badakshan), 143; Shiva lake, 193. Shorapur, barrows in, 323. Shorarud hills, 96. Shorawak, 96; survey of Shorawak valley, 129. Shore, Sir J., 367. Shore temple at Seven pagodas, 343. Shor Tapa, 187. Shortrede, Captain, base line measured by, 61. Shortt island, 22. Shuidar peak, 146. Shutargardan pass, Woodthorpe’s reconnaissance of, 130; 278. Shwe Dagon pagoda, 364. Siahgird, 188. Siam coast, Additions to the hydrography of, 53, 54; Siam, triangulation carried into, 54. Sibi, 92, 93, 94; Sibi coal deposits, 256. Sibpur Engineering College, 275. Sibsagar, 263; Sibsagar observatory, 285. Sidhpur, 88, 324, 355. Sikandra, 344. Sikaram peak, 130, 131. Sikh States survey, 106. Sikkim, survey by Lieutenant Harman and Mr. Roberts, 126, 127; 151. Silahara copper plate grant, 242. : Silchar, 258, 263. Silk manufactory at Sachu, 154; Silk shawls formerly manufactured at Paithana, 351. Sinclair, Mr. W. F., 342. Singorgarh, 329. Simla survey, 80; Simla Hill States survey, 99; Simla and Jutog, map of, 225; Simla geology, 239, 260; Simla barometrical observations, 288 ; Simla observatory, 304, 306. Simms’s survey of Caleutta, 122. Sind, triangulation in Eastern, 47 ; 231; Blanford on geology of Western Sind, 241 ; tertiary rocks of, 256 ; Sind fossils, 266, 268 ; Sind, Buddhist topes in, 323; Sind, archeological remains in, 342 (note) ; Sind, Arabian conquest of, 348. Sivelair, Dr. C., 311. Singareni coal-field, 273. Singapore, 200, 234. Singhbhum, 244. Singora, 5. ©. Singphos, 75. Sinus Argaricus, 46. Sirgujah coal-field, 274. Sironcha, 240. Sironj, 58, 60, 206. Sirpur, 335. Sirsa village survey, 106, Sirthang. Sce Saithang. Sittang river, marine survey required of, 36. Siwalik hills, 237 ; Siwalik and Narbada Equide, 259; Siwalik fauna, 246, 263, 271. Skandagupta, 331, 337. Sladen, Mr. Perey, 259, 268. Slavery in Kafiristan, 124. Smalan, 92. Smart, Mr. R. B., 115. Smith, Mr. E. W., 339, 362, 363. Smith, Major Lees, 125. Smyth, Lieutenant Morris, R.N., surveys Nega- patam and Nagore, 21; engaged in buoying the Chiva Bakir entrance to Irawadi, 26; surveys poris of Porbandar, &e., 31. Snows, Himalayan, meteorologically considered, 294, 295, 296, 297, 300, 303, 310. Soane irrigation cadastral survey, 114. Soap, Village of (Kashmir), 275. INDEX. Sohagpur coul-field, 256. Soils, classification of, 112. Sejali, 346 (note), 362. Solar physics, 234, 289, 290, 291. Soldiers trained for surveying, 99. Somnath, 346 (note). Sonepet, 277. Sonarekha river, 348. Son river, old course of, examined, 328. Sorath, 347. Southern India, Archeological survey of, 356. Soti ereek, 19. Souter, Captain, prisoner in Afghan War in 1842, 131. - South-east quadrilateral, 59. Southern Moscos, 53. Southern Trigon, 60. South Patches, Wrecks by, 28. South-west quadrilateral, 59. Speir’s “ Ancient India,” 356. Spelling of Indian names, 318. Springs, list of thermal, 258. Spirit-levelling operations, 200. Spiti, 253, 260, 275. Sravasti, 330, 337. Sri Gupta, Maharajah, 336. Sri Sailam, 359. Srinagar observatory, 300. Statistical atlas of India, 226, 236 (note). Standard yard measures, 217. Stanford, Mr., 377. Statistical Survey of India, 314, et seq pag. Steatite in Karnul, 277. Steel, Colonel E. H., 106, 116. Steel-facing for copper plates, Process of, 223, 229. Stephen, Mr. Carr, 343 (note). Sterling, E., 179 (mote). Stevenson, Rev. Dr., 367. Stewart, Lieut.-Colonel, of Guide Corps, 137. Stewart, Professor B., 289. Stewart, Sir Donald, 129, 134, 137. Stiffe, Captain A. W., late I.N., directed to pre pare Annual Return of Lighthouses and Vessels, 13; entrusted with duty of issuing Notices to Mariners relating to India, 13; 34. Stirling. E., 179 (note). Storm flood in Bengal, 286. Strahan, Colonel C., 68, 130, 225. Strachey, General R., 205 (note). Strange, Colonel, 211, 216. _ Street, R.N., Commander A.D., 12. Strettell, Mr., 169. Stoliczka, Dr., 260. Stone-cutting known to Hindus in lexander’s time, 332. Stene tower, The, 193 (note). Storm phenomena, observations and warnings of, | 292, 295. 298, 304, 205, 307, 209, 310. Be Ne2032i1- 409 Sub-Himalayan districts of the Panjab, 105, 271 (note). Subansiri, 52. 163 (note). Subarmati. See Sabarmati. Subathu, 80.- Suez, mean sea levels at isthmus of, 202, 213; maps of Suez canal, 224, Suliman mountains, Geology of, 251, 256, 257. Sunargaon, 333. Sunchi reef, survey of, 10. Sundarbans, 23, 27, 28. Sungar, 179.. Surashtra, 347. Surat, 89; Surat flooded, 297. “ Surveys, Abstracts of,’? 374. Surveys, reduction in budget of, 39 ; comparison of three classes of, 101-3; Survey, equipinent in field, Report of Committee on, 138; Survey instruments, 216. Surkhab valley (Baluchistan), 97 ; (Afghanistan), 131, 278. Sunspots and weather, 308. Surveyor-General’s Office, Calcutta, 221. Sutlej river, 50. Swan, Mr. J. W., 227. Swat, 141, 150. Swatch - of - no- ground, Examination by the “ Investigator” of, and description of, 23. Sylhet, 75, 76, 77,78; Sylhet Mahalwar survey, 114; coal for Sylhet, 265. Sydney, 234. « Syud,” The, 149. | Tabakat-i-Nasiri, 184 (note), 190 (note). Tabulation of meteorological observations, 301. Tagharma peak, 192. Tahangarh fort, 336. Tailan route, 180. Taimani country, 183-185. Taiwara, 183, 184, 185. Tajiks, 194. Taj Mahal, Agra, The, 322; decorations of, Sir George Birdwood on, 363. Takapani, 250. Takht-i-pul, 189. Takht-i-Rustam, 190. Takht-i-Suliman Expedition, 94, 147, 148, 260, 264. Taklakhar, 50, 161. Tal, 92, 94, 129, 147, 268. Tal-Chotiali route to India, 94, 129, 136. Tal pass, 141. Talaings, the, 363. Talaja, 849. Dd 410 Talbot, Captain, the Hon. G. M., 94, 95, 137, 146, 172, 182, 189, 190. Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions, Dr. Burgess on, 371. Tandur, 240. Tandwa stupa, 330. Tangir, 142. Tanjore, 46, 245. Tanner, Colonel H. C. B., 86, 97, 99, 122, 124, 130; attempts to penetrate into Kafiristan, 7b., 144, 159, 160, 161. “Taptee,” brig, 15. Tapti river, 297, 329. Tarim river, the, 157. Tarnak valley, 133. Tashi Lhunpo, 158. Tashkurghan, 188, 189. Tasienlu, 154, 155. See also Stone Tower. Tasmanian Commissioners, 266. Taverner, Lieut.-Colonel, 86. Tavoy, 1; Tavoy river, 2, 36, 58, 364. Tawang, 151, 163, 164. Taxila, 326, 333, 337. Taylor, Colonel Meadows, 318, 321, 360. Taylor, Commander A. D., late I.N., see passim through Chapter I.; his retirement and services, WE. Tchamea, 165. Teesta river, Survey of lands adjoining, 127. Tejara, 336. Tejend, 179 (note), 186. Telegraphic determinations of longitudes, 209, 210, 212. Telkupi, 329. Tellicherry, 4. Telugu country, 351. Temple, Sir R., 7, 8, 314. Temples, illustrations of rock-cut, on, 360. Tenasserim, 27, 55, 201, Mr. Fergusson 276, 278, 279, 280, Tengapani River, 5. Terai survey, 112. “Terrible” rocks, 36. Termez, 187, 188. Tertiary fauna of Western India, Tezin, Khan of, 135. Thabeitkyun, 167. | Thakot, 151. Thal Ghat, 200. Thana district forest surveys, 89; Thana collect- orate survey, 125; Thana, antiquities in, 342. Thaneswar, 333. Thal, 250. Thayetmyo, 53, 169; myo district, 364. Theebaw, king, 166. Theobald, Mr., 238, 246. Theodolite, Colonel Strange’s great, 219, 224. 270. oil fields of, 276; Thayet- INDEX. Thermal springs in India, list of, 258. Thibaw, Tsawbwa of, 167. Thingkali, 153. Tho Bya, Island of, 56. Thomas, Mr. Edward, 348, 372. Thomason, Colonel, 7. Thompson, Dr., 195. Thomson, Sir Wm., 197, 199, 203. Thonze, 166. Three Pagodas (between Siam and Tenasserim), 53. Thuillier, C.S.I., General Sir H. L., topegraphical branch under control of, 38 ; retirement of, 40, 224, 373. Thuillier, Colonel H. R., R.E., succeeds Colonel De Prée as Surveyor-General of India, 45; in Mysore, 82. Tian Shan mountains, 158. Tibet, Survey of frontier peaks of, 51; route surveys in, 126, 151-160; Mr. Griesbach on frontier of Tibet, 260; meteorological obser- vations in Western Tibet, 290. Tidal observations, 57, 196-208. Tide predictor, 198, 199, 217. Tiger, Distribution of the, in Badghiz, 195. Tigowa, 337. Tigu lake, 163. = Tila La pass, 155. Tilail, mountains of, 246. Time-ball at Fort William, 289. Tinnevelli, 35, 84, 85; Mr. Foote in Tinneyvelli, 256, 260. Tipperah natives, 76. Tirah valley, 91, 92. Tiraj (Tirich) Mir, 144. Tirpul bridge, 176. Toba, Eastern, Sir H. Prendergast in, 99. Toba plateau, survey of, 129. Tochi, 149. Todd, Mr. J., 116. Todd, Mr. R., 80. Tod, Major James, 348 (note). Tongoup, Lieutenant Channer surveys approaches to, 20, 21. Tonghu, 53. Tonk, 146. Topographical survey, accomplishment of first, of India, 38, 68 ; reduction in survey budget, 39 ; re-organization of department, amalgamation of trigonometrica] and revenue survey branches with, 40; list of officers and surveyors in amalgamated department, 40, 41, 67-99 ; com- pared with other surveys, 101. Topra or Tobra, 333. Torrens, Mr., ‘Triangulation by, in Pishin, 48. Tourmaline in Shau States, 279. Tower, Mr. Beauchamp, 199. Townsend, Mr. R. A., 275, 276. Trade, import and export, Maps showing, 226. Trans-frontier regions, Explorations in, 128; mapping of, 231. INDEX. Transit of Venus, 213. Transit theodolites supplied in Afghan operations, 132. Trap, Deccan, 274. Travancore, 21, 35; survey of, 84, 85; Dr. King in, 256. Traverse surveys, 121. Treasure Trove Act, 341. Tree and serpent worship, Mr. Fergusson on, 360. Trevelyan, Sir C., 318. Triangulation, correction of errors developed in, 42; completion of entire triangulation of India, 58; retrospect of, 58; stations of, 63, 235; see also Trigonometrical survey. Trichinopoly, 245 ; observatory at, 285. Trigonometrical survey, early history, 38 ; reduc- tion of budget of, 39; re-organization of department, amalgamation of topographical and revenue branches with, 40; list of officers and surveyors in amalgamated department, 40, 41; Trigonometrical Survey Office, Dehra Dun, 221, 232; account of operations of, 233. Trincomali, 208. Tripalur reef surveyed, 28. Trivandrum observatory, 308. Trotter, Major, 192 and 193 (note), 245. Troughton and Simms, Messrs., 217, 219. Tsaidam, 153. Tui pass, 141. Tuna, port of, 34. Tungabhadra river, 350. Turbat-i-Haidri, 177. Turfan, 158. Tarkis, 194. Turkeskan, Map of, 232, 235. Turkomans, 176 ; Ersari Turkomans, 181 ; Turko- man country, 194. Turner, Captain, 151, 153. Turner, Mr. A. W., 227. Turturia, Brahman temples at, 332. Tusaran Bihar, 330. Tuticorin, 4; roadstead and harbour surveyed, 8, 207. Tween, Mr., 238. Whe U. G. (Ugyen Gyatsho), Lama, 158, 159, 160, 162 (note). Udaipur, 70, 73. Udayagiri, 331, 337, 358. Umaria coal-field, 255, 264, 269, 273. Umarkot, 238. Umballa district survey, 106, 107. Unai hot spring, 838. Undavilli, 357. Unta Dhurra pass, 50. Upheaval of coast between India and Ceylon, 261. Urakzai valley, 91, 149. 411 Urchha, 340, 363. Urel, 331. Urittaung, 364. Uruvilwa forest, 330. Uzbegs, 187, 189. v- Vade mecum, Indian meteorologist’s, 288. Vaigai (Veghavati) river, 46. Vaishnava caves, 323. Vaitarna, the coasting steamer, 307. Valej, 190 (note). Valabhi, inscriptions of kings of, 371. Valishan fort, 190 (note). Vallis Comedarum, 193 (note). Vambery, Professor, 179 (note). Vanrenen, General I. C., 100; his retirement, 104. Varv, 143. Vellar river, Triangulaticn across, 46. Vellur, Temple at, 359. Vengi, Kingdom of, 357. Venice, Geographical Congress, 88, 144, 156, 224, Ventura, General, 333. Venus, Transit of, 1874, 213. Verawal harbour, 7. Vieary, Captain, 257. Victoria, Minister for Mines, 266. Vienna Military Geographical Institute, 227. Viharas or Buddhist monasteries, 323. Vihowa basin, 148. Village or Muzawar survey, 102. Vilwa or bel trees, Forest of, mentioned in Baddha’s history, 330. Vindhyan mountains, 236, 250, 256, 269, 369. Vingorla, 18, 19, Vishnu Sastri Bapat, 368. Vizagapatam, 4, 21, 197, 201, 206, 212, 256; Vizagapatam and Bakarganj cyclones, 287. Viziadrug, survey of, 4; collection, examination, and preservation of fauna of shores near, 6. Von Abieh, Staatsrath, 257. Vypeen Island, Changes necessitating re-survey (in bs AW Waagen, Dr., 251, 259, 263, 266, 270, 276, 278. Wadjra Karur diamond field, 266. Waghers, Commander Taylor sent in 1859 to pilot expeditionary force against, 16. Wahab, Captain, 95, 96, 97, 147, 150, 172. Wainr Gaga river, 329. Wajiristan, 180 (note). Wakhan, 143, 270. 412 Walker, Mz., 378. Walker, R.E., Major-General J. 'I., C.B., ap- pointed president of committee for inquiry into working of Marine Survey Department, 12; Trigonometrical Branch under control of, 38; survey of India under control of, 41; notice of services of, 41; on the Lu river, 155, 156 (note); on tidal observations, 197, 203; on pendulum observations, 224, 235. Walkh, 190 (note). Ward, I.N., Captain, 36. Wardak, 136, 278. Wardha valley, 240, 248, 329. Warth, Dr., 278. Warwick, Mr., 49. Washington (U. S.), 234. Washington, Admiral, 16. Waterfield, Mr. H., 377. Waterhouse, Colonel, 223, 225, 227. Waugh, Major-General Sir A., 41, 62. Waziri country, surveys in, 91, 146, 148. Weather reports and charts, Daily, 289, 299, 303. Wedge bank, 19. Weighing balance for Mint at Caleutta, 217. Wellesley, Marquis, 366. Wellington, Duke of, 58. Wells, Deep, in Jodhpur, 81. Western coral banks (Andamans) surveyed, 30. Western Ghats, 6, 82, 202. Western India, monuwents and rock-cut temples of, 322, 346. Westmacott, Mr. E. V., 334 (note). Wharton, Captain, R.N., 207. Whish, Lieutenant, his survey of Back Bay, 1861, 19. Whitehouse, R.N., Lieutenant B., 30. Wilcox, Lieutenant, 171. Wild men in Northern Tibet, 153. Wilkias, Major W. H., 107, 108, 116. Wilkins, Sir Charles, 321, 367. Wilkinson, General H. C., 94. Williams, Mr. Monier, 318. Willison, Mr. W. L., death of, 247. Wilmer, Colonel, 96. Wilson, Dr., 321, 354. Wilson, Major, survey of Khatmandu valley by, 162. Wind observations, 196, 301. Wood, Lieutenant, I.N., 193. Wood-carving in Gujrat, 325. Wood-mason, Mr. J., 31. Woodthorpe, Colonel, 52; in Lakhimpur, 75; on Assam frontier, 78, 79, 129; narrow escape of, at Paiwar pass, 7b. ; accompanies Sir F. Roberts towards Cabul, 133; member of Committee on Survey Equipments, 187; 146, 167. Woolber Dr.. 309. INDEX. Wrecks and Casualties, Annual Return of, 3, 13. Wuleeshar, 190 (mote). Wurshigun river, 144. Wyatt, Mr., 167, 168. Wynne, M., 241, 246; retirement and services of, 263. NG: Yakban Pain, 184. Yakhsu river, 143. Yam-dok-tso lake, 151, 153, 158, 159, 163, 165. Yangi Hissar, 192. Yang-tse-kiang river, Upper, 153, 154, 157. Yard measures, Standard, 217. Yarkand, 158, 192; Yarkand mission, 171; 192 (note), 194; Yarkand and Kashghar meteo- rology, 287. : Yasin, 141, 142, 144, 150, 270. Yate, Captain, C.E., 194 (note). Yaw country, 168. Yenan-gyung oil fields, 276, 278. Yé river, survey of approaches to, 27, 36. Yembi, 154. Yeshil Kul, 193 (note). Yule, Sir H., 166 (note). Yudish thira, 343 (note). Yusuf Sharif, 95; in Persia, 99, 190. Yusufzai, 336, 344, 369. 148, 185, Z. Zafarabad, 339, 340. Zaimukht, 133, 135. Zamindawar, 182, 185. Zanakhan, 278. Zanskar, sapphires in, 273, 275. Zanzibar observatory, 308. Zarmast pass, 177, 179. Zarakhu valley, 279. Zayul Chu, 155, 156 (note). Zerni, 184, 186. Zhob valley, 91, 95; Sir H. Prendergast in, 99 ; 146, 147, 148, 172. Ziarat, 97. Zohak-i-Maran, 184. Zoological investigations, Commission, 194. Zorowar Sing’s Indian army routed by Chinese, 50. Zuhak, 190 (note). Zulfikar, 174, 176, 183. Afghan Boundary Lonpon: Printed by Eyre anp Srorriswoopk, Her Majesty’s Printers. a) ie hare act) r z i Oe Ey iy ih Se Laue ay “mam fi { wt thi A il Legs, MIT, iii