S ^ \

Vasts'

MEMOIRS

OF THE

6* • - ^ v ^ v

LITERARY

AND

* * '

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF MANCHESTER .

VOL. I.

I

/

SECOND EDITION.

. .<*

i

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR T. CADELL, IN THE STRAND.
M DCC LXXXJX.

/

f

I

\

TO THE

king,

I * S '

THESE VOLUMES ARE HUMBLY INSCRIBED

•S’*

V

BY THE MEMBERS OF THE

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
OF MANCHESTER,

WITH THE

I

PROFOUNDEST RESPECT AND LOYYLTYs

AND WITH PECULIAR GRATITUDE

fOR HIS GRACIOUS PATRONAGE OF THE
FIRST FRUITS OF THEIR

INSTITUTION.

'

THE

R E P A . C E.

H.E numerous Societies, for the pro¬
motion of Literature and Philofoph)^
which have been formed in different
parts of Europe, in the courfe of the laft and
prefent centuries, have been not only the means
of diffufing knowledge more extenfively, but
have contributed to produce a greater number of
important difcoveries, than have been effe&ed
in any other equal lpace of time.

The progrefs that has been made in Phyfics
and the Belles Lettres, owes its rapidity, if not
its origin, to the encouragement which thefe
Societies have given to fuch puifuits, and to the
emulation which has been excited between dif¬
ferent academical bodies, as well as among the
individual Members of eacli inftitution. The
colle&ing and publifhing the more important
communications which have been delivered to

A 3 them.

VI

PREFACE.

them, have faved from oblivion many very valu¬
able difcoveries, or improvements in arts, and
much ufeful information in the various branches
of fcience. Thefe their modeft authors might
have been tempted to fupprcfs, but for the re-
fpedable fandion of focieties of men of the firft
eminence and learning in their refpedive coun¬
tries, and the eafy mode of publilhing, which
their volumes of Tranfadions afford.

Though, in France, Societies for thefe pur-
pofes have been inftituted in feveral of the pro¬
vinces, in England, they have almoft been con¬
fined to the Capital 3 and however great have
been the advantages refulting from the refearches
of the learned bodies, who are incorporated in
London, it feems probable, that the great end
of their inftitutions, the promotion of arts and
fciences, may be more widely extended by the
forming of Societies, with fimilar views, in the
principal towns in this kingdom.

Men, however great their learning, often be¬
come indolent, and unambitious to improve in
knowledge, for want of affociating with others
of fimilar talents and acquirements : Having
few opportunities of communicating their ideas,
they are not very folicitous to colled: or arrange
thofe they have acquired, and are ft ill lefs
anxious about the further cultivation of their
minds. — But fcience, like fire, is put in motion
bv collifton. — Where a number of fuch men

have

PREFACE. vii

have frequent opportunities of meeting and con-
verfing together, thought begets thought, and
every hint is turned to advantage. A fpirit of
inquiry glows in every bread. Every new dis¬
covery relative to the natural, intelle&ual or
moral world, leads to a farther invedigation 5
and each man is zealous to didinguilh himfelf in
the intereding purfuit.

Such have been the confiderations that have
led to the inditution of the Literary and Phi-
lofophical Society of Mancheder. — Many years
fince, a few Gentlemen, inhabitants of the town,
who were infpired with a tade for Literature
and Philofophy, formed themfelves into a kind
of weekly club, for the purpofe of converfing
on fubje&s of that nature. Thefe meetings
were continued, with fome interruption, for
feveral years ; and many refpedlable perfons
being defirous of becoming Members, the num¬
bers were increafed fo far, as to induce the
founders of the Society to think of extending
their original defign. Prefidents, and other
officers were elected, a code of laws formed,
and a regular Society condituted, and deno¬
minated, THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER.

This Society now prefents the fird fruits of
its inditution to the public j and from the
affiduity of the Members, and the correfpondence
of others, there is reafon to prefume, that a

A 4 volume

P R E F A C £.

viii

volume may be regularly fent to the prefs, every
fecond or third year. The feleflion of the papers
has been made with as much impartiality, and
as drift attention to their comparative merits,
as could be expe&ed, in decifions of fo delicate
a nature. Yet the committee are fenfible that
a majority of- votes, delivered by ballot, is not
an infallible ted of excellence, in literary or
philofophical productions. This confideration^
they trud, will give them a reafonable claim
to the candour of the reader, if there fhould
be found occafion for its exercife : And they
hope that Gentlemen, who have favoured the
Society with valuable communications, will
deem it no injudice or difparagement, that their
Efiays have not been inferted, through the im¬
perfection of neceflary forms and regulations.
They are preferved in the Archives of the Society,
and may again come under review, when fub-
jefts of a fimilar nature, to thofe on which they
treat, are offered for difcudion. *

No fydematic order has been obferved, in
the difpofition of the mifcellaneous materials,
which compofe thefe volumes j becaufe fuch an

* Several Diflertations, by Dr. Percival, Mr. Henry,
and others, enumerated in the printed Report of the Society,
were publifhed by their refpedlive authors, long befoie
thefe Memoirs were committed to the prefs.

arrangement

PREFACE.

ix

arrangement would have required the completion
of the work, before any part of it could have
been committed to the prefs.

The fan&ion which the Society gives to the
work, now published, under its aufpices, ex¬
tends only to the novelty, ingenuity, or im¬
portance of the feveral memoirs which it con¬
tains. Refponfibility concerning the truth of
fafrs, the foundnefs of reafoning, or the accuracy
of calculation, is wholly difclaimed ; and mult
reft alone, on the knowledge, judgment, or
ability of the authors, who have refpedtively
furnifhed fuch communications.

LAWS

t

\

t

I

LAWS AND REGULATIONS

i

FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF THE

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
OF MANCHESTER^

1

TOGETHER WITH A

LIST OF THE MEMBERS.

LAWS.

I. Hp HAT the number of the Members of this
Society, inverted with the privilege of voting,
electing members, See. be Emitted to fifty.

II. That Honorary Members, refiding at a diftance
from Manchefier, be eligible into this Society, provided
no Gentleman be recommended, who has not diftin-
guiflied himfelf by his literary or philofophical publi¬
cations ; or favoured the Society with fome paper, which
fhall have received the approbation of the Committee
of Papers.

III. That every Candidate for admiffion into the
Society, whether as an Ordinary or Honorary Member,
fhall be propofed by at leaf! three Ordinary Members,

Who

LAWS.

xii

who fhall fign a Certificate of his being, from their
knowledge of him, or of his writings, a fit perfon to be
admitted into it : which certificate 'fhall be read at four
fucceffive meetings of the Society, previoufly to the elec¬
tion — Such election, with refpe£t to an Ordinary Mem¬
ber, to be void, if he do not attend within four meetings
afterwards, unlefs he can plead fome reafonable apology.

IV". That every election fhall be conduced by ballot ;
That the majority of votes fhall decide ; thirteen Mem¬
bers at leaft being prefent ; and that the Prefident fhall
have a cafting voice, if the number of votes be equal.

V. That two Prefidents, four Vice-Prefidents, two
Secretaries, a Treafurer, and a Librarian, be eledled
annually, by the majority of members prefent, on the
laft Wednefday in the month of April : The election
to be determined by ballot.

VI. That a Committee of Papers fhall be appointed,
by ballot, at the fame time, which fhall confift of the
Prefidents, Vice-Prefidents, Secretaries, Treafurer and
Librarian, together with fix other members of the
Society : And that this Committee fhall decide, by
ballot, concerning the infertion in the Regifter, or the
publication, of any paper which fhall have been read
before the Society ; and fhall be authorized to feledl,
with the confent of the author, detached parts of any
paper, the whole of which may not be deemed proper
either for infertion or publication : But that the prefence
of feven members of the Committee fnall be neceflary
for fuch difcuffion, or decifion.

VII. That Vifitors may be introduced by any Mem¬
ber to the meetings of the Society, with the permiflion
of the Chairman.

VIII. That the fubjects of converfation comprehend
Natural Philofophy, Theoretical and Experimental Che-
miftry, Polite Literature, Civil Law, General Politics,

Commerce,

X1U

L A'W S.

Commerce, and the Arts. But that Religion, the
Pradtical Branches of Phyfic, and Britifh Politics, be
deemed prohibited ; and that the Chairman fhall deliver
his Veto, whenever they are introduced.

IX- That each Member, wlTo (hall favour the Society
with any intending fads and obfervations, refpeding
Philof. phy, Polite Literature, &c. which may occur to
him, either from refleftion, experiment, reading, or
corrcfpoiidence, fhall fend his paper to one of the
Secretaries, the Monday before the meeting of the

Society.

X. That the Secretary, to whom the paper fhall be
delivered, fhall, with the approbation of one Prefident,
or two Vice-Prefidcnts, have the power of fufpending
the recital of it, if deemed improper to be read, until
the pleafure of the Committee of Papers be known, a
meeting of which fhall be called by the Secretary to
infpeait: And, if the Committee difapprove of its
being introduced to the Society, they fhall be empower¬
ed to reject it.

XL That all papers which fhall be delivered to the
Secretary, and not prohibited as above, fhall be read
by him, or the author, according to the order of fuc-
ceffion in which they were prefented.

XII. That each paper fhall be read to the Society
without interruption; and that more than thirty minutes
fhall not be allowed to the reading of any Angle paper :
]f more time be required in the delivery of it, the
remainder fhall, except the Society determine otherwife,
be deferred to the fucceeding evening. No paper,
however, fhall engage more than two evenings, with¬
out the confent of the Society expreffed by a ballot.

XIII. That a fecond paper fhall not be read, before
the fubjed of the former one has been difeuffed.

5UV

REGULATIONS.

XIV. That the Society fhall meet every Wednefday
evening, except during the Months of June, July,
Auguft, and September: And that each meeting {hall
commence at half paft fix, and be concluded at half
paft eight o’clock.

XV. That each Member fhall pay one guinea an¬
nually, at half yearly payments, into the hands of
the Treafurer, to defray the rent of the room, and
other incidental expences ; and alfo, to eftablifh a fund
for the benefit of the Society. And if any Member
fhall refufe or negledl to pay his fubfcription, he fhall
be excluded the Society. Each Member, on his elec¬
tion, to pay his fubfcription for the current half year,
together with one guinea, admiffion fee.

XVI. That it be recommended to each Member to
enter the Society’s room with filence, and without
ceremony.

XVII. That no Laws fhall be ena&ed, refcinded,
or altered, but at the quarterly meetings, on the laft
Wednefdays in the Months of January, April, and
October : And that notice fhall be given, at leaf! four¬
teen days, previous to thofe meetings.

REGULATIONS.

I. THAT the Society fhall publifh a volume of
mifcellaneous papers, every two years. And that, at
ftated times, the Committee fhall feledt from the
papers, which fhall have been read to the Society,
fuch as fhall appear to be mod worthy of publication :
But that no papers fhall be publifhed, again!! the con-
fent of the authars.

II. That

REGULATIONS.

xv

II. That a Library be formed for the ufe of the Mem¬
bers of this Society ; and that the Librarian be autho¬
rized to purchafe fuch books, as fhall be ordered at the
quarterly meetings of the Society : But that no books
(hall be taken out of the Library, without a written
order from one of the Secretaries, limiting the time of
keeping it to feven days.

III. That the refolution to eflabl ifh a Library be
announced to the Honorary Members of the Society;
and that it be intimated to them by the Secretaries, that
donations of their paft and future publications will be
highly acceptable.

IV. That a gold medal, of the value of feven guineas,
be given to the Author of the beft Experimental Paper
on any fubjeCt relative to Arts and Manufactures, which
fhall have been delivered to the Secretaries, and read at
the ordinary meetings of the Society before the laft
Wednefday in March 1786.

V. That the adjudication of this premium be referred
to the Committee of Papers; that their decifion fhall
be made by ballot ; and that the medal fhall be deliver¬
ed by the Prefident, to the perfon to whom it fhall have
been adjudged, or to his reprefentative, at thefirft meet¬
ing of the Society in OClober 1786.

VI. That if the perfon, to whom the medal fhall
have been adjudged, be not one of the Society, his name
fhall be enrolled in the lift of Honorary Members.

VII. The regular attendance of members being eflen-
tial to the profperity and ufefulnefs of the Inftitution,
that if any Member fhall abfent himfelf during the fpace
of three months, from the meetings of the Society,
notice fhall be fent to him, at a quarterly meeting, that
the Society confiders his abfence as a mark of difrefped,

and

xvi A LIST OF THE MEMBERS.

and that a more punctual obfervance of the Laws is
expected from him.

V HI. To encourage the exertions of young men,
who attend the meetings of the Society, as vifitors, that
a Fiver medal, not exceeding the value of two guineas,
be annually given to any one of them, under the age of
twenty-one years, who fhall, within the year, have fur-
nifhed the Society with the bell paper on any fubjedi of
Literature or Philofophy ; and that fuch adjudication
fhall be made by the Committee of Papers,

A LIST OF THE

MEMBERS.

* James Mafley, Efq. ^

* Thomas Percival, M. D. F. R. S. & > Prefidents*

S. A. & R^g- Soc. Med. Par. Soc. 3

* The Rev. Samuel Hall, A.M.

■* Charles White, Efq. F.R.S. Hono¬

rary Mem. R. M. S. & Cor. Mem.
R. S. A. in Scotland, &c.

* George Lloyd, Efq.

* Mr. George Bew,

* The Rev. Thomas Barnes, D. D.

* Mr. Thomas Henry, F. R. S.

Mr. lfaac MolTe,

Mr. Thomas Robinfon,

Mr- Jofeph Atkinfon,

Mr, John Barrow.

Y Vice-Prefidents.

| Secretaries.

Treafurer.
Librarian. •

Thomas

A LIST OF THE MEMBERS, xvii

Thomas Butterworth Bayley, Efq. F; R. S.

* Mr. John Bill.

Mr. John Birch.

Mr. Charles Frederick Brandt'

Mr. Alhworth Clegg.

Mr. Robert Darbey.

Mr. James Dinwiddie.

Mr. John Drinkwater.

* Mr. George Duckworth^

Alexander Eafon, M. D.

Mr. Edward Hall.

Mr. Richard Hall.

* The Rev. Ralph Harrifon.

Mr. Samuel Hibbert.

* Mr. Thomas Kerfhaw.

Mr. John Lawrence.

Mr. James Macaulay.

Peter Mainwaring, M. D,

John Mitchell, M. D.

Mr. John Orme.

Mr. George Philips.

Mr. John Philips.

Mr. Robert Philips;

* Mr John Leigh Philips.

Mr. Thomas Philips.

* Mr. James Potter.

Mr. John Powel.

The Rev. Frederick Robert Slater.’

Mr. George Wakefield.

Mr. George Walker.

Mr. John Wilfon.

Ttaje worked tin • art of the Committee of Paferu

*> HONORARY

i

xv’rii A LIST OF THE MEMBERS.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

John Aikin, M. D.

Felix Vicq d’Azyr, R. S. Med. Par. Sec. & R. A. Sc-
Soc. &c.

Sir George Baker, Bart. F. R. S. Medic. Regin.

James Beattie, L L- D.

Patrick Brydone, Efq. F. R. S.

Mr. John Buchanan.

The Right Rev. Beilby, Lord Bifliop.of Cheftcr.
Edwood Chorley, M. D.

Mr. Thomas Cooper.

James Currie, M.D.

Erafmus Darwin, M. D. F. R. S.

Edward Hufley Delava!, Efq. F. R. S. Reg. S. S. Got-
ting. & Upfal, & Inftit. Bologn. Soc.

The Hon. Sir John Talbot Dillon, Knight and Baron
of the Holy Roman Empire.

Rev. William Enfield, L L. D.

William Falconer, M.D. F. R.S.

Anthony Fothergill,. M.D. F. R.S.

Benjamin Franklin, L L. D. R. S. L. & R. Acad.
Scicnt. Par. Soc. &c.

The Rev. — — < Froflard, D. D. of Lyons, in France.
William Hawes, M.D.

John Haygarth, M. B. F. R. S.

Mr. George Hibbert.

Thomas Houlfton, M. D.

Alexander Hunter, M. D. F. R. S.

James Johnftone, M. D.

Monfieur Lavoifier, Reg. Ac. Scient. P. Soc.

The

A LIST OF THE MEMBERS, xix

TheRightRev. Richard, Lord BilhopofLandaff, F.R.S.
John Coakley Lettfom, M. D. F. R. S. 8c S. A.

Air. J. Hyacinth Magellan, F. R. S. 8c R. Acad. Petrop,
8c Paris. Correfp.

Mr. Patrick Mac Morlahd.

Henry Moyes, Al. D.

The Rev. John Pope.

The Rev. Jofeph Prieftley, LL..D. F.R.S. Acad. Imp.
Petrop, R. Holm. 8c Med. 8c Reg. Acad. Scienc.
P. Soc.

Mr. William Rathbone.

Mr. William Rofcoe, Liverpool.

Benjamin Rulb, M. D. ProfelTor of Chemiftry at
Philadelphia.

Doming Ralbotham, Elq.

Samuel Foart Simmons, M. D. F. R. S. & R. S. Al. P.

Soc. 8c R. S. Monfpel. Correfp.

The Rev. William Turner.

The Rev. George Travis, A. Al.

Air. Alexander Volta, ProfelTor of Experimental Philo-
fophy at Como, 8tc.

Martin Wall, M. D. Clinical ProfelTor in the
Univerfity of Oxford.

Mr. John Warltire. . Tj

The Rev. Gilbert Wakefield, B. D.

Jofiah Wedgwood, Efq. F. R. S.

The Rev. John Whittaker, B. D. F. S. A.

b 2 CONTENTS

X,

i • •!.> .

*■ » v ;

i : 1 • : . ..j ,

CONTENTS

OF THE

• * - > * • »

FIRST VOLUME,

£OME Remarks on the Opinion that the
Animal Body poffeffes the Power of genera¬
ting Cold. Ay George Bell, M.D. Page i.

On the Advantages of Literature and Philoso¬
phy in general and efpecially on /^Consistency
of Literary and Philosophical, with Com¬
mercial, Pursuits. By Thomas Henry,
F.R.S. - - P. 7-

On Crystallization. Ay Alexander Eason,
M. D. - - P. 29.

On the Preservation of Sea Water/™#/ Putre-
paction by Means </ Quicklime. By Thomas
Henry, F. R. S. — Bo which is added, an Ac -
count of a newly invented Machine for impreg¬
nating Water, or other Fluids with Fixed
Air, &c. Communicated to Mr. Henry by
J. Haygarth, M. B. F. R. S. - P. 41.

On

XXI

CONVENES.

On the Nature end EJfential Characters of
Poetry, as dijlinguifhed from Prose. By
Thomas Barnes, D. D. - Page 54.

On the Affinity fulfilling between the Arts : with
a Plan for 'promoting and extending Manufac¬
tures, by encouraging thofe Arts on which Ma¬
nufactures principally depend. By Thomas
Barnes, D. D. - " P. 72.

Remarks on the diferent Success with Refpebl to
Health, of f owe Attempts to pafs the Winter

in HIGH NORTHERN LATITUDES. By JOHN

Aikin, M. D. - ” P. 89.

On the Pleasure which the Mind receives
from the Exercise of its Faculties; and
that of T aste in particular. By Charles de
Polier, EJq. - “ P. no.

On CEconomical Registers. By Mr. J. Wimpey.

P. 134.

On the Pleasure which the Mind, in many Cafes ,
receives , from contemplating Scenes of Distr ess.
By Thomas Barnes, D. D. - P* *44*
Observations on BlJndness, and on the Employ¬
ment of the other Senses to fupply the Loss of
Sight. By Mr. George Bew. - P. 159.
On Salt-petre. By J ames Massey, EJq. P. 184.
sin Attempt to JloeWi that a Taste for the
Beauties of Nature and the Fine Arts, has
no Influence favourable to Morals. By the
Rev. Samuel Hall, A. M. - P* 223.

Observa-'

xxii CONTENTS.

Observations on the Ufe of Acids in Bleaching
of Linen. By Alexander Eason, M D.

Page 240.

Conjectural Remarks on the Symbols or Charac¬
ters, employed by Astronomers to reprejent the
feveral Planets, and by Chemists, to exprefs
the feveral Metals: in a Letter to Thomas
Percival, M. D. (Ac. By Martin Wall,
M. D. Clinical Professor in the Univer -
fity of Oxford. - - P. 243.

Remarks on the Knowledge of the Ancients.
By William Falconer, M. D. F.R.S. Com¬
municated by Dr. Percival. - - P. 261.

«■

An Inquiry concerning the Influence of the
Scenery of a Country on the Manners of its
Inhabitants. By William Falconer, M.D.
F. R. S. - - - P. 271.

A Tribute to the Memory of Charles de
Polier, Efq. By Thomas Percival, M. D.
(Ac. - - - - P. 287.

Thoughts on the Style and Taste of Garden¬
ing among the Ancients. By William Fal¬
coner, M.D. F.R.S. P. 297.

On the Regeneration of. Animal Substances.
By Charles White? Efq. F. R. S. (Ac. P. 325.

On the Diversions of Hunting, Shooting,
Fishing, (A confidered as compatible •pith
Humanity. - - - P, 341.

Observa-

CONTENTS . xxii*

Observations on Longevity. By Anthony
Fothergill, M. D. F. R. S. - P. 355.

On the Influence of the Imagination and the
Passions upon the Understanding. By
Thomas Barnes, D. D. - - P-375*

On the Ascent of Vapour. By Alexander

• Eason, M. D. - P. 395.

On the Comparative Merit of the Ancients
and the Moderns with Refpeft to the Imitative
Arts. By Mr. Thomas Kershaw. P. 405.

On the Impropriety of allowing a Bounty to en¬
courage the Exportation of Corn, &c. By
Mr. Joseph Wimpey. p. 413;

On the Natural History of the Cow ,fo far as
it relates to its giving Milk ; particularly for the
Use of Man. By Charles White, Efq.
F. R. S. <fc. ... P.442.

On the Natural History and Origin of Mag¬
nesian Earth, particularly as connected with
thofe of Sea Salt, and c/Nitre ; with Obser¬
vations on fome of the Chemical Properties
of that Earth, which have been , hitherto , either
unknown , or undetermined. By Thomas Henrv,
F.R.S. - - P.448.

EXPLANA-

EXPLANATION of the PLATES

in Vol. I.

P L A T E I.

Machine for impregnating Liquors with Fixed
Air.

E The Effervefcing Veffel.

TtThe Tubes through which the Air is
conveyed.

A The Air-VeiTel.

O The Opening through which the Com¬
mon Air is expelled.

B The Bellows.

W The Water-Vefiel.

PpThe Pipe through which the Air is
drawn into the Bellows,
cc A Pipe forming the communication be¬
tween the Air and Water-Veflels.

PLATE II.

Symbols ufed by the Aftronomers and Chemifts.

PLATE III.

A Reprefentation of the Stump of the
Humerus mentioned in page 337.

The dotted Line (hews the Part where the
Arm was amputated.

MEMOIRS

1

MEMOIRS

OF THE

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER.

Some Remarks on the Opinion that /^Animal
Body pojfejfes the Power of generating Cold.
By George Bell, M. D. Read May 1 6, 1781.

A CURIOUS and important difcovery
was announced to the world in the
lx y, vol. of the Philofophical Tranf-
aflions. We are there informed, that Dr. For-
dyce and other gentlemen, feveral different times,
went into a room, the air of which was heated
to a degree far above that of the human blood;
and though they remained there, fometimes
for the fpace of half an hour, yet the heat of their
bodies was not increafed by more than 3 or 4 de¬
grees. From hence they concluded, that the
living body poffeffes a peculiar power of generat-
Vol. I. B ing

1

Dr. Bell on the Generation of

ing cold by fome occult operation. The expe¬
riments feem to have been made with fufHcient
accuracy ; but the conclufion drawn from them
is liable to ftrong objedlion. For, in forming it,
feveral circumftances have been overlooked,
which, in my opinion, afford an eafy explanation
of all the phenomena, on principles already
known, without referring them to a new law of
the animal body, which probably does not exift.
Thefe circumftances I fhall endeavour to point
out.

I. The firfl caufe which prevented their bodies
from receiving a greater increafe of heat was,
‘The rarefaction of the air with which they were fur-
rounded.

The quantity of heat which different fubftances
contain, is, in general, in proportion to their
denfity ; and, in this proportion, they communi¬
cate more or lefs of it to others. A cubical foot
of water, contains a much greater quantity of
heat, than a cubical foot of air, of the fame
temperature: and, if a third fubftance be added,
its temperature will be confiderably changed by
the hot water, while by the hot air it will hardly
be changed in any perceptible degree. Many
fa£h may be adduced, which fcrve to illuftrate,
and, at the fame time, are explained by this
caufe. Thus, the fleam of boiling water will
fcald a perlon’s hand, which can fupport the heat
of air, of the fame temperature. And thus per¬
haps

Cold in Animal Bodies.

3

haps the weather, when hazy and loaded with
vapour, Teems to our feeling, hotter than when
pure and rare although by the thermometer it
is found to be equally warm in both inftances.

This alfo was the true reafon why, in making
thofe experiments, Dr. Fordyce always found that
he could bear a greater degree of heat in dry,
than in modi air. But nothing Thews more
clearly the flownefs with which heat is imparted
to a denfer fubftance, from one that is highly
rarefied, than a circumftance mentioned in the
paper in queftion : “ that even the fmall quan¬
tity of mercury, contained in a thermometer
which the gentlemen carried with them into the
room, did not arrive at the degree to which the
air was heated, during the whole time they re¬
mained there.”

II. Another caufe which, in the given fituation,
would diminifh the effed of the heated air, is,
’The evaporation made from the fur face of the body.

That evaporation produces a confiderable ab-
forption of heat is well known : and, in making
the experiments, there is reafon to believe, that it
took place in a confiderable degree. Dr. Fordyce,
anxious perhaps to eftabl ifh his general law,
feems unwilling to allow its influence. But when
it is confidered, that by the operation of the heat,
the force of the circulation was increafed, the
pores of the (kin relaxed, and the prtflure of the
internal air diminifhed j when we are told, that

B 2 a turgef-

4

Dr. Bell on the Generation of

a turgefcence of the veins, and an univerfal red-
nefs of the furface of the body, took place ; we
are compelled to refufe credit to the affertion,
even of Dr. Fordyce, that there was no evapora¬
tion. The evaporation mufi: have been great, and
would diminifh the effect of the external heat by
furrounding the furface with a cool atmofphere,
from its temperature fit for the abforption of heat,
and from its rarity, unfit for the ready tranfmif-
fion of it into the body.

III. But another very powerful caufe of the
body’s having preferved its temperature in the
given fituation, remains to be noticed ; which is,
<The fuccefflve afflux of blood to the furface, of a tem¬
perature inferior to that of the furrounding air. — By
this means, the fmall quantity of heat which
penetrated the fkin would be immediately carried
off, and transferred throughout the body: and it
would have required the fpace of many hours,
before the whole mafs could have received any
confiderable increafe of heat *.

It has been adduced, in proof of the exiftence
of the power of the living body to generate cold,
that frogs, lizards, and other animals of the fame

• It may here be remarked, that the two Iaft mentioned
caufes aft more powerfully in moderating the heat of the
external air, according to the neceffity there is for their
aftion : for both the evaporation from the furface, and the
velocity of the circulation of the blood, are in proportion
to the degree of heat applied.

lbrt

Cold in Animal Bodies.

5

fort poflefs it; for if touched, they feel cold.
This proves only, that their heat is lefs than that
of the hand, with which they are felt; and per¬
haps lefs than that of the air, when the trial is
made.

But it is extremely probable, that no animal
whatever can live in health, for any confiderable
time, in an atmofphere of a temperature fuperior
in heat to that of its own blood. Thus we find,
that the animals in queftion hide themfelves in
the day-time among thick grafs, where there is
a great evaporation ; and in places, into which
the rays of the fun cannot penetrate. Worms, in
hot weather, during the day, lie deep in the
ground ; but in the night-time, when it is cool,
rife to the furface to refrefli themfelves in the dew.
When frogs, worms, and fuch other animals are
expofed to air warmer than their blood, its influ¬
ence is counteracted by the fame caufes which
counteract its influence on the human body, the
evaporation from the furface of their bodies, and
the coldnefs of their blood. Such accidental
expofure happens more frequently to them, than
to the human fpecies ; and, from the inferiority
of their fize, they would be fooner heated through,
and lefs able to refi ft the noxious effeCis of the
hot air, were not their power of refilling it made
up in another refpedt. In fuch fituations, the
evaporation from the furface of their bodies is
greater; for their fkin is more lax, and is always

B 3 covered

6 ~ Dr. Bell on the Generation of, &c.

covered with moifture. It is, perhaps, for this
purpofe alfo, that it is rough and uneven ; which,
by extending the furface, caufes a greater evapo¬
ration.

Thefe may be faid to be the means through
which the human body is preferved, in nearly the
fame temperature, when it happens to be placed,
for a time, in an atmofphere of a fuperior degree
of heat. They feem to me fo adequate to this
effed, that I would even venture to impute the
increafe of the temperature of the body, from
96 to 100 degrees, which happened in the expe¬
riments, rather 'to the acceleration of the blood,
than to the influx of heat from the external air.
While the caufe of animal heat remains unknown,
it would be prefumption to aflert, that thefe are
the only means, by which the body is enabled
to refill the effeds of external heat. There may
be others ; and it is not unreafonable to fuppofe,
that as external cold, perhaps by its tonic influ¬
ence, increafes the power of the body to generate
heat, fo external heat may diminifh that power,
and thus leflfen the quantity of heat generated
within, while the evaporation, produced by the
fame caufe, guards it againfl receiving any accef-
fion from without.

My. Henry on the Confifiency of Literature , &c. 7

On the Advantages of Literature and Philoso¬
phy in general, and efpecially on the confifiency of
Literary and Philosophical with Commer¬
cial Pursuits. By Thomas Henry, F. R. S.
Read October 3, 1781.

To either India fee the merchant fly,

Scar’d at the fpeftre of pale poverty ! —

See him with pains of body, pangs of foul,

Burn thro’ the tropic, freeze beneath the pole!

Wilt thou do nothing for a noble end,

Nothing to make philofcphy thy friend ?

Pope’s Imitations of Horace, Epift. I. Book I«

THE purfuit of knowledge, when properly
directed, and under due influence, is of
the greateft importance to mankind. In propor¬
tion as a nation acquires fuperior degrees of it,
her ftate of civilization advances, and (he becomes
diftinguifhed from her lefs enlightened neigh¬
bours by a greater refinement in the manners of
her inhabitants, and a departure from thofe fero¬
cious vices, which mark the features of favage
countries. Vices Ihe will, indeed, ftill be addict¬
ed to, but of a different complexion from thofe
of her more uncultivateddays. For, wherever alove
of learning and the arts makes any confiderable
progrefs, even crimes themfelves lofe fomething
of their atrocioufnefs, and, though ftill offenfive,
are divefted of thofe ftrongj marks of brutality,
which generally accompany ignorance. The

B 4 horrors*

8

Mr. Henry on the Confifiency of

horrors of war itfelf are foftened : an enemy is
treated with humanity and kindnefs : the milder
virtues find admittance amongft the clafh of
arms; and men, when compelled to hoftilities*
feek victory, not to enflave or deftroy, but in the
moment of triumph rejoice in opportunities to
evince their clemency and generofity to the van-
quifhed foe.

That this pi&ure is not too ftrongly coloured
will appear from an appeal to hiftory, In the
earlier ages, we fee a conquering army hurling
deftru&ion and defolation, murder and rapine
around them, and, with unrelenting fury, fcarcely
diftinguifhing between friends and enemies. In
thefe more polilhed times, and the polifh may be
fairly attributed to the diffufion of learning and
philofophy, fuch cruel excefies are difcounte-
nanced and prohibited by the general confent of
every civilized people.

Nor are thefe improvements confined to
national manners : thofe of individuals have
been equally benefited. The natural tendency
of a cultivation of polite learning, is, to refine the
underftanding, humanize the foul, enlarge the
field of ufeful knowledge, and facilitate the at¬
tainment of the comforts and accommodations
of life.

How great is the contraft between the chara&ers
of the elegant fcholar, and the man whofe uncul¬
tivated mind feels no reftraint, but thofe which

the

Literature , 6?r. with Commerce. 9

the laws of his country impofe ! A tafte for po¬
lite literature, and the works of nature and of art,
is effentially neceffary to form the Gentleman,
and will always distinguish him more completely
from the vulgar, than any advantage he can de¬
rive from wealth, drefs, or titles. Thefe external
decorations, without thofe refined manners which
proceed from a proper Study of books and men,
ferve only to render his ignorance more confpi-
cuous ; whereas a man of a polite imagination,
not only fecures himfelf a favourable reception
in the world, but as Mr. Addifon obferves, “ is
let into a great many pleafures that the vulgar
are not capable of receiving. He can converfe
with a picture, and find a companion in a Statue.
He meets with a fweet refreshment in a defcrip-
tion, and often feels a greater fatisfadtion in the
profpedt of fields and meadows, than another does
in the poffefiion. It gives him a kind of pro¬
perty indeed in every thing he fees, and makes
the mod rude and uncultivated parts of nature
administer to his pleafures.”*

Affluent circumstances and abundant leifure
give the Gentleman great advantages over his
inferiors, in the more refined Studies. The cold
and heavy hand of poverty chills and repreSTes
the efforts of genius ; wealth cheriShes, and, if
I may be allowed the metaphor, manures and

* Spedlator, No. 41 1.

puShes

IO Mr. Henry on the Confijlency of

putties it forward to maturity. Sometimes, in¬
deed, in io rich a foil, weeds will fpring, which,
if not timely rooted up, may endanger the fafety
and health of the nobler plant. But a careful
cultivator will exterminate them early, and fedu-
loufly prevent their deleterious effects.

The importance of the Gentleman will ftilj rife
higher, his mind be enlarged, and his pleafures
be increafed, if, to the accomplittments of the
polite fcholar, he add the knowledge of the phi-
Jo fop her, and endeavour with a noble ambition.

Thro’ vaft immenfity to pierce ;

See worlds on worlds compofe one univerfe $

Obferve how fyftem into fyftem runs.

How other planets circle other funs. *

Defcending from this ftupendous elevation,
he will find this globe, which we inhabit, an
ample field for phyfical enquiries. Befides, that
man himfclf is the proper ftudy of mankind, he
will find the whole univerfe replete with fubjeds
for his contemplation. The air, the ocean, the
vegetable and animal creation, the furface of
the earth, and her mod profound cavities to
which human induftry has reached, will all fup-
piy abundant food for his intellectual powers,
turmfh him with infinite fources of amufement,
ttew to his wondering eye

All matter quick and burning into birth, f

Literature \ Sc. with Commerce. \ i

and teach him to admire that wife, that omnif-
cient Being, whofe fuperintending providence
infpe&s and regulates the whole, even the moft
minute parts of his creation.

And fees with equal eye, as God of all,

A hero perilh, or a fparrow fail.*

I believe, few will controvert the advantages I
have pointed out, as arifing to the Gentleman and
profeffionalift, from the ftudy of the Belles Lettres
and philofophy ; but I am lorry to fay, many
are the adverfaries we have to encounter, if thefe
arguments be extended to another wealthy clafs
of men — the Merchant and Manufacturer. The
commercial man, fay they, fhould confine his
knowledge to trade. His compting-houfe fhould
be his ftudy; his ledger his hourly amufement.
Gold and filver are the only metals with which he
ought to be acquainted ; and of thefe to know no
more, than the different coins into which they
are formed, and the current price of bullion. For
poetry, painting and mufic, he muft have no at¬
tachment, no tafte for engravings, but thole of
bank bills, and, if a fingle philofophical idea
fhould enter his head, thefe inveighers againft
knowledge would expeCt to fee his name imme¬
diately in the lift of bankrupts.

* Pope’s Eflay on Man, Ep. I.

To

12

Mr. Henry on the Confiftency of

To be ferious — So far have thefe prejudices
extended, that many parents entertain the moft
difmal apprehenfions of their fons acquiring a tafte
for literature, and look on an inclination to natural
philofophy as highly dangerous to their progrefs
in trade. Behold, fay they, that wealthy manu¬
facturer! Without any knowledge, beyond that of
the goodnefs of his raw materials, and of judging
whether his wares were properly fabricated and
finifhed, joined with a tolerable acquaintance with
figures, and a moft cautious prudence, he has
amaffed an affluent fortune. On the other hand,
fee that man of erudition l Inftead of attending to
the manufacture of his goods, his time was em-
ployed'in reading hiftory j inftead of keeping his
books, and ftating his accounts, he was lolving
problems in Euclid, or making chemical experi¬
ments in order to effeCt new difcoveries, when he
might have availed himfelf of thofe already made,
by the labour and at the expence of others. His
refined ideas had taught him that fulpicion is mean,
and his learning and credulity have plunged him
into ruin.

Thefe are fpecious but deceitful reprefentations.
That an imprudent young man may, by devoting
thofe hours to philofophical or literary purfuits,
which ought to have been given to bufinefs, have
precipitated himfelf into poverty and diftrefs, can¬
not be denied. But the mifchief arifes, not from
a tafte for thofe ftudies, but from the improper

arrange-

V

Literature , i£c> with Commerce. j *

sJ

arrangement of time. Want of oeconomy in this
point is equally, if not more injurious, than in
pecuniary matters.

It will be alfo allowed, that the profeflion, in
which each individual is engaged, Ihould, next
to the more important interefts of religion, at¬
tract and employ his principal attention. But the
mind of man, and efpecially of young men, muft
be provided with amufements. The young trades¬
man of fortune has generally many hours of lei-
fure, and if amufements be neceflary to footh the
rugged paths of bufinefs, (hall we choofe thofe
which lead to difiipation, to extravagance, to vice,
or fuch as tend to civilize the mind and improve
the underftanding, by developing the operations
of nature, explaining the nice connexion which
fubfifts between the lowed: and higher order of
beings.

To man’s imperial race.

From the green myriads in the peopled grafs ;

and tracing the hand of Omnipotence through
every link of that

Vaft chain of being, which from God began.
Nature’s etherial, human, angel, man,

Bead, bird, fifti, infedl, what no eye can fee.

No glafs can reach. *

Will not the time he can Spare from bufinefs be
more ufcfully employed in the ftudy of hiftory,

* Pope’s Effay on Man, Ep. I.

and

14 Mr. Henry on the Couftjlency of

and the reading of our bed: authors ; or at an air
pump, an electrical machine, or a microfcope,
than, as is too often the cafe with thofe youths
who have not received that culture which their
fortunes entitled them to, at the tavern, the gam¬
ing table, or the brothel ; or, if their minds be
not fufficiently aCtive, and paffions ltrong, to im¬
pel them to thefe exceffes, in idlenefs, low com¬
pany, and mean and degrading purfuits ? “ There
are indeed, but very few,” fays an excellent ob-
ferver of human nature, <c who know how to be
idle and innocent, or have a reiilh of any plea-
fures that are not criminal ^ every diverfion they
take is at the expence of fome one virtue or ano¬
ther, and their very firft ftep out of bufinefs is
into vice or folly. A man fnould endeavour, there¬
fore, to make the fphere of his innocent pleafures
as wide as poflible, that he may retire into them
with fafety, and find in them fuch a fatisfaCtion,
as a wife man would not blufh to take.”

The arguments, which have hitherto been ad¬
duced in favour of commercial men endeavour¬
ing to attain liberal knowledge, have been prin¬
cipally confined to thofe, whofe parents have
already acquired fuch fortunes, as raife their fons
above the level of the more necefTitous tradefman,
in whom a greater degree of afiiduity in bufinefs
is necefiary. But, even in this cafe, if his dili¬
gence and application degenerate into an in¬
ordinate defi e of accumulating wealth, and this

ruling

Literature , &c. with Commerce. 15

ruling po.JJion be allowed to conquer reafon , to fup-
prefs every wifh of the mind for improving and
fitting itfelf for higher enjoyments in this life,
and the participation of flill more exalted plea-
lures in a future flate, it then becomes criminal,
and ought to be refilled.

But it may be faid, that all men are not in¬
tended by nature for fcholars or philofophers j
and that there are flations in life that will not
admit of profound lludy and invefligation. Yet
there are few, whofe minds may not receive a bias
to fome ufeful refearch, whereby they may be
pleafingly and ufefully employed. And we may
be bold to aflert, that, though it is not in the
power o-f every man to fhine as a diftinguifhed
literary character, yet there is lcarcely any one
fo meanly fituated, as to renden fome fhare of
learning inconvenient to him; or who will be
a worfe man, or a worfe member of fociety, by
having advanced a few fleps higher in the fcale
of human knowledge.

Nemo adeo ferus eft, at non mitefcere poffit.

Si modo culture patientem commodat aurem. *

It is one. thing to be a profejfed fcholar or phr-
lofopher, and another, to poffefs fuch a degree of
information on a fubjeft, as is compatible with
our other avocations. To be a complete aflro-

* Horatii, Epift, I. Lib. i,. ~

nomer

i6 Mr. Henry on the Confijlency of

nomer would almoft monopolife the bufinefs of
a man's life. To procure a general , but fatisfac-
tory idea of the motions of the planetary fyftem ;
of the diftance of the fun from the earth, and of
the yet more immenfe diftance between us and
the fixed ftars, &c. only a moderate degree of
application is requifite.

Among thofe objects of ftudy which may be
recommended to the attention of the young
tradefman, fome may be confidered as ornamen¬
tal, while others deferve to be clafied in a higher
rank, with refpeft to the utility he may expedft
to receive from the cultivation of them ; and of
thefe again, fome may be more particularly
adapted to fome branches of trade than others.

A knowledge of hiftory is an indifpenfible ac-
compliftiment to the opulent tradefman. Hiftory
has been elegantly and emphatically defcribed
by a poet, who is an honour to the age and
country in which he writes ;

Nature’s clear mirror ! life’s inftruttive guide !

Her wifdom four’d by no preceptive pride !

Age from her leffon forms its wifell aim.

And youthful emulation fprings to fame. *

That of our own country, in particular, fhould
attradl the regard of the commercial ftudent. Few
hiftories afford more interefting matter than that
of this ifland. How mult the heart of a Briton

* Hayley’s Eflay on Hiftory.

burn

Literature , tic, with Commerce. 17

burn within him, when he reads of the glorious
ftruggles which our anceftors, through many ages,
have made to fecure to us that liberty we now fo
amply enjoy! How clofely fhould he grafp that
ineflimable jewel which has been purchafed by
the blood of fo many heroes ! How muft he glory
in that conftitution which renders Great Britain
the objedt of univerfal envy and admiration !

Nor are the objedts of hiflory confined to the
atchievements of war, the revolutions of govern¬
ments, and the intrigues of ftatefmen. The origin
and progrefs of commerce and of arts, come alfo
within her province. And the philofophical
hiftorian does not content himfelf with the mere
relation of fadts ; he endeavours to trace effedts
to their caufes, to fhew the principles by which
commerce ihould be adluated ; how the various
interefls, fituations and connedtions of different
countries fhould lead to different kinds of traf¬
fic ; and in what manufaclures the particular
genius of a people may fit them to excel. Such
difquifitions as thefe have lately tended to the
eflablifhment of a new fyftem which may be, not
improperly, denominated commercial philofo-
phy. Here the tradefman is more immediately
concerned. Thefe are fubjedts which come di-
redlly within the fphere of his inquiries.

The Engl i fh Clafiics will be a rich fund of
entertainment and improvement. Shakefpeare,
Milton, Pope, Addifon, Thomfon, Gray, Mafon,

Vol. I. C with

1 3 Mr. Henry on the Confijlency of

with a long lift of excellent writers in profe and
verfe, will yield him charming refrefhments, after
the fatigues of the day. He may even indulge
himfelf in fweet . converfe with the fair fex. A
Montague, a Carter, a Barbauld and a Seward,
iuftly demand his notice, and will prove mcft
delightful companions, refine his tafte, polifli his
manners, and meliorate his morals.

The fciences of Natural Hiftory and Botany
require fo much time to be devoted to the ftudy
of them, and fuch minute inveftigation, that,
however pleaftng , they may be juftly confidered
as improper objects for the man of bufinefs to
purfue Jcientifically, fo as to enter into the exaX
arrangement and claffification of the different
bodies of the animal, vegetable, and mineral
kingdoms. But reading, and perfonal obferva-
tion, will fupply him with ample matter for re¬
flexion and admiration. He will fee the great
univerfal caufe aXuating every part of nature.
He will fee animals, which a lefs accurate ob-
ferver beholds with the moft contemptuous eye,
executing works far above human abilities to per¬
form. He will behold them aXing, and conduX-
ing their affairs, with a prudence and forcfighr,
which, whether it be the effeX of reafon or of
inftinX, may juftly humble the pride of human
wit. With what attention has Providence be¬
llowed on- the various clafies of animals, thofe
endowments which are particularly adapted to

their

Literature , &c. with Commerce . 19

their refpedtive functions ! Perhaps man, that
Jord of the creation, as he vainly boafts himfelf, is
indebted for many ufeful lefifons to very inferior
animals. The voice of Nature is thus defcribed
as crying out to him,

Go from the creatures thy inftruftion take;

Learn from the birds what food the thickets yield;

Learn from the bealts the phyfic of the field ;

The arts of building from the bee receive ;

Learn of the mole to plow, the worm to weave ;

Learn of the little nautilus to fail,

Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.

But feveral branches of Natural Philofophy
feem peculiarly adapted to fill up the vacant
hours in which the tradefman can withdraw from
his employments. A general knowledge of all
will tend to open and enlarge his underftanding,
at the fame time that it affords him the mod
rational amufcment. While the ftudy of fome,
in particular , may not only tend to effedt thefe
defirable purpofes, but fupply him with a kind of
information which may turn to good account,
by furnifhing him with the means of extending
his commercial concerns, and conducting them
to greater advantage; of improving thofe manu¬
factures in which he is already engaged, or
inventing new fabrics, which may give addi¬
tional life and fpirit to trade.

As Pneumatics, or the dodtrine of the nature
and properties of air, .difplay an ample field of
inveftigation to the philofopher, fo will they alfo

C 2 fupply.

CO Mr. Henry on the Confijlency of

fupply, to the more fuperficial inquirer, much
indrudtion and entertainment. Every man is
intereded in the properties of a fluid to which he
is fo intimately related, and without which, he
cannot fubfid a moment. Its various degrees of
gravity, elafticity, heat, moiflure, and purity,
all affe£t the human race. Many of the mod
dire difeafes which afflifl mankind, are occafioned
by noxious impregnations of the atmofphere, or
cured by more favourable dates of it. And
many of the operations of nature and art are
eflfentially influenced by the changes which are
Continually occurring in it.

Philofophy has lately made mod rapid ad¬
vances in difcovering the conditution of com¬
mon air. The ingenious Dr. Priedley has even
taught us the art of fabricating it artificially, of
producing it in a degree of purity far exceeding
that of the mod falubrious climate, and of re¬
ducing it to the date in which we commonly breathe
it when debafed by exhalations from the various
bodies which it lurrounds. From him we have
alfo learned a mode of judging of the different
degrees of purity in air, by means of the
eudiometer, as of its gravity and heat by the
barometer and thermometer. This excellent
philofopher, to whom, as a learned foreigner
has obferved, <c Nature takes delight in revealing
her fecrets,” has alfo fird difcovered, and Dr.
Ingenhoufe, treading in his paths, has more

completely

2 J

Literature , &c, with Commerce .

completely demonftrated the method by which
Nature makes ufe of the leaves of vegetables to
purify the atmofphere, when contaminated with
putrid or pldogiftic vapours. When in this Itate,
every leaf ads as a flrainer to the air, imbibing
and applying to the nurture of the plant, fuch
parts as are unfit for animal refpiration, and
throwing it out, thus filtered and fuited to ad
again as a menftruum for the phlogifton, which
is continually evolving by the breathing of ani¬
mals, the corruption of vegetables, and by the
many various proceffes which are by nature and
by art continually carrying on.

Eledricity is another branch of fcience which
has afforded great light to the operations of
nature. A knowledge of its leading principles,
and a dexterity in making a number of entertain¬
ing experiments, may be attained by moderate
application, and thereby, a field of amufement
opened to the mind, at an eafy expence of time
and money.

To obtain a perfed acquaintance with the
fcience of Optics, much attention and clofe ap¬
plication would be requifite. Such a knowledge
of it, however, as is l'ufficient for general pur-
pofes, is eafily arrived at. The nature of the
refledion and refradion of the rays of light, of
vifion, and of colours, the properties of lenfes,
are ufeful and entertaining objeds of inquiry. But
the very minute divifibility of the rays of light

C 3 fills

2 2 Mr. Henry on the Ccnfijlency of

fills the mind with aftonifhment. When we
are informed, that there proceeds more than
6,coo,ooo,ooo,ooo times as many particles of
light from a candle, in a fecond of time, as the
whole earth contains grains of fand, fuppofing
each cubic inch of it to contain i,ooo,oooj when
we are told that light in its paflage from the fun
to the earth, moves with the immenfe velocity of
95>I73>°°° >n feven minutes and a half, we
are impreffed with the mod profound veneration
for that Almighty Being, who has fo wifely ad-
jufted the proportions between the bulk and
velocity of thefe rays, as to make them anfwer all
his benevolent intentions to mankind whereas,
an increafe or decreafe in the one or the other,
might have been fatal to the animal and vegeta¬
ble world.

By the Telefcope and Microfcope our eye is
enabled to reach far beyond the limits of our
natural vifion. By the former, objedls, at con-
fiderable diftances, are brought, as it were, within
our grafp, and we can loar upwards into other
worlds. By the latter, we are impowered to
fearch into the minutiae of nature, to admire the
delicacy of her operations, and the wonders of
creation/exhibited in the perfed fabrics of the
fmallert animals and plants.

The acquifition of knowledge in the fciences
which we have already recommended, may per-
' haps be confidered rather as amufing and orna-

mental.

Literature, &c. with Commerce. 23

mental, than neceffary. But there are other
branches of natural philofophy which may be
deemed highly ufeful and important to commer¬
cial men. Thefe are Geography, Mechanics, and
Chemiftry.

Geography is fo clofely connected with com¬
merce, that it would be almoft as great a reflec¬
tion on the merchant to be ignorant of it, as of
the rules of Arithmetic. Shall the man, whofe
vefiels traverfe every quarter of the globe, be
unacquainted with its form, its motion, its di-
vifions, its kingdoms, feas, rivers, lakes, iflands
and mountains ? Shall he be uninformed of the
nations and people with whom he traffics, their
perfons, manners, cuftoms, governments and
religion ? Are not the flux and reflux of the tides,
the fituation and courfe of currents in particular
feas, and the direction of thofe winds, which
prevail in certain feafons and latitudes, pheno¬
mena, into the nature and caufes of which he is
interefted to inquire ? And, above all, fhould
he not endeavour to know the produce of every
country, and the articles, which, not being fup-
plied in their own climate, may be mod accept¬
able objects of commerce to the inhabitants?

* The remaining branches come more immedi¬
ately within the province of the manufafturer.
Manufactures bear fo intimate a relation to the
Mechanical Powers, as to be incapable of fub-
iifling, in any degree of vigour, without their

C 4 fupport.

24 Mr Henry cn the Confiftency of

fupport. How tedious, how expenfive, and how
imperfect would many operations be found, if
performed by the mere efforts of human drength,
or manual fkill, unaffided by mechanical aid !
The mechanic powers facilitate their perform¬
ance, and render their products more complete.
How much do we owe to them for the improve¬
ment and extenfion of the manufactures of this
town ! I am addreffing a fociety, all of whom
are daily eye-witneffes of the beneficial confe-
quences which have arifen from thefe improve¬
ments ; Jome of whom are reaping the fruits of
them. It would be fuperfluous, it would be
impertinent to enlarge on the fubjeCt: for it
mud be evident, that as Mechanics are fo effen-
tially neceffary to manufactures, a knowledge
of their principles muft be ufeful to every man
engaged in fuch branches of trade.

With Mechanics, Hydrodatics and Hydraulics
are fo clofely connected, that a knowledge of
them may be confidered as a neceffary adjunCt.
Tor, on the principles of thefe fciences often
depends the fird movement of the mod complete
machines j and fire and water engines, mills,
aqueduCts, pumps, and other mechanical druc-
tures, can only be brought into aCtion by their
abidance.

Nor is the utility of Chemidry more confined,
or lefs connected with manufactures, than Me¬
chanics,

Literature , &£. with Commerce. 2$

chanics. Indeed Chemiftry may be, not impro¬
perly, called the corner ftone of the arts. They
not only are fupported by her, but many of them
derive their very exiftence from this fource.
She even furnilhes inftruments to every one of
the branches of natural philofophy we have
enumerated. The truth of this propofition will
be evinced, when it is confidered that metals
cannot be feparated from their ores, nor glafs
produced without her aid. She fupplies the
aftronomer with his lenfes, and the mathema¬
tician with his inftruments. The air pump,
eleftrical, hydroftatical and hydraulic machines
cannot be conftru&ed without her intervention;
and fcarcely a piece of mechanifm is formed, to
which fhe does not contribute fomething.

In the finer arts the influence of Chemiftry is
very confpicuous. To her the painter owes molt
of thofe colours, by which he is enabled to give
the refemblances of diftinguilhed perfonages to
the inquiring eye of a grateful pofterity ; to
place before their view, more clearly than words
can exprefs, the martial deeds of the hero, and
the firm virtue of the patriot ; and to reprefent
thofe beauteous fcenes of nature, to the defcrip-
tion of which, language is inadequate. Without
Chemiftry, the fine colouring of a Titian could
never have delighted the enraptured beholder.
Nay, even the works of the philofopher, the

hiftofiarj

l6

Mr. Henry on the Confijlency of

hiftorian and the poet, are indebted to her for
their diffufion and permanency.

To fhew the advantages arifing from this
fcience in all the arts through which they might
be traced, would carry me far beyond the limits
of my prefent defign. It may be fufficient to
point out the connexion which fubfifts between
Chemiftry, and thofe manufactures which are
the pride and glory of this refpeCtable commer¬
cial town.

Bleaching is a chemical operation. The end
of it is to abftraCt the oily and phlogiftic parts
from the yarn or cloth, whereby it is rendered
more fit for acquiring a greater degree of white-
nefs, and abforbingthe particles of any colouring
materials to which it may be expofed.

The materials for this procefs are alfo the
creatures of Chemiftry, and fome degree of che¬
mical knowledge is requifite to enable the oper¬
ator to judge of their goodnefs. Quick-lime
is prepared by a chemical procefs. Pot-afh is
a produCt of the fame art; to which alfo vitriolic,
and all the acids owe their exiftence. The
manufacture of foap is alfo a branch of this
fcience. All the operations of the whitfter ;
the fteeping, wafhing and boiling in alkaline
iixiviums ; expofing to the fun’s light, fcouring,
rubbing and blueing are chemical operations, or
founded on chemical principles. The fame may

be

27

Literature , &c. with Commerce.

be faid of the arts of dying and printing, by
which thofe beautiful colours are impreffed on
cloths, which have contributed fo largely to the
extenfion of the manufactures of this place.
How few of the workmen, employed in them,
poflfefs the lead knowledge of the fcience to which
their profeffion owes its origin and fupport ! If
random chance has Humbled on fo many im¬
provements, what might induhry and experience
have effected, when guided by elementary know¬
ledge ? The misfortune is, that few dyers are
chemifts, and few chemifls dyers. Practical
knowledge fhould be united to theory, in order
to produce the moll: beneficial difcoveries. The
chemift is often prevented from availing himfelf
of the refill t of hjs experiments, by the want of
opportunities of repeating them at large : and
the workman generally looks down with con¬
tempt on any propofals, the fubjeCt of which is
new to him. Yet under all thefe difadvantages,
I believe it will be confefled, that the arts of
dying and printing owe much of their recent
progrefs to the improvements of men who have
made Chemiftry their ftudy. Much however re¬
mains to be done j and perhaps in no refpeCt are
the manufactures of this country more defective
than in the permanency of their colours. Sen-
fible as our manufacturers are of this defeCV, is it
not firange, that fo few of them fhould attempt
to acquire a knowledge of thofe principles which

would

2 8 Mr. Henry on the Conftfiency of , &c.

would moft probably fupply them with the means
of improving and fixing their dyes ?

This fubjeCt would afford matter for very ex-
tenfive difquifition ; but I fear I have already
trefpafled on the patience of the fociety. Suffer
me, therefore, only to requeft your indulgence
while I point out one other fource of improve¬
ment and pleafure, confident with the purfuits,
and frequently advantageous, and even neceflary
to the bufinefs of the tradefman.

A tafte for the Polite Arts, efpecially thofe of
drawing and defign, fhould appear a defirable
acquifition to the manufacturer of the finer and
more elegant wares. If not poflefled of this,
he is always dependent on others for the patterns
of his fabrics. Whereas, were he capable of
inventing them himfelf, he would poflefs con-
fiderable advantages over his lefs accomplifhed
neighbours. His imagination would continu¬
ally fupply him with fomething new; and of
what importance novelty is, in thefe times of
fafhion and fancy, every day’s experience furnifhes
convincing proofs. It is this fupereminent tafte
that has diftinguilhed the productions of a Wedg¬
wood and a Bentley above all their competitors
in the fame line of bufinefs. Such a tafte would
doubtlefs be equally beneficial to the manu¬
facturer of the fine cotton and filk goods of
Manchcfter ; and he would be enabled to equal

in

Dr. Eafon on Cryjlallization. 29

in elegance of pattern, as he excels in ftrength
of fabric, the manufactures of our neighbouring
and inimical rivals.

On Crystallization. ^Alexander Eason,
M. D. Read November 14, 1781.

LTHOUGH Nature always a£ts by general

A and not by partial laws, yet the particular
mode of her operations is frequently removed
beyond the limited powers of the human under-
ftanding. The truth of this obfervation is
ftrongly confirmed by all the phenomena in the
cryftallization of falts and other fubftances,
■which, under proper circumftances, never fail
to (hoot into mafles or cryftals, with more or lefs
regularity, according to the manner in which
the procefs may have been carried on.

Molt bodies, during their pafTage from a fluid
to a folid ftate, feem to difcover a tendency to
form themfelves into regular mafles of a conftant
or given form. This tendency is highly con-
fpicuous in the various kinds of fahne fubftances,
and perhaps is dependent on a law of nature
which exerts itfelf, in a more general manner,
than philofophers are apt to imagine.

To me it feems highly probable, that the
cryftallization of falts, the freezing of water.

the

Dr. Enfcn on Cry Jl alligation .

the formation of precious ftones, bafaltes, Sec,
are all the effects of the famecaufe; and if we
conjedure that the fetting of metals is a fpecies
of cryftallization, we fhall hot be wide of the
truth. This much is certain, that all the femi-
metals, when broken, difeover a laminated tex¬
ture, and in each particular metal thefe lamina
are always of a given or conftant form.

That we may, therefore, proceed with due per-
fpicuity,'.it will be necefifary to take a nearer
view of the fubjed, and to confider, fhortly, the
phenomena*attending the cryftallization both of
fimple and compound bodies. The cry ftalliza-
tion of a fimple cryftallizable body may be
affeded merely by removing the caufe of its
fluidity, fince by this means, its component parts
will have an opportunity of arranging themfelves
into mafles more or lefs regular and tranfparenr,
according to the nature of the body, and the law
of its cryftallization.

The leaft refledion will ferve to difeover, that
bodies may be converted from a folid to a fluid
Hate, in two different ways, viz. either in the
way of folution, or fufion by heat.

Of the fir ft, we have endlefs examples from the
folution of falts in water, and other fluids ; and
the fecond may be very well illuftrated by the
procefs of making glafs. *

* Jn the lx v i vol. of the Phil. Tranf. No. 34, Mr. Keir
gives an account of glafs forming cryftals when it paffes
from a fluid to a folid hate by flow degrees.

In

Dr. Eafon on Cryftallization. Sr

In the firft of thefe cafes, the cryftallization
is carried on by the feparation of the fluid which
keeps the cryftallizable body in a ftate of locu¬
tion ; and in- the fecond, the fame effeCt is pro¬
duced by the cooling of the materials, or jhe
extraction of their heat. If, for inftance, a fo-
lution of the foftil fixed alkali in water be-firft
evaporated to a pellicle, and afterwards oe
luffered to cool gradually, without being dis¬
turbed, the fait will fhoot into beautifully trans¬
parent cryftals; and in like manner, if water
be deprived, of that degree of heat which is
requifite to preferve it in a fluid ftate, it will lhoot
into radii or needle-iike cryftals, which, at their
union, form conftant angles of 6 o degrees. If,
however, the water in the firft cafe,' and the heat
in the fecond, be feparatea with too much
rapidity, the cryftals will be fmall, and more or
lefs irregular, according to the celerity with
which the procefs may have been conduced;
The fame obfervations are equally applicable to
all bodies of the cryftallizable kind.

Although, in general, every cryftallizable fub-
ftance difeovers a manifeft tendency to fhoot
into mafles or cryftals of a peculiar form, yet we
muft hereobferve, that the forms of thofe cryftals
are liable to great variation from various cir-
cumftances attending their formation.

Gypfum, for example, is well known to be
a vitriolic fait with a calcareous bafls, and yet

the

2t Dr- Eafon on Cryjlallization .

the fubftance is prefented to us by nature in five
different fhapes, to each of which naturalifts
have given different names ; firft, the Lapis
Specularis. 2dly. Striated Gypfum. 3dly. Gyp-
feous Alabafter. 4thly. Selenites, properly *fo
called. 5 thly. A Gypfeous Spar, frequently found
adhering to the Tides of veins in mountains, parti¬
cularly thofe inclofing the ores of metals. All
thefe fubflances when chemically examined, ex¬
hibit precifely the fame phenomena, and are, in
reality, nothing but different cryftallizations of
the fame compound fait. *

Befides the gypfums, there is another fubftance,
which though claffed by naturalifts with earthy
bodies, is neverthelefs a compound fait, and,
like the gypfums, has a natural tendency to
cryftallize or fhoot into maffes of regular forms.
This fubftance ftrongly promotes the fufion of
earthy fubflances, particularly thefe of the cal¬
careous and argillaceous kind, and on this account
is generally denominated a fluor or flux, but,

* La nature fournit beaucoup de matlere faline de meme
efpece que celle dont nous parlons (viz. felenite) mais
qui a differentes formes, & a laquelle les naturaliftes one
donne differentes noms comme gypfe ou miroir d’Ane,
pierre a platre, albatre, fpath gypfeux, See. mais tomes
ces matieres font un feul & meme fel, & nous les confide-
rerons comme telles.

Chvmie Experimentale Sc Raifonee, par
Mr. Baume, Tom. I. p. 154.

in

Dr. Eajon on Cryftallization . 33

in England, is better known by the name of
Derbyfhire Spar. All the bodies belonging to
this clafs have- lately been (hewn to confift of
a calcareous earth, and an acid of a very peculiar
nature, which has the property of corroding glafs,
and of converting water into flint. Flint, there¬
fore, is probably not a Ample earth, as philofo-
phers have generally fuppofed, but a compound
fubltance, confiding of water, and this lately
difcovered acid.

The verifiable, or flinty earths, bear, never-
thelefs, ftronger marks of a Ample fubftance, than
any body hitherto known ; and we are now cer¬
tain, that it forms the bafis of rock cryftals, *
and a part of the whole tribe of precious ftones4
except the diamond. All thefe (tones have
evidently been formed by the cryftallization of
the matters which enter into their compofition ;
and all the phenomena relating to their figure.

* II feroit d’ailleurs difficile de penetrer affiez profonde-
ment dans le interieur du globe pour recueillei4 de la terre pri¬
mitive, & qui n’auroit eprouv6 aucune alteration. 11 paroit
certain, que fi Ton pouvoit fe procurer de cette efpece de
terre, & un degre de feu fuffifant pour la faire entrer
Cn fufion, on la reduiroit en une maffie auffi belle que Ie
beau cryftal de roche, & qu’on ne pourroit dillinguer l’un
de l’autre.

Chymie Experimentale & Raifonnee, par
Mr. Baume, Tom. I. p. 104.

VOL. I.

D

tranf-

34 X)r. Eajon on Cryfiallization.

tranfparency, &c. bear a ftrong analogy to thofc
of the faline cryftals already defcribed.

Each faline fubftance, of which there is a
great variety, fhoots, as already obferved, into
cryftals of a figure and degree of tranfparency
peculiar to itfelf : and the fame thing is true, in
general, with regard to gems or precious ftones.
Thus, the diamond is naturally of one form, the
ruby of another, the fapphire of a third, &c. and
each of them poflefles a degree of tranfparency
different from all the reft.

Among philofophers it has long been a
queftion, from what ftate the precious ftones
have cryftallized ? that is, whether their particles
were originally fufpended in water, or reduced
to a fluid ftate by the adtion of a very intenfe
heat ? Each of thefe opinions has been efpoufed
by men of the firft abilities and reputation, and
feveral arguments have been urged on both fides
of the queftion.

From analogy, and feveral fadls, which will
afterwards appear, there is room, I am per-
fuaded, to conjecture, that all precious ftones,
with many other mineral bodies, have been
originally in a ftate of fufionj- by means of heat,
from which they have been formed by the law of
cryfiallization.

Pure verifiable earth, indeed, cannot be
brought into fufion by the heat of our furnaces >
but black flint has been melted without addi¬

tion

Dr. Eafon on Cryftallization. 35

tion by the concentrated rays of the fun ; and,
perhaps, there are, or have been, degrees of
heat in nature, fufficient to produce the fame
effect. Is it not poffible, that thofe immenfe
fires, which feem to be the caufe of earthquakes
and burning mountains, are fufficiently ftrong
to bring into fufion the pureft kind of verifiable
earth ? Is it not probable, that from fufions
thus effected the whole tribe of precious Hones
have been formed by cryftallization ?*

If this conjefture has any foundation in nature,
it will enable us to account in a very fatisfadtory
manner for all the peculiar properties obfervable
in this clafs of bodies. If the melted matter, in
which the vitrifiable earth is diffufed, be fuffici¬
ently fluid, and if the cryftallization be carried
on with due regularity, the cryftals will be well
formed, and will exclude from their compofition
all heterogeneous matters. If, however, the
melted matter be too tenacious, or, if the procefs
be carried on with too much rapidity, the cryftals
will be irregular, and involve in their compofition
more or lefs heterogeneous matters, according to

* The difficulty of accounting for the fufion of the
earth, conftituting the precious Hones, is obviated by the
experiments of the celebrated Bergman, whofe analylis of
thefe fubflances had not been feen by the author, at the
time of writing this paper. For, from thefe it appears,
that the gems'contain not only vitrifiable, but argillaceous
and calcareous earth.

D a

circum-

3 6 Dr. Eqfon on Cryjiallizatidn.

cil'cum (lances, which need not be mentioned. *
Thus, for inftance, an admixture of metals may
give to the cryftal different colours, fuch as
the ruby, the emerald, the topaz, or the
amethyftjf ancl3 w^en the cryftal ls perfedly
pure, it conftitutes the colourlefs rock cryftal.

Is not this hypothefis ftrongly fupported by
the diftipation of the colours of the precious
Hones ? And is not the reftoration of thofe co¬
lours a ftriking proof, that this hypothefis is
founded in nature ?

Three principles, at leaft, feem to enter into the
compofition of precious ftones, viz. vitrifiable
earth, the metallic calces on which their colours
depend, and the particular matter determining
the figure into which they cryftallize ; the variety
of which might be inftanced by feveral examples.
The prefence of the principle juft mentioned is
ftill further indicated by the different degree of
hardnefs obfervable in precious ftones. The
rock cryftal, although as colourlefs and tranfpa-
rent as the pureft diamond, is, neverthelefs, the

* When cryftals are found irregular and not pure, the
vulgar expreflion is, that they are not ripe; but the truth
is, they never could ripen, though left to the end of time,
on account of fome heterogeneous matters having entered
into their compofition.

f Bergman has ftiewn that all thefe colours may be
imparted to gems by iron only.

fofteft

,37

Dr. Eqfcn on Cryjlallization.

fbfteft of the whole clafs to which it belongs. *
Had thefe fa<51s been fufficiently attended to, the
component parts of precious ftones had probably-
been better underftood, and the different figures
of thefe fubftances might have been Ihewn to
have proceeded from one conftant and permanent
law of cryftallization.

But, be this as it may, the principles already
in our poffeflion are fufficient to fupport a
rational theory, not only of the formation of pre¬
cious ftones, but alfo of thofe fubftances known
by the name of pebbles. Many fubftances which,
under proper circumftances, Ihoot into cryftals
of the moft regular form, concrete into diforderly
mafies, when the procefs is carried on with too
much precipitation. Have we not reafon there¬
fore to conjecture, that pebbles, agates, and even
common flint are the produfts of fome fuch irre¬
gular cryftallization ? This may be exemplified
in the pebbles found among the rocks of
Arthur’s feat near Edinburgh, which are a vitri-
fiable matter, mixed with different heterogeneous
fubftances, from which a variety of colours and
irregular fhapes is produced -3 and the rocks,

* The topaz feems to be an exa£l rock cryftal with a
yellow colour, probably from the calx of fome metal ; it is
a prifm of fix irregular fides. I have feen fome of them of
3 very large fize; many are found in the mountains of
Scotland, and, fometimes, at the foot of mountains, buried
jn the earth, having been wafhed down by the rains.

P 3 where

3 8 Dr. Eajon on Cryjtallization.

•where the pebbles are found, feem to have de¬
rived their origin from lava or volcanic matter.*

That the effe&s of volcanos are more exten-
five than philofophers, till of late, have been
aware of, will, I am perfuaded, be readily ac¬
knowledged; and by the help of many obferva-
tions lately made, we are enabled to account for
various phenomena, which otherwife, mull have
remained for ever unintelligible to the human
fpecies. Of thefe, however, we (hall only take
notice of thofe columnar pillars called Bafaltes,
or Giant’s cauleways. If we carefully attend to
all the phenomena, obfervable in thefe produc¬
tions of nature, we fliall find reafon to conclude,
that they are nothing more than ciyftallizations
of lava or matter, brought into a ftate of fufion
by the heat of fubterraneous fires.

If ever it could be faid, that nature feemed to
imitate art, it is in the formation of the Giant’s
caufeways in the north of Ireland, where every
pillar appears to have been hewn by an artift, and
placed fo clofe to each other, as fcarce to admit
a pin betwixt them. Their general figures are
pentagons, hexagons and heptagons. Pillars with
more fides are to be met with ; their fides, how¬
ever, are by no means equal. Each pillar, accord¬
ing to its number of fides, muft be furrounded

* Quere, what is the reafon why flint is generally found
among chalk or calcareous earths ?

Dr. Eqfon on Cryjlallization. 39

by a like number of pillars, which differ from
each other both in fhape and in fize, as not any
two of them have been found alike in every
refpeCt. Thefe pillars are moreover divided into
joints, at unequal diftances, which, by the afiift-
ance of a crow of iron, may be forced afunderj
and, what is very remarkable, a pillar, feparated
at thofe joints, always (hews one end convex, and
the other concave ; the convexity being fome-
times turned from, and fometimes towards the
horizon •, but, in any Angle pillar, the direClioc
is always the fame.

Have we not every reafon to conclude, that
the ifland of Staffa, and the Giant’s caufeways
have been productions of volcanic matter, made
liquid by fome fubterraneous fire, and, as foon
as it cooled by flow degrees, cryftallized into that
form which they now exhibit ? Had the fepara-
tion of thefe pillars been owing to accident, they
would have appeared like cracks in the earth,
formed during a very dry feafon, without order,
beauty or regularity j whereas the reverfe is very
confpicuous.

By attending to the fails and obfervations
already related, it will, I am perfuaded, appear,
that the fetting of metals is, in reality, a fpecies
of cryliallization. This idea is ftrongly con,,
firmed, by the laminated' texture which all the
femimetals difcover, when broken in any direc¬
tion. The needle-like cryftals, fp conspicuous

E 4 it)

40

Dr. Eajon on Cryjlallization,

in crude antimony, clearly fhew, that this fub*
fiance, during its formation, has been a£led upon
by fome caufe, either the fame, or feme other,
very analogous to that, by which the precious
(tones, bafaltes, &c. are made to cryftallize. *
The fame thing is true with refped to bifmuth ;
and even pure fdver, during its paflage from a
fluid to a folid flate, difeovers a tendency to form
on its furface a number of Arise, which no doubt
proceed from a difpofition of the metal to cryflal-
lize, or arrange its particles in a particular order.

The expanflon of water, during its freezing,
is now univerfally allowed to be occafioned by
the cryflallization of its parts. And, to me, it
feems probable, that the expanflon of bifmuth
and iron, in fimilar circumflances, proceeds from
the fame caufe. -j-

Lead ore, when tolerably pure, is generally
found in mafles of a cubic form ; though, fome-
times, in fhape of prifms. Perhaps this variety is

* I obferved at Warrington (where copper ore is fmelted)
the drofs and flux which fwim on the top of the metal
ip the furnace in a liquid flate, are call into moulds in
ihape of a double cube; thefe mafles, when cold, very
much refemble Java or volcanic matter, and, when broken,
evidently Ihew a cryftalline appearance in many parts,
efpecially about the corners.

f Figures call from melted iron are always very /harp,
becaufe that metal expands as it cools, by which means the
whole dye or mould is completely filled.

owing

Mr. Henry cn the Prefervatkn, &c. 41

owing to the proportion of filver contained in
the ores.

Some writers affirm, that native gold has been
found in a cryftallized ftate, and the form it
aflumes is that of a prifm of eight fides.

With thefe obfervations I ffiall conclude this
paper, which has been extended to an unreafon-
able length, for which, I hope, the importance
of the fubjed will plead my excufe.

On the Preservation of Sea Water from
Putrefaction by Means of Quicklime. By
Thomas Henry, F. R. S. to which is added , an
Account of a newly invented Machine for impreg¬
nating Water or other Fluids with Fixed
Air, &c. communicated to Mr. Henry by
I. Haygarth, M. B. F. R. S. Read Novenu
ber 21, 1781.

IT has been frequently repnarked by chemical
and philofophical writers, that a new experi¬
ment is feldom made in vain. Though the ope¬
rator may even fail of attaining the immediate
obje.Ct of his purfuit, he may yet, fortuitoufly,
acquire the knowledge of fome new fad, which
may be productive of improvemant and advan¬
tage to fcience.

About

/

42 Mr. Henry on the Prejervaticn

About the time I publifhed my method of pre-
ferving water, at fea, from putrefaction, &c. *
a Gentleman, who had obtained a quantity of lea
water, for the purpofe of bathing a child, com*
plained to me that it foon became putrid, and re-
quefted that I would think of fome expedient to
preferve it.

The principal falts contained in fea water are,
jft. common marine or culinary fait, compounded
of foffil alkali and marine acid j adly. a fait
formed by the union of the fame acid with magne-
fian earth and laftly, afmall quantity of felenite.
The quantity of faline matter contained in a pint
of fea water, in the Britifh feas, is according to
Neuman, about one ounce in each pint, j- When
this water is (lowly evaporated, the common fait
firft cryftallizes, and the marine magnefian fait
js left in, what is called, the bittern, from which,

* An account of a method of preferving water, at fea,
from putrefaction, and of reltoring to the water its original
purity and pleafantnefs, by a cheap and eafy procefs, &c.
London, 1781.

f In Sir Torbern Bergman’s analyfis of fea water taken
up, in the beginning of June 1776, about the latitude of
the’ Canaries, from the depth of fixty fathoms, the folicj
contents of a pint of the water were

Of common fait
Salited magnefia
Pypfum

Total

33°t

5 3 Grs.

1 or9.

by

of Sea Water, fcff. 43

by a fubfequent procefs, the purging bitter fait,
commonly named Epfom fait, is obtained. By
this reparation, the fea or bay fait is rendered
much better adapted for the prefervation of ani¬
mal fubftances, than the fait of the rocks and
fprings in Chelhire and Worcefterlhire, where,
frorrnvhat 1 apprehend, to be a miftaken notion,
that this bittern does not exift in the brine, tne
liquor is fo haftily evaporated, that the cryftals
of common fait retain much of the magnefian
fait among them. For the magnefian fait is
highly feptic, and greatly impairs the properties

of the other, *

The two methods which occurred to me, as
likely to anfwer the willies of my friend, were,
ift. the addition of quicklime, and idly, that of
common fait. To the trial of the former I was
induced by its known antifeptic effeds on com¬
mon water ; and, it is afcertained, that a nnall
portion of common fait promotes, whereas 4
larger retards, putrefaction.

EXPERIMENT I.

To one quart of fea water were added two
fcruples of frelh quicklime * to another, half an

* At fome of the works at Northwich, the evaporation is
carried on, in fo gentle a manner, that large cubical cryftal,
are formed ; and the fait thus prepared is faid to be equal in
Jlrength to bay fait.

ounce

44 A/r- Henry on the Preservation

ounce of common culinary fait; and a third was
kept as a ftandard, without any addition. The
mouths of the bottles being loofely covered with
paper, they were expofed to the action of the fun,
in fome of the hotted; weather of the laft fummer.

In about a week, the ftandard became very
ofrenfive; and the water, with the additional
quantity of fait, did not continue fweet many
hours longer; whereas, that with lime, continued
many months, without ever exhibiting the lead
marks of putridity.

ft feemed probable, that all, or fome, of three
changes had been effected by this procefs. It
was fufpefted, that quicklime might decompofe
the marine fait, with alkaline bafis ; a power
•which it has lately been fuppofed to poffefs,
under certain circumftances : or that its antifep-
tic powers might depend on the formation of a
lime water •, by either of which, a material, and,
perhaps, unfavourable, alteration might be pro¬
duced : or laftly, that the precipitation of the
earthv bafis of the magnefian fait, by the quick¬
lime, might contribute to the prefervation of
the fea water.

EXPERIMENTS II. & III.

On fubmitting the water to which the lime had
been added, to the common trials for dete&ing a
difengaged alkali, no figns of fuch a fait were
dilcovered. And upon blowing into it a long

continued

of Sea Water, &c. 4*

continued ftream of air from the lungs, no pre¬
cipitation nor cloudinefs enfued, as in the cafe of
lime water.

It remained to fee, whether the precipitation of
the magnefian earth, from its acid, had been ef-
fe&ed. Under fome circumftances, it has been
proved, by the very ingenious- Dr. Black, that
magnefia will precipitate calcareous earth from
acids. As, for inftance, if mild magnefia be
thrown into a folution of calcareous earth, in
marine or nitrous acid, the calcareous earth will
be precipitated; the fum of the attraflion
between this earth and fixed air, and between
the magnefia and the acid, being greater than
thofe which fubfifted between the magnefia and
the air, and between the calcareous earth and
the acid. But, if cauftic calcareous earth be
added to a folution of magnefia in thofe acids,
its affinity to the acid is, in this ftate, increafed,
no fixed air attradls it, and it precipitates the
magnefia.

EXPERIMENT IV.

To fome of the fea water, which had been kept
as a ftandard, fome lime water was added, and a
turbidnefs immediately took place, fucceeded by
a copious precipitation. This, at firft, con¬
vinced an ingenious Member of this Society,
Dr. Eafon, who happened to be prefent, and my-
felf, that we had difcovered the manner in which

the

46 Mr. Henry on the Prejervation

the lime adted, and the reafon why no lime water
was produced. But, on adding lime water alfo to
fome of the fea water which had been preferved
by the lime, a cloudinefs and precipitation
refembling the former took place, and ftaggered
us in our theory j for we imagined, that the
portion of quicklime had been fufficient to have
precipitated the whole of the magnefia which the
water might have contained, and we now fuf-
pedted, that the folution of the lime, was, there¬
fore, probably prevented by the fea fait.

Other avocations prevented my purfuing the
inquiry at that time, but I have fince relumed
it, and been able to elucidate the whole matter.

EXPERIMENT V.

Into a ftrong folution of the common Chefhire
fait, fome lime water was poured. The mixture
became turbid, and a white earth was feparated^
which did not fink to the bottom of the glafs, but
was fufpended, partly, on the furface, and, partly,
in the midft of the liquor.

But from whence did this precipitate proceed ?
Was it the lime thrown down by the fait ; or did
the lime feparate fomething from the common
fait?

EXPERIMENT VI.

To a portion of the fame folution, inftead of
lime water, fome drops of a folution of fofiil

alkali

of Sea lVatery ifc, 47

alkali were added, and the fame appearances
occurred.

EXPERIMENT VII.

Each of thefe precipitates were rapidly and
wholly diffolved, the greateft part of the water
being firft poured off, on the addition of a few
drops of dilute vitriolic acid. A proof that the
precipitated earth was magnefia.

EXPERIMENT VIII.

To determine whether the addition of a por¬
tion of bitter purging fait, to a folution of com¬
mon fair, would prevent the forming of lime
water, with an equal quantity of lime to that
which had preferved the fea water, I mixed
twenty grains of quicklime, feven drachms of
common fait, and one drachm of bitter purging
fait with a pint of rain water j but no lime water
was produced. Whereas, a lime water was
formed, by an equal quantity of lime with a pint
of rain water, and alfo with a folution of common
fait, from which the earthy matter it contained
had been previoufly precipitated by fofTil alkali,
and the alkali neutralifed by marine acid.

The next queftion that prefented itfelf to my
investigation, w'as, whether the common Chefhire
fait w'as fo impregnated with magnefian fait,
as to prevent the forming lime water, with a like
quantity of lime, when ufed in the proportion
of an ounce of fait to a pint of water.

E X P E-

48 Mr. Henry on the Prefers at ion

EXPERIMENT IX.

Thefe proportions of Chefhire fait, quicklime,
and rain water, being mixed, and fuffered to ftand
afufficient time, the filtered liquor exhibited no
figns of being impregnated with unneutralifed
lime: but, on adding a few drops of lixivium
tartari, it inftantly became very turbid, and de^
pofited a fediment, which, inftead of difappearing
on the addition of vitriolic acid, formed a fele-
nite with it, and again fettled at the bottom of
the glafs.

EXPERIMENT X.

Five grains of quicklime, being added to the
mixture of the ninth experiment, and the liquor,
after due time, being filtered, and fubje&ed to
the ufual teft, exhibited evident marks of having
become a lime water.

I now began to fufpedt, that the portion of
quicklime, added to the fea water, in the firft
experiment, had not been fufficient to precipitate
the whole of the magnefia from its acid, and
having fome of the mixture of that experiment
(till by me, I again turned my attention to it.

EXPERIMENT XI.

The remaining part of the fea water, to which
the quicklime had been added, was about a pint
and half. Lime water, being added to a fmall

part

cf Sea Water , &c. 49

part of it, the fame turbid appearance took place
as formerly.

EXPERIMENT XII.

On the addition of another drachm of lime, the
water, when filtered, no longer became turbid,
on the mixture of lime water to it ; but it did not
yet exhibit any figns of being itfelf a lime water.
But,

EXPERIMENT XIII.

When I added another drachm of lime, a
lirne water was formed. For the water now be¬
came very turbid, on blowing air into it from
the lungs.

Thefe experiments, therefore, not only prove
that fea water may be preferved for the purpofes
of bathing, by means of quicklime, without
forming a lime water, but they point out the
rationale of this phenomenon ; and alfo inftrudt
os what portion of lime may be ufed, without a
lime water being produced.

It appears that quicklime, diflblved in water,
precipitates the magnefian earth from the marine
acid, with which it is united in the fea water,
and, uniting with that acid, is retained in the
water, under the form of a marine felenite.
What the water lofes, therefore, of one fait, it
gains of another. Ac the fame time, the
magnefia, being precipitated by a caujiic cal¬
careous earth, falls in a ftate fimilar to that:

Vol. I. E to

£o Mr. Henry on the Vrefdrvatlon

to which it is reduced by calcination, viz. void
of fixed air. In this ftate, I have formerly
proved, by a train of experiments, that it is
ftrongly antifeptic. * Being infoluble, the water
is preferved without forming any combination
with it 5 and the only alteration that is made in
the component parts of the lea water, is, that the
earthy marine fait changes its bafis of magnefia
for one that is calcareous.

We alfo fee, that there are limits to the addition
of quicklime, beyond which, we cannot proceed,
without forming lime water. The quantity of
two fcruples, to a quart of fea water, though not
fufficient to decompofe the whole of the magnefian
fait, was yet adequate to the prefervation of the
water. One drachm more of quicklime feparated
the whole of the magnefia, and, when a further
addition was made, a lime water was immediately
formed, f

The properties of common fait, as an antifeptic,
are greatly weakened by the portion of marine

* From thefe experiments it appeared, that magnefia
alba, while pofieifed of its fixed air, is highly feptic to
animal fiefii, but antifeptic to bile ; whereas, when cal¬
cined, and deprived of its fixed air, it is ftrongly anti¬
feptic both to flefh and bile.

See Henry’s Experiments and Obfervations,
p. 58. & feq.

F Thefe proportions may vary, according to the ftrength
of the quicklime employed.

, niagnefian

of Sea Water , &c. 51

magnefian fait, mixed with it. It is probable,
that the marine felenite may be lefs feptic, and
lefs foluble in water, fo as to feparate, during
the evaporation of the brine. If fo, the addition
of quicklime may be ufeful, previous to that
procefs at the fait works. But we are fo little
acquainted with the properties of calcareous falts,
that, at prefent, we cannot determine whac
might be the effeds of fuch a practice. I propofe,
however, at lome future opportunity, to try,
whether the calcareous marine fait will thus fepa¬
rate; and whether it be, in itfelf, feptic, or
antifeptic.

Dr. Haygarth, of Chefter, who is not more
diftinguifhed for his extenfive knowledge, than
for his friendly and benevolent difpontion, has
lately, in the moftobliging manner, communicated
to me, a description of an apparatus, which he
has invented to mix air with liquids. The
Dottor apprehended, that this method might
facilitate my defign of precipitating the lime
from water, to which it might have been added
on fhip board ; and, with his ufual candour, and
generofity, delivered up his invention to my
fervice. The plan is truly ingenious, but I fear,
and all my friends, whom I have confulted, agree
with me in the apprehenfion, that the machine
would be much too complex to admit of being

E 2 ufed

52 Mr. Henry on the Prejervatkn

i

ufed at fea. It is capable, however, of being
applied to fo many ufeful purpofes, that, I trull,
the Society will think the communication of this
valuable improvement well worthy of their at¬
tention.

Defcription of an Apparatus to mix Air with Liquids.

In the figure, plate i. an effervefcing veflel is
reprefented (at E) in which fixed air is detached
from a mixture of calcareous earth, and vitriolic
acid, conveyed through the tubes (T /) into the
air veflel (A). The fixed air, being of greater
fpecific gravity, will fall to the bottom, and
expel the common air at the top through the
orifice (at O). It may be known when the veflel
is full of fixed air, by fuelling; or extinguifhing
a candle at this orifice; or by .computing the
quantity of vitriolic acid and calcareous earth
that will generate a certain quantity of air. A
pair of common bellows (at B) with a pipe, a few
inches longer than ufual and bent, is placed with
the vent fo as to receive the air pipe (P), and
the bellows pipe at ( b ) is inferted into the top
of the water veflel (W). The bellows being
worked, the fixed air riles, from the bottom of the
air veflel, through the pipe (P P) into the vacuum
within the bellows, and is impelled, with force,
through the bellows pipe ( b ) into the body of
the water veflel, filled with lime water, or any
other kind of liquid. The air, which is noc
abforbed by the liquid, rifes to the furface in

bubbles

of Sea Water, tie, 53

bubbles occafioning confiderable agitation j and
returns into the air vefTel through the com¬
munication (CC.) That portion of fixed air,
which is incapable of abforption by lime water,
&c. being fpecifically lighter than the reft,
will efcape through the orifice (at O) as the fixed
air is fupplied by the effervescing mixture, but
the pure fixed air, thus returned into the air
veflfel, is again inhaled by the bellows, and blown
into the lime water. The air and water veflels,
in the model I have had made, are of tin, con¬
taining about four gallons a-piece. The orifices
(at T, t , B, b ,) are made air-tight, with per¬
forated corks. The tubes (P, p and t ) run
down the fides of the air veflels. The tube (b )
which is a corftinuation of the bellows pipe, runs
down the middle of the water veflel. This pipe
might be immerfed twelve or thirteen inches into
the body of the water, as I have found, that a pair
of common bellows, will force air through water,
to this depth, with moderate exertion.

In my model, the bellows, contrary to my
direction, are of a large fize, and there was diffi¬
culty in working them, as might be expected,
when all the orifices are fhut. To obviate this
inconvenience, I tied a bladder, full of fixed air,
upon the orifice (at O) and opening into the air,
veflel. By this device, the bellows work with
as much eafe as in the open air ; and the bladder
fills and empties exactly like the lungs in refpira-

E 3 ti°n,

54

Dr. Barnes on Poetry.

tion. The tube P, p fhould be of the fame dia¬
meter as the vent of the bellows, and the com¬
munication (CC) fhould not be of a lefs fize,
otherwife the water will rife into the bellows
when they are worked.

After this defcription, it would be fuperfluous
to explain, that, in this procefs, there would be
no lofs of fixed air or of time ; or to obferve,
that from the known attraction between fixed air
and quicklime, afufficient quantity of lime water
might be freed from lime in a fhort time, fo as to
fupply a flip’s company with little trouble or
expence.

On the Nature and ejfential Characters cf Poetry,
as diftinguijhed from Prose. By Thomas
Barnes, D.D. Read December 5, 1781.

TO fettle with precifion the limits which
divide poetic from profaic compofition, may
perhaps appear, at firft fight, to be neither very
difficult, nor very interefting. As, however,
one great objett of this fociety is, the enjoyment
of free and friendly converfation upon fubjedts
connected with fcience, it is probable, that
topics, which are not in themfelves of the greatefl:
importance, may fometimes open a wider field,
than others of more intrinfic excellence. Where

much

Dr. Barnes on Poetry. 55

much may be faid in fupport of different hypo-
thefes, we may hope for that collifion of friendly
argument, which may ftrike out fome fparks,
both of amufement and information. Thus, a
comparatively trifling fubjeCt may eventually
contribute to the nobleft ufes, to the exercife of
the mental faculties, and to the diffufion of can¬
dour, and intelligence. Our time will not be
quite mifpent, if we can only glean from the
topic before us, a Angle hour’s agreeable and
literary entertainment.

tc Wherein confifts the ejfence of poetry,” is a
queftion, which it will not be fo eafy to anfwer,
as may at firft be imagined. Different authors
have given very different definitions. Some
have denominated it, “ The art of exprefling
our thoughts by fiction.” Others have imagined
its effence to lie, in <c The power of imitation -
and others again, in “ The art of giving plea-
fure.” But it is evident, that fttion, imitation ,
and fleajure , are not the properties of poetry
alone. Profaic compofition may contain the moft:
ingenious fables. It may prefent the moft ftrik-
ing refemblances. It may infpire the moft fen-
Able delight.

Poetry has been generally denominated an
art. Horace, if he himfclf gave the title to
hjs own celebrated and admirable poem, has
characterized it under that name. The tern,
jtfelf (rw.;) would naturally lead to the fame

E 4 idea$

S6 Dr. Barnes on Poetry .

idea; for it feems to imply, that labour and in¬
genuity, the neceffary companions of art, muff
be employed in poetic compofition. But cer¬
tainly, it has the neareft affinity to Jcience of any
other art ; for all its excellence confifts, in its
prefenting fcience in a peculiar and engaging
drefs. An art , by which fcience is affifted, and
fentiment exalted ; by which the imagination is
elevated, the heart delighted, and the nobleft
paffions of the human foul expreffed, improved,
and heightened, will appear important enough,
to have its boundaries exactly drawn, and the
limits afcertained, which divide it from its humble
neighbour. Or, if this be not poffible, to have
its general and larger charafteriftics clearly repre¬
fen ted.

What is it, then, which conftitutes the poetic
effience, and diftinguifhes it from profe ? Is it
metre? — Or is it fomething entirely different;
fublimity of sentiment, boldnefs of figure,
grandeur of description, or embellifhment of
imagination ? Let us attend to the arguments,
which may be offered on behalf of both thefe
hypothefes.

“ ’The char aft erifiic nature of -poetry , it may be
faid, confifts in elevation of thought, in ima¬
gery, in ORNAMENT.”

“ For, have there not been real poems formed,
without the (hackle of regular verle ? Poems,
which none, but a faftidious critic, would fcruple

a moment

Dr. Barnes on Poetry, 57

ii moment to honour with that name ? Is not
Telemachus a noble epic poem ? For who
would dare to degrade it to a lower character ?
Who would refufe the appellation to, the Death of
Abel, which thole, who underlland the German
language, fpeak of with fo much rapture ? Or
to the Incas of Marmontel, which the French
celebrate, with equal enthufiafm of praife !

** Does not elevation of fentiment of itfelf
produce modulation of language ? The foul, in-
fpired with great ideas, naturally treads with a
lofty ftep. There is a dignity in all her move¬
ments. She declaims, with a meafured, folemn,
majeftic utterance. Her ftile is fonorous, and
fwelli.ng. Thefe attributes indicate thefe con -
Jlitute the poet. They give ftrength and feeling
to his compofitions. Where thefe are found,
who would look for any higher claims, before he
would confer the palm of poetic honours ? Where
thefe are wanting , what other properties could
give, even the lhadow of a title ? Who would
refufe the title of bard to the great Mailer -of
Hebrew fong? For what can be more truly fub-
lime, or poetical, than many of the Pfalms of
David ? And yet, after the ingenious labours
of the learned Dr. Lowth, the metre or rhythm
has not been exadtly afcertained ; and probably
will not, becaufe it does not exift. The har¬
mony of numbers, of which every ear muft be
fenfible, arifes purely from the native impulfe of a

foul.

z Z Dr. Barnes on Poetry'.

foul, infpired with fentiments, which it could
not poffibly exprefs in any language, but what
was fervid and poetical.

“ By this theory, it may be faid, we account
for the common remark, that the original language
of mankind was poetical : becaufe, in the infancy
of the world, every thing would naturally excite
admiration, and vehement paflion. Their rude
and imperfed fpeech would bear infcribed upon it,
the (lamp of ftrong and animated feeling. It
would refemble the harangues of Indian orators,
at this day, whofe fpeeches are accompanied with
tones and geftures, which to a cultivated
European, appear extravagantly pompous. Their
lives were full of danger and variety. New
fcenes were continually opening upon them.
Growing arts and fciences were prefenting new
objeds of curiofity. Hence, their feelings were
amazingly intenfe. And hence their language was
boid, and poetically fublime. Longinus, in the
fragment of a treatife, which is unhappily loft,
has this fentiment. “ Meafure belongs properly
to poetry, as it perfonates the paffions^ and their
language ; it ufes fidion and fable, which naturally
produce numbers and harmony.”

It may be added, in fupport of this definition,
** That our own inimitable poet, than whom none
feems more to have enjoyed the infpiration of the
Mufe, dcfcribes the poet, as chiefly diftinguifhed
fay the fervour of Imagination, He does not^

indeed,,

Dr. Barnes on Poetry, 59

indeed, aftign him the moll honourable company ;
but he makes ample amends, by a defcription of
poetic fancy, wonderfully brilliant and captiva-
ting.

“ The lunatic, the lover, and the poet.

Are of imagination all compact.

One fees more devils than vail hell can hold.

That is the madman : the lover, all as frantic.

Sees Helen’s beauty on a brow of Egypt :

The poet’s eye, in a fine frenzy rolling.

Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven j

And, as imagination bodies forth

The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen

Turns them to lhapes, and gives to airy nothing

A local habitation and a name.” Shakespeare.

Who can forbear applying to the poet, what has
been fo juftly applied to the great critic , lately
quoted, .

“ He is himself the great sublime he draws!”

“ Horace, likewife, feems to rank himfelf on
this fide of the queftion in the fourth Satire of
his firft book, where he endeavours to fettle the
point of Poetic Chara&er. He, firft, excepts
himfelf from the number of thofe, to whom he
would allow the name of Poet ; becaufe compo-
fitions like his own, “ Jermoni propiora ,” do not
give a juft claim to the appellation. He, then,
tjefcribes the real bard ;

Ingenium cui fit; cui mens divinor, atque'os
Magna sonaturum, des nominis hujus honorem.

With

6o

Dr. Barnes on Poetry.

With refpett to himfelf, and to Lucilius, he tells
us, that if you take away the order and the
meajure , their verfes would become “ fermo
merus,” mere proje . Not fo, if you take irj
pieces that line of Ennius,

“ Poftquam difcordia tetra
Belli ferratos poftes, portafque refregit.”

For then, he exclaims,

“ Invenias etiam disjecti membra poet.® !**

The true poetic efience, then confifts in eleva¬
tion, imagery, and grandeur ; to which modu~
lation is no more than an adjunft ; neceflary in¬
deed, becaufe it, in fome degree, neceffarily
accompanies animated and poetic Jentiment

To thefe arguments, it may be replied :

Cl That the modefty of Horace, in excepting him-
felf from the rank and honours of poetic character,
will not be admitted, even with refpedt to thofe
verfes, as to which alone , he made the exception.
For, who has not in every age claffed the Epijlles
and Satires of Horace, in the number of poetic
compofitions , though, as he fays, his ftile only

“ Pede certo

Differt fermoni : fermo merus.

ft If we adhere rigoroufly to this definition; {hall
we not exclude many candidates, from whom
we fhould be forry to pluck the well-earned
wreath of poetic fame ? All verfes, where the
fubjeft is low or ridiculous, as the Hudieras of

PuTLER i

Dr. Barnes on Poetry. 6l

Butler. ; where it is fimple and narrative, as the
Fables of Gav or even, where it is plaintive
and melancholy , as the Church Yard of Gray,
mult be banifhed from the region of the Mufe.
Parnafius muft be, call cliff,’ without a fingle
vale in all its circuit. None mull then be
deemed a poet, who cannot foar to its loftieft
fummit, on Epic, or Heroic wing. If we fhould
form an index expurgatorius upon this principle,
what havock fhould we make among the minor
poets ? How many fhould we exclude, whom
every lover of the Mufe ranks, with grateful vene¬
ration, in the number of her infpired votaries ?

“Elevation of fentiment, imagery, and creative
fancy, are not to be found in poetry alone.
They often belong as much to the Orator. For
where will you find nobler flights of imagination,
loftier fentiments, bolder addrefles to the paffions,
or more animated, we might fay, modulated
language, than in the Orations of Cicero ; not to
mention thofe of our modern orators, whofe elo¬
quence, however, we would not fcruple to com¬
pare with that of the mofl admired antients ?

“If we might argue from the name, poetry, we
fhould naturally conclude, that the antients
themfelves underftood by the term, not thofe
irregular modulations, which naturally arofe
from the impulfe of ftrong and impaffioned feel¬
ings, from grandeur of fentiment, from beauty,
or boldnefs of imagery ; but, fomething more

artificial

6s

Dr. Barnes on Poetry.

artificial and elaborate ; fomething,which demanded
more effort and ingenuity to form, than merely
arofe from the effufions of a glowing heart ?

<c Is not, then, the proper and peculiar charac-
terifticof poetry, that metre or rhythm, which
the ear fo eafily diftinguifhes, and with which it
is fo unfpeakably delighted ? Is not this th t great
diJUnlilion between the modulation of poetry and
profe ; that the one, is regular , determined by
certain laws, and returning upon the ear at ftated
periods ; whilft the other, has no ftandard but the
general Jenfe of harmony, and is infinitely irregular
and various? The imagery or fentiment is a
mere circumjlance, which does not conjlitute , how¬
ever it may adorn, poetic compofition. We can
fuppofe nonfenfe in profe. Can we not equally
fuppofe nonfenfe in poetry ? And yet, fhall there
not be an effential difference, between poetic and
profaic jargon ? If fo, fomething elfe, befides
the fentiment or fenfe, is the boundary between
them. And what is this, but that metre or
melody, without which, the language which
conveys the loftieft fentiments may be indeed
poetical, but can never be, poetry itself.”

I fhall not pretend to decide, abfolutely, upon
the ftrength or weaknefs of the foregoing argu¬
ments. I fhall be happy to hear them fully

difcuffed

Dr. Barnes on Poetry. 63

difcufied in the enfuing converfation, from
which I promife myfclf, both inftruftion and
entertainment.

At prefent, I find rnyfelf difpofed to reft ift
fome fuch general conclufion, as the following.

To finished and perfect poetry, or rather
to the highest order of poetic compofitions,
are neceffary, elevation of fentiment3 fire of ima¬
gination , and regularity of metre. This is the
Jummit of Parnassus. But, from this fublimeft:
point, there are gradual declinations, till you
come to the region of profe. The lajt line of
feparation is, that of regular metre. And, in
common language, not having fettled with pre-
cifion the nature or boundaries of either, we
often apply the poetic charafter with great lati¬
tude, to compofitions, which have more or lefs
of the preceding qualities, but which are formed
into uniform and regular verje. Often, the name
is given to works, which have nothing to diftin-
guifti them, but mere number. What has net
this metrical modulation, we call poetical ; and
what has it,' we call profaic , folely upon account
of the Jentiment. For poetry and profe, like two
colours, eafily diftinguifhable from each other
in their pure, unmixed ftate, melt into one ano¬
ther by almoft imperceptible lhades, till the
diftinftion is entirely loft. Their general cha¬
racters are widely different. Their approximations
admit of the neareft refcmblances.

With

64 Dr. Barnes on Poetry.

With refpedt to mere number , the difficulty is
not great, in the prefent cultivated ftate of lan¬
guage, for any perfon, of a tolerable ear, to tag
together lines, the mufic of which fnall be flow-
ing and agreeable. Hence, the multitudes of
indifferent poets, who abound amongft us ! But it
has been juftly obferved, that a ftate of cultivated
fociety is not favourable to thofe bolder exer¬
tions of poetic fancy, which elevate, aftonifh,
and delight the mind.

It has been often faid, as we have before re¬
marked, that the original ftile, both of hiftory and
converfation, was poetical. The friends of this
hypothefis mud mean no more, than that, in
early ages, their language was, in general, bold
and florid. And we have already obferved, that
ftrong conceptions naturally clothe themfelves
in figurative, and modulated expreffions. From
Jlrong , to regular , the tranfition is not difficult;
and the advantage would be great. Uniform
metre would give more delight to the ear, by
rendering the mufic more perfedt ; and it would
be more eafily retained by the memory.

We may account for the formation of regular
,uerfe, on another principle. This fame animated
feeling, which prompted men to dance and fingy
would alfo prompt them, to exprefs themfelves
with energy of tone , of Jlile, of Jentiment. It would
lead them to endeavour to adapt their language
to their /ong. But, in order to this- union, it

mull

1

Dr. Barm on Poetry. 65

muft become meafured, and exad. Hence, the
early formation of verje, which, when once adopt¬
ed, would, for the reafons before mentioned, be
immediately employed, to convey their laws, and
hiftories, to future ages. It differed but little
from the common ftile of their orations. Ac
lead, the difference was not to be compared with
that, which is found in the more advanced pe¬
riods of fociety, and of language.

We have already obferved, that, in the early
ages of mankind, when their lives were filled
with toils and dangers, and when new and in-
terefting events were continually opening upon
them, their paffions would correfpond to their
fituation, and would be various, vehement, and
adive. Civilization and fcience have, as it vvere,
minced into finer portions, the feelings of the
heart. By this means, we enjoy a far greater number
of plea.urable feruations, and, upon the whole,

I doubt not, a much larger Jurn of happinefs.
The life of an Indian confiffs, either of glare, or
of darknefs. He is either tranfported with paflion,
or funk into ffupor. Thefe larger maffes have
been broken, by the hand of culture, intofmaller
pieces, which are in perpetual currency, and
which maintain, among us, a more equal and
conflant enjoyment.

But, from hence it will follow, that the Jlrong
poetic char after may be expeded to decline, as
taste improves. We may, perhaps, hope to excel.

66

Dr. Bnrr.es on Poetry.

in foftnefs, delicacy, and refinement. But thefe
ar t feeble graces. The mind Toon tires, with the
perpetual chime of fmooth verification, and
with the unvaried flow of gentle and unimpaf-
fioned fentiment. The burfts of honefl: nature,
the glow of animated feeling, the imagery, the
enthufiafm — Pheje are the charming properties,
which will for ever exalt the poems, in which
they are found, to the firft order of poetic ex¬
cellence. For thefe, no appendages of art can be
deemed an adequate compenfation.

A writer, whom I cannot mention without
great refpefl, notwithfianding our difference
of opinion upon fome interefting fubjetts,
feems not to have fettled accurately his own
idea of poetic eflence. Dr. Johnfon, many of
whofe criticifms upon the Englifh Poets in¬
dicate the ftrength of judgment, and fome, the
elegance of tafte, fays, in his life of Milton,
“ Poetry is the art of uniting pleafure with truth,
by calling imagination to the aid of reafon.” He
then mentions the different fciences, of which the
Poet fhould be a mafter; hiftory, morality,
policy, the knowledge of thepaflions, phyflology.
“ To put thefe materials to poetical ufe, is re¬
quired, an imagination capable of painting nature*
and realizing fiftion. Nor can he yet be a Poet, till
he has obtained the whole expanfion of his lan¬
guage, diftinguifhed all the delicacies of phrafe,
and all the colours of words, and learned to adjuft

all

Dr. Barnes on Poetry. 67

all thefe different founds, to all the variety of
metrical modulation.” In thefe lafb words,
metrical modulation is fuppofed to be a neceffary
adjunct to knowledge, and imagination. In
another place, he lays, “ It is by the mufic of
metre, that poetry has been difcriminated, in
all languages.” And yet he had juft before faid,
“ That, perhaps, of poetry, as a mental operation,
metre ox mufic is no neceffary adjunct.” I am unwil¬
ling to draw any other inference from thefe paf-
fages, than this, that, fuch is the difficulty of
fettling with precifion the poetic effence, even
Dr. Joh nson is inaccurate, and inconftftent.

If, in order to avoid this charge, it be faid,
that a diftindtion is made, between poetry, as a
menial operation , and poetry, as an actual expref-
fton of the thoughts in language , then it will
follow, that a perfon may be a mental Poet, with¬
out being a pradlical one 3 becaufe he may pofiefs
imagination, feeling, &c. without being able to
exprefs thefe mental operations, in a proper
manner. He may have poetical ideas, but not
poetical file. And, exadlly in the fame fenle, a
man might be an orator , or a painter , without
being able to /peak in public, or to ufe the pencil.

I beg leave to finifti the fubjedt, by a few
oblervations on modulation of language, which
have fuggefted themfelves, in the courfe of the
foregoing fpeculations.

F 2

Different

6 3

Dr. Barnes on Poetry.

Different languages vary, exceeding widely,
in their capability of modulation ; and, from this
caufe, will vary as much, in the mode and cha¬
racter of their rhythm , or mufical compofition.
Every good and rounded ftile, in profe, as well
as in poetry, has a metre, or mufic, which the ear,
when at all refined by claffical tafte, can imme¬
diately feel , and enjoy. There is, in finifhed com¬
pofition as much of melody and fweetnefs, in
the arrangement of profaic fyllables, as in the
moll poetical. The ear as nicely difcriminates
the loft, the plaintive, the bold, the nervous,
the elegant, by the flow of mufical expreffion , as
in the mod exact and perfeft poem. From this
circumftance alone, we are able, at once, to dif-
tinguilh the ftile of Addison, and Sherlock,
of Tillotson and Watts, and Young. We
diftinguifh them, as eafily, as a connoifleur in
mufic, who feels , at once, the compofitions of
Handel, and thofe of Corellt.

It is probable, the ears of the antient Romans
and Grecians were more nicely tuned, to dif-
ccrn the melody of arrangement, and of cadence,
than ours. Or, probably, we have loft that
“ tune,” or mode of pronunciation, in which
their languages were fpoken •, for a modern ear
cannot feel that richnefs and harmony of numbers,
which appears to have been, to them, fo inex-
preflibly delightful. “ Cicero tells us, that he
was himfelf a witnefs of its influence, as Carbo
< was

Dr. Barnes on Poetry. 69

was once haranguing the people. When that
Orator pronounced the following fentence; ‘ Pa-
tris di£him fapiens temeritas filii comprobavit/
it was aftonifhjng, fays he, to obferve the gene¬
ral applaufe, which followed that harmonious clofe.
And he tells us, that, if the final meafure had
been changed, and the words placed in a different
order, their whole eflfeft would have been abfo-
lutcly deftroyed.”

This muficalntfs, and flow of numerous com-
pofition, which charms the ear of every judicious
reader, is certainly felt moft ftrongly, when it
is read aloud , with tafie and expreflion. But
when read with the eye only , without the accom¬
paniment of the voice, there is a fainter ajfociaticn
of the found, the fhadowof themujic , as it were, con¬
nected with the words 3 fo that, we can judge as
cxadly of the compofition, as if were audible
to the ear. This pow'er, of aflociating/crW with
vfion, is formed gradually by habit 3 for com¬
mon people, who are not much accuftomed to
books, hardly underhand any thing they, read,
unlefs it be accompanied with the voice. And
fome Gentlemen are faid to have acquired this
art of mental combination fo perfectly, as to
read, even the notes of a mufical compofition,
with confiderable pleafure.

The difference of modulation in languages,
muft give a different chara&er and expreflion
to their poetic compofitions. The Grecian and

F 3 Roman

yo Dr. Barnes tin Poetry.

Roman tongues were fo happily conftrudted,
that their verfe eafily diftinguifhed itfelf by its
arrangement, and therefore needed no fecondary
or artificial aid. It lias been thought, that our
Englifh tongue is not equally happy; and that,
therefore, rhyme is, in general, neceftary to make
the difcrimination perfedb, and to give that chime
or muftc to the ear, which the fucceftion of long
and fhort fyllables alone, could not effedb. The
fadb adduced in fupport of this obfervaiion by
Dr. Johnfon, * is certainly true ; <c that very few
poems, in blank verfe, have long maintained
a charadber among us. Thomfon, and above
all, Milton, are great exceptions, but their ftile is
fingular. They formed thenrtfelves upon no
model ; and are originals which we may admire ,
but ought not to attempt to copy”

This remark, though, perhaps, in fome degree
juft, is, however, degrading. And, if the tag
of rhyme be, in general, neceftary to our Englifh
poetry, it will be an additional argument in
favour of that hypothefis, which luppofes metre
to be the grand criterion of poetic diction.

Yet, methinks, the Dodbor is too fevere, when he
fays, “ The variety of paufes, fo much boafted of
by the lovers of blank verfe, changes the rneafures
of an Englifh Poet , into the periods of a declaimer
To me, there appears a very eflential difference,

* Life of Milton.

between

7i

Dr. "Barnes on Poetry.

between the paufes of verfe , and thofe of mere
declamation. The poetry of Milton has been
celebrated by the belt judges, as inimitably
beautiful and harmonious, from the amazing
variety, and judicious changes, of the paufe.
Thefe are fo admirably difpofed, that the
ear hardly ever tires. There is none of that
perpetual famenefs, and recurrence of found,
which, in common blank verfe, is fo in-
fufferably difgufting. Surely, the verfe of
Milton is not, <c verfe only to the eye." I cannot,
therefore, fubfcribe to Dr. Johnfon’s fentiment,
“ that all the power of Milton’s poetry confifts,
in the fublimity of his fentiment, or the peculiar
(he elfewhere calls it c perverfe and pedantic’)
arrangement of his ftile.” His fentiments are,
indeed, lofty and noble. But his metre alfo is
inexpreffibly rich, mellow, and harmonious.
Whichever hypothefis, therefore, we adopt, as
to the conftituent character of poetry, that of
Milton will have every praife, — of sentiment,—
Of IMAGERY, — of MODULATION.

72

Dr. Barnes on the Affinity

On the Affinity Jubfifting between the Arts, with
a Plan for promoting and extending Manufac¬
tures, by ENCOURAGING THOSE ARTS, On which
Manufactures principally depend. By Thomas
Barnes, D. ID. Read January 9, 1782.

“ Omnes Artes, quas ad Humanitatem pertinent, ha-
bent quoddam commune vinculum, et quad cognatione
quadam inter fe continentur.

Cicero pro Archia Poeta.

IT is a queftion, not only of fpeculation, but
of real importance, <c How far is it defirable,
that a man of learning fhall devote himfelf to
one particular object ?” Or, to put it in a dif¬
ferent form, tc Will not the interefts of science
be bell promoted, by a more general and extended
application to different ftudies ?”

In the life of Dr. Isaac Barrow, we are told,
that great man “ entered upon ftudies of dif¬
ferent kinds, whereby he could not totally devote
himfelf to one, which would have been more
for the public benefit, according to his ov*n
opinion, which was; that general Jcholars did
more pleafe themjelves ; but that they, who pro-
fecuted particular fubje&s, did more pleafe
others

Whatever

73

Jubftfting between the Arts.

. Whatever truth there may appear to be in this
fentiment, in Tome uncommon inftances, I per-
fuade myfelf, it will not, in general, accord with
experience. Though every man Ihould have
fome one oeject continually in view, to which
he Ihould refer all his knowledge, and by which
he fhould diredt all his ftudies; yet, with this
aim, let him rove abroad, through the various
walks of literature. He will, probably, meet
with many things, which he will now apply,
with great advantage, to his main fubjedt, and by
which he may illuftrate, embellifh, or extend it.
General Science, with this particular application,
colledls the fcattered rays, refledled from a thou-
fand objedls, into one focus, and blends all the
variegated colours of the rainbow, into one
white, and luminous point. Whatever praife
may, in particular cafes, have been given to the
man, who has travelled only in one path of Science,
his ideas mud necefifarily be very confined, and
he will, probably, fall under the charge of
pedantry, and affedlation. The Sciences are
fillers, affeftionate fillers ! and, as the Roman
Orator, in our motto, has beautifully exprefied
it, “ Quafi cognatione quadam inter fe continen-
tur.” To be in the good graces of any one of
them, you mull pay fome refpedtful attention to
the reft.

General knowledge, like the general motion
of the various limbs of the body, gives an agility

and

74 Dr. Barnes on the Affinity

and vigour to every part of the mental frame.
The continual, folitary play of one particular
limb, may give ftrength and dexterity to the
mufcles connedted with that limb; but the pro¬
bable confequence will be, awkwardnefs and
imbecility in all thofe, which are not brought into
action. The mere mathematician, the mere
grammarian, or the mere any thing , may, perhaps,
with microfcopic eye, fee one little object very
diftindtly. But, if not accuftomed to look
around him to a wider range of vifion, his view'
will be narrow, and, when he turns from that
lucid point, he will be enveloped with darknefs.
It is, indeed, impofllble for the man, whofe
mind has not been expanded by fome love of
general knowledge, to appreciate the feveral
fciences, according to their juft value, and to
affign to each their proportionable (hare of efteem
and confequence. If Monfieur Veftris com-
prife all human excellence in dancing: if
another man look down, with fupreme contempt,
upon every perfon, who has not plunged into
the depths of mathematical, or metaphyfical myf-
teries, what is the caufe ? Is it not, the want of
fome acquaintance with other fciences ? This
would have enabled him, to range the different
branches of knowledge in their proper order,
and to apportion to each, their proper fhare of
attention and regard.

But

JubJiJiing between the Arts. 75

But we may advance a ftep further. The
man of one book, is not likely to nnderjland
that one book, fo well, as the man of more ex¬
tended ftudy. There is a general analogy and
affinity, among all the fcienees. In all thofe
which require cultivated imagination, or im¬
proved tafte, general knowledge is abfolutely
neceffary. To form elegance of mind, there
muft be, a comparifon of ideas, a combination
of images, an extenfion of foul. Hence arife,
the fenfeof fymmetry, elevation of fentiment, and
a capacity to relifh the beautiful, and the fub-
lime.

The more abftrufe fcienees may feem to
require lefs, of foreign and adventitious aid.
The metaphyfician may, like a mole, work
under ground, blindfold. Buried, ten thoufand
fathoms deep, beneath the furface, he may need
little the taper of the other fcienees. And yet,
the fa<5t has often been, and experience confirms
it, in many inftances, at this day, that thofe, who
have excelled mod, even in the abftrujer parts
of literature, have been men of a large acquaint¬
ance with knowledge. And, in general, thofe
who have (hone with uncommon fplendor, in
fome one profefiional, or favourite fcience, have
been diftinguiffied by an attachment to know¬
ledge, in all its branches. Newton was not the
mere aftronomer, or calculator. Boyle was not,
merely, the natural philofopher ; nor was Locke,

the

7 6 Dr. Barnes on the Affinity

the mere metaphyfician. They had occafionally
wandered into the other walks of fcience, and had
brought from thence treafures, to enrich their
favourite fbores. To thefe, how many names
might be added ? Barrow, Hailer, Watts —
and one, whofe name I cannot mention, without
ftrong and grateful fenfations— the late Dr.
Aikin, than whom few have had mental trea¬
fures, more various, or more valuable *.

It is in general faid, that the knowledge,
which, like the broad ftream, flows over a wider
furface, mud be proportionably fhallow ; whilft
that which runs in the narrow channel, mult be
deep. But we are deceived by an image. We
argue from a fancied refemblance. The mind,
long poring upon one objeft, grows tired, and
feeble. It is neceflary, fometimes, to change
the object, in order to re (tore its tone and vigour.
He, who can thus diverfify his purfuits, keeps
up the fpring and energy of his powers, the

* John Aikin, D. D. was Tutor in Divinity at the
Academy at Warrington for feveral years. Though not
known to the world at large as an author, his modefty
having unhappily prevented him from appearing in print,
he was uncommonly revered by all that knew him, for the
wonderful extent of his knowledge, for the mild dignity
of his charafter, and for the various excellencies which
adorned the Scholar, the Tutor, and the Man. He was
the hither of Mrs. Barbauld, and of John Aikin, M. D.
both of whom are well known in the Republic of Letters.

t ardour

fubftJUng between the Arts 77

ardour of his Itudies, the keennefs of his refearch.
He borrows ideas, images, illuftrations, from
kindred fciences. His mind widens with in-
creafing knowledge. He fees every fubjeCt, as
it were, in a larger field of vifion. He views it
round, in a greater variety of afpeCts. His foul
is expanded, his judgment ftrengthened, and all
his powers afiifled, and improved.

But I meant, principally, to extend this fenti-
ment to the arts. Though they too have a near
affinity, yet it is not generally imagined, that,
to excel in one art, it is proper a man fhould
have any knowledge of others ; efpecially of thofe,
which appear more remote and unconnected.
That a poet fnould be a painter, or a painter a
poet, may feem defirable, from the fimilarity of
tafte, of genius, and of imagination, necelTary
to excellence in thele kindred arts. But, in the
lower, and mechanic employments, how feldom
is it known, that a man, verfed in one kind of
ingenious labour, has the mod diffant knowledge
of others, even of thofe, which feem mod nearly
connefted with his own ? How many watch¬
makers know very little of clock making; though,
here , the connection is as clofe as pofiible ?
How many machines are ufed at Birmingham,
in the different branches of manufacture carried
on there, of which a mechanic at Manchefter,
even in the fame line , is entirely ignorant ? There
are, it is probable, in every manufafture, I had
• almoft

73 Dr. Barnes on' the Affinity.

almoft Said, in every place, Tome peculiar, and
local improvement, which has never yet been
extended, beyond the vicinity, where it was firft
invented ? Of late, indeed, the fpirit of enter-
prize has gone forth, and the inventions, made
in one manufa&ure, have been fometimes trans¬
ferred to others. The machines for Spinning
cotton, have been applied to woollen, and with
great advantage. And, probably, both have
been under great obligations to thofe curious
machines, for twilling and manufacturing fi lk,
which have fo long excited general curiofity,
and admiration.

So great is the analogy between the Several arts,
that no man knows, to what extent the improve¬
ment of any Single art may affedl others, even
where the relation, at firft fight, appears mod
diftant. Who would have imagined, that the
difcovery of the properties of the magnetic needle,
would have had Such, amazing, and almoft infinite
effects ? That, by this property alone, navigation
fhould become fo aftonifhingly extended, new
continents be discovered, and a new /era opened,
in the hiftory of the globe! I was, a few days
ago, greatly pleafed with tracing the progrefs of
an invention, into Several branches of art, with
which, at firft, it appeared, not to have the nio ft
remote affinity. I refer to the Cylinder, covered
with wire- cloth, of different finenefs, originally
intended only for Sifting flour, meal, and bran,

immediately

fubfejiing between the Arts. 79

immediately as they come from the mill-ftone.
For this ingenious invention, Mr. Mills got a
patent, the term of which is now, probably,
expired i for the perfon who fhewed it me,
informed me, that he had himfelf applied the
Cylinder, with little variation, in fif t i n g gunpowder,
Jnuff, tanners' bark , and fand. So that, by this
fimple, but beautiful difcovery, the dealers in all
thofe various articles have reaped already con-
flderable advantage: and how far the advantage
may Jiill be extended, is as yet unknown. The
power of Steamy in producing effe&s, to which
hardly any powers of mechanifm are equal, has
been long obferved, in the Fire-Engines , in the
conftruction and application of which, Philofophy
has lent her aid to Art^ and Science has become
the tutor, and guide of Genius. But we have
not heard, till lately, that this adlive and potent
principle has been applied, in any other inftances;
though there are many, in which a principle fo
powerful, and, it is prefumed, fo manageable,
would be of unfpeakable advantage. The exten-
fion of it to machines, for J finning cotton , and for
grinding corny is now, I am informed, under the
contemplation of different Artifts; and, if cir-
cumftances favour the execution, will, probably,
be accompli (lied. *

* A machine for fpinning cotton has now been worked,
for fome time, upon this principle, at Manchefter. And
the other, for grinding corn, is faid to be in confiderable
forwardnefs, near Black-fryars bridge, London.

That

So Dr. Barnes on the Affinity

That our manufactures, at prefent, depend
very much upon our machines : that the Cot¬
ton Manufacture, in particular, is, under Pro¬
vidence, entirely dependent upon them: and,
that their ntmojl improvement, to the very highefl
point, to which it is poflible for them to arrive,
is, in the prefent circumftances of trade, very,
defirable, for the fake of every intereft, and of
every order of men, dependent upon our manu¬
factures, I will not here attempt to prove.
They are pofitions, denied by none, but the
loweft and weakeft of the vulgar; where alone
l'uch weaknefs is pardonable. Whatever, therefore,
may tend to encourage and affift thofe arts, by
which mechanifm may be improved, and our
manufactures extended, is a matter of common
utility and importance. The Clergyman, the
Phvfician, the Gentleman, are, I had almoft
faid, equally interelted with the Tradefman, and
the Merchant.

To anfwer, in fome degree, this important
end, and to ferve, however feebly, this general
interest, I have imagined to myfclf a plan,
which appeared to me, not impoflible to be
carried into execution, and important enough to
be attempted. It may, poflibly, appear to fome
Gentlemen, an Utopian lcheme. Many objections
may, at firft fight, appear to rife againft it. But
I have all the confidence of a PtojeCtor, in laying,
that I firmly believe, with proper attention, fuch

as

Jubfijling between the Arts 8 1

as has been paid to other defigns of public utility,
it might be executed ; and, if executed, mufi be
of public advantage; an advantage, which no
man can eftimate at prefent, and the full extent
of which, perhaps, no man could conjecture.

Before I ftate this plan, I will beg leave to
make two obfervations, in addition to what has
been already faid, on the fubjeCt of improve¬
ments in our manufactures. And, fird,

It is now mere neceffary than ever , that our
artids and workmen, in the different branches,
fhall be poffeffed of fome degree of tajle. And
tafte is only to be acquired by that general and
mifcellaneous knowledge, which it has been the
objeCt of this paper to recommend. Our manu¬
factures mud now have, not merely, that ftrength
of fabric, and that durability of texture, in which
once confided their highed praife. They mud
have elegance of defign, novelty of pattern, and
beauty of Jinijhing. To effeCt thefe, all the aid
of improved and refined art is effentiaily necef¬
fary. The dull plodder, accudomed to pace
round and round, like a mill-horfe, is not likely
to drike out any thing new, and elegant. He
may, indeed, adopt the improvements of others :
but his will never be the praife, of ferving his
fellow-creatures, by any inventions , of real im¬
portance, and utility.

I would further obferve, that, in the prefent
date of the Arts, capital improvements are not
Vol. I. G to

^ * B)r • Baynes on the Affinity

to be, in general, expefted from thofe, who
would, at fird Hght, appear mod likely to make
them ; I mean, the workmen in different branches
of mechanifin. Turn your eyes to any of our
numerous manufactures. You find every divifion
of mechanical labour, executed by a feparate
fet of workmen. Dr. Smith, in his Wealth of
Nations, tells us, “ that a Pin goes through
eighteen feveral didinCt operations,” each of
which, probably, in a large concern, is per¬
formed by a different operator, who, it may be
prefumed, would feel himlelf very awkward and
unready, if obliged to change employment with
any other of his fellow workmen. How many
hands concur, in the formation of a Watch, but
very few of whom are fo well acquainted 'with
the whole mechanifm , as to be able to put the
Vfatch together, or to calculate the different
wheels, of which it is compofed.

I imagine it to be owing to this circumdance,
that improvements, upon a larger Jcale , fuch as'
tne invention of great and complicated machines,
&c. have generally been made, by perfons, not,
originally educated to the profeffion of thofe arts,
in which they have made fuch adonifbing dif-
coveries. Whild the regular artids have had
their attention fixed upon the little points, and
ramifications of art, in which indeed they have
become adonidiingly perfect, the others, danding
more at a didance, have had a wider field, a

nobler

Jubfifting between the Arts , . 83

nobler object in their view, at once. Hence,
their minds have been extended to a complex
whole> the fil'd faint outline of which, they have,
by flow degrees of patient labour, finifhed into
form and beauty. Hence, almod all our late
machines have been invented, in a part of the
country, where the date of the Arts is not greatly
improved, and where original genius is not
minced down, to the Ihreds and atoms of a long-
edablilhed, and widely- extended manufacture.

It is acknowledged, that mere random genius
has made adonifhing difcoveries ar,d improve¬
ments, without any aid, but that of native laga-
city. But, on the other hand, how many minds,
capable, with afiidance and encouragement, of
producing the happied inventions, have, for
want of them, pined in obfcurity, lod to the
world, and incapable of any great atchievement ?
And, we may afk, what might fuch genius have
atchieved, if fodered by fcience, by liberality,
and by honour!* What Brindley executed by

* But knowledge to their eye, her ample page.

Rich with the fpoils of time, did ne’er unroll;

Chill penury rcprefled their noble rage,

And froze the genial current of their foul.

Full many a gem, of pureft ray ferene,

The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear;

Full many a flower is born to blulh, unfeen.

And walle its fweetnefs on the defart air.

Gray’s Church Yard.

G 2 the

$4 Dr. Barnes on the Affinity

the mere dint of natural parts, is no exception
to the rule. How much more might even he
have done, if aflifted by a more extenfive know¬
ledge, and a more liberal education ! What,
if to genius and application had been added, a
larger field of obfervation, a more general ac¬
quaintance with the mechanical powers, and
with what thofe powers have already done, in
the various branches of Manufactures, and of
Arts ! How much further might he have ad¬
vanced ! That human ingenuity is not exhaufi:-
ed ; that machines are not yet carried to their
higheft improvement, and that they ought to
be encouraged to their very utmoft exertions,
none here will queftion.

Let us now apply thefe obfervations. I have
ventured to chalk out the outlines of a plan,
the foie objeCt and principle of which is, the
improvement of our Manufactures , by the im¬
provement of thofe Arts, on which they depend.
Thofe arts are, chemistry and mechanism.
In an excellent paper, read to this fociety forme
time ago, it was lamented, ‘f that fo few of our
dyers are chemifts, and of our chemifts dyers.”
We may add. How few of our Mechanics under-
ftand the principles of their own arts, and the
difcoveries made in other collateral and kindred
manufactures ? At this day, I am informed,
not a fingle weaver in the Norwich trade under-
ftands the ufe of a Fly-Shuttle.

But

35

fubfifiing between the Arts.

But to proceed to our Plan.

The firft objecft of this fcheme is — To provide
a public: repository among us for chemical
and mechanic knowledge.

“ In order to this, I could vvifh models to be
procured, of all fuch machines, in the various
arts, as feem to bear the moft diftant relation
to our own manufactures. All the proceffes in
thofe of Silk, of Woollen , of Linen , and of
Cotton, Ihould be here delineated. Thefe would
make the moft neceffary, and important parts
of this collection. But to thefe might, with
great advantage, be added, the aftonilhing
effects of Mechanic Genius in other branches,
which have not fo apparent an affinity with our
own.

“ In this repository, let there be, likewife,
provided, an affortment of the feveral ingredients
ufed in dying, printing, &c. for the purpofe

of experiments.

“ A superintendant will be neceffary, to
arrange, and to apply this collection to its proper
ufe. He ffiould be a man, well verfed in che¬
mical, and mechanic knowledge. And let his
province be, at certain feafons, and under certain
regulations, to give lectures, advice, and aj-
fijlance, to thofe who wifh to obtain a better
knowledge of thefe arts.

<f Laftly; let the expence, neceffary to open, and
to fupport the fcheme, be defrayed by a JubJcrip-

G 3 tion :

S6

Dr. Barnes on the Affinity

ticn: and let every fubfcriber have the power of
nominating one, or more, to receive the advantages
of this Inftitution.”

I mean only to draw the rudeft outline of the
plan, and would leave it to the enfuing con-
verfation to be filled up, with colouring, or fhade.
By this fcheme, properly methodized and con¬
duced, I fhould hope for fame of the following
advantages.

This mechanic SCHOOL would properly finijh
the education of a young Tradefman, or Manu¬
facturer. It would fucceed, in its natural order, to
the fchool for writing, and arithmetic. It would
ferve as a proper ftep of tranfitjon, from thence
to the warehouie j and, perhaps, it might become
a regular part of a young Gentleman’s preparation
for bufinefs. How defirable a part it would
be, I will not here fay. Other Gentlemen prefent
are much better qualified to decide upon the *
queftion.

But the principal advantage I fhould propofe
from this lcheme, is this. Here would be a
kind of general ORACLE, which thole might
confult, who were engaged in mechanical im¬
provements, and who might here, at once, gain
that information, which it might coft them
months and years to obtain, by their own un-
afiified efforts.

It would be very eafy to enlarge, in theory,
upon the poffible, and probable benefits of this

Inftitution.

Jubfifting between the Arts. 87

Inftitution. But I check myfelf, hoping to
hear, from Gentlemen more converfant with
manufactures, their fenfe of this, it may be,
vifionary fcheme.

Objections will, perhaps, have already arifen,
which may appear ftrong: I hope not unanfwer-
able. That of the expence , 1 cannot allow to be of
this number. Nor the difficulty of finding a pro¬
per perjon, to fuperintend the Inftitution. Nor the
regulations , neceffary to its internal management
and conduCt. If no objections, ftronger than
thele, be found againfl: it, I fhall not deem it
altogether Utopian.

Something fimilar to this has been done, by
the society of arts. But the two plans are effen-
tially different. They give premiums: but they
have no lectures, or modes of InftruCtion.
Our plan would be defirable, in every large
town , and particularly, in the center of every
imoortant manufacture.

L

Whilft I was engaged in thinking upon this
plan, and, like the Artift, enamoured with its
imaginary beauty, I met with the following
paffage in Sully’s Memoirs. My feelings, in
reading it, I will not attempt to defcribe.

He tells us, that, among the great defigns of
Henry IV. which were prevented from being
carried into execution, by the untimely and

G 4 tragical

83 Dr. Barnes on the Affinity, &c.

tragical death of that Great Prince, was the
following :

“ There was to be, fays he, a cabinet of
state, in the Louvre, deftined to receive,
whatever could tend to the knowledge of Finance ,
of Science , and of Art." After enumerating feveral
of thefe, particularly relating to the army, fuch
as lifts, plans, charts, See. &c. he adds, “ I con¬
ceived a fcheme, of appointing a large room,
as a magazine of models , of whatever is mod
curious in machinery, relating to war , arts ,
trade , &c. and all forts of exercifes, noble,
liberal, and mechanical ; that all thofe, who
afpired to perfection, might, without trouble,
improve themfelves in this filent fchool. The
lower apartments, were to hold the heavy pieces
of workmanfhip and the higher, were to con¬
tain the lighter. An exad inventory of both,
was to be one of the pieces of the great cabinet.” *

What a pity is it, that this noble plan was not
carried into execution! It would not have been the
leaft of the embellilhments of the reign of Henry.
It would have done honour to the Prince, and to
the age. f I mean not to difparage the utility of
our modern colled ions, of j off Is, Jhells, moffes ,

and infefts. They are the works of God ■, and,

*

* Sully’s Memoirs, Vol. IV.

f I have been informed, that this plan is fince carried
into execution, in the Palais Royal.

therefore.

Dr. Aikin on preferring Healthy &c. 8 9

therefore, worthy of our highert admiration.
But I can eafily conceive, that a fcheme like
this, upon a fmaller fcale, might poflibly be
applied to better ufe, than many of thofe collec¬
tions actually ferve. In a town like this, the
opulence, and even the very exiftence of which,
depends upon manufactures, and thefe again
upon artsy machineryy and invention, a public
cabinet, devoted to this purpofe, would be
at'once of general ornament, and utility.

Remarks on the different Success, with refpett to
Health, of fome Attempts to pafs the Winter
in high Northern Latitudes. By John
Aikin, M. D. Read January 16, 1782.

rV 'HOUGH the cure of difeafes may, perhaps,
•*" raoft fafely be confined to the members of
a profefiion devoted by education and habit to
this foie objeCt, yet prefer ration of health muff,

in fome meafure, be committed to the care and
judgment of every individual. The difcufiion,
therefore, of any means to obtain this end, di¬
verted, as it may be, of technical language and
abftrufe fpeculation, cannot fail of being gene¬
rally

90' Dr. Atkin on preserving Health.

rally intereftrng. The mod remarkable and
ufeful account of fuccefs in this important point,
perhaps any where to be met with, has been
afforded by that celebrated and much-regretted
navigator Captain Cook ; an account which
was juftly thought worthy of the moft honour¬
able approbation a Philofophical Society could
bellow. From fimilar fources, relations of
voyages and travels by plain, unprejudiced men,

1 have colledled fome other fadts, probably at
prefent forgotten or difregarded, which appear
to me capable of fuggelling feveral firiking and
important obfervations relative to the prefer-
vation of health in particular circumftances.
Thefe with a brief commentary and fome gene¬
ral refledtions, I beg leave to fubmit to your
confederation.

Towards the beginning of the lad century,
feveral voyages of difcovery were made in the
Northern Seas ; and the Greenland whale-fifhery
began to be purfued with ardour by various
European nations. Thefe two circumftances
have given rife to various inftances of wintering
in the dreary and defolate lands of high northern
latitudes; and the furprizing difference of fuc¬
cefs attending thefe attempts muft ftrike every
reader.

The firft remarkable relation of this kind
that i have found, is that of the wintering of
Captain Mo.ick, a Dane, in Hudfon’s Bay,
* latitude

in high ddoYtheYYi Latitudes* 9 ^

latitude 63°. 20'. He had been Tent on a voyage
of difeovery with two (hips, well provided with
neceffaries, the crews of which amounted to
fixty four perfons. The fliips being locked up
in the ice, they landed, and erefted huts for
pafTing the winter, which they occupied in
September, 1619. At the beginning of their
abode here, they got abundance of wild-fowl,
and fome other frefti provifion ; but the cold
foon became fo intenfe, that nothing further was
to be procured abroad, and they were obliged
to take to their Ihip-ftores. The fe verity of
the cold may be conceived, from their feeing
ice three hundred and fixty feet thick ; and from
their beer, wine, and brandy being all frozen to
the very centre. The people foon began to be
fickly, and their ficknefs increafcd with the cold.
Some were affe&ed by gripes and looienefs, which
continued till they died. At the approach of
fpring, they were all highly fcorbutic, and their
mouths were fo extremely fore, that they were
unable to eat any thing but bread foaked in
water. At laft, their bread was exhaufted ; and
the few furvivors chiefly fubfifled on a kind of
berry dug out from beneath the fnow. When
the fpring was far advanced, no frefli vegetables
could yet be found. In June, the Captain
crawled out of his hut, and found the whole
company reduced to two men befides himjelf. Thefe
melancholy relifts fupported themfelves in the

9 2 Dr. Atkin on prefer ving Health

bell manner they were able, and recovered their
ftrength by feeding on a certain root they dif-
covered, and fome game caught in hunting. At
length they embarked in the fmaller {hip, and
after undergoing numberlefs dangers and hard-
fhips, returned home in fafety.

In the fame immenfe bay, but as far fouth as
lat. 52, Captain James, an Englifhman, wintered
with his crew. His refidence was on an ifland
covered with wood ; but the cold was, notwith-
ftanding, molt intenfe. In the depth of winter
they were able to procure very little frelh provi-
fion by the chace, and all became grievoully
afflifted with the fcurvy, except the Captain,
Mafter, and Surgeon. Weak and fick as they
were, however, it was necefiary for them to
labour hard out of doors during the greateft
inclemency of the feafon ; for, believing their
fhip fo damaged, as to be incapable of carrying
them home, they undertook the laborious talk
of building a pinnace from the timber growing
on the ifland. At the return of fpring, the
young greens fprouted up much fooner and
more plentifully here, than where Monck win¬
tered ; and it became very hot before they left
the place. They loft only two men out of a
crew of twenty-two.

In the year 1633 two trials were made by the
Dutch of eftablifning wintering-places at their
northern fifheriesi the one at Spitzbergen, the

other

93

in high Northern Latitudes.

other on the coaft of Greenland, in latitudes
about 77 or 78. Seven failors were left at each,
amply furnifhed with every article of clothing,
provifion, and utenfils thought necefiary or ufe-
ful in fuch a fituation. The journals of both
companies are preferved.

That of the men in Greenland takes notice,
that on September 18th the allowance of brandy
began to be ferved out to each perfon. On
Ottober 9th they began to make a conftant fire
to fit by. About this time, it is remarked, that
they experienced a confiderable change in their
bodies, with giddinefs in their heads. They now
and then killed a bear ; but their common diet
was fait meat. In March they were all very ill
of the feurvy; and on April 16th the firft man
died, and all the reft were entirely difabied, but
one perfon. This poor wretch continues the
journal to the laft day of April, when they were
praying for a fpeedy releafe from their naileries.
They were all found dead.

The journal of thofe who were left at Spitz-
bergen recites, that they fought in vain for green
herbs, bears and foxes, in that defolate region ;
and killed no other game than one fox, the
whole time. The feurvy appeared among them
as early as November 24th ; and the firft man
died January 14th. The journal ends February
26th i and thefe too were all found dead.

Not

94 -Dr. Atkin on preferring Health

Not many years after thefe unfortunate at¬
tempts, an accident gave rife to an experiment,
the event of which was fo entirely the reverfe of
thefe, that it merits very particular notice. On
the fame fide of Spitzbergen, between lat. 77
and 78, a boat’s crew, belonging to a Greenland
fhip, confiding of eight Englifhmen, who had
been fent adiore to kill deer, were left behind
in confequence of fome midakes, and reduced
to the deplorable neceffity of wintering in that
dreadful country, totally unprovided with every
neceffary. From their narrative, drawn up in
thac dyle of artlefs fimplicity which affords the
dronged preemption of veracity, I fhall extradt
the mod material circumdances.

At their wintering place was fortunately a
large fubdantial wooden building, erected for
the ufe of the coopers belonging to the fifhery.
Within this they built a fmaller one, which they
made very compadt and warm. Here they con-
drudted four cabins, with comfortable deer-fkin
beds j and they kept up a continual fire, which
never went out for eight months. They were
tolerably fupplied with fuel from fome old calks
and boats which they broke up for the purpofe.
Thus provided with lodging, their principal care
was about their fubfidence. Before the cold
weather fet in, they killed a good number of
deer, the greated part of which they cut up,
roaded, and flowed in barrels ; reserving fome

raw

95

in high Northern Latitudes.

raw for their Sundays’ dinners. This, I imagine,
muft have been frozen ; as it began to freeze
fharply before they were fettled in their habi¬
tation. This venilon, with a few lea-horfes and
bears which they killed from time to time, con¬
flicted their whole winter’s provifion, except
a very unfavoury article they were obliged to
make out with, which was whale s fritters , or the
feraps of fat after the oil has been preffed out.
Thefe too, having been wetted and thrown in
heaps, were mouldy. Their ulual courfe of diet,
then, for the fir ft three months, was one meal
of venifon everyday in the week, except Wednef-
days and Fridays, when they kept faft on whale’s
fritters. At the end of this period, on examin*
ing their flock, they found it would not hold
out at this rate, and therefore for the enfuing
three months they retrenched their venifon meals'
to three days in the week, and appeafed their
hunger, as well as they could, on the other four
days, upon the mouldy fritters. At the approach
of fpring they had the good fortune to kill
feveral white bears, which proved excellent food;
and, together with wild fowl and foxes which
they caught, rendered it unneceffary any longer
to flint themfelves to fo rigorous an allowance;
fo that they eat two or three meals of frefh meat
daily, and foon improved in flrength and vigour.
Their only drink during this whole time, was
running water procured from beneath the ice
• on

9 6 Dr. Aikin on preferring Health

on the beach, till January; and afterwards,
fnow-water melted by hot irons. The cold in
the midft of winter was extreme. It raifed blis¬
ters in the flelh ; and when they went abroad,
they became fore all over, as if beaten. Iron,
on being touched, ftuck to their fingers, like
bird-lime. The melancholy of their fituation
was aggravated by the abfence of the fun from
the horizon, from October 14th, to February 3d,
of which period, twenty days were pafied in total
darknefs, except the light of lamps, which they
continued to keep continually burning. With
all this, it does not appear that any of them were
affedted with the fcurvy, or any other diforder;
and the degree of weaknefs, which feems im¬
plied by the mention of their recovering ftrength
in the fpring, may be fufficiently accounted for,
merely from their fhort allowance of nutritious
food. At the return of the fhips on May 25th,
they all appear to have been in health ; and all
of them returned in fafety to their native country.

The laft relation I fhall adduce, is one of
late date, confiderably refembling the foregoing
in feveral of its circumftances, but ftill more
extraordinary.

In the year 1743, a Ruffian fhip of Eaft
Spitzbergen, in lat. between 77 and 78, was
fo enclofed with ice, that the crew, apprehenfive
of being obliged to winter there, fent four of
their men in a boat, to feek for a hut, which

they

in high Northern Latitudes < 97

they knew to have been eredled near that coaft.
The hut was difcovered ; but the men, on
returning to the Ihore, found all the ice cleared
away, and the fhip no longer to be feen ; and
indeed it was never more heard of. I pafs over
their firft tranfports of grief and defpair, and
alfo, their many ingenious contrivances to furnilb
themfelves with the necefiaries they flood moll
in need of. Their diet and way of life are the
circumftances peculiarly connected with my
fubjeft. After fitting up their hut as comfortably
as they could, and laying in drift wood, collefted
on the fhore, for fuel, they turned their attention
chiefly to the procuring of provifion. Three
fpecies of animals, which they caught and killed
by various devices, conftituted their whole
variety of food. Thefe were, reindeer, white
bears, and foxes. The flefh they eat almoft raw,
and without fait ; ufing, by way of bread to it,
other flefh, dried hard in the fmoke. Their drink
was running water in the fummer, and melted
ice and fnow in the winter. Their prefervatives
againft the fcurvy were, fwallowing raw frozen
meat broken into bits, drinking the warm blood
of reindeer juft killed, eating fcurvy-grafs, when
they could meet with it, and ufing much exer-
cife. By thefe means three of them remained
entirely free from this difeafe during the whole
of their abode. The fourth died of it, after
lingering on to the fixth year. It is remarked
Vol. I. H that

2>. Atkin on preferring Health

that this perfon was of an indolent difpofition,
and could not conquer his averfion to drinking
the reindeer’s blood. The three furvivors, after
remaining fix years and three months on this
defolate and folitary ifland, were happily refcued
by a fhip driven cafually upon the coaft, and
returned home in fafety. They were ftrong and
healthy at their return, but by habit had con¬
tracted an inability of eating bread, or drinking
fpirituous liquors.

To the above relations, I fhall add the follow¬
ing fhort quotations relative to the fame fubjedt.

In a note to the account of the four Ruffians,
it is faid, “Counfellor Muller fays, the Ruffians
about Archangel fhould be imitated; fome of
whom every year winter in Nova Zembla without
ever contratting the fcurvy. They follow the
example of the Samoides, by frequently drinking
the warm blood of reindeer juft killed. The
hunting of thefe animals requires continual
exercife. None ever keep their huts during the
day, unlefs tHe ftormy weather, or too great
quantity of fnow, hinders them from taking
their ufual exercife.”

In a manufcript French account of the iflands
lying between Kamtfchatka and America, drawn
up by that eminent naturalift and geographer,
Mr. Pallas, I find it mentioned, thac “ the
Ruffians, in their hunting voyages to thefe iflands,
(an expedition generally lading three years) in

order

in high Northern Latitudes. 99

order to fave expence and room in purchafing
and flowing vegetable provifion, compofe half
their crews of natives of Kamtfchatka, becaufe
thefe people are able to preferve themfelves from
the fcurvy with animal food only , by abftaining
from the vfe of fait.”

Laftly, in the excellent oration of Linnaeus,
On the advantages of travelling in one s own country ,
printed in the third volume of the Am*nitates
Academic*, it is afferted, “ that the Laplanders
live without corn and wine, without fait and
every kind of artificial liquor, on water and
fiefh alone, and food prepared from them j and
yet are entirely free from the fcurvy.” *

Having thus flated the fadls which have fallen
in my way relative to this fubjedt, I proceed to
a comparifon of their feveral circumftances, and
fome remarks on the general refult.

The fcurvy appears to be the difeafe peculiarly
dreaded and fatal in all the above-related attempts
to winter in extremely cold climates. Whether
the circum fiance of cold itfelf, or the want of
proper food, occafioned by it, principally con¬
duces to the generation of this difeafe, is a point
not clearly afcertained. From the preceding

* “ In Lapplandia obfervabit homines abfque Cerere &
Baccho, abfque fale & potu omni artificiali, aqua tantum
& came, & quae ab his praeparantur, conrentos vivere.

“ Quare Norlandi, ut plurimum, fcorbuto fint infedli ; Sc
cur Lappones, contra, hujus morbi prorfus expertes?”

H i narrations.

too

Hr. Atkin on preferving Health

narrations, however, no doubt can be enter¬
tained, that it is poflible for perfons to keep free
from the fcurvy, in countries and feafons the
moft intenfely cold, provided their diet and
manner of living be properly adapted to fuch
fituations ; and this, without the aid of frefh
vegetables, or any of thofe other prefervatives,
which have of late been propofed by ingenious
writers.

When we compare the hiftories above recited,
it is impoflible not to be immediately druck
with thefe leading circumdances, that thofe in
whom the fcurvy raged, fed upon fait provifions>
and drank fpirituous liquors whereas thofe who
cfcaped it, fed upon frefh animal food, or at
lead preferved without fait , and drank water.

It is well enough known among fea-faring
people, that frefh animal food is ferviceable to
fcorbutic perfons ; but whether the condant ufe
of it alone would prevent the fcurvy, they have no
means of experiencing. As little can we learn
from their experience, whether any other mode
of preferving animal flefh than that of faking,
will keep it in fuch a date as to be falubrious
food. But the narrative of the eight Engiifhmen
feems to determine both thefe important points ;
for their provifion was all of the animal kind,
and the greated part of it was flefh, killed feveral
months before, and kept from decaying, either
by the coldnefs of the climate alone, or by the

cooking

IOI

hi high Northern Latitudes .

cooking it had undergone. It is evident, too,
that the failors of Kamtfchatka, who fubfift
during fo long a voyage on animal food unfalted,
mud either preferve it by fmoking, freezing, or
other fimilar proceffes, or mud ufe it in a putrid
ftate. To this lad, indeed, from the accounts
we have of the ulual diet of thefe people, they
feem not at all averfe 5 though we may find it
difficult to conceive, how the body can be kept in
health by food abfolutely putrefied. The Lap¬
landers, alfo, who fubfid fo entirely on animal
food without fait, mud have other methods of
preferving it for a confiderable time ; and, indeed
it feems to be the condant pradice in Ruffia, and
other northern regions, for the inhabitants to
freeze their meat in order to lay it up for their
winter’s dock.

Thefe fads lead to the confideration of the
quedion, whether faked meat be prejudicial, on
account of the quantity of fait it contains j or,
merely, becaufe the fait fails to preferve the
juices of the fleffi in fuch a date, as to afford pro¬
per nutriment ? The latter, I believe, is the more
prevalent opinion ; yet I confefs, I cannot but
think, that fea-falt itielf, when taken in large
quantities, mud prove unfriendly to the bc^y,
I ne feptic quality of Jmall proportions of fait
mixed with animal matters (and fmall proportions
only can be received into the juices of a living
pnimal) has been proved by the well-known

H ^ experiment^

102

Dr. Aikin on preferving Health

experiments of Sir John Pringle. But befides
this, it may prove hurtful, by the acrimonious and
corroflve property with which it may impregnate
the fluids. It is univerfally allowed, that much
ftlt, and faked meats, are very prejudicial in the
diforders vulgarly called Jcorbutic amongfl; us s
which, though in manyrefpeds different from the
genuine fea-fcurvy, yet refemble this difeafe in
many leading fymptoms, as laflitude, livid
blotches, fpungygums, and difpofltion to haemorr¬
hage. And fome of the fymptoms of the fea-
fcurvy feem to indicate a Jaline, and not a Amply
putrid acrimony ; fuch as that of the disjoining of
bones formerly broken, in which cafe, the offeous
matter of the callus is probably rediffolved, by
the faline principle contained in the animal fluids.
On the other hand, it feems to be a fad, that
feveral of the northern nations, whofe diet is
extremely putrid, (as before hinted with refped
to the people of Kamtfchatka) are able to preferve
themfelves from the fcurvy j therefore, putrid
aliments alone will not neceffarily induce it.

On the whole, on an attentive confideration of
the fads which have been recited, fome of which
are upon a pretty extenflve fcale, I cannot but
adopt the opinion, that the uje of Jea-Jalt is a very
■principal caiife of the fcurvy ; and that a total abJH-
nence from it , is one of the mofl important means for
preventing this difeafe.

A conflder-

in high Northern Latitudes . 103

A confiderable article of the diet of the eight
Englifhmen, though neceffity alone could have
brought them to ufe it, was probably of confider-
able fervice in preventing the diforders to which
their fituation rendered them liable. This was,
the whale's fritters , which, though deprived of
great part of their oil, muft ftill contain no
fmall fhare of it. All voyagers agree, that the
Samoides, Efquimaux, Greenlanders, and other
inhabitants of the polar regions, make great ufe
of the fat and oil of fifh and marine animals in
their diet, and indeed can fcarcely fubfift without
them. In what precife manner thefe fubftances
adt, is not, perhaps, eafily explained ; but as the
ufe of them would, doubclefs, caufe an accumula¬
tion of fimilar parts in the body, and as we find
all animals deftined to endure the fevere cold of
the ardtic climates, are copioufly furnifhed with
fat, we may conclude, that it pofTefTes fome
peculiar efficacy in defending from the impreffions
of cold.

With refpedt to the warm reindeer’s blood, which
the Ruffian failors feem to have thought fo
falutary, and the ufe of which is confirmed in
one of the quotations ; if it has any particular
effiedt in preventing the fcurvy, beyond that of
the juices extradted from recent animal fieffi by
cookery or digeftion, it muft probably refide in
fome unaffimilated particles, derived from the
vegetable food of the animal, and ftill retaining

H 4. confiderably

104 Dr. dikin on preferving Health

confiderably of a vegetable nature. It is well
known that the chyle does not immediately lofe
its peculiar properties, and mix undiftinguifliably
with the blood ; and that the milk, chat fecretion
the moft fpeedily and abundantly feparated from
the blood, pofifefles many properties in common
with vegetable fubftances. As to their other pre-
fervative, the J wallowing of raw frozen meat , I am
at a lofs to account for any falutary effetts it
may have, except as an aliment rendered eafy of
digeftion, by the power of froft in making fub-
flances tender.

To proceed to the next important article, that
of drink. It appears, that in all the unfuccefsful
inftances, vinous and fpirituous liquors were
■ufed, and probably in confiderable quantities.
Thus, in one of the Dutch journals, notice is
taken, that an allowance of brandy began to
be ferved to each man as foon as the middle of
September. Writers on the fcurvy feem almofl:
unanimoufly to confider a portion of thefe liquors,
as an ufeful addition to the diet of perfons expofed
to the caufes of this difcafe ; and due deference
ought certainly to be paid to their knowledge
and experience : but, convinced as I am, that
art never made fo fatal a prefent to mankind
as the invention of diddling fpirituous liquors,
and that they are feldom or never a necelTary,
but almofl: always a pernicious article in the diet
qf men in health, I cannot but look with peculiar

fatisfa&ioi?

in high Northern Latitudes . 105

fatisfadtion on the confirmation this opinion re¬
ceives by the events in thefe narratives.

Indeed, from reafoning alone, we might
naturally be led to the fame conclufion. \
great degree of cold renders the fibres rigid;
and, by repelling the blood and nervous principle
from the furface of the body, increafes the vital
energy of the internal organs. Hence, the heart
contradts more forcibly, and the domach has its
warmth and mufcular adtion augmented. In
thefe circumdances, dimulants and adringents
feem by no means indicated ; but rather fub-
ftances of an oppofite nature. We have acquired,
by aflociation, the idea of oppofing actual cold
by matters ■potentially or metaphorically hot; but
this is in great meafure a fallacious notion. On
the contrary, it is found that the effedts of exceffive
heat are bed refilled by warm and acrid fubfiances,
fuch as the fpicy and aromatic vegetables which
the hot climates mod abundantly produce, and
which are fo much ufed in the diet of the inhabi¬
tants. And if it be admitted as a general law of
nature, that every country yields the products
bed adapted to the health and fudenance of its
inhabitants, we Ihould conclude, that aromatic
vegetables, and fermented liquors, are peculiarly
appropriated to the warmer climates; while
bland, oily animal matters are rather defigned
for the ufe of the frigid regions. Spirits, as
{intifeptics, may, indeed, feem to be indicated,

where

jo 6 Dr . Aikin on prefervlng Health

where there is a necefTity of living upon corrupted
putrefcent fieth ; but they cannot a£t in this way
without, at the fame time, rendering the food
harder and more indigeftible, and, confequently,
leflening the quantity of nutriment to be derived
from it. The temporary glow and elevation
caufed by fpirituous liquors are, I imagine, very
fallacious tokens of their good effefts ; as they
are always fucceeded by a greater reverfe, and
tend rather to confume and exhauft, than to
feed and invigorate, the genuine principle of
vital energy. Another extremely pernicious
effe<5l of thefe liquors, is, the indolence and
ftupidity they occafion, rendering men inattentive
to their own prefervation, and unwilling to ufe
thofe exertions, which are fo peculiarly necefiary
in fituations like thofe defcribed in the foregoing
narratives. And this leads me to the confideration
of a third important head, that of exercife.

The utility of regular and vigorous exercife to
men expofed to the caufes inducing fcurvy, is
abundantly confirmed by experience. Captain
Cook feems to attribute his remarkable fuccefs in
preferving the health of his crew, more to great
attention to this point than to any other circum-
flance. This opinion is greatly corroborated by
the relations before us. Captain Monck’s crew,
wintering with their (hips in fafety before them,
and well fu nifhed with all kinds of fea (lores,
could have little occafion for labour. The two

companies

in high Northern Latitudes , 1 07

companies of Dutchmen feem to have done little
during their melancholy abode, but drink brandy,
and fmoke tobacco over their fires. On the other
hand. Captain James’s men were very fufficiently
employed in the laborious tafk of building their
pinnace, which, notwithftanding their weak and
fickly ftate, they had nearly completed, before
they found the work unneceflary. The three
Ruffians on Eaft Spitzbergen who furvived, are
exprefsly faid, to have ufed much exercife by way
of prefervative ; as alio, according to Counlellor
Muller, do thofe who winter on Nova Zembla,
A difficulty, however, here occurs ; which is, that
we know it to be the cuftom of the inhabitants of
the very northern regions, to fpend their long
winter night almoft entirely under ground j
feeming, in that refpeft, to imitate the animals of
the country, which lie torpid in their holes and
dens during the winter. From the journal of the
eight Englifhmen, too, I fnould judge, that they
were inattive during the greateft part of the time
that the fun was invifible. But it is to be remarked,
that in thefe inftances, what I confider as the
moft powerful caufe of the fcurvy, the ufe of falted
provifions, did not exift ; and therefore lefs power¬
ful prefervatives would be necefiary. Further,
the Engliffi crew had a very icantv allowance of
provifion of any kind ; which would, doubtlefs,
take off from the neceffity of much exercife.

1 hus, the animals which flcep out the winter,

take

so3 Dr. Atkin on ■preferving Health

take in no nutriment whatfoever, and therefore
are not injured by abfolute reft.

Exercife is probably ferviceable, both by pro¬
moting the difcharge of effete and corrupted
particles by excretion, and by augmenting the
animal heat. As far as cold in itfelf can be
fuppofed a caufe of difeafe; its effedls will be
moft dire&ly oppofed, by increafing the internal
or external heat. And this leads to the confi-
deration of the further means for guarding
againft and tempering the intenfe feverity of the
wintry air in thefe climates.

It appears from the journals of the unfortunate
fufferers in thefe attempts, that they endured
great miferies from the cold ; their fuel foon
proving inefficient for their confumption, and
their daily increafing weaknefs preventing them
from fearching for more, or keeping their fires
properly fupplied. On the other hand, the
Englifh and Ruffians had not only made their
huts very fubftantial, but had fecured plentiful
fupplies of fuel. And the nations who con-
ftantly inhabit the arftic regions, are reprefented
as living in an actually warm atmofphere in their
fubterraneous dwellings, and guarded by impe¬
netrable coverings when they venture abroad.
The animals, too, which retire during the winter,
are always found in clofe caverns, or deep burrows,
rolled up, and frequently heaped together in
numbers, fo as to preferve a confiderable degree

of

in Ugh Northern Latitudes . iO£

of warmth. Of the feveral methods of procur¬
ing heat, there can be little doubt, that warm
clothing, and the mutual contact of animal
bodies, mull be the mod friendly, as being moft
equable, and not inviting fuch an influx of cold
air, as is caufed by the burning of an artificial
fire. And the advantage of fubterraneous lodg¬
ings is proved by the well-known fatt, of the
unchanging temperature of the air at certain
depths beneath the furface.

Thefe are the moft material obfervations that
have occurred to me, on reflecting upon the
remarkable hiftories and fafts above related. I
would flatter myfelf that they might aftift in the
framing of fuch rules and precautions, as would
render the fuccefs of any future attempts of the
like kind, lefs precarious. I fhall be happy, if
they prove acceptable to the Society, to whom
I have the honour of addrefting them ; and ftill
more, if they in any degree conduce to the wel¬
fare of mankind.

no M. de Polier bn the Pleafures of the Mind

An Essay on the Pleasure which the Mtnd
receives from the Exercife of its Faculties, and that
of Taste in particular. By Charles de
Polier, Efq. Read February ij, 1782.

“ Denique fit quodvis fimplex dentaxat et unum.”

Ho a. de Art. Poet.

HAT the exercife of the mind is no lefs

JL necefiary to the exiftence of man, than
that of the body, appears incontrovertible. The
fenfes of the brute part of the creation, are fo
much more perfect than ours, that thereby they
are enabled to purfue whatever is favourable,
and to avoid whatever is detrimental to them.
In giving us the powers of the undemanding,
the Author of the univerfe hath abundantly
fupplied that defed. By them, we not only rife
fuperior to the beafts in every means of provid¬
ing for our fupport, our defence, and our wel¬
fare ; but we have improved upon nature, and
made the whole world fubfervient to our wants,
and to our defires. It was not, however, the
intention of Providence, that thofe advantages
Ihould be gained without any trouble on our fide.
The intelledual faculties, for the moll part, lie
dormant in us; to roufe them, ftrong exertions
ire necefifaryj and men naturally fond of eafe.

and

Ill

hi the Exercife of its Vacuities ';

and prone to indolence, would forever, perhaps,
remain in a date little fuperior to that of the
brutes, if neceffity, at firft, and pleafure after¬
wards, did not call forth thefe latent powers.

Pleafure, the parent of joys and amufements,
will be found alike the parent of Sciences, and
of Arts ; Nature, in her kindnefs to man, having
annexed an agreeable and pleafing fenfation to
whatever gives exercife to the mind without fatiguing
it. To this, we are indebted for the improve¬
ments made to arts, taught, at fir ft, by .neceffity 5
and for the difcovery of many more, either agree¬
able or ufefuL Nay, fuch is the charm of that
exercife, that it has been known fo to elevate the
foul, as to detach her, as it were, from the
body;* and freeing her from its fhackles, fee

^ e read in Aulus Gellius , that Socrates, to exercife his
patience, as he fays, but perhaps to indulge, in all its
extent, the pleafure we are here fpeaking of, ufed to Hand
for twenty-four hours together, in a Heady poHure, unmove¬
able, without even fo much as winking his eyes, which he
conHantly kept fixed Upon the fame place, entirely abforbed
in his own thoughts, and feeming, as if an adual feceffion
had taken place between his foul and body.

“ wiH be but doing Mice to Aldus Gellius, though not a
very elegant writer, to fet down here his own words.

“ Stare folitus Socrates dicitur pertinaci fiatu, per dies
atque per nodes, a fummo lucis ortu ad folem alterum
onentem, inconnivens, immobilis, iifdem in vefligiis, et
ore atque oculis eundem in locum diredis, cogitabundus,
tanquam quodam feceflu animi fa£lo a corpore.rt

Aul. Cell. Nod. Attic. Lib. II. Cap. r.

her

1 1 2 M. de Polier on the Pleqfures of the Mind

her in that (late, fo beautifully deferibed by
Akenfide, when he fays, in his Pleafures of
Imagination,

- - ** The high born Joul

Difdains to reft her heav’n afpiring wing
Beneath its native quarry. Tir’d of earth
And this diurnal feene, fhe fprings aloft.

Through fields of air; purfues the flying ftorm.

Rides on the vollied light’ning through the heav’ns ;

Or, yok’d with whirlwinds and the northern blaft.

Sweeps the long traft of day.”

I omit the reft of that noble paffage, too long to
be here inferted ; but written with all the enthu-
fiafrn of poetic genius , joined to all the fweetnefs and
harmony of numbers.

Vide Akenside’s Pleaf. of Imag. B. I, Ver. 183.

The hiftory of Archimedes , the famous Sicilian
Philofopher, is well known. Neither the fenfe
of decency on one occafion, nor the fenfe of
danger on another, could divert his thoughts
from the objedt they had in view, and from the
pleafure they afforded him. If the truth of thefe
furprizing anecdotes may be doubted, let us at
lead acknowledge the poffibility of them, from
what we may obferve every day among us.
Would not one imagine, on feeing a Chefs-player,
for inftance, fo entirely wrapt up in himfelf, as
to appear infenfible to every thing around him,
that he is taken up with the care of his own
fortune, the prefervation of the date, or fome

fucli

in tie Exercife of its Faculties. 1 1 3

fuch great and important fubjeft ? And yet,
all this intenfenefs of thought is produced by
the pofition of a fmall piece of ivory, which
gives exercife to his mind, and procures him
that pleafure in which he feems fo totally ab-
forbed. Other instances might be adduced.
The entertainment we receive from riddlest
charades , and fuch other Jaix d'EJprit , pro¬
ceeds from the fame fource. Every reader, of
acute underftanding and refined tafle, delights
to meet in authors with fuch delicate thoughts, as
not being immediately obvious, are juft concealed
enough to give him the pleafure of finding them
out, and as fuch, may be compared to Virgil's
Galatea ,

“ Et fugit ad Salices, et fe cupit ante videri.”

Vi r.g. Buc. Eel. 3.

There have been fome men who have thought,
that the exercife of the mind was only agreeable,
by anticipating the reputation which it might
give. But, however ftrongly the motive of fame
may operate on the minds of fome, yet the
proportion, when attempted to be made general,
is confuted by daily experience. How often do
we employ whole hours in reading and meditation,
without the lead view to futurity, and merely,
to gratify the prefent 'moment ? Does not this
prove, that, independent of any other incentive,
there is a pleafure inherent in whatever exerciles
the mind without fatiguing it ?

VOL. I. I

This

1 1 4 M. de Poller on the Pleafures of the Mind

This principle does not hold good of the mind
only, but is equally applicable to every other
component part of our being. There is an
agreeable fenfation annexed to whatever exercil'es
the organs of the body without weakening them j
and in the fentiments or emotions of the heart ,
whatever keeps clear of the tumult of the pafiions,
is attended with a degree of pleafure. Proofs of
thefe pofitions might be brought innumerable,
but would probably be unneceffary. Mod of the
ancient philofophers have laid them down, as the
foundation of their ideas of human perfedtion :
and there are few perfons, I believe, of any
reflection and experience, who have not felt
the truth of them in themfelves, or obferved
it in others. Jlluftrations might, perhaps, be
more agreeable than proofs j but in a fubjedt
of fuch an extent, and which embraces no lefs
than the whole circle of phyfiology, ethics, and
Belles Lettres, it is neceffary to confine onefelf,
and I fhall therefore do no more at prefent, than
offer to the Society fome few imperfect remarks,
on l'uch works of art, as give exercife to the mind,
and come, chiefly, under the province of that
faculty of the underftanding, known by the
jiame of 'Tafle . This choice is not altogether
arbitrary. Mere intellectual pleafures, however
agreeable in themfelves, by overtraining the
mind, become at length painful. Organic enjoy*
ments lad onlyas long as we are invigour. But the

pleafures

ii5

in the Exercife of its Faculties.

pleafures of the eye and the ear, as Lord Kahns
ingeniously obferves, in his Elements of Critici/m,
holding the middle way between thefe two, are
particulaily fitted to occupy the mind without
exhauffing it. They relax it after intenle ftudy,
and reftoie it to its proper tone, after the fatiety
and difguft, caufed by the mere pleafures of the
fenfes : they tend, therefore, mod effentially
to prove the principle I mean to illuftrate.

We fhall find, accordingly, that the agreeable
fenfations we receive from the produ&ions of the
fine arts, are, in a great meafure, owing to the
order and fymmetry, which enable the mind
to take in, without labour, ail the different
parts of them. It is by this, that rhyme becomes
agreeable in poetry. Some have contended in¬
deed, that this return of the fame founds, invented
in the Gothic ages, ought to be clafied among
the Acroftics, Anagrams, and fuch other frivo¬
lous productions, whofe only merit lies in their
difficulty. They inftance the Greeks and the
Romans, whofe poetry, far more harmonious
than ours, charms the fenfe, and delights the
ear, without the help of rhyme. Eut they do not
feem to have attended fulficiently to the ufe of
poetry, and the nature of the ancient languages.
Verfcs are made to be fung, or to be rehearfed.
From the mouth of the aCtor, the mufician, or the
reader, whoever he may be, they are fuppofed
to pais into the minds of a whole people ; and

I 2 their

1 1 6 M.de Polier on the Pleajures of the Mind

their compofition is the more perfect, the more
readily they prefent themfelves to the memory.

The Greek and Latin tongues, by means of
their long and fhort fyllables, and the various
meafures into which they may be reduced, form
a kind of chaunt , melody , or noted air , which the
memory can eafdy lay hold of, and therefore,
the return of the fame founds, becoming ulelefs,
would caufe nothing but a difagreeable repetition.

Our modern languages have not the fame
advantage, or poffefs it, at lead, in a much
lefs degree. The blank verfe of the Englifh,
German, and Italian, except in very few fhining
exceptions, feems (as was quoted fome time ago,
in a very ingenious paper prefented to this
Society) to he verfe only to the eye , or depends
at lead fo much on the fkilfulneis of the reader,
as not to obtain the effeft above-mentioned, with
by far the greated part of thofe who read them.
Poems, where it is ufed, are not popular: the
ideas they convey, the fentiments they mean
to inculcate, however forcibly exprefled, do not
eafily recur to the memory : and, I dare fay,
that for one perfon who remembers a paffage
from Milton, Young, or Akenfide, there are twenty
who will quote fome from Pope, Dry den, or
Prior. 1

This controverfy has long been decided in
France , where, notwithdanding the drenuous
efforts of one of its greated poets (Manfieur de

la

in the Exerctfe of its Faculties. 1 17

la Motte) rhvme has kept in poetry the domi¬
nion, which the nature of the French language
incontedably gave it.

In England , where a Shakefpeare and a Milton
have written, the matter leems yet to be Jub
Judice. It would ill become me, as a young
man, and a foreigner, to be that judge ; but I
may be indulged in fupporting what I have al-
ledged here in favour of rhyme, by the opinion
of the bed critic now living in this nation. Dr.
Jchnfon ; who, admiring the powers of Milton ,
and the amazing dignity given to his fentiments,
by a verification which he otherwife rather
difapproves, adds, c< He that thinks himfelf
capable of adonifhing, may write blank verfe:
but thofe that hope only to pleafe, mud con-
defcend to rhyme.”*

Another general objection has been brought
againd rhyme. “How comes it, fays Monfieur
de la Motte, that this monotony, which you
affirm to be, by its nature, fo agreeable in
poetry, is almod condantly fo unpleafant in a
fider-art, in mufic ?” To this might be anfwered,
that the chief objedt of the mufician being to
delight by the founds, he cannot fucceed better,
than by varying them judicioufly : whereas, a
Poet is not fatisfied with charming the ears
of his audience j he wiflies to imprels on their

* Dr. Johnfon’s Life of Milton.

I 3

memory

1 1 8 M. de V oiler on the Pleafures of the Mind

memory a feries of ideas, of fentiments, of
expreffions ■, and there are none of his verfes
which he would not be glad to engrave, with
indelible characters, on the hearts of all mankind.
He avails himfelf, therefore, of the rhyme which
modern languages offer him, as the moft favour¬
able help towards the attaining of his purpofe.

But to return to our fubjet, from which I
mud beg pardon for having wandered lo far.
Imitation, which is the principle of all the fine
arts, is another fpecies of fymmetry, whether it
aits by means of colour, of founds, of geftures,
or of words. The objets it prefents, eafily take
/A hold of our imagination, by the comparifon
we make of them with objets already known
to us.

Ariflotle and his followers have maintained, that
the pleafure produced in the mind, by the repre-
fentation of any objet, was owing to its acquiring,
by that means, a new degree of knowledge. This
opinion feems wrong, becaufe it allows no differ¬
ence between a juft, and an unfair reprefentation j
nor any gradation of pleafure, from the different
degrees of execution. The mind every way makes
a new acquifition of knowledge, and muft, there¬
fore, receive agreeable fenfations alike, from the
Iliad of Homer , and the Thebaid of Statius ; the
pitures of Raphael , and thofe of a fign-painter j
the mufic of Handel, and the uncouth notes of an
Irifh piper.

Other

in the' Exercife of its Faculties. 1 1 g

Other philofophers have afferted, that the
reprefentation of an objedt pleafes, only by its
interefting the pafiions. And fo far it is true,
that the foul cannot be moved, or ftrongly affedted,
without it. But does not even the lead: interefting
objedt make a flight impreftion of pleafure, at
leaft on the furface of the foul, if it is well repre-
fented, and if an exadt fymmetry is to be feen
between the picture and the original ? Every body
muft have felt it j and it proceeds from this prin¬
cipal law in the nature of our fenfations — that
any objedt becomes agreeable, whofe parts are
fo formed, and fo difpofed, as to prefent the mind
with an eafy, clear, and diftindt idea of the
whole.

What is called Contraft in painting, poetry, and
eloquence, is another fort of fymmetry, which, by
bringing contrary objedts near to each other, fets
off the features of the one, by the comparifon we
make of them with the features of the other.
This relation has been taken from nature, in whofe
works it feldom fails of having a pleafing effedt.
It is from it, that the views in Switzerland, and in
other mountainous countries, are fo particularly
agreeable. The diffimilitude of the objedts, which
the eye embraces, renders them all more ftriking,
and helps the mind to get a clearer idea cf the
whole. Thus, when fkilfully applied to the produc-
tionsof art, contraft is generally attended with great
fuccefs. We accordingly read, that the ancient

I 4 fculptors.

120 M. de Toiler on the Pleafures of the Mind

fculptors, in order to fet off the beauty of a Venus ,
a Grace , or an Apollo , ufed to place them in a niche
formed in the ftatue of a Fawn, or a Satyr -, and
Virgil , in order to paint more ftrongly the agita¬
tion of Dido's heart, places the fcene of her agonies
in the night, when Morpheus fpread his peaceful
influence over all the reft of mankind.

There are, befides fymmetry, certain relations
or proportions, which the mind eafily conceives,
and which therefore become agreeable. Thus, in
architecture, for inflance, the height of the
porticos, in regular buildings, is double the
breadth : the height of the entablature, is a fourth,
and that of the pedeftal, a third of the height of
the column. All eminent architects, among the
different proportions adapted to their defign, have
always made choice of thofe, which the mind could
comprehend without any difficulty. The fame
may be obferved in mufic. Of all concords, the
unijon and the odtave fhould be the mod agreeable,
becaufe they excite more vibrations in the fibres
of the ear : but the pleafure we receive from this
enchanting art, depends more on the mind, than
on the organ adapted to convey it. The fifth is
the moll agreeable of all concords, becaufe it
prcfents to the mind a proportion, the finding out
of which, gives it a degree of exercife, that caufes
no wearinefs, confequently no difguft.

Some compofitions there are in mufic, which
pleafe only profound muficians, and ftrike, per¬
haps.

121

in the Exercife of its Faculties .

haps, the reft of the hearers, as harfh and dif-
cordant. May not this be owing to the very fine
tafte of the former, by which they are enabled, in
the midft of feeming diflonances, to find out
relations, which do not affeCt ears lefs exercifed
than theirs ?

The analogy which we find in all the works of
nature, allows us to conjecture, that the fame law,
which determines the agreeablenefs of founds,
has alfo an influence upon other objeCts of our
fenfes. Some colours, for inftance, fet together,
give an agreeable fenfation to the eye, and more
fo, than if they appeared Angle. The fame
principle may, perhaps be extended to fmells,
and to favours, with fome reftriCtions, however ;
for, though it may be generally afierted, that thofe
which are falubrious are agreeable ; yet it muft be
owned, that their agreeablenefs does not always
feem to depend on their falubrity.

But it is not juft proportion and fymmetrical
relation alone, that renders the works of the fine
arts agreeable. They are chiefly made fo, by one
principal objeCt or common end, to which all
their different parts are adapted, and which enables
the mind the more eafily to comprehend, and to
retain them.

Wifdom, in morality, has been defined — The
having one good purpofe in view, and ufing the
beft means to attain that purpofe. So beauty , in
the imitative arts, might be faid to confift, in the

choice

122 M.de Tclier on the Vleafures of the Mind

choice of a good objeCl, and in making every thing
tend to the exprefiion of it, as to one common
end. Certain it is, that this correfpondence of
the parts with the whole, is to be confidered, as ,
the firft and principal caufe of agreeable fenfations.

It is alone fufficient to give beauty to the moll
fimple objeCts ; and, if other embellifhments are
wanted, it becomes the ftandard of their propriety,
and the rule by which we can determine, whether
they are real beauties, or only (tuning blemifhes.
But to give the mind an eafier and more agreeable
perception of the objeCt, art has (till gone farther.
Among all thele parts which are made to refer to
one common end, a principal one is chofen, to
which all others are fubordinate, and which
becomes like a center of re-union for them.
Architecture can illuftrate this. Unacquainted
with the real beauties of their art, the Gothic
architects never failed to place, on both Tides of
the body of their buildings, fuch enormous wings,
or rather mafies of ftone, as almoft totally eclipfed
it, and kept the fight divided and undetermined.
Bromante , PalladiOy and after them mod of the
modern architects, taught, perhaps, by Vitruvius ,
but certainly more acquainted than their pre-
deceflfors with what would (trike the eyes agree¬
ably, have placed, in the middle of their buildings,
a principal part, which, eminent above the reft,
gives the fight a fixed point, from which it can

glance

in the Exercife of its Faculties. 1 23

glance over all the red, and fo enable the mind to
get, at once, a clear and didind idea of the whole.

All fculptors, in thofe works, where the eye
might he divided by the number of figures, fuch
as, group, entaglios , baffo- relievos, (hew great at¬
tention to this rule, and always chufe a principal
objed, to fix the fight of the beholders. 1 he three
Rhodian artifts, whofe joint work, according to
the elder Pliny,* has produced the famous group
of Laocoon , which now (lands in the Belvidere at
Rome , feem to have had that principle flrongly in
view, in the difpofition of their figures. The
Society, I trud, will forgive me, if, by way of
illudration, I here join a defcription of that
celebrated monument of human powers, which
Michael Angelo, himfelf a wonder of modern times,
ufed to call, a miracle of art. This defcription I
At all, for the mod part, take from a French book,
which deferves to be better known in this country,
from whence fo many annually go to vifit the
clafiical ground of Italy, and fo many in vain, from
the want of proper guides. I mean, Le Defcription
bijlorique et critique de P Italic, par Monf. V Abbe
Richard, 6 vol. i2mo. Paris 1769. In Englidr,

* “ Sicut in Laocoonte, qui eft in Titi domo, opus
omnibus, et piflurse et ftatuarite artis, anteferendum, ex
uno lapide, cum et liberos, draconum, mirabiles nexus,
de Confilii fententia fecere, fummi Artifices, Agriander ,
Polidorus, et Atbenedorus, Rhodii.”

Px.iN. Hift. Nat. Lib. XXXVI. cap. 5.

An

I

124 M.de Polier on the Pleafures of the Mind

An hiftorical and critical Defcription of Italy.
By Abbe Richard. Six vols. i2m0.

The group of Laocoon was found in the Thermes,
or Baths of Titus, about the year 1506, under
the pontificate of Julius II. who immediately
bought it from the pofiTeffor of the field, where
it had been dug out. The figures are higher
than nature, and of fo beautiful white marble,
that the fight of it alone charms the eye. The
woikmanfliip is exquifite, of fuch a noble ftyle,
and fuch a corredlnefs of execution, as befpeak
it a work of the beft Grecian age. It is not the
Laocoon defcribed by Virgil , as rending the fky
with his (hrieks, ftruggling hard for his life,
and roaring, like a bull flying from the altar
where he has been wounded.

<e Clamores fimul horridos ad fidera tollit,

Quales mugitus, fugit cum faucius aras
Taurus.”

Virg. iEneid. II.

“ His roaring fills the flitting air around.

Thus, when an ox receives a glancing wound.

He breaks his bands, the fatal altar flies.

And, with loud bellowings, breaks the yielding Ikies.”

Dr yden.

Tt is not that man, execrated by a whole people,
for having difcharged a fpear againft the horfe
con lee rated to Minerva, and whom the vengeance
of the Gods purfues.

- - “ Scelus

12 5

in the Exercife of its Faculties.

------ “ Scelus expendifle merentem

Laocoonta ferunt, facrum, qui cufpide robur
Lsferit.”

Virg. Ibid.

_ _ “ The general cry

Proclaims Laocoon juftly doom’d to die,

Whole hand the will of Pallas had withftood.

And dar’d to violate the facred wood.”

Drydek.

It is a wretched parent, who feels his ftrength
exhaufted, and is ready to fink under the accu¬
mulated weight, of exquifite pain, and deep felt
affli&ion. His mouth half opened, and his eyes
lifted up to heaven, feem to call for afliftance
from the Gods, though defpair at the fame
inftant overwhelms him at the fight of his own
fate, and that of his unfortunate fons, half fmo-
thered and devoured by the monfters, who crufh
them all three. The exprefiion of that group
is admirable: but the fculptors have diftin-
guifhed a principal object in it: for, although
the fons are equally well executed, and the one
to the left in particular claims our fympathy,
by the horrid ftate of pain in which he is repre-
fented, (one of the ferpents beginning to tear
open his fide) yet the father attradls the chief
notice. He is that principal part of the whole, to
which all others are referred; and it is by that
judicious fubordination and reference, that the
artifts have found means to imprels the fpe&ator
with all the fentiments they meant to convey,
and which, without labour to the mind, give it

all

126 M. de Polier on the Pleafures of the Mind

all the pleafure fuch a reprefentation is able to
produce.

The pleafure we receive from a good painting,
is alfo chiefly owing to this fubordination of
parts, and reference of them to the principal
object. Painters call it compofition and thofe
mafters have obtained the firft rank among them,
who have been moft attentive to it. It was
Raphael's, and Ruben s forte; and, being the happy
relult of great genius, combined with a well
cultivated tafte, is always lure of caufing the
molt agreeable fenfations to the mind, that con¬
templates the effects of it.

In poetry, but particularly in epic and dra¬
matic performances, the obfervation or negled
of this rule becomes, likewife, the teft of the
pleafure they afford to a perfon of tafte. The
different adors that appear in the narration, or
on the fcene, mud all concur in their different
ftations to fet off the main object, and keep the
attention fixed upon it, or elfe, the mind, dif-
traded with a multiplicity of objeds, that feem
to lay an equal claim to its notice, and perhaps
to its feelings, grows weary, difgufted, and in¬
different to them all. Unity of action, in paint¬
ing and in poetry, is another confequence of the
attention of artifts to the principle L meant to
iiluftrate. For nothing can be more fatisfadory
to the mind, than to take in, as it were, with a
glance, a multitude of fads connected together,

bv

in the Exercife of its Faculties. 127

by their mutual relation to Tome great and im¬
portant a&ion. One may introduce, indeed,
in a poem, feveral fables or plots, and collect in
it, as it were in a gallery of pictures, a feries
of portraits. It is what Ovid, Statius , Ariofto ,
Shakefpeare , in his hiftorical plays, and feveral
others, have done. But, many centuries before
the oldeft of them, the great genius of Homer
had conceived, that it would be prefenting a
fpe&acle far more agreeable to the mind, if a
multitude of perfons were collected together in
the fame pidlure, and were made to contribute
to one and the fame aftion ; and upon that idea
he formed the plan of the epic poem.

Many years after him, AEJchylus , the firft who
gave fome order and fome propriety to the drama,
took from the epic poem, the plan of tragedy ,
which he made to be, the reprelentation of an
event unfolded in all its circumftances. That
great Poet likewife underftood, that this repre-
fentation w'ould far more pleafe the mind, if all
the fcenes of it were connected by fome principal
action, which would help the memory to retain
them eafily.

He carried, moreover, this idea (till farther, and
to the unity of ablion, joined thofe of time and
place. Sophocles and Euripedes , but efpecially the
former, followed him pretty ftri&ly, and Arijlotle
drew his rules from their pra&ice. Sw'ayed by
the authority of great names, and, perhaps, led

away

128 M.de Polier on the Pleajures of the Mind

away too far by this principle, that there is a
pleafure inherent in whatever enables the mind
to get a clear and diftincl perception of the object
prefented to it, the French critics defended, and
the French dramatic poets wrote after thefe rules.
In England , the amazing genius of Shakefpeare ,
probably unacquainted with Ariftotle and his
precepts, having early, and in general happily,
foared above all reftraints, gave, perhaps, a bias
to the tafte of the nation ; or a fanftion, at lead,
to future dramatic authors, for not attending
fcrupuloully to the drift unities. Thefe, how¬
ever, were alfo defended by the Englifh critics,
and, in theory, admitted by the bed poets : but
the praftice did not correfpond ; and there is not
at prefent a theatre in Europe , in which thefe rules
are lei's obferved.

I do not mean this, as an abfolute reproach.
Convinced, as I am, that the pleafures of the heart
are much fuperior to thofe of the mind, I think,
that rules invented to give eafe and pleafure to
the latter, may often be facrificed to a multitude
of intereding events and fituations, that raife
ftrong emotions in the former, and fir ike it
forcibly. But at the fame time, illufion being
the charm of theatrical reprefentations, care
ought to be taken not to deilroy it, nor diminifh
the concern and fympathy of the fpedlators, by
too great a deviation from probability. If, on
the flage, an old man were to play the part of

a young

in the Exercife of its Faculties. 129

a young one, if, the feene being in a palace, the
feeneries were to prefent trees and landfcapes
to our view, if the dreffes did not correfpond,
in fotne degree to the dignity of the perfons
reprefented, all thefe difcordances would offend
us.

The fame is applicable to the deviation from
the three unities. If, in a drama, the principal
adlions are multiplied, if in the fpace of a few
hours, many centuries are made to elapfe, if the
fpectator is tranfported in an inftant, from one
part of the world to another, all thefe abfurdities
become fo many warnings againft the falfity of
the fpectacle ; and a voice feems to iffue out of
them, which bids us, not to give fincere tears to
feigned misfortunes.

Such are the arguments of the critics, who
follow the rules of Arifotle. Lord Kaims , on the
other fide, proves, from the different nature of
the Grecian, and the modern drama, that the
unities of time and place are, by no means, fo
neceffary with us, as they were with the ancients.

The interruption of the reprefentation, on our
theatre, between the different adts, gives the
mind a facility of fuppofing any length of time,
or change of place j and it becomes not more
difficult for the fpedtator, at the beginning of
an adt, to imagine a new place, or a different
time, than it was at firff, to imagine himfelf at
Athens , or in a period of time two thoufand years
back.

Vol. I. K But

1 30 M. de Polier on the Pleafures of the Mind

But the fame freedom cannot be taken with
the unity of adion. The pleafure, which the
mind, as we obferved above, receives from a
chain of fads conneded together, and tending
to one common end, renders this unity effential,
alike in epic and dramatic compofitions. Every
thing, however beautiful in itfelf, that breaks
this chain, or interrupts this relation, looks like
an excrefcence, and becomes unpleafant. An epic
poem, with two principal adions, like a play,
with two main plots, would foon confufe and
tire the reader and the fpedator; and fo far do
the rules of Arifiotle agree with nature. An
epifode and an under-plot may be allowed for the
lake of variety ; but they muft be conneded with
the principal adion, or elfe they become great
blemilhes. Milton , in this refped, as indeed in
many others, has the advantage over Homer and
Virgil. His epifode, of the battle of angels, and
the creation of the world, is more intimately con¬
neded with his fubjed, than the defcription of
Achilles' fhield, or even the defcent of /Eneas into
hell. Far from breaking the unity of adion,
it rather ftrengthens it, by making us acquainted
with thecaufe of what we have read, and of what
is to follow. It is, therefore, produdive of great
mental enjoyment, as there is no relation that
pleafes the mind more, than that of caufe and
effed.

This

in the Exemfe of its E acuities. 131

This great rule, of the unity of a&ion, is an
infuperable objection to tragi-comedy ; and in¬
attention to it Ihocks perfons of tafte in fome of
our beft plays. In the Provoked Hujhand, for
inftance, all the fcenes relating to the family of
the JVrongheads , however laughable, and charac¬
terise in themfelves, are certainly to be ac¬
counted blemifhes, becaufe they hop the tide of
fentiment railed by the interefting fcenes, between
a fenfible, loving, and juftly incenfed hufband,
and a giddy, extravagant, though good-natured
wife.

This diiTertation on the unities, will alfo be
looked upon, I fear, as an excrefcence to this
paper, already too long; but I indulged myfelf
in it with the thought, that it might, probably,
give room to fome interefting converfation — the
avowed purpofe of the eflays prefented to this
fociety — and in that light, I beg, and I hope for,
your indulgence.

From what has been read, it will appear, that
regularity and contrajl , proportion and congruity ,
uniformity t variety , and fimplicity , in the objects
prefented to the mind, give it an exercife, which
is attended with neither trouble nor fatigue, and
which is therefore agreeable.

That thefe fources of pleafure exift in our
nature, feems evident, from their being uniform
and univerfal ; and that they were given 11s for
wife and good purpofes, is what no one can

K 2 difpute,

132 M. de Pclier on the Pleafures of the Mind

difpute, who confiders, with what care the great
Author of our being has provided us with all
means of happinefs. They evidently contribute
to it, by adding beauty to the objeds that
furround us, and by procuring us enjoyments far
fuperior to thofe of the fenfes. In this view only,
it would be incumbent upon us to cultivate the
natural relifh we have for them : but Cicero , in his
admirable work de Ojjiciis, fhews us a Hill nobler
ufe, for which they may have been intended.
After having enumerated the qualities which man
has in common with other animals, and fome of
the advantages that diftinguifh him, he proceeds
to fay,

- “ Necvero ilia parva vis Naturae elf,

rationifque, quod unum hoc animal fentit quid fit
ordo; quid fit, quod deceat ; in fadis didifque
qui modus. Itaque eorum ipforum quae afpedu
fentiuntur, nullum aliud animal, pulchritudinem,
venuftatem, convenientiampartium fentit. Quam
fimilitudinem Natura, ratioque ab oculis ad ani-
mum transferee, multo etiam magis pulchritudi¬
nem, conftantiam, ordinem in confiliis, fa&ifque
confervandum putat: cavetque, ne quid indecore,
effasminat eve, faciat ; turn in omnibus et opinio-
nibus et fadis, ne quid libidinofe aut faciat aut
cogitet. Quibus ex rebus conflatur, et efficitur,
id quod qua^rimus, Honefium.”

Cicer. de Officiis. Lib. I.

« The

*33

in the Exercife of its Faculties.

c‘ The energy of nature and of human reafon
are ftrikingly difplayed in this circumftance, that
man is the only animal endued with the perception
of order, decency, and propriety in words and in
actions. He alone difcerns, in vifible objedls,
beauty, gracefulnefs, andfymmetry. And, tranf-
ferring the analogy, from the fight to the mind,
he becomes fenfible, that fuperior beauty, regu¬
larity, and order, fhould diftinguifh the intention
and behaviour; and cautioufly avoids whatever is
unbecoming and unmanly, and particularly, every
loofe imagination and expreflion. An attention
to thefe things forms and conftitutes that Honejlum ,
which is the fubjedt of our enquiry.”

Lord Kahns, whom every lover of genuine
criticifm muft read with pleafure, and quote wich
gratitude, obferves alfo, that, “ The reafonings
employed in the fine arts, are of the fame kind
with thofe, which regulate our conduct. Mathema¬
tical and metaphyfical reafonings (fays he) have
no tendency to improve focial intercourfe, nor
are they applicable to the common affairs of
life: but a juft tafte of the fine arts, derived
from rational principles, furnifhes elegant fub-
je£ts for converfation, and prepares us for
afting in the focial date, with dignity and
propriety.” *

# Introdu&ion to Elements of Criticifm.

K 3

Thus

134 Mr. Whnyey on (Economical Regift ers .

Thus we find an analogy and a connection
formed, between the pleafures of tafte, and the
fenfe of morality. The fame principle of pro¬
priety, which leads us to the difcovery of what
is beautiful and pleafing to the mind, when
Applied to the heart, will help us to find, what
is virtuous, what is honeft, and what conftitutes
the true pleafure arifing from its emotions.
What I have attempted to illuftrate, may then
be carried farther, and we may pronounce,
that, as there is a pleafure inherent in whatever
exercifes the mind, without fatiguing it, fo there
is a pleafing fenfation annexed to every emotion
of the heart, that is not poifoned by fear, hatred,
envy, revenge, and fuch other irregular and dif-
orderly pafiions.

On (Economical Registers. By J. Wimpey,
Read March i j, 1782.

T N a country fo jufily refpeCtable as Great
il Britain, for its proficiency in the Arts, in
Manufacture, Trade, and Commerce, and in its
literary acquifitions in every branch of Science,
it is rather furprizing, that there fhould be fo
entire adefi:iency in (Economical Hiftory.

To

Mr. IVimpey on CEconomkal Regift ers. 135

To the queftions, What may be the amount of
the circulating cafh in the kingdom ? What
is the ftate of its population ? Has it increafed,
or decreafecl, -within the laft fifty years ? Have
the many and great improvements in agricul¬
ture rendered the prices of provifions, &c. pro-
portionably cheaper ? And what is the increafe
of quantity, on an average, for half a century
back, compared with preceding times? — To thefe
queftions, no fatisfaftory anfwers have been given.

Thefe are interefting and important enquiries,
concerning which, men of the beft abilities have
employed their thoughts with very little fuccefs,
as nothing, with any degree of certainty, can be
concluded from what they have written upon
thofe fubje&s. Indeed, their opinions are fo
exceedingly wide of, and repugnant to, each
other, that it clearly appears they have no cer¬
tain data to calculate upon. This indeed is not
fo much a reflection on the prelent times, as on
the paft. But it will equally refleCt on the pre-
fent, when they, like the former, fhall become
the paft, unlefs fome means are adopted, to
fiirnilh our fucceftors with thofe interefting fafts,
the want of which leaves us enveloped in the
dark fhades of ignorance.

Some years fince, I was honoured with a letter
from Monfieur Turgot, then high in rhe favour
of his royal mafter, and at the head of one of

K 4 the

136 Mr. Wimpey on (Economical Regift ers.

the firft departments in the kingdom of France.
He requefted I would inform him, What might
be the proportion, which the produce in grain of
the lands in England of one year bore to that of
another, for a feries of thirty or forty years. To
this I could only anfwer. That we had no annual
regifter, either public or private, that I knew'
of, which could anfwer his queftion ; and that the
only means we had of gueffing, were, by the pro¬
portion which the price of one year bore to that
of another.

This was not lefs aftonifhing to him, than it
had been to feveral other fagacious foreigners,
who have fhrewdly remarked, “ that, in Eng¬
land, fo keen are individuals in the purfuit of
their own private emolument, and fo ignorant
and remifs is its government, that they have
frequently given a bounty of fifteen per cent,
to export their corn, when all they had in fcock
was very far fhort of being fufficient to lupport
their own people, till the next harveft.” In this
deplorable (late of oeconomical and commercial
ignorance, we continue dill, which I conceive
might be remedied with little difficulty, trou¬
ble, or expence. But, for government to give
a bounty for the exportation of grain, to the
amount of from fifteen to thirty per cent, as it
hath fometimes done, without knowing, either
the average quantity grown, or the quantity

Mr. Wimpey on CEconomical Regiftcrs. 137

its people confume ; and confequently, without
knowing, if the dock remaining on hand would
feed its people till the next crop be harvefted;
and whether it mud not of necefiity be forced
to purchafe again at double the price, as it has
alfo fometimes done, is furely one of the mod
abfurd meafures, that a thoughtlefs, incon federate
clafs of men ever adopted. It has been fre¬
quently obferved, that our legiflators have
been very fruitful in the invention of penal
Jaws ; but in the meafures of prevention, which
are infinitely more falutary, they are either very
inattentive, or very barren.

The queftion of population, whether it in-
creafeth, or is upon the decline, is not to be
afcertained with any tolerable degree of exad>
nefs, without an adual enumeration of all the
people in the ifland. This may be thought a
work of too great extent and trouble, to be
attempted. So it would, indeed, if it were to
be effeded by one, or a few perfons. But how
very eafy would it be, if performed by the parifh
officers ? They, by the duty of their office, are
obliged to have a complete lift of all thofe, who
are rated towards the relief of the poors and
another of all thofe who are the objeds of fuch
relief. A lift of thofe who are not in either of
thofe daffies, would coft the officers of any parifh
very little trouble. Confequently, the number
in each clafs, and the fum total of the whole,

might

138 Mr. Wimpey on (Economical Regijlers.

might be obtained with as little trouble, as the
numbers in each clafs, and the fum total, could
be obtained by the officers of any refpedive
parifti.

If fuch lifts were correctly taken every two,
three, four, or five years, the ftate of increafe,
or decreafe, might be precifely known, with little
or no expence to any body. Of fuch lifts, might
be formed a kind of General Diredory; containing
the names, addition, number, ages, and fex, of
all the families in Great Britain. Thus, in Man-
chefter,

N. R. Hatter, V> tV 3 males, 4 females,
that is, four under twelve, and three above ; three
of them males, four females. Let any one carry
his ideas through the ftreet he lives in, or is
familiarly acquainted with, and he will fee, with
how much eale he may acquire a knowledge of
all thefe particulars, refpeding every family in
it; and, by a fimilar pradice, on a general plan,
a precife knowledge may be obtained of every
family in the nation.

Perhaps it would be too adventurous, to at¬
tempt to recommend a knowledge thus acquired
to fome pradical ufes, to which it feems capable
of being applied, with a profped of the moft
beneficial effeds.

A very great part of thofe, who have no other
means of fubfiftence, but the fpoils and depra-
dations committed upon the public, are, in their

manner

Mr. Wimpey on (Economical Re-gijlers. 135

manner of living, a kind of citizens of the world,
without character, or defcription, fixed habits
tion, refidence or connexion, by which they
may be traced as to their mode of fubfiftence.
And how defirable foever it may be to bring
them into bro^d day light, that every man may
have his eye upon them, yet in a country, where
the blefiing of liberty is delervedly in fuch high
efteem, fears are awakened, fufpicions alarmed,
jealoufies excited, left any incroachment fhould
be made on the liberty of the fubjedl, under the
fpecious, but deceitful appearance of public

Were this a proper place, I would endeavour-
to give the true idea of genuine liberty, in which
that of the individual fhould perfectly accord,
with the fafety and happinefs of the ftate. Like
the bafe of a pyramid, it fhould be eredted on
a large extended bottom, its centre of gravity
coinciding with its centre of magnitude, which
nothing could fhake or overturn, till its materials
fhould be crumbled into one common ruin.
At prefent, I think it feems to fland, like Fortune
on the fummit of a globe, whofe defcent on one^
fide, is into the region of anarchy and licentious
confufion •, on the other, of tyranny and flavery,
from both which I hope we fliall ever efcape.

I will beg leave, however, to throw out a
few hints. They may fuggefl the means of-
preventing fome, and of detecting others, in the

purfuit

140 Mr. Wimpey on (Economical 'Regijlers.

purfuit of pradtices, which are the bane of fociety,
and a difgrace to humanity.

Let us fuppofe, then, that complete lifts have
been taken of every family in Great Britain,
of men, women, children, fervants, and lodgers.
That every town and village were obliged to
provide fufficient number of Medals made of
copper, about an inch and half diameter, with
the name of the town, country, and year infcribed
round the margin That every perfc above
twelve years of age, fhould be obliged v ?n they
went above a certain number of miles from
home, to wear it about them, that they might
be able to prove fatisfadtorily, who they are,
and from whence they come. Acrofs the piece,
Ihould be engraved the name, the profeftion or
addrefs, and the age of the perfon, at the date
of the impreftion. By this means, every per¬
fon would have it in his power to confirm the
account he might give of himfelf, by an in-
conteftible voucher; and every fufpicious per¬
fon, wherever he might happen to appear,
Ihould be liable to be taken before the neareft:
civil officer, where he fhould produce his
medal, and anfwer all proper queftions, or be
liable to be committed by any one of his
Majefty’s Juftices of peace. The want of a
medal fhould be deemed a fufpicious circum-
ftance, and the perfon fhould be retained in
fafe cuftody, till he could obtain fufficient proof

of

Mr, JVhnpey on (Economical Regiflers. 14 1

of the place of his refidence from the parifh
officers, or from fome one of them.

If any labouring man, handicraft- man, artificer,
or workman of any fort, (hall come as a firanger
into any town, and afk employment, the perfon
who employs him ffiall firfi: demand a fight of
his medal, take a copy of its infcription, and by
the firfi: poll fend a letter of advice to the officers
of the parifh he came from. And in neglect or
contempt of fuch advice, he fhall be liable to a
penalty fufficient to compel its ftridt obfervance.

Upon this plan, fhould any fervant, day-
labourer, or workman of any fort, abfcond
from his place of abode for any mifdemea-
nor, or trefpafs he had committed, he could
not proceed many days unapprehended ; for
no perfon fhould be fuffered to entertain a
ftranger above one night, without taking a copy
of his medal, and fending advice to his parifh.
A man could not then run away, defert his
family, and throw them as a burden on the
parifh, becaufe detection would immediately
purfue him, bring him back in difgrace, and
infiift an adequace punifhment upon him.

Were fuch a plan to be prolecuted with vigour,
it would be a fufficient bar to every attempt of.
thievery and roguery, for impunity in which, the
delinquent ultimately depended upon defertion.
No man, in his fenfes, could depend upon a means
for his fccurity, in which he knew before-hand it

would

142 Mr. Wimfrey on (Economical Regijlers.

would be impoffible for him to fucceed. De-
fertion is the dernier refort of every villain.
When he finds himfelf fufpe&ed, he inftantly
runs his country, and endeavours to fecrete him¬
felf at a diftance, in places to which, as he
imagines, fufpicion is lead; likely to purfue him.
But under this regulation, whether could he
fly ? Let it be whither you pleafe, if he pro¬
duces his medal, it betrays him ; if he does not,
it raifes a fufpicion which juftifies his detention,
till he is fairly cleared of all fufpicion.

As this plan would operate beneficially, in the
dete&ion and prevention of villainy, it would
fometimes prove no lefs ufeful to the honeft, but
unfortunate man. Innocent men have been
fometimes apprehended for fpies, for highway¬
men, and other atrocious crimes, from a fimi-
larity of circumfiances, which it was not in their
power to avoid. A highwayman, well mounted
on a grey horfe, fome years fince, robbed in the
neighbourhood of London. Soon after, a perfon
from a diftant county happened to pafs the road
on a good horfe of the fame colour. Some per-
fons took the alarm, purfued him, and took
him into cuftody. As he was innocent, he came
to no harm, but that of being detained all night,
and the trouble he was put to, of proving he was
not the man fufpedted, which he could do no
otherwile, than by proving who he was ; which,
in many cafes, where a man is totally un¬
known,

Mr. Wimpey on (Economical Regijlers. 143

known, might be attended with much trouble
and vexation.

I by no means offer this, as a well digefted plan
competent to the accomplilhment of the intended
purpofe ; but as the outlines of a lcheme, which
I am well convinced, by a perfon of abilities,
might be made perfectly adequate to every pur¬
pofe propofed.

I wdll beg leave to make one obfervation
more, before I have done.

In a fertile country like England, which grows
more corn than its inhabitants can confume,
and, of courfe, renders it a commercial article*
it is of great importance to afeertain the follow¬
ing fads, for the regulation of the exportation
of that article.

I. What is the annual average growth of corn
in England for a feries of years ?

II. What is the annual average confumptioa
for the fame time ?

Thefe being known, it would appear, what is
the annual furplus, and confequently, how much
might be exported annually, confiftently with the
fafety and well being of the people. This is a
queftion of the greateft importance to tills coun¬
try ; a queftion, the ignorance of which has coil
this nation millions, and by which our fagaeious
neighbours, the Dutch, have profited millions.
1 hough totally negleded, I conceive it might
be afeertained with no great difficulty or

trouble

144 Dr. Barnes on the Pleafure Jomethnes felt

trouble to any body. But this is a matter of too
much confequence and extent* to be explained
in a curfosy paper.

On the Pleasure which the Mind in many Cafes
receives fro'tn contemplating Scenes of
Distress. By T. Barnes, D. D. Read
dpril 3, 1782.

Suave mari magno, turbantibus jequora vends,

E terra alterius magnum fpedtare periclum.

Non quia vexari quenquam eft jucunda voluptas;-
Sed quibus ipfe malis careas, quia cernere fuave eft.

Lucreti us.

'T'HE pleafure defcribed by the Poet in this
motto, and of which he has mentioned fo
linking and appofite an inftance, may perhaps,
at firftjfeem of fo fmgular and aftonifhing a nature,
that fome may be difpofed to doubt of its
exiftence. But that it does exi ft, in the cafe here
referred to, and in many others, of a fimilar kind,
is an undoubted fa<5t : and it may not appear an
ufelefs, or difagreeable entertainment, to trace its
fource in the human bread, together with the
final caufe, for which it was implanted there by
our benevolent Creator.

“ Shall I, it may be faid, feel complacency in
beholding a fcene, in which many of my fellow-

creatures

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from contemplating Scenes of Diflrefs . 145

creatures are agonizing with terror, whilft I can
neither diminifh their danger, nor, by my fym-
pathy, divide their anguifh ? At the fight of
another’s woe, does not my bofom naturally
feel pain? Do I not fhare in his fenfations ?
And is not this ftrong and exquifite fenfibility
intended by my Maker, to urge me on to active,
and immediate afiiftance ? Thefe fenfations are
indeed attended with a noble pleafure, when I
can, by friendly attention, or by benevolent
communication, footh the forrows of the poor
mourner, fnatch him from impending danger,
or fupply his preffing wants. But, in general,
where my fympathy is of no avail to the wretched
fufferer, I fly from the fpedtacle of his mifery,
unable, or unwilling to endure a pain, which is not
allayed by the fweet fatisfa&ion of doing good.”

It will be incumbent on us, in anfwer to thefe
objections, in the firft place, to prove the reality
of the feeling, the caufe of which, in the human
conftitution, we here attempt to explore.

Mr. Addifon, in his beautiful papers on the
Pleafures of the Imagination,* hasobferved, “ that
objects or fcenes, which, when real , gave difguft
or pa.n, in defct iption} often become beautiful and
agreeable. Thus, even a dunghill may, by the
charms of poetic imagery, excite pleafure and
entertainment. Scenes of this nature, dignified

* Spectator, fixth volume, No, 418.

Vol. I. L

by

1 4 6 Dr. Barnes on the Pleafure fometimes felt

by apt and ftriking defcription, we regard with
fomething of the fame feelings, with which we
look upon a dead monfter.

... - ........ Informe cadaver

Protrahitur: nequeunt expleri corda tuendo
Teriibiles oculos, vultum, villofaque fetis
Pedtora femiferi, atque extindtos faucibus ignes.

Virgil.

<c This, he obferves, is more particularly the
cafe, where the defciiption raifes a ferment in the
mind, and works with violence upon the pafiions.
One would wonder, adds he, how it comes to
pafs, that paHions, which are very unpleafant at
all other times, are very agreeable , when excited
by proper defcription *, fuch as terror, deje&ion,
grief, &c. This pleafure arifes from the reflexion
we make upon ourfelves, whilft reading it, that
we are not in danger from them. When we read
of wounds, death, &c. our pleafure does not rife
fo properly, from the griefy which tlvefe melan¬
choly defcriptions give us, as from the fecret
comparifon we make of ourfelves, with thofe who
fuffer. We fhould not feel th t fame kind of pleafure,
if we ablually Jcnv a perfon lyTg under the tor¬
tures, that we meet with in a defcription.”

And yet, upon the principle aligned by this
amiable writer, we might feel the fame, or even
higher pleafure, from the aftual view of diftrefs,

than

from contemplating Scenes of Di/lrefs, 147

than from any defcription becaufe the comparifon
of ourfelves with the fufferer would be more
vivid, and confequently, the feeling more intenfe.
I would only obferve, that the caufe which he
affigns for this pleafure, is the very fame with that
afligned by Lucretius, in our motto. Mr. Addifon
applies it to the defcription \ the Poet, to th eaftual
contemplation , of affeCting fcenes. In both, the
pleafure is fuppofed to originate in felfifhnefse
But, wherever the focial paflions are deeply in-
terefted, as they are here fuppofed to be, from the
pathetic defcription , or the (till more pathetic purvey ,
of the fufferings of another, the fympathetic
feelings will, of themfelves, at once, and previous
to all reflection, become a fource of agreeable and
tender emotions. They will thus dignify and
enhance the fatisfaCtion, if any fuch be felt, arifing
merely from the confideration of our own perfonal
fecurity. And the more entirely we enter into
the fcene, by lofing all ideas of its being either
paft, or fabulous, the more perfectly we forget
ourfelves, and are abforbed in the feeling, — the
more exquifite is the fenfation.

But, as our fubfequent fpeculations will chiefly
turn upon the pleafure derived from real fcenes of
calamity, and not from thofe which are imaginary ,
it may be expected, that we adduce inftances, in
proof that fuch pleafure is felt , by perfons very
different in their tafte, and mental cultivation.

L 2 I will

148 Dr. Barites on the PUajure foretimes felt

I will not mention the horrid joy, with which
the favage feafts his eye upon the agonies and
contortions of his expiring prifoner — expiring in
all the pangs which artificial cruelty can inflict !
Nor will I turn your eye to the almoft equally
favage fons of antient Rome, when the majefty
of the Roman people could rufh, with eagernefs
and tranfport, to behold hundreds of Gladiators
contending in fatal conflict, and, probably, more
than half the number extended, weltering in
blood, and writhing in agony, upon the plain.
Nor will I mention the Spanifh Bull-Feafts; nor
the fervent acclamations of an Englifh Mob
around their fellow-creatures, when engaged in
furious battle, in which it is poffible, that fome
of the combatants may receive a mortal blow,
and be hurried, dreadful thought ! in this awful
(late, to the bar of his Judge.

Let us furvey the multitudes, which, in every
part of the kingdom, always attend an execution „
It may perhaps be laid, that, in all places, the
vulgar have little of the fenfibility and tendernefs
of more pGlifhed bofoms. But, in the laft-
mentioned inftance, an execution, there is no¬
exultation in the fufferings of the poor criminal.
He is regarded by every eye, with the mod
melting companion. The whole affcmbly
fympathizes with him, in his unhappy fituation.
An awful ftillnefs prevails, at the dreadful
moment. Many are wrung with unutterable

fenfations :•

from contemplating Scenes of Dlftrefs. .149

fenfations : and prayer and filence declare, more
loudly than any language could, the interefl:
they feel in his didrefs. Should .a reprieve
come to refcue him from death, how great is the
general triumph and congratulation ! And, pro¬
bably, in this multitude you will find, not the
mere vulgar herd alone, but the man of fuperior
knowledge, and of more refined fenfibility; who,
led by feme drong principle, which we wifh to
explain, feels a pleasure greater than all the pain,
great and exquifite as one Ihould imagine it to be,
from fuch a fpedtacle.

T. he man who condemns, many of the feenes
we have already mentioned, as barbarous and
(hocking, would, probably, run with the greateft
eagernefs to fome high cliff, overhanging the
ocean, to fee it lwelled into temped, though
a poor vefiel, or even a fleet of vefiels, were
to appear as one part of the dreadful feenery,
now lifted to the heavens on the foaming furge,
now plunged deep into the fathomlefs abyfs,
and now dafhed upon the rocks, where they are,
in a moment, fhivered into fragments, and, with
all their mariners, entombed in the wave. Or, to
vary the quefiion a little j Who would not be
forward to (land fafe, on the top of fome moun¬
tain or tower, adjoining to a field of battle, in
which two armies meet in defperate conflict,
though, probably, thoufands may foon lie before
him proflrate on the ground, and the whole field

L- 3 prefent

150 Dr. Barnes on the Vleofures fometimes felt

prefent the mod horrid fcenes of carnage and
defolation ?

That, in all thefe cafes, pleafure predominates
in the compounded feeling, is plain from hence,
becaufe you continue to furvey the fcene ; whereas,
when pain became the ftronger fenfation, you
would certainly retire. I was lately in company
with a Gentleman, who defcribed to me, in very
glowing and pi&urefque colours, an engagement
between two privateers, of which he had been
a fpedator, from one of the cliffs on the eaftern
coaft of England. Several lives were loft ; and
the conteft was long, doubtful, and fevere.
Having this fubjedt in my thoughts, I afked him,
whether he felt pleafure from the fpedtacle. He
anfwered with great energy, that he would not
have miffed the fight for a very confiderable fum.
His tone, and manner proved, that he fpoke from
his heart.

Cultivation may, indeed, have produced fome
minuter differences, in the tafte and feelings of
different minds. Thofe, whofe fenfibilites have
not been refined by education or fcience, may
feel the pleafure, in a more grofs and brutal form.
But do not the moft polifhed natures feel a
fimilar, a kindred pleafure, in the deep-wrought
diftreffes of the well-imagined fcene ? Here the
endeavour is, to introduce whatever is dreadful
or pathetic, whatever can harrow up the feelings,
or extort the tear. And the deeper, and more

tragical

from contemplating Scenes of Diftrefs. 1 5 1

tragical the lcene becomes, the more it agitates
the feveral pafTions of terror, grief, or pity —
the more intenfely it delights, even the moft
polifhed minds. They feem to enjoy the various
and vivid emotions of contending pafnons.
They love to have the tear trembling in the eye,
and to feel the whole foul rapt in thrilling fenfa-
tions. For that moment, they feem to forget
the fiftion ; and afterwards commend that exhi¬
bition moft, in which they moft entirely loft
fight of the author, and of their own fituation,
and were alive to all the unutterable vibrations
of ftrong or melting fenfibility.

Taking it, then, for granted, that in the con¬
templation of many feenes of diftrefs, both imagi¬
nary and real, a gratification is felt, let us en¬
deavour to account for it, by mentioning fome
of thofe principles, woven into the web of human
nature, by its benevolent Creator, on which
that gratification depends.

Dr. Akenfide, with his accuflomed ftrength
and brilliancy of colouring, deferibes , and accounts
for it, in the following manner. I will make
no apology for the length of the quotation.

- - - - “ Behold the ways

Of heaven’s eternal deftiny to man !

For even juft, benevolent, and wife !

That vi rtue’s awful Heps, howe’er purfued
By vexing fortune, and intrufive pain,

Should never be divided from her chaft,

Her fair attendant, pleasure. Need I urge

h 2 Thy

152 Dr. Barnes on the Pleafure Jometimes fell

Thy tardy thought, through all the various round
Of this exigence, that thy foftening foul
At length may learn, what energy the hand
Of virtue mingles in the bitter tide
Of passion, fwelling with diftrefs and pain,

- To mitigate the lharp, with gracious drops
Of cordial pleasure. Aik the faithful youth.
Why the cold urn of her, whom long he loved.

So often fills his arm? So often draws
His lonely footdeps, at the filent hour,

To pay the mournful tribute of his tears ?

O ! he will tell thee, that the wealth of worlds
Should ne’er feduce his bofom to forego
That facred hour, when, Healing from the noife
Of care and envy, fit vect remembrance fooths.

With virtue’s kinded looks, his aching bread.

And turns his tears to rapture. Aik the croud.
Which flies impatient from the village-walk
To climb the neighbouring cliffs, when far below
The cruel winds have hurled upon the coaft
Some helplefs bark: whilfl facred pity melts
The general eye, or Terror’s icy hand
Smites their diftorted limbs, or horrent hair.
While every mother clofer to her bread
Catches her child ; and, pointing where the waves
Foam through the ihattered veflel, fhrieks aloud.
As one poor wretch, that fpreads his piteous arms
For fuccour, fwallowed by the roaring furge.

As now another, daihed againfl the rock.

Drops lifelefs down. O deemed thou indeed
No KIND endearment here, by nature given,
To mutual terror, and compafiion’s tears P
No fweetly melting foftnefs, which attrads
O’er all that edge of pain, the focial powers,

To this their proper adion, and their end ?”

from contemplating Scenes of Diftrefs. 1 53

The Poet purfues the fentiment in the fame ani¬
mated imagery, defcribing the ftrong, but plea¬
surable fenfations, which the foul feels, in read¬
ing the fufferings of heroes, who nobly died
in the caufe of liberty, and their country :

- “ When the pious band

Of youths, who fought for freedom, and their fires.

Lie fide by fide in gore.”

Or, in the ftrong movements of indignation
and revenge againft the tyrant, who invades thac
liberty, and enflaves that country.

- “ When the patriot’s tear

Starts from thine eye, and thy extended arm
In fancy hurls the thunderbolt of Jove,

To fire the iippious wreath on Philip’s brow.

Or dalh O&avius from his trophied car;

Say — Does thy fecret foul repine to tafte

The big dijlrefs ? Or, would’lt thou then exchange

Thofe heart-ennobling forronvs for the lot

Of him, who fits amid the gaudy herd

Of mute barbarians, bending to his nod,

And bears aloft his gold-in veiled front.

And fays within himfelf,” “ I am a King,

And wherefore Ihould the clamorous voice of woe
Intrude upon mine ear?”

The fentiment of this charming and moral poet
is, that fympathetic feelings are virtuous , and
therefore pleafant. And from the whole, he de¬
duces this important conclufion ; that every vir¬
tuous emotion mult be agreeable, and that this
is the JanSlion^ and the reward of virtue. The

thought

154 Dr. Barnes on the Pleafures fome times felt

thought is amiable. The conclufion noble. But
ftill the folution appears to me to be imperfect.

We have already faid, that the pleafure arifing
from the contemplation of diftrefsful fcenes is a
compounded feeling , arifing from feveral diftindt
fources in the human bread:. The kind and
degree of the fenfation mud: depend upon the
various blendings of the feveral ingredients,
which enter into the compofition. The caufe
afdgned by Mr. Addifon, the fenfe of our own
fecurity, may be fuppofed to have fome fliare in
the mafs of feelings. That of Dr. Akenfide may
be allowed to have a ftill larger proportion; — Let
us attempt to trace fome of the reft.

There are few principles in human nature of
more general and important induence, than
that of sympathy. A late ingenious writer,
led by the fadiionable idea of Amplifying all the
fprings of human nature into one fource, has, in
his beautiful Theory of Moral Sentiments, en¬
deavoured to analyfe a very large number of the
feelings of the heart into fympathetic vibration.
Though it appears to me mod: probable, that the
human mind, like the human body, poflefies va¬
rious and diJHnft fprings, of adtion and of happi-
nefs, yet he has (hewn, in an amazing diverfity of
inftances, the operation and importance of this
principle of human nature. Let us apply it to
our prefent fubjedt.

We

from contemplating Scenes of Dijlrefs. 155

We naturally fympathize with the paffions of
others. But, if the paffions they appear to feel
be not thofe of mere dijlrefs alone ; if, amidd fcenes
of calamity, they difplay fortitude, generality,
and forgivenefs 5 if, "rifing fuperior to the
cloud of ills which covers them,” they nobly
ftand firm, collected, and patient ; here, a dill
higher fource of pleafure opens upon us, from
complacence, admiration, and that unutterable
fympathy, which the heart feels with virtuous
and heroic minds. By the operation of this
principle, we place ourfelves in their fituation;
we feel, as it were, fome (hare of that confcious
integrity and peace, which they mud enjoy.
Hence, as before obferved, the pleafure will
vary, both as to its nature , and degree , according
to the fcene and characters before us. The fhock
of contending armies in the field, — the ocean
wrought to temped, and covered with the wreck
of (battered veffels, — and a worthy family filently,
yet nobly bearing up, againd a multitude of fur¬
rounding forrows, will excite very different emo¬
tions, becaufe the component parts of the plea-
furable fenfation confid of very different mate¬
rials. They all excite admiration ; but admi¬
ration, how diverfified, both as to its degree , and
its caufel Thefe feveral ingredients may, doubt-
lefs, be fo blended together, that the pleafure
fhall make but a very (mall part of the mixed
fenfation. The more agreeable tints may bear

little

i $6 Dr. Barnes on the P leafur e Jomethnes felt

little proportion to the terrifying red, or the
gloomy black.

In many of the indances which have been
mentioned, the pleafure mull arife chiefly, if not
folely, from the circnmjlances , or accompany merits
of the fcene. The fublime feelings, excited by
the view of an agitated ocean, relieve and foften
thofe occafioned by the Ihipwreck. And the
awe, excited by the prefence of thoufands of men,
aiding as with one foul, and difplaving magnani¬
mity and flrmnefs, in the mod folemn trial,
tempers thofe fenfations of horror and of pain,
which would arite from the field of battle.

The gratification we are attempting to account
for, depends alfo, in a very confiderable degree,
upon a principle of human nature, implanted in
it for the wiled ends j the exercise which it
gives to the mind, by rouflng it to energy, and
feeling. Nothing is fo infupportable, as that
languor and ennui, for the full expreffion of
which, our language does not afford a term,
How agreeable it is, to have the foul called
forth to exertion and fenflbility, let the Gameder
witnefs, who, unable to endure the laflitude and
famenefs of unanimated luxury, runs with eager-
nefs to the place, where probably, await him
all the irritation and agony of tumultuous
paffions.

Again ; It is a law of our nature. That oppo -
fite paffions, when felt in Jucceffion , and, above

all,

from contemplating Scenes of Dijlr efs. 157

all, when felt at the fame moment, heighten and
increafe each other. Eafe fucceeding pain, cer¬
tainty after fufpenfe, friendfnip after averfion,
are unfpeakably itronger, than if they had not
been thus contrafted. In this conflict of feelings,
the mind rifes from pajjrve to aftive energy. It
is roufed to intenfe lenfation ; and it enjoys
that peculiar, exquifite, and complex feeling, in
which, as in many articles of our table, the acid
and the fweet, the pleafurable and painful pun¬
gencies are fo happily mixed together, as to
render the united fenfation amazingly more
ftrong and delightful.

We have not yet mentioned the principle of
curiosity, that bufy and adive power, which
appears fo early, continues almoft unimpaired
fo long , and to which, for the wifeft: ends, is
annexed fo great a fen fe of enjoyment. To this
principle, rather than to a love of cruelty, would
I afcribe that pleafure, which children fometimes
feem to feel, from torturing hies, and leffer
animals. They have not yet formed an idea of the
pain they inflid. It is, indeed, of unfpeakable
confequence, that this pradice be checked, as
foon and as efredually as pofiible, becaule it
is fo important, that they learn to conned the
ideas of pleafure and pain, with the motions
and adions of the animal creation. And, to this
principle may we alfo refer, no fmall fhare of
that pleafure in the contemplation of diftrefsful

fcenes,

! 5 B Dr. Barnes on the Vleafure Jometimes felt, & c.

fcenes, the fprings of which, in the human heart,
we are now endeavouring to open.

To curiosity, then — -to sympathy— to men¬
tal exertion — to the idea of our own security
. — and to the strong feelings occafioned by
viewing the attions and pafiions of mankind in
interesting situations, do we afcribe that
gratification, which the mind feels from the
furvey of many fcenes of forrow. We have
called it a pleasure; but it will approach
towards, or recede from pleajure , according to
the nature , and proportion of the ingredients, of
which the fenfation is compofed. In Jome cafes,
pain will predominate. In others, there will
be exquifite enjoyment.

The final caufieol this conftitution of the human
mind is probably, that by means of this ftrong
fenfation, the foul may be preferved in continual
and vigorous motion — that its feelings may be
kept lively and tender — that it may learn, to
pradtife the virtues it admires — and to afiift thofe
to whom its fympathy can reach — and that it
may thus be led, by thefe focial exercifes of the
heart, to foften with companion— to expand with
benevolence — and generoufly to aflift in every
cafe, in which afliftance can be given. An end
this fufficient,

- - - - “ To affert eternal Providence,

And juftify the ways of God to man.”

Observa-

Mr. Bew on Blindnefs.

*59

Observations on Blindness, and on the Employ¬
ment of the other Senfes to f apply the Loss of
Sight. By Mr. Bew. Read April 17, 1782.

_ _ tenebrafque necefle ’ft

Non radii folis, neque lucida tela diei
Difcutiant - Lucret.

MONGST the various accidents and cala-

r\ mities, to which the human fpecies are
fubje&ed, there are none that excite companion,
or call forth our benevolent aid more power¬
fully, than blindlefs. The blind man, in
all ages and countries, has ever been allowed
an indifputable claim on the good offices of
his fellow- creatures his necefficies have gene¬
rally been fupplied with facred care j and his
genius, if it approached to excellence, has been
refpedted with a degree of reverence, fuperior to
what is ufually bellowed, on fuch as are pofiefled
of the faculty of fight.

The faculty of fight, indeed, is juftly conli-
dered as fuperior to any of the other fenfes. Hear¬
ing, tailing, and fmelling, when compared with
vifion, appear very limited in their powers and
determinations j and though the fenfe of touch
may polfefs the mod general, and accurate power
of conveying the ideas of the various modifica¬

tions

s6o Mr. Bew on Blindnefs*

tions of matter to the mind ; yet the compre-
henfivenefs, together with the inftantaneous cele¬
rity, with which vifion difplays to us the won¬
ders of Nature, or the varieties of Art, far tran-
fcend any of the perceptions, that the touch, or
the other fenfes are able to furnilh us with. It
is, perhaps, on this account, that we figuratively
employ the term, feeing, in acknowledging the
confcious evidence of reafon and truth ; and even
extend the application, as the mod exprefiive,
to one of the diftinguilhing attributes of Al¬
mighty perfection.

In no part of the human fabric, or even
throughout the whole of nature, with which we
are acquainted, are there more evident marks
of exquifite perfection and wifdom, than in what
relates to the fenfe of feeing ■, whether we direct:
our attention to the wonderful regularity, order,
minutenefs, and velocity of the rays of light,
which minifter to this fenfe, or to the ftructure
and formation of the little organ, in which this
faculty is deftined to refide. “With a ball and
“ locket, (as a learned and elegant Philofopher,*
“ beautifully obferves) of an inch diameter, we
“ are enabled, in an inftant of time, without
“ changing our place, to perceive the difpofition
“ of an army, the figure of a palace, and the
“ variety of a landfcape j” and not only, as he
farther remarks, to “ find our way through the

* Dr. Reid, p. 121.

“ pathlefs

i6i

Mr. Bezv on Blindnejs.

<f pathlefs ocean, traverfe the globe of the earth,
<f determine its figure and dimenfions, and deli-
<c neate every region of it But,

. “ Breaking hence, take our ardent flight

“ Thro’ the blue infinite,”

fifcertain the order, revolutions and diftances of
the planetary orbs, and even form probable con¬
jectures on

- - - .... “ Every ftar

“ Which the clear concave of a winter’s night
“ Pours on the eye, or aftronomic tube,

“ Far flretchifig, fnatches from the dark abyfs.”

Thomson.

In contemplating, therefore, the extenfive and
almofi: unlimited properties of vifion, we not
only find our gratitude warmed and elevated
to piety and devotion, but are, likewife, con-
fcious of an involuntary impulfe, that urges us
to exert our endeavours, towards the afiiftance of
fuch as are unfortunately deprived of this noble
faculty, whenever they are prefented to our
notice.

And here, again* we have every motive to
infpire us with admiration of the providential
wifdom and benevolence, difplayed by the divine
Author of our exiftence. For, notwithflanding
the great and comprehenfive powers of fight,
there is little of the actual knowledge acquired

Vol. I. M bv

1 62 Mr. Bew on Blindnefs'.

by this faculty, that may not, by attentive and
patient perfeverance, be communicated to the
man who has been doomed to darknefs fr-sm his
birth. The bigot, or the enthufiaft, who con¬
demns the refearches of philofophy, and errone-
oufly pronounces them to be incompatible with
religion; perceives, with aftoni foment, the blind
enabled to expatiate on light or colours ; on
reflection, refraCtion, and on the various fub-
jedts, from which we might naturally fuppofe
they would be excluded, by the deprivation
of fight; and fatisfies hirrrfelf with abruptly
referring the whole to the immediate difpen-
fation of the Deity. The philofopher, on the
other hand, though, with willing fubmiflion, he
ultimately attributes the effects to Omnipotence;
is, neverthelefs, defirous to avoid the cenfure
pafied on the fervant, u who hurled his talent in
a napkin •” and ventures to exert the abilities with
which he may be endowed in endeavouring to
inveftigate the means by which the effects are
ordained 'to be accomplifoed, to the end, that
the interefts of humanity may be ferved with
greater certainty.

The powerful influence of exercife and habit
upon the intellectual, as well as upon the
corporeal faculties, are too well known and
acknowledged, to require much illuftration.
The mufcles, of any part of the body, acquire
peculiar vigour and fullnefs by habitual exer¬
cife i

Mr. Bew on Blindnefs . i6$

ciie j and the fame is remarkable, though in
a Hill higher degree, with refpedt to the effects
of exercife and habit, on the faculties of the
mind. From this wife regulation, in the ceco-
nomy of nature, refults a train of refources,
which the blind are found capable of deriving,
from the exercife of the other fenfes ; and which
may be fo far perfected, as to compenfate, in
a great meafure, for the lofs of the darling fenfe
of fight. The delicacy and precifion, with which
l'ome eminent blind people have employed the
other fenfes, particularly bearing and touch , would,
indeed, exceed the bounds of credibility, were
we not allured of the fads, as well from a&ual
experience, as from undoubted authorities.

Dr. Saunderfon loft his fight, by the fmall-
pox, fo early in his infancy, that he did not
remember to have ever feen. He had no more
ideas of light, than if he had been born blind.
Notwithftanding this misfortune, he acquired
fuch profound and perfect knowledge in the
fcience of mathematics, that, by the influence
of his merit only, he was appointed to the
profeflforlhip in the Univerfity of Cambridge.
The addrefs of this celebrated philofopher, was
no ways inferior to the knowledge he polfelfed ;
a circumftance, which we do not always meet
with in thofe who have the full powers of
fight. His lectures on the different branches
of mathematics, natural philofophy, aftronomy.

164 Mr. Bew on BUndnefs.

and optics, were remarkably clear and intelligible.
Fully aware of the difficulties young minds have
to contend with, from the abftrufenefs in which
the fubjedts of natural philofophy are ufually
involved, his endeavours were fuccefsfully
directed to obviate and remove thefe obftructionsj
and to furnifh a method, at the fame time,
comprehenfive, natural, and eafy to be under-
ilood.

Dr. Saunderfon’s fenfation of touch, as is ufual
with blind people, was very exquifite ; and it
was by means of this lenfe, that he acquired many
of his principal ideas. He diftinguiflied, with
aftonifhing nicety, the peculiar properties of
bodies, that depended on the roughnefs or fmooth-
nefs of their furfaces. A remarkable inftance
is given of his nice accuracy in this refpedl.
A feries of Roman medals, fome of which were
true, and others falfe, were prefented to his
touch. Dr. Saunderfon, by running his fingers
over them, was foon able to dillinguifh the
genuine antiques, from thofe that were counter¬
feited ; though the latter had been executed,
with fuch exadlnefs of imitation, as to deceive
a connoiffeur, who only judged by the eye. Bur,
fays the profeffor, {C I, who had not that fenfe
“ to trull to, could eafily feel a roughnefs in the
<c new call, fufficient to drftinguifh them by.”

The impreffion made by the approach of
bodies nearer to him, or their being removed

farther

Mr. Bew on Blindnefs. 165

farther off ; and the different Prates of the
atmofphere, were diftinguilhable to him by
the fame delicate fenfe of touch ; and his fenfe
of hearing was refined to a fimilar degree of
perfe&ion. He could readily afcertain the fifth
part of a note of mufic. He not only diftin-
guilhed and remembered the different people
he Converfed with, by the peculiar founds of
their voices, but, in Pome meafure, places
alio. Judging by the founds of the pavements,
of the courts and piazzas, and the refle&ion
of thefe founds from the walls, he remembered
the different variations, fo as to be able to
recolledt the places, pretty exadly, when con¬
duced to them afterwards.

We might produce a great variety of inftances,
both antient and modern, where blind perfons
have excelled in different departments of fciencej
and particularly, in the leveral branches of
mathematics. * But the attachment, which thefe

unfortunate

* Diodotus, the preceptor cf Cicero, is reprefented as
attaching himfelf, with greater affiduity to the Science of
Mathematics after he became blind.

“ Diodotus Stoicus, cscus multos annos, noftrae domi
?* vixit : is vero, quod credibile vix effet, cum in Philo-
fophia multo etiam magis affiduc quam antea verfaretur
“ turn quod fine occulis fieri poffit. Geometria: munus tueba-
“ tur, precipiens difcentibus, unde, quo, quamque lineam
fcriberent.” Cic. Tufc. difp. L. V. 39.

M 3 Dldymua

1 56 Mr. Eew on Blindnejs.

unfortunate people difplay, for the pleafing pur¬
suits of mufic and poetry, is ftill more general.
The powerful influence of verbal expreflion, when
communicated to the blind, in the form of poetry,
and the congenial ideas it infpires, are really afto-
nilhing. Of this we have a recent proof in Dr.
Blacklock of Edinburgh. This amiable gentle¬
man was, I believe, either born blind, or became
fo very foon after his birth : yet., we find no defeats,
in thofe beautiful poems he has exhibited to the
world, that can be attributed to his want of fight;
on the contrary, we meet with deferiptions of
vifual feenes and obje&s, as beautiful, exprefiive,
and juft, as if he had a&ually been poflefied of the
faculty of feeing ; and had drawn his deferiptions,
from an enraptured furvey of the variegated prof-
pefts of nature. Whereas, we muft be convinced,
when we accurately confider the matter, that the
poetic enthufiafm, which infpired him, and excited
thefe imitative powers, could only be produced
by the various combination of founds, which were
conveyed, by words, to his imagination.

The influence of mufic is ftill more generally
to be obferved than that of poetry. Mufic, almoft

Bidymus of Alexandria, is celebrated by St. Jerom and
the hiftorian Cafliodorus, as a prodigy in logic and mathe¬
matics, though blind from his infancy. The latter writer,
likewife fpeaks of one Eufebius, an Afiatic, who, though
blind, diilinguilhed himfelf highly in all kinds of
learning.

without

Mr. Bew on Blindnefs .

167

without exception, appears to be the favourite
arnufement of the blind. There is no other em¬
ployment of the mind, religious contemplation
excepted, that feems fo well adapted to footh
the foul, and diflipate the melancholy ideas, which,
it may naturally be expedted, will l'ometimes
pervade the difpofitions of thofe who are utterly
bereft of fight. This, together with the beneficial
influence that refults from the practice of this
delightful art, by quickening and perfecting the
fenfc of hearing, is a matter that deferves the molt
ferious attention. The celebrated Profefibr, juft
now mentioned, excelled in performing on the
flute, in his youth ; and the refinement of his
ear, has been very juftly attributed to his early
attention to mufic. It is not, therefore, furprizing
that fo many blind people have diftinguilhed
themfelves in this fcience. Stanley and Parry
were deprived of their fight in early infancy;
yet both thefe Gentlemen have difplayed extra¬
ordinary proofs of their abilities, not only as
compofers and performers of mufic, but, like-
wife, in matters that, at a firft view, we might
be apt to confider as peculiar to thofe who are
fully po fife fled of the faculty of vifion. Their
feparate reputations, as muficians, are fufficiently
known and acknowledged. The ftile of Stanley
is truly his own ; and his execution on the organ,
equal, if not fuperior to any of his cotemporary
mers on that grand inftrument. Parry may

M 4

be

i68 Mr. Bew on Blindnefs.

be revered as the Britifh bard of modern times.
The halls of the Cambrian Chief refound with
the melodious vibrations of his harp, and he has
united the refinements of tafte and elegance to the
rude, but exprefiive modulations of antiquity.

I pafs over a number of inftances, that might
be offered to your notice, and proceed to give
fome account of Dr. Henry Moyes, the elegant
reader on philofophical chemiftry ; whofe lec¬
tures, the greateft part of this fociety had the
fatisfadion of attending, and whofe perfonal
acquaintance feveral of us have enjoyed

This intelligent philofopher, like the cele¬
brated profeflor of Cambridge before-mentioned,
loft his fight, by the fmall-pox, in his early in¬
fancy. He never recolleded to have feen : “ but
“ the firft traces of memory I have,” fays he, “ are
“ in fome confufed ideas of the folar fyftem.”
He had the good fortune to be born in a country
•where learning of every kind is highly culti¬
vated, and to be brought up in a family devoted
to learning.

Poffefled of native genius, and ardent in his
application, he made rapid advances in va¬
rious departments of erudition ; and not only
acquired the fundamental principles of mecha¬
nics, mufic, and the languages; but, like-
wife entered deeply into the investigation of the
profounder fciences ; and difplayed an acute

and

Mr. Bew on Blindnefs . 169

and general knowledge of geometry, optics,
algebra ; of aftronomy, chemiftry j and, in fhort,
of moft of the branches of the Newtonian phi-
lofophy.

Mechanical exercifes were the favourite em¬
ployments of his infant years. At a very early
age, he made himfelf acquainted with the ufe of
edged tools, fo perfectly, that, notwithllanding
his intire blindnefs, he was able to make little
wind-mills ; and, he even conftrudled a loom,
with his own hands, which (till fhew the cica¬
trices of wounds, he received in the execution of
thefe juvenile exploits.

By a moft agreeable intimacy, and frequent
intercourfe, which 1 enjoyed, with this accom-
plilhed blind Gentleman, whilft he refided in
Manchefter j I had an opportunity of repeatedly
obferving the peculiar manner, in which he
arranged his ideas, and acquired his information.
Whenever he was introduced into company, I
remarked, that he continued fome timefilent. The
found directed him to judge of the dimenfions of
the room, and the different voices, of the number
of perfons that were prefent. His diftinction, in
thefe refpe&s, was very accurate ■, and his memory
fo retentive, that he feldom was miftaken. I
have known him inftantly recognize a perfon,
on firft hearing him fpeak, though more than
two years had elapfed fince the time of their laft
meeting. He determined, pretty nearly, the

ftature

ijo Mr. Bew on Blindnejs .

ftature of thofe he was fpeaking with, by the
djredtion of their voices ; and he made tolerable
.conjectures, refpecting their tempers and dif-
pofitions, by the manner in which they conducted
their converfacion.

It muft be obferved, that this Gentleman’s
eyes were not totally infenfible to intenfe light.
The rays refradted through a prifm, when fuffi-
ciently vivid, produced certain diftinguifhable
effedts on them. The red gave him a difagreea-
able fenfation, which he compared to the touch
of a faw. As the colours declined in violence,
the harfhnels leffened, until the green afforded
a fenfation that was highly pleafing to him j
and which he defcribed, as conveying an idea
fimilar to what he felt, in running his hand over
fmooth polifhed furfaces. Polifhed furfaces,
meandering ftreams, and gentle declivities,
were the figures, by which he expreffed his ideas
of beauty. Rugged rocks, irregular points, and
boifterous elements, furnifhed him with expref-
fions for terror and difguft. He excelled in the
charms of converfation ; was happy in his
ailufions to vifual objedls j and difcourfed on
the nature, compofition, and beauty of colours,
with pertinence and precifion.

Dodlor Moyes was a ftriking inflance of the
power, the human foul pofTeffes, of finding re«»
fources of fatisfadfion, even under the moil rigo¬
rous calamities. Though involved “in ever during

darknefs,

Mr. Bew on Blindnefs • 17 1

darknefs,” and excluded from the charming views
of filent or animated nature ; though dependent
on an undertaking for the means of his fub-
fiftence, the fuccefs of which was very precarious ;
in fhort, though deftitute of other fupport than
his genius, and under the mercenary protection
of a perfon, whofe integrity he fufpeCted — (till
Dr. Moyes was generally chearful and apparently
happy. Indeed it mult afford much pleafure to
the feeling heart to obferve this hilarity of
temper prevail, almoftuniverfally, with the blind.
Though <c cut off from the ways of men, and
the contemplation of the human face divine
they have this confolation ; they are exempt
from the difcernment, and contagious influence,
of thofe painful emotions of the foul, that are
vifible on the countenance, and which hypocrify
itfelf can fcarcely conceal. This difpofition, like-
wife, may be confidered, as an internal evidence
of the native worth of the human mind ; that thus
fupports its dignity and chearfulnefs under one
of the fevereft misfortunes that can pofTibly
befall us. Nor is this chearful refignation pecur
liar to thofe who have been blind from their
birth; we find it, alfo, generally prevail with
fuqh as have loft their fight, even at a more
advanced age; and who muft, undoubtedly, feel
the misfortune with the utmoft anguifh. The
diftreffing recolleCtion, which memory muft
prefent, of former enjoyments, we find, however.

172 Mr. Bezv on Blindnejs.

foon fubfides. Gentler and more pleafing reflect
tions fucceed. Contemplation takes her refidence
in her proper province, the human mind ; and
the blind, fubmiflively and chearfully relign
themfelves to the will of Heaven, and the
benevolent protection of the lefs unfortunate
of their fellow-creatures. And hard, indeed,
is the heart of him, who will not ftretch out
his hand to fuccour the blind ; or who, by
injuftice, illiberally, or unkindnefs, adds a
fling to the confcious dependence, to which,
v/hil ft they live, they mud ever be fubjedted.

The blind people I have hitherto feledled to
fpeak of, it may be remarked, were fuch as had
their native faculties excited and matured by
early and attentive education. But we lhall find,
even where education has been wanting, and the
blind left, in a great meafure, to the fimple ex¬
ertions of nature ; that the natural faculties them¬
felves make furprizing efforts towards fupplying
the deficiency of fight. I (ball bring forwards to
your notice a perfon, well known in this neigh¬
bourhood, of which he is a native. This is
one John Metcalf, who, like the Gentlemen
already mentioned, became blind at a very early
age, fo as to be intirely unconfpious of light and
its various effeds. This man pafled the younger
part of his life as a waggoner, and occafionally,
as a guide in intricate roads during the night, or
y/hen the tracks were covered with fnow. Strange

3$

Mr. Be^JJ on Blihdnefj. a 73

as this may appear to thofe who can fee, the em¬
ployment he has fince undertaken is ft i 1 1 more ex-*
traordinary : it is one of the lad to which we could
fuppofe a blind man would ever turn his attention.
His prefent occupation is that of a projector and
furveyor of highways in difficult and mountainous
parts. With the abidance only of a long daff, I
have feveral times met this man traverfing the
roads, afcending precipices, exploring valleys, and
invedigating their feveral extents, forms, and
fituations, fat as to anfwer his defigns in the bed
manner. The plans which he dedgns, and the
edimates he makes, are done in a method peculiar
to himfelf; and which he cannot well convey the
meaning of to others. His abilities, in this refpeft,
are, neverthelefs, fo great, that he finds condant
employment. Mod of the roads over the Peak
in Derbyffiire, have been altered by his direftionsj.
particularly thofe in the vicinity of Buxton : and
he is, at this time, condrufting a new one, betwixt
Wilmdovv and Congleton, with a view to open a
communication to the great London road, with¬
out being obliged to pafs over the mountains.*

Thefe

* Since this paper was written, and had the honour of
being delivered to the Society, I have met this blind pro-
jeftor of the roads, who was alone as ufual ; and amongft
other converfation, I made fome inquiries refpefting this
new road. It was really altoniihmg to hear with what
accuracy he dofcribed the courfes, and the nature of the

different

174 Afr. Bezv on Blindnefs .

Thefe inftances will, I am perfuaded, be fuffici-
ent to prove, how effe&ually, by proper exercife,
the other fenfes may be refined and perfected,
fo as, in many refpe&s, to fupply the lofs of
fight. The fenfations of fmell and talte, indeed,
are fo very limited, that they do not feem
capable of yielding many peculiar advantages to
blind people : but the perceptions of hearing
and touch, as we have feen, may be applied to
purpofes wonderfully extenfive.

By the nice diftinftion of touch and found,
the blind man not only acquires knowledge
with refpeCt to perfons and fituations j is not
only warned from danger, and excited to plea-
fure but by means of thefe delicate faculties,
he is enabled to conceive many of the vifual
qualities of bodies, and to diftingui fh them with
certain precifion. I do not mean to infer, that
a blind man annexes the fame ideas to vifual
qualities, as are excited in the minds of thofe
who are pofTefled of the perfect faculty of fight.

I only wifh to obferve, that he forms a general
conception of their characters, by the analogy
which he finds they bear to qualities he is ac-

i

different foils, through which it was conduced. Having
mentioned to him a boggy piece of ground it palled through,
he obferved, that “ that was the only place he had doubts
“ concerning ; and that he was apprehenfive they had,
“ contrary to hi* dire&ions, been too fparing of their
“ materials.”

quainted

Mr. Bew on Blindnefs. 175

quainted with, by means of his other fenfes.
Thus, for example, if we prefent a violet to him,
and demand of him what ideas he has of its
qualities; he will be able to anfwer with great
preeifion reflecting its fmell, &c. which, as
well as the name of the violet are foft, fweet,
and pleafing. But, with regard to the colour,
he will be wholly unable to conceive any idea
of it, except what takes place from very diftanc
analogies : the plaintive melody of the flute, the
foft fmoothnefs of furfaces, &c. In like man¬
ner, by appofite aflfociations, he may compare
the intenfe colour of fcarlet to the glow of a fur¬
nace, the noife of a trumpet, or the odour of
aromatics ; becaufe they feverally affed his fenfes
with intenfe excitements.

But whatever amazing information, the fenfes
of hearing and touch, may afford the blind ; thefe
powers would, neverthelefs, be tranfient and
ineffedual, were not the impreflions and ideas
they excite in the mind, preferved and matured
by the afliftance of the memory. It is chiefly
by the afliftance of the memory, that the blind
acquire the exquifite advantages, derived frorri
the other fenfes. In this refped, providential
benevolence feems to have determined the
greateft compenfation, for the fevcre deprivation
of the fenfe of fight. The foul of the blind man,
tind iff faded by the never ceafing variety which
is aUvays prefent to the organs of vifion, when

awake.

tyG Mr. Bern on Blindnefs.

awake, purfues its internal perceptions and con¬
templations with unconfounded ferenity. The
blind unlettered projedtor of roads could reply
to me, when I exprefied myfelf furprized at the
accuracy of his difcriminations, “ that there was
“ nothing furprizing in the matter; You, Sir,”
fays he, iC can have recourfe to your eye fight
** whenever you want to fee or examine any
“ thing ; whereas, I have only my memory to
*c truft to. There is one advantage, how-
<c ever,” he remarked, that he pofifelfed. <c The
<c readinefs with which you view an objedt at
“ pleafure, prevents the neceffity of fixing
ft the ideas of it deeply in your mind, and the
“ impreffions, in general, become quickly obli-
tc terated. On the contrary, the information I
tc pofiefs, being acquired with greater difficulty,
“ is, on that very account, fo firmly fixed on the
“ memory, as to be almoft indelible.” Such,
indeed, is the wonderful influence, refulting
from the union of exercife and habit, on the
faculties of the blind, that the permanency of
their knowledge in a great meafure, compen-
fates for the labour required in its attainment !

The inffantaneous facility, with which, by the
aid of fight, we are able to afeertain the pecu¬
liarities of any place we furvey, and the eafe
with which we review and recognize them,
renders dependence on the memory, to us, lefs
neceffary. For inflance, the dimenfions of the

apartment

Mr. Bew on Blindnejs. ^ 177

apartment I fit in ; the furniture, &c. will,
by the organs of vifion, be immediately prefenced
to the mind of any ftranger who may call on me,
fo that he will be able, in a moment, to recollect
the whole whenever he repeats his vifit, to the fame
place. This kind of information can only be ac¬
quired by the blind man, in confequence of the
mod patient attention. He is to be led round
the feveral parts of the room, his finger conduced
to the furfaces of the furniture, pictures, &c.
before he can poftibly form any idea with refpeCt
to the place. But when, by means of the per¬
ceptions of touch, and a necefifary degree of
information, he conceives a regular train of
diftinguifliing ideas, his mind afiociates them,
with fuch tenacity, that he feldom has occafion
to repeat his inquiries.

It is this accurate and retentive power of the
memory, that enables the blind mathematician
to make exaCt calculations and inferences ; to
work problems in algebra, and in infinite feries ;
to conceive, with precifion, the different effeCts
that bodies muft produce to the fight, by their
being nearer or farther off; by their moving
in a ftraight or in an oblique line; and, that
direCts his inveftigation with refpeCt to the prin¬
ciples of projection, and the various rules of
perfpeCtive.

It muft here be remarked, that though the
blind man may conceive the properties of figure
Vol. I. N and

S Afr. Blindrtefs.

and extenfion with certain accuracy ; yet it doe£
not follow that he would be able to diftinguifh
them, with the fame certainty, by vifion, provided
that faculty were, immediately, beftowed on him.
On the contrary, the queftion ftarted by Mr.
Molineux, * was found to prove exactly as
that philofopher expedled, in the extraordinary
cafe of a blind youth, whom Mr. Chefelden had
the good fortune to bring to fight, by couching,
at thirteen years of age. This young man, at
his firft feeling the imprefiions of objedts on the
organs of vifion, imagined every thing he faw
touched his eyes ; nor was he able to difcriminate
one objedt from another, however different their
forms. When things that were before known
to him, by touching, were prefented to him*
he confidered them attentively, in order to
recognize them j but on a fudden, he felt
himfelf confuted, from the multitude of objedts
that crowded for admiffion, and the whole was
involved in obfcurity. It appears, therefore,
from the above fadt, as well as from a due
examination of the fubjedt, that thofe who
make ufe of their eyes, for the firft time, fee
only furfaces and colours 5 and have no con¬
ception of the vifible effedts of light and pro-
jedlion, until they learn it from experience.
In fadt, if we carefully attend to the operas
tion of our own minds, we fhall find, that the

* Lock cn the Underftanding, vol. I. p. S07.

vifible

Mr. Bew on Blindnefs. 179

vifible appearances of objeds are feldom accu¬
rately attended to, unlefs we are employed in
delineating thofe objects. The vifible appear¬
ance of things, is varied according to the direc¬
tion of the light, the pofition, and the diftance,
with refped to the beholder : yet, as we are con-
fcious from experience, of the identity, the real
figure is conceived in its actual proportion, and
the vifible, or perfpeCtive, appearance is con-
fidered only as a fign or indication.

The accurate painter is well aware of this
operation of the mind, and in delineating his
objeds, and relieving them with the diftribution
of light and fbade, ;is carefully attentive to avoid
forming conclufions, before he accurately confiders
the premiles. The effect produced by a well
managed pidure, fufficiently evinces the actual
appearance of bodies, according to their point
of view ; and the impreflions they muft make
on the organs of fight, when employed previous
to the influence of reafon, and the correction of
the judgment. The painter, who exerts the
imitative powers of his art to deceive the eye,
does not merely draw the out line of his figure,
and colour it with the exad uniform tinge it
naturally difplays: he furveys it in one certain
point of view, and then proceeds to delineate
and adapt his tints, as if the figure were, in
reality, adhering to the canvafs. It is no won¬
der, therefore, that the young Gentleman, juft

N 2 mentioned.

i8o Mr. Bew on Blindttefs.

mentioned, was aftonifhed to find, on examining*

J O

the pictures, prefented to him, with his finger,
that they had not the fame projection, with
the objeCts they reprefented. This, as well
as the art of diminifhing a figure, and (till pre-
ferving the refemblance, would evidently be as
much an enigma, to a perfon juft poffefled of
vifion, as the circumftance of che Mirror, men¬
tioned by M Biderot. *

It is more than probable, therefore, that the
blind man, has no ideas of colour, except, as has
been already remarked, what are derived from
a kind of diftant analogy, regulated by the afioci-
ating powers of the mind, and preferved by the
memory ; and, indeed, moft of the perfons of this
clafs I have converfcd with, have frankly confeffed
themfelves wholly ignorant of its qualities. Nor
is this deficiency in the forming of ideas peculiar
to the fenfe of fight. A deaf man would be juft
as much embarraflfed, with refpeCt to the qualities
of found ; and the fame may be obferved with
refpeCt to the other fenfes.

In the courfe of my inquiries, however, on
this fubjeCt, it occurred to me,- that I might
pofii'oly derive fome new matter for obfervation,
from the recollection of the blind man’s percep¬
tions whilft under the influence of his dreams.
In the ufual filent hours of repofe, when the

* Vid les CEuvres de M. Diderot, tom. II. Art-. Lettres
fur les Aveugles, See.

exercife

Mr. Bew on Blindnefs. 181

exercife of the memory is, in a great meafure,
fufpended ; and the unfettered imagination dif-
plays its powers, in a very peculiar manner} I
conceived it might he pofiible for the blind to
experience fome tranfient imprefTions, relative
to vifual qualities. It is true Mr. Lock gives
it as his opinion, “ that th.e dreams of fleeping
“ men are made up of waking men’s ideas ;
<c though,” he allows, “ they, are, for the moft
“ part, oddly put together.” The impreffions of
dreams, it muft be acknowledged, are too fleet¬
ing to admit of much inveftigaqon } and our
recollection of them is liable to the greateft uncer¬
tainty : yet, notwithftanding the opinion of this
great philofopher, there are few, I am perfuaded,
who have not felt themfelves fometimes affe£ted>
duiing their dreams, in a manner which they
could by no means account for, or reconcile with
any circumftance that had previoufiy taken place
in real life. And though I have not been able
to gratify my curiofity to its full extent, yet I
have gained fufficient information to convince
me, that the blind feel impreffions ip dreaming,
in fome degree, fimilar to the vifible appearances
of bodies. A blind Gentleman, with whom I
have lately convcrfed, clearly proves to me, that
he is confcious of the figure, though he cannot
diftinguifh the varieties of the human coun?
tenance : and from the confufed efforts he makes
fp explain himfclf, it may be perceived, that hq

N 3 feels

1 82 Mr. Bew on Blindnefs.

feels himfelf alarmed with new fenfations, that
bear a ftrong relation to our ideas of light and
colour; but which he finds it impoffible to de-
feribe, becaufe he cannot fix on any comparative
idea whereby to explain himfelf. Thefe dreams,
my intelligent friend informs me, are always
painful, and, as may naturally be expe&ed, the
impreffions are extremely tranfient and unfatif-
faflory.

But it is not the blind only, who are unable
to trace the various effe&s produced by light and
colour. There are perfons, whofe organs of
vifion are fo imperfedtly formed, that they can*
not diftinguilh colours, though they fee the objects
-perfeftly. In the Philofophical Tran factions
we have an account of a man who knew no
difference of colour whatever; and there is an in¬
genious perfon, within the circle of our acquaint¬
ance, whofe knowledge in Perfpeftive, as well
as in the other branches of Natural Philofophy,
is unqueftionable ; yet who finds himfelf defici¬
ent in difeerning the difference of fome colours,
which he knows to exilt, and v/hich are diftin-
guilhable to perfect vifion. In particular, I think
I have heard him mention, that the fenfation
he felt, from the colours of brown and green,
had no obvious difference, provided they were
diffufed with equal degrees of intenfenefs.

But thefe fpeculations, however curious and
entertaining, were not the principal objefls I

had

Mr. Bew on BUndneJs . 1 83

had in view, when I fat down to confider the
fubject of blindnefs. It may be remarked, that
in the fketches, relative to blind people, I have
offered to your notice, I have purpofely avoided
fpeaking of fuch, as had ever poflfefled the fa¬
culty of vifion, fo as to recoiled!: it with any
degree of accuracy : and I have been the more
particular in my account of Dr. Moyes, and the
blind projector of roads, becaufe I had an oppor¬
tunity of availing myfclf of immediate inform¬
ation from them, with refpedt to fuch pecu¬
liarities, as it was not in my power to derive from
the writings of the few authors, who have treated
on this fubjedh * In tracing the progrefs, and
marking the degrees of perfedtion, to which the
mod celebrated blind people have carried the
exertions of the other fenfes, to fupply the lofs
of fight ; I was perfuaded, that farther obferva-
tions and difcoveries might be made, which might
be applied to advantage in the education of blind
children; and alfo in rendering more perfedt, the
different inventions, that have already been de-
vifed, in order to facilitate their information,
and the means of their improvement : and I

* Befides occafional hints which I have acquired from
converfing with various blind people, whofe names are not
mentioned ; I have particular acknowledgments to make
to Mr. Cheefe, the organift of the collegiate church in
Mancheller, for the fatisfa&ion he has afforded me in many
of my inquiries.

flattered

184 JVfr. Maffey on Saltpetre.

flattered myfelf, that thefe matters would be
deemed fufficiently important, to engage the
attention of the learned members of this Society.
Inftances too frequently occur, that mod: power¬
fully call for the generofity and companion of
mankind; and though our abilities rarely arrive
at the divine perfection of giving fight to the blind ,
we fhall always experience a confcious bene¬
volent fatisfadion, in miniderins to their know-?
ledge, their convenience and happinefs.

A TREATISE ON SALTPETRE,
By James Massey, Efq.

- - - - fx quid novifti redtius iftis

Candidus Imperti, fi non his utere mecuai.

INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.

fT'HE great importance of Saltpetre, fince the
invention of gun-powder, is too well known
to be here expatiated upon, as well as the nu¬
merous rewards that have been offered to thofe
who fhoulc! give us the cleared and bed accounts
of it ; a fure fign that, notwithdanding it has

been

Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre. 1S5

been long made in very confiderable quantities
in almoft every part of Europe, our knowledge
cf this fait is ftill very imperfedt.

This induced the author of the following pages,
many years ago, to turn his attention to this
fubjedt, and he flatters himfelf, that, by long
obfervation, and a pradlice which, though not
very extenfive, may have been fufficient for this
purpofe, he has made fuch difcoveries, as may
render the bufinefs of faltpetre-making no lefs
eafy and familiar to his countrymen, than it has
long been to our neighbours upon the continent.

He never, indeed, could be brought to believe,
that it was owing to any defedl in our climate, or
to the want of materials, that we have io often
failed in our attempts this way, but merely to our
inattention to fome particular points in the prac¬
tical part, upon which our fuccefs, in a great
meafure, depended. Thefe, therefore, he has prin¬
cipally laboured to explore, and to let them in fo
ftrong a light, that they can no longer efcape
our obfervation.

It is the cuftom of the faltpetre makers abroad,
to wait till the earths they have procured, or pre¬
pared for this purpofe, are found fit to anfwer
their end j a pradtice, which we have reafon to
think has rarely been followed by our country¬
men, who, finding the earths they have employed,
imperfedt upon the firft trial, have feldom af¬
forded them a lVcond, and thus have rejedled

I %eJ

Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre.

many that, in a due courfe of time, might have
anfwered their moft fanguine expectations.

d hey have, likewise, not duly attended to the
large quantities of earth, that our neighbours are
obliged to elixiviate, in order to obtain a final!
portion of faltpetre ; and finding their portion but
trifling in the trials they have made, have too
haftily concluded this bufinefs to be fcarcely worth
following ; when, had they reflected upon the
great number of faltpetre-makers in France and
Germany, they muft, certainly, have entertained
a very different opinion.

But what has chiefly difeouraged us, we pre¬
fume, may have been, our ignorance of the true
grounds and principles, upon which the practice
of making faltpetre is founded; which, we
may obferve, have never been clearly laid open.
All that we are told is, that faltpetre is extracted
from the rubbifh of old houfes, the bottoms of
/linking pits and ditches, and the like; which
has induced many perfons to conclude, that this
fait is generated in thefe earths : whereas, the
truth is, that nothing is extracted from thefe
earths but a peculiar acid, which, in con¬
junction with the fixt fait of wood-afhes, and not
yvithout, forms this neutral one which cryftallizes
in the ley when boiled down as above mentioned ;
which circumftances being omitted, it can be no
wonder that we are led into very great errors.

' ' ' ‘ Of

Mr. Maffey on Saltpetre. 187

Of this acid, the fource from which it is de¬
rived, and the manner in which thefe and other
earths become impregnated with it, we (hall en¬
deavour to give the moft full, and fatisfaclory
account, as well as of the practical methods of
making faltpetre, all which might be comprized in
a page or two, had we not a variety of chimeras
to encounter, and this practice particularly to
(explain. By thefe means we hope to remove
all that myftery and obfcurity in which this fub-
jedt has been fo long involved ; and to render the
practice of making faltpetre as eafy and familiar
to the Englifh, as it has long been to the French
and Germans, fo much to the advantage of thofp
nations.

ON SALTPETRE.

The great life of faltpetre in the compo-
fition of gun-powder, has long rendered it an
objefl of the firft importance ; upon which ac¬
count, the learned have fpared no pains to
obtain the moft perfeft knowledge of it; but
hitherto, as it l'eems, without fuccefs, as no clear
and fatisfa&ory account has yet been given of
it. And though the methods of making it in
Efance, Germany, and many other parts of the

world.

1S8 Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre.

world, have been minutely defcribed, thefe de-
fcriptions, through Tome defeCt or other, have
been of little fervice to us, if we may judge
from the many fruitlefs attempts to make this
fait in England.

The common accounts that are given us of
nitre or faltpetre, are, indeed fo very vague and
various, as rather to confufe and perplex, than
give us any clear knowledge of it. Some will
have it to be a production of nature , others en¬
tirely of art. Some tell us it is drawn from the
air; others, that it is extracted from vegetables
and animals. We are told too, that it is found
upon the furface of the earth, and upon old walls
in the form of hoar froft, and that whole pro¬
vinces are fometimes covered over with it; all
which is certainly very falfe and fallacious; if,
by faltpetre, in this place, is meant that faline
concrete, which is of fo much ufe in the com-
pofition above-mentioned; which, though fome¬
times found in the walks of nature, is molt
afturedly, in general, a production of art.

Saltpetre, to give a juft defcription of it, is
a neutral faline concrete, evidently formed by
a combination of a peculiar acid, with a fixt ve¬
getable alkaline fait. This acid is found in
certain earths, from which it is extracted, by
elixiviating them along with wood-afhes, the fixt
fait of which, uniting with the acid, forms this

neutraj

Mr. Maffey on Saltpetre. 189

neutral one, which cryftallizes in the ley when
boiled down to a due confidence.

From this plain account of the formation of
faltpetre, it muft be obvious, that it can no where
be found, without the concurrence of thefe two
principles ; and, conlequently, not in the air, or
in vegetables or animals, becaufe, though this
peculiar acid may, perhaps, be found in thefe
fubjeds, the fixt fait muft needs be wanting.

That it may be fometimes found in the earth,
we fhall not deny, owing to the accidental intro¬
duction of wood-afhes to a foil impregnated with
this acid. And that from hence it may pafs into
the ftems and apices of fome plants, with the
moifture that enters their roots, is far from be¬
ing improbable. But that whole provinces can
even be covered over with it, or that it can be
generated in thefe organized bodies, as Lemeri
and fome others have imagined, muft exceed
all belief.

The accounts, which travellers generally give
us of this fait, are, that it is extracted from the
foil of the countries they have vificed, by elixi-
viating it with water, and evaporating the fluid ;
which we believe may be confiftent with truth j
but here it fhould not be forgotten, that a certain
portion of wood-afhes is always added to this
foil before it is elixiviated, a circumftance which,
either through ignorance or inattention they have
too often omitted to mention. We are told,

indeed.

igo Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre.

indeed, by Mr. Bowles, that in Tome parts of
Spain, they have an earth that yields the cryf-
tals of this fait without any afliftance of this
kind ; and this in fuch quantities, as might fupply
all Europe with this article. But till this fa<ft is
better authenticated, we have many reafons to
doubt the truth of it.

Be this as it may, we (hall here judge it of more
life, to advert to thofe earths, that are well known,
with the afiiftance of wood afhes, to yield us the
cryftals of this fait, to point out their peculiar
quality, and the fource from which it is derived ;
together with the true reafon why they are not
always in a condition to yield us thefe cryftals,
even with the addition of a fixt fait ; a circum-
ftance that has much perplexed the molt expe¬
rienced faltpetre makers. After which, nothing
we truft will remain, but to lay down the prac¬
tical methods of making it, fupported by the
bed authorities, as well as our own experience.

Of thefe earths, the mod diftinguifhed are, the
rubbifh of old houfes, the ruins of old vaults
and cellars, &c. which rarely fail to yield us
the cryftals of this fait, when elixiviated with
wood afhes. That thefe earths poffefs an acid
quality, is not to be difputedj feeing, that
upon reducing them to a coarfe powder, and
percolating a fixt alkaline folution through them,
this folution will be neutralized, and no longer
yield us an alkaline, but a neutral fait.

From

Mr. MaJJep on Saltpetre. jgi

From what fource this acid is derived, is at
prefent unknown. The moll: general opinion
is, that it is drawn from the air 5 but to this
there are many objections. In the fipft place,
the aerial or univerfal acid, is generally allowed
to be not of the nitrous , but vitriolic kind. And
fecondly, there are many earths impregnated
with this acid, which, in all appearance, have
had no communication with the air, of which
the foil at the bottoms of graves is a flagrant
inftance.

From the well known fa<5t, that the rubbifh
of all fuch houfes, as have been occupied by
the filthieft inhabitants, and of fuch clay walls,
as have flood in the neighbourhood of dunghills,
or wherever putrid vapours more plentifully
abound, is always mod ftrongly impregnated
with this acid, it is moll: natural to believe,
that thefe vapours mud confer it upon them,
and consequently, that it mud have its origin
in putrid fubftancesj but to this, there are like-
wife many objections. In the fird place, the
recent juices of vegetables and animals, fame
few of the former excepted, if we are not mif-
taken, contain no kind of acid whatever and
in a putrid date, every body knows they are
of a volatile alkaline nature, which being the
mod powerful objection, we fhall here princi¬
pally endeavour to remove ; and upon the whole,
fhall undertake to fhew, that there is an original

acid

192 Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre.

acid in all vegetables and animals, which being
rendered volatile by putrefa&ion, afiumes the
fpecific charader of the nitrous. And that, fince
this acid conftantly arifes in vapour from putrid
fubftances, hence it is, that the rubbifh of old
houfes, and of old clay walls, become impregnated
with it, as well as thofe earths that lie in con¬
junction with them.

That the recent juices of vegetables and
animals, are, in general, perfectly neutral, we fhall
readily admit ; but from hence, we think it does
not follow, that they contain neither an acid nor
alkali y as is commonly concluded ; on the con¬
trary, we apprehend, a more juft inference is,
that being mixty they muft necefiarily contain
loth. It is certain, that if we throw a calcareous
earth, or fixt fait into any of thefe juices, the
earth or fait will be neutralized by it; which
we take to be a proof, that it contains an acid,
which quits the ‘weaker to join with the fironger
alkali, according to the law of affinities.

And the cafe will be the fame, if thefe juices
are putrefied. If we throw a fixt fait into any
putrid liquor, it will be neutralized by it, and
now, if we dip a piece of foft paper into this mix¬
ture and dry it, it will burn like a match, in the
fame manner as if dipped into a weak folu-
tion of faltpetre ; which ffiows, that it not only
contains an acid, but one of the nitrous fort ;
and provided this liquor were perfedly putre¬
fied.

Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre 19-3

fied, and the marine fait, with which all ni¬
trous leys greatly abound, carefully removed,
we cannot help thinking that upon being boiled
down to a due confidence it would yield the
cryftals of faltpetre. The author muft acknow¬
ledge he has boiled down many of thefe mix-
. tures without fuccefs; but it was at a time when
he was ignorant of the necefiity of attending
to the above circumftances.

That all putrid fubftances, and confequently,
their juices, are of a volatile alkaline nature,
is not to be denied, owing to an union of their
acid and oily parts with their earth, which
is equally fubtilized by the putrid procefs.
But that the two former are fafely feparated from
the latter, by adding a calcareous earth or fixt
fait to them, the meaneft chemift can tell us,
the earthy or alkaline part flying off, and leaving
the acid and oily ones combined with the earth
or fait, with which they have a greater affinity.
And that thus calcareous earths, by lying in
conjunction with putrid matters, become pof-
felfed of a volatile acid, oily mix/ , which is Stahl's
precife defcription of the nitrous acid, muft be
clear to conviction.

But the ftrongeft proof of the exiftence of an
acid in putrid juices, if the earths of (tables and
cow-ftalls do not afford an equal one, muft
be drawn from the foil at the bottoms of graves,
which can certainly derive its nitrous acid quality
Vol. I. O from

*94 it/r. MaJJey on Saltpetre.

from nothing, but the corrupt bodies with which
it lies in contadt; and this may fatisfy us, in
refpedt to the fource, from which other ab-
forbent earths may derive it.

Other earths, in common ufe among the falt-
petre-makers, are thofe of (tables and cow-dalls,
that have drank up much animal urine? the
bottoms of (linking pits and ditches, and the
like. Thefe they take out, and lay in heaps,
till, by repeated trials, they find them fit for
their purpofe. It is commonly fuppofed, that,
during this period, they draw their nitrous quality
from the air? but for this, there is certainly no
juft foundation, feeing they are brought to ma¬
turity as foon, in the clofeft vault or Cellar, as in
the moft open expofure. The truth is, that all
putrid juices contain many oily and mucila¬
ginous parts, which, till they are duly attenu¬
ated by putrefadtion, will not fuffer any cryftals
to form in the leys that are drawn from thefe
earths; and they are laid in thefe heaps, for
this event to take place. Another end is
anfwered by this manoeuvre. By being thus laid
apart, thefe earths are prevented from receiving
any fre(h fupplies of unputrid matter, which
might contaminate the juices, that were already
far advanced in putrefaction.

The ingenious author of the Chemical Dic¬
tionary has told us. That the nitrous acid is no

where

Mr. Mafley on Saltpetre. 195

where found, but in fuch earths, as are impreg¬
nated with the juices of vegetables and animals,
and where thefe juices have Juftained the whole
putrefactive procejs. But having affigned no reafon
for it, he feems to have been little regarded.
The obfervation is, however, certainly a very
juft one, and had it been duly attended to,
we imagine, might have prevented moft of thofe
difappointments, which our countrymen have
met with, in their attempts to make faltpetre;
as we have reafon to think, they have been
chiefly owing to their premature ufe of thefe
earths.

The common foil, in fome parts of India, is
naturally nitrous, owing plainly to the fifh and
flime that is left upon it by the inundations of
the river Ganges, which foon corrupt in that hot
climate, and fill the earth with putrid juices ;
and here putrefaction, being carried on with the
created rapidity, is, of courfe, foon completed,
and the natives are, in a fbort time, furnifhed
with a nitrous earth perfectly matured. But it
mull not be forgotten, that their ftrongeft earths
are found at the bottoms of their tanks or fhallow
ponds of water, which, in this country, are often
of great extent, where, the water being evaporated
by the heat of the fun, large quantities of fifh
are left to corrupt, which furnifh a mud of the
ftrongeft nitrous quality.

O 2

In

1 96 Mr. Mdjfey on Saltpetre.

In this manner, are nitrous earths naturally
formed in thefe parts of the world, and might,
doubtlefs, be formed in others, though not per¬
haps fo expeditioufly, by throwing into (hallow
ponds of water, natural or artificial, all forts of
dung and carrion, with other putrid and putre-
fiable matters; where the water, being evaporated
by the heat of our fummers, mud certainly leave
a mud of the fame kind and quality.

Putrid juices and putrid vapours are difperfed
through the earth and air, fo that there are few
earths, of an abforbent kind, that are not, in
fome degree, nitrous. But it is in thofe only
that have been drenched in an extraordinary
degree with thefe juices, or have been long ex-
pofed to thefe vapours, that this acid is found of
any confiderable flrength. And, even here, we find
it but very fparingly difieminated in them, if we
may judge from the large quantities of earth
that mud be elixiviated, to obtain a fmall portion
of faltpetre. Cramer has told us, that two ounces
of faltpetre may fometimes be extrafled from
one pound of earth, which we have reafon to
think is an arrant fable ; fince, in the city of Paris,
where, we may prefume, thofe earths are fele&ed
with the bed judgment, we (hall find that one
bufhel of earth, with half that quantity of wood-
a(hes, will fcarce produce one pound of this fait ;
and we are informed, that it requires eight cart

loads.

Mr. MaJJey on Saltpetre. 197

loads, which are perhaps fmall ones, to make one
hundred weight. There can be no doubt, that the
trifling value of the materials, and the fmall
labour that is required, alone enable the faltpetre
makers to carry on this bufinefs, and that, under
the lame circumftances it may be carried on in
other places.

From the nature and conftitution of thefe
earths, it muft be evident, that they may be
eafily formed by methods of art, nothing more
being neceffary than to lay calcareous earths, in
conjunction with putrid matters, or to drench
them with their juices, and to wait, till we .find
them fit for our purpofe. All this is well known;
but not fo, we apprehend, the procefs by which
they are brought to maturity, which is the rea-
ion that our patience is often put to too fevere
a trial, in waiting for this event. It is a folly to
deny, that it is yet afecret, that thefe earths derive
their peculiar quality from the putrid matters
with which they are connected, and that they
are brought to maturity, entirely by putrefadion.

Glauber, who, from the obfervations he had
made upon the fruits and effeds of the bottom*
of (linking ditches, feems to be the firft that
attempted to form artificial nitre beds, threw
into pits, covered from the rain and fun, but
cxpofed as much as poffible to the air, all forts
pf dung, with the cuttings of trees, refufe of

O j gardens.

198 Mr. Majjey on Saltpetre.

gardens, and other putrid and putrefiable matters,
to which he added wood-afhes ; and by this
means, in a courfe of time, obtained, not a mere
nitrous , but a true Jaltpetre earth, that afforded
him the cryftals of this fait, upon fimple elix-
iviation and evaporation.

It does not appear, that this celebrated Chemid
had the lead idea, that thefe putrid matters were
of any other ufe, than to draw the nitre, as he
called it, from the air, in which the fixt fait of the
wood-afhes might pofhbly afTift. In this date
of ignorance, his followers, for the mod part,
feem dill to remain ; having adopted, as far as
we know, no other dodtrine ; and having varied
from this pradtice, only in difpofing thefe mate¬
rials above ground, indead of below, in order to
expofe them the more to this element.

It mud not be paffed over, that Glauber fome-
times filled large wooden veffels with all kinds
of dung, and, when they had completed their
putrefadtion, he percolated a drong alkaline fo-
lution, through them, drawn from lime and
wood-afhes, which afforded him a ley of the fame
kind and quality, with that drawn from the earth
of his other nitre beds.

A late writer has told us, that there are but
three ways of obtaining nitrous earths. In walls ,
that is, by raifing clay walls, and expofing them
to the air — In pits j by throwing all forts of
' " putrid

Mr. MaJJey on Saltpetre . 199

putrid and putrefiable fubftances into them —
And in hovels ; by laying thefe materials in heaps
.under them. The firft he difapproves, becaufe,
as he tells us, though thefe walls are generally
.covered with draw, the nitre, or rather the nitrous
earth that is formed upon them, is frequently
wallied away by the rain. But there is certainly
.another obje&ion, and that is, the tedious time
which thefe walls muft commonly ftand, except
they are railed in the neighbourhood of dunghills,
before they receive any considerable impregna¬
tion. In Pruffia, where we are told thefe walls
2re raifed, by order of the king, throughout the
.country, for the ufe of the faltpetre makers, we
are at the fame time informed, they are often
found but weakly impregnated, at the end of
twenty years, though dung or litter is fometimes
mixt up with the clay, of which they are
compofed.

He does not approve of difpofing the mate¬
rials in pits, becaufe, as he obferves, the air
cannot be conveniently admitted to their inte¬
rior parts, )de, therefore, gives the preference
to the difpcfal of them under hoyejs, where, by
various contrivances that he lays down, the
air may be freely admitted to them. And here
we fhould certainly join him, could we be
brought to believe tn^t a current of air, for
which he contends, was any great promoter of
putrefaftion. But we have been told, and have

O 4 good

cioo Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre.

good caufe to believe, that a clofe, warm, moift
•air is the greateft promoter of this procefs;
and, therefore, muft have leave to think, that
a vault, or a cellar, muft be the moft proper
repofitory for thefe materials, where their putre¬
faction, being carried on with the greateft vigour,
muft, of courfe, be the fooner completed.

Or, in defeCt of thefe conveniences, that the
fame end might be anfwered by laying them,
about a yard thick, upon a piece of ground, funk
a few inches below the level, and bedded with clay,
where, through the rain that falls, in the fpace
of a year or two, they muft be completely putre¬
fied j particularly, if they were now and then
turned over, and no frefh additions were made
to thtm for, whilft we continue to heap frefli
materials upon old dunghills, it is impoftible
that the whole mafs fhould be equally putrefied:

It is obfervable, that the writer laft mentioned
fays not a word of the ufe of putrefaction, nor
of the expediency of promoting this procefs, by
all the means that lie in our power, in order to
accelerate the maturity of thefe earths; which we
commonly attribute to hi's ignorance of this
circumftance.

Nor does ‘the practice of the faltpetre makers
indicate any fuperior knowledge. Many of their
nitre beds ate raifed ten or twelve feet high,
whofe putrefaClion muft advance very (lowly,
through the pieflure of the upper parts upon the
I X*’ lower t

201

Mr. Maffey on Saltpetre .

lower, and the want of moifture, which cannot
eafily be introduced to fuch lofty heaps.

About thirty years ago, an ingenious Chemift,
of our own nation, having vifited many of the
oreat works abroad, and made the obfervation,
that to form a nitrous earth, nothing more ap¬
peared to be neceffary, than to mix up calcareous
earths with any kind of dung, and expofe thefe
materials to the air, returned home, fully per-
fuaded that he was mafter of the fecret, and had
intereft enough to prevail upon many of his
friends to join him, in erecting a large faltpetre
work, at Fulham, near London. Here, many
hundred loads of lime were got together, and
laid with ftrata of horfe muck, in long high
ridges, the more to be expofed to this element;
the confequence of which was, that the rain run¬
ning off, without penetrating the mafs, no putre¬
faction enfued, and the lime, at the end of four
or five years, was found to have received little or
no impregnation ; upon which the work was
dropped, with great lofs to the Proprietors.

Two errors were here committed. In the fir ft
place, the dung, which ought to have been, at
lead:, in treble the proportion to the lime, made
but about one fourth part of the heaps. And
fecondly, they were fo difpofed, that, for 'want
of moifture, they could never enter into a putrid
fiate: whereas, had the dung been in a due pro¬
portion, and the whole been fp'read about a yard

thick,

Z02 Mr. Majjey on Salt petty*

thick, there can be no difpute, that, in the fpace
of a year or two, they had been perfectly putre¬
fied, and a nitrous earth had been formed that
might have prevented this cataftrophe ; efpeci-
ally if the heap had been treated, as we have
before hinted.

When the author faw thefe materials, fomc
time after the work was dropped, the dung ap¬
peared to have been quite burnt up by the lime,
and to have had no effedt upon it; but his judg¬
ment was not then ripe enough, to point out the
caufe of this difafter.

This work, as we have been informed, was
afterwards taken up by a foreigner, who formed
his nitre beds in a very different manner; but
they were raifed fo high, and confequently fq
long in arriving at maturity, as quite tired
out the patience of thole who were concerne4
with him.

There may have been other reafons for laying
afide this work ; and among the reft, its not
anfwering the expectations of the Proprietors in
refpect to profit $ which, in new undertakings,
are apt to run pretty high, without confidering,
that the profits of every bufinefs depend upoq
the {kill and knowledge with which it is con¬
ducted. We have before remarked, that Glauber
generally added wood-afhes to the materials,
of which he compofed his nitre beds; by which
means, in a cqurfe of time, he obtained not a

mere

Mr. Maffey on Saltpetre. 203

jmere nitrous , but a true faltpetre earth, which
required nothing but eiixiviation with water,
and a fubfequent evaporation, to afford him
the cryftals of this fait ; which practice is (till
followed by many of his fucceffors ; though,
as it feems, without any clear convi&ion of
their ufe ; it being a point in difpute, whether
they are of any ufe or not.

The author of the article Nitre, in the French
Encyclopaedia, boldly affirms, that the juices or
deco&ions of all fuch plants, as yield much
fixt fait by incineration, being putrefied and
clarified with lime, according to Mr. Bolduc’s
method, laid down in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences for the year 1 734, will yield us the cry¬
ftals of a true faltpetre, without the affiftance of any
fixt alkaline fait whatever; and that at Montpeli¬
er, and all over Languedoc, they make faltpetre
without ufing the leaft particle of fuch fait. Upon
which we can only obferve, that if this be a fadt,
it muft be very furprizing, that it is not known in
Paris, and that the Gentlemen of the Academy,
who, fome time ago, drew up and publifhed
by order of their monarch, an account of the
feveral methods of making faltpetre in all
parts of the world, fo far as they could arrive
at the knowledge of them, ffiould not take the
leaft notice of it ; though they have thought
proper to record one of a fimilar nature, Mr.
Brown’s method of making faltpetre in Virginia.

This

2C>4 Mr. MaJTey on Saltpetre.

This Gentleman tells us, that if we fprinkle
the clay floor of a tobacco houfe with ambeer3
which we take to be a putrid infufion of tobacco,
and cover it with the rotten leaves, in a fort¬
night’s time, upon removing the leaves, we fhall
find the floor covered with faltpetre, in the form
of hoar froft, drawn from the air , which being
fwept up, and elixiviated with warm water, will
afford us a ley, that, being boiled down to the
confidence of cream, will (hoot into cryftals of
this fait. Now we can eaflly believe, that thefe
fweepings, with the afliftance of wood-afhes,
would afford us fuch a ley, but not without ; and'
'therefore muft conclude, that there is here fome
omiffion.

We muft farther obferve, that this Gentleman
takes no notice of any marine fait that is formed
in this ley, which, being found in all nitrous
leys, muft render this account very fufpicious.
And what may give us a more unfavourable
opinion of this method, is, that, flnce the author
obtained a reward of three hundred pounds from
the Britifh Parliament for this notable difcovery,
we have heard no more of it.

Whilft the feveral parts or principles of which
this faline concrete is compofed remained un¬
known, we might give credit to a number of
tales refpetting its origin and formation ; which,
at this time, without betraying the greateft weak-?

nefsa

Mr. Mafjey on Saitptre, 20$.

flefs, we cannot give the lead ear to — of its being
drawn from the air — of its being generated in
Vegetables and animals — of its being found upon
the furface of old walls — and, to conclude the
whole, of its being formed without the adiftance
of a fixt fait ; all which mud be found equally
repugnant to reafon and experience, which we
may bring the ordinary pra&ice of making falt-
petre to confirm.

And here, we cannot help expreding our fur-
prize, that fo much time has been fpent by many
ingenious perfons in the difcovery of new methods
of making faltpetre, w'hen it mud be obvious,
that, in cafe they fucceeded, there is none
that could be more plain, fimple, and lefs ex-
penfive, than the old and approved one, of which,
vve fhall now proceed to give a more particular
account.

•In large and populous towns, the faltpetre
makers chiefly make ufe of the rubbilh of old
houfes, the ruins of old vaults and cellars, &c,
Thefe they collect, and, having reduced them to
a coarfe powder, elixiviate with about one third
the quantity of wood-alhes j in which ley, when
boiled down to a due confidence, the crydals of
faltpetre are found to (hoot. During the boiling,
large quantities of marine fait are formed in
this lixivium, which, crydallizing whild the lit
quor is hot, are taken out with perforated ladles.

The

So 6 Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre.

The ley is then taken out, and fet in a cool place
for the faltpetre to cryftallize.

In defed of thefe earths, they colled thofe of
flables and cow-flails, that have drank up much
animal urine, the bottoms of ftinking pits and
ditches, efpecially of thofe, that have received
the contents of fiaughter and privy houfes.
Thefe they take out, and lay in heaps, commonly
mixt up with a little lime, till, by repeated trials,
they find them fit for their purpofe ; which is
known, in fome meafure, by their having totally
loft their offenfive odour, a fure fign that their
putrefadion is completed.

Where thefe earths cannot be procured in
fufficient quantities, they form, what are called,
artificial nitre beds, by laying all forts of putrid
and putrefiable fubftances in conjundion with
calcareous earths, keeping them in a moiftftate,
and waiting, as the phrafe is, till they are
brought to maturity. If the wood-afhes are not
added, when thefe materials are committed to
putrefadion, they are added when they are elixi-
viated, but never, that we have heard, omitted.

The common peafants in France and Germany,
who are almoft all faltpetre makers, ferape toge¬
ther the muck and offals of their farm yards,
and, throwing them under open fheds, fuffer them
to lie, till they find they will anfwer their end.
Though they know little of the ufe of putre¬
fadion, they take care to promote this procefs,

by

Mr. Maffty on Saltpetre. <ioJf

by drenching them with urine or muck water,
and frequently turning them over, by which
means, they are brought to maturity much fooner
than the larger nitre beds. Thefe materials,
with the wood-allies that their hearths fuppjy,
if not added before, are thrown into a large cub,
and water poured upon them, which runs out
through a hole, fluffed with ftraw, at the bottom
of the veffel. Thus Amply do they procure
their leys, in the boiling of which, their women
and children are chiefly employed.

Where any article of commerce is compofed
of materials of little or no value, and which re¬
quire fmall Ikill or ingenuity to manufacture,
great numbers of poor perfons will naturally
take up this employment, whofe diftreffes will
oblige them to difpofe of it, upon the moft
moderate terms ; to which they will be farther
urged by the policy of the government under
which they live, which will reftrain them from
exporting it, till its own wants is fupplied. To
this we may fairly attribute the fmall price
that faltpetre bears in France and Germany. But
this can be no difcouragement to the Englifh,
among whom it bears a much greater price, noc-
withftanding the importations of their India
Company-, and confequently, muft afford the
makers a much greater profit, Ihould the govern¬
ment refufe, by a fmall bounty of one penny

per

«o8 Mr. Majfsy on Saltpetre.

per pound, upon all the faltpetre made in Eng¬
land, to give them fuitable encouragement.

The French are not infenfible of the great
advantages they derive, from making their own
faltpetre; and, therefore, pay no fmall attention
to it.

The faltpetre makers in Paris are incorporated,
and have, befides, the privilege of carrying off
the rubbifh of all the old houfes they fhall think
proper, without fee or reward ; though this in¬
deed is but a poor compenfation for the extra¬
ordinary expence they are put to in firing, in a
city where fuel is fo dear.

In the year 1775, fome defeft being found in
the faltpetre brought to market, owing more,
perhaps, to their parfimonious methods of making
it, than to any thing elfe, the King of France
immediately ordered a committee, of the Gentle¬
men of the Academy, to draw up and publifh an
account of the feveral methods of making falt¬
petre, in all parts of the world, that all his fub-
jedts might be made equally acquainted with
them ; and, at the fame time, offered a confi-
derable reward, to whoever Ihould difcover the
fecret of nature in the formation of this fait, that
they might equally avail themfelves of it.

It has been fhewn, that nitrous earths are not
uncommon in the walks of nature, and that, by
the addition of wood-allies to them, they are
converted into true faltpetre earths. Now it is

only,

Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre. 209

only allowing that thele allies may fometimes be
accidentally introduced to an earth of this kind,
to Ihew us how a true faltpetre earth may natu¬
rally be formed ; and if the ftreets of the city of
Paris, or their dunghills upon which they throw
their wood-allies, fometimes exhibit a true falt¬
petre earth, it can be no great rarity.

It can fcarcely be conceived that the Englifh
have been ignorant of the method of making
faltpetre in France and Germany, where this
bufinefs has been long carried on, in the moll
public and open manner. But that fome points
of no fmall importance may have efcaped their
obfervation, may eafily be credited, from the ill .
fuccefs with which their attempts have always
been attended ; and none more likely than their
cuftom of waiting till the materials, they lay
together, for this purpofe, are found fit to anfwer
their end.

The author of this ElTay once formed a
nitre bed with great care and exa&nefs; and, at
the end of a year, expeded to have reaped the
fruits of his labour; but herein was totally difap-
pointed. The leys, that he drew from thele earths,
afforded him no cryllals of this fait; upon which
they were thrown afide as ufelefs ; till, a year or
two after, he took it into his head to make a
fecond trial of them, and now found they an-
fwered his purpofe extremely well ; which he
could only attribute to their being more per-

Vol, I. P fe&ly

5io Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre.

fedtly putrefied, as they had been fecluded from
the air the whole time. This gave him the fird
idea of the ufe and necefTity of putrefa&ion,
which made too drong an impreffion upon his
mind to be eafily erafed.

With earths, thus duly matured, we can
fcarcely fail of fucceeding in this bufinefs as well
as our neighbours. Yet there may be reafons for
our declining it.

The large quantities of earth that mud be
elixiviated to obtain a fmall portion of laltpetre,
it mud be owned, affords no very tempting prof-
pe<d. And the fears of not finding a fufficient
quantity of wood-afhes in this country may have
ftill greater weight.

The labour of collefting thefe earths, it is cer¬
tain, cannot be fmall ; yet may the value of this
commodity fully pay the price of it, when brought
to a good market, which it is likely to find in
England.

In refpect to wood-afhes, they may reafonably
be judged to be lefs plentiful in this than in other
countries where wood is the only fuel. But where
pot-alh is made, in confiderable quantities, as in
many of our counties, there certainly can be no
fcarcity of them ; and, if their place may be fup-
plied by another commodity equally cheap, and
eafily procured, we can never find any real want
of them. This is foreign pot-afh, which we find
recommended in a fmall work, not long ago

publidied.

Mr. Maffey on Saltpetre': 21 1

publilhed, by order of the King of France* by
fome of the molt eminent chemifts, as far pre¬
ferable to wood-afhes. Upon many accounts
it has been before obferved, that Glauber, fome-
times, threw all forts of dung into a large wooden
velfel, and, when they had completed their pu¬
trefaction, percolated a fixt alkaline folution
through them ; which furnifhed him with a ley
of the fame kind and nature with that drawn
from nitrous earths and wood-allies. This, we
may prefume, gave occafion for thefe ingenious
Gentlemen to make fome experiments this way,
the relult of which they have given to the pub¬
lic. We tried this method many years ago,
with fome fuccefs ; but found it depended upon
the maturity of the materials ; which, indeed,
may be collected from Glauber. What the
French writers have faid upon this fubjeft, we
fhall give in a poftfcript ; in order to remove
every obje&ion againft our attempting to make
faltpetre in England, upon account of the fcar-
city of wood allies.

This difficulty being got over, we trull nothing
will remain, but to give fuch an account of the
practical method of making faltpetre as may be
relied on, and be fufficiently explicit, to prevent
our falling into any errors.

The faltpetre makers in Paris chiefly make
ufe of the rubbifh of old houfes, the ruins of old
vaults, and cellars, &c. This they reduce to a

P 2 coarfe

212 Mr. Majjfey on Saltpetre.

coarfe powder, and having fcreened it, proceed'
as follows.

t They provide a number of finall open tubs,
which they prefer to large ones, upon account
of their being more eafily moved, and emptied
of the materials. Thefe they place upon {tillages,
about two feet high, and in fuch a manner that
One veffel may receive the ley, that runs from
two of them. In each tub, near the bottom, is
fixt a fpiggot and faufet, and, to prevent the
wood-afhes from choaking up the latter, a
parcel of the round earth is thrown in firfi,
and the allies upon it. They then add the re¬
mainder of the earth in the proportion of two
bufliels of the latter to one of the former. They
throw the earth in lightly, that the water may
more readily pafs throught it, and they hollow
it at the top, that it may more conveniently
receive it.

They have different numbers of thefe tubs,
but generally twenty four, which they place in
three rows, eight in each ; and into each tub
they throw three bufliels of wood-afhes, and
fix of earth. Ten demiqueus* of water being
pafied through the firfi row of eight tubs, is
poured upon the fecond, and afterwards upon
the third ; and now the firfi row of eight tubs
being emptied of the earth and afhes, is re-

* A demiqueu, as far as we can learn, contains about ninety
gallons.

plenifned

213

Mr. MaJJey on Saltpetre.

plenifhed with frefh materials, and the ley,
which has pafled through the three rows of
eight tubs, is pafled through this likewife.

Having thus palled through four rows of eight
tubs, and been reduced to two demiqueus by
the abforption of the materials, it is carried to
the boiler under the name of le Cuite.

Such is the procefs when a new work is
erected j in an old one, only fix demiqueus of
water are paffed through the three rows of eight
tubs, which are filled with frefh materials every
day,

The lixivium is carefully fcummed, during
the boiling, and, when it is fo far advanced, that
a peliicle begins to appear upon the furface, a
workman is conftantly employed, withaperforated
ladle, to take out the marine fait, which now
begins to form and fall to the bottom of the
boiler. This being thrown into a whifket, drains
into the boiler again. When the lixivium is fo
far evaporated, that a drop of it will congeal
upon a piece of cold iron, it is taken out,
and thrown into a tub, fcr the remainder of
the marine fait, and other dregs, to fettle ;
2nd, after handing about half an hour, it is
drawn off, whilft yet warm, into fhallovv copper
pans, and fet in a cool place for the faltpetre
to cryftallize.

The produce of this operation is generally
about one hundred and thirty pounds of a brown

P 3 fort,

2)4 Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre.

fort of faltpetre, which is fold to government for
three-pence halfpenny per pound, and carried to
the arfenal to be refined.

The liquor remaining in the bafons, when' the
faltpetre is cryftallized, is called Eau Mere , or
mother water, and is poured upon the earths
in fmall quantities, when difpofed in the tubs
for elixiviation ; though fome makers think it
beft to dilute it with water, and percolate it
through a frefh bed of wood-afhes. The earths,
when difeharged from the tubs, are thrown
afide to dry under an hovel, and when dry,
are fpread, about a foot thick, to receive the
feummings, eau mere , putrid urine, or any
other putrid liquor, they can get to throw upon
them, and in a few months, we are told, are
fit for ufe, a fecond time, particularly, if now
and then turned over.

To improve the colour of this faltpetre, and
to cleanfe it ftill more from the marine fait,
two thoufand weight is thrown into a large
boiler, with one demiqueu of water, in which
it difiolves, and, in the courfe of the boiling,
another demiqueu is added by pailfuls, which,
every .time it is thrown in, raifes a thick feum
that is carefully removed. And now, the evapora¬
tion being pretty far advanced, and the marine fait
taken out as before, a large pitcher of whites of
eggs, or of a folution of ifinglafs or Englifh glue,
is poured in, and well ftirred~up in it, which raifes

a thick

Mr. MaJJey on Saltpetre. 215

a thick black fcum, and is taken off with it.
But, before the whites of eggs, &c. are thrown
in, the boiling liquor is cooled, by adding a
pailful of cold water. The lixivium being thus
clarified, is treated as before.

The ecu mere of this operation, being boiled
again, yields a faltpetre of the fame colour with
the firft ; and fome faltpetre goes through a third
operation of the fame kind to give it a greater
degree of purity.

The bafons in which the ley is fet for the falt¬
petre to cry ftallize, are clofely fitted with wooden
covers, to prevent the too free entrance of the
air, which, by cooling the liquor too foon, would
not admit the cryftals to form of fo large a fize.

The cryftallization is generally completed
in two or three days ; and about one fourth part
is fuppofed to be loft in refining.

Such is the method of making faltpetre in
Paris, as tranfmitted to us by thofe whofe know¬
ledge and veracity cannot be called in queftion ;
in which we can find no myftery or difficulty,
or any expence that can reafonably deter us
from engaging in undertakings of this kind.
The tnglifn, will, in all probability, be obliged
to employ other earths than the rubbifh of old
houfes, which is the cafe with all our neighbours,
that do not live in large and populous towns ;
of which earths, we flatter ourfelves, we have
given a full defeription. And here we cannot help

P 4 obferving

1 16

Mr. Majjey on Saltpetre .

obferving one encouragement which an adven¬
turer in this way will always have, viz. that
whatever materials he may lay together, for this
purpofe, if they do not anfwer his end, as a falt-
petre maker, will always find their value with
the farmer.

Wood- allies are certainly an article of great
importance, but (hould they ever be found
wanting their deficiency may be fupplied, as we
have hinted above. Thofe who may engage
in thefe undertakings, with the lead rifque or
expence, are certainly the pot-alh makers in
this kingdom, who, being provided with the
neceflary utenfils, can only want a proper earth
to begin their operations, which, in cafe they
are unprovided, we have fiiovvn, may be eafily
procured in the fpace of a year or two, by mix¬
ing up their dunghills with fallen lime, and fuf-
fering them to lie till they are perfectly pu¬
trefied.

The author, fome years ago, caufed a trench
to be dug in an open field, ten yards long, one
yard wide, and one foot deep. This he half filled
with good muck from a dunghill, and covering
it up with the foil, mixt with one third the
quantity of fallen lime, left it to take its fate.
The weeds were plucked off, as they fprouted up,
and it was twice turned over in the fpace of a year ;
at the end of which, this earth, being elixivi-
ated with wood- allies, afforded him fair cryftals

of

Mr. Maffey on Saltpetre . 217

cf faltpetre. In fo eafy a manner may a nitrous

earth be prepared.

We fnall add no more than that the crofter’s
ley, after it has performed its office of carrying
off the foul oily parts of linen, or linen yarn,
and which is generally fuffered to run wafte,
may here be certainly ufed to good advantage:
and that we would advife every one who is in¬
clined to try experiments, in this way, not to make
them with lefs than one buffiel of earth, and
half this quantity of wood-allies, from which two
gallons of ley may be drawn, which, being
boiled down to about a pint, may indicate the
fuccefs, if any is to be expected.

JP. S. Of the life of Pot- aflo in making of Salt-petre,
tranflated from the French.

Thofe who have attended to the former part
of this work, will, doubtlefs, be fenfible of the
ufe of wood-affies in the formation of faltpetre.
That it is impoffible to make this fait without
them, or fomething of a fimilar nature. Remem¬
bering that faltpetre, properly fpeaking, is a
compofition of two fubftances, united and com¬
bined in the fame proportion, which are the
nitrous acid, and a fixt alkali.

I hat the faltpetre formed in fome earths, for
the moll part contains only one of thefe two
principles ; the nitrous acid, which being com¬
bined with a calcareous earth, forms a nitre

with

21 8

Mr. Maffey on Saltpetre .

with an earthy bafis, from which the earth mud
be precipitated, and a fixt fait introduced in its
ftead, to convert it into a true faltpetre.

Wood-afhes, upon account of the fixt alkali
they contain, are very proper for this purpofe,
and the faltpetre makers, by mixing thefe afhes
with the earths they elixiviate, perform a com¬
plex operation in chemiftry; they decompoie
one fait, and com pole another.

But as it is the fixt alkali, in the wood- afhes,
that alone acts upon the nitre with an earthy
bafis, it follows, that if we extrad this alkali
from them, by elixiviation and evaporation, it
will be brought into a fmaller compals, and fup-
ply the place of a large quantity of wood-afhes.

The fixt alkali, or fait extraded from wood-
afhes, is known, in commerce, by the name of
Tot-ajh , and is made in large quantities in
Sweden, Denmark, and in all the northern parts
of Germany ; nor is it hard to procure pot-afh
of a good quality in France, fo that we have
always a fimple, ealy, and cheap method of fup-
plying the place of wood-alhes in thofe pro¬
vinces where they are fcarce or dear, and the
bufmefs of faltpetre- making contracted upon
this account.

And we can affine the reader, that where
wood- allies are found in the greateft plenty,
pot-afh will be found far preferable to them for
the following realons.

In

Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre 219

In the firft place, becaufe the wood-afhes ufed
by the faltpetre • makers, in large towns, are
generally the refufe of other trades, and contain
little or no fixt alkali. Thofe that are ufed by
the faltpetre makers in Paris are of this fort, and
often afford, upon elixiviation, only a little
Glauber’s fait, Tartar of vitriol, and above all,
large quantities of marine fait, of which the tar¬
tar of vitriol alone contains any fixt vegetable
alkali, that can furnifh. the bafis of faltpetre,
or be of any ufe in decompofing the nitre with
an earthy bafis.

Secondly, wood-afhes taking up one third of
the room in the veffels, in which the lixivium is
made, there is, of courfe, lefs room for the earth,
and the faltpetre mult confequently be lefs in
proportion.

Thirdly, wood-afhes, being very porous, ab-
forb a large quantity of water, which they
obftinately retain, and this water holds a quan¬
tity of faltpetre in folution, which is a clear lofs
in proportion to the quantity of water they
contain.

Fourthly, wood-afhes bear a very confiderable
price in mod parts of France, and we are certain
this price is fuperior to that of pot-afh, con-
Hdering the portion of fixt alkali that they re-
fpe&ively contain.

Fifthly, thefe afhes are commonly impregnated
with many grofs parts, and much dirt and filth,

that

iio Mr. Maffey on Saltpetre.

that is extra&ed from them, which mud not only
injure the faltpetre, but obftrud its cryftal-
lization.

All thefe things being confidered, with the
pra&ice of the Swedes, and the fuccefs of our
own experiments, we judge ourfelves authorized
to advife all thofe who are employed in making
faltpetre, to place but a few wood-afhes at the
bottom of their tubs, to ferve by way of filter,
and to fupply their place with pot-afh in the
following manner.

When the tubs are filled with earth, the quan~
tity of pot-afh we mean to employ, is to be laid
upon it, and we are to proceed to elixiviate it
in the ufual way. The water will immediately
dificlve the pot-afh, which filtering through the
earth, will decompofe the nitre with an earthy
bafis, and convert it into faltpetre, and, if the
pot-afh has been in a juft proportion, none of
the former will be left behind. It is not necef-
fary to lay the pot-afh upon the earth, in all the
tubs, but only upon thofe in the firft row ; becaufe
thefe earths being wafhed fuccefiively by three
waters, the lefs pot-afh will remain in them.

Nothing can be faid, precifely, of the quantity
of pot-afh to be laid upon any given quantity of
earth; this depending upon the condition of
thefe earths, their richnefs, and the quantity of
nitre, with an earthy bafis that they contain ; and,
jn fhort, upon many other circumftances which it

Mr. Maffey on Sahpttrt. 22?

is impoffible to forefee. We can only, therefore,
lay down fuch rules as may enable the faltpetre
maker to judge, what quantity of pot-afh he ought
to employ, according to the (late in which he
finds thefe earths.

For this purpofe, let him diffolve one part of
pot-afh in two parts of water, and either filter
the liquor, or let it ftand till it is clear, and
fet this folution afide.

Let him then elixiviate fome very pure nitrous
earth in three or four times its weight of water,
and fet this lixivium likewife afide ; and if, upon
dropping fome of the folution of pot afh into
a glafs of his ley, he finds the latter grows
whitifh or muddy, he may be affured that the
precipitation of the earth is not completed, and
confequently, that a fufncient quantity of pot-
afli has not been employed. If, on the other
hand, the ley remains untroubled, let him drop
in fome of the lixivium drawn from the nitrous
earth, upon which, if the pot-afh is in too great
a quantity, it will likewife turn muddy. Upon
the whole, if, in neither of thefe cafes, the liquor
is difturbed, we may be allured the pot-afh has
been employed in a juft proportion.

In general it is better to ufe too little than too
much pot-afh. When too little is employed,
it is true, part of the nitre, with an earthy bafis,
will not be decompofed, but it will be found
in the mother- water after cryftalllzation j and

when

222 Mr. Majfey on Saltpetre i

•when a large quantity is collected it may be
elixiviated leparately.

Inftead of ufing pot-afh in fubftance, it may
be dilTolved in a given quantity of water; for
inftance, one pound of pot-afh in two pounds of
water, and three pounds of this liquor ufed in
the room of one pound of pot afh.

The French miniftry are fo defirous of bring¬
ing pot-afh into ufe, being fenfible of the great
advantages that mud refult from it, that they
have ordered the Regiftres des poudres , to furnifh
the faltpetre makers, and others who may be
inclined to take up this bufinefs with this arti¬
cle, and to take care that it is of the beft qua¬
lity. Thus far the authors, who have fet their
names to this little piece, who are no other than
Mefirs. Macquer, Lavoifier, D’Arey, Cadet, and
Sage.

It is certain, that by percolating a fixt alkaline
folution through a nitrous earth, duly matured \
the fame kind of ley may be obtained with that
in common ufe among the faltpetre makers ;
and that a folution of pot-afh, of fome kinds,
if not of all, may anfwer this end; but we can¬
not approve of ufing it in fubftance, as is here
recommended. By diflblving it in water, and
weighing it, we can know the exadt quantity of
fixt alkali we employ, and may with great eafe
increafe q~ diminifh it, as we fee occafion.

The

The Rev. Mr. Hall’s Inquiry concerning, &c. 223

The value of foreign pot-afh is no where
better known than in England, there being, per¬
haps, no part of the world in which there is a
greater confumption of it, nor which is fupplied
with it upon cheaper terms ; which circumftance

mult ftrongly recommend its ufe.

An Attempt- to /hew, that a Taste for the Beauties
of Nature and the fine Arts , has no Influence
favour ah le to Morals. By the Rev. Samuel
Hall, A. M. Read May 15, 1782.

Nullius addiftus jurare in verba ma^iiiri.

Hor. Ep. I. Lib. 1.

Scilicet uni atquus virtuti.

. Hor. Sat. I. Lib. I.

H E Society, which I have now the honour

to addrefs, has lately been prefented with
feveral ingenious papers on taste. It may,
therefore, be thought neceflary to make an apolo¬
gy, for bringing forward a fubjed, which has
been already fo well inveftigated.

Were I to purfue the track of thofe who have
gone before, it would be the higheft prefumption
to fuppofe, that any obfervations I could make,
would be deferving attention. Jt would be to

offer

224 Rev. Mr. Hall's Inquiry concerning

offer the Society a few fcarrty gleanings, after
the full harvefl: had been gathered in. But l
have no deffgn to invade the province of ano¬
ther. I fhall neither examine the principles,
on which taffe is founded ; nor enquire, whe¬
ther it is more the child of nature, or of
education, or the joint product of both. I
fhall confine my remarks to the effects which
taste, however produced, may be fuppofed
to have on the moral character ; and Ihall
endeavour to (hew, that its influence on the
heart, is not favourable to virtue.

A diftinguifhed Member of this Society, in
whom the Scholar and the Gentleman are moft
happily united, has, in an elegant paper, * fup-
ported the reverfe of this propofition ; which,
it muff be owned, is no Angular opinion. It
is maintained by very high authorities in the
literary world ; particularly, by Lord Kaims,
in his Elements of Criticifm-a by Gerard, in his
EJfay on ’Tajle ; and indeed, by many others,
who have profefledly treated on this fubjedt.
It may, perhaps, be the prevailing and popular
opinion of the prefent day. But are we thence
to conclude, that it is founded in truth ? Doc¬
trines are fometimes falhioned “ to the varying

* The Paper here alluded to has been publifhed, fiuce
it was read to the Society, in the volume of Moral Differ »
tations, by T. Percival, M, D. &c»

hour i”

the Influence of Tafle on Morals. - 225

hour j” and many popular opinions are governed
by no better motive, than fancy or caprice.

To me, I own, it does not appear furprifing,
that writers on tafte have generally been led
to fuppofe, that its influence muft be friendly
to virtue. When a fubjeft has been long con¬
templated, the mind becomes, in fome meafure,
enamoured of it, views it with complacency,
and, from an over-weening fondnefs, bellows
attributes and perfections, which are not
naturally its own. How often has this been
the cafe, with l'ome new difcovery in philofophy !
Its ingenious advocate is feldom willing to con¬
fine its effects, to the rank it juftly holds. He
would have it confidered, not only as a law of
nature, operating in its proper fphere ; but
as a great and univerfal caufe, to which all
other caufes muft be fubordinate •, and will
even attempt to folve all the phenomena .of
nature by its means Thus, electricity was
lately a favourite theory, which, for a while,
feemed to bid fair for univerfal empire in the
philofophical world. And thus, fome ufeful dif-
coveries in medicine have been rafhly exalted into
panaceas, or univerfal remedies. The fame
fpecics of enthufiafm has , indeed , at different
periods, prevailed in every fcience. Hence, the
vaft variety of new theories, and fyftems, which
have fprung up ; and for awhile amufed the
world, and which have, at length, yielded their
Vol. I. ufurpation

226 Rev. Mr. Hall's Inquiry concert ling

ufurpation to feme new conqueror, which will
probably be equally flnort-lived.

But to return from this digreflion. The ad¬
vocates for the influence of Tafte on the Moral
Character, have generally confounded that fa¬
culty with the moral sense. They feem to be
perfuaded, that the fame power, which difeovers,
and reliflies the beauties of nature and of art,
mull equally difeover, and relifh the beauty, the
order, the harmony of virtue. Lord Shaftes-
eury * has fully adopted this notion. His difei-
ciple Hutcheson, f with fome trifling diftinc-
tions, has embraced the fame opinion. The
very ingenious author of the Elements of Crilicifm
tells us, that there is a ftrong and dole affinity
between tafte, and the moral fenfe. “ Tafte,
fays he, in the fine arts, goes hand in hand
with the moral fenle, to which indeed it is nearly
allied.” X

This natural connexion, and clofe alliance,
of tafte with the moral fenfe, may, perhaps, be
very juftly difputed i as tafte, I apprehend, muft
be the joint refult of delicate, corporeal, and
intellectual powers ; whilft what is ufually un-
derftood by a moral fenfe, muft be of a nature
altogether intellectual.

* Lord Shaftelbury’s Charadteriftics paffim:
f Hatchefon’s Inquiry into the Orig. of our Ideas of
Beauty, &c.

f Elem. Crit. Introduc. p. 7.

But

the Influence of 'Tafte on Morals. ~ 227

But let us, for a moment, fuppofe that fuch
an union is really eftablifhedj and that tafte can
take cognizance of the merit or demerit of
actions, with the fame eafe and precifton, that
it pronounces on the abilities of the ftatuary, or
of the painter. Will it neceffarily follow, that
fuch a tafte muft always be productive of a vir¬
tuous conduCt ? It will not be difputed,* that
tafte generally operates in fome favourite direc¬
tion. It does not embrace all the beauties of
nature, or of art, with equal relHh ; nor explore
every fcience, even of thofe efteemed elegant and
refined, with the fame keennefs of difcernment.
The painter is not always poflefied of an ear
finely tuned to mufic; nor the mufician always
delighted with the elegance and vigour of
poetical compofition. Nature feldom produces
an accomplifhed mafter, unlefs her efforts have
been directed to one particular objeft. And in
vain would be the attempt to rife to excellence,
in any art or fcience, fave that, which is con¬
genial to the tafte. Some men, indeed, feem to
be poffelfed of, what may be termed, a general
tafte j and are capable of, at leaft, moderate
attainments in every branch. But tafte, like
every other energy, perhaps is weaker, in pro¬
portion as it is diffufed.

Brown’? E flays on the Charaderiftics, Sed. II. 8.

0^2 Upon

4

228 Rev. Mr. Hall's Inquiry concerning

Upon this fuppofition, it is evident* a man
may have an exquifite cade for fome particular
art or fcience, and yet, no tafte for virtue. To
this fpecies of beauty the faculty may be fo little
fenfible, as to produce no effe&s. In fuch a
cafe, virtue only fhares the fate of many other
things, which are confeffedly objefts of tafte,
and which are rejected, becaufe the capacity
adapted to them is fo weak, that it may be faid
to be wanting.

But let us fuppofe, that tafte really exercifes
fome of the privileges and powers of the moral
fenfe. The advocates for its practical influence
would not gain much, by this very ample concef-
fion. The mere fenfe of the beauty of virtue
(and it is not pretended, that any thing further
can be the object of tafte) abftrafted from
every other confideration, will icarcely be thought
fufficient to fupport her caufe. The theory ap¬
pears more fpecious, than folid j more pleafing,
than efficacious. When dreffed with the art, the
ingenuity, and the eloquence of a Shaftefbury, it
may entertain and amufe, the heart being fup-
pofed in a ftate of eafe, calm and indifferent.
But its effe&s will not be fufficiently ftrong with
the generality of mankind, to fpur them on to
attion. We furvey the lovely pi&ure, are con¬
vinced that it is a fine one, yet turn afide to
fome other object, that agitates our hopes and
fears

The

the Influence of ¥ afle on Morals . 229

The doftrine may, probably, fuit the retired
temper of the philofopher, or the apathy of the
floic : but is ill calculated for “the bufy haunts
of men,” and the tumults of focial life. The
man of tade admires the beauty and exprefiion
exhibited in the works of a Raphael, or a Michael
Angelo, without feeling the flighted wilh to be¬
come an artid, and to rival thefe great mailers.
May he not, in like manner, view the charms
of virtue, and of a moral conduct, without mak¬
ing one Angle effort to become a moralid, or a
virtuous man ?

I Ihould imagine it impoflible for any perfon,
poffeffed of the lead fenfibility, to read the cha*-
racter of Sir C. Grandifon, drawn with fo much
delicacy by Richardfon, and not admire and
approve, the elegance of manners and purity
of morals, with which he has adorned his hero.
But is it certain, that he will beflow more than
his approbation ? Will he entertain a fingl?
thought, of copying the amiable portrait? To
admire and reverence virtue, is a tribute extorted
even from vice. The mod profligate, and wicked
characters experience a fecret confcioufnefs, that
every preference is due to virtue j and are not
infenfible to her fuperior lovelinefs. But does
this fenfe operate on the mind, with fufficient
force, to influence, or to reclaim ? Video me-
liora proboque deteriora fequor , mud be the
language of every finner, whofe faculties are
not utterly depraved.

0.3

“ It

2jo Rev. Air. Hall's Inquiry concerning

“ It is a remarkable circumftance, fays Brown
in his EJfay on the Char aft erics ,* that, in the
decline of both the Greek and Roman ftates,
when religion had loft its credit and efficacy, this
very tafte, this ipecies of philofophy, ufurped its
place, and became the common ftudy and amufe-
ment both of the vile and vulgar.” Quintilian,
no doubt, had a view to this, in the following
paffiage. Nunc autem , qua vel ut propria philofophia
afferuntur, pajjim traftamus omnes. Shiis enim modo
de jufto, aequo, ac bono, non et virpeffimus loquitur ?

The truth feems to be, that a mere fenfe of
the beauty of virtue cannot operate, as a coercive
power ;t and, however the theory may pleafe
the reafoner in the fhade, when the paffions
ftagnate without impulfe, and the appetites are
fecluded from their objeCts, it will be of little
force, againft the ardor of defire, or the vehe¬
mence of rage; amidft the pleafures, or conflicts
of the world. To counteract the power of
temptations, hope muft be excited by the prof-
peCt of rewards, and fear, by the expectation of
punifhment. In a word, virtue may owe her
panegyric to a Plato, or a Shaftefbury, but muft
derive her efficacy and authority, from religion.

From what has been advanced, it appears to
me extremely evident, that, fuppofing tafte were

* Efiay II. Se£l. 10.

j- See 'the Preface to the Preceptor, by Dr. Johnfon.

con fide red.

231

_ the Influence of T ifte on Morals.

confidered, not only as connected with, but even
advanced to the rank of, the moral fenfe, its
influence on the heart would be too faint and
languid, to produce any moral effects. The
charms of virtue* may be feen with the eye of
fpeculation, without exciting in us a defire of
becoming virtuous; juft as an excellent picture,
or fine prol'pect, may afford us very confiderable
pleafure, and yet produce not a Angle v/ifh to
difpoffefs the owners, and to make them ours.
And though it may be fuppofed, that a fenfe of
the charms of virtue muft naturally give us a
prejudice in her favour; yet, Will this prejudice
be fufficient to keep us fteady to her interefts,
when Vice fteps forth, attired with every feduc-
tive ornament of tafte, that can win the affec¬
tions ; and engages the ftrongeft pafiions of the
heart, as advocates in her favour ?

But we are told, that “ tafte naturally
fweetens and harmonizes the temper, and re-
ftrains the turbulence of paftion, and violence
of purfuit.”f On this fuppofition, the beauty
of virtue may have confiderable effects 017

* “ Oar fenfe of beauty from objefts by which they 2re
conftituted good to us, is very diftinft from the defire of
them, when they are thus conftituted.”

Hutcheson’s Inquiry, &c.

Elements of Criticifm. Introduft. page 11.

Percival on a Talle for the Beauties of Nature.

3 mind.

2j2 Rev. Mr. Hall's Inquiry concerning

a mind, already difpofed, by calmnefs and com-
pofure, to yield to the gentlefl influence.

This reafoning will not eafily be fupported
by experience, and matter of faX. The con¬
nexion between genius and tafte is fo common,
that they may almoft be confidered, as infepara-
ble companions. Genius without tafte, would
be no better than frenzy : and tafte, without
genius, would be diftinguifhed for nothing, but
a lifelefs accuracy. But genius, it is generally
agreed, is united to a warm and inflammable
conftitution. “ If,” fays an eminent critic, “ the
imagination be lively, the paffions will be ftrong;
true genius feldom refides in a cold and phlegma¬
tic conftitution. The fame temperament, and the
fame fenfibility, that makes a poet or a painter,
will be apt to make a man a lover, and a
debauchee.”* Thefe propenfities of nature may
be reftrained by the diXates of real'on, and
efpecially, by the awful fanXions of religion ;
and thus, genius and virtue may unite, and adorn
the fame perfon. But in vain fhall we look for
thefe important effeXs, from the influence of
tafte. In vain (hall we expeX to find, that men
of genius and of tafte will be always diftin¬
guifhed, for the fweetnefs of their tempers, and
the purity of their morals. The irritability of

* Wartou’s Eflay on the Writings and Genius of Pope.

Vol. I. p. 105.
a Pope

the Influence of fafle on Morals. 233

a Pope, and a Gray ; and the voluptuoufnefs of
a Montague, and a Chesterfield, may be ad¬
duced as inftances, amongft numberlefs others,
of the truth of what has been advanced.

But we are further told, “ that a tade for the
beautiful fcenes of nature, not only compofes and,
harmonizes the temper, but difpofes the mind
to adds of piety and devotion, by raifing our
ideas from Nature, to Nature’s God.”* The
thought is pleafing, and ingenious ; but mud
not be admitted, without many exceptions. The
impreffions made by the beauties of nature, will
greatly depend on the paffions, the habits,
and the purfuits of the beholder. Let the
mufician take the (C wildly devious walk,” his
notice will probably be attrafted by the melody
of the grove, as mod nearly related to his
favourite art. The eye of the Painter will be
engaged, by the rich landfcape that lies before
him ; and his thoughts will be naturally turned to
the effedt which might be produced, by a lively
tranfcript on canvas, of fo pifturefque a fcene.
While the Poet, however ftruck by the grandeur
or elegance of furrounding objects, will, only
meditate, how they would “live in defcription,
and look green in fong.” It is the calm con¬
templative mind alone, influenced by religious
impreffions, that furveys this fair heritage, with

> Percival on a Tafte for the Beauties of Nature.

pious

% 34 Rev. Mr. Hall's Inquiry concerning

pious and grateful jentiments towards the a!P
mighty Creator. A mind thus happily dif-
pofed, in the animated language of Shakefpeare.

“ Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks.

Sermons in ftones, and good in every thing.”

I fhall now mention a few inftances, where
tafte feems to be productive of misfortune, and
immorality. We frequently fee a man of real
and acknowledge tafte, run into all the folly,
and extravagance of virtue Jt is not fufficient
for hiiTi, that he may be regaled with the pro¬
ductions of art and genius, in the pofllrflion of
another. A man of this unhappy uirn, feels 4
reftlefs defirp to call them his own. He is
perpetually in queft of fome new objeCt •, but
his unfortunate paftion grows more violent by
indulgence ; and, however a new acquifition
may gratify for the moment ; yet, in the end,
it becomes the fource of frefh difquiet. Thus^
like Pope’s Curio, who?

........ “ Reftlefs by his fair one’s fide.

Sighs for an Qtho, and negle&s his bride

He is perpetually haunted by the demon of
tafte; his mind becomes fretful, peevtfh, and
diftatisfied ; equally incapable of giving, or
receiving fatisfaCtion. But, fhould his circum¬
stances be contracted, the confequences are
dreadful indeed ! He involves his deareft con¬
nections in all the miferies of poverty.

“ The

the Influence of Tafle on Morals. 235

«* The bailiffs come, rude men, profanely bold,

And bid him turn his Venus into gold.

No Sirs 1” he cries, “ I’ll fooner rot in jail !

Shall Grecian arts be truck’d for Englilh bail ?

Such heads might make their very buftos laugh:

His daughter ftarves : but Cleopatra’s fafe.” *

Another is betrayed into a condud equally
ridiculous and fatal, by a take for the elegances
of life, and domeftic refinements. Fancy is
ever ready to fugged fome new plan to be
executed, or improvement to be made. The
houfe is capable of dill higher embellifhments ;
and the garden may be laid out, in a manner
more beautiful. He complies with the fuggedions
of his refined tade — involves himfelf in diffi¬
culties — and is at length ruined.

The malady of a third is, an exceffive and fickly
kind of delicacy. His feelings are fo nice, and
his ideas fo refined, that he is irritated and vexed
with every trifle. lie is not only affeded

- - - - - - - - - “ with quick difguft.

From things deform’d, or (Jffarranged, or grofs

In fpecies.” j-

Even thofe objeds, which to others afford very
confiderable pleafure, are feen by him, with a
joylefs indifference. But, indeed, almod every
avenue to enjoyment is ffrnt up, by this unhappy

* Young’s Satires.

f Akenfide’s Pleafures of Imagination.

difeafe.

Rev. Air. Hall's Inquiry concerning

difeafe. Yet he nurfes it with the greateft
afliduity j fancies himfelf formed of nature’s
finefl clay ; and looks with contempt, on the
coarfe delights of his fellow-creatures. By de¬
grees, he becomes unfit for the common duties
of life, and is cut off from the bleffings, and
advantages of focial intercourfe.

But we need not appeal to a few inftances of
individuals. The prevailing manners of whole
nations may be brought in proof, that tafte has
no influence favourable to virtue. It is fcarcely
neceffary to remark, that Athens was once the
feat of learning, tafte, and refinement. The
liberal arts were cultivated with the greateft care
and attention, and rofe to a pitch of perfection,
which has been generally imitated, but never
excelled. A tafte for elegance was fo univerfally
diffufed among all ranks of people, that even
a herb-woman, we are told, could deteCt a very
fmall deviation from propriety of lpeech.* Tafte
could not pofiibly have a fairer, field, wherein to
difplay its natural effeCts. But the hiftory f
of thofe times, and the moral leCtures of Socrates,
fufficiently evince, that the Athenians were a
people, addicted to every kind of fenfual plea-
fure : at once, refined and voluptuous, licen¬
tious and effeminate.

* Xenoph. Memorab. paffim.
f Rollin’s Antient Hiftory, vol. IV.

When

the Influence of Tafle on Morals l £37

When a tafte for the liberal arts was introduced
among the Romans, with the rich fpoils of
Grecian elegance and ingenuity, can we difcover
in the hiftory of that wonderful people, a con-
fequent improvement in the habits of virtue?
You will fay, perhaps, their rugged tempers
were foftened, and their auftere manners refined.
But refinement is often remote from virtue ; and
external graces unconnedted with internal beau¬
ties. It is true, they improved in all the ele¬
gances of life; but it is equally true, that their
native vigour degenerated, into unmanly floth ;
and the Amor P atria , which had carried the
Roman name fo high, was fucceeded by a mean
and abjedl felfiftmefs*. Cato feems to have been
well aware, that a tafte for the enervating arts of
Greece, would be productive of thefe mifchiev-
ous effedls-f ; and endeavoured by every means in
his power, to ward off the threatened evil. But
in vain was every remonftrance. A rage for the
beautiful produdtions of genius univerfally pre¬
vailed, and bore down all oppofition. And we
find the latter Cato, in one of his fpeeches re¬
corded by Salloft, reproaching his countrymen,
in the following warm expreffions : Per Deos
immortelles , vos ego appsllo : qui Jenifer Domos,

* Gxaecia capta ferum vi£lorem cepit.

Hoft. Epif. Lib. II.
f Liv. Lib. 34. C. 4.

Villas ,

Rev. Mr. Hall's Inquiry concerning

Villas , Signay labulas vejlras , ^>/«m quam rm-
fublicam fccijlis *.

Let me now call your attention to a much
later period of hiftory, when talle revived, in the
fifteenth century, after a long and gloomy night
of Gothic ignorance and barbarity. Foftered
by the favour and liberality of the princes of the
Medici family, literature and the arts made &
rapid progrefs. But it does not appear, that
moral duties made equal advances, or were more
generally cultivated. Obfcrve, in what unfavour¬
able colours,' the characters of thefe Medici, the
great patrons of genius and learning, are drawn
by Lord Orrery, in his Letters from Italy ,
tc Iff fays he, “ you take a view of the princes
of the Medici, in a group, you will feel reve¬
rence and refpeCt, at one part of the picture,
and be ftruck with horror and amazement, at
the remainder. To revere and honour them,
you mull confider their generofity, their bene¬
factions to men of learning, their policy, and
fcientific initiations. To view them with
horror and amazement, you need only liften
to the undoubted outrages of their private
lives j by which you will be convinced, that
few or none of the whole race were endued
with the fofter paffions of the human foul.
I wifh, that in many of their group, their love

* Salluft. Bell. Catilinar,

was

the Influence of tafle on Morals. 239

was not luft ; their good nature, oftentation ; their
dignity, pride; and their fenfe, cunning.”

From thefe, and numberlefs inftances of refined
depravity, which modern times will furniffi, one
might almoft be tempted to conclude, that the
effeCts of tafte are fo far from being favourable
to virtue, that they have rather a pernicious ten¬
dency. But I mean not to bring fuch a heavy
charge againft a faculty, which, connected with
reafon and religion, will, doubtlefs, enlarge the
fphere of our innocent enjoyments. I wifh only
to difprove the affirmative of the propofition,
and fhew, that tafte cannot reafonably be con-
fidered as a moral principle of action : that, un-
affifted by reafon and good fenfe, it becomes fub-
fervient to the purpofes of folly and extravagance;
and that, connected with a bafe and fenfual heart,
it unhappily ferves to embellifh guilt, and glofs
over the deformity of vice.

Let tafte, however, be cultivated, as thefource
of many elegant pleafures : but let it ever be
cultivated, in fubordination to found morality.
Tafte can ill fupply the want of moral difeipline.
Where there is no fuperior principle, to check,
the aflaults of an alluring temptation, the heart
muft fall an eafy prey. A truly virtuous cha¬
racter, fet off by a juft tafte, is not only engag¬
ing, but even beneficial to mankind : while, on
the contrary, a vicious character, however dif-
tinguilhed for tafte and elegance, becomes only,

the

240 Dr. Eafon on the XJJe of Acids .

the more finifhed hypocrite, or the more exqui-
fite voluptuary. In a word, let virtue form the
bafe and the fhaft of the column ; and I have
not the leaft obje&ion, that tafte fhould furniih
the foliage, and ornament the capital.

Observations on the Use of Acids in bleach¬
ing of Linen. By Dr. Eason. Read Auguft 7,
1782.

THE ufe of acids, in bleaching of linen, has
been long known. Formerly milk was
chiefly employed ; but it had feveral incon¬
veniences. The quantity requifite could fcarcely
be obtained ; its effect was flow; and, contain¬
ing animal matter, it was apt to rot and fpoil the
cloth.

About thirty years ago, it was difcovered, that
the folfil acids, when properly diluted with water,
anfwered much better, and would do more in
a few hours, than animal acids could do in a
week, in facilitating the whitening of cloth.

At firft, it was imagined, that the mineral
acids would be apt to burn, or corrode linen fub-
ftances, when immerfed in them. But experi¬
ence foon difpelled fuch fears, and convinced

bleachers.

in bleaching Linen . 241

bleachers, that, by proper management, the dan¬
ger was next to none.

According to the ftrength of the acids they
muft be mixed with water, fometimes, to feven
hundred times their bulk.

The nitrous acid, being the moft corrofive,.
and moft expenfive, has not been ufed.

The vitriolic acid is that which has univer-
fally been employed : not becaufe it is prefer¬
able to the muriatic acid, but becaufe it was to
be bought in large quantities, and at a fmall
expence.

The muriatic acid being now fold nearly as
cheap as the vitriolic, and anfwering in a fupe-
rior degree, will, in a fhorc time, I. am convinced,
be generally adopted by bleachers.

As 1 muft confefs my ignorance in the art of
bleaching, it may feem prefumptuous in me to
hazard a conje&ure concerning the manner in
which acids a£t in whitening cloth j but it feems
probable, that alkaline falts, which are ufed in
walking out the oil and glutinous parts of flax,
on which the green colour depends, depofite an
earth, in the pores of the cloth. As it is known
that acids will alfo diflfolve the earthy parts of ve¬
getables, that acid Ihould be preferred, which will
keep earthy particles fufpended in water. The
vitriolic, therefore, is not fo proper j becaufe, with
earthy fubftances, it forms immediately a felenite;

Vol. I. R a fub-

242 Dr. Eajon on the Ufe of Acids , ifc.

a fubftance only foluble, in a very large quan¬
tity of water This felenitic matter, adhering
to the threads of the cloth, will injure it, and
make it feel hard to the touch, and probably
is the reafon, why fome linens wear fo badly.

When the muriatic acid is ufed, no felenite is
formed. Whatever quantity of -earthy matter is
difiolved by it, is eafily wafhed out by pure foft
water, and the cloth having a foft filky feel
feems to ftrengthen this conjefture.

As the muriatic acid is now fold at three-pence
per pound, and the common vitriolic acid at
four-pence halfpenny, and as the muriatic acid
will, in proportion, acidulate a larger quantity
of water than the vitriolic, befides the great
probability of its anfwering better in whitening
of cloth, the bleachers in this part of the world
would do well to give it a fair trial.

Conjectural

Dr, Wall on the UJe of Symbols.

243

Conjectural Remarks on the Symbols or Charac¬
ters, employed by Astronomers* to reprefent
the fever al Planets, and by the Chemists, to
exprefs the feveral Metals, in a Letter to
Thomas Percival, M. D. F. R. S. &c. By
Martin Wall, M. D. Pra.leClor of Chemiftry
in the JJniverfity of Oxford. Read October 9, 1782.

S I R,

I AM extremely apprehenfive, left the following
obfervations, as relating to a fiibjeCt more
fpeculative than ufeful, may be thought unwor¬
thy of the attention of your very refpeCtable
Society ; yet, defirous to ftiew my juft fenfe of
the compliment, which you have paid me, by
propofing me as an honorary member, I advance
them with great deference, hoping you will fup-
prefs them entirely, if they fhould not meet the
approbation of your correCt judgment.

Whoever engages in the ftudy of Chemiftry,
cannot but remark, with fome degree of curiofity,
how extenfively the ufe of fymbols or characters
has prevailed in this fcience; and is naturally
led to enquire, from whence this practice origi¬
nated, and whether the characters ufcd arc
merely arbitrary, or have any relation, real or

R 2 imaginary,

244 &r‘ Watt on the Ufe of Symbols .

imaginary, to the fubftances which they are
employed to reprefent- That many of them are
entirely arbitrary, is commonly fuppofed by
thofe, whofe knowledge of chemical authors is
only flight and fuperficialj but the enthufiafm
of a few, whofe reading has been more extenfive,
fuggefts a different idea- Every character is, by
thefe, conceived to convey an accurate defcription
of the qualities of the fubffance, which it repre-
fents. It is hardly neceffary to obferve, that
this opinion is not indireftly fupported by
Boerhaave , and his commentator Shaw* : and Dr.
Price f in his account of his extraordinary expe¬
riments on mercury, filver and gold, afferts, that
the ancient chemifts either knew or believed, that
the imperfect metals had a faline principle, which
they denoted by a crofs attached to their cha¬
racters. It is impoffible, perhaps, to advance
very far in our enquiries into this fubjeft ; yet
fome little light may be thrown upon it, by a
due attention to thofe characters, which are above
alluded to, thofe by which the metals are re-
prefented. And firft, it cannot but appear very
ftriking, that the fymbols employed to reprefent
the feven metals, which alone were known in
the earlier ages, are the fame, as thofe which
were applied by the firft aftronomers, to denote
the feven planets. The chemifts have, in gene-

* Shaves Boerhaave, vol. I, p. 68.

■J- Price's "Experiments on Mercury, Sec. Preface, p. ir.

ral.

Dr. JVall on the Ufe of Symbols. 245

ral, arrogated to themfelves the prior right to
thefe chara&ers, upon the pretence, that they
point out mod accurately the various qualities of
the metals ■, whereas, to the planets they have no
kind of relation. Yet, notwithftanding the plau-
Ability of their arguments, I am inclined to
entertain a contrary opinion, and to believe that
the pretenfions of the Aftronomers have a better
foundation.

Aftronomy was cultivated in all the oriental
nations, particularly in iEgypt, Phoenicia and
Chaldea, in the very earlieft ages, of which we
have any record. Not only the uniform appear¬
ances of the fixed ftars, but even the more
irregular movements and revolutions of the
planets, and the peculiar circumftances of colour
and fplendour, by which they are diftinguifhed
from each other, were accurately marked and
obferved.

In the fame period of time, the opinion of
polytheifm had been gradually difleminated :
and it was extremely natural, that thofe fplendid
bodies rolling apparently above the earth, in the
immenfity of fpace, by fuch determined laws,
Ihould be confidered as the habitations of the
immortal beings, by whofe immediate influence
and fuperintendence the affairs of the world were
conduced.

Having premifed this, let us now, for the far¬
ther inveftigation of this fubjedV, pay a particular

R 3 attention

246 Dr. Wall on the UJe of Symbols.

attention to the Mythology of iEgypt, which
opens an important fund of information, with
refpeCt to the hiftory of religion and fcience, in
thofe early periods : but we mud not expe<51 to
find the path free from obfcurity and difficulty.

In that country, the hieroglyphic mode of wri¬
ting was ufed in the greateft extent, and was con¬
nected not only with the fciences, but even with
religion. By this learned people a circle was
employed to denote perfection, and particularly
the infinite perfection of the Supreme Being,
their Ofiris , whofe refidence they conceived to
be in the great luminary of the day, from whence
he diflributed the bleffings of light and heat,
to animate the univerfe. Hence, by a very eafy
and obvious application, a circle came alfo to be
employed, as the hieroglyphic of the fun.

The form of the crefcent moon naturally
pointed out the fymbol, by which ffie has always
been reprefented : nor was this planet deftitute
of a divine inhabitant ; but was fuppofed to be
the palace of the Queen of Heaven, the wife of
Ofiris, the common mother of mankind. *

* - - - Imitataque Lunajn

Cornua fulferunt - - -

Says Ovid of the ./Egyptian Iiis. Met. Lib. IX. 782.

That, the idea of the wife of the Supreme Being prefiding
over the moon, was afterward introduced into Greece,
appears from a beautiful Medallion of the Samian Juno in
Mr. Bryant, vol. II. PI. 12.

To

\ I

Dr. Wall on the Ufe of Symbols. 2 47

To explain the remainder of the adronomical
fymbols, upon the fame principle, it is neceffary
previoufly to remark, that polytheifm in its pu-
red form, is nothing more than the deification of
particular attributes of the Supreme Eeing, ari-
fing from the infirmity of human nature, unequal
to the comprehenfion of one all perfedt Being.
Hence we are not furprized to find, that the two
planets didinguifbed by a fplendor, next to that
of the fun and moon, were alfo fuppofed to be
inhabited bv, or at lead confecrated to the fer-
vice of the two chief Deities, under a different
form and name.

One of thefe planets is known by the title of
Jupiter, and probably derived both its appel¬
lation and its fymbol, from that part of the
./Egyptian mythology, which afferted, that when
the gods, in the war with the giants, fled from
the wrath of Typhor into /Egypt, they concealed
themlelves in the fhapes of various beads, under
which they were afterwards worfhipped, and
particularly Jupiter under that of a ram, at the
celebrated Libyan Temole of Jupiter Hammon.
To this circumdance Lucan alludes, in his def-
fcription fif the march of Cato through the wilds
of Africa ;* and Ovid, more didin&ly, in his ac-

• Ventum erat ad Templum, Libycis quod Gentibus unura
Jnculti Garamantes habent : ftat certior illic
Jupiter, ut niemoraru, led non aut Fulmina vibrans,

Aut fimilis noftro, fed tortis Cornibus, Hammon.

Lue. Pharf. L. IX. 511.

R count

248 Dr. Wall on the UJe of Symbols .

count of the wars of the Gods.* This image of
Jupiter was not confined folely to the Libyan
temple, as we find from lome paflages in Hero¬
dotus,! and many remains of ^Egyptian fuper-
perftition which are (fill preferved.! As Jupiter,
therefore, was fo frequently worfhipped under
the form of a ram, or a figure with a ram’s head,
or at lead wearing the horns of a ram, it is not
improbable, that the fymbol of this planet was
taken from thefe images. It might originally
be the perfedl head of a ram, or only one horn.
The crofs annexed to it (fee fig. 1. in the ■plate)
may be an imperfedt remainder of the outline of
the head of the ram, or with more probability
we may imagine, that it was originally annexe4

* Bella canit fuperum : falfoque in Honore Gigantas
Ponit, et extenuat magnorum Fa£ta Deoruxn,
EmifTumque ima de fede Typhoea terrse
Caelitibus feciffe metum, cundtofq dediffe
Terga fugae : donee feffos Aigyptia tellus
Ceperit, & feptem diferetus in Oftia Nilus.

Hue quoque terrigenam venifle Typhoea narrat,

Et fe mentitis fuperos celafie figuris :

Duxque gregis, dixit, fit Jupiter; unde recurvis
Nunc quoque formatus Libys eft cum Cornibus Hammon.

Ovid. Met. V. 319.

f Herod. Euterp. 42.

t See a beautiful engraving from a Medallian, repre-
fenting Helius Serepis in Mr. Bryant’s Mythology, vol. II.
PI. 1 2. and fix prefentations of Jupiter Hammon in Mont-
fauccn’s Antiquities, PI. 14. Tom. I.

to

Dr. Wall on the Ufe of Symbols . 249

to convey fome particular information, and was
afterwards retained in the figure, though the
intention of its firfb application was forgotten.

The ^Egyptians, we are told,* expreffed the
different ftages of the inundation of the Nile,
by expofing columns or poles, with one or more
croffes upon them : and this crofs was fometimes
connected with other fymbols, to denote fome
other, circumftance, either of the feafon or fitu-
ation of the planets, which concurred with the
inundation. Hence, we fee it annexed, not only
to this fymbol of Jupiter, but alfo to that of
Venus, Saturn, and Mercury.

As Jupiter was reprefented under this form,
it became common in after-times for great
princes, who wifhed to be confidered as his de¬
fendants, or whofe ambition led them to afpire
to deification, to affume the fame mark of dif-
tin&ion in their medals and ftatues, as we fee
frequently in thofe of Alexander the Great, and
his fuccefibrs, particularly the Seleucids and
the Ptolemies. Hence to it was adopted by
Marc Anthony, when his extravagant attachment
to the ^Egyptian Queen prevailed upon him, to
relinquifh the Roman drefs and manners, and
to affume the habits and infignia of honour, ufed
by the eaflern nations, f As this pra&ice pre-

* L’Hiftoire du Ciel par V Abbe Pluche, Ch. I. §. 8.

t Cpokt r’s Medallic Hiltory of Imperial Rome, vol. I.
ri- 7* F'g- I h lz> 16.

vailed

2 jo Dr. Wall on the VJe of Symbols.

vailed very extenfively in the eaff, may not thofe
metaphorical expreffions, relative to temporal
greatnefs and dignity, fo frequently occurring
in the oriental languages, and in the Sacred
Scriptures, have been derived from thence, viz.
‘thou hajl lifted up my horn ; my horn fhall be exalted
&c. &c. &c. &c ?

That brilliant planet, which we call Venusy was
alfo confidered by the .ZEgptians, as facred to the
Queen of Heaven, who, by them, was known by
the name of Ifis, and in different countries by al-
moft innumerable different appellations. It would
lead me very far into the depths of mythology, to
prove that the Goddefs, intended by all thefe ap¬
pellations, was the fime, and that the lfis of the
/Egyptians was the Venus of the Greeks and Ro¬
mans. * To thofe who are converfant with ftudies
of this nature, hardly any proof is neceffary.
Accordingly, it may be fuppofed, that the aftro-
nomers affumed, as the Tymb'd of this planet, the
Sijlrum of Ifis, which we are told by antiquarians, f
was a fmall oblong circle of metal, croffed by
iron rods, with a handle (as in fig. 2. of the plate)
by which it might be held j and that it was ule4

* See tylovlfauectfs Anfiq. Part If. B. II. Ch. 2. and
L' Abbe Pluche Hill, des Ciels. Ch. II. §. 3, 11, 12, 13,

14, 15.

■)• See Mcntfauccn s Ant. Tom. II. p. 287. & Abbe
Fluehe Hill, des Ciels, &c. Ch. II. §; 3. PI. 17.

at

Dr. Wall on the XJJe of Symbols. 25 1

at feafts, to point out, by exaft cadences, the
movements of the fongs and dances. There
might be, therefore, a peculiar propriety in af-
fuming this inftrument, as the fymbol of that
planet, which was fuppofed to be peculiarly fa¬
voured by the relidence of the Goddefs of mirth
and love; and fo often appears in its greateft
fplendour and beauty, in thofe evening hours,
when the heat, the hurry and labours of the day,
give place to coolnefs, tranquillity and peace, or
to mirth and joy, the fongand the dance*.

The

* The Roman Poets have many beautiful allufions to the
pleafures which attend the rifing of the evening Jiar.

- - - - Cum frigidus aera Vefper

Temperat, & Saltus reficit jam rofcida Luna,

Littoraque ; halcyonem refonant, & acanthida dumb

Virg. G. III. 336.

Venerif<iu,e falubre Sidus. Lucan Pharf Lib. I. 66 1.

Vefper adeft, Juvenes, confurgite ; Vefper Olympo

Expe&ata diu vix tandem Lumina tollit ;

Surgere jam tempus. Catulli Caren Nupt. I.

Hefpere, qui Cado lucet jucundior Ignis?

Qui defponfa tuafirmes connubia flamma

Qus pepigere Viri, pepigerunt ante Parentes,

Nec junxere prius, quam fe tuus extulit ardor.

Quid datur a Divis felici optatius Hora. Id. V. 24.

It is well known that this planet is often a morning liar,
yirgil has given a charming defcription of her rifing in this
ftation, and has taken particular pains to point her out, as
the favourite of the goddefs Venus.

Qualis

252 Dr. Wall on the life of Symbols.

The flow movement of that planet, which is
called Saturn> would naturally fugged, that he
was under the patronage of fome Deity, didin-
guilhed by fuperior gravity and wifdom •, and
thence it was fuppofed to be the rendence of
the mod ancient of the Gods, or time itfelf.
Hence, as its fymbol, they afiumed the fey the,
or the fickle, the particular attribute of that
Deity. (See fig. 3. in the drawing). He is ex-
prefsly called by Ovid, Falcifer Dens, (Fador, lib,
I. 233.) and Juvenal fays that he afiumed the
fickle, when he was deprived of the imperial
crown, by his fon Jupiter*

.... - - - - - - - - prinfquam

Sumferit agreftem, pofito Diademate, falcem
Saturnus fugiens. Ju-v. Sat. XIII. 38.

Hence he is commonly reprefented in medals
and datues, holding an indrument of this kind
in his hand *.

c

The red fiery appearance of the planet Mars>
particularly, when he is in his mod perfect

Quails ubi Oceani perfufus Lucifer unda,

Quem Venus ante alios aftrorum diligit ignes,

Extulitos facrum Cado, tenebrafque refolvit.

Virg. JEn. VIII. 589.

* See Montfaucon, Tom. I. PI. 5. Fig. 1. and Bryant's
Mythology, vol. II. p. 259,

oppofition

Dr. Wall on the Vfeof Symbols 253

oppofition to the fun, and at the fame time in
his perigeon,* might lead the early afironomers
to confider that planet as the refidence of the
God of war. Hence we need not be folicitouy
to feek for authorities, from ancient hiftory or
poetry, to explain the fymbol of this planet,
which is obvioufly borrowed from two of the
chief inftruments of war, the fpear and the
fhield, (fee fig. 4. in the plate.) It is worthy
of remark, that we are told by Varro , that the
Romans worfhipped Mars under the fimple re¬
presentation of a fpear, before they had any
ftatuesor images of their Gods-f*.

The rapid revolution and movements of the
planet known by the name of Mercury , J more
particularly as he never moves, but a fmall

* It is not impoflible that Lucan , in the following paflage,
alluded to this fplendid appearance of Mars, when thefe
circumftances occur in its revolution, where he defcribes it
as reigning alone in the Heavens, giving dreadful omens
of the calamities impending over the Roman ftate.

- - -Tu, qui flagrante minacem

Scorpion incendis cauda, chelafque peruris.

Quid tantum, Gradive, paras? nam mitis in alto
Jupiter occafu premitur, Venerifque falubre
Sidus hebet, motuque celer Cyllenius haeret,

Et Caelum Mars folus habet ---------

Imminet armorum rabies, ferrique poteftas
Confundet jas omne. Luc. Pharf. Lib. I. 658.

f See Montfaucon , Tom. I. B. III. p. 125.

; Cyllenius celer. Lucan utfupra.

difiance

2 $ 4 /Tir// on the Ufe of Symbols.

difirance from the fun, and returns quickly,
if engaged in the immediate execution of his
commands, might lead the firft aftronomers to
fuppofe, that this planet was facred to the Deity,
whom their mythology had made the fervant,
officer or meffenger of the Gods; and, therefore,
as its fymbol, they chofe the Caduceus the ftaff of
office, which that Deity was fuppofed to bear,
(fee fig. 5. in the plate.)

If this attempt, to explain the origin of thefe
fymbols, be admitted as plaufible, the credit
of their invention, and their firft application
mult be afcribed to aftronomy. But a greater
difficulty now arifes, to point out, by what
principles the chemifts were led to appropriate
them to their art ; an undertaking much more
perplexed, and, which my attempts to ill uftrate,
will require all the indulgence and favour of
this learned Society. I give up entirely their
pretenfions to the invention of thefe characters,
and, therefore, ffiall not pay any attention here
to the attempts, which Boerhaave and others have
made to explain them ; but ffiall proceed upon
a quite different plan.

The peculiar fplendour of the fun and moon
had without doubt been long noticed ; and long
before the introduction of chemical fcience, the
language of poetry (and in the earlieft ages al-
moft all language was poetical, that is, figurative)
had difcriminated that of the former by epithets,

borrowed

Dr. Wall on the Ufe of Symbols: 25 £

borrowed from the analogous fplendour and co¬
lour of gold ; and that of the latter, by thofe
borrowed, from the purer white luftre of the moon.
A few inftances, out of many, of their metaphori¬
cal mode of expreffion, are inferted in the margin*.
The frequent ufe of thefe epithets might eafily
lead an enthufiaftic mind to conceive, that a real
analogy and correfpondence fubfilled, between
thefe planets and the metals. This opinion to a
ftrong and fertile imagination (improved too by
the aftrological notions, which might at the fame
time prevail, concerning the real or virtual emana¬
tions of the planets) might feem to receive con¬
firmation, from innumerable circumftances, and
ultimately fuggeft the employment of the fame
fymbolical characters for the metals, which had
before been appropriated to the planets. Hence

* Aurati Solis radii. Virg. jEn. XII. 164.

Solis aurata corona. Statii Thab. III. 414.

Sol auricomus. Val Flace IV. 95.

Aureus axis erat, temo aureus, aurea fummae

Curvatura rotae, fays Ovid in his defcription of the
chariot of the fun. Metam. Lib. II. 107.

Clara mi cante auro — of the palace of the fun. Id. line 2.

Sol aureus. Virg. G. I. 232 — G. IV. 50.

Niveos Luna levarit equos. Ov. Fall. IV. 374.

Nec Candida curfum Luna negat. Virg. JEn. VII. 8.

Faveas; Dea Candida, dixi.

Ovid Epill. Leander Heroni LXI#

Fulges radiis argentea puris. Id. LXXI.

gold

2'6 Dr. Wall on the Ufe of Symhots.

gold came to be typified, by the circle of the fun,
and filver by the crefcent of the moon. The
number of the metals, at that time known, agree¬
ing exaCtly with the number of planets, would
lead to an extenfion of this analogy to the whole*
and every metal would eafily be found, or fuppofed
to have a relation to one or other of the feven
planets, and receive as its mark the aftronomical
character of that planet. Some circumftances,
which might give a foundation for thefe fuppofi-
tions, fhall now be enumerated. Copper was found,
principally, or in the mod confiderable quantities,
in the ifland of Cyprus, and the manufacture of
brafs was not only invented there, but carried to a
degree of perfection unknown in other countries*
infomuch that we are informed by Pliny,* that
either the metal derived its name from the ifland,
or the ifland from the metal. As this ifland
was fuppofed to be under the immediate domi¬
nion of Venus, f an obvious connection was dif«

* Nat. Hilt. Lib. XXXIV. 2.

■}• K-wpos PiK? uvyoti; IvJoflt xoAwk

K*v£T, E7r»!ga1o» c&fv A 'AQpohrn ?.

Cyprus autem ortum verfus Pamphylium intra finum
Albuitur, amabilis Urbs Dioneas Veneris.

Well's Dionjfius, 1 24O.
Ipfa Paphum fublimis abit, fedefque revifit
Lastafuas: ubi Templum illi, centumque fabso
Thurecalent arse, fertifque recentibus halant.

Virg. ^En. I. 419.

covered

Dr. Wall on the Ufe of Symbols', 237

covered, which juftified the application of the
fytnbol of the planet to the metal.

The Ufe of Iron3 in framing the inftruments of
war, prefents fo ftriking a relation, between this
metal and the God Mars, that we need not won¬
der, that the fymbol of that planet was applied
to difbinguifh iron.

The mobility and unfixable nature of the me¬
tallic fluid ghiickfilver , was naturally, by minds
thus difpofed to form analogies, compared with
the rapid movements of the planet Mercury, and
accordingly, the fymbol of the planet was appro¬
priated to the metal.

On the other hand, the flow motion of Saturn,
the coldnefs of his fituation, fo far removed from
the Sun, * and his dull afpedl, which obtained
him the epithets of frigida , gelida , rigens f
prefented a fufikient refemblance to the obvious,
as well as the medicinal qualities of Lead , to
countenance the fuppofition of a relation be¬
tween the metal and the planet, and to autho¬
rize the application of the fymbol of Saturn to
lead.

* Hence Lucan ,

- . Summo fi frigida Cxlo

Stella nocens nigros Saturni accenderit Ignes.

Pharfal. B. I. 651.

f Plinii Nat. Hill. L. II. C. 6,

s

VOL. I

The

<l$% Dr. Wall on the VJe of Symbols *

The analogy being extended thus far, without
any great violence, the remaining fymbol of
Jupiter was applied to Tin , for which, the bright
i'plendour of the planet and of the metal, might
feem to give a plaufible reafon. *

This metal was not found in any of the coun-
tries of the ancient world, which were com¬
monly known, and eafy of accefs. It was im¬
ported by the Phoenicians from fome of thofe
regions, with which they traded in their voyages
beyond the Pillars of Plercules ; particularly, it
was faid to be brought from fome iflands, which
were called Caffiterides . Whether the metal re¬
ceived the appellation of Cajfileron , (or CaJfiterost
as Homer calls it) from thefe iflands, or they
were fo called from the metal, is uncertain j nor
is it lefs uncertain, what thefe iflands were, and
where they were fituated. Some place them on
the weftern coafts of Spain, Portugal, or Africa :
others fuppofe them to have been, the Scilly
iflands near the Land’s end, in Cornwall.t It is

not,

* It may be remarked, that Homer gives to Tin the fame
epithet (pxtiy 05, which he frequently ufes, to exprefs the
bright fplendour of the moon, and planets. Iliad 4/361.

f In Wells's edition of Dionyjius ’ Geography, it is pofi-
tively alferted, that the Caffiterides were fituated near the
Land’s end in Cornwall, and that they had their name
from the Greek word Kxcrmlsfoy, tin, which they pro¬
duced in great plenty. (Dionyf.i Geograph, par Wells.)

Borlafe

Dr. Wall on the Ufe of Symbols. 259

not, therefore, impofiible, that the Phoenician
Navigators, who were always remarkably fecret
concerning the country from whence they ob~
tained their tin, * might infinuate, that this
metal was difcovered to them by the Deity,
who prefided over the fea, (not the Neptune of
the Greeks and Romans, but the more ancient
Oceanus, who was, in Egypt, Phoenicia, and
even Greece, in its earlieft periods, confounded
with the Supreme Being.)f

May I therefore be allowed to conjecture, that
there was a prevailing tradition, that Tin was
difcovered to the Phoenicians by Jupiter himfelf ?

Bcrlafe admits the truth of this pofition in general,
but infinuates, that, probably, the name was derived from
a Phoenician word of fimilar found and import.

Borla/e, Antiquities of Cornwall, Ch. VII.

* See fome remarkable inftances of this difpofition in
Bcrlafe' s Antiquities, Ch. VII.'

f Some of the ancient Greek writers exprefsly call
Oceanus by the titles of the Supreme Being. We have
in Homer the following expreffions :

'Slx.ta.vis, cPTrcp ytvtan; ir&thirct reruxlat

Oceani, qui quidem Parens omnibus eft.

Horn. Iliad. XIV. 246.

Slxeatovrt Qusv ytttrtt. Id. V. 200.

Oceanumque Deorum Parentem.

And Plutarch, in his Ifis and Ofiris, fays direftly
" 'Slxtavov OcrtptS'z, that Ofiris and Oceanus were the fame.’*
See further in Bryant’s Account of Noah. V. II. 269.

S 2

If

a6o Dr. Watt on the Ufe of Symbols.

If it were poftible to prove, that any traces of
fuch an opinion as this fubfifted at the time
when the Alchemical doftrines began to be pre¬
valent, we fhould not be at a lofs to determine,
whyTin was honoured with the fymbol of Jupiter.
But on this point, I have no other fupport than
mere conjefture, which I fubmit, with the reft of
the Differtation, to the candour of the Society,
hoping they will not mark with the feverity of
critical accuracy or cenfure, my endeavours to
deferve the honour of becoming one of their
members. Before I conclude, allow me to
mention, that in the above differtation, though
I might frequently have drawn my llluftrations
from° the Greek authors, I have principally con¬
fined myfelf to the Roman, and thofe the moft
common and familiar, as fuppofing thefe were
moft likely to be known, if any were known,
to the Alchemical authors, who firft transferred
to the metals the ancient aftronomical charafters
of the planets.

I am, dear Sir,

« With great Refpeft,

Your fincere Friend

and obedient Servant,

M. WALL.

Remarks

Dr. Falconer's Remarks on the , &c. 26 1

Remarks on the Knowledge of the Ancients,
By William Falconer, M. D. F. R. S.
Communicated by Dr. Percival. Read October 16,
1782.

r B ■ H E fuperiority of the Moderns over the
Ancients, in mod branches of Natural
Philofophy, is generally received as an acknow¬
ledged truth, and is, probably, well founded,
Neverthelefs, I am inclined to think, that the
ignorance of the ancients has been over-rated,
and, that feveral things were known to them,
ac lead as fadls, and matters of obfervation,
which are not apprehended to be fo, by the
generality of people. Much learning and induf-
try has been bellowed on this fubjedt, by the
Rev. Mr. Dutens, in his very ingenious Inquiry
into the Origin of the Difcoveries attributed
to the Moderns, to which I beg leave to add
a few remarks, that have occurred to me in the
courfe of reading. And

I. I believe it is efteemed to be an origi¬
nal difeovery of Dr. Black, That water which
had been boiled was more eafily frozen, than
water that had not undergone that operation.

S 3 But,

*6 2 Dr. Falconers Remarks on the

But, That water which had been heated, was
by that means rendered eafier to be cooled, was
well known to the ancients.

Ariftotle obferves. That water freezes the
fooner for having been before heated ; and, that
this fad was even known to fome barbarous
people upon the Euxine Sea, who made ufe of
Ice as a kind of cement for their huts; and that the
water frozen for this purpofe, was firft heated, in
order* that it might concrete the fooner.” Pliny f
alfo mentions it as a difcovery of Nero, to boil
the water that was intended to be frozen', as that
haftened its concretion.

Athenaeus J alfo remarks, fC that in the Ifle Ce-
molus they placed water in their Refrigeratories
which had been heated by the rays of the fun, and,
that they reproved their fervants, if the water
they provided for freezing was not previoufly
heated.”

There is to this purpofe, a curious paffage
in Hippocrates, in the fixth book and fourth fec-
tion of the Epidemics ; which, though I am
unable to clear up, I think has fome reference
to this fubjed. The words are as follows.

to //.ev a; top asp a, to »i /*>? ta7r?.iosi

tititi, xa* ewsSnopa

• Ariftot. Meteorol. L. I. Cap. 12. w

+ Plinii Hilt. Nat. L. XXXI. Cap. 3.

J Athens;!. Lib. III. p. 123. 124. Edit. Cafaubon.

This

Knowledge of the Ancients, 263

This direction is relative to the preparation
of the water, to be drank by the patient, which
is ordered to be, fuch as has been boiled ; and
part of the preparation was performed, with the
water expofed to the air, and part, with the veflel
clofed up. *

The fir ft, referred to the boiling or heating
the water, and the latter, to the cooling of it;
as I fuppole, it was boiled, to throw out or expel
the air, and then doled up, that it might not
recover it again when cooling, which would
have retarded its refrigeration, according to the
modern theory. Galen, though he does not
explain the meaning quite in the f fame manner
as I have done, imagines, that Hippocrates al¬
ludes to the boiling of water, that was afterwards
to be drank cold, as, in the fentencejuft preceding
the former, cold things had been recommended.
Galen accounts for the obfeurity of this paflage,
by informing us, that thefe works of Hippocrates
were not written for publication, but as private
notes to aftift the memory,

* When water is boiled, car# fhould be taken that air
fhould be allowed ad million to the veffel, that the veffel be
not quite full, and that it have a cover, Farr’s Tranfl.

f Galen, however, feems to think, that the water was
to be boiled in an open velTel, and, when let down into
{he Refrigeratory, to be clofed up, fo as to exclude all air.

yialen Comm, in Lib. VI. §. 4. Epidetn. Hippocr.

S 4 Qaleq

264 Dr. Falconer's Remarks on the

Galen himfelf was perfonally well acquainted
with this effedt of boiling, in difpofing water to
cool more rapidly, and to a greater degree.
tc When,” fays he, “we wifh to render water as
cool as poffible, we firft heat it, then furround with
fnow the veffel containing it, or, if fnow be wan¬
ting, we place it in the well or dream of a fpring,
and thus its temperature is more eafily changed.”

This he afcribes to the rarefaction the water
had before undergone, which is evidently not
the true caufe, as, upon cooling, it would be as
much condenfed as before. Perhaps, the true
caufe may be, what is generally afligned, the dif-
charge of the air. But how does this operate
in promoting the refrigeration ? Is it, that after
the water has been freed of its air, any part
of its latent heat has flown off with it, and thus
rendered it more eafily acceflible to cold ? Or,
is the refrigeration more eafy, on account of the
difcharge of air j as the air, being united with
the water, and requiring to be difengaged in
freezing, might, by its attradlion to the water,
require more cold to difengage it, than would
have frozen the water, had it not had that at-
tradtion to overcome ?

It muff, however, be remarked, that Galen not
only fpeaks of water that has been previoufly
heated, being more eafy to be frozen , but alfo
fays, fuch water is more eafily cooled, even to

any

Knowledge of the Ancientsr 265

any inferior degree: a fact worthy to be afcer-
tained by experiment.

II. I believe the faft, Of the produftion of cold
by the evaporation of fluids, is efteemed a modern
difeovery, as it juftly may be: but it (till ap¬
pears (though the modern difeoverers were not
acquainted with it) that it was familiarly known
to the ancients, and not only to the Greeks and
Romans, but the Egyptians alfo.

Athenasus mentions, “ that Protagorides, in
deferibing the navigation of Antiochus upon
the Nile, or Euphrates, relates the method ufed
in that country, of cooling liquor, which was, by
firft heating it by expofure to the fun, and then
draining it, and fetting it in earthen jars in the
higheft, and mofl: open and expofed part of the
building, whilft two boys were employed all the
night, in keeping the outfides of the jars moift.
After this, they preferved the coolnefs of its
temperature, by covering the jars with draw.
This, fays he, cooled the water to fo great
a degree, that they felt no want of ice.” *

Galen fays, the method of cooling water, ufed at
Alexandria, was as follows : “ About fun-fet, they
poured water which had been firfl: heated, into jars,
which theyhungupinthe higheftpartsof thebuild-
ings, with the windows open, oppofite to that point
from whence the wind blew. Before fun rife, they

* Athen. p. 124.

placed

2 66 Dr. Falconer's Remarks on the

placed the jars upon the ground, and moiftened
the outfide, and covered them with cool and
fucculent leaves, as of lettuce, &c. in order that
the water might retain the cool temperature it
had thus acquired.” *

The modern method of making ice in the
pad Indies, refembles the above in many refpe&s.
Pits are dug in large open plains, places mod
ejcpofed to circulation of air, 4nd of confequence,
to evaporation : thefe are ftrewed with reeds, in
order to admit the circulation of air on all Tides,
and on thefe are placed (hallow pans of earth
filled with water, and the texture of thefe pans is
fo porous, as to admit the water to percolate
through them, in fuch a manner, as to keep the
outfide always moiflr, and of confequence, pro¬
ducing cold by evaporation. The water ufeci
for this purpofe has alfo been previoufly boiled.
It is needlcfs to remark, how much this procefs
refembles thofe before quoted, and how probable
it is, from the immutability of ancient manners,
that it was a cuftom delved frorp very remote
antiquity.

HI. Some other difcoveries, fuch as, cc The folu-
tion of water in air, and that this folution is afiifted
by heat and agitation,” appear not to have been
unknown to the ancients, though their notion?
hereupon were far from clear.

* Galen Comm, in Lib. VI. Epidem. Hippoc. Comm. IV.

Thq

Knowledge of the Ancients. 267

“ The moifture, fays Ariftotle, that is about the
earth, being converted into vapours by the rays
of the fun, afcends. When it has arifen, the heat,
by whofe afliftance it had afcended, leaves the
vapour (or, as Dr. Black would fay, becomes
fenfible) and then, the vapour again affumes a
confidence, and, from being in the form of air,
becomes water. Meteorol. L. I. C. 9.

<c The reafon, fays Ariftotle, why dew and hoar
froft do not concrete in elevated fituations, is,
that in them the air is much agitated, which
diftblves* the confidence of the water. Ibidem.
Cap. 10.

Dr. Black’s dofrrine of Latent Heat, feems not
to have been altogether unknown to the ancients.

“ Snow, fays Ariftotle, cannot be formed, with¬
out the cold prevails, much heat dill remaining
in it. For in a cloud, or vapour, there is much
heat which remains of that fire, that has abforbed
the moifture from the earth.” Ariftotle here
mentions, that heat or fire was dill contained in
the cloud or vapour, and fo far is agreeable to
Dr. Black’s fyftem ; but the latter difeovered, that
when the condenfation took place, the heat, before
latent, then became fenfible.

* O; JiaXfji rriii Toia.vTr,v GVtrxaiy.

hL B. Evrac-t; means the confidence, or folid form of
any thing, in its primary fignification, and i§ often applied
Jo water. Vide fiex. Budiei. Vox Svfec- 1?

IV. The

a63 Dr. Falconer's Remarks on the

IV. The ancients perfe&ly knew the reafon,
why the air near the earth was more heated, than
in higher fituations. Ariftotle explains this, from
the refle&ion of the folar * rays from the furface
of the ground which caufe is alfo aligned by
Seneca, j* This is, I believe, generally underftood
to be a difcovery of Sir Ifaac Newton.

V. Ariftotle J afllgns a caufe for the fudden
concretion of Hail Stones, to which he very pro¬
perly attributes their largenefs of fize, which I
have never before met with, and yet is, perhaps,
the true one. He obferves, “ that hail generally
falls moft plentifully in hot weather and it is
to this previous heat, which muft have afFefled
the vapour, and the water contained in it, that he
afcribes the fudden congelation of the hail, in
the fame manner, as water, previoufly heated, is
found to freeze more eafily and fuddenly.

VI. The fact || likewife, of the reparation of air

from

- — — si? roy clvu to Troy ptstAAoy ovrx 4/fp^po v Six to Pojyi tv
raj onto t»j; y>); tvv XKriyuv ctva,xha.£u<;.

Meteor, Lib. I. C. 12.

-j- - quod radii Solis a terra refiliunt et in fe recurrunt,

Horum duplicatio proxima quaque a terris calefacit. Qua
ideo plus habent teporis, quia folem bis fentiunt.

Seneca Nat. Quail. L. IV. Sett. S»

J Meteorolog. De Grandine.

|| to fxtv tzvrys 'Kxft.'S^ov xoa xo vtpov xxi y\vxv exx^yerai xxi a<Pxv
imereti, To (lo^uhxTXTov xxi oTa§y.u<ticjTaTw Xeittetosi.

Hipp, de Aere Aquis et locis. §. XX.

Knowledge of the Ancients. 269

from water, by freezing the latter, appears to
have been not unknown to the ancients. Pro¬
bably, this is what was meant by Hippocrates,
when he fays, tf that the clear, light, and fweet
parts of the water, are difiipated by freezing;**
an opinion which Ariftotle feems to have adopted,
probably from this fource.

Aulus Gellius* explains this paffage of Ari¬
ftotle, as if the air was prefied, as it were, from
water, by its concretion ; and Macrobius f ex-
prefies the fame, in terms more plain and dif-
tinfir, and feems to fay, that it was necefiary for
water to part with its air, in order to its con¬
gelation.

VII. It is often imagined, that the fa£V, Of water
rifing to its level in pipes, was a modern dif-

Aat ts airt zasi y.^varciWa v v^ara. tya.v'hx tcrriv ; oti wa/roj

Vitccroc 'rcvfpvy.trt ro he7r%Ta,T0v xai xutyototTov

Arift, Meteor.

* Quoniam cum aqua frigore aeris duratur, et coif,
necefle eft fieri evaporationem, et quandam quafi auram
tenuillimam exprimi ex ea et emanare : id autem, inquit,
in ealeviftimum eft quod evaporatur.

Aul. Gell. No£t. Attic. IX. 5.

f Omnis aqua, inquit, habet in fe Aeris tenuiflimi por-
tionem, qua falutaris eft : habetque terream faecem, qua eft
corpulenta poll terram. Cum ergo Aeris frigore et gclu
coadta calefcit, necefle eft per evaporationem velut ex¬
primi ex ilia Auram tenuiflimam, qua difcedente conveniat
in coagulum.

Macrob. Saturn. L. VII. C. 12.

covery ;

»

2jo Dr* Falconer's Remarks , &c.

covery } but it appears to be by no means fb:
and that the Aquaeduds built at fuch vaft expence
for the conveyance of water, were not con-
ftruded for want of knowing, that pipes would
anfwer a fimilar purpofe, but from the perfua-
fion, that the water3 in pipes of lead efpecially,
was lefs wholefome, than water conveyed in an
open channel. This appears very clear, from
the following pafifage in Palladius. * “ Si quis

mons interjedus occurrerit, aut per latera ejus
aquam ducemus obliquam, aut ad aquse caput
fpeluncas librabimus, per quarum ftruduram
perveniat. Sed fi fe vallis interferat, eredas
pilas, vel arcus ufque ad aquae jufta veftigia con-
ftruemus, aut plumbeis fiftulis claufam dejici
patiemur, et explicata valle confurgere. Ulti¬
ma ratio eft, plumbeis fiftulis ducere, quae aquas
noxias reddunt.” Vitrivius f exprefles the fame,
though in terms rather more obfcure ; and Pliny|
gives particular directions on the fubjed,

* Pallad. Menf. Auguft.

+ Vitruv. L. VIII. C. 7.

t L. XXXI. C. 6.

Dr. Falconer on the Influence , &c.

27 i

jQn Enquiry concerning the Influence of the
Scenery of a Country on the Manners of
its Inhabitants. By William Falconer,
M. D. F. R. S. Read October 23, 1782.

IT is an ancient maxirfi in Philofophy, aftri*
buted to Ariftotle, and generally acquiesced
in, That all mental ideas were primarily fug-
gefted, by fenfible objedts* through the medium
of the fenfes. Whether this opinion be univer-
fally true, is not here meant to be difcuffed
but, that external objedts influence our actions
and condudt, and even diredt our fpeculative
fentiments, is too evident to bear difpute.

Animated beings, and, far above the reft, the
human fpecies, are the moft powerful in pro¬
ducing thefe effedts. We are naturally led to
adopt the pafilons, and, to a certain degree, to
imitate the charadter of thofe, to whofc com¬
pany and converfation we are daily habituated ;
and this difpofition is fo potent, that even error
and prejudice are often introduced, and almoft
voluntarily entertained, by thofe, whofe charadler
and underftanding, in other inftances, fhould
feem to afford the mod complete fee u pity againft
fuch examples of human frailty.

' A lefs

27 1 Dr. Falconer on the Influence of the Scenery

A lefs potent, but a fomewhat fimilar influence*
is exerted by inanimate objeds. Scenes of hor¬
ror, even though compofed of lifelefs materials,
impart gloomy and terrible ideas to the mind ;
and thofe of pleafure tend, on the contrary, to
exhilarate and refrefli it. Hence we may infer,
that the afped or face of a country might con¬
tribute, in fome meafure, towards the formation
of the manners, and character of the people.

The immediate and dired effed of the fight
of objeds, of either of the kinds above-men¬
tioned, would be, I apprehend, but weak ; but
we fhould confider, that they mull, from their
nature, be almoft conftantly operating ; and by
their repeated adion may make amends for the
fiightnefs of the imprefiions, diftindly confidered*
As it is the natural property of beautiful ob¬
jeds to communicate pleafurable ideas to the
mind, and to elevate the fpirits, we may from
thence infer, that the view of a fertile, pleafant,
and cultivated country, would infpire fentiments
of delight and fatisfadion into thofe accuftomed
to furvey it. A cultivated garden was the fcene
of delight, feleded by that celebrated patron of
fenfual pleafure Epicurus ; and the exhilarating
effeds produced upon the mind by the * furvey

of

• . - - - - - - - and now is come

Into the blifsful field, thro’ groves of Myrrh,

And flowering odours, Caflia, Nard, and Balm,

A wildernefs of fvveets, for Nature here

Wanton5

of a Country on its Inhabitants . 273

of a beautiful fcenery of country, are noticed
by feveral of the poets, and particularly by
Milton.

Is it not hence probable, that fuch a view
would tend to infpire permanent chearfulnefs of
temper, into thofe daily accuftomed to behold
it, both, as it prefents great variety of fubjefts of
attention and admiration, and as it fills the mind
with reprefentations of pleafing obje&s ?

Wantons as in her prime, and plays at will
Her virgin fancies, pouring forth more fweet.

Wild above rule, or art, enormous blifs,

Paradife Loft, Book V.

- ......... about me round I faw.

Hill, dale, and fliady woods, and funny plains.

And liquid lapfe of murmuring ftreams: by thefe.
Creatures that liv’d, and mov’d, and walk’d, and flew :
Birds on the branches warbling : all things fmil’d
With fragrance, and with joy my heart o’erflow’d.

Paradife Loft, Book VIIL
Straight mine eye hath caught new pleafures.

While the landfcape round it meafures,

Ruflet lawns, and fallows gray,

Where the nibbling flocks do ftray :

Mountains, on whofe barren breaft
The labouring clouds do often reft :

Meadows, trim with dailies pied :

Shallow brooks, and rivers wide :

Towers, and battlements it fees,

Bofom’d h.gh in tufted trees.

Milton' % Allegro.

Why fit we fad, when Phofphor ftiines fo clear,
Andlavilh nature paints the purple year ?

Pope's Firft Paftoral.

Vql. I. ' T Cicero

-274 Dr. Falconer on the Influence of the Scenery

Cicero, in his Letters to Atticus,* fpeaks of
the pleafures of a garden, as the belt remedy for
grief and concern of mind •, and in one of his
philofophical dialogues, f he recommends atten¬
tion to the natural beauties of a fine and culti¬
vated country, as the proper ftudy of the calm
and ferene period of old age.

* Deinde etiam ad x* rufiios-iv msftitiamque medendam
nihil mihi reperiri poteft aerius.

Cic. Epift. ad Attic. L. XIII.

f Quid de pratorum viriditate, aut arborum ordinibus,
aut vinearum olivetorumque fpecie, dicam ? Brevi pre-
cidam. Agro bene culto nil poteft efle, nec ufu uberius,
nec fpecie ornatius, ad quem fruendum non modo non
retardat, verum etiam invitat atque alledlat Senettus.

Cicero, de Seneift. §. LIII.

Vobis mehercule Martis viris cavenda et fugienda im¬
primis amoenitas eft Afiae, tantum hae peregrins voluptates
ad extinguendum vigorem animorum poflunt.

Livii, L. XXVII;

Loca amoena voluptaria facile in otio feroces militum
animos molliverant.

Sallujl. Bell. Catilin.

Itaque ut frugum femina mutato foie degenerant, lie ilia
genuina feritas eorum Afiatica amoenitate mollita eft.

Flor. L. II. C. i x.

Effeminat animos amsnitas nimia, nec dubie aliquid ad
corrumpendum vigorem poteft regio. Fortior miles ex con-
fragofo venit.

Seneca. Epift. L. I. Ep. 51.

N. B. The word amoenus is applicable to what is pleafant
or agreeable to the eye, in place or fituation, and, of courfe,
fefers to the feenery or face of the country.

It

of a Country on its Inhabitants. 1"] 5

!c is, however, probable, that the pleafures in-
fpired by fuch a fcenery as is above alluded to,
which is rather of a luxurious tendency, may
coincide with the effects of the climate, in which
fuch profpeds are moftly produced, in contribu¬
ting to weaken and effeminate the mind and dif-
pofition. However whimfical this notion may
appear, it has been adopted by writers, in the
higheft efteem for underftanding and difcernment.
Perhaps, for the fame reafon, a beautiful and or¬
namented country has been thought to be favour¬
able to the fofter pafiions. “ Love,” fays Agatho
in the banquet of Plato, “ refldes not in a body
or foul, or any other place, where flowers never
fpring; or, if they do fpring, where they are
fallen, and the fpot quite deflowered. But,
wherever a fpot is to be found fiowry and fra¬
grant, he there feats himfelf, and fettles his
abode.” The beauty of the country, muft, no
doubt, contribute to the improvement of the
tafte of the inhabitants, both in arts and fcience.

Tafte, which is in other words, the faculty of
difcerning and relifhing beauty, is acquired by
the comparifon of beautiful objects with one ano¬
ther, and, upon that account, is likely to be
found in greater perfection, where thofe objects
abound the molt, and where, of courfe, fuch com-
parifons would be the molt obvious and eafy.
Hence fprings, in a good meafure, I apprehend,
the elegant and varied fancy of the eaftern peo-*-

T 2 pie,

vj6 Dr. Falconer on the Influence of the Scenery

pie, exemplified in fome of their works of art,
particularly the patterns of their manufactures.
The diverfified beauty of the vegetables, that
cover the ground in thofe countries, could
fdarcely fail to fuggeft ideas, far fuperior to
what could be imagined by thofe, who never had
any opportunity of feeing fuch delicate produc¬
tions.

The mod admired paffages in the eaftern wri¬
tings, efpecially the poetical, owe much of their
power and effedt, to the painting of the natural
beauties of the country and climate. A late
writer,* of no inconfiderable tafte, as well as talent
for obfervation, has remarked of the Spaniards,
that the fimilies ufed by them, are univerfally
taken from the beautiful objedts of nature con¬
tinually before their eyes. “ The fragrance of
the rofe, the odour of the orange, the perfume
of the myrtle, the murmuring of the cave in¬
viting to fiumber, the height of the mountains,
the fteepnefs of the rocks, the fplendour of the
rifing fun, the coolnefs of the evening breeze,
and the brilliancy of the ftars by night, afford
them endlefs allegories.” Even Homer himfelf,
that great mafter of our paffions, is not a little
indebted to his familiar acquaintance with the
fcenery of a beautiful country, for the ravilhing

* Carter’s Travels from Gibraltar to Malaga.

effedts

of a Country on its Inhabitants. 277

effe&'s of many of his defcriptions and compa-
rifons.*

Milton appears to have been fo fenfible of this
effect of Homer’s pi&urefque reprefentations,
that he has ventured, perhaps improperly, to

* Glad earth perceives, and from her bofom pours
Unbidden herbs, and voluntary flowers :

Thick new-born violets a foft carpet fpread.

And cluftring lotos fwell’d the riling bed ;

And fudden hyacinths the turf bellrow.

And flamy crocus made the mountain glow :

Celeftial dews defcending o’er the ground,

Perfume the mount, and breathe ambrofia round.

Pope's Homer Iliad. B. XIV. L. 395.

Next this, the eye the art of Vulcan leads
Deep thro’ fair forefls and a length of meads.

And flails, and folds, and fcatter’d cots between.

And fleecy flocks, that whiten all the feene.

Homer's Iliad. Defer, of Achilles’s Shield.

Elyflum lhall be thine, the blifsful plains
Of utmoft earth, where Radamanthus reigns :

Joys ever young unmix’d, with pain or fear.

Fill the wide circle of the eternal year :

Stern winter fmiles on that aufpicious clime j
The fields are florid with unfading prime;

From the bleak pole no winds inclement blow*

Mould round the hail, or lhake the fleecy fnow ;

But from the breezy deep, the bleft inhale
The fragrant murmurs of the weftern gale,

Homer's Odyff. B. IV.

T 3 adorn

Dr. Falconer on the Influence of the Scenery

adorn a fcene laid in Britain, with productions
peculiar to Afiatic climes.*

A beautiful fcenery of a country contributes,
I apprehend, to influence the fentiments of the
people in fome points refpefting Religion. Thus,
it is more than probable, that many of the ideas
in the Roman and Greek mythologies, concern¬
ing a future ftate of happinefs, were derived
from this fource. Homer’s defcription of the
Elyfian fields, f and of the dwelling of the
Gods, J is evidently borrowed from what he

• May thy lofty head be crown’d

With many a tower and terras round.

And here and there thy banks upon
With groves of myrrh and cinnamon.

Milton's Com us,

f See lad page, Note*

J Without the grot, a various fylvan fcene
Appear’d around, and groves of living green,

Poplars and alders ever quivering play’d,

And nodding cyprefs form’d a fragant fhade,

On whofe high branches waving with the ftorm.

The birds of broadeft wing their manfion form ;

The chough, the fea-mew, the loquacious crow.

And fcream aloft, and fkim the deeps below :
Depending vines the Ihelving cavern fcreen,

With purple clutters blufhing thro’ the green j
Four limpid fountains from the clefts diftil,

And every fountain pours a different rill.

In mazy windings wandering down the hill.

Where blooming meads with vivid greens were crown’d.
And glowing violets threw odours round ;

A fcene, where, if a God fhou’d cad his fight,

A God might gaze and wander with delight.

had

of a Country on its Inhabitants. 27 9

had feen in a fine country : and Virgil,* and
Tibullus, t Teem to have taken their defcriprions
of the fituation of the happy in a future life,
from thofe natural beauties, with which they were
familiar.

The fame circumftances appear to have in¬
fluenced the general opinions, concerning a place
of future punifhment. As the refidence of the
blell was fuppofed to be in a country exquifitely
adorned with natural beauties, fo that of the

* Devenere locos Iretos, et amoena vireta,

Fortunatorum nemorum, fedefque beatas :

Largior hie campos .Asther, et lumine reftit
Purpureo, Solemque fuum fua fidera norunt.

Virg Asneid. Lib. VI.

f Sed me, quod facilis tenero fum Temper amori,

Jpfa Venus campos ducet in Elyfios.

Hie chers cantufque vigenr, paflimque vagantes
Duke fonant tenui guttirre carmen aves.

Fert cafiam non culta leges, totofque per agros
Floret odoratis terra benigna rods.

Tibull. Eleg. Lib. I. El. 4.

Propertius fpeaks of Elyfian rofes,

Mulcet ubi Elyfias aura beata rofas.

Prop. Lib. IV. EL 7. L. 60.

; Milton ufes nearly the fameexpreffion ;

On a bed

Of heapt Elyfian flowers.

Milton Allegro. L. 146, 147.

Jlolls o’er Elyfian flowers her amber ftream.

Par. Loft. III. 359.

T 4 referable

2 So Dr. Falconer on the Influence of the Scenery

miferable was placed in a region,* dark and
uncultivated, foul and horrible, in which cir-
cumftances, the mifery of thofe condemned to
inhabit it was thought, in a good meafure, to
confift. Such are the effects we fuppofe pro¬
ducible by the beautiful face of a country.

Let us now fee what would be the effe&s of
one of a different appearance.

Hippocrates obferves, t that the inhabitants
of rough, mountainous, and uncultivated coun-

* Low in the dark Tartarean gulf fhall groan.

Iliad. VIII. L. 1 6-

No fun e’er gilds the gloomy horrors there,

No chearful gales refrelh the lazy air.

Iliad. VIII. 601 et.

At fcelerata fedes jacet in no&e profunda
Abdita, quam circum flumina nigra fonant.

Tibull. I. El. 4.

- - - turn Tartarus ipfe

Bis patetin prasceps tantum, tenditque fub umbras,
Quantus ad x there um cosli fufpe&us Olympum.

Virg. j®n. Lib. VI.
- - - - diverfo itinere malos a bonis loca tetra, inculta,
feda atque formidolofa habere.

Salluji. Bell. Catilinar,
Efie inferos Stoicus Zenon docuit et fedes prorfum ab
impiis elfe diferetas et illos quidem quietas et deleftabiles
incolere regiones, hos vero luere paenas in tenebrofis locis,
atque in caeni voraginibus horrendis.

Laftantii. Lib. VIII. C. 7.

■J- De Aerib. aquis et locis. Cap. LV.

tries.

of a Country on its Inhabitant s 281

tries, are rude and ferocious in their difpofitiort
and manners. The people of Cynetha in,
Arcadia, who lived in a fituation particularly*
gloomy and difagreeable, were fo remarkable
for their unfociable qualities, that they were
expelled from the Grecian cities. The Cim¬
merians, who inhabited a country dark and
melancholy, fubfifted upon robbery and plunder:
and the country of the Cyclops, according to
Homer’s defcription, was fomewhat of a fimilar
appearance. The fame difpofition, of the peo¬
ple inhabiting the fame region, is mentioned
by Fazellus, a writer concerning Sicily, about
two hundred years ago, and confirmed, by the
later teflimony of Mr. Brydone. The Indians
alfo, dilcovered a few years fince by Mr. Byron,
in the Southern Hemifphere, were brutal and
favage to an enormous excefs.

May we not here fuppofe, with an elegant
writer, that a ftormy fea, together with a frozen,
barren and inhofpitable fhore, might work upon
the imagination of thefe Indians, fo as, by banifk-
ing all pleafing and benign ideas, to fill them
with habitual gloom, and with a propenfityf
to cruelty P And might not the tremendous
fcenes of Etna have had a like effeft upon the

* Athensi. Lib. XIV. Polybii. Lib. IV. C. 3.

+ Harris’s Philolog. Enquiries, p. 518.

Cyclops,

282 Dr. Falconer on the Influence of the Scenery

Cyclops, who lived among fmoke, thunderings,
eruptions of fire, and earthquakes ? *

If then, thefe limited regions fo influenced
their natives, may not a fimilar effedt be pre¬
fumed from the vaft regions of the north ; may
not its cold, barren, and uncomfortable climate,
have made its numerous tribes equally rude and
favage ? Ovid, the Roman poet, who, unfortu¬
nately for himfelf, had but too many opportu¬
nities for obfervations of this kind, feems to
have been of this opinion, from his fo frequently
connedting his account of the country with the
manners of the inhabitants. Is it not probable,
that the dreary afpedt of the country, might be
one caufe of the devaluations committed by
thefe people, in their invafions of the Roman

* Frigida me cohibent Euxini littora Ponti :

Diftus ab antiquis Axenus i lie fuit.

Nam neque jattantur moderatis aequora ventis,

Nec placidos portus holpita navis adit.

Sunt circa gentes, quae praedam languine quaerant,

Nec minus infida terra timetur aqua.

Illi, quos audis, hominum gaudere cruore,

Paene fub ejufdem lideris axe jacent

Ovid. Trill. L. IV. El. 4.

Sive locum fpe&o, locus eft inamabilis, et qua
Efle nihil toto triftius orbe poteft.

Sive homines ; vix funt homines, hoc nomine digni :
Quamque lupi fsvas plus feritatis habent.

Ovid. Trill. E- V. Ekg. 7.

empire?

cfa Country on its Inhabitants 283

empire?* A defolate and uncultivated fcene,
which probably originally infpired the ferocious
difpofition of thefe people, was more congenial
to their ideas and inclinations, than elegant
buildings, and cultivated grounds, which, whilft
they betrayed the unwarlike fpiric of their pof-
feflbrs, evidenced their fuperiority in underftand-
ing and induftry.

Miners, for the fame reafons, are generally
obferved to be a hardy, ferocious, and cruel fee
of men. The feenes of horror, mifery, and
gloom, with which they are converfant, oblite¬
rate the finer fenfations, and fteel the heart againfl:
the fentiments of tendernefs and compaffion. The

* Ovid mentions in his time, that the Gets deftroyed all
the buildings, and laid the country wafte, wherever they
went.

Hoftis equo pollens, longeque volante fagitta.

Vicinam late depopulatur humum.

Qux nequeunt fecum ferre aut abducere, perdunt,

Et cremat infontes hoftica flamma cafas.

Ovid Trift. L. III. Eleg. 10.

Quicquid invenire poterat momento temporis parvi, vaf-
tabant, (Saraceni) milvorum rapacium fimiles.

Amm Marcell. L. XIX. C. 4.

The Franks deftroyed forty cities upon the Rhine.

Zofim L. III. C. 1.

Alaric deflroyed all the cities in Macedonia, 1 hrace and
Greece, except Athens, and Thebes. Attila preferred
his houfe of wood on the Tibifcus, to all the lplendid
palaces he might have enjoyed. Zofim. L. V. C. 5.

emotions

£$4 Dr. Falconer on the Influence of the Scenery

emotions of the mind, in thefe inftances, cor-
refpond with the wikinefs and ferocity of the
furrounding chaos of objeCts, and require in
order to humanize them, a certain degree of ad-
juftment, and even embellifhment, of external
appearances. We might reafonably conclude
from hence, that a people fofituated, would have
their intellectual faculties confiderably contract¬
ed, or depreffed. The paucity of objeCts, and
thofe of a difgufting, or terrible nature, would
afford few motives for inquiry, and, of courfe,
a narrow field for mental exertion.

The ancient Germans,* to whom letters were
unknown, and who feem to have pofTefled very
little third after knowledge, dwelt in a region,
dark with forefts, and foul with marfhes ; and
the defolate and uncultivated face of the country
contributes, I doubt not, to encourage the igno¬
rance of the American Indians. We might,
with dill greater probability imagine, that fuch
a people would be particularly defective in all
matters that regard tafte and fentiment. This,
however, is not altogether the cafe* Their ideas
are indeed melancholy, and their views of nature
dark and gloomy ; but, neverthelefs, often par-

* Terra etfi aliquanto fpecie differt, eft in univerfum,
aut fylvis horrida aut paludibus fa;da.

Taciti Germania.

Multis montibus afpera, et mana ex parte ftlvis ct
paludibus invia. Pompon. Mela.

take

of a Country on its Inhabitants. 2 S 5 '

'take of a dreary magnificence, and fullen gran¬
deur, that produce a deep and Jailing imprefilon
upon the mind. Thefe fentiments are congenial
with the appearance of the country The du-
pendous fcenery of rocks, clouds, precipices,
torrents, and deferts, continually exhibited to
their fenfes, cannot fail to fugged a train of
thoughts and expredions correfponding there¬
with ; and the accidents, to which a life of hunt¬
ing, in a country that gives occafions to fo many
dangers, is expofed, contribute dill farther to
increafe the gloom, and throw a darker ihade
upon the imagination. Hence, borrow and terror
are the pafiions they are mod naturally led to ex¬
cite. Their mufic, as well as their poetry, is
plaintive, and, I believe, modly applied to the
recital of melancholy tales, or unfortunate events.
Even their fuperditions are of a melancholy cad.

The noted faculty of prying into futurity, by
means of a previous fight of events that were
to take place, fo noted in tire Alpine fcenes,
both of Scotland and Swiderland, is held to
be of a fad and uncomfortable nature, unlike the
Seers of old, -who were thought to be particularly-
favoured by fuch communications. This faculty
has been regarded by thofe, who believed they
podeflcd it, as a misfortune, on account of the
many dreadful images it obtruded upon the
fancy. This kind of prefcience feems to have
been principally, though not altogether, con¬
cerned

286 Dr. Falconer on the Influence ,

cerned in fcenes of horror. Deaths, (hipwrecks,
ftorms, and famine, were much more frequently
predicted, than the chearful and exhilerating
circumftances of life ; which forms no incon-
fiderable prefumption, that the ideas that oc¬
cupied their minds, were principally of a gloomy
and melancholy afpect.

The notions of people, concerning a future
ftate, appear to be much influenced by the
fcenery of fuch a country. Some nations have
been fo fenflble of the difadvantages and incon-
veniencies attending it, that they have formed
their fyftem of future happinefs, apart from any
connection with the appearance of the country.
Thus the Scythians, and the northern nations
of Europe, held their Ely Hum to confift, in the
joys of wine, and of company collected in a fpa-
cious building. The American Indians, for
fimilar reafons, have feleCted fuch circumftances
only, as ferved moft to temper the gloomy and
fevere appearance of nature. Thus, they expect to
be tranflated to a country, where the Iky is always
clear and unclouded, and a perpetual fpring
prevails. On the contrary, when they mean to
deferibe a place of future torment, they figure it
as po fie fling all the dreary appendages belonging
to their own country, but in a greater degree.
Thus the Ifurin , or hell of the northern nations,
was fuppofed to be a place dark, gloomy, cold,
and deftitute of every convenience of life ; the

former

Dr. PercivaVs Tribute to the , &c. 287

former of which circumftances, as well as the
latter, were imagined to conftitute the mifery
inflided by it.

A Tribute to the Memory of Charles de
Polier, EJq. By Thomas Percival, M. D,
Read November 13, 1782**

THE contemplation of moral and intelledual
excellence affords the mod pleafing and
inftrudive exercife, to a well conftituted mind.
By exalting our ideas of the human charader,

October 30th, 1782.
* At a meeting of the Literary and Pbilofopbical Society of
Manchefer, the following refolution pafied unanimoufly.

“ The Members of the Literary and Pbilofophical Society
lamenting, with heartfelt concern, the death of their late
much honoured brother, Charles de Polier, Efq ; unani-
moufly refolve, that Dr. Percival be requeued to draw
up a grateful and refpe&ful Tribute to his Memory; to
be inferted in the journals of the Society, with a view
to record his dillinguilhed merit, and to prolong the in¬
fluence of his bright example.’'

November 13th, 1782.
At a meeting of the Literary and Pbilofopbical Society it
was refolved unanimoufly, That the Thanks of the
Society be returned to Dr Percival, for his Tribute to
the Memory of Charles de Polier , Efq j and that he be
defired to print the fame.”

, it

288 Dr. Per rival's Tribute to the Memory

it expands and heightens the principle of bene-
'volence ; and at the fame time is favourable to
piety, by raifing our views to. the fupreme
Author of all that is fair and good in man.
The wife and the virtuous have ever dwelt,
with delight, on the meritorious talents and
difpofitions of their fellow-creatures : And an
amiable philofopher drew, from this fource, fuch
fweet confolations, under the toils and diftreffes
of life, that he warmly recommends the pra&ice
to our imitation, <c When you would recreate your-
“Jelf” fays M. Antoninus, “ refietl on the lauda -
“ ble qualities of your acquaintance : On the magna-
<c nimity of one, the modejly of another, or the libera -
“ lity of a third."* Generous meditation! which
everyone, prefent, may indulge; and, by indulg¬
ing, afiimilate, to his own nature, the various
perfedlions of others ; transfufing, as it were, into
his bread, the virtues which he contemplates.

But can we engage ourfelves in fuch an e-xer-
cife, without the mod lively recolle&ion of our
late honoured and beloved colleague ? His
image prefents itfelf before us ; and we indantly
recognifc, the agreeablenefs of his form, the
animation of his countenance, the vigour of his
■underftanding, and the goodnefs of his heart.
How graceful was his addrefs *, how fprightly,
entertaining, and intelligent his converfation ! •

* M. Antonin. Lib. VI.

What

cf Charles de Toller . 9

What rich (lores of knowledge did he difplay ;
what facility in the ufe, what judgment in the
application of them ! Few have been the fubje&s
of difcuffion in this Society, which his obferva-
tions have not enlightened : and what he could
not himfelf elucidate, he has enabled others to
do, by t-he pertinency of his queries, and the
fagacity of his conjectures. So quick was his
penetration ; fo enlarged his comprehenfion ; fo
exact the arrangement of his intellectual trea-
fures ! Learning, with fome, is the parent of
mental obfcurity ; and the multiplicity of ideas,
which have been acquired by fevere ftudy, ferves
only to produce perplexity and confufion. But
Mr. de Polier’s thoughts were always ready at
command. And he engaged with perfpicuity,
on every topic of difcourfe ; becaufe he faw, atj
one view, all its relations and analogies to
thofe branches of knowledge, with which he
was already acquainted. With fuch felicity of
genius, he was continually making large ac-
cefTions to his (lock of feience, without laborious
refearches, or feclufion from the focial enjoy*
ments of life.

Of his abilities as a writer, he furnifhed us
with a ftriking proof, in the DifTertation he
delivered, laft winter ; which is equally diff in—
guifhed by the juftnefs of its fentiments, and the
purity of ifs diCtion ; and fully clifplavs his per-
Vol. I. U

2 go Dr. VercivaVs ’Tribute to the Memory

fed attainment, both of the idiom and embellifti-
ments of the Englifh language.

But Mr- de Polier had merits, more eftimable
than thofe, which he derived from the vivacity
of his fancy, the elegance of his tafte, or the
powers of his underftanding. And his friends
will cordially unite with me in teftifying, that,
if honoured for his intellectual, he was beloved
for his moral endowments. His heart was open
to every generous fympathy ; and the fenfibility
of his nature fo enlivened all his perceptions,
that the ordinary duties of focial intercourfe
were performed, by him, with a warmth, almoft
equal to that of friendihip. Nor was this the
artificial deportment of unmeaning courtefy i
but the generous effufion of a heart, which felt
for all mankind. In fuch philanthropy , polite-
nefs has its true foundation : and of this joint
grace of nature and education, fC which aids
and ftrengthens Virtue, where it meets her, and
imitates her a&ions, where fhe is not,” our la¬
mented brother was a bright example. So
engaging were his manners, and at the fame
time fo fincere his difpofition, that we may
apply to him, with honour , what Cicero meant
as a reproach ; that he was qualified, cum triftibus
fever e, cum remijfis jucunde, cum Jenibus graviter , cum
juventute comiter vivere. Thefe powers of plea-
ling flowed from no fetvile compliances, nor

ever

of Charles de Polier. £91

ever led him into criminal indulgences. As a
companion, he was convivial without intempe¬
rance, and gay without levity or licentioufnefs.
His converfation was fprightly and unreferved j
but, in the mod unguarded hours of mirth,
exempt from all indecency and profanenefs.
And the fallies of his wit and pleafantry were fo
feafoned with good humour, that they gave de¬
light, unmixed with pain, even to thofe who
were the obje&s of them. If the coarfer plea-
fures of the bottle be banifhed from our tables ;
or if rational converfation, and delicacy of
behaviour, with the fweet fociety of the fofter
fex, be now fubftituted in their room, this happy
revolution has been rendered more complete by
the influence of Mr. de Polier.

But though urbanity, according to the mod
liberal interpretation of that term, was the
charatterijlic of our excellent colleague, he pof-
fefied other endowments, of more intrinfic value.
And I could enlarge, with pleafure, on his nice
fenfe of re&itude, his inviolable integrity, and
facred regard to truth. Thefe moral virtues
were, in him, founded on no fi&itious principle
of honour , but refulted from the conftitution of
his mind; and were ftrengthened by habit, regu¬
lated by reafon, and fandlioned by religion*
For, notwithftanding the veil which he chofe
to cad over his piety, it was manifeft to his inti¬
mate friends ; and may be recolledted by others,

U 2 who

2 ^ 2 Dr. Fey cival's Tribute to the Memory

who have marked the ferioufnefs, with which
he difcourfed, on every fubjedt relative to the
being and attributes of God. Defe&ive indeed
mu ft be the character of that man, who can
dilcern and acknowledge, without venerating,
the divine perfedtions ; and partake of the
bounties of nature, yet feel no emotions of
gratitude towards its benevolent Author. “ A
“ Uttle philojophy ,” fays lord Yerularn, (C may incline
(( the mind to atheijm ; but depth in philojophy will
<c bring it about again to religion."*

I have thus attempted to draw a rude fketch
of the features, of our late honoured friend. A
fuller delineation might furnifh a more pleafing
pidture to ftrangers ; bur, to the Members of
this Societv, a few outlines will fuffice to revive
the image of the beloved original. This image,
I truft, will be long and forcibly impreffed on
our minds; and that every one, now prefent,
may adopt the language of Tacitus, on a fimilar
occafion, “ Quicquid ex Agricola amavimus, quic-
« quid mirati Jumus , manet} manfurumque eft in animis

* The noble author fubjoins a juft reafon, for this ob-
fervation. “ For while the mind of man,” fays he,
“ looketh upon fecond caufes fcattered, it may fometimes
“ reft in them, and go no farther: but when it beholdeth
“ the chain of them linked together, it muft needs fly to
“ Providence and Deity.”

Bacon’s Eflay on Atheifm.

“ hominum

of Charles de Pclier. 293

Si hominum .” “ Whatever in Agricola was the

t{ objedt of our love and of our admiration,
fc remains, and will remain, in the hearts of
sc all who knew him.”

Having taken a fhort view of the character
of Mr. de Polier, curiofity and attachment con¬
cur in prompting us, to extend the retrofpeX ;
and we become folicitous to know fomething of
his connexions and education; and to trace the
leading events of a life, in the conclufion of
which we have been fo deeply interefted. But
our friend was no egotift; and the zeal with
which he entered into the concerns of others,
precluded the detail of his own. I muff con¬
tent, myfelr, therefore, with prefenting to the
Society, the following brief memoirs.

Charles de Polier Bottens was the fon of the

Reverend - de Polier ' Bottens, Dean of the

Cathedral Church of Laufanne, Prefident of the
Synod of the Pais de Vaud, Member of the
Society of Arts and Sciences at Manheim, and
Citizen ol Geneva. He was born at Laufanne,
in the year 1753 ; and received the fir ft part of
his education, in the public fchools of that
city. As foon as he had acquired a fufficient
knowledge of the daffies, he was Pent to an
academy near Caffel, in Germany ; from whence
after a refidence of two years, he was removed
to the univerfiry of Gottingen. In this cele¬
brated Icac of learning, he puffed three years *,

l f 3 and

294 Dr. Tercival's 'Tribute to the Memory

and being then inclined to a military life, he
obtained a lieutenant’s commiflion in the Swifs
regiment of D’Erlafr, in the French fervice.
But he foon refigned his commiffion, and re¬
turned to Laufanne ; where he had a command
given him, in one of the Provincial regiments
of dragoons. In this fituation, his connexion
commenced with the Earl of Tyrone ; who
offered him the tuition of his eldeft fon, Lord
le Poer, on terms equally honourable and ad¬
vantageous. But before the engagement was
completed, propofals were made to him by the
duke of Saxe Gotha, to become governor to the
hereditary prince, with an annuity, for life, of
twelve hundred, rixdollars ; an apartment at
court; and the pofl of chamberlain, or rank of
colonel. Thefe propofals, however, he declined
in favour of lord Tyrone. And he executed
the important trull, affigned to him, with fuch
judgment, tendernefs, and fidelity, as induced
that refpe&able nobleman to commit three of his
children to his foie direction. Thefe amiable
youths he brought to England, in the fummer
of 1779 > ar>d fettled them at the fchool of a
clergyman in Manchefler, who is eminently dif_
tinguifhed by his virtues as a man, and abilities
as a teacher.

At this period, our firffc acquaintance with Mr.
de Polier was formed. By the laws of hofpita-
lity, he was entitled to our attention, as a

ftranser :

of Charles de Poller. 295

Granger : but his perfonal accompli foments,
and the charms of his converfation, foon fuper-
feded the ordinary claims of cuftom, and con¬
verted formal civility into efleem and friendfoip.
He became our companion in pleafure j our
affiftant in ftudy ; our counfellor in difficulty ; and
our folace in diftrefs. Amufement acquired a
dignity and zefo, by his participation ; and he
foftened the' aufterity of philofophy, whenever
hejoined in the purfuit. The inftitution, which
now celebrates his memory, owes to him much
of its popularity and fuccefs j and, fo long as it
fubfifts, his name will be revered, as one of its
founders, and mod foining ornaments.

About the middle of laft winter he was
attacked by a complaint, which at firft gave no
difturbance to the vital functions. But being
aggravated by the fatigues of a long journey to
Holyhead, and of a voyage from thence to
Dublin, at a time when he laboured under the
Influenza , his malady rapidly increafed after his
arrival in Ireland ; and put a final period to his
valuable life on the 1 8 th of Odober 1782.* The
vigour of his faculties, and the warmth of his
affections, continued even to the hour of his
diffolution. And the amiablenefs of his beha¬
viour, in the clofing fcene of trial and differing

• At Curraghmore, near Waterford, the feat of
the Earl of Tyrone.

U 4 through.

296 Dr. Per rival's Tribute to the Memory, &c.

through which he pafied, gave fuch completion
to his chara&er, that we may apply to him, what
the Poet has Paid of Mr. Addifon ;

- - - - He taught us how to live ; and, oh ! too high
The price of knowledge, taught us how to die, *

On this affecting event, I cannot exprefs your
feelings and my own, in terms fo forcible as thofe
of the animated hiftorian, whom l have before
quoted. Si quis piorum manibus locus ; fti, ut ftapien-
tibus placet , non cum corpore exjlinguuntur magna
anim<e •, placide quiejeas , nofque ab injirmo dcftderioy
ad contemplationem vt tutum tuarum voces , quas
neque lugeri , neque plangi fas eft ! Aamiratione te
potius temporalibus laudibus , et ft natura ftuppeditet,
militum decoramus ! f “ If there be any habita-
<c tion for the lhades of the virtuous; if, as
philofophers fuppofe, exalted fouls do not
peri fh with the body; may you repofe in peaie,
and recall us from vain regret, to the contem¬
plation of your virtues, which allow no place
V for mourning or complaint! Let us adorn
your memory, rather, by a fixed admiration,
and, if our natures will permit, by an imitation
of your excellent qualities, than by temporary

€C

a

cc

((

((

a

eulogies !” J

* Tickell’s Poem on the Death of Addifon.
f Tacit. Vit. Agricolae.

$ See Dr. Aikin’s Tranllation of the Life of Agricola.

Thoughts

Dr. Falconer on the Style and Fajle, &c. £97

Thoughts on the Style and Taste of Garden¬
ing among the Ancients. by W1Lliam
Falconer, M. D. F. R S, &c. Communicated
by Dr. Percival . Read December 11, 17*52.

H E mod early account we have of a Gar-
den, is contained in the Sacred Writings,
in the defcription of the habitation of our firfb
parents- The form, difpolition, and arrange¬
ment are not particularly defcribed. It is only
faid, to have contained every tree, “ that is
pleafant to the eye, and good for food j” * and
that it was watered by a river, which, no doubt,
added to the beauty of the profpeCt, (which, in
the exprefTion before cited, leems to have been
particularly confulced,) as well as to the fertility
of the foil- Wood and water, therefore, both
for {hade f and ornament, the principal points
aimed at in modern gardens, may be prefumed
to have been here in the higheft perfection.
Farther than this, we are not informed.

The next hints concerning Gardens, that I can

* Genells, Chap. ii. ver. 9.

• f And Adam and his wife hid themfelves from the prc-
fence of the Lord, among the trees of the Garden.

Genelis, Chap. iii. ver. 8.

difeover

298 Dr Falconer on the Style and Fajle

difcover in the Sacred Writings, are to be found in
the Song of Solomon, part of the fcene of which
is, undoubtedly, laid in a garden- * Flowers
and fruits are particularly fpoken of, as the
ornaments, and the produce of it ; and befides
thefe, aromatic vegetables + formed a confider-
able part of the gratifications it afforded.
Fountains, and ftreams of water appear, alfo, to
have had a fhare in the compofition, and, pro¬
bably, for ornament, as well as ufe. Statues,
or paintings are not mentioned in thefe defcrip-

* I am the rofe of Sharon, and the lily of the vallies.

Chap. ii. ver. 1,

A garden inclofed, is my filler, my fpoufe ; a fpring
{hut up, a fountain fealed. Thy plants are an orchard of
pomegranates, with pleafant fruits, camphire, with fpike-
nard, fpikenard and faftrcn, calamus and cinnamon,
with all trees of frankincenfe, myrrh, and aloes, with all
the chief fpices. A fountain of gardens, a well of living
waters, and ftreams from Lebanon. Awake, O north wind,
and retire thou fouth, blow upon my garden, that the
fpices thereof may flow out. Let my beloved come into
Jiis garden, and eat his pleafant fruits.

Chap. iv. ver. 1 2. et.

f Aromatic plants are very often mentioned as a high
gratification, and perfumes, to this day, are much admired
in the eaft. “ His cheeks, are a bed of fpice , with fweet
flowers, his lips like lilies, dropping fweet fmelling
myrrh.” Ch. v ver. 13. “I will get me to the mountain
pf myrrh, and to the hill of frankincenfe.”

Ch. iv. ver. 6.

tions,

of gardening among the Ancients. 299

tions, and, probably, had no place among their
embellifliments.

It is proper to remark, that all the beauties of
thefe gardens were confined within themfelves.
No beauty of profpeft, or variety of ground is
mentioned, and for obvious reafons. The pri¬
vacy of a place, deftined, in a great meafure,
for the confinement of women, prevented the
former, and the limited bounds of the extent of
the garden, would not admit of the latter.

It appears probable, that, at that time, they
were ufed to have houfes in their gardens,
wherein, particularly in hot weather, they were
accuftomed to fleep at nights, which probably,
was a great part of the gratification refulting
from them. A dwelling is mentioned in the
Song of Solomon, that feems to have flood in
the garden, and was probably of this kind ;* and
it is likely, that “ the pleafant houfes,” men¬
tioned by Ezekiel, f were of a fimilar nature.

I am inclined to think, that fome ever-green
trees, particularly fome of the terebinthinate

* Chap. v. ver. 1, &c.
f Chap. xxvi. ver. 12.

Dr. Rufiel fays, that it is cuftomary for the principal
perfons at Aleppo to live at their gardens during the month
of April, and part of May. They live under tents, and
perhaps tents might be ufed in the inftance cited.

Ruflel’s Aleppo, p. 135.

kind.

joo Dr. Falconer on the Style and T ajle

kind, were favourite ornaments of the Jewifh
gardens.

The cedar is often mentioned, as a tree highly
ornamental •, and both that and the fir are fpo-
ken of in the book of the prophet Ezekiel, * as
being frequent in magnificent gardens. Dr.
RuiTel f likewife mentions, that, at prelent, at
Aleppo a cyprefs tree is generally planted in
the little gardens, in the inner courts of the
houfes, as well as in their more extenfive ones.

The next defcription of a garden, in order of
time, appears to be that of Alcinous by Homer,
This has been, generally, efteemed to be a fruit
garden for ule merely, without any view to orna¬
ment. But, I do not take this to be altogether
its charadter, though it feems to be fo in a good
meafure. Something of parterre, J planted with

flowers,

* The cedars in the garden of God could not hide him,
the fir trees were not like his boughs. Ezekiel, xxxi.
f RuiTel’s Aleppo, p. 5.

X E os noa’/u.YiTca •srfaciat 1 rcigx maTov opp^ov
ITavroi ct Tnlpvac rm emirutov ya.muaa.\.

Homeri Iliad. L. VII.

Athenasus, and the Scholiaft on Homer, underftand pot
herbs only to be meant in this place ; but the words xoa^nr cu
and yaroacrxi fee ms too ornament.il to be fo underftood,
and to be rather applicable to flowers. At any rate, they
were planned in parterre-like divifion, as the word Trpas-io.;
fignifies.

of gardening among the Ancients. jot

flowers, appears to have compofed a part of it ;
and, probably, Homer would not have bellowed
fo particular, and laboured a defcription upon
the trees, if they had not contributed to the
beauty of its appearance, as well as to the fur-
nifhing of the table with fruits.

The hanging gardens of Babylon come next,
I believe, in order of time. Thefe feem, in
many refpeflsj to have been laid out with good
tafte. Their elevation, not only produced a
variety and extent of view, but was, alfo, ufeful
in moderating the heat, which, I fuppofe, might
be the principal reafon, why fuch a conftruction
was fixed upon; though, another is affigned,
referring only to the fimilarity of appearance.
Such a fituation would, likewife, fuit a greater
variety of trees, and plants, than a plain furface,
and would contain a larger, as well as a more
diverfified extent.

The fuiting of the fituation, to the nature of
the trees, feems, from the account given by

“ Ad olerum conlitionem quadrats difpofitiones quae
dicuntur in laterculi formam” Columella.

<.'? Scholiaft, on Homer.

Was this divifion of the garden of Alcinous, fimilar to
the garden of herbs, mentioned in the Book of Kings, into
which Ahab wilhed to convert Naboth’s vineyard?

Jofephus,

302 Dr. Falconer on the Style and 'Tajlc

Jofephus, to have been one view,* in the
ere&ing the building in fiich a manner. And
the fuccefs feems to have been anfwerable, as the
trees are faid to have flourifhed extremely well, f
and to have grown as tall as in their native
lituations. On the whole then, however dif¬
ferent thefe may appear from modern gardens,
I mud confefs, I think they were formed with
judgment and tafte, and well adapted to the
lituation and circumftances.

It appears, from the nature of the ftru&ure,
that the trees, here, fhould be planted regularly,
in rows and ranks j but this was alfo in the
Perfian tafte. The garden of the younger Cyrus
at Sardis, which was all planted with his own

* - - - tv Je ton; (3xm\uou ; rowroij xvxXrifx.fx.xtx XiBivx vJ/yXot,
ctvuxoS'op/.rurxi; kxv t r\v o\J/in awoJoy; 0/x.ovatxtriv ton; opta t xxtx <pti-
tivxxv; Ihvfytcri orxvtoorxS'oi; eijitpyxo’xto xxv xxtxxxivxxx; tov
zu?\Ofx.iiiov y.pipj.X!7jov trx px'tknxav

Jofeph. contra Apionem, L. I. § 19. Extr.

•J* To & eS'xQo; i^u/x.xXix/x.ivov TrXr.pa; riv vxvtoS'xtuv <tiv}puv tav
$vvxfx.svuv xxtx ti to ptiyeQoi; xxi tr,v xXXnv %xpt v ton; Sioftivois

■^v^xytoyriffxi. Diod. L. II,

Stipites earum o£to cubitorum fpatium craflitudine
sequent: inquinquaginta pedum altitudinem emineant, et
frugiferas seque funt, ac fi terra fua alerentur.

Quint. Curt, L. V,

hands.

of gardening among the Ancients. 303

hands, was laid out in straight lines,* and, at
right angles, which was, no doubt, efteemed
the eftablifhed cuftom, of placing the trees in
gardens.

It does not, as far as I can find, appear clearly,
that flowers made a part of the ornaments of
thefe gardens ; but, we may conjedlure, they
did, from the odours mentioned to be exhaled
from the plants growing there, f which were
underftood to conftitute no fmall part of the
pleafure they afforded.

It feems probable, from feveral circumftances,
that the eaftern gardens were adjoining to the
houfe or palace, to which they belonged. Thus,
King Ahafuerus goes immediately, from the
banquet of wine, to walk in the garden of the
palace. J The garden of Cyrus, at Sardis,
mentioned by Xenophon, || was probably con¬
tiguous to the palace, as was that of Attalus,

* Ettei oe eSxvyx^iv ccvtov o Avcrxvfyoc; a; y.xhx p-s* rx S'ltfya. zir,t
•i’ ccov (St rx 7re(pvTiV(A.tva., o§8o4 cSe ot crh%oi ruv ci'ivS'guii, ivyunx
ii iroura. y.a.'Ku$ eei'. Xenoph. CEconom.

■f Oayxi oe 7roAA«i y.x i 'r,Snxi C'VVKxf’oy.xo Tony xvrotf Trentru-
rova 4 Ibidem Xenoph.

Kxi rxvrx ytr* •nnaruv oa-y.uv y.xt Qixy.xrut ctceoe^ee. Ibidem
Xenoph.

X Efther, Chap. vii. ver. 7. || CEconom.

mentioned

304 Fr. Falconer on the Style and Fajle

mentioned by Judin.* The hanging gardens
of Semiramis, at Babylon, were not fo much
adjacent to the palace, as a part of the palace
itfelf, as feveral of the royal apartments were
beneath them, f

Parks, alfo, which may be looked upon, fome-
what, in the light of gardens, were common in
the ead. The younger Cyrus, we are told by
Xenophon, J had a park at Celasnae in Phrygia,
[locked with wild beads, for the purpofes of
hunting. Plutarch || fpeaks of another, belong¬
ing to Tifiaphernes ; and inclofures of a fimilar
kind, are mentioned by other writers- §

* Juftin, L. XXXVI. C. 4.

3- At 5s tvgiyyti ret (purct Js^ootstai Tati? 0 1 aA\r>\uv v-rre^o^xt^
sroAAt*? xai TTtti’ToJ'atarat; Ii^ov 5iairot? j3otj-iAixa?.

Diodor. Lib. U.

\ Evt avBx Kv$u /3a<riA£i« nv stiJtt vrxfxhta-os y.tyxg xy^uv
•7ef.ri(i !?, ct exuvo? airo I'irnrfJ o7Tote yvy.vxaxi soevro*

^oyAoire ts y.cti Toy? iTriroy?. Anabai. L. I.

|| Vita A Icibiadis.

§ Ila^ayiveTai 5e Jtati ei? mpiftotoi, ov ftattriAsy? Sr.pctv ey.aJovv.

0E TV TU^IOV yCcJpiOV Ct-ItU A'/J^O? tV^OV 7T0 Ay, ^U^SCTV 7Tt(plVTtV

yAvov wavTo^Woi?. tv tovtu Sr,piw» -ttxvtoiuv tvx-jroyJ.uoy.nx yin j,
Tgo^»i? te ova rjorogivovro, 5i« to y.cu tuvt-siv tiruo-xyta^xi, y.xt
orxpu^ov T 03 $tt&0\U Toy Sjj^o cvt 551-utat xv j3uyA^^)eii9, (.xjto'jyiV*

Zozimi. L. III. C. 23.

Venationes Regis efle in Babylone, et omnis generis
iseftias murorum ejus tantum ambuu coerceri.

Sanft. Hieronym. in C. XIII. Efaias.

What

of gardening among the Ancients . 305

What, the tafte for gardening was, among the
Greeks, I do not underftand. The Acade-
mus, we know, was a woody fhady place ;* * * § and
the trees appear to have been of the olive
fpecies.-j- It was fituated, beyond the limits^ of
the walls, and adjacent to the tombs of the he¬
roes. I do not, however, find any particular
account in ancient hiftory, of the manner, in
which this grove was difpofed or laid out. It
appears, however, to have been an elegant orna¬
mented place. § At the entrance was an altar
dedicated to Love, which was faid to be the firffc
eredted to that Deity. Within the Academus,
were the altars of Prometheus, of the Mufes, of
Mercury, Minerva, and Hercules ; and, at a
fmall difiance, was the tomb of Plato. So that,
in all probability, it was highly adapted by art,
as well as nature, to philofophic reflection and
contemplation.

We are told by Plutarch, that before the time
of Cimon, the Academus was a rude and un-

* Atque inter Sylvas Academi quaerere verum,

Horat. Epift. L. II. 1. 46.

AAA* i»; y.a~mv, wo rcu( a7ro8p£f ei?.

Ariftoph. NfpeAai. A6t. III. Sc. 3.

J — * y’JjAVCMTtoi wpoacTSiov osAcw^Vj.

Diog. Laert. Vit. Platon.
Non longe a Muris Academia eft. Paufan. Attica.

§ Paufania; Ibidem.

Vol. I. X

cultivated

3<o6 Dr. Falconer on the Style and Fafte

cultivated fpot: but that it was planted by
that General, and had water conveyed to it;* * * §
whether this water was brought merely for ufe
to water the trees, or for ornament, does not
appear. It was divided into gymnafia, or
places of exercife, and philofophic walks, {haded
with trees. Thefe are faid to have flourifh-
ed very well, until deftroyed by Sylla,j- (when
he befieged Athens) as well as thofe in the Ly-
ceum.J

Near the Academy, were the gardens of the
philofophers,§ of Plato, || and of Epicurus,^
which, however, were probably but fmall.

The feene of Plato’s Dialogue concerning
Beauty, is elegantly deferibed, as being on the

* T>)y Axa-Sr, jjAciv uvvfyov v.uv avxuygxs xxrxppvroy

«c7roht^xi «X<ro5 vni cmtov S'|o/aoij y.ca avuy.w,

■n-s^waTsis. Plutarch Vit. Cimon.

-{• rot ; tspot; u\u vxt xv txtips

«ivtyoq>ofUT«-Tnv ovaxv, xai ro Xvxitoy. Vit. Syllae.

J The trees in the Lyceum were probably Plane trees*
Varro quotes Theophrallus, for the relation of the large
fize and extent of the roots of one in that place.

De re ruftica. Cap. XXXVIf.

§ O/z.oiw; St xu i r, ukuS^i/mu o» xuttoi rut (pCKoaatyuv.

Strabon. L. IX.

|| ... - cujus (Platonis) enim hortuli propinqui non
memoriam folum mihi afferunt, fed ipfum videntur in con-
ipeftu meo ponere. Cicero de iinib. L. V.

In Epicuri hortis, quos modo prsteribamus. Ibidem;

banks

of gardening among the Ancients. 307

banks of the river Iliflus, and under the (hade
of the Platane; but no artificial arrangement of
obje&s is mentioned, nor any thing which will
lead us to imagine the profpedl to be any other
than merely natural. The beauty of this de-
fcription was fo much admired, by fucceeding
writers of philofophic dialogues,* that it was
frequently imitated, and, at laft, to fuch a de¬
gree, that it appeared ridiculous and difguftful,
as we may fuppofe from the caution given by
Plutarchf againft fuch attempts, in the proems
to difcourfes.

The Romans feem to have early imbibed fome-
what of a tafte for gardens.

Tarquin the Proud, is faid to have commu¬
nicated his intentions to his fon, concerning his
conduit to the people of Gabii,^ by (hiking off
the heads of the flowers in his garden,

* Cicero was a great admirer of this paflage in Plato;

Qua: (Platanus) videtur non tam ipfa aquula quam Pla-
tonis oratione creviffe. De oracore. Lib. I. § 15.

•f A^eXe TS hoyov TO »VV IfOVOUOV T £ Y.X\ CXI uq

V.xi ay.a xxi \ax.xu<v tf'i xS'fOfx.xi; kcu oca. aWx Toiovrux tottu*
(Trt^afjCfjanji y7it%ptra.i rtu TlAaTviof Wiccov >;ai tov ayvot
txutot) x.Ui t vj Yiftuct -jrfojvaTV) TToan Tr.pvxtav •n’poQv/x.crtfov >j

xaMio* £7rtygx(psc$ai. Plutarch Amator. ad Initium.

x Livii Lib. I. Cap. 54.. Luc. Flor. C. 8. Dionyf. Itallic.

It appears from all thefe accounts, that the garden was
adjacent or contiguous to the palace.

X 2 I fee

308 Dr. Falconer on the Style and Tdfte

I fee but little mention made of a garden*
otherwife than as a matter of utility, to produce
articles of food, for many years after ; though I
think it probable, they might be as matters of
pleafure alfo. The writers, however, on huf-
bandry, Cato, Varro, Columella, and Palladius,
make not the lead mention of a garden, as an
object of pleafure, but folely, with refpect to its
productions of herbs and fruits ; and I do not
imagine it was among the earlieft articles of
Roman luxury. The Lucullan gardens feem to
be the firtl I can find mentioned, of remarkable
magnificence ; though, probably, from the height
of extravagance to which thefe were arrived, -
they were not the firfb. Plutarch fpeaks of them,
as incredibly expenfive, and equal to the mag¬
nificence of kings.* They contained artificial
elevations, of ground to a furprizing height, of
buildings projected into the fea, and vaft pieces
of water made upon land. In fhort, his extra¬
vagance and expence was fo great, that he ac¬
quired from thence the appellation of, the Roman

Xerxes.

•

* Plutarch. Life of Lucullus.

Salluftis thought to have alluded to the Villa of Lucullus
when, in deferibing the Roman luxury, he fays, “ Nam
quid ea memorem, qua;, nifi his qui videre, nemini credi-
bilia funt ; a privatis compluribus fubverfos montes, marra
conftrata die.” Bell. Catilin.

It

of gardening among the Ancients . 309

It is not improbable, from the above account,
and from the consideration of Lucullus having
l'pent much time in Afia, in a fituation, wherein
he had an opportunity of obferving the mod
fplendid confhudtions of this kind, that thefe
gardens might be laid out in the Afiatic ftyle.

Thevaft maflfesof building, faid to have been
ereCted, might have borne fome relemblance, in
the arrangernent and ftyle, to the Babylonian
gardens; and the epithet of the Roman Xerxes
might be applicable to the tafte, as well as the
ftze and expence, of his works.

The Tufculan Villa of Cicero, though often
mentioned, is not, as far as I can difcover, any
where defcribed in his works, fo as to give an
adequate idea of the ftyle, in which his gardens
or grounds were difpofed.

There is but little in Virgil, that I can find,
relative to this fubjeCl. Pines,* it feems pro¬
bable, were a favourite ornament in gardens,
and flowers, y rofes efpecially, were much ef~

teemed,

* Fraxinus in fylvis pulcherrima, pinus in hortis,

Populus in fluviis, abies in montibus altis :

Saepius at fi me, Lycida formofe, revifas,

Fraxinus in fylvis cedet tibi, pinus inhortis.

Virgil, Eclog. VII. 1, 65. &c.

f Fcrfitan et, pingues hortos quae cura colendi

Ornaret, canerem, biferique rofaria Paefti :

Quoque modo potis gaudcrcnt intyba rivis,

X 3

Et

3io ZV Falconer on the Style and Fajle

teemed. Some ola.nts a'fo, of the culinary Kind,
as the endive/ R parfley, and the cucumber,
were fometimes either planted as ornaments,
or elfe intermixed with plants of that kind, con¬
trary to modern practice.

I apprehend that flowers and fhrubs were plant¬
ed full as much among the Romans, for the
fake of their odour, as the beauty of their ap¬
pearance.* Perfumes were always highly valued
in warm climates. Virgil places Anchifcs t in
Elyfium, in a grove of bays, and is careful to
remark, that they were of the fweet fcented kin .%
The Pseftan rofes were chiefly valued for then-
excellent perfume; and the fame quality appears
to be the caufe, why they were placed by Ti¬
bullus 1| as ornaments to the Elyfian fields.

Etvmdes apio ripa:, tortufque per herbam
Crefceret in Ventrem cucumis; nec iera comantem
Narciflum, aut flexi tacuiflfem vimen acanthi,
Pallentefque hederas, & amantes litora myrtos.

Georgic, L. IV. L. 1X5.

* See Athenaeus paflim, & Anacreon.

J aflat odoratos Vota per Armenios. Tibulh, L. I. Eieg. 5.

f Inter odoratum lauri nemus. Virg. iEneid. VI.

I Calthaque Paeftanas vincet odore rofas.

Ovid. Ep. de Pont. L- II. El. 4.

H Floret odoratis terra benigna rofis.

TibulliL. I. Eleg. 3.
Athenaeus fpeaks of the rofe, entirely with a view to its
odour. L. XV. P. 681, 682, edit. Cafaubon.

I mult

of gardening among the Ancients , j 1 1

I muft not pafs over one piece of Roman
luxury, relative to gardens, wh is equally pre¬
valent at prefent, viz. the endeavour to produce
flowers at feafons of the year, not fuited to their
time of blowing.

Rofes were then as at prefent, the principal
flowers, upon which thefe experiments were tried,
as appears from Martial and others. *

The next .accounts of ancient gardens I can
meet with, are thofe of Pliny, which, we may
conjecture, were not only laid out according to
his own tafte, but that, alfo, of the age in which
he lived.

* Ut nova dona tibi, Csfar, Nilotica tellus
Miferat, hibernas ambitiofa rofas.

Navita derifit Pharios Memphiticus hortos,

Urbis ut intravit limina prima tus.

Tantus veris honos, et odors gratia Flora:,

Tantaque Psftani gloria ruris erat.

Si quacumque vagus greffum oculofque ferebat,

Textilibus Tertis omne rubebatiter.

At tu, Romans juflus jam cedere brums,

Mitte tuas mefles, accipe, Nile, Rofas.

Martial. Epigr. L. VI. Ep. 80.

Dat feftinatas Csfar tibi bruma coronas :

Quondam veris erant, nunc tuafa&a rofa eft.

Epigr. L. XIV. Epig. 127.

,/Eftivs nives, hiberns rofs. Lamprid. Vit. Elagab.

3 1 2 Dr. Falconer on the Style and Fajle

* •

His account of his Laurentine Villa,* relates
but little to the external arrangement of gardens
and ground, but is confined chiefly to the houfe.

It appears, however, that the Geftatio, d- or place
for horfe exercife, was bordered with box, and
where that was defective, with rofemary inter¬
twined with vines. It appears, alfo, that the
Geftatio furrounded the garden. J The Xyftus jj
likewife, or place for foot exercife, was planted
with violets, which feem to have been placed
there, on account of their odour. His defcrip-
tion of his Tufcan Villa** is more particular.
This feems to have poflTeflfed great natural
beauties, to which its pofleflfor attended with
great judgment. Its fituation appears to have
been healthy, and remarkably cool ; infomuch,
that the olive and the myrtle would not
thrive, nor perhaps, even grow there. This

* The Laurentine Villa, we are told by Pliny himfelf,
was calculated more for ufe than ornament. “ Villa
ufibus capax, non fumptuofa tuteia.”

Plin. Epift. L. II. Ep. 17.

-}- Geftatio buxo aut rore marino ube deficit, buxus ambi-
tur. Adjacet geftatione interiore circuitu vinea tenera et
umbrofa. Ibidem Plinii*

J Hortum et geftationem videt qua hortus includitur.

Ibidem Plinii.

U Ante Cryptoporticum Xyftus violis adoratus. Ibidem.

** See Pliny’s Letter to Apollinaris*

Lib- V- Epiftol. 6.

circurn-

of gardening among the Ancients. 3 1 3

circumflance, owing probably, to its proxi¬
mity to the Appennine mountains, fitted it
for a fummer refidence. It was placed in the
mid ft of a vaft natural amphitheatre, furrounded
with hills crowned with lofty and venerable
woods: Small rifing grounds of great fertility
here and there occurred, which were planted on
their fides with vines, and furrounded with
fhrubs and under-wood. The lower grounds
were full of flowers and plants, always green
and flourifhing, and, probably, on account of
the difference of temperature of the fituation,
varying from thofe of the furrounding country.
What added to the beauty of this fcene was,
that it was plentifully watered by many rivulets
from the adjacent hills, which the coolnefs of
the fituation prevented being dried up by the
fummer heats. No marfby places were, how¬
ever, to be found, but the whole of the fuper-
abundant moifture was carried off into the
Tyber, which ran through the middle of the
profpeft, and completed the beauty of the fcene,
noc only as a piece of water, but alfo, as a navi¬
gable river. The Villa of Pliny was fituated
upon one of thofe rifing grounds before men¬
tioned, and enjoyed a diftant and varied profpecl j
though the afcent to the place on which it flood
was fo gradual, as fcarcely to be lenfible to thofe
who went up to it.

After

j 14 Dr. Falconer on the Style and T afte

After this account of the natural beauties of
this elegant fituation, which its noble poffeffor
fecms to have been thoroughly fenfible of, and
to have entered into with the higheit taile and
delight, we are furprized and forry, to fee the
artificial part of the profpedt, form fo difgraceful
a contrail. The Xyilus, or court before the
portico, for walking and exercife, was parted
into numerous divifions of diverfe ihape, all
edged 'with box. The Hope lawn, or dcfcent
from thence, was bordered on the Tides with
figures of beads, cut in box trees. The interior
fpace feems to have been planted (probably here
and there only) with acanthus. Thefe were
iurrounded by a walk, (haded by ever-greens,
ihorn into different ihapes : and the whole again
incircled by a riding path, which was fecured on
the outfide by a wall, or rather mound of earth,
covered with box trees, rifing one row abdve
another, in form of fteps. Oppofite to the
middle of the portico, there was a fmall court,
forrounded by a fummer-houfe, and ihaded by
four plane trees, in the midft of which, a
fountain arofe into a marble bafon, and running
over the edges, fprinkled the trees and the grafs
underneath. In the front of the buildings, lay a
plantation of trees, in form of an Hippodrome,
open in the middle, in order that its whole extent
might be perceived at one view, and incircled
with plane trees, covered with ivy, in fuch a

manner?

of gardening among the Ancients. 3 1 5

manner, as that they appeared, in their lower
parts, to be compofed of that flirub, while their
tops flourifhed, in their native verdure and
foliage.

The ivy, fpreading from one tree to another,
conne&ed them together into an uniform appear¬
ance. Between each of the plane trees, box
were planted, and behind thefe, bay trees, which
blended their' fhade with that of the planes.
This plantation formed a fireight boundary on
each fide of the Hippodrome, and, at the end,
bent into a femicircular form, bordered with cy-
prefs trees, which ferved to vary the profpedl, and
to call a deeper and more gloomy fhade whilfl
the internal circular walks, feveral of which there
were, planted with roles, formed a contrail to the
fhade of the others. Thefe winding paths
terminated in a ftreight walk, which again
divided into feveral others, feparated from one
another by box hedges. In one place there was
a little meadow ; in another, the box was cut
into a tnoufand different forms ; fometimes, into
letters, expreffing the name of the mafter ; fome¬
times, that of the artificer ; whilfl here and there,
little o'oelifks arofe, intermixed alternately with
fruit trees ; and in the midft of this regularity
of arrangement, fo fuited to the tafle of the
inhabitants of a great city, there arofe an unex-
pefted fcene, refembling the natural beauties of

the

3 1 6 Dr. Falconer on the Style and Fajle

the country, in the center of which lay a fpot,
furrounded with dwarf plane trees.

Beyond thefe, was placed a plantation of acan¬
thus, and, as you proceeded, the trees were cut
out into various figures and fliapes. At the ter¬
mination, was an alcove feat, of white marble,
fupported by four finall Caryftian marble pillars.
Underneath the feat, the water gullied out,
through feveral fmall pipes, as if prefied out
by the weight of thofe who repofed themfelves
upon it. This water was again collected into
a Hone cittern beneath, and received, from thence,
into a poliflied marble bafon, fo artfully con¬
trived, as to be always full without overflowing;
though the means, by which this was brought
about, were not obvious to the view. We are
alfo told, that this bafon ferved, fometimes, as
a table at fupper, the larger difhes being placed
on the edge, whilH the fmaller fwam about,
in form of little (hips, and wild fowl. Corref-
ponding to this was a fountain, inceflantly filling
.and emptying; the water being thrown up to
a great heighth, and falling back into the bafon,
from whence it ran off. Fronting the alcove,
flood a marble Summer-houfp, with folding
doors, projecting and opening into a green
inclofure, fo that, from the upper and lower
windows you might diftinguifh a variety of
different verdures. Seats of marble, with foun¬
tains by their fides, were difperfed through the

gardens s

of gardening among the Ancients. 3 1 7

gardens; and throughout the whole Hippodrome,
ftreams of ivater were conveyed in pipes, to dif¬
ferent fpots, to water and refrefh the trees and
verdure.

It is obvious, that the above defcriptions bear,
a ftriking refemblance to the tafte in gardens
that prevailed in this country, and indeed
throughout Europe, towards the beginning of the
prefent century. The walks bordered with box
and rofemary ; the terrace planted with violets,
at the Laurentine Villa; and the court divided
into parterre divifions, edged with box ; the
figures of animals cut out in box trees, placed
oppofite each other, upon the Hope ; with the
furrounding walk, inclofed with tonfile ever¬
greens cut into fhapes, point out the fame re¬
femblance, in the gardens at the Tufcan Villa.
The circular amphitheatre of box, cut into
figures, and the walk, covered with graduated
fhrubs, are all exaclly in the fame ftyle. The
fountains overflowing; the marble bafons ; the
little jets d’eau about the feats, and under the
alcove; the fudden difappearance of the water;
the fpouts in the grafs ; the regular difpofition
of the trees in the Hippodrome, in lines ftraighr,
and regularly curved ; together with the arrange¬
ment of the different kinds behind each other,
make one think, Pliny was rather defcribing a
Villa of king William, or Louis XIV. than one

of

318 T>r. Falconer on the Style and T afte

of a Roman nobleman, and fenator, feventeen
hundred years ago.

Some circumflances, in the above defcription,
appear in many refpe&s, abfurd and excep¬
tionable. But let us not be too hafly in our
cenfures : but confider, whether the nature of
the climate and country may not vindicate
them, in feveral refpefts, from the imputations
which might have been juflly afcribed to them,
under different circumflances. The walks, bor¬
dered with box, a tree of clofe growth, and
faid to flourifh extremely in that fituation,
formed a convenient fhelter from the torrid rays
of an Italian fun. The fhearing of the trees,
contributed alfo to thicken their fhade, and to
render them more commodious for this purpofe ;
though, I confefs, it was not necefifary, for this
end, that they fhould be clipped into awkward
imitations of animals, &c. which, it is furpriziog
a man of the tafle of Pliny could approve. The
fence to the garden was, in Pliny’s Villa, con¬
cealed by trees, an improvement on the modern
tafle referred to ; a long range of bare brick
walling having been often efleemed an object
of beauty or magnificence.

Fountains, likewife, and jets d’eau, however
ufelefs, and therefore abfurd and unnatural, in
Great Britain and Holland, may dill be iti per¬
fectly good tafle in Italy. The difperfion of
moiflure cools the air, by the evaporation it pro¬
duces j

of gardening among the Ancients. 319

duces; and the very murmur of the falling of
water, gives the idea of coolnefs, by afibciation
of fenfations. They feem here to have been
difpofed with judgment, fome of them being
fituated near the alcove, and refting places, as
a refremment to thole fatigued with heat, and
exercife ; and others, difperled through the grais,
not to caufe a foolifh furprife, and to endanger
the health of thofe palling that way, by wetting
their cloaths, but to water the trees, cool the
ground, and refrelh the verdure ; circumftances
indifpenfable to the beauty of the feenery and
profpeft, in a hot climate.

The fame apology may, I think, be made for
the regularity of the walks, in the Hippodrome,
and the minute parts and divifions, in which it
was difpofed.

It is probable, the extent of ground itfelf was
not large. Diftant walks would be fatiguing in
an Italian fummer, and would be too much
trouble and expence to keep as clofeiy fhaded,
as would render them fufficiently agreeable.
They were, therefore, in a manner, compelled
to make as much as pofiible, out of the fpace
of ground; which they accomplished, by dividing
it into as many walks and paths as pofllble.

The parterre, likewife, parted into beds of
various fhapes, was neceflary for flowers, which
were highly valued in warm climates for their
perfume, but do not thrive, unlefs kept diflindt

and

3 20 Dr. Falconer on the Style and Fajie

and free from the proximity of other trees, or
plants.

It is remarkable here, that the tafte of the
author, for the beauties of nature, breaks out
among his defcription of the moll artificial
ornaments. Immediately after defcribing the
fence of the garden, covered with graduated
box trees, he adds, that the adjoining meadow,
was as beautiful by nature, as the garden had
been rendered by art ■, and, in another place,
mentions the contrail of the beauties of rural
nature, with thofe of art, * as one of the chief
ornaments of his garden. The fame apology
that has been made for the ftyle, in which
Pliny’s gardens were laid out, is applicable to
the eaftern gardens in general, and holds, (till
more ftrongly, as the heat becomes more con-
ftant and intenfe. We may farther obferve,
that this mode fuits the difpofition of the eaftern
people, in many other refpedls. The regularity

* Juvenal appears to have poflefied a good tafte in
gardening, and laying out grounds, from what he fays
of the artificial grottoes at Aricinum, and the attempt
to ornament the water, by fubftituting marble, in place
of its natural boundary of herbage.

In Vallem Egeriaj defcendimus, et fpeluncas
Diffimiles veris : quanto prteftantius effet
Numcn aqute, viridi ft margine clauderet undas
Herba, nec ingenuum violarent marmora tophum ?

Juvenal. Satyr. III. L. 17.

and

of gardening among the Ancients. 321

and formality of their manner of living, and
manners, correfponds with their tafte for regular
figures, and uniformity of appearance, in the
laying out of ground. It may not, perhaps,
be too great a refinement to remark, that fuch
a tafte is conformable alfo to a defpotic govern¬
ment, which is jealous of all innovations, and,
of courfe, affords no opportunity for exertions
of genius, in any capacity. It is worthy of ob-
fervation, that the regular tafte, above referred
to, prevailed in this country, at a time when
our fyftem of manners, drefs, and behaviour
was extremely ceremonious, formal, and re-
ferved, and approaching to thofe of the eaftern
countries. As this ftiffnefs wore off, the tafte
of the people improved. Shakefpeare was no
longer cenfured for inattention to dramatic ftrift-
nefs; the turgid, but regular bombaft of Black-
more, fell into difrepute and ridicule, and a
more eafy and natural ftyle was adopted, both in
fentiment and writing.

The general method of laying out grounds,
in this country, feems at prefent to be very
rational. Natural beauties, or refemblances
thereof, are chiefly attempted ; which are the
more proper, as being more conformable to
the climate and fituacion of the country, and
difpofition of the people, who are beft pleafed
with great and fublime objects, which are to
be found only in nature. The clofe walk, how-
Vol. I. Y ever

322 Dr. Falconer on the Style and Tafte

ever delightful in Italy, or Perfia, is here
judicioufly exchanged for the open grove, and
the moiflure of grafs for gravel. The tonfure
of trees is alfo laid afide not only as impairing
their beauty, but alfo, as thickening their (hade,
more than would be neceffary or agreeable,
where a free intercourfe of air is fo requifite,
to difpel damps and exhalations. Fountains,
on the fame account, are laid afide, and we
are content with the natural current of dreams,
which exhale lefs moifture, [and produce lefs
cold, than water fpouted into the air by the
fantaftic, but lefs beautiful difbri bution of it by
a jet d’eau; The gardens, or pleafure grounds,
in our country, are likewife very properly of
much larger extent, than thofe in hot climates.
Pleafure, in the latter, is always combined with
fomewhat of indolence and inaction ; in the
former, it is connected with exercife and activity.
A large l'cope of ground, therefore, that afforded
opportunity for the latter, would be more con¬
formable to the genius of the people, as well
as to the climate in which the luxurious indul¬
gence, fo delightful when the heat is intenfe,
could very feldom be fafely pradlifed. On the
whole, I am inclined to believe, that notwith-
ftanding our want of the ornaments proper for
hot climates, in our gardens and pleafure
grounds. Great Britain is capable of afford¬
ing more real and genuine beauty in views of

this

of gardening among the Ancients. 323

this kind, than is, perhaps, any where elfe to
be met with. The fine and regular verdure,
which always clothes both the earth and the
trees j the variety of the herbage, and the fize to
which oaks and other foreft trees, congenial
to the country, will arrive, impart a beauty
and magnificence to our profpeXs, and afford
opportunities for the judicious interpofition of
art, far fuperior to what is to be met with,
where thefe advantages do not occur.

We are ftruck with claffic defcriptions, and
affected by the circumftances which, by their con¬
nexion, they recall to the memory ; but fetting
thefe afide, I make no doubt, a grove of knglifh
oaks would be a more beautiful, as w'ell as a
more magnificent objeX, than “ the olive grove
of Academe,” or that of plane trees in the
Athenian L yceum.

After all, it is poffible to err in too clofely
following Nature, as it is in neglecting her.
There are beauties of the artificial kind, as well
as natural, which are proper to be introduced
into fcenes of this kind. Statues, buildings, and
other ornaments, in good tafte, and well executed,
may unite with great propriety with natural
objeXs, and heighten their effeX. I do not
fpeak of thefe ornaments, as to any particular
beauties they may individually poffels, but
merely as coinciding with the general effeX, and
nature of the profpeX. They aie, however, to

Y 2 be

3 24 Dr. Falconer on the Style and Tajle, &c.

be employed cautioufty, fince, if injudicioufly,
or even too frequently introduced, they give an
air of frivoloufnefs and affectation to the whole,
which renders it an object of contempt and
ridicule, rather than off admiration.

More, I think, might be faid againft ex¬
cluding parterres of flowers, which were fo con-
ftant attendants upon the old gardens, and fo
rarely feen at prefent. We all know, that feve-
ral kinds of flowers are exquifitely beautiful,
and that their beauty and perfection depends
on certain circumftances, relative to their cul¬
ture. Great care is necefiarv, and a feparation
from other plants, both of which fuggeft the
parterre as the moll proper and convenient way
of producing them. I confefs, parterre divifions
poflefs no remarkable beauties in themfelves,
but I think, at the fame time, that they have no¬
thing fo fhocking, to the molt delicate tafle,
that fhould hinder their being employed, when
they are the harbingers of fuch beautiful
productions of nature. A fquare, or an oblong
border, has nothing obvioufly ablurd or difguft-
ing in its appearance ; and as to its being
artificial, it may be faid in defence of it, that it
is not an imitation of any thing in nature, nor
meant to be fo, but folely calculated for utility,
as an inftrument neceflary to the production of
beauty ; and, confidered in this view, we might,
with equal reafon, object againft a houfe, as an
. unnatural.

Mr. White on the Regeneration 325

unnatural, and therefore, an improper object,
as againft the divifions of a flower parterre.

I grant, indeed, that they have been whimfi-
cally, and often abfurdly arranged, and falhioned;
but fuch I do not here defend. I only maintain
the caufe of parterres, on account of the beau¬
ties, which they are neceflary to produce: not
of any they themfelves pofiefs.

~ ~ ‘ ■ 1 1 IH Mini! ii ™ - —

On the Regeneration of Animal Substances.
By Charles White, Efq. F. R. S. &V. Read
December 18, 1782.

• f • r ( • ,.r .

r"jP H E great Author of the creation has en¬
dowed the animal world with a wonderful
power of repairing and recruiting its various
compound machines, and not only filling up
and making good loft fubftances, but in fome
inftances, of even totally regenerating parts ;
but we muft not from hence accufe him of
partiality, in not doing it in every inftance ; for
the further we carry our refearches into the
fecrets of Nature, the more we (hall be convinced
of the great and unbounded wifdom of God,
and of the extraordinary refources he has placed
in her pofteflion j

V 3

--The

326 Mr. White on the Regeneration

....... “ The firft Almighty caufe

Atts not by partial, but by general laws.

Pope’s Eflay on Man;

The Deity has drawn the line, has fixed the
limits, and has faid to Nature, hither (halt thou
go, and no further.

If this order does not appear to us to be
uniformly preferved, we muft not conclude that
it is not really fo, but that it is owing to our
{lender capacities, that we are unable to trace
his hand through all his ways,

“ See and confefs, one comfort dill mud rife,

“ ’Tis this, tho’ man’s a fool, yet God is wife. ”

Loc. citat'.

The ancients knew that a frefh broken bone
vvould unite by a callus, that wounds of the flefli
would fill up by what is called incarnation, and
would be healed over with {kin, by what is called
cicatrization. But all vain glorious boafting
man muft not from hence pretend, that he can
make a Angle fibre grow : this is the aft of
Nature only- The ableft furgeon living, can
do no more than afiift her, remove the prefent
obftacles, and prevent others being thrown in
her way.

“ Yes Nature’s road mud ever be preferr’d ;

“ Reafon is here no guide, but dill a guard.”

Loc. citat.

The moderns have carried this matter further.

I did myfelf the honour to lay before the
Boyal Society, a remarkable cafe of a broken
• ' - bone,

of Animal Sub/lances*

32 7

bone, which was inferted in the Philofophical
Tranfa&ions, vol. LI. part the fecond, for the
year 1760, in which Nature was difappointed
of her ufual method of throwing out a callus,
and after more than fix months had elapfed,
without an union j when all obftacles were re¬
moved, by cutting off the ends of the bone, the
offeous matter fliot out as freely as if it had
been from a recent frafture, and the broken bone
was perfe&ly united. Since the publication of
this cafe, a great number of fimilar ones have
occurred both to myfelf and others, which incon-
teftably prove, that though Nature is difappointed
in her work, even for a long time together, yet,
when all obftruftions are removed, flae is ever
ready to exert herfelf.

In the year 1768, I cut off the upper head of
the os humeri of Edmund Poilit, aged fourteen,
whofe cafe is related in the LIX. volume of the
Philofophical Tranfaftions. This was much
corroded with matter, part of it confumed, and
followed by an exfoliation of a large piece of the
whole fubftance of the bone j yet the head neck,
and part of the body of it were a&ually regene¬
rated, and the entire ufe of the joint preferved.

Mr. William Johnfton, furgeon at Dumfries,
has given 11s a cafe in the Edinburgh Medical
JSflays, * where the whole tibia, the principal

• Vol. V. p. 452.

Y 4

328 M. White on the Regeneration

bone of the leg, being caft off by exfoliation,
was regenerated, and was, in a little time, as
ufeful as the old one.

Mr. Le Cat mentions a cafe in the Philofo-
phical Tranfactions,* of a child of three years old,
from whom he extrafled the entire tibia, exoftofed
and carious in its whole extent, between the two
articulations} which had remained found: this
great deficiency of bony fubftance was entirely
fupplied again by nature, and the patient re¬
gained a new tibia, much firmer than that which
he had loft.

In the fame place, he relates the cafe of an
adult perfon where he took out three inches and
ten lines of the bone of the upper arm, which
was followed by a regeneration of bony matter.
In this cafe the form of the bone, as well as its
natural length, was preferved, ft

Both in compound luxations and in caries,;};
the heads of the principal bones, and confider-
able portions of their bodies have been fawn
off, and regenerated, fuch as the tibia, fibula,
humerus, radius, ulna, thumb, and finger} the
bones were little or no fhorter, and new joints
were formed, with fuch a degree of motion,
that the patients found little or no inconve¬
nience, and were able to follow their bufinefs
as well as ever.

* Vol. LVI. p. 270.

+ Gooch’s Cafes, vol. I. p. 323.

} Phil. Tranf. vol. LIX. p. 39.

Dr.

of Animal Suhjlances. 329

Dr. Hunter, in his reflections on cutting the
fymphyfis of the pubis,* fays, Cf as to any pro¬
perty which living ligaments poflfefsof ftretching,
under violence, permitting diflocations without
laceration, I have long taught, that though a
very general opinion, it feems not to have been
founded in obfervation. Ligaments will not
allow of diflocations in dead bodies without la¬
ceration ; and elaflicity to any degree either in
ligaments or tendons, would ill agree with their
ufe in living bodies, which is to keep the parts
ftrongly together; and accordingly, fince this
opinion has routed attention and examination,
every cafe of a recent diflocation that I have
known examined, has been found complicated
with a laceration of the ligaments.”

Mr. John Hunter, in his Chirurgical Leflures
goes further, and lays, “ that a luxated bone not
reduced, by prefling againft another bone, digs a
cavity for itfelf, which gets cartilaginous edges
and cartilage on all itsfurface; nay, a fynovial
gland fecreting fynovia, and a new joint is fet up.
In the fraCture of a bone, though the parts be
thrown at fome diftance, a callus is formed,
which unites them. It is agreeable to the fame
uniformity of operation, that when a bone is
broken, which v/as originally formed in a nidus
of cartilage, the renovated bone alfo forms in
cartilage; while a bone, originally formed in

* Letter to Dr. Vaughan, p. 86.

membrane,

330 Mr. White on the Regeneration

membrane, when it is partially deftroyed, is re¬
produced in membrane.” All furgeons muft have
cbferved this, that in old diflocations which have
not been reduced, there is always fome degree
of motion more or lefs in the diflocated joint,
except it has been complicated with a fra&ure.

In a converfation I lately had with Dr. Monro,
he confirmed Dr. Hunter’s opinion, with the
relation of the two following difle&ions. He
immerfea a dead child in warm water, till it was
perfectly foft and flexible; he then diflocated
the ftioulder. Upon difledling the parts, he
found the capfular ligament lacerated.

A man in Edinburgh was killed by a fall from
a horfe, and his fhoulder was at the fame time
diflocated Upon difieftion in this cafe allb, he
found the capfuiar ligament lacerated.

Dr. Monro told me, he did not in the leaf!;,
doubt what Mr. John Hunter had advanced on
this fubjedt ; and informed me, that he had a
cafe, laft winter, of a patient who had an exfolia¬
tion of half the lower jaw, particularly of the
whole condyle on the left fide ; the loft part was
regenerated, he had the entire ufe of the jaw,
and the joint was as perfect as on the other fide,
except being a little fuller, and attended with
a trifling degree of hardnefs. I had the fatisfac-
tion of feeing the exfoliated bone amongft his
valuable collection, and found the head of the
bone perfect, except a little carious on one fide.

of Animal Subflances. 33 1

In the fame collection I faw an aftragalus, (one
of the bones of the foot) which had come away
entire, and the patient, as Mr- Fyfe informed
me, had the perfeCl ufe of his foot and ancle.
I likewife faw in the fame place, a thigh bone,
which had been broken, the ends had not co-
aptated, but had overfhot each other three inches,
and were perfectly united- Cafes of this fort
I have often feen, and have now a thigh bone
by me, united in the fame manner ; but in
that bone in the poffeflion of Dr. Monro, there
is this circumftance, which I had never before
obferved, (hat the fides of the bone had not
approximated each other, but in one point.
The callus had fhot out in fuch a manner as to
form cancelli, and the void fpace had all the
appearance of having contained a medullary fub-
ftance. Dr. Monro told me he had a whole chefl:
of regenerated bones in his poffeflion. He like¬
wife deferibed to me the following experiment,
he had made.

He laid open the abdomen of a pig for feveral
inches, in fuch a manner, that the inteftines
protruded; which convinced him, that all the
integuments were completely divided. He then
reduced the inteflines, and fewed up the wound.
After it was perfectly united, he killed the pig.
He then made incifions above and below, and on
one fide of the cicatrix ; after which, he injefted
the aorta; and, though there was not a poflibility

33 2 Mr' White on the Regeneration

of the inje&ion entering but on one fide of the
cicatrix, yet the arteries, on both Tides, were
perfectly injedted, a convincing proof, that they
muft have regenerated, for it cannot be fup-
pofed that the mouths of fo many fmall veffels
could poffibly have coaptated, fo as to have con¬
tinued the circulation through the cicatrix.
I had the fatisfadlion of feeing both the pre¬
paration and an engraving from it, which, it
is hoped, the dodlor will favour the public with,
together with the feveral other valuable experi¬
ments.*'

Teeth have regenerated in every period of
life. Mr. Thornton, a very ingenious medical
fludent at Edinburgh, informed me, that he had
a found tooth drawn by miftake fome years ago,
which as foon as he found out he immediately
replaced. It grew again, and was as good in
every refpedl as any other. But in procefs of
time, this tooth began to decay, and give him
pain, which became exquifite whenever the tooth
was touched, even in the flightefl manner. He
therefore had it drawn, and one of the fangs was
found to be carious. From this it is very evi¬
dent, that nerves will grow again, after being
difunited.

* Since this paper was read before the Society, Dr. Monro
has publifhed his ufeful and ingenious obfervations on the
nervous fyftem, with the engravings of thefe preparations.
Vid. Tab. XLVI. and Tab. XL VII.

Mr,

JP '/ate HI

/dr /nr .t/rti/.i fAe yi/ace u/drrr /dr ,*/}/.

'-/ try / // ts//rr).

cf Animal Subjlances. 33 3

Mr. Cruikfhanks, in his Letter to Mr. Clare,
p. 87, fays, “ Not only the brain, but the nerves
alfo, appear to have other properties than we have
hitherto apprehended. Some years ago, I de-
monftrated, by experiments on living animals,
that nerves divided unite again ; and that when
portions had been cut out, they were regene¬
rated : in both inftances the animals perfe&ly
recovered. Thefe experiments I hope foon to
be able to lay before the public ; meantime I
am happy to find, they have been recently con¬
firmed by fo great authority, as the Abbe Mon¬
tana, to whom I communicated my difcovery,
and fhewed my preparations of united and rege¬
nerated nerves.”*

Mr. Gooch has given us a remarkable cafe of
the cuticle and nails, f being frequently caft off
and regenerated, particularly in the feet and
hands, fometimes twice in a year. Thofe of the
hands were caft off whole, anc[ we are furnifhed
with an engraving of a pair of thefe cuticular
gloves.

* Dr. Monro, in the work before mentioned, has given
a plate (Vid. Tab. XIV.) to lhew the regeneration of the
fciatic nerves, which had been divided in living frogs, and
dilfecled twelve months after. The regenerated parts are
of a darker colour than the original nerves, which proves,
that there was not a mere coaptation of the divided ends.

f Philofophical Tranfaftion?, vol. LIX. p. 281.

There

334 A//'. White on the Regeneration

There is another fimilar cafe related by Mr.
Latham, * but with this difference, that this
patient did not caft her nails.

By performing the operation for the cure of
the aneurifm, feveral inches of the trunks of the
principal arteries, both of the arm and the thigh,
have been deftroyed ; yet in a few days, the cir¬
culation through the whole limb, has been car¬
ried on, as perfectly, as before the operation.
The method, which nature has taken for accom-
plifhing this bufinefs, may be feen by an engrav¬
ing f from a preparation which I made, and
which Dr. Hunter has done me the honour to give
a place amongft his valuable collection.

There is a very extraordinary hiftory of a glans
penis regenerated after amputation, related by
Mr. Jamifon, furgeon at Kello, and inferted in
the Edinburgh Medical Effays.ff; The young
man was married, in that country, about two
years after the cure, has had two children, and
complains not of want or defedt even in fenfatioi^.

Crabs and lobfters caft their fiiells, both from
their bodies, less, and claws, and even caft their
ftomachs, generally every year, which are im¬
mediately regenerated. The fhell is renewed
by a fluid, which they ejedt •, and it inverts their
whole body, growing hard and dry, in a fhorr

* Philof. Tranfa&ions vol. LX. p. 451.

f See my Cafes in Surgery, p. 140.

J Vol. VI. p. 434.

time.

of Animal Subftances.

time, and becoming as ftrong a ftiell, as that
which they had before. But, what is more ex¬
traordinary, they frequently lofe a leg or a claw
in their combats, which are very frequent and
furious : the loft part will be regenerated in about
three weeks, and be almoft of its natural fize.
Brown, in his hiftory of Jamaica, informs us,
that the claw of the violet crab, in feizing its
food, catches fuch an hold, that the animal lofes
its limb foon'er than its grafp ; the claw conti¬
nuing its retentive power for above a minute,
whilft the crab is moving off.

In the polypus, not only young ones will grow
out like warts from different parts of the body,
drop off, live, and grow ; but you may cut them
into a thoufand pieces, and turn them infide out,
and they will ftill live, and do well ; this is ac¬
counted for by its whole body being compofed
of ftomach and parts of generation. The latter
not being peculiar organs, but merely particles
of the ftomach, which are its body, each part
of which has the power of producing the like.
Its food is converted into chyle, in the ftomach ;
ablorbents opening into the part, take up the
chyle, and thefe, at fome diftance from their
mouths, become arteries.

If the Affinia JJrtica Marina , Animal flower , or
Sea Anemone be cut through the middle, either
tranfverfely or longitudinally, both parts will
furvive the operation. Nay further, if you rear

them

3

Mr. White on the Regeneration

them from the rock orfliell, to which they gene¬
rally adhere, and a fhred is left behind, it will
become a frefh and perfect animal.

The earth-worm and fea-worm will live after
being cut in two ; but, what is mod furprizing,
the fmall red headed earth-worm, being cut in
two, both extremities furvive the operation ; the
head produces a tail, with the anus, the intef-
tines, the anular mufcles, and the prickly beards :
the tail on the other hand, is feen to fhoot forth
the noble organs, and, in lefs than three monthsj
fends forth a head, heart, together with all the
apparatus and indruments of generation. Thefe
parts, as may be eafily fuppofed, were produced
much flower than the former; a new head taking
nearly three months for its completion ; a new
tail (hooting forth in lefs than as many weeks.
The lizard, and alfo the viper cad their (kin,
and fome fay their tail, and even their eyes; and
the lea (lug is faid to cad its head ; all which are
regenerated.

The buck cads its horns every fpring, which
are reproduced in a few months. But if he be
cadrated when young, he will have no horns at
all, or fmall buds only, and thofe foft to the
touch, like velvet, and void of firmnefs. Dr.
Ruffel informs us, that he had two old bucks
cadrated at the end of February, and their horns
dropped off, the twenty-fird of March following ;
fo that the fall of their horns was anticipated

five

' of Animal Sub/lances. 337

five weeks at leaff. Thefe horns were renewed,
next year, and were longer than the buck’s of
the fame age; but the palms, or collateral
branches, were lefs and fhorter, and neither the
velvet of the horns, nor the horns themfelves
were ever call afterwards.

I fhall now beg leave to lay before the Society,
two cafes, that have not been publifhed, in order
to prove ftill further the dodtrine I have been
endeavouring to eftablifh.

Roger Nuttal, of Bury, twenty years of age,
was admitted an in-patient of the Manchefter
infirmary under my care, on the 23d of January,
1775, f°r a tumor on his back- Upon dripping
off his Ihirt, to (hew me the tumor, 1 was (truck
with a very Angular appearance of a (tump of
the right humerus. 1 alk^d him, if he was born
with it in that form, or whether his arm had
been taken off. He informed me, that Mr. Kay
Allen had taken his arm off clofe to the
fnoulder, when he was but four years old, and
that the (lump was grown again to that length,
which feemed to be about eight inches longer
than he defcribed it to have been, immediately
afcer the amputation. I enquired both of his
mother, and Mr. Allen, as to the truth of his
relation, which they both confirmed ; and the
latter, with this addition, that the arm was taken
off, as near the Ihoulder, as the application of
the tournequet would permit. The bone had

Yor.. I. Z every

338 M. White on the Regeneration

every degree of firmnefs, and folidity, and the
ftump was warm to the extreme point, and he
informed me, was perfectly fenfible when
touched. Along with this, you will receive a
drawing of the young man, and the appearance
which the flump made, executed by your in¬
genious Secretary Mr. Bew, at the time the

patient was at the Infirmary.

Some years ago, 1 delivered a lady of rank
of a fine boy, who had two thumbs upon one
hand, or rather, a thumb double from the fir ft
joint, the outer one rather lefs.than the other,

‘ each part having a perfect nail. When he was
about three years old, I was defired to take
off the leffer one, which I did ; but to my great
aftonifhment it grew again, and along with it,
the nail. The family afterwards went to refide
in London, where his father (hewed it to that
excellent operator, William Bromfield, Eiq. fur-
aeon to the Queen’s houfehold, who faid, he
fuppofed that Mr. White, being afraid of
damaging the joint, had not taken it wholly out,
but he would diffed it out entirely, and then
it would not return. He accordingly executed
the plan, he had defcribed, with great dexterity,
and turned the ball fairly out of the focket;
notwithftanding this, it grew again, a fiefii nail
was formed, and the thumb remains in this ftate.

The conclufions I would draw from thefe

fads, are, that, in the human fpecies, not only

fiefh.

339

of Animal Subjlances.

flefh, fkin, and bones, may be regenerated, but
membranes, ligaments, cartilages, glands, blood
veflels, and even nerves; and this for the wifeft
purpofes, that every part may be repaired in its
own kind, and in fome manner reftored by the
coagulable lymph, which is poured out, and
becomes vafcular, and forms organized parts.

By this wife provifion of nature, the many
accidents to which we are continually expofed,
are often more compleatly repaired, than arc
could be able to accomplish-

In fome animals, we fee this regenerating
and living principle, carried ftill to a much
greater length, where not only whole limbs,
but even the more noble organs are reproduced.

The ftudy of nature is not only engaging and
pleafant to a high degree, but it infpires us with
fuch a refpedl and admiration of the Almighty
Being, that it is impofTible either for a Naturalift
or an Anatomift to be an Atheift.

They have conftantly before their eyes fo
many wonderful living machines, differently
wrought, yet fo compleatly fafhioned, and all
tending to one great point, the preservation
of themfelves and their fpecies ; in which, there
are fo many orders of veffels, one depending
upon another, yet compfeat in themfelves ;
capable of repairing injuries they may fuftain,
and even of reftoring loft fubftances j that
men, who daily fee fuch obje&s, muft be con-

Z 2 vinced.

340 Mr. White on the Regeneration, &c.

vinced, that thcfe admirable fabrics cannot have
proceeded from chance, but muft have been
the work of an Omnipotent Creator, who has
formed them with the mod perfect wifdom, and
attention to their feveral intereds and fituations ;

“ And fpite of pride, in erring reafon’s fpite,

“ One truth is clear. Whatever is, is right.”

Pope’s ElTay on Man.

P. S. Mr. Parke, of Liverpool, in a Pamphlet
he has lately publifhed, intitled, “An account
of a new Method of treating Difeafes of the
Joints of the Knee and Elbow,” has given us
a cafe, which fell under the care of Mr. Wain-
man, of Skipton in Craven ; and, as it is perhaps
the fulled: confirmation, that can pofiibly happen,
of the regeneration, of not only the head of a bone,
but of the capfular ligtiment, and fynovial glands,
and even every appendage of a joint, it may, per¬
haps, be thought to be a proper fupplement to
this paper. 1 fhall therefore give the cafe in
Mr. Wainman’s own words. He defcribes it,
as “ a violent luxation of the cubitus, occafioned
by a fall from a horfe in full fpeed, which forced
the os humeri, through the common integuments,
a confiderable length into the ground, and the
bone was quite denudated.” He adds, “There
was not a pofllbility of reducing it, and I
thought it mod eligible to take off the limb,

which

On Hunting , Shooting , &c, 341

which the family objected to. I called in Dr.
Taylor, who was of my opinion ; but it would
not be complied with. We then judged it bed
to faw off the os humeri, which I did, about
an inch above the finus that receives the
olecranon. I then placed the arm, in fuch a
pofition, as I thought would be mod advanta¬
geous, prognofticating, that an anchylofis would
enfue, in which 1 was miftaken j the perfon is
now living, and can perform all the motions of
the joint, which is as flexible, as if nothing
had ever been amifs.”

BP

An Essay on /^Diversions ^/Hunting, Shoot¬
ing, Fishing, &c. confidered as compatible with
Humanity. Read January 15, 1783.

\X7'HILST the general conftitution of fociety
remains, fuch as that no man, however
obfeure, can be confidered as unconnected with
the reft of his fpecies; whilft, in every fituation,
our conduCt and fentiments, in fome degree,
invariably produce an influence on thofe of
others; no inquiry, which refpeCts the genuine
piotive of fuch actions, as are frequently com-

Z 3 mitted.

342 On Hunting , Shooting , &c.

mitted, whether their objeCt be, the pleafure of
the individual, or the benefit of fociety, ought
to be regarded as unworthy of ferious attention.

The prevailing, though much to be lamented
propenfity of individuals, to juftify their own
failings, by the detection of fimilar weaknefs in
fuperior characters, renders fuch an inveftigation
the more neceffary •, and if, in the profecution
thereof, it fhould appear, that unworthy motives
have been erroneoufly afcribed to fome aCtions,
which may be traced to a different fource ; or
that from the peculiar conftitution of human
nature, fome weakneffes are infeparable from
kindred excellence; fuch difeoveries would prove
ufeful acquifitions to our fund of knowledge ;
they would tend to reCtify the miftaken con¬
ceptions of the ignorant, or to improve the
diferiminating faculty in t'nofe, who are moft
eafily feduced by the influence of exam; le.

In reafoning concerning a fpecies of animals,
which we fuppofe, governed by a principle
fuperior to that of inftinCt, it is defirable to
trace a confiftency between fentiments and
aClions, as on this alone, our claim to virtue and
to reafon feems founded. On a fuperficial
furvey, however, fuch a confiftency appears
but ill fupported in the conduCt of thofe, who,
whilft they difeharge all the moral duties, and
in an efpecial manner, praCtife the virtues of
hofpitality, humanity, and benevolence, are

yet

On Hunting , Shooting , &c. 343

yet capable of difcovering confiderable pleafure
from thofe amufements, the profeflfed objed of
which is, to deprive of life an innocent animal,
unacquainted with thofe defires which fpring
from luxury, and afking no more of the bounties
of our common Parent, than is neceflfary to its
own fupport and exiftence.

To be prompted to fuch adions, not from
any neceflity ro gratify the wants of nature, but
folely from the defire of amufement, appears,
at firft view, repugnant to every principle of
humanity, and feems more charaderiftic of the
ferocity of a favage, than of the clemency of a
civilized being. What then fhall we conclude!
Are there no charaders exempt from incon-
fiftency ? Or is virtue an empty name, without
precife meaning ? The mind (brinks with
averfion from either conclufion. Let us there¬
fore take a more intimate view of the motives
to fuch adions, and, perhaps, they may admit
a folution, Kfs repugnant to our feelings.

From the attributes juftly afcribed to the
benevolent Author of our exiftence, we may
fafely conclude, that every propenfity, with
which the human mind is endowed, is not only
neceflfary, but even conducive to our happinefs,
whilft indulged in a proper degree. This is
not more true, of the mild and gentle difpo-
fitions, thofe which feern to be houriftied by the
£t milk of human kindnefs,” than of our more

Z 4 adive

344 Oh Hunting , Shooting , &V.

a&ive and lively propenfities, thofe which excite
to the moft vigorous and toilfome exertions.

The love of fame gives a glow, an enthufiafm,
to the feelings of the poffeiTor, when ci'cum-
fcribed within proper limits, which leads him
to combat fatigue and danger, to triumph over
toil and difficulty, and fmile amidft the anguifh
of pain and death. Yet the fame paffion, uncon-
troled by reafon, hath prompted the mod abject
fubmiffion, the moft licentious excefs; it hath
produced the moft baneful dilorders in fociety,
and, inftead of deifying human nature, hath
made earth the abode of thofe fpirits, which the
poets have afligned to the confines of Tartarus.

We may remark the fame, of every other
difpofition of the human mind, in the exercife
of which, the excefs, or the deficiency alone is
injurious; but there is none, the limited ufe
■whereof, doth not contribute to the happinefs
of the individual, and the good of fociety.

Not to wander, however, too far from our
fubjedt, let us, for a moment, confider man
in a date of nature, whilft he is yet unacquainted
with the bleffings which fpring from civilization,
or has conceived an idea of pleafure, fuperior
to that which arifes from the gratification of his
appetites. His own perlonal fafety, with that
of thofe who are dependent on his prote<51ion,
joined to the daily cravings of nature, firft dictate
the neceftity of waging war with many of thofe

animals*

On Hunting, Shooting, &c. 345

animals, with whom he hath hitherto lived “joint
tenant of the (hade.”

Perhaps thefe neceftities, however, would not
always be fufficient to overcome that love of
eafe, whitft is fo natural to a ftate, wherein men
feem only a fmall degree elevated above the
rank of brutes. Perhaps, if other inducements
were not fupperadded, he would not be ftudious
to plan, bold to refolve, and adtive to engage
in thofe dangers and enterprizes, without which,
he mull frequently be deprived of this fpecies
of food, and obliged to fubftitute others, more
eafily gained, but lefs adapted to the health and
vigour of the animal ceconomy. Without in¬
filling too much on thefe prefumptive reafons,
it is certainly a kind provifion in the conftitution
of man, that thofe exertions, which are dictated
by neceffity, fhould alfo be infpired by inclina¬
tion ; and that, whilft his employment is made
fubfervient to the means of his exiltence, it
fhould alfo become a principal inftrument of his
pleafures.

Thefe remarks, however, principally apply to
the rude and favage ftate of man, which, happily
for fociety, is now almoft unknown. There is
no longer a neceffity for an individual to be
fiimfelf the executioner of the animal deftined
to his fubfiftence ; yet, as hunting, (hooting,
angling, &c. are dill purfued, with as much
avidity as formerly, it is necefiary, if we propofe

to

34 6 On Huntings Shooting, &c.

tojuftify thefe diverfions, to attempt it on prin¬
ciples, which apply to a ftate, wherein men are
humanized, by laws and government, and by
the refining influence of arts, fciences, and re¬
ligion.

It will be generally allowed, that the health
and vigour of the intellectual, as well as of the
corporeal fyftem, require frequent exercife, and
that their very exiftence almofl: depends upon it.
It is alfo pretty evident, that to induce fuch a
degree of exertion as vyill promote thefe ends,
there mult be fomething to ftimulate and incite ;
the final caufe being too remote an objeCt.
Hence, every amufement which exercifes the
powers and faculties of man, if not improperly
expenfive, nor necefiarily attended with a negleCt
of more noble and important purfuits, is, in
this point of view, not only not cenfurable, but
meritorious.

Such, however, is the conftitution of man,
that health alone will not fatisfy his afpirations
after happinefs •, and it is clear, that exer¬
cife is not more necefiary to the perfe&ion of
his faculties, than to the promotion of his
pleafures. In the words of an elegant writer,
equally diftinguifhed for depth of thought, and
benevolence of character.* “ Labour is the
chief ingredient of the felicity to which man

* See the Stoic, Hume’s Eflays.

afpires,

On Hunting , Shooting , &c. 347

afpires, and all his enjoyments foon become in-
fipid and didafleful, when not acquired by fa¬
tigue and induftry. See the hardy hunters rife
from their downy couches, fhake off the (lum¬
bers which dill weigh down their heavy eye lids,
and ere Aurora has yet covered the earth with
her flaming mantle, haden to the fored. They
have behind, in their own houfes, and in the
neighbouring plains, animals of every kind,
whofe fle(h furnifhes the mod delicious fire, and
which offer themfelves to the fatal ftroke. La¬
borious man difdains fo eafy a purchafe. He feeks
for a prey, which hides itfelf from his fearch, or
flies from his purfuit, or defends itfelf from his
violence. Having exerted in the chafe, every
paflion of the mind, and every member of the
body, he then finds the charms of repofe, and
with joy compares its pleafures to thofe of his
engaging labours.”

If exercife, then, be neceffary to the health and
well-being of man 3 if it be alfo neceffary to
thofe pleafures, for which nature hath infpired
him with the third ; and if hunting, (hooting
and fifhing furnifh dimulating motives, which,
in their abfence, it would not be eafy to fupply;
thefe diverfions may be edeemed both innocent
and virtuous, whild confidered folely with re-
fpetfl to the agentj and it remains only to
examine, how far, to the united motives of
pleafure and advantage to man, other reafons
. may

348 0« Hunting , Shooting , &V.

may be added, in juftification of actions, which
refpedt the lives and happinefs of the brute
creation.

Man, as lord of the creation, regards every
Other animal as intended for his necefiary ufe,
and fubfervient to his reafonable purpofes. This
prerogative feems to have been intended for him
in the original conftitution of things ; and it is
fully evident, that the proper exercife of it, is not
more favourable to his own, than to the general
good. Of fome animals he prolongs the lives,
and provides for the fupport, to make them con¬
ducive to his own convenience. Others, doomed
to contribute to his fuftenance, are cut off ere
they attain maturity.* Even if it were not
expedient to facrifice thefe to the indifpenfible
wants of man, necejfity would equally prompt
him to their deftrudiion ; fince, if they were
left uninterruptedly to provide for their own
fupport, and to propagate their fpecies, their
increafe would foon be incompatible with
his exiftence, and probably, with that of their
own.

It would, perhaps, be too hafty an affertion,
to affirm, that death to brutes is no evil. We
are not competent to determine, whether their
evidence, like our own, may not extend to fome

* In the laft clafs may be enumerated moll of the vi&im?
to the diverfions we fpeak of.

future

; \ t c

On Hunting) Shooting , &c. 549

»

future mode of being, or whether the prefent
limited fphere is all in which they are interefted!
On fo fpeculative a queftion, little could be
advanced with precifion ; nor is it neceffary
for the inveftigation of the fubjeCt before us.
If we may be allowed to reafon only from
what we know, it may lafely be conjectured,
that death to brutes is no pofitive evil ; we
have no reafon to believe, they are indued
with the gift of forefight, and therefore, even
admitting that with them the pleafures of life
exceed its pains and its cares, in terminating
their exiftence, they only fuffer a privation of
pleafure.

Though the tie of natural affeCtion is, per¬
haps, not lefs ftrong in brutes, than in the human
fpecies, yet it is often necefiarily diftolved, and
of much Ihorter continuance. It is alfo to
be remembered, that, on the prefent plan of pur-
fuing thefe diverfions, fuch a regard is had to
the circumftances and fituation of animals, that
no helplefs, feeble progeny is left to bewail the
lofs of an affeCt ion ate parent ; or, from the want
of its providence and protection, to perifh from
expofure to rapacious animals, or the more
cruel attacks of want and famine. The fate
of an individual may, therefore, be confidered as
unconnected with that of any of its fpecies; and
if it be allowed, that an untimely period of its
exiftence is not to it any evil, the mode of its

fuffering

350 On Hunting , Shooting , &c.

buffering death, will not only be no objection to
the diverfions we fpeak of, but will furnifh rea-
fons of confiderable weight in their favour.

The tie of natural affection, it hath already
been obferved, is not weak among# brute ani¬
mals; but it may be remarked, that though in
many cafes it is fo ftrong in parents towards
their progeny, the refle&ed attachment feems to
fubfift, only whilfl the young offspring are in¬
capable of providing for themfelves. When
they attain to maturity, the connection is, in mod
cafes, diffolved, and the relationfhip forgotten.
How pitiable then mull be the fituation of that
animal, whom age, with its attendants, weaknefs
and difeafe, hath reduced to a feeble and lielp-
lefs ftate, incapable of providing for itfelf the
neceffary fubfiflence, a prey to continual appre-
henfion from thofe animals whofe attacks it is
unable to fly from or repel ; and at length lan-
guifhing to the period of its exiftence, confumed
by famine and wafted by difeafe ? Compare with
the fate of fuch an animal, that of the timid
hare. She meets the opening morn in health
and vigour, and with playful frolic wantons on
yon upland hill, enlivened by the beams of the
rifingfun. No feeble pulfe, or languid eye, in¬
dicate a dilordered frame; no anticipation of her
approaching fate infpires her with apprenenfion.
All is gay and lively, like the profpeCl around
her. On a iudden, however, the fcene is changed,

the

On Hunting , Shooting , &c. 351

the echoing of the horn refounds from the adja¬
cent valley, and the cry of the deep-mouthed
hounds thunders towards the hills. She becomes
motionlefs with fear, when a fecond alarm roufes
her from her trance fhe flies, and with eager
fleps feems to outftrip the winds. Men, horfes,
and dogs inftantly join in the chace, and the
foreft echoes to the wild uproar. The hare
doubles — the fwiftnefs of her fpeed abates — fear,
more than fatfgue, retards her flight — fhe faints
at the noife of the approaching hounds — re¬
doubles to elude their purfuit — her feeble limbs
are unable to perform their office — and now — •
breathlefs and exhaufted, fhe is overtaken, and
torn in pieces by her mercilefs purfuers.

Such a doom feems fevere, and hard is the
heart which doth not commiferate the fuffierer. Its
apparent feverity will, however, be much miti¬
gated, if we confider the quick tranfition, from
perfedt health to the expiring conflidt. Death,
brought on by difeafe, or the decay of nature,
would be much more to be dreaded ; and com,
pared therewith, the fate of the partridge from
the gun of the fowler, or of the trout by the rod
of the angler, is mild and enviable.

To recapitulate then what hath been advanced
on this fubjedt — We have feen the human mind,
in every age, endowed with a ftrong, natural in¬
clination to thefe diverfions. In the favage
ftate, we have feen, that the fituation of man

renders

35 ~ On Hunting , Shootings &c,

renders fuch a propenfity abfolutely necefiary j
we have feen it become, at once conducive to
his convenience, and his pleafures ; we behold
him emerge, from a rtate of uncivilization, into
polifhed life. This propenfity ftill accompanies
him ; it ftimulates him to exercife the efficient
caufe of health j it infpires him with a love of
induftry and aftivity, the certain fource of true
pleafure ; he becomes habituated to fatigue and
exertion, defpifes danger and difficulty, nor
dreads expofure to thofe elements, from whofe
feverity he acquires ftrength of body, with vigor
and firmnefs of mind. We have feen, with re-
fpeft to brute animals, thar, being dcftined for
the ufe of man, in depriving them of exigence,
he difturbs not the order and intention of nature;
that, in facrificing them to his pleafures, he nei¬
ther deftroys nor diminifhes their portion of
enjoyment ; and that, in exercifing the preroga¬
tive with which he is inverted, if he were not
thus prompted by inclination, he would be com¬
pelled by neceffity.

It may be urged, if not as an argument in
favour of thefe diverfions, yet as a circumftance
which fhould incline us to caution in condemning
them, that they are purfued by many indivi¬
duals, who are diftinguifbed for thofe virtues
of the heart ; which feem totally inconfirtent with
thoughtlefs or with intentional cruelty ; and

which

\

On Hunting , Shooting , &c. 353

which are at once the ornament and the blefftngs
of fociety.

T he Patriot, or the Citizen, who, anxious for
the good of his country, and of mankind, bends
all his thoughts and all his faculties to the pro¬
motion of the public weal ; who facrifices the
comforts of eafe and of repofe, foregoes the fweets
of domeftic blifs, nor is with-held by the charms
of focial conmfe, when his exertions can tend
to relieve the unfortunate from the burden
of afflidion, and to enliven the face of forrow
with fmiles of joy ; will yet, when leifure, from
thefe more noble occupations permits, join in
the pleafures of the chafe — arreft the pheafant
in his aerial flight — or enfnare the inhabitants
of the dimpled lake. And furely the heart,
that makes “ all human weal and woe its own,”
cannot rejoice in acts of inhumanity — Surely
the generous pafllons of philanthrophy and? bene¬
volence, can never infpire or accompany a cruel
deed !

It would exceed the limits of this Eflay, to
take a comprehenfive view of the human mind,
which yet is not unneceffaiy in the inveftigation
of this fubjed. It might then, perhaps, appear,
that amidft all the variety and eccentricity, which
the contemplation of a given charader prefents,
the primary difpofltions, the original motives,
and fprings of adion, are extremely few. If

Vol. I. A a this

f

354 On Hunting , Shooting , lie.

this were proved, the Teeming inconfiftency
between many of the a&ions of an individual
muff difappear ; as it would be unfair to reafon
from any partial view of his character.

Perhaps the difpofitions, which incline us to
thefe diverfions, are the fame which, under
other circumftances, incite to the molt heroic
actions. The courage gained in the field, may
be exerted to reftrain the infolence or ambition
of a tyrant ; expofure to fatigue, and the
inclemency of feafons, qualify us for thofe exer¬
tions which our ftations, as members of
fociety may demand ; and he who, fearlefs of
danger, is emulous of diftinction in the chafe,
may equally pant for glory, when the invafion of
his country prompts him to repel her foes.

We may further obferve, that if Nature,
with a liberal, but not lavifh hand, hath bellowed
on all her offspring, thofe powers and propen-
fities only, which their own neceffities, or the
general order and oeconomy of the fyftem
require, we (hall be unable to difeover her
intention in the gifts of feent to the hound,
fwiftnefs to the grey-hound, and fagacity to the
pointer ; thefe being amongft the number of
innate ir.ftinflive faculties, which can only be
exercifed in fome of the diverfions we fpeak of,
and for which purpofes, we may therefore
reafonaoly prefume they were given.

Upon

Dr. Father gill on Longevity. 355

Upon the whole, may we not then conclude,
that man, by co-operating with fuch animals,
employs both his and their faculties on the
purpofes for which they were partially defigned :
thus tending to complete the bounteous fcheme
of Providence; the happinefs and well-being of
all its creatures ?

Observations on Longevity. By Anthony
Fothergill, M. D. F. R. S. Communicated
in a Letter to Dr , Percival. Read January 1 5,
1783.

DEAR SIR,

1

I HAVE often thought, it would be an ufeful
undertaking to colleft into one point of view,
the memorable instances of long-lived perfons,
whofe ages are recorded by monumental infcrip-
tions, biographical writings, or even by the
• public prints. The only judicious attempt I
have yet feen of this kind, was by the ingenious
Mr. IVhitehurJl , a few years ago, in his Inquiry
into the Origin and Formation of the Earth.
To the examples of longevity mentioned by him,
as collected by a perfon of veracity from the

A a 2 above

556 Dr. Fothergill on Longevity.

above fources, I have now added fundry remark¬
able inftanc'es of a fimilar kind, as they have
occurred to me in the courfe of reading; and
have annexed the authorities, (fo far as was
practicable) that you may be enabled to judge
of the degree of credibility, that may feem due
to the refpedive fads, and of the allowance
which it may appear neceffary to make, for that
natural propenfity, which mankind have ever
betrayed for the marvellous. Now, admitting
that many of the ages may have been fomewhat
exaggerated, yet kill there can be no pofiible
doubt, that even thefe have extended far beyond
the ordinary period of life, and may therefore
be entitled to a place in the following tables,
which I fubmit to your confideration, as a fmall
fpecimen of what might be more worthy your
attention, if conduded hereafter on a larger
fcale, and purfued with chronological accuracy.

table

357

Dr. Fotbergill on Longevity .

TABLE I.

OF LONGEVITY.

Names of the Perfons.

Ages

Thomas Parre

Henry Jenkins

169

Robert Montgomery

126

James S nds

140

His Wife

120

Countefs of Defmond

^140

J. Sagar

I 12'

- - Laurence

3 4C

Simon Sack

i4t

Gel. Thomas Window

r4b

Francis Conftft

15°

Chrift. J. Drakenberg

146

M rgaret Forfter

136

104

Francis Bons

I 2 I

John Bronkey

*34

James Bowels

152

John Tice

125

John Mount

136

A. Goldfmith

3 40

Mary Ya es

128

John Bales

126I

William Ellis

170

Louifla Truxo, a Ne-

grefs in S. Ameiica

*75

Marearet Patten

13S

Janet Taylur

108,

Richard Lloyd

r33

Sufannah Hilliar

ICO

James Htyley

1 1 2

Ann Cockbolt

105

William WJker, aged

I IS,

Places of Abode.

Yorkfhire

Diito

Staffordlhire

Ditto

Ireland

Ditto

Lancalhire

Scotland

Trior.ia

Ireland

Yorklhire

Norway

Cumberland

Ditto

France

Devonfhire

Killing worth

Worcefterlhire

Scotland

Francs

Shroplbire

Northampton

Live pool

Tucunnan, S. America

Lockneugh nearPaifley
Fintray, Scotland
Montgomery
Piddington, North-
amptonlhire
Middlewirh, Chefhire
Stoke-Bruerne, North-
amptonlhire

Living or Dead.

Died Nov. 16, 1635
Phil Tranf No. 44,
Died Dec. 8, 1670
Phil. Tranf. No. 221
Di d in - 1670.

"I Do. Fuller’s Worthies*

J P-47- .
Rawleigh’s Hift.p. 166.
Died - - 1631

- - 1668 (b)
Living - - (CJ

Died May 30, 1764

- Aug. 26, 1766

- Jan. - 176S

- June 24,

Both living 1771

Died Feb. 6, 1760
Living - - I777(VJ

Died Aug. 15, 165 (,(/)

- March 1774^;

- Feb. 27, 1776^ A )

- June 1776 (,)

- ' ' 177<W

- - April 5, 1706 (l)

- Aug. 16, 1780(0;)

Living Oft. 5, 1780 (»)

LynchehGuidetoHealth
Died Oa. 10, 1780
LynchehGuidetoHealth

Died Feb. 19, 1781 (0)

- March 17, ir8i(/)

— April 5, 1775 (f)

Battle of Edge-Hill.

(t) Ibidem, Aug. 22, 1776,

(/) See Infcriprion in the Portico of All-

fa) Fuller's Worthies, p. 140
(£) Phil. Tranf. abridged by Lowthorp,
vol. III. p. 30b.

tc) Der ham's Phy ( c > Theology, p. 177.

(d) Annual Regiher.

(e) Daily Adverlifor, Nov. 18, 1777.

(f) Warwickfhire.

lg) Daily Advertifer, March 1774.

(A) Morning Poll, Feb. 29, 1776.

(') Daily Advenifer, June 24, J776. '

Saints Church.

(r») London Even. Poll, Aog. 22, 1780.
(«) London Chronicle, Oa. 5, 1780.

(0) North. Mercury, Feb. 19, 1781.

(/>) Gen. Even. Poll, March 24, 1781.
(7) Well known to Perfons of Credit at
Northampton.

A a 3

If

35 8 Dr. F 'other gill on Longevity.

If we look back to an early period of the
chridian sera, we fliall find that Italy has been,
at lead about that time peculiarly propitious
to longevity. Lord Bacon obferves, that the
year of our Lord 76, in the reign of Vejpafian ,
was memorable ; for in that year was a taxing,
which afforded the mod authentic method of
knowing the ages of men. From it, there were
found in that part of Italy > lying between the
Appenine mountains, and the river Po , one
hundred and twenty four perfons who either
equalled, or exceeded one hundred years of
age, namely:

TABLE IL

54

Perfons

57

-

■»

2

-

-

4

-

-

4

-

-

3

-

-

In Parma

3

-

-

2

-

-

In Brujfels

1

-

-

In Placentia

1

-

-

In Faventia

1

-

-

6

-

-

4

-

-

In Rimino

1

-

.

of 100 Years each.

of 1 10

of 125

of 130

of I 36

of 140

of 120 Years each.

of 130

of 125

of 131

of 132

of I 10

of 1 20

of 150 Years, viz. Marcus
Aponius.

Mr.

Dr. Fothergill on Longevity. 359

Mr. Carew, in his furvey of Cornwall, affures
us, that it is no unufual thing, with the inhabit¬
ants of that county, to reach ninety years of age
and upwards, and even to retain their ftrength
of body, and perfect ufe of their fenfes. Belides
Brown , the Cornifh beggar, who lived to one
hundred and twenty, and one Polezew to one
hundred and thirty years of age, he remembered
the deceafe ofifour perfons in his own parifh, the
fum of whofe years, taken colle&ively, amounted
to three hundred and forty. Now, although
longevity evidently prevails more in certain
difirifls than in others, yet it is, by no means,
confined to any particular nation or climate -3
nor are there wanting infiances of it, in almoft
every quarter of the globe, as appears from the
preceding, as well as the fubfequent table.

A a 4

TABLE

360

Dr. Fothergill on Longevity

TABLE III.

OF LONGEVITY.

Names of the Perfons. Age.

Hippocrates, Phyfician, 104
Democritus, Philofopher 109
Galen, Phyfician
Albuna Marc

Dumitur Raduly
Titus Fullonius
Abraham Paiba
L. Tertulla

140

150

140

150

142

*37

Places of Abode.

lfiand of Cos
Abdera
Pergamus
Ethiopia

Haromfzeck Tran*
filvania
Bononia

Charles - town, South
Carolina
Aiminium

Lewis Coronaro

100

Venice

Robert Blakeney, Efq.

Margaret Scott

W. Gulftone
J. Bright
William Pofttll
Jane Reeves
W. Paulet, Marquis of
Winchefter
John Wilfon

Patrick Wian
M. Laurence
Evan Williams

114

Armagh, Ireland

125 Dalkeith, Scotland

140

105

120

103

Ireland

Ludlow

France

Efl'ex

106

Hampfhire

116

”5

140

145

Suffolk

Lelbury, Northum¬
berland
Orcades

Carmarthen Work
houfe-, flill alive

Where recorded.

Lyncbe onHealth,Chap.j.
Bacon’s Hifiory, 1095.
VcfT. Inft. or Lib. 3.
Hakewell’s ap. Lib. 1.
Died Jan. 18, 17S2. Gen.

Gazetteer, April 18th.
Fulgofus, Lib. 8.

General Gazetteer.

Fulgofus, Lib. 3.

Bacon’s Hifl. of Life, &c,
P- 134-

General Gazetteer.

See Infcrip. on her Tomb
in Dalkeith Ch. Yard.
Fuller’s Worthies.

Lynche on Health.
Bacon’s Hift. p 134.

St. J.Chron. June 14,1781.

Baker’s Chron. p. 502.

Gen. Gaz Oft. 29, 1782.
Plempius Fundammed.

Seft. 4, Chap. 8.
Buchanan’s Hift. of Scot.
Gen. Gazetteer, Oft. 12,
1782.

The Antidiluvians are purpofely omitted, as
bearing too little reference to the prefent race
of mortals, to afford any fatisfadlory conclufions;
and the improbable ftories of fome perfons,
who have almoft rivalled them in modern times,
border too much upon the marvellous, to find
a place in thefe tables. The prefent examples
are abundantly fufficient to prove, that longevity
dpes not depend fo much, as has been fuppofed,

on

Dr. F other gill on Longevity.

cn any particular climate, fituation, or occu¬
pation in life. For we fee, that it often prevails
in places, where all thefe are extremely dif-
fimilar; and it would, moreover, be very
difficult, in the hiftories of the feveral perfons
above-mentioned, to find any circumfiance
common to them all, except, perhaps that
of being born of healthy parents, and of bein^
inured to - daily labour, temperance, and
fimplicity of diet. Among the inferior ranks
of mankind, therefore, rather than arnongd
the Tons of eafe and luxury, fhall we find die
molt numerous inlfances of longevitv • even
frequently, when other external circumftances
feem extremely unfavourable : as in the cafe of
the poor fexton at Peterborough , who, notwith-
(landing his unpromifing occupation among dead
bodies, lived long enough to bury two crowned
heads, and to furvive two complete generations.*
The livelihood of Henry Jenkins , and old Parr, is
faid to have confided chiefly of the coarfeft fare,
as they depended on precarious alms. To
which may be added, the remarkable inftance of
/Ignes Mlhurne , who, after bringing forth a
numerous offspring, and being obliged, through
extreme indigence, to pafs the latter part of her
life in St. Luke’s wQrk-houfe, yet reached her

* Fuller' % Worthies, p. 293, from a Memorial in the
Cathedral at Peterborough.

hundredth

362 Dr. Father gill oh Longevity.

hundredth and fixth year, in that fordid, unfriendly
fituation.* The plain diet, and invigorating
employments of a country life, are acknowledged,
on all hands, to be highly conducive to health
and longevity, while the luxury and refinements
of large cities are allowed to be equally deftruc-
tive to the human fpecies : and this confideration
alone, perhaps, more than counterbalances all
the boafted privileges, of fuperior elegance and
civilization, refulting from a city life.

From country villages, and not from crouded
cities, have the preceding inftances of longevity
been chiefly fupplied. Accordingly it appears,
from the London bills of Mortality, during a
period of thirty years, viz. from the' year 3728
to 1758, the fum of the deaths amounted to
750,322, and that, in all this prodigious
number, only two hundred and forty two
perfons furvived the hundredth year of their age!
This overgrown metropolis is computed, by my
learned friend Dr. Price , to contain a ninth part
of the inhabitants of England, and to confume
annually, feven thoufand perfons, who remove
into it from the country every year, without
increafing it. He moreover obferves, that the
number of inhabitants, in England and Wales,
has diminiChed about one fourth part fince
fhe revolution, and fo rapidly of late, that,

id

? Lynche's Guide to Health, C. III.

i

Dr. F other gill on Longevity. 363

in eleven years, near 200,000 of our common
people have been loft!* If the calculation be
juft, however alarming it may appear in a
national view, there is this confolation, when
confidered in a philofophical light, that without
partial evil, there can be no general good ; and
that, what a nation lofes in the fcale of popu¬
lation at one period, it gains at another; and
thus, probably, the average number of inhabit¬
ants, on the furface of the globe, continues, at all
times, nearly the fame. By this medium, the
world is neither overftocked with inhabitants,
nor kept too thin, but life and death keep a
tolerably equal pace. The inhabitants of this
ifland, comparatively fpeaking, are but as the
duft of the balance; yet, inftead of being di-
miniftied, we are aftured by other writers, thar,
within thefe thirty years, they are great! v in-
creafed. f

The defire of felf-prefervation, and of pro-
trading the fhort fpan of life, is fo intimately
interwoven with our conftiturion, that it is
juftly efteemed one of the firft principles of
our nature, and, in fpite even of pain and mifery,
feldom quits us to the laft moments of our
exiftence. It feems, therefore, to be no left
our duty, than our intereft, to examine minutely

• * Obfervations on Population, &c. p. 305.

t The Rev, Mr. Howlet, Mr. Wales, and others.

into

364

Dr. F other gill on Longevity.

into the various means, that have been con-
fidered as conducive to health and long life ;
and, if poffible, to diftinguifh fuch circumftances
as are effential to that great end, from thofe
■which are merely accidental. But here, it is
much to be regretted, that an accurate hiftory
of the lives of all the remarkable peifons, in the
above table, fo far as relates to the diet, regimen,
and the ufe of the non-naturals , has not been
faithfully handed down to us ; without which,
it is impofiible to draw the neceffary inferences.
Is it not then a matter of aftonifhment, that
hiftorians and philofophers have hitherto paid
fo little attention to longevity ? If the prefent
imperfect lift Ihould excite others, of more
leifure and better abilities, to undertake a full
inveftigation of fo interefling a fubjedt, the
enquiry might prove not only curious, but
highly ufeful to mankind, in order to furnifh
materials for a future hiftory of longevity, the
bills of mortality, throughout the kingdom,
ought firfb to be revifed, and put on a better foot¬
ing ; agreeably to the fcheme which you point¬
ed out fome time ago, and of which Manchefter
and Chefler, have already given a fpecimen,
highly worthy of imitation. The plan, however,
might be further improved, with very little
trouble, by adding a particular account of the
diet and regimen -of every perfon, who dies at
eighty years of age, or upwards j and mention-

1

Dr. Father gill on "Longevity .

ing, whether his parents were healthy, long-lived
people, See. &c. An accurate regifler, thus
eftablifhed throughout the Brttijh dominions,
would be productive of many important advan¬
tages to fociety, not only in a medical, and
philofophical, but alfo in a political and moral
view. It is therefore to be hoped, that the
legiflature will not long delay taking an object,
of fuch great utility, into their ferious con-
fideration.

All the circumflances, that are molt efientially
neceffary to life, may be comprized under the
fix following heads.

1. Air and climate.

2. Meat and drink.

3. Motion and reft.

4. The fecretions and excretions.

5. Sleep and watching.

6. Affedions of the mind.

Thefe, though all perfectly natural to the
conftitution, have by writers, been ftyled the
non-naturals , by a flrange perverfion of lan¬
guage ; and have been all copioufly handled
under that improper term. However, it may
not be amifs, to offer a few fhort obfervations
on each, as they are fo immediately connected
with the prefen t fubjeff.

1. Air, Sec. It has long been known, that
frefb air is more immediately neceflary to life
than food ; for a man may live two or three
days without the latter, but not many minutes
without the former. The vivifying principle

contained

$66 Dr. Pother gill on Longevity.

contained in the atmofphere, fo eflfential to
the lupport of flame, as well as animal life,
concerning which, authors have propofed fo
many conjedlures, appears now to be nothing
elfe but that pure dephlogifticated fluid lately
difeovered by that ingenious philofopher. Dr.
Prieftley. The common atmofphere may well
be fuppofed to be more or lefs healthy in pro¬
portion, as it abounds with this animating
principle. As this exhales, in copious flreams,
from the green leaves of all kinds of vegetables,
even from thole of the mod; poifonous kind,
may we not, in fome meafure, account why
inftances of longevity are fo much more frequent
in the country, than in great cities •, where the
air, inftead of partaking fo largely of this
falutary impregnation, is daily contaminated
with noxious animal effluvia, and phlogifton ?

With refpedl to climate, various oblervations
confpire to prove, that thofe regions, which
lie within the temperate zones, are bed calcu¬
lated to promote long life. Hence, perhaps,
may be explained, why Italy has produced fo
many long livers, and why Jflands in general
are more falutary than Continents; of which
Bermudas , and fome others, afford examples.
And it is a pleafing circumft ance, that our
own Ifland, appears from the above table,
(notwithftanding the fudden viciffltudes to
which it is liable,) to contain far more inftances

of

Dr. F other gill on Longevity. ^

of longevity than could well be imagined. The
ingenious Mr. Wbileburft , a (lures us, from
certain fads, that Englifhmen. are, in general,
longer lived than North Americans; and,
that a Britifh constitution will Jaft lonper,
even in that climate, than a native one.* But
it mud: be allowed in general, that the human
conftitution is adapted to the peculiar ft ate
and temperature, of each refpedive climate,
fo that no part of the habitable globe can be
pronounced too hot, or too cold, for its in¬
habitants. Yet, in order to promote a friendly
intercourfe between the moft remote regions,
the Author of Nature has wifely enabled the
inhabitants to endure great and fuprizinc-
changes of temperature with impunity.-f-

2. Foods and drink. Though foods and
drink, of the moft fimple kinds, are allowed
to be the beft calculated for fupportini:r the
body in health, yet it can hardly be doubted,
but variety may be fafely indulged occasionally*
provided men would reftrain their appetites
within the bounds of temperance. For boun¬
tiful nature cannot be fuppofed to have poured^
forth fuch a rich profufion of provifions, merely

* Enquiry into the Original State, and Formation of
the Earth.

t ^ec remarkable inftances of this, in the Account of
Experiments in a heated room, by Dr. George Sordyce, and
others.

Phil. Tranf, vol. LXJX.

to

g 68 Dr. Fo they gill on Longevity.

to tantalize the human fpecies, without attribut¬
ing to her the part of a cruel ftep-dame, inftead
of that of the kind and indulgent parent. Befides,
we find, that by the wonderful powers of the
digeftive organs, a variety of animal and
vegetable fubltances, of very difcordant prin¬
ciples, are happily affimilated into one bland
homogeneous chyle ; therefore, it feems natural
to diftru ft thofe cynical writers, who would
rigidly confine mankind to one fimple difh, and
their drink to the mere water of the brook.
Nature, it is true, has pointed out that mild,
infipid fluid, as the univerfal diluent ; and, there¬
fore, moft admirably adapted for our daily
beverage. But experience has equally proved,
that vinpus, and fpiritous liquors, on certain
occafions, are no lefs falutary and beneficial,
whether it be to fupport firength againft fick-
nefs, or bodily fatigue, or to exhilerate the mind
under the preflure of heavy misfortunes. But
alas ! what Nature meant for innocent and ufeful
cordials, to be ufed only occafionally, and
according to the direction of reafon ; cudom
and caprice, have, by degrees, rendered habitual
to the human frame, and liable to the mofl
enormous and deitrudtive abufes ? Hence, it
may be juftly doubted, whether gluttony and
intemperance, have not depopulated the world,
more than even fword, peftilence, and famine.
True, therefore, is the old maxim, “ Modus

utendi

Dr. F other gill on Longevity. 369

utendi ex veneno facie Medicamentum, ex Medi-
camento, venenum.”

3. and 4. Motion and reft, fleep and watching.
It is allowed on all hands, that alternate motion
and reft, and deep and watching, are neceftary
conditions to health and longevity ; and that
they ought to be adapted to age, temperament,
conftitution, temperature of the climate, &c.
but the errors which mankind daily commit,
in thefe refpedts, become a fruitful fource of
difeafes. While fome are bloated and relaxed
with eafe and indolence, others are emaciated,
and become rigid, through hard labour, watch¬
ing, and fatigue.

5. Secretions and execretions. Where the
animal functions are duly performed, the fecre-
tions go on regularly 3 and the different evacua¬
tions fo exa&ly correfpond to the quantity of
aliment taken in, in a given time, that the body
is found to return daily to nearly the fame weight.
If any particular evacuation happen to be pre-
ternaturally diminifhed, fome other evacuation is
proportionally augmented, and the equilibrium
is commonly preferved 5 but continued irregula¬
rities, in thefe important functions, cannot but
terminate in difeafe.

6. Affe&ions of the mind. The due regula¬
tion of the paftions, perhaps, contributes more
to health and longevity, than that of any

Vol. I. B b other

370 Dr. F other gill on Longevity.

other of the non-naturals. The animating paf-
fions, fuch as joy, hope, love, See. when kept
within proper bounds, gently excite the nervous
influence, promote an equable circulation, and
are highly conducive to health while the
deprefling affedtions, fuch as fear, grief, and
defpair, produce the contrary effedt, and lay the
foundation of the molt formidable difeafes.

From the light which hiftory affords us, as
well as from fome inftances in the above table,
there is great reafon to believe, that longevity
is, in a great meafure, hereditary ; and that
healthy, long-lived parents would commonly
tranfmit the fame to their children, were it not
for the frequent errors in the non-naturals, which
fo evidently tend to the abbreviation of human
life.

Whence is it, but from thefe caufes, and the
unnatural modes of living, that, of all the chil¬
dren which are born in the capital cities of Europe ,
nearly one half die in early infancy ? To
what elfe can we attribute this extraordinary
mortality ? Such an amazing proportion of
premature deaths is a circumftance unheard of,
among favage nations, or among the young of
other animals! In the earlieft ages, we are
informed, that human life was protradted to a
very extraordinary length ; yet how few perfons,
in thefe later times, arrive at that period, which

nature

Dr. Fothergill on Longevity. 37 1

nature Teems to have defigned ! Man is, by
nature, a field-animal, and Teems deftined to rile
with the Tun, and to Tpend a large portion of
his time in the open air, to inure his body to
robuft exercffes, and the 'inclemency of the
feafons, and to make a plain homely repaft,
only when hunger dictates. But art has ftudi-
oufly defeated the kind intentions of nature ;
and by enflaving him to all the blandifhments
of fenfe, has left him, alas ! an eafy viftim to
folly and caprice ! To enumerate the various
abufes, which take place from the earlieft in¬
fancy, and which are continued through the
fucceeding ftages of modifh life, would carry
me far beyond my prefent intention. Suffice it
to obferve, that they prevail more particularly
among people, who are the moft highly polifhed
and refined. To compare their artificial mode
of life, with that of nature, or even with the
long livers in the lift, would, probably, afford
a very ftriking contraft ; and, at the fame time,
fupply an additional reafon, why, in very large
cities, inftances of longevity are To very rare.
Of late years, the increafing luxury and diffipa-
tion of the age, no longer confined to the
metropolis, have Tpread their contagion far
and wide into the country, fo as to afford the
fage divine, and Tpeculative moralift, a more
melancholy profpetft of the apparent degeneracy

B b 2 of

372 Dr. Fothergill on Longevity •

of the human race, than, perhaps, was ever
before exhibited !*

That fo complicated a machine, as the human
body, fo delicate in its texture, and fo exquifitely
formed in all its parts, diould continue, for fo
many years to perform its various funftions,
even under the moft prudent conduct, is not a
little furprifing: but that it fhould ever hold
out to any advanced period, under all the rude
fhocks it fo often meets with from riot and
intemperance, which lay it open to all the
various “ ills that fiefh is heir to,” is dill more
truly miraculous ! But here, perhaps, it may
be alledged, that it never can be fuppofed, all
the long livers purfued one uniform, regular
courfe of life, fince it is well known, that fome
of the mod noted ones were fometimes guilty
of great deviations from drift temperance and
regularity. Let not this, however, encourage
the giddy libertines, of the prefent age, to hope

to render their continued fcenes of intemperance

*

* I fay apparently , becaufe mankind, in reality, have
been equally prone to vice and folly in all ages ; only thefe
have alfumed different appearances, according to the tafte
and manners of the times : not that the human heart has
been fucceflively growing more and more depraved, as the
Poet fatyrically exclaims,

iEtas parentum, pejor avis, tulit

Nos nequiores ; mox daturos

Progeniem vitiofiorem ! Hor. Lib. III. Ode 6.

and

Dr. Bother gill on Longevity. 373

and debauchery, compatible with health and
longevity. The duties and occupations of life,
will not, indeed, permit the generality of man¬
kind to live by rule, and fubjeCt themfelves to
a precife regimen. Fortunately, this is not
neceffary: for, the divine Architect, has, with
infinite wifdom, rendered the human frame fo
ductile, as to admit of a very confiderable
latitude of health ; yet this has its bounds, which
none can long tranfgrefs with impunity. For,
if old Farr , notwithftanding fome exceffes,
and irregularities, arrived at fo aftonifhing an
age, yet we have reafon to fuppofe, that thefe
were far from being habitual ; and may alfo
conclude, that had it not been for thefe abufes,
his life might have been ftill confiderably pro-
traded.

On the whole, though forne few exceptions
may occur, to what has been already advanced,
yet, it will be found, in general, that all extremes
are unfriendly to health and longevity. Excef-
(ive heat enervates the body ; extreme cold
renders it torpid : fioth and inactivity clog
the neceffary movements of the machine; in-
ceffant labour foon wears it out. On the other
hand, a temperate climate, moderate exercife,
pure country air, and find temperance, together
with a prudent regulation of the paffions, will
prove the molt efficacious means of protracting
life to its utmoft limits. Now, if any of thefe

B b 3 require

374 Fr. Father gill on Longevity.

require more peculiar attention than the reft,
it is, undoubtedly, the laft : for the focial paffions,
like gentle gales, fan the brittle vefifel calmly
along the ocean of life, while, on the other hand,
rough, turbulent ones daft) it upon rocks and
quickfands. Hence, perhaps, it may be ex¬
plained, why the cultivation of philofophy,
mufic, and the fine arts, all which manifeftly
tend to humanize the foul, and to calm the
rougher paffions, are fo highly conducive to
longevity. And, finally, why there is no fure
method of fecuring that habitual calmnefs and
ferenity of mind, which conftitute true happi-
nefs, and which are, at the fame time, fo eflential
to health and long life, without virtue.

“ JEquanimitas fola, atque utiica /elicit as”

I hope you will excufe the prolixity of this
letter, and believe me to be, with the higheft
efteem,

Dear Sir,

Your fincere Friend

and faithful humble Servant,

i

A. FOTHERGILL.

London, Nov. 23, 1782.

On

Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination 3 &c. 375

On the Influence of the Imagination, and
the Passions, upon the Understanding. By
the Rev. Thomas Barnes, D. D. Read
Feb. 12, 17 83.

SENTIMENT was advanced in con-

verfation fcveral evenings ago, in this place,
which, to fome Gentlemen, appeared ftrange,
or rather, falfe. The refpe£t I owe to this
Society and above all, to Truth, obliges me
to endeavour to defend a point, which appears
to me, to be, not only juft, but very important.

In the converlation before alluded to, it had
been aflerted, “ That an energy, imparted to
“ one power of the human mind, will often com-
“ municate a degree of energy to the reft , and
“ thus affift and quicken their operation.”

In proof of this, it was maintained, “That
“ in many cafes, the vigour of imagination will
“ give correfpondent vigour to the judgment,”
and “That a degree of warmth and sensibility,
“ will be greatly favourable to the clearnefi , as
“ well as to the celerity , of the perceptions of the
“ understanding.”

This fentiment will, probably, alarm thofe
who have implicitly received what is fo generally
afterted, “ That pure and fimple truth has nothing

B b 4

“ to

27 6 Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination,

<( to do with imagination, feelings, or paflions ;

<c and, that he will bid the faireft for fuccefsful
“ inquiry into any fubjedt, who can divert his
<c mind moll entirely of all affections, and bring
“ it into a ftate of abfolute indifference , and
<c apathy .”

It is not uncommon, to hear the Imagination
condemned as a criminal of the moft dangerous
nature, whofe province is, at the belt, only to
amufe, who is a fworn enemy to truth, and
whom Reafon wifhes to banifh as far as poffible
from her throne. How often have we known,
what was very dull, for want of fome feafonings
of imagination, fuppofed to be, for that reafon,
very deep ? Whilft, on the other hand, what
was enlivened by the animation of an adtive
fancy, was cenfured, as fiimfy, and irrational ?
As if a brilliant imagination could not poflibly
become the companion, and affiftant of the '
pureft underftanding ! — That it may, is the point
which this paper attempts to prove.

In fupporting this hypothefis, I beg leave
to hazard a defcription of the human mind,
which fome may not very readily admit. In
judging of the mental powers, it does not
appear to me philofophically juft, to defcribe
the foul, as confifting of feveral diftindt and
difcordant faculties, of which, fome are com-
mifiioned perpetually to oppofe and contradidt:
the others. The proper idea of human nature

feems

and Pajfions , upon the Under {landing. 377

feems to be, “That it is one uncompounded
<c essence, continually in motion, and receiving
“ different denominations, according to the
** different modes and circumffances of its move-
“ ment.” Inftead of confidering the under-
ftanding, memory, paffions, and will, as diftintd
and oppofite powers , or, as unconnected tenants
under the fame roof, would it not be more juff,
to confider them all as modes of the mind itself,
and as each of them bearing the common nature
and character of the whole united fpirit ? We
fhould then confider, the mind itjelf as under-
fianding, the mind itjelf as judging, remembering,
feeling, willing. And this idea would be exactly
confonant to many facls, and phenomena of
human nature, which will be hereafter men¬
tioned.

/

However the common reprefentation of human
nature, as confiding of fevered contending powers,
may have been figuratively adopted, in order to
folve fome appearances, fuch as, the experience
of conflifting pajfions , or of oppofite tendencies in the
foul, yet, it is not founded in philofophical
truth, and, if not properly guarded, by being
always confidered merely as a figure , it may
lead to falfehood, and abfurdity.

The full elucidation of all thefe pofitions,
would fwell this paper to a length, far beyond
the limits wifely appointed for our communi¬
cations, which, being intended only as a fubfi-

diapy

37 8 Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination ,

diary to conversation, (hould rather contain
hints y than a regular compofition of finifhed and
artificial fentences. I may add, this Subject
would have received its heft illuftrations and Sup¬
port from morals, and religion. But, as thefe
would lead me too much jflto a profeffiional
line, I Shall endeavour to draw the arguments
from thoSe lower Subjects, of taste, criticism,
and polite literature, by which it appears
to me, to be unanswerably Supported.

The points we undertake to defend are thefe ;
fC That the imagination and paffions may, within
“ proper limits, be of the utmoft Service in
<c oivin" ftrength and clearnefs to the under-
“ Standing. And, that this arifes, — from the
“ nature, and office of the imagination,— and
<c from the principle before mentioned, that che
“ energy of one power may be communicated to
“ the reft, with the greateit advantage.”

It is owing to the narrownefs ot our faculties,
that we do not comprehend the Juhftance of the
human mind. Of its operations , however, we
can Speak with certainty. 1 reprefenc it to my-
felf, as one uniform and flmple ejfence, liable to be
moved or afledted by the various objects around it,
cr, by the flow of ideas continually pafling
before it — and, according to the ftate and
temperament of the whole indiviflhle mafs. judg¬
ing, feeling, willing, afting. Hence, it will
follow, that it will judge, and feel, and act, not

according

and Paftions , upon the Under ft anding. 379

-according to the impulfe of Jome diftind and
unconnected faculty, but according to the ftate and
difpofition of the tvhole mind.

And, is it not true in fact, that men do thus
judge, and feel, and a£t ; not according to the
movement of a fingle power ; but, according to
the general character and complexion of the heart ?
The poet has beautifully illuftrated and enforced
this fentiment.'

- “The difference is as great between

“ The optics feeing, as the objects feen.

“ All manners take a tin&ure from our own ;

“ Or come difcoloured, through our pajjions (hewn.

“ Or Fancy’s beam enlarges, multiplies,

“ Contrafts, inverts, and gives ten thoufand dyes.”

Pope.

Do not all Politicians judge upon every article
of news, according to their prepoffeffions ? Is it
not of equal importance, in education, to oive
a proper bias to the heart , as to furnifh proper
ideas for the head , in order to produce reCiitude cf
mind ? Hence, the fanctitv of error Hence,
the different manner in which you judge of the
fame actions, in a friend , and in an enemy. Hence,
all the advantages of manner , of oratory , of
addrefs. And hence, all that fafcination of the
graces , upon which, if a noble author has faid
true, fo much depends. In all thefe cafes, the
underftanding afts, not as a fingle infulated
principle, but as taking its tinge and impreffon,

from

380 Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination ,

from the feelings, the imagination, and the
heart.

This fa£t will probably not be contefted.
But it will be faid, “ That thefe paffions are the
<c fources of all our errors, and that, if we could
“ entirely lay afide imagination and affe&ion,
“ we fhould judge upon every fubjedb, more

impartially, and therefore, more truly.”

Allowing, that truth is ever one and the fame,
yet if, as the foregoing fa<5ts evince, the fame
truth will appear very differently to different
minds, and to the fame mind at different times ;
if the difpofition and frame of the mind be a
kind of medium , through which the fame objeft
fhall appear amazingly diverfified, moft amiable
to one, moft difgufting to another : Then, it
fhould feem to follow, that what is moft defirable
to a right judgment, is, not, that the mind be
diverted of all its affe&ions, that the imagination
be laid afleep, and that the underftanding alone
be employed in the contemplation. To me,
all this appears to be, neither neceffary, nor
poffible. But, that the whole united mind , con-
fidered as comprehending all its various powers,
lhall be in a proper flate for the inveftigation and
reception of truth, and, that the imagination and
paffions fhall be of fuch a temperament, as to
affift the judgment in its determination. This is
not a ftate of abfolute inaction ; but of aflion
fuited to their proper nature and office, in

fubordination

and Pajfwns] upon the Vnderjlandirtg. 3 8 1

iubordination to the higher powers of reafoning
and judgment.

If the underftanding were that pure and Am¬
ple principle, which many reprefent it to be,
entirely diftindt from all the paftions, and able
to judge bejl of every truth, when molt feparate
from their influence, we fhould not, furely, ob-
ferve fo much diverfity of judgment, fuch ama¬
zing variety of opinions, upon almoft every
fubjedt of human life. Wherever it is pojjible
for human affections, interefts, or feelings to
infinuate themfelves, we find a tinge of their
nature, in the judgment. If we fuppofe the
mind itjelf to judge, according to its nature and
character, we fhall immediately perceive, that
its fentence mujl be coloured and diverfified —
that the judgment will fafhion itfelf to the ftate
of the heart — and that, in almoft every infiance,
a falfe tajle or feeling , will lead to falfe opinion,
whether in poetry, painting, mufic, criticifm,
oratory, or art in general. Is there not an
almoft univerfal conformity between the feelings
and the judgment ? Even vice itfelf in the pa-
roxyfms of temptation, for a moment, feduces
the underftanding, and blinds the reafon. At
that moment, the finner promifes himfelf im¬
punity, and enjoyment. Nor is it, till the temp¬
tation is pajly that the mind fees again the de¬
formity and danger of vicious conduit.

But,

332 Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination ,

But, it will be afked, “ Are not th zpaffions, then,
the caufes of our wrong judgments ?” Moft cer¬
tainly they are • Bur, upon the fame principle,
that wrong paffions lead to wrong judgments,
right paflions would lead to true. If the mind
were properly offered, it would judge properly.

But, let us inquire more particularly, into
the nature and office of the Imagination — for thefe
are, I perfuade myfelf, very commonly, and very
greativ, miftaken.

Imagination is that power, or more properly,
that all of the mind, which afifembles, compounds,
divides its ideas, not in the order in which they
firft came into the mind, for that is the province
of memory, but, in any order, and upon any prin¬
ciples it choofes. It ranges abroad, through
the immenfe magazine and repofitory of ideas,
treafured up there, and joins together, or fepa-
rates, at pleafure, ideas, qualities, and forms.
It may be called, the fervant or labourer of the
mind, continually employed, to bring before it,
from its amazing ftorehoufe, materials , with
which to build up its conclufions. It is the
ever bufy, patient, indefatigable drudge, toiling
for the common benefit and affiftance of all the
other posvers ; and does not deferve the indig¬
nities and reproaches, it is continually receiving.
How often is it forced to be prefent , and even
to give affiftance, in the condemnation and exe¬
cution of itfelf? How many, with declamation

moft

and PaJJions , upon the Underftanding,

3*3

moft extravagant, with ideas moft deranged,
with apprehenfions mod: fanciful, have abided
the poor imagination, whilft all their cenfure
and alarm have had no better, than an imaginary
foundation ? *

A mind too imaginative does, indeed, often
join its ideas together in wild and ridiculous
afiociations One who is called, a wit , joins
only thole which appear odd and fantaftic. But
he, whofe judging are exadlly poifed by his ima¬
ginative powers, who is, according to our fcheme,
at once , lively to conceive, and fober to judge,
collects together only thoje ideas, which are pro¬
per to fet the fubjeft before him in fuch a
light, as to enable him to form an exa<ft de¬
termination. The power of imagining , is, there¬
fore, in its place, as necefiary, as the power of
judging. Suppofe a mind which could only re¬
member — It would fall, at once, into the track
marked out by others, and would never employ
its own powers, by reafoning and determining for
itfelf. Accordingly we find, that perfons of the
fhongeft memory have generally che weakeft
judgments.

If thefe piinciples are juft, a mind, which
could not imagine , could not reajGn. It would
have no materials before it, on which to form
its decifion, Its view of any fubjeit would be
narrow and defective. Obferve, on the other

#

“ turbida tcrret imago.” Virgil. ^En. IV. 333.

hand.

384 Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination,

hand, a mind, keen and fervent in the pro-
fecution of a favourite fubjed:, viewing it at¬
tentively on every fide, catching every ray of
light, which can illuminate, and every kindred
fentiment, which can illuftrate it. Without
animation and ardour, thefe would never have
been difcovered j without imagination and affec¬
tion, the underftanding would have lain torpid
and inactive. Fancy, that noble and neceffary
power, has placed the fubjed in every poffible
combination of form and circumftance, has
called in to its aid ideas, images, and analogies,
which, at firft, feemed mod foreign and inappli¬
cable ; and has thus beheld it in afpeds, which
the dull plodder would never have imagined.
By this means, a knowledge is acquired, various,
extenflve, and exad, beyond what could other-
ways, have poffibly been obtained. The office
of the underftanding, is, merely that of a judge,
to pafs jentence upon the caufe before it. The
imagination colleds and arranges the evidence ,
and brings it before the deciding power, in
fuch a form, as may lead to an accurate and
judicious determination.

This influence of the imagination and paffions
upon the judgment muft, however, differ greatly,
according to the different kinds of evidence , of
which different Jubjedis are capable. In mere
mathematics , where the mind has to contemplate
pure demonfrative truth, little more is neceffary,

than

and PaJJionSy upon the Vnderjlanding. 385

than fuch a degree of memory , as to keep in view
the fteps of the procefs, and fo much undemand¬
ing, as to be able to apply the plaineft axiomss
and to fee the truth of demonjlration. Surely, no
great exertion or exaltation of mind is necefiary
to this. You would not call that a fuperior /pint,
which v/as able to fee, with infallible certainty,
truths, of which, when properly underftood, it
is impoftible to doubt.

Here, we grant, high degrees of imagination,
fenftbility, tafte, are not neceftary. A mind, which
could not fee the certainty of fuch conclufions, if
able to trace, and to remember the fteps by
which it had proceeded, would hardly deferve
to be called rational.

Thofe, certainly, are the greateft and nollefi
fpirits, who can exert the whole ccllefted powers
of their minds, upon the contemplation of
important fubje&s, and determine, with clear-
nels and truth, where the evidence is not fo
irrefiftible, as that the conclufion cannot
poftibly be miftaken. The moft common , the
mo ft important, the great eft fubjedts which can
come before the human mind, are not capable
of demonflr ative evidence. Yet, they have
evidence of a peculiar kind, which can only
be diicerned, in its full proportion, by a mind,
properly prepared to receive ir. Befides me¬
mory and underftanding, you muft call in other
Vo l. I. C c powers.

386 Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination ,

powers. The heart mutt be in right order. The
mind mutt feel and imagine juftly, in order to a
.perfect fentence.

Let us take, for an illuftration, one of the
mott refpeitable and ufeful profeffions — that of
a Phyfician. The fcience he profefles, is not,
furely, that of demonstration. He will himfel’f
acknowledge, that it is only, a fcience of pro¬
bability. Suppofe him devoid of imagination,
and of feeling. How ill qualified would a
merely mathematical mind be, to prefcribe, in
cafes which demand, and almolt every cafe in
Jome degree demands, prefence of mind, largenefs
of thought, a view to remote and poftible confe-
quences, together with that quicknefs, penetra¬
tion, and lagacity, which mud unite together,
to constitute th tfkilful ■ph'fician ! — Take common
life. What is Prudence, but another name, for
an ability to imagine all the poffible or probable
confequences of inch or fuch a conduit, of fore-
feeing.fuch and ltrch difficulties, and of balancing
the good and evil, in fuch a manner, as, upon
the whole, to avoid the greateft evil, and to
obtain the greateft good ? But how could this
-poffibly be done, without a lively, a&ive, and
well directed imagination ?

Nay, we may go farther* and fay, that even a
Mathematician will make .very little progrels in
demonflrative fcience, without the aid of this
noble, but much miftaken and abufed faculty.

Here,

and FaJJlonSy upon the Underftanding, 387

Here, it is true, imagination has the narroweft
range : but it would be falfe to fay, it has no
range at all. For what are the fubjeds of his
boafted reafonings ? They are points , linest
JuperficieSy all of which he can only imagine.
A Point has neither length, breadth, nor thick-
nefs. A Line has length, but neither breadth,
nor thicknefs. A Superficies has length, breadth,
but not thicknefs. Are then Lines, Points, or
Superficies, objeds of vifion, or of lenfe ? By no
means. They are the mere creatures of fancy.
His Figures likewife of circles, fquares, &c. are
not perfed. They contain innumerable ex-
crefcences, and deformities •, and yet, his
reafonings fuppofe figures exad and faultlefs.

And, how often mud: imagination prefent before
him, difiances, heights, orbits, &c. which he
has not immediately under his eye, which he
cannot pojffibly concieve, without the aid of fancy ?
The application of mathematics to Aftronomy,
Navigation, &c. demands the Janie affiftance.
Who would lcruple to fay, that Sir Ifaac Newton,
enjoyed a brilliant imagination In fketching the
outlines of his amazing fyfiem — in roving through
the pathlels wilds of fpace — in contemplating

“ The dependencies,

“ The bearings, and the ties”

of this ftupendous univerfe, muft he not have
pofiefied a fancy of the boldefi wing , yet ac¬
companied, in all its flight, by the mofi wife

C c 2 and

388 Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination ,

and watchful reafon ? Let me juft mention
another exalted charafter, in proof of the fame
point — Mr. Locke. No where do you perceive
ftronger lines of a vigorous and a&ive fancy,
than in the writings of this immortal philofopher.
His (tile is full of imagery and aliufion, the moft
beautiful and happy. He has all the fignatures
of a glowing , and, at the fame time, of a Joher and
cautious mind. For Jack imagination only do
I plead— under the command, and employed in
the fervice , of that judgment, whofe province
it is, to direct, and to control.

Even in the a£t of reasoning, which is gene¬
rally efteemed the moft folernn and ferious
procefs of the mind, imagination is effentially
neceffary. For if the mind be not able to
chufe with advantage thofe intermediate ideas,
on which its reafonings depend ; if it is not
able, by means of this excurfive power, to range
abroad, to view its fubjeft on every fide, to
catch minuter, as well as larger fimilitudes and
differences ; if, in one word, it has not a&ivity*
eomprehenfion, quicknefs, all which depend
chiefly upon imagination, it will not poffefs, in
any confiderable ftrength, that illative power,
which we acknowledge to be fo noble a faculty
of human nature.

If the preceding obfervations are true, with
refpedt to mathematics — the region of fcience
which feems moft remote from the fairy land of

fancy.

and Paffions , upon the Undemanding. 389

fancy, there will be little difficulty in proving
our point with refpedt to thofe provinces, which
lie nearer to its confines. And, in its own pro-
vincey in all that extenfive and beautiful domain,
in which the pleajures of the imagination grow,
as in their native foil, it would be ridiculous
to afk, whether imagination be not conducive
to exadtnefs of judgment. It would be juft
the fame, 'as to inquire, whether a man muft
have eyes , to judge of vifihle obje&s j or ears, to
judge of founds. Through all the wide empire
of criticifm, of tafle, of poetry, of painting, of
mufic, of arts, fancy reigns with almoft fovereign
fway. A poet, or an artift, without imagination,
might as well be without ideas. Mr. Hayley
has very juftly obferved, “ That three things
cc are neceftary to conftitute a found critic—
“ Good underfunding — lively imagination — refined
“ fenfibility” * In general to judge well upon any
fubjedt, you muft have a kindred fpirit. If the
poet muft be " alive to fancy,” a reader of poetry
muft inherit a portion of the fame infpiration.

Let us fuppofe a critic, fuch as, pehaps, the
world has fometimes feen aftuming the name, to
pafs fentence upon Milton’s Paradife Loft. Does
he reliffi and enjoy this divine performance ?
Does he tafte its exquifite beauties ? Does his
imagination glow with its defcriptions ? Does

* Hayjey’s Eflay on. Epic Poetry. Notes to the firft Book.

he

390 Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination ,

he fenfibly feel the fweetnefs, richnefs, and
loftinefs of its language ? Is he alive to all
the fuperior charms of its fubjed-, its fcenery,
and its execution ? Alas 1 No. Like the fly
on St. Paul’s Cathedral, he ftumbles at a draw,
or a hair. But, is this cold-blooded thing , whofe
fcanty foul cannot expand itfelf to the dimenfions
of fuch a fubjed, who cannot take in, at one grand
and ennobling view, its whole extent and ad-
juftment, the connedion of its parts, the cha-
raders, the machinery, the end — is he the proper
critic of Milton ?*

* “ How did Garrick fpeak the foliloquy laft night ?”
“ Oh ! Againfl all rule, my Lord, moll ungrammatically,
“ Between the nominative cafe, which, your Lordfhip
“ knows, ihould govern the verb, he fufpended his voice
“ a dozen times ; three feconds, and three fifths, my Lord)
“ each time.” “ Admirable grammarian !” “ But, in

“ fufpending his voice — was the fenfe fufpended likewife?
“ Did no expreflion of attitude or countenance fill up the
« chafm? Was the eye filent ? Did you narrowly look?” —
« I looked only at the flop-watch, my Lord.” — “ Ex-
“ cellent obferver !”

“ And what of this new book the whole world makes fuch
“ a rout about? — “ Oh ! it is quite out of all plumb, my
“ Lord. — Quite an irregular thing ! Not one of the,
angles at the four corners was a right angle. — I had my
“ rule and compaffes, my Lord, in my pocket.” — “ Ex-
‘f cellent critic !”

“ And for the epic poem your Lordfhip bid me look
ti at — upon taking the length, breadth, heighth, and
“ depth of it, and trying them at home upon an exadf
“ fcale of Boffu’s— ’tis out, my Lord, in every one of
£( its dimenfions” — “Admirable connoififeur !” Sterne.

Imagination

and Paffions , upon the Underjlanding. 391

Imagination is neceffary to reprefent to the
mind, all things dijlant, future, invifible , and even
paft, when they are not exactly recalled by memory.
How wide ! How important its province ! In
religion, the happinefs of Heaven, the nature,
character, and employment of fuperior beings,
the folemn proceffes of Judgment — Eternity—
and even the Deity himfelf, can only come before
us, as drawn by the imagination.

In Hijlory , you continually imagine charaders,
events, times, places, circumftances, which you
have never feen. Thefe are portrayed to your
fancy, by the pen of the hiftorian ; and your
pleafure and improvement will very much de¬
pend upon the clearnefs and celerity, with
which you paint to yourfelf the different fcenes,
which are paRIng before you. All the pleafures
of Tajle depend abfolutely upon a vigorous and
cultivated imagination. Even in the actual
contemplation of the fcenes of nature , imagination is
as neceffary, to refined pleafure, as the eye.
Perhaps we might, without great impropriety,
call it, the eye of the mind. If any perfon fhould
think, this appellation would better belong to the
underjlanding , let him recoiled, that the eye of
the body can give no exaff information, till
rectified by the judgment. It is fo with the
imagination. The ideas it prefents muft be
brought before the higher tribunal of the

C c 4 under-

392 Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination,

underftanding, and receive their fentence, ac¬
cording to its fuperior determination.

I fhall, perhaps, be told of the lover, who fees
in his miftrefs an imaginary idol, decked all o’er
with charms, perfed and matchlefs, in every air,
and in every attribute. I fhall be told, of the
amazing change in his judgment, when time and
better knowledge have taken the glare from
the object, (tripped the idol of her divinity, and
faded her charms, even to uglinefs. But, againft
this exception we meant to guard, by main¬
taining only, a due poife and degree of the ima¬
ginative quality.

“ The lover, the lunatic, and the poet, are

“ Of imagination all compact.” Shakefpeare.

Minds, fo exceffively imaginative, cannot be
judicious.

But, on the other hand, fuppofe a perfon to
contemplate excellence, female excellence , without
imagination — juft as he would, a mathematical
problem. Would he do more exaft and impartial
iuftice to the fubjeft ?

Would the fairer fex confent to abide the
fentence of fuch a judge? Would they not juftly
complain, that though he wore the form, he had
not the fentiment, the foul of a human being ?
Would they not appeal — and who would
no t juflify the appeal— to the decifion of a mind,
capable of feeling, and of fancy, and therefore

rational ?

and Paflions, ufon the Underflandin g. 393

rational, and alone competent to judge of that
excellence, which is fitted to cheer and captivate
the heart ?

But it has been the hard fate of imagination
to be,, in general, fpoken of, in its excejs. We
feldom hear it mentioned, by thole who declaim
againft it, without hearing of the flights of fancy,
the extravagance, the agitation, the wildnefs, the
J 'allies , the fervours , the excentricitics, of a heated
imagination. The fervour, the glow, however,
belong rather to paffion, than to, imagination.
The imagination indeed may excite the palTion ;
and thus they afcribe the attributes of the effedl to
the caufe.

That imagination may, that it often does
tranfgrefs its proper bounds, we moll readily
acknowledge. That it is neceffary to hold it in
with a tight rein, that it may not run away with
the undemanding, and lead to conclufions
fanciful and groundlefs, we allow, in us fulled:
extent. We contend only for that degree, which
will confift with the exadtnefs of judgment.

The vivacity and ftrength of imagination, in
children, is aftonilhing. Their knowledge of
objedls being very flight and fuperficial, a few
faint refemblances are fufficient to realize and
embody them. By degrees, as their knowledge
becomes more extenfive and exad, their power
of imagining declines, the power of judging is
improved, and when thefe two powers have

attained

394 Dr. Barnes on the Influence of the Imagination , isle.

attained then proper balance, the mind has attained
its higheft capacity.

That “ great wits are to madnefs near allied”
That <f great genius’s are too imaginative,”
proves only, that the mind, when in a frame too
creative and fanciful, is not fufficiently judicious.
But, furely, a degree of warmth may be necejfary
to a tool, for its proper aflion ; and yet, that
warmth may be increafed, till it is improper for
fervice.

It will, perhaps, be faid, that lunatics and
madmen are under the dominion of fancy, and
that upon this account their judgments are errone¬
ous. It is anfwered, that, in general, if you will
but grant their premifes , they will reafon from
them, with aftonilhing quicknefs and clearnefs of
argumentation. Unhappily, their minds are, in
fome particular points, by wrong affociations,
become deranged and extravagant. This is their
difeafe. But the fervour imparted to their minds,
feems rather to have fharpened, than impaired,
their reafoning powers.

Let, then, underftanding and judgment ever be
confidered as the preflding faculties of the human
fpirit. To their control, let every other power
ultimately fubmit. Let the imagination and the
paffions be confidered merely as their fervants,
obedient to their command. But, whilft they
are thus obedient, let them have the praife of
good and ufeful fervants •, and above all^ let them

not

Dr. Eajon on the AJcent of Vapour '. 395

not be compelled to criminate and condemn
themjelves. Or, according to the juft fimile of
the poet.

“ Whilft reafon holds the helm —

“ Let pajjion be the gale.” Pope.

And let imagination fly abroad to colleft the
various fcattered breezes, which, thus united
into one ftrong current, may carry the vefTel
forward, acrofs the ocean of life, under Juch a
pilotage, with fafety, and fatisfadtion.

An Essay on the Ascent of Vapour; By
A. Eason, M. D. &c. Read Nov. 27, 1782.

Unde ferenas

Ventus agat nubes, quod cogitet humidus
Aufter, Sol tibi figna dabit.

Fir. Geo. C. I. ver. 461.

'HERE are few phenomena in nature, which

-1- have puzzled philofophers more, than the
afcent of vapour: and the different theories laid
down by Dodtors Halley and De/aguliers> have
been rejedtcd, while another, not lefs liable
to objections, has been almoft univerfally re¬
ceived.

This theory, which I fhall prefently mention,
was at firft invented by a French Gentleman,

Monfleur

396 .Dr. E*Jan on the Ajcent of Vapour.

Monfieur le Roi, and afterwards revived by
Lord KaimeSy and Dottor Hugh Hamilton. It is
this — That the air difTolves water, as water
does faline fubftances : the folution being per¬
fect, the air will become tranfparent.

Objections. 1. Were this theory true, evapo¬
ration could not be performed without air ; but
Mr. Watt, contrary to the theory fupported
by Lord Kaimes and Dr. Hamilton, has proved,
that when water in vacuo was boiled with a degree
of heat very little greater than that of the human
body, the (team came over, and was condenfed
in the refrigeratory. But he relates, that the eva¬
poration was not quicker than in the open air.

2. Were the doctrine of folution true, the air
would be heavier, the more water it contained ;
and, as clouds contain a great portion of water,
they ought to float on the furface of the earth,
and not in the higher regions, as we daily ob-
ferve.

3. We never could expeCt any rain, unlefs the
air were fuperfaturated with water j and it would
only yield to us, what it coujd not retain in
folution.

4. It is univerfally allowed, that heat con¬
tributes, very much, towards converting water
into vapour, which is again condenled by coldf
In what manner, will the do&rine of folution
account for the fpontaneous evaporation of water,
jind its being fufpended in air, in the colded

weather,

Dr. Eajon on the AJcent of Vapour. 397

weather, even when the thermometer is below
the freezing point ? Though I cannot allow of
fuch a folution as above mentioned, I can,
however, readily admit of a ftrong attraftion
betwixt air and water ; for no air is found with¬
out water, and no water without air.

Water, which is eight hundred times heavier
than air, by a very fmall degree of heat, may be
converted into vapour, which vapour is one
thoufand eight hundred times lighter than air,
according to Mr. Watt. It confcquently follows,
that vapour will rife up in the atmofphere, to
the height of its own fpecific gravity ; but, long
before it could reach to fo high a region, it would
be condenfed by cold, and return to the earth
in rain, were it not for the latent heat* it con¬
tains, and the ele&ric matter in the air.

Whatever I mention concerning Eleflricity,
is from fadls, and not from any theory, written
about it, which is above my comprehenfion. But
as the terms now in ufe, viz. pofkive and
negative, or plus and minus, are generally belt
underftood, I fhall exprefs myfelf by them.

* That heat enters into vapour, and becomes an ingre*
dient in it, is certain. For example : if we diftil a pound
of fleam, the water in the refrigeratory will be heated by
it, as much as by a pound of water heated one thoufand
and twelve degrees ; fo eight hundred degrees of heat
appear, though the fleam is not fenfibly hotter than boil¬
ing water, which is two hundred and twelve. £xj>.

The

29 3 Dr. Eqfon on the Af cent of Vapour.

The able Nollet has proved, that water elec¬
trified, will evaporate fafter, than water which is
not electrified. Does it not follow, that the
more electric matter is in the air, the quicker
the evaporation of water will be ? And Mr.
Cavallo has proved, that at all times the atmo-
fphere is electrified, but much ftronger in frofty,
than in warm weather ; and by no means lefs in
the night than in the day: it is like wife ftronger
in elevated, than in low places. From thefe
faCts, we may be enabled to account, why
evaporation is carried on during very cold
•weather. All the heat contained in water,
above what is fufficient to keep it in a fluid
Hate, will convert it into vapour ; which, in a
north or north eaft wind, when the ele&ric matter
greatly abounds, will be carried off with much
rapidity; and, by the power of ele&ricity, will
be rendered ftill lighter, the higher it afcends ;
each particle repelling each other, and prevent¬
ing the cold from condenfing the vapour, in its
afcent through the cold regions of the atmo-
fphere. The higher it rifes, the more fpace
there is for expanfion ; and the more it is ex¬
panded, the clearer will the atmofphere appear,
and, probably, the higher the mercury will rife
in the barometer.

It likewife appears, that the eleCtric matter
is more fenfible near the lurface of the earth, in

cold

Dr. Eafon on the Ajcent of Vapour. 399

Cold northern countries, than in warm fouthern
places. Mr. Volta, with a very fimple apparatus,
on the upper gallery of St. Paul’s, produced
an eledric fpark, which, he told me, in Italy,
could not be done, but on a very high moun¬
tain, or in a fituation greatly elevated. This
feems a wife provifion in nature, that the eledric
matter fhould appear near the furface of the
earth in cold climates, to raife up and fufpend
the vapour in the air, which otherways, would
be condenfed by the cold ; whereas, in warm
countries, the heat of the earth will be fufficient
to raife vapours to a great height, which are
afterwards carried ftill higher, by the eledric
matter in the upper regions. This, perhaps,
is the caufe, why the air is fo clear and tranfpa-
rent in warm climates.

By making fome obfervations on the falling
of rain, we fhall have other proofs, that the
eledric matter is the great caufe, by which
vapour is fupported in the atmofphere. Here
I mull obferve a fad, well known to ail prefent,
that bodies eledrified, by the fame eledric
power (no matter whether pofitive or negative)
repel each other ; and when eledrified by the
different powers, that is, the one plus and the
other minus, attrad each other : on coming into
contad, an equilibrium is reftored, and neither
of them will fhew any figns of eledricity.

From

400 2>. Eafon on the AJcent of Vapour.

From this it follows : If two clouds are elec-
trifled by the lame power, they will repel each
other, and the vapour be fufpended in both ;
but, when one is pofltive and the other negative*
they will attraCl each other, and reftore an equi¬
librium. The electric power, by which the
vapour was fufpended, being now deftroyed
by the mutual action of the clouds on each other,
the particles of water will have an opportunity of
running together into each other, and, as they
augment in fize, will gain a greater degree of
gravity, defeending in fmall rain, or a heavy
Ihower, according to circumftances.

A cloud, highly eleClrified, pafling over a
high building or mountain, may be attracted by,
and be deprived of its electricity, without or
with a violent exploflon of thunder. If the cloud
is electrified plus, the fire will defeend from the
cloud to the mountain ; but, if it be electrified
minus, the fire will afeend from the mountain to
the cloud. In both cafes, the effeCt is the fame*
and generally, heavy rain immediately, or foori
after, follows : this is v/ell known to the inha¬
bitants of, and travellers among, mountains.

From this, we can eafily account, why thunder-*
Ihowers are often partial, falling near, or among
mountains, and the rain in fuch quantities, as
to occafion rivers to be overflowed ; whilft, at
the diftance of a few miles, the ground continues

parched

Dr. Eafon on the Afcent of Vapour . 401

parched up with drought, and the roads covered
wich duft.*

It often happens, that one clap of thunder
is not fufiicient to produce rain from a cloud,
nor even a fecond : in lhort, the claps mud be
repeated, till an equilibrium is restored, and
then the rain mull, of confequcnce, fall. Some¬
times we may have violent thunder and light¬
ning without rain, and the black appearance of
the heavens may be changed to a clear tranfparent
fky, elpecially in warm weather. To account
for this, it mull be remembered, as I lately
faid, that one or more claps of thunder are not
always fufhcient to produce rain from the clouds:
fo, if an equilibrium be not reftored, little or
no rain will fall, and in a lhort time, the elec¬
tric matter, palling from the earth to the clouds,
or the fuperabundant quantity in the air, will
electrify t'nofe black clouds, by which means the
particles of vapour will be expanded, raifed
higher, and the air become clear. Clouds
may be melted away, even when we are look¬
ing at them, by another caufe, that is, by the

* Saspe etiam immenfum coelo venit agmen aquarum.

Et fcedam glomerant tempeftatem imbribus atris
Collects ex alto nubes.

Ipfe pater, media nitnbrorum in node, corufca
Fulmina molitur dextra, quo maxima motu
Terra tremit. . Virg .

Vol. I. D d heat

402 Dr. Eafon on the Afcent of Vapour.

heat of the fun. We know, that tranfparenJ
bodies are not heated by the fun, but opaque
ones are ; the clouds being opaque bodies, are
warmed by the rays of the fun fhining on them,
and any additional quantity of heat will rarify
the vapour, and occafion its expanding in the
air, which will foon become tranfparent. When
vapour is made to expand, more than it would
otherwife do, a certain quantity of abfolute heat
is neceflary to keep it in the form of vapour 5
therefore, when the receiver of an air-pump is
exhaufting, it appears muddy, and a number of
drops are found within it ; the moifture contained
in the air, in the form of vapour, being made to
occupy a greater fpace than what is natural to
it, and receiving no addition of heat, a part of it
it condenfed.*

If, therefore, the air is fuddenly rarified, a few
drops of rain will defcend, as may often be ob-
ferved in the fummer feafon.

I have repeatedly obferved, efpecially during
the fummer, when the wind is at north eaft,
that the weather is, in general, cold and dry,
with a clear atmofphere. Should the wind fud-

* On this principle, we can readily account for the mill,
which appears, on difcharging an air-gun : the condenfed
air in the chamber of the barrel, on being fet free, will ex¬
pand fuddenly, occupying a larger fpace, and no additional
heat being acquired, the vapours mult neceifarily be con¬
denfed in the form of mill.

denlv

#

Dr. Eafon on the Ajcenl of Vapour . 403

denly change to fouth weft, in a few hours, black
clouds begin to gather, vegetables look fickly,
and droop their leaves ; and, foon after, comes on
a violent ftorm of thunder, with heavy rain.*
This change, I imagine, is not fo much owing
to the fouth weft wind bringing rain, as to the
atmofphere’s being changed from an eledtric
ftate, capable of fufpending vapour, to a ftate
of parting .with its moifture. As foon as the
ftorm is going off, vegetables revive from their
languid ftate, and the air recovers its ufual
■afpedt. From this we may conclude, that no
inftrument can be made to afcertain the quantity
of moifture in the air : all that is, or ought to
be expedted from a hygrometer, is to fhew,
whether the air be in a ftate to retain, or part
with its moifture. In apparent dry weather it
may point to rain ; and when it rains, it may
point to fair. For this reafon, the ftones of halls,
and fmooth fubrtances, are often bedewed with
Wet, in dry warm weather, (that is, the air is in
a ftate to part with its moifture) and, vice verfd ,
they will dry in the time of rain.

Left this paper fhould exceed the common
limits of time in reading, I ftiall pafs over thofe
obfervations, which might be made on fogs or
mifts ; a few excepted, which I {hall fubjoin in a

• “ Ingeminant Aullri, et denfiffiraus imber.” Virg.

D d 2 note.

404 Dr. Edfon on the Jfcenl of Vapour'.

note.* I (hall, therefore, conclude with a fhort
fummary of the whole.

1. That, heat is the great caufe, by which
water is converted into vapour, which is con-
denfed by cold.

2. That, ele&ricity renders vapour fpecifi-
cally lighter, and adds to its abfolute heat,
repelling its particles ; which particles would
be condenfed by cold : and that, electricity is
the great agent by which vapour afeends to the
upper regions.

* Fogs are produced by two caufes as different as their
effe&s are oppofite. A fog may be be produced by a preci¬
pitation of rain, in very fmall particles, like a cloud floating
on the furface of the earth. In this cafe the air is moift
and damp, and never fails to wet a traveller’s cloaths ; the
ftones of the ftreet, painted doors, and hard, cool, fmooth
bodies are generally covered with moifture, which ofteri
runs in large drops: this, I dare fay, has been obferved
by every perfon. Secondly, a fog may be produced by
the abforption of moifture, when the air is too dry, and
differs from the other juft deferibed ; for it will not im¬
part any of its moifture even to dry bodies, ho damp is to
be met with on ftones, polifhed marble, See. This' fad is
well known to the inhabitants on the fea coaft of Fifefhire,
who during their fummer months, have frequent opportu¬
nities of obferving a fog in the afternoon, driving up the
Firth of Forth, with a drying eaft wind, which often blafts
the trees and young vegetables, and therefore, in a fmall
degree, refembles the Harmattan in drying up the ground,
and robbing vegetables of their moifture.

3. That

On the Merit of the Ancients , &c. 405

3. That, when the eleftric power, by which
vapour is fufpended in the atmofphere, is de-
ftroyed, a heavy mift, fmall rain or thunder-
fhowers, will be the confequence. Had the
advocates for the dodlrine of folution, made heat
and eledricity, the folvents, their theory would
have been lefs exceptionable.*

On the comparative Merit of the Ancients
and Moderns, with refpehi to the imitative
Arts. By Mr. Thomas Kirshaw. Read
February 19, 1783.

Vitaque tam longte brevior non fufficit Arti.

Frefhoy de arte Graphica.

HE life of man being too Ihort, and the

A extent of human abilities too confined,
to make confiderable improvements or inven¬
tions in any art, we ought to view the per¬
formances of celebrated men, with all the
candour, and generofity, they fo well merit.

Even, after all the advantages we have received
from the united (ludies of ages, we may, with
great juflice fay, how fmall and imperfect is all
our boafted wifdom, and, how much to be re¬
gretted is it, that we have not made a greater

* This paper is, through accident, placed out of the
(Order in which it Ihould have been infcrted.

D d 3

progrefs

406 On the Merit of the Ancients

progrefs in the fpacious field of fcience ! — This
fhort efiay is intended to point out the excel¬
lencies of the ancients in the imitative arts:
yet, at the fame time, to allow the moderns
their due fhare of fame, in having, not only
made fome improvements, but inventions, of
which the ancients were entirely ignorant.

There is not a doubt, but the ancients pofleffed
a polilhed tafte, and a critical knowledge of the
various and exquifite forms of beauty : they
knew the arts, could only receive their per¬
fection from ideal beauty fuperior to what is
ever found, in individual, and imperfect nature.
There is no man equal, in ftrength and pro¬
portion to the Farnefian Hercules : nor, any
woman comparable, for fymmetry of form, to
Medicean Venus.

Thefe inftances feem to prove, that the au¬
thors of the fineft remains of antiquity formed
to themfelves ideas of perfect nature, and
collected from various individuals, what no
one could fupply.

It is faid, that Zeuxis, when he painted his
Helena, feleCted five of the molt beautiful
virgins that could be found ; and, whatever
nature had formed molt: perfeCt in each, he
united in a Angle figure.

Thus painters, and fculptors, render their
ideas more perfeCV, and exalt their Art above

Nature

and Moderns , with refpetl to the Arts. 407

Nature heiTclf. In this manner, by contem¬
plating grand and exquifite forms of beauty,
the operations of the hand are directed by the
image in the mind : but how far to proceed,
and when to flop, muft be left to the judgment
of the artid.

That the ancients bear the pajm from the
moderns in fculpture, will not be conteded :
their religion fandtified and encouraged that
branch of fcience. Gods, Demigods, and He¬
roes, all confpired to bring it into the higheft
repute : and their images were often depofited in
buildings of the molt exquifite tafte, to com¬
memorate particular occurrences. The rage
for highly ornamented edifices, perhaps never
rofe to a greater height, than amongft the
Romans. 1 hefe fons of fortune acquired fo
much wealth, and, by plundering didant climes,
had fo collected the riches of whole kingdoms
into one city, that there was no way left to
difiipate fuch immenfe fums, but by engaging
in the mod expenfive works of arr. Each
ambitious conqueror, defirous to tranfmit his
own adlions, and thofe of his ancedors to
poderity, called in to his aid the fculptor,
and the architect, whofe utmod lkill was
exerted to blazon their achievements in the
folidity of done and marble.

This fhews, in fome meafure, why Sculpture
outdripped her fider Art ; for the fpecimens of

- d 4 ancient

40S On the Merit of the Ancients

ancient Painting are much inferior to modern
productions. They are deficient in colouring,
chiaro-obfcuro, and keeping. Several of the
Clajfics * tell us, there were, but four colours or
pigments in ufe amongfl the ancient artifts, viz.
black, white, yellow, and red. Now, it is im-
'poflible to produce, from thofe colours only, the
variety of tints neceflary to equal even a tolerable
colourift of the moderns. Although this evinces
nothing againft the abilities of the ancients, we
may fairly conclude, that the rich and luxuriant
deicriptions, handed down to us, are inflated
with hyperbole, fufficient to make us doubt
the veracity of fome of their authors. Unfortu¬
nately for thefe warm advocates, the difcoveries
of Herculaneum have fpitefully contradicted their
afifertions, and furnifhed us with means to draw
our own conclufions. It is very poflible they
might admire, and be furprized at a fight of, what
appeared to them the ultimatum of perfection.

The ftories of Zeuxis, and Polygnotus raife
a fmile. The former is faid to have painted
fruits fo naturally, that birds attempted to eat
them ; the latter to have delineated the' charac¬
ter and features of the face fo truly, that phyfiog-
nomifts, upon fight of the portrait, could foretel
the precife time of the party’s death. Sir Jofhua
Reynolds, who may be juftly confidered as the
firfl artift in the world, thus delivers his opinion,

“ Iq

* Pliny, Cicero,

and Moderns, with refpefi to the Arts. 409

“ In antique paintings, there are not the
ec fmalleft traces to make us think, that what
te we call light, and fnade, or a distribution of
“ the work into maSTes, claimed any part of their
<c attention : thefe may be ranked amongft the
*c defects of the learned PcuJJin * as well as of
<( the antique paintings : and the moderns have a
ft right tq. that praife which is their due, 'for
“ having given fo pieafing an addition to the
“ fplendour of the art. TouJJin' s pure and cor-
“ reel ftile was a direft contrail to the florid
“ and inaccurate ftile of Rubens -f- ; yet the luxu-
riant brillancy and harmony of the latter, Jo
<c dazzles the eye, that we cannot help thinking
cc all his deficiencies are fully Supplied.” Poujfin
carried his veneration for the ancients fo far
as to give his works the air of antique paintings.
It is certain he copied fome of them, particularly
the marriage, in the Aldrobrandini palace at
Rome ; which, in the opinion of that great artift
before mentioned, is the beft relique of thofe
remote ages, that has hitherto been found.
Thofe of the antique paintings which Hand
foremoft, are fine, and correct imitations of
improved nature; with the chafteft outline;
formed upon Such certain principles as no one

* N. PouJJln , an eminent French painter. It fhould have
been noticed, whether it was Nicholas , or Gajper PouJJhi.

f Rubens, a famous Flcmifh painter.

has

410

On the Merit of the Ancients

has yet dared to controvert. “But they have
“ a remarkable drynefs of manner, which is, by
“ no means, recommended for imitation.” The
compofitions of the ancients appear to be much
better calculated for the chifiel, than the pencil.

Chiaro-fcuro, or the art of diftributing the
lights and fhadows in a pidlure advantageoufly,
as well for the repofe, and fatisfadtion of the eye,
as for the effect of the whole together, leems to
be a modern invention. By the affiftance of
this part of fcience, objedts receive more relief,
truth, and foundnels. The mafies of light and
fhade are formed by a proper diftribution of
objects, which, by an artful management, are fo
difpofed, that all the lights are on one fide, and
the fliades on the other. Sometimes, refledted
lights are neceflary; at other times they are ufed,
with a pidtorical liberty, to produce the defired
.effects it is the knowledge of this that animates
the canvas, and gives the appearance of corpo¬
real fubftance to a flat furface. Rembrandt ,* fo
far from felecling the molt beautiful and grace¬
ful parts of nature, frequently made a bad choice
from among the fubjedls fhe affords. And,
although he poffefifed a very moderate portion
of true tafte, yet the fire and fpirit, with which
his pictures are finifhed, cannot be feen without
furprize ; and the effedt produced by his colour-

# Rembrandt , a great artift of the Flemifh fchool.

and Moderns, with rejpeft to the Arts. 411

ing, and expreflion, demand our admiration.
His etchings are collected at a great expence
for the cabinets of the curious. The fame fpiric,
which flowed from his pencil, guided his needle.
Had this eminent artift vifited Rome, and re¬
fined his tafte, it is fuppofed, with his profound
knowledge of chiaro-fcuro, and colouring, he
would have .been one of the firll mailers in the
world.

That part of the art, termed keeping, the
ancients feem to have been but little acquainted
with, and without a due management of this,
every picture would be filled with confufion.
Inllead of a proper fubordination, each groupe
or figure, would feem to contend for precedence.
This want of order deltroys all dignity, and pre¬
vents the artifb from forming an agreeable whole.

Any attempts in antique landfcape, with which
we are acquainted, are executed wretchedly.
In that part of the art, the fuperiority of the
moderns is manifell.

We have the authority of Frefnoy* to fay,
ic that, Michael Angelo furpaffed not only all
<c the moderns, but the ancients in architecture,
“ he quotes the St. Peters at Rome, the Palazzo
“ Farnefe, and the St. Johns at Florence, as
iC proofs of his opinion.”

• Frefnoy , a French artift well known for his Latin poem
de Arte Graphica,

Etching,

4 1 2 On the Merit- of the Ancients , csV.

Etching, engraving, mezzotinto, and aqua-
tinta are all of modern invention, and of great
utility. They deliver down to us accurate
copies from the works of eminent men at a
fmall expence and diffufe abroad the bright
flame of fcience, fo that even thofe, who are
far diftant from the centre of the arts, may
roufe their fouls to a&ion, and enlighten that
fpark of genius, which might hitherto have lain
dormant. From thefe meritorious, and in¬
genious improvements, we can judge, with great
certainty, of the various merits of an artiil, and
every part, but the colouring, may be critically
examined.

The ftile of the Italian, Flemilh, or French
fchools, may be pointed out by thefe copies,
and frequently the very manner of pencilling,
by particular artifts, is faithfully reprefented.
Thefe arguments are not meant to depreciate
the antiques, they will always engage our admi¬
ration, and moft highly merit it.

The advantages, received by the moderns,
from ftudying the ancients, are freely acknow¬
ledged. It is no uncommon thing to hear fome
people lament the decay of genius, and the de¬
cline of arts, in thefe times, when compared with
the Auguftan age. However that may be, the
moderns have a right to claim their full portion
of fame, in many arts in which the ancients
could not inftrudt them.

From

Mr. Wrnpey on the Impropriety of allowing, &V. 413

From the candour of this learned Society,
the writer of this Efiay claims protea ion, and
hopes, an attempt to inveftigate truth, will not
be deemed audacity.

On the Impropriety of allowing a Bounty
to encourage the Exportation of Corn, &c.
By Joseph Wimpey.

IN the converfation on a paper read before
this Society fome time fince, refpedHn^
the propriety of keeping ceconomical regifrers^
their ufe was queftioned in refpedt to one of
the principal objects, upon fuppofition, that a
neceffity for it did not exift ; becaufe it had been
obviated by meafures adopted for that purpofe.
The objedt alluded to, is the exportation of corn.
Notwithftanding all that was urged againft it,
the writer is fully perfuaded, the meafure re¬
commended is well founded, the objedt of it of
very great importance, and that men of very
good abilities, have had their judgments milled
by inveterate popular prejudices, or falfe reafon-
ing. Impreft with an idea of the great im¬
portance ol the fubjedt, he begs leave to fubmir
the following obfervations to the confideration
of the Society.

To

414 Mr, hVintpey on the Impropriety of allowing

To maintain an argument, not founded on
juft principles, is like putting to fea without
compafs or chart. As the vefiel would be the
fport of the waves and winds ; fo would fuch
a reafoner lie at the mercy of the boifterous
ftorms of his paftions, and the uncertain bias
of his inclinations. To avoid both, let us
premife certain proportions, where truth is not
only confonant to reafon, but confirmed by ex¬
perience, and acknowledged fads.

PROPOSITIONS.

1. The prime objed of civil fociety, is the
happinefs of the members of whom it is com-
pofed. No government can be juft, whofe
fupport and defence do not extend to the equal,
and indifcriminate benefit of the whole.

2. Though the good and protedion of each
individual, is either virtually implied, or for¬
mally conditioned or articled for; yet it cannot
juftly extend further, than may be confident
■with public good ; for, the rights of all men are
the fame, and it is fnocking to common fenfe to
fuppofe, that one man, or one clafs of men,
might, with juftice, be made rich, great,
and happy, by the mifery and fufferings of a
hundred men, or at the expence of the reft of
the community. No government ever intended
men ftiould Yivzupon one another, but be equally

advantaged

a Bounty, to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 4 1 5

advantaged by the mutual afiiftance, given to the
common fupport, of which every individual is
entitled to an equal fliare.

3. Public good is the barometer, or, if I
may ufe the exprefiion, the political balance,
by which the fpecific gravity, the intrinfic
worth, or fterling value, of every meafure,
refpeCting the public, is to be determined and
afcertained< Therefore, every meafure, which
has a tendency to promote public good, is
right and defirable : every meafure, which is
inimical to the public intereft, is a wrong mea¬
fure, and fhould be reprobated. To fay other-
wife, would be repugnant to common fenfe,
therefore falfe and abfurd.

4. The projects of individuals, in which the
good of the public is ultimately included, have
been very defervedly countenanced by public
encouragement: but fuch encouragement cannot
confidently be continued longer than the efta-
blifhment of fuch projects; for if they could
not fupport themfelves, and reward the projec¬
tors, they would be abfurd projects, and fhould
be abandoned, as by propofitions fecond and
third ; the individual is not to be enriched, at
the unjuft expence and lofs of the public. Now,
all the bounties, of whatever nature or kind,
whether they refpeCt produce, manufactures, or
commerce, are public encouragements ; and their
origin and exiftence depend, upon the reafonable

expectation '

41 6 Mr. JVimpey on the Impropriety cf allowing

expectation of their being fubfervient to public
good ; if they are found not to anfwer that pur-
pofe, they fhould be execrated and abandoned
as public evils, as appears by the foregoing pro¬
portions.

5. Cheap and dear arc relative terms; and
are meafured or eftimated, by their rife or fall
above the medium value. The medium value
of things may be eftimated, at the price they
Hand the grower, the breeder, or the manufac¬
turer in, with a reafonable profit on the fame,
for the maintenance of himfelf and family,
be the commodity whatever it may. If it
deviates from that ftandard, it will be dear,
in proportion to its advance above it, or cheap,
as it falls below it. But cheap and dear, being
relative terms, they muft depend on fomething
elfe for their exiftence; and this is very well
known to be fcarcity and plenty. If the demand
for any commodity is encreafed, beyond the quan¬
tity adequate to the fupply, its price is necef-
farily advanced. But if the quantity exceeds
the demand, the price as necelTarily falls ; and
it is not in human power to prevent it. From
hence follows :

6. Propofition. Whatever meafure, rule, or
law, increafes the quantity of any commodity,
in proportion to the demand for it, neceflarily
makes it cheaper*, and whatever increafes the

demand,

a Bounty } to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 417

demand, in proportion to the quantity, as
neceffarily renders it dearer.

Now, there is hardly any public queftion re-
fpedting agriculture, manufactures, or com¬
merce, but its expedience and ufe may be
afcertained by fome one, or more, of thefe
propofitions.

The queftion before us is of the greateft:
importance f there is not a Jubjebt in the realm ,
tvhofe intereft: is not affected by it. Nothing can
be more interefting, than that proper meafures
fhould be taken reflecting an article, upon which
the people depend for their daily fubfiftence. It is
a meafure, however, in which men of good fenfe
have been deceived and deluded ; by which millions
have been foolifhly thrown away, to the advan¬
tage of our neighbours ; and which, to this hour,
has its advocates, who contend, not only for its
continuance, but alfo for its extenfion. But the
effects of popular prejudice are indeed very
furprizing. — Let us firft take a curfory view of
its hiftory, and then try its merit by the fore¬
going propofitions.

Patriotifm, genuine patriotifm, is a word of
noble fignification. But, a true patriot, one
who, in all things, at all times, and upon all
occafions, prefers the good of the community
to his own private intereft, would be as Angu¬
lar a phenomenon in the political world, as a
Phoenix in the natural. It is an objedt one may
Vol. I. E e contemplate

4 1 8 Mr. IVimpey on the Impropriety of allowing

contemplate with pleafure ; but rarely be in¬
dulged with the fight of. Legiflators, like
Judges, fhould be incorrupt : their ears fhould
be open to no voice, but that of truth. But
where fhall we find thofe, who have no intereft
in the laws they enadt ; or thofe, who can dived
themfelves of the influence of fuch intereft ?

Unhappily, the landed intereft of the country
is placed in oppofition to that of commerce, and
they contemplate each other with an evil eye.
This has a pernicious tendency ; fince they are
connected together, like links in a chain, and
fince their fafety and intereft depend upon their
union. Neither could fubfift long without reci¬
procal aid. — But to proceed to fadts.

One of the calamities of the civil war was, a
fcarcity and dearnefs of provifions. When peace
was reftored, men betook themfelves to their
civil occupations, and agriculture was encouraged
by men of ability. In 1687, wheat was at a
lower price, than it had been at any time in the
century; fomewhere from three fhillings, to three
and four-pence a bufhel. The circumftances of the
farmers, of thofe days, were very different from
the prefent. If the prices were low, they were, not-
withftanding, obliged to go to market : nor could
they keep large flocks, for a change of times, and
an advance of price. Therefore, when corn fold
low, their rents were ill paid, and the land-owner
was affedted by, and partook of, the diftrefs of his

tenant.

a Bounty, to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 4 1 9

tenant. To remedy this, the bounty was de-
vifed, and a market was procured abroad : for
it was clearly feen, as the demand increafed,
the price mufi do fo too ; and the event fully
evinced the policy of the meafure, for the year
following, the price was nearly double. Could
this relief have been given to the farmer and
land-owner, without injury to the reft of the
community, it would have been juft: but, when
it is confidered, that there is no one, even in the
loweft circumftances of life, who is not taxed to
pay the bounty, perhaps it will appear rather
cruel, to oblige poor wretches, who with the
greateft care and induftry, cannot provide bread
fufficient to fupport their families, to contribute
towards the enriching of the farmer, and in¬
creasing of the rent of the land-owner.

But, what fays the advocate for the bounty ?
Why, he tells you, that the time of granting
it is the great aera, from which, improvements
in agriculture are to be dated. That at the
fame time, it has benefitted the land-owner
and the fanner, has added to the riches of
the nation, and has lowered the price of corn,
which is a common blefting to all. That it
has been very beneficial to the land-owner and
farmer, we not only admit, but have proved ;
but that it has added to the riches of the na¬
tion, is denied : and that it Should be the means
of lowering the price of corn, is contradictory,
abfurd, and impoftible. But it is faid, it has

E e 2 lowered

420 Mr. iVimpey on the Impropriety of allowing

lowered the price, and the fad is indifputable. — .
Fads, indeed, are ftubborn things, and not to be
warped to accommodate any body. But, be
it remembered, affertions are not fads: and
any one, who is remarkable for fcarlefsnefs of
afifertion, can never be depended upon for fads.

What effed the bounty had upon the price
of corn, can only be known, by comparing
the prices for a confiderable number of years,
before that meafure was adopted, with the fame
number of years after. This, and this only,
is the true method of afcertaining the fad. But
to compare plentiful years with years of fcarcity,
can only ferve to expofe the fraud and artifice
of the writer, and to impofe upon the credulity
of the reader. The following is a true ftate of
the fad, as any one may fatisfy himfelf, who
will be at the trouble of infpeding the Windfor
Tables, which he may find in Bifhop Fleetwood's
Chronicon Pretio/um, in four trads relating to
corn : and, I think, in one of the volumes of
Mnjeum R uf i cum et Commercials. The fad is,
if the average price of corn be taken from thofe
tables, for twenty-five or thirty years before the
bounty was enaded, and for the fame term after,
it will appear, that the price was confiderably
lower before the bounty, than it was after.
This was the time for difcovering the effeds
of the bounty; and the fad is, it advanced
the price, nearly double, the firfb year.

We

a Bounty , to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 421

We will now fhew, that the natural and
neceffary tendency of the bounty is, to raife the
price; and that it is impoffible it fhould do
otherwife ; and therefore abfurd to affert it. The
advocates for the meafure fay, “It encourages
the farmer to grow more corn, by providing a
market abroad ; this makes it more plentiful, and
confequently cheaper.” This, in fa<5t, is faying,
the farmer has more encouragement to grow
corn, when the price is lower, than when it is
higher. The market is nothing to him,
abftra&ed from the price. When he fells his
corn, he neither knows nor cares what becomes
of it afterwards : he looks only to the price.
If it affords him a reafonable profit, he proceeds
with alacrity; and his diligence and induftry
will be excited in proportion to his gain. But, it
feems, the bounty lowers the price and renders it
cheaper, and, at the fame time, encourages the
farmer to extend its culture, and grow larger
quantities, than he would otherwife do ! This
is the land-owner’s argument; but where is the
man, who can reconcile ic to common JenJe ?
Repugnant as this is to the common fenfe of
mankind, it is the great argument made ufe of,
not only to continue the bounty, but to increafe
and extend it, I could, therefore, wifb, as it is a
queftion of very great importance, to be permit¬
ted to fift it to the bottom.

E e 3 The

4 22 Mr. Wimpy on the Impropriety of allowing

The farmer ftands on the fame ground as the
manufacturer : every article of his farm ftands
him in a certain price ; and, if he cannot fell it
for a profit, lufficient to maintain himfelf and
family, in time he muft wafte his capital, and
come to ruin. Suppofe he cannot grow wheat
under four {hillings a bulhel, which is about the
average coft : it is evident, he muft fell it for
more than four {hillings, or he lofes by that
article. Now, if the bounty (as the advocates
for it maintain) lowers the price, is it poftible to
conceive, that it fhould encourage the farmer to
extend its culture ? Or rather, is it not felf-
evident, that it would not only difcourage
his fowing corn, but neceftitate him to difcon-
tinue the practice, to fave himfelf from ruin ?
Put a fimilar queftion to any Gentleman here,
who is verfed in manufactures of any kind.
Suppofe a Velveret ftands him in four {hillings
a yard : fo long as he can fell it for four {hillings
and fix-pence, or five {hillings, he will be
encouraged to make as much as he can : but let
any meafure be adopted which falls the price to
three {hillings and fixpence, would he not
immediately relinquifti that branch, and betake
himfelf to fomething elle ? Surely he would.
And, why Ihould not the farmer, for the very
fame reafon, abandon the planting of wheat,
when the bounty has lowered the price fo, that a
buftiel, which ftands him in four {hillings, he can

only

ci Bounty , to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 423

only fell for three fhillings and fix-pence, three
fhillings, two fhillings and fixpence, or even
but two fhillings ; for, at all thefe prices has
wheat been exported ? It is plain then, if the
price of grain is lower now, than it was in any
former period, it muft be owing to fome other
caufe; for a bounty has a direftly contrary effeft.

Another argument for the bounty is. That it
encourages exportation j and, as corn is the pro¬
duce of our own lands, it greatly increafes the
riches of our country.

I anfwer — To object to the exportation of
corn, or any other article of commerce, when it
can be done on advantageous terms, would be
extreme folly. But exportation, procured by
means of a bounty, is fo far from being advan¬
tageous, that it deftroys, for the mod part, all
polTibility of advantage : even of real, fubftantial
advantage, which mud, and would happen, if
not prevented by the bounty. Every man is
thoroughly fenfible, that, if he purfues a bufinefs
by which he is a lofer, the longer he continues
in it, and the larger his dealings, the more he
fuffers by it. Juft fo it operates in regard to
the public ; for the public and individuals only
differ, as greater and leffcr : and the lofs of the
one is in exa£t proportion to that of the other.
To fhew this, let us fuppofe, for example, as
before, that wheat Hands the farmer in four
fhillings a bufhel : that the prefent market price,

E 4 however,

4? 4 M-r- Wimpty on the Impropriety of allowing

however, is no more than thre_e fhillings, and that
there is not a Sufficient demand even at that. The
legislature, to relieve the farmer, and accommo¬
date its members, gives a bounty of five fhillings
a quarter, or feven-pence halfpenny a bufhel, to
procure a market abroad. And is it not 'ablejfed
relief which it affords ? In the firffc place, the
farmer fells for three fhillings what coft him four
fhillings ; and, towards that three fhillings, the
public pay feven-pence halfpenny. The ffift is a
lofs of twenty five per cent, and the latter of
more than twenty ; making together, above forty-
five per cent. ! What a glorious trade for England ,
attended with fuch immenfe advantages ! But
how much better for the fagacious Dutchman,
who buys a commodity at forty five per cent,
below its real value, which, in the fpace of
twelve or eishteen months, there is almoft a
certainty of felling again, Sometimes in the fame
market, at a hundred per cent, profit

But it may be afked, what is to be done, when
the nation is fo unfortunate, as to be over¬
whelmed with fuch an abundance : for it mufl
be obferved, fuch low prices never happen, but
in confequence of a Series of propitious feafons ?
I anfwer, we fhould then imitate the Dutch, and
ftore up our corn when cheap, that, when un¬
fruitful feafons come, we may, like them, fell it
at a large profit without a bounty, with a Saving
of £200,000 a year to the public. This, I

think.

a Bounty , to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 425

think, is about the average fum we have annually
paid for bounties, and is fufficient to purchafe
about a fourth of the corn, we have ufually ex¬
ported. Eut, giving a bounty of twenty per cent,
to export corn, when the price is fo low, leaves fo
little upon hand, that the firft bad feafon which
comes, raifes the price to double; and the\n,
when you fhould fell for a profit, you have no
corn; but 'are forced to prohibit exportation,
even without a bounty, or to import from
abroad, at double the price you fold at. It is
now about ninety five years, fince the bounty
commenced, and thus it has operated from the
beginning. The firft unfavourable feafon, after
a year of large exportation, hath conflantly
raifed the price immoderately, as appears from
the tables above-mentioned, and it is impodible
it fhould be otherwife.

It has been alfo obferved, that in Italy , and
other places, where corn is not permitted to be
fent abroad, it is always dear. Doubtlefs it is.
We have no objection to exportation, when we
have any corn to fpare : on the contrary, we
recommend the praftice. Bur, is there no dif¬
ference, between giving a bounty of twenty per
cent, to force a trade, which reduces you to
almoft a famine, and felling at a fair average
price, which obtains all over Europe? The
former impoverifhes and diftreftes you ; while the
other, if you had any corn to fell, would infall i-

426 Mr. Wimpey on the Impropriety of allowing

bly enrich you. The exportation of corn, upon
fair and juft principles, would be a very valuable
article of commerce ; and not lefs fo, in a national
view, than a private one, to the land-owner
and farmer: but fo execrable has been our
management, by forcing a market with the lofs
of from thirty to fifty per cent, that when a
fcarcity comes, when the price advances, and we
fhould gain fifty per cent, inftead of having corn
to fell, we are forced to buy, and often to
give double the price we fold at.

We quite miftake the matter, in fuppofing,
the laws, in being, have provided a fufficient
remedy : no law ever was, or ever can be,
effectual to that purpole, while a bounty fubfifts.
It is in vain to think, that trade, like water,
will find its own level, when fo large a fiuice is
opened to deftroy that level. We may as well
throw a quarter of a hundred weight into one
fcale, to preferve its equilibrium, as to give a
bounty of twenty per cent, to put us upon an
equal footing with the other corn-markets in
Europe.

The impropriety of the bounty is not lefs
apparent, in the influence it has on the farmer’s
condutt. It often tempts him to plant wheat
on land, which is not fuited to it ; and fome-
times, two or three years together, on the fame
land ; which too often proves a great lofs to
himfelf, and alfo to the public. For the farmer

cannot

e Bounty , to encourage the Exportation of Com. 427

cannot luffer materially in the failure or lols
of his crops, but the public will be affe&ed by
it : and, what is worfe, while he plants wheat,
for the fale of which the public are loaded with
a heavy tax, he omits planting other grain,
which England, is obliged to import from abroad.
At the fame time that we have paid two hundred
thoufand po_unds a year for bounties on corn
exported, we have paid five hundred thoufand
pounds for oats imported, making together feven
hundred thoufand pounds. Can a more ftriking
proof of the folly of the meafure be defired,
than giving fuch a fum to force a trade in one
article, which neceftarily obliges us to be pur-
chafers for fo large a fum in another, without
any the leaf: allowance whatever ?

But, there are thole who would perfuade us,
that to grow corn, or trade in it to any advan¬
tage, our ports fhould be always open, that the
merchant might export or import, as bed fuited
his intereft. If the merchant were the only man
in the kingdom whofe welfare was to be
confidered, perhaps it might be right 3 or, if
mankind confidered all nations as brethren,
among whom charity univerfally prevailed, the
maxim might be juft. But whilll neighbouring
nations calculate their own intereft, by the lol's
of it in others, the country which fhould be
anxious to provide bread for its neighbours,
would be lure to want it for itfelf. On this

plan.

428 Mr. Wimpey on the Impropriety of allowing

plan, what would become of the farmer and land-
owner ? I anfwer both would be totally ruined.
In mod countries in Europe , both land and
labour are fo much cheaper than in England ,
that, in fruitful feafons, grain would be poured
in upon us in fuch immenfe quantities, and
the pi ice fo far reduced, that the farmer mult
give up his bufinefs, and the land-owner
cultivate his land, for the bare maintenance of
his family. On the other hand, when the feafons
proved unfavourable, and the crops were infuffi-
cient, our ports might be open to no purpofe;
no corn would arrive ; the unavoidable con¬
sequence would be, a general famine; and un¬
der the influence of fuch an execrable meafure, it
would not be in the art or power of man to pre¬
vent it. It is not in corn only, that high cuftoms,
prohibitory and penal laws, are abfolutely necef-
fary, but in very numerous branches of manu¬
factures; indeed, in manufacture almofl: the whole
of linen and filk. Vaft quantities of the former
are imported under duties of, from eighteen to
twenty-five or thirty per cent ; and a vaft variety
of fmall wares 'at twenty-five; and one article
at almofl; cent, per cent. Even fine broad-cloth,
which is a ftaple commodity of this kingdom,
I have known imported under an infurance of
twenty-five per cent, ad valorum. In (hort,
were our ports open to all, as fome Politicians

advife.

a Bounty , to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 429

advife, the Englijh mechanic muff: do as much
work for three-pence, at leaff, as he now does
for a fhilling *, and then I aver, he would be
much better paid, than an ingenious workman now
is in France.

But, as I find fome Gentlemen, the mofr re-
fpetffable in general for their judgment, think
differently on this fubjeft, I with to give it a
little further inveftigation. I remember Mon-
fieur Furgot (who was, at leaft, as refpe<5table
for his humanity as for his penetration, and
in neither, perhaps, much inferior to any man)
thought it was a cruel meafure to Ihut the ports,
and keep back our corn, when fo many pro¬
vinces were ftarvin? for want of it. He con-

k— >

tended, it was a narrow policy, and that gene¬
ral happinefs requires, that the ports fnould
be always open, and commerce left to thofe
whofe bufinefs it was to purfue it. This, I ob-
ferve, was trying the queftion by the laws of
• humanity, and not by the policy of dates ; and
particularly, not by the politics of the court of
France , in one of the fir ft departments of which
he, at that time, filled a diftinguifhed place,
with much honour.

If the laws of juftice and humanity univerfally
prevailed, and every man, of whatever country
or nation, efteemed every other man as his bro¬
ther and his friend, if all men had but

one

/

430 Mr. Wimpey on the Impropriety of allowing

one common object of purfuit, viz. the general
peace and happinefs of mankind ; and if each
individual were content with his proportion of
good, as it arofe from the general (lock, com¬
merce and every thing elfe would put on a very
different face.

It would be loft labour to attempt to prove,
what every one is daily an eye-witnefs to. The
prefent fyftem of politics, not only among
princes and ftates, but in fmall communities,
and among individuals too, is not only to make
the greateft advantages poffible of the wants and
diftreffes of others, but to create, as far as is
practicable, thofe wants and diftreffes, as the
moft certain and direct: road to fuch advantages.
Hence, the accurfed third of conqueft, to feed
the ambition of princes, and the atrocious fpirit
of monoplizing, to create fcarcity in the midftof
plenty, todiftrefs, perhaps, ten thoufand perlons
in order to gratify the infatiable avarice of one.
Whoever may attend to the prefent fyftem of
things, as actually exifting in a populous,
induftrious, fertile country, where the eyes of
every individual are open to private advantage,
will foon fee the neceftity of reflrictive lawsj
to protect the weak and innocent againft the
fraud and abufe of thofe, who make artifice and
cunning their ftudy, to impoverifti and enflave
the reft of mankind. This is an affair of the
lafl: importance, which, I am afraid, is very

far

a Bounty , to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 43 1

far from being well underftood. Some, I verily
believe, from a generofity of temper, and bene¬
volence of difpofition, wifh to fee every means
practifed, which might probably reduce the price
of commodities, efpecially the necelTaries and
conveniences of life. To this end, it has been
thought, that if the ports were thrown open, and
the flux and reflux of the articles of commerce
might beas'free as the tides, it would necefTarily
occafion plenty ; and that this would as neceiTarily
lower the price, which would be a convenience to
all, and particularly, a great blefling to the in-
duftrious poor. This do&rine, plaufible as it may
feem, from the humanity of the fpirit by which
it is didtated, I regard as a fophifm of the mofl
dangerous kind. Nothing could fooner reduce
this country, to the deepefl poverty and diftrefs.

What is it, that has raifed this country to
the Hate of affluence, eafe, and happinefs, it
has long enjoyed ? Not the natural fecundity
of its lands: for, in that refpedt, it is very far
inferior to many other countries. Neither our
lands, their natural produce, nor the populouf-
nefs of the country, could add one grain to its
riches, without the induftry and labour of its
people : I mean thofe, who not only labour
for their maintenance and fupport, but aifo,
for the neceffaries and conveniences of thofe,
whofe circumftances enable them to pay for what
they are unable or unwilling to provide for

themfelves.

4?2 Mr. Wimpey on the Impropriety of allowing

themfelves. It is the well-directed induftry of
the labouring poor, which conftitutes the riches
of a country. They are, when beneficially em¬
ployed, the true finews of its profperity ; to pro¬
mote and effeft which, is the heighth of political
wifdom. Numbers, unlefs ufefully employed,
are the bane and curfe of every community.

Nature, in the moft fertile foil, and climate,
can only provide the rough materials ; it is the
induftrious and laborious man, who cultivates
the earth, reaps the grain, fhears the flock,
fabricates the cloth, fells the timber, penetrates
into the bowels of the earth, and navigates the
feas. Upon the unremitting toil of thefe labo¬
rious people, do the riches, the profperity, and
the happinefs of every populous country depend.
A populous country, deflitute of employment
for its people, would foon exhibit a dreadful fcene
of wretchednefs and mifery. A people, ener¬
vated and difpiritcd for want of employment,
and the means of a comfortable fubfiftence, to
be procured by it alone, would foon become the
fcourge and curfe of a country.

But let us make the experiment ; like fight¬
ing a battle, it will be much more fafe to
do it on paper, than in the field. I am very
far from pretending to have a perfect, or even
a comprehenfive view of the fubjeci ; but, I
hope, without vanity it may be faid, I have a
practical knowledge of commerce, fufficient to

enable

a Bounty , to encourage the Exportation of Corn: 433

enable me to point out the inevitable ruin,
that muft attend the fyftem of eftablilhing free
ports, for the importation and exportation of
all kinds of commodities without reftridtion.

I will beg leave to premile a few proportions
relative to this fubjedt, the certainty of which,
I perfuade myfelf, will not be difputed.

1. If the labour and induftry of a people are
the fources of the riches they pofiefs, thefe fources
muft dry up or abate, in proportion as the peo¬
ple want employment.

2. Both the land, and labour of England are
very high, in comparifon with thofe of almoft any
other country in Europe; confequently, fuch
countries can under-fell England , ceteris paribus ,
both in corn and manufadtures, in any market
in the world.

3. The produce of the earth, in its natural
ftate, and raw materials of all kinds, have their
value exceedingly increafed, by the fkill and
labour bellowed upon them, in converting
them into goods and wares, often in the pro¬
portion of, from five to twenty for one, and
fometimes a great deal more : therefore, where
there are people to be employed, and fuch goods
and wares can be vended with advantage, ic
is extremely bad policy, to fuffer the raw mate¬
rials to be exported, on any pretence whatfoever.

4. Moft countries have fome advantages pe¬
culiar to them, arifing from the foil, climate,

Vol. I. F f fituation.

434 Mr- Wimpey on the Impropriety of allowing

fituation, or natural productions of the fame.
The genuine and mofi: warrantable policy of
any country is, to accommodate fuch advantages
to the good, the well-being, and profperity of
its people. Indeed, general policy renders it
necefiary, to put every (late upon an equal foot¬
ing with its neighbours j for it would be deemed
weaknefs or madnefs, to neglect local advan¬
tages, when every ftate, and every individual
around us, were availing themfelves to the
utmoft of their power, to profit by them.

5. If the exportation of raw materials is fo
impolitic a meafure ; how much more fo is it,
to encourage the manufactures of other nations,
when they ftand in competition with our own,
and have a direCt tendency to fupplant us in
our market at home, and in the confumption of
our own manufactures, though infinitely better
accommodated to the uncertain climate of
Great Britain ? This is moft unpatriotic, and,
to the laft degree, culpable.

Now, fheep’s wool is one of thofe peculiar
local blefiings, with which Great Britain and
Ireland are favoured, beyond any other part of
Europe. Its quality is fuch, that every ounce
of it is capable of being wrought into ufeful
clothing of fome kind, which, it feems, is a
rare and fingular cafe. The value of wool,
when wrought into cloth, upon an average, is
reckoned to be in the proportion of, five or fix to

one-

a Bounty , to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 4 35

one. The number of inhabitants is faid to be
fomewhere from fix to feven millions, and that
one third of thefe are faid to be employed and
maintained by this manufacture. The proportion
feems large; perhaps they are over-rated. Sup-
pofe only a fixth of the people to be employed in
this branch, the object is important, fo much
fo, that the wifdom of the legislature has always
thought it'necefiary to encourage this manu¬
facture by every means in its power. The
queftion, it feems, is — “Have they judged and
acted rightly ?” The grazier, perhaps, will tell
you, no; for if he were permitted to export his
wool, he could fell it at double the price. This
is very true, and would certainly be a great
prefent advantage to him : but how long would
it continue to be fo ? That, perhaps, he never
thought of, nor of other confequences, which
would certainly overbalance even his partial
advantages.

If it be true, as it is generally believed, that
one pack of Englijh wool enables the French to
work up two packs of theirs; and if labour in
France is cheaper, by, at lead, one half, than in
England , they could afford to give a Shilling
for a pound of wool, that is now fold for fix-
pence, and fell their cloth at little more than
half the price — fay two thirds at mod — that
an Englifo manufacturer could do. Where, then,
muff we fend our cloth to market ?

F f 2

Bur

436 Mr. Wimgcy on the Impropriety of allowing

But it has been faid — If the French would give
us a double price for our wool, and fupply us
with cloth equally good, at two thirds of what
we give for it now, that is, as good fuperfine
cloth for twelve {hillings a yard as what we pay
eighteen {hillings for now, and fo for other forts
in -proportion, is it not evident we Ihould be
very great gainers by the bargain ? 1 anfwer :
labour and toil are generally the effedfs of
necefiity, and not of choice. Few men would
be at the pains of doing any difagreeable labour
for themfelves and families, if they had any
fure means of doing as well, or better, without
it : but what mud the man do, who is deditute
of fuch means ? If he fhould fell his pound
of wool to T. for a {hilling, which E. would
only give him fix-pence for, would that enable
him to give twelve {hillings, or fix (hillings, to
T. for a yard of their cloth \ This is the true
quedionj for at leafb nine-tenths of the people,
perhaps ninety-nine out of a hundred, mud
earn their bread, and cloaths too, by their
labour. It is not the cafe of the woollen
manufactures only, but of almod all manufac¬
turers and artificers whatever. It has been faid,
if that branch fail, let them betake themfelves
to fome other ! I fhould be happy to fee the
man, who could point out the means of employ¬
ing a million of people beneficially, in any other
branch whatever.

The

a Bounty, to encourage the Exportation of Corn . 437

The linen manufacture comes the neared to
the woollen : and the weaver of the latter, might
foon be brought to weave the former. But here
you are under a fimilar dilemma : for not a
piece could be made in Great Britain without
great lofs, if foreign linens were not fubjeCt to
cuftoms, almoft equal to a prohibition. The
linens of Silefia , Pomerania , Saxony , Poland , Ruffia ,
Flanders, and Holland, pay cuftoms from eighteen
to thirty, and upwards, per cent. ; and thofe of
France are prohibited. If you turn to the filk
manufacture, you are there protected and encou¬
raged by fimilar means. French filks are abfo-
lutely prohibited : thofe of Italy pay too heavy
a duty to be worn in common : the Eajl Indian
are prohibited under very fevere penalties.
Were it not for very heavy duties, and pro¬
hibitions, not a piece of any of thefe goods could
be made here.

Where then, {hall we find employment for fo
many millions of people, who, upon the fcheme
of a free trade and open ports, would be deprived
of their ufual means of fubfifience ? Our manu¬
factures of lace are upon the fame footing :
black and blond filk laces are prohibited : thread
lace pays a duty, upon low goods, of four or
five hundred per cent. The fmall wares of
Harlem are under the fame predicament. Fil-
letings, tapes, bobbins, threads of all kinds
and denominations, pay duties from twenty to

F f 3 thirty

4^3 Mr. Wimpey on the Impropriety of allowing

thirty per cent, and fome much more; and,
notwithftanding all this, the Englijh manufacturer
is often puzzled to fell goods in our market at
home, upon terms equally low with the foreign
manufacturer.

From hence it is eafy to fee, that the laws of
this country, refpecting commerce, are abfo-
lutely nec.eflary to its very exiftence. Repeal
the laws, open the ports, and invite all the
world to a free correfpondence with you, and
you, at one ftroke, deprive .millions of people
of the means of fubfiftence. What will you do
with them then? Maintain them you cannot:
for the whole income of the lands bears but a
fmall proportion to the amount of the produce
of their labour. The plain anfwer is — Many
would be hanged, more would be ftarved, and
many more would emigrate into other countries,
as they did formerly into this, in hopes of
employment.

The grazier, by this time too, would begin
to feel the effeCts of his error : for having no
market to go to, but France, with his wool,
and that being glutted, it is more than probable,
he would fall fliort of the price he now fo much
complains of at home. For wool, and corn,
and all commodities whatever, are fubject to,
and governed by the fame law. Every man,
and every date, that is in want of any articles
whatever, are ready to buy at a fair pi ice: but

the

a Bounty , to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 439

the feller mull fubmit to very difadvantageous
terms, to prevail upon the buyer to purchafe
a commodity, he has no occafion for, and knows
not what to do with.

1 would beg leave juft to mention, by way
of illuftration, that the grazier is now under
the very fame predicament, that the farmer was
near one hundred years ago. Wheat was then
at little more than three (hillings a buftiel ; ex¬
portation was encouraged by a bounty to enhance
its price. The experiment fucceeded, as it
infallibly muft; and the very next year it was
nearly double. The grazier s hopes are equally
well founded. Were he permitted to export his
wool, the price would immediately advance,
not only for exportation, but tor nome comump-
tion too ; and were it not for the ruinous effects
I have defcribed, the meafure would certainly
be juft and politic. But if the price hereafter
fhould, by any means, fall a penny or two pence
a pound below what it is now, is it poflible to
conceive, that this circumftance could encourage
the grazier to inceafe the quantity ; or can we
reconcile it to common fenfe, that a circunri-
ftance happening to a man, in any profeffion,
by which he is a fufferer to a very confiderable
amount, fhould animate him to extend and in-
creafe his trade ? Yet this is the very argument
ufed by the advocates of the bounty. A bounty,
fay they, encouraged exportation ; exportation

F f 4 encouraged

440 Mr. W imp ey on the Impropriety of allowing

encouraged the farmer to plant ; and planting
lowered the price ; the price is, therefore, lower
than it was before the bounty took place ; the
fall of price is owing to the bounty ; ergo, the
fall of price encouraged the farmer to plant more
corn! But this is a fophifm, as dangerous as it
is abfurd.

Were it true, that the average price of wheat
has been cheaper fince the bounty than it was
before, it is clearly demonftrable, that could not
be the caufe. From 1730 to 1750, there were
twenty fuch years of plenty as were never known ;
confequently, the average price of thofe years
was lower than was ever known before or fince-
But it feems to have been forgotten, how necef-
farily and how largely the price mud have been
affedted, by the great improvements which have
been made in agriculture during the laft century.
Clover, turnips, and potatoes, are fuch an acqui-
fition, as ultimately, by means of general im¬
provement, affedts the price of all the produce
of a farm. Potatoes alone contribute, in moft
families, to lefien the confumption of bread ; and
in dear times, in feveral counties, among the
poor, they almoft totally fupply the ufe of it. It
fcarcely admits a doubt, that this ufeful root
alone has lowered the average price of wheat, at
lead fix-pjence a bufhel.

What has occafioned the loud outcry of the
fall of price in coarfe wool ? The very fame
« caufe,

' a Bounty , to encourage the Exportation of Corn. 441

caufe, that would have lowered the price of corn,
if exportation had not kept it up — that is — im¬
provements. In countries which have been
drained, the lands inclofed, and the turnip-cul¬
ture adopted, the pafture has been amazingly
increafed, and the fize of the fheep alfo : fo that
a double quantity of wool has been raifed upon
the fame extent of land, and the grazier wuuld
be nofufFerer, though he fhould fell for half the
former price : for the lofs in quality is more than
compenfiited by the increafe in quantity.

On

442 Mr. White on the Natural Hifory of the Cow.

On the Natural History of the Cow, fo far as
it relates to its giving Milk, -particularly for the
Use of Man. By C. White, Efq. F. R. S.
&c. Read March 12, 1783.

T^JATURALISTS Teem to lay it down as a
general principle, that neither animals, nor
parts of animals, are primarily intended for the
ufe of man, but are only capable of a fecondary
application to his purpofes. Itmuft, however,
be allowed that, in many inftances, the fecon¬
dary ufe is fo manifeit and important, that it
cannot, with propriety, be excluded from the
original defigns of the all wife Creator. And it
appears to me, that the Cow in its faculty, of
giving in fuch abundance, and with fo much
eafe, its Milk, which forms fo excellent an arti¬
cle of aliment for the human fpecies, is a ftriking
example of this fubordination to the ii.terefts of
mankind. For this animal differs in fome parts
of its organisation from moft others, having a
larger and more capacious udder, and longer
and thicker teats, than the largeft animal we
know; and (he has four teats, whilfl all other
animals of the fame nature, have but two.

Sh§

Mr. White on the Natural ITiJiory of the Cow. 443

She alfo yields the milk freely to the hand,
whijft mold animals, at leafc thofe that do not
ruminate in the fame manner, refufe it, except
their own young, or fome adopted animal be
allowed to partake.

This is a fubject which, one would have thought,
had long fince been exhaufted ; but I have not
been able to find any thing fatisfa&ory in the
few authors I have read. I muft confefs, indeed,
that my knowledge in Natural Hiftory is very
confined, and fhould therefore wifh to hear the
lentiments of thofe learned Members of this
Society, who have made the hiftory of nature
their more particular ftudy.

In the fir ft place, the Cow is of that clafs of
horned ruminating animals , which have cloven hoofs ,
four ftomachs , a confiderable length of intejlines , are
furnifhed with fuet , and have no dentes incifores
in the upper jaw. From the different ftru&ure
of the ftomach in thefe creatures, a ruminant
animal will be ferved with one- third lefs food,
than another of equal bulk. Graziers are
fufficiently acquainted with this. The reafon
is, that ruminating animals have many and
ftrong digeftive organs ; and every thing capa¬
ble of being converted into chyle, is extra&ed
from the food ; which therefore yields a greater
quantity of milk: but a horfe’s and .an afs’s
ftomach is not fitted for this i fo that they require

a much

444 Mr. TVhite on the Natural Hi/lory of the Cow.

a much greater quantity of food to extraCt the
fame nourifhment.

A Cow’s udder is fo capacious, that it frequent¬
ly contains ten quarts of milk, which it will
yield twice a day ; and it is not only remarkable
for its quantity, but its quality, as fome cows
will afford twelve or fourteen pounds of butter
in a week. The fize and form of the teats ap¬
pear, at the firft fight, as if they were made on
purpofe for the hand to draw off the milk. But
this is not the only advantage they poffefs ; the
thicknefs permits the lactiferous tubes to be of a
larger diameter, and the length of them makes
the fyphon fo much longer, and the extraction of
the milk of courfe fo much more eafy.

The cow having four teats is a ftriking peculi¬
arity, the number in all other animals, bearing
fome proportion to the number of young ones,,
they bring forth at a time, as in the bitch, the
cat, the fow, &c. But the Cow does not bring
forth, at a birth, more young ones, than thofe
animals who have but two teats.

The Cow will yield her milk to the hand as
freely, and will continue to give her milk for
as long a time, without any calf coming near
her, as if it were permitted to fuck her con-
ftantly. This is not the cafe with the afs, which,
next to the Cow, is the animal we are moft
accuftomed to have milked in this part of the

world,

Mr. White on the Natural Uijlory of the Cow. 445

world. For it is well known, that an afs will
foon grow dry, if her foal is not permitted to
fuck part of the milk every day, but fhe is not
a ruminating animal.

The human milk cannot long be preferved
in the breads, without the child be permitted
to fuck. It otherwife foon acquires a bad faltifh
fade, and, in a fhort time, leaves them entirely ;
and this will happen, if the child alone fucks,
if it be not permitted to fuck four or five
times a day. T hree times a day I find is, in ge¬
neral, not fufficient to keep the milk good, and
in proper quantity. I do not mean to fay, that
it is impoffible, in any fubjed whatever, to keeD
the milk without a child fucking conftantly.
1 believe there have been indances of fudion by
perfons, above the age of infancy, and even by
puppies, keeping the milk for fome time; but
thefe may, in fome meafure, be confidered in
the light of adopted children. What I would
wifh to enforce is, that the mod dexterous and
mod flcilful women, who draw breads, do not
keep the milk without the adidance of the child ;
and when I have particularly defired them to
do it, they have not been able, though they have
fwallowed the milk, and repeated the fudion
four or five times a day.

Capivaccius, it is faid, faved the only heir
of a noble family by ordering him to lie between

tw.o

446 Mr. White on the Natural Hijlory of the Covt.

two nurfes, in the flower of their age, and fuck
their breads.

Foreftus tells us, that a youth at Bologna, of
twenty-nine years of age, labouring under a
true marafmus, lived upon the milk of a beau¬
tiful young nurfe, of eighteen years of age, who
lay in the fame bed with him, by which means
his emaciated body was well redored. In
both thefe indances, I fuppofe the milk was
preferved, without the child being permitted
to fuck. I am informed that goats, flieep,
and rein deer will give milk freely to the
hand, without the kid, lamb, and the fawn
having accefs to them, but they are ru¬
minating animals of the fame kind with the
Cow.

Upon the whole, I believe we may infer,
that the property of yielding milk, without the
young one, or fome adopted animal, in fome
meafure partaking of it, is confined to that clafs
of ruminating horned animals who have cloven hoofs ,
four fomachs, long intefines , are furnifhed with
fuet , and have no foreteeth in the upper jaw.
That cows, Iheep, goats and deer are of this
kind, and no others ; and that the Cow has this
property in a more eminent degree than the
others, owing to the capaciouinefs of her udder,
and the fize, form and number of her teats.
There are other ruminant animals, befides thofe

I have

Mr. White on the Natural Hiftory of the Cow. 447

i have mentioned, fome of which are without
horns or cloven feet, and without fuet; fome
have only two, fome three ftomachs, and fome
are furnifhed with fore-teeth in the upper jaw j
but I cannot learn that any of thefe are pofiefled
of the property I have mentioned.

It may, perhaps, be faid, that the Tartars ride
mares, upon their excurfions for plunder, in order
to live upon the milk, and probably do not take
their foals with them- But this will not difprove
the doctrine I have advanced 5 as the milk will
hardly defert them in fo Ihort a time, as one of
thefe excurfions might laft.

Is there not, therefore, fomereafon to conclude
that the Cow w'as, by the omnifcient Author of
nature, intended to give milk, particularly for
the ufe of man ?

448 Mr. Henry on the Natural Hi/lory, idc.

On the Natural History and Origin of
Magnesian Earth, •particularly as connected
with thofe of Sea Salt, and of Nitre ; with
Observations onfome of the Chemical Pro¬
perties of that Earth, which have beeny
hitherto , either unknown , or undetermined. By
Thomas Henry, F. R. S. &V.

AT UR A LISTS and Chemifts formerly
^ divided the different kinds of earths into
five genera, viz. the Siliceous, or Verifiable, the
Calcareous, the Gypfeous, the Argillaceous and
the Talcky. But recent difcoveries having proved
the Gypfeous, to be a compound of Calcareous
earth and vitriolic acid, and the Talcky, to con-
fid of a mixture of Argillaceous with other earths,
the genera were reduced to three. M. Baume
has even attempted a farther reduction ; * and
has endeavoured to prove, that two of thefe are
merely modifications of the other: argillaceous
earth being, according to him, a vitriolic fait,

* Baume, Chymie Experimentale et Rationee, vol I.
far la Terre.

formed

(f Magnejian Earth. 449

formed by the union of vitriolic acid with fili-
ceous earth ; and the calcareous, a combination
of the fame earth, with certain portions of air
and water, effedted by the operation of various
marine animals : and he fuppofes, that when
calcareous earth is deprived of air and water, it
will return to its primitive date, viz. that of fili-
ceous earth.

This theory is, perhaps, rather fanciful, than
juft. The operations of Nature, it mull be
allowed, are generally Ample — but we may fim-
plefy too far; and, in forming fyftems, we fhould
not fuffer our imaginations to carry us beyond
thofe bounds, which our fenfes, and experiment,
warrant.

Calcareous earth, indeed, in the form in which
we commonly find it, is a compound, confiding
of earth, air, and water ; and is not cpnfidered
as pure, till it be deprived, by fire, of the two
laft elements. It is then, properly, pure calcare¬
ous earth ; but it does not appear that longer cal¬
cination, though it may dived it of fome of the
properties of calcareous , will ever reduce it to the
nature of filiceous earth.

Every earth with which we meet, and which,
v/hen feparated from thofe acids, or other
accidental bodies, that are combined with it,
refids every power we poffefs, to produce any
farther decompofition, and yet differs in all, or
any of its properties, from the other known

^0L* G g earths.

4;o Mr. Henry on the Natural Plijloiy, &c.

earths, may be admitted to form a new gentm
And, on thefe grounds, two new genera have
lately been added to the other three. The bafis
of fome fpars, * * * § which had been generally deem-^
ed to be calcareous earth, has been proved
to differ from it, in its affinities and fome other
properties ; and has been admitted to form a
diftindt genus, under the title of Barytic or Pon¬
derous Earth : and another kind of earth, which
though rarely, if ever, found pure in nature, y<"t
abounds, in great quantities, in various forms of
combination, from which it may be feparated by
chemical means, has been allowed to form a
fifth genus, under the appellation of Muriatic ,
or, Magnefian Earth.

This earth was alfo, for fome time, con¬
founded with calcareous earth, of which it was
fuppofed to be a modification ; for by the earlier
modes of obtaining it, it was mixed with luch

* x. Marmor Metallicum, Croftjl. 182. Gypfum Spa-
thofurn, Spathum Fufibile, Margraf. &c. Terra ponde-
rofa vitriolata. Bergman. Sciagrapbia Ponderous Spar.

2. Marmor Metallicum, Cronjledt Min. § 18. B. Calk
or Cauk.

3. Gypfum cryftallifatum capillare, Cronjledt. Min.

§ 19. B. Radiated Cauk.

4. This earth has been alfo found of a fparry appearance,
and combined with aerial acid only ; Terra ponderofa aerata.
See Dr. Withering’s Experiments and Qbferaiations on the

Terra Ponderofa. Phil, Tranf. vol LXX1V. p. 293.

a quantity

of Magnefum Earth . 451

i. quantity of calcareous matter as to dilguife
its diftinguifhing features, and even make it
aflume fome of the character! fries of calcareous
earth. But the accurate experiments of Mefirs.
Black and Margraaf, foon removed the obftacles,
which impeded our more perfect acquaintance
with its nature, and they procured it pure from
the mixture of other earths ; in which ftate they
found it fcr different, from what it had been re-
prefented, that it was declared to be an earth,
Jui generis. But though Dr. Black went thus
far, he did not proceed to fet it at the head of
a diftinct genus ; but placed it, with all thofe
earths, which he has claffed together, under the
general generic head of Ahjorbent Earths , of which
he was content to make this a fpecies. It has
fince obtained a more honourable rank, and forms
a feparate genus.

M. Fourcrov, who follows the arrangement of
his predecefior M. Bouquet, has placed calca¬
reous, ponderous, and magneffan earths among
the falts. There fhould feem to be ftrong ob¬
jections to this arrangement, even with refpeft
to the two former ; though their being fapid,
and foluble in water, may give fome counte¬
nance to it. But the infipidity and total infolu-
bility of pure magnefia, together with its not
being fuffble, by the ftrongeft heat we can apply,
as will prefently be friewn, are proofs of its being
a real earth.

G g 2 Though

452 Mr. Henry on the Natural Hi/lory, &c.

Though magnefian earth is rarely found pure,
in nature, it is contained, in a faline form, in all
nitre heaps, from the mother ley of which fair,
it was formerly extrafted ; in the water of feveral
medicinal fprings, and even in our common
wells. But the fea is the great fource from
which we obtain it ; in the waters of which, it
is united to the marine acid, in which form it
remains, after the cry ftallifation of the fea fait,
and is afterwards feparated from the marine, and
united to the vitriolic, acid, by a particular pro-
cefs. It is then called Sal Catharticus Amarus ,
and, from this fait, the magnefian earth may
be precipitated. One hundred parts of the fait
yield, on precipitation by a mild alkali, forty-
two of magnefia, united with aerial acid. If
a cauftic alkali be employed, the product
amounts to only twenty-five parts. But a por¬
tion of this lad may be driven off by calcination,
and confifts of water, and, perhaps, Jome aerial
acid, for it is difficult to procure the alkali quite
free from that gas. The Magnefia is then laid
to b t pure. One hundred parts of fal catharticus
amarus contain only nineteen of pure Magnefia,
and according to Bergman, thirty-three of vi¬
triolic acid, and forty-eight of water. But
Mr. Kirvvan, who reckons only on the real
acid, makes the proportion of acid twenty- four,
and of water fifty-feven, parts.

Sir

Of Magnefian Earth.

453

Sir. T. Bergman relates,* that he procured a
fait, fimilar to the fal catharticus amarus, by
lixiviating the earthy matters, feparated by wafli-
ing from the filver ore of Sahlberg, on the
furface of which the fait forms, by expofure to
the air. One hundred weight of the earth
yielded fixty-five pounds of this fait. M. Mon-
net, alfo, difcovered a kind of Schiftus, which
on calcination, and lixiviation, furniftied a fmall
portion of the fame fait.

Magnefian earth may alfo be feparated, by
means of vitriolic acid, from fome fpars, mar¬
bles, and other earthy and ftony bodies of which
it forms a component part.

The compound fpar, defcribed by Mr.
Woulfe, f contains, in 100 parts, 60 of mil'd
calcareous, 35 of mild Magnefia, and 5 of iron.

One hundred parts of Creutzenwald (lone
contain 12 of mild Magnefia.

The Kolmord marble , the Pietra Ealchinay the
Verde Antico , and the Griotte, a red marble from
Autun , all contain fmall portions of Magnefia.

The Spuma Maris , an earthy fubftance, from
which the Turkey tobacco-pipes are made, is
faid to confift of equal parts of magnefian, and
filiceous, earths.

# Bergman de Magnefia.

| Phil. Tranf. vol. LXIX. p. 29,

Steatite,

454 Mr. Henry on the Natural Hi/lory, &c.

Steatite, or Soap-rock, contains, according to
Sir T. Bergman, 17 of mild Magnefia in 100
parts of that compound.

A loofe earth, found in Silefia, and defcribed
by Margraaf, contains * of its weight of
Magnefia.

Fibrous Afbeftos contains, in 100 parts,
from 1 1 to 28, and. Coriaceous Afbeftos,
from 11 to 26 parts of magnefian earth,
united to aerial acid. Amianthus affords
18, 6, Lapis Nephriticus 33, and Venetian
Talc, an undetermined number of parts of the
fame earth.

Colourlefs Mica affords, on analyfis, 20 parts,
in 100, hlue Schiftus 8, black Hornjlone 16, and
Killas 6 parts of Magnefia.

Magnefia is alfo contained, in fmall quantity,
in Chryfopathium, Felt-Spar, Schoerl, and Ba-
faltes : and Pumice-ftone yields of it, from 6
to 15 parts in 100.

A martial muriatic fpar, found by M. Monnety
at St. Marie aux MineSy and, by him, named
Pifolitesy is conftituted of 50 parts of Silex, the
remaining parts confifting of mild Magnefia and
Iron, the proportions of which are not dq-
termined. *

Such are the compounds under which mag¬
nefian earth is principally found ; and I havq

* Vide Kirwan’s Elements of Mineralogy, paflim.

colle&ed

of Magnefian Earth. 455

collected them under one view, as it may be
ufeful to Tome artifts, particularly thofe con¬
cerned in the potteries, to know what earths
and dones contain it, and in what proportions.
Magnefia, as prepared for the fhops, would be
too expenfive for the purpofes of manufactures,
which may perhaps, often, be equally anfwered
by ufing it in thefe combined forms.

It may feem extraordinary, that a fubftance,
fo plentifully diftufed in a date of combination,
fhould fo rarely occur pure. * But the cafe is the
fame, as the celebrated Bergman has obferved,
with Clay, which is always found, in nature, com¬
bined with other fubdances. f Siliceous earth
is indeed, fometimes, found pure in the form of
Rock Cryjtal ; but Bergman detected fmall por¬
tions of both argillaceous and calcareous earth,
in the fpecimens which he examined. Ponde¬
rous earth is generally combined with vitriolic
acid, and the mod pure date, in which it has
been obferved, is its combination with aerial

* I have been allured by Mr. Fabroni, that Magnefia
has been found pure, in the Pyrenees. This, however,
was, probably, not pure, in the prefent acceptation of the
term ; but pure from any other admixture, than that of
aerial acid, for which magnefian earth has a ftrong
attra&ion.

f Clay, commonly fo called, does not, in general, con¬
tain more than from twenty-five to forty-eight parts, in
jne hundred of pure argillaceous earth.

Gg 4 acid,

456 Mr. Henry on the Natural Hi/lory, &c.

acid. Calcareous earth has indeed been dif-
covered, in the neighbourhood of Bath, in the
ftate of quicklime, though, probably, not
wholly diverted of aerial acid. But they are all
more frequently found combined with other
fubftances, forming faline compounds, or, one
or more, mechanically mixed with each other,
conftituting fpecies and varieties.

The late Dr. Lewis, has confidered the earth
which is obtained from vegetables, after in¬
cineration, and wafhing, as of the fame nature
with Magnefia: and if we endeavour to trace
the origin of magnefian earth, it may appear
not improbable that, as all calcareous earth is
the refultof the deftruCtion of teftaceous animals,
fo the magnefian arifes from vegetables, which
have perilhed, and undergone fome procefs
in the great laboratory of nature; whereby
they are reduced to this ftate. By putrefaction
they are altered to a fine black Mold. And it
may be that, Nature, who often operates by
flow and fecret fteps, may make fuch further
changes, as to convert this Mold into mag¬
nefian earth.

But the origin of magnefian earth is fo con¬
nected with that of fea fait, which it always
accompanies, that it may not be improper to
confider them together ; as it is probable that
they are both formed under fimilar circumftances,
and at the fame time.

Philofopher$

of Magnefian Earth. 457

Philofophers have been much puzzled to
account for the original faltnefs of the Sea.
Some have imagined it muft have been furnifhed
by rivers, which flowing from the land, con¬
veyed with them fuch quantities of fait, from
accumulations of that mineral, formed within
the bowels of the earth, as to communicate,
and continually fupply faltnefs to the Sea j while
others hatfe attributed its impregnation to rocks
of fait, fituated at the bottom of the Ocean. To
both thefe opinions, objections have been made j
and the learned Bifliop of Landafr, * has chofen
to adopt another, viz. that the Sea was originally
created fait. In fupport of this theory, and in
objection to the others, efpecially to that which
aflerts the origin and fupply from the land,
it has been advanced, that a great part of the
finny inhabitants of the ocean cannot exift in
frefli water, and therefore it is not to be fup-
pofed, that they (hould ever have been placed
in a fltuation unfuited for their fupport. It
might alfo have been added, that, there is as
much difficulty in accounting for the origin of
the fait, which the rivers are fuppofed to wafh
down, as for its formation in the Sea. But
might not the great Creator, by whole Fiat
all things were produced, accommodate the firfl;
inhabitants of the Sea to their temporary

* Watfon’s Chemical EiTays, vol. II.

fuuation ;

45 S Mr. Henry on the Natural Hifto<y) &c.

fituation ; and gradually produce luch changes
in their conftitutions, as to make the faltnefs
of the water neceflary to their fupport ? Changes,
equally great, appear to have taken place in
the human habit. The duration of life, in
particular, was protracted, in the earlier ages,
to a length convenient for the fpeedy population
of the world j and when that end was accom¬
pli (bed to a certain degree. Providence afligned
limits to the exiftence of mankind, at the utmoft
of which we fcldom arrive, and beyond which
we never pafs.

Notwithftanding what I have here advanced,
1 muft confefs myfelf inclined to join in the
opinion, that the Sea was originally created fait.
But all faline lubitances, with which we are
acquainted, are fubjeft to gradual decay, de-
compofition, or volatilization, in long procefs
of time, and when expofed to the a&ion of air,
moifture and heat. Nature has eftablifhed an
univerfal fyftem of alternate deftruftion and
recompofition in her works ; and is continually
carrying on procefles in her grand laboratory,
which art is unable to imitate. Animals and
vegetables perifh and decay ; and, when
corrupted, contribute to the fupport or ac¬
commodation of each other; and many mineral
Jubilances, though more permanent than thof?
yrhich conllitute the other kingdoms, are liable

tq

Of Magnefian Earth. 459

to confiderable changes, are frequently de-
compofed, and forced to enter into new com¬
binations. It is not therefore to be fuppofed*
that the fame individual fale has been contained
by the ocean, from the creation to the prefent
time. We know that the waters are continually
evaporating into the atmofphere, forming
clouds, defending again in rain, replenifhing
the earth, and after forming rivers, returning
to the fea. Sea fait riles, by a moderate heat,
with the vapour of water, and is often carried by
ftorms to confiderable diftances. By thefe and
other means, it is probable, there muft be a con¬
tinual wafte of fait, which Nature muft have fome
mode to fupply.

The ocean is replete with animals and plants.’
The deftruction and corruption of thefe muft
furnifh much matter, fitted for the formation
of faline fubftances, much earth, much of the
principle of inflammability, and of air; and, if
water were not a part of their compofition,
the fea would plentifully fupply that elementary
ingredient. By the putrefa&ion of fimilar fub¬
ftances, mixed with calcareous earth, moiftened
with water, and expofed to the gradual a&ion
of the air, Nitre is formed. May not the fame
fubftances, under different circumftances,
covered by the depth of the ocean, and feparated
hereby from immediate communication with
the air, produce Sea-Salt. It has lately been

difcovered

460 Mr. Henry on the Natural Hifiory , &c.

difcovered, by an ingenious chemift,* that
though Nitre is produced by the above fubftances,
with the accefs of air, yet if they be fo placed
that the air may be excluded, and the fituation
perhaps not too moift, Sulphur, and not Nitre,
is the refult. So that the three mineral acids
ihould feem to have a fimilar origin, and it is not
without good grounds, that they are faid to be
modifications of each other.

But it may be faid, that the analogy in the
produ&ion of Sea-Salt and of Nitre is not corn-
plete. That, in the one, both the alkaline and
acid parts of the fait are formed; whereas, in the
other, the acid only is produced in the beds,
and it is necefiary to add an alkaline fait to
conftitute the bafis of the Nitre. I cannot how¬
ever allow of the force of this obje&ion. Though
the addition of the alkali be necefiary, in thele
northern latitudes, yet, in warmer climates,
where Nature is more vigorous and a&ive, there
is no doubt but fhe forms, or devellopes, both
the acid and alkali of Nitre, at the fame time.

* M. Fougeroux. vide Memoirs del ’ Academie Royale
des Sciences pour l’annee 1780.

The Sulphur, produced under the above circumftances,
was found, amidft the ruins of an old houfe which had
been built in a very filthy place, contained in a mafs of
earth, and, in part cryftallized ; and conftituting, in
feveral of the la.ge portions of the earth, a-third of the
whole mafs.

To

cf Magneftan Earth. 46 r

To the evidence adduced by Dr. Wall, in his
ingenious paper, on the origin of the Fixed Vege¬
table Alkali, and of Nitre, I have to add that of
Baron Dillon, the intelligent tranfiator of Mr.-
Bowles’s Travels in Spain, who has, perfonally,
allured me of the authenticity of the fad ; and
of a Gentleman who refided, during feveral
years, in the Eafb Indies, as fuperintendent of
the manufactures of the Company, and fully
confirms the account, that Nitre is procured,
from the foil of certain places in that country,
merely by lixiviating it, and evaporating the
water, without the addition of any alkaline fait.
The Duke de Rouchefoucauld alfo obtained one
ounce of nitre in the pound, from chalk of
Roche Guyon : and it is faid, by M. Fourcroy,
to be found quite pure in chalk beds.

Indeed the relation between the production
of thefe two falts is very ftriking ; for at the fame
time that Nitre is formed in the beds, a con¬
siderable quantity of Common Salt feems to be
produced ; and, during the evaporation of the ni¬
trous ley, fuch quantities of it are feparated, that
we cannot fuppofe the whole to have pre-exifted,
as fuch, in the urine and other animal matters,
ufed in the nitre heaps, but mud regard it, in
fome meafure, as a new produft.

Nor does the analogy Hop here. Together
with the Nitre, which is formed in the beds,
and with the Sea-Salt, which we fuppofe to be

formed

4 6 2 Mr. Henry on the Natural Hijlory , £fr.

formed in the ocean, another fait confifting of
marine acid and magnefian earth, is always pro¬
duced, or, at lead, is always found mixed with
thefe, and is left in the mother ley, remaining
after their cryftallifation. It fhould feem, there¬
fore, highly probable, that Nature, at one and
the fame time, fabricates from the conftituent
parts of animal and vegetable fubftances, not
only the alkaline and acid falts, but the mild
and taftelefs earth of Magnefia — and that this
earth is the refult of the decompofition of vege¬
tables, whofe other component parts, combining
with animal matters with which they meet,
and aided by the concurrence of air, water,
and heat, conftitute the different acids and al¬
kalis, neceffary to the formation of Sea-Salt and
of Nitre. *

Meffrs.

* M. Baume is of opinion that the conftituent parts of
fixed alkaline fait, are calcareous earth, water, and
phlogifton : and he afferts that he has produced this fait,
by calcining together equal portions of powdered marble1,
and the charcoal of oil of hartlliorn ; and that the quantity
of fait was always diminifhed by a diminution of the
inflammable matter, employed in the experiment. He
attempts to account for the formation of faline fubftances,
in the humid way, in the following manner. “ Les
teftacees croiflent et periflent dans la mer. La Nature,
par le movement des eaux, brife et reduit en poudre
impalpable beaucoup de coquiiles de ces animaux, et met
la terre calcaire en etat d’etre difloute par 1’ eau. L’ eau

de

Of Magnefian Earth . 463

Mefirs. Black and Margraaf, and particularly
the former, have thrown great light on the Che¬
mical Hiftory of Magnefian Earth. The EfiTay
of the former, in particular relates a number of
experiments made in the mod accurate manner,
and of dedu&ions the molt clear and fatisfa&ory,
of any treatile extant. An effay the more valu¬
able, as befides the difcrimination of that earth
from the Calcareous, it has laid the foundation
of the many valuable difcoveries relative to the
nature of fixed air and the various Gafes, which
have been the fources of the mod valuable im¬
provements in Chemiftry. Happy I mud efteem
myfelf if, following fuch great matters, I have
been able to add any new or ufeful information.*

The

de la fner diflout de meme la matiere inflammable, non
feulement des corps dont nous parlons, mais de tous les
corps organifes qui croiflent et pendent dans Ton fein:
elle elabore a fon gre la matiere inflammable, et la reduit
dans la etat convenable pour former differentes matieres
falines. De cette union il refulte differentes fels, fuivant
Petat des fubftances, et les proportions dans lefquelles ces
fubftances fe font combinees. Je penfe que les fels
contenant de l’acide vitriolique et ceux contenant de
l’acide marin, font les fels que la nature forme le plus
abondamment dans la mcr ; ils font. Pun et l’autre, des
fels primtifs. Chymie Experimentale et Raifonnee

vol. I. p. 205.

* The principal improvements, which I ventured to
i° Black’s procefs for preparing Magnefia
Alba ; thofe, I mean of employing a larger quantity of
• water.

464 Mr* Henry on the Natural Hijlory , &c.

The late Sir Torbern Bergman has purfued
the fubjedt with great fuccefs. He has fatisfac»
torily explained fome of the phenomena of the
procefs for the preparation of Magnefia ; has
afcertained its affinities with all the acids, to
many of which Dr. Black had not extended his
inquiry, and defcribed the Salts formed by their
union with this bafis. And he has given an
account of the refult of various experiments,
made with a view of determining the degrees of
fufibility, which Magnefian Earth exhibits,
when expofed to a ftrorig heat, either mixed with
other earths, or per Je .*

water, for the firft wafhing, and of throwing the mixture,
of the Saline Liquors, into boiling water, and continuing
the co&ion, inftead of boiling the mixture, previous to the
addition of the water, have been adopted, in the later
editions of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.

* This excellent Chemift has done me the honour to
quote my difcoveries relative to the difference of the
'fepticity of Magnefia Alba, when applied to flefh and to
bile; and fubjoined my name in a marginal note to the
paflage. He then proceeds, in the next paragraph, to
cite the antifeptic properties in both cafes of Calcined
Magnefia, and its power of rendering refmous fubflances
foluble in water, in which paffage he has ufed my own
words. Yet M. Fourcroy, and after him, his tranfiator
Mr. Elliot, have mentioned M. Bergman, only, as the
relator of the latter fa<fts, without noticing the author
from whom he had taken them. My Effay was publifhed
in May, 1773, whereas the date of that of Sir Torbern
Bergman, which like moft of his other excellent Tra£ls,
was written as a Thefis for one of his Pupils, is Decem-
ber 23, 1774.

cf Magnefia Earth. 465 .

Magnefia, fays M. Bergman, expofed to a
long continued, and very violent fire, aggluti¬
nates and begins to fhew figns of fufion, efpe-
cially if the Magnefia has been prepared, by
calcination, from the mother leys. Mon. Dar-
cet, on the contrary, had averred, that the earthy
t>afis of Epfom Salt refitted the a&ion of a fire
equal, in continuance and force to that of a
Porcelain furnace. And M. Macquer, in the
new edition of his Chemical Dictionary, declares,
that he has expofed the Earth of this Salt to
the greateft heat, that could be formed in the
focus of M. de Trudaine’s large lens, without
the leatt appearance of a tendency to fufion.
M. Morveau had operated on Magnefia fepa-
rated from the mother ley of Nitre, and had
concluded it to be, not only in itlelf, the molt
fufible of all earths, but that it even decided the
fufion of other earths. • But on making his expe¬
riments with Magnefia, precipitated from Epfom
Salt, he found, that on leparately expofing two
Ueffian crucibles, the one containing Chalk, and
the other an equal portion of Magnefia, to the
ftrongeft degree of heat, that could be produced
in M. Maequer’s furnace, the chalk was fufed into
a beautiful tranfparent glafs, and had attacked
and dilfolved the crucible, for more than half
its thicknefs, wherever the Calcareous Earth had
reached. But the Magnefia was formed into
a round, white, opake, folid, mafs, not having
the appearance even of the femivitrification of

Vol. I. H h Porcelain,

466 Mr. Henry on the Natural Hijlory , &c.

Porcelain, and without the lead adhefion to the
crucible.*

This experiment Teems to coincide with that
of Bergman, but to differ, in Tome degree, from
that related by Macquer. Mr. Magellan, whom
we have very defervedly - ranked among our
honorary members, has lately favoured me with
an account of fome curious experiments, made
in London, which may ferve to clear up this
point. 1 fhall therefore comply with his requeft
to lay an extract of his letter before the Society ;
and then beg leave to add a few remarks on the
fubjedt, and on fome other of the chemical pro¬
perties of Magnefian Earth, which are either un¬
known or undecided.

“ I "have a fadt,” fays Mr. Magellan, “ to
*c relate, which may be agreeable to you, con-
<c cerning the portion of Calcined Magnefia you
“ favoured me with. On my return to London,
“ many experiments were making with a mod
“ powerful burning lens, executed by Mr.
<c Parker. Among thefe, was a very (triking one,
“ which puzzled me much, made with Calcined
“ Magnefia, caked, by preffure, into a cubic
form, of i of quarter of an inch per fide^
This, expofed to the focus of the lens, W23
“ reduced from tVo to t®o on each fide of the
cube. On hearing this I was (truck with the
<c fadt, which is contrary to the known property

* Opufcules Chymiques et Phifiqucs de M. T. Berg¬
man, traduits par M. de Morveau, tome. I, p. 398.

“ of

Of Magnefian Earth . 467

rf of Magnefia, viz. of not changing its dimen-
*c fions, nor receiving any alteration in its con-
“ fiftence, by the ftrongeft heat. I therefore
“ went, the fird fair day, to the place where
“ the lens was at work, carrying with me the
“ very fame bottle with which you favoured me.
,c I made a fimilar cube of your Magnefia, with-
Ct in the fame metallic box that had been ufed
<c in the former cafe 3 but 1 found that, by ex-
tc pofing it, even for a longer time, to the force
tc of the lens, than the other Magnefia had been,
c< this of yours was not fenfibly diminifhed in
<c bulk, nor did it become harder, as the other
(C had done, which muft have had a confiderable
“ portion of Argillaceous or Siliceous Earth in
** its compofition, to occafion it to Ihrink in
te fuc'n a manner. I was told it was bought of
ct a very good and reputable Chemift. But, very
tc probably, he may precipitate his Magnefia*
“ with uncryftallifed Tartar, or with any other
“ Alkali, whereas Bergman prefers the vola-
“ tile. Or, perhaps, cryftallifed Tartar has
“ always fome filiceous or other earthy ( Alfa—
‘c ftance, which, mingling with the Magnefia,
“ prevents its adhering to its fpecific charafter.
“ 1 wifh to know whether I am right iu this way
,c of accounting for the difference ; for as I am
,c now preparing for the prefs, a fecond edition
<c of Cronftedt’s Mineralogy, I wifh the facl to
<c appear in its true and proper light.” — So far
Mr. Magellan.

0

H h 2

It

468 Mr. Henry on the Natural Hiftory , i£c.

It is very probable that the Magnefia, ufed
in the experiments of Meffrs. Bergman and
Morveau, was pure, as the former recommends,
and the latter actually employed, the Volatile
Alkali, to effeCt the precipitation of the earth.
The difference, therefore, between their experi¬
ments and that of M. Macquer, mod probably
depended on the communication of fome portion
of Siliceous or Argillaceous liarth, from the
crucible in which they were made. Whereas
M. Macquer’s experiments, being made in a
metallic box, and the heat directed immediately
to the Magnefia, no tendency to vitrification
would appear.

In regard to the difference between the
Magnefia, which was firft expofed to Mr.
Parker’s lens, and my own, I can only fpeak
from conjecture. I have been particularly care¬
ful to have my Alkaline Lixivium, which is,
a folution of the ftneft pot afh, perfectly purified :
and have frequently obferved, that after it has
been freed from all Neutral Salts, and from all
the earthy matter, that the filter could feparate,
the folution, on long {landing, has become
again turbid, and depofited a copious white
fediment. Bergman, who deferibes a fimilar
fediment declares it to be Siliceous Larth,
that had been held in folution by the Alkali,
and is precipitated by the fixed air, attracted by
the fait. This faCt is adduced by him, as a

proof

of Magnefian Earth. 46^

a proof of the acidity of that gas. Perhaps the
ingenious Chemift, who prepared the other por¬
tion of Magnefia, not adverting to this circum-
ftance, or juftly not confidering it as materially
affefting the medicinal properties of the Magnefia,
though it would greatly alter its chemical quali¬
ties, might have ufed his Lixivium, foon after
filtration, and, by this means, the extraneous
Earth might have been introduced into the
Magnefia, and have affected its fufibility.

Dr. Black had faid, in his excellent Effay on
Quicklime and Magnefia, that Calcined Mag¬
nefia, diffolves in the vitriolic, nitrous, marine,
and acetous acids, and forms with them Salts,
fimilar to thole produced by the uncalcined
earth with the fame acids. But Mr. Monch,
a German apothecary, has afferted, that though
he poured half an ounce of ftrong vinegar on
twenty grains of Calcined Magnefia, and fuf-
fered the mixture to ftand for twenty-four hours,
only feven grains of the Magnefia were diffolved ;
and that he was unable to diffolve more than
the fame quantity, by digefting, in a moderate
heat, an equal portion of Calcined Magnefia,
in half an ounce of a mixture confiding of one
part of firong vitriolic acid and fix of water, for
twenty hours. And, what is ftill more extraor¬
dinary, he could diffolve only nine grains out
of twenty by boiling for a conliderable time,
in an ounce of the fame diluted acid. But in

H 3 the

\ »

470 Mr. Henry on the Natural Hiftory , &c.

the nitrous and concentrated marine acids, he
acknowledges, they difTolved entirely.*

Mr. Kirwan, alfo fays, that this earth, per-
fe&ly dry and free from fixed air, could not be
difTolved in any of the acids without heat. But
that in a heat of 180°. thefe acids, diluted with
four or fix times their quantity of water, at¬
tacked it very fenfibly. There is no doubt but
Calcined Magnefia difiolves much lefs rapidly
than the mild. The aerial acid, contained in
the latter, while it is expelling, keeps up, as
Bergman has juftly obferved, an intefiine motion,
•whereby the particles of the earth are agitated
and feparated, fo that freih furfaces are con¬
tinually prefented to the Magnefia. Whereas,
if an acid be added to this earth, when diverted
of air, this motion is wanting, and that part
of the acid, which becomes faturated with the
earth, envellopes the remaining earth, and' pre¬
vents the immediate adion of the free acid on
it.j; Continual agitation, however, will greatly
promote the folution.

Mr. Monch, feems not to have £een aware
of the greater quantity of acid, requifite to
diflolve Calcined -Magnefia, than would be
neceffary for the uncalcined. Nor indeed to

* Vide London Medical Journal, vol. III. p. 97.
f Philofophical Tranfaftions, vol. LXXIJ. p. 193.

I Bergman Opulc. de Magnefia. § XIX.

have

of Magnefian Earth. 471

have known the quantity required for the
folution of the latter. 1 have found twenty
grains of mild Magnefia require an ounce and
half of diftilled vinegar for its folution. This
may feem a large quantity ; but let it be re¬
membered that, “ the quantity of each balls,
** requifite to faturate a given quantity of each
<e acid, is, dire&ly as the affinity of luch acid
<e to each balls.”* 10© grains of real vitriolic
acid require 215 of vegetable fixed alkali
to neutralife them ; whereas the fame portion
of acid would be neutralifed by 80 grains of
Magnefia; and the proportional quantity of this
earth to that of the alkali, necelfary to faturate a
given quantity of acetous acid, would be Hill
fmaller.

But Mr. Kirwan’s experiments are more worthy
of attention. His accuracy in every thing he
undertakes is undeniable; nor would he pro¬
bably have erred, but in a cafe in which the
mod faithful Experimental!!! might be liable
to deception.

I do not know any thing more fubjedl to
variety than the folubility of pure Magnefia
in acids. I have dilfolved 1 1 grains of aerated
Magnefia in fufficient quantities of each of
the four principal acids, when I have found the
earth neutralifed. Five grains of pure Magnefia,
which is equal to twelve of the aerated has

* Kirwan in Phil. Tranf. vol. LXXIIf. p. 38.

H 4 dlffolved)

472 Air. Henry on the Natural Hijlory, &c.

difiolved, without heat, in the fame quantity
of the vitriolic, and even with fmaller quantities
of the nitrous and marine acids, than were
neceflary for the folution of the aerated. The
a&ion of the acetous acid was fomewhat lefs
complete, on the pure than on the aerated. The
acids were previoufly diluted with about five
times their weight of water, except the acetous
which was concentrated, and the Magnefian
Earth was intimately mixed with half an ounce
of water, and continually agitated with a glafs
tube, till the folution was finifhed.

Thus I have often made complete folutions
of pure Magnefia. Eut at other times I have
found it obftinately to refid: folution, though
prepared, previous to calcination, in every
refpeft, fimilar to the other, and, though, ap¬
parently, perfectly calcined. This for fome
time puzzled me exceedingly; till at lad I dif-
covered it to depend on the date of calcination,
and that by continuing the fire for a longer time,
this infoluble Magnefia acquired its cudomary
folubility. Another circum dance, attending the
calcination of Magnefia, I have always been un¬
able to explain. In a certain period of the
procels, though the Magnefia were ever fo tade-
lefs before calcination, and though it, at this
time, fhews ro effervefcence v/irh acids, yet it
has acquired a dilagreeable, bitter, pungent
tide, fomewhat refembling lime. But it does
not, like lime, or Magnefia containing that earth,

form

of Magneftan Earth. 47 j

form a lime-water. This obnoxious tafte is alfo
deftroyed by a further extenfion of the calcina¬
tion. On what can this property depend ?

Magnefia has been defcribed as throwing out
a phofphoric light, in the latter periods of the
calcination. This is a phenomenon which nei¬
ther I, nor any of the perfons I have employed,
m the calcination of Magnefia, have ever been
able to obferve. Indeed I do not fee how it
could happen, except the Magnefia contained
vitriolic acid or alkaline fait. M. Fourcroy,
who mentions the faft, cites the authority of
MefTrs. Butini and Tingry, of Geneva;* and the
procefs, which he has given, from the former
of thefe Gentlemen, is very ill adapted to free
the Magnefia, from the whole of the vitriolared
tartar, formed in the mixture. Now, fuppofin°-
aerial acid to be a compound of Air and Phlo-
giflon, the laft portions being feparated with
difficulty from the Magnefia, a decompofidon
of the Gas may take place, and a new combina¬
tion enfue. The Phlogifton, quitting its aerial
bafis, may unite with the Earth and Vitriolic
Acid, and, by this union, a Pyrophorus be
formed; and, probably, from this caufe, the
appearances, defcribed by thefe Chemifts/ may
have proceeded.

• Fourcroy’s Lpftures, vol. I p. 163, and z9z.

END OF VOL. FIRST.

\

■

D E X

I

N

T O

the

FIRST VOLUME.

A.

£ Aft/ S, ancient, defcribed - _ ^05

Acids, their ufe in bleaching linen, by Dr. Eason 240
Addison, Mr. quoted - f

Aikin, Dr. fenior, his character ^

- junior, on attempts to winter in high northern

latitudes - . _ _ - 89

Akensjde, Dr. his beautiful defcription of diftrefling
fcenes accompanied with pleafure - _

A>nufements, literary ones recommended . _ ,

Animal { ubftances regenerated - „ 325»338

* - bones, 329; nerves, 333; arteries, 334; crabs

and worms, .335

Ancients, knew that water would cooj more ealily, which

had been heated - ,

' - 262

* - that the evaporation of fluids produces

cold .... .

20£

' that air is diflolved in water, by means

of heat and agitation ,

- why the lower air is more heated than the

hi8h" ' . - - - 26S

' why hail-ftones fuddenly concrete - 268

- lhat air is Separated from water by freezing 269

Ancients, knew that water will rife to its level in pipes 269

- compared with moderns as to the imitative arts 40c

Arthur’s feat, pebbles found there *

Arts, a general acquaintance with them neceflary to
excellence

77

— — plan for extending them . - - 84

B,

I N 1> E X.
B.

Page

Barnes, Dr. on poetry - - - 54

- - on the affinity fubfifting between the arts - 72

Barrow, Dr. his obfervaiion on general fcholars 72

Be fait es - - - - - 38

Baume, quoted - - - 32, 33, 449, 462

Beauty in the imitative arts, defined, and accounted for 121
Bell, Dr. on the generation of cold - - 1

Bifmutb, forms ftriae on its furface r - 40

Bi.ack.lock, Dr. an account of him - - 166

BlinaniJ's, obfervations on by Mr. Bew - - 159

Brindley, what advantage he might have received

from education - - 8 3

Brown, Mr. of Virginia, his method of making faltpetre 203
— Mr. author of the EfTay on the Charadterillics,
quoted - - - - 230

C.

Carew, his account of aged perfons in Cornwall - 359

Cavallo, his account of the electricity of the atmo-

fphere - - 398

Caufenuay Giants, deferibed - - 38

Charades, riddles*, &c. why agreeable - 1 1 3

Chemiflry recommended to the commercial ftudent 24

_ _ _ adopted the fymbols of altronomy 254

Cheselden, Mr. couched a young man born blind, with

fuccefs - - - - 178

Chiaro-fcuro, a modern invention - - 410

Chry ft alligation, by Dr. Eason - - 29

Cicero, his account of the effeCt of Carbo’s Oratory 69
Colours, inftances of perfons who cannot accurately dif-

tinguiffi them - - “ 1 82

Confiia of feelings, the caufe of pleafure - 1 57

Contraft, in poeoy, painting and mufic, agreeable 119

Copper, why it has the fymbol of Venus - 256

Corn, a bounty upon it improper - - 413

Couy

INDEX.

Page

Cow, adapted to the ufe of man - - 442

- - has four ftomachs, long inteftines, &c. - 443

— — has four teats, gives her milk to the hand, &c. 444

Curiofty , one caufe of pleafure in viewing fcenes of
diftrefs - - - -

Cujloms, necefiary in the prefent date of Europe 43,

Cylinder-wire, its application to corn, bark, fand, &c.

D.

Diverfions, of hunting, {hooting, &c. reconcileable with

humanity

341

the human mind naturally inclined to them 345
they conduce to health and pleafure - 346

do not diminish the pleafure of the animals 349
often purfued by perfons the moll humane and

benevolent -

Dreams , of a blind man refpefting vilible obje&s
Dyers, but few of them chemijls

E.

Earth, magnefian , its origin .

. . — - calcareous, not convertible into filiceous

» — - divifion of, into five genera
Eason, Dr, on chryftallization

Eajl, the beautiful patterns from thence, accounted for

- its poetry fine, becaufe defcribing natural fcenes

Eledricity , its influence in evaporation

. - — - - in fufpending vapour

Engraving, a modern invention
Epic poem, demands unity of a&ion
Evaporation , from a heated human body
- - « - in vacuo

355

181

27

455

449

450
29

27;

276

398 '
400
412
J26

3

39<>

Execution of malefadors, why attended by fo many perfons 148
Exercife, its elfedt in preventing the fcurvy - J06

. - of the mind, pleafant - - 1io

- - a caufe of the pleafure felt in contemplating

fcenes of dillrefs - ,-5

F.

INDEX.

I

F.

Pagg

Fijb — oil and fat, ufed by the Samoides, Efquimaux,

&c. as food - - - _ ic»*

Fixed air, machine for impregnating water, &c. with it 52
Flint , probably compounded of water, and an acid 3 5

Fly-futtle, not yet ufed in the Norwich manufafture 84

Fogs, caufes of them - - 404

Pordyce, Dr. experiments on cold - 1

Fulham, account of falt-petre works formed there 201

Future Jlate, differently reprefented by different people 286

G.

Gardening, its flyle and tafle among the ancients 297

Gardens, hanging ones, of Babylon, defcribed - 301

■ - of Lucullus, defcribed - - 308

— ; - of Pliny, his Laurentine Villa, defcribed 312

• . . modern, defcribed and recommended - 322

Gentleman, the importance to him of a tafle for literature 9, 10
Glauber, his attempts to make falt-petre - 19^

Greenland, account of feven Dutch failors who wintered

there 1633 - - '93

Gypfum, five forts of - - - 32

Hall, Rev. Mr. on the influence of tafle on morals 223
Haygarth, Dr. his machine for impregnating water,

&c. with fixed air - - - 32

Heat, latent , not unknown to the ancients - 267

Heathen religion, favourable to fculpture - 407

Henry, Mr. on the advantages of literature and philofo-

phy, and their confiftency with commercial purfuits 7

- - - on the prefervation of fea water by quicklime 4 t

■ - on the natural and chemical hiflory of mag-

neflan earth - - - 448

Hiflory, particularly Englifh, ufeful to a tradefman t6

• - requires a good imagination, in order to be read

with pleafure - - 391

Horace

/

I •* N D E X.

Horace, his description of a true poet
Hudfons Bay , wintered in by Monck, and James

J-

Jam^s, captain, winters in Hudfon’s Bay
Ice, modern way of making it in the Eaft Indies
Imagery, how far it conftitutes the eflence of poetry
Imagination, neceflary to corredt judgment

- — - defined ...

- - - - amazingly flrong in children

Page

59

90,92

9*

266

56

378

382

393

285

Indians, American, their mufic and poetry plaintive
Johnson, Dr. remarks on his criticifms upon Milton 66, 71
Iron, why it has thefymbol of Mars - 257

IJIands, more healthy than continents - 366

Italy, peculiarly favourable to longevity - 358

Jupiter, his fymbol accounted for - - 247

- — - why applied to exprefs tin - ? 258

K.

Keeping, in painting, little underftood by the ancients 41 1
Kirshaw, Mr. on the Comparative merit of the ancients

and moderns - 405

Kirwan, Mr. quoted - - 454,470

Knowledge, general, neceflary to particular - 73

• - mathematical, its connexion with Imagina-

. 387

tion

L.

Laniaff, biftiop of, quoted - - - 457

Laodjcape painting, ancient, very bad - 411

Language, originally poetical - - 58

Laocoon, flatue of, defcribed - - 123

l.aplanders , account of their diet by Lin n/eus - 99

Ltnen, bleached by acids - - - 240

• - manufadlures, the duties they pay when imported 437

Likkjeus, his accountof the diet of the Laplanders 99
Litttaiure and philofophy, foften the rigours of war 8

Literature

I 1ST D E &

Page

Literature and philofophy, multiply the fources of pleafure 9

_ _ * are ufeful to the gentleman 10

— - — - - to the merchant 11

. - - . furnilh agreeable amufement 14

London , bills of mortality, quoted from 1728 to 1758 362

Longevity, obfervations on by Dr. Fothergill 355

- - tables of - - 557* 35s> 36°

— - — depends on air. Sec. 365 ; foods, &c. 367 ; mo¬

tion and reft, 369; fecretions, &c. 369; affeclions
of mind, 369

M.

. "Machine , for impregnating water, &c. with fixed air 5 2

Machines, generally invented by perfons not educated to

mechanic employments - - 82

Magellan, Mr. his letter to Mr. Henry on the infufi-

bility of magnefia - 4 66

Magnefan earth, its natural and chemical hiflory 448

■ . — various combinations in which it is

found - - - 452

- - - — its origin - - - 455

- - infufibility afcertained - 465

. . — - - folubility in acids when calcined proved 469

- - - not phofphoric - - 473

Manners, rude and ferocious, in mountainous and uncul¬
tivated countries - - - 281

Manufactures, cotton in particular, depend upon machines 80
Mars, his fymbol explained - 253

Medici, the family of, their charader by lord Orrery 238
Memory, peculiarly ftrong in blind perfons - 175

Merchant, importance of talle for literature in him 1 1

Metcalf, John, though blind, a celebrated furveyor

and projector of highways - - 172

Milton defended 71

- fuperior to Homer and Virgil in unity of adion 130

Mind, human, improperly faid to confift of feveral diftind

powers - - - - 377

Miners ,

1

INDEX.

Page

Miners , in general hardy and ferocious - 283

Modulation, regular, eflential to poetry » 60

- different in different languages - 68

Monck, captain, winters in Hudfon’sBay - 90

Moves, Henry, Dr. account of him - |68

Muriatic acid , recommended for bleaching linens 242

N.

Newton, Sir Isaac, poffefled a vigorous fancy 389

O.

Oratory, capable of imagery and elevation, as much as

poetry - - - 6 1

Ofiris , the fupreme deity of the Egyptians, his fymbol 246

P.

Pallas, Mons. his account of illands between Kam-

fkatka and America - 9S

Parry, the blind mufician, account of him - 167

PaJJions, their influence and ufe in direfling the

judgment - - 381

Pebbles, produced by irregular chryffallization • 37

Percival, Dr. his tribute to the memory of

Charles de Polier, Efq. - - 287

Phyjtiian, what neceflary to conftitute a fkilful one 386

Plan, for extending arts and manufaflures at

Manchefter - g^

Pleafure, of contemplating fcenes of diftrefs accounted

for - - .

Polier, Mr. de, on the pleafure of mental exercile
■■ ■ - tribute to his memory
Polite Arts, tafte in, neceflary for a manufaflurer
Pct-ajh , ufe of in making falt-petre

Qi

Quicklime, applied to the prefervation of fea water
— — quantity requifite
— its adlion accounted for -

I i

144
1 10
287
28
217

4*

49

49

R.

VOL. I.

INDEX.

R.

Page

Regijlers, oeeonomical, recommended -

’ - to know the Hate of population 137

- - to difcover thieves, &c. - 138

* - - - to know the quantity of corn

annually produced -

Rfid, Dr. quoted ... jgg

Rein deer, their blood drank warm, how it afts as a pre-

fervative from the fcurvy - - 104

Religion, how far influenced by the fcenery of a country 279
Rembrandt, charadter of his paintings - 410

Repofitory, propofed for chemical and mechanical arts 85
Reynolds, Sir Joshua, quoted - - 409

Rhyme, why agreeable - _ - 1 j 3

Roi, Mr. d e , his theory of evaporation - 3915

S.

Saturn, his fymbol explained - - - 232

— — why ufed to reprefent lead - - 257

Saltpetre, treatife on by Mr. Massey - 184

• . — - caufes of the ill fuccefs of trials for making

it in England - - 185, &c.

■■ ■ what principles enter into its compofuion 188

— - how the peculiar acid, neceflary to form it,

is generated - - - 191, &c.

■ . the influence of putrefaction in forming it 193

————— caufes of its abundance in India - 193

» the old and approved method of obtaining it 203

■' " makers of, in Paris, incorporated - 208

— ■ account of the author’s experiments 209

— . — method of making it in Paris - 21 1

— — - tranflation, on the ufe of pot-afh in making it 217

* - — procured, ready formed, upon the earth, in

Warm climates - 461

Salt-fea, its natural hiftory as connected with that of

magrielian earth ... 456

Salt-

INDEX,

Page

Salt-fea, or lay, better than (hat made from rocks or

fprings - 43

Samoides, drink the warm blood of rein deer - 58

Saunderson, Dr. account of him - 163

Scenery, of a country, its influence upon the inhabitants 271
Scurvy, occafioned by fait meats, and fpirituous liquors,

100

4°7

4*

82

33
9

in cold climates

Sculpture, promoted by the heathen religion
Sea-vjater, its compofition
Smith, Dr. on the wealth of nations, quoted -
Spar, Derbylhire, how compounded
Spectator, No. 41 1, quoted - -

Spitsbergen, account of feven Dutch failors who win¬
tered there 1638

— — - - eight Englilhmen ditto

Eaft, four Ruffians winter there

93

9+

96

104

167

Spirituous liquors, unfavourable to the fcurvy
Stanley, Mr. the blind mufician, account of him
Steam, a powerful principle, lately applied to different ufes 79
Ster ne, quoted ...

Stones, precious, originally in fufion - 34

■ - - contain three principles 36

Sumy’s Memoirs, extra# from, relating to an intended

cabinet - . _ . g^

Sun, the origin of its aflronomic fymbol - 246

Symbols, ufed firft by affronomers, and afterwards by

chemifts - 245

Sympathy, the fource of many noble pleafures - 134

T.

Tajle, its influence upon the ftrong poetic character 65

- its analogy to the moral feelings, aflerted 134

•- - its influence not favourable to morals - 223

* - diftinguiffied from the moral fenfe - 226

- - may fliew the beanty of virtue, without giving the

power ... 228

Tap,

£>

3$

N

X.

Tafe, Its connexion with genius
— - : — — - with religion

PagS

233
23 3

— — inftances.in which it produces misfortune or im¬
morality - - - 234

— — effefls of it at Athens - - 236

' Tempcji at fea, agreeable to behold from the Pnore 149

Towns, large, unfriendly to longevity - 362

Tur got, Monf. his letter to Mr. Wimpey - 135

•— - - remarks on preventing the exporta¬
tion of com - - - 429

U.

Undemanding, influenced by the imagination and paffions 381
Unity, of adtion in painting and poetry, why agreeable 126

v.

Vapour, eight hundred times lighter than air - 397

• - quicker from water eledhified - 398

Venus, the fame with Ifis ; her fy mbol accounted for 250
Verfe, regular , its origin accounted for - 64

Volta, Mr. his remarks on eledlricity - 399

W.

MW, its horrors foftened by literature - 8

Whale's fritters, eaten by perfons wintering at Spitzbergen 93
Wheat , itsprice in 1687 . - - - 4lS

_ _ often fown injudicioufly, and why - 426

Whitehurst, Mr. his inquiry into, &c. quoted 367

Wimpey, Mr. againft the bounty on corn - 413

Windfor tables, quoted ... 420

Woollen manufacture, the numbers employed in it 435

Y.

Youths, two, Tailored from confumptions by human

milk - - 446

Yti.i. 1 S Zsfxxsi JJJL • Vrd* .1 ^ ff,

Cl A ; •- L tttl

\ I