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MEMOIRS

LITEKAEY AND PHILOSOPHIOAL SOCIETY

MANCHESTEK.

MEMOIRS

OK THE

LITERARY

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

MANCHESTER.

Second §ietit0.

VOLUME TWELFTH.

LONDON:

H, BAILLIERE, PUBLISHER, 219, REGENT STREET,

AND 290, BROADWAY, NEW YORK.

PARIS: J. B. BAILLIERE, LIBRAIRE, RUE HAUTEFEUILLE.

1866.

MANCHESTER:
PRINTKD BY T. SO\VLEI^ AND SONS, ST. ANN's SQUAR]

NOTE.

The Authors of the several Papers contained in this
Volume, are themselves accountable for all the statements
and reasonings which they have offered. In these parti-
culars the Society must not be considered as in any way
responsible.

CONTENTS

ARTrCLR Pau*

I. — An Account of the Early Mathematical and Philosophical
Writings of the late Dr. Dalton. By T. T. Wilkinson,

F.R.A.S., &c 1

II — On the Origin of Ironstones, and more particularly the newly
discovered Red Stone at Ipstones, near Cheadle, Staffordshire ;
with some Account of the Ironstones of South Lancashire.

By E. W. BiNNEY, F.G.S 31

III On the Representation and Enumeration of Polyedra. By the

Rev. Thomas P. Kirkman, A.M., Rector of Croft-with-

Southworth 47

IV. — Statistics of the Collieries of Lancashire, Cheshire, and North
Wales. By Joseph Dickinson, F.G.S., Inspector of Coal

Mines 71

V On the Action of the Ferment of Madder on Sugar. By Edward

ScHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S 109

VI.— On the k-partitions of N. By the Rev. Thomas P. Kirkman,

A.M., Rector of Croft- with- South worth 129

VII Memoir of the Rev. John Lawson, B.D., Rector of Swanscombe,

Kent. By T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S., &c '. 147

VIII — On Sewage and Sewage Rivers. By Robert Angus Smith,

Ph. D., FC.S 155

IX — On the Formation of Indigo-blue. Part I. By Edward

Schunck, Ph.D., FR.S 177

X — On the Permian Beds of the North- West of England. By Edward

W, Binney. F.G.S 209

XI — On an Apparatus for collecting the Gases from Water and other
Liquids, and its Application in general Chemical Analysis.

By Robert Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.C.S 271

List of Donations 276

Index to the Seventeen Volumes of the Memoirs, &c. By John Har-

land, F.S.A 286

Alphabetical Index of Authors • 809

The Council of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ... 319
Alphabetical List of Members 320

MEMOIRS

OP THB

Uitetara mi 1^6(lojs?op8fcal Societfl of
0lmcf)tmi\

I. — An Account of the Early Mathematical and Philoso-
phical Writings of the late Dr, Dalton.

By T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.AS., &c.

[Read October ISth, 1853.]

The miscellaneous mathematical and philosophical writings
of the late Dr. Dalton extend over a period of many years,
and lie scattered in the pages of several periodicals issued at
intervals towards the close of the last century. Their nature
and their existence are almost alike unknown to the majority
of the present generation ; nor is it too much to assert, that
many of those who admire and appreciate his subsequent
writings and discoveries, possess little or no information as to
the means by which he was enabled to attain his high position
in the world of science. His earliest efforts were directed
towards the solution of a few simple questions in mathematics
and natural philosophy; but, aided by the advice of his
friends, and encouraged by the editors of those great pro-
moters of self-exertion, the Ladies* and Gentleman* s Diaries,
he rapidly succeeded in establishing his reputation as an
accomplished mathematician and philosopher. The object of
the present paper is to rescue a portion of these interesting
B

y AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

opusctila from oblivion, and to trace the steps by which he
qualified himself for the development of the theory of definite
proportions ; — the attempt must necessarily be imperfect, but
it is hoped that, notwithstanding its defects, it wijl be
favourably received by that society of which its subject was
so long the distinguished ornament.

Tne late Dr. Dalton commenced his career as a philosopher
and mathematician in the Gentleman's Diary for 1783. He
was then in the seventeenth year of his age, and for about
two years previously had held the situation of usher in a
school conducted by his cousin, Mr. George Bewley, at
Kendal. The construction of triangles from given data en-
grossed a considerable share of the attention of English
geometers at this period, and algebraical and geometrical
solutions to two questions of this class formed the subject of
Mr. Dalton's first communication to this Diary. Neither of
these solutions, however, had the good fortune to obtain in-
sertion at length, but his name is preserved amongst those
whose investigations had been found to be correct, whilst the
nature of the questions themselves afford good evidence that
he had already begun to profit by the advice and instruction
of his friend and tutor, the late Mr. John Gough.* In 1784
Mr. Dalton's name appears amongst those who answered the
prize enigma in the Ladies* Diary for that year, and he also

* Many of Mr. Gough's pupils have taken high degrees at Cambridge or
become otherwise distinguished. At different periods Dr. Whewell, Master
of Trinity, obtained the position of second wrangler ; Mr. Dawes, Tutor of
Downing College, that oi fourth wrangler; Mr. King, Tutor of Queen's College,
became senior wrangler; and Mr. Gaskin, Tutor of Jesus Collige, second
wrangler ; — all of whom were formerly under his tuition, Mr. Gough was
also an extensive contributor to the mathematical periodicals, and several of
his Memoirs on Natural Philosophy, &c., may be seen in the early volumes of
the Memoirs of this Society.

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF THE LATE DE. DALTON. 3

furnished solutions to five questions in the mathematical de-
partment of that interesting work, but owing probably to
inexperience in the art of "getting up** his solutions, the
editor, Dr. Hutton, did not think fit to insert any of them at
length. He was destined to a similar disappointment in the
succeeding Diary, and his name in consequence disappears
altogether from the list of correspondents to the Diary for
1786. In the solution of geometrical questions two methods
of proceeding obviously present themselves, viz.: the alge-
braical and the geometrical. The former method consists
principally in symbolizing the given data^ and in forming
between these and the qucesita a^ many independent equations
as there are unknown symbols. The solution of these equa-
tions determine the unknowns in terms of the given quantities,
and the final results usually suggest a geometrical process by
which the given proposition may be constructed. In the
latter method the given proposition is supposed to be solved
and the requisite diagram constructed : — the various relations
between the data and the qucesita are then examined, and
by a process of reasoning somewhat similar to that used in
Euclid's Data, other relations are determined to be given, or
can be found, until we finally arrive at a simple known truth
which requires no proof. When such is the case the pro-
position is said to be analyzed, and the various steps of the
process usually point out a much more simple construction
to a given problem than that furnished by the algebraical
method.* At the time of which we are now speaking the

* " Par Vanalyse, on regarde comme vraie la proposition que Ton yeat
d^mootrer, ou comme resolu le probleme propose, et Ton marche de con-
sequence en consequence, jusqu*^ ce qu'on arrive a quelque verite connue, qui
autorise ^ conclurc que la chose admise comme vraie Test reelement, ou qui
comporte la constr^ion du probleme ou son impossibilite.

" Par la synthcse, on part de verites connues pour arriver, do consequence en
consequence, h la proposition que Ton veut demontrer, ou k la solution du prob-
leme propose." — (Chnsles, Oeometrie Superievre, Discovrs, p. 4()._)

4 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

ancient geometrical analysis was much cultivated by Lavvson,
Crakelt, VViltlbore, and others, and the editors* of our mathe-
matical periodicals vied with each other in their endeavours
to obtain purely geometrical solutions to all questions sup-
posed to admit of this method of procedure. Mr. Dalton
does not seem to have been sufficiently aware of this desire
on the part of the conductors of those periodicals to which
he contributed, and hence we have another reason, besides
inexperience, for the failure of many of his juvenile efforts.
On almost every occasion his early algebraical solutions had
to give place to the purely geometrical ones furnished by
more experienced correspondents. But Mr. Dalton's ambi-
tion was not of that uncertain character which quails at diffi-
culties and relapses into indifference when confronted with
neglect: — "perseverance overcomes every obstacle" was a
motto he had learned in early youth, and when he renewed
his attempts to obtain a place in the " pages of the im-
perishable Diary," he had so far improved his opportunities of
acquiring information that success was almost certain. The
selection of questions for the year 1787 embraced nearly all
the branches of mathematics then cultivated by English
geometers, and yet he correctly solved thirteen out of the list
oi fifteen, the prize question included. His solution of ques-
tion 850 is inserted at length in the Diary as having been
furnished by " Mr. John Dalton, teacher of mathematics in
Kendal," and is probably the earliest printed specimen of his
mathematical writings.

Mr. Dalton. however, did not confine himself to mathema-
matics alone. At the early age of twenty-two he had turned
his attention to chemistry, and was already conversant with
several French authors on that subject. In the Ladies
Diary and Supplement for 1788 he favours the editor with
his opinions on the " composition of India rubber, or elastic
gum ;" some " account of which," he observes, " may be seen

PHILOSOPHICAL WHITINGS OF THE LATE DR. DALTON. 5

in some late elements of chemistry written in French/' With
regard to Query 3, he urges that " the reason why the sun,
shining upon the fire, renders it so languid, seems to be owing
to its rarefying the circumambient air; for it has been proved,
from a variety of experiments by Boyle and others, that com-
bustible bodies burn with more or less vehemence, as the air
they are in is condensed or rarefied." In answer to Query 4,
he cites the Scriptures^ Aulas Gelllus, and Chamber8*s
Cyclopccdia^ in proof of the antiquity of the use of the ring
in marriage, and also when conferring particular honour on
individuals. "The Greeks," he observes, "always wore the
wedding ring on the fourth finger of the left hand," and the
reason for it is, " that having found from anatomy that this
finger had a little nerve which went straight to the heart,
they esteemed it the most honourable by reason of this com-
munication with that noble part." His correspondence to the
mathematical department of this Diary is somewhat extensive.
He answers thirteen questions out of the Jifteeii proposed,
and is so far successful as to have three of these inserted at
length. The first solution corrects several errors in Hawney's
Mensuration, relative to regular polygons; the second affords
sufficient evidence that mechanics and fluxions had engaged
his attention ; whilst the third appears worthy of transcription,
in proof that the higher branches of natural philosophy had
at this time been cultivated by him with success. During
this year he also proposed the following questions for solution,
the latter of which forms Question 593 of the GentlemarCs
Dianj^ at this time under the able management of the Rev.
Charles Wildbore, who, under the signature " Eumenes,"
supplies an elegant geometrical solution to Mr. Dalton's
question :—

Ladies Diary, 1788. Question 884. By Mr. John
Dalton. "In the semicircle ACB, whose diameter is AB,
and OC perpendicular to it from the centre, from B there is

6 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

drawn a chord BF to cut OC in E, and on the same chord
there is taken BD equal to the radius of the semicircle; — it is
required to determine the rectangle DE.EF, a maximum."
Ans. BD = 1 ; DE = -1974; EF = -4731.

Gentleman's Diary, Question b^^. By Mt\ John Dalton.
" From a given circle to cut off an arc, such, that the
rectangle under its versed sine, and the cosine of its double
may be a maximum."

Ladies' Diary. Question 875. By Mr, Alexander Rowe,
" It is required to find the diameter of a circular parachute,
by means of which a man of 200 pounds weight may descend
from a balloon at a great height, with the uniform velocity of
only 10 feet in a second of time; the parachute being sup-
posed to be made of such materials and thickness that a circle
of it 50 feet diameter weighs only 150 pounds."

Answered by Mr, John Dalton. " If a falling body move
with a uniform velocity, it must necessarily meet with a
resistance, in the medium it is moving in, equal to its weight.
Now it has been proved (Emerson's Mechanics, prop. 1 08,
cor, S) that the resistance to a cylinder, moving in a fluid in
the direction of its axis, is equal to the weight of a cylinder
of that fluid of the same base, whose length is equal to the
height a body falls in vacuo to acquire its velocity. Put now
g = 32 J feet, v = the velocity ; then g^ ', v^ :: ^g : ^g = the
altitude fallen to acquire the given velocity. Call this altitude
a, and put also p = '7854 ; b = •0751b. = the weight of a
cubic foot of air ; m = 200lbs. = the man's weight ; also
X = diameter of the parachute. Then 50^ : x^ :: 150 : ^^ x^ =
weight of the same ; which added to 200 or m, must be equal
to the resistance. That k — x'^ + m z= a b px^; and hence

X = IQQj'na^'LG ~ ®^^ ^®®* nearly, the diameter sought."

On the appearance of the Ladies' Diary for 1 789, Mr.
Dalton must have felt himself amply rewarded for all his

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF THE LATE DR. DALTON. /

previous disappointments ; for, besides obtaining insertion of
his answers to all the philosophical queries, and to three^ out
of eleven solutions sent to the questions in the mathematical
department, he was awarded the " prize of six Diaries," for
his answers to the queries, rebusses, &c., proposed in the
Diary for 1788. In the^r^^ query he discusses the reasons
" why sound is more distinct at night than in the day time."
"The air," he observes, "is calm, and nature is composed.
* * * * Add to this, that probably the mind may be
more attentive than ordinary to ideas of sound at that time,
when the faculty of vision is in a great measure suspended for
want of light." The answer to the second query accounts
for the " singing of the tea kettle," on the ground that the
metal containing the water varies in temperature. " That part
of the kettle which is in contact with the water being much
cooler than the remaining portion, and the steam rising
against it, will be continually dissipated with a hissing sound
like that made by immerging hot iron in water." In the an-
swer to the third query he considers the law of divorces, and is
of opinion " that the marriage state would not be rendered
happier were divorces much more easily obtained. * * The
condition of the female sex in general would evidently be
greatly depressed by such facility. * * * * And
anything that has a tendency to lessen the dignity of the fair
sex, in [his] opinion, is unlikely to increase the happiness of
the marriage state." The^Mr^A query relates to the subject
of living toads having been found in solid rocks. Mr. Dalton
considers "that a just and satisfactory account of these
astonishing phenomena can hardly be expected in the present
state of philosophy ;" but after referring to the Philosophical
Transactions and the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences
for similar facts, he conjectures that the animals had entered
the rocks when these were yet "in a soft state, * • ♦ •
[and] petrifaction going on, have been so firmly imbedded as

8 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY ilATHEMATICAL AND

not to be able to escape ; * * * * we may suppose
[therefore] that being destitute of food and air, the vital
functions will rennain suspended, * * * * ^jy^ ^^
accident, being delivered from their imprisonment, they
recover from their torpid state." The answer to the ^/th
query relates to a subject upon which Mr. Dalton had already
begun to collect special information. In 1788 we find he
had commenced a series of experiments and observations
which led to the publication of his Meteorological Essat/s, in
1793, and hence we need not be surprised at meeting with
some truly philosophical reasons why the " air [feels] colder
about the times of sunrise and sunset than either before or
after." He remarks that "the temperature of the air, in
clear, serene weather, as determined by the thermometer, is
generally as follows : — The greatest cold in the twenty-four
hours prevails at or a little before sunrise ; from thence till
about two in the afternoon the heat gradually increases, and
afterwards gradually decreases, till next morning; — which
may be accounted for thus : the clear air, affording a free
passage for the sun's rays, like other transparent bodies,
receives very little heat from them. Of course, then, its heat
must be chiefly derived from the surface of the earth, which,
being acted on by the sun's rays, will constantly communicate
its heat to the adjacent air ; so that as the surface gradually
increases in heat from sunrise till sometime afternoon, and
then decreases in the same manner, so will the air also that is
near it." At the conclusion of his answer, "the ingenious
querist" is reminded, that if he "have frequently found it
colder about sunset than afterwards, he must have judged of
the temperature from sensation, and not from a thermo-
meter;"— a remark, by the way, which, independently of its
quiet humour, furnishes an excellent practical method of
disproving many a popular fallacy. The proposer of the sixth
query desires to be informed, " what system of philosophy

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OP THE LATE DR. DALTON. 9

gives us the most convincing proofs of the immortality of
man ;** and he is very properly assured by Mr. Dalton, in the
Diary Supplement, that " the existence of man in a future
state rests only on probability, from any system of philosophy
hitherto known. Contemplative men," he adds, " of all ages,
but more especially since the modern improvements in philo-
sophy, might reasonably imagine that the Divine Being
whose bounty is not less conspicuous than his power and
wisdom, would not have endued men with faculties capable of
such vast improvements, had they been designed to finish
their existence with this life. But notwithstanding this, there
might still have been room for doubt, had we not been assured
from Revelation that the present life is only preparatory for
another of endless duration."

In the mathematical portion of this Diary his solution to
question 882 relates to the vibration of a second's pendulum
at the distance of four radii from the earth's centre ; that to
question 885 discusses a case of equilibrium proposed by Mr.
Wildbore, under the signature " Amicus ;" and the solution
to question 886, inserted in the Supplement, and since trans-
ferred to Professor Leybourn's edition of the Diaries, enables
the reader to set at rest a controversy on the true rule for
equation of payments, with which Mr. Thomas Todd agitated
the mathematical world at intervals for almost half a century.
But the preceding did not constitute the whole of his con-
tributions to the periodicals for this year. In the Gentle-
man*s Diary his name is announced as having furnished
correct solutions to seven of the mathematical questions, of
which that to question 591, relating to a case of hydrostatical
equilibrium, is inserted at length, and gained him his first
position amongst the correspondents to this noted and difficult
serial.

The Ladies* Diary and Supplement for 1 790 must again
have been peculiary satisfactory to Mr. Dalton ; — for besides

10 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EAELY MATHEMATICAL AND

containing his answers at length to three of the queries, and
also to the same number of tlie mathematical questions, they
conveyed the gratifying intelligence that he had been awarded
the highest " Prize of ten Diaries" for his masterly solution
of the prize question. The answer to the Jirst query is
printed in the Supplement, and inquires whether " it is pos-
sible for two persons of opposite sexes to hold a strict friend-
ship with each other without some degree of love." Mr.
Dalton maintains the affirmative, provided *' the ardour of
youth is moderated by time, and reason and religion have
reduced the passions into due subordination." The answer to
the second query appears in the Diary itself. It relates to
the red appearance of the atmosphere as indicative of ap-
proaching wind or rain, when seen in the morning, or of fair
weather, when seen at sunset. Mr. Dalton admits that " the
observation in the query is perhaps as well founded as any in
meteorology, ***** ^q^ ^i^jj regard
to the cause [he is] afraid nothing but hypotheses, unsup-
ported by facts, can be advanced, as our philosophy of the
atmosphere is yet only in its infancy. There need, however,
be no wonder that similar appearances in the evening and
morning are followed by different consequences, as the air at
the former time is generally in a cooling state, and in a heat-
ing one in the latter." His remarks on the ffth query are
found in the Supplement, from which it appears he considered
" the act of yawning, with numerous other involuntary acts
of the like nature, to proceed from that distinguishing feature
of humanity, sympathy^' A considerable variety of answers
to this query are furnished by the correspondents to the
Diary, most of which agree in principle with the preceding,
and the editor adds " a remarkable instance" to the number,
in consequence of his having been "seized with an extra-
ordinary fit of yawning while writing out most of the
solutions."

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OP THE LiTE DR. DALTON. 1 1

In the mathematical department he answers ten out of tlie
list o{ fifteen questions proposed, of which those to questions
5, 11, and 15 obtained insertion. The fifth question relates
to the impact of two elastic bodies ; — the eleventh to the flow
of water through a circular aperture ; — and the solution of the
prize question is here transcribed as furnishing an interesting
specimen of his attainments in physical astronomy.

Prize Question, 907. By Lieut, JVilliam Mudge, " It
is required to determine the quantity of heat received by the
great comet, expected to appear in the beginning of the year
1789, during its passage from the aphelion to its perihelion,
the quantity received in one second when at the mean distance
of the earth being given = q ; and to compare the mean heat
of the earth to the greatest heat of the comet when in its
perihelion ; the period of the comet being 128 J years, and its
perihelion distance '44851, the radius of the earth's orbit
being unity."

Answered by Mr, John Dalton, "Lemma 1. Suppose
two like bodies to revolve round the sun in concentric circles ;
then the quantities of heat received by each body in one re-
volution will be inversely as the square root of their distances
from the sun. For let H and h be the quantities received in
any small given time, as one second ; T and t their periodic
times in seconds; R and r their distances from the sun.
Then as the density, and consequently the heat of the solar
rays, is inversely as the square of the distances from the sun,
it will be H : A :: r^ : R2; and it is well known that T : < :: R»
: rt; and, therefore, TH : th :: r^ : R*.

Lemma 2. Suppose two like bodies to revolve round the
sun, the one in a circle and the other in an ellipse, whose
transverse axis is equal to the diameter of the circle ; then the
quantities of heat received by each in one revolution will be
inversely as the areas of their orbits. For let the orbits be as
in Fig. 1, and draw SD and S e rf indefinitely near it; then

12

AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

Fig. 1.

since the velocities of the two bodies when at D are equal
(Principia Lib, \,prop. 16, cor, 4 J, the times of describing,
and, consequently, the
heat acquired in Do?,
Dc, will be as Dd : De ;
that is, from similar
triangles, as DC : SD,
or as the area of the el-
lipse to the area of the
circle. But the whole
quantities received in
one revolution are as
the quantities received in the z. DSc?; therefore the truth of
the lemma is evident.

Solution. " To determine the comet's orbit from the data
and the laws of centripetal forces, it will be as P : P :: (128:^)^ :
cube of the semitransverse axis of its orbit = 25*4314769 = a;
and the eccentricity = semitransverse — perihelion distance
= 24-9829669 = b; from which the conjugate axis = 4-755142
= c; — then from the first lemma it will heas \/ a : ^ I :: sg :
sq -^ ^ a = the heat which would be received by the comet
in one revolution round the sun in a circle whose diameter =
transverse axis of its orbit, where s denotes the number of
seconds in a year. But, by the second lemma, c : a :: sq -r-
y/~a : sqs/ a -^ c = the heat received by the comet in one
revolution in its proper orbit; half of which = 16733512 g' =
the quantity of heat received in its passage from aphelion to
perihelion, as required. Also, the heat of the comet in peri-
helion will be to the mean heat of the earth as 4-97113 : 1,
nearly." A second solution, by Mr. Dalton, " without the
lemmas," is also inserted in this Diary, but since it merely
confirms the accuracy of the preceding general expression for
the heat, it need not be added.

In the Gentleman's Diary for the same year his contri-

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF THE LATE DB. DALTON. 13

butions are equally meritorious and interesting^. His name is
appended to sixteen out of the seventeen questions proposed
for solution, and as most of them are of a difficult character,
we may safely infer that even at this period he had few
superiors among his contemporaries in mathematics and
natural philosophy. His ability in pure geometry and in the
discussion of loci appear very conspicuously in the solutions
furnished by him to questions 7 and 15 in this Diary, and in
several succeeding numbers we shall find him equally con-
versant with some of the most difficult branches of dynamical
inquiry. Question 10, in the selection for this year, is the
celebrated question respecting the exciseman's staff,* which
led to an interesting controversy between Mr. Wildbore and
Mr. James Wolfenden, of HoUinwood, near Manchester.
Mr. Dalton, in common with other correspondents to the
Diary, had solved the question on the supposition that the
staff exerted no pressure on the edge of the vessel ; but this
supposition was proved by Mr. Wolfenden, in the Mathema^
tical Companion, to be incorrect, and the freedom of his
criticisms led Mr. Wildbore to combat several of his con-
clusions, but without success. More recently the discussion
has been revived in the pages of the Mechanics* Magazine^
where the able investigations of Tebay, Workman, and Inda-
gator have apparently set the question at rest, and confirmed
the general accuracy of Mr. Wolfenden*s results. The editor
of the Gentleman*s Diary evidently considered his scientific
reputation at stake, and by means of his correspondents con-

• Question 609. By Mr. John Fletcher. " Seeing an exciseman's staff io
the form of a cylinder, three-fourths of an inch in diameter and 36 inches long,
immersed in a vessel of beer at one end, and the other resting ui>on the edge of
the vessel, 8 inches above the liquor, I observed 13 inches along the staff to be
dry ;— required the weight of the staff, the specific gravity of the beer being sup-
posed to be known."

14

AN ACCOUNT OF TEE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

tinued for several years to propose variations of the original
problem, in the hope that some fortunate result would be
developed which would enable him to silence his opponents.
Mr. Dalton, however, does not appear to have taken any
part in the dispute : — he was ever averse to controversy under
any circumstances, and although a confirmation of his results
was offered by the editor in the Diary for 1799, he did not
choose to enter the lists in favour of the erroneous principle.
His solution of question 7 in this series may be selected as
affording a neat specimen of his method of treating a
geometrical locus.

Question 606. By Mr, John Fletcher, " If through
any point P in the periphery of a circle, that is wholly
included in another, an indefinite number of right lines be
drawn to cut the periphery again in R, and terminate in the
circumference of the greater circle in E and F, and from E
towards F there be always taken EL = RF; required the
locus of the point L."

Answered hy Mr, John Dalton,
C and O let fall CD and OB
perpendicular to any right line
FPE drawn as per question.
Then since DR = DL, and
BR=BP, therefore PL = 2BD;
through P draw a line parallel
to OC, on which set off PG =
20C; then will G be a point in
the curve the farthest possible
from P. Join GL and let fall 0/
perpendicular to CD; — then since the angle CO/ = GPL
and the including sides CO, /O, just half the sides PG, PL,
the triangles are similar, and the angle PLG = a right angle.
Consequently the required locus of L is a circle whose radius
PS = CO."

" From the centres

Fig. 2

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF THE LATE DB. DALTON. 1 5

In the Ladies^ Diary for 1791, Mr. Dalton entirely con-
fined himself to the mathematical department. He furnished
solutions to eleven of the questions, and obtained insertion of
those to the Jifst, ninths and fourteenth of the series. His
name also frequently occurs in the Diary Supplement for this
year, hut its pages are wholly occupied by the communica-
tions of other contributors. The first solution in the Diary
relates to the determination of x and y from two given
equations, which Mr. Dalton concludes is impossible in whole
numbers; the second furnishes an elegant determination of
** the least breadth of a new cut, at right angles to a river, so
as to admit of the passage of a given barge ;" and the third
produces an exception to a property in the theory of equations
which the proposer, Mr. Bonnycastle, had been led to con-
sider general. To the Gentleman's Diary for the same year
he contributed twelve solutions, but the only one which
obtained insertion at length is that to the following difficult
locus which had been proposed by himself in the previous
Diary.

Question 631. By Mr, John Dalton, "Suppose two
bodies B and C to set off together from a point A, and move
along two right lines at right angles to each other, the one B
with a uniform velocity, the other C with a velocity such,
that the space described may be as any power of the time ; —
also suppose a line BC to be drawn between the bodies, and
CP taken thereon equal to a given line. Required the
equation and quadrature of the curve which is the locus of
the point P."

Answered by Mr, John Dalton, " Suppose PM perpen-
dicular to AC and PN to AB; put s and c for the spaces
described by the bodies B and C respectively in one second
at the beginning. PutCP = 6; AN = a;; PN = y; AC =

16 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

Fig.

A'

V

N \

P ^

\

R P^

M C

v\ and t z= the time in seconds. Then c : 1 :: r ; ^ = t\

c

per question. .*. t = (^)«. Again 1 : s :: t : st. .*. AB =
s 0)1 But BC2 = AB2 + zj2; and BC : AB :: PC : PM

=: X = bs {~)i -^ {^^(O" + ^^}^5 which reduced by putting

P = 2ir^ ^"d ^ = 1 ^ i • I x^ f I becomes y = v —

(^ — x"y; the equation of the curve.

If w = 1, then V vanishes, and x is constant, being = bs
-T- {b^ + c^y ; in vi'hich case the locus is a right line parallel
to AC. If n be greater than unity, p is affirmative, and x^ is
in the denominator of v or ^; consequently, when x = o, y =
00, and AC is an asymptote to the curve. If w be a proper
fraction, or p negative, the numerator of p becomes the deno-
minator; and when x •= b ■=■ AV, y = Qc, consequently a
line drawn parallel to AC through V, will in that case be an
asymptote. When n is greater than unity, ii x =: b, then y
= o, or the curve meets the line AB in the point V. When
n is less than unity, if a? = o, y = — b, or the curve meets
the line CA produced to R till AR = b; — and in all cases
the curve will cross the line AB, or it will somewhere be v =
MC = (6^ — x^y: — for, firstly, if jo be negative, then when
X = o, the equation gives x = b, but as x increases the first
side of the equation increases, and the last decreases, whence

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OP THE LATE DB. DALTON. 1 ^

they must somewhere become equal. Secondly, when p is
affirmative and 6^ — x^ in the numerator ♦♦•♦♦•
from the nature of equations, there will always be an odd
number of affirmative roots, and consequently at least one of
them real.

The fluxion of the area = — ydx-=- — d (— ^ y dx -^r
(Jj^ — a^y dx; where if /? = 1 or — ^ ; w = 2 or J, the inte-
gral of the first member is had in finite terms, but in other
cases it will require a series ; and the integral of the last
term = the segment ANTR of a circle whose radius =-• b
and ordinate NT = (6^ — x^y. Thus, if w = 2, as in Fig. 3,

the corrected integral = d b(- — 2) -{- d x — segment

TVN; where c? = (^'^-~f' It is also readily bad in
other cases where /) = a whole number, or half of one. It
may also be proper to observe, that c is not actually the space
gone over by C the first second with a variable velocity, but
the space which would be described in one second with the
initial velocity of it continued uniform." During this year,
Mr. Whiting commenced the publication of his Scientific
Receptacle, and Mr. Dalton contributed the following ques-
tion, and its solution, to the second and third numbers of that
work. Its nature conveys the impression that he was now
deeply engaged in those philosophical pursuits which he relin-
quished only with his life.

Question 39. By Mr, John Dalton. " There is a cylin-
drical glass vessel, with an upright tube, open at both ends,
cemented into it. At the bottom of the vessel is a quantity of
water, into which one end of the tube is immersed, and the
upper part of the vessel confines a quantity of air. The
diameter of the cylinder is 2 inches, of the tube ^ of an inch,
and of the bore tV of an inch. Now it is observed that when
the air is of a certain temperature, and the barometer stands
at 30*5 inches, the water in the tube is raised just 6 inches
above that in the vessel, and this last is then 4 inches firom
D

18 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

the top of the vessel. It is required to find how much higher
the water will rise in the tube when the barometer falls to
28*5 ; the temperature being the same." Answer, 13*5 inches
nearly.*

His contributions to the Ladies Diary for 1792 are not so
extensive as in former years. Ho furnished solutions to all
the philosophical queries — three of which obtained insertion ;
and also to seven questions in the mathematical department of
the Diary and its Supplement. Most of these are of an easy
character, and could have added but little to his already well-
established reputation. The editor, however, remarks in the
Supplement, " that the ingenious answer to the prize question
in the Diary by Mr. John Dalton was inserted in the copy
but was obliged to be omitted at the press for want of room."
In answer to the first query he asserts that " the pleasure
arising from conferring an obligation, especially if it be
eflfected without much inconvenience, is pure, and must be a
grateful sensation to a generous mind ; — but that arising from
receiving an obligation is often mixed with the unpleasing
reflection of inability to remunerate the benefactor;'* — hence
he concludes that the pleasure arising from the former must
be greater than that arising from the latter. The second
query conveys his sentiments relative to second marriages.
He is of opinion that persons "of sensibility and virtue"
are capable of feeling " an equal passion for another object,"
and " consequently the query may be answered in the
affirmative." In his third answer he remarks that " probably
spirits dissolve sugar solely by reason of the water they
contain, and this being only a part of their composition,
renders the solution more slow than when the menstruum
is pure water."

* Mr. Dalton s object in proposing tliis question appears to have been the
graduation of a water barometer. A well-constructed instrument of this
description would obviously exhibit a large rise in the tube for a sinall variation
of density in the atmosphere, but capillary attraction and the length of the
apparatus required would materially interfere with its practical utility.

PHILOSOPHICAL WKITINGS OF THK LATE DR. DALTOX. 19

The second page of the Gentleman s Diary for 1792
contains Mr. Dalton's account of his observations on the
eclipse of the sun, which happened on the 3rd of April in
the preceding year. He gives the latitude of Kendal as
"54° 20' N.; longitude, 2° 50' W.; the beginning of the
eclipse Oh. 9' p.m.; greatest obscuration, Ih. 34'; end of the
eclipse, 2h. 53' ; the duration, 2h. 44' ;" and he is of opinion
that ** the errors in point of time will not exceed half a
minute. The true noon was determined by a meridian line
previously made ; also by two equal altitudes of the sun the
same day, both agreeing to half a minute. The sun's altitude
was found at the end of the eclipse also, and the time of that
was found by calculation to agree with the clock very nearly."
From these observations Mr. Dalton was led to conclude that
the tables then in use did not give the moon's latitude
exactly ; but the editor remarks, that " of this it is hard to
judge, from observations made by those who are not in the
constant practice of so doing." In the mathematical depart-
ment he proposes one new question, and answers four in the
previous list. Two of these solutions are inserted at length ;
and, at the close of that to the prize question, the editor
expresses himself '* much obliged to Mr. Dalton," and others,
" for favouring him with the result of their labours upon this
difficult problem" in dynamics. His next solution to Question
642 belongs to the interesting subject of geometrical maxima
and minima ; but since the problem is not very difficult, and
merely relates to the construction of a triangle from given
data, we prefer the selection of his solution to Question 648,
on account of its relation to the prize question in the succeed-
ing number of this Diary.

Question 648. By Mr, John Gough. ** If a given pen-
dulum be suspended on a pin fixed in the centre of gravity of
a given vessel, resting on a horizontal and perfectly smooth
plane, how far will the pendulum, descending from a horizon-
tal position, move the vessel during one whole vibration ;

P P N QR

C

^

4

^^ I

20 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

what is the locus described by the weight of the pendulum ?
The weights of the vessel and pendulum being given, and the
distance of their centres of gravity."

Answered hy Mr, John Dalton, " Let p and R be the
centres of gravity of the vessel and pendulum when horizontal ;
W and IV their weights ; then from p towards R, take /jN :
NR :: i^ : W, and N will be the common centre of gravity
of the vessel and pendulum.

The force of the pendulum "^h- 4

upon the centre P at any instant
may be resolved into two others,
the one perpendicular and the
other parallel to the horizon ;
the first of which only tending
to increase the friction of the
vessel upon the plane, by hypo-
thesis, has no effect, and the other communicates the horizon-
tal velocity to the vessel. Moreover, as the action between
the vessel and pendulum is reciprocal, their common centre
of gravity cannot be made to deviate from the vertical line
NM; consequently the distance of their respective centres
P and G from that line will be always the same ; the pen-
dulum will coincide with NM after half one vibration, and
the whole space described by the vessel during one vibration
will be = 2j9N. Now let /?R = PG = NM = a ; and then
NR = a^ = TG = 6; also QG = x, and NQ = y.
Then PG = a : PQ = (a^—rr^)* :: TG = 6 : NQ = z/; a
known property of the ellipse, which is consequently the
locus required."

Question 663. By Mr, John Dalton, " Two indefinite
right lines form a right angle at C: — from a given point A in
one of them draw lines to meet the other in D, on which set
off AM ; CD :: 1 : n : — required the quadrature of the curve,
which is the locus of the point M ?"

Answer hy Mr. Gough. " The curve is a line of the

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF THE LATE DR. DALTON. 21

fourth order, having four similar infinite legs, two on each
side of AC, which the curves touch in A both above and
below. If from A, AB be set ofF= AO; BV produced will
be an asymptote, parallel to which there is another equally
distant from A, and on the contrary side of it. The space
contained under the four legs, and two asymptotes is equal to
a circle whose radius = AO." (Diary, 1793, p, 42. J

The Ladies* Diary and Supplement for 1793 contain
answers from Mr. Dalton to four of the queries and one of
the principal mathematical questions. He also furnished a
solution to the prize, but after obliging two of his other cor-
respondents, the editor expresses himself as ** particularly
sorry thut [his] limits will not permit [him] to insert the
general investigations of [his] learned correspondents.
Amicus (Mr. Wildbore) and Mr. John Dalton." In the
Supplement he discusses the question whether " the outward
arc of the enlightened part of the moon's apparent disc is at
any time apparently less than a semicircle," which had been
proposed as an " astronomical query, by a Lunarian." On
this subject he remarks, that " the outward arc of the
enlightened part of the moon is commonly said to be a
semicircle, and for the most part is nearly so ; yet, strictly
speaking, it is generally greater, and sometimes less, than a
semicircle. The moon's disc as seen from the earth, is not
bounded by a great circle of the moon, but by a parallel or
lesser circle, and the visible segment is less than a hemisphere.
The circle separating the light and dark parts of the moon is
likewise a parallel circle; the dark segment being less and
the light one greater than the hemisphere. Now, when the
dark segment of the moon is greater than the segment visible
at the earth, which happens when the moon is in perigee,
then two extremities of some diameter of the visible disc may
be involved in the dark segment, and consequently the en-
lightened arc will at that time be less than a semicircle, but
this can only take place about the change." The reason

22 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

" why a light body floating in a tea cup, or other vessel, when
approaching the side, moves towards it with a rapidly accele-
rated motion," is next explained by him to exist in "the
universal attraction of matter," since an effect similar to this
is that by which a plummet is drawn from the perpendicular
by the attraction of a hill. His own inquiry why " after
having been exposed for some time to a very cold wind, a
person feels himself much benumbed, but soon after, on com-
ing under shelter, the cold is suddenly changed into as great
an extreme of heat," is accounted for by himself from the
fact that " the internal principle producing" the constant
heat of the blood, " whatever it may be, must perpetually
vary in its effect, so as to counterbalance the opposite in-
fluence of the external air on the body, be it greater or less."
Such being the case, cold must excite this principle to greater
activity, and hence the extreme heat experienced under the
circumstances of the query. The fourth query, Mr. Dalton
observes, " points out its own answer. Metals being the
best conductors of heat will cool fastest, and consequently the
heat so communicated to the metal scale by the thermometer
will be dispersed faster than that communicated to the ivory
one, which consequently delays the ascent a little; — in the
same manner as a vessel would be longer in filling with water
when there was an aperture in the bottom of one inch diame-
ter, than when the aperture was only half an inch diameter."

In the mathematical department his solution to question
951 is the only one printed at length. It was proposed by
Mr. George Sanderson, of London, and requires " to deter-
mine on which day of the year 1792^ the time between noon
and sunset will be the greatest possible at Petersburgh in lat.
59° 56' north." Mr. Dalton's investigation affords an in-
teresting specimen of the use of the equation of time, and on
this account appears well worthy of being transcribed.

Question ^b\. Answered by Mr, John Dalton, " By the
word noon, in this question, I suppose is meant 12 o'clock,

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF THE LATE DB. DALTON. 23

the clock being duly regulated. It is well known that at the
summer solstice the clock is before the sun, and consequently
the equation of time is then to be added to the time per clock,
or mean time, to reduce it to apparent time. Hence the
equation of time being on the increase, the afternoons are
longer than the forenoons, and are increasing on that account.
And as the days decrease very slowly after the solstice, by
reason of the slow decrease of the declination, and the equa-
tion of time increasing fast, the length of the afternoons will
continue to increase after the solstice, till the decrease of the
lengths of the days balances the equation of time. Hence the
calculation will be easy to any one furnished with a nautical
ephemeris. For, as radius : tang. lat.=59° 56' :: tang. dec. : sin.
of ascensional difference. ♦ ♦ ♦ * From which it
appears that the afternoon of the 23rd of June will be the
longest of any in the year at that place."

About this time still further honours awaited Mr. Dalton.
He had already established his reputation as a mathematician
and philosopher, and his efforts to obtain honourable distinc-
tion were now about to be crowned with success. In the
early part of 1793 he had the satisfaction of having had
awarded to him the " prize of six Diaries," for his solutions to
the questions proposed in the Gentleman* s Diary, Towards
its close he was honoured by being selected, on the recom-
mendation of Mr. Gough, as professor of mathematics in
Manchester New College ; and shortly after his removal to
Manchester, he himself added permanency to his character as
a natural philosopher by the publication of his still valuable
Essays on Meteorology, His contributions to the Gentle-
man* s Diary for this year are also tolerably extensive. They
embrace one query, one new mathematical question, and ten
solutions, including the prize, to those which had been pro-
posed in the previous Diary. The solutions to question 665,
and the prize, are inserted at length, the latter being honoured
with the first place; while his own question (No. 663) is ele-

24

AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

gantly investigated by Mr. Gough and Ferdinando (Mr. John
Ryley). The prize is an extension of question 648, already
noticed, by requiring " their velocities and the time of vibra-
tion" when the pendulum and vessel are " put in motion by
the force of uniform gravity." Mr. Dalton first points out
the intimate connexion between the two questions, and then
investigates, ab initio, the required expressions in a very
elegant manner. His solution to the remaining question
furnishes an excellent specimen of geometrical composition,
and is here selected as a proof that Mr. Dalton was not in-
sensible to the attractive charms of the Greek geometry.

Question 665. By Mr, Thomas White. " From a given
point P without a given circle, to draw a right line PAC
cutting the circle in A and C, so that taking therein PB in a
given ratio to BC; from B drawing BD to meet the circle in
D, parallel to a right line EF given in position without the
circle; and through 1) and C drawing a right line DQ meet-
ing EF in Q; the two parts thereof DC and CQ may obtain
a given ratio : — and to shew the limits of possibility."

Answered hy Mr, John Dalton. '^Composition, Let fall
PT perpendicular to FE, from P draw any right line PO, on
which take PM :
MN in the given
ratio of PB : BC;
and MN : NO in
the given ratio of
DC : CQ;— join
OT parallel to
which draw No,
Mb meeting PT
in o and b; then
draw oC and 6D
parallel to FE cut-
ting the circle in

Fig. 5

PHIL0S01»HICAL WRITINGS OF THE LATE DR. DALTOX. 25

C and D ; lastly throu|^h C draw PG, DQ, and the thing is
done."

Demonstration. For PM : MN :: P6 : 60 :: PB : BC;
and since the triangles BCD, GCQ, are similar DC : CQ ::
BC : CO :: bo : oT :: MN : NO ; the given ratio.

Limitation, ^' If either of the parallels BD, oC, fall
without the circle, the problem is impossible."

In the Ladies' Diary and Supplement for 1794, Mr.
Dalton answers three of the queries and four of the mathema-
tical questions, including the prize. The Jirst query in the
Diary was proposed by himself, and requires " the cause of
the mist which is sometimes observable in a calm evening to
hover over meadows and rivers." His explanation of the
phenomenon, which agrees with that furnished by many other
correspondents, is to the effect that the mist "is only
observed when the air has suffered a sudden change of tem-
perature from heat to cold. It is found from experience that
warm air will hold more water in solution than cold air;
therefore when the air is suddenly cooled, which sometimes
happens in an evening, the water, being then much warmer
than the air, evaporates pretty copiously at the surface, but
is no sooner carried up a little into the cold air, than it is
precipitated again in the form of mist, and occasions the
phenomenon." The Supplement contains his theory of perio-
dical winds, which is followed by an editorial notice of the
publication of his essays on meteorology, and his own opinion
on the effects of burning charcoal on steel. On the former
subject he observes, that " the unequal capacities of land and
water for receiving heat are undoubtedly the causes of these
phenomena. Land receives more heat than water, or rather
perhaps is heated to a greater degree. Independently, there-
fore, of the general or trade winds, the winds should blow
towards the centre of the [West India] Islands in the day,
and from the centre in the night ; consequently, on the

26 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

eastern side of the islands, in the day, the winds occasioned by
this cause conspire with the general east wind, and they
oppose it on the western side, so that the velocity of the
general wind will be increased in the one case, and diminished
in the other ; but in the night, the wind blowing from the
internal parts towards the sea, will be felt in a greater or less
degree, according to its strength, and as it conspires with, or
opposes, the general eastern current."

In the mathematical portion of this Diary two of his solu-
tions are inserted at length. One of them corrects an error
in Simpsoiis Fluxions relating to the treatment of a fluxional
equation, and the other determines the form and capacity of a
certain vessel which empties itself uniformly through a given
orifice. The list of new questions also contains one from Mr.
Dalton, which is answered by himself and " Amicus^' in the
Diary for 1795 : — its nature is remarkably indicative of the
present tendency of his scientific pursuits, and is by no means
unworthy of the author of the Meteorological Essays which
had just been published when this question made its appear-
ance. It is as follows : —

Question 978. By Mr, John Dalton, " There is a rain
guage, or vessel with a circular aperture, set to receive the
falling rain ; — by some accident the guage has been turned
aside a little, so that the plane of the aperture makes a given
angle (5") with the plane of the horizon, and the direction of
the common section of the two planes is also given ; — now,
admitting that q = the quantity of water caught any day by
the guage in such a position, and that the direction of the
wind (S.W.) and the angle made by the falling rain with the
horizon (30°) are both given ; — it is required to determine, by
a general theorem, the quantity of rain that would have been
caught by the same guage if truly horizontal."

Answer. By considering the three planes as great circles
of a sphere, forming by their intersections a spheric triangle

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF THE LATE DR. DALTON. 27

ABC, Mr. Dalton finds . . .„ ^ .^-^ 1 s =

' »in. A nn. B cos. C — co«. A cos. B

" the required quantity of water ; which is a general theorem
in all cases."

The second page of the Gentleman* 8 Diary for 1794 an-
nounces the publication of his Essays, which are said to con-
tain " several new theories, and what he conceives to be a
complete discovery of the cause of the aurora borealis." In
the mathematical department we find his solution to a ques-
tion proposed by himself in the preceding Diary, but his
"true and ingenious construction" to the geometrical prize
question is reluctantly omitted for want of room." He also
proposes question 699 in the list of new questions, which is
answered by himself in the Diary for 1795. It relates to the
motion of two bodies up two different inclined planes united
at the vertex, but the solution is rendered less suitable for
selection than the following, on account of its containing a
reference to a similar question in a former Diary.

Question 681. By Mr, John Dalton, " Given two
weights W and w, connected by a string going over a pulley
at A, and an inclined plane AC moveable about an axis passing
through A ; now supposing the less weight w placed upon the
plane at a given distance from A, whilst the greater W hang^
freely from A ; it is required to determine the velocity of the
plane such that W may neither ascend nor descend: — also
supposing the position of the plane at any instant given, to
determine its initial velocity to make W ascend or descend by
any given uniformly accelerating force within the limits of
possibility."

Answered by Mr, John Dalton, " Let kb = the given
distance of w from A = r ; Ac = any variable distance of the
perpendicular distance b c from A = a? ; t? = velocity of w ;

28 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL AND

and 1g = 32J, the force of gravity. Then, per mechanics,

the weight of w in direction AC = ~^,

or in opposition to the weight W : —

consequently W T ^ = the weight

acting in direction of the thread; the

negative sign taking place when C is

below A and the affirmative when

above. Now it is obvious that if W do

not descend, but continue at rest, the

centrifugal motive force of w, divided

by gravity, must be equal to this

weight. Or ^ = W T ^; whence

° 2 g V r

v = |-^ (Wr =F 2^ x)\^, for the required velocity of w, or

of the point b of the plane when the weight W continues at
rest.

When the plane is vertical below A, x = r, and v =
J -JLI ( W — k;^ l.2j being then a minimum ; if a; = c, or the

plane horizontal v = (^l^-^ — ^2. jf ^ ^^ r, and the plane be
above A, t; = /H-^(W + w)Y> being then a maximum: —
lastly, if W = 2^, and the plane vertical below A, v = o, or
the weights being equal, balance each other. If w be made
to ascend with a force which is to gravity as w : 1 ; then we

shall have - — - = W ^ 1^ + ^ ^j ^^^ consequently v =
|-^(1 + w) W ;• T 2^ a;| ; and when W is made to descend

with a like force, n must be negative ; but not so great as to
make the quantity under the vinculum negative."

We have now arrived at the period when Mr. Dalton
discontinued his correspondence to the mathematical periodi-
cals. He had recently removed to Manchester, and the
conscientious discharge of his duties, as professor of mathe-
matics and natural philosophy, left him but few opportunities
of indulging his taste for pure mathematics. The circum-

PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF THE LATE DB. DALTON. 29

Stances, however, which put an end to his mathematical
correspondence impelled him to make greater exertions in the
more interesting branches of experimental physics. He now
possessed greater facilities for conducting his researches ; and
by bringing his well-trained mathematical genius to bear upon
the results of his manipulations, he succeeded in penetrating
the secrets of nature, and in a few years changed the whole
aspect of chemical philosophy. Mr. Dalton was elected a mem-
ber of this society in 1794, and read his first essay on a pecu-
liarity of his own ** Vision of Colours," in October of the same
year. This paper was printed in the fifth volume of the first
series of the Memoirs, and constitutes the earliest record of what
is now technically termed " Daltonism," or "colour blindness,"
by the medical profession. In a subsequent volume h6 discusses
with much acuteness the difficult problem of the diffusion of
gases ; and, by means of well-conducted experiments, succeeds
in developing a series of fundamental principles respecting
their specific gravities, which have not only been found of the
highest importance to practical chemists, but have formed the
basis of all subsequent investigations. His contributions to
the various scientific journals are, on the whole, tolerably
extensive, and many of them are of a very valuable character ;
but all of these must yield in importance to the ^* New
System of Chemical Philosophy" which contains his grand
discovery of the atomic theory. He had turned his attention
to this theory as early as 1803, and was enabled to convince
Dr. Thomson of its truth in 1804 :— by 1807 he had satisfied
both Wollaston and Davy that definite proportions constitute
of necessity the true composition of matter, and this opinion
had already become the prevailing doctrine of the continental
philosophers. " It was Newton," says a recent writer, " who
first put the conception of atoms into clear hypothetical con-
nexion with the phenomena of chemistry ; but it was Dalton
that imparted enlargement, vitality, and fertility to the perti-
nent and memorable thought of the astronomer-royal of the

30 AN ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY MATHEMATICAL, &c.

world. That mathematician described a principle of pro-
portion lurking among the incondite mass of recorded
chemical analyses * * * * which led him

right to the revival of the Newtonian application of the idea
of Democritus. * * * ♦ Wollaston and

Thomson were his earliest converts of established reputation.
These ingenuous men, followed by Davy, Gay-Lussac, and
Berzelius, and by the whole phalanx of the chemists of the
present century, quickly carried the fact of chemical pro-
portionals towards its consummation through a million of new
and interesting particulars, and not a few important general
deductions : — and now the theory stands embodied in the
entire fabric of this most practical science." Previously to
this discovery the practical philosopher had to grope his way
through the elements of nature, without the possibility of
extricating himself from the masses of confusion by which he
was surrounded ; — but no sooner did the light of Dalton's
genius dawn upon the chemical horizon than chaos dis-
appeared and order resumed her sway. Henceforth the path
of the scientific explorer is directed by the pure rays of this
pole star of nature — the atomic theory has deservedly im-
mortalized the name of its expounder — and Dalton's applica-
tion of mathematics to chemical philosophy will ever rank as
one of the most brilliant discoveries of modern times.

31

II. — On the Origin of Ironstones, and more particularly
the newly discovered Red Stone at Ipstones, near
Cheadie, Staffordshire ; with some Account of the
Ironstones of South Lancashire,

By E. W. BiNNEY, F.G.S.

\_Read November Ibth 1863.]

The almost universal distribution of iron throughout the
world is well known. This valuable metal, in addition to its
wide range over the surface of the earth, occurs more or less
in rocks of all ages, from the most ancient plutonic rocks up
to the most recent peat bog deposits. Indeed, it is now
sometimes seen in the very process of filling up the fissures
in the sides of active volcanoes by sublimation from below.
It is also found associated with a great variety of mineral
substances and in most organic bodies.

The ores at present used in the manufacture of iron are,
for the most part, the protoxide and sesquioxide. The former
comprising the argillaceous and blackband ores, and the latter
the haematites.

In ancient times, before coal came into general use for
smelting purposes, iron was made in many districts of Great
Britain and Ireland, by employing wood as fuel, in places
where scarcely a trace of the manufacture is now left. Thus,
in the weald of Sussex, many oolite and lias districts, as well
as in limestone shale and devonian countries, furnaces were
supplied with ores yielded by these respective formations.
The occurrence of argillaceous iron ore, coal, and limestone

32 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ORIGIN OF IRONSTONES.

in the carboniferous strata, at convenient distances from each
other, has latterly concentrated the iron manufacture on or
near those deposits. This arises not so much from the rich-
ness of the carboniferous ores, for they are, comp^atively
speaking, poor in yield and not of the best quality, but from
the necessity of economizing the expense in carriage of such
large quantities of raw material. In no trade is the cost of
transit so soon felt as in the iron manufacture. It has been
most generally the custom to plant the furnaces on or near
the supply of coal, and bring the ore and limestone to them.

At the present time, all the charcoal furnaces have disap-
peared, with the exception of some two or three near Uiverston,
although in 1615 there were, according to Sturtevant, as
quoted by Dudley in his curious old work, Metallum Martis^
in Great BHtain and Ireland, 800 furnaces, forges, or iron
works making iron with charcoal.* Of these Dudley esti-
mates that 300 of them, at 15 tons per week, would produce
180,000 tons per annum. The district of South Staffordshire,
owing to its containing the ten yard coal, has long been
the favourite seat of the iron manufacture. From the time
of Dudley until now, the best of its argillaceous iron ores
have been so extensively worked that they have become
nearly exhausted, and others of a more inferior quality have
had to be substituted. As the coal districts of South Staf-
fordshire had superseded the old charcoal furnaces, they in
their place appeared likely to give place to the blackband
iron ore districts of Scotland and South Wales, although they
were situate on the spot where a great amount of iron is used
in the manufactures of the neighbourhood. But it is sur-
prising how the eyes of men are sharpened by competition in
searching for food to supply their devouring furnaces. Within
the last year or two, the ironmasters of Durham and Northum-
berland were driven to the oolitic and lias ores of Yorkshire,

• On the Iron-making Resources of the United Kingdom, by S. H. Blackwell,
Esq., F.G.S., p. IIH.

MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ORIGIN OF IRONSTONES. 33

which had been long noticed by geologists, whilst those of
South Staffordshire had their attention directed to the oolitic
deposits near Northampton. True.it is that the ironmasters
of South Staffordshire had for some years received a consider-
able amount of calcined blackband, from the rich deposit of
that valuable mineral in the north of the county, found in the
upper part of the Pottery coal field ; but this had begun to
be used in a great measure by the furnaces on the spot, and
its extent is supposed not to be very great, unless it can be
followed under the new red sandstone, which, I believe, has
not yet been done ; on this account the ironmasters of South
Staffordshire have turned their attention to the ironstones of
the oolite near Northampton and Blisworth. These are not
of the richest class, and are much improved by the admixture
of other ores, such as haematite.

Shortly after public attention had been directed to the
deposits in the oolite of the midland counties nearest South
Staffordshire, a gentleman of the name of Bishop discovered
a bed of haematite in the lower coal measures at Ipstones, a
few miles south of Leek ; although I am informed that no one
had in modern times worked this bed, from old workings and
other circumstances there is little doubt that it was known in
ancient times. Mr. Farey, in his Geology of Derbyshire and
the Adjoining Counties, at p. 402 of Vol. I. of his work, in
giving a list of the places where red and yellow ochres are
found, states that they are to be met with in the coal measures
near Dilhorn, in the same county (Staffordshire), and called
raddle. However, he says, that none of these ores had been
worked for iron making. Even so late as the year 1852,
Mr. Blackwell, the eminent South Staffordshire ironmaster
previously quoted, when he read his excellent paper at the
Society of Arts, appeared not to be aware of the existence of
this deposit, although he had been at the trouble of collecting
some hundreds of specimens of the iron ores of the United
Kingdom for the Great Exhibition.
F

34 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ORIGIN OF IRONSTONES.

The locality where I have chiefly examined the red stone*
as it is provincially termed, is at Booth's Wood, a little to the
north of the village of J^stones. The mine belongs to Mr.
Bishop, the gentleman previously mentioned, and is very
conveniently situated just above the canal. A level being
driven into the hill side, the stone is brought out of the mine
and loaded into the boats beneath by a shoot. The red stone
here is from 18 to 20 inches in thickness, and the bed dips to
the south-east at an angle of 4°. It is not uniform in quality,
the richest portion being about 10 inches in the middle, and
the top and bottom being of an inferior description. It is
divided by regular joints, which render it easy of working, in
bays of 8 or 10 yards in length. The price of the stone, put
on board boats in the canal, I was informed was 12s. 6d.
per ton. The floor of the stone is a poor kind of ironstone,
containing some lime ; and the roof is a brown coloured shale
with a shell in it resembling the Unio acutus. In the stone
itself I did not detect either iron pyrites or the remains of
fossil shells or fishes ; so it must be considered very free from
sulphurets and phosphates, so detrimental to the manufacture
of good iron.

The following section, in the descending order, will shew
the nature of the strata both above and below the ironstone :

yd. ft. in.
Black shale, containing marine shells, consisting of

Avicula papyracea, goniatites, and posidonia 14 0

Cog/ (sulphury) 0 2 0

Brown fire clay 1 1 0

Fine grained light sandstone (Woodhead Hill Rock).,. 8 0 0

Shale 10 0 0

Black shale 14 0 0

Smallcoal 0 0 8

Shale 5 0 0

Ironstone 0 16

Floor 0 2 0

Rough rock 30 0 0

* This term red stone must not be confounded with the valuable blackband
of the upper part of the Pottery coal field, there also called red stone.

MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE OMGIN OF IRONSTONES.. 36

The strata above described belong^ to the lower coal field ;
and the 2 feet coal I consider to be identical in position with
the New Mills coal, so extensively worked in the west of
Derbyshire; whilst the rough rock is the same stone as that
at Werneth Low.* The small coal of 8 inches I did not see
myself, but was only told of its existence by a collier.

The coal above and the coarse rock below appear to be
good guides in searching for the ironstone, which has been
proved to extend to a considerable distance, although of
variable thickness, and generally under that found at Mr.
Bishop's works, previously described.

The rough rock, as well as being of the same age as that
of Werneth Low, appears to me to be in the same position as
those of Bagnall Church, Bolledge, and Wetley Moor.

The composition of the ironstone taken from the middle of
Mr. Bishop's seam, according to the analysis of Dr. R. Angus
Smith, F.C.S., our excellent secretary, to whom I am
indebted for the trouble he has taken in making the same, is
as follows :

Peroxide of iron (58.610

Silica 6.490

Carbonate of lime 18.170

Carbonate of magnesia 3.723

Manganese, alumina, and moisture 4.007

100.000

The stone is of a brownish red colour, and has a slaty
fracture parallel to its lines of deposition. Its cross fracture
is rough and uneven. When smoothed, the face of the stone
presents a finely laminated structure, the red parts being
divided by belts and patches of a blackish colour. Its
surface, parallel to the planes of deposition, frequently pre-
sents a blackish appearance, much resembling the protoxide
of manganese. The 10 inches in the middle portion of the

• See section of the Lower Coal Field, Vol. X. (New Scries) of the Society's
Memoirs, p. 187.

36 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ORIGIN OF IRONSTONES.

bed is the richest, and it is from that part that the specimen
analyzed by Dr. Smith was taken.

There is a well marked line of division between the top of
the bed and its roof, but not so broad a line of demarcation
between the bottom of the bed and its floor. Every part is
more or less laminated, but less so in the middle than other
portions.

On the whole, the chemical composition of the ore resem-
bles that of some of the Northamptonshire ironstones from the
oolite, especially in the great amount of the carbonates of
lime and magnesia that it contains.

On the Deposits of Ironstone in Lancashire.

There is little doubt but that beds of ironstone, capable of
being profitably wrought, exist in many districts besides that
at Ipstones, mentioned in this communication and so lately
discovered, and which have not hitherto been noticed, even
near to some of our coal fields.

Looking nearer home than Ipstones, it has always been
customary to assume that the coal field of Lancashire is des-
titute of beds of ironstone worth working. Although in
ancient times doubtless considerable quantities of iron were
manufactured from its argillaceous ores, especially those in the
lower and middle coal fields* near Burnley, and which occupy
the same position as the beds at Low Moor, from which that
justly celebrated iron is made, still in modern times there have
only been in operation the furnaces of Messrs. Swire and Co.,
at Dukinfield, in Cheshire, situate just on the verge of Lan-
cashire. These were supplied with argillaceous ores procured
from the middle coal field, and were not long in operation,
having been soon discontinued. Whether this arose from the
poor quality of the ore, or the unfavourable position of the

* For explanation of these divisions, see Paper, by the Author, On the
Origin of Coal, printed in Vol. VIII. (Second Series) of the Society's Memoirs,
p. KfO, also Vol. X , p. 184.

ME. E. W. BINNET ON THE ORIGIN OF IK0NST0NE6. 37

measures which there dip at an angle of 30°, and thus render
the minerals expensive to work, I cannot state; but it is most
likely owing to the latter cause, which would tell seriously
both on the price of the^coal and ironstone.

In the lower division of the coal field there are numerous
beds of argillaceous ore of such thickness as would be worked
in many iron making districts.

In the middle coal field are many argillaceous and black-
band ores fully as rich as those wrought in other places, and
so situated that they could be calcined together with great
advantage. Amongst the former are those of Clifton and
St. Helens, and doubtless many other places in the same
position; and amongst the latter the black stone above the
cannel mine at Wigan, and several impure cannels and
blackbands in that neighbourhood and about Dixon Fold.
Below the 4 feet coal at Pendleton a carbonaceous blackband
was found in sinking Mr. Fitzgerald's new pit, about 4 feet
in thickness.

An analysis of this ore was made by Mr. John Leigh, F.C.S.
200 grains of the bed, taken as a fair average, gave —

Water 4.0

BitumiDous matter and carbon 98.0

Silica 29.3

Silicates of iron, alumina, and lime 3.2

Alumina 4.5

Carbonate of lime 3.4

Peroxide of iron 67.0

199.4

This gives 49 per cent, of combustible matter, and 28.5
of peroxide of iron, equivalent to 19.95 per cent, of metallic
iron, certainly not a rich ore, but if mixed with the argilla-
ceous stones of Clifton, and calcined together, capable of
yielding a fair description of mine. In Lancashire, many
beds of cannel run into blackband, in a similar manner to
what often takes place in Scotland.

However, it is in the upper coal field that the most valu-

38 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ORIGIN OF IRONSTONES.

able ores occur. Above the four feet mine at Patricroft, and
extending under Chat Moss, is a bed of the carbonate of
protoxide of iron, about 2 feet 6 inches in thickness. This
was found in sinking the shafts of Messrs. Lancaster and Co.,
at Patricroft, not far from the Liverpool and Manchester
Railway. On analysis, the ore yielded about 72 per cent, of
carbonate of iron, and the gentleman, a medical man, who
analyzed it, told me that it was pure enough to be used for
medicinal purposes.

Above the three-quarters mine at Bradford, and over the
main limestone at Ardwick, are beds of blackband of 12 and
6 inches respectively in thickness, the representatives, beyond
all doubt, of the red stone of the Pottery coal field, as their
geological position, and the fossils they contain, are exactly
the same.

Some of the above beds of ironstone only want thoroughly
investigating to make them worthy of attention. Coal is, no
doubt, much in demand for manufacturing purposes through-
out the district, but for the last five years the average price
has not been greater, if so much, as that paid by the iron-
masters in South Staffordshire. Limestone is not very
favorably placed, for both the Derbyshire, North Lancashire,
and Clitheroe deposits are at considerable distances. The
two last, however, are now accessible by rail,

The thick bed of carbonate at Patricroft before mentioned
is free from the remains of fossil shells and fish, which will
cause it to be in a great measure destitute of the compounds
of phosphorus and sulphur, so detrimental to many of the
argillaceous and blackband ores found in the carboniferous
strata, and which are known to make so much cold short
iron.

On the Origin of Ironstones.
All iron ores appear to have had their origin from volcanoes,
however much they have since been mingled with the super-

MK. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ORIGIN OF IB0N8T0NES. 39

ficial crust of the globe and the waters upon it. The ease of
the bed of iron before alluded to was mentioned in a recent
publication in the following words, " The formation of lodes
by sublimation may sometimes be observed at the present
day in volcanic mountains. Thus, for instance, during an
eruption of Vesuvius, in 1817, a fissure of more than 3 feet
in diameter was filled within the space of ten days with spe-
cular iron ore deposited from the vapour of chloride of iron
evolved."* Numerous lodes of specular iron ore, in different
rocks of various epochs, clearly shew that these phenomena
took place in many ages of the earth's history just as it did
in the case first alluded to, the lodes resembling each other as
much as possible. But the chloride of iron from volcanoes
in ancient times, when there was most probably much less
dry land than at present on the earth's surface, would more
frequently flow into the waters of the sea than remain in the
fissures of rocks. Subaqueous volcanoes, as the stratified
beds of trap and volcanic ashes prove, were then of frequent
occurrence. Now the chloride of iron might be ejected in at
least three different ways : first, it might be ejected dry into
the atmosphere, in which case chlorine and peroxide of iron
would result ; next, it might be ejected with vapour of water,
in which case muriatic acid and peroxide of iron would be
formed ; and thirdly, it might be ejected into water, having
lime either in solution or as a deposit. In this last case the
lime would take the chlorine and throw down the peroxide of
iron, leaving chloride of calcium in solution. In this liquid,
if it were at all strong, no living beings could flourish. These
eruptions of chloride of iron, at certain periods of the earth's
history, would give us some clue to find out the cause why
the red coloured deposits are so scantily supplied with organic
remains. Both in the old red sandstone and the new red
sandstone groups, organic remains, it is well known, are very
sparingly found.

• Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for October, 1868. No. 110, p. 848.

40 ME. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ORIGIN OF IRONSTONES.

At the close of the silurian, carboniferous, and permian
periods in England, great disturbances appear to have taken
place in the earth's crust, and much sesquioxide of iron was
mingled with the waters of the globe; but, at intervals, during
the formation of the vast deposits accumulating during those
three epochs, especially during the carboniferous, volcanic
agency was doubtless more or less active, and thus supplies of
iron would be sent into the sea from time to time.

After examining the beds of haematite found in the carboni-
ferous strata in regular beds, as in the vicinity of Whitehaven,
and those at Ipstones, forming the subject of the present
communication, no one scarcely can doubt but that they had
their origin in volcanic vents, and flowed into the waters of
the sea, where they were deposited with the argillaceous and
siliceous impurities found associated with them, layer by
layer, like any other substances thrown down from suspen-
sion. This is evident from the beautifully laminated structure
of the Ipstone bed.

The vast deposits of haematite found in the north of
Lancashire, in the hundred of Furness, occur in great clefts
of the carboniferous limestone.* These, no doubt, from their
great purity, being but little mixed with foreign matters, had
their origin from volcanic sources, on or near the spot where
they are now found. Some of them probably may have come
up through the bottom of the clefts in which they occur, and
others from a short distance, and flowed with water into their
present positions.

The argillaceous iron ores of the coal measures, now so
generally used, have a composition, according to Dr. Colqu-
houn,t of —

• See Paper, by the Author, on the Geology of Low Furness, printed in
Vol. VIIT. (New Series) of the Society's Memoirs, p. 422.

f See Paper on the Iron Resources of the United Kingdom, by S. H.
Blackwell, Esq., F.G.S.,p. 151 ; read before the Society of Arts in April, 1852.

MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ORIGIN OF IRONSTONES. 4 1

Carbonic acid 30.76

Protoxide of iron 38.80

„ manganese 0.07

Lime r. 5.30

Magnesia 6.70

Silica 10.87

Alumina 6.20

Peroxide of iron 0.33

Coaly matter 1.87

Sulphur 0.16

Moisture 0.00

101.00

In the same valuable paper is •an analysis of the North
Staffordshire blackband ore, from the upper part of the
Pottery coal field, made by Mr. Herapath, of Bristol. It is
as follows : *

Protoxide of iron 42.25

Bilsulphate of iron 3.53

Protoxide of manganese 7.48

Silica 2.20

Alumina .*. 0.50

Lime 4.09

Magnesia 2.60

Bituminous matter, carbonic acid, and loss 37.35

100.00

In both the above specimens, traces of phosphoric acid,
arising from the remains of shells, and fish bones and scales,
would no doubt be found.

The argillaceous, as well as the blackband ores, would be
formed under very similar conditions, except that the latter
were, doubtless, produced amidst a much greater amount of
decomposing vegetable and animal matters, as the great
excess of bituminous matter appears to shew.

In a communication read before this Society,! the state of

• Page 153 of Mr. Black well's Paper.
t On the Origin of Coal, by E. W. Binney, Vol. VIII. (New Seriet)
p. 148 of the Society's Memoirs.

G

42 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ORIGIN OF IRONSTONES.

the earth's surface, during the formation of coal, was shewn
to be a shallow sea, in which grew successive crops of rank
and luxuriant vegetation. The waters of this sea were more
or less charged with mud, according to the currents flowing
in it. In such mud, sesquioxide of iron would necessarily
be present, some of it arising from the degradation of pre-
existing rocks, and some from volcanic sources, like that
from Mount Vesuvius, previously alluded to. Now both
nodules of argillaceous and beds of blackband ores are found
in fine grained argillaceous strata, shewing gentle currents of
water, as the size of the mineral particles composing them
prove. The former are often aggregated around a piece of
vegetable matter, or the remains of shells or fishes, which
appear to have had some power of attracting the iron from
the surrounding mud, and the latter are mixed with a mass
of the remains of plants, shells, and fishes.

Now, how has the sesquioxide of iron been converted into
the carbonate of protoxide ? 'f his is well shewn on a small
scale at the bottom of our ponds and waters, full of the
nympheea alba, or common water lily. Into these places
waters containing more or less per oxide of iron flow, but the
roots of the plants and other decomposing vegetable matter
soon rob the iron of a dose of its oxygen, and convert the
sesquioxide of iron into the protoxide, as Dr. Lyon Flayfair,
C.B., F.R.S.,* in a case shewing the origin of a peat bog at
Downholland, in Lancashire, alluded to by the author, admi-
rably shews. He says, " A curious case is pointed out by
Mr. Binney in Lancashire, where there is evidence of a bank
having been thrown up by the sea at the margin of one of
those forests antecedent to its destruction. The effect of a
bank thrown up at the margin of a forest must be to stop the

• On the Gases evolved during the Formation of Coal. Memoirs of the
Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the Museum of Economic
Geology in London, Vol. I., p. 478.

MB. E. W. BINNEY ON THE OKIGIN OP IKONBTONEB. 43

natural drainage of a country, and throw it into the state of
marsh or bog. The roots of trees require an abundant supply
of oxygen, which is an essential constituent of the sap, and
exists in larger proportion than in common air in the spiral
vessels. The marshy state of the land formed a barrier to
the ingress of air to the soil, and, consequently, to the roots.
The leaves that fell, the broken branches which strewed the
ground, were placed in favorable conditions to decay. They
could not do so by the mere action of the air, which was, to a
great extent, precluded, and they, therefore, acted upon the
peroxides of iron in the soil, and robbed it of its oxygen, as
we know organic matter regularly does. All the iron in the
soil was now reduced to protoxide, and a complete barrier to
the entrance of oxygen to the roots was effected, for as soon
as any was absorbed by the soil, it must have been appro-
priated by this lower oxide, which, on the elevation to the
peroxide, again yielded it to the dead organic matter."

As soon as ever the sesquioxide of iron, whether derived
direct from volcanic sources, or from the decomposition of
pre-existing rocks in which it had been deposited, mingled
with the mud at the bottom of the carboniferous sea, in which
grew countless sigillariae roots, like the leaves of the water
lily, ramifying in all directions, not only would such living
vegetables assist to decompose the peroxide of iron, but the
dead branches and decaying roots would render further assist-
ance, not merely in this way, but by supplying carbonic acid
to convert the protoxide into such a carbonate as is now
found in our coal measures.

Many of the argillaceous iron ores occur in detached no-
dules, which have frequently portions of vegetable matter,
shells, fishes, or some other piece of organic matter in the
inside that appears to have extracted the iron from the sur-
rounding matrix; some of them are hollow, and contain
crystals of carbonate of lime, and the sulphurets of iron, lead.

44 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE ORIGIN OF IRONSTONES.

and zinc. The blackbands generally contain many remains of
shells and fishes, with a good deal of bisulphide of iron.

The position of the bed of haematite at Ipstones, is between
the upper part of the rough rock and the Woodhead Hill stone,
somewhere near about the position of the 9 inch seam of coal
in the Author's section of the Lower Coal Field of Lancashire.*
In other districts where this little seam is found (and it is
more constant in its thickness over a great distance than most
other coals), some large deposits of carbonate of iron are met
with in the shales above it ; so iron then appeared generally
present in the waters of the carboniferous sea, and the cause
of the deposit at Ipstones being preserved from being con-
verted into a protoxide, most probably arose from there being
a less quantity of vegetable matter in the waters thereabouts
than had been generally the case during the deposition of the
carboniferous strata. The position of Ipstones, near to the
carboniferous limestone of Derbyshire, in the western part of
which, not far from Newhaven House, in Hartington, a
distance of about eight miles, a vein of red iron ore occurs, f
may also point to a source from which it could have come,
and thus shew that there was no necessity for it to have been
conveyed a very great distance from its probable source to
the locality where it is now found. There is at present no
evidence to prove the exact date of the formation of the vein
of haematite above alluded to; but it was most certainly after
the deposition of the mountain limestone, and it may have
been ejected from below during the time of the deposition of
the Ipstones bed, and part of it conveyed in water to the
latter place.

* See Section at p. 184, Vol. X., of the Society's Memoirs,
t Vol. I., p. 265 of Farcy's General View of the Agriculture and Minerals
of Derbyshire. Besides this instance, I may mention the occurrence of
considerable quantities of oxide of iron found associated with the lead and
copper deposits of Mixon and other places, not more than four miles from
Ipstones.

MB. E. W. BINNEY ON THE OBIGIN OF IE0NBT0NE8. 45

The occurrence of the iron as a sesquioxide at Ipstones
in the carboniferous strata at the time of their formation,
^ben the waters in which they were suspended were then
generally more or less full of decomposing organic matter,
can only be accounted for by its having been thrown into
such waters near to the spot where it is now found, and not
having had far to travel; for had it been mingled with decay-
ing vegetable or animal matter, it would doubtless have been
converted into the usual carbonate of the protoxide, so com-
mon in the coal measures.

47

III. — On the Representation and Enumeration of
Polyedra,

By the Rev. T^homas P. Kirkman, A.M., Rector of Croft-
with-Southworth.

IRead December 18<A, 1863.]

1 . The relation between the faces, summits, and edges of
a polyedron is expressed in the theorem following :

Theo. I. "The number of faces and summits in any
polyedron taken together, exceeds by two the number of its
edges."

For, let P be any polyedron having an (c— /)-gonal face
E, contiguous at its edges and angles to e other faces of P.
With /of these faces E will have no common edge; but if E
be removed by a section E' meeting all those e faces, P will
become P, a polyedron having an e-gonal face E', contiguous
to 6 other faces of P' ; P' having the same number of faces
with P, but having /more summits and /more edges than P.
If the e faces about E' be produced to meet any face F pro-
duced of P', P' is included in the prismoid solid P", whose
two opposite c-gonal faces E' and F are connected by e qua-
drilateral faces. Let now F be carved out of V by sections
along faces of P.

The first frustum p cut off from P' will have k of the
divided, and / of the undivided and removed edges of P^.

If /=ro, f) is a pyramid on a A-gonal base K ; and it is evi-
dent that P' diminished has lost a summit, in the vertex of

48 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPRESENTATION

JO, and gained one face, 3 edges, and 3 summits, in K and its
sides and angles. Thus the number 3 of new edges of P", is
equal to that of the added face and summits together.

U Ivo, p carries away, with / complete edges, /+1 summits
of P", provided that the section passes through no summit of
P"; but if it passes through i of them, p carries away / entire
edges and / — i+l summits of the prismoid solid. In the for-
mer case, P" after section has lost / edges and /-j-l summits,
and gained one face, k edges, and k summits: in the other
case, it has lost I edges and I — i-f 1 summits, while it has
gained k new summits on its k divided edges, and ^+2 new
edges in its new face of A+2 angles.

The edges added to P" are k-\-i — /, and the faces and
summits added are ^+1 — (/— ^+l)=A+^ — L Of course, i is
either 1 or 2, or else 0.

Thus the increase in the number of edges in P" after the
first section, is equal to the increase of faces and summits
together; and in the same way it is proved that a like equality
holds after the second or the w^* section.

Now the theorem is true of P'', before it is cut ; for it has
3e edges, e+2 faces, and 2e summits. It is consequently
true after any section, and thus true of P', the result of the
final one, and therefore of P, which differs from P' only by
the subtraction of/ edges and / summits. Thus Theo. I. is
proved of any polyedron P, and that geometrically, in a man-
ner which may probably be new.

2. The question — how many w-edrons are there? — has
been asked, but it is not likely soon to receive a definite
answer. It is far from being a simple question, even when
reduced to the narrower compass — how many w-edrons are
there whose summits are all triedral? Let us attempt to
consider this, or at least the first step of this, problem.

If we take such an w-edron P, having n faces, s triedral
summits, and e edges, and count the edges that meet in all

AND ENUMEEATION OF POLTEDRA. 49

the summits, we have, since every edge is thus twice
enumerated,

2c=3*,
and since c-f 2=»-f «, by Theo. I.,

.'. g-|-6=3w,
and «4-4=2w.

This gives us the following :

Theo. II. In any polyedron whose summits are all
triedrah twice the number of the edges is thrice that of the
summits ; the number of edges plus six is thrice that of the
faces ; and the number of summits plus four is twice that of
the faces.

From this follows the truth of what may be called its polar
theorem ;

In any polyedron whose faces are all triangular, twice
the number of the edges is thrice that of the faces ; the
number of edges plus six is thrice that of the summits ; and
the number of faces plus four is twice that of the summits.

Cor. 1. No polyedron having only triedral summits can
have an odd number of them.

No polyedron having only triangular faces can have an
odd number of them.

Cor. 2. The number of edges in a p-edron is never less
than 4p.

The number of edges in a ^edron is never less than 4 of
the number of its summits.

For the /?-edron has the fewest edges when the faces have
the fewest sides, i, c, when they are all triangles ; and of all
the polyedra which have q summits, that will have the fewest
edges whose summits have the fewest edges, that is, whose
summits are all triedral.

Definition. An s-peak is a polyedron having s summits.
This being premised and permitted, the second part of Cor. 2
is better stated thus :

The number of edges in an ^peak is never less than 4s.
II

50 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPitESENTATION

Cor. 3. The greatest number of edges in a ^-edron cannot
exceed 3p — 6.

The greatest number of edges is an s-peak cannot exceed
3s— 6.

This follows from Cor. 2 and Theo. I.

Cor. 4. The number of faces in an s-peak is never less
than i(s+4), nor greater than 2s — 4.

The number of summits in a p-edron is never less than
J(p-|-4), 7ior more than (2p — 4).

This is deduced from Theo. I. and the two preceding corol-
laries.

3. Here we may add conveniently the two following theo-
rems.

Theo. III. No p-edral q-peak has a face of so many as
either p or q angles :

No ^-edral q-peak has a summit of so many as either p
or q edges.

First : No ^'-peak has a face of q angles, for all its -5' sum-
mits cannot be in one face.

Secondly : No j9-edral g'-peak has a face of p angles ; for
if it has, it has at least 2p edges terminating at those angles,
viz., the p sides of the face, and p others through their inter-
sections. The remaining q — p summits of the solid, not in
that face, are connected by not less than q — p — 1 edges,
which number, added to the other 2p edges, cannot exceed
q-{-p—2, by Theo. I. : i. c,

which is absurd.

The second part of the theorem is the polar property to the
first.

Theo. IV. No ^h-edral q-peak has a face of more than
2q — p — I angles:

AND ENUMERATION OF POLYEDRi. 51

No p-edral q-peak has a summit of more than 2p — q — I
angles.

For, let a face of a /7-edral ^'-peak have 2^--p+r sides or
angles. The remaining p — 1 faces cannot have less than 3
sides each, nor can the sum of all the sides of the faces of the
solid exceed twice the number of the edges, because no edge
can be counted in more or less than two faces : t, e.,

2q—p+r-\-3(p^\)'2^P+g—^). or

2qi-2p+r^3'2^P'{-2q—4,
which is absurd.

4. Let now P be any w-edron with only triedral summits.
It cannot have a face of more than n — 1 angles, by Theo. III.
Let it have an (n — l)-gonal face A, which is bounded by

the n — 1 faces, abc klm, in that order. The

n — 1 summits of P about A are, in order, represented by the
11 — 1 triplets

Aaby Abc, Acd Aim, Ama;

and since all the n — 1 edges ab, be, cd , , . . Im, ma, which
meet A, must be found each at some second summit of P, these
n — I duads will appear in the n — 3 triplets which represent
the remaining summits of P; the whole number of those sum-
mits being 2w — 4, by Theo. IL This is impossible, unless
some triplet contains two or more of these n — 1 duads: now no
triplet can exhibit three of them, for it would then contain
more than three letters; nor can any two non-consecutive
duads, as ab and cd, form a triplet. Let then abc be one
triplet, in which ab and be are exhibited ; there remain n — 3
duads to be disposed of in n — 4 triplets, which cannot be, un-
less some one of these contains two of the duads.

There must then of necessity be, among the n — 3 triplets to
be added to those containing A, two of the form, abcy jkl.

5*2" REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPRESENTATION

which contain each two consecutive duads of the above written
n — 1, in other words, which contain each three consecutive
letters out of ahc , , , Im,

Let these two triplets be actually abc and jkl. The edges
Kb, ah, and be, are in the face b ; and the two edges ob and
he which pass through the summits hah and hbc, meet in the
summit abc. That is, ^ is a triangular face ; and in the same
way it appears that A is a triangular face. We have thus proved
that our w-edron P must have at least two triangular faces.
If, now, the restriction that all the summits shall be triedral
be removed, the base being still (n — l)-gonal, it would not
be difficult to show algebraically that the same necessity
remains for at least two triangular faces; but I shall here
content myself with a geometrical proof of the theorem fol-
lowing, which is under no restriction.

5. Theo. Y, If a p-edron has a f p — 1 J-gonal face, two
at least of its faces are triangular.

If a q-peak has a (q — \)-gonal summit, two at least of
its summits are triedral.

For, since every side of the {p — l)~gon is the intersection
of two faces of the jo-edron, there can be no face which
does not contain a side of the (/? — l)-gon. The summits
of the solid not in the plane of the {p — l)-gon must there-
fore be connected by a broken or branching line, which
encloses no space, and which will have at least two extremities
H and H'. The summit H, having only one edge (part of
the broken line), which passes through a second summit out
of the plane of the (/? — l)-gon, must have at least two edges
which pass through angles m and n thereof: i, e,, Yimn is
a triangular face. In the same way it is demonstrated that
Wm'n is a triangular face of the j^-edron.

The second part of the theorem is the corresponding polar
property.

AND ENUMERATION OF POLTEDRA. 53

6. Returning to consider our n-edron P, having a
(w — l)-gonal base and only triedral summits, and having
only two triangular faces, abc &ndjkl, we have determined of
its 2n — 4 summits the following n-fl,
Aab, Abc, Acd, Ade Ajk Akl Aim, Ama, abc, jkl.

The edges of the w-edron are 3« — 6 (Theo. II.). Of
these, n — I are sides of the (w — l)-gonal base, n — 1 others
pass through the angles of the base, and n — 4 never meet the
base, but form the broken line which connects the vertices of
the two triangular faces. If we pass along this line from the
triangular face k to the similar face b, we shall traverse all
those edges of the intervening faces, /, m, and a, which do
not meet the base. These n — 4 edges are X in the face /, fi in
m, and a in a, such that X4-ft-|-a=w — 4. If X=:l, / has but
one edge that does not meet the base, and as the duad jl, in
the triplet jkl, must appear a second time, that one edge is
jl, which must meet the edge Im, passing through the base
angle Aim. In this case jlm is one of the triplets of the
system. But if X=2, jlm is not a triplet.

^ 7. To clear the matter, let n=14.

X=2, /i=5, a=w— 4— 2— 5=3.
In the triplets to be formed, we have to dispose of the duads

cd, de, ef,fg, gh, hi, ij, Im, ma, ac, jl,
which have been only once employed, and the whole system
of triplets must exhibit no duad oftener or seldomer than
twice.

One edge of the broken line in / is^/; the second must be
il, meeting it in ijl, for i is the face next to j remote from
jkl ; and the duads il and Im must occur a second time : this
determines the triplets

lij and Imi.
Next we have 5 edges of the broken line on the face m, of
which one is mi, because that duad must appear again, and
tlie others are in order mi, mh, mg, mf, me. It is necessary

54 REV. T. P. KERKMAN ON THE REPRESENTATION

also to use the duads At, ghy fg, ef^ ma ; hence the triplets
following are determined,

mlii^ mgh, mfg, meft mae.
There are now 3 edges of the broken line in the face or, of
which ae is one; they will be in order «?, ad^ ac, which
must be combined with the duads de, cd; therefore

ade, acd,
are determined. We have thus assigned all the 24 triedral
summits of the 14-edron on a 13-gonal base, which has
two triangular faces k and b, between which lie three faces
/, m, and a ; the values of X, ju, and a described above being
2, 5, and 3. These triplets are

Aab Abe Acd Ade Aef Afg Agh Ahi
abc acd ade mef mfg mgh mhi
Aij Ajk Akl Aim Ama
lij jkl Imi mae.

Of these summits 13 are in the face A, 7 in W2, 5 in /, 5
in c, 5 in a, 4 in A, 4 in z, 4 in J, 4 in c, 4 in of, 4 in ^ 4 in
^, 3 in 6, and 3 in A. The faces of P are one 13-gon, one
heptagon, three pentagons, seven quadrilaterals, and two
triangles.

8. The number of triangular faces is seen by inspection of
the triplets ; for it is equal to that of the triplets made with
three consecutive letters ; the middle letter, in alphabetical
order, always denoting a triangle. There can never be two
triplets made with four consecutive letters, as abc, bed", for
be, which occurs in the summits of the base A, cannot twice
occur again. Therefore b and c cannot both be triangles, nor
a and 6, nor any consecutive pair of faces. Hence follows

Theo. VI. A ip-edron, having a (p — V)-gonal face, and
all its summits triedral, has not more than ^(p — 1) trian-
gular faces, when p is odd, nor more than |(p — 2), when p
is even,

A q-peak, having a (q — \)-gonal summit, and all its

AND ENUMERATION OF POLYEDRA. 55

faces triangular y has not more than J(q — 1) triedral sum-
mits, when q i* odd, nor more than i(q — 2), when q is even,

9. Let us now consider the n-edron P, which has an
(n — l)-gonal base A, all its summits triedral, and more
than two — suppose, for example, four — triangular faces.

It is necessary to fix, first, the position of the triangles.
The first being numbered one, the other three will be the
(c+2)% the (c+c,+3)"S and the (f+e,+e,+4)% of the n

faces abed so that e faces lie between the first and

second, c, between the second and third, c, between the third
and fourth, and (n — e — e, — e, — 5) between the fourth and
first triangle ; where

n — e — c, — e^ — 570, or
e4-€,+c,Zn— 5.

Taking, for example, w=l5, we may examine the case of

e=\, c,=2, e,=6, n — e — c, — e^ — 5=1.

The triangles are then a, c, f, m, which determine the triplets

nab, bed, efg, Imn,
in addition to the fourteen

Kab, Abe, Amn, Ana.

Of the 39(=3w^-6) edges, there are 14 just written in
duads of consecutive letters ab, be, &c., of which eight are
repeated in the four preceding triplets, viz., na, ab, be, &c.
There remain six more duads of consecutive letters to be
employed, of which no two can form a triplet ; for the middle
letter of such a triplet would denote a fifth triangle. But
there are eight triplets yet to be determined to complete the
26 (=2/1 — 4) of the system. There must therefore be two
triplets constructed which contain no duad of consecutive
letters. These denote what I shall call ridge-summits.

If aye be one of them, the edge ay is the intersection of
two non-consecutive faces a and y ; and it is evident, that if
we proceed along this edge in either direction, we shall find

56 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPRESENTATION

our way by a line of edges to some point in the base A, which
lies between a and 7, or between y and a, as the case may be,
looking along the series of the faces abed ... w, of which
two are a and y ; and this point is an angle in a triangular
face, which lies between a and 7, or between y and a.

And if between a and y there be more than one triangle,
we shall arrive by proceeding from aye along ay to one or
more such summits as aye, the unions of branches of the ridge
line leading to such triangles, and this only along edges of
faces between a and y (a and y being included among them) :
so that no face 0 which does not lie between a and y, can be
one at such a summit. And if there be several triangular
faces lying between y and a, we shall, by proceeding along ay
through the point aye, arrive at one or more of such (summits
or) triplets made with faces that lie between y and a (these
two being included) : i, e., no face j3 which lies betwen a and
y can form part of such a triplet.

10. Generally, if there be k triangular faces, there are to
be added to the triplets denoting their vertices and the n — 1
angles of the base

2n—4—ni-l—.k=n—3—k
triplets; of which there cannot be either more less than
n — 1 — 2k, which contain each a duad of consecutive letters,
this being the number of such duads remaining to be repeated.
There must be, therefore,

n^3—k-^(n-.\—2k)=k—2
triplets containing no duad of consecutive letters.

If aye and ^A^ be two of these, there must be at least one
triangle lying between a and y, and at least one between
y and a ; and the same must be true of 0\, (j)e, &c. : nor can
X lie between a and y, unless 0 X and (jt all lie between them,
a and y being counted as so lying. Here a and 0 might be
one and the same.

AND ENUMERATION OP POLYEDRA. 57

11. Returning to our 15-edron P, whose triangular faces
are cr, c, f^ and w, we may choose at pleasure two ridge-
summits from the series

0 6 0 c? e 0 ^ A O' A / 0 n,
(in which the zeros denote the triangles) under the restrictions
just laid down. Let bdj^ knb be the triplets. We have to
complete the system
kab Abe kcd Ade Aef Afg Agh Ahi Aij Ajk Akl Aim

bed de efg gh hi ij jk kl

Amn Ana b'dj k'wb

Imn nab dj jb kn bk eg In-, where the points in b'd'j
and k*n% shew duads of non-consecutive letters.

We dispose first of dj and /cw, between either of which
lies a single triangle. The eAge dj leads from the point bdj
to the triangle f^ along d and e on one hand, and jih and g
on the other. We must have either dej or d'ij for a summit
lying between bdj and /"; for dj cannot lead from bdj to any
others constructive: thus we must have one of the two
systems

dejyjve, hve, gh'e; d'ij, d-hi, d-gh, de*g;
either of which conducts along eg to ejg, by triplets of the
proper form, which repeat every duad that they introduce, and
dispose of de, ij, hi, gh, and ge. The summits dej, ji'e,
&c., known by the single point, I call wall summits.

The edge kn leads along n to the triangle m, and the only
triplet possible is kl'n, which disposes both of kn and In as
well as of kl.

The edge jb can enter no triplet but bjk, for no duad con-
taining J is disposable besides ^A: this uses bk; and all our
duads are now twice employed. We have then these two
systems, each of 26 triplets ;

Aab Abe Aed Ade Aef Afg Agh Ahi Aij Ajk
nab bed j'de efg e'gh e'hi e'ij bjk

Akl Aim Amn Ana b'hn
n*kl Imn b'dj ;

I

58 EEV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPEESENTATION

Kab Abe kcd Ade Aef Afg Agh Ahi Aij Ajk
nab bed g-de efg d'gh d'hi d'ij b'jk

Akl Abn Amn Ana b'hn
tvkl Imn b'd'j.

The first has the fifteen faces, Aabc . . . Imn, in order, of
14, 3, 7, 3, 5, 7, 3, 4, 4, 4, 6, 5, 4, 3, 6 angles, and may be
represented by

A a b c d e fg h i j k Imn:

14 3735 7 344 4 064 36

the second differs only from this in the faces d, e, g, and j,
and is represented by

A a b c d efg h i j k I m n»

14 373843544554 36

There are then two 15-edrons which have only triedral
summits, stand on a 14-gonal base, have four triangles, a, e,f,
and 7W, between which intervene 1,2, 6, and 1 faces, and have
the same two ridge-summits b'd-j and b'k'n. And, of course,
there are two 15-peaks which have twenty-six triangular
faces, have one l4-edral summit, have four triedral summits
a, c, y, and m, between which intervene, counting the edges
in order round the 14-edral summit, 1, 2, 6, and 1 edges, and
have the same two faces b'd'j and b'k'?i, no two of whose
angles, as b and d or b and n, are on a consecutive pair of the
edges about the 14-edral summit.

These 15-peaks are accurately represented by the above
systems of triplets, in which abe . . . n stand for summits,
not faces, namely the summits which in order lie on the 14
edges of the 14-edral summit A.

12. The species of a w-edron on a (n — l)-gonal base,
having k triangles, may be said to be determined, when the
number and position of the k triangular faces are assigned,
with the k — 2 ridge-summits. Of this species there may be
no varieties or many. The varieties depend on the manner

AND ENUMERATION OF POLTEDRA. 59

in which the broken or branching ridge-line, which connects
the ridge-summits and vertices of the triangles, proceeds along
the intervening faces. The species considered in the pre-
ceding article has two varieties. It may be worth while to
work out another example.

Let there be again 15 faces, one H-gonal face A, and
only three triangles, 6, f, and m ; and let d'j-n be the ridge-
summit. We have to complete the system

hah Abe kcd Ade Aef Afg Agh Ahi Aij A/A
ahc cd de efg gh hi ij jk

Akl Aim Amn Ana dj-n
kl Imn na dj,jn, nd, ac, eg. In.

If we look at the series

aOcdeOghijklOnf
we see that dj leads from the point djn to the triangle^ along
the faces jihg on one hand and de on the other. We have
the choice of the two triplets de'j and d'ij for the disposal of
dj : take dej. This make ei'j inevitable, for ej must be
repeated ; after which e'hi, e'gh are determined, and all our
duads thus far are repeated. Taking d'ij, we must have of
necessity d'hi, d'gh, and de'g, which closes our circle of
duads. Thus we have either

dej, e'ij, e'hi, e'gh ; or else
d'ij, d'hi, d'gh, de'g ;
either of which disposes of de, eg, gh, hi, ij, jd.

Next, we see that jn leads from djn to m only along n ; and
we can make no other triplets than

jk'n, kl'n.
The edge nd leads to h along d and c. We can write either
na'd or cd'n ; that is, we may have either
na'd, a'cd; or cd'n, na'c.
Hence the species of 15-edron — having triedral summits,
a 14-gonal face, three triangular faces, between which inter-

60 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPRESENTATION

rene in order 3, 6, and 2 faces, and a ridge-summit made by
the faces which are separated from those triangles the first
from the first by one face, the second from the second by
three, the third from the third by no faces, counting in the
order of those triangles — has four varieties, which are the fol-
lowing, each of 26 summits.

Aab Abe Acd Ade Aef Afg Agh Ahi Aij
ahc a'cd j'de efg cgh e'hi e'ij

Ajk Akl Aim Amn Ana
n'jk n'kl Imn d'na dyn,

Aab Abe Aed Ade Aef Afg Agh Ahi Aij
abe n'ed j'de efg e'gh e'hi e'ij

Ajk Akl Aim Amn Ana
n'jk n'kl Imn cna d'j'n.

Aab Abe Acd Ade Aef Afg Agh Ahi Aij
nbe a'cd g'de efg d'gh d'hi d'ij

Ajk Akl Aim Amn Ana
n'jk n'kl Imn d'na dj'n.

Aab Abe Acd Ade Aef Afg Agh Ahi Aij
abc n'cd g'de efg d'gh d'hi d'ij

Ajk Akl Aim Amn Ana
n'jk n'kl Imn cna d'j'n.

The faces are described thus :

Aabcdefghij k I m n
14 53467344464437
14 43557344464438
14 53494354454437
14 4358435445443 8.

To give an example of the maximum number of triangles,
let «=14, A:=6 : let the triangles be 6, of, f h, ;, /, and the
ridge summits be aeg, ace^ akg, and gik.

AND ENUMEBATION OF POLYBDKA. G 1

We have to complete the system

Aa6, Khc, Acd, Ade, Aef, A/y, Agh Ahi
abc cde efg ghi

Aij Ajk Akl Aim Awa, gik, akg, aeg^ ace,
ijk klm ma, mk, ak;

which can be effected but in one way, by the addition of akm.
When a (2w4-l)-edron on a 2w-gonal base has n trian-
gles, the system consists of no triplets besides those denoting
the summits of the base and of the triangles, and the ridge-
summits.

13. It would perhaps not be a very difficult matter to
discover an algebraic expression for the number of /z-edrons
which have a (n — l)-gonal face, with all their summits
triedral.

All that is necessary, is,, first, to find the number N of
solutions of (vid. 9)

c-hc,+e,+ .... 4-^A-2Zw— A— 1,
6, e,, &c., being positive, and k not less than 2, nor greater
than i(n — 1), and every different order of the numbers cc,c,,
&c., counting as a solution ; for every such permutation gives
a different polyedron. This number N is known and readily
found. Then it would be required to find the number R
of ways in which k— 2 ridge-summits could be selected, under
the restrictions of article (10). The sum SNR, from k=2
to fc=the greatest integer in ^{n — I), is the number of specie*.
Each of these is then to be multiplied by the number of its
varieties V, which arise in the manner of those above dis-
cussed in (7) and (12). The full number required is SNR V
taken within the proper limits.

14. Leaving the pleasure of this discovery to the learned
reader, I shall proceed to consider the construction of n-edra
which have all their summits triedral and no face of more
than n — e — 1 angles.

62 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPRESENTATION

It is evident that there must be, in such an w-edron P, e
faces which do not meet the {n — e — l)-gonal base A: and it
will be convenient to say that P has e crown-faces, or e
crowns.

First, let c=l ; and let w=8 ; the base or most-angled face
is a hexagon, and the crown cannot have more angles than
the base. Suppose it also hexagonal. We shall have of
course a system of triplets symmetrical with regard to the
base A and the crown C ; viz.

Aah Abe Acd Ade Aef Afa
Cab Cbc Qcd Cde Cef Cfa, or

AC abcdef (I)

6 6444444

Next, let the crown be pentagonal. The system
Aab Abe Acd Ade Aef Afa,
Cab Cbc Ccd Cde Cca, ef fa, ea,

must be completed; which can only be by the triplet efa,

giving us

ACabcdef (2)

6 5544453

It is to be observed that, while in the former system there
are none but duads of consecutive letters, neglecting A and
C, there is of necessity in the latter one duad ea in Cea of
non-consecutive letters combined with C. Nor can there be
more ; for C must combine with exactly five letters, twice with
each, so that two duads used with A, namely, those containing
the sixth letter, must remain unemployed with C. But as
there can only be (2w — 4=) 12 triplets, not more than one
duad besides those two can remain to be repeated : if now C
had two duads of non-consecutive letters, two used with A
and two used with C would remain to be repeated ; which
is absurd.

15. When C is 4-lateral, it may combine with one duad
of non-consecutive letters, or with more. If with one only,
the system to complete by two additional triplets is

AND ENUMERATION OF POLYEDBA. 63

hah Abe Acd kde kef Afa
Cab Cbc Ccd de ef fa Cda da\
which determines either def and dfa to be the required trip-
lets, or else efa and ead^ giving
either k C ab c d ef *)

6 4344634 >C3^

or k C a b c d ef )

64544549* ^

Of these two, one is merely the reflected image of the
other, the faces about the base being like and in like order.

If C has two non-consecutive duads, they may occur at
adjoining or non-adjoining summits in C. This gives two
systems: —

kab kbc kcd kde kef kfa

Cab Cbc cd de ef fa Cce Cea ce ea,

which demands cde and efa ; and

kab kbc kcd kde kef kfa
Cab be cd Cde ef fa Cbd Cea bd ea,
which requires bed and efa ; and the faces stand thus,
kCabcdef (4)

64545363

kCabcdef (5)

6 4553553

C cannot be combined with three duads of non-consecutive
letters, for in that case there would remain to be repeated
those three besides five of those employed with A ; but to
complete the 12 there are only two triplets required, which
cannot dispose of eight duads.

16. Next let C be triangular: it may be combined with
one or more duads of non-consecutive letters. If with one
only, the system is, requiring three triplets more,

kab kbc kcd kde kef kfa

Cab Cbc cd de ef fa Cea ca.

64 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPRESENTATION

This admits of

cde^ a'ce, e/a,

of

def, (I'fa, a-dc,

of

fa-c, cef, cde,

or of

e/a, a'de, a'cd;

the faces stand thus.

>

A C a b c d ef

6 3646363

(6)

A C a b c d ef

6 3645534

(V)

A C a b c d ef-)

6 ■3 54 7344f

A C a b c d e f\

(«)

6 3 745443-'

The two latter are excluded, because one face is heptagonal :
the octaedron standing on that base has no crown, and ought
to be described among those that have a 7-gonal base.

Let now C be combined with two duads of non-consecutive
letters.

Here it will be useful to demonstate the following theorem.

Theo. VII. Ifv of the summits in the crown C of an
n-edron on an (n — 2)-gonal base, having only triedral
summits, are bounded by pairs of faces which are not con-
tiguous faces about the base, that n-edron will have at least
T triangular faces about the base.

For let C^6 be such a summit of C, 7 and e not being con,
tiguous faces about the base. The edge 7^ proceeding from
C^O must be a portion of a broken or branching ridge-line
which encloses no space, because there is no crown but C.
It will have at least one extremity H. This summit H,
having (mly one edge passing through a summit out of the
base, will have two edges passing through angles m and n
of the base; i. e., Yimn is a triangular face lying between
7 and Q.

17. We must, by virtue of this theorem, have two triangular
faces about the base of our 8-edron. Let those triangles first
be a and c, separated by one face b only.

AND ENUMERATION OF POLYEDRA. 65

The system to be completed by four more triplets is
Aab Abe Acd Ade Aef Afa
fab bed de ef fb bd,

C must have one duad of consecutive letters : either Cde,
or Ce/, must be written : which can only be followed by Cdb,
Cebi bef, or Ceb, Cfb, bde, respectively, as is easily verified.
But either of these sets of four repeats b four times, which has
thrice occurred before, thus introducing a heptagonal face,
which is here inadmissible.

The faces here determined would be
A C a b e d ef

■(A)

0 e a ej -v

7 3 5 5 4 f ^

b e d ef \

7 3 4 5 6 -^

6 3 3

A C a b e d ef

6 3 3

which are two octaedra on a heptagonal base 6, the one the
reflected image of the other.

We take then a and d for our triangles, opposite faces
about the hexagonal base. Looking now at
Aab Abe Aed Ade Aef Afa,
fab be ede ef fb ce,

we see that it is of no consequence whether we take Cbc or
C^for the triplet containing a duad of consecutive letters,
because all is symmetrical about the opposite faces.
Taking the former, we must write either

Cbc CbfCfcfce, or Cbc Cce Ceb bef
which give the faces

AC abed ef, AC abcdef (B)

63356346 63365364

which are merely reflected images of each other. Further,
if we take a for base in the figure (6) of the last article, and
d for crown, we find that (6) is equally represented by
a d (C c ef A 6 \,

63X3653 6 4/

CcefAb being the faces which lie in order about a, as is
evident from the triplets aCc, ace, aef, a/A, aAb, abC:
therefore (6) and (B) are the same octaedron.
K

66 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPRESENTATION

Let C next appear with three duads of non-consecutive
letters. We write the scheme with three triangles 6, d, f\
Aab Abe Acd Ade Aef Afa

abc cde efa ac ce ea.

We have three triplets to add containing C, which can be only
Cae Cce Cea. These faces are

ACabcdej: (8)

6 3636363

There are thus found eight octaedra on a hexagonal base,
having all their summits triedral.

18. We shall now examine the octaedra which have no
face of more than five angles. There must then be two
crowns.

Two crowns may in general be adnate by a common side,
or connected by an intervening edge or broken ridge-line. If
an intervening edge connects them, it is the side of a face at
least hexagonal, if the summits are triedral; for that face
must have two angles common with either crown besides two
in the base. Our crowns, therefore, must be adnate at two
summits ; and the sum of their other summits cannot exceed
five, because only one edge can pass to the pentagonal base
from each of them.

Let the crowns be a pentagon C and a quadrilateral D. It
is evident that between the two faces at the common summits
of C and D there can intervene neither more nor less than
one of the five faces about the base. Let a and c be the two.
Then the triplets CDa CDc determine all the rest, for D
must appear only twice more, and with every letter twice ;
thus —

Aab Abc Acd Ade Aea CDa CDc
Dab Dbc Qcd Cde Cea;

A C D a b c d e. (9)

5 5 4 5 4 5 4 4

AND ENUMEKATION OP POLYEDItA. iSj

19. When of two adnate crowns one is a triangle, there
may intervene in general between the faces joining them at
their common summits one or more faces, or none.

If the crowns of our octaedron are a pentagon C and a
triangle ly, those faces at the common summits must be
contiguous on the base, otherwise the summits would be
angles of at least hexagons, containing each three angles on
the two crowns, one in the face intervening between those
non-contiguous faces, and two in the base. The common
summits must therefore be CD'a CD'6.
We have to complete

kah Abe Acd Me kea CUa CD'6
D'ab he ed de ea Qa Cb.
As a and 6 cannot occur more than a fifth time, we must
write Cea and Cftc, whence of necessity Cee and cde.
This gives the faces

kCWabcde. (10)

5 5 305535

20. Two quadrilaterals, or a triangle and a quadrilateral,
cannot be our two crowns, the base or most-angled face being
pentagonal ; for, as there must be seven summits out of the
base, it will happen in either case that a face will contain
three summits on the two crowns, two in the base, and one
neither in the base nor the crowns. Two triangles cannot be
adnate crowns, the summits being all triedral, because, of their
common summits, only one can present to the base an angle
less than two right angles ; and that which is not less than
two can be no angle in any face.

The base or most-angled face of an octaedron having only
triedral summits cannot be less than pentagonal; for there
must be 3X12 angles counted in all the faces, but 4x8=32
only.

I have thus found all the octaedra which have not a
heptagonal face, and which have all their summits triedral.
They may be collected briefly as follows :

68 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPRESENTATION

(I) ACabcdef

(6) A Cabcdef

6 6 444444

6 3 646353

(2) ACabcdef

(7) ACabcdef

6 5 544453

6 3 645534

(3) ACabcdef

(8) ACabcdef

6 4 544634

6 3 636363

(4) ACabcdef

(9) ACDabcde

6 4 545363

5 5 454544

(5) ACabcdef

6 4 553653

(10) ACDabcde

5 5 3 55535

The fourth and seventh of these have each two hexagons,
two pentagons, two quadrilaterals, and two triangles; but
they are different polyedra, their crowns being different
when they are made to stand on hexagonal faces. Thus
we see that a polyedron is not determined, when the
angular rank of its faces and summits is given. The triplets
which represent the summits of these octaedra will of course
equally denote and describe the faces of those 12-edrons
whose faces are all triangular, and which have no summit of
more than six edges ; if the letters a, 6, c, &c. be taken for
summits, not faces.

21. The remainder of the octaedra having triedral summits,
namely, those on a 7-gonal base, I shall content myself wdth
writing out as follows; premising that the symbols stand for
edges only, and exhibit, if read vertically, the faces, if read
horizontally, the summits, of the solid ; so that each figure
may be viewed either as an 8-edron with triedral summits, or
as a 12-edron with triangular faces. All polyedra can be
presented to the eye in nearly the same manner, and this is
perhaps the most elegant way of exhibiting them.
abcdefg----- ab-cde-fg--~

m - - - ' - a h i j k I k-~-~^--ahij

^-dr'---~kn- -cnr--------

g 1^ o f p I . ^ . .

-^-ep-'-jr-- --rdq--'-'-jo

----fo-ip--- ----epm--iq-

-cn-'-----lq bno--------k

bq-'------'-m ------Ighm--

AND ENUMERATION OF POLYEDRA. 69

abcde-fg--'- --'dhij'k-- —

l^-^.^.ahijk a-bc'-'def-g

-cw-------^*w -/cAw-------

-_---o^A/>--- -'---'ken- —

--dq-----jn- rm-'io-'-'pa

.--erp-'tq-' j n - f q o -

The rank of the faces is stated thus, in the order of rank,
7744443 3, 7555443 3,

7654443 3, 7655433 3.

The two last are the 8-edra (a) and (A) of (16) and (17).

In the above arrangements every duad of adjoining letters,
as dh and kd in the pentagon dh?jk of (A), which is read
horizontally, is adjoined also vertically : dh is an angle in that
pentagon, and the same edges d and h meet at the summit
dch. The first and final letters of a multiplet are considered
to be adjoining letters.

The total number of octaedra, whose summits are all
triedral, is thus shown to be 14, viz., four on a heptagonal,
eight on a hexagonal, and two on a pentagonal base; and
the total number of 8-peaks having only triangular faces is
14, viz., four having a 7-edral, eight having a 6-edral, and
two having a 5-edral summit.

The reader will gladly forego the consideration of the cases
in which ny8, to say nothing of the polyedra whose summits
are not all triedral.

22. The geometrical problem — how many n-edrons are
there ? — reduces itself to the combinatorial problem : — In how
many ways can multiplets, «. c, triplets, quadruplets, &c., be
made with n symbols, under these two conditions : first, that
every contiguous pair of symbols in any multiplet shall be a
contiguous pair in some one other, the first and last of a mul-

70 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE REPRESENTATION, &c.

tiplet bein^ reckoned a contiguous pair; secondly, that no
three symbols of any multiplet shall occur in any other?

Every system of such multiplets made with n symbols
represents a distinct ?z-edron, of which the faces, the summits,
and the edges, can be assigned. If the symbols stand for
faces, the multiplets are summits ; and if the symbols con-
tiguous to any symbol A be written out in order, as

aAb bAc cAd dAe eAf, &c.,
the edges about the face A are in order

aA bA cA dA, eA /A, &c.

If the symbols stand for summits, the multiplets are faces,
and the edges in order about the summits are determined in
exactly the same manner.

It is easy to deduce from Theo. I., that, if ct^ be the num-
ber of e-gonal faces, and Se that of the e-edral summits, of any
jo-edron, am and Sn being the number of the most-angled,
a3+*3— 8 — S5—Se— . . . — Sn~i—Sn=a5-h2a6+da'j+ . . . +
(7/2 — \—4)am-i+(m~4)am>

This affirms, that the total number of jo-edrons, having ag
triangular faces, and ^3 triedral, S5 5-edral, . , . Sn n-edra\,
summits, and their most-angled face m-gona\, and differing in
the numerical values of 035 &c., and 53, &c., cannot exceed
that of the (m — 4)-partitions of the number M, =03+^3 — 8
— S5 — Se — . . . — Sn ; i. e., of the ways in which M can be
made up of m — 4 numbers written in order; or, which is the
same thing, if myS, of the ways in which M can be divided
into X parcels, none of which contains more than m — 4, while
one parcel at least contains m — 4. The subindex 4 does not
appear in the above equation : this is curious ; but a geome-
trical reason can easily be assigned for its disappearance.

71

IV. Statistics of the Collieries of Lancashire^ Cheshire^

and North Wales,

By Joseph Dickinson, F.G.S., Inspector of Coal Mines.

[Read March 7th, 1854.]

The number of collieries in the district comprising Lan-
cashire, Cheshire, and North Wales, as set forth in the
accompanying list, is 423. Of which

334 are in Lancashire,
28 in Cheshire,
5 in Anglesey,
30 in Flintshire, and
26 in Denbighshire.

423 Total.

The collieries are of various sizes. The smaller ones
employ only a few hands, and the larger, from a thousand
up to fifteen hundred persons. The output of coals per
colliery varies from a few tons up to a third of a million
tons per annum. The firm possessing the greatest interest
in the coal trade of the district is that of Messrs. Andrew
Knowles and Sons, the output of coal at whose collieries
amounts to about two thousand four hundred tons per diem.

The number of working pits or shafts, exclusive of those
used solely for air, is 879 — besides 60 additional winnings
by levels and inclined planes called " day eyes ;" making a
total of 939 separate winnings whereby coal is now being
worked. The pits are of various depths up to 520 yards.

72 STATISTICS OF THE COLLIERIES OF

Shafts of greater depth are proposed; but at present 520
yards is the greatest depth of any working pit.* Deeper
coals have been worked by inclined planes from the bottom
of shafts, and workings are now going on in this way at
about 600 yards below the surface, 679 of the pits are in
Lancashire; 50 in Cheshire; and 150 in North Wales.
Their average depth is 115 yards^ Those of Lancashire
being 118 yards; Cheshire 123; and North Wales 97 yards.
The united depths of the working pits being upwards of 57
miles.

At these pits 849 steam engines are at work pumping and
winding, besides other engines used for surface arrangements.
Water wheels, water balances, hydraulic engines, horse gins,
and horse runs, are also employed in a few instances.

At most of the pits flat hemp ropes are used for winding
materials. Wire ropes are also used, and are becoming
common, especially in the deep pits, to which they are
peculiarly applicable on account of their lightness. Three-
link flat chains are common in North Wales, also a few
single-link chains; but it is only in two exceptional cases, that
I am aware of, where the latter are used for the ascent and
descent of men. Most of the shafts are fitted with guides,
either of wood, wire-rope, iron rods, or chains ; and in nearly
all the modern winnings cages are used.

Having obtained from a large majority of the colliery
proprietors a return of their respective operations during the
year 1852, lam enabled to furnish the following particulars,
and to state, with a very close approximation to accuracy,
that the output of coals during that year reached nearly ten
millions of tons ; viz. : —

Tons.

Output of coals in Lancashire in 1852 8,255,000

Ditto ditto Cheshire 715,000

Ditto ditto North Wales 953,000

Total produce of the district in 1852 9,923,000

* Two pits at the Pendleton colliery.

LANCASHIEE, CHESHIRE, AND NORTH WALES. 73

With the exception of less than a million tons, the whole
of this large output appears to have been consumed in the
district, and importations also were made from South Wales,
Yorkshire, &c.

The exports from Liverpool for the year are stated at
105,952 tons coastwise, and 277,645 tons foreign. Ship-
ments were also made from North Wales, Preston, &c.
About 50,000 tons also were sent from Lancashire by rail
to London and the south.

The number of persons employed in and about the col-
lieries in 1852 amounted to 38,800: of whom 31,950 were
employed underground ; and 6,850 on the surface ; viz. : —

Lancashire ...
Cheshire

Above ground.

6,370 ....

500

Below ground.
.. 25,530 ..
2,140 ..
4,280 ..

81,950

Total employed.
.. . 30,900
2,700

North Wales .

920 ....

6,850

5,200
88,800

The average get of coals per person employed varies of
course according to circumstances, such as the facilities for
working, the extent to which machinery and horses are
applied in drawing, the distance of the workings from the
shaft, the capabilities of workmen, &c. The average get of
the district for the year was 310 tons per person underground.
The numbers being for Lancashire and Cheshire 324 tons, and
North Wales 222. In Lancashire and Cheshire an ordinary
collier, in a four feet seam, works about 4 tons a day. Each
collier has an assistant called a drawer, who trams the coals
to the horse road or the shaft. This reduces the get per
person to 2 tons per day. Sinkers, pony-drivers, road-men,
firemen, hookers-on, furnace-men, engineers, brakesman at
inclines, and other deadworkmen, doorboys, and underlookers,
together with the holiday of one day per fortnight, usually
conceded to underground workmen, complete the reduction of
the get per person to about the average stated.

The seams at present worked vary in thickness from 11
L

74 STATISTICS OF THE COLLIERIES OF

inches to about 10 feet; the greater proportion being between
3 feet and 7 feet. The dip of the beds varies from nearly
level to an angle of 45 degrees, and sometimes more. Work-
ings are in some cases carried on at the distance of 1,000
yards to the dip of the shaft, the produce being drawn up by
engines placed on the surface or in the mines. Some of the
mechanical arrangements for this purpose, and for the transit
of coal down the steep inclines, are exceedingly ingenious and
well worthy of imitation.

The method of working is long work and pillar and stall.
Long work is common in North Wales, and is adopted in a
few instances in Lancashire and Cheshire. The pillar and
stall w^ork of North Wales is known as "wicket work." The
wickets or stalls vary in width up to 24 yards, and the pillars
to 15 yards. The pillar and stall has various modifications.
The common system is termed "straight ends and walls."
The straight ends are drifts from 4^ feet to 6 feet wide, and
the walls or pillars about 10 yards wide, varying according to
circumstances. The process, when the system is properly
carried out, is to drive first a pair of levels to the boundary,
and there commence the straight ends for the pillar work;
commencing to work the pillars at the boundary and working
backwards towards the shaft, leaving the goaf behind. In
this way each foot of the seam yields fully one thousand tons
of large and mixed coals per statute acre. The system of
working, in this way, from the extremities prevents waste by
crushes or squeezes, and also simplifies the ventilation. Com-
pleting the levels before the end and pillar work is com-
menced has the effect of draining the seam of the greater part
of its firedamp, when the workings are in the simplest form,
and when almost any quantity of air can be directed to the
most fiery points. Indeed, some of the very fiery seams are
almost unworkable with safety by pillar and stall work, unless
thus first drained of their firedamp. The ends alluded to are
sometimes driven from 3 to 8 yards wide ; and occasionally

LANCASHIRE, CHESHIBE, AND NORTH WALES. 75

they are worked simultaneously with the levels. The latter
practice, however, almost invariably leads to a sacrifice of
pillars ; and it is worthy of remark, that during the past year
the great explosions of firedamp in the Ince Hall coal and
cannel works,* and Bent Grange collieries, both took place
in mines worked upon this plan.

The ventilating powers used in the district are of great
variety, comprising furnaces in the pit, and on the surface ;
chimneys connected with engine and other fires on the sur-
face; boiler fires in the pits; steam jets, and discharged
steam from surface and underground engines ; waterfalls, and
water jets ; air pumps ; and fans, worked by hand and steam
engine. Whilst in a large number of instances, especially in
cold weather, ventilation is carried on without artificial
power.

The steepness of the seams in many of the mines of this
district, especially of Lancashire and Cheshire, and the ex-
tent to which underground machinery is necessarily applied,
render the working of the mines more than usually danger-
ous. The return of colliery accidents for this district for the
years 1851, 1852, and 1853, show an average of 145 acci-
dents, attended with the loss of 215§ lives per annum.
This, at the rate of 38,000 persons employed, as ascertained
for the intermediate year 1852, gives an average annual loss
of S-Aftr lives per thousand persons employed. A sacrifice
which cannot be considered otherwise than exceedingly
alarming.

In the Belgian coal mines, which in point of danger as
regards steepness and firedamp, more closely resemble those
of this district than other parts of Great Britain, the loss of
life by accidents during the 5 years ending 1849 averaged
only 3-riiV per thousand. And even in the years 1851 and
1852, when accidents were more rife, it only amounted to

* Since this was written another grcnt explosion Ims takfii plarc in the same
pit at this colliery.

76 STATISTICS OF THE COLLIERIES OF

4T57r per thousand; being in both cases less than the per
centage of this district.

In comparing the colliery accidents of this district with
those of Belgium, it is, however, important to know that in
proportion to the quantity of coals raised a much larger num-
ber of persons are employed at the Belgian coal mines ; and
that of those employed, a larger proportion of them are on
the surface, where they are out of danger. One great point of
difference being, that in Lancashire and Cheshire machinery
is extensively used underground for drawing the produce;
whilst such work is carried on in the Belgium collieries chiefly
by male and female labor.

In comparing the per centage of accidents, therefore, it
seems proper to look not only at the risk per head but also at
the amount of work performed, and in this respect it is satis-
faction to know that the collieries of this district present a
favorable comparison. The average annual get or quantity
of coal raised per person employed in this district being
nearly double that of Belgium.

The output of coals in Belgium during the 5 years ending
1849 alluded to, averaged 5,055,196 English tons per annum,
and the deaths from accidents 144^ per annum, the average
was consequently at the rate of 1 life lost for every 34,9 1 1
tons raised. And in the years 1851 and 1852, when the
deaths from accidents averaged 194^, the average was at the
increased rate of about I life for every 31,000 tons.

In the Lancashire, Cheshire, and North Wales district,
the number of lives lost during the years 1851, 1852, and
1853, averaged 215f, and the output of coals, as ascertained
for the intermediate year 1852, 9,923,000 tons per annum;
the per centage of deaths by accidents was consequently at
the rate of 1 life per 46,010 tons of coal raised. A com-
parison with Belgium in point of work done is therefore
much in favor of this district.

The loss of life to persons employed in and about the

LANCASHIRE, CHESHIRE, AND NORTH WALES. 77

whole of the collieries of Great Britain, as ascertained for
1851 and 1852, averaged 985 per annum. The total output
of coals is not correctly known, but it may be stated at not
less than 54,000,000 tons; the average loss of life, therefore,
at this estimate, for the whole of Great Britain, is 1 life for
54,822 tons of coal. In previous years the mortality was
probably greater, many improvements as to the health and
safety of the miner having been introduced into collieries by
the passing of the act for the inspection of coal mines in
1850. Our leading collieries, so far as I can judge, are at
present in advance of continental coal mines. A large
proportion, however, have many evident defects which admit
of being removed ; and doubtless some proportion of the
appalling list of casualties may be classed as preventible
accidents, which it is to be hoped may shortly be dealt
with accordingly.

Funds for relief in sickness are seldom carried on in con-
nexion with the collieries of this district; the workmen ap-
parently preferring the entire management of such affairs in
their own hands. Benefit societies amongst the workmen are
numerous; and most workmen belong to one or more of them.
In cases where sick funds exist in connexion with the colliery,
and joining is optional, few of the men are said to join. In
one case an old-established fund was brought to a forced con-
clusion by a strike in 1845, the weekly stoppage for the fund
being objected to as a violation of the " Truck Act."

Funds for relief in case of accident are more numerous;
and at most collieries medical attendance on accidents is pro-
vided either gratuitously by the colliery owner, or by a small
weekly stoppage from the workman's wages. Medical attend-
ance in ordinary sickness is provided by the colliers themselves
or in connexion with their benefit societies.

Considering the numbers engaged in the coal trade of this
district, the education of the collier's children deserves special
attention. Colliers, as a body, are perhaps less alive than

78 STATISTICS OF THE COLLIERIES OF

most classes of skilled workmen to the importance of educa-
tion. Parochial and national schools are numerous, and may
be reached almost invariably within two miles of the collier's
dwelling, but few miners' children are said to attend.

The following comprises the information which I have ob-
tained as to the efforts made by the colliery owners of this
district to promote the education of their workpeople.

Kirkless Colliery; Mr. Thicknesse, M.P. A school is sup-
ported by the owner, the number of children being limited to
70, which appears a sufficient number for the wants of the
place.

Gidlow and Swinley Colliery; the Executors of the late
Joseph Rylands. A school building and a portion of the
books is provided by the proprietors, who also pay £20. per
annum towards the teacher's salary. Each scholar pays two-
pence per week to the teacher besides.

Messrs. William Hill Brancker and Co. ; Bispham Colliery,
subscribe to schools in the neighbourhood.

Bickershaw Colliery; Messrs. Ackers, Whitley, and Co.
A school is supported partly by children's pence, the re-
mainder by the company.

Haydock Colliery; Messrs. Richard Evans and Co. A
school supported partly by the owners and partly by chil-
dren's pence.

Astley and Tyldesley Collieries; Messrs. Sam Jackson
and Co., subscribe to Astley Free School, and can send 8
children.

Burnley, Habergham, Marsden, and Padiham Collieries;
the Executors of the late John Hargreaves. A school sup-
ported partly by the colliery and part by voluntary subscrip-
tion— about 70 children attend.

Hopwood Colliery ; Mr. Robert Gregg Hopwood. No
school actually attached, but several greatly supported by
people connected with the works, and many of the men and
boys attend.

LANCASHIRE, CHESHIRE, AND NORTH WALES. 79

Halsnead Colliery; Mr. Richard Willis. A school built
by Mr. Willis and supported by contributions — average at-
tendance 84 boys, 78 girls.

Ravenhead Colliery ; Messrs. Bromilow, Haddock, and Co.
A school attached to the works and supported partly by
the owners, and partly by the children's pence. About 82
children attend, and each contributes from 2d. to 4d. per
week.

Worsley CoUeries ; the Bridgewater Trustees. Eight
schools in the immediate neighbourhood are almost wholly
supported by the Earl of Ellesmere, which are more or less
accessible to the children of the colliers — besides libraries
and reading rooms. Probably 800 children connected with
the colliers attend the schools.

Clifton Colliery ; the Trustees of the late Ellis Fletcher.
A school and a chaplain provided.

In Cheshire. At the Norbury Colliery; Messrs. Clayton
and Brooke pay for 34 of the children of their workmen
against the same number sent by the parents of the same
children. One being sent by the colliery owners against one
by the parents, who go to the National Schools of Norbury
and High Lane.

Poynton and Worth Collieries. A free school supported
by Lord Vernon. Number of children attending school —
boys, day school 105, Sunday school 133 — girls and infants,
day school 242, Sunday school 171.

In North Wales, none.

80 STATISTICS OF THE COLLIERIES OF

INDEX LIST

OF

COLLIERIES IN LANCASHIRE, CHESHIRE, AND NORTH

WALES.

Lancashire :

Ashton-under-Lyne 7

Blackburn 21

Bolton 43

Burnley 14

Bury 11

Chorley 7

Leigh 15

Manchester 15

Oldham 28

Rainford 10

Rochdale, including Bacup and Rossendale 84

St. Helens 25

Wigan 54

— 334

Cheshire 28

Anglesey 5

Flintshire 30

Denbighshire 26

Total Collieries 423

LANCASHIRE, CHESHIRE, AND NORTH WALES.

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LANCASHIRE, CHESHIEE, AND NORTH WALES. 107

IRON WORKS IN NORTH WALES.

BUut In Blast,

Furnaces. Jan. 1864.

1. Brymbo Ruabon... 2 ... 2

2. Coed Talon Mold 1 ... 0

3. Frood Wrexham. 1 ... 0

4. Leeswood Mold 2 ... 0

5. New British Iron Company. Ruabon... 3 ... 3

6. Plasissa Ruabon... 1 ... 0

7. Plaskynaston Ruabon... 1 ... 0

8. Ponkey (Old) Ruabon... _[ ... _0

12 5

Mr. Samuel Salt, the head of the merchandise department
of the North-Eastern Division of the London and North-
western Railway, a member of this society and a gentleman
well known for his valuable statistical publications on com-
merce, has been so kind as to furnish to the society a return
of all the coal brought into Manchester by all conveyances,
viz., by road, rail, and water. Mr. Salt obtained his inform-
ation himself from various sources with very great care for all
the years hereunder mentioned, except those for 1834, 1836,
and 1840, which were from other sources.

TONS.

1834 737,008

1836 913,991

1840 1,034,090

1847 954,719

1848 1,010,883

1849 1,129,171

1850 1,120,184

1851 1,241,854

1852 1,436,058

1853 1,221,272

A gentleman engaged in the coal trade estimates the total
consumption of coal by Manchester and Salford at 2,000,000
of tons, in round numbers.

109

V On the Action of the Ferment of Madder on Sugar.

By Edward Schunck, Ph.D , F.R.S.

IRead April ith, 1854.]

In a paper read before the Royal Society in 1852,* I have
given an account of the nature and results of the peculiar
process of fermentation which takes place in madder and its
watery extracts, when exposed to a moderate deg^e of tem-
perature. I have shown that during this process the bitter
principle of madder, to which I have given the name of
Rubian, is completely decomposed, giving rise to the forma-
tion of a number of substances, of which alizarine, the true
colouring matter of madder, is the most remarkable. I have
stated that this process is not accompanied by the evolution
of gas or any of the usual signs of fermentation, that the
access of atmospheric air is not necessary for its completion,
and that the rapidity with which it is effected is remarkable.
Lastly, I have given an account of the properties and com-
position of the ferment itself. I have shown, that as regards
the power of effecting the decomposition of rubian, none of
the usual fermentative substances, such as yeast, caseine, &c.,
are capable of supplying its place, with the sole exception of
emulsine, which forms an imperfect substitute for it, that its
composition differs in a marked manner from that of the other
bodies of the same class in containing a much smaller propor-
tion of nitrogen, and that, in short, it must be considered as

* Philotophical TransMtioni for 1853. Part I.

110 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE ACTION OF

a substance altogether sui generis. I have given it the name
of Erythrozym,

In the paper just mentioned I have stated, that "if this
substance be mixed with water, and the mixture be allowed
to stand for a length of time in a warm place, signs of a
more active process of fermentation begin to show them-
selves, especially in summer weather; bubbles of gas are
given off, and a peculiar smell is emitted, which, though dis-
agreeable, cannot exactly be called putrid. During this pro-
cess, which is evidently one of putrefaction in the stricter
sense, the erythrozym loses its sliminess, and is converted
into a red flocculent mass, which may easily be separated by
filtration from the liquid. The latter is clear, colourless, and
quite neutral. After erythrozym has passed through this
second stage of decomposition, its power of decomposing
rubian is found to have lost much of its intensity. It is
during the first period of its decomposition, when no apparent
change is taking place, that this power is most energetically
exerted. During the second, or more strictly putrefactive
stage, it acquires, however, the property of decomposing
sugar. If erythrozym be mixed with a solution of cane
sugar, and the mixture be allowed to stand for a considerable
time until gas begins to be disengaged, the solution acquires
by degrees a decided acid reaction." The great interest at-
taching to bodies of this class induced me to examine this
action of the ferment on sugar more minutely, and I have
now the honour of laying the results of my investigation be-
fore the Society.

In order to obtain the ferment for the purpose of decom-
posing sugar, it is not necessary to prepare it by precipitation
with alcohol, as I recommended in my paper on Rubian, nor
to pay much attention to its complete purification. I found
that the following method of preparation yielded a product
perfectly well adapted for the purpose. A quantity of mad-
der (French being the kind employed) having been placed on

THE FERMENT OF MADDER ON SUGAR. I 1 1

a calico strainer, water tieated to about 100° F. is poured on
it in the proportion of about four quarts of water to every
pound of madder. To the dark reddish-brown liquid there is
now added a small quantity of muriatic acid. This produces
a brown flocculent precipitate, wliich is allowed to settle, and
after the liquid has been decanted, it is washed with a quan-
ti^ of fresh water, the process being repeated until the
excess of acid has been removed, after which the precipitate
is collected on a calico strainer. After the water has run off,
there is left on the strainer a thick brown pulp. This pulp
contains, besides erythrozym, small quantities of pectic acid,
colouring matter &c., but these impurities are of no material
consequence as regards the process of fermentation. It differs
from the erythrozym prepared by precipitation with alcohol
in containing no lime or other base, the latter having been
removed by the acid used for precipitation. In my experi-
ments, however, I always added a certain proportion of lime
water to the solutions to be fermented, as I found that the
fermentation was much promoted by this addition.

The bulk of my experiments was made with cane sugar,
but I have also subjected grape and milk sugar to the same
process of decomposition. In operating on cane sugar I pro-
ceeded in the following manner. The sugar having been
dissolved in water, I added to the solution for every pound
of sugar taken about four quarts of the brown pulp, prepared
as just described, and a sufficient quantity of lime water to
change the colour of the ferment from brown to dark purple,
and to cause a slight alkaline reaction in the liquid. The
whole having been well mixed, was left to itself. The ves-
sels which I employed for conducting the operation in, were
large earthenware mugs. In warm summer weather, pro-
vided the quantity of materials taken was not too small, the
fermentation generally commenced on the succeeding day. A
copious disengagement of gas took place, and continued for
a number of days. The bubbles of gas, in rising, formed.

112 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE ACTION OF

together with particles of ferment carried up by them, a
thick scum on the surface of the liquid, resembling the froth
OD the surface of fermenting beer. As far as the evolution of
gas, however, was concerned, the action did not seem to be
quite as energetic as what would have been produced by the
action of ordinary yeast on sugar. During this stage of the
fermentation, a slight vinous odour might be perceived near
the surface of the liquor. After a few days the liquid began
to acquire a decided acid reaction, which was first indicated
by the colour of the ferment changing from purple to brown.
Very soon litmus paper began to be strongly reddened by it.
After some time the disengagement of gas ceased, and the
particles of ferment all sank to the bottom, leaving a clear,
yellowish supernatant liquid. The latter, however, on stand-
ing exposed to the atmosphere, seemed constantly to acquire
more and more acid properties; and after several weeks' expo-
sure, it was generally found to have a strongly acid taste and
smell like that of sour beer. I have generally allowed the
mixture to stand for several months, usually from summer to
winter, as I imagined that long standing promoted the for-
mation of one of the acid products, whose properties I shall
presently describe. Nevertheless, during this lapse of time
little or no mould was formed on the surface of the liquor,
no decidedly putrid smell was emitted, nor did the mass ever
seem to be particularly attractive to insects, or to breed
worms or larvae, at least none that were visible to the
naked eye.

Now the products of this process of fermentation are of
three kinds: gaseous, liquid, and solid. I shall describe them
in the order mentioned. For the purpose of examining the
gaseous products, 2 lbs. of cane sugar were dissolved in
water, and the usual quantities of ferment and lime water
were added. After two days the mixture was found to be in
a state of active fermentation. A portion of it was then in-
troduced into a capacious bottle, leaving a small space at the

THE FERMENT OF MADDER ON SUGAR. 113

top, which was filled up with oil in order to prevent frothing.
The gas was allowed to escape through a bent tube carried
through the cork. In order to expel all the air which might
be left in the apparatus, the disengagement of gas was
allowed to proceed for a whole day before any of it was col-
lected for examination. Six cubic inches were then collected
in a graduated tube over mercury. Caustic soda was then
introduced into the tube in order to absorb the carbonic acid.
The residual gas consisted almost entirely of hydrogen. Its
amount was determined by means of oxygen and spongy
platinum. After making the necessary corrections for tem-
perature and pressure, the 6 cubic inches of mixed gas were
found to consist of 4.90 carbonic acid, 0.96 hydrogen, and
0.14 atmospheric air or nitrogen. The day afterwards I col-
lected 5.16 cubic inches of gas, and found it to contain 4.41
carbonic acid and 0.75 hydrogen. Three days later again,
5.77 cubic inches of gas were collected, and found to be
composed of 4.86 carbonic acid, 0.76 hydrogen, and 0.15
atmospheric air or nitrogen. According to these three deter-
minations, the proportion of hydrogen to carbonic acid was
respectively as 1:5.10, 1:5.88, and 1:6.39. It appears,
therefore, that the carbonic acid increased in quantity rela-
tively to the hydrogen, as the fermentation proceeded.

The liquid products of the fermentation were examined in
the following manner. A solution of 4 lbs. of cane sugar
was mixed with 19 quarts of brown pulp, to which lime
water had been previously added in the usual proportion.
The mixture was allowed to ferment for about two weeks,
during which time much gas was disengaged. The liquid,
which had acquired an acid reaction, was then strained
through calico, after which it measured 36 quarts. These
36 quarts were introduced into a still, and distilled until 8
quarts had passed over. By a second distillation I obtained
2 quarts, and by a third distillation 12 fl. oz. of a liquid,
which was inflammable, alcoholic in taste and smell, devoid
Q

114 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE ACTION OF

of acid reaction, and having a specific gravity of 0.973. As-
suming it to consist entirely of alcohol and water, of which
there is little doubt, the 12 fl. oz. of this specific gravity
would correspond to 1072^ grs. of absolute alcohol. The
only peculiarity which I noticed about it as distinguishing it
from ordinary spirits of wine from other sources, was that it
appeared to be filled with a quantity of small, white, glisten-
ing, micaceous scales, which gave the liquid when agitated
the appearance of being traversed with silky bands. On fil-
tering, these scales remained on the filter, but their quantity
was so insignificant that they could not again be separated
from the paper.

The liquid remaining in the retort after the second distilla-
tion was added to that remaining after the third distillation,
and evaporated together with an excess of carbonate of soda
until the bulk was very much diminished. The liquid was
then supersaturated with sulphuric acid, and distilled. The
distillate was colourless, but had a strong acid taste and re-
action. It was neutralized with carbonate of soda, and then
gave on evaporation a crystalline mass, which was white with
a brownish tinge. This mass when treated with boiling
dilute sulphuric acid, evolved a pungent smell like that of
acetic or formic acid. Its watery solution gave reactions,
similar to those of formiate of soda. It gave, for instance,
with nitrate of silver a white crystalline precipitate, which
soon became black when left to stand, but immediately on
boiling the liquid ; with protonitrate of mercury, a white crys-
talline precipitate, which on standing was slowly reduced to
grey metallic mercury ; and with corrosive sublimate it pro-
duced, on boiling, a copious deposit of white crystalline scales
(calomel). But on adding acetate of lead, evaporating to
dryness, and treating the residue with alcohol, no crystals of
formiate of lead were left undissolved. I therefore concluded
that the salt consisted for the most part of acetate of soda,
contaminated with some impurity, which obscured the reac-

THE FERMENT OF MADDEE ON SUGAR. 115

tions proper to acetic acid. Whether the acetic acid thus
obtained is a product of the direct action of the ferment on
sugar, or whether it is formed indirectly from the oxidation of
the alcohol produced in the first instance, is uncertain. The
greater part of the acid found in the fermented liquor after
exposure for some time, in quantities so considerable as to
impart to the liquid a strong acid taste and smell, is without
doubt derived from the latter source.

The last product of this process of fermentation which I
shall have to mention, is solid, and though the most interest-
ing of them all, is formed in such small quantities as to
render its identification difficult. In order to obtain an ap-
preciable quantity of it, it is necessary to employ several
pounds of sugar. The solution of sugar being mixed with
ferment and lime water in the proportions stated above, the
mixture is allowed to ferment, and to stand for several weeks
at least, after the disengagement of gas has ceased. The
liquid is then strained through calico, and the ferment which
remains on the calico in an apparently unchanged state, is
washed with water until the percolating liquid is no longer
acid. The liquid is then rendered alkaline by means of lime
water, and again strained, in order to separate a small quan-
tity of flocks thrown down by the lime. Sugar of lead is
now added to it, which produces a dirty pinkish-white pre-
cipitate. This is collected on a filter, washed with water,
and decomposed with sulphuretted hydrogen. The acid
liquid filtered from the sulphuret of lead is usually dark
brown or black, from sulphuret of lead in a state of suspen-
sion. During evaporation, however, it deposits this sul-
phuret of lead, and after being again filtered is clear, though
still very brown. After being evaporated almost to a syrup,
milk of lime is added to it, and the mixture is boiled. The
lime removes a quantity of phosphoric acid, which is probably
derived from undecomposed phoi^phates contained in the fer-
ment, and also a great part of the brown colouring matter.

116 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE ACTION OF

Through the filtered liquid, which is much lighter in colour
than before, I now pass a stream of carbonic acid gas, until
the excess of lime is completely neutralized, after which it is
evaporated almost to dryness. The carbonate of lime which
is deposited during evaporation is separated by filtration, and
the liquid is evaporated with the addition of an excess of
muriatic acid, until it leaves a thick dark brown syrup. In
this syrup there is formed, after cooling and standing, a mass
of crystals. These crystals must now be strongly pressed
between folds of blotting paper, until the whole of the syrupy
mother liquor containing chloride of calcium and other impu-
rities has been absorbed. The crystalline mass left on the
paper, which has a light brown colour, is now treated with
boiling alcohol, which leaves undissolved a quantity of sul-
phate of lime. The alcohol, after filtration, is evaporated to
dryness, the residue is re-dissolved in boiling water, and the
solution is decolourized with animal charcoal. The solution
now leaves on evaporation to dryness a colourless crystalline
mass, consisting partly of needles and plates, partly of crystal-
line crusts. Now this crystalline mass is found to possess
the properties of an acid in a very marked manner. Its taste
is at first strongly acid, but this is immediately followed by a
nauseous, somewhat metallic after-taste. Its solutions redden
litmus paper strongly. When heated on platinum foil it
melts and burns with a very pale flame, leaving a slight car-
bonaceous residue. When heated in a glass tube it melts,
and crystallizes again on cooling. When further heated it is
volatilized, yielding fumes which strongly affect the nostrils
and throat, produce a choking sensation, and excite violent
coughing. The fumes condense on the colder parts of the
tube, partly in the shape of needles, partly as a white,
crystalline, radiated mass. Very little carbonaceous residue
is left, and even this is probably due to impurities, so that
the acid may be considered as completely volatile. The
watery solution of the acid gives the following reactions.

THE FERMENT OF MADDER ON SUGAfi. 1 I ^

On adding lime water until the solution is alkaline, no preci-
pitate is produced. On boiling a very slight flocculent
deposit is formed. The filtered solution leaves on evapora-
tion a crystalline mass, which dissolves again for the most
part in boiling water, leaving undissolved only a small
quantity of carbonate of lime. The filtered solution is
neutral to test paper, and, on being again evaporated,
leaves a quantity of long white needles, consisting, without
doubt, of the lime salt. The taste of these crystals is
nauseous. When heated in a glass tube they become black
and give fumes, but no crystalline sublimate ; the residue
dissolves in acids, with effervescence, leaving some carbon
undissolved. On adding baryta water to the watery solu-
tion of the acid, there is formed immediately a white floc-
culent precipitate, which is soluble in muriatic acid, and is
again formed on neutralizing the acid with ammonia. Per-
chloride of iron gives no precipitate in the watery solution
of the acid, but in the solution of the lime salt it gives a
copious light brown precipitate. Acetate of lead g^ves
immediately a slight flocculent precipitate. If the liquid
be filtered from this precipitate, and be allowed to stand for
a day or two, there are formed on the bottom and sides of
the vessel a number of lustrous, well-developed crystals of
a rhombohedral form. The liquid yields on evaporation, no
more crystals, but only a syrup of acetate of lead. Nitrate
of silver produces no precipitate in the watery solution of
the acid, but on the addition of ammonia, a copious white
precipitate is formed, which, on standing, becomes somewhat
crystalline. This precipitate is soluble in nitric acid and
ammonia. Acetate of copper gives almost immediately a
blue crystalline precipitate, which increases in quantity on
standing. It is not soluble in boiling water, but dissolves
in acetic acid. These reactions coincide in every, even the
minutest, particular with those of succinic acid, a fact of
which 1 have convinced myself by a comparative examination

118 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE ACTION OF

of succinic acid derived from the usual source. The analysis
of the acid, and its silver salt, gave results which leave no
doubt of its perfect identity with succinic acid.

0.2795 grm. of the crystallized acid, dried at 212° F. and
burnt with chromate of lead, gave 0.4175 grm. carbonic acid
and 0.1480 grm. water.

These numbers correspond to the following composition : —

Succinic Acid C^HgO^
contains

Carbon 40.73 40.67

Hydrogen 5.88 5.08

Oxygen 53.39 54.25

100.00 100.00

The silver salt was prepared by dissolving the acid in
water, then adding nitrate of silver, and neutralizing with
ammonia. The white granular precipitate which fell was
collected on a filter, washed with water, and dried in vacuo,
until its weight remained uniform ; after which it was sub-
mitted to analysis.

0.6275 grm. of the salt burnt with chromate of lead gave
0.3400 grm. carbonic acid and 0.0890 grm. water.
0.2850 grm. gave 0.2410 grm. chloride of silver.
These numbers lead to the following composition : —

Succinate of silver C^. Hg O3 -j-Ag O
contains

Carbon 14.77 14.46

Hydrogen 1.57 1.20

Oxygen 16.29 14.46

Oxide of silver 68.37 69.88

100.00 100.00

It will be seen that the composition, as determined by these
analyses, is only an approximation to what it should be by
calculation. Both analyses show an excess of carbon, and a
still greater of hydrogen, while the amount of oxide of silver
is deficient. Such discrepancies are almost unavoidable in the
analysis of substances, which like this are obtained in such
extremely minute quantities, and which it is consequently

THE FERMENT OF MADDER ON SUGAR. I 19

almost impossible to bring into a state of perfect purity
without losing nearly the whole quantity obtained.* Were
the atomic weight of the acid yielded by this process much
higher, there might still be doubts concerning its composition
and identity ; but as the amount of discrepancy between the
calculated composition and that found by experiment does
not, in the case of any one of the constituents of either the
acid or the silver salt, correspond to more than half an equi-
valent,! and as the reactions of the acid agree so entirely with
those characteristic of succinic acid, I think there can be no
room for any uncertainty.

Besides this acid, I have not been able to discover any
other solid product of decomposition resulting from this
process. Through the liquid filtered from the lead precipitate
containing the succinic acid I have passed sulphuretted
hydrogen until all the lead was precipitated, and then filtered
and evaporated. A sweet brown syrup was left, consisting
apparently of undecomposed sugar, which, though allowed to
stand for a length of time, yielded no trace of anything
crystalline. Part of this syrup being redissolved in water,
and the solution being again evaporated with the addition of
acetate of zinc, no crystals were formed, and the residue left
after evaporation was completely soluble in alcohol — a proof
of the absence of lactic acid.

The products resulting from this process of decomposition
are therefore the following : — carbonic acid, hydrogen, alcohol,
acetic acid, and succinic acid. Of these the last-named is the

• In order to procure the acid used for the two analyses given above, I wat
obliged to subject about 26 lbs. of sugar to fermentation. The time and labour
required to obtain a sufficient quantity of ferment for the purpose (about 100
quarts) are very great.

t In the analysis of the acid given above the quantities of C, H and O are
to one another as 24 : 3.4 : 31.4, or expressed in numbers of equivalents as
4C : 3.4H : 3.90 The amount of the diflFerent constituents found in the
silver salt are to one another as 24 : 2.5 : 24.H : 111, or expressed in equiva-
lents as 4C : 2.0H : 3.10 : 0.90 Ag O.

1 20 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE ACTION OF

most remarkable; and its formation, though it has been
observed in other processes of fermentation, is still so uncom-
mon as to call for some further observation.

I have discovered that on allowing grape sugar or sugar of
milk to ferment together with erythrozym and lime water in
the same way as cane sugar, succinic acid is also formed.
Indeed from sugar of milk I obtained in one experiment
more than three times as much of this acid as was ever
afforded under the most favourable circumstances by the
same quantity of cane sugar. From 1 lb. of cane sugar I
never obtained more than 3^ grs. of acid. In the experiment
just referred to I obtained from ^ lb. of sugar of milk nearly
6 grs. of acid. The quantities formed, even under apparently
the same circumstances, were, however, very variable.
Large quantities of cane sugar sometimes yielded only traces
of acid, while smaller quantities gave proportionally a large
amount. It is during the later stages of the fermentation,
I imagine, that the acid is chiefly formed. At least, I
have always found that its amount was greater after the
fermenting liquid had stood for several weeks or months
than during the first period of the fermentation, when the
disengagement of gas was most active. Whether the access
of atmospheric air is necessary for, or promotes the formation
of, the succinic acid, I am unable to say. I may mention,
that the phenomena attending the fermentation of grape
sugar and sugar of milk are apparently the same as when
cane sugar is employed.

In order to be quite sure that the formation of the succinic
acid and the other products was due to the action of the
ferment on the sugar, and not to the decomposition of
the ferment itself, I have repeatedly allowed mixtures of
the ferment and lime water, without the addition of sugar,
to stand exposed to a warm temperature and under the
same conditions under which the fermentation was usually
conducted. In this case little or no gas was disengaged.

THE FERMENT OF MADDER ON SUGAB. 121

the liquid never became acid, and the ferment remained
purple and sank to the bottom of the vessel. After standing
for several weeks, the filtered liquid gave with sugar of lead
a pinkish-white precipitate, which seemed, however, to con-
sist principally of carbonate of lead, as on treating a small
quantity of it with nitric acid it dissolved with effervescence.
This precipitate being decomposed with sulphuretted hydrogen,
and the liquid being treated in exactly the same manner as
that resulting from the crude succinate of lead in the other
experiments, a syrup was obtained, which yielded however
not a trace of crystalline sublimate when heated in a tube.
The formation of the succinic acid, as well as of the alcohol
and the gases, is therefore clearly due to the decomposition of
the sugar induced by the action of the ferment.

Since madder itself contains a considerable quantity of
sugar ready formed, and an additional quantity is always pro-
duced by the decomposition of rubian, it was natural to
suppose that watery extracts of madder might be found to
contain succinic acid. For the purpose of ascertaining whether
this was the case, I took some of the brown syrup which had
been obtained by extracting French madder with boiling
water, precipitating the colouring matter &c., with oxalic
acid, neutralizing the excess of acid with carbonate of lime,
and evaporating the filtered liquid, which had been stand-
ing in the state of syrup for several years. A quantity of
this syrup having been mixed with water, I added to it
acetate of lead, which produced a dark brown precipitate.
This precipitate being treated in precisely the same manner
as the lead precipitate thrown down by sugar of lead from the
solutions of sugar fermented with erythrozym, yielded a small
quantity of a white crystallized acid, which, when heated in a
tube, was completely volatilized, giving a beautiful crystalline
sublimate, exactly resembling that produced by succinic acid.
It is therefore very probable that succinic acid is either con-
tained as such in madder, or is formed during or after the
R

122 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE ACTION OF

process of extraction by the action of the ferment on the sugar
contained in the extract.

A few years ago the only known sources of succinic acid
were amber, turpentine, and some species of brown coal and
retinasphalt. Latterly it has been discovered in several
plants, such as the Lactuca sativa and virosa* and the
Artemisia Absmthium,'\ and it has been detected in the liquid
extracted from cysts containing echinococci from the human
liver.J It has moreover been produced artificially by the
action of nitric acid on different kinds of fat and fatty acids,
such as tallow, wax, spermaceti, and stearic and margaric
acids, II and its formation during the fermentation of aspara-
gine, malic acid and their compounds is one of the most
interesting facts of organic chemistry. As far as I know,
however, its direct formation from sugar has not hitherto been
observed, and I consider this as the most important fact
revealed by this investigation. In future, should its presence
be detected in any part of the vegetable or animal organism,
its origin need no longer be a subject for doubtful speculation,
as it is now known to be a product of the decomposition of
sugar, whether it be cane sugar, grape sugar, or sugar of
milk.§

* Kohnke, Brandes Arcbiv, 2 ser., XXXIX. 153.

t Zwenger, Annalen der Pharmacie, XLVIII. 122.

J Heintz, Poggendorff's Annalen, LXXX. 114.

II Bromeis, Slhamer, Radcliffe, Ronalds, Annalen der Pharmacia, XXXV.
90; XLIII. 340, 349, 356.

§ The only indication which I can find of the formation of succinic acid
from sugar having previously been observed, is a statement of Beissenhirtz
(Berlinisches Jahrbuch der Pharmacie, anno 1818, p. 158), who allowed a mix-
ture of honey, bread, siliqua dulcis (the fruit of the ceratonia siliqua), vinegar,
spirits of wine, and water, to ferment, neutralized the acid with lime, and then
subjected the solution of the lime salt to distillation, together with oxide of
manganese and sulphuric acid, when he obtained first a distillate of acetic acid,
and afterwards a sublimate of succinic acid. Here the siliqua dulcis probably
yielded only the ferment, since John could discover in it no succinic acid, ready
formed, and the honey the sugar acted on. Pliimacher repeated this experi-
ment, but without success. Piria discovered that asparagine is formed during
the germination of the seeds of various leguminosse, such as peas, beans, and

THE FERMENT OF MADDER ON SUGAR. 1 23

I shall venture, in conclusion, to offer a few remarks on the
general nature of the process of fermentation here described,
and its relation to other processes of the same kind previously
known.

The highly interesting and peculiar class of bodies called
ferments, comprises substances which are all of a very complex
nature, and are at the same time not characterized by any
marked peculiarities in their appearance, form, or general
properties. It is chiefly by their action on other bodies, by
the different species of decomposition which they induce in
the latter, and by the nature of the products thereby formed,
that we are enabled to distinguish the ferments from one
another, and arrange them in different classes. Now the
effects or species of decomposition produced by ferments are
of two kinds : general and specific. The general effects are
those produced by all ferments, without distinction, or are
common to several classes of ferments. The specific effects
are those peculiar to each ferment alone. The general effects
are again of different kinds, some being produced during the
first stages of the fermentation, others when the process has
somewhat advanced, others when it approaches a conclusion —
these different effects corresponding to different stages of
decomposition in the ferment itself. I think I am correct in
saying, that there are only two well-known instances of
specific effects due to ferments. The one is the decomposition
of amygdaline (and salicine?) by means of emulsine, the
ferment contained in almonds; the other the decomposition
of rubian by means of erythrozym. No known ferment,

vetches, and that the asparagine, by fermentatioD, yields succinic acid.
Dessaignes could not discover what body contained in the seeds it is, which
leads to the formation of asparagine, but he found that pea flour, when allowed
to ferment with caseine, produced considerable quantities of succinic acid. It
is now evident that this acid may have been formed directly from the starch of
the pea flour, though it is possible (and it would be a fact of uncommon interest
if it were discovered to be the case), that the latter pastes through the intflr-
mediate stage of asparagine.

124 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE ACTION OF

with the exception of emulsine, has any eflfect whatever on
amygdaline,* and none of the usual ferments, such as yeast,
decomposing caseine, albumen, gelatine, or even emulsine,
are capable of supplying the place of erythrozym, as far as
regards the decomposition of rubian.f These specific effects
of emulsine and erythrozym are more characteristic of these
bodies than any other property whatever, and serve to dis-
tinguish them from one another and from other ferments with
more accuracy than any difference in composition, however
great. On the other hand, the decomposition of sugar into
alcohol and carbonic acid is an effect common to all known
ferments. All so-called proteine compounds, such as albumen,
caseine, animal membranes &c., when they enter into decom-
position, acquire the properties of ferments. When all other
circumstances are alike, the processes of decomposition to
which these compounds, when acting as ferments, give rise in
other bodies, are precisely the same. The species of decom-
position varies only according to the particular stage of
decomposition of the ferment itself. During the first stage
of decomposition they convert starch into sugar ; during the
second stage they change sugar into alcohol and carbonic
acid, bile into cholalic acid, taurine, and other products, and
tannic into gallic acid ; when they have entered on the third
stage of decomposition, they effect the conversion of sugar
into lactic acid, and of lactic acid into butyric acid, carbonic
acid, and hydrogen. All these various effects may be pro-
duced by emulsine, provided the latter be in the state of

* I have mixed amygdaline and erythrozym, and amygdaline and madder
itself, together with water, to the consistence of paste, and allowed the mixtures
to stand for days in a warm place, without perceiving any signs of the decom-
position of the amygdaline ; while a mixture of amygdaline, emulsine, and
water, will under the same circumstances, evolve the peculiar smell of oil of
bitter almonds in a very short time.

f Emulsine is indeed not entirely without effect on rubian, but the quantity
of the latter which it is capable of decomposing, even after a long lapse of time,
is extremely insignificant.

THE FEBMENT OF MAUDEB ON SUGAB. 135

decomposition appropriate to their respective production.
The alcoholic fermentation of sugar is also effected by
erythrozym, as I have shown.*

But it still remains uncertain, and the point is one of con-
siderable interest, whether the formation of succinic acid from
sugar is a specific effect due to erythrozym alone, or is shared
by the latter in common with other ferments, such as yeast
and emulsine. On this point I have no evidence to offer, but
must content myself with a few general considerations,
leading to the conclusion, that it is not improbable that other
ferments will be found capable, under peculiar circumstances,
of producing this acid from sugar.

The conversion of sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid,
and also that of sugar into butyric acid, carbonic acid, and
hydrogen, are well understood processes. In the former case
1 eq. of sugar splits up into 2 eq. of alcohol, and 4 eqs. of
carbonic acid.

1 eq. Sugar. Alcohol.

C.. H,, O,, = 2C^ H, O, + 4 C O,

In the second case, 1 eq. of sugar splits up into 1 eq. of
butyric acid, 4 eqs. of carbonic acid, and 4 eqs. of hydrogen.f

1 eq. Sugar. Butyric Acid.

C,. H,. 0,a = Ca H, O^ + 4 C O, + 4 H

But as regards succinic acid, it is difficult to indicate with
positive certainty in what manner it takes its rise from sugar,
because, in the fermentation of the latter with erythrozym, it
is evident that there are two processes going on side by side,
the one being the formation of alcohol, the other that of

* It is possible that butyric acid may also be one of the products of tlie
action of erythrozym on sugar, though it is not probable, as among these pro>
ducts I have not been able to detect lactic acid, which constitutes the inter-
mediate stage between sugar and butyric acid.

f I leave out of consideration the fact that sugar, before being decomposed,
in the manner mentioned, b first converted into lactic acid ; but this fact is of
no consequence as regards the result, since sugar and lactic acid have the same
percentary compoeitioo.

126 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE ACTION OF

succinic acid ; and it is doubtful whether all the carbonic acid
evolved is due to the one process alone or not, and also
whether all the acetic acid formed arises from the oxidation of
the alcoliol, or whether a part of it does not proceed directly
from the decomposition of sugar.

That the disengagement of hydrogen in this process stands
in some relation to the formation of succinic acid, will admit,
I think, of no doubt ; but I would not venture to assert that
the whole quantity of that gas evolved is due to the process
of decomposition by which this acid is formed. Of the pos-
sible modes of decomposition by which succinic acid may be
formed from sugar, I will indicate a few. One equiv. of sugar
may split up into 3 eqs. of succinic acid and 3 eqs. of hydro-
gen ; or with the elements of 8 eqs. of water into 1 eq. of
succinic acid, 8 eqs. of carbonic acid, and 17 eqs. of hydrogen;
or into 1 eq. of succinic acid, 2 eqs. of acetic acid, and I eq.
of hydrogen; or into 2 eqs. of succinic acid, 1 eq. of acetic
acid, and 2 eqs. of hydrogen ; or together with the elements
of 2 eqs. of water into 2 eqs. of succinic acid, ^ eq. of acetic
acid, 2 eqs. of carbonic acid, and 8 eqs. of hydrogen, as the
following equations will show : —

Succinic Acid.
C.^H.^O.a =3C^H3 0^ + 3H

Cx2 H,2 0,2 + 8 H O = C^ H3 O^ + 8 C 0^ + 17 H

Acetic Acid.
C,2 H,, O,, = C^ H3 O, -i- 2 C, H, O, + H

C,,H,,0,, =2C,H30,+ C,H,0, +2H

C.2 H,2 0,2 + 2 H O = 2 C^ H3 O^ + i C^ H^ O^ -h 2 C O2 + 6 H

Of these different modes of decomposition, I consider the
last as the most probable. At all events I prefer for the
present considering it as the true one, since it shows the pos-
sibility of all the products of decomposition, except the
alcohol, being formed from one equivalent of sugar. It cor-
responds with the mode of decomposition according to which
Liebig supposes malic acid to split up into succinic, acetic.

THE FEEMENT OP MADDEE ON SUGAK. 127

and carbonic acids.* Taking this for granted, the following
relations will be found to subsist between the products formed
in the alcoholic, butyric acid, and succinic acid fermentations
of sugar. In all these processes, 1 eq. of sugar splits up into
one or more organic bodies, and one or more inorganic ones.
The quantities of carbonic acid formed in the three processes
are to one another respectively as 2 : 2 : 1 , the quantities of
hydrogen as 0 : 2 : 3. In the organic products formed in the
three processes (adding together the elements of the succinic
and acetic acids of the last process), the numbers of equiva-
lents of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are to one another as
follows: — in the products of the alcoholic fermentation the
C : H as 2 : 3 ; in those of the butyric acid fermentation, as
2:2; in those of the succinic acid fermentation, as 5 : 4 ;
while the numbers of equivalents of oxygen and hydrogen
are to one another respectively as 1 : 3, 1 : 2, and 5:4.
Passing along the series from the products of the alcoholic to
those of the succinic acid fermentation, the n\imber of equiva-
lents of hydrogen in the organic substances is found to be
constantly on the decrease, as compared with that of the
equivalents of carbon and oxygen, while the amount of
hydrogen set at liberty increases in the same ratio.

That time may form an important element in all processes
of fermentation, and that the degree of rapidity with which
such processes are completed may have a considerable influ-
ence on the nature of the products formed, has, I think, been
rendered evident by my experiments on the fermentation of
rubian. Indeed I would go further, and assert that the
difference in the effect produced by the same ferment, under
different circumstances, is a direct consequence of the greater
or less degree of rapidity in the change which its elements
may be undergoing, and of the consequent more or less rapid
motion communicated to the elements of other bodies. The
very simplest experiments in organic chemistry are suflBcient

• Annalen der Pharmacic, LXX. 363.

1 28 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE ACTION OF, &c.

to prove that a body subjected to a process of rapid decompo-
sition yields very different products to what it does when the
same process is slowly conducted.

Now the butyric acid fermentation of sugar differs chiefly
from the alcoholic in the length of time which it requires for
its completion. The numbers and ratios, which I have here
(somewhat hypothetically, perhaps) placed in juxtaposition,
seem to indicate that the fermentation by which succinic acid
is formed from sugar is characterized by still greater slowness,
and that, by sufficiently retarding the action of ordinary
ferments on sugar, we may also by means of these succeed in
forming succinic acid in saccharine solutions, perhaps even in
considerable quantities.

i2g

VI On the k-partitions of N.

By the Rev. Thomas P. Kirkman, A.M., Rector of Croft-
* with- South worth.

\_Read January 10th, 1804.]

Any system of k numbers written in the order of their
magnitude, whose sum is N, and of which none is less than
flf, may be represented thus ;

{a-\-x{)+(a+Xi+X2)+{a'\-Xi-\-X2'{-X3)+

•¥(a-\-Xi-\-X2+ . . . +a:A)=N.
where X1X2 &c. may be anything positive or zero ; for none of
these k numbers is less than the preceding one, but exceeds
it by any difference which is either positive or nothing. And
it is plain that no element x^ can be altered in value, the
equation remaining true, without giving rise to a new system
of k numbers whose sum is N, none of them being less than a.
From this equation, written under the form,

A-i+ii+A— l-a;2+A^-ar3+ +3a:ft.2+2a;^i+rrfc=N, (A)

many interesting properties can be deduced. Its solutions,
in null or positive values of x, x^ &c., are in number equal
to that of the different ways in which N can be broken into
k whole numbers none less than a. I shall confine myself
here to an important deduction from A. Writing it thus,

k—i-a+Xi-^-k — 2'X3+k—'S'Xi-\' +2'x^^i+Xk

= N_a_to; (B)

we see that the number of solutions is the same in B as in A;
8

1 30 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE

and that if Xi be confined to any value f, which it can
receive in (A), the number of solutions of (B) is that of
the {k — l)-partitions, as they are called, of N — a — Jif,
Now Xi may have any value from zero up to the greatest
integer in (N — a) : k. Hence it appears that the A-partitions
of N, none of which contains a part less than a, are equal in
number to the {k — l)-partitions of N — a+the (k — l)-parti-
tions of N — k — a + the k — 1-partitions of N — 2k — o, &c., as
far as k can be continually subtracted to leave a remainder
not negative"; no part, in any of these (k — l)-partitions,
being less than a. Take a=l, and let j^Vx denote the
number of A-partitions of x\ then the theorem just proved is
expressed thus, if

X=:ke'\'Cy x—k=k(€ — \)+c, cvO, z.k-\-\,

fcPx=A-lPa:— l4"fc— lP^-l-A;+A;— iP^-l— 2&4"* • • • +A;-lPc— 1>

whence follows

(C)

fcP^r— ftPa; k=k-l P^r-l (D)

From this equation of differences ^P^ can be found. It is
easily seen that

,P,=K«-*2.-.), (E)

Where *2^_i is that well known function of the square roots
of unity which is = 1 for x odd, and = 0 for a? even. To
the reader who is not familiar with these circulators, as they
are called, it is sufficient for our purpose here to define, that
±a**5e in this paper is to be read as ±a, when the quotient
e\s is a positive integer, and as ± 0, when e:s is either frac-
tional or negative; where it is to be remembered that 0:*, e
being zero, is always counted whole and positive. The last
equation affirms that the bi-partitions of x are \x in number
when X is even, and ^(x—X), when x is odd, the truth of
which needs no demonstration. By equations C and D, if
x=Se-\'C, c being yO, = 1, 2, or 3,

K-PAKTITIONS OF N. 131

aPx-3= 2Px-4+«Px-7+ . . . +2PC-I, C\

aP* — aPx-a^^aPx-i* ^'

The function 3?^ can be found from (c) by summing SsP,**
which is by (E),

or to prevent any ambiguity arising from the three values of c,

between the proper limits. This labour, however, we can
easily avoid ; but it is useful to observe that we are to expect
in our results terms multiplied by *^x-ii *3^_2> and *3,, as
well as by *2^ and *2^^i.

Every term iV^-/ of equation (c) on the right side has an
ordinary algebraic portion, viz. \{x—f). If we sum all these
in both (c) and (c'), and denote those sums by (aP,) and
(aPx-a), we shall, if we subtract the latter of these from the
former, have remaining the algebraic portion of 2Px-i> which
we may denote by [2PX-1I j that is, we obtain

(,P,)-(3P,-,) = [.P,-,]=i(X-l). (f.

As not more than one power of x can disappear by this
subtraction, and the first only is found in the remainder, we
know that

(aPx) = Aa;^^. 3^^.^,
— (3P,-3)= — Aa:2-h6Arr— 9 A
-- B^+3B

-C;

whose sum is

+i^ -i-

Hence follows

-,i

-4

GPx) =

12^

f,+c.

132 KEY. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE

When X — 3^0, sP^-a in equation (c') has no terms what-
ever, and [cT] becomes, since x=0'S+c,

(3P,)=[,PJ

"12^ +^ 2"'

12 12 '

for it vanishes for c=2, or c=3, and when c=l, it is — tV.
The portion (aPa?) of s^x is thus proved to be

(3P.)- ^^

To find the rest of aP^, which for anything yet shown, may
also contain an ordinary algebraic portion, we have to sum
the (c+1) terms

-ir2.-2+*2,.5+ • • • +*2,.i+*2,_2)

If e+l=2A, or x=6h+c—3,
this is

^*9 ^#9 __ ^_. 37+3— c
~2' "^ ~2 "^^-'-""2 12"'

for *2c_2 =1 for a? odd, c being then =2, and *2^^i even, c
being either = 1 or 3 : and the equation just written is true,
whether x be odd or even, as *2^+*2^_i=l, whatever be the
integer x.

If €=2h\ or x=eh'^c,
the above sum is

-i^'*2,-iA'*2,.i-i*2,_,
_ x—c 6 ^^
12" "12 '^'^''

The sought remainder of gP-p is therefore

— *2,_i-^(a;+3— c)— *2e-TV(^— c+6.*2c-2),

Consequently, by addition of this to (sPx), (a;=3e+c), (c70),
3P^=^{a.2_*3^_r2~*2e-r(3_c)+*2,-(c_6-*2c-2)}-

K-PARTITIONS OF N. 133

The circulating constant can never be so great as J* 12, for,
to examine the most suspicious-looking case, when c=2 and e
even, it is only =2 — 6= — 4.

It appears, then, that the tri-partitions of x are in number
always equal to the integer nearest to -jVa?'. When c=3, and
e is odd, x=.^h ; in this case the number aP, is exactly -jV^*
The expression is easily put into the form following : —

3P^A|x8__0-*6;r— *6x-i—4.*6,-2+3/6,_3— 4.*6x-4

Using equation (D) to find (4?^) the sura of the ordinary
algebraic terms in the equivalent of 4Px, we have

(4Px) = Aa-a-h 3x2+ Cx-f D
— (4Px-4)=--Aa;3+12Aa^— 48Aa:4-64A
—Bxa+SBx— 16B
— Cx-h 4C

whose sum must be the algebraic portion of aPx-i? or

[3P,_i]=A(a^-l)^=TV(a^-2x+l).
This gives by equating co-efficients

A=T*T, B=tV, C= — t^t.

Wherefore

If jr=4e+c, c/o^ (4PC-4) ^as no terms, and
(4P.)=[,Pc-i], or
cH-a^— c c^— 2c+l

144 ^^~ 12 '
^_c'-9c^+23c— 12
— "- 144 '

=''4^,_3_ .M,-,^ •4,.,J_ MxO
144''" 144''' 144 "*■

(4?,)=— j a»+3*^_x-*4,_,-3-»4,.,-6-Mx_^ J.

134 REV. T. r. KIRKMAN ON THE

We have now to sum the circulating constants in the e+ 1
terms

aPx-i+aPar-s+aPx-D"!" • • • +3^0-1
which constants are all of the form ^p**6^_„. If x — 1 =
6)W+p, it is evident that *Qx~p-\ is the only circulator that
can have value. If sPor contains ^j,**6^_p, aP^.i will contain
kp' *Qx-p-u J^x-& will contain kp,^- *6^__p_i, gP^^g will contain
^j,_8* *Qx-p-\ 5 ^^ t^6 ^+1 terms to be summed are

*Qx-p~l (^p + ^p-4+^iJ-7 + ^p-12+ . 0>

the subindices always decreasing by 4, upon the circle

^0 ^1 ^2 ^3 ^4 ^5 ^0 ^1 • • • •
Now since every term is identical with the term standing at
the twelfth place above it, kj, is identical with fc^.^g^ and the
three numbers fcp-f A:p_4+/Cp.8will recur. If we put

H-l=3A4-e, or A=^~^('"~^^~^, (e^3),

?=0 gives us for our sought sum exactly

and if ivO, we must add to this

tV(^p+^p_4+ . . to ^ terms).
Now when x is even, p is odd, and v.v., whence, referring
to the periodic constant in gP^-, we have for the sum of these
e+l circulators,

^(b- ^^^0 { (-I+3_l).2.+(_4-4).*2._. }

+TV(A:p4-Ap_4 ... to 2 terms).
Adding this to {^^x) we obtain, putting *2^=1 — *2^_i,

4P;=-rw{^+3a^— 9a^.*2^_i— 3.*4x-i— 6.*4;r-2— 3.*4^_3

— (4(i— l)+c)-(l-9-*2^_i)+12(A^+Ap_4 . . .toaerms) V

where a;=12/i-f 4(2— l)+c=6m+/>+l ; cZ5, and kp is the
co-efficient of *^x-p in aP^, and kp^A the fourth behind it, or

K-PARTITIONS OF N. 135

the second above it, in the circle A© ^i ^2 ^3 *4 *5 ^o ^i

whichisO,— .1,— 4,+3,— 4,— 1,0,— 1

The greatest value of the constant in 4?^ is when c=2=i,
p=:b, and x=i2h-\-6 ; then it is

_6— 6 + 12(— 1+— 1)=— 36,

and it is easy to reduce the value of 4P, to the form

4Px=j^{ar»+3a;*-9x.*2x_i+2ap.*12,_p |,

where ao=Oy ai=5, at— — 20, 03= — 27, a^=32, 0^= — 11,

flrg= — 36, 07=5, 08=16,^9= — 27, aio= — 4, an= — H.
Thus it is evident that 4P^ is always the nearest integer to
the sum of its terms in x.

We proceed next to find gPx, which will have, besides the
portion (sP*) obtained by summing ordinary algebraical terms
in equation (C), a second portion (sPx)', which has circulating
co-efficients of x, or of Xy or, &c. ; besides that which arises
from the summation of the constant circulators in a^x-u a^x-69
&c. We begin with

(5Px)-(5Px-5) = [4Px-l] H.

5Px= Ax*+ Ba^-\-Ca^ + Dx+ E

— 5P(x-5)=— Aa?*+20Aa;^— 6-52Aa?H20Aa7— 5^A

— Baj^+lS Bar— 75Ba?+53B

— Cx2 + lOCr— 52 c

— D + 6D

— E

Whose sum is (^--:iOH3(._::,l)^

_^_3;^+_2^
■"122 122 122.

w Uf a __J p_ to r- ^^ n 22

we ODiam a -go^^' ^""20- 12^' ^■"20^:22' ^"~"20T2a

Wherefore

(.Px) =2o:^[i^ + I O.T^ + 1 9.T= + 22^} \- E.

1 36 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE

If a:=5c-j-c, c-yo, we have, reasoning as before,

(6Pc) = [4Pc-i], whence

20-

^=~r2^-2oO-^^^'+^^^'+^®^-^0

=--2o1t2C®'*^^-^+^®'*^''-^+^^'*^^-^+^^**^'^-^);

whence

-56.*5c_3-32.%_4|.

Let now (sPx)', the sum of the e-f I terms,
_/22(9i=i:*2,.2+9.^=:6:*2^-7+,&c.H-9(c-l).*2c-2)^(G)
be supposed to be

(,P,)'=A^2+Ba:+(CV+D:r+E)*2^_i+F,

— (sP.-s) =— A:r2+(10A— B):r— (Ca;2_10C:^:+25C

4-D:r— 5D

+ E)*2^..6_F— 25A

+ 5B.

The sum of these is

[4P.-.]'=-^,(9^.*2..._9.*2.

-)

From this we learn that C=0,

whether x be even or odd;

and thence that

if X be even, lOA— D= -

g

- j^ , and that.

if ;rbe odd, 10A+D=

0;

whence A=:— „,, ,^o D=

90

20-122,

K-PARTITIONS OF N. 137

Again, if x be even,

-.25A+5Bh-5D-E=-4 and
iix be odd,— 25A+5B+ E=0, i.e.,

' 20-122;

and. 5B=25A-E==|^?r^

B= ^:?i,

2012* •

We have now deduced that

When a:^5=c, this must be equal to the single circulator

for GP^p.^)' has no terms at all. Therefore
— 9c2— 72c+(90c+l35).*2,_i + 20.122-F

= (-180c+180)*2,.2,

F=20^2 (9c2+72c— 90c— 90c*2c.4r-135.*2,_i+ 180.*2,.2)
=2^(-l44.*5,_i_108.*5,_3-108.*5,_4+0.*5,).

It remains to find the sum of the constant circulators in

4P,-i, 4Px-6 • • • • 4Pc-i, to (e+1) terms; x=be-\-c; cyO,

The constant in 4?^^ being Sa^.*12x_r, that in 4Par«i is

Sa,..*i2j:_i.^, that in 4PX-6 is Sar.*12j._6_n that in 4Pr-i-5«»

is Sa^.*12;p_i»^.^. When 5m is a multiple of 12, Op will

appear with the same circulator which it affects in 4Px_i ; for

*12jf_i_i2n-p=*12^_i_p. As m cannot be less than 12, Op will

affect twelve different circulators *12j_0 in the first twelve

functions 4PX.1, 4Px-5» &c. ; and again the same 12 in the

T

1 38 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE

next twelve functions, so that I2h successive functions i^x-u
&c., will contain h times the term

h times for every value of j9.

If then c+1 be 12A+A-, x=ifie+c, giving

,=J_(._5(/._l)_c),
the sought sum of the constant circulators will be

j-22g^.(^— 5(/c— I) + c^S«r fromr=0 to r=ll,
+ ~ Sa,(*12^_,.^+ • • • • +*12^_i_5(,-i)-,), to & terms

that is, if 0;= I27W4-J0+1, sinceSarr=ao + «i+ •** +^n= — '78j

2Qx 26(5(fc^l) + c)
12-220"^ 12.220

+ j2-^(«i)+«2>t7 + «P^2«p+9+j to k terms);

for *l2^_p_i, the only circulator that does not vanish, is
affected by ap-^Up^-j, &c., in that order, the subindices increasing
by 7, or, which is the same thing, retreating by 5, upon the
circle (qo «i «2 * * «io »ii c'o * ' )• Adding now the terms just
found to (5P^) + (5P^)', putting 90^— 90.r.*2^ for 90*2^_i
found in (sPa?)'? and remarking that, in the last found ex-
pression,

26c=26.*5^_i+52.*5^_2+78.*5,:.3+104.*5;.-4+130.*5^.,
we have finally,

5P.=2^-J2;4+I0:r3+10.^— 30^— 90.r*2,
+135.*2;,-i+130(/c— 1)
+130.*5;^126.*5^.i+4*5^.2— 86.*5,_3— 36.*5^>4
+20[ap+ap+7+«pt2+ * • * +«i)47-(fc-i) ; (to h terms)]!;

K-PABTITIONS OF >'. 139

where ar=5.(l2A+fc—l)+c=12r-fp+l; c70, A 7O ; and
dp^ «p*7» «j>»8» &c., are the ;)^ (p+7y*, (p+H)^ &c., of the

circle Oo «i «« * ' ' «io «ii «o ' * * > the co-efficients of j2«

(l2x_o, 12x-.i, &c.), in 4P*; that is, Op, 0,^7, &c., are, in that
order, the series,

Oq O/j Qi Qq 04 an a^ a\ a^ as Oio as
0 5 —20 —27 32 —11 36 5 16 —27 —4 —11,
of which k terms are to be added together, beginning with «p,
and then multiplied by 20.

There is no difficulty in reducing the terms free from x, the
periodic constant, to the form Sc(p.*60j,_p, where

do = 0, d^ =-|- d,d^ zz+104, (/g =—351,^4 =—6lO,d^ = 905,
<f« =— 216, (f, =— 361,^8 =— 256, d, =+ 9, (/,o=+3t30, rf^^zr— 31,
rf,a=— 676, </,.=+ 9,(/,^=+104,(/,^=+225,<f,8=— 576, J,,=-|-329,
dj8=_216, rf,9=— 351, <fgo=+320, </2i=+ 9,(/22=— 216, </2a=— 31,
</j^=_576, rfa4=+585, (/26=+10'i. </27=— 3^1' <^28=— S76» <^29=+329,
rf3„=+300, (/, ,=-351, c/,2=— 256, c/8»=+ 9, ^/a^zr— 216, (/35=+545,
rf.8=-576,</3,=+ 9, (/38=+104, (/3„=_35I,rf^o=+ 0,e/^,=+329,
</^a=— 216, rf^3=— 351, d^^z=—256, d^^ = -{-585, d^^=—2l6, d^,=— 31,
</^3=_576, (/^8=+ 9, rf,„=+680, rf,,=_361,(/52=-576,<f,3=+329,
</«♦=— 216, </5.=+225, </,3— —256, rf^,=+ 9, rf^8=_216, rf„=— 31.

These numbers are obtained from the formula thus ; e,g.,

x=60A+32=5-(l2^+7— l)+2=12r+7+l
ar=60A-h40=5(12^+8— l)+5=12r+3+l
a;=60A+49=5(12^+10— l)+4=12r+04-I.
The first has A= 7, /?=7, and *5^_2=l.
The second has A= 8, p=3, and *5^ =1,
The third has k=z\ 0, p=0, and *5^_i= 1 =*2^._, ;
therefore cr3s=6-1304-4+20{(a7-|-a2+O9+a4+«ii+a6+ai=)
—52} =784— 1040=— 256

d4o=7' 130 + 1 30—20 { («3+<7io+«5+ao+a7+a2+a9+

04=)— 52} =1040—1040=0

(/49=9*130 + 135— 36+20{flfo+a7 + «2 + flr9-|-a4-i-a,i
+aS+a,+flr8+a3=)— 63} =1269-1260=9.

140 EEV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE

It is to be observed that the largest of these is <4=905, a
number less than J*2880 ; whence it appears that 5?* is always
the nearest integer to the sum of its terms in x.

We may now briefly deduce gP-r, which is made up of (gP^)
a sum of algebraic terms, of (gPx)' a sum of terms containing
circulating co-efficients of x^ and a sum of terms of the form
c?'0.*6O^_0. Writing first

= (gP,)_(gP,.6)

""I— A(a?— 6)5— B(^— 6)4— C(a;— 6)3-D(a;— 6)2— E(a;— 6)

— F:
we obtain the equations

^'^2880' •'•^""30*2880
B-6-4— A-10-62=A_. ...B=^ ^

'2880' 4 2880

C-6-3-B-63+A-10-6«=~^; -.-Cr:^^ ^

2880' * ~ 9 2880
D-6-2_C-6=-3+B-63-4_A-5-6*==|?; .-.0=0

E.6_D-6^+C-63_B-6HA.6-Ji; .•.E=-f.^„
Wherefore

V6^«^;-2880(20^ 4 T 9 — 30 f+^-

Now since, x being = ^e'\-c^ and c^7, gPar-e ^^^ "^^ terms
at all, we must have

(gP,)=[5P,_i], or

1 J^'4.3^V^-.^^'Uf-— Irc-iy+iorc-iv^

2880130+4 + 9 30 |^^ -288o|^'' ^^ i-lU(.c-i;

-|-10(c— 1)2— 30(c— 1)1.

K-PAETITIONS OF N. 141

which gives for F

Next, to find Q^x)', we have
(flP,y=x-Fa;4-(AV+B'a;H-C')*2,_,+G,

the first being equal to the difference of the other two. As
this difference has no terms at all when x is even, we must
have

whatever be x, which requires that all the co-efficients in Fa:
should be zeros. When x is odd,

*^^~ 2880, -2880 >^ 12,

and -36A'+6B= J^, or B'=. ^^

'2880, 2880,

whence

Now (fPx-e)' has no terms at all, iixz 6 ; whence,
if ir=6e+c, cZ7,

[.P^,]'=(.P.)', or

+C-»2,_,.
Therefore G=0, and

2880C'=|?c3— 60C+90,

X-3

142 REV. T. r. KIJRKMAN ON THE

because *2je-i=*2c-i ; whence, by addition of F,
*2,.iC'+F=g^|o-6,+ 10895-*6^_,+40-*6,_2-8145-*6

— 5980-»6^_4-8465-*6^.5|,
which is the constant in (6Pj)+(6P3'y«

We have next to sum the periodic constants in the {e+l)
terms

■which are all of the form 6?,„**60^_„. If we write

c+l=10A+^, x=60h+6{k—\) + c=60h+p-\- 1,
it is evident that no circulator but *60^_p_i can have value.
This will be affected in sP^r-i with dp, in sP^-? with dp_Q, &c.,
the subindex retreating always by six on the circle

do di d2 c?58 di,9 do di , . .

The co-efficient of *60^_p_i will have the terms

of which the eleventh term dp^Qo is identical with dp, the same
ten terms continually recurring-.

Ifthene+l = 10^+A,
our sought sum is
h

2880

(^dp+dp.6-\- . . . +fi?p_54Y for ^-0;

and if A 70, we shall simply have, besides this, as part of the
sum,

2gg^(c?p+c?p-^+^;,-i2 + • • • to ^ terms)

The quantity Dp is the sum of that column of ten numbers
do, d\, &c., above given in sP^j which contains dp. That is,

K-PARTITIONS OF N. 143

Dp=»6.-2642— *6^_r2808— ♦6^_2-5584.*6^.3-392— ♦6,_,-
558— *6^.a-2808 ;
for, when aj=l, /)=0, &c.

Substituting this value of D^, and for h its equivalent in
terms of a?, A, and c, then adding the sum just found to (eP*)
H-CeP*)'* we obtain the expression following: —

__(l350arJ+5400a;)*2^_i
+7926a;-*6,-— 8424a;(*6^_, +*fix-»)

+ ll76a;-»6^^3— 1674^(*6;,_2+*6^«4)
— .47556A-*6^+(50544A— 42l20)*6^_l+(10044^

— 6696)*6,.2

__(7056A— 3598)*6,.3+(10044A— 3348)*6;,_4+(50544A

~8424)*6,.,

+ I80(cfp-i-rfp_64-rfp_i2 4- • • • to A terms)].

where x=60A4-6-(A—l)+c; A70;cZ7, 7O; a:— l=60/i+j9;
and c^ is the coeflficient of *60j._p in sPx*

Since ft may have ten different values 0, 1, 2 . . .9, the
constant circulator is of 60 terms, and of the form S/J.*60^_p,
to which form it may appear necessary to reduce it, if 7?^^ is
to be found from gPx, as this is found above from gP,.

I shall content myself with a few observations by way of
shewing that this reduction is at least unnecessary to prove,
what we may reasonably expect from our expressions for the
5-partitions, the 4-partitions, &c. of a?, that the value of eP*
is the integer nearest to the sum of the terms in x.

In order to see that this is so, it is necessary to be con-
vinced that the circulating constant is always numerically less
than i.(602.l22)=259200. When *6x=l, p is one of the ten
numbers 5, 11, 17 ... 59; and it is easily seen by inspec-
tion of the quantities dp in sP^) that no consecutive ft of (/s.

144 REV. T. P. KIRKMAN ON THE

c?ii, &c. can be taken, which shall not have a positive sum,
(unless k=\) and that 180 times this sum, added to — 47556^,
will always give a number nearer zero than — 259200.

When *6^_i=l, p is one of the ten numbers 0, 6, 12 . . .
55 ; and inspection readily shows that no k of the set do, c/q,
&c. can be taken consecutively, which shall not have a nega-
tive sum, (unless k=l) and shall not, when multiplied by
180, make with 50544A— 42120 a number less than 259200.
By continuing this kind of inspection, of (c?pH-c?p_6+ . . to A
terms) for any value *6^_c=l, the reader may convince him-
self that the number qP^ is really the integer nearest to the
sum of the terms in x; and the only proof that appears in any
case practicable of this point, is by inspection of the constant
in qPx' He will therefore excuse me, thus far, from the trou-
ble of writing down the 60 terms of that constant.

Neither do I think it necessary to have them assigned in
order to the finding of 7?^?; for, in fact, there is a method of
obtaining the value of Dp above written, from the terms in x
of sPx, without any knowledge of the numbers dp in that ex-
pression ; and I am convinced, that all the terms in x of yV;^
can by the same method be deduced from the terms in x of
gPar. But I shall reserve the proof of this, which is too long
to be here inserted, for a future communication. It is very
important that a method should be made out of finding nPx
from the terms in x of n-i^x, without the enormous labour of
specifying every term in the constant circulator of „_iPa;; for
the number of those terms increases very rapidly, as we ad-
vance to higher values of n.

The preceding results, as far as the expression for qP^, are
identical with those given by Sir John Herschel in the Trans-
actions of the Royal Society for 1850; '* On the algebraical
expression of the number of partitions of which a given number
is susceptible." In that memoir the reader may see some
account of what has been before done on this subject by
Prof. De Morgan and Mr. Warburton ; and he will perhaps

K-PARTITI0N8 OF N. 145

think, that the matter is new enough, and difficult enough, to
make it worth while that it should be shown, as in this paper,
that the problem, which Sir John Herschel has so elegantly-
mastered by a somewhat formidable analysis, may be made to
yield to more elementary methods. I regret that I have not
seen, nor have any means of seeing, so far as I know, within
150 miles of Manchester, what Prof. De Morgan has written
on this subject in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal,

147

VII. — Memoir of the Rev, John Lawson, B.D,) Rector of
Swanscombe^ Kent,

By T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S., &c.

IRead February Vh, 1854.]

The Rev. John Lawson was one of the most distinguished
geometers of the last century. From a very early period of
his studies he appears to have devoted considerable attention
to pure geometry, and after the death of Professor Thomas
Simpson, he took the lead in promoting the study of geo-
metrical constructions and the ancient geometrical analysis.
His taste in these matters was formed upon the models left
us by Pappus and the restorers of the works of the ancient
Greek geometers, many of whose writings he afterwards
rendered accessible to English students, and his numerous
geometrical opuscula in the different mathematical periodicals
to which he contributed, may be referred to as proofs of the
success which attended his efforts to resuscitate the correct
forms of the ancient Greek geometry.

Mr. Lawson was the eldest son of the Rev. Thomas
Lawson, vicar of Kirkby, in the county of Lincoln. He was
educated at the Boston Grammar School under the care of
Mr. Robinson, and was admitted a Sizar at Sidney Sussex
College, Cambridge, on the 5th December, 1741. He
obtained his B.A. degree in 1745, and was elected a Fellow
of his college December 3rd, 1747. In 1749 he proceeded
in due course to the M.A. degree, and was admitted B.D.

148 MEMOIR OF THE REV. JOHN LAWSON, B.D.,

in 1756. His name appears as college tutor till the beginning
of 1760, and he also held various college offices from 1748 to
1757. He was for a considerable period Senior Fellow of his
college, and as such, in 1759, was instituted to the rectory of
Swanscombe, in Kent, which he continued to hold until his
death.

During his residence at Cambridge, he had become known
as an ardent admirer of the works of Apollonius. The
valuable fragments of geometrical research contained in the
Mathematical Collections of Pappus had led him to examine,
with critical attention, all the efforts of the moderns to restore
these " second elements ; " and shortly after his removal to
Swanscombe, he resolved to devote a portion of his means
and leisure to the translation and publication of the most
successful of these restorations. In the Preface to the
Seventh Book of the Mathematical Collections, Pappus Alex-
andrinus has enumerated those works which were then usually
studied after the Elements of Euclid. They consisted of the
Book of Data and a Treatise on Porisms, by the editor of the
Elements ; — the Section of Ratio and the Section of Space ; —
the Treatises on Determinate Section, Tangencies, Inclina-
tions, Plane Loci and the Conic Sections; — all of which we
owe to the fertile genius of Apollonius, the great geometer
of Perga. The interest attaching to these lost treatises, of
which scarcely anything has come down to our times except
a few preparatory Lemmas, had induced several of the most
able geometers, both of our own and other countries, to
attempt the reconstruction of the originals from the obscure
hints given of their contents by Pappus, and among the most
successful of the adventurers into these obscure regions of
geometrical science, are our own countrymen. Dr. Halley and
Dr. Simson, of Glasgow. The former has restored the Sec-
tions of Ratio and of Space, both of which are conceived in
the true spirit of the ancients; and the latter has been equally
successful in reproducing the Loci, the Determinate Section,

RECTOR OF SWANSCOMBE, KENT. 149

and the Treatise on Porisms, confessedly one of the most
obscure and difficult enigmas of antiquity. No two opinions
are now held as to the merits of these restorations ; — their
contents, if not actually identical with those in the lost
treatises, are considered by the best judges to differ from
them only in point of excellence. About a century before
this period several continental geometers of eminence had
succeeded in restoring some of the remaining treatises, but as
these attempts were written in Latin, and had become very
scarce, Mr. Lawson determined to present them to the
English reader in his own language, and thereby, at least for
a time, rescue them from that oblivion into which they were
rapidly falling. His first step towards accomplishing this
desirable object was the publication of a translation of " The
Two Books of Apollonius Pergseus concerning Tangencies,
as they have been restored by Franciscus Vieta and Marinus
Ghetaldus." This work was published at Cambridge in
1764, and contained, besides an excellent condensation of
what had been effected by Vieta and Ghetaldus, several
additional propositions on the same subject by Mr. Lawson
himself, and a selection from the writings of Mr. Thomas
Simpson. In the second edition, London, 1771, several
minor oversights were corrected and a " Second Supplement"
added, " being M. Ferraat's Treatise on Spherical Tangencies."

The description of a circle to touch three given circles has
always formed a favorite subject for the contemplation of geo-
meters, and the solution of the various cases, when straight
lines or points are substituted for one or more of the given
circles, has occupied the attention of many of the most able
mathematicians. The publication of this tract had the effect
of once more directing attention to different modes of treating
the general problem, which have since resulted in the com-
plete and elegant constructions of Swale, Hearn, Bobillier,
and Gergonne.

It must not, however, be supposed that Mr. Lawson

150 MEMOIR OF THE REV. JOHN LAWSON, B.D.,

neglected the more immediate duties of his high vocation
while thus engaged in promoting the study of the ancient
geometrical analysis. He was a man of fervid but unas-
suming piety, and had ever the temporal and spiritual welfare
of his parishioners at heart. His discourses always breathed
the spirit of pure and earnest piety, and not unfrequently
bore the marks of originality and deep study. A volume of
" Occasional Sermons on the Office and Duty of Bishops,"
which was published at London in 1765, was very favorably
received by the theological critics of the day, while their
style and matter do equal credit to the head and heart of
their author. During the interval which elapsed between
this and his next publication, Mr. Lawson entered into
an extensive correspondence with the cultivators of his
favorite science, and in common with his talented neigh-
bour and associate, the Rev. William Crakelt of Northfleet,
became one of the most distinguished contributors to the
mathematical periodicals. The Ladies' Diary, Hutton's
Mathematical Miscellany, the Gentleman's Diary, the
London Magazine, and the British Oracle, contain many
elegant geometrical questions and solutions from his pen,
almost all of which bear the impress of his good taste
and extensive reading. To the latter work he furnished
several translations of geometrical and other papers from the
foreign transactions, and the seventh number contains a
" Synopsis of Data for the Construction of Plane Triangles,"
which was afterwards expanded and published as a separate
treatise in 1773. This was a most useful publication to
geometricians, since it contained abundant references to
almost every work then known which treated on geometrical
problems. Professor Leybourn subsequently published a
much enlarged edition of this tract, and Mr. John Farey, of
London, has followed up Mr. Lawson's ideas in several of
the concluding numbers of the Gentleman's Mathematical
Companion,

RECTOB OF 8WANSC0MBE, KENT. 151

" The two books of Apollonius Pergaeus, concerning Deter-
minate Section, as they have been restored by Willebrordus
Snellius," appeared in 1772; to which were added & second
restoration of " the same two books by William Wales," sub-
sequently mathematical master of Christ's Hospital, London.
Mr. Lawson was induced to publish this translation from the
circumstance that " these pieces of Snellius" were " exceed-
ingly scarce in England. His Resuscitata Geometria de
Sectione Rationis et Spatii, 1607," he had " never once had
an opportunity of seeing" and "lest the other tract, De
Sectione Determinata, should undergo the same fate as the
original Apollonius, [he] was determined to rescue it there-
from, or respite it at least for a time, by putting it into an
English dress." Both this, however, and Mr. Wales's more
successful effort are now entirely superseded by the elaborate
restoration left us by Dr. Robert Simson in his Opera
Reliqua, which not only includes the propositions noticed by
Snellius and Wales, under the purest forms of the ancient
geometry, but adds a third and fourth book on the same
subject to those enumerated by Pappus. The publication by
which Mr. Lawson is best known is the '* Dissertation on the
Geometrical Analysis of the Antients; with a Collection of
Theorems and Problems, without Solutions, for the Exercise
of Young Students." It was published anonymously at
Canterbury in 1774, but its contents and the nature of the
subject left no doubt in the minds of geometers as to who
was the real author. At this period there was but one per-
son known to the mathematical world who was likely to
undertake such a discussion, and his propria persona was all
but revealed in an advertisement attached to the work. In
this dissertation the true principles of the ancient geometrical
analysis are very clearly laid down and illustrated by a variety
of examples, both original and selected ; various methods of
conducting the solution of the same geometrical proposition
are instanced for the encouragement of young students, and

152 MEMOIR OF THE REV. JOHN LAWSON, B.D.,

as "specimens of what kind of solutions" he would have
them " endeavour after." Most of the collection of theorems
and problems was selected from Dr. Stewart's Propositiones
Geometricse and his General Theorems; but these works were
so little known to English geometers at the time, that this
selection is now usually referred to as Lawson's Theorems.
From a notice which appears in the London Magazine for
May, 1777, it is evident that Mr. Lawson intended '' to pub-
lish a variety of Demonstrations, by different authors, of the
Theorems and Problems annexed to his Dissertation on the
Geometrical Analysis of the Antients." With that view
he entrusted his manuscript for inspection and revision to
several of his friends, and among others to the very able
geometer, Mr. Jeremiah Ainsworth, of Manchester. But his
intention of publication was frustrated by the hand of Death ;
and the existence of this valuable manuscript at this distance
of time is more than doubtful. The collection, however, was
not destined to remain without solutions. Mr. Leybourn
reprinted the Dissertation in his Mathematical Repository^
and a much enlarged edition was issued by Mr. Michael
Fryer, at Bristol, in 1811. The Theorems were also demon-
strated by Messrs. Swale, Campbell, and Nicholson, in the
Repository, and an elegant connected discussion of the same
series, by the Rev. Charles Wildbore, has, since his death,
been printed in the second volume of the New Series of the
Memoirs of the Manchester Philosophical Society. By this
publication Mr. Lawson gave permanency to his reputation
as a geometer, and the treatise by which this was effected
still retains its value as a guide to the beauties of the Greek
geometry.

In 1776 the posthumous works of Dr. Simson were printed
for private distribution at Glasgow, but since these were
wholly written in Latin, Mr. Lawson determined once more
to benefit the English reader by publishing a translation of
the " Treatise on Porisms," contained in that admirable

RECTOR OF 8WANSC0MBE, KENT. 153

work. Accordingly, during the following year, the first
seventeen propositions were published at Canterbury, " in
the hope that all lovers of geometry [would] encourage the
work," not only " on account of the great curiosity of the
subject," but also " on account of the great abilities of the
author, who has always been esteemed the first geometer of
the age." It does not, however, appear that the translator's
hopes were realized; for although he proposes shortly to
complete the work in " three more such [monthly] numbers,"
the sale did not warrant his proceeding with the translation.
He subsequently furnished an English version of Maclaurin's
" Treatise on the General Properties of Geometrical Lines"
for the fourth edition of that author's Algebra, London, 1779,
and these, together with the solution of "An Arithmetical
Problem," printed anonymously, complete the catalogue of
the published writings of this zealous and able geometer.
He died at Chislehurst, in Kent, on the 13th of November,
1779. His abilities were favorably noticed in the obituary of
the Gentleman's Magazine shortly after, and the following
tribute to his public and private worth was written by his
friend, the Rev. Charles Wildbore, then editor of the Gen-
tleman's Diary : —

*' On the dark monntaios of .death's dreary dale,
My weeping muse begins her mournful tale.
My Lawson gone, my kindest friend no more !
Who now shall wish to con my trifles o'er ?
Who now like him fine taste shall teach our youth ?
Or grace with elegance the force of Truth ?
In this attempt, his early lamp my friend
Oft trimmed— nor midnight saw his taper end.
But oh ! no learning stays the parting breath ;
Nor parts, nor arts, shield from the shafts of death.
Fair Science, mourn thy loss. His generous mind
To the free friend the brother's kindness joined.
And aimed to please and profit all mankind."

155

VIII. — On Sewage and Sewage Rivers. ,
By Robert Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.C.S.

\_Read January 23rd, 1855.]

Thb removal of refuse from a town gains importance as the
town increases, rising at last to be a matter of the greatest
moment and surrounded with the greatest difficulties. At the
same time, if we take only theoretical grounds, we may say
that the removal of refuse must become easier as a town
increases, because there is an increased combination of indi-
viduals to share the trouble and the expense. This method
of viewing the matter I believe to be the true one, whatever
practice may say as to the difficulties. The modes of remov-
ing refuse are many, but they may very readily be reduced to
two; 1st, The removal from the place of original location by
carts or any other means of overland carriage; 2nd, The
removal in tubes or pipes with an abundance of water. The
first method is the most general, it is the original method ; it
may be said to be the universal method, the exceptions to it
are so few. This universality does not occur from any supe-
riority which it possesses, but from its simplicity, although I
probably use that word in a wrong sense ; I ought rather to
say, from the fact that it arises naturally when the least
amount of thought is directed to the subject. The refuse is
deposited in the nearest convenient place, and it is removed
when it becomes intolerable. This plan has been adopted in
all ages and countries with more or less care. From the filthy

156 DR. R. .iNGUS SMITH ON

savage up to the refined inhabitant of Paris, all classes of
people have made use of it. Simple as it is to begin with,
the structure of cities no sooner becomes complex than this
system becomes (complex too. Space becomes of great value,
and the places for deposit in towns cannot be spared. Time
becomes of great value, and workmen to remove the refuse
are expensive; distance from the fields increases, and the
difficulties as well as the nuisance of the removal increase
with it.

The simplicity of the plan then ceases. Either a large
space must be occupied with the refuse in the town, as with
us ; or a small space frequently emptied, as at Paris. In the
first case, we have a city with a row of ashpits and recep-
tacles of soil equal in length with the rows of our houses,
covering a large per centage of the ground of our towns, and
accumulating enormous amounts of impure matter. In the
second,' we have a house subject to unwholesome inconve-
niences, far exceeding, certainly, all that we suffer here, the
want of space confining it to the house, and the removals
being uncomfortably frequent. The simplicity is .lost from
another cause also, the labour has become one which re-
quires great skill to prevent discomfort and disease, whilst
the whole plan itself, if we judge from results in Paris, is
obliged to give way at last and seek the assistance of the
second method alluded to — the use of conveyance in tubes by
means of water.

Under the most refined management of this system in
Paris the refuse is conveyed into dry closets, as they may be
called, having no water to wash down the soil, which is con-
veyed either into a moveable cylinder of zinc or into a cesspool
in the cellar. If a moveable cylinder is used, it is at once
conveyed away by carts, the more liquid part flowing away
by an overflow pipe, the solid remaining. If the cesspool is
used, it is emptied once or twice a year by means of a pump.
The deposit, which is of the thickness of very wet mud, is

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE RIVERS. 1 57

pumped into airtight barrels, the pump-tube being made to
dip down to the bottom of the cesspool so as to bring up the
solid and leave the liquid. Some disinfecting liquid, chloride
of zinc, is put into the barrel so as to prevent any nuisance in
the streets. When this deposit has been pumped up into the"
barrels, it is carted off to La Villette or taken to the canal
boats and conveyed by them. Here the barrels are emptied
and the contents conveyed by pipes to Bondy. There the
matter is allowed to deposit in a large reservoir, or filthy lake,
from that it flows to another, where more is deposited, and so
on ta a fourth, where the deposit is small. The liquid is then
used for the manufacture of ammonia and its salts.

The establishment at La Villette consists chiefly of a great
underground tank completely arched over, and above this a
building consisting mainly of a series of archways, into which
the carts may enter to deposit the contents of the barrels into
the holes in the floor. The contents flow, as before stated,
to Bondy, sent by a forcing pump. Bondy is seven feet
higher in level. The pipe is one foot in diameter, made of
tinned iron, covered with asphalt. The number of barrels
emptied here daily is from 1,200 to 1,500.

This is the manner in 'which the heavier soil is treated
when it is taken from the cesspool. The liquid matter is
then disinfected with chloride of zinc, and pumped out into
the streets, from which it runs into the sewers. Four men
are appointed to do this, three and a foreman. They are
provided with test paper, in order to see when the sul-
phuretted hydrogen is removed. But the smell is beyond
their management apparently, as the operation fills the cellars
with the most violent stench, and the street has the same
unpleasant odour to a great distance. Certainly we may be
too particular in such things. A French writer, to whom
this subject is dear, considers that the pruderie of the English
in such matters prevents them from enjoying the great blessings
of the Paris method, adding that the dislike of these substances

158 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON

spoken of is so great in the aristocratic quarters of London
that it is not probable that any alteration will be made on the
system for a long* time.

The other method of having closed receptacles for the soil
in the house or even out of the house is also in use, but in
practice both the methods have an uncomfortable and dangerous
result from the want of water and the impossibility of obtaining
any cleanliness without it. As far as the principle is con-
cerned, the continental method, in all its modifications, is
merely the ordinary outdoor convenience, so common with
us, conveyed into the interior of the house ; a place where
idleness alone could place it, unless it were connected with
abundant means of purification.

The other modification of what may be called the over-
land means of conveyance is that adopted in this city and
neighbourhood, where the material lies open in countless,
or I should rather say in 60,000 places, diff*using itself
over the whole town, and evaporating as rapidly as the
various states of weather allow it, uncurbed in its move-
ments, except by a wall at the side, which is quite unable
to confine this result of decay. In one respect we have
the advantage that this matter is not inside the house,
that the system of building gives room enough behind every
house for a yard, and we are not crowded one over the other,
or unwholesomely confined on narrow shelves. At the same
time we have this disadvantage, that the rivers are not kept
pure as at Paris and elsewhere, whilst the land also is rendered
impure, and the constant cleanings infest the air. Having a
mixture of all systems we have the advantages of none and
some of the evils of all.

The advantages of the overland system include the sale of
the material, which in Paris is something of consequence,
when stated in a certain form ; the poudrette which is manufac-
tured is sold at about twenty shillings a ton, but it is not bought
eagerly, and in fact is not of very great value. The amount

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE RIVERS. 1 59

sold is of course enough to pay abundantly those engaged in
the manufacture; but they have made such terms with the
municipality as to ensure them a profitable business. It
appears, on inquiry, that neither does our primitive method
or no-method pay, nor the refined method of Paris. The
expense there of cleaning a cesspool is seven francs, and it
must be emptied as soon as filled. The expense of cleaning
Manchester is about £8,000 a year for the 250,000 inhabi-
tants, making for each about 7d. a year. In Edinburgh the
value of the ground, manured by a very careless method of
using some of the refuse, has been raised from a trifle to
£150,000, which is to be taken as the value of that portion
of the manure which is there used, being equal to £7,500
a year. This is the sum which the property would fetch in
the market, and the sum the proprietors would be entitled
to if the sewage were taken from them, according to certain
legal opinions. The proprietors have also had suflBcient
power in the city councils to prevent any success in de-
priving them of their privileges.

We may conclude from the practice of these three cities,
Paris, Manchester, and Edinburgh, that there is in existence
no complete plan for the treatment of the refuse of a town,
although the plan in Edinburgh shows that such a system is
not only possible, but in the highest degree successful, and
only wanting in profit to Edinburgh, because that town has
not seen its value in time but has left its riches to those who
were more diligent. The experiment is, however, a great one;
the subject is one which must now take a most prominent
I lace in our home affairs for many years to come, until it
shall be decided that it is as unwise to destroy the property
of the country by losing the refuse, as it is to allow goods to
be burnt in warehouses and in shipping, as is our custom,
without taking the means of precaution which are placed in
our reach.

I thought these remarks necessary before bringing the sub-

160 DK. R. ANGUS SMITH ON

ject of this paper before you, in order that I might draw the
conclusion that, in the two methods mentioned of leading away
the refuse in barrels and manufacturing it into poudrette, and
of leading it away in carts and selling it without manufacture,
no profit is to be expected, but the town or the country must
pay a constant price for cleaning; whereas, by leading the
refuse away by means of water, a price is obtained more than
sufficient to clean the town. Water seems, then, the only
successful conveyancer, according to practice, unless, of course,
the new Manchester experiment of conveying it by railway
should turn out valuable, although by no means likely to do
so to any very great extent. Even if it were to turn out
profitable, it would still be objectionable .from the fact that
the town is by its means not preserved in a sufficient state of
purity as before mentioned. If, however, the water-closet
system be used, the town is not only kept clean but the con-
veyance is made in the manner that has hitherto turned out
most profitable, as at Edinburgh, and which has been found
needful, so as to make the other or overland system complete
as at Paris ; whilst the disgusting manufacture carried on at
that place, and occupying so much land, is dispensed with,
and the still more disgusting system of clearing adopted here
is also done away with, a plan by no means producing such
bad results as on the continent, not from any merits of its
own, but because there is here scope for extension, and our
houses are not confined to the limits of city walls. As the
irrigation method at Edinburgh has at present the most
decided success, or in other words the conveyance by water
been found cheapest even when partially tried, it seems only
natural to conclude that the conveyance should be by water
the whole way, as would be the case if the English water-
closet system were carried out to its full extent* The chief
evil connected with that system is the hitherto great loss of
the products; and the chief difficulty with regard to irrigation
is the obtaining suitable ground in the neighbourhood. The

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE lUVEltfi. I6l

large supplies of water now coming into our towns has given
us a capacity for extending the water-closet into every house,
and I believe that it is the true one, in spite of the obstacles
placed in its way in our own town. It has fortunately taken
hold of England in a manner such as to prevent all power of
receding. Removal by water seems to have begun in every
large town, ancient and modern, but never at any time
brought to perfection, because peace and prosperity and a
knowledge of the arts have so seldom endured long in any one
place. The tendency of improvement has always manifested
itself in the direction of removal by water and by underground
sewers. The usual way has been to remove the opening of
the sewer to the lower part of the town, but in course of time
this portion of the neighbourhood becomes surrounded with
inhabitants, and great inconveniences arise ; it is then drained
into a river or brook, if there be one, and again that becomes
a closely inhabited district, whilst the nuisance of the drainage
is sufficient from a large town to render impure the largest
rivers. This state of affairs is generally of very gradual rise
from the beginning; no one can be blamed, no one could have
foreseen the evil; as to the end no one need claim much credit
for seeing that something must be done ; the evil rises up in
a hideous form .before us all ; our capital city appears to be
built on a cesspool, instead of a magnificent river, and Man-
chester becomes a proverb, by giving its rivers and canals
such blackness as not only to render them disagreeable, but
to cast a shade of gloom on all who come into the town.

Various Methods of Treatment.
The methods of treating the fluid matter of the sewers
are few. The practice of allowing it to go into the river
has long been objected to. The method of applying it to
land, and so taking hold of it before entering the river,
although long in gradually increasing practice, was first
X

1 62 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON

brought into comparison with other methods in modern times in
England by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, and Mr. Chad wick. Mr.
Chadwick's account of it in the general report of the sanitary
condition of the labouring classes, gave it, perhaps, the first
prominent place among systems, and he has always supported
it in the publications of the Board of Health. Smith, of
Deanston, published an account of his method in the first
report of the Health of Towns Commission. Mr. Cubitt
was desirous of having it brought into practice, but could see
no plan by which it could be made economical for London.
Those who have tried sewage manure are chiefly private
persons. It has been found to render land so productive that
it yields actually from 70 to 80 bushels of wheat per acre,
and has sometimes increased the pasture tenfold. This re-
markable result is enough, of course, to justify any probable
amount of expenditure. Mr. Wilkins, (in the journal of the
Society of Arts,) thinks it would be advisable to use it even
if £100 were spent upon an acre, his peculiar method being
an expensive one, considering that £10 an acre has been
considered a large sum for the improvement of land, only
justified by the success attending recent discoveries in
draining and manuring. That success must be enormous
which ventures to breathe £100 per acre. Such fertility
of soil would certainly allow us to build upon farms works of
such a kind that health and appearance might also be con-
sulted as well as profit.

Smith's proposal was to irrigate meadows with the sewer
water, by overflowing them in the method long in use with
ordinary water; Mr. Chadwick recommended the use of the
jet and the hose to sprinkle the water over the land, and to
save the use of pipes and drains.

Mr. Corbett proposed the use of pipes for the irrigation
near Manchester, and recommended a lifting pump at Ordsall
or Traffbrd Moss. Mr. P. H. Holland began the system
adopted by Mr. Chadwick and himself, of watering with the

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE RIVERS. l63

hose ; but being compelled to carry the refuse in boats he
was obliged to desist. At the same time it became clear that
a very short time of such a top dressing as he used was not
enough to produce the remarkable results detailed at Edin-
burgh. Although very strong manure is not needed, very
dilute is of littla advantage, requiring too much labour and
too much water. Mr. Holland added manure to the water
which he used, as he could not get it direct from any strong
sewer. The sewer water of towns so well supplied with
water as Manchester and London cannot be of such value as
to allow expensive carriage ; whereas there are times of great
rains when it is only to a slight degree rendered impure.

Let us suppose that all the water flowing down a
Manchester sewer were to be put upon the ground. Let
us say there are twenty million gallons from the water-
works, add to this occasionally the rainfall from drainage,
over, let us suppose, twenty miles of surface. The land
here has quite enough to do with its own rainfall, not
knowing how to pass it with suflScient rapidity through
the ground, but how are we to convey to it the rainfall of
other twenty miles. Let us suppose we have twenty square
miles to let it fall upon, there is double the rainfall for it,
how damp must that land then be in a county already too
damp. But even twenty miles is an enormous extent to cover
and not easily obtained, or if obtained not easily managed.
If, however, it will be too much to put double the rainfall on,
then more than twenty miles must be used, rendering the
work still greater and more difficult and expensive.

But this is the mere rainfall during floods filling the sewers
too full. What, then, is to become of the twenty million
gallons every day of the year besides ? To put them upon
any land would be, of course, to injure the climate of the
district to a great extent, unless the breadth of land were
enormous ; and to put this water on as irrigation for meadows
involves a difficulty inherent in the formation of the land

164 DE. R. ANGUS SMITH ON

around us, perhaps, however, a difficulty that is not insuper-
able, although the climate raust always be considered. To
put on this water with the hose, is certainly out of the ques-
tion. It is in fact to form a new waterworks of a reversed
kind, and to give out all the water of the present waterworks
and more, not by the standing pipes in the streets and houses,
such as at present deliver it, but by the hose or flexible pipes
held in men's hands continually until all is run out.

If the use of sewage manure were to be generally adopted,
the sewers must be carried out of the town ; they would then
not run into the river, but probably along the river. It
would be impossible to remove the water from them as rapidly
and as regularly as it flows, so that it would be needful to
have a large tank or reservoir. This reservoir would receive
all the water which now is supplied by the waterworks ; and,
in fact, would be a second waterworks on a scale greater
than the one at Woodhead. The advocates for sewerage
manure say that it may be put on in all weathers ; but we
cannot suppose that this will occur, neither can we possibly
imagine any probable circumstances which would induce the
men of Lancashire to stand with hose in hand until that
enormous amount of water were put upon the land. It must
be done by the irrigation system, or the method must be
resorted to of having separate drainage for water closets;
by whom it was originally proposed I do not know, but
which I have advocated in a short paper on Sanitary economy
in some of your hands. My own belief is, that this would
be an excellent system ; the best hitherto proposed, both as
to convenience and to profit. It is unnecessary, however, to
dwell long on it. I conceive that if it were adopted, the
sewers would produce a manure so strong that it might
readily be mixed with the refuse water from the factories, and
still be valuable. I do not, however, think that it is essen-
tial to use it all liquid. In the above state it might be used
liquid near the towns. And here we come to another dif-

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE RIVERS. 165

ficulty attending all the liquid manure plans, it is that of
getting suitable land and sufficiently extensive near towns.
I confess I am unable to argue this well, but I am inclined
to think that the manure is so abundant that it will readily
supply persons to a great distance. If the water closet
sewers are kept distinct, it is probable that precipitation and
preparation would be essential, as the manure would not be
in a fit state to put on land without loss and nuisance ; but
if the sewer water remain as it is, the distance of carriage
and the amount to be put on land seem to be great difficul-
ties, quite insuperable in the way of applying all the refuse
matter of a large city. If, again, all of it is not applied,
there is no advantage in having any portion applied, as far
as the purity of the stream is concerned; at least it is not
for us to waste our time thinking on merely a small diminu-
tion of the evil.

It has been proposed, also, to take the sewage into a reser-
voir, and allow it to precipitate. This is the method adopted
with the contents of cesspools at Paris, but there the matter
is undiluted, and even of that the densest portion only is
taken, leaving the liquid to be run off into the sewers. The
poudrette formed is not of great value, and sells for much less
than our artificial manures, about a pound a ton. The de-
posit in sewer water ponds was found, in an- instance men-
tioned by Smith of Deanston, to be worth very little. It
was sold for one shilling a ton, but the analysis and especially
the amount of phosphates is wanting to determine its real
worth.

Leaving that aside, the matter valuable for manure is not
in suspension merely, and cannot therefore be obtained by
subsidence only. For these reasons it has been proposed to
filter the sewage water, and this method certainly produces
very fair water in appearance, and leaves a great amount of
valuable manure in the filter. But the oxidizing power of
the soil and of porous bodies is the cause of much waste of

166 DR. K. ANGUS SMITH ON

material of pure organic origin, and the ammonia is converted
into nitric acid, forming very soluble salts, easily washed
away. There is also in no artificial filter, a ready power by
which the phosphates can be eliminated.

The mode of using liquid manure only, is in reality the fil-
tration by the use of a natural filter, the ground ; and in a
case like this, the success is complete. The ground has the
power of absorbing a certain amount of salts, especially if
united with organic matter, such as the phosphates often are,
and the surface to which the liquid manure is applied is so
great, that there is no danger whatever of losing much of
its value. Filtration on any practicable artificial scale will
not produce this result, but will allow much valuable matter
to be lost.

The subsidence method and the artificial filtration are both
liable to another great objection, that the ammoniacal salts
are not taken from solution in the slightest degree. On the
Paris plan, the liquid from their highly concentrated manures
is used in the manufacture of ammonia and its salts, as it is
strong enough to allow of the expense of heating and dis-
tilling from retorts into acids which retain it. The slowness
of the process of ordinary subsidence is also an objection.

There was proposed, it seems diflficult to know by whom at
first, a plan for precipitating with lime. There was a com-
mission appointed by Parliament to inquire into it. The pre-
liminary inquiry was held before Sir Henry de la Beche, F. L.
WoUaston, Richard Phillips, Esq., and Dr. Lyon Playfair.
In 1845, Mr. Wicksted proposed lime for precipitating sewage;
and Mr. Higgs, in April, 1846, took a patent for lime.
There is a dispute as to who was first in proposing this, but
I see that in 1846 also Dr. Stenhouse proposed a plan for
precipitating with lime ; so that, apparently, the well known
clearing property of lime has given rise to the idea in many
minds of using it for sewage, and these were published at
the time when the subject was very much occupying public

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE RIVERS. 167

attention. Mr. Calvert has proposed it also for the Medlock,
as I am told, with the addition of some original, and I do not
doubt valuable, plans for collecting the precipitate without
interrupting the flow of the stream.

The inquiry into the plan proposed by Mr. Higgs, to have
a reservoir at Bermondsey, in which he would precipitate the
sewage by lime, gave rise to some points for consideration,
which may be mentioned.

It was stated that the phosphates would precipitate, and
that this would take place in about six hours.

It was also said that the sulphuretted hydrogen would be
thrown down by lime.

The ammonia would be lost entirely, except such as might
be formed from the solid organic matter containing nitrogen,
and found in the precipitate ; of course, all tliat came from
urine, which gives the greatest portion, was lost.

There was another objection, as this precipitate was to be
dried, and in that case the lime would prevent the preserva-
tion of the portion of the ammonia left in the solid, at least
to a great extent, entirely removing the other portion.

The sulphuretted hydrogen was not quite removed, as was
admitted, but it was proposed to be burnt by passing it
through the fire. The same thing was to be done with the
remaining organic substance which caused the residual smell
after the lime had done its utmost towards deodorizing. This
plan of burning gases, by passing them over fire or through
hot chimnies, is by no means an efficient one, unless the gases
be small in quantity and the fire long. I have seen it more
than once quite fail. The escaping ammonia was to be re-
tained by means of muriatic acid, which would unite with it
meeting in the flue. This is a plan attended with difficulties,
unless the flue has very little draught in it. On the whole,
then, lime does not seem desirable, because it does not quite
destroy the sulphurretted hydrogen, and does not retain the
ammonia; otherwise I must allow that it is really a beau-

1G8 DR. E. ANGUS SMITH ON

tiful precipitant, and the water, when drawn from it, appears
perfectly pure.

Mr. Higgs did not propose to deal with all the sewage
water of London, but only the portion about breakfast time.
The amount was too large to manage. That certainly will
be a diflBculty with London, with Manchester the difficulty is
much less, and a trifle, supposing the water closet drainage to
be separately treated. He proposed, also, to have rails over
the reservoir, so that persons might walk over it, throw down
the lime from waggons and stir it about. This makes the
matter still more difficult and expensive. Six tons of matter
were to be dried daily.

The plan is well worth considering, and the lime is by no
means to be at once condemned, when used with proper pre-
cautions, although one chemist, Paulet, calls it a vicious
method which loses the ammonia and the salts of potash and
soda. The precipitate in the case he refers to consisted of

Chalk 44.96

Magnesia 1.32

Phosphoric acid 40.18

Organic matter 13.64

Or loss by fire 100^

This I call rather a brilliant result; we are not given to
understand how much ammonia was in this organic matter,
but even were there none the amount of phosphoric acid is
worth preserving. The French practice so much boasted of
actually even now throws away the ammonia and alkaline
salts in the liquid which runs into the sewers, retaining only
that portion which drains from the dense mass which is trans-
ported to Bondy. The use of charcoal as a filter for sewage
water is not to be recommended, as little of value is removed.
The use of ordinary soil and clay as a precipitant would be
better, as they remove a great amount of valuable matter, but
this I think scarcely sufficient, although in some circustances

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE RIVERS. 169

not to be put aside. As a scientific inquiry the researches of
Professor Way, on the absorption of salts by soil, are of much
interest and value, explaining the use of soil and its action in
nature. He himself does not, however, recommend it as
an economical method of collecting the matter of sewage
manure.

I am told that Mr. Dyer had a plan of keeping the rivers
pure, but I have not heard a full explanation of it. He
says that those who dirty the water should clean it; and
this, in reference to manufactures, is a point worth your
consideration. Those who take into their works pure water
might take the trouble of filtering it before they allowed it to
go back. Instead of that, there has been an irregularity in
the whole management of these affairs, from the tops of the
hills of Lancashire down to the very town halls, and, I am
sorry to say, a selfishness, in seeking or taking water, which
has completely defeated the objects of all. It happens, now,
that in one of the wettest climates of England there is a want
of water for manufactures, although there is no need for even
a small portion of what falls, and one man, by using a few
grallons, and sending them back dirty, pollutes a whole stream.
There has been an extravagance and waste, in this respect,
which has put many to great trouble and expense, and caused
an extensive series of water-works, extending over the whole
county, and made by private individuals, for the use of their
own works. This plan, of allowing no one to send in the
impure water from his works, would not, however, be a suf-
ficient cure for the evil we are speaking of. The amount of
towns, villages, and isolated houses in this district, is so great,
that they alone are suflficient to pollute the streams to a great
extent, leaving out the largest town, Manchester. We have,
then, to deal with an evil which extends itself along the banks
of our streams, from this place to their very source, and in
every portion, I might almost say, of both banks. It has
been mentioned to me by Mr. M*Dougall, that, to keep the
Y

1 70 DR. E. ANGUS SMITH ON

Irwell pure, every impure stream should be retained and puri-
fied before it is allowed to enter the main stream. But this
is a plan which will not suit all circumstances, as the river is
made impure by drainage direct in many places. Sometimes
it is a small sewer, which will not bear separate purification ;
sometimes it is the trickling out of impurities from the soil —
the drainage of dirty streets or land.

Plan for Manchester and South Lancashire.

The plan which I propose has already been published in a
skeleton form, but I will endeavour to explain it more fully.
I do not pretend to say that the plan is original, — it is made
up of the things that I have seen and heard, as most other
persons make their plans; but the result, at least, has
novelty, and of course, in my opinion, is the best hitherto
devised. As a whole, it was new to me.

And first, I begin with the maxim similar to one I have
mentioned — that no dirty water should be allowed to go into
the river. If this is managed, the river will be clean.

To effect this, every town would carry its drainage to a
point out of the town. The sewer water to be then treated by
precipitants, and allowed to pass off clean. When there is not
a town to be dealt with, but a district, then a certain portion
of the houses and works on the river bank will be united into
a drainage" district, and this sewer water will run into a drain
or drains parallel to the river, until there is a sufficient amount
collected for precipitation. There will be then a constant
succession of tanks, equal to the density of the population.
There will also be a continual line of sewage drains as far as
the population extends ; or, in other words, a dirty river
running parallel with the clean one : just as we have, in the
town, a set of sewer drains running parallel with our pure hill
water. The sewers of all houses must be sent into this drain,
and it will be a great advantage to all persons having isolated

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE EIVEES. 171

houses on the rivers, and to all villages, hamlets, and towns of
every kind. I think the time is certainly come when we may
adopt common counsel in Lancashire, and act as an united
body instead of acting as a number of isolated individuals.
The sewer or drain along the river will be also a reservoir of
manure, that is, the sewage water may be taken out of the
sewer, and put upon the land all along the river, so that it
will be a mode of conveying manure in a state ready for use
to a very large portion of the country, especially in the case
of winding rivers, such as we have in the land lying above us.
The water used for manure will then filter through the ground,
and naturally will take the course of drainage water, which
I propose shall, in all cases, go directly into the river, and so
keep constantly adding to the amount of pure water in the
river.

These drains, I think, should be very simple, — much simpler
than thofee used for pure water, and merely brick semicircles,
according as may be decided on. They might be covered with a
simple covering of flat stone, unless it happens that a district is
too large, and that a very large drain is needful. In any case,
when these drains become full, they pass into a reservoir, and
the sewage is precipitated. They then pass out pure into the
river. So much confidence may be had in the liquid manure,
that I believe people will be anxious to avoid the loss of any
of this substance passing by them. The right to use this
manure would be sold, of course, and, if obtained in this easy
manner, without expense of carriage, as we may say, it will,
no doubt, be most gladly used.

At any rate, I wish to explain that this provides for the
manuring and draining of the land, and cleansing of the river
by one and the same plan. This plan makes use of all the
alkalies, ammonia, potash and soda, so that nothing put on
the land is lost, and a pure water is returned to the river.
I believe the banks of the rivers might, in this way, be made
rich gardens. But it is certain that all the sewer water could

172 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON

not be used, and it is also clear that it would not be so rich as
that of Edinburgh, so that equal results could scarcely be
expected. The amount not used in this manner would flow
down the sewer, and would be led into the first tank or
reservoir, there to be precipitated. There the solid matter
would be kept, and the fluid, when clear, would proceed.
There is then a constant succession of sewers for the water
that has not been used on the way. Below every town and
district giving off much impure water, such a depositing
reservoir would be placed. Every person might then receive
from the river, water for manufacturing purposes, and the
making of private reservoirs, now so numerous, might be
almost entirely saved. There are a few cases where fine
colours are wanted, where this water might not be so well
fitted as fresh wjiter from drainage land, but these cases
would be few. This would be a great saving both of land
and labour, as well as water, to the country.

But not to expand too much upon it, it is then to be asked
how is the precipitation to be effected.

I have mentioned that the precipitation will take place in
the reservoirs, but if they are to be disinfected, so can the
sewers be disinfected ; it is not needful then that the precipitant
be added in the reservoirs. Besides there is a difficulty in
mixing the water of a reservoir, which Mr. Wrigg proposed
to get over by having rails across it, allowing men to go to
any part. This would, however, by no means get over the
difficulty, as a man could only mix well that part which was
within reach of his arm, and if the whole surface of the reser-
voir were covered with little whirlpools, mixing themselves in
every spot, the whole mass would not thereby be mixed. I
consider, therefore, that it would be of great advantage to
mix in the sewer themselves; by this means the sewers would
be disinfected, that great evil would be removed which we have
endeavoured vainly to shut in by means of traps ; some outlet,
however, it will decidedly make for itself, whilst being shut

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE RIVEB8. 173

in it renders the sewers still more dangerous to clean. By
disinfecting the sewers the decomposition is put a stop to
during their whole course, the mixture also is being made
during the flow of the water, and by the time it comes to the
reservoir it will be ready to precipitate.

It has been said that this liquid will flow along the river in
the manner that was proposed for removing the sewage from
London, some years ago, by the painter Martin. I increase
the plan simply by a succession of these. Now this liquid in
its flow will form a constant supply of liquid manure, it will
therefore answer the purpose of the elaborate set of tubes
made by some parties for irrigation, and it may be pumped
out on the surrounding ground and spread by a jet or by
irrigation. It may even be drained off" to a lower level,
where it is convenient, and where the fall of the river is
great, so as to irrigate by gravitation. This liquid being dis-
infected, may without fear be put upon the land without
scattering around it a noisome odour. The system includes
all the best portions of the other systems, in my opinion,
whilst it adds new features not to be found in any hitherto
devised system.

If the water were to be used by jet only, then there would
be a great excess at certain portions of the year, and as it
could not be properly disposed of, it must be allowed to go
again into the river. This argument is, I think, almost con-
clusive against the mere use of the liquid manure plan ; it
neither uses its material, nor leaves time for consideration to
the farmer, every day is bringing down its stated quantity, if
it be on Christmas or Midsummer, and for good or evil this
must be disposed of. If we use large precipitating tanks,
we get rid of that difficulty ; the matter stands until it is
wanted.

But again, if we reject the liquid manure system we reject
a method which has already been shewn to be of the very
highest value, and more than that, we lead the liquid manure

174 DK. R. ANGUS SMITH ON

over a great tract of country without making use of it when
there, making some miles of piping in all probability without
using the water except at the extremity ; whereas, that long
line of sewerage is itself a large and constant, as well as con-
venient reservoir. The same cannot be said to an equal ex-
tent of the pipes. Moreover, by disinfecting the sewer itself,
we give time for the odour to be removed, taking away all
fear whatever from the otherwise to be dreaded reservoir of
impure water.

If this method were adopted, it is easily seen that ^he
Irwell, the Medlock, the Irk, and the canals would at once
be clean, the filthy water would not be seen, but mere con-
densing water would of course go back to the river. The
expense of constructing a culvert, such as would convey the
impure water down the river, could not be great. I am not
an engineer, and cannot calculate it; but I believe, never-
theless, that it may be done cheaply and at a price which
would justify its immediate commencement. The estimates
for such things are generally very high, because people begin
with such extravagant ideas. We see that there are many miles
of sewage in this town, how many hundred I do not know, but
this would be the addition of six or ten only for the immediate
neighbourhood; and to begin with the Medlock, not much
more than two or three. There is no need of buying land,
there is land enough unbought, and the price of covering over
the Medlock with such powerful arches as they are now put-
ting upon it, would be immeasurably greater than this far
more useful sewer. I would put the sewer at the side of the
river, the bed is often not quite covered at one side ; if sunk
a little it would lie steadily, and do its work without giving
any one less room or causing any one to complain.
' Although this plan would act even if confined to the town,
or even if confined to the Medlock, I prefer proposing it for
the whole district, because there, I think, its advantages will
be chiefly felt ; at the same time, it is a scheme which may

SEWAGE AND SEWAGE RR-EIIS. 1 75

be tried in pieces, so as to allow the most cautious beginning,
although the first beginnings cannot well be supposed to be
highly profitable. As to the mode of disinfection, it is an
independent part of the subject, and although I have got
much to say on that point, I am debarred by the rules of
the society from bringing it forward in this place ; and as I
believe I have used all the time allowed by the society for
reading a paper, I trust that I have given to the members a
little additional material for forming a correct judgment on
this great subject.

177

IX. — 0» the Formation of Indigo-blue, Part I.
By Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

IRead April 3rd, 1856.]

Indigo, one of the most important and extensively used
dyes, owes its value entirely to a peculiar colouring matter
contained in it, to which the name of indigo-blue or indigo-
tine is applied by chemists. This substance has been re-
peatedly subjected to investigation, and several distinguished
chemists have bestowed their attention and labour upon it.
Its properties, composition and products of decomposition,
have been so carefully examined, that it may safely be as-
serted, that there are few organic substances whose nature is
more accurately known than that of indigo-blue. If, how-
ever, we inquire into the state of our knowledge regarding
the origin and mode of formation of this body, it will be
found that our information on this part of the subject is ex-
tremely defective. Indigo-blue may be obtained from a
variety of plants, which though belonging to the most dif-
ferent genera and orders, are rather limited in number. It
has sometimes been observed to form in the milk of cows,
especially such as have been fed exclusively on saint-foin.*
Latterly it has been discovered by Hassallf and others J in
human urine, where its occurrence is attributeil to a morbid

• Ann. do Chira. et de Phys., T. III., p. 269.

f Philosophical Transactions for 1854.

X Annalen d. Chem. u. Pharm., 6d. XC, t. 120.

1 78 MR. E. SCHUNCK OX THE

State of the system. It is therefore a substance which is
formed sparingly indeed, but* in widely distant parts of the
organic world. The properties of indigo-blue, which are so
peculiar as almost to separate it from all other organic bodies,
and to constitute it one sui generis, naturally suggest the
inquiry, in what form it is contained in the plants and animals
from which it is derived. If it exists ready formed in the
indigo-bearing plants, how is it that though, when in a free
state, insoluble in water, acids, alkalies, alcohol, and most
simple menstrua, it should so easily be extracted from those
plants by a mere infusion with cold water? If it does not
pre-exist in the plant, in what state of combination is it
contained therein, and what is the>. nature of the process by
which it is eliminated ? The usual method of preparing
indigo from the indigoferse consists in steeping the plant,
especially the leaves, in water, drawing off the infusion,
allowing it to undergo fermentation, and then precipitating
by means of agitation with air and the addition of lime
water. Now it may be asked, is this process of fermentation,
which is often very te4ious and difficult to manage, essential
to the formation of indigo-blue, or is it merely an accidental
phenomenon attending its preparation ? If it is essential, at
what stage of the process is the formation of the colouring
matter to be considered as completed, and is it necessary, as
some persons assert, to continue it until actual putrefaction
has commenced, or not? These are points, which though
perhaps of little consequence to the dyer and consumer of
indigo, are of great interest in a chemical point of view, and
are of the greatest importance to the manufacturer of indigo.
To the latter it must surely be extremely desirable to know
the exact nature of the process on which his manufacture
depends, and to ascertain whether this process yields into his
hands the whole quantity of the product which the material
employed is capable of yielding, and also whether the manner
of conducting it is in perfect accordance with theoretical re-

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 179

quirements. If, however, we consult the authors who have
written on this subject, and the chemists who have endea-
voured to elucidate it, we shall obtain very unsatisfactory-
replies to our inquiries. The views entertained on these
different points are either mere surmises, or they are con-
clusions founded on a limited number of frequently imperfect
experiments. The chief cause of our ignorance on these
questions is, probably, that the process of manufacturing
indigo is one carried on, not in the more highly civilized
regions, but in remote parts of the world, and we are con-
sequently obliged to rely for our knowledge concerning it
chiefly on the accounts of travellers, who are usually pos-
sessed of merely general information, or of the manufacturers
themselves, who are far from competent to give an opinion on
a complex organo-chemical process.

Fourcroy, according to Robiquet, considered the formation
of indigo-blue to be a result of the process of fermentation
employed in its preparation.

Roxburgh, who is the earliest authority I have had an
opportunity of consulting on this subject, states that his pre-
decessor, De Cossigny, whose work on the manufacture of
indigo, published in the Mauritius, is very rare, was of
opinion that volatile alkali was the agent by which the
colouring matter was extracted from the plant and held in
solution until volatized by the agitation process. Roxburgh,
who like De Cossigny, was one of the few possessing special
chemical information who have examined the process of
manufacturing indigo from the indigoferae on the spot, con-
cluded, from his experiments, " that the indigo plants contain
only the base of the colour, which is naturally green ; that
much carbonic acid is disengaged during its extrication from
the leaves ; that the carbonic acid is the agent whereby it is
probably extracted and kept dissolved ; that ammonia is not
formed during the process; that the use of alkalies is to
destroy the attraction between the base and the carbonic

180 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

acid ; and that the vegetable base being thereby set at liberty-
combines with some colouring principle from the atmosphere,
forming therewith a coloured insoluble fecula, which falls to
the bottom and constitutes indigo."* Roxburgh first directed
attention to the fact, that it is possible to obtain indigo by
merely treating the plant with hot water, and then agitating
the infusion with air, from which it follows, that fermentation
is not an absolutely essential condition of the formation of
indigo-blue.

Chevreul,t who was the first chemist of any eminence who
examined the indigo-bearing plants and their constituents,
inferred from his analyses of the Isatis tinctoria and Indigo-
fera anil, that these plants contain indigo in the white or
reduced state, in the same state in which it exists in the
indigo vat ; that in this state it is held in solution by the
vegetable juices; and that when this solution is removed from
the plant, it is converted by the action of the atmospheric
oxygen into indigo-blue. The authority of so distinguished
an investigator as Chevreul, has had great weight with
chemists, and most persons have adopted his view without
question, though it is founded chiefly on the fact of the
colouring matter being deposited from a watery extract of the
plant, and of the only form in which it is known to be soluble
in water being that of reduced indigo.

According to Michelotti,t the extraction of indigo consists
simply in dissolving a compound of malic acid and indigo,
which is afterwards decomposed by the precipitants employed.

A few years after the appearance of Chevreul's memoirs,
Giobert, Professor of Chemistry at Turin, published a work on
WoadjII which enunciates ideas on this subject, far more nearly
approaching the truth, than those either of his predecessors

* Transactions of the Society of Arts, Vol. XXVIII.

t Annales de Chimie, 1 Ser., T. LXVI., p. 5; T. LXVIIl., p. 284.

X Journal de Physique. Avril, 1813.

II Traite sur le Pastel et I'Extraction de son Indigo. Paris, 1813.

FOBMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 181

or successors on the same field of investigation. The chief
conclusions at which he arrived, partly by experiment and
partly by reasoning, are contained in the following propo-
sitions: 1. Indigo-blue does not pre-exist in the plant, but
is formed by the operations, by means of which we believe
it to be extracted. 2. There exists in a small number of
plants a peculiar principle, different from all the known
proximate constituents of plants, and which has a tendency
to be converted into indigo ; this principle may be called
indigogene, 3. This principle differs from indigo in con-
taining an excess of carbon, of which it loses a portion in
passing into the slate of indigo-blue, by means of a small
quantity of oxygen which it takes up. 4. The loss of this
portion of carbon is caused by the latter undergoing combus-
tion, and being converted into carbonic acid. 5. It differs
in its properties from common indigo in being colourless, in
being soluble in water, and by its greater combustibility,
which causes it to undergo spontaneous combustion at the
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. 6. Its combusti-
bility is enhanced by heat and by combination with alkalies,
especially lime; it is diminished by the action of all acids,
even carbonic acid.

About the year 1839, the Polygonum tinctorium, an
indigo-bearing plant indigenous to China, became the sub-
ject of a series of investigations by several French chemists,
chiefly in order to ascertain whether this plant, if grown in
France, could be advantageously employed for the prepara-
tion of a dye to substitute foreign indigo, so as to obviate
the necessity of paying such large sums to foreign nations
for this article, a necessity which seems at all times to have
been a subject for extreme regret in France. Baudrimont
and Pelletier, after an examination of this plant, concurred
in the opinion of Chevreul, that the indigo is contained
in it as reduced indigo ; and the latter adduced in support
of this view an experiment, which consisted in treating fresh

1 82 Mil. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

leaves of the Polygonum with ether, taking care to exclude
the air, until the green colour had changed to white, when,
on exposure to the atmosphere, they speedily became blue.
Robiquet,* Colin, f Turpin,j: and Joly,|| on the other hand,
expressed a very decided conviction, that indigo-blue pre-
exists in the Polygonum tinctorium, but not in a free state ;
that it is combined with some organic substance or sub-
stances, which render it soluble in water, ether, and alcohol ;
and that it requires the operation of potent agencies in order
to destroy this combination and set the indigo at liberty.
Osmin Hervey,§ in a memoir on the Polygonum tinctorium,
which in some parts is rather obscure, inferred from his
experiments: 1. That indigotine exists in the leaves of
this plant in a state of combination with a resin. 2. That
this natural compound of indigo and resin contains both
white indigo and blue indigo, and of the latter a larger
proportion the older the leaves are. 3. That by the influ-
ence of certain organic substances, the indigo-blue is again
reduced to the colourless state, if the solution be effected
by means of water, without any destruction of the natural
compound taking place. Girardin and Preisser^ again re-
turned to Chevreul's view, that the colouring matter is
contained in the leaves of this plant in the form of reduced
indigo. Since the publication of these treatises, no new
ideas have, as far as I know, been promulgated by chemists
in reference to this subject.**

• Journal de Pharmacie, T. XXV., p. 62.

-|- Memoire sur la Renouee des Teinturiers. Paris, 1839. .
t Etudes microscopiques sur le gisement de la matiere bleue daus les feuilles
du Polygonum tiuctoriuno, Memoire lu a I'Academie des Sciences le 12 Novem-
bre, 1838.

11 Observations generales sur les plantes qui peuveut fournir des couleurs
bleues h la teinture. Montpellier, 1839.

§ Journal de Pharmacie, T. XXVI., p. 290.
t Ibid, p. 344.

• • I cannot refrain from expressing on the present occasion my regret, which
it probably shared by many others, at the want of a general chemical bibli-

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 183

It Will be seen that the opinions of the chemists, which I
have just shortly reviewed, are of three kinds, and may be
stated as follows : 1 . Indigo>blue exists ready formed in the
plants from which it is derived. 2. It is contained in these
plants in the form of reduced indigo. 3. It does not pre-
exist in the vegetable, but is formed subsequently to the ex-
traction of the latter by means of a process of fermentation,
a process which manifests itself by the evolution of gases of
various kinds. To each of these views very strong objec-
tions may be raised. If the colouring matter is formed at
once in the plant, it is difficult to conceive by what means it
comes to be dissolved by water, for no combination of indigo-
blue with any organic substance can be produced which is
soluble in water. If to this it be objected, that a compound
of this nature is produced by the plant and cannot after de-
composition be reproduced, then it is at once admitted that
indigo-blue is not contained as such within the vegetable.
That it cannot exist as reduced indigo is evident, since the
latter requires the presence of some alkali for its solution in
water, and the juice of most, if not all, indigo-bearing plants
is acid. It is difficult, moreover, to conceive how deoxidised
indigo, a body having so great an affinity for oxygen, can
exist in the interior of plants which we know are constantly
evolving that element. That the colouring matter is formed
by the process of fermentation to which the extract of the
plant is subjected, as it is the oldest, so it is the most pro-
bable view. Nevertheless, the fact that indigo may be pro-
cured from plants by mere infusion with hot water and

ography, comprising references to all the known works, treatises, papers, &c.
on chemical subjects written since the commencement of the modern era in
chemistry. In searching for the authorities referred to in this paper, I have
felt this want very sensibly. It is with some difficulty that the mere names of
all the works and memoirs relating to any special branch of the science, par-
ticularly such as have fallen into oblivion, are discovered. The only attempt to
supply this deficiency, and that only in regard to one department of chemistry,
is WolflF's Quellenliteratur der Organischen Chemie. Halle, 1846.

184 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

precipitation with lime water, without any of the usual signs
of fermentation being manifested, appears to militate against
this view. On one point all authorities seem to agree, viz.,
that the contact with oxygen is a necessary condition of the
formation, or at least precipitation of the indigo from the
watery extract.*

Such being the state of our knowledge on this rather ob-
scure department of chemical science, I resolved, though
without anticipating any very decided success, to endeavour
to throw a little more light on it. I was induced to do so
chiefly by the following consideration. The principal vege-
table colouring matters have now been discovered to be not
direct products of the vital energy of plants, but products of
decomposition of substances contained in the vegetable, which
are themselves mostly colourless. The formation of these
colouring matters takes place equally well out of the plant as
within it. Indeed, it is probable that it never happens with-
in the plant until decay has commenced, or at least until the
vital energy has begun to decline. The processes of decom-
position by which colouring matters are formed from other
substances are of two kinds. The first consists in the ab-
sorption of oxygen and the elimination of hydrogen in the
form of water; it is a process of decay {Verwesung. Liebig)
and requires the presence not only of oxygen but of some
alkali or other base. The second process is one which con-
sists in the splitting up of the original compound into two
or more simpler bodies, of which one or more are colouring
matters ; it is a process of fermentation, and may in general
be effected as well by the action of strong acids as by that of
ferments. The first process gives rise to colouring matters
of a very fugitive nature, such as the colouring matters of

• Gehlen is the only chemist who, as far as T am aware, has asserted that the
a{?itation with air in the manufacture of indigo may have for its object, not so
mwch the oxidation as the aggregation or separation of the particles of indigo
from the solution. Vide Schweigger's Journal, B. VI. 1812.

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 185

logwood and archil. Indeed, in this case the colouring
matter, if this name be applied merely to substances endowed
with a striking and positive colour, is only one of a long
chain of bodies succeeding one another, and is generally not
the last product of decomposition. The other process, of
which the formation of alizarine is an example, yields colour-
ing matters of a fixed and stable character, which are not
further changed by a continuance of 'the process to which
they owe their formation. Now if indigo-blue be a body
which is formed from some colourless substance existing in
the plant, we should infer a priori that the process by which
it is formed is one of fermentation or putrefaction, not re-
quiring the intervention of oxygen or of alkalies, a con-
clusion, however, so much at variance with the generally
received ideas on the subject of the formation of indigo-blue,
as to require the aid of very decisive experiments for its
establishment.

I shall now proceed to give an account of the experi-
ments which I have undertaken, with a view to elucidate this
subject.

The only plant cultivated in this country which is known
to yield indigo in any quantity is woad, Isatis tinctoria, and
as it was necessary to examine the indigo-bearing plant in a
fresh state and in considerable quantities, I had recourse to
this one for the purpose. Having procured 10 lbs. of good
French woad seed, I sowed it at the commencement of the
spring of last year on about half an acre of land. It was
sown in drills about two feet apart, each drill being pre-
viously well supplied with farm-yard manure. In a short
time the young plants appeared, and grew vigorously during
the summer months. Some of the plants bore flowers, and
ripened their seeds in the course of the autumn. At no time
during the whole progress of the growth were there any
visible indications of the presence of blue colouring matter
on the leaves or stems. Some of the ripe seeds only were
2 A

186 Mil. E. SCflUNCK ON THE

tinged with a dark purple colour, forming- a thin coating on
the exterior. The greater proportion of the plants, however,
bore leaves which did not exhibit the glaucous appearance
nor the fleshy consistency which, according to authors, are
characteristic of the cultivated variety of woad. They were,
on the contrary, of a bright grass-green and possessed but
little succulence, characters which belong rather to the wild
variety.

As soon as I could collect a small ^juantity of leaves, I
commenced my experiments. Having taken some leaves, 1
chopped them fine and then extracted them with boiling
water. The filtered liquid was light brown and transparent,
it had a bitter taste and an acid reaction. It deposited no
indigo-blue, however long it might be left exposed to the
atmosphere, and hence it might have been inferred that it
contained no indigo-blue. Nevertheless, a very simple expe-
riment suflSced to show that it was capable of yielding an
appreciable quantity of that colouring matter. On adding
to it sulphuric or muriatic acid and boiling, it became of a
<larker colour and deposited a quantity of dark brown, almost
black flocks. Now these flocks contained indigo-blue, for if
after collecting them on a filter and washing out the acid,
they were treated with boiling alcohol, they communicated
to the latter a bright blue colour, and on being treated with
a boiling alkaline solution of protoxide of tin, they gave a
yellow solution, which on exposure to the air became covered
with a thin blue film. A small quantity of finely chopped
woad leaves having been pounded in a mortar with water
until converted into a uniform green pulp, yielded on being
strained through calico a dark green opaque liquor. On
heating this liquor to near the boiling point the vegetable
albumen contained in it coagulated, carrying down with it
the green colouring matter. On now filtering through paper
a green coagulum was left on the filter, while a clear light
yellow liquid ran through. On adding acetate of lead to the

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 1 87

liquid a yellow precipitate fell, and on again filtering the
liquid ran through almost colourless. The lead precipitate
being decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, the filtered acid
liquid was boiled, when it gave a few black flocks, which,
however, contained no indigo-blue.* If, however, sulphuric
or muriatic acid in excess were added to the liquid filtered
from the lead precipitate, the liquid soon became green and
began to deposit indigo-blue even before it could be filtered
from the sulphate or chloride of lead, and after filtration and
boiling it yielded flocks containing an abundance of the
colouring matter. If acetate of lead was added to an extract
of woad leaves made either with hot or cold water, if the
precipitate thereby produced was separated by filtration and
ammonia was added to the filtrate, a pale yellow precipitate
fell. This precipitate having been decomposed with sul-
phuric acid, the filtered acid liquid gave on boiling flocks
containing indigo-blue, while the flocks obtained in a similar
manner by boiling with acid, the liquid filtered from this pre-
cipitate gave no indigo-blue. If this lead precipitate was
treated with a cold concentrated solution of carbonate of
soda, a yellow solution was obtained, which on being tried
as before with sulphuric acid afforded no indigo-blue, whilst
the precipitate on being treated with acid gave indigo-blue as
before. But if the lead precipitate was suspended in water
and a current of carbonic acid gas was passed for some time
through the liquid, it was completely decomposed, its colour
changed from yellow to white, and it now consisted almost
entirely of carbonate of lead, whilst the liquid had acquired
a yellowish colour, and on being boiled with acid deposited a
quantity of blue flocks, which consisted of indigo-blue in a
state of great purity, as they dissolved in boiling alcohol
with a beautiful blue colour, the alcohol depositing on cool-
ing crystalline scales, which were blue by transmitted, and

* If the acetate of lead is in the least degree contaminated with basic acetate,
it will he fonnd to precipitate some of the indigo-producing bodj.

188 MK. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

copper-coloured by reflected light. If instead of adding acid
to any of the solutions yielding indigo-blue, caustic soda
was first added in excess and the solution was left for a few
moments, and then boiled with an excess of acid, it merely
became brown without depositing any indigo-blue. Having
taken some finely chopped woad leaves, I pounded them in
a mortar'with cold alcohol. On filtering I obtained a clear
green solution, leaving on evaporation at a gentle heat a
green syrup, from which on the addition of water a quantity
of chlorophyll and fatty matter separated in drops. The
watery solution, which after filtration had only a yellowish
tinge, on being boiled with the addition of sulphuric acid
deposited a quantity of purple flocks, which were treated,
after filtration and washing with water, with successive por-
tions of boiling alcohol. The first portions of the alcohol
with which they were treated acquired a beautiful purple
colour, and the last portions a pure blue, each portion de-
positing on standing some flocks of a fine blue colour. The
green mass insoluble in water contained no indigo-blue.
Having carefully dried a few woad leaves, I reduced them
to powder and then treated them in a bottle with cold ether,
I obtained a dark green solution, which after being filtered
and evaporated spontaneously left a green syrupy residue,
from which water extracted as in the preceding case a sub-
stance, which by the action of boiling sulphuric acid yielded
an abundance of very pure indigo-blue.

By these and similar simple and easily performed experi-
ments, I was enabled to infer, with positive certainty, that
the Isatis tinctoria contains a substance easily soluble in
hot and cold water, alcohol, and ether, which, by the action
of strong mineral acids, yields indigo-blue; that the forma-
tion of the colouring matter from it can be eifected without
the intervention of oxygen or of alkalies, and that the latter,
indeed, if allowed to act on it before the application of acid,
entirely prevent the formation of colouring matter, and it

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 189

now only remained to separate it from the other constituents
of the plant and ascertain its properties and composition.
But, though I arrived at the conclusion just stated without
any great difficulty, I found that the isolation and prepara-
tion in a state of purity of the substance whose existence
had been indicated by these experiments, constituted a pro-
blem of no easy solution. I soon discovered that this body
is extremely liable to decompositon, so much so, as com-
pletely to justify the assertion of an author, who in speaking
of the difficulties of the manufacture of indigo, says that
" nothing is more fugitive and more liable to be acted on by
destructive agencies, than the colouring principle of the
indigoferse." * The continued action of water, even at a
moderate, but especially at a high temperature, as well as
that of alkalies, I found to induce a complete change in the
body which I was endeavouring to isolate. The fact of its
being completely precipitated from the watery extract of
"woad by means of acetate of lead and ammonia, and of the
lead compound being readily decomposed by means of a
current of carbonic acid gas, seemed at first to lead to an
easy method of preparation. But on extracting a large
quantity of the plant with cold water, adding sugar of lead
to precipitate the albumen and green colouring matter, and
then adding ammonia to the filtered liquid, I found that the
precipitate produced by ammonia, though the alkali was not
used in excess, contained the substance in an altered state.
This change, the nature of which I shall treat of presently,
is readily indicated by boiling some solution of the substance
in water with sulphuric or muriatic acid, when it will be
found that black flocks are deposited, which when treated
with boiling alcohol impart to the latter no trace of blue,
but a pure brown colour, a great part of the flocks remaining
undissolved by the alcohol in the shape of a black powder.
<rhis change is readily effiected in the watery solution, either
• Perrottet, Art de riodigotier, p. 110.

1 90 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

by the addition of alkali or by the temperature of the solu-
tion rising to any great extent above that of the atmosphere.
When dissolved in alcohol or ether, on the other hand, the
substance exhibits a much greater resistance to change than
when dissolved in water. I, therefore, soon abandoned all
idea of extracting the plant with the latter menstruum, and
had recourse to alcohol and ether. I shall refrain from giving
an account of the numerous experiments I made, which led
to no successful issue, but shall briefly describe the three
methods of preparation, which were attended with more or
less advantageous results.

All three methods consist in extracting with alcohol or
ether. But, before commencing, it is necessary that the
plant should be thoroughly dried. The leaves alone being
gathered, which should only be done when not moistened
with rain or dew, are spread out in a thin layer in some
warm, dry place, as, for instance, near a stove or in a dry-
ing room. All yellow or decayed leaves should be rejected.
When they are perfectly dry they are carefully examined.
All those leaves which during the drying have become
brown, a result which takes place when the heat has been
too great, are cast aside, and only those are retained which
have a pale green colour. These must now be reduced to
a coarse powder, an operation easily effected if the leaves
be taken while still warm, as they are then quite brittle,
whereas if allowed to remain exposed to the atmosphere
they attract moisture again, and become flaccid and difficult
to pulverize. The powder must be kept warm until it is
used.

I. The leaves thus reduced to powder being put in a dis-
placement apparatus, such as is used for the preparation of
tannic acid, are extracted with cold alcohol. The perco-
lating liquid is dark green. The extraction is continued
until the liquid runs through of a light green colour. Th^
alcoholic extract is now distilled in a retort, until a great part

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 1 9 1

of the alcohol has passed over. It is then evaporated in a
basin at a moderate temperature. During evaporation a
large quantity of chlorophyll and fatty matter separates as
a green glutinous mass, which is to be separated by filtra-
tion. The filtered liquid, which is brown, is to be further
evaporated until it leaves a thick brown syrup. 1'his syrup
being poured into a flask is redissolved in warm alcohol,
which it does with some difficulty on account of the change
which the substance has undergone in consequence of the
heat employed in distilling the alcohol. To the warm so-
lution there is now added several times its volume of ether.
The ether renders the solution milky and precipitates a large
quantity of matter, which collects at the bottom of the flask
into a dark brown syrup. After this syrup has completely
settled, the ether, which is also dark brown, is distilled.
When the greatest part has distilled over, water is added to
the syrupy residue. A quantity of brown fatty matter is
precipitated, which is filtered. The filtered liquid is light
yellow, and contains the substance almost in a state of
purity. Should a further purification, however, be neces-
sary, this is best efi'ected by agitating the liquid in the cold
with hydrated oxide of copper. A green solution is ob-
tained which is filtered, and a current of sulphuretted hydro-
gen gas being passed through it, it is again filtered from
the precipitated sulphuret of copper, and evaporated either
spontaneously or in vacuo over sulphuric acid. This method
is attended with considerable loss, as the whole of the brown
syrup insoluble in ether, the quantity of which is not trifling,
is formed at the expense of the indigo-producing body.

II. The second method consists in simply extracting the
pounded woad leaves with ether in a displacement apparatus ;
distilling the greatest part of the ether; evaporating the
remaining green liquid at a moderate temperature ; adding
a little cold water to the syrupy residue ; separating the
insoluble chlorophyll and other matters by filtration and

192 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

evaporating the yellow liquid as before, either spontaneously
in the air or in vacuo. If purification should be necessary,
it is effected, as in the preceding case, by means of oxide
of copper. I endeavoured to modify this method by agi-
tating the etherial extract with cold water, but without any
advantage resulting, as the substance was not entirely re-
moved from the ether by means of water, a considerable
quantity still remaining dissolved in the ether.

III. The pounded woad leaves are extracted in a dis-
placement apparatus as before with cold alcohol. To the
green alcoholic extract there is added an alcoholic solution of
acetate of lead, which produces a pale green precipitate, the
precipitation being then completed by the addition of a little
ammonia. The precipitate which is bulky is placed on a
filter and washed with cold alcohol, until the percolating
liquid instead of being dark green is only light green, and
the excess of acetate of lead and ammonia have been re-
moved. It is then suspended in water and a current of
carbonic acid gas is passed through the liquid. The pre-
cipitate gradually becomes paler in colour and at last almost
white, and loses considerably in bulk, while the liquid ac-
quires a yellow colour. The latter being filtered, sulphu-
retted hydrogen is passed through it to precipitate a little
oxide of lead contained in it, and being again filtered is
evaporated as before either in the air or in vacuo over sul-
phuric acid.

Of these three methods I prefer the last, as being more
expeditious than the first and less costly than the second.
One precaution must not be forgotten, that of never in the
last instance attempting to evaporate the solution at a higher
temperature than the ordinary one. If the attempt be made,
the substance will undergo an entire change, as I have re-
peatedly discovered to my cost. This change consists in
the substance taking up the elements of water. It takes
place as well in vacuo as in the air. I have no reason to

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 193

believe that the oxygen of the atmosphere has any influence
in producing decomposition, at least at the usual tempera-
ture, and though I have generally in the last instance eva-
porated in vacuo, I think the evaporation may just as well
be conducted in the aiN Notwithstanding all precautions,
however, it is difficult to avoid some portion of the substance
becoming changed during evaporation.

The body, the preparation of which I have just described,
I propose to call Indican* By evaporation of its watery
solution it is obtained in the form of a yellow transparent
glutinous residue, which can only be rendered dry by spread-
ing it out in thin layers and leaving it for some time in
vacuo over sulphuric acid. On attempting to dry it in the
waterbath, it immediately undergoes a complete alteration.
Its taste is slightly bitter and nauseous. Its solutions have
always an acid reaction, but whether this reaction is peculiar
to it in an absolutely pure state, I am unable to say. When
heated in a tube it swells up and gives fumes which condense
to a brown oily sublimate, in which after some time a white
crystalline substance is formed. When boiled with caustic
alkali it evolves ammonia. Its compounds have a yellow
colour. With caustic alkalies, baryta, and lime water, the
watery solution turns of a bright yellow. The alcoholic
solution gives with sugar of lead a bright sulphur-yellow
precipitate, which is increased by the addition of ammonia.
The watery solution gives no precipitate with acetate ot
lead, until ammonia is also added. Its most remarkable and
interesting property, is that of yielding indigo-blue when

• Ab the termination an has not yet been applied by chemists to designate
any peculiar class of bodies, I propose to restrict it to the names of such sub-
stances of a complex constitution, like rubian, as are direct products of the
vital energy of plants or animals, and which by their decomposition give ris«
to one or more series of organic compounds of a simpler constitution. In
applying it, it will of course be necessary, carefully to ascertain, that the sub-
stance to be named is really a proximate constituent of some organism and not
itself the result of any process of decomposition either within or out of th«
organism, that it is an educt and not a product.

2 B

194 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

treated with strong acids. If sulphuric or muriatic acid be
added to its watery solution, no change whatever is per-
ceptible for some time. But on heating to near the boiling
point, the solution immediately becomes sky-blue. On boil-
ing for a short time, the solution becomes opalescent. On
continuing to boil it acquires a purple colour, and then,
provided the solution is tolerably concentrated, a copious de-
posit consisting of dark purplish-blue flocks is formed. The
liquid filtered from these flocks retains a yellow colour and
contains a peculiar species of sugar, to which I shall return
presently. The flocks themselves do not consist of indigo-
blue only. After being collected on a filter and washed with
water they appear of a dark purple colour, the filter also
acquiring during washing a purple tinge. If they be now
treated with alcohol, a part dissolves even in the cold, but
to a greater extent on heating, the alcohol acquiring a
beautiful purple colour. If the flocks remaining undissolved
be treated after filtration with an additional quantity of boil-
ing alcohol, the latter acquires a more blueish tinge. Each
succeeding portion of alcohol with which the flocks are
boiled acquires more and more of a blue colour, until at last
the colour is a pure indigo-blue. There remains in general
a large quantity of indigo-blue undissolved, and the alcoholic
liquids on standing deposit the colouring matter contained
in them in the shape of bright blue flocks. The purple
alcoholic solution leaves on evaporation a reddish-brown
residue, which bears the greatest resemblance to, if it is not
identical with, the indigo-red of Berzelius. Like the latter
substance it is quite insoluble in caustic alkalies, and gives
when heated in a tube purple fumes and a small quantity of
a white crystalline sublimate. I propose to call this sub-
stance Indiruhine. I have found that it is invariably formed
along with indigo-blue whenever indican is decomposed by
acids. Nevertheless, the quantity of indigo-blue produced
is always relatively larger when the indican is pure, than

FORMATION OF INDIGO- BLUE. 195

when the latter has begun to change. Of the two colouring
matters, the indigo-blue is always the first to be formed. If
sulphuric or muriatic acid be added to a solution of indican
in the cold, and the mixture be allowed to stand in the cold
for some time, a slight precipitate is gradually deposited
which consists almost entirely of indigo-blue. It is only
after boiling for some time that the formation of indirubine
commences, when the colour of the liquid changes from blue
to purple. The constant occurrence of a red colouring
matter both in indigo and in the indigo-bearing plants along
with indigo-blue, a fact which has been repeatedly observed,
has led chemists to suspect that there must be some neces-
sary connection bet«veen the two. From the experiments
just described, it follows that in the case of woad at least
they are both products of decomposition of one substance.
If nitric acid be added to a watery solution of indican, a
slight deposit of indigo-blue is formed, which of course dis-
appears immediately on heating the liquid.

There is another very remarkable property of indican,
which I have to describe, a property, the knowledge of
which will probably throw great light on the process of ma-
nufacturing indigo. If indican in the form of syrup, as
obtained by evaporation of the watery solution, be heated
for some time in the waterbath, or if its watery solution be
boiled, or even moderately heated, it undergoes a complete
metamorphosis. If the solution be now evaporated it leaves
a yellow syrupy residue, not to be distinguished in appear-
ance from indican itself. It will be found, however, to have
become insoluble in ether, and not easily soluble in alcohol.
If ether be added to its solution in alcohol, the solution be-
comes milky and deposits oily drops which collect at the
bottom of the vessel to a yellow or brown syrup, the un-
changed indican, if there be any present, remaining dissolved
in the ether. In its other outward properties, it has not
undergone any marked change. In the next stage of the

196 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

process the indican acquires a brown colour and becomes
quite insoluble in cold alcohol, but it still dissolves, though
with difficulty, in boiling alcohol. By continuing the pro-
cess the substance acquires a dark brown colour, and its
watery solution now gives a copious precipitate with acetate
of lead. As soon as the indican has entered even on the
first stage of this process of change, it ceases to give the
least trace of indigo-blue with acids. A short period occurs
at the commencement of the process, during which the
watery solution when boiled with sulphuric acid deposits
purple flocks consisting of indirubine only. Afterwards,
however, it yields other products, which are always the same
at every subsequent stage of the process. If the watery
solution be then boiled with the addition of sulphuric or
muriatic acid, it becomes in the first instance of a darker
colour, and after considerable boiling deposits slowly a quan-
tity of dark brown, almost black flocks. The liquid filtered
from these flocks contains sugar, just as in the case of
indican itself. The flocks themselves generally consist of
two bodies. If they be collected on a filter, washed with
water and then treated with boiling alcohol, a part dissolves
with a brown colour, and after filtration and evaporation is
left as a dark brown shining resinous substance. This sub-
stance melts in boiling water into brown coherent masses.
It is completely dissolved and decomposed by boiling nitric
acid. It dissolves in ammonia with a brown colour, and the
solution gives brown precipitates with the chlorides of barium
and calcium. It is completely precipitated from its alcoholic
solution by sugar of lead, the precipitate being brown. I
propose to call this body Indiretine. That portion of the
dark brown flocks which is insoluble in boiling alcohol, dis-
solves in caustic alkalies with a dark brown colour, and is
precipitated by acids in black flocks. As it bears some re-
semblance in its outward properties to humus, I shall call it

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 197

Indihumine, Its similarity to the indigo-brown of Berzelius
is so great, as almost to lead me to suspect that it is the
same body. Whether this is the case or not, can only be
ascertained by analysis. Sometimes the brown substance
formed by the action of acids on modified indican is entirely
soluble in boiling alcohol and contains no indihumine, but
under what conditions this takes place, I am unable to say.
The change which indican undergoes during this process
consists merely in its absorbing the elements of water. It
proceeds in vacuo as well as in the air, provided the tem-
perature be raised to a certain degree, which proves that
oxygen plays no part in the process. It is apparently
effected instantly when indican comes into contact with
alkalies in its watery solution, though the alcoholic solution
may be made alkaline, with ammonia at least, without any
alteration taking place. It is certainly a most remarkable
circumstance, that by merely taking up the elements of water
indican should be converted into a substance, which when
exposed to the action of acids yields no longer indigo-blue
and its allied red colouring matter, but bodies of an entirely
distinct nature which have none of the properties of colour-
ing matters, and it goes far to prove that indigo-blue does
not pre-exist in indican even as a copula, but is merely con-
tained in it potentially. That the view I have taken of this
metamorphosis is the correct one, is proved by a singular
observation which I once accidentally made. Having on
one occasion obtained a dilute solution of indican, I tried a
small quantity of it by boiling with sulphuric acid, and
ascertained that it gave indigo-blue and indirubine. But on
heating the whole quantity to the boiling point with acid, I
obtained instead of these two bodies a substance dissolving
in alcohol with a brown colour. It was evident that the
indican, in consequence probably of the solution being very
dilute, had taken up the elements of water before the acid

198 ME. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

could act on it, and that the latter then gave rise to the pro-
ducts of decomposition peculiar to the hydrate. In general,
however, the nature of the flocks which are deposited on
boiling a watery solution of indican with sulphuric or mu-
riatic acid afibrds a very good test of the purity of the
indican. A solution is boiled in a test tube partly filled,
and the flocks which are formed collected on a filter, washed
with water, and then treated with successive portions of boil-
ing alcohol until no more will dissolve. If to the first
portions of alcohol a purple colour be imparted, and a fine
purplish-blue to the succeeding ones, then the indican may be
considered pure. If the colour of the alcohol is brown, and
if black flocks are left undissolved, the substance has un-
dergone a complete change.

The sugar which is formed when acids act either on
indican or its hydrates, is obtained in a state of purity in
the following manner. If sulphuric acid be employed, which
is preferable to muriatic, the acid liquid is filtered from the
flocks consisting of indigo-blue and other products of de-
composition, and the acid is removed by means of an excess
of acetate of lead. If to the liquid filtered from the sulphate
of lead, an excess of ammonia is added, the sugar is pre-
cipitated in combination with oxide of lead. The precipi-
tate, which is usually yellow and bulky, is after washing
decomposed with sulphuretted hydrogen, and from the liquid
filtered from the sulphuret of lead the sugar is again pre-
cipitated with acetate of lead and ammonia. The second
precipitate which is usually almost white is again decom-
posed with sulphuretted hydrogen, and the filtered liquid is
evaporated over sulphuric acid, when it leaves a colourless
or only slightly yellow syrup, which has the following pro-
perties. It has a faintly sweet taste. When heated it swells
up emitting the usual smell of burning sugar, and then
burns leaving much charcoal. With concentrated sulphuric

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 199

acid it strikes a dark red colour, which on heating becomes
black. Boiling nitric acid decomposes it with an evolution
of nitrous fumes. When its watery solution is boiled with
caustic soda it becomes yellow and deposits a few brown
flocks. With sulphate of copper and caustic soda it gives
a blue solution, which on boiling becomes yellow and then
deposits suboxide of copper. If nitrate of silver be added
to its watery solution, while boiling, a little metallic silver
is precipitated, and when ammonia is added a further reduc-
tion takes place, accompanied by the formation of a metallic
mirror. On adding chloride of gold to the watery solution
and boiling, a quantity of metallic gold is deposited in bright
scales and spangles; and on adding caustic alkali to the
filtered solution an additional quantity of gold is precipitated
as a purple powder. The watery solution gives no precipi-
tates either with neutral or basic acetate of lead, only on
adding ammonia does any precipitation take place. It is
soluble in alcohol, but not in ether. In its outward pro-
perties, therefore, this sugar does not differ in any marked
degree from other kinds of sugar obtained by the decom-
position of complex organic bodies, such as that derived
from rubian. In its composition, however, it differs essen-
tially from other species of sugar, as I shall presently show.

I have hitherto been unable, I regret to say, to ascertain
the exact composition of indican by direct experiment. On
account of its deliquescent nature, and its so readily under-
going change when heated, it was impossible to subject it
to analysis in a free state; and I was, therefore, obliged
to have recourse to the lead compound. But when this
compound is precipitated from a watery solution by means
of acetate of lead and ammonia, it no longer contains un-
changed indican, but one of the bodies formed by the combi-
nation of the latter with water. It is necessary, however,
to use water in some stage of the preparation, for if the lead

200 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

compound be precipitated from an alcoholic extract of woad
with acetate of lead and ammonia, if the precipitate be de-
composed, after washing with alcohol, by suspending it in
alcohol and passing a stream of carbonic acid through the
liquid, and the substance be again precipitated from the
filtered liquid by means of acetate of lead and ammonia,
the lead compound thus formed will be found to contain
besides indican a quantity of fatty matter, from which the
indican can only be separated by means of water, and its
analysis leads, as I have ascertained, to no satisfactory
results. It is, therefore, necessary to evaporate a watery
solution of indican spontaneously, to dissolve the residue in
alcohol, and precipitate with acetate of lead and ammonia,
taking care to leave a slight excess of indican in solution.
The following analysis was made with a specimen of the
lead compound prepared in this manner, the indican itself
having been obtained by the third method described above.

I, 1.4340 grm. of the compound dried in vacuo and burnt
with oxide of copper and chlorate of potash gave 0.9600
grm. carbonic acid and 0.2860 water.

1.2170 grm. gave 0.1700 grm. chloride of platinum and
ammonium.

0.3790 grm. gave 0.3080 grm. sulphate of lead.

These numbers lead to the following composition : —

Eqs. Calculated. Found.

Carbon 52 312 18.67 18.25

Hydrogen 35 35 2.09 2.21

Nitrogen 1 14 0.83 0.87

Oxygen 38 304 18.23 18.88

Oxide of Lead 9 1005.3 60.18 5979

1670.3 -100.00 100.00
Notwithstanding the care, however, which I took in the

FOBMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 201

preparation of this specimen, I found that it did not con-
tain unchanged indican, as a little of it when tested with
sulphuric acid gave no indigo-blue. It is, nevertheless, the
purest specimen of the lead compound which I have analyzed ;
that is to say, the substance combined with the oxide of lead
contained the least amount of hydrogen and oxygen.

The next analysis which I shall give, places in a striking
light the effect which alkalies exert on indican. I took somfe
of the same solution of indican which I had employed for
the preceding analysis, and which I found to give, when a
little of it was boiled with acid, very pure indigo-blue; but
instead of evaporating it I added a large quantity of alcohol
to it, and then precipitated with acetate of lead and ammonia.
The precipitate no longer contained unchanged indican, and
the substance combined with the oxide of lead differed in
composition from that of the preceding analysis, by contain-
ing the elements of two equivalents more of water. The
third analysis was performed with a lead compound made in
the same way as that of the first analysis, but from a
specimen of indican prepared by the first method. The
composition I found to be exactly the same as that of the
compound of the second analysis.

II. 1.0960 grm. dried in vacuo and burnt with oxide of
copper and chlorate of potash gave 0.7060 grm. carbonic
acid and 0.2020 water.

1.5600 grm. gave 0.1880 grm. chloride of platinum and
ammonium.

0.8930 grm. gave 0.7520 grm. sulphate of lead.

III. 1.1000 grm. gave 0.7135 grm. carbonic acid and
0.2050 water.

1.8350 grm. gave 0.2260 grm. chloride of platinum and
ammonium.

0.5710 grm. gave 0.4770 grm. sulphate of lead.

2 C

202 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

From these numbers I deduced the following composi-
tion : —

Eqs. Calculated. II. III.

Carbon 52 312 17.33 17.56 17.69

Hydrogen 37 37 2.05 2.04 2.07

Nitrogen 1 14 0.77 0.75 0.77

Oxygen 40 320 17.80 17.69 18.01

Oxide of Lead... 10 1117 62.05 61.96 61.46

1800 100.00 100.00 100.00

After deducting the oxide of lead, the amount of which is
unusually large for a compound of definite constitution, the
organic substance combined with it has the following com-
position : —

Eqs. Calculated. II. III.

Carbon 52 312 45.68 46.16 45.90

Hydrogen 37 37 5.41 5.36 5.37

Nitrogen 1 14 2.04 1.97 1.99

Oxygen 40 320 46.87 46.51 46.74

683 100.00 100.00 100.00

An analysis which I made of a lead compound, prepared
directly from a watery extract of woad by precipitating with
acetate of lead, filtering and then adding ammonia to the
filtered liquid, gave a composition agreeing pretty well with
the formula C52 H43 NO46 + 13 PbO.

It appears, therefore, that the organic substances con-
tained in these lead compounds differ from one another
merely by the elements of water; and it may hence be in-
ferred, with a great degree of probability, that indican itself
in a state of purity differs in composition from them merely
by containing the elements of several equivalents of water
less. Assuming its composition to be represented by the
formula 052 H33 NOgg, it must be shown how this formula
explains the formation of indigo-blue. Before this can be

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 203

done, however, it is necessary to know the composition of
the sugar which is always formed simultaneously with the
indigo-blue. The lead compound of the sugar prepared as
above described, and dried in vacuo, was analyzed with the
following results : —

I. 1.0580 grm. burnt with chromate of lead gave 0.4550
grm. carbonic acid and 0.1670 water.

0.7G20 grm. gave 0.7490 grm. sulphate of lead.

II. 1.0960 grm. after being dried in vacuo for some time
longer gave 0.4740 grm. carbonic acid and 0.1640 water.

0.6420 grm. gave 0.6370 grm. sulphate of lead.
These numbers lead to the following composition : —

Eqs. Calculated. I. II.

Carbon 12 72 11.69 11.72 11.79

Hydrogen 9 9 1.46 1.75 1.66

Oxygen 11 88 14.30 14.21 13.55

Oxide of Lead... 4 446.8 72.55 72.32 73.00

615.8 100.00 100.00 100.00

If the formula of the lead compound is C12 Hg On + 4 PbO,
it is probable that the sugar in an uncombined state has
the formula C12 Hjo O12. It diflfers, therefore, from other
kinds of sugar by containing less hydrogen than is necessary
to form water with the oxygen. Its formula is, however,
perfectly in accordance with the one which I have adopted
for indican, viz., C52 H33 NO^e. If we suppose the latter to
take up two equivalents of water, it will then simply split
up into I equivalent of indigo-blue and 3 equivalents of
sugar, as will be seen by the following equation: —

1 eq. Indican C52 H33 N Oge) _JC,6 H5 N Oj 1 eq. Indigo-blue

2 eqs. Water Ha O2 J (C38 Hgo O36 3 eqs. Sugar.

CMH35NO38 C58H35NO38

I assume that the composition of the blue colouring matter
derived from indican is the same as that of indigo-blue, since

204 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

an examination of the properties of the former leaves little
doubt concerning their identity. I regret not having as yet
been able to ascertain by analysis, whether this is the case
or not, as I have devoted the whole of the material at my
disposal to an investigation of the properties and composition
of indican itself.

I also assume that indican in undergoing decomposition
with acids splits up immediately into I equivalent of indigo-
blue and 3 equivalents of sugar. It is, however, possible
that these three equivalents of sugar may not be eliminated
all at once ; and from one analysis which I made, I should
conclude that they separated successively. Having ex-
tracted some dried woad leaves with cold ether, I poured
the etherial extract into a large bottle, and agitated it with
about half its volume of cold water. The ether was poured
off, and the watery liquid was employed again for agitation
with several successive portions of etherial extract of woad.
It acquired at last a dark yellow colour. The ether con-
tained in it was removed by spontaneous evaporation, and
it was then evaporated under a bell over sulphuric acid.
At first it yielded indigo-blue when boiled with sulphuric
acid; but the evaporation having been conducted in too
warm a place, the indican contained in it became changed,
and it ceased to give blue flocks with acids. After the
evaporation was completed there was left a brown syrupy
residue, which was redissolved in alcohol. Acetate of lead
produced in the alcoholic solution a cream-coloured preci-
pitate which was separated by filtration, and on adding a
small quantity of ammonia to the filtered liquid, a cream-
coloured precipitate again fell, which was collected on a
filter, washed with alcohol, and dried in vacuo. On ana-
lyzing it I obtained the following results : —

0.3705 grra. burnt with oxide of copper and chlorate of
potash gave 0.2670 grm. carbonic acid and 0.0730 water.

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 205

0.3800 grra. gave 0.0680 grm. chloride of platinum and
ammonium.

0.2680 grm, gave 0.2160 grm. sulphate of lead.
In 100 parts it contained, therefore, '

Carbon 19.65

Hydrogen 2.18

Nitrogen 1.12

Oxygen 17.75

Oxide of Lead 59.30

100.00

After deducting the oxide of lead, the amount of which
stands in no simple relation to that of the other consti-
tuents, the organic substance combined with the oxide of
lead will be found to have a composition expressed by
the formula C40 Hge NO27, ^^ will be seen by the following
calculation : —

Eqs. Calculated. Found.

Carbon 40 240 48.38 48.28

Hydrogen 26 26 5.24 5.35

Nitrogen 1 14 2.82 2.75

Oxygen 27 216 43.56 43.62

496 100.00 100.00

This body is, therefore, formed from indican by the latter
taking up 3 equivalents of water and then losing 1 equiva-
lent of sugar, as will be evident from the following equa-
tion : —

1 eq. Indican Cgj H33 NOje ) TC^o ^26 ^Og,

3 eqs. Water H3 O3 ) (CiaHjo O12 1 eq. Sugar.

CoHaeNOao C^ll^^NO»

It is perfectly conceivable that an additional equivalent of
sugar may separate from the body C40 H^ NO,; before the

206 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE

decomposition is finally completed; that is to say, that there
exists another intermediate body containing 28 equivalents
of carbon.

Of the red colouring matter, which I have called indi-
rubine, I have not yet obtained a sufficient quantity for
analysis.

I have several times submitted indihumine, obtained on
different occasions, to analysis, but without being able to
arrive at any positive conclusion regarding its composition.
The difficulty of doing so arises from the circumstance of
this substance forming compounds with alkalies and other
bases which are not completely decomposed by acids. The
analyses which I have made agree best with the formula
Ci6 He NOs. If this be the correct formula, it differs in
composition from indigo-blue by the elements of three equi-
valents of water, just as the body or bodies from which it is
formed differ from indican by containing the elements of
several equivalents more water.

The analyses of indiretine led to more definite results.
The substance was prepared from indican, which had under-
gone the alteration of which I have several times spoken, by
treating it with boiling sulphuric acid, collecting the dark
brown deposit which was formed, on a filter, washing out the
acid, treating with boiling alcohol, filtering from the indi-
humine which remained undissolved, and evaporating the
alcoholic solution to dryness.

I. 0.4420 grm. dried in the waterbath and burnt with
oxide of copper and chlorate of potash gave 0.9930 grm.
carbonic acid and 0.2100 water.

0.5470 grm. gave 0.3415 grm. chloride of platinum and
ammonium.

II. 0.5370 grm. of another preparation gave 1.2130 grm.
carbonic acid and 0.2675 water.

0.8780 grm. gave 0.4320 grm. chloride of platinum and
ammonium.

I.
61.27

II.
61.60

III.
61.16

5.27

5.53

5.71

3.92

3.09

29.54

29.78

FORMATION OF INDIGO-BLUE. 207

III. 0.2760 grm. of a third preparation gave 0.6190 grm.
carbonic acid and 0.1420 water.

These numbers correspond with the following composi-
tion : —

Eqs. Calculated.

Carbon... 36 216 61.02

Hydrogen 20 20 5.64

Nitrogen.. 1 14 3.95

Oxygen... 13 J^ 29.39

354 100.00 100.00 100.00

Assuming C36 H20 NO13 to be the correct formula for indi-
retine, then the formation of this substance from indican, or
rather from its hydrates, can only be explained by supposing
that carbonic acid is evolved during the process. If we
take, for instance, the substance represented by the formula
C52 H37 NO40, which gives indiretine when treated with
acids, we may suppose it to split up into 1 equivalent of
indiretine, 1 equivalent of sugar, 4 equivalents of carbonic
acid, and 7 equivalents of water, as will be seen by the
following equation : —

Cgg H20 NO13 1 eq. Indiretine. •

t.52 «37 ^^^40- )^^ Q^ 4 ^^^ Carbonic Acid.

H7 O7 7 eqs. Water.
C52 H37 NO40

I have certainly not observed the disengagement of car-
bonic acid during the formation of indiretine, but the evo-
lution of gas might easily elude observation during the
long-continued boiling, which is necessary for the production
of this substance.

The want of material has, for the present, interrupted the
further prosecution of my experiments. As soon as I shall
have obtained an additional quantity of the fresh plant, it is

208 MR. E. SCHUNCK ON THE, &c.

my intention to continue them. The action of acids on
indican requires still further examination, and the effects
produced by ferments and other agents remain to be inves-
tigated. I also propose to examine other indigo-bearing
plants, in order to ascertain whether they contain indican
or not.

The results of the present investigation may be summed
up in the following propositions : —

1. The Isatis tinctoria does not contain indigo-blue ready
formed, either in the blue or colourless state.

2. The formation of the blue colouring matter in watery
extracts of the plant is neither caused, nor promoted by, the
action of oxygen or of alkalies.

3. Indigo-blue cannot be said to exist in any state of
combination in the juices of the plant, it is merely con-
tained in them potentially.

209

X. — On the Permian Beds of the North- West of England,
By Edward W. Binney, F.G.S.

[Read March 20th, 1855.]

My observations on these strata will be confined to such
sections as I have met with in the counties of Lancaster,
Chester, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and York.

The permian beds, as is well known, constitute the highest
portion of the palaeozoic rocks, comprising that part of the
earth's crust which lies between the carboniferous formation
and the trias, and were first named by Sir Roderick Impey
Murchison after a province in Russia, Perm, where they are
met with on a grand scale. Long before the date of Sir
Roderick's work on Russia, however, Professor Sedgwick had
most ably and carefully described these deposits, and shewn
their true relation to the underlying carboniferous and over-
lying new red sandstone groups, in his admirable paper on
the Magnesian Limestone of the North of England, published
in vol. in. (2nd series) of the Transactions of the Geolo-
gical Society. The same author has also contributed other
valuable information on the permian beds of the north-west of
England, contained in several papers published by the Geo-
logical Society.*

* See vol. IV. (2nd series) of the Transactions of the Geological Society of
London, and vol. VIII., page 36, of the same society's Quarterly Journal.

2 D

210 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

Sir R. I. Murchison, in his Silurian System, has most
ably described the permian beds of Shropshire.

Mr. Beete Jukes, in his paper on the Geology of the South
Staffordshire Coal Fields, printed in vol. I., part II., of the
Records of the School of Mines, has given much useful in-
formation on the permian beds of that district, and shewn that
they exist in Staffordshire of far greater thickness, and are of
much more importance than they had hitherto been supposed
to be.

Professor Ramsay, at the late meeting of the British Asso-
ciation, in Liverpool, announced that he had found evidence
of glacial action in the shape of scored rocks in the conglo-
merates of this group ; and it has been long known that beds
of volcanic ash have been met with in it.

Professor King, of Queen's College, Galway, in his valu-
able Monograph of the Permian Fossils of England, published
by the Palseontographical Society, has not only carefully
classed and arranged what was previously known on this sub-
ject, but he has supplied us with much new and interesting
information.

In three papers of my own, namely, a Sketch of the Geo-
logy of Manchester and its vicinity, published in the first
volume of the Transactions of the Manchester Geological
Society ; a Report on the Excavation made at the junction
of the lower new red sandstone with the coal measures at
CoUyhurst, near Manchester, published in the thirteenth
Report of the Meetings of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science ; and on the relation of the new red
sandstone to the carboniferous strata, published in volume II.
of the Quarterly Journal of the London Geological Society,
some further information has been given to the public .

Notwithstanding all that has been published on the subject,
however, little can be said to be known of the permian beds
of the north-west of England; therefore, in giving to the

OF THE NOKTU-WEST OF ENGLAND. 211

society what information I possess relative to these deposits,
I shall not be deterred from doing so by the fragmentary con-
dition in which it at present is.

Most of the geological maps now before the public, shew
the permian beds in a well marked line, bounding the upper
coal field and separating the latter from the trias ; and a
stranger unacquainted with the subject, except from the in-
formation he had derived from maps and books, would expect
to find these deposits occupying nearly as marked a character
in the north-west counties of England, as they do in the
magnificient escarpment of magnesian limestone, extending'
from the Tyne to a little north of the town of Nottingham.
However, when he comes to examine for himself, he will
soon find that it is by no means an easy matter even to get a
glimpse of the beds, much' less to follow them over a hundred
miles of country.

The great importance of these deposits, constituting as they
do the upper boundary of our valuable coal fields, and oiften,
with the trias, hiding them from our view, is well known, and,
therefore, every fact connected with them, although unin-
teresting it may at first sight appear, ought to be treasured
up and preserved as of national importance. Notwithstanding
all the diligence that may be used in carefully collecting and
registering facts, it is to be feared that many years must
elapse, before a perfectly correct map of the permian beds of
the north-west of England can be attempted to be made with
success.

The vast accumulations of drift which cover the district,
no doubt, in some measure, hide the permian like other
deposits from our view, but I am led to believe that the un-
conformability of the permian with the lowest member of the
trias (the upper new red sandstone), is the chief cause why
the former is so little seen.

212 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

The trias beds of Lancashire and Cheshire may be classed,
in the descending order, as follow, namely : —

1. Upper red marls, comprising according to Mr. Ormerod* —

Thickness, ft.

a Red and variegated marls ...unascertained

b Gypseous and saliferous marls 800

c Waterstones 440

2. Bunter sandstein (upper new red) 900

2140

The Lancashire coal field is divided as follows, viz : —

feet,

Upper fields commencing, so far as yet known, with the red
clays of Ardwick, and terminating with the Bradford
and Pendleton four-feet mine 1,600

Middle field, commencing with the floor of the Pendleton
four feet, and terminating with the floor of the Riley
or Arley mine 2,910

Lower field, commencing with the floor of the Arley mine,

and terminating with the lowest millstone giit 2,130

6,640

My examination of the country, from Leek in Staffordshire
to Whitehaven in Cumberland, over a distance of near 120
miles, during several years, has only enabled me to collect
the bare and incomplete information given in the following
sections : —

Without further remarks I shall now describe these sec-
tions, beginning with —

* Report of the Council of the Manchester Geological Society, for 1842-3.

OF THE N0ETH-WE8T OF ENGLAND. 213

Hug Bridge Section*. ^

■.N.B. bS WAW.

This is seen on the banks of the river Dane, not far from
Rushton Spencer, near Leek. It is of small extent, and the
red marls were first noticed by Mr. G. W. Ormerod,t several
years since, as most probably belonging to the permian group.
The dip of the strata is east-north-east, at an angle of 15°.
These permian beds appear to be conformable to the over-
lying upper new red sandstone. On their dip they are cut off
by a fault running north and south, which brings in the
lower coal-measures. The beds are in the following (de-
scending) order : —

ft. io.

Soft red sandstone (upper new red sandstone) 4 0

Red marl, parted by layers of red and variegated coarse

sand 2 0

Soft red sandstone, containing nodules of red marl 2 o

Brownish sandstone 9 2

Soft sand 1 6

Red and variegated marls, containing small lenticular
marks, similar to those seen in the Cheetham Weir

HoleJ 18 0

Red and variegated sandstone, containing beds of con-

glomerate in the middle of it 45 to 60 ft.

• In this and the following sections, illustrating the present memoir, the
references will be as follow : —

2. Upper coal-measures.
1. Middle coal-measures.
r. Lower coal-measures.
1". Mountain limestone.

6. Upper new red sandstone.
5. Red marls, limestone, and

conglomerate.
4. Lower new red sandstone.
3. Red clays.

t Outlines of the principal geological features of the salt fields of Cheshire
and the adjoining districts, by G. W. Ormerod, M.A., F.G.S., vol. IV. of
the Geological Journal, p. 207.

X These markings were considered by Professor King as probably belonging
to a species of Chondrua, but I am inclined to think that they are only aggre-
gations of per oxide of iron.

214 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

No fossils have as yet been met with in these deposits,
except the small lenticular markings, but the position and
character of the beds lead me to class them with the lower
part of the magnesian limestone, and its underlying bed of
conglomerate.

NoRBURY Section.*

n.f:. sv/.

Middle coal field. 3 4 5 6

Little evidence of the relation which exists between the
coal-measures and the new red sandstone strata is to be met
with in the country lying betwixt Rushton Spencer and Stock-
port, the drift deposits so enveloping the district as to prevent
the beds from being seen. In the brook-course at Norbury,
near the mill, about three miles south of Stockport, there was
a good section a few years ago, but it has been since covered
up. It consisted of the following beds, in the descending
order : —

ft. in.

Upper new red sandstone 0 0

Red clays 6 0

Soft sandstone of a conglomerate character, and a

brownish red colour 6 3

Red clays 12 0

Coal-measures (middle part of the field) 0 0

23 3

The upper new red sandstone dipped to the south-west, at
angles varying from 10 to 20°. The red beds which I take
to be permian, dipped to the south-west, at an angle of 20°,
and the coal-measures had an inclination in the same direction,

• For the loan of this and eight other of the wood cuts, used to illustrate
this memoir, I am indebted to the Council of the London Geological Society.

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 215

at an angle of 40°. No fossils were found in any of the
beds. The bed of soft sandstone is evidently the same
deposit as that seen in the Cheetham Weir Hole, and herein-
after mentioned in the Collyhurst section.

This section (Norbury) appears to shew that the red marls
with limestones, as seen at Collyhurst, are not conformable
to the overlying upper new red sandstone, or they would
most probably have been seen; it also proves that the con-
glomerate bed is unconformable to the lower new red sand-
stone of Heaton Mersey and Collyhurst. No doubt the last-
named deposit is variable in thickness, but we can scarcely
suppose that a rock of between four and five hundred feet
thick, at least, can, in the distance of three miles, dwindle
down into the sandy conglomerate of five feet.

Fog Brook Section.

N.N.B. " P.8.W.

Middle coal-field (lower part). Fppei^new red

sacdstone.

This is seen in the little stream known by the name of Fog
Brook, in Offerton, about three miles south-east of Stock-
port. In it the upper new red sandstone appears well
developed, dipping at an angle of 15° to the south-south-
west ; but further down the brook it dips at 25°, and terminates
in two singular rounded projections, which have evidently
been pushed up by the underlying strata. It is succeeded by
about one yard of red clays, which bear evidence of consider-
able pressure having been exerted upon them. Then come
regular coal-measures, dipping south-south-west at angles
varying from 70 to 80°. These last-named strata are the
lower part of the middle coal-field ; the whole of the thick
beds of this valuable deposit being here covered up by the

216 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

upper new red sandstone, and no attempt, that I am aware of,
has ever been made to follow them under it.

This section also appears to shew that the trias and per-
mian beds are sometimes unconformable to each other, or
some of the latter would have been seen in it.

Beet Bank Bridge Section.

E.

w.

a^-^^c^^TTT...^^^^^

^^^5^^£2^Z^^^gUa:5^^^^;l^

Middle coal-field. 4 Unproved.

This is seen on the banks of the river Tame, about three
miles north-east of Stockport. The upper new red sandstone
was proved near Reddish Mills, by the late Mr. Becker, in a
bore made on his estate to be above 100 yards in thickness,
and it runs up the valley to near Arden Hall. Its dip is to
the west, at a moderate angle. What beds occur immediately
under it cannot be seen owing to the thick covering of drift ;
but, most pr<5bably, permian marls similar to those at Heaton
Mersey, exist there, as a red sandstone is found on the rise in
the field below Beet Bank Bridge, having the soft crumbling
consistency, of the same colour, and exhibiting all the false
bedding so characteristic of the lower new red sandstone of
Collyhurst. Like the last-named deposit, this bed has also
been used for moulding purposes. It lies unconformably on
the coal-measures of the middle part of the field, which are
seen in the river under the bridge, dipping to the west at an
angle of 19° Most probably the trias and permian beds here
lie in a trough of coal-measures, and skirt the latter on the
south. The late Mr. Fletcher's trustees, in working their
little coal, which lies to the north-west of the footpath, leading
from Reddish Mills to Beet Bank Bridge, Mr. Peter Higson,
mining engineer, informs me, drove their levels south for a

OF THE NORTH-WEST OP ENGLAND. 2 I 7

distance of 1 00 yards under the lower new red sandstone with-
out finding the slightest disarrangement of the coal-measures ;
thus clearly proving that the latter there run quite regular un-
derneath the permian beds, and are not cut off by them as the
coal-miners have often supposed.

Heaton Mersey Section.

At a place lying about four miles to the west of the two last
named sections, are the bleach works of Mr. Tait* This is on
the dip of the upper new red sandstone, of Stockport, which
is about 300 yards in thickness under the town; and some years
since, in boring for water there, where that rock was expected
to be of very great thickness, it only proved to be 45 feet, and
the permian beds, which at Norbury, were of an insignificant
thickness, and at Fog Brook, had not been seen at all, were
proved to be 640 feet thick. The following is a section of
the bore : —

Soil and gravel (a few feet). "Feet.

Upper new red sandstone 45

Red marls containing beds of hard stone 129

Lower new red sandstone, proved 402

676

The last-named deposit, which I examined on the spot as
it came up from the bore, consisted of a coarse grained sand of
deep red colour, similar to that at Collyhurst. How much
thicker this deposit might be it is impossible to say, but it
is quite evident that the permian beds extend under the trias
of Cheshire, and are of much greater importance there than
when seen on their out-crops. Their occurrence at this place,
in theif present position, is no doubt owing to a great fault,
which has thrown them up together with the trias. By carry-
2 E

218 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

ing the line of the fault which bounds the Manchester coal-
field at Bradford and Ardwick^ through Heaton Mersey it will
run into and connect itself with the fault at the latter place.

The conglomerate bed lying on the top of the lower new red
sandstone, although not noticed in the section, occurred here;
in fact, the permian beds at this place are a continuation of
those at Manchester, under the upper and new red sandstone,
and very similar to them both in character and thickness.

Manchester Section

S.W.

Middle field. Middle and upper coal-fields.

This is taken in a line from All Saints' Church to Water-
houses, in the valley of the Medlock. The whole of Chorlton-
on-Medlock, and the greater portion of Ardwick, rest upon
the upper new red sandstone, which dips to the south-west
at an angle of about 10°. At the surface no evidence of the
permian beds is to be s^en, and even at the outcrop of the
upper new red sandstone, a little above Pin Mill Bridge, no
traces of these beds are to be met with. This is, no doubt,
owing to the permian and overlying trias beds being uncon-
formable to each other, although they both dip in the same
direction, and at very similar angles. However, all the
borings for water prove the existence of the permian beds,
underneath the upper new red sandstone of Manchester.

By the kindness of Mr. William Mellor, of the Ardwick
lime works, I am enabled to give the following section, which,
although a little to the south-east of the line in the wood-cut,
shews well the superposition of the strata under the city.

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 219

At Messrs. Thomas Hoyle and Co.'s works, Mayfield, in
1825, a bore hole was made, and the following beds were met
with : —

1825.

Upper new red sand-
stone

Not. 8. Hard rock

.. Clay

9, 11, All clay

la. Clay

„ Rock

„ Sofl rock

„ Hard rock

„ Clay

„ Rock

14, Rock

» Clay

„ Rock

16. Rock

„ Soft

„ Hard

16. Clay

„ Rock ,

„ Clay

17. Clay

„ Rock

„ Soft clay

18. Rock

19. Hard

M Clay

„ Hard

„ Clay

„ Hard

21,23. All hard

24. Hard

„ Soft

„ Hard

""'"lAUhwd

:. 1 3

Ft. In.

143 4

1 9

2 0
15 9

0 6

0 8

0 2

0 2

0 6

1 11
0 7

0 II

1 10
1 3

Dec.

1 3

3 0

0 3

1 4
0 9
0
1
0
2
7
0

Hard

Clay

Soft rock .

Clay

6oft rock .
Hard rock.
Soft rock .

6
3
2
4

0
1
2 10

0 1

7 3

1 3
0 3
0 10
0 4
0 6

2 0
0 8

1846.

Dec.5.
>>
6.

Hard rock.

Clay

Clay

Rock

Hard rock .

Clay

All clay....

8,9

Dec. 10. Clay

„ Clay

„ Rock

12. Hard rock

„ Soft rock

„ Clay

13. Clay

„ Rock

14. Rock

„ Clay

„ Rock

15. Rock

„ Clay

„ Rock

„ Clay

„ Rock

Rock

Clay

Rock

Rock

„ Clay

19. All clay

20. Clay

„ Light coloiired rock

21. Rock

„ Clay

22, 24. All clay

27, 28, 29, y

30, 31; Jan.; ^ All clay

to Feb. 4. J

Feb.5. Clay

„ Rock

<». Rock

., Clay

r. Clay ....,

16.

17.

Ft. In.
1 6
0 10

0 6

1 10

1 11

0 8
d 1

1 11

0 2

0

0

0
1
3
0
0

1

0

0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0

1 11

2 1

18 I

0 6

1 9
0 3

'^ o

•J 0

220

MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

1846. Ft. In.

Feb. 7. Hard raddle 1 0

8,9. Hard raddle 2 1

10. Hard raddle 1 G

„ Rock 0 6

„ Raddle 2 0

11. Hard raddle 3 3

12. Hard raddle 2 3

„ Rock 0 8

1846.

Ft.

Feb.13. Rock 0

„ Raddle 1

„ Rock 1

14. Raddle 2

„ Rock 0

„ Rock 57

In.
6
5

2

7
2
4

855 17

The quantity of work done in the bore each day is given
for the purpose of shewing the different degrees of hardness of
the strata met with. As is the case with most information of
this kind, the men who superintend the borings give their
own names to the strata met with, therefore, I think it best
to state my opinion as to the nature of the above beds. They
may be classed as follow, viz.: —

ft. in.

Upper new red sandstone (trias) 143 4

Red and variegated marls, with beds of limestone and

impure ironstone (permian) 160 0

Conglomerate (permian) 1 2

Red raddle, with lenticular markings (permian) 2 7

Lower new red sandstone (permian) 59 4

356 6

The lower new red sandstone rests unconformably on the
highest portion of the upper coal-measures at Ardwick, as I
some time since had an opportunity of satisfying myself be-
yond all doubt, with the assistance of Mr. Mellor, who did
me the favour to show me these two formations in contact,
during the progress of some of his mining operations. The
carboniferous strata, like those described by me in a similar
position at CoUyhurst, hereinafter noticed, presented every
appearance of having undergone considerable erosion by water,
the shaly clays shewing a very irregular surface, on which lay
rounded boulders of Ardwick limestone, and the hollows in

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 221

such clays being filled with lower new red sandstone. There
was no trace here of the passage of the carboniferous into the
permian strata, and the two are, without doubt, quite un-
conformable to each other in this locality.

In the turn of the river Medlock, below Mr. Schofield's
chapel, the upper new red sandstone has not been seen in
absolute contact with the carboniferous strata, but it was
traced to within less than one hundred yards of them. They
here consist of red and greenish mottled clays, containing a
bivalve shell,* and parted by thin bands of gritstone. These
last-named strata are succeeded by argillaceous and arenaceous
beds of red and variegated colours, containing the limestones
and thin coals of Ardwick, which are followed by the coal-
measures of Bradford and Clayton, comprising the whole of
the known part of the upper and the higher part of the middle
division of the Lancashire coal-fields, reaching altogether to
about 3,000 feet in vertical thickness, and dipping nearly
south-west at angles varying from 18 to 25°. At Bank Bridge,
a little to the south of Mr. Wood's print works, the carboni-
ferous strata are thrown down t by a fault of very great, but,
as yet, unknown depth, but certainly above 3,000 feet, run-
ning from north to south, and covered by upper new red
sandstone for a distance of about two miles. All the way
from Mr. Wood's to beyond Clayton Bridge, the upper new
red sandstone has been proved ; and in that gentleman's estate.

• This shell Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., in a paper published in the
Phil. Mag., for Nov. 1830, p. 241, called Unio Phiilipsii, in its compressed
state, but to me it appears, when uncompressed, more like a Modiola than
an Unio.

f This fault is generally termed a down throw, but it is very difficult to
prove whether it is down or up, for the edges of the carboniferous strata have
been so washed and eroded by the action of the waters in which the permian
and trias beds were deposited, as to remove all chance of determining the direc-
tion of the fault by the usual means.

222 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

purchased of the late Mr. Otho Hulme's trustees, the fol-
lowing permian strata were met with in a bore hole : —

ft. in.

Drift deposits 96 0

Red metals and rock binds 85 0

Gray rock 4 6

Red metals and rock binds, containing shells of the

genevB, Schizodus and Sakevellia 28 0

Gray rock 3 6

Red metals, containing rock binds 32 6

Brownishrock 3 0

Red metals, containing rock binds 9 0

Red and variegated rock, penetrated 150 0

411 6

A little further up the valley of the Medlock, at Jericho
Cloughj the late Mr. Bradbury, of the Clayton Colliery,
found, in a bore hole, the following strata, most of which are
permian, viz.: —

ft. in.

Drift deposits 64 6

^ray yellowish rock 4 0

Red shaly marl, with bands of white grit 25 6

Soft white rock 1 6

Red floor clay 1 6 *

Variegated clays 10 6

Whitish limestone 0 6

Red shaly measures, which effervesce in acids 26 0

White gritstone 0 6

Soft red floor clay 1 3

White gypsum • (?) 0 9

Red and white variegated measures 10 6

Hard brown rock, containing lime and iron 2 6

Kind blue shale 0 6

White calcareous rock 0 9

Soft kind blue measures 9 0

Variegated clays 34 6

* This is, no doubt, the white friable paste, met with in the Collyhurst
section. Mr. Bradbury himself told me that he very much questioned its being
gypsum.

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 223

ft. in.

Bastard canky stone, very hard 3 0

Soft red floor •. 1 0

Grit rock, full of bharp grains of quartz that rasped the

chisel very much 46 0

Red soft floor I 0

Dirty brown rock, mixed with tough clayey dirt, very

unlikely for coal 34 0

Brown bastard rock 9 0

Red clay floor 6 0

204 3

Mr. Bradbury did not think the strata favorable for coal,
therefore he proceeded no further with the bore. It is doubt-
ful to me whether the lower new red sandstone had been per-
forated, and the coal-measures reached, especially as the
former has been since proved to be of much greater thickness
than the whole of the sandstones in the lower part of the
section at Jericho Clough.

A short distance below Waterhouses, the coal-measures,
most probably part of the middle field, are seen in the bank
of the river, dipping westwards at an angle of 60°.

About a mile to the north of the two last-named bores, Mr.
Henry Walmsley has bored in his estate at Failsworth, and

found the following strata* : —

ft. in

Drift deposits 120 0

Red marls 6 4

Red sandstone 333 0

458 4

The last-named rock was not perforated, therefore it is
difficult to determine whether or not it was the lower new red
sandstone or the upper new red sandstone, but the red marls
lying on the top of it would rather lead one to suppose that
it was the former.

* For this boring I am indebted to the kindness of my friend Mr. Booth,
the mining engineer of the Oak Chamber and Chadderton Collieries, Oldham.

224 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

From Failsworth to Giant's Seat Lock on the Bury Canal,
near Ringley, little if any of the district has been proved by
boring, to discover if the permian beds occur or not ; but I
am inclined to believe, from their regular occurrence all the
way from Beet Bank Bridge to Jericho Clough, and probably
Failsworth, that they also exist under the drift in a similar
position west of Moston Colliery, under Heaton Park and
Prestwich, and thence to the valley of the Irwell at Giant's
Seat.

The carboniferous strata, seen in the Medlock at Ardwick,
were generally supposed to be the highest part of the coal-
measures found in Lancashire, but Mr. Mellor has lately
shewn me that he has met with beds containing two or three
limestones in them considerably higher in position ; therefore
it is probable that the carboniferous strata may yet be traced
further up in the series still, under the permian deposits.
Assuming the blackland ironstone, lying above the main lime-
stone at Ardwick, to be identical with the same deposit
(Bassy mine) in the Pottery coal-field, near Burslem, there
are several hundred feet of red and purple coloured clays,
containing thin beds of pebbly gritstone, under the permian
beds, and not exposed in the vicinity of Manchester.

COLLYHURST SECTION.

Vi

N.N.E. 2 8 S o & Iw S.S.W.

Middle coal-field.

This extends along a line from the Manchester Exchange
to Mr. David Morris's mill in the Smedley Valley below
Harpurhey.

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 225

The south-west part of Manchester and the greater part
of the adjoining borough of Salford, are built on upper new
red sandstone, like the districts of Chorlton-on-Medlock and
Ardwick previously described. To the south of both towns
I am not aware of the rock having been perforated, although
borings have been made in it to the depth of 600 feet. At
Mr. Joules' brewery, near the Albert Bridge, a bore hole
was made on the Salford side of the Irwell, and the following
strata were met with, viz. : —

• K feet.

Upper new i-ed sandstone, about 470

Red clays, with limestones 120

Red rock and clay in alternate beds 10

Hard sandstone rock 000

600*

The upper new red sandstone may be perforated at a much
less depth as you proceed to the northward, as was proved at
Messrs. Lomas and Bradbury's, in Strangeways, where the
following section was met with, viz. : —

ft. in.

Drift deposits 21 0

Upper new red sandstone 273 0

Dark raddle 30 0

Limestone 1 0

Raddle 12 0

Limestone 1 4

Raddle, containing magnesia 30 0

Light gritstone 2 6

Light raddle 24 0

Light stone 1 0

Light raddle 18 0

Dark gritstone 3 6

407 10

On proceeding to examine the Collyhurst section more in
detail, we shall find the upper new red sandstone more or less

* For this section I am indebted to my friend J. P. Joule, Esq., F.R.S.
2 F

226 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

slightly covered with clay and gravel, occupying the surface
from the Exchange to near the White Hart Inn, in Newtown,
where it outcrops, and apparently passes into the underlying
permian beds, as both dip to the south-west, but the former
at an angle of 10°, and the latter at about 13°. It was at this
place, many years ago, that I first noticed the fossil shells
exposed in making a culvert, and as it is the only locality in
the neighbourhood of Manchester, where I have been able
to examine the deposits in an open cutting, I shall give my
observations at length. The beds occur in the following
order : —

ft. in.
Red and variegated marls, containing several thin beds

of limestone, about 90 0

A layer of soft clay of a dull white colour, mixed with

streaks and patches of a dirty red 0 5

*Hard red marl, containing in the middle a single line of

sheWs of the genus Bakevellia 9 6

•A white calcareous friable paste resembling fuller's earth,

traversed with lines of a red colour 0 5

*A light coloured calcareous paste, of a soft crumbling

nature when first dug up, but it hardens on exposure

to the atmosphere 0 6

* An argillaceous deposit of a dark red colour, having its

top and bottom marked with greenish coloured bands 0 5

•Hard dirty white limestone 0 4

* Variegated marls 0 3

•Dark red marls 1 0

Red and variegated marls 33 0

Impure limestone 0 6

Shaly marls 4 0

Conglomerate of a greenish brown colour, containing

pebbles of the size of a marble, seen in Cheetham

Weir Hole 1 6

Laminated red clay, with lenticular markings (Chondrus

Binneyi o( King) 2 0

Lower new red sandstone of Vauxhall, consisting of
dark red sand, mottled with patches of brown and
greenish drab colour, about 320 0

463 10

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 227

The above-named beds, marked with asterisks, contain the
fossil shells described by Captain Thomas Brown in my
paper published in the first volume of the Transactions of the
Manchester Geological Society. Professor King, in his
elaborate Monograph on the Permian fossils of England, has
since described the following, collected by me from the cutting
at Newtown, namely: — Bivalves, Schizodns ohscurus, S,
rotundatus, Bakevellia antiqua, B. tumida and Pleuro-
phorus costotus. Univalves, Turbo Mancuniensis, T.
helicinus, Rissoa obtusaj R. Leighi, R, Gibsoni, tuid
Natica minima.

Our late venerable president, Dr. Dalton, at p. 154, vol v.
(new series) of the Society's Memoirs, examined a portion of
the thin bed of limestone. He calls it Tinker's Brow lime-
stone, and states its specific gravity at 2.55, and proceeds as
follows : " There is some limestone found at Tinker's Brow
which may be supposed an edge of the Ardwick stratum.*
The analysis of this specimen shows it to be a compound or
mixture of carbonate of lime and clay. The two earths of
lime and clay are nearly in atomic proportions ; but this may
be merely accidental. The lime only is combined with car-
bonic acid. It contains rather more than the Ardwick stone.
Exclusive of iron, I found the compound to be nearly —

Clay ., 36

Lime 36

Carbonic acid 28

100"

The lower part of the marls appears to pass into the under-
lying conglomerate, and no difference in the amount or direc-
tion of the dip can be detected. Although such last-named

* The Ardwick limestone and the one at Newtown or CoUyhurst were long
confounded together as magnesian limestone, but it is now well known that the
former is a portion of the upper coal field, and the latter is a true permian
deposit.

228 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

deposit is but a thin band, it varies so much in its character
from all the permian beds either above or below it, in which I
have never yet been able to detect portions of rolled mineral
matter of the size of a pea, that I think it of considerable im-
portance, and worthy of notice, especially as the conglomerate
bed will be found to be of such great thickness as we proceed
northwards. The red clays under, unlike the red marls above
it, do not effervesce when treated with acids. They apparently
pass into the Vauxhall sandstone, so well known as an excel-
lent moulding sand, which I have roughly estimated at 320
feet in thickness; but still, although this conglomerate and
its underlying marls seem to graduate into the deposits lying
above and below them, I think it more convenient to class
them by themselves.

The lower new red sandstone is composed of a dark red
sand, variegated by patches of a yellowish drab colour. The
upper part of it is much used for the purpose of iron moulding,
but the lower portion is not so well adapted for such use,
owing to nodules of iron occurring in it. Its grains of sand
are well rounded, and are composed chiefly of white quartz,
with some pieces of jasper, all coloured red by a slight coating
of sesquioxide of iron — so uniform in size are the grains, that
anything approaching a pebble has never, to my knowledge,
been found in the rock. Its thickness has never been proved
by absolute admeasurement, but it must be by my estimate
near 320 feet. Its main dip is to the south-west at an angle
of from 16 to 18°, but it has also a nearly equal inclination
towards the west-north-west.

The upper part of the rock bears evident marks of erosion
by the water from which the " till " was deposited. In some
places holes two or three feet deep, called by the workmen
"posts," are found in the sandstone filled with till, while, at
other places, the surface of the rock is only slightly marked
or scooped out.

The coal-measures upon which the rock lies consist of a bed

OF THE NOETH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 229

of salmon coloured argillaceous shale of about thirty feet in
thickness, containing impressions of neuropteris cordata^ and
many other common coal-plants. Their position in the carbo-
ferous series is immediately above the Collyhurst sandstone,
and under all the coals which have as yet been worked in the
Manchester coal-field, say about 2,250 feet below the upper-
most of the carboniferous strata at Ardwick. Their dip is 1 0°
east-of-south, at an angle of 24°. This inclination is not the
usual one in the adjoining coal mines of Mr. Buckley, where
it is only 18° to the south-south-west, and must be attributed
to the fault which has thrown down the coal-measures at the
point of junction with the permian beds, and now forms the
trough in which the latter lie. In the collieries above
alluded to the coals on their strike abut against, or, as the
miners express it, are "cut off" by the permian beds.

When the British Association visited Manchester in 1842,
an excavation was made to ascertain the state of the lower
new red sandstone and the coal-measures at their point of
contact. It was then found that the latter strata were mixed
with the loose sand of the former, and the coal-measures had
lost their original laminated structure and become homogeneous,
presenting almost the appearance of drift clay, so that the ab-
solute line of demarcation of one formation from the other
could not be determined with any degree of nicety; their
colour was a deep red, mottled with marks of a dirty yellow ;
in fact, their whole appearance, as well as the red and salmon
colours of the underlying strata, to a great depth, seemed to
shew that they had been long exposed to the action of water
before they were covered up by the lower new red sandstone.

The dip of the two formations does not differ much, that
of the coal-measures being at an angle of 24° to a little east
of south, that of the lower new red sandstone 17° to the south-
west; while the usual dip of the former, the Manchester coal-
field, is 18° to south-south-west, the latter from 5° to 10° to
the south-west. The coal-measures were doubtless partly

230 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

elevated before the deposition of the permian and trias beds,
but it is evident that the two latter have been raised by the
forces which have subsequently elevated the coal-measures, as
the partial similarity of the dip in both strata proves.

The carboniferous strata which ne^ct make their appearance
are the red sandstones of Collyhurst and Smedley, and after-
wards some measures containing a small coal and a bed of
fire-clay. These must be approaching near to the thick coals
of the middle field, and are cut off by the Bradford and Ardwick
fault, near Mr. David Morris's mill. The permian beds lying
in this fault have never been proved, although, no doubt, they
lie in it in the same manner, and will be found outcropping to
the east, as they do at Droylsden and Beet Bank Bridge.

In most of the borings made in the neighbourhood of Man-
chester, the men employed have frequently classed all the
strata gone through, whether arenaceous or argillaceous, as
red measures. By these means the red marls will be found to
vary very much in thickness, parts of the red sandstones lying-
above and below them having been frequently added to them.
It was owing to this cause that in my first paper printed in
the Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society the
thickness of the permian marls and their limestones varied so
much — the information respecting the strata having been
supplied to me by the different well-sinkers and borers whose
names are there given as authorities. Taking the sections of
Heaton Mersey, Droylsden, Jericho Clough, Mayfield,
Salford, Strangeways, and Newtown for our guide, we shall
find that the permian marls will generally be from 120 to 130
feet in thickness. As we proceed towards the west we shall
find them become thinner, and their accompanying beds of
limestone thicker. The limestones in the marls are very un-
certain, and seldom found alike even in two bore holes near
together. This arises from their occurring in nodular masses
rather than continuous beds.

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 23 1

Pendleton Section.

|§ Rirer | Poltoa

N.N.E. MS 6 IrweU. £ Road. 8.S.W.

I

Middle and apper coal-fields.
a and h represent Mr. Fitzgerald's old and new pits.

This is met with about two miles north-west of Manchester.
It shows the upper new red sandstone at Oatbank, on the
Eccles New Road, dipping to the south-west at a moderate
angle. Drift covers up the district in the higher parts of
Pendleton ; but in the valley of the Irwell, Mr. Fitzgerald
has worked seams of coal belonging to the upper and middle
fields. These dip at an angle of about 18° to the south-
south-west, and outcrop against the upper new red sandstone,
which there lies in a deep down throw of the coal-measures of
full 3,200 feet in extent, of exactly the same character in all
respects as the Bradford and Ardwick fault before described.
The absolute thickness of the upper new red sandstone lying
in this fault is unknown, but it must be near 900 feet. At a
depth of 1 ,350 feet from the surface I have examined red clays
found in a level driven into it. They appeared like permian
marls, but I could find no fossils in them. They also resemble
some red marls seen higher up the valley of the Irwell, at
Giant's Seat Lock, near Ringley, which dip under the upper
new red sandstone there. Both these deposits of marls I
consider as permian, and the red sandstone seen by the side
of the great fault in the bed of the Irwell, near Prestolee Foot
Bridge, I take to be lower new red sandstone from its
characters. In its inferior portion there are also beds of red
clay with lenticular markings and thin beds of conglomerate ;
but I have not yet been able to prove that it dips under
the red marls of Giant's Seat Locks. For this reason I
have not placed the permian beds in the section shown in
the woodcut.

232

MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

N.N.E.

Patricroft Section.

S.S.W.
Railway

Upper coal-field. 4

The Patricroft section is about four miles west of Man-
chester, near to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.
This is one of the most interesting sections of the trias and
permian deposits that I have met with. In the deep coal pit
of Messrs. Lancaster, the upper new red sandstone and the
permian beds, the clays and limestones of which contained the
same fossil shells as I have before stated as having been found
at Colly hurst, were sunk through; and in working the coals
towards the east, a great fault, filled full of upper new red
sandstone, was met with (as shown in the diagram), exactly
like those of Manchester, Collyhurst, and Pendleton, pre-
viously described.

The shaft marked a in the diagram was 440 yards in depth.
In sinking it the following strata were met with : —

Ft. In.

Till 15 0

White sandstone 2 0

Redclays 2 0

Red sandstone 15 0

-Red marls 6 0

Redstone 1 6

Red marls 4 0

White stone 1 0

Red marls 9 0

Limestone 0 10

Red marls 1 0

Limestone 1 3

Red marls 2 0

Limestone 1 0

Red marls 1 0

Red marls, with several thin beds of limestone... 2 0

Red marls 110

Limestone 2 0

Red marls 36 0

Lower new red sandstone resting on the upper

- part of the upper coal-field 21 0

126 5

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 233

This bed of lower new red sandstone resembles the con-
glomerate beds of Norbury and Cheetham Weir Hole rather
than the thick deposit at Collyhurst. The trias and permian
beds dip nearly due south, at an angle of about 6°. The first-
named bed soon crops out,* but the two latter extend some
distance, and the coal-measures come in to the north, and
form part of the Worsley coal-field. These last comprise
398 yards of the upper field, and dip to the south at an angle
of about 8°. They extend upwards from the Pendleton and
Worsley four-feet coal to some large nodules of red ferru-
gineous limestone, termed bullions, found just under the red
sandstone rock seen in the river Medlock, at Holt Town,
Manchester.

AsTLEY Section.

In the No. 28 of the Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society, Mr. G. W. Ormerod gives an account of some
borings in the permian deposits, near Astley. In a distance
of about ten or twelve feet of permian marls, twenty-eight
distinct beds of limestone, parted with beds of red marl, were
met with. In this thickness only a portion of the permian
marls appears, and nothing whatever is said of the conglome-
rate and lower new red sandstone.

• The upper new red sandstone in this neighbourhood, especially under Chat
Moss, contains a large amount of light carburetted hydrogen-gas. Near Mr.
Bell's farm house, on Barton Moss, this gas comes up in such quantity, that
be uses it as fuel to heat the boiler of a small steam-engine which he employs
for fanning purposes. Many years since, MeMrs. Lancaster, in boring for coal
on the Mo6s, had previously tapped this gas.

2 G

234 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

Professor F. C. Calvert made analyses of these marls and
limestone, and found the following results : —

Marl beds. Limestone.

Insoluble in acids 68.00 16.00

Soluble silica 0.33 1.00

Sesquioxide of iron 7.00 4.66

Alumina 1.33 2.60

Carbonate of lime 18.00 63.04

Carbonate of magnesia ... 5.00 10.33

Soda 0 34 and potash 0.66

32.00 loss 0.69

83.04

100.00 100.00

By the kindness of Mr. Henry Mere Ormerod, I am
enabled to give a section of the strata found in sinking the
Engine Pit, at Astley Colliery, on the top of Blackmoor,
which is as follows : —

Ft. In.

Upper portion of the shaft bricked so as lo hide strata. 27 0

"Soft white rock 3 10

Soft red rock 17 5

Soft gritty white rock 0 9

Fine red raddle 1 5

Soft red rock 1 2 0

Gray rock 1 1

Strong red rock 2 7

White rock 0 10

Strong red rock 3 1

LSoft red rock 13 6

Gray stone (bind and lint) * 18 6

Strong white rock 0 5

Gray stone (lint) 11 6

Soft earth (parting) 0 1

Brown rock 1 1

White gritty rock 9 0

Gray metals 0 10

Bassy coal 0 1

Soft dirt 0 2

Clear coal I o

116 2

• This is a local term for strong arenaceous shale.

OF illJ:, iNUiiia-U tSi Ul

.uLAND.

235

In this section the red marls and limestones appear to have
outcropped on the deep, and only the inferior part of the lower
red sandstone was met with. The coal measures, in the lower
part of the section, belong to the upper field, and lie above
the Worsley four-feet.

By the favour of Mr. H. M. Ormerod, I am enabled to
give an account of a boring by George Pixton Kenworthy,
Esq., situate in Horse Pasture Field, in the township of
Astley, who has liberally allowed it to be published : —

Ft. In.
Drifl deposits of saod and

clay 82 0

Red earth 4 0

White rock 0 6

Red earth, with limestone

bullions 2 8

Red earth 5 10

Limestone band 0 2

Red earth 1 4

Limestone band 0 3

Red earth 1 1

Limestone band 0 3

Red earth 3 ll

Limestone band 0 4

Red earth 0 2

Red rock full of water 1 5

Red earth 0 8

Limestone band 0 7

Red earth 0 Ij

Limestone band 0 7

Red earth 0 3

Limestone band 0 3

Red rock I 0

Red earth 3 6

Limestone band 0 2

Red earth • 11

Limestone band 0 8^

Red earth 0 8

Limestone band 0 1^

Red earth 0 1

Limestone band 1 8

Red earth 0 1^

Limestone band 0 Hk

Red earth

Ft.

In.
8
9
7
5
8
5
2
3
6

Limestone band 0

Red earth 0

Red rock 1

Red earth 0

Red rock full of water 1

Red earth '. o

Red rock 5

Red earth 1

Limestone band 0

Red earth 6 9

Limestone band 0 2^

Red earth 0 1|

Limestone rock full of water. 3 8^

Red earth 7 8

Limestone band 0 1

Red earth 0

Limestone band 0

Red earth o

Limestone band 0

Red earth 2

Limestone band 0

Red earth o

Limestone band I

Red earth o

Limestone band 0

Red earth 0

Limestone band 0

Red earth 0

Limestone band 0

Red earth 0

Limestone band 0

Red earth o

Limestone band (

Red earth .

11
5
2

3

6

6

1

6

Ok

Oi

1

236

ME. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

Ft. In.

Limestone band 0 1

Red earth 0 I

Limestone band 0 2

Red earth 0 Ij

Limestone band 0 2

Red earth 0 0^

Limestone band 0 1

Red earth 0 l|

Limestone band 0 If

Red earth 0 2

Limestone band 0 3^

Red earth 0 3

Limestone band 0

Red earth 0

Limestone band 0

Red earth 0

Limestone band 0

Red earth 0

Limestone band 0

Red earth 0

Limestone band 0 Ij

Red earth 0 9

Limestoneband 0 If

Red earth 1

Limestoneband 0

Red earth 0

Limestone band 0

Red earth 0

3

4i

2i

4

2

li
1

Ft. In.

Limestoneband 0 2

Red earth 0 4

Limestoneband 0 Sj

Red earth 7 9^

Iron band 0 1^

Red earth 13 6

Limestoneband 0 1

Red earth .... 1 0

Limestoneband 0 2

Red earth 0 1

Limestoneband 0 1

Red earth 3 1

Limestoneband 0 1

Red earth 1 0

Limestone band, very hard... 0 5

Red earth 0 1

Limestone rock, very hard... 0 85

Red earth 0 84

Hard burry limestone rock... 2 7

Red earth » 5 1

Redlinsey 3 7^

Red sandy earth 1 7

Limestone rock 0 6^

Red earth 0 4^

Limestone rock gone into ... 1 0

212 10

The permian marls in the above section must have been
nearly perforated, but the conglomerate appears not to have
been reached. The number of thin beds of limestone in the
"red earth" (a local term for red marls) is the greatest that
has yet been met with in the north-west of England. It is
to be hoped that Mr. Kenworthy will preserve as careful a
section of the conglomerate and lower new red sandstone beds
as he has done of the marls.

Bedford Section.

After the outcrop of the upper new red sandstone, which is
seen dipping to the south, in a field near the Manchester

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 237

and Wigan Canal, where the late Mr. Coleby formerly had
his lime works, beds of limestone parted with red clays, similar
to those at Astley, have been worked here for many years.
The limestones are full of fossil shells of the same genera as
those met with at Collyhurst, and before described in this
paper, as well as numerous sponges, one of which Professor
King has figured and described in his work on the Permian
Fossils as Tragos Binneyi,

A complete section of the permian beds in this locality is
wanted. The late Mr. Coleby informed the writer that the
thickness of the marls was about 60 feet; ten feet of this
consisting of limestone in numerous beds. He also considered
that there was a bed of sandstone above, as well as one under
the red marls.

Mr. Whitehead, solicitor, of Leigh, the proprietor of the
Bedford Lime Works, has favoured me with the following
section of the strata met with in his sinking : —

Ft. In.

A bed of limestone, called false band 0 5

Red clay 3 o

Band stone (this is the best stone) 1 o

Red clay 1 o

Limestone 0 7

Red clay with thin beds of limestone the beds each
about one inch thick, clay and stone alternating,

the former rather thicker than the latter 3 0

Strong red clay 1 0

Red clay with beds of limestone, the latter of which

will vary from one to seven inches in thickness ... 3 0

Red clay 1 o

Limestone 0 1^

Red clay with beds of limestone, the top course of
stone 12 inches in thickness, called second band;
some of the beds of clay are 12 inches in thickness.
The layers of stone vary from one to three inches
in thickness. The stronger the stone, the thinner
the clay lo o

24 1|

238 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

In an open work belonging to the trustees of the late Duke
of Bridgewater, I lately inspected the limestone, and found it
there lying nearly level. The first bed was about seven
inches in thickness, then came red clay six inches, after that
limestone five inches, next several beds of about an inch each,
parted by clays. The limestone (5) was hollowed out in this
way: —

' — _ _ _ ^^

!,'r,'i,i;i>;ia;£?^vyy^v-

and filled up with bluish-coloured till, which was there from
twelve to fourteen feet in thickness.

Mr. Hugh Watson, chemist, of Bolton, analysed a sample
of the Bedford limestone, and found the following results : —

Carbonate of lime 56.5

Aluminous and siliceous earths 38.6

Oxides of manganese and iron 02.5

Water 02,6

100.0

The beds of sandstone under the marls and limestones
have not been much examined, but they certainly occur lying
above the coal-measures at Bedford Colliery, where the
Worsley four-feet is worked. I have not been able to examine
these beds in situ, but after sinking through the permian
marls and limestones at the adjoining colliery, the property of
Messrs. Samuel Jackson and Co., a bed of red and variegated
sandstone was met with, 135 feet in thickness, on the top of
which was a singular-looking sandstone of a greenish brown
colour, mottled with red marks, containing a good deal of per
oxide of iron and nodules of red clay. This, from examination
of the specimens of rock now lying on the pit bank, I have
little doubt but of its being the conglomerate bed lying im-
mediately under the marls. In some of the sandstones there
appear impressions of calamites, sigillaria and fossil wood, but
whether they belong to the permian or carboniferous strata,

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND, 239

as both are lying on the pit bank mixed together, I will not
undertake to speak positively. If they belong to the fonner,
they are the only fossil plants that have as yet, to my
knowledge, been found in the permian beds of the north-
west of England. These beds dip a little east-of-south, at an
angle of about 8°, and the underlying coals dip nearly south,
at an angle of 14°.

Atherton Section.

N.N.E. SAW.

Middle coal-field. 4 5

This section is near Leigh, and is exposed in the smalt
brook course which enters the land, formerly part of Atherton
Park, from the north. On the banks of this stream, up to a
little past the small bridge, the upper new red sandstone
appears dipping at an angle of about 8° to 10° to the south.
It is then seen gradually passing first into beds of red marl,
containing thin bands of hard gritstone, and afterwards into
deposits of red laminated marls containing numerous beds of
limestone. The largest of these is about 1ft. 8in. in thick-
ness, and there are several beds of from two to four inches,
besides others of less dimensions. All these are full of fossils
of the genera Schizodus, Bakevellia, Turbo, and Tragos,
but apparently contain little or no magnesia in their com-
position.

The dip of the strata is to the south, at an angle nearly
similar to that of the upper new red sandstone above alluded
to. In proceeding up the brook-course towards the mill,
however, their dip becomes greater, reaching to an angle ot
16°, and is to the south-west instead of the south. They are
succeeded by nodules of irony limestone of a purpleish colour,
containing sparry matter, and then by the lower new red sand-
stone, about seven yards in thickness. This latter rock dips

240 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

to the south west, at an angle of 25°, which gradually
diminishes to 16° as it approaches the coal-measures. The
last-named strata cannot be traced for a few feet towards the
north-east ; but when they are seen, they are found inclining
to a little north-of-west, at angles varying from 12° to 15°.
On proceeding further towards Atherton Mill, however, they
are found not to have been so much aifected by the fault, and
recover their regular dip to the south-west, at an angle of 16°.
The fault here, which has thrown up the lower new red sand-
stone, runs from south-east to north-west, and has no doubt
considerably disturbed both the carboniferous and permian
beds in this neighbourhood.

The condition of the lower new red sandstone here is much
altered by the fault having been squeezed and apparently
changed by heat ; but it seems to have been originally of
brownish and greenish colours and coarse structure, similar to
the Patricroft and Norbury beds.

Leigh Section.

Nothing is seen of the permian beds near Leigh, except in
certain borings. Messrs. Barton, in some borings near the
Pickley Green Brook, had gone down apparently about
eighty yards, for the most part in red measures.

Mr. Marsh, in a boring near his house, not far from the
brook which divides Leigh from West Leigh, found the
following strata : —

^ Ft. In.

Soil and clay (drift) 48 0

Brown stone 1 4

Brown stone (soft) 3 0

Red metals 2 3

Brown and blue striped metals 4 2

Blue metal 1 0

Brown metal 21 0

Stone iron band 0 3

81 0

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 241

According to Mr. Robert Lancaster, a gentleman very
well acquainted with this part of the Lancashire coal-field,
no workable seam of coal was found in this bore within a
depth of 170 yards of the surface.

Mr. John Part, in a bore hole in West Leigh near the
road leading to Ilindley, found the following section : —

Ft. In.

Red marls 39 0

Conglomerate like gravel 1 0

Black sand 12 0

Red sandstone 51 0

Coal 0 4

White rock 3 0

Dark brown rock 48 0

154 4

Eye Bridge Section.

At Mr. Maddocks' farm, Eye Bridge, in Ashton-in-Macker-
field, not far from the North Union Railway, Mr. Mercer,*
of St. Helens, made a bore. The strata met with were as
follow, viz. : —

Ft. In.

Top, consisting of clay, sand, and gravel 115 7

Red metal 42 0

Grit and metal 20 0

'^Red sandstone mixed with metal 15 0

Red sandstone 25 0

Burr 1 0

Red sandstone 43 0

^ Red sandstone mixed with linseyt 41 0

* I wrote a polite note to Mr. Mercer requesting the favor of a copy of the
borings: but, aa I received no reply, I was compelled to apply to Messrs.
Woodcock, Part, and Scott, Solicitors, of Wigan, who kindly furnished me
with it.

t This term is commonly used by the miners of the Wigan district to
describe a sandy clay, the shale of other places,

2 II

242

MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

Ft. In.

Brown linsey 21 0

Red sandstone mixed with metal 35 0

Red sandstone 16 6

Brown linsey 22 1

Hard band or stone 0 7

Brown linsey 5 3

Metal 2 4

Strong linsey 21 4

Stone or burr 4 11

Red metal 4 6

Blue metal 10 1

Red and white metal 6 3

Brown metal 18 2

Brown metal, very dark 1 7

Red and blue metal 5 2

Linsey 2 10

Burr 0 7

Red metal 0 6

Burr 0 7

Red linsey 5 10

Band or bullion 0 5

Linsey 1 2

Band or bullion , 0 4

Linsey 0 10

Band or bullion 0 2

Linsey 0 9

Band or bullion 0 5

Linsey 1 Q

Band or bullion 0 6

Linsey 0 7

Band or bullion 0 4

Red linsey 2 7

Blue and red metal with bands 4 2

Blue metal mixed with brown 1 7

Very dark metal 6 1

Blue metal 3 8

Blue metal 1 10

Black bass 0 10

Coal 0 1

Black bass 0 2

Blue metal 1 9

Red parting 5 10

Blue metal 1 8

Bass 1 0

Coal 1 S

Warrant 1 2

OF THE N0BTH-WE8T OF ENGLAND.

243

Ft. In.

Metal 0 8

Band 0 2

Coal 3 10

Warrant 1 b\

Bluck baas 0 6

Coal 0 6

Warrant 1 4

635 0\

I have placed the word permian to shew what I think
18 the probable thickness of the lower new red sandstone;
but the latter rock may, nevertheless, extend further down,
as it is very hard to define in a bore hole where the permian
strata end and the carboniferous begin. What coal the lower
mine in the bore is it is difficult to say ; but it certainly bears
no resemblance to the little delph at Edge Green, although
Mr. Mercer may call it such.

Edge Green Section

This place is a little to the north of Golborne, and lies
near to the North Union Railway. It is about a mile south-
south-west of the last described section. In sinking his shaft,
the deep pit called No. 4, for coal, some years since, Mr.
Evans met with the following strata : —

Ft. In.

Marlandclay 33 0

'Red sand 4 5

Red rock ... 48 0

White rock 20 6

Red and white rock, spangled 9 0

LWhiterock 13 0

^Red stone, rather rocky 11 0

Soft red metal 2 0

Spangled red and white rock 12 0

Red metal 2 0

Red Linsey 4 0

ei; \ White rock ., 2 0

244

MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

Ft. In.

Red stone

11 6

Red metal

25 6

Red burr (hard rock)

2 8

Red metal

26 ' 3

Brown metal

1 0

Red rock

82 0

i-Metal

41 0

White rock

17 0

Burr

4 3

Metal

0 9

White rock

12 0

Blue metal

27 3

Little Delph coal

3 9

Warrant

1 0

Black bass

4 0

White metal

2 0

Gray rock

18 3

Burr

4 6

Rock

12 6

Metal

17 0

>-Main Delph coal

7 0

482 1

The trias and permian beds in this section have the same
angle of dip, namely 7° east-of-south, at an angle of 14°,
whilst the underlying coal-measures dip 52° east-of-south at
angle of 11°; so it is evident that the former have a greater
inclination than the latter. These appear to have been partly
eroded and removed before the deposition of the trias and
permian beds, and afterwards all three formations have been
elevated into their present position.

Mr. Evans's two pits are about 50 yards apart, and the
trias and permian strata were met with in the bye pit, 50
yards higher up than in the engine pit. The red stone of
10ft. 6in. no doubt represents the thin beds of limestone
parted by clays, and the red burr of 2ft. 8in. the lower band
of the Bedford section. The same fossils were found in the
limestone as at Bedford. The lower new red sandstone,
although described as red, had beds of a light colour mixed

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 245

with it. The miners who were engaged in sinking the pits
informed me that the last named rock contained much water,
and was composed of very sharp grained sand, which rasped
their tools quickly

B. Button.

Whiiton.

Hujfton. W.

.^':2i&t^»'*::^<:^^^^l^^^§^

1 1 6

6 4 4 8 - 1 6

Sutton Section.

8

The upper new red sandstone is seen by the side of the lane
leading to the station on the Liverpool and Manchester
Railway. It consists of reddish sand without much cohesion.
The dip is rather difficult to make out, but it seems to be
towards the east. Under this sandstone dip 30 feet of red and
greenish mottled marls, containing small lenticular markings,
and dipping at an angle of 10° to the east-south-east. In
these beds Mr. Smith, a gentleman residing in the neighbour-
hood, and well acquainted with the strata, informed me that
he had found nodules of limestone and impressions of shells.
Then comes a rock of about 90 feet thick of red and variegated
sand used for moulding purposes, and dipping under and in
the same direction as the marls last mentioned. Although
this sandstone has only been proved 90 feet, Mr. Smith
estimates its thickness at above 300 feet. On the top of it
are found large nodules, some of them half a ton in weight,
very hard, and when broken showing a mottled appearance,
and containing a good deal of red marl and peroxide of
iron. They at first sight might be taken for conglomerates,
but to me they are more like chemical aggregations of
different substances from a pasty state than rolled pebbles.
Whatever their origin, they cannot be distinguished from the

246 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

bed previously described at the Bedford Colliery, and would
appear to prove that the conglomerate at the latter place
occurred on the top of the lower new red sandstone. They,
therefore, are most probably the representatives of the
Norbury and Cheetham Weir Hole beds. The marls and
sandstone, both which I consider as permian, rest on upper
coal-measures of a red colour, seen in the dam of the
London and Manchester Plate Glass Company. When this
dam was making I found fossil shells of the genus Modiola,
so often met with in the upper coal-measures. Next come
on the red clays, parted by thin bands of variegated grits
seen in the Sutton Railway cutting. These red coloured
strata I could not measure, but Mr. Smith informed me
that Mrs. Hughes had bored in her field north of the
Liverpool and Manchester Railway to the depth of 80
yards without meeting with any seam of coal of a work-
able thickness. They dip to the east-south-east, at an
angle of 17°. At the workhouse Bridge across the line is
seen a fault that brings up coal-measures of the middle coal-
field, which appear dipping south-south-west at an angle of
16°. Thus an anticlinal axis is formed, with trias, permian
and coal measures of the upper field, the latter resembling
the North Staffordshire beds, and like them having been
long worked as clays for the manufacture of coarse pottery, on
the east side, and middle coal-measures on the western side.
In the fault the clays and grits are much altered, as if by the
efiects of pressure and heat. On proceeding towards the west
the coal-measures dip less and less, until they become nearly
level, when they disappear under the drift. The upper new
red sandstone is not seen on the railway, but at Thatto
Heath, to the north of the line, it occurs as a strong
conglomerate, dipping westwards, and continues as far as the
station at Kenrick's Cross.

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 247

Whiston Section.

Proceeding towards Liverpool, after leaving the Railway
Station at Kenrick's Cross, the upper new red sandstone is
seen taking a moderate dip to the west. Near the Wooden
Bridge, at Whiston, it appears a good deal fractured, and dips
south-south-east,* at an angle of 25°, is much discoloured,
and traversed by joints containing black oxide of manganese.
The dip increases to an angle of 65° east of the bridge, and
then 98 yards of coal-measures are seen protruding through the
sandstone. These strata belong to the upper coal-field, and
consist of red and greenish mottled clays, containing a bed of
limestone, about two feet in thickness, resembling that found
at Ardvvick, and a rock of reddish gritstone on the east of the
bridge. The strata dip to the west at an angle of 24°, which
gradually diminishes as you proceed westwards until they
reach the upper new red sandstone, where it is only 5°.
Three or four inches of soft red clay intervene betwixt the
coal-measures and the upper new red sandstone. The last-
named rock, when it appears, is much discoloured. At first
its angle of dip is 50° to the west, but this soon lessens to 30°,
and it then, in the distance of a few hundred yards, disappears,
and is succeeded by the Halsnead and Huyton coal-field.

HuYTON Section.

After the disappearance of the upper new red sandstone in
the last section, some of the higher portions of the Halsnead
coal-field are seen on the railway dipping eastwards, but no
good section appears until you reach the Huyton Flag Quarry.
The flag-rock there seen is the one well known in the neigh-
bourhood of Bury and Rochdale as the Upper Flag or Old

* This dip appear* to hava b«en originally to the west, but by the protrasion
of the coal-measures is altered to the south.south-east.

248 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

Laurence Rock. In the west of Lancashire it is called the
Upholland Flag, and is always known to overlie the lower
coals. It dips to the south-east, at an angle of 26°, and some
of its lowest beds on their rise abut against the upper new red
sandstone lying in the valley below, and extending from there
to beyond Liverpool without interruption. The occurrence
of the upper new red sandstone on the rise of the coal-
measures seems to indicate a great downthrow of the latter
filled up with red sandstone. Where the coals come up again
to the west remains yet to be proved. The upper new red
sandstone, when next seen on the railway near Broad Green,
dips eastwards.

The last three sections afford us valuable information as
to the different characters of the dislocations which have
broken up the coal-field. The first of them exhibits an
anticlinal axis, showing that the carboniferous, permian
and trias beds have been affected by the Sutton fault; the
Whiston section shows the protrusion of the carboniferous
strata through the trias without exposing any of the permian
beds; but the coal-measures of Halsnead and Huyton were
most probably elevated before the new red sandstone was
deposited on their western flanks. This last-named rock, no
doubt, overlies a great mass of coal-measures between Huyton
and Liverpool. Betwixt Liverpool and the Irish Sea, few, if
any, searches for coal have been made to my knowledge ; but
if the upper new red sandstone can be found cropping out to
the west, there is every reason to believe that coals will be
met with under it. On the other hand, if this sandstone west
of Liverpool dips westward, the coals will be at a great
depth.

In all the attempts which have been made at Liverpool in
sinking and boring for water I am not aware of the upper
new red sandstone having been perforated, although some of
these bores reached about 600 feet in depth. If the last-
named rock could be gone through, there is no reason to

01' THK NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND.

249

doubt that the permian beds would be found under it, as
is the case at Manchester and other places. The lowest
portion of this last group, that is to say, the lower new red
sandstone, holds immense volumes of water, and it is rather
surprising that no attempts have been made to reach it by
boring. In all the expensive and laborious investigations by
geologists and engineers in the contest for the New Water
Works at Liverpool little attention was paid to this fact. If
a tithe ot the money spent in the legal fight had been judici-
ously expended in making a deep bore-hole, it is most probable
that the town would have been supplied with plenty of water,
and much valuable information on the geology of the district
would have been afforded to the public ; at any rate, an
entirely independent supply of water would have been obtained
in addition to that now derived from the upper new red
sandstone.

Grimshaw Delph Section.

N.W.

Lower
new red

00° ■='5'5?^r.OOO

This quarry is situated in the western part of Upholland,
and is composed of rough rock, one of the lowest members of
the coal formation above the millstone grits. Its dip is to the
north-north-west, at an angle of 16°. On its dip it is traversed
by a great fault, running from south-east to north-west, which
brings in a rock which I consider to be lower new red sand-
stone. This deposit has a slight dip to the north-west, and
has been used as a moulding sand. It is from its consistency,
grain, colour, and general appearance, that I class it as a
permian deposit, for I can get no evidence of the strata which
lie above or under it, owing to the covering of drift which
envelopes the district. Its thickness I cannot ascertain, but
2 I

2.0O MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

probably fifteen feet of it may be exposed. The fault in
which it lies is a continuation of that seen below Billinge
Beacon, which brings in the Rainford coal-field.

ScARisBRiCK Section.
By the kindness of my friend, Mr. John Hawkshead Talbot,
I have been favoured with the result of borings, made by
Charles Scarisbrick, Esq., near Scarisbrick Hall, some years
since. It is as follows : —

Ft. In.

Soil 3 0

Brown sand 4 6

Brown clay 1 7

Variegated marl 230 8^

White grit pebble 0 7^

Variegated marl 18 0

Blue loam 4 2

Flaggy marl 3 0

Blue grit list * 19 3^

Brown strong rock list 1 1

Limestone list and limestone shale 7 4f

Brown flint kernel 1 7

Blue cast grit 2 0

Brown open grit 1 10

Blue shale 6 8^

Brown flint pebble 0 4

Blue shale 0 5

306 2i

This boring appears to me to be on the rise of the upper
new red sandstone of the neighbourhood, and if so, it most
probably represent the beds lying under that rock, namely,
the permian deposits. They for the most part resemble the
upper portion, the marls, limestones, and conglomerates, and
shew that the thickness of this part of the permian group
increases much towards the west.

*■ This tenu is used to denote a series of bluish grits, parted with softer beds.

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 25 1

Across the low country northwards, extending to the Kibble
and thence along the Fylde district and other parts of North
Lancashire, I am not aware that any evidence has yet been
obtained of the existence of permian beds until we reach
Rougham Point, near Humphrey Head, Flookborough, and
the small village of Stank both across Morecambe Bay, in
the hundred of Furness. The former of these I shall now
shortly describe.

Rougham Point Section.

N.N.W. E.8.E.

Rough&m Point. Humphrey Head.

5

Alluvium 4 AUuvium

Professor Sedgwick states " that the red sandstone is
probably expanded under the low region at the south-western
extremity of Cartmel Fells, as it is said to have been reached
in two places by excavations, and it appears as a very
characteristic conglomerate, unconformable to the mountain
limestone near Flookborough Spaw. No traces of it have,
I believe, been discovered on the neighbouring coasts of
Westmoreland and Lancashire ; but it re-appears (far beyond
the limits of the country I am attemptiiig to describe) in a
small patch, at West House, near Ingleton ; as has been
already noticed by Professor Phillips."* Also, "that in the
Cartmel promontory the new red conglomerates appear at
Rougham Point, west of Humphrey Head; and the red sand-

* On the New Red Sandstone Series in the basin of Eden and North- West
coasts of Cumberland. Transactions of the Geological Society, vol. IV. (Vnd
series) p. ;1K9.

The same Memoir, 1 r:

252 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

Stone is said to have been reached by boring between Cannon
Winder and Ravend's Winder, and close to Lower Hosker."

After having only seen the small conglomerate bed of
South Lancashire of but two or three feet in thickness, and
at Sutton only occurring in nodules, I was surprised to meet
at Rougham Point, near Humphrey Head, south of Flook-
borough, with a bed of red conglomerate of full 50 feet in
thickness. It is exposed to this extent, and bears evidence
of a considerable portion having been removed by the action
of the waves of the sea. The pebbles composing it are of
all sizes up to that of a man's head; many of them being
rounded and others angular. They chiefly consist of the
mountain limestone of the district, some of the latter being
hollow and filled with spar. There are also a few dark-
coloured red sandstones and pieces of red ironstone, all
cemented together by a weak sandy calcareous cement. The
stooe is known in the neighbourhood by the name of "cement
stone." It is regularly stratified, and parted in some places
by beds of soft sand of a dark red colour, and at its base
appears to pass into a slightly coherent red sandstone of great
thickness. This last rock appears to have reached from 400
to 500 feet in depth, judging from the space left between it
and the mountain limestone ; but it is now washed away, the
sea having apparently removed it all the distance to the west
and north, and left the conglomerate as an island surrounded
by marsh land (alluvium), having the mountain limestone of
Humphrey Head to the east and that of Lower Allithwaite
to the north, to both of which it is evidently unconformable.

The limestone of Humphrey Head dips to the east-north-
east at an angle of 15°, and the conglomerate and lower new
red sandstone dip to the east-south-east at an angle of 10°.

The pieces of limestone in the conglomerate, especially the
large ones, are regularly stratified, and bear every evidence
of having been arranged by water; and the sea at high
tides removes the stones out of their cement, and after rolling

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 253

them about deposits them as shingle, very much in the
same manner as they are seen in the stone. The beds of soft
red sandstone parting the rock very much assist in disinte-
grating the mass, and allowing the waves to sap the base.

In the islands of Morecambe Bay and the main land of
Furness, probably some traces of the conglomerate and lower
new red sandstone may be met with, occupying hollows in
the mountain limestone, but the vast covering of drift hides
the country so much that it is very hard to get a sight of
strata like the permian.

In passing over Morecambe Bay from Barrow, Bardsea
and Piel, I have been informed by the captains of packets
that there were several ledges of sunken rocks of a red colour
seen in the bay at very low tides. In all probality these are
permian strata.

Stank Section.

S.W. VHlley - *j -

South of 3 3 3 N.E.

Furness Abbey. ^5 u^I^l, Stainton

i^'', •.' *■'••«**• •':'r''i-7 ••'••'•'■

This is exposed in a field at Holbeck, about a mile and
a-half to the south-east of Furness Abbey, on the road side
leading from Stank to Newton. In it occurs a bed of
yellowish brown magnesian limestone, more resembling the
great Yorkshire deposit than any hitherto described in this
paper. Unfortunately, only a thickness of two yards is
exposed in a small quarry of a few yards in extent. The
dip of the stone at the north-east end of the quarry was 18
to 20° to the south-east ; but at the south-west end it was to
the south-west at an angle of 13°. The former appears to me
to be the true dip. The section in the woodcut is in a great
measure ideal, for neither the strata under, nor those above

254 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMUN BEDS

the limestone can be seen in contact with it. The deposit
is succeeded on the rise by the upper new red sandstone, dip-
ping, when next seen, to the south-east, and on the deep
some coal shales make their appearance for a short distance.
Then comes the mountain limestone of Urswick. Nothing
has been seen by me of the conglomerate and lower new red
sandstone. No fossils have, to my knowledge, been met
with in the limestone; but cavities occur in it having the
shape of casts of Bakevellia and Schizodus.

By the kindness of my friend Mr. James Gibb, chemist, I
am enabled to give the following analysis of a part of the
upper portion of the Holebeck stone. It is as follows : —

Carbonic acid 38.40

Silica 11.65

Magnesia 8.95

Oxide of iron 9.45

Lime 29.80

Water 1.75

100.00

The coal-measures seen on the deep of the limestone ap-
pear to belong to the middle coal-field. They contain shells
like the Unio acutus, fish scales, and remarkably large curls,
or coralloid cones as they are sometimes termed, in a bed of
poor clay ironstone.

Barrow Mouth Section.

N.N.E. S.S.W.

South of North of

Whitehaven St. Bee's Head

From Stank across the Duddon, round by Black Coomb,
and thence by Ravenglass and Drigg to St. Bees, the upper
new red sandstone appears to underlie the country. Between
St. Bees' Head and Whitehaven, at Barrow Mouth, a most

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 255

beautiful section of the permian beds is seen. After the fine
development of the upper new red sandstone of St. Bees'
Head, of from 600 to 700 feet in thickness, by means of a
dislocation in the shape of an upthrow, the permian beds are
brought in, and consist of the following deposits finely ex-
posed in the cliff, namely : —

Ft. In.

Upper new red sandstone 0 0

^ Red marls, about 30 0

Red marls, containing most beautiful white granular

5 gypsum, about 29 1

S <^ Magnesian limestone, of a cream colour, containing

casts of Bakevellia, Schizodus, and other shells ... 10 6
Coarse sandy conglomerate, containing pebbles of the

size of a man's head 3 0

Red and purple coloured sandstones of great thick-
ness, generally described as lower new red sandstone.

72 7

The conglomerate, many of the pebbles of which are
hollow and contain crystals of carbonate of lime, rests on
purple-coloured sandstones with a very uneven surface, the
latter having been a good deal eroded and subsequently filled
up with sandstone. The dip of all the beds appears to be
about the same, viz., 10° to the south-south-west. The red
marls, (the lower of which contains a very thick bed of the
finest white granular gypsum I ever saw, full 25 feet in thick-
ness,) the limestone, and the conglomerate, are without doubt
all members of the permian group. The purple sandstone is
generally considered by Professor Sedgewick and others to
be lower new red sandstone overlying the coal-measures of
Whitehaven ; but with all respect to so great an authority, I
am inclined to believe that it is a carboniferous sandstone.

The two compact beds of yellow magnesian limestone at
Stank and Barrow Mouth, above described, are very unlike
in their appearance to the ribbon beds and nodules of impure
limestone found in the red marls of South Lancashire ; but
they have great resemblance both in colour, structure, and

256 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

composition, to the magnesian limestone found at Cultra on
the south side of Belfast Lough.* According to Sir Robert
Kane, the limestone there is sixty feet in thickness, and 100
parts of it on analysis gave —

Magnesia 22.1

Lime 30.3

Carbonic acid 47.6

100 0

In some notes which I took of the Cultra beds when I
attended the meeting of the British Association at Belfast in
1852, I find that on proceeding from west to east, these strata
consisted of dark-coloured shales, impure limestones, and red
sandstones, some of the latter being of a conglomerate cha-
racter. The two first-named deposits contained a bivalve shell
resembling a Modiola, remains of entomostraca, one of which
is like a Cypris, scales of fishes of the genera Holoptychius
and PalcBomscus, and fragments of common coal-measure
plants. All the fossils reminded me of those found in the
upper carboniferous strata at Ardwick, near Manchester ; but
the sandstones were much coarser in structure and bore more
resemblance to the higher coal-measures seen near Stoke-
upon-Trent and the Potteries. The strata are very much
cut up by trap dykes, so it is very difficult to draw a true
section shewing the actual superposition of the beds. How-
ever, past Cultra landing-place there is beyond all doubt as
good a magnesian limestone as any in Yorkshire, containing
shells of the genera Schizodus and Bakevellia. Red sand-
stones occur both above and below this limestone; but the
undermost one is quite a conglomerate, and I took it without
hesitation to be permian.

The limestone is of a warm yellow colour, and was formerly
shipped to Liverpool for the purpose of being used in the
manufacture of magnesia.

• The Industrial Resources of Ireland, By Sir Robert Kane, F.R.S., &c.,
p. 246.

OF THE NOETH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 257

I am aware that the veteran geologist of Ireland, Dr.
Griffith, F.R.S., and Professor Mc. Coy are inclined to
consider this limestone yellow sandstone, but Mr. Mc. Adam,
a good local geologist, who has often investigated the section,
has no doubt as to the bed being true magnesian limestone ;
Professor William King, whose knowledge on such a point is
of the highest value, is also of the same opinion ; so I think
Ireland will still retain in its geology this small portion of
magnesian limestone, none other having ever to my know-
ledge yet been met with in the whole country.

KiRKBY Stephen and Brough Sections.

In the upper part of the valley of the Eden, lying between
Kirkby Stephen and Brough, is a very interesting deposit of
calcareous conglomerate, somewhat similar in appearance but
of far greater thickness and importance than the one pre-
viously described at Barrow Mouth. This valley from the
sea to the south of Appleby more or less shews the presence
of the upper new red sandstone, but, so far as my knowledge
extends, no trace of the permian beds has been met with in
the district until we reach the neighbourhood of Brough.
From this last-named place to Stenkreth Bridge, beyond
Kirkby Stephen, they occupy a considerable extent of coun-
try, evidently lying in a trough of carboniferous limestone,
and displaying themselves in the brook and river courses,
overlying the carboniferous limestone ; but not affording any
section which I am aware of that shews their relation to the
overlying upper new red sandstone.

I use the term conglomerate in this district, as well as at
Bedford and Sutton,* to characterise the deposit, as being

* Specimens of the Bedford and Sutton stones in my cabinet scarcely can be
distinguished from those found at the base of the magnesian limestone, at
Kirkby Woodhouse, Nottinghamshire, and described by Professor Sedgwick in
his paper on the magnesian limestone of the north of England.

2 K

258 MR. E. W. BINNET ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

well known and in common use, without committing myself
to any views as to its origin. Some portions of this deposit
to my mind shew as much resemblance to a segregation of
particles when in a pasty state by chemical affinity, as a col-
lection of rolled fragments of ancient rocks cemented together
with carbonate of lime; although I do not deny that many
angular and rolled pebbles are certainly found in it. In some
instances the pebbles form the chief part of the rock, and in
others the cement. Few fossil remains appeared to me in the
specimens of limestone which I examined in the neighbour-
hood of Kirkby Stephen and Brough, and many of them,
although, on the outside looking like boulders, are hollow,
resembling potato stones, and filled with crystals of carbonate
of lime.

Near Stenkreth Bridge, the conglomerate, there known by
the local name of "bruckram," consists of two beds, the
uppermost one of a hard and compact kind, quarried and used
for building purposes, and the lower one of a much softer
description, known by the name of " rotten bruckram." At
first I was inclined to think that there was but one bed, and
that the lower portion of it had been acted upon by water
so as to soften it; but from information which I gathered
on the spot I am disposed to think that there are two dis-
tinct beds.

Their thickness, so far as I could estimate it, would be as
follows, viz. : —

Ft. In.

Hard bruckram, used for building 16 0

Soft rotten bruckram 12 0

28 0

Both these beds lie nearly level, the dip of the first in
Stenkreth quarry, near the bridge, being from 7 to 8° to the
south-east. They continue to be seen in the river Eden all
the way from Stenkreth Bridge to the bridge on the north of

OY THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 259

Kirkby Stephen, on the Brough road, without much altera-
tion, except that under the rotten bruckram in the river
course near the latter place a dark red sandstone, quite soft
in consistency, makes its appearance. This cannot be dis-
tinguished in grain and colour from the red sandstone of
Heaton Mersey, Beet Bank Bridge, Collyhurst, Sutton,
Grimshaw Delph, and Rougham Point, previously described.

Belah Scar Section.*

B.N.B. W.8.W.

Wbitrlgg a Belah

.^rc-o-yys-q^ . . ^ w > Bridge

«uoooooeAeo^eeeooeoooooooo9oo
V O eoOO O OoOeooo f> eooOOo ooooe oeoOo*

9 0oCO&O^OOoOOOOo^COOO^OOO«3«zOO

ooooeeoooooooooooooooooooo oooo h
S.BX90000000 o ooeoo ooeooooo Co «>OOooo

The conglomerates and sandstone extend to Belah Scar,
where a fine section of them is seen. Both rocks lie nearly
level, but they have evidently a slight inclination to the west-
south-west. It is difficult to measure the entire thickness,
but it cannot be much less than four hundred feet. At Belah
Scar the conglomerate at first sight appears as occupying
waterworn hollows in the underlying soft red sandstone,
thus —

o OOP Oqo o ttOQ'".'.*' •■'^■' ••'

a representing the conglomerate, and b the soft red sandstone.
But in a short distance the conglomerate appears in the sand-
stone, thus —

* In this and the following wood cuts I shall use, a to denote the conglome-
rate, and 6 the lower new red sandstone.

260 MR, E. W. BINNET ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

And again thus —

c in this wood cut denoting what appears to be either a joint
or a slip, I cannot say which positively.

The sandstone appears to extend in an easterly direction
up the valley for about a mile, at first nearly level; but
certainly increasing a little in its dip, which is to the west-
south-west. It is succeeded by a cream-coloured carboniferous
limestone, and then a red sandstone, similar to the Smardale
sandstone,* appears up to the Foot Bridge over the stream at
Whitrigg, where the carboniferous limestone is again seen
dipping west-south-west, at an angle of 21°.

The conglomerate in the vicinity of Brough varies consider-
ably from that of Belah Scar, both in extent and position;
it is of far greater thickness, and instead of lying nearly level,
as it does at the last-named place, it dips at a great angle, as
described by Professor Sedgwick, who says : — " And I may
here remark, as I have done in a former paper, that the
magnesian conglomerates close to Brough have been tilted by
the. action of the Pennine fault, in the same manner as the
carboniferous beds on which they rest, whilst the same con-
glomerates near Kirkby Stephen rest almost horizontally on
the edges of the beds which have been tilted by the action of
the Craven fault, and hence we may conclude that the two
faults, although both produced near the end of the palaeozoic

* For a description of this sandstone lying in the mountain limestone, see
Professor Sedgwick's paper on the Lower Palseozoic Rocks at the base of the
carboniferous chain, between Ravenstonedale and Ribblesdale. Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society of London, vol. viii., p. 43

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 261

period, were not strictly contemporaneous — the Craven fault
being the older of the two." *

AuGuiLL Section.

8.W. firongfa Castle
Till

a Covered up Thin grits and Impure limestones

Near the hummock of reddish-coloured till, on which the
old castle of Brough stands, the Aughill brook joins the
Swindells brook. In the bed of the former stream the con-
glomerate is seen in great thickness ; I did not measure it,
but I should estimate it at fall 300 feet. Under it appear
some red sandy beds parted by thin beds of shale, not well
exposed, but apparently of a soft nature, and most probably
the soft red sandstone of Belah Scar, and then come coarse
and brown-coloured girts, which are succeeded by thin lime-
stones. These strata, both permian and carboniferous, dip
to the west-south-west at an angle of 46°.

Brough Section.

8.8.W. Brough e^ go ^ N.N.E.

Oastie pQOO n^ Brouffh

TiU

a Corered up Thin grits and impure limestones

The Brough section is taken from near the junction of the
Aughill brook with the Swindells brook, which runs through

* On the Lower Palseosoic Rocks, at the base of the carboniferous cbaio,
between Ravenstoncdale and Ribblesdale. By the Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.,
G.S., &c. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, vol. viii.,
p. 88.

262

MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

the town up to the mill towards the north-east. At first the
conglomerate, similar to that in the Aughill brook but ap-
parently not in quite such great force, is seen dipping to
the west-south-west at an angle of 43° ; then the strata for
a distance of about 250 yards cannot be seen, but in the
stream just above the bridge impure limestones and thin
bands of red sandstone make their appearance, which dip
west-south-west at an angle of 46°. These strata, more or
less parted by beds of shale, extend up the valley for above
half-a-mile beyond the mill ; but the dip is easier, not being
more than 27° a little west of the mill. They contain car-
boniferous limestone fossils. Both permian, and carboniferous
strata are here raised at a high angle, and shew that they
have been acted upon by the Pennine fault, as noticed by
Professor Sedgwick.

West House Section.

Coal measures

After leaving Stenkreth Bridge, and going southwards,
little, if any, trace of the permian beds has been met with
until you arrive at West House, near Burton-in-Lonsdale, in
Yorkshire. I have not examined the district with such care
as to speak with certainty on the matter; but I think any
considerable breadth of the deposit would not be likely to
have escaped the keen and practised eye of Professor Sedg-
wick. At West House, however, we have the finest section
of the conglomerate and lower new red sandstone, whether

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENQL.\ND. 263

we consider the thickness of the beds or the extent of the
surface exposed, that I have seen in the north-west of
England.

Many years since, Professor John Phillips, in describing
the geology of the district, thus alludes to the permian beds
here : —

" But at West House, on the line of the road, a curious
rock with a southward dip is occasionally exposed in digging
the foundations of houses, which resembles in composition
the brecciated beds alternating with new red sandstone at
Kirkby Stephen and Stenkreth Bridge.

" This stone is a fine grained light coloured red sand, con-
taining a variety of imbedded fragments, more or less
rounded, apparently, according to the degree of their hard-
ness. Limestone fragments of gray and red colour, are the
most numerous, the largest and the most angular : ironstone
in small pieces and in different states of decomposition is
plentiful, and a few pebbles (granular slate) of more sandy
substance make up the mass, in whose interstices calcareous
spar ramifies as in the old red conglomerate of Kirkby Lons-
dale. No fossils have been found in it, except what the
included limestone fragments contain. It is locally called
*red limestone,* and is occasionally used in building, for which
its large thin beds are well adapted. It is unknown, except
about West House, where it occupies a considerable surface
of red soil."

With the exception of the above description, and the allu-
sion made to the West House deposit by Professor Sedgwick,
I am not aware of any information having ever been pub-
lished on the subject.

In the bed of the Greta, at Burton-in-Lonsdale, the lower
coal-field and some parts of the middle coal-field are seen
dipping to the east, and near the weir there they incline at an
angle of 16°. Between Burton and West House little can

264 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

be seen of the strata, owing to the thick covering of drift,
but the whole of the coal-field appears to be thrown down
to the east to a considerable extent, and in this hollow the
permian beds lie.

The conglomerate is first seen in a sawpit near the smithy,
at West House, lying apparently almost level. In its ap-
pearance it resembles the harder and upper deposit at Kirkby
Stephen so much as to be scarcely distinguishable from it,
except that in the West House deposit, in addition to the
limestone pebbles there are a few of red sandstone and white
quartz. The pebbles, some of which are rounded and others
angular, are cemented together with a sandy calcareous paste,
varying considerably in its hardness.

On proceeding eastwards, up the valley in which flows a
small stream called Moregill, a fine series of the beds is seen.
The conglomerate at first makes its appearance as a hard
reddish-coloured stone, exactly like that seen at the smithy.
It dips to the south-west at an angle of 22°; proceeding
further up the brook it begins to be separated by beds pf
fine grained red sand; and at the quarry, were it was for-
merly wrought for flags, it has a dip of 55° to the south-
west, and contains pebbles of red sandstone and white quartz.
The conglomerate is seen for some distance further up in the
valley, with a dip reaching as high as 60°. I had no means
of measuring the thickness of the whole of the conglomerate
beds, but they must reach to near 300 feet.

The conglomerate is succeeded by a soft red sandstone of
a dark red-colour, with variegated beds towards its base like
that seen at Belah and previously described. The former
bed appears to pass into the sandstone, and the latter gradu-
ally becomes more arenaceous until the pebbles disappear
altogether. It dips to the south-west at an angle of 60°.
The thickness of it I did not measure; but I estimate it
at about 500 feet of red sandstone without any pebbles. At

OF THE NORTH- WEST OF ENGLAND. 266

its base it graduates into a finely laminated red marl. Then
come coal-measures, consisting of shales and fine grits, dip-
ping to the south-west at an angle of 35°. Many attempts
to work coals appear to have been made here in these strata,
but no seams worth working appear to have been met with.
Black curly shales like limestone shales then occur, lying
nearly level. After going up the hill the third of a mile,
over ground covered up, we come to the mountain limestone
of Towscar, part of Thornton Fells, which appears to dip to
the north-east at an angle of 39°.

Conclusion.

After having given the foregoing particulars of the permian
deposits of the north-west of Elngland, which are by no means
80 ample and satisfactory as I could have wished, I shall con-
clude by presenting a short summary of them. The beds,
with their respective greatest thicknesses, will be found to
occur in the following (descending) order : —

Feet.

1. Red marls with gypsum in the north, and thin beds and

nodules of limestone in the south of the district 300*

2. Magnesian limestone, resembling the Yorkshire deposit... 10

3. Conglomerate 360

4. Lower new red sandstone, of a soft and crumbling

character 500

1160

Under these beds the purple-coloured sandstone of White-
haven occurs. This rock I am inclined to class with the
coal-measures, rather than include it with the true permian
beds. Without, however, including this rock, it will be seen

• I take this thickness from the Scarisbrick section, which I assume to be
permian, and not the upper red marls of the trias.

2 L

266 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

that I have greatly increased the thickness of the permian
beds, which in a former paper I only estimated at 330 feet.*

The red marls and gypsum deposits are the highest mem-
bers of the permian group which I have as yet met with,
and although generally dipping in the same direction as the
overlying trias beds, are frequently uncomformable to them.
This will account for the permian deposits not being so often
exposed in natural sections.

The thin ribbon beds of limestone, containing much clay
and iron, lying in the lower part of the red marls, as found
in South Lancashire in the neighbourhood of Manchester,
become thicker and more like the Yorkshire and Durham
limestones in grain, colour, and composition, as you proceed
towards the north at Stank and Barrow Mouth.

The sandy conglomerate beds, containing rolled pebbles' of
Hug Bridge, Norbury, Cheetham weirhole, and other places
in South Lancashire, appear to gradually pass first into the
arenaceous conglomerate of Barrow Mouth, and then into
the calcareous conglomerates of Rougham Point, Kirkby
Stephen, Brough, and West House. When the deposit is
near a coal-field, it is generally arenaceous in character, and
when in a limestone district, calcareous; thus shewing that
most of the materials composing it were derived from or near
the neighbourhood in which it is now found, and not brought
from a distance. But certainly the cement in many places
has a great resemblance to volcanic ash.j

The conglomerate is generally, but probably not always,
unconformable to the lower new red sandstone of Collyhurst,
Sutton, Belah, &c., having been often deposited in hollows
and on waterworn surfaces of that rock.

* See Author's paper in vol. II. of the Quarterly Journal, previously quoted.

t I am convinced that some of the mottled clays and shales of the upper coal
field, as well as many of the permian beds, have a great deal of volcanic ash in
their composition,

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 267

The soft re/1 sandstone of Heaton Mersey, Beet Bank
Bridge, Collyhurst, Sutton, Rougham Point, Belah, and
West House, differs so much in its physical characters from
the purple-coloured gritstones of Whitehaven lying under the
conglomerate of Barrow Mouth, and is so generally absent
from the permian beds, that they may be considered as dis-
tinct rocks ; and hence I am inclined to class the Whitehaven
rocks with the purple -coloured carboniferous sandstone of
Collyhurst rather than the soft red permian sandstone found
at the last named place.

The soft red sandstone and its overlying bed of con-
glomerate are deposits of far greater extent and importance
than they were hitherto supposed to be, and I am convinced
that they will prove to be of the same geological age as the
red sandstone and conglomerate seen at the Craigs and in the
Cleuden near Dumfries. When I first saw the conglomerate
bed at the latter places some years since in company with
my friend Professor Harkness, it puzzled me much, as being
like no trias deposit with which I was acquainted in the
north-west of England, and so much resembling some of the
permian beds. Professor Harkness has since written on
this district.* Sir R. I. Murchison, I believe, was the first

• On the New Red Sandstone of the Southern portion of the Vale of the
Nith, by Robert Harkness, Esq. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,
vol. VI., p. 389, et seq. In this article Mr. Harkness describes the Dumfries
sandstones as triassic, and at p. 397 of his interesting memoir, admits that the
whole of the Dumfries beds are inferior to the sandstone of Annan, containing
tracks of the Labyrinthodon, like those of the Cheshire trias. He divides the
Dumfries beds into three deposits, viz. : —

Ft.
" 1. Thick bedded sandstones with their overlying fla§^ strata. . 390

" 2. Conglomerate 300

" 3. Fine grained sandstone covering the conglomerate 300

The tracks of animals found in the first sand&tone are quite different from those
found in the trias. When I first saw the conglomerate above the red sandstone
att the Craigs quarry, near Dumfries, I was not so well acquainted with the

268 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN BEDS

geologist to suspect the red sandstone and conglomerate of
Dumfries to be permian.*

The carboniferous strata appear to have been affected by
two distinct periods of disturbance, namely, the first which
occurred prior to the formation of the permian beds, as shewn
by the hollows and eroded surfaces in and on which the latter
now lie and repose in the neighbourhood of Manchester, and
at Stenkreth Bridge, Rougham Point, and West House;
and the second like those of Norbury, Collyhurst, Patricroft,
Bedford, Atherton, Edge Green, Sutton, Barrow Mouth,
Aughill, and Brough, which have taken place since the
deposition of the permian beds, as is evident from the present
position of both formations. Professor Sedgwick remarks,
" that the magnesian conglomerates close to Brough, have
been tilted by the action of the Pennine fault, in the same
manner as the carboniferous beds on which they rest ; whilst
the same conglomerates near Kirkby Stephen rest almost ho-
rizontally on the edges of the beds which have been tilted by
the action of the Craven fault; and hence we may conclude
that the two faults, although both were produced near the end
of the palaeozoic period were not strictly contemporaneous —
the Craven fault being the older of the two."t These views
appear to me not only applicable to the district of Kirkby
Stephen and Brough, but also to the greater part of the
country described in this paper. The first-named disloca-
tions representing the Craven and the last named the Pennine
fault. The great dislocations at Ardwick and Bradford,

permian beds of the north-west of England as I am now, or I should have
recognized it immediately as permian. In Mr. Watts' quarry at Craigs, the
first sandstone dipped due west at an angle of 36°, whilst the conglomerate
appeared to dip to the west at an angle of 7°, so these two beds are not always
conformable to each other.

* See his paper on the Silurian Rocks of South Scotland, printed in vol. vii.
p. 163, of the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.

f Vol, VIII., p. 38, of the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.

OF THE NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. 269

Pendleton and Patricroft, all appear to be not only of the
same age as the Craven fault, but to be fully as great in their
displacement of the strata.

In further support of my opinion that the limestones of
Collyhurst, Stank, and Barrow Mouth are of the same rela-
tive age, although differing so much in appearance and
chemical composition, I may state, that in the drift deposits
of South Lancashire, the first named only has been found by
me ; whilst in the drift of North Lancashire and Morecambe
Bay the last two only occur ; thus shewing that they are not
met with together, which we should most probably expect to
be the case if they were distinct deposits.

Addendum.

During the passage of the above paper through the press,
Mr. Kenworthy's section, described at page 236, has been
carried down through the red marls and limestones into the
lower new red sandstone. The following beds, therefore,
must be added to those previously given, viz. : —

ft. in.

Limestone rock, hard and gritty 4 6

Blue earth, or metal 3 l|

Limestone band 0 6

Red earth*, very sandy 4 5

Limestone rock, hard 0 9

Red earth 0 1

Limestone band, very hard 0 2^

Red earth, sandy and very hard 1 6|

Brownish red rock, hard and full of water, penetrated ... 18 9

33 9^

Probably one of the beds of sandy red earth will be the
conglomerate. In the above section 54 beds of limestone
are enumerated.

271

XI On an Apparatus for collecting the Gases from

Water and other Liquids^ and its Application in
general Chemical Analysis.

By Robert Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.C.S.

[Read March OM, 1855.]

There never has been, to my knowledge, a suitable
apparatus for collecting the gases from water. These
gases have been collected, but the widely different results
of Dal ton and Saussure shew how imperfect have been
the methods used. The apparatus, not till lately altered^
as far as 1 can understand the description, was simply a
retort filled both in the neck and bulb; when heated the
water would of course first come from the neck, this being
inserted under a receiver, over mercury, would cause first a
certain amount of water to rise in the receiver. After some
time ebullition would begin, and steam and gas would
escape together. The method is in a high degree unplea-
sant to work with, and the loss is apt to be great, the
water that comes over being suflBcient to absorb a consider-
able amount of the gas. Again, there must be so much
evaporated that the steam itself, when condensed, will form
a large portion of the water that comes over, and the result
obtained must, in a great measure, be the difference between
the quantity of air absorbed by the water during a long
space of time, and the quantity absorbed in a short time by
a smaller quantity of water. This absorption must, of neces-
sity, take place when the water over the mercury has cooled.

272 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON AN APPARATUS FOR

Professor Bunseii has directed his talents to this, and has
improved the plan to a great degree, but I cannot think
that he has completely succeeded. As far as 1 understand
his apparatus, as described by Dr. Hoffmann in the Journal
of the Chemical Society of London, there is still a great
amount of steam carried over with the air, which condensing
above the mercury must lead to absorption and to error.
In fact, his principle is to carry the air over by a superabund-
ance of watery vapour. Then he makes a globe with all its
joints and attachments stand the pressure of the atmosphere,
which is of itself a dangerous experiment, so readily do these
joints give way and allow air to pass. For these reasons and
because of its complicated structure, I have not used the
apparatus of that eminent chemist.

One of my earliest trials was the following; it may be
useful to describe it, as it will shew what reason I have for
avoiding pressure as much as possible. The flask in which
the water was boiled was connected by a bent tube with a
vessel of mercury, on the upper part of the bend a tube was
attached exactly in the manner now used, and which will be
seen by the woodcut. When the apparatus was filled with
water, and heat applied, the mercury of course yielded and
acted like a safety valve. Sometimes, however, it rose too
high or sunk too low, and the pressure of a very small
column was sufficient to cause air to enter by the joinings,
even after they were bound in the most careful manner with
strong wire. Another objection was, that over the mercury
a certain amount of water was placed, which did not suf-
ficiently diffuse itself amongst the rest, but remained com-
paratively cool. This might have been avoided by heating
the mercury also, had not a readier plan presented itself.

The principal feature of the method adopted is that of
regulating the varying pressure which results from boiling,
and from the generation or escape of the gases, by a balloon
capable of dilatation and contraction. By the use of this

COLLECTING GASES FROM WATER AND OTHER LIQUIDS 273

apparatus the pressure within and without the apparatus is
always the same, and the apparatus is at the same time kept
constantly full.

% I

The flask {e) is fitted on to the glass tube (d) by a strong
tube of vulcanised caoutchouc, bound round firmly with wire,
so that no escape of water or gas occurs, although used for
weeks together. To the other end of the tube (</) is
attached a thick balloon of vulcanised caoutchouc (c), it may
probably be as well to have it thin, but for the sake of con-
venience, this kind being readily found in the shops, I have
used it thick. The small tube at the top is, of course,

2 M

274 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON AN APPARATUS FOR

one piece with the tube (d). The tube (b) is a receiver for
the gases, and is connected by a flexible tube to the small
tube projecting from (</). This tube may be disconnected
by means of an external pressure valve, or a steel spring,
which closes the caoutchouc tube. A similar valve is placed
at the upper part of the tube (b).

If the balloon be strong and sufficiently elastic, it may be
pressed flat, and then allowed to expand, when it will fill
itself if the end of the tube has been dipped into any liquid.
When raised again into its proper position, the water may be
pressed from the balloon into the flask, and up to the point
(a). The balloon is then empty, or nearly so, and perfectly
flat. If it be strong, or if it have a tendency to expand, it
may exercise a slight pressure, tending of course to draw air
into the joints, but this is very small indeed, and if too much,
then a balloon with less elasticity may be used. The joint
(a) is shut, and that between (b) and (d) opened. The water
is boiled, and the air as it rises passes into the upper tube
(b). The balloon (c) is constantly expanding and contract-
ing to a small extent. The hot water is continually rising,
but has no injurious effiect on the balloon. It is important
not to allow it to hang down, as cold water may lodge in
it. The apparatus is small, holding about 3,300 grains of
water. Much less may in reality be used with safety. The
tube (d) is wide, of about |in. bore, and so is more readily
kept at a high heat during the process. When no more air
escapes the connecting valve is shut, the tube (b) removed,
and the gas passed into a graduated tube over mercury for
measurement and analysis.

When the gas fills (b), there is little fear of loss by absorp-
tion. This absorption may be calculated, or it may be entirely
prevented by completely separating the gas from the water.
This is done by putting a piece of paraffine into the tube ;
it melts, swims on the top, and on cooling prevents all con-
nection between the water and the air or gas in (b). Paraf-

COLLECTING GASES FROM WATER AND OTHER LIQUIDS. 2 75

fine does not hold very firmly to the glass, and if used a
large piece must be taken, but if a mixture of one-half
paraffine and one-half wax be used, then a very little will be
found enough to sustain the pressure when passing the gas
through mercury into the graduated tubes. The end (a)
might have a stopcock of glass and the tube (b) might be
graduated, but I do not at present see many advantages in
that change, except under exceptional circumstances. If the
tube (6) should be long, it may happen that paraffine will
not melt in it until the surface of the water be a good deal
lowered, in that case either a shorter and wider tube may be
used, or if a great amount of gas be expected the long one
may be retained, and the melting of the paraffine assisted at
first by the application of a lamp. Very little help is
required in any case.

On examining waters I find it useful to adopt this process
as a regular part of the analysis. As I intend to give a
separate paper on the amount of gas contained in waters, 1
shall say little about it at present, but may mention to shew
the importance of the subject that whilst a given portion of
the Manchester pipe water gave half a cubic inch of oxygen
gas, the same amount of water from a well near my labora-
tory, polluted by town drainage, gave only .025 of a cubic
inch, or in the proportion of 50 to 2J, shewing how tho-
roughly the organic matter had exhausted the soil of its
oxygen.

As the process of collecting gases from water becomes by
this means perfectly simple, the apparatus may be employed
in many cases of the kind not here mentioned. For example,
the amount of carbonates in water may be obtained in this
way with great exactness, by simply adding some muriatic
acid to the upper receiver and boiling as described, after the
free gases have been removed.

Sometimes hydrogen may be collected in this way from
dissolving metals, and estimated with advantage, instead of

276 DR. E. ANGUS SMITH ON AN APPARATUS FOE, &c.

the direct estimation of the metal when there is a com-
plicated mixture.

Some years ago there was read to the Royal Society a
paper of mine on the mode of estimating ammonia, cyanogen,
urea, &c., by means of the nitrogen obtained, or decomposing
them with chloride of lime or soda. This apparatus gives
the power of completing the process, and obtaining much
finer results. If even very small quantities are used with
this apparatus a correct result may be obtained. If chloride
of lime is used it is well not to take too much, as the
oxygen given out on boiling must afterwards be absorbed.
Water which has been carefully boiled must be used to fill
the apparatus.

Sometimes gases may be collected from liquids by the use
of a simpler apparatus still. The flask of water may have
over it a cup of oil, into the lower part of which the mouth
of the flask projects. Over this mouth may be placed a
receiving tube, filled with oil or melted paraffine. When the
water boils, all the gas goes directly into the tube, and is
immediately cut off from the water below. There are cases
in which this may be used with advantage, but in general I
prefer the apparatus above described.

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and on the Relations between Oxygen and

Azote. By Professor Lowe.
Mr. E. H. Sharp The Gilbart Prize Essay on the Adaptation of

Recent Discoveries and Inventions in Science

and Art to the purpose of Practical Banking.

WITH A LIST OF THE DONOKS. 283

DONOBfi. DONATIONS.

Royal Socibt? of Edin-

BUfiGH Ti-ansactions of the Royal Society, Edinburgh,

Vol. XXI., Part let, for the Session 1853-54.
Royal Society Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, Vol.

VII., Part bth.
L'Academib des Sciences,

Pauis Comptes Rendus de I'Academie des Sciences, Tome

XXXVIII., Janyier— Juin, 1854.
Council or the Philoso-
phical Society, Yobk-
8HIRB Proceedings of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society,

Vol. L, Part 2od. 1856.
Thb Author. Atmospheric Changes which produce Rain and

Wind, and the Fluctuations of the Barometer,

2nd Edition. By Thomas Hopkins, Esq.,

M.B.M.S. 1854.
The Author On the Increased Strength of Cast Iron produced

by the Use of Improred Coke. By F. C.

Calvert, F.C.S., &c , with a Series of

Experiments by William Fairbairn, Esq.,

F.R.S., &c.
Ditto On the Action of Organic Acids on Cotton and

Flax Fibres. By F. C. Calvert, Esq.

INDEX.

PAGE

ASTRONOMY 285

ARTS, FINE 285

ARTS AND MANUFACTURES 285

ARCHEOLOGY AND ANTIQUITIES 286

BIOGRAPHY 288

BOTANICAL AND AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. ... 289

CHEMICAL SCIENCE 290

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE 294

EDUCATION 294

GEOLOGY 295

HEALTH AND MEDICINE 295

LITERATURE 296

METEOROLOGY 298

MENTAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY 300

MISCELLANEOUS 301

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCE 301

MECHANICAL SCIENCE 303

NATURAL HISTORY 303

PHYSICAL SCIENCE 304

PHYSIOLOGY 307

POLITICAL ECONOMY 308

STATISTICS 308

INDEX

TO THB

SEVENTEEN VOLUMES OF THE MEMOIRS OF THE
MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Vol. 1. (Old Series) to Vol. 12. (New Series) incluiive.
Tears 1781 to 1855.

THB BOMLAN NVMBaALS BSFEB TO THE VOLTJMB, THB 0THSS8 TO TUB PAOB.

ASTRONOMY.

Remarks on the Twinkling of the Stars. By John Blackwall, F.L.S.
V. (Second Series) 143.

An Account of some Astronomical Observations made at Ivy Cottage,
Cornbrook, in the years 1828, 4, 5, 6, and 7» to determine its Latitude and
Longitude. By Mr. William Hadfield. Communicated by Peter Clare.
V. (Second Series) 201.

FINE ARTS.

Essay on the Beautiful in the Human Form ; and Enquiry whether the
Grecian Statues present the most perfect Beauty of Form, that we at pre*
sent have any acquaintance with. Communicated to the Society from a
Correspondent, through the Rev. George Walker. V. (Part 2) 407.

Observations on the Art of Painting ; among the Ancients. By Thomas
Cooper, Esq. IIL 510.

Observations on Sculpture. By Paul Moon James, Esq. VI. (Second
Series) 464.

On the Progress of Sculpture to the Time of Phidias, with Remarks on
the Charges against him. By Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S. , &c. Commu-
nicated by Dr. Fleming. VIII. (Second Series) 449.

ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.

On the Affinity subsisting between the Arts, with a Plan for promoting and
extending Manufactures, by encouraging those Arts on which Manufactores
prinripRlly depend. By Thomas Barnes, D.D. I. 72.

286 INDEX.

On the Comparative Merit of the Ancients and Moderns with respect to
the Imitative Arts. By Mr. Thomas Kershaw. I. 405.

Constitutions and Regulations of the College of Arts and Sciences in
Manchester. II. 42.

Considerations relative to the Nature of Wool, Silk, and Cotton, as
Objects of the Art of Dyeing; on the various Preparations, and Mordants,
requisite for these diflFerent Substances ; and on the Nature and Properties of
Colouring Matter. Together with some Observations on the Theory of
Dyeing in general, and particularly the Turkey Red. By Thomas Henry,
F.R.S., and of the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia.
Part First, III. 343. Part Second, III. 370. Part Third, III. 389.

Descriptive Account of the several processes which are usually pursued in
the Manufacture of the Article known in Commerce by the name of Tin-
plate. By Samuel Parkes, F.L.S., &c. In a Letter to Benjamin Naylor, Esq.
III. (Second Series) 347.

Observations on the Rise and Progress of the Cotton Trade in Great
Britain, particularly in Lancashire and the adjoining Counties. By John
Kennedy, Esq. III. (Second Series) 115.

ARCHEOLOGY AND ANTIQUITIES.

Thoughts on the Style and Taste of Gardening among the Ancients. By
William Falconer, M.D.,F.R.S.,&c. Communicated by Dr. Percival. I. 297.

Remarks on the Knowledge of the Ancients. By William Falconer, M.D.,
F.R.S Communicated by Dr. Percival. I. 261.

An Account of an Ancient Mode of Sepulture in Scotland. By Mr. Alex-
ander Copland. Communicated by Dr. Percival. II. 217.

Remarks on the Knowledge of the Ancients respecting Glass, with a Sketch
of its History down to later Times. By Dr. Falconer, of Bath. II. 95.

Essay on some Supposed Druidical Remains, near Halitax, in Yorkshire.
By Mr. Thomas Barritt. III. 292.

Account of an Ancient Monument in Huln Abbey, Northumberland. By
John Ferriar, M.D. III. 302.

A Dissertation upon the Ancient Carved Stone Monuments in Scotland,
with a Particular Account of one in Dumfriesshire. By Robert Riddell, of
Glenriddell, Esq., Captain of an Independant Company of Foot, F.A.S., and
Member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. IV. (Part
1) 131.

An Attempt to Explain the Nature and Origin of the Ancient Carved
Pillars and Obelisks, now extant in Great Britain. By Mr. Thomas Barritt.
IV. (Part 2) .506.

Conjectures on the Use of the Ancient Terraced Worka, in the North of
England. By John Ferriar, M.D. IV. (Part 2) 422.

INDEX. 287

On the Corobnttion of Dead Bodies, as formerly practised in Scotland. By
Mr. Alexander Copland. IV. (Part 2) 330.

An Enquiry into the Name of the Founder of Hnln Abbey, Northumber-
land, the first in England of the Order of Carmelites : with Remarks on Dr.
Ferriar's Account of the Monument in the Church of that Monastery. By
Robert Uvedale, B.A., of Trinity College, Cambridge, Corresponding Member
of the Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester. Addressed to Dr.
Percival. V. (Part 1) 40.

Appendix 1. Explanation of a Roman Inscription, found in Castle-field,
Manchester. By Mr. Thomas Barritt : with a Note on the same subject by
Dr. Holme. V. (Part 2) 675.

Account of some Antiques lately found in the river Ribble. By Mr.
Thomas Barritt. V. (Part 2) 527.

Observations on the Armorial Bearing of the Town of Manchester, and on
the Baronial Family of Grelley. By William Robert Whatton, F.A.S. IV.
(Second Series) 473.

Observations on the Round Towers of Ireland. By Robert Hyde Greg,
Esq. IV. (Second Series) 332.

Remarks on the State of Britain, at the time of its Conquest by the
Romans. By Mr. Thomas Hopkins. V. (Second Series) 86.

An Essay on the Roman Road, in the vicinity of Bury, Lancashire. By
Mr. John Just, Corresponding Member of the Society. VI. (Second Series)
409.

Cyclopian, Pelasgic, and Etruscan Remains, or Remarks on the Mural
Architecture of Remote Ages. By William Rathbone Greg, Esq. VI.
(Second Series) 325.

On the Probable Origin of Modern Corporations, from the Municipia of the
Romans, and their subsequent Internal Changes. By the Rev. John Kenrick,
M.A. VI. (Second Series) 33.

On the Sepulchral Monuments of Sardis and Mycense. By William Rath-
bone Greg, Esq. VI. (Second Series) 19.

Oo the Roman Military Road between Manchester and Ribchester. By
John Just, Esq., Corresponding Member of the Society. VII. (Second
Series) 1.

On the Use and Origin of Surnames. By the Rev. William Johns. VII.
(Second Series) 22.

An Account of a Roman Public Way from Manchester to Wigan. By the
Rev. Edmund Sibson, Minister of Ashton-in-Makerfield, Corresponding Mem-
ber of the Society. VH. (Second Series) 528.

On the Ictis of Diodorus Siculus. By the Rev. R. Wallace, F.G.S. VII.
(Second Series) 287.

A Dissertation on the Anglo-Saxon Patronymics. By John Jost, Esq.
VII. (Second Series) 440.

288 INDEX.

A brief History of certain Anglo-Saxon Roots nearly Obsolete, or becoming
so, in the English Language. By John Just, Esq. VII. (Second Series) 391.

On the Seteia and Belisama of Ptolemy. By J. Black, M.D., F.G.S.
VII. (Second Series) 368.

An Account of the Opening of an Ancient Barrow, called Castle Hill, near
Newton-in-Makerfield, in the County of Lancaster. By the Rev. Edmund
Sibson, Minister of Ashton-in-Makerfield. VH. (Second Series) 325.

BIOGRAPHY.

A Tribute to the Memory of Charles de Poller, Esq. By Thomas Percival,
M.D. I. 287.

Appendix ; — containing Extracts from the Minutes of the Society, relative
to the Delivery of the Gold and Silver Medals to Edward Hussey Delaval, Esq.,
F.R.S., and Mr. Thomas Henry, junior: with the President's Address from the
Chair upon that occasion. II. 610.

Memoirs of the late Dr. Bell. By James Currie, M.D. Addressed to the
Presidents and Members of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man-
chester. II. 381.

Some Account of the Life and Writings of Professor Gregory, M.D., F.R.S.
By James Johnstone, M.D. and Soc. Reg. Medi. Edinb. Socius. Communicated
by Dr. Barnes. II. 80.

A Tribute to the Memory of the late President of the Literary and Philo-
sophical Society of Manchester. By William Henry, M.D., F.R.S. , &c. IH.
(Second Series) 204.

Memoirs of the late Charles White, Esq., F.R.S., &c., with reference to his
Professional Life and Writings. By Thomas Henry, F.R.S., &c. III. (Second
Series) 33.

Appendix to the Paper on the Chain Bridge at Broughton, relating to its
Failure and Restoration, &c. By Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson. V. (Second
Series) 384.

Sketch of the Life and Writings of Ferdoosee By Samuel Robinson, Esq.
IV. (Second Series) 1.

A brief Memoir of Samuel Cromption ; with a Description of his Machine
called the Mule, and of the subsequent Improvements of the Machine by others.
By John Kennedy, Esq. V. (Second Series) 318.

A Memoir of Mr. Edward Hobson, Author of "Musci Britannici," &c. By
John Moore, Esq., F.L.S. VL (Second Series) 297.

A Memoir of the Life and Writings of the late Dr. Henry. By William
Charles Henry, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. , &c. VI. (Second Series) 99.

List of Papers read by Mr. Ewart, before the Society, with Note by Mr.
Clare. VII. (Second Series) 13e.

INDEX. 289

A Biographical Notice of the late Peter Ewart, Esq. By William Charles
Henry, M.D., F.R.S., and G.S. VII. (Second Series) 113.

A Sketch of the Life and Character of John Eddowes Bowman, Esq., F.L-S.
and G.S. By the Rer. John James Tayler, B.A. VII. (Second Series) 45.

A Biographical Notice of Peter Clare, Esq., F.R AS. By the Rev. Henry
Halford Jones, F.R.A.S. X. (Second Series) 203.

Memoir of the late Mr. John Just, of Bury. By Mr. J. Harland. XL 91.

Memoir of the Jlev. John Lawson, B.D., Rector of Swanscombe, Kent. By
T. T. Wilkinson, F.R. A. S., Ac. XIL 147.

BOTANY AND AGRICULTURE.

A Translation of Dr. Bell's Thesis, de Physiclogia Plantarum. By James
Currie, M.D. IL 894.

Observations on the Influence of Fixed Air on Vegetation ; and on the
probal>lo Cau»e of the Difference in the Results of various Experiments made
on that Subject. In a Letter from Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S., to Thomas
Percival, M.D., F.R.S., and S.A. II. 341.

Speculations on the Perceptive Power of Vegetables. By Thomas Per-
cival, M D., F.R.S., &c. H. 114.

Further Experiments and Observations on the Vegetation of Seeds. By
Mr. John Gough. Communicated by Dr. Holme. IV. (Part 2) 488.

Observations on the Advantages of Planting Waste Lands, By Thomas
Richardson, Esq. IV. (Part 2) 340.

Some Account of the Persian Cotton Tree. By Matthew Guthrie, M.D.,
F.R.S., &c. Communicated by Dr. Percival. V. (Part 1) 214

An Account of three different kinds of Timber Trees, which are likely to
prove a great acquisition to this Kingdom, both in point of Profit and as Trees
for Ornament and Shade. By Charles White, Esq., F.R.S. V. (Part 1) 163.

Remarks, chiefly Agricultural, made during a short Excursion into West-
moreland and Cumberland, in August, 1810. By John Moore, Jun., Esq.
HI. (Second Series) 179.

On the Injury done to the Foliage of the Oaks, in the neighbourhood of
Manchester, in the Spring of 1827. By John Blackwall, F.L.S. V. (Second
Series) 155.

On the Rohan Potatoe. By Dominique Albert, LL.D. Communicated
by John Davies, Esq., M.W.S. VL (Second Series) 394.

Observations on the Effects of severe Frost on the Blossoms of the Jar-
gonelle Pear at different Periods of their growth, and on the common methods
of preserving Wall Trees from Frost. By John Moore, Esq., F.L.S. VI.
(Second Series) 1.

On the Philosophy of Farming. By John Just, Esq., Corresponding
Member of the Society. VII. (Second Series) 074.

2 O

290 INDEX.

Observations on the Farinaceous Products of various kinds of the Potatoe.
By R. P. Bamber, M.R.C.S. VII. (Second Series) 420.

Observations on Guano, as a Manure for Potatoes. By Richard Parr
Bamber, M.R.C.S. VII. (Second Series) 348.

On the Maturation of Grain and Farming Produce, so as to be most bene-
ficial to the Cultivator. By John Just, Esq VIII. (Second Series) 297.

On Faults in Farming. By John Just, Esq. IX. (Second Series) 93.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

On the Natural History and Origin of Magnesian Earth, particularly as con-
nected with those of Sea Salt, and of Nitre ; with Observations on some of the
Chemical Properties of that Earth, which have been, hitherto, either unknown,
or undetermined. By Thomas Henry, F R.S., &c. I. 448.

Observations on the Use of Acids in the Bleaching of Linen. By Alexander
Eason, M.D. I. 240.

A Treatise on Saltpetre. By James Massey, Esq. I. 184.

On the Preservation of Sea Water from Putrefaction by means of Quick-
lime. By Thomas Henry, F.R.S., to which is added, an Account of a newly
invented Machine for impregnating Water or other fluids with fixed Air, &c.
Communicated to Mr. Henry by J. Haygarth, M.B , F.R.S. I. 41.

On Crystallization. By Alexander Eason, M.D. I. 29.

Experiments and Observations on Ferments and Fermentation ; by which a
mode of exciting fermentation in Malt Liquors, without the aid of Yeast, is
pointed out ; with an Attempt to form a new Theory of that Process. By
Thomas Henry, F.R.S. IL 257.

An Experimental Inquiry into the Cause of the Permanent Colours of Opake
Bodies. By Edward Hussey Delaval, F.R.S., of the Royal Societies of Upsal,
and Gottingen, of the Institute of Bologna, and of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Manchester, Communicated by Mr. Charles Taylor. II. 131.

Remarks on the Origin of the Vegetable Fixed Alkali, with some collateral
Observations on Nitre. By M. Wall, M.D., Prselector in Chemistry, in the
University of Oxford. Communicated in a Letter to Dr. Percival. II. 67.

On Oiichalcum. By the Right Rev. Richard Watson, D.D., F,R.S., &c.,
Lord Bishop of LandafF. Communicated by Dr. Percival. II. 47.

Some Account of a Mine in which the iErated Barytes is found. By Mr.
James Watt, jun. III. 598.

Experiments on the Fusion of Platina. By Mr. Thomas Willis, Chemist,
at the Hermitage, London. Communicated by Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S.,
&c. III. 467.

On the Action of Metallic Oxydes and Earths upon Oils, in low degrees of
Heat. By Mr. Peter Henry. Communicated by Mr. Thomas Henry, F.S. A.
IV. (Part 1) 20f).

INDEX. 291

An AccouQt of, and Observations on, different Blue Colours produced from
the Mother Water of Soda Phosphorate, &c. By Mr. Thomas Willis, of Lon-
don. Communicated by Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S., &c IV. (Part 1) 87.

Experiments und Observations on the Vegetation of Seeds. By Mr. John
Gough. Communicated by Dr. Holme. IV. (Part 2) 310.

Sketch of the History of Sugar, in the early Times and through the Middle
Ages. By William Falconer, M O., F.K.S., &c. Communicated by Dr. Per-
cival. IV. (Part 2) 291.

Experiments and Observations on Fermentation and the Distillation of
Ardent Spirit. By Joseph Collier. V. (Part 1) 24;{.

On the Process of Bleaching with the Oxygenated Muriatic Acid ; and a
Description of a new Apparatus for Bleaching Cloths with that Acid dissolved
in Water, without the addition of Alkali. By Theophilus Lewis Rupp. V.
(Part 1) 298.

Experiments and Observations on the Preparation and some remarkable
Properties of the Oxygenated Muriat of Potash. By Mr. Thomas Hoyle, jun.
V. (Part 1) 221.

An Analysis of the Waters of two Mineral Springs at Leamington Priors,
near Warwick, including Experiments tending to elucidate the Origin of the
Muriatic Acid. By William Lambe, M.A., late Fellow of St. John's College,
Cambridge. Communicated by Dr. Holme. V. (Part 1) 174.

Observations on Iron and Steel. By Joseph Collier. V. (Part 1) 109.

Appendix II. Note to Mr. W. Henry's Paper on Heat. V. (Part 2) 679.

A Review of some Experiments, which have been supposed to disprove the
Materiality of Heat. By Mr. William Henry. V. (Part 2) 603.

Experimental Essays, on the Constitution of Mixed Gases; on the Force
of Steam or Vapour from Water and other Liquids in different temperatures,
both in a Torricellium Vacuum and in Air ; on Evaporation ; and on the Ex-
pansion of Gases by Heat. By Mr. John Dalton. V. (Part 2) 535.

Remarks on Mr. Gough's two Essays on the Doctrine of Mixed Gases ; and
on Professor Schmidt's Experiments on the Expansion of Dry and Moist Air
by Heat. By John Dalton I. (Second Series) 425.

A Reply to Mr. Dalton's Objections to a late Theory of Mixed Gases. In
a Letter from the Author to Dr. Holme. By Mr. John Gough. I. (Second
Series) 405.

An Essay on the Theory of Mixed Gases, and the State of Water in the
Atmosphere. By Mr. John Gough. Communicated by Dr. Holme. I. (Se-
cond Series) 296.

A Description of a Property of Caoutchouc, or Indian Rubber ; with some
Reflections on the Cause of the Elasticity of this Substance. In a Letter to
Dr. Holme; By Mr. John Gough. I. (Second Series) 288.

On the Abeorbtion of Gases by Water and other Liquids. By John Dalton.
I. (Second Series) 271.

292 INDEX.

Experimental Enquiry into the Proportion of the several Gases or Elastic
Fluids, constituting the Atmosphere. By John Dalton. I. (Second Series)
244.

Observations on the Effect of Madder Root on the Bones of Animals. By
Mr. B. Gibson. I. (Second Series) 14t5.

A Memoir on the Uric Acid. By William Henry, M.D., F.R.S., &c, II.
(Second Series) 391.

Description of an Eudiometer, and of other Apparatus employed in Experi-
ments on Gases. By W. Henry, M.D., F.R.S., &c. II. (Second Series) 384.

Cursory Remarks on the Mineral Substance called, in Derbyshire, Rotten-
Stone. By William Martin, F.L.S., &c. Communicated by J. Hull, M.D.,
F.L.S. II. (Second Series) 313.

Memoir of Sulphuric Ether. By Mr. John Dalton. III. (Second Series)
446.

Experiments on the Gas from Coal, chiefly with a view to its Practical Ap-
plications. By William Henry, M.D., F.R.S., &c. III. (Second Series) 391.

Account of some remarkable facts observed in the Deoxidation of Metals,
particularly Silver and Copper. In a Letter to Mr. Dalton. By Samuel Lucas,
Esq. m. (Second Series) 271.

Account of the Black-lead Mine in Borrowdale, Cumberland. By Mr. Jona-
than Otley. Communicated by Mr. Dalton. III. (Second Series) 108.

On the Refractive Powers of Muriatic Acid and Water, separate, and in a
state of Mixture. By Mr. Henry Creighton. Communicated by Mr. Ewart.

III. (Second Series) 70.

Remarks tending to facilitate the Analysis of Spring and Mineral Waters.
By Mr. John Dalton. III. (Second Series) 52.

Experiments and Observations on the Combinations of Carbonic Acid and
Ammonia. By Mr. John Dalton. III. (Second Series) 18.

Experiments and Observations on Phosphoric Acid ; and on the Salts deno-
minated Phosphates. By Mr. John Dalton. III. (Second Series) 1.

Note on Oil and Coal Gases. By John Dalton, F.R.S. (See page 78.)

IV. (Second Series) 627.

On the Nature and Properties of Indigo ; with directions for the valuation
of different Samples. By John Dalton, F.R.S. , &c IV. (Second Series) 427.

On Oil, and the Gases obtained from it by Heat. By John Dalton, F.R.S.,
&c IV. (Second Series) 64.

Experiments on the Analysis of some of the Aeriform Compounds of Nitro-
gen. By William Henry, M.D., F.R.S., &c. IV. (Second Series) 499.

Description of a new method of determining the Weights of Gases. By
Mr. John Potter. V. (Second Series) 195.

Observations, chiefly Chemical, on the Nature of the Rock Strata, in Man-
chester and its Vicinity. By John Dalton, F.R.S., &c. V. (Second Series)
14N.

INDEX. 293

Ou Detecting the Precence of Arsenic, particularly in Reference to the
Employment of " Marsh** Test." By Henry Hough Watson, Esq., Cor-
responding Member of the Society. VI. (Second Series) 590.

Process of Carbonizing Turf without Close Vessels, the Peat furnishing its
own Caloric, without producing Ashes. By Dominique Albert, LL.D. Com-
muoicated by John Davies, Esq., M.W.S. VI. (Second Series) 399.

On the Relative Attractions of Sulphuric Acid for Water, under particular
circumstances : with suggestion of means of improving the ordinary Process of
manufacturing Sulphuric Acid. By Henry Hough Watson, Corresponding
Member of the Society. VI. (Second Series") 352.

Remarks on Dr. Thomson's Paper on the Combinations of Sulphuric Acid
and Water. By Henry Hough Watson, Esq., Corresponding Member of the
Society. VL (Second Series) 274.

Experiments and Observations on the Efflorescing Properties of some Salts
of Soda. By Henry Hough Watson, Esq., Corresponding Member of the
Society. Communicated by Dr. Dalton. VI. (Second Series) 78.

An Account of some Experiments to determine the quantity of Carbonic
Acid in the Atmosphere. By Mr. William Hadfield. VI. (Second Series) 10.

An Experimental Investigation of the Magnetic Characters of Simple Metals,
Metallic Alloys, and Metallic Salts. By William Sturgeon, Esq., Lecturer on
Natural and Experimental Science, formerly Lecturer on Experimental Philo-
sophy at the Hon. East India Company's Military Academy, Addiscombe. VII.
C Second Series) 620.

On the Deodorization of Manures. By James Toung, Esq. VIIL (Second
Series) 446.

Analysis of a Saline Spring in a Lead Mme, near Keswick. By Thomas
Ransome, Esq. VIII. (Second Series) 399.

On Water from Peat and Soil. By R. Angus Smith, Esq., Ph.D. VIII.
(Second Series) 377.

On the Analysis of Gaseous Mixtures. By John Leigh, Esq., M.R.C.S.,
F.C.S., IX. (Second Series) 297-

On the Chemical Changes attending the Formation of Coal, and on the
Relation of these Changes to the Philosophy of Gas-making. By John Leigh,
Esq., M.R.C.S.. F.CS. IX. (Second Series) 250.

On the Composition of the Gas produced by the Joint Distillation of Tar
and Water at a high Temperature. By John Leigh, Esq., M.R.C.S., F.C.S.,
&c. IX. (Second Series) 243.

Memoir of the Oxides and Nitrates of Lead. By F. Crace Calvert, Esq.,
Professor of Chemistry at Manchester. IX. (Second Series) 180.

Contributions to the Knowledge of the Manufacture of Gas. By E. Frank-
land, Ph.D., F.CS., Professor of Chemistry in Owens College. X. (Second
Series) 71.

294 INDEX.

On a Case of Poisoning by Sulphate of Protoxide of Iron. By Professor
F. Crace Calvert. XL 163.

Use of the Sulpho-Purpuric Acid (or Red Sulphate of Indigo) in the Dye-
ing of Worsted and Silk. By Mr. E. HaefFely. XI. 159.

On the Action of the Ferment of Madder on Sugar. By Edward Schunck,
Ph.D., F.R.S. XII. 109.

On the Formation of Indigo- Blue. Part 1. By Edward Schunck, Ph.D.,
F.R.S. XII. 177.

On Sewage and Sewage Rivers. By Robert Angus Smith, Ph.D., F.C.S.
XII. 155.

On an Apparatus for collecting the Gases from Water and other Liquids,
and its Application in general Chemical Analysis. By Robert Angus Smith,
Ph.D., F.C.S. XIL 271.

ELECTRICAL SCLENCE.

On the Theories of the Excitement of Galvanic Electricity. By William
Henry, M.D., F.R.S., &c. 11. (Second Series) 293.

Account of a remarkable Effect produced by a Stroke of Lightning. In a
Letter addressed to Thomas Henry, Esq., F.R.S., &c., President of the Lite-
rary and Philosophical Society, from Matthew Nicholson, Esq. With Remarks
on the same, by Mr. Henry. II. (Second Series) 269.

On some Peculiarities in the Magnetism of Ferruginous Bodies. By William
Sturgeon, Lecturer to the Manchester Institute of Natural and Experimental
Science, &c. Communicated by Peter Clare, F.R.A.S VIL (Second
Series) 205.

Note on the Employment of Electrical Currents, for ascertaining the
Specific Heat of Bodies. By J. P. Joule, Esq. VIII. (Second Series) 375.

On a new and practical Voltaic Battery of the highest Powers, in which
Potassium forms the positive Element. By John Goodman, Esq. VIII,
(Second Series) 265.

On Lightning and Lightning Conductors. By William Sturgeon, Esq.
IX. (Second Series) 56.

EDUCATION.

A brief Comparison of some of the principal Arguments in Favour of
Public and Private Education. By Thomas Barnes, D D. II. 1.

A Plan for the Improvement and Extension of Liberal Education in Man-
chester. By Thomas Barnes, D.D. II. 16.

Proposals for establishing in Manchester a Plan of Liberal Education, for
young men designed for Civil and Active Life, whether in Trade, or in any of
the Professions. B) Thomas Barnes, D.D. 11.30.

INDEX. 295

GEOLOGY.

Some Ob»ervation8 on the FlintB of Chalk- Beds. Id a Letter from
Thomas Beddoes, M.D., Physician at BriHtol Hot Wells, to Mr. Thomas
Henry, F.R.S., &c. IV. (Part 2) 303.

On the Flexibilty of all Mineral Substances ; and the cause of Creeps and
Seats in Old Coal Mines. By Mr. John B. Longmire. Communicated by
Dr. Holme. III. (Second Series) 1(11.

Remarks on the Coal District of South Lancashire. By James Heywood,
Esq., F R S., F.G.S., &c. VL (Second Series) 426.

A Glance at the Geology of Low Furness, Lancashire. By E. W. Binney,
Esq. VIII. (Second Series) 423.

On the Origin of Coal. By E. W. Binney, Esq. VIII. (Second Series)
148.

Sketch of the Drift Deposits of Manchester and its Neighbourhood. By
E. W. Binney, Esq. VIII. (Second Series) 195.

A Description of supposed Meteorites found in Seams of Coal. By E. W.
Binney, Esq. IX. (Second Series) 306.

Remarks on a Vein of Lead found in the Carboniferous Strata in Derby-
shire, near Whaley Bridge. By E W. Binney, Esq. IX. (Second Series)
125.

Description of a Mineral Vein in the Lancashire Coal Field near Skelfmers-
dale. By E. W. Binney, Esq. IX. (Second Series) 116.

On some Trails and Holes found in Rocks of Carboniferous Strata, with
Remarks on the Microconchus Carbonarius. By E. W. Binney, Esq. X.
(Second Series) 181.

Notes on the Drift Deposits found near Blackpool. By E. W. Binuey,
Esq. X. (Second Series) 121.

On the Action of Old Coal-pit Water upon Iron, in the Pendleton Colliery.
By E. W. Binney, Esq., F.G.S XI. 27.

On the Origin of Ironstones, and more particularly the newly discovered
Red Stone at Ipstones, near Cheadle, Staffordshire : with some Account of the
Ironstones of South Lancashire. By E. W. Binney, F.G.S. XII. 31.

Statistics of the Collieries of Lancashire, Cheshire, and North Wales. By
Joseph Dickinson. F.G.S. XII. 71.

On the Permian Beds of the North- West of England. By Edward W,
Binney, F.G S. XIL 209.

HEALTH— HYGIENE-MEDICINE.
Remarks ou the different Success, with respect to Health, of some attempts
to pass the Winter in high Northern Latitudes. By John Aikin, M.D. T. 89.

296 INDEX.

Result of some Observations made by Benjamin Rush, M.D,, Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Philadelphia, during his attendance as Physician
General of the Military Hospitals of the United States, in the late war.
Communicated by Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R. S., &c. II. 506,

Observations on a Thigh Bone of uncommon Length, By C. White, Esq.,
F.R.S , &c. II. 350.

On the Effects produced by different Combinations of the Terra Ponderosa
given to Animals. By Mr. James Watt, jun. III. 609.

A Physical Inquiry into the Powers and Operation of Medicines. By
Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S. and S.A. Lond., F.R.S. and R M.S. Edinb..
&c. III. 197.

Case of a Person becoming short-sighted in advanced age. By Thomas
Henry, F.R.S., &c. III. 182.

Observations upon the Callous Tumour. By Mr. Kinder Wood. IH.
(Second Series) 275.

Copy of a Letter from Thomas Beddoes, M.D Physician at Bristol Hot
Wells, to Mr. Thomas Henry, F.R.S, IV. (Part 2) 302.

On Plica Polonica. By Mr. Frederic Hoffman, Surgeon to the Prussian
Army. Communicated by Dr. Ferriar. IV. (Part 2) 324.

Miscellaneous Observations on Canine and Spontaneous Hydrophobia : to
which is prefixed the History of a Case of Hydrophobia, occurring twelve
years after the bite of a supposed Mad Dog. By Samuel Argent Bardsley,
M.D., M.R.M.S. Edin., and C.M.S. Lond. IV. (Part 2) 431.

A Series of Experiments on the Quantity of Food, taken by a Person in
Health, compared with the Quantity of the different Secretions during the
same Period ; with Chemical Remarks on the several articles. By John Dalton,
F.R.S. V. (Second Series) 303.

Some Ancient and Modern Ideas of Sanitary Economy. By R. Angus
Smith, Ph.D., F.C.S. II. 39.

LITERATURE.

On the Nature and essential characters of Poetry, as distinguished from
Prose. By Thomas Barnes, D D. I. 54.

Conjectural Remarks on the Symbols or Characters, employed by Astro-
nomers, to represent the several Planets, and by the Chemists to express the
several metals, in a Letter to Thomas Percival, M.D. F.R S. &c. By Martin
Wall, M,D., Praelector of Chemistry, and Clinical Professor in the University
of Oxford. L 243.

On the advantages of Literature and Philosophy in general, and especially
on the consistency of Literary and Philosophical with Commercial Pursuits.
By Thomas Henry, F.R.S. I. 7.

INDEX. 297

On the Origin of Alphabetical Characters. By Gilbert Wakefield, B.A.,
late Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. II. 294.

On the comparative Excellence of the Sciences and the Arts. By Mr.
William Roscoe. Communicated by Mr. M. Nicholson. IIL 241.

Essay on the Dramatic Writings of Massioger. By John Ferriar, M D.

in. 128.

Of Popular Delusions, and particularly of Medical Demonology. By John
Ferriar, M.D. III. 81.

On the uses of Classical Learning. By the Rev. George Gregory, D.D.,
Prebendary of Chiswick, and Domestic Chaplain to the Lord Bishop of Landaff.
Addressed to Dr. Percival. IV. (Part 1) 109.

Comments on Sterne. By John Ferriar, M.D. IV. (Part 1) 4.'i.

Hints on the Establishment of an Universal Written Character. In a
Letter to the Rev. Dr. John Kemp. By William Brown, M.D. Communi-
cated by Dr. Holme. V. (Part 1) 275.

On the Universal Character: in a Letter from James Anderson, L.L.D.,
F.R.S., F.A.S.S., &c., to Edward Holme, M.D. V. (Part 1) 89.

On the Benefits and Duties resulting from the Institution of Societies for
the Advancement of Literature and Philosophy. By the Rev. Thomas Gis-
borne, M.A. Communicated by Dr. Percival- V. (Part 1) 70.

List of Books presented to the Society. V. (Part 2) 681.

A Defence of Learning and the Arts, against some Charges of Rousseau.
In two Essays. By the Rev. G. Walker, F.R.S. Essay I., V. (Part 2) 438.
Essay II., V. (Part 2) 46'\.

On Tragedy and the Interest in Tragical Representations- An Essay.
By the Rev. George Walker, F.R.S. , and Professor of Theology in the New
College, Manchester. V. (Part 2) 319.

Reflections on History and on Historians, Ancient and Modern. By John
Holland. I. (Second Series) 859.

Reverie, considered as connected with Literature. An Essay. By the
Rev. Johnson Grant, A.B., of St. John's College, Oxon. I. (Second Series)
213.

On the Machinery of the Ancient Epic Poem. By the Rev. George
Walker, F.R.S. I. (Second Series) 98.

On National Character. By Thomas Jarrold, M.D. II. (Second Series)
328.

Remarks on the Use and Origin of Figurative Language. By the Rer.
William Johns. II. (Second Series) 74.

On the Possibility of reconciling the Scriptural and Profane Accounts of
the Assyrian Monarchy. By the Rev. John Kenrick, M.A. HI. (Second
Series) '298.

An Essay on the Origin of Alphabetical Characters. By the Rev. William
Turner, Jun., A.M. IH. (Second Series) 77.

2 P

298 INDEX.

Remarks on the Site of Troy, and on the Trojan Plain. Founded on
Personal Observation. By Robert Hyde Greg, Esq. IV. Second Series) 151.

Remarks on the Origin of the Babylonian, or Arrow-headed Character, and
its relation to our modern Alphabet. By James Nasmyth, Esq. VI. (Second
Series) 485.

Remarks on four Extracts from the Commentaries of Cesar, relative to the
nse of Greek Letters, by the Gauls and Druids. By the Rev. William Johns.

VI. (Second Series) 142.

On the Analogies and Affinities between the Ancient and Modern Lan-
guages of the South of Europe and those of the North. By F. E. Vembergue.

VII. (Second Series) 261.

Some Remarks on ''The Deserted Village" of Oliver Goldsmith. By
Mr. J. Y. Caw, F.S.A. Scot. X. (Second Series) 17-

METEOROLOGY.

BAROMETER, THERMOMETER, STORMS, ETC.

Meteorological Imaginations and Conjectures. By Benjamin Franklin,
LL.D., F.R.S., and Acad. Reg. Scient. Paris. Soc, &c. Communicated by
Dr. Percival. II. 373.

On the different Qiantities of Rain which fall, at different Heights, over
the same Spot of Ground, with a Letter from Benjamin Franklin, LL.D. By
Thomas Percival, M.D., &c. II. 122.

On Halos. By the Rev. James Wood, A.M., Fellow of St. John's College,
Cambridge. Communicated by Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S., &c. IH. 336-

Meteorological Observations made on different Parts of the Western Coast
of Great Britain. Arranged by T. Garnett, M.D., Physician at Harrogate.
IV. (Part 1) 234.

Observations on Alphabetical Characters ; and particularly on the English
Alphabet : with an Attempt to shew its Insufficiency to express, with due Pre-
cision, the Variety of Sounds, which enrich the Language. By Mr. Samuel
Harvey. IV. (Part 1) 135.

Meteorological Observations, collected and arranged by Thomas Garnett,
M.D., Physician at Harrogate ; Member of the Royal Medical, Royal Physical,
and Natural History Societies of Edinburgh ; of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Manchester ; of the Medical Society of London ; of the Royal Irish
Academy, &c. Communicated by Dr. Percival. IV. (Part 2) 517.

Observations on the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain, at Manchester:
from 1794 to 1818 inclusive. By Mr. John Dalton. IH. (Second Series) 483.

Meteorological Observations. By Mr. John Dalton. V. (Part 2) 666.

Account of a White Solar Rainbow. By the Rev. R. Smethurst. Com-
municated by Mr. Dalton. III. (Second Series) 176.

INDEX. 299

Appendix to the EsMy on Salt Rain (page 824), with Additional Observa-
tions on the succeeding Storms of Wind and Rain. By John Dalton, F.R.S..
&c. IV. (Second Series) 203.

On the iraline Impregnation of the Rain, which fell during the late Storm,
December 5lh, 1822. By John Dalton, F.R.S., &c. IV. (Second Series) 324.

Observations in Meteorology, particularly with regard to the Dew Point, or
quantity of Vapour in the Atmosphere; made on the mountains of the North
of England, from 1H03 to 1820. By John Dalton, F.R.S., &c. IV. (Second
Series) 104.

Account of the Rain which fell on different places on the line of the Roch-
dale Canal ; the rain gages being kept under the superintendence of Mr. Robert
Matthews, Engineer for the Canal. Communicated b^ Thomas Fleming, Esq.,
one of the Committee of the Canal. V. (Second Series) 243.

Summary of the Rain, &c., at Geneva, and at the elevated station of the
Pass of Great St. Bernard, for a series of years, from the Bibliothbque Univer-
selle, for March, 1828, with observations on the same. By John Dalton, F.R.S,
V. (Second Series) 233.

Account of a White Lunar Rainbow, seen at Manchester, on the 14th of
January, 1827. By John Blackwall, F.L.S. V. (Second Series) 140.

Account of Anthelia, observed in ascending Snowdon, on the 17th of May,
1826. By John Blackwall, F.L.S. V. (Second Series) 135.

On a remarkable Fact in the Natural History of the Swallow Tribe. By
John Blackwall, F.L.S. V. (Second Series) 8(J.

Meteorological Observations, made in the Township of Crumpsall, from
1821 to 1828 inclusive, with Remarks. By John Blackwall, F.L.S. V. (Se-
cond Series) 54.

Observations on the various Accounts of the Limiinous Arch, or Meteor,
accompanying the Aurora Borealis of Nov. 3, 1834. By John Dalton, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E., Member of the Institute of France, &c. VI. r Se-
cond Series) 617.

Observations on the Barometer, Thermometer, and Rain at Manchester,
from the year 1794 to 1840 inclusive, being a Summary of Essays on Meteoro-
logy. By John Dalton, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E., Member of the
Institute of France, &c. VI. (Second Series) 561.

Report of the Committee for superintending the placing of Rain Gauges
along the Lines of the Rochdale, Ashton-under-Lyne, and Peak Forest Canals,
with observations upon the Returns, and other Particulars. By John Frederic
Bateman, M. Inst. CE. VII. (Second Series) 191.

Observations on the Relation which the Fall of Rain bears to the Water
flowing from the Ground. By John Frederic Bateman, M. Inst. C E. VII.
(Second Series) 157.

Description of an Aurora Borealis, seen at Biggins, near Kirby Lonsdale,
Nov. 1, 1847. By William Sturgeon. VIII. (Second Series) 397.

300 INDEX.

On the Formation of Clouds, as observed in the locality of Kirby Lonsdale,
Westmoreland, in the month of October, 1847- By William Sturgeon, Esq.,
in a Letter to E. W. Binney, Esq. VIIL (Second Series) 390.

Description of an Aurora Borealis. By William Sturgeon, Esq. VIIL
(Second Series) 887.

Description of an Aurora Borealis, seen at Kirby Lonsdale, Westmoreland,
September 29th, 1847. By William Sturgeon, Esq. VIIL (Second Series) 381.

On the Times of Occurrence of the Daily Atmospheric and Barometric Dis-
turbances at Bombay. By Thomas Hopkins, Esq. V^III. (Second Series) 129.

On the Cause of Unequal Falls of Rain in Cumberland. By Alderman
Thomas Hopkins. IX. (Second Series) 196.

Description of a Meteorite which fell at Allport in Derbyshire. By Robert
Angus Smith, Ph.D. IX. (Second Series) 146.

On the Formation of Dew. By Thomas Hopkins, Esq. IX. (Second
Series) 4(3.

On the Air and Rain of Manchester. By Robert Angus Smith, Ph.D.,
F.CS. X. (Second Series) 207.

Report of Peter Clare, F.R.A.S., and John Frederic Bateman, F.G.S.,
M. Inst. C.E., being the Committee appointed for superintending the Measure-
ment of Rain falling along the Lines of the Rochdale, Ashton-under-Lyne, and
Peak Forest Canals. With Observations upon the Returns and other Par-
ticulars. By John Frederic Bateman. IX. (Second Series) I.

Some Account of the Floods which occurred at the Manchester Water
Works in the month of February, 1852. By John Frederic Bateman, F.G.S.,
Mem. Inst. CE. X. (Second Series) 1.S7.

On the Origin and Nature of the Forces that produce Storms. By Mr.
Alderman Hopkins. X. (Second Series) 59.

On the Separate Pressures of the Aqueous and the Gaseous portions of the
Atmosphere. By Mr. Thomas Hopkins. XL 1.

On the Influence of Sun-heated Land in producing Ascending Atmospheric
Currents. By Mr. Thomas Hopkins. XL 199.

MENTAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY-METAPHYSICS-ETHICS.

On the Influence of the Imagination, and the Passions, upon the Under-
standing. By the Rev. Thomas Barnes, D.D. I. 375.

An Essay on the Diversions of Hunting, Shooting, Fishing, &c., considered
as compatible with Humanity. I. 341.

An Enquiry concerning the Influence of the Scenery of a Country on the
Manners of its Inhabitants. By William Falconer, M.D., F.R.S. I. 271.

An Attempt to shew, that a Taste for the Beauties of Nature and the Fine
Arts, has no Influence favourable to Morals. By the Rev. Samuel Hall, AM.
I. 223.

INDEX. 301

On the Pleasure which the Mind in many cases receives from contemplating
Scenes of Distress. By Thomas Barnes, D.D. I. 144.

An Essay on the Pleasure which the Mind receives from the Exercise of its
Faculties, and that of Taste in particular. By Charles de Poller, Esq. I. 110.

On the voluntary Power which the Mind is ahle to exercise over bodily
Sensation. By Thomas Barnes, D.D. II. 407.

An Essay on Crimes and Punishments. By the Rev. William Turner.
II. 309.

Propositions respecting the Foundation of Civil Government. By Thomas
Cooper, Esq. III. 481.

On the Nature and Utility of Eloquence. By Richard Sharp, F.S.A.
m. 307.

On the Imprension of Reality attending Dramatic Representations. By
J. Aikin, M.D. Communicated by Dr. Percival. IV. (Part 1) 96.

An Argument against the Doctrine of Materialism, addressed to Thomas
Cooper, Esq. By John Ferriar, M.D. IV. (Part 1) 20.

Cursory Remarks, Moral and Political, on Party Prejudice. By Samuel
Argent Bardsley, M.D. V. (Part 1)1.

Ou Natural and Moral Philosophy, and the Proper Manner of Philoso-
phising in both. By the Rev. G. Walker, F.R.S. I. (Second Series) 378.

On the Moral Influence of History. By the Rev. G. Walker, F.R.S.
I. (Second Series) 328.

An Essay on the Signs of Ideas ; or, the Means of Conveying to others a
Knowledge of our Ideas. By Edward Carbutt, M.D., Physician to the Man-
Chester Infirmary. III. (Second Series) 241.

Some Remarks on the Nature of Genius. By the Rev. John James Tayler,
B.A., one of the Secretaries of the Society. IV. (Second Series) 373.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Use and Abuse of Popular Sports and Exercises, resembling those of
the Greeks and Romans, as a National Object- By Samuel Argent Bardsley,
M.D. I. (Second Series) 164.

Observations respecting the History of Physiognomy. By Thomas Cooper,
Esq. III. 408.

Appendix. Observations on the temporary Connection of Physiognomy
with the Occult Sciences. III. 442.

On (Economical Registers. By Mr. J. Wimpey. I. 134.

MATHEMATICS-ALGEBRA-GEOMETET.
Some Properties of Geometrical Series explained in the Solation of a
Problem, which hath been thought indeterminate. By John Rotherham, M.D.
III. 380.

302 INDEX.

The Inverse Method of Central Forces. Communicated by Edward Holme,
M.D. IV. (Part 2) 369.

The Inverse Method of Central Forces. Communicated by Dr. Holme.
V. (Part 1) 102.

A Demonstration of Lawson's Geometrical Theorems. By the late Rev.
Charles Wildbore. Communicated by Mr. Mabbott to Mr. Ewart, and by him
to the Society. II. (Second Series) 414.

Theorems and Problems, intended to elucidate the Mechanical principle
called Vis Viva. By Mr. John Gough. Communicated by Dr. Holme. II.
(Second Series) 270.

Investigation of the Curve of Quickest Descent, in reference to Mr. Ewart's
problem ; Memoirs, vol. II. (New Series) page 248 : in a Letter to Mr. Dalton,
F.R.S., President of the Society. By the Rev. Edmund Sibson. V. (Second
Series) 1.

On the Summation of Series, and on Definite Integration. By Robert
Rawson. VII. (Second Series) 464.

New Investigation of Laplace's Theorem, in the Theory of Attractions.
Poisson's Remarks on this Theorem. By Robert Rawson, Esq. VIII. (Second
Series) 402.

On Physical Data, applicable to Mathematics, in the Science of Meteo-
rology, Hydrodynamics, Heat, &c. By Robert Rawson, Esq. VIII. (Second
Series) 329.

A New Mode of Representing Discontinuous Functions. By Robert
Rawson, Esq. VIII. (Second Series) 236.

On Linear Constructions. By the Rev. Thomas Penynton Kirkman, A.M.,
Rector of Croft-with-Southworth. IX. (Second Series) 279.

On Impossible Equations. By Professor Finlay. IX. (Second Series) 236.

On Impossible and certain other Surd Equations. By Robert Harley, Esq.

IX. (Second Series) 207.

On Mnemonic Aids in the Study of Analysis. By the Rev. Thomas P.
Kirkman, M.A., Rector of Croft-with- Southworth. Lancashire. IX. (Second
Series) 29.

A new Discussion of the General Equation of Curves of the Second Degree.
By Mr. Robert Finlay, Professor of Mathematics, New College, Manchester.

X. (Second Series) 33.

The Lancashire Geometers and their Writings. By T. T. Wilkinson,
F.R.A.S. XL 123.

On Supplementary Curves. By Robert Finlay, B. A. XI. 169.

On the Representation and Enumeration of Polyedra. By the Rev. Thomas
P. Kirkman, A.M. XII. 47.

On the k-partitions of N. By the Rev. Thomas P. Kirkman, A.M. XII.
129.

INDEX. 303

An Account of the Early Mathematical and Philosophical Writings of the
late Dr. Dalton. By T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S., &c. XII. 1.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

The Laws of Motion of a Cylinder, compelled by the repeated Strokes of a
falling Block to penetrate an Obstacle, the Resistance of which is an invariable
Force. By Mr. John Gough. Communicated by Dr. Holme. IV. (Part 2) 273.

On the Measure of Moving Force. By Mr. Peter Ewart. II. (Second
Series) 105.

Memoir of a new system of Cog or Toothed Wheels. By Mr. James White,
Engineer. Communicated by T. Jarrold, M.D. III. (Second Series) 138.

On the Transverse Strain, and Strength of Materials. By Mr. Eaton
Hodgkinson. IV. (Second Series) 225.

Theoretical and Experimental Researches to ascertain the Strength and best
Forms of Iron Beams. By Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson. V. (Second Series) 407.

A few Remarks on the Menai Bridge. By Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson. V.
(Second Series) 398.

On the Chain Bridge at Broughton. By Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson. V. (Se-
cond Series) 384.

On the Forms of the Catenary in Suspension Bridges. By Mr. Eaton
Hodgkinson. V. (Second Series) 354.

An Experimental Inquiry into the Strength and other Properties of Cast
Iron, from various Parts of the United Kingdom. By William Fairbairn, CE.
VI. (Second Series) 171.

An Experimental Inquiry into the Strength and other Properties of Anthra-
cite Cast Iron, being a Continuation of a Series of Experiments on British
Irons, from various Parts of the United Kingdom. By William Fairbairn,
Esq., CE. VI. (Second Series) 524.

Som« Account of the late Mr. Ewart's Paper on the Measure of Moving
Force ; and of the recent Applications of the Principle of Living Forces to esti-
mate the Effects of Machines and Movers. By Eaton Hodgkinson, F.R.S.,
F.G.S. VII. (Second Series) 137.

On the Security and Limit of Strength of Tubular Girder Bridges con-
structed of Wrought Iron. By William Fairbairn, Esq., F.R. S. IX. (Second
Series) 179.

An Experimental Enquiry into the Relative Powers of the Locomotive
Engine, and the Resistance of Railway Gradients. By William Fairbairn, Esq.,
F.R.S. IX. (Second Series) 149.

NATURAL HISTORY.

On the Natural History of the Cow, so far as it relates to its giving Milk,
particulariy for the Use of Man. By Charles White. Esq., FR. S., &c. I. 442.

304 INDEX.

A short Account of an Excursion through the Subterraneous Cavern at
Paris. By Mr. Thomas White, Member of the Royal Medical Society of
Edinburgh, &c. In a Letter to his Father. II. 377.

A Description of the Eye of the Seal. By Mr, Hey, of Leeds. III. 274.

Remarks on the Summer Birds of Passage, and on Migration in General.
By Mr. John Gough. Communicated by Dr. Holme. II. (Second Series) 403.

Account of the Floating Island in Derwent Lake, Keswick. By Mr. Jona-
than Otley. In a Letter to Mr. Dalton. III. (Second Series) 64.

Observations conducive to a more complete History of the Cuckoo. By
Mr. John Blackwall. IV. (Second Series) 441.

Observations on the Notes of Birds, including an Inquiry whether or not
they are Instinctive. By Mr. John Blackwall. IV. (Second Series) 289.

Tables of the various Species of Periodical Birds observed in the neigh-
bourhood of Manchester ; with a few Remarks tending to establish the opinion
that the Periodical Birds Migrate. By Mr. John Blackwall, IV. (Second
Series') 125.

Remarks on " An Account of a Floating Island at Newberry-port, by Mr.
Amos Pettingall." (See Brewster's Journal, July, 1827; or Dr. Silliman's
Journal, No. 25.) By Mr. Jonathan Otley. V. (Second Series) 226.

Notices, chiefly Botanical, respecting the Natural History of Llandudno
Parish, Caernarvonshire. By William Thomson, A.M. V. (Second Series) 165.

Remarks on the Study of Entomology, and on an Hymenopterous Insect,
which devours the leaves of the Gooseberry bush. By John Moore, Esq., F.L.S.
V. r Second Series) 112.

Further Observations on the Floating Island of Derwent Lake ; (Memoirs,
vol. 3rd, New Series, page 64) with Remarks on certain other Phenomena. In
a Letter to Mr. Dalton, F.R. S., President of the Society. By Mr. Jonathan
Otley. V. (Second Series) 19.

On the Instincts of Birds. By John Blackwall, F.L.S. V. j( Second
Series) 254.

On some of the Microscopical Objects found in the Mud of the Levant, and
other Deposits ; with Remarks on the mode of formation of Calcareous and
Infusorial Siliceous Rocks. By W. C. Williamson, Esq. Communicated by
J. P. Joule, Esq. VIII. (Second Series) 1.

On the Structure and Affinities of the Plants hitherto known as Stern -
bergiae. By William Crawford Williamson, Professor of Natural History in
Owens College, Manchester. IX. (Second Series) 340.

On the Volvox Globator. By William Crawford Williamson, Professor of
Natural History in Owens College, Manchester. IX. Second Series) 321.

PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
An Essay on the Ascent of Vapour. By Alexander Eason, M.D. I. 395.

INDEX. 305

Extracts from two Letters from Dr. Wall of Oxford, to Dr. Percival, in
reply to the foregoing Queries concerning Attraction and Repulsion ; comrou>
nicated to the Literary and Philosophical Society. IL 455.

Facts and Queries relative to Attraction and Repulsion. By Thomas Per-
cival, M.D., &c. II. 445.

Some Observations on the Phoenomena, which take place between Oil and
Water, in a Letter to Thomas Percival, M.D., F. R. S. and S. A., &c. By Martin
Wall, M.D., Praelector of Chemistry in the University of Oxford. II. 435.

A Description of a New Instrument for Measuring the Specific Gravity of
Bodies. By Mr. William Nicholson, in a Letter to Mr. J. H. Magellan, F.R.S.,
Reg. Acad. Petropol. and Paris. Corresp., &c. II. 386.

On the Pursuit of Experimental Philosophy. By Thomas Percival, M.D.,
F.R.S. and S.A., &c. IL 842.

Description of a Glory. By John Haygarth, M.B., F.R.S. Loud., F.R.S.
and R.M.S. Kdinb., and Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Communicated by Dr. Percival. III. 4(13.

Observations on the Knowledge of the Ancients respecting Electricity. By
William Falconer, M.D., F.R.S. Communicated by Dr. Percival. III. 278.

Remarks on the Floating of Cork Balls in Water. By Mr. Banks, Lecturer
in Natural Philosophy. Communicated by the Rev. Thomas Barnes, D.D.,
Fellow of the American Philosophical Society holden at Philadelphia. III. 178.
Conjectures relative to the Cause of the Increase of Weight acquired by
some heated Bodies during cooling. By Thomas Henry, junior. Coramuni-
cated by Thomas Henry, F.R.S., &c. III. 174.

Letter on Attraction and Repulsion. Communicated by Dr. Percival.
in. 116.

Reasons for supposing that Lakes have been more numerous than they are
at present; with an Attempt to Assign the Causes whereby they have been
defaced. By J. Gough of Kendal. Communicated by Dr. Percival. IV.
(Part 1) 1.

Remarks on Dr. Priestley's Experiments and Observations relating to the
Analysis of Atmospherical Air, and his Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlo-
giston and the Decomposition of Water. By Theopbilus Lewis Rupp. W
(Part 2) 128.

On the Theory of Compound Sounds. By Mr. John Gough. Communi-
cated by Dr. Holme. V. (Part 2) 653.

An Investigation of the Method whereby Men judge, by the Ear, of the
Position of Sonorous Bodies relative to their own Persons. By Mr. John
Gough. Communicated by Dr. Holme. V. (Part 2) 622.

Experiments on the Velocity of Air issuing out of a Vessel in different cir-
cumstances ; with the Description of an Instrument to Measure the Force of
the Blast in Bellows, &c. By Mr. Banks, Lecturer in Natural Philosophy.
Communicated by Mr. Dalton. V. (Part 2) 808.

2Q

306 INDEX.

Experiments and Observations on the Power of Fluids to conduct Heat ;
■with reference to Count Rumford's Seventh Essay on the same subject. By
Mr. John Dalton. V. (Part 2) 373.

Experiments and Observations on the Heat and Cold produced by Mechanical
Condensation and Rarefaction of Air. By Mr. John Dalton. V. (Part 2) 515.

Experiments and Observations to determine whether the quantity of Rain
and Dew is equal to the quantity of Water carried off by the Rivers and raised
by Evaporation ; with an Enquiry into the Origin of Springs. By Mr. John
Dalton. V. (Part 2) 346.

On the Tendency of Elastic Fluids to Diffusion through each other. By
John Dalton. I. (Second Series) 259.

Observations on the Ebbing and Flowing Well, at Giggleswick, in the West
Riding of Yorkshire, with a Theory of Reciprocating Fountains. By Mr.
John Gough. In a Letter to Dr. Holme. II. (Second Series) 354.

On Respiration and Animal Heat. By John Dalton. II. (Second Series)
15. Appendix. II. (Second Series) 33.

An Account of some Experiments to ascertain whether the Force of Steam
be in proportion to the generating Heat. By John Sharpe, Esq. II. ( Second
Series) 1.

The Laws of Statical Equilibrium analytically investigated. By Mr. John
Gough. Communicated by Dr. Holme. III. (Second Series) 381.

An Account of some Experiments made to determine the Specific Gravities
of the Steam or Vapour from Water, Alcohol, Ether, Pyroxilic Spirit, and
Acetic Acid. By Mr. William Hadfield. VI. (Second Series) 158.

On a new Method for ascertaining the Specific Heat of Bodies. By James
P. Joule, Esq., Secretary of the Literary and Philosophical Society, Mem.
Chem. Society, London, &c. VII. (Second Series) 559.

On the Pressure of the Steam which caused the Explosion of the Boiler of
the Irk, Locomotive Engine. By the Rev. Edmund Sibson, Minister of Ashton-
in-Makerfield. VII. (Second Series) 501.

On the Heat evolved during the Electrolysis of Water. By James P. Joule,
Esq. VII. (Second Series) 87- Appendix to the above, page 107.

Researches into the Identity of the Existencies or Forces— Light, Heat,
Electricity, and Magnetism. By John Goodman, Esq. VIII. (Second Series)
276.

Some Remarks on Heat, and the Constitution of Elastic Fluids. By J. P.
Joule, F.R.S., &c. IX. (Second Series) 107.

Researches into the Identity of the Existences or Forces of Light, Heat,
Electricity, Magnetism, and Gravitation. By John Goodman, M.D. IX.
(Second Series) 80.

On the Identity of Light, Heat, Electricity, Magnetism, and Gravitation.
By J. Goodman, M.D., M.R.C.S. X. (Second Series) 155.

INDEX. 307

On the Economical Production of Mechanical Effect from Chemical Forces.
By J. P. Joule, Etq., F.R.S., &c. X. (Second Series) 173.

On the Causes of the Great Currents of the Ocean. By Mr. Alderman
Hopkins. X. (Second Series) 1.

PHYSIOLOGY.

On the Regeneration of Animal Substances. By Charles White, Esq.,
F.R.S., &c. I. 826.

Observations on Blindness, and on the Employment of the other Senses to
supply the Loss of Sight. By Mr. George Bew. I. 159.

Some Remarks on the Opinion that the Animal Body possesses the power
of Generating cold. By George Bell, M.D. I. 1.

A Narrative of the Sufferings of a Collier who was confined more than
seven days, without Sustenance, and exposed to the Choke-damp, in a Coal- -
pit, not far from Manchester; with Observations on the Effects of Famines:
on the means of Alleviating them ; and on the Action of Foul Air on the
Human Body. By Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S. and S.A., &c. II. 483.

On the Cretins of the Vallais. By Sir Richard Clayton, Bart. HI. 261.

Observations concerning the Vital Principle. By John Ferriar, M.D.
lU. 216.

Account of a remarkable change of Colour in a Negro. By Miers Fisher.
Extract of a Letter from Mr. James Pemberton to Mr. Thomas Wilkinson.
Communicated by Dr. Holme. V. (Part 1) 814.

On the Variety of Voices. By Mr. John Gough. Communicated by Dr.
Holme. V. (Part 1) 68.

Extraordinary Facts relating to the Vision of Colours : with Observations.
By Mr. John Dalton. V. (Part 1) 28.

Observations on the Nervous Systems of different Animals ; on Original
Defects in the Nervous System of the Human Species and their Influence on
Sensation and Voluntary Motion. By John Hull, M.D. V. (Part 2) 476.

On the Use of the Sutures in the Skulls of Animals. By Mr. B. Gibson.
I. (Second Series) 317.

An Essay, Physiological and Experimental, on the EflFects of Opium on the
Living System. By William Alexander, M.D. Communicated by Samuel
Argent Bardsley, M.D. I. (Second Series) 1-

Some Observations upon the local prevalence of Idiotism, and its connec-
tion with Goitre. By Kinder Wood, Surgeon. IV. (Second Series) 83.

Physiological investigations arising from the Mechanical effectb of Atinos-
pheric Pressure on the Animal frame. By John Dalton, F.R.S., &c. V.
(Second Series) 291.

308 INDEX.

POLITICAL ECONOMY.

On the Impropriety of allowing a Bounty to encourage the Exportation of
Corn, &c. By Mr. Joseph Wimpey. I. 413.

An Inquiry into the Principles and Limits of Taxation as a branch of Moral
and Political Philosophy. By Thomas Percival, M.D., F.R.S. Lond. and
Edinb. Member of the Royal Society of Medicine at Paris ; of the Royal
Soc. of Agriculture at Lyons ; and of the Philosophical Soc. at Philadelphia,
&c. in. 1.

An Appendix to the Inquiry concerning the Principles of Taxation, con-
taining Supplementary Notes and Illustrations, in. 621.

An Inquiry into the Principles by which the Importance of Foreign
Commerce ought to be estimated. By Henry Dewar, M.D. II. (Second
Series) 45.

Appendix. In a Letter to the President and Members of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester. By Henry Dewar, M.D. II. (Second
Series) 66.

An Inquiry into the Effects produced upon Society by the Poor Laws.
By John Kennedy, Esq. HI. (Second Series) 430.

Experiments and Observations on Diverging Streams of Compressed Air.
By Mr. Thomas Hopkins. V. (Second Series) 208.

Observations on the Influence of Machinery upon the Working Classes of
the Community. By John Kennedy, Esq. V. (Second Series) 25.

STATISTICS.

Observations on Longevity. By Anthony Fothergill, M.D., F.R.S.
Communicated in a Letter to Dr. Percival. I. 355.

An Account of the Progress of Population, Agriculture, Manners, and
Government in Pensylvania. In a Letter from Benjamin Rush, M.D., and
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pensylvania, to Thomas Percival,
M.D., F.R.S., &c. III. 183.

Observations on the Bills of Mortality for the Towns of Manchester and
Salford. By Thomas Henry, F R.S., Acad. Philos. Amer. ; Philadel.; Med.
Lond. and Physic. Edinb. Soc. IH. 159.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTHOES,

FBOM

THE EAKLIEST MEMOIES TO THE END OF THE TWELFTH VOLUME,
SECOND SERIES.

Th0 Heading is given under which the Author* » Taper ia found in the foregoing
IndeXf aho the Volwne and Page in the Memoirs.

Aikin John. Health — Hygiene— Medicine. L 89.

Aikin John. Mental and Moral Philosophy. IV. 06.

Alexander William. Physiology. 1. (Second Series) I.

Albert Dominique. Botany and Agriculture. VI. (Second Series) 394.

Albert Dominique. Chemical Science. VL (Second Series) 399.

Anderson James. Literature. V. 89.

Bamber R. P. Botany and Agriculture. VII. (Second Series) 420.

Bamber R. P. Botany and Agriculture. VII. (Second Series) 348.

Banks Mr. Physical Science. III. 178.

Banks Mr. Physical Science. V. 398.

Barnes Rev. Thomas. Mental and Moral Philosophy. L 144.

Barnes Rev. Thomas. Mental and Moral Philosophy. II. 467.

Barnes Rev. Thomas. Education. II. 1.

Barnes Rev. Thomas. Education. IL 16.

Barnes Rev. Thomas. Education. II. 30.

Barnes Rev. Thomas. Mental and Moral Philosophy. I. 375.

Barnes Rev. Thomas. Arts and Manufactures. I. 72.

Barnes Rev. Thomas. Literature. I. 64.

Barritt Thomas. Archaeology. V. 675.

Barritt Thomas. Archaeology. V. 627.

Barritt Thomas. Archaeology. IIL 292.

Barritt Thomas. Archaeology. IV. 606.

Bardsley S. A. Health— Hygiene— Medicine. IV, 431.

Bardsley S. A. Miscellaneous. I. (Second Series) 164.

Bardsley S. A. Mental and Moral Philosofthy. V. 1.

Bateman J. F. Meteorology. IX. (Second Scries) 1.

310

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS.

BatemaD J. F Meteorology.
Bateman J. F. Meteorology.
Baieman J. F. Meteorology.
Beddoes Thomas. Physiology.
Beddoes Thomas. Geology.

X. (Second Series) 137.
VII. (Second Series) 191.
VII. (Second Series) 157.
IV. 302.
30.S.

Bell George. Physiology. I. 1.

Bew George. Physiology. I 159.

Binney E. W. Geology. VIII. (Second Series) 423.

Binney E. W. Geology. VIH. (Second Series) 148.

Binney E. W. Geology. VIII. rSecond Series) 196.

Binney E. W. Geology. IX. (Second Series) 125.

Binney E. W. Geology. IX. (Second Series) 306.

Binney E. W. Geology. IX. (Second Series) 116.

Binney E. W. Geology. X. (Second Series) 181.

Binney E. W. Geology. X. (Second Series) 121.

Binney E. W. Geology. XL (Second Series) 27.

Binney E. W. Geology. XII. (Second Series) 31.

Binney E. W. Geology. XII. (Second Series) 209.

Black J. Archaeology. VIL (Second Series) 368.

Blackwall John. Natural History. IV. (Second Series) 441.

Blackwall John. Botany and Agriculture. V. (Second Series) 155.

Blackwall John. Meteorology. V. (Second Series) 36.

Blackwall John. Meteorology. V. (Second Series) 54.

Blackwall John. Natural History. IV. (Second Series) 289.

Blackwall John. Natural History. IV. (Second Series) 125.

Blackwall John. Meteorology. V. (Second Series) 140.

Blackwall John. Astronomy. V. (Second Series) 143.

Blackwall John. Natural History. V, (Second Series) 254.

Blackwall John. Meteorology. V. (Second Series) 135.

Brown William, M.D. Literature. V. 275.

Calvert F. Grace. Chemical Science. IX. (Second Series) 130.

Calvert F. Grace. Chemical Science. XI. (Second Series) 163.

Carbutt Edward. Mental and Moral Philosophy. III. (Second Series) 241.

Caw J. Y. Literature. X. (Second Series) 17.

Collier Joseph. Chemical Science. V. 109.

Collier Joseph. Chemical Science. V. 243.

Cooper Thomas. Miscellaneous. III. 408.

Cooper Thomas. Miscellaneous. III. 442.

Cooper Thomas. Mental and Moral Philosophy. III. 481.

Cooper Thomas. Fine Arts. III. 510.

Copeland Alexander. Archseology. - II. 217

Copeland Alexander. Archseology. IV. 330.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS.

311

Clare Peter. Biography. VII. (Second Series) 136.

Clayton Sir Richard. Physiology. III. 261.

Creighton Henry. Chemical Science. IH. (Second Series) 70.

Currie James. Biography. 11.381.

Carrie James. Botany and Agriculture. II. 394.

Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Daltun John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Dalton John.
Delaval E. H.
Dewar Henry.
Dewar Henry.

Physiology. V. 28.
Physical Science. V. 873.
Physical Science. V. 615.
Physical Science. V. 34(3.
Meteorology. V. 666.
Chemical Science. V. 536.
Chemical Science.
Chemical Science.
Physical Science.
Chemical Science.
Physical Science.
Chemical Science.
Chemical Science.
Chemical Science.
Chemical Science.

I. (Second Series) 425.
L (Second Series) 244.

I. (Second Series) 239.
I. (Second Series) 271.

II. (Second Series) 33.
III. (Second Series) 1.
III. (Second Series) 18.
III. (Second Series) 52.
III. (Second Series) 446.

Meterology. HI. (Second Series) 483.
Chemical Science. IV. (Second Series) 64.
Meteorology. IV. (Second Series) 104.
Meteorology. IV. (Second Series) 263.
Meteorology. IV. (Second Series) 324.
Chemical Science. IV. (Second Series) 427.
Chemical Science. IV. (Second Series) 527.
Chemical Science. V. (Second Series) 148.
Meteorology. V. (Second Series) 233.
Physiology. V. (Second Series) 291.
Health— Hygiene— Medicine. V. (Second Series) 303.
Meteorology. VI. (Second Series) 561.
Meteorology. VI. (Second Series) 617.

Chemical Science. II. 131.

Political Economy. H. (Second Series) 45.

Political Economy. II. (Second Series) 66.

Dickinson Joseph. Geology. XII. (Second Series) 71.

Eason Alexander. Chemical Science. I. 29.

Eason Alexander. Chemical Science. I. 240.

Eason Alexander. Physical Science. I. 895.

Ewart Peter. Mechanical Science. IL (Second Series) 10ft.

3 I 2 ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Fairbairn William. Mechanical Science. VI. (Second Series) 171.

Fairbairn William. Mechanical Science. VI. (Second Series) 524.

Fairbairn William. Mechanical Science. IX. (Second Series) 149.

Fairbairn William. Mechanical Science. IX. (Second Series) 179.

Falconer William. Mental and Moral Philosophy. I. 271.

Falconer William. Physical Science. III. 278.

Falconer William. Chemical Science. IV. 291.

Falconer William. Archaeology. I. 297.

Falconer William. Archaeology. I, 261.

Falconer William Archaeology. II. 95.

Ferriar John. Literature. III. 31.

Ferriar John. Literature. III. 123.

Ferriar John. Physiology. III. 216.

Ferriar John. Archaeology. III. 302.

Ferriar John. Mental and Moral Philosophy. IV. 20.

Ferriar John. Literature. IV. 45.

Ferriar John. Archaeology. IV. 422.

Finlay Professor Robert. Mathematics. IX. (Second Series) 236.

Finlay Professor Robert. Mathematics. X. (Second Series) 33.

Finlay Professor Robert. Mathematics. XI. (Second Series) 169.

Fisher Myers. Physiology. V. 314.

Fothergill Anthony. Statistics. I. 355.

Franklin B. Meteorology. II. 122.

Franklin B. Meteorology. II. 373.

Frankland E. Chemical Science. X. (Second Series) 71.

Garnett Thomas. Meteorology. IV. 517.

Garnett Thomas. Meteorology. IV. 234.

Gibson B. Chemical Science. I. (Second Series) 146.

Gibson B. Physiology. I. (Second Series) 317.

Gisborne Rev. Thomas, M.A. Literature. V. 70.

Goodman John. Electrical Science. VIII. (Second Series) 265.

Goodman John. Physical Sciences. VIII. (Second Series) 276.

Goodman John. Physical Sciences. IX. (Second Series) 80.

Goodman John. Physical Sciences. X. (Second Series) 155.

Gough John. Physical Science. IV. 1.

Gough John. Mechanical Science. IV. 273.

Gough John. Chemical Science. IV. 310.

Gough John. Botany and Agriculture. IV. 488.

Gough John. Physiology. V. 68.

Gough John. Physical Science. V. 622.

Gough John. Physical Science. V. 053.

Gough John. Chemical Science. I. (Second Series) 288.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTHOBS. 313

Gough John. Chemical Science. I. (Second Seriee) 296-
Gough John. Chemical Science. I. (Second Seriex) 405.
Gough John. Mathematics. II. (Second Series) 270.
Gough John. Physical Science. II. (Second Series) 854.
Gough John. Natural History. II. Second Series) 453.
Gough John. Physical Sciences. III. (Second Series) 381.
Grant Rev. Johnson. Literature. I. (Second Series) 213.
Gregory Rev. George. Literature. IV. 109.
Greg R. H. Literature. IV. (Second Series) 15L
Greg R. H. Archaeology. IV. (Second Series) 332.
Greg W. R. Archaeology. VI. (Second Series) 19.
Greg W. R. Archaeology. VI. (Second Series) 32ft.
Guthrie Matthew. Botany and Agriculture. V. 214.

Hadfield William. Astronomy. V. (Second Series) 201.

Hadfield William. Chemical Science. VI. (Second Series) 10.

Had^ld William. Physical Sciences. VI. (Second Series) 158.

Harley Robert. Mathematics. IX. (Second Series) 207

Haeflfely E. Chemical Science. XI. (Second Series) 159.

Harland John. Biography. XL (Second Series) 91.

Harvey Samuel. Meteorology. IV. 135.

Haygarth John. Chemical Science. I. 41.

Haygarth John. Physical Science. III. 403.

Hall Rev. Samuel. Mental and Moral Philosophy. I. 233.

Henry Thomas. Literature. I. 7.

Henry Thomas. Chemical Science. 1.41.

Henry Thomas. Chemical Science. I. 448.

Henry Thomas. Chemical Science. II. 257.

Henry Thomas. Botany and Agriculture. II. 341.

Henry Thomas. Statistics. III. 159.

Henry Thomas, Jun. Physical Science. III. 174.

Henry Thomas. Arts and Manufactures. III. Part Ist, 343; Part 2nd, 870;

Part 3rd, 389.
Henry Thomas. Health — Hygiene — Medicine. lU. 182.
Henry Peter. Chemical Science. IV. 209.
Henry William. Chemical Science. V. 603.
Henry W. (Appendix 2.) Chemical Science. V. 679.
Henry Thomas. Electrical Science. II. (Second Series) 259.
Henry William. Chemical Science. H. (Second Series) 884.
Henry William. Chemical Science. II. (Second Series) 391.
Henry Thomas. Biography. III. (Second Series) 33.
Henry William. Electrical Science. II. (Second Series) 293.
Henry William. Chemical Science. III. (Second Series) 891.

2 R

314 ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Henry William. Biography. Ill, (Second Series) 204.

Henry William. Chemical Science. IV. (Second Series) 499-

Henry W. C. Biography. VI. (Second Series) 99.

Henry W. C. Biography. VIL (Second Series) 113.

Hey Mr. Natural History. III. 274.

Haywood James. Geology. VI. (Second Series) 426.

Hoffman Frederick. Health— Hygiene— Medicine. IV. 324.

Hoyle Thomas, Jun. Chemical Science. V. 221.

Holland John. Literature. I. (Second Series) 359.

Holme Edward. Mathematics. IV. 369-

Holme Dr. Mathematics. V, 102.

Holme Dr. Archaeology. V. 675.

Holme Edward. Fine Arts. VIII. (Second Series) 449.

Hopkins Thomas. Archseology. V. (Second Series) 86.

Hopkins Thomas. Political Economy. V. (Second Series) 208.

Hopkins Thomas. Meteorology. VIII. (Second Series) 129.

Hopkins Thomas. Meteorology. IX. (Second Series) 46. <»

Hopkins T. Meteorology. IX. (Second Series) 196.

Hopkins T. Physical Sciences. X. (Second Series) 1.

Hopkins T. Meteorology. X. (Second Series) 59.

Hopkins Thomas. Meteorology. XI. (Second Series) 1.

Hopkins Thomas. Meteorology. XI. (Second Series) 199.

Hodgkinson Eaton. Mechanical Science. IV. (Second Series) 225.

Hodgkinson Eaton. Mechanical Science. V. (Second Series) 398.

Hodgkinson Eaton. Mechanical Science. V. (Second Series) 384.

Hodgkinson Eaton. Mechanical Science. V. (Second Series) 364.

Hodgkinson Eaton. Mechanical Science. V. (Second Series) 407.

Hodgkinson Eaton. Mechanical Science. VII. (Second Series) 137.

Hull John. Physiology. V. 475.

James Paul Moon. Fine Arts. VI. (Second Series) 464.

Jarrold Thomas. Literature. II. (Second Series) 328.

Johns Rev. William. Literature. II. (Second Series) 74.

Johns Rev. William. Literature. VI. (Second Series) 142.

Johns Rev. William. Archaeology. VII. (Second Series) 22.

Johnstone James. Biography. II. 80.

Jones Rev. H. H. Biography. X. (Second Series) 203.

Joule J. P. Physical Sciences. VII. (Second Series) 87. Appendix 107.

Joule J. P. Physical Sciences. VIL (Second Series) 559.

Joule J. P. Electrical Science. VIII. (Second Series) 375.

Joule J. P. Physical Sciences. IX. (Second Series) 107.

Joule J. P. Physical Sciences. X. (Second Series) 173.

Just John. Archseology. VI. (Second Series) 409.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTH0B8. 316

Just John. Archseology. VH. (Second Series) 1.

Just John. Archaeology. VII. (Second Series) 891.

Just John. Archaeology. VII. (Second Series) 440.

Just John. Botany and Agriculture. VII. (Second Series) 674.

Just John. Botany and Agriculture. VIII. (Second Series) 297.

Just John. Botany and Agriculture. IX. (Second Series) 93.

Kershaw Thomas. Arts and Manufactures. I. 405.
Kennedy John. Political Economy. III. (Second Series) 430.
Kennedy John. Political Economy. V. (Second Series) 26.
Kennedy .Tohn. Biography. V. (Second Series) 318.
Kennedy John. Arts and Manufactures. III. (Second Series) 116.
Kenrick Rev. John. Archaeology. VI. (Second Series) 33.
Kenrick Rev. John. Literature. III. (Second Series) 298.
Kirkman Rev. T. P. Mathematics. IX. (Second Series) 29.
Kirkman Rev. T. P. Mathematics. IX. (Second Series) 279.
Kirkman Rev. T. P. Mathematics. XII. (Second Series) 47.
Kirkman Rev. T. P. Mathematics. XII. (Second Series) 129.

Lamhe William. Chemical Science. V. 174.
Leigh John. Chemical Science. IX. (Second Series) 243.
Leigh John. Chemical Science. IX. (Second Series) 260.
Leigh John. Chemical Science. IX. (Second Series; 297-
Longmire J. B. Geology. III. (Second Series) IGl.
Lucas Samuel. Chemical Science. III. (Second Series) 271-

Massey James. Chemical Science. I. 184.

Mathews Robert. Meteorology. V. (Second Series) 243.

Martin William. Chemical Science. II. (Second Series) 313.

Moore John, Jun. Botany and Agricalture. III. (Second Series) 179.

Moore John. Natural History. V. (Second Series 112.

Moore John. Botany and Agriculture. VI. (Second Series) 1.

Moore John. Biography. VI. (Second Series) 297.

Nasmyth James. Literature. VI. CSecood Series) 480.
Nicholson Matthew. Electrical Science. II. (Second Series) 269.
Nicholson William. Physical Science. II. 386.

OtIey Jonathan. Natural History. III. (Second Series) 64.

Otley Jonathan. Chemical Science. III. (Second Series) 168.

Otley Jonathan. Natural History. V. (Second Series) 19.

Otley Jonathan. Natural History. V. (Second Series) 22«.

316 ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Parkes Samuel. Arts and Manufactures. III. (Second Series) 347.

Pettingall Amos. Natural History. V. (Second Series) 226.

Pemberton James. Physiology. V. 314.

Percival Thomas. Botany and Agriculture. IL 114.

Percival Thomas. Biography. 1. 287.

Percival Thomas. Meteorology. II. 122.

Percival Thomas. Physical Science. IL 342.

Percival Thomas. Physical Science. II. 445.

Percival Thomas. Physiology. II. 483.

Percival Thomas. Political Economy. IIL 1.

Percival Thomas. Physical Science. III. 116.

Percival Thomas. Health— Hygiene — Medicine. III. 197.

Percival Thomas. Political Economy, UL 621.

Poller Charles de. Mental and Moral Philosophy. I. 110.

Potter John. Chemical Science. V. (Second Series) 195.

Ransome Thomas. Chemical Science. VIII. (Second Series) 399.

Rawson Robert. Mathematics. VII. (Second Series) 464.

Rawson Robert. Mathematics. VIH. (Second Series) 235.

Rawson Robert. Mathematics. VHI. (Second Series") 329.

Rawson Robert. Mathematics. VIII. (Second Series) 402.

Richardson Thomas. Botany and Agriculture. IV. 345.

Riddell Robert. Archaeology. IV. 131.

Robinson Samuel. Biography. IV. (Second Series) 1.

Roscoe William. Literature. III. 241.

Rotherham John. Mathematics. IIL 330.

Rupp T. L. Physical Science. V. 123.

Rupp T. L. Chemical Science. V. 298.

Rush Benjamin. Statistics. III. 183.

Rush Benjamin. Health— Hygiene— Medicine. II. 506.

Sibson Rev. Edmund. Mathematics. V. (Second Series) 1.
Sibson Rev. Edmund. Archaeology. VH. (Second Series) 528.
Sibson Rev. Edmund. Archaeology. VH. (Second Series) 325.
Sibson Rev. Edmund. Physical Sciences. VII. (Second Series) 501.
Schunck Edward. Chemical Science. XII. (Second Series) 109.
Schunck Edward. Chemical Science. XIL (Second Series) 177.
Smethurst Rev. R. Meteorology. IIL (Second Series) 176.
Smith R. Angus. Chemical Science. VIII. (Second Series) 377.
Smith R. Angus, Meteorology. IX. (Second Series) 146.
Smith R. Angus. Meteorology. X. (Second Series) 207.
Smith R. Angus. Health — Hygiene— Medicine. XL (Second Series) 39.
Smith R. Angus. Chemical Science. XIL (Second Series) 155.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTHOBS. 317

Smith R. Angus. Chemistry. XII. 271.
Sharp Richard. Mental and Moral Philosophy. III. 307.
Sharpe John. Physical Sciences. II. (Second Series) 1.
Sturgeon William. Electrical Science. VH. (Second Series) 205.
Sturgeon William. Chemical Science. VII. (Second Series) 625.
Sturgeon William. Meteorology. VIIL (Second Series) 381.
Sturgeon William. Meteorology. VIIL (Second Series) 887.
Sturgeon William. Meteorology. VIIL (Second Series) 390.
Stui^eon William. Meteorology. VIIL (Second Series) 897.
Sturgeon William. Electrical Science. IX. (Second Series) 56.

Tayler Rev. J. J. Mental and Moral Philosophy. IV. (Second Series) 37.

Tayler J. J. Biography. VII. (Second Series) 45.

Thomson William. Natural History. V. (Second Series) 165.

Turner Rev. William. Mental and Moral Philosophy— Metaphysics — Ethics.

II. 809.
Turner Rev. William, Jun. Literature. III. (Second Series) 77.

Uvedale Robert. Archaeology. V. 40.

Vembergue F. E. Literature. VIL (Second Series) 261.

Walker Rev. George. Literature. V. 819.

Walker Rev. George. Fine Arts. V. 407.

Walker Rev. George. Literature. V. 438 and 463.

Walker Rev. George. Mental and Moral Philosophy. I. (Second Series) 378,

Walker Rev. George. Literature. I. (Second Series) 98-

Walker Rev. George. Mental and Moral Philosophy. I. (Second Series) 328.

Wall Martin. Literature. I. 243.

Wall Martin. Chemical Science. II. 67.

Wall Martin. Physical Science. II. 435.

Wall Dr. Physical Science. II. 455.

Wallace Rev. R. Archaeology. VII. (Second Series) 287.

Watt James, Jun. Chemical Science. III. 598.

Watt James, Jun. Health— Hygiene— Medicine. III. 609.

Watson (Bishop of Landaif). Chemical Science. II. 47.

Watson H. H. Chemical Science. VI. (Second Series) 78.

Watson H. H. Chemical Science. VI. (Second Series) 274.

Watson H. H. Chemical Science. VI. (Second Series) 352.

Watson H. H. Chemical Science. VI. (Second Series) 590.

Wakefield Gilbert. Literature. II. 294.

Wildbore Rev. Charles. Mathematics. II. (Second Series) 414.

Willis Thomas. Chemical Science. IIL 467.

318 ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTHOKS.

Willis Thomas. Chemical Science. IV. 87.

Wilkinson T. T. Mathematics. XI. (Second Series) 123.

Wilkinson T. T. Mathematics — Algebra— Geometry. XII. (Second Series) 1.

Wilkinson T. T. Biography. XII. (Second Series) 147.

Williamson Professor W. C. Natural History. VIII. (Second Series) 1.

Williamson W. C Natural History. IX. (Second Series) 321.

Williamson W. C. Natural History. IX. (Second Series) 340.

Wimpey J. Miscellaneous. I. 134.

Wimpey Joseph. Political Economy. I. 413.

Wood Kinder. Health — Hygiene — Medicine. III. (Second Series) 275.

Wood Kinder. Physiology. IV. (Second Series) 83.

Wood Rev. James. Metorology. III. 336.

White Charles. Physiology. I. 325.

White Charles. Natural History. I. 442.

White Charles. Health— Hygiene — Medicine. II. 350.

White Charles. Botany and Agriculture. V. 163.

White Thomas. Natural History. II. 377.

White James. Mechanical Science. III. (Second Series) 138.

WhattoD Robert. Archaeology. IV. (Second Series) 473.

Young James. Chemical Science. VIII. (Second Series) 446.

THE COUNCIL

lihrnnj anil f jiitopliitiil Innrtij nf SSflnrjiBstfr.

1855-6.

|lre0(bent.
WILLIAM FAIEBAIKN, F.R.S., Inst. Nat. 8c. Par. Corresp., &c.

Vict-'^ttfstttents. %

JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, F.R.S., &c.

JOSEPH CHEESEBOROUGH DYER.

EATON HODGKINSON, F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.G.8., &c.

THOMAS HOPKINS.

SfecrctarfeB.

ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D., F.C.S.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c.

ITTeastirer.
HENRY M. ORMEROD.

Eibrartan.
J. Y. CAW, F.S.A. Scot.

©f ti^e Counril.

RICHARD ROBERTS, M.Inst.C.E.
EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.G.8.
PROFESSOR W. C. WILLIAMSON, F.R,S.
JAMES WOOLLEY.
HENRY BOWMAN.
PETER 8PENCE.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE MEMBERS

€jiB liteq nni ^^liilnsopliiral InriBtti nf JJIaiittiBslBr.

1855-56.

DATE OF ELECTION.

Ralph F. Ainsworth, M.D April 30th, 1839

Thomas Ashton, Hyde...^ August 11th, 1837

John Atkinson January 27th, 1846

W. H. Ash April 17th, 1849

James Allan, Ph.D. M.A January 24th, 1864

Robert Barbour January 23rd, 1824

Joseph Barratt April 19th, 1842

John F. Bateman, M. Inst., C.E., F.G.S., &c January 21st, 1840

Thomas Bazley January 26th, 1847

William Bell January 26th, 1847

James Bevan January 23rd, 1844

Edward William Binney, F.G.S January 25th, 1842

Alfred Binyon January 26th, 1838

Richard Birley April 18th, 1834

James Black, M.D., F.G.S April 30th, 1839

Henry Bernoulli Barlow January 27th, 1852

John Blackwall, F.L.S January 26th, 1821

Henry Bowman October 29th, 1839

Edward Brooke April 30th, 1824

W. C. Brooks, M.A January 23rd, 1844

Eddowes Bowman, M.A January 23rd, 1855

Henry Browne, M.B January 27th, 1846

Laurence Buchan November 1st, 1810

John Burd January 27th, 1846

Rev. R. Bassnett, A.M April 17th, 1849

Thomas Sebastian Bazley, B.A April 19th, 1853

Charles Beyer January 24 th, 1864

Henry Bury April 19th, 1853

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE MEMBERS. 32 1

DATE OP ELECTION.

Charlet E. Cawley, C.E January 23rd, 185&

Frederick Grace Calvert, M.R.A.T January 26th, 1847

John Young Caw, F.S.A., Scot April 16th, 1841

David Chadwick April 20th, 1852

Henry Charlewood January 24th, 1832

Richard Copley Christie, B.A., Owens College April 18th, 1854

Charles Clay, M.D April 16th, 1841

Charles Cleminshaw April 29th, 1851

Rev. John Colston October 29th, 1850

Thomas Cooke April 12th, 1838

Edward Corbett January 25th, 1853

Samuel Cottam January 2dth, 1853

Samuel Croropton April 29th, 1851

James Crossley January 22nd, 1839

Joseph S. Crowther January 25th, 1848

Matthew Curtis April 18th, 1843

Richard S. Culley, CE January 24th. 1854

William Callender, Jun January 24th, 1854

Samuel Clift April 19th, 1853

John Benjamin Dancer April 19th, 1842

Samuel Dukinfield Darbishire January 25th, 1822

James Joseph Dean November 16th, 1842

Joseph Cheeseborpugh Dyer April 24th, 1818

Frederick Nathaniel Dyer April 30th, I860

Robeet Dukinfield Darbishire April 19th, 1853

David Reynolds Davies January 24th, 1854

John Dale February 7th, 1854

William L. Dickinson January 23rd, 1855

The Right Hon. the Eari of Ellesmere, F.R.S., &c April 15th, 1841

Charles Ellis January 24th, 1864

George Fairbaim January 26tb, 1863

Thomas Fairbaim April 30th, I860

W, Fairbaim, F.R.S., Inst.Nat.Sc, Par.Corresp October 29th, 1824

W. A. Fairbaim October 30th, 1849

David Gibson Fleming January 25th, 1852

Richard Flint October 81st, 1818

Benjamin Fothergill January 28rd, 1856

E. Frankland, Ph.D., F.R.S., Owens College April 29th, 1861

Alfred Fryer January 24th, 1864

2 S

322 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE MEMBERS.

DATE OF ELECTION.

Rev. William Gaskell, M.A January 21st, 1840

Samuel Giles April 20th, 1836

John Gould April 20th, 1847

John Graham August 11th, 1837

Robert Hyde Greg, F.G.S January 24th, 1817

Robert Philips Greg October 30th, 1849

John Clowes Grundy January 25th, 1848

Robert Greaves January 27th, 1852

Richard Hampson January 23rd, 1844

John Hawkshaw, F G.S. and M.Inst.C.E January 22nd, 1839

William Charles Henry, M.D., F.R.S October 31st, 1828

Sir Benjamin Heywood, Bart., F.R.S January 27th, 1815

John Hetherington January 24th, 1854

James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S. and G.S April 26th, 1833

James Higgins April 29th, 1845

Peter Higson October 31st, 1848

James Higgin April 29th, 1851

John Hobson January 22nd, 1839

E. Hodgkinson, F.R.S., M.R.I. A., F.G.S., &c January 21 st, 1820

James Piatt Holden January 27th, 1846

Thomas Hopkins January 18th, 1823

Henry Houldsworth January 23rd, 1825

William Jennings Hoyle February 7th, 1854

George Holcroft January 24th, 1854

Isaac Holden January 23rd, 1856

John Jesse, F.R.S., R.A.S. and L.S January 24th, 1823

Joseph Jordan October 19th, 1821

James Prescott Joule, F.R.S , &c January 25th, 1842

Benjamin Joule, jun April 18th, 1848

William Joynson January 27th, 184t)

Richard Johnson April 30th, 1850

Samuel Kay January 24th, 4843

John Kennedy April 29th, 1803

John Lawson Kennedy January 27th, 1862

James Kershaw, jun January 24th, 1854

Richard Lane April 20th, 1822

William Langton April 30th, 1830

John Rowson Lingard January 26th, 1847

ALPHABETICAL LIST OP THE MEHBEB8. 323

DATE OF ELECTION.

ThoTOM Littler January 27th, 1826

JoMphLockett October 29tb, 1889

Benjamin Love April 19th, 1842

JoMph Leew. jnn April 30th, 1850

Edward Lund « April 30th, 1850

baac Waithman Long, F.R-A.8 January 27th, 1852

George Cliffe Lowe January 24th, 1854

George T. Lund January 23rd, 1855

James M'Connel October 30th, 182»

William M'Connel April 17th, 1888

John Maefarlane January 24th, 1823

Edward William Makinson, M.A October 20th, 1846

Alexander M'Dougall April 30th, 1844

The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Manchester, D.D.,

F.R.S., F.G.S ~ April 17th, I84»

Robert Mannens Mann January 27th, 1846

Thomas Mellor January 25th, 1842

William Mellor January 27th, 1887

John Moore, F.L.S January 27th, 1816

David Morris January 23rd, 1849

Alfred Neild January 26th, 1848

William Neild April 26th, 1822

John Ashton Nicholhj, F.R.A.S January 2l8i, 3846

William Nicholson January 26th, 1827

James Emanual Nelson January 27th, 1852

Thomas Henry Nevill February 7th, 1854

Edward Byron Noden October 3 1st, 1854

Henry Mere Ormerod ^^ April 80th, 1844

John Owen April 30th, 183P

George Parr „,„ ^...April 30th, 1844

John Parry April 26 th, 1888

George Peel. M. Inst. CE April 15th, 1841

Henry Davis Pochin January 24th, 1864

Archibald Prentice January 22ud, 1819

Joseph Atkinson Ransome, F.R.C.S April 29ih, 1886

Thomas Ransome January 20th, 1847

John Hamsbottom February 7th, 1854

Richard RoberU, M. Inst. CE January 18ih, 1833

324 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE MEMBERS.

DATE OF ELECTION.

Samuel Robinson January 25th, 1822

Alan Royle January 2Dth, 1842

Samuel Salt April 18th, 1848

Michael Satterthwaite, M.D January 2Gth, 1847

Edward Schunck, Ph. D., F.R S January 25th, 1842

John Sharp October 28th, 1824

John Shuttleworth October 30th, 1836

.Joseph Sidebotham April 20th, 1852

George S. Fereday Smith, M.A., F.G.S January 20th, 1838

Robert Angus Smith, Ph. D., F.C.S April 29th, 1845

Edward Stephens, M.D January 24th, 1834

Alexander J. Scott, M.A., Principal of Owens College February 7th, 1854

Peter Spence April 29th, 1851

Edmund Hamilton Sharp , January 23rd, 185£»

Archibald Sandeman, M A., Owens College April 29th, 1851

Thomas Standring , January 27th, 1852

James Stephens April 20th, 1847

Daniel Stone, jun., F.C.S January 22nd, 1849

Robert Stuart January 21st, 1814

David Thom April 20th, 1852

James Aspinal Turner April 29th, 1836

Thomas Turner, F.R.CS April 19th, 1821

James Thompson April 18th, 1854

Absalom Watkin January 24th, 1823

Joseph Whitworth January 22nd, 1832

George Bencroft Withington January 21st, 1851

William Rayner Wood January 22nd, 1839

George Woodhead April 21st, 1840

Edward Woods April 30th, 1889

Robert Worthington, F.R.A.S April 28th, 1840

James WooUey November IStb, 1842

William Crawford Williamson, F.R.S., Owens College April 29th, 1851

Samuel Walker Williamson April 19th, 1853

T. SOWLER AND SONS, PRINTERS, MANCHESTER.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

BeT. William Turner, Manehtster.

Very Rev. William Buckland, F.R.S., Inatit. Nat. So. Pari*. Corresp., &c.

Kar. Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.B.S., Hon. M.B.I.A., &c., Cambridge.

General Sir Thomas Makdougall Briabane, Bart., F.R.S., Hon. M.B.I.A., Instit.

Nat. Sc. PariB. Corresp., &c., Makerstoun^ KeUo.
Rer. William Venables Vernon Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.I.A., F.G.8.,

York.
Bay. William WheweU, B.D., F.R.8., Hon. M.B.I.A., F.B.A.S., &c., Cambridge.
Sir William Hamilton, Bart., Dublin.
Baron Von Liebeg, MUnchm.
Eilert Mitscherlich, Berlin.
Sir John Frederick William Herschel, Bart., D.C.L., P.R.8. L. & E., &c. &c.,

Instit. Nat. Sc. Paris. Corresp.
Michael Faraday, Esq., D.C.L., Hon. Mem. B.S. Ed., Instit. Nat. Paris. Socius.
George Biddell Airy, Esq., M.A., D.O.L., F.B.A.S., F.B.S., &c. &c., JZoyo^

Observatory.
Sir David Brewster, F.B.S. L. & E., Instit. Sc. Paris, Socius, Hon. M.R.I.A.,

F.G.S., F.R.A.S., &c.. St. Andrew's.
Very Bev. George Peacock, D.D., F.B.S., F.G.S., F.B.A.S., Ety.
Baron Alexander Von Humboldt, Berlin.
Peter Barlow, Esq., F.R.S., F.B.A.S., Hon. M.P.C.S., Instit. Nat. Sc. Paris.

Corresp., Woolwich.
Ber. Henry Moseley, M.A., F.B.S., Wandsworth.
Louis Agassiz, Cambridge^ Massaehussets.
Lieut.-Colonel Edward Sabine, B.A., F.B.S.V.P., F.B.A.S., &c.
Jean Baptiste Dumas, Faris.
Sir Boderick Impcy Murchison, G.C. Sc. S., M.A., F.G.S., Hon. MJt.8. Ed.,

B.I.A., &c. &c.
Richard Owen, Esq., M.D.. LL.D., F.B.S., Hon. M.B,S. Ed., Instit Nat. So. Pttii.

Corresp., &c. &o.
John Couch Adams, Esq., F.B.S., F.B.A.S., &o., Cambridge.

k-

V'^^^V).^^^-^

W. J. J. Le Vemer, Paris.

J. R. Hind, Esq., Regenfs Park.

Rev. Joseph Bosworth, LL.D., F.S.A., F.R.S., &c.

Robert Rawson, Esq., Portsmouth.

Beunet "Woodcroft, Professor, University College.

William Thompson, Professor, University, Glasgow.

Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S., &c.. Museum of Economic Geology.

George Gabriel Stokes, M.A., &c. &c., Cambridge.

Rev. Thomas Penyngton Kirkman, M.A., &c., Croft Rectory, near Warrington.

"William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., Pres. Geo. Soc. &c., Cambridge.

John Hartnup, F.R.A.S., Observatory, Liverpool.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Rev. John Kenrick, M.A., York.

Jonathan Otley, Esq., Kestvick.

John Fletcher Miller, Esq., F.R.S., &c., Whitehaven.

Rev. Robert Harley, Brighouse, near Huddersfield.

William Thaddeus Harris, Esq., Cambridge, Massachussets,

Peter Pincoffs, M.D., Dresden.

Henry Hough Watson, Esq., Bolton.

John Mercer, Oakenshaw.

M. Girardin, Pouen.

T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S., &c., Burnley.